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diff --git a/42736.txt b/42736.txt deleted file mode 100644 index f1ae128..0000000 --- a/42736.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,19043 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 17, Slice 5, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 17, Slice 5 - "Malta" to "Map, Walter" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: May 18, 2013 [EBook #42736] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - -Transcriber's notes: - -(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally - printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an - underscore, like C_n. - -(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. - -(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective - paragraphs. - -(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not - inserted. - -(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek - letters. - -(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: - - ARTICLE MALTA: "Queen Adelaide visited Malta in 1838 and founded - the Anglican collegiate church of St Paul. Sir F. Hankey as chief - secretary was for many years the principal official of the civil - administration." 'visited' amended from 'vistied'. - - ARTICLE MALTA: "... whose decision affirmed the advisability of - legislation and the need for validating retrospectively marriages - not supported by either Maltese or English common law. " - 'advisability' amended from 'advisibility'. - - ARTICLE MAMMOTH CAVE: "... although the diameter of the area of the - whole cavern is less than 10 m., the combined length of all - accessible avenues is supposed to be about 150 m." 'combined' - amended from 'conbined'. - - ARTICLE MANCHE: "South of Granville the sands of St Pair are the - commencement of the great bay of Mont Saint Michel, 543 whose area - of 60,000 acres was covered with forest till the terrible tide of - the year 709." 'sands' amended from 'samds'. - - ARTICLE MANGAN, JAMES CLARENCE: "The Poems of James Clarence Mangan - (1903), and the Prose Writings (1904), were both edited by D. J. - O'Donoghue, who wrote in 1897 a complete account of the Life and - Writings of the poet." 'Mangan' amended from 'Magan'. - - ARTICLE MANILA: "In 1906 the total value of the exports was - $23,902,986 and the total value of the imports was $21,868,257." - Duplicate 'the' removed. - - ARTICLE MANN, HORACE: "Meanwhile he served, with conspicuous - ability, in the Massachusetts House of Representatives from 1827 to - 1833 and in the Massachusetts Senate from 1833 to 1837, for the - last two years as president." 'ability' amended from 'ailbity'. - - ARTICLE MANTEGNA, ANDREA: "It was painted in tempera about 1495, in - commemoration of the battle of Fornovo, which Gianfrancesco Gonzaga - found it convenient to represent to his lieges as an Italian - victory ..." 'Gianfrancesco' amended from 'Ginfrancesco'. - - ARTICLE MANURES and MANURING: "Clay land, as a rule, is not - benefited by their use, these soils containing generally an - abundance of potash." 'soils' amended from 'oils'. - - ARTICLE MANUSCRIPT: "... where also is described the mechanical - computation of the length of a text by measured lines, for the - purpose of calculating the pay of the scribe." 'of' amended from - 'or'. - - ARTICLE MAORI: "The Rarotongas call themselves Maori, and state - that their ancestors came from Hawaiki, and Parima and Manono are - the native names of two islands in the Samoan group." 'Parima' - amended from 'Pirima'. - - - - - ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA - - A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE - AND GENERAL INFORMATION - - ELEVENTH EDITION - - - VOLUME XVII, SLICE V - - Malta to Map, Walter - - - - -ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: - - - MALTA MANG LON - MALTA FEVER MANGNALL, RICHMAL - MALTE-BRUN, CONRAD MANGO - MALTHUS, THOMAS ROBERT MANGOSTEEN - MALTON MANGROVE - MALTZAN, HEINRICH VON MANICHAEISM - MALUS, ETIENNE LOUIS MANIFEST - MALVACEAE MANIHIKI - MALVASIA MANIKIALA - MALVERN MANILA - MALWA MANILA HEMP - MAMARONECK MANILIUS - MAMELI, GOFFREDO MANILIUS, GAIUS - MAMELUKE MANIN, DANIELE - MAMERTINI MANING, FREDERICK EDWARD - MAMERTINUS, CLAUDIUS MANIPLE - MAMIANI DELLA ROVERE, TERENZIO MANIPUR - MAMMALIA MANISA - MAMMARY GLAND MANISTEE - MAMMEE APPLE MANITOBA (lake of Canada) - MAMMON MANITOBA (province of Canada) - MAMMOTH MANITOU - MAMMOTH CAVE MANITOWOC - MAMORE MANIZALES - MAMUN MANKATO - MAMUND MANLEY, MARY DE LA RIVIERE - MAN MANLIUS - MAN, ISLE OF MANN, HORACE - MANAAR, GULF OF MANNA - MANACOR MANNERS, CHARLES - MANAGE MANNERS-SUTTON, CHARLES - MANAGUA MANNHEIM - MANAKIN MANNING, HENRY EDWARD - MANAOAG MANNY, SIR WALTER DE MANNY - MANAOS MANNYNG, ROBERT - MANASSAS MANOEUVRES, MILITARY - MANASSEH (son of Hezekiah) MANOMETER - MANASSEH (tribe of Israel) MANOR - MANASSES, CONSTANTINE MANOR-HOUSE - MANASSES, PRAYER OF MANRESA - MANATI MANRIQUE, GOMEZ - MANBHUM MANRIQUE, JORGE - MANCHA, LA MANSE - MANCHE MANSEL, HENRY LONGUEVILLE - MANCHESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF MANSFELD - MANCHESTER (Connecticut, U.S.A.) MANSFELD, ERNST - MANCHESTER (England) MANSFIELD, RICHARD - MANCHESTER (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) MANSFIELD, WILLIAM MURRAY - MANCHESTER (New Hampshire, U.S.A.) MANSFIELD (England) - MANCHESTER (Virginia, U.S.A.) MANSFIELD (Ohio, U.S.A.) - MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL MANSION - MANCHURIA MANSLAUGHTER - MANCINI, PASQUALE STANISLAO MANSON, GEORGE - MANCIPLE MANSUR - MANCUNIUM MANSURA - MANDAEANS MANT, RICHARD - MANDALAY MANTEGAZZA, PAOLO - MANDAMUS, WRIT OF MANTEGNA, ANDREA - MANDAN MANTELL, GIDEON ALGERNON - MANDARIN MANTES-SUR-SEINE - MANDASOR MANTEUFFEL, EDWIN - MANDATE MANTINEIA - MANDAUE MANTIS - MANDELIC ACID MANTIS-FLY - MANDER, CAREL VAN MANTLE - MANDEVILLE, BERNARD DE MANTON, THOMAS - MANDEVILLE, GEOFFREY DE MAN-TRAPS - MANDEVILLE, JEHAN DE MANTUA - MANDHATA MANU - MANDI MANUAL - MANDINGO MANUCODE - MANDLA MANUEL I., COMNENUS - MANDOLINE MANUEL II. PALAEOLOGUS - MANDRAKE MANUEL I. - MANDRILL MANUEL, EUGENE - MANDU MANUEL, JACQUES ANTOINE - MANDURIA MANUEL, LOUIS PIERRE - MANDVI MANUEL DE MELLO, DOM FRANCISCO - MANES MANUL - MANET, EDOUARD MANURES and MANURING - MANETENERIS MANUSCRIPT - MANETHO MANUTIUS - MANFRED MANWARING, ROBERT - MANFREDONIA MANYCH - MANGABEY MANYEMA - MANGALIA MANZANARES - MANGALORE MANZANILLO (Mexico) - MANGAN, JAMES CLARENCE MANZANILLO (Cuba) - MANGANESE MANZOLLI, PIER ANGELO - MANGANITE MANZONI, ALESSANDRO FRANCESCO ANTONIO - MANGBETTU MAORI - MANGEL-WURZEL MAP, WALTER - MANGLE - - - - -MALTA, the largest of the Maltese Islands, situated between Europe and -Africa, in the central channel which connects the eastern and western -basins of the Mediterranean Sea. The group belongs to the British -Empire. It extends over 29 m., and consists of Malta, 91 sq. m., GOZO -(q.v.) 20 sq. m., Comino (set apart as a quarantine station) 1 sq. m., -and the uninhabited rocks called Cominotto and Filfla. Malta (lat. of -Valletta Observatory 35 deg. 53' 55" N., long. 14 deg. 30' 45" W.) is -about 60 m. from the nearest point of Sicily, 140 m. from the mainland -of Europe and 180 from Africa; it has a magnificent natural harbour. -From the dawn of maritime trade its possession has been important to the -strongest nations on the sea for the time being. - -Malta is about 17(1/2) m. long by 8(1/4) broad; Gozo is 8(3/4) by 4(1/2) -m. This chain of islands stretches from N.E. to S.E. On the S.W. the -declivities towards the sea are steep, and in places rise abruptly some -400 ft. from deep water. The general slope of these ridges is towards -the N.W., facing Sicily and snow-capped Etna, the source of cool evening -breezes. The Bingemma range, rising 726 ft., is nearly at right angles -to the axis of the main island. The geological "Great Fault" stretches -from sea to sea at the foot of these hills. There are good anchorages in -the channels between Gozo and Comino, and between Comino and Malta. In -addition to the harbours of Valletta, there are in Malta, facing N.W., -the bays called Mellieha and St Paul's, the inlets of the Salina, of -Madalena, of St Julian and St Thomas; on the S.E. there is the large bay -of Marsa Scirocco. There are landing places on the S.W. at Fomh-il-rih -and Miggiarro. Mount Sceberras (on which Valletta is built) is a -precipitous promontory about 1 m. long, pointing N.E. It rises out of -deep water; well-sheltered creeks indent the opposite shores on both -sides. The waters on the S.E. form the "Grand Harbour," having a narrow -entrance between Ricasoli Point and Fort St Elmo. The series of bays to -the N.W., approached between the points of Tigne and St Elmo, is known -as the Marsamuscetto (or Quarantine) Harbour. - -Mighty fortifications and harbour works have assisted to make this ideal -situation an emporium of Mediterranean trade. During the Napoleonic wars -and the Crimean campaign the Grand Harbour was frequently overcrowded -with shipping. The gradual supplanting of sail by steamships has made -Malta a coaling station of primary importance. But the tendency to great -length and size in modern vessels caused those responsible for the civil -administration towards the end of the 19th century to realize that the -harbour accommodation was becoming inadequate for modern fleets and -first-class liners. A breakwater was therefore planned on the Monarch -shoal, to double the available anchorage area and increase the frontage -of deep-water wharves available in all weathers. - - - Geology and Water Supply. - - The Maltese Islands consist largely of Tertiary Limestone, with - somewhat variable beds of Crystalline Sandstone, Greensand and Marl or - Blue Clay. The series appears to be in line with similar formations at - Tripoli in Africa, Cagliari in Sardinia, and to the east of - Marseilles. To the south-east of the Great Fault (already mentioned) - the beds are more regular, comprising, in descending order, (a) Upper - Coralline Limestone; (b) Yellow, Black or Greensand; (c) Marl or Blue - Clay; (d) White, Grey and Pale Yellow Sandstone; (e) - Chocolate-coloured nodules with shells, &c.; (f) Yellow Sandstone; (g) - Lower Crystalline Limestone. The Lower Limestone probably belongs to - the Tongarian stage of the Oligocene series, and the Upper Coralline - Limestone to the Tortonian stage of the Miocene. The beds are not - folded. The general dip of the strata is from W.S.W. to E.N.E. North - of the Great Fault and at Comino the level of the beds is about 400 - ft. lower, bringing (c), the Marl, in juxtaposition with (g), the - semi-crystalline Limestone. There is a system of lesser faults, - parallel to the Great Fault, dividing the area into a number of - blocks, some of which have fallen more than others. There are also - indications of another series of faults roughly parallel to the - south-east coast, which point to the islands being fragments of a - former extensive plateau. The mammalian remains found in Pleistocene - deposits are of exceptional interest. Among the more remarkable forms - are a species of hippopotamus, the elephant (including a pigmy - variety), and a gigantic dormouse. In the Coralline Limestone the - following fossils have been noted:--_Spondylus_, _Ostrea_, _Pecten_, - _Cytherea_, _Arca_, _Terebratula_, _Orthis_, _Clavagella_, _Echinus_, - _Cidaris_, _Nucleolites_, _Brissus_, _Spatangus_; in the Marl the - _Nautilus zigzag_; in the Yellow, Black and Greensand shells of - _Lenticulites complanatus_, teeth and vertebrae of _Squalidae_ and - _Cetacea_; in the Sandstone _Vaginula depressa_, _Crystallaria_, - _Nodosaria_, _Brissus_, _Nucleolites_, _Pecten burdigallensis_, - _Scalaria_, _Scutella subrotunda_, _Spatangus_, _Nautilus_, _Ostrea - navicularis_ and _Pecten cristatus_ (see Captain Spratt's work and - papers by Lord Ducie and Dr Adams). - - The Blue Clay forms, at the higher levels, a stratum impervious to - water, and holds up the rainfall, which soaks through the spongy mass - of the superimposed coralline formations. Hence arise the springs - which run perennially, several of which have been collected into the - gravitation water supplies of the Vignacourt and Fawara aqueducts. The - larger part of the water supply, however, is now derived by pumping - from strata at about sea-level. These strata are generally impregnated - with salt water, and are practically impenetrable to the rain-water of - less weight. The honeycomb of rock, and capillary action, retard the - lighter fresh-water from sinking to the sea; the soakage from rain has - therefore to move horizontally, over the strata about sea-level, - seeking outlets. At this stage the rain-water is intercepted by wells, - and by galleries hewn for miles in the water-bearing rock. Large - reservoirs assist to store this water after it is raised, and to - equalize its distribution. - - - Climate and Hygiene. - - The climate is, for the greater part of the year, temperate and - healthy; the thermometer records an annual mean of 67 deg. F. Between - June and September the temperature ranges from 75 deg. to 90 deg.; the - mean for December, January and February is 56 deg.; March, May and - November are mild. Pleasant north-east winds blow for an average of - 150 days a year, cool northerly winds for 31 days, east winds 70 days, - west for 34 days. The north-west "Gregale" (Euroclydon of Acts xxvii. - 14) blows about the equinox, and occasionally, in the winter months, - with almost hurricane force for three days together; it is recorded to - have caused the drowning of 600 persons in the harbour in 1555. This - wind has been a constant menace to shipping at anchor; the new - breakwater on the Monarch Shoal was designed to resist its ravages. - The regular tides are hardly perceptible, but, under the influence of - barometric pressure and wind, the sea-level occasionally varies as - much as 2 ft. The average rainfall is 21 in.; it is, however, - uncertain; periods of drought have extended over three years. Snow is - seen once or twice in a generation; violent hailstorms occur. On the - 19th of October 1898, exceptionally large hailstones fell--one, over 4 - in. in length, being brought to the governor, Sir Arthur Fremantle, - for inspection. Mediterranean (sometimes called "Malta") fever has - been traced by Colonel David Bruce to a _Micrococcus melitensis_. The - supply of water under pressure is widely distributed and excellent. - There is a modern system of drainage for the towns, and all sewerage - has been intercepted from the Grand Harbour. There are efficient - hospitals and asylums, a system of sanitary inspection, and modernized - quarantine stations. - - - Flora. - - It is hardly possible to differentiate between imported and indigenous - plants. Among the marine flora may be mentioned _Porphyra laciniata_, - the edible laver; _Codium tomentosum_, a coarse species; _Padina - pavonia_, common in shallow water; _Ulva latissima_; _Haliseris - polypodioides_; _Sargassum bacciferum_; the well-known gulf weed, - probably transported from the Atlantic; _Zostera marina_, forming - dense beds in muddy bays; the roots are cast up by storms and are - valuable to dress the fields. Among the land plants may be noted the - blue anemone; the ranunculus along the road-sides, with a strong - perfume of violets; the Malta heath, which flowers at all seasons; - _Cynomorium coccineum_, the curious "Malta fungus," formerly so valued - for medicinal purposes that a guard was set for its preservation under - the rule of the Knights; the pheasant's-eye; three species of mallow - and geranium; _Oxalis cernua_, a very troublesome imported weed; - _Lotus edulis_; _Scorpiurus subvillosa_, wild and cultivated as - forage; two species of the horseshoe-vetch; the opium poppy; the - yellow and claret-coloured poppy; wild rose; _Crataegus azarolus_, of - which the fruit is delicious preserved; the ice-plant; squirting - cucumber; many species of _Umbelliferae_; _Labiatae_, to which the - spicy flavour of the honey (equal to that of Mt Hymettus) is ascribed; - snap-dragons; broom-rape; glass-wort; _Salsola soda_, which produces - when burnt a considerable amount of alkali; there are fifteen species - of orchids; the _gladiolus_ and _iris_ are also found; _Urginia - scilla_, the medicinal squill, abounds with its large bulbous roots - near the sea; seventeen species of sedges and seventy-seven grasses - have been recorded. - - - Fauna. - - There are four species of lizard and three snakes, none of which is - venomous; a land tortoise, a turtle and a frog. Of birds very few are - indigenous; the jackdaw, blue solitary thrush, spectacled warbler, the - robin, kestrel and the herring-gull. A bird known locally as _Hangi_, - not met elsewhere in Europe, nests at Filfla. Flights of quail and - turtle doves, as well as teal and ducks, stay long enough to afford - sport. Of migratory birds over two hundred species have been - enumerated. The only wild mammalia in the island are the hedgehogs, - two species of weasel, the Norway rat, and the domestic mouse. The - Maltese dog was never wild and has ceased to exist as a breed. - - Malta has several species of zoophytes, sponges, mollusca and - crustacea. Insect life is represented by plant-bugs, locusts, - crickets, grasshoppers, cockroaches, dragon-flies, butterflies, - numerous varieties of moths, bees and mosquitoes. - - Among the fish may be mentioned the tunny, dolphin, mackerel, sardine, - sea-bream, dentice and pagnell; wrasse, of exquisite rainbow hue and - good for food; members of the herring family, sardines, anchovies, - flying-fish, sea-pike; a few representatives of the cod family, and - some flat fish; soles (very rare); _Cernus_ which grows to large size; - several species of grey and red mullet; eleven species of _Triglidae_, - including the beautiful flying gurnard whose colours rival the - angel-fish of the West Indies; and eighteen species of mackerel, all - migratory. - -[Illustration: Map of Malta.] - - - Population and Language. - -The real population of Malta, viz. of the country districts, is to be -differentiated from the cosmopolitan fringe of the cities. There is -continuous historical evidence that Malta remains to-day what Diodorus -Siculus described it in the 1st century, "a colony of the Phoenicians"; -this branch of the Caucasian race came down the great rivers to the -Persian Gulf and thence to Palestine. It carried the art of navigation -through the Mediterranean, along the Atlantic seaboard as far as Great -Britain, leaving colonies along its path. In prehistoric times one of -these colonies displaced previous inhabitants of Libyan origin. The -similarity of the megalithic temples of Malta and of Stonehenge connect -along the shores of western Europe the earliest evidence of Phoenician -civilization. Philology proves that, though called "Canaanites" from -having sojourned in that land, the Phoenicians have no racial connexion -with the African descendants of Ham. No subsequent invader of Malta -attempted to displace the Phoenician race in the country districts. The -Carthaginians governed settlements of kindred races with a light hand; -the Romans took over the Maltese as "dedititii," not as a conquered -race. Their conversion by St Paul added difference of religion to the -causes which prevented mixture of race. The Arabs from Sicily came to -eject the Byzantine garrison; they treated the Maltese as friends, and -were not sufficiently numerous to colonize. The Normans came as -fellow-Christians and deliverers; they found very few Arabs in Malta. -The fallacy that Maltese is a dialect of Arabia has been luminously -disproved by A. E. Caruana, _Sull' origine della lingua Maltese_. - -The upper classes have Norman, Spanish and Italian origin. The knights -of St John of Jerusalem, commonly called "of Malta," were drawn from the -nobility of Catholic Europe. They took vows of celibacy, but they -frequently gave refuge in Malta to relatives driven to seek asylum from -feudal wars and disturbances in their own lands. At the British -occupation there were about two dozen families bearing titles of -nobility granted, or recognized, by the Grand Masters, and descending -by primogeniture. These "privileges" were guaranteed, together with the -rights and religion of the islanders, when they became British subjects, -but no government has ever recognized papal titles in Malta. High and -low, all speak among themselves the Phoenician Maltese, altogether -different from the Italian language; Italian was only spoken by 13.24% -in 1901. Such Italian as is spoken by the lingering minority has marked -divergences of pronunciation and inflexion from the language of Rome and -Florence. In 1901, in addition to visitors and the naval and military -forces, 18,922 Maltese spoke English, and the number has been rapidly -increasing. - -In appearance the Maltese are a handsome, well-formed race, about the -middle height, and well set up; they have escaped the negroid -contamination noticeable in Sicily, and their features are less dark -than the southern Italians. The women are generally smaller than the -men, with black eyes, fine hair and graceful carriage. They are a -thrifty and industrious people, prolific and devoted to their offspring, -good-humoured, quick-tempered and impressionable. The food of the -working classes is principally bread, with oil, olives, cheese and -fruit, sometimes fish, but seldom meat; common wine is largely imported -from southern Europe. The Maltese are strict adherents to the Roman -Catholic religion, and enthusiastic observers of festivals, fasts and -ceremonials. - -In 1906 the birth-rate was 40.68 per thousand, and the excess of births -over deaths 2637. In April 1907 the estimated population was 206,690 of -whom 21,911 were in Gozo. This phenomenal congestion of population gives -interest to records of its growth; in the 10th century there were 16,767 -inhabitants in Malta and 4514 in Gozo; the total population in 1514 was -22,000. Estimates made at the arrival of the knights (1530) varied from -15,000 to 25,000: it was then necessary to import annually 10,000 -quarters of grain from Sicily. The population in 1551 was, Malta 24,000, -Gozo 7000. In 1582, 20,000 quarters of imported grain were required to -avert famine. A census of 1590 makes the population 30,500; in that year -3000 died of want. The numbers rose in 1601 to 33,000; in 1614 to -41,084; in 1632 to 50,113; in 1667 to 55,155; in 1667 11,000 are said to -have died of plague out of the total population. At the end of the rule -of the knights (1798) the population was estimated at 100,000; sickness, -famine and emigration during the blockade of the French in Valletta -probably reduced the inhabitants to 80,000. In 1829 the population was -114,236; in 1836, 119,878 (inclusive of the garrison); in 1873, 145,605; -at the census in 1901 the civil population was 184,742. Sanitation -decreases the death-rate, religion keeps up the birth-rate. Nothing is -done to promote emigration or to introduce manufactures. - - _Towns and Villages._--The capital is named after its founder, the - Grand Master de la Valette, but from its foundation it has been called - Valletta (pop. 1901, 24,685); it contains the palace of the Grand - Masters, the magnificent Auberges of the several "Langues" of the - Order, the unique cathedral of St John with the tombs of the Knights - and magnificent tapestries and marble work; a fine opera house and - hospital are conspicuous. Between the inner fortifications of Valletta - and the outer works, across the neck of the peninsula, is the suburb - of Floriana (pop. 7278). To the south-east of Valletta, at the other - side of the Grand Harbour, are the cities of Senglea (pop. 8093), - Vittoriosa (pop. 8993); and Cospicua (pop. 12,184); this group is - often spoken of as "The Three Cities." The old capital, near the - centre of the island is variously called Notabile, Citta Vecchia - (q.v.), and Medina, with its suburb Rabat, its population in 1901 was - 7515; here are the catacombs and the ancient cathedral of Malta. - Across the Marsamuscetto Harbour of Valletta is a considerable modern - town called Sliema. The villages of Malta are Mellieha, St Paul's Bay, - Musta, Birchircara, Lia, Atterd, Balzan, Naxaro, Gargur, Misida, S. - Julian's, S. Giuseppe, Dingli, Zebbug, Siggieui, Curmi, Luca, Tarxein, - Zurrico, Crendi, Micabbiba, Circop, Zabbar, Asciak, Zeitun, Gudia and - Marsa Scirocco. The chief town of Gozo is called Victoria, and there - are several small villages. - -_Industry and Trade._--The area under cultivation in 1906 was 41,534 -acres. As a rule the tillers of the soil live away from their lands, in -some neighbouring village. The fields are small and composed of terraces -by which the soil has been walled up along the contours of the hills, -with enormous labour, to save it from being washed away. Viewed from -the sea, the top of one wall just appearing above the next produces a -barren effect; but the aspect of the land from a hill in early spring is -a beautiful contrast of luxuriant verdure. It is estimated that there -are about 10,000 small holdings averaging about four acres and intensely -cultivated. The grain crops are maize, wheat and barley; the two latter -are frequently sown together. In 1906, 13,000 acres produced 17,975 -quarters of wheat and 12,000 quarters of barley. The principal fodder -crops are green barley and a tall clover called "sulla" (_Hedysarum -coronarum_), having a beautiful purple blossom. Vegetables of all sorts -are easily grown, and a rotation of these is raised on land irrigated -from wells and springs. Potatoes and onions are grown for exportation at -seasons when they are scarce in northern Europe. The rent of average -land is about L2 an acre, of very good land over L3; favoured spots, -irrigated from running springs, are worth up to L12 an acre. Two, and -often three, crops are raised in the year; on irrigated land more than -twice as many croppings are possible. The presence of phosphates -accounts for the fertility of a shallow soil. There is a considerable -area under vines, but it is generally more profitable to sell the fruit -as grapes than to convert it into wine. Some of the best oranges in the -world are grown, and exported; but sufficient care is not taken to keep -down insect pests, and to replace old trees. Figs, apricots, nectarines -and peaches grow to perfection. Some cotton is raised as a rotation -crop, but no care is taken to improve the quality. The caroub tree and -the prickly pear are extensively cultivated. There are exceptionally -fine breeds of cattle, asses and goats; cows of a large and very -powerful build are used for ploughing. The supply of butchers' meat has -to be kept up by constant importations. More than two-thirds of the -wheat comes from abroad; fish, vegetables and fruit are also imported -from Sicily in considerable quantities. Excellent honey is produced in -Malta; at certain seasons tunny-fish and young dolphin (lampuca) are -abundant; other varieties of fish are caught all the year round. - -About 5000 women and children are engaged in producing Maltese lace. The -weaving of cotton by hand-looms survives as a languishing industry. -Pottery is manufactured on a small scale; ornamental carvings are made -in Maltese stone and exported to a limited extent. The principal -resources of Malta are derived from its being an important military -station and the headquarters of the Mediterranean fleet. There are great -naval docks, refitting yards, magazines and stores on the south-east -side of the Grand Harbour; small vessels of war have also been built -here. Steamers of several lines call regularly, and there is a daily -mail to Syracuse. The shipping cleared in 1905-1906 was 3524 vessels of -3,718,168 tons. Internal communications include a railway about eight -miles long from Valletta to Notabile; there are electric tramways and -motor omnibus services in several directions. The currency is English. -Local weights and measures include the cantar, 175 lb.; salm, one -imperial quarter; cafiso, 4(1/2) gallons; canna, 6 ft. 10(1/2) in.; the -tumolo (256 sq. ca.), about a third of an acre. - -The principal exports of local produce are potatoes, cumin seed, -vegetables, oranges, goats and sheep, cotton goods and stone. - -To keep alive, in a fair standard of comfort, the population of 206,690, -food supplies have to be imported for nine and a half months in the -year. The annual value of exports would be set off against imported food -for about one month and a half. The Maltese have to pay for food imports -by imperial wages, earned in connexion with naval and military services, -by commercial services to passing steamers and visitors, by earnings -which emigrants send home from northern Africa and elsewhere, and by -interest on investments of Maltese capital abroad. A long absence of the -Mediterranean fleet, and withdrawals of imperial forces, produce -immediate distress. - - _Finance._--The financial position in 1906-1907 is indicated by the - following: Public revenue L513,594 (including L51,039 carried to - revenue from capital); expenditure L446,849; imports (actual), - L1,219,819; imports in transit, L5,876,981; exports (actual), - L123,510; exports in transit L6,127,277; imports from the United - Kingdom (actual), L218,461. In March 1907 there were 8159 depositors - in the government savings bank, with L569,731 to their credit. - -_Government._--Malta is a crown colony, within the jurisdiction of a -high commissioner and a commander-in-chief, to whom important questions -of policy are reserved; in other matters the administration is under a -military governor (L3000), assisted by a civil lieutenant-governor or -chief secretary. There is an executive council, now comprising eleven -members with the governor as president. The legislative council, under -letters patent of the 3rd of June 1903, is composed of the governor -(president), ten official members, and eight elected members. There are -eight electoral districts with a total of about 10,000 electors. A voter -is qualified on an income from property of L6, or by paying rent to the -same amount, or having the qualifications required to serve as a common -juror. There are no municipal institutions. Letters patent, orders in -council, and local ordinances have the force of law. The laws of -Justinian are still the basis of the common law, the Code of Rohan is -not altogether abrogated, and considerable weight is still given to the -Roman Canon Law. The principal provisions of the Napoleonic Code and -some English enactments have been copied in a series of ordinances -forming the Statute Law. Latin was the language of the courts till 1784, -and was not completely supplanted by Italian till 1815. The partial use -of English (with illogical limitations to the detriment of the -Maltese-born British subjects who speak English) was introduced by local -ordinances and orders in council at the end of the 19th century. The -Maltese, of whom 86% cannot understand Italian, are still liable to be -tried, even for their lives, in Italian, to them a foreign language. The -endeavour to restrict juries to those who understand Italian reveals -glaring incongruities. - - _Education._--There were, in 1906, 98 elementary day schools, and 33 - night schools. The attendance on the 1st of September 1905 was 16,530, - the percentage on those enrolled 84.6; the total enrolment was 18,719. - The average cost per pupil in these schools was 35s. 11d. a year on - daily attendance. There is a secondary school for girls in Valletta, - and one for boys in Gozo. A lyceum in Malta had an average attendance - of 464. The number of students at the university was about 150. The - average cost per student in the lyceum was L8, 0s. 11d.; in the - university L26, 10s. 1d. The fees in these institutions are almost - nominal, the middle-classes are thus educated at the expense of the - masses. In the 18th century the government of the Knights and of the - Inquisition did not favour the education of the people, after 1800 - British governors were slow to make any substantial change. About the - middle of the 19th century it began to be recognized that the - education of the people was more conducive to the safety of the - fortress than to leave in ignorance congested masses of southern race - liable to be swayed spasmodically by prejudice. At first an attempt - was made to make Maltese a literary language by adapting the Arabic - characters to record it in print. This failed for several reasons, the - foremost being that the language was not Arabic but Phoenician, and - because professors and teachers, whose personal ascendancy was based - on the official prominence of Italian, did not realize that - educational institutions existed for the rising generation rather than - to provide salaries for alien teachers and men behind the times. - Various educational schemes were proposed, but they were easier to - propose than to carry into effect: no one, except Mr Savona, had the - ability to urge English as the basis of instruction, and he agitated - and was installed as director of education and made a member of the - Executive. The obstruction which he encountered alarmed him, and he - compromised by adopting a mixed system of both English and Italian, - _pari passu_, as the basis of Maltese education; he resigned after a - brief effort. Mr Savona's attempt to teach the Maltese children - simultaneously two foreign languages (of which they were quite - ignorant, and their teachers only partially conversant) without first - teaching how to read and write the native Maltese systematically was - continued for some years under an eminent archaeologist, Dr A. A. - Caruana, who became Director of Education. He began to give some - preference to English indirectly. On his resignation Sir G. Strickland - established a new system of education based on the principle of - beginning from the bottom, by teaching to read and write in Maltese as - the medium for assimilating, at a further stage, either English or - Italian, one at a time, and aiming at imparting general knowledge in - colloquial English. A series of school books, in the Maltese language - printed in Roman characters, with translations in English interlined - in different type, was produced at the government printing office and - sold at cost price. The parents and guardians were called upon to - select whether each child should learn English or Italian next after - learning reading, writing and arithmetic in Maltese. About 89% - recorded their preference in favour of English at the outset; then, as - a result of violent political agitation, this percentage was - considerably lowered, but soon crept up again. Teachers and professors - who were weak in English, lawyers, newspaper men and others, combined - to deprive these reforms of their legitimate consequence, viz. that - after a number of years English should be the language of the courts - as well as of education, and to protect those belonging to the old - order of knowledge from the competition of young Maltese better - educated than themselves, whose rapid rise everywhere would be assured - by knowing English thoroughly. An order in council was enacted in 1899 - providing that no Maltese (except students of theology) should - thenceforth suffer any detriment through inability to pass - examinations in Italian, in either the schools or university, but the - fraction of the Maltese who claim to speak Italian (13.24%) still - command sufficient influence to hamper the full enjoyment of this - emancipation by the majority. In the university most of the textbooks - used are English, nevertheless many of the lectures are still - delivered in Italian--for the convenience of some professors or to - please the politicians, rather than for the benefit of the students. - The number of students who enter the university without passing any - examination in Italian is rapidly increasing; the longer the period of - transition, the greater the detriment to the rising generation. - -_History and Antiquities._--The earliest inhabitants of Malta (Melita) -and Gozo (Gaulos) belonged to a culture-circle which included the whole -of the western Mediterranean, and to a race which perhaps originated -from North Africa; and it is they, and not the Phoenicians, who were the -builders of the remarkable megalithic monuments which these islands -contain, the Gigantia in Gozo, Hagiar Kim and Mnaidra near Crendi, the -rock-cut hypogeum of Halsaflieni,[1] and the megalithic buildings on the -hill of Corradino in Malta, being the most noteworthy. The -contemporaneity of these structures has been demonstrated by the -identity of the pottery and other objects discovered in them, including -some remarkable steatopygic figures in stone, and it is clear that they -belong to the neolithic period, numerous flints, but no metal, having -been found. Those that have been mentioned seem to have been sanctuaries -(some of them in part dwelling-places), but Halsaflieni was an enormous -ossuary, of which others may have existed in other parts of the island; -for the numerous rock-cut tombs which are everywhere to be seen belong -to the Phoenician and Roman periods. In these buildings there is a great -preference for apsidal terminations to the internal chambers, and the -facades are as a rule slightly curved. The numerous niches, generally -containing sacrificial (?) tables,[2] are often approached by -window-like openings hewn out of one of the flat slabs by which they are -enclosed. The surface of the stones in the interior is often pitted, as -a form of ornamentation. Even the barren islet of Comino, between Malta -and Gozo, was inhabited in prehistoric times. - -To the Phoenician period, besides the tombs already mentioned, belong -some remains of houses and cisterns, and (probably) a few round towers -which are scattered about the island, while the important Roman house at -Cittavecchia is the finest monument of this period in the islands. - -The Carthaginians came to Malta in the 6th century B.C., not as -conquerors, but as friends of a sister Phoenician colony (Freeman, -_Hist. Sicily_, i. 255): Carthage in her struggle with Rome was at last -driven to levy oppressive tribute, whereupon the Maltese gave up the -Punic garrison to Titus Sempronius under circumstances described by Livy -(xxi. 51). The Romans did not treat the Maltese as conquered enemies, -and at once gave them the privileges of a _municipium_; Cicero (_in -Verrem_) refers to the Maltese as "Socii." Nothing was to be gained by -displacing the Phoenician inhabitants in a country from which any race -less thrifty would find life impossible by agriculture. On the strength -of a monument bearing his name, it has been surmised that Hannibal was -born in Malta, while his father was governor-general of Sicily; he -certainly did not die in Malta. There is evidence from Cicero (_in -Verrem_) that a very high stage of manufacturing and commercial -prosperity, attained in Carthaginian times, continued in Malta under -the Romans. The Phoenician temple of Juno, which stood on the site of -Fort St Angelo, is also mentioned by Valerius Maximus. An inscription -records the restoration of the temple of Proserpine by Cheriston, a -freed-man of Augustus and procurator of Malta. Diodorus Siculus (L. V., -c. 4) speaks of the importance and ornamentation of Maltese dwellings, -and to this day remains of palaces and dwellings of the Roman period -indicate a high degree of civilization and wealth. When forced to select -a place of exile, Cicero was at first (_ad Att._ III. 4, X. i. 8, 9) -attracted to Malta, over which he had ruled as quaestor 75 B.C. Among -his Maltese friends were Aulus Licinius and Diodorus. Lucius Castricius -is mentioned as a Roman governor under Augustus. Publius was "chief of -the island" when St Paul was shipwrecked (Acts xxvii. 7); and is said to -have become the first Christian bishop of Malta. The site where the -cathedral at Notabile now stands is reputed to have been the residence -of Publius and to have been converted by him into the first Christian -place of worship, which was rebuilt in 1090 by Count Roger, the Norman -conqueror of Malta. The Maltese catacombs are strikingly similar to -those of Rome, and were likewise used as places of burial and of refuge -in time of persecution. They contain clear indication of the interment -of martyrs. St Paul's Bay was the site of shipwreck of the apostle in -A.D. 58; the "topon diathalasson" referred to in Acts is the strait -between Malta and the islet of Selmun. The claim that St Paul was -shipwrecked at Meleda off the Dalmatian coast, and not at Malta, has -been clearly set at rest, on nautical grounds, by Mr Smith of Jordanhill -(_Voyage and Shipwreck of St Paul_, London, 1848). According to -tradition and to St Chrysostom (_Hom._ 54) the stay of the apostle -resulted in the conversion of the Maltese to Christianity. The -description of the islanders in Acts as "barbaroi" confirms the -testimony of Diodorus Siculus that they were Phoenicians, neither -hellenized nor romanized. The bishopric of Malta is referred to by Rocco -Pirro (_Sicilia sacra_), and by Gregory the Great (_Epist._ 2, 44; 9, -63; 10, 1). It appears that Malta was not materially affected by the -Greek schism, and remained subject to Rome. - -On the final division of the Roman dominions in A.D. 395 Malta was -assigned to the empire of Constantinople. On the third Arab invasion, -A.D. 870, the Maltese joined forces against the Byzantine garrison, and -3000 Greeks were massacred. Unable to garrison the island with a large -force, the Arabs cleared a zone between the central stronghold, Medina, -and the suburb called Rabat, to restrict the fortified area. Many Arab -coins, some Kufic inscriptions and several burial-places were left by -the Arabs; but they did not establish their religion or leave a -permanent impression on the Phoenician inhabitants, or deprive the -Maltese language of the characteristics which differentiate it from -Arabic. There is no historical evidence that the domination of the Goths -and Vandals in the Mediterranean ever extended to Malta; there are fine -Gothic arches in two old palaces at Notabile, but these were built after -the Norman conquest of Malta. In 1090 Count Roger the Norman (son of -Tancred de Hauteville), then master of Sicily, came to Malta with a -small retinue; the Arab garrison was unable to offer effective -opposition, and the Maltese were willing and able to welcome the Normans -as deliverers and to hold the island after the immediate withdrawal of -Count Roger. A bishop of Malta was witness to a document in 1090. The -Phoenician population had continued Christian during the mild Arab rule. -Under the Normans the power of the Roman Church quickly augmented, -tithes were granted, and ecclesiastical buildings erected and endowed. -The Normans, like the Arabs, were not numerically strong; the rule of -both, in Sicily as well as Malta, was based on a recognition of -municipal institutions under local officials; the Normans, however, -exterminated the Mahommedans. Gradually feudal customs asserted -themselves. In 1193 Margarito Brundusio received Malta as a fief with -the title of count; he was Grand Admiral of Sicily. Constance, wife of -the emperor Henry IV. of Germany became, in 1194, heiress of Sicily and -Malta; she was the last of the Norman dynasty. The Grand Admiral of -Sicily in 1223 was Henry, count of Malta. He had led 300 Maltese at the -capture of two forts in Tripoli by the Genoese. In 1265 Pope Alexander -IV. conferred the crown of Sicily on Charles of Anjou to the detriment -of Manfred, from whom the French won the kingdom at the battle of -Benevento. Under the will of Corradino a representative of the blood of -Roger the Norman, Peter of Aragon claimed the succession, and it came to -him by the revolution known as "the Sicilian Vespers" when 28,000 French -were exterminated in Sicily. Charles held Malta for two years longer, -when the Aragonese fleet met the French off Malta, and finally crushed -them in the Grand Harbour. In 1427 the Turks raided Malta and Gozo, they -carried many of the inhabitants into captivity, but gained no foothold. -The Maltese joined the Spaniards in a disastrous raid against Gerbi on -the African coast in 1432. In 1492 the Aragonese expelled the Jews. -Dissatisfaction arose under Aragonese rule from the periodical grants of -Malta, as a marquisate or countship, to great officers of state or -illegitimate descendants of the sovereign. Exemption was obtained from -these incidences of feudalism by large payments to the Crown in return -for charters covenanting that Malta should for ever be administered -under the royal exchequer without the intervention of intermediary -feudal lords. This compact was twice broken, and in 1428 the Maltese -paid King Alfonso 30,000 florins for a confirmation of privileges, with -a proviso that entitled them to resist by force of arms any intermediate -lord that his successors might attempt to impose. Under the Aragonese, -Malta, as regards local affairs, was administered by a _Universita_ or -municipal commonwealth with wide and indefinite powers, including the -election of its officers, Capitan di Verga, Jurats, &c. The minutes of -the "Consiglio Popolare" of this period are preserved, showing it had no -legislative power; this was vested in the king, and was exercised -despotically in the interests of the Crown. The Knights of St John -having been driven from Rhodes by the Turks, obtained the grant of -Malta, Gozo and Tripoli in 1530 from the emperor Charles V., subject to -a reversion in favour of the emperor's successor in the kingdom of -Aragon should the knights leave Malta, and to the annual tribute of a -falcon in acknowledgment that Malta was under the suzerainty of Spain. -The Maltese, at first, challenged the grant as a breach of the charter -of King Alfonso, but eventually welcomed the knights. The Grand Master -de l'Isle Adam, on entering the ancient capital of Notabile, swore for -himself and his successors to maintain the rights and liberties of the -Maltese. The Order of St John took up its abode on the promontory -guarded by the castle of St Angelo on the southern shore of the Grand -Harbour, and, in expectation of attacks from the Turks, commenced to -fortify the neighbouring town called the Borgo. The knights lived apart -from the Maltese, and derived their principal revenues from estates of -the Order in the richest countries of Europe. They accumulated wealth by -war, or by privateering against the Turks and their allies. The African -Arabs under Selim Pasha in 1551 ravaged Gozo, after an unsuccessful -attempt on Malta, repulsed by cavalry under Upton, an English knight. -The Order of St John and the Christian Maltese now realized that an -attempt to exterminate them would soon be made by Soliman II., and -careful preparations were made to meet the attack. - -The great siege of Malta which made the island and its knights famous, -and checked the advance of Mahommedan power in southern and western -Europe, began in May 1565. The fighting men of the defenders are -variously recorded between 6100 and 9121; the roll comprises one English -knight, Oliver Starkey. The Mahommedan forces were estimated from 29,000 -to 38,500. Jehan Parisot de la Valette had participated in the defence -of Rhodes, and in many naval engagements. He had been taken prisoner by -Dragut, who made him row for a year as a galley slave till ransomed. -This Grand Master had gained the confidence of Philip of Spain, the -friendship of the viceroy of Sicily, of the pope and of the Genoese -admiral, Doria. The Sultan placed his troops under the veteran Mustapha, -and his galleys under his youthful relative Piali, he hesitated to make -either supreme and ordered them to await the arrival of Dragut with his -Algerian allies, before deciding on their final plans. Meanwhile, -against Mustapha's better judgment, Piali induced the council of war to -attack St Elmo, in order to open the way for his fleet to an anchorage, -safe in all weathers, in Marsamuscetto harbour. This strategical blunder -was turned to the best advantage by La Valette, who so prolonged the -most heroic defence of St Elmo that the Turks lost 7000 killed and as -many wounded before exterminating the 1200 defenders, who fell at their -post. In the interval Dragut was mortally wounded, the attack on -Notabile was neglected, valuable time lost, and the main objective (the -Borgo) and St Angelo left intact. The subsequent siege of St Angelo, and -its supporting fortifications, was marked by the greatest bravery on -both sides. The knights and their Maltese troops fought for death or -victory, without asking or giving quarter. The Grand Master proved as -wise a leader as he was brave. By September food and ammunition were -getting scarce, a large relieving force was expected from Sicily, and -Piali became restive, on the approach of the equinox, for the safety of -his galleys. At last the viceroy of Sicily, who had the Spanish and -allied fleets at his disposal, was spurred to action by his council. He -timidly landed about 6000 or 8000 troops at the north-west of Malta and -withdrew. The Turks began a hurried embarcation and allowed the -Christians to join forces at Notabile; then, hearing less alarming -particulars of the relieving force, Mustapha relanded his reluctant -troops, faced his enemies in the open, and was driven in confusion to -his ships on the 8th of September. - -The Order thus reached the highest pinnacle of its fame, and new knights -flocked to be enrolled therein from the flower of the nobility of -Europe; La Valette refused a cardinal's hat, determined not to impair -his independence. He made his name immortal by founding on Mt Sceberras -"a city built by gentlemen for gentlemen" and making Valletta a -magnificent example of fortification, unrivalled in the world. The pope -and other sovereigns donated vast sums for this new bulwark of -Christianity, but, as its ramparts grew in strength, the knights were -slow to seek the enemy in his own waters, and became false to their -traditional strategy as a naval power. Nevertheless, they harassed -Turkish commerce and made booty in minor engagements throughout the 16th -and 18th centuries, and they took part as an allied Christian power in -the great victory of Lepanto. With the growth of wealth and security the -martial spirit of the Order began to wane, and so also did its friendly -relations with the Maltese. The field for recruiting its members, as -well as its landed estates, became restricted by the Reformation in -England and Germany, and the French knights gradually gained a -preponderance which upset the international equilibrium of the Order. -The election of elderly Grand Masters became prevalent, the turmoil and -chances of frequent elections being acceptable to younger members. The -civil government became neglected and disorganized, licentiousness -increased, and riots began to be threatening. Expenditure on costly -buildings was almost ceaseless, and kept the people alive. In 1614 the -Vignacourt aqueduct was constructed. The Jesuits established a -university, but they were expelled and their property confiscated in -1768. British ships of war visited Malta in 1675, and in 1688 a fleet -under the duke of Grafton came to Valletta. The fortifications of the -"Three Cities" were greatly strengthened under the Grand Master Cotoner. - -In 1722 the Turkish prisoners and slaves, then very numerous, formed a -conspiracy to rise and seize the island. Premature discovery was -followed by prompt suppression. Castle St Angelo and the fort of St -James were, in 1775, surprised by rebels, clamouring against bad -government; this rising is known as the Rebellion of the Priests, from -its leader, Mannarino. The last but one of the Grand Masters who reigned -in Malta, de Rohan, restored good government, abated abuses and -promulgated a code of laws; but the ascendancy acquired by the -Inquisition over the Order, the confiscation of the property of the -knights in France on the outbreak of the Revolution, and the intrigues -of the French made the task of regenerating the Order evidently hopeless -in the changed conditions of Christendom. On the death of Rohan the -French knights disagreed as to the selection of his successor, and a -minority were able to elect, in 1797, a German of weak character, -Ferdinand Hompesch, as the last Grand Master to rule in Malta. Bonaparte -had arranged to obtain Malta by treachery, and he took possession -without resistance in June 1798; after a stay of six days he proceeded -with the bulk of his forces to Egypt, leaving General Vaubois with 6000 -troops to hold Valletta. The exiled knights made an attempt to -reconstruct themselves under the emperor Paul of Russia, but finally the -Catholic parent stem of the Order settled in Rome and continues there -under papal auspices. It still comprises members who take vows of -celibacy and prove the requisite number of quarterings. - -Towards the close of the rule of the knights in Malta feudal -institutions had been shaken to their foundations, but the transition to -republican rule was too sudden and extreme for the people to accept it. -The French plundered the churches, abolished monks, nuns and nobles, and -set up forthwith the ways and doings of the French Revolution. Among -other laws Bonaparte enacted that French should at once be the official -language, that 30 young men should every year be sent to France for -their education; that all foreign monks be expelled, that no new priests -be ordained before employment could be found for those existing; that -ecclesiastical jurisdiction should cease; that neither the bishop nor -the priests could charge fees for sacramental ministrations, &c. -Stoppage of trade, absence of work (in a population of which more than -half had been living on foreign revenues of the knights), and famine, -followed the defeat of Bonaparte at the Nile, and the failure of his -plans to make Malta a centre of French trade. An attempt to seize church -valuables at Notabile was forcibly resisted by the Maltese, and general -discontent broke out into open rebellion on the 2nd of September 1798. -The French soon discovered to their dismay that, from behind the rubble -walls of every field, the agile Maltese were unassailable. The prospect -of an English blockade of Malta encouraged the revolt, of which Canon -Caruana became the leader. Nelson was appealed to, and with the aid of -Portuguese allies he established a blockade and deputed Captain Ball, R. -N. (afterwards the first governor) to assume, on the 9th of February -1799, the provisional administration of Malta and to superintend -operations on land. Nelson recognized the movement in Malta as a -successful revolution against the French, and upheld the contention that -the king of Sicily (as successor to Charles V. in that part of the -former kingdom of Aragon) was the legitimate sovereign of Malta. British -troops were landed to assist in the siege; few lives were lost in actual -combat, nevertheless famine and sickness killed thousands of the -inhabitants, and finally forced the French to surrender to the allies. -Canon Caruana and other leaders of the Maltese aspired to obtain for -Malta the freedom of the Roman Catholic religion guaranteed by England -in Canada and other dependencies, and promoted a petition in order that -Malta should come under the strong power of England rather than revert -to the kingdom of the two Sicilies. - -The Treaty of Amiens (1802) provided for the restoration of the island -to the Order of St John; against this the Maltese strongly protested, -realizing that it would be followed by the re-establishment of French -influence. The English flag was flown side by side with the Neapolitan, -and England actually renewed war with France sooner than give up Malta. -The Treaty of Paris (1814), with the acclamations of the Maltese, -confirmed Great Britain in the aggregation of Malta to the empire. - -A period elapsed before the government of Malta again became -self-supporting, during which over L600,000 was contributed by the -British exchequer in aid of revenue, and for the importation of -food-stuffs. The restoration of Church property, the re-establishment of -law and administration on lines to which the people were accustomed -before the French invasion, and the claiming for the Crown of the vast -landed property of the knights, were the first cares of British civil -rule. As successor to the Order, the Crown claimed and eventually -established (by the negotiations in Rome of Sir Frederick Hankey, Sir -Gerald Strickland and Sir Lintorn Simmons) with regard to the -presentation of the bishopric (worth about L4000 a year) the right to -veto the appointment of distasteful candidates. This right was exercised -to secure the nomination of Canon Caruana and later of Monsignor Pace. -When the pledge, given by the Treaty of Amiens, to restore the Order of -St John with a national Maltese "langue," could not be fulfilled, -political leaders began demanding instead the re-establishment of the -"Consiglio Popolare" of Norman times (without reflecting that it never -had legislative power); but by degrees popular aspirations developed in -favour of a free constitution on English lines. The British authorities -steadily maintained that, at least until the mass of the people became -educated, representative institutions would merely screen irresponsible -oligarchies. After the Treaty of Paris stability of government -developed, and many important reforms were introduced under the strong -government of the masterful Sir Thomas Maitland; he acted promptly, -without seeking popularity or fearing the reverse, and he ultimately -gained more real respect than any other governor, not excepting the -marquess of Hastings, who was a brilliant and sympathetic administrator. -Trial by jury for criminal cases was established in 1829. A council of -government, of which the members were nominated, was constituted by -letters patent in 1835, but this measure only increased the agitation -for a representative legislature. Freedom of the press and many salutary -innovations were brought about on a report of John Austin and G. C. -Lewis, royal commissioners, appointed in 1836. The basis of taxation was -widened, sinecures abolished, schools opened in the country districts, -legal procedure simplified, and Police established on an English -footing. Queen Adelaide visited Malta in 1838 and founded the Anglican -collegiate church of St Paul. Sir F. Hankey as chief secretary was for -many years the principal official of the civil administration. In 1847 -Mr R. Moore O'Ferrall was appointed civil governor. In June 1849 the -constitution of the council was altered to comprise ten nominated and -eight elected members. - -The revolutions in Italy caused about this time many, including Crispi -and some of the most intellectual Italians, to take refuge in Malta. -These foreigners introduced new life into politics and the press, and -made it fashionable for educated Maltese to delude themselves with the -idea that the Maltese were Italians, because a few of them could speak -the language of the peninsula. A clerical reaction followed against new -progressive ideas and English methods of development. After much -unreasoning vituperation the Irish Catholic civil governor, who had -arrived amidst the acclamations of all, left his post in disgust. His -successor as civil governor was Sir W. Reid, who had formerly held -military command. His determined attempts to promote education met with -intense opposition and little success. At this period the Crimean War -brought great wealth and commercial prosperity to Malta. Under Sir G. Le -Marchant, in 1858, the nominal rule of military governors was -re-established, but the civil administration was largely confided to Sir -Victor Houlton as chief secretary, whilst the real power began to be -concentrated in the hands of Sir A. Dingli, the Crown advocate, who was -the interpreter of the law, and largely its maker, as well as the -principal depository of local knowledge, able to prevent the preferment -of rivals, and to countenance the barrier which difference of language -created between governors and governed. The civil service gravitated -into the hands of a clique. At this period much money was spent on the -Marsa extension of the Grand Harbour, but the rapid increase in the size -of steamships made the scheme inadequate, and limited its value -prematurely. The military defences were entirely remodelled under Sir G. -Le Marchant, and considerable municipal improvements and embellishments -were completed. But this governor was obstructed and misrepresented by -local politicians as vehemently as his predecessors and his successors. -Ministers at home have often appeared to be inclined to the policy of -pleasing by avoiding the reforming of what might be left as it was -found. Sir A. Dingli adapted a considerable portion of the Napoleonic -Code in a series of Malta Ordinances, but stopped short at points likely -to cause agitation. Sir P. Julyan was appointed royal commissioner on -the civil establishments, and Sir P. Keenan on education; their work -revived the reform movement in 1881. Mr Savona led an agitation for a -more sincere system of education on English lines. Fierce opposition -ensued, and the _pari passu_ compromise was adopted to which reference -is made in the section on _Education_ above; Mr Savona was an able -organizer, and began the real emancipation of the Maltese masses from -educational ignorance; but he succumbed to agitation before -accomplishing substantial results. - -An executive council was established in 1881, and the franchise was -extended in 1883. A quarter of a century of Sir Victor Houlton's policy -of _laissez-faire_ was changed in 1883 by the appointment of Sir Walter -Hely-Hutchinson as chief secretary. An attempt was made to utilize fully -the abilities of this eminent administrator by creating him civil -lieutenant-governor, in whom to concentrate both the real and the -nominal power of detailed administration; but the military authorities -objected to his corresponding directly with the Colonial Office; and a -political deadlock began to develop. Sir A. Dingli was transferred from -an administrative office to that of chief justice. With the continuance -of military power over details, the public could not understand where -responsibility really rested. The elected members under the leadership -of Dr Mizzi clamoured for more power, opposed reforms and protested -against the carrying of government measures by the casting vote of a -military governor as president of the council. To force a crisis, -abstention of elected members from the council was resorted to, together -with the election of notoriously unfit candidates. Under these -circumstances a constitution of a more severe type was recommended by -those responsible for the government of Malta and was about to be -adopted, as the only alternative to a deadlock, by the imperial -authorities. - -A regulation excluding Maltese from the navy (because of their speaking -on board a language that their officers did not understand) provoked -from Trinity College, Cambridge, the Strickland correspondence in _The -Times_ on the constitutional rights of the Maltese, and a leading -article induced the Colonial Office to try an experiment known as the -Strickland-Mizzi Constitution of 1887. This constitution (abolished in -1903) ended a period of government by presidential casting votes and -official ascendancy. For the first time the elected members were placed -in a majority; they were given three seats in the executive council; in -local questions the government had to make every effort to carry the -majority by persuasion. When persuasion failed and imperial interests, -or the rights of unrepresented minorities, were involved the power of -the Crown to legislate by order in council could be (and was) freely -used. This system had the merit of counteracting any abuse of power by -the bureaucracy. It brought to bear on officials effective criticism, -which made them alert and hard-working. Governor Simmons eventually gave -his support to the new constitution, which was received with -acclamation. Strickland, who had been elected while an undergraduate on -the cry of equality of rights for Maltese and English, and Mizzi, the -leader of the anti-English agitation, were, as soon as elected, given -seats in the executive council to cooperate with the government; but -their aims were irreconcilable. Mizzi wanted to undo the educational -forms of Mr Savona, to ensure the predominance of the Italian language -and to work the council as a caucus. Strickland desired to replace -bureaucratic government by a system more in touch with the independent -gentlemen of the country, and to introduce English ideas and precedents. -Friction soon arose. Mizzi cared little for a constitution that did not -make him complete master of the situation, and resigned his post in the -government. - -Sir Walter Hely-Hutchinson left Malta in March 1889, and was succeeded -by Sir Gerald Strickland (Count Delia Catena), who lost no time in -pushing, and carrying with a rapidity that was considered hasty, reforms -that had been retarded for years. The majorities behind the government -began to dwindle and agitation to grow. Meanwhile the Royal Malta -Militia was established as a link between the Maltese and the garrison. -The police were reorganized with proper pay, criminal laws were -rigorously enforced. A naval officer was placed over the police to -diminish difficulties with the naval authorities and sailors. A marine -force was raised to stop smuggling; and the subtraction of coal during -coaling operations was stopped by drastic legislation. The civil service -was reorganized so as to reward merit and work by promotion. Tenders -were strictly enforced in letting government property and contracts; a -largely increased revenue was applied on water supply, drainage and -other works. Lepers were segregated by law. - -The Malta marriage question evoked widespread agitation; Sir A. Dingli -had refrained from making any provision in his code as to marrying. The -Maltese relied on the Roman Canon Law, the English on the common law of -England, Scots or Irish had nothing but the English law to fall back -upon. Maltese authorities were ignorant of the disabilities of British -Nonconformists at common law, and they had not perceived that persons -with a British domicile could not evade their own laws by marrying in -Malta, e.g. that an English girl up to the age of 21 required the -father's or guardian's consent from which a Maltese was legally exempt -at 18. Sir G. Strickland preferred legislation to the covering up of -difficulties by governors' licences and appeals to incongruous -precedents. Sir Lintorn Simmons was appointed envoy to the Holy See, to -ascertain how far legislation might be pushed in the direction of civil -marriage without justifying clerical agitation and obstruction in the -council. He succeeded in coming to an agreement with Rome. Nevertheless -Sir A. Dingli and ecclesiastics of all denominations, for conflicting -reasons, swelled the opposition against the liberal concessions obtained -from Leo XIII. The legal necessity for legislation in accordance with -the agreement was, nevertheless, on a special reference, submitted to -the privy council, whose decision affirmed the advisability of -legislation and the need for validating retrospectively marriages not -supported by either Maltese or English common law. Agitation in the -imperial parliament stopped government action, but the publicity of the -finding of the privy council warned all concerned against the risk of -neglecting the common law of the empire whenever they were not prepared -to follow the _lex loci contractus_. - -Since the British occupation it was disputed whether the military -authorities had the right to alienate for the benefit of the imperial -exchequer fortress sites no longer required for defence. The reversion -of such property was claimed for the local civil government, and the -principles governing these rights were ultimately laid down by an order -in council, which also determined military rights to restrict buildings -within the range of forts. The co-operation of naval and military -authorities was obtained for the construction, at imperial expense, of -the breakwater designed to save Malta from being abandoned by long and -deep draft modern vessels. British-born subjects were given the right to -be tried in English. The new system of education (already described) was -set up, and many new schools were built with funds provided by order in -council against the wishes of the elected majority. - -An order in council (1899) making English the language of the courts -after fifteen years (by which the Maltese would have obtained the right -to be tried in English) was promulgated at a time when the system of -taxation was also being revised; henceforth agitation in favour of -Italian and against taxation attained proportions unpleasant for those -who preferred popularity to reform and progress. The elected members -demanded the recall of Sir G. Strickland on his refusing to change his -policy. The military governor gave way, as regards making English the -language of the courts on a fixed date, but educational reforms and the -imposition of new taxes (those in Malta being 27s. 6d. per head, against -93s. in England) were enacted by an order in council notwithstanding the -agitation. Mr Mereweather was appointed chief secretary and civil -lieutenant-governor in 1902, and Sir Gerald Strickland became governor -and commander-in-chief of the Leeward Islands. Governor Sir F. Grenfell -was created a peer. Strenuous efforts were made to placate the Italian -party in the administration of the educational reforms; but, as these -were not repealed, elected members refused supply, and kept away from -the council. Persistence in this course led to the repeal by -letters-patent of 1903 of the Strickland-Mizzi Constitution of 1887. In -place of occasional orders in council for important matters in urgent -cases, bureaucratic government with an official majority was again, with -its drawbacks, fully re-established for all local affairs great and -small. The representatives of the people were repeatedly re-elected, -only to resign again and again as a protest against a restricted -constitution. - - Authorities.--Kenrick's _Phoenicia_ (1855); A. A. Caruana's _Reports - on Phoenician and Roman Antiquities in Malta_ (1881 and 1882); Albert - Mayr, _Die Insel Malta im Altertum_ (1909); James Smith, _Voyage and - Shipwreck of St Paul_ (1866); R. Pirro, _Sicilia sacra_; T. Fazello, - _Storia di Sicilia_ (1833); C. de Bazincourt, _Histoire de la Sicile_ - (1846); G. F. Abela, _Malta illustrata_ (1772); J. Quintin, _Insulae - Melitae descriptio_ (1536); G. W. von Streitburg, _Reyse nach der - Inselmalta_ (1632); R. Gregoria, _Considerazioni sopra la storia di - Sicilia_ (1839); F. C. A. Davalos, _Tableau historique de Malte_ - (1802); Houel, _Voyage pittoresque_ (vol. iv., 1787); G. P. Badger, - _Description of Malta and Gozo_ (1858); G. N. Goodwin, _Guide to and - Natural History of Maltese Islands_ (1800); Whitworth Porter, _History - of Knights of Malta_ (1858); A. Bigelow, _Travels in Malta and Sicily_ - (1831); M. Miege, _Histoire de Malte_ (1840); Parliamentary Papers, - reports by Mr Rownell on Taxation and Expenditure in Malta (1878), by - Sir F. Julyan on Civil Establishments (1880); and Mr Keenan on the - Educational System (1880), (the last two deal with the language - question); F. Vella, _Maltese Grammar for the Use of the English_ - (1831); _Malta Penny Magazine_ (1839-1841); J. T. Mifsud, _Biblioteca - Maltese_ (1764); C. M. de Piro, _Squarci di storia_; Michele Acciardi, - _Mustafa bascia di Rodi schiavo in Malta_ (1761); A. F. Freiherr, - _Reise nach Malta in 1830_ (Vienna, 1837); B. Niderstedt, _Malta vetus - et nova_, 1660; F. Panzavecchia, _Storia dell' isola di Malta_; N. W. - Senior, _Conversations on Egypt and Malta_ (1882); G. A. Vassallo, - _Storia di Malta_ (1890); H. Felsch, _Reisebeschreibung_ (1858); W. - Hardman, _Malta_, 1798-1815 (1909); A. Nieuterberg, _Malta_ (1879); - Terrinoni, _La Presa di Malta_ (1860); Azzopardi, _Presa di Malta_ - (1864); Castagna, _Storia di Malta_ (1900); Boisredon, Ransijat, - _Blocus et siege de Malte_ (1802); Buchon, _Nouvelles recherches - historiques_; C. Samminniateli, Zabarella, _L' Assedio di Malta del - 1565_ (1902); Professor G. B. Mifsud, _Guida al corso di Procedura - Penale Maltese_ (1907); P. de Bono Debono, _Storia della legislazione - in Malta_ (1897); Monsignor A. Mifsud, _L'Origine della sovranita - della Grand Brettagna su Malta_ (1907); A. A. Caruana, _Frammento - critico della storia di Malta_ (1899); Ancient Pagan Tombs and - Christian Cemeteries in the Island of Malta, _Explored and Surveyed - from 1881 to 1897_; Strickland, _Remarks and Correspondence on the - Constitution of Malta_ (1887); A. Mayr, _Die vorgeschichtlichen - Denkmaler von Malta_ (1901); A. E. Caruana, _Sull' origine della - lingua Maltese_ (1896); J. C. Grech, _Flora melitensis_ (1853); Furse, - _Medagliere Gerosolimitano;_ Pisani, _Medagliere_; Galizia, _Church of - St John_; J. Murray, "The Maltese Islands, with special reference to - their Geological Structure," _Scottish Geog. Mag._ (vol. vi., 1890); - J. W. Gregory, "The Maltese Fossil Echinoidea and their evidence on - the correlation of the Maltese Rocks," _Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._ (vol. - xxxvi., 1892); J. H. Cook, _The Har Dalam Cavern, Malta, Evidences of - Prehistoric Man in Malta_; _Collegamento geodetico delle isole maltesi - con la Sicilia_ (1902); A. Zeri, _I porti delle isole del gruppo di - Malta_ (1906); G. F. Bonamico, _Delle glossipietre di Malta_ (1688). - - Brydone, Teonge, John Dryden jun., W. Tallack, Rev. H. Seddall, - Boisgolin, Rev. W. K. Bedford, W. H. Bartlett, St Priest. Msgr. Bres, - M. G. Borch, Oliver Drapper, John Davy, G. M. Letard, Taafe, Busuttil, - T. MacGill, J. Quintana, have also written on Malta. For natural - science see the works of Dr A. L. Adams, Professor E. Forbes, Captain - Spratt, Dr G. Gulia, C. A. Wright and Wood's _Tourist Flora_. - - For the language question, see Mr Chamberlain's speech in the House of - Commons, on the 28th of January 1902. Also parliamentary papers for - Grievances of the Maltese Nobility, and Constitutional Changes. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] See T. Zammit, _The Halsaflieni prehistoric hypogeum at Casal - Paula, Malta_ (Malta, 1910). - - [2] Sometimes the pillar which represents the _baetylus_, which seems - to have been the object of worship, (see A. J. Evans in _Journal of - Hellenic Studies_, xxi., 1901) stands free sometimes it serves as - support to the table stone which covers the niche, and sometimes - again monolithic tables occur. Conical stones (possibly themselves - _baetyli_) are also found. - - - - -MALTA (or MEDITERRANEAN) FEVER, a disease long prevalent of Malta and -formerly at Gibraltar, as well as other Mediterranean centres, -characterized by prolonged high temperature, with anaemia, pain and -swelling in the joints, and neuritis, lasting on an average four months -but extending even to two or three years. Its pathology was long -obscure, but owing to conclusive research on the part of Colonel -(afterwards Sir) David Bruce, to which contributions were made by -various officers of the R.A.M.C. and others, this problem had now been -solved. A specific micro-organism, the _Micrococcus melitensis_, was -discovered in 1887, and it was traced to the milk of the Maltese goats. -A commission was sent out to Malta in 1904 to investigate the question, -and after three years' work its conclusions were embodied in a report by -Colonel Bruce in 1907. It was shown that the disappearance of the -disease from Gibraltar had synchronized with the non-importation of -goats from Malta; and preventive measures adopted in Malta in 1906, by -banishing goats' milk from the military and naval dietary, put a stop to -the occurrence of cases. In the treatment of Malta fever a vaccine has -been used with considerable success. - - - - -MALTE-BRUN, CONRAD (1755-1826), French geographer, was born on the 12th -of August 1755 at Thisted in Denmark, and died at Paris on the 14th of -December 1826. His original name was Malte Conrad Bruun. While a student -at Copenhagen he made himself famous partly by his verses, but more by -the violence of his political pamphleteering; and at length, in 1800, -the legal actions which the government authorities had from time to time -instituted against him culminated in a sentence of banishment. The -principles which he had advocated were those of the French Revolution, -and after first seeking asylum in Sweden he found his way to Paris. -There he looked forward to a political career; but, when Napoleon's -personal ambition began to unfold itself, Malte-Brun was bold enough to -protest, and to turn elsewhere for employment and advancement. He was -associated with Edme Mentelle (1730-1815) in the compilation of the -_Geographie mathematique ... de toutes les parties du monde_ (Paris, -1803-1807, 16 vols.), and he became recognized as one of the best -geographers of France. He is remembered, not only as the author of six -volumes of the learned _Precis de la geographie universelle_ (Paris, -1810-1829), continued by other hands after his death, but also as the -originator of the _Annales des voyages_ (1808), and one of the founders -of the Geographical Society of Paris. His second son, VICTOR ADOLPHE -MALTE-BRUN (1816-1889), followed his father's career of geographer, and -was a voluminous author. - - - - -MALTHUS, THOMAS ROBERT (1766-1834), English economist, was born in 1766 -at the Rookery, near Guildford, Surrey, a small estate owned by his -father, Daniel Malthus, a gentleman of good family and independent -fortune, of considerable culture, the friend and correspondent of -Rousseau and one of his executors. Young Malthus was never sent to a -public school, but received his education from private tutors. In 1784 -he was sent to Cambridge, where he was ninth wrangler, and became fellow -of his college (Jesus) in 1797. The same year he received orders, and -undertook the charge of a small parish in Surrey. In the following year -he published the first edition of his great work, _An Essay on the -Principle of Population as it affects the Future Improvement of Society, -with Remarks on the Speculations of Mr Godwin, M. Condorcet, and other -Writers_. The work excited a good deal of surprise as well as attention; -and with characteristic thoroughness and love of truth the author went -abroad to collect materials for the verification and more exhaustive -treatment of his views. As Britain was then at war with France, only the -northern countries of Europe were quite open to his research at that -time; but during the brief Peace of Amiens Malthus continued his -investigations in France and Switzerland. The result of these labours -appeared in the greatly enlarged and more mature edition of his work -published in 1803. In 1805 Malthus married happily, and not long after -was appointed professor of modern history and political economy in the -East India Company's College at Haileybury. This post he retained till -his death suddenly from heart disease on the 23rd of December 1834. -Malthus was one of the most amiable, candid and cultured of men. In all -his private relations he was not only without reproach, but -distinguished for the beauty of his character. He bore popular abuse and -misrepresentation without the slightest murmur or sourness of temper. -The aim of his inquiries was to promote the happiness of mankind, which -could be better accomplished by pointing out the real possibilities of -progress than by indulging in vague dreams of perfectibility apart from -the actual facts which condition human life. - -Malthus's _Essay on Population_ grew out of some discussions which he -had with his father respecting the perfectibility of society. His father -shared the theories on that subject of Condorcet and Godwin; and his son -combated them on the ground that the realization of a happy society will -always be hindered by the miseries consequent on the tendency of -population to increase faster than the means of subsistence. His father -was struck by the weight and originality of his views, asked him to put -them in writing, and then recommended the publication of the manuscript. -It was in this way the _Essay_ saw the light. Thus it will be seen that -both historically and philosophically the doctrine of Malthus was a -corrective reaction against the superficial optimism diffused by the -school of Rousseau. It was the same optimism, with its easy methods of -regenerating society and its fatal blindness to the real conditions that -circumscribe human life, that was responsible for the wild theories of -the French Revolution and many of its consequent excesses. - -The project of a formal and detailed treatise on population was an -afterthought of Malthus. The essay in which he had studied a hypothetic -future led him to examine the effects of the principle he had put -forward on the past and present state of society; and he undertook an -historical examination of these effects, and sought to draw such -inferences in relation to the actual state of things as experience -seemed to warrant. In its original form he had spoken of no checks to -population but those which came under the head either of vice or of -misery. In the 1803 edition he introduced the new element of the -preventive check supplied by what he calls "moral restraint," and is -thus enabled to "soften some of the harshest conclusions" at which he -had before arrived. The treatise passed through six editions in his -lifetime, and in all of them he introduced various additions and -corrections. That of 1816 is the last he revised, and supplies the final -text from which it has since been reprinted. - -Notwithstanding the great development which he gave to his work and the -almost unprecedented amount of discussion to which it gave rise, it -remains a matter of some difficulty to discover what solid contribution -he has made to our knowledge, nor is it easy to ascertain precisely what -practical precepts, not already familiar, he founded on his theoretic -principles. This twofold vagueness is well brought out in his celebrated -correspondence with Nassau Senior, in the course of which it seems to be -made apparent that his doctrine is new not so much in its essence as in -the phraseology in which it is couched. He himself tells us that when, -after the publication of the original essay, the main argument of which -he had deduced from David Hume, Robert Wallace, Adam Smith and Richard -Price, he began to inquire more closely into the subject, he found that -"much more had been done" upon it "than he had been aware of." It had -"been treated in such a manner by some of the French economists, -occasionally by Montesquieu, and, among English writers, by Dr Franklin, -Sir James Steuart, Arthur Young and Rev. J. Townsend, as to create a -natural surprise that it had not excited more of the public attention." -"Much, however," he thought, "remained yet to be done. The comparison -between the increase of population and food had not, perhaps, been -stated with sufficient force and precision," and "few inquiries had been -made into the various modes by which the level" between population and -the means of subsistence "is effected." The first desideratum here -mentioned--the want, namely, of an accurate statement of the relation -between the increase of population and food--Malthus doubtless supposed -to have been supplied by the celebrated proposition that "population -increases in a geometrical, food in an arithmetical ratio." This -proposition, however, has been conclusively shown to be erroneous, there -being no such difference of law between the increase of man and that of -the organic beings which form his food. When the formula cited is not -used, other somewhat nebulous expressions are sometimes employed, as, -for example, that "population has a tendency to increase faster than -food," a sentence in which both are treated as if they were spontaneous -growths, and which, on account of the ambiguity of the word "tendency," -is admittedly consistent with the fact asserted by Senior, that food -tends to increase faster than population. It must always have been -perfectly well known that population will probably (though not -necessarily) increase with every augmentation of the supply of -subsistence, and may, in some instances, inconveniently press upon, or -even for a certain time exceed, the number properly corresponding to -that supply. Nor could it ever have been doubted that war, disease, -poverty--the last two often the consequences of vice--are causes which -keep population down. In fact, the way in which abundance, increase of -numbers, want, increase of deaths, succeed each other in the natural -economy, when reason does not intervene, had been fully explained by -Joseph Townsend in his _Dissertation on the Poor Laws_ (1786) which was -known to Malthus. Again, it is surely plain enough that the apprehension -by individuals of the evils of poverty, or a sense of duty to their -possible offspring, may retard the increase of population, and has in -all civilized communities operated to a certain extent in that way. It -is only when such obvious truths are clothed in the technical -terminology of "positive" and "preventive checks" that they appear novel -and profound; and yet they appear to contain the whole message of -Malthus to mankind. The laborious apparatus of historical and -statistical facts respecting the several countries of the globe, adduced -in the altered form of the essay, though it contains a good deal that is -curious and interesting, establishes no general result which was not -previously well known. - -It would seem, then, that what has been ambitiously called Malthus's -theory of population, instead of being a great discovery as some have -represented it, or a poisonous novelty, as others have considered it, is -no more than a formal enunciation of obvious, though sometimes -neglected, facts. The pretentious language often applied to it by -economists is objectionable, as being apt to make us forget that the -whole subject with which it deals is as yet very imperfectly -understood--the causes which modify the force of the sexual instinct, -and those which lead to variations in fecundity, still awaiting a -complete investigation. - -It is the law of diminishing returns from land, involving as it -does--though only hypothetically--the prospect of a continuously -increasing difficulty in obtaining the necessary sustenance for all the -members of a society, that gives the principal importance to population -as an economic factor. It is, in fact, the confluence of the Malthusian -ideas with the theories of Ricardo, especially with the corollaries -which the latter deduced from the doctrine of rent (though these were -not accepted by Malthus), that has led to the introduction of population -as an element in the discussion of so many economic questions in modern -times. - -Malthus had undoubtedly the great merit of having called public -attention in a striking and impressive way to a subject which had -neither theoretically nor practically been sufficiently considered. But -he and his followers appear to have greatly exaggerated both the -magnitude and the urgency of the dangers to which they pointed.[1] In -their conceptions a single social imperfection assumed such portentous -dimensions that it seemed to overcloud the whole heaven and threaten the -world with ruin. This doubtless arose from his having at first omitted -altogether from his view of the question the great counteracting agency -of moral restraint. Because a force exists, capable, if unchecked, of -producing certain results, it does not follow that those results are -imminent or even possible in the sphere of experience. A body thrown -from the hand would, under the single impulse of projection, move for -ever in a straight line; but it would not be reasonable to take special -action for the prevention of this result, ignoring the fact that it will -be sufficiently counteracted by the other forces which will come into -play. And such other forces exist in the case we are considering. If the -inherent energy of the principle of population (supposed everywhere the -same) is measured by the rate at which numbers increase under the most -favourable circumstances, surely the force of less favourable -circumstances, acting through prudential or altruistic motives, is -measured by the great difference between this maximum rate and those -which are observed to prevail in most European countries. Under a -rational system of institutions, the adaptation of numbers to the means -available for their support is effected by the felt or anticipated -pressure of circumstances and the fear of social degradation, within a -tolerable degree of approximation to what is desirable. To bring the -result nearer to the just standard, a higher measure of popular -enlightenment and more serious habits of moral reflection ought indeed -to be encouraged. But it is the duty of the individual to his possible -offspring, and not any vague notions as to the pressure of the national -population on subsistence, that will be adequate to influence conduct. - -It can scarcely be doubted that the favour which was at once accorded to -the views of Malthus in certain circles was due in part to an -impression, very welcome to the higher ranks of society, that they -tended to relieve the rich and powerful of responsibility for the -condition of the working classes, by showing that the latter had chiefly -themselves to blame, and not either the negligence of their superiors or -the institutions of the country. The application of his doctrines, too, -made by some of his successors had the effect of discouraging all active -effort for social improvement. Thus Chalmers "reviews _seriatim_ and -gravely sets aside all the schemes usually proposed for the amelioration -of the economic condition of the people" on the ground that an increase -of comfort will lead to an increase of numbers, and so the last state of -things will be worse than the first. - -Malthus has in more modern times derived a certain degree of reflected -lustre from the rise and wide acceptance of the Darwinian hypothesis. -Its author himself, in tracing its filiation, points to the phrase -"struggle for existence" used by Malthus in relation to the social -competition. Darwin believed that man advanced to his present high -condition through such a struggle, consequent on his rapid -multiplication. He regarded, it is true, the agency of this cause for -the improvement of the race as largely superseded by moral influences in -the more advanced social stages. Yet he considered it, even in these -stages, of so much importance towards that end that, notwithstanding the -individual suffering arising from the struggle for life, he deprecated -any great reduction in the natural, by which he seems to mean the -ordinary, rate of increase. - - Besides his great work, Malthus wrote _Observations on the Effect of - the Corn Laws_; _An Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of Rent_; - _Principles of Political Economy_; and _Definitions in Political - Economy_. His views on rent were of real importance. - - For his life see _Memoir_ by his friend Dr Otter, bishop of Chichester - (prefixed to 2nd ed., 1836, of the _Principles of Political Economy_), - and _Malthus and his Work_, by J. Bonar (London, 1885). Practically - every treatise on economics deals with Malthus and his essay, but the - following special works may be referred to: Soetbeer, _Die Stellung - der Sozialisten zur Malthusschen Bevolkerungslehre_ (Berlin, 1886); G. - de Molinari, _Malthus, essai sur le principe de population_ (Paris, - 1889); Cossa, _Il Principio di popolazione di T. R. Malthus_ (Milan, - 1895); and Ricardo, _Letters to Malthus_, ed. J. Bonar (1887). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Malthus himself said, "It is probable that, having found the bow - bent too much one way, I was induced to bend it too much the other in - order to make it straight." - - - - -MALTON, a market town in the Thirsk and Malton parliamentary division of -Yorkshire, England, 21 m. N.E. of York by a branch of the North Eastern -railway. The town comprises Old Malton and New Malton in the North -Riding, and Norton on the opposite side of the river Derwent, in the -East Riding. Pop. of urban district of Malton (1901), 4758; of urban -district of Norton 3842. The situation, on the wooded hills rising from -the narrow valley, is very picturesque. The church of St Michael is a -fine late Norman building with perpendicular tower; the church of St -Leonard, of mixed architecture, with square tower and spire, has three -Norman arches and a Norman font. The church of St Mary at Old Malton was -attached to a Gilbertine priory founded in 1150; it is transitional -Norman and Early English, with later insertions. Remains of the priory -are scanty, but include a crypt under a modern house. In the -neighbourhood of Malton are the slight but beautiful fragments of -Kirkham Abbey, an Early English Augustinian foundation of Walter l'Espec -(1131); and the fine mansion of Castle Howard, a massive building by -Vanbrugh, the seat of the earls of Carlisle, containing a noteworthy -collection of pictures. Malton possesses a town-hall, a corn exchange, a -museum, and a grammar-school founded in 1547. There are iron and brass -foundries, agricultural implement works, corn mills, tanneries and -breweries. In the neighbourhood are lime and whinstone quarries. - -Traces of a Romano-British village exist on the east side of the town, -but there appears to be no history of Malton before the Norman Conquest. -The greater part of Malton belonged to the crown in 1086 and was -evidently retained until Henry I. gave the castle and its appurtenances -to Eustace son of John, whose descendants took the name of Vescy. -Eustace meditated the deliverance of Malton Castle to King David of -Scotland in 1138, but his plans were altered owing to the battle of the -Standard. The "burgh" of Malton is mentioned in 1187, and in 1295 the -town returned two members to parliament. It was not represented again, -however, until 1640, when an act was passed to restore its ancient -privileges. In 1867 the number of members was reduced to one, and in -1885 the town was disfranchised. Until the 17th century the burgesses -had all the privileges of a borough by prescriptive right, and were -governed by two bailiffs and two under-bailiffs, but these liberties -were taken from them in 1684 and have never been revived. From that time -a bailiff and two constables were appointed at the court leet of the -lord of the manor until a local board was formed in 1854. In the 13th -century Agnes de Vescy, then lady of the manor, held a market in Malton -by prescription, and Camden writing about 1586 says that the lord of the -manor then held two weekly markets, on Tuesday and Saturday, the last -being the best cattle market in the county. The markets are now held on -Saturdays and alternate Tuesdays, and still belong to the lord of the -manor. - - - - -MALTZAN, HEINRICH VON, BARON ZU WARTENBURG UND PENZLIN (1826-1874), -German traveller, was born on the 6th of September 1826 near Dresden. He -studied law at Heidelberg, but on account of ill health spent much of -his time from 1850 in travel. Succeeding to his father's property in -1852, he extended the range of his journeys to Morocco and other parts -of Barbary, and before his return home in 1854 had also visited Egypt, -Palestine and other countries of the Levant. In 1856-1857 he was again -in Algeria; in 1858 he reached the city of Morocco; and in 1860 he -succeeded in performing the pilgrimage to Mecca, which he afterwards -described in _Meine Wallfahrt nach Mecca_ (Leipzig, 1865), but had to -flee for his life to Jidda without visiting Medina. He then visited Aden -and Bombay, and after some two years of study in Europe again began to -wander through the coasts and islands of the Mediterranean, repeatedly -visiting Algeria. His first book of travel, _Drei Jahre im Nordwesten -von Afrika_ (Leipzig), appeared in 1863, and was followed by a variety -of works and essays, popular and scientific. Maltzan's last book, _Reise -nach Sudarabien_ (Brunswick, 1873), is chiefly valuable as a digest of -much information about little-known parts of south Arabia collected from -natives during a residence at Aden in 1870-1871. Among his other -services to science must be noticed his collection of Punic inscriptions -(_Reise in Tunis und Tripolis_, Leipzig, 1870), and the editing of -Adolph von Wrede's remarkable journey in Hadramut (_Reise in Hadramaut_, -&c., Brunswick, 1870). After long suffering from neuralgia, Maltzan died -by his own hand at Pisa on the 23rd of February 1874. - - - - -MALUS, ETIENNE LOUIS (1775-1812), French physicist, was born at Paris on -the 23rd of June 1775. He entered the military engineering school at -Mezieres; but, being regarded as a suspected person, he was dismissed -without receiving a commission, and obliged to enter the army as a -private soldier. Being employed upon the fortifications of Dunkirk, he -attracted the notice of the director of the works, and was selected as a -member of the Ecole polytechnique then to be established under G. Monge. -After three years at the Ecole he was admitted into the corps of -engineers, and served in the army of the Sambre and Meuse; he was -present at the passage of the Rhine in 1797, and at the affairs of -Ukratz and Altenkirch. In 1798 he joined the Egyptian expedition and -remained in the East till 1801. On his return he held official posts -successively at Antwerp, Strassburg and Paris, and devoted himself to -optical research. A paper published in 1809 ("Sur une propriete de la -lumiere reflechie par les corps diaphanes") contained the discovery of -the polarization of light by reflection, which is specially associated -with his name, and in the following year he won a prize from the -Institute with his memoir, "Theorie de la double refraction de la -lumiere dans les substances cristallines." He died of phthisis in Paris -on the 23rd of February 1812. - - - - -MALVACEAE, in botany, an order of Dicotyledons belonging to the series -Columniferae, to which belong also the orders Tiliaceae (containing -_Tilia_, the lime-tree), Bombaceae (containing _Adansonia_, the baobab), -Sterculiaceae (containing _Theobroma_, cocoa, and _Colo_, cola-nut). It -contains 39 genera with about 300 species, and occurs in all regions -except the coldest, the number of species increasing as we approach the -tropics. It is represented in Britain by three genera: _Malva_, mallow; -_Althaea_, marsh-mallow; and _Lavatera_, tree-mallow. The plants are -herbs, as in the British mallows, or, in the warmer parts of the earth, -shrubs or trees. The leaves are alternate and often palmately lobed or -divided; the stipules generally fall early. The leaves and young shoots -often bear stellate hairs and the tissues contain mucilage-sacs. The -regular, hermaphrodite, often showy flowers are borne in the leaf-axils, -solitary or in fasicles, or form more or less complicated cymose -arrangements. An epicalyx (see MALLOW, figs. 3, 4), formed by a whorl of -three or more bracteoles is generally present just beneath the calyx; -sometimes, as in _Abutilon_, it is absent. The parts of the flowers are -typically in fives (fig. 1); the five sepals, which have a valvate -aestivation, are succeeded by five often large showy petals which are -twisted in the bud; they are free to the base, where they are attached -to the staminal tube and fall with it when the flower withers. The very -numerous stamens are regarded as arising from the branching of a whorl -of five opposite the petals; they are united into a tube at the base, -and bear kidney-shaped one-celled anthers which open by a slit across -the top (fig. 2). The large spherical pollen-grains are covered with -spines. The carpels are one to numerous; when five in number, as in -_Abutilon_, they are opposite the petals, or, as in _Hibiscus_, opposite -the sepals. In the British genera and many others they are numerous, -forming a whorl round the top of the axis in the centre of the flower, -the united styles rising from the centre and bearing a corresponding -number of stigmatic branches. In _Malope_ the numerous carpels are -arranged one above the other in vertical rows. One or more anatropous -ovules are attached to the inner angle of each carpel; they are -generally ascending but sometimes pendulous or horizontal; the position -may vary, as in _Abutilon_, in one and the same carpel. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Floral Diagram of Hollyhock (_Althaea rosea_). - - a, Stamens. - b, Bract. - g, Pistil of carpels. - i, Epicalyx, formed from an involucre of bracteoles. - p, Petals. - s, Sepals.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2. - - 1, Anther. - 2, Pollen grain of Hollyhock (_Althaea rosea_) enlarged. The pollen - grain bears numerous spines, the dark spots indicate thin places in - the extine.] - -The flowers are proterandrous; when the flower opens the unripe stigmas -are hidden in the staminal tube and the anthers occupy the centre of the -flower; as the anthers dehisce the filaments bend backwards and finally -the ripe stigmas spread in the centre. Pollination is effected by -insects which visit the flower for the honey, which is secreted in pits -one between the base of each petal and is protected from rain by hairs -on the lower margin of the petals. In small pale-flowered forms, like -_Malva rotundifolia_, which attract few insects, self-pollination has -been observed, the style-arms twisting to bring the stigmatic surfaces -into contact with the anthers. - -Except in _Malvaviscus_ which has a berry, the fruits are dry. In -_Malva_ (see MALLOW) and allied genera they form one-seeded schizocarps -separating from the persistent central column and from each other. In -_Hibiscus_ and _Gossypium_ (cotton-plant, q.v.), the fruit is a capsule -splitting loculicidally. Distribution of the seeds is sometimes aided by -hooked outgrowths on the wall of the schizocarp, or by a hairy covering -on the seed, an extreme case of which is the cotton-plant where the seed -is buried in a mass of long tangled hairs--the cotton. The embryo is -generally large with much-folded cotyledons and a small amount of -endosperm. - - The largest genus, _Hibiscus_, contains 150 species, which are widely - distributed chiefly in the tropics; _H. rosasinensis_ is a well-known - greenhouse plant. _Abutilon_ (q.v.) contains 80 species, mainly - tropical; _Lavatera_, with 20 species, is chiefly Mediterranean; - _Althaea_ has about 15 species in temperate and warm regions, _A. - rosea_ being the hollyhock (q.v.); _Malva_ has about 30 species in the - north-temperate zone. Several genera are largely or exclusively - American. - - - - -MALVASIA (Gr. _Monemvasia_, i.e. the "city of the single approach or -entrance"; Ital. _Napoli di Malvasia_; Turk. _Mengeshe_ or _Beneshe_), -one of the principal fortresses and commercial centres of the Levant -during the middle ages, still represented by a considerable mass of -ruins and a town of about 550 inhabitants. It stood on the east coast of -the Morea, contiguous to the site of the ancient Epidaurus Limera, of -which it took the place. So extensive was its trade in wine that the -name of the place became familiar throughout Europe as the distinctive -appellation of a special kind--Ital. _Malvasia_; Span. _Malvagia_; Fr. -_Malvoisie_; Eng. _Malvesie_ or _Malmsey_. The wine was not of local -growth, but came for the most part from Tenos and others of the -Cyclades. - - As a fortress Malvasia played an important part in the struggles - between Byzantium, Venice and Turkey. The Byzantine emperors - considered it one of their most valuable posts in the Morea, and - rewarded its inhabitants for their fidelity by unusual privileges. - Phrantzes (Lib. IV. cap. xvi.) tells how the emperor Maurice made the - city (previously dependent in ecclesiastical matters on Corinth) a - metropolis or archbishop's see, and how Alexius Comnenus, and more - especially Andronicus II. (Palaeologus) gave the Monembasiotes freedom - from all sorts of exactions throughout the empire. It was captured - after a three years' siege by Guillaume de Villehardouin in 1248, but - the citizens retained their liberties and privileges, and the town was - restored to the Byzantine emperors in 1262. After many changes, it - placed itself under Venice from 1463 to 1540, when it was ceded to the - Turks. In 1689 it was the only town of the Morea which held out - against Morosini, and Cornaro his successor only succeeded in reducing - it by famine. In 1715 it capitulated to the Turks, and on the failure - of the insurrection of 1770 the leading families were scattered - abroad. As the first fortress which fell into the hands of the Greeks - in 1821, it became in the following year the seat of the first - national assembly. - - See Curtius, _Peloponnesos_, ii. 293 and 328; Castellan, _Lettres sur - la Moree_ (1808), for a plan; Valiero, _Hist. della guerra di Candia_ - (Venice, 1679), for details as to the fortress; W. Miller in _Journal - of Hellenic Studies_ (1907). - - - - -MALVERN, an inland watering-place in the Bewdley parliamentary division -of Worcestershire, England, 128 m. W.N.W. from London by the Great -Western railway, served also by a branch of the Midland railway from -Ashchurch on the Bristol-Birmingham line. Pop. of urban district(1901), -16,449. It is beautifully situated on the eastern slopes of the Malvern -Hills, which rise abruptly from the flat valley of the Severn to a -height of 1395 ft. in the Worcestershire Beacon. The district still -bears the name of Malvern Chase, originally a Crown-land and forest, -though it was granted to the earldom of Gloucester by Edward I. A ditch -along the summit of the hills determined the ancient boundary. Becoming -a notorious haunt of criminals, the tract was disafforested by Charles -I., with the exception of a portion known as the King's Chase, part of -which is included in the present common-land formed under the Malvern -Hills Act of 1884. - -Malvern was in early times an important ecclesiastical settlement, but -its modern fame rests on its fine situation, pure air, and chalybeate -and bituminous springs. The open-air cure for consumptive patients is -here extensively practised. - -The name Malvern is collectively applied to a line of small towns and -villages, extending along the foot of the hills for 5 m. The principal -is GREAT MALVERN, lying beneath the Worcestershire Beacon. It has a -joint station of the Great Western and Midland railways. Here was the -Benedictine priory which arose in 1083 out of a hermitage endowed by -Edward the Confessor. The priory church of SS. Mary and Michael is a -fine cruciform Perpendicular building, with an ornate central tower, -embodying the original Norman nave, and containing much early glass and -carved choir-stalls. The abbey gate and the refectory also remain. -There are here several hydropathic establishments, and beautiful -pleasure gardens. Malvern College, founded in 1862, is an important -English public school. A museum is attached to it. Mineral waters are -manufactured. At MALVERN WELLS, 2(1/2) m. S., are the principal medicinal -springs, also the celebrated Holy Well, the water of which is of perfect -purity. There are extensive fishponds and hatcheries; and golf-links. -The Great Western railway has a station, and the Midland one at Hanley -Road. LITTLE MALVERN lies at the foot of the Herefordshire Beacon, which -is crowned by a British camp, 1(1/2) m. S. of Malvern Wells. There was a -Benedictine priory here, of which traces remain in the church. MALVERN -LINK, 1 m. N.E. of Great Malvern, of which it forms a suburb, has a -station on the Great Western railway. WEST MALVERN and NORTH MALVERN, -named from their position relative to Great Malvern, are pleasant -residential quarters on the higher slopes of the hills. - - - - -MALWA, an historic province of India, which has given its name to one of -the political agencies into which Central India is divided. Strictly, -the name is confined to the hilly table-land, bounded S. by the Vindhyan -range, which drains N. into the river Chambal; but it has been extended -to include the Nerbudda valley farther south. Its derivation is from the -ancient tribe of Malavas about whom very little is known, except that -they founded the Vikrama Samvat, an era dating from 57 B.C., which is -popularly associated with a mythical king Vikramaditya. The earliest -name of the tract seems to have been Avanti, from its capital the modern -Ujjain. The position of the Malwa or Moholo mentioned by Hsuan Tsang -(7th century) is plausibly assigned to Gujarat. The first records of a -local dynasty are those of the Paramaras, a famous Rajput clan, who -ruled for about four centuries (800-1200), with their capital at Ujjain -and afterwards at Dhar. The Mahommedans invaded Malwa in 1235; and in -1401 Dilawar Khan Ghori founded an independent kingdom, which lasted -till 1531. The greatest ruler of this dynasty was Hoshang Shah -(1405-1435), who made Mandu (q.v.) his capital and embellished it with -magnificent buildings. In 1562 Malwa was annexed to the Mogul empire by -Akbar. On the break-up of that empire, Malwa was one of the first -provinces to be conquered by the Mahrattas. About 1743 the Mahratta -peshwa obtained from Delhi the title of governor, and deputed his -authority to three of his generals--Sindhia of Gwalior, Holkar of -Indore, and the Ponwar of Dhar who claims descent from the ancient -Paramaras. At the end of the 18th century Malwa became a cockpit for -fighting between the rival Mahratta powers, and the headquarters of the -Pindaris or irregular plunderers. The Pindaris were extirpated by the -campaign of Lord Hastings in 1817, and the country was reduced to order -by the energetic rule of Sir John Malcolm. Malwa is traditionally the -land of plenty, in which sufferers from famine in the neighbouring -tracts always take refuge. But in 1899-1900 it was itself visited by a -severe drought, which seriously diminished the population, and has since -been followed by plague. The most valuable product is opium. - -The Malwa agency has an area of 8919 sq. m. with a population (1901) of -1,054,753. It comprises the states of Dewas (senior and junior branch), -Jaora, Ratlam, Sitamau and Sailana, together with a large portion of -Gwalior, parts of Indore and Tonk, and about 35 petty estates and -holdings. The headquarters of the political agent are at Nimach. - -Malwa is also the name of a large tract in the Punjab, south of the -river Sutlej, which is one of the two chief homes of the Sikhs, the -other being known as Manjha. It includes the British districts of -Ferozpore and Ludhiana, together with the native states of Patiala, -Jind, Nabha and Maler Kotla. - - See J. Malcolm, _Central India_ (1823); C. E. Luard, _Bibliography of - Central India_ (1908), and _The Paramars of Dhar and Malwa_ (1908). - - - - -MAMARONECK, a township of Westchester county, New York, U.S.A., on Long -Island Sound, about 20 m. N.E. of New York City and a short distance -N.E. of New Rochelle. Pop. (1890), 2385; (1900) 3849; (1905) 5655; -(1910) 5602. Mamaroneck is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford -railway. The township includes the village of Larchmont (pop. in 1910, -1958), incorporated in 1891, and part of the village of Mamaroneck (pop. -in 1910, including the part in Rye township, 5699), incorporated in -1895. Larchmont is the headquarters of the Larchmont Yacht Club. The -site of Mamaroneck township was bought in 1660 from the Indians by John -Richbell, an Englishman, who obtained an English patent to the tract in -1668. The first settlement was made by relatives of his on the site of -Mamaroneck village in 1676, and the township was erected in 1788. On the -28th of August 1776, near Mamaroneck, a force of American militiamen -under Capt. John Flood attacked a body of Loyalist recruits under -William Lounsbury, killing the latter and taking several prisoners. Soon -afterwards Mamaroneck was occupied by the Queen's Rangers under Colonel -Robert Rogers. On the night of the 21st of October an attempt of a force -of Americans under Colonel John Haslet to surprise the Rangers failed, -and the Americans, after a hand-to-hand fight, withdrew with 36 -prisoners. Mamaroneck was the home of John Peter DeLancey (1753-1828), a -Loyalist soldier in the War of Independence, and was the birthplace of -his son William Heathcote DeLancey (1797-1865), a well-known Protestant -Episcopal clergyman, provost of the University of Pennsylvania in -1827-1832 and bishop of western New York from 1839 until his death. -James Fenimore Cooper, the novelist, married (1811) a daughter of John -Peter DeLancey; lived in Mamaroneck for several years, and here wrote -his first novel, _Precaution_, and planned _The Spy_. - - - - -MAMELI, GOFFREDO (1827-1849), Italian poet and patriot, was born at -Genoa of a noble Sardinian family. He received a sound classical -education at the Scolopi College, and later studied law and philosophy -at the university of Genoa. When nineteen years old he corresponded with -Mazzini, to whom he became whole-heartedly devoted; among other -patriotic poems he wrote a hymn to the Bandiera brothers, and in the -autumn of 1847 a song called "Fratelli d'Italia," which as Carducci -wrote, "resounded through every district and on every battlefield of the -peninsula in 1848 and 1849." Mameli served in the National Guard at -Genoa, and then joined the volunteers in the Lombard campaign of 1848, -but after the collapse of the movement in Lombardy he went to Rome, -where the republic was proclaimed and whence he sent the famous despatch -to Mazzini: "Roma! Repubblica! Venite!" At first he wrote political -articles in the newspapers, but when the French army approached the city -with hostile intentions he joined the fighting ranks and soon won -Garibaldi's esteem by his bravery. Although wounded in the engagement of -the 30th of April, he at once resumed his place in the ranks, but on the -3rd of June he was again wounded much more severely, and died in the -Pellegrini hospital on the 6th of July 1849. Besides the poems mentioned -above, he wrote hymns to Dante, to the Apostles, "Dio e popolo," &c. The -chief merit of his work lies in the spontaneity and enthusiasm for the -Italian cause which rendered it famous, in spite of certain technical -imperfections, and he well deserved the epithet of "The Tyrtaeus of the -Italian revolution." - - See A. G. Barrili, "G. Mameli nella vita e nell' arte," in _Nuova - Antologia_ (June 1, 1902); the same writer's edition of the _Scritti - editi ed inediti di G. Mameli_ (Genoa, 1902); Countess Martinengo - Cesaresco, _Italian Characters_ (London, 1901); A. Luzio, _Profili - Biografici_ (Milan, 1906); G. Trevelyan, _Garibaldi's Defence of the - Roman Republic_ (London, 1907). - - - - -MAMELUKE (anglicized through the French, from the Arabic _mamluk_, a -slave), the name given to a series of Egyptian sultans, originating -(1250) in the usurpation of supreme power by the bodyguard of Turkish -slaves first formed in Egypt under the successors of Saladin. See EGYPT: -_History_ (Moslem period). - - - - -MAMERTINI, or "children of Mars," the name taken by a band of Campanian -(or Samnite) freebooters who about 289 B.C. seized the Greek colony of -Messana at the north-east corner of Sicily, after having been hired by -Agathocles to defend it (Polyb. 1. 7. 2). The adventure is explained by -tradition (e.g. Festus 158, Muller) as the outcome of a _ver sacrum_; -the members of the expedition are said to have been the male children -born in a particular spring of which the produce had been vowed to -Apollo (cf. SAMNITES), and to have settled first in Sicily near -Tauromenium. An inscription survives (R. S. Conway, _Italic Dialects_, -1) which shows that they took with them the Oscan language as it was -spoken in Capua or Nola at that date, and the constitution usual in -Italic towns of a free community (_touta_ =) governed by two annual -magistrates (_meddices_). The inscription dedicated some large building -(possibly a fortification) to Apollo, which so far confirms the -tradition just noticed. Though in the Oscan language, the inscription is -written in the Greek alphabet common to south Italy from the 4th century -B.C. onwards, viz. the Tarentine Ionic, and so are the legends of two -coins of much the same date as the inscription (Conway, ib. 4). From 282 -onwards (B. V. Head, _Historia numorum_, 136) the legend itself is -Graecized ([Greek: MAMERTINON] instead of [Greek: MAAMERTINOUM]) which -shows how quickly here, as everywhere, "Graecia capta ferum victorem -cepit." On the Roman conquest of Sicily the town secured an independence -under treaty (Cicero, _Verr._ 3. 6. 13). The inhabitants were still -called Mamertines in the time of Strabo (vi. 2. 3). - - See further Mommsen, _C.I.L._ x. sub loc., and the references already - given. (R. S. C.) - - - - -MAMERTINUS, CLAUDIUS (4th century A.D.), one of the Latin panegyrists. -After the death of Julian, by whom he was evidently regarded with -special favour, he was praefect of Italy (365) under Valens and -Valentinian, but was subsequently (368) deprived of his office for -embezzlement. He was the author of an extant speech of thanks to Julian -for raising him to the consulship, delivered on the 1st of January 362 -at Constantinople. Two panegyrical addresses (also extant) to Maximian -(emperor A.D. 286-305) are attributed to an older _magister_ Mamertinus, -but it is probable that the corrupt MS. superscription contains the word -_memoriae_, and that they are by an unknown _magister memoriae_ (an -official whose duty consisted in communicating imperial rescripts and -decisions to the public). The first of these was delivered on the -birthday of Rome (April 21, 289), probably at Maximian's palace at -Augusta Trevirorum (Treves), the second in 290 or 291, on the birthday -of the emperor. By some they are attributed to Eumenius (q.v.) who was a -_magister memoriae_ and the author of at least one (if not more) -panegyrics. - -The three speeches will be found in E. Bahrens, _Panegyrici latini_ -(1874); see also Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Literature_ (Eng. -trans.), S 417. 7. - - - - -MAMIANI DELLA ROVERE, TERENZIO, COUNT (1802-1885), Italian writer and -statesman, was born at Pesaro in 1799. Taking part in the outbreaks at -Bologna arising out of the accession of Pope Gregory XVI., he was -elected deputy for Pesaro to the assembly, and subsequently appointed -minister of the interior; but on the collapse of the revolutionary -movement he was exiled. He returned to Italy after the amnesty of 1846, -and in 1848 he was entrusted with the task of forming a ministry. He -remained prime minister, however, only for a few months, his political -views being anything but in harmony with those of the pope. He -subsequently retired to Genoa where he worked for Italian unity, was -elected deputy in 1856, and in 1860 became minister of education under -Cavour. In 1863 he was made minister to Greece, and in 1865 to -Switzerland, and later senator and councillor of state. Meanwhile, he -had founded at Genoa in 1849 the Academy of Philosophy, and in 1855 had -been appointed professor of the history of philosophy at Turin; and he -published several volumes, not only on philosophical and social -subjects, but of poetry, among them _Rinnovamente della filosofia antica -italiana_ (1836), _Teoria della Religione e dello stato_ (1869), _Kant e -l'ontologia_ (1879), _Religione dell' avenire_ (1880), _Di un nuovo -diritto europeo_ (1843, 1857). He died at Rome on the 21st of May, 1885. - - See _Indice delle opere di Terenzio Mamiani_ (Pesaro, 1887); Gaspare, - _Vita di Terenzio Mamiani_ (Ancona, 1887); Barzellotti, _Studii e - ritratti_ (Bologna, 1893). - - - - -MAMMALIA (from Lat. _mamma_, a teat or breast), the name proposed by the -Swedish naturalist Linnaeus for one of the classes, or primary -divisions, of vertebrated animals, the members of which are collectively -characterized by the presence in the females of special glands secreting -milk for the nourishment of the young. With the exception of the lowest -group, such glands always communicate with the exterior by means of the -teats, nipples or mammae, from which the class derives its name. The -class-name (modified by the French into _Mammiferes_, and replaced in -German by the practically equivalent term _Saugethiere_) has been -anglicized into "Mammals" (mammal, in the singular). Of recent years, -and more especially in America, it has become a custom to designate the -study of mammals by the term "mammalogy." Etymologically, however, that -designation cannot be justified; for it is of hybrid (Latin and Greek) -origin, and is equivalent to "mastology," the science which deals with -the mammary gland (Gr. [Greek: mastos], woman's breast), a totally -different signification. As regards existing forms of life, the -limitations of the class are perfectly well defined and easy of -recognition; for although certain groups (not, by the way, whales, -which, although excluded in popular estimation from the class, are in -all essential respects typical mammals) are exceedingly aberrant, and -present structural features connecting them with the lower vertebrate -classes, yet they are by common consent retained in the class to which -they are obviously most nearly affiliated by their preponderating -characteristics. There is thus at the present day a great interval, -unbridged by any connecting links, between mammals and the other classes -of vertebrates. - -Not so, however, when the extinct forms of vertebrate life are taken -into consideration, for there is a group of reptiles from the early part -of the Secondary, or Mesozoic period, some of whose members must have -been so intimately related to mammals that, were the whole group fully -known, it would clearly be impossible to draw a distinction between -Mammalia on the one hand and Reptilia on the other. Indeed, as it is, we -are already partially acquainted with one of these early intermediate -creatures (_Tritylodon_), which forms a kind of zoological shuttlecock, -being, so to speak, hit from one group to another, and back again, by -the various zoologists by whom its scanty remains have been studied. -Considered collectively, mammals, which did not make their appearance on -the earth for some time after reptiles had existed, are certainly the -highest group of the whole vertebrate sub-kingdom. This expression must -not, however, be considered in too restricted a sense. In mammals, as in -other classes, there are low as well as high forms; but by any tests -that can be applied, especially those based on the state of development -of the central nervous system, it will be seen that the average exceeds -that of any other class, that many species of this class far excel those -of any other in perfection of structure, and that it contains one form -which is unquestionably the culminating point amongst organized beings. - -Mammals, then, are vertebrated animals, possessing the normal -characteristics of the members of that primary division of the animal -kingdom. They are separated from fishes and batrachians (Pisces and -Batrachians) on the one hand, and agree with reptiles, and birds -(Reptilia and Aves) on the other, in the possession during intra-uterine -life of the membranous vascular structures respectively known as the -amnion and the allantois, and likewise in the absence at this or any -other period of external gills. A four-chambered heart, with a complete -double circulation, and warm blood (less markedly so in the lowest group -than in the rest of the class), distinguish mammals from existing -reptiles, although not from birds. From both birds and reptiles the -class is distinguished, so far at any rate as existing forms are -concerned, by the following features: the absence of a nucleus in the -red corpuscles of the blood, which are nearly always circular in -outline; the free suspension of the lungs in a thoracic cavity, -separated from the abdominal cavity by a muscular partition, or -diaphragm, which is the chief agent in inflating the lungs in -respiration; the aorta, or main artery, forming but a single arch after -leaving the heart, which curves over the left terminal division of the -windpipe, or bronchus; the presence of more or fewer hairs on the skin -and the absence of feathers; the greater development of the bridge, or -commissure, connecting the two halves of the brain, which usually forms -a complete corpus callosum, or displays an unusually large size of its -anterior portion; the presence of a fully developed larynx at the upper -end of the trachea or windpipe, accompanied by the absence of a syrinx, -or expansion, near the lower end of the same; the circumstance that each -half of the lower jaw (except perhaps at a very early stage of -development) consists of a single piece articulating posteriorly with -the squamosal element of the skull without the intervention of a -separate quadrate bone; the absence of prefrontal bones in the skull; -the presence of a pair of lateral knobs, or condyles (in place of a -single median one), on the occipital aspect of the skull for -articulation with the first vertebra; and, lastly, the very obvious -character of the female being provided with milk-glands, by the -secretion of which the young (produced, except in the very lowest group, -alive and not by means of externally hatched eggs) are nourished for -some time after birth. - -In the majority of mammals both pairs of limbs are well developed and -adapted for walking or running. The fore-limbs may, however, be -modified, as in moles, for burrowing, or, as in bats, for flight, or -finally, as in whales and dolphins, for swimming, with the assumption in -this latter instance of a flipper-like form and the complete -disappearance of the hind-limbs. Special adaptations for climbing are -exhibited by both pairs of limbs in opossums, and for hanging to boughs -in sloths. In no instance are the fore-limbs wanting. - -In the great majority of mammals the hind extremity of the axis of the -body is prolonged into a tail. Very generally the tail has distinctly -the appearance of an appendage, but in some of the lower mammals, such -as the thylacine among marsupials, and the aard-vark or ant-bear among -the edentates, it is much thickened at the root, and passes insensibly -into the body, after the fashion common among reptiles. As regards -function, the tail may be a mere pendent appendage, or may be adapted to -grasp boughs in climbing, or even to collect food or materials for a -nest or sleeping place, as in the spider-monkeys, opossums and -rat-kangaroos. Among jumping animals it may serve as a balance, as in -the case of jerboas and kangaroos, while in the latter it is also used -as a support when resting; among many hoofed mammals it is used as a -fly-whisk; and in whales and dolphins, as well as in the African -_Potamogale_ and the North American musquash, it plays an important part -in swimming. Its supposed use as a trowel by the beaver is, however, not -supported by the actual facts of the case. - -As already indicated, the limbs of different mammals are specially -modified for various modes of life; and in many cases analogous -modifications occur, in greater or less degree, throughout the entire -body. Those modifications most noticeable in the case of cursorial types -may be briefly mentioned as examples. In this case, as might be -expected, the greatest modifications occur in the limbs, but correlated -with this is also an elongation of the head and neck in long-legged -types. Adaptation for speed is further exhibited in the moulding of the -shape of the body so as to present the minimum amount of resistance to -the air, as well as in increase in heart and lung capacity to meet the -extra expenditure of energy. Finally, in the jumping forms we meet with -an increase in the length and weight of the tail, which has to act as a -counterpoise. As regards the feet, a reduction in the number of digits -from the typical five is a frequent feature, more especially among the -hoofed mammals, where the culmination in this respect is attained by the -existing members of the horse tribe and certain representatives of the -extinct South American _Proterotheriidae_, both of which are -monodactyle. Brief reference may also be made to the morphological -importance of extraordinary length or shortness in the skulls of -mammals--dolichocephalism and brachycephalism; both these features being -apparently characteristic of specialized types, the former condition -being (as in the horse) often, although not invariably, connected with -length of limb and neck, and adaptation to speed, while brachycephalism -may be correlated with short limbs and an abbreviated neck. Exceptions -to this rule, as exemplified by the cats, are due to special adaptive -causes. In point of bodily size mammals present a greater range of -variation than is exhibited by any other living terrestrial animals, the -extremes in this respect being displayed by the African elephant on the -one hand and certain species of shrew-mice (whose head and body scarcely -exceed an inch and a half in length) on the other. When the aquatic -members of the class are taken into consideration, the maximum -dimensions are vastly greater, Sibbald's rorqual attaining a length of -fully 80 ft., and being probably the bulkiest and heaviest animal that -has ever existed. Within the limits of individual groups, it may be -accepted as a general rule that increase in bulk or stature implies -increased specialization; and, further, that the largest representatives -of any particular group are also approximately the latest. The latter -dictum must not, however, be pushed to an extreme, since the African -elephant, which is the largest living land mammal, attaining in -exceptional cases a height approaching 12 ft., was largely exceeded in -this respect by an extinct Indian species, whose height has been -estimated at between 15 and 16 ft. - -In regard to sense-organs, ophthalmoscopic observations on the eyes of -living mammals (other than man) have revealed the existence of great -variation in the arrangement of the blood-vessels, as well as in the -colour of the retina; blue and violet seem to be unknown, while red, -yellow and green form the predominating shades. In the main, the various -types of minute ocular structure correspond very closely to the -different groups into which mammals are divided, this correspondence -affording important testimony in the favour of the general correctness -of the classification. Among the exceptions are the South American -squirrel-monkeys, whose eyes approximate in structure to those of the -lemurs. Man and monkeys alone possess parallel and convergent vision of -the two eyes, while a divergent, and consequently a very widely -extended, vision is a prerogative of the lower mammals; squirrels, for -instance, and probably also hares and rabbits, being able to see an -object approaching them directly from behind without turning their -heads. - -An osteological question which has been much discussed is the fate of -the reptilian quadrate bone in the mammalian skull. In the opinion of F. -W. Thyng, who has carefully reviewed all the other theories, the balance -of evidence tends to show that the quadrate has been taken up into the -inner ear, where it is represented among the auditory ossicles by the -incus. - -Although the present article does not discuss mammalian osteology in -general (for which see VERTEBRATA), it is interesting to notice in this -connexion that the primitive condition of the mammalian tympanum -apparently consisted merely of a small and incomplete bony ring, with, -at most, an imperfect ventral wall to the tympanic cavity, and that a -close approximation to this original condition still persists in the -monotremes, especially _Ornithorhynchus_. The tympano-hyal is the -characteristic mammalian element in this region; but the entotympanic -likewise appears to be peculiar to the class, and to be unrepresented -among the lower vertebrates. The tympanum itself has been regarded as -representing one of the elements--probably the supra-angular--of the -compound reptilian lower jaw. The presence of only seven vertebrae in -the neck is a very constant feature among mammals; the exceptions being -very few. - -Two other points in connexion with mammalian osteology may be noticed. A -large number of mammals possess a perforation, or foramen, on the inner -side of the lower end of the humerus, and also a projection on the shaft -of the femur known as the third trochanter. From its occurrence in so -many of the lower vertebrates, the entepicondylar foramen of the -humerus, as it is called, is regarded by Dr E. Stromer as a primitive -structure, of which the original object was to protect certain nerves -and blood-vessels. It is remarkable that it should persist in the -spectacled bear of the Andes, although it has disappeared in all other -living members of the group. The third trochanter of the femur, on the -other hand, can scarcely be regarded as primitive, seeing that it is -absent in several of the lower groups of mammals. Neither can its -presence be attributed, as Professor A. Gaudry suggests, to the -reduction in the number of the toes, as otherwise it should not be found -in the rhinoceros. Its general absence in man forbids the idea of its -having any connexion with the upright posture. - - _Hair._--In the greater number of mammals the skin is more or less - densely clothed with a peculiarly modified form of epidermis known as - hair. This consists of hard, elongated, slender, cylindrical or - tapering, thread-like masses of epidermic tissue, each of which grows, - without branching, from a short prominence, or papilla, sunk at the - bottom of a pit, or follicle, in the true skin, or dermis. Such hairs, - either upon different parts of the skin of the same species, or in - different species, assume very diverse forms and are of various sizes - and degrees of rigidity--as seen in the fur of the mole, the bristles - of the pig, and the spines of the hedgehog and porcupine, which are - all modifications of the same structures. These differences arise - mainly from the different arrangement of the constituent elements into - which the epidermal cells are modified. Each hair is composed usually - of a cellular pithy internal portion, containing much air, and a - denser or more horny external or cortical part. In some mammals, as - deer, the substance of the hair is almost entirely composed of the - central medullary or cellular substance, and is consequently very - easily broken; in others the horny part prevails almost exclusively, - as in the bristles of the wild boar. In the three-toed sloth - (_Bradypus_) the hairs have a central horny axis and a pithy exterior. - Though generally nearly smooth, or but slightly scaly, the surface of - some hairs is imbricated; that is to say, shows projecting scale-like - processes, as in some bats, while in the two-toed sloth (_Choloepus_) - they are longitudinally grooved or fluted. Though usually more or less - cylindrical or circular in section, hairs are often elliptical or - flattened, as in the curly-haired races of men, the terminal portion - of the hair of moles and shrews, and conspicuously in the spines of - the spiny squirrels of the genus _Xerus_ and those of the mouse-like - _Platacanthomys_. Hair having a property of mutual cohesion or - "felting," which depends upon a roughened scaly surface and a tendency - to curl, as in domestic sheep, is called "wool." - - It has been shown by J. C. H. de Meijere that the insertion of the - individual hairs in the skin displays a definite arrangement, constant - for each species, but varying in different groups. In jerboas, for - example, a bunch of twelve or thirteen hairs springs from the same - point, while in the polar bear a single stout hair and several slender - ones arise together, and in the marmosets three equal-sized hairs form - regular groups. These tufts or groups likewise display an orderly and - definite grouping in different mammals, which suggests the origin of - such groups from the existence in primitive mammals of a scaly coat - comparable to that of reptiles, and indeed directly inherited - therefrom. - - In a large proportion of mammals there exist hairs of two distinct - types: the one long, stiff, and alone appearing on the surface, and - the other shorter, finer and softer, constituting the under-fur, which - may be compared to the down of birds. A well-known example is - furnished by the fur-bearing seals, in which the outer fur is removed - in the manufacture of commercial "seal-skin," leaving only the soft - and fine under-fur. - - Remarkable differences in the direction or slope of the hair are - noticeable on different parts of the body and limbs of many mammals, - especially in certain apes, where the hair of the fore-limbs is - inclined towards the elbow from above and from below. More remarkable - still is the fact that the direction of the slope often differs in - closely allied groups, as, for instance, in African and Asiatic - buffaloes, in which the hair of the middle line of the back has - opposite directions. Whorls of hair, as on the face of the horse and - the South American deer known as brockets, occur where the different - hair-slopes meet. In this connexion reference may be made to patches - or lines of long and generally white hairs situated on the back of - certain ruminants, which are capable of erection during periods of - excitement, and serve, apparently, as "flags" to guide the members of - a herd in flight. Such are the white chrysanthemum-like patches on the - rump of the Japanese deer and of the American prong-buck - (_Antilocapra_), and the line of hairs situated in a groove on the - loins of the African spring-buck. The white underside of the tail of - the rabbit and the yellow rump-patch of many deer are analogous. - - The eye-lashes, or _ciliae_, are familiar examples of a special local - development of hair. Special tufts of stout stiff hairs, sometimes - termed _vibrissae_, and connected with nerves, and in certain cases - with glands, occur in various regions. They are most common on the - head, while they constitute the "whiskers," or "feelers," of the cats - and many rodents. In other instances, notably in the lemurs, but also - in certain carnivora, rodents and marsupials, they occupy a position - on the fore-arm near the wrist, in connexion with glands, and receive - sensory powers from the radial nerve. In some mammals the hairy - covering is partial and limited to particular regions; in others, as - the hippopotamus and the sea-cows, or Sirenia, though scattered over - the whole surface, it is extremely short and scanty; but in none is - it reduced to so great an extent as in the Cetacea, in which it is - limited to a few small bristles confined to the neighbourhood of the - lips and nostrils, and often present only in the young, or even the - foetal condition. - - Some kinds of hairs, as those of the mane and tail of the horse, - persist throughout life, but more generally, as in the case of the - body-hair of the same animal, they are shed and renewed periodically, - generally annually. Many mammals have a longer hairy coat in winter, - which is shed as summer comes on; and some few, which inhabit - countries covered in winter with snow, as the Arctic fox, variable - hare and ermine, undergo a complete change of colour in the two - seasons, being white in winter and grey or brown in summer. There has - been much discussion as to whether this winter whitening is due to a - change in the colour of the individual hairs or to a change of coat. - It has, however, been demonstrated that the senile whitening of human - hair is due to the presence of phagocytes, which devour the - pigment-bodies; and from microscopic observations recently made by the - French naturalist Dr E. Trouessart, it appears that much the same kind - of action takes place in the hairs of mammals that turn white in - winter. Cold, by some means or other, causes the pigment-bodies to - shift from the normal positions, and to transfer themselves to other - layers of the hair, where they are attacked and devoured by - phagocytes. The winter whitening of mammals is, therefore, precisely - similar to the senile bleaching of human hair, no shift of the coat - taking place. Under the influence of exposure to intense cold a small - mammal has been observed to turn white in a single night, just as the - human hair has been known to blanch suddenly under the influence of - intense emotion, and in both cases extreme activity of the phagocytes - is apparently the inducing cause. The African golden-moles - (_Chrysochloris_), the desmans or water-moles (_Myogale_), and the - West African _Potamogale velox_, are remarkable as being the only - mammals whose hair reflects those iridescent tints so common in the - feathers of tropical birds. - - The principal and most obvious purpose of the hairy covering is to - protect the skin. Its function in the hairless Cetacea is discharged - by the specially modified and thickened layer of fatty tissue beneath - the skin known as "blubber." - - _Scales, &c._--True scales, or flat imbricated plates of horny - material, covering the greater part of the body, are found in one - family only of mammals, the pangolins or _Manidae_; but these are also - associated with hairs growing from the intervals between the scales or - on the parts of the skin not covered by them. Similarly imbricated - epidermic productions form the covering of the under-surface of the - tail of the African flying rodents of the family _Anomaluridae_; and - flat scutes, with the edges in apposition, and not overlaid, clothe - both surfaces of the tail of the beaver, rats and certain other - members of the rodent order, and also of some insectivora and - marsupials. Armadillos alone possess an external bony skeleton, - composed of plates of bony tissue, developed in the skin and covered - with scutes of horny epidermis. Other epidermic appendages are the - horns of ruminants and rhinoceroses--the former being elongated, - tapering, hollow caps of hardened epidermis of fibrous structure, - fitting on and growing from conical projections of the frontal bones - and always arranged in pairs, while the latter are of similar - structure, but without any internal bony support, and situated in the - middle line. Callosities, or bare patches covered with hardened and - thickened epidermis, are found on the buttocks of many apes, the - breast of camels, the inner side of the limbs of _Equidae_, the - grasping under-surface of the tail of prehensile-tailed monkeys, - opossums, &c. The greater part of the skin of the one-horned Asiatic - rhinoceros is immensely thickened and stiffened by an increase of the - tissue of both the skin and epidermis, constituting the well-known - jointed "armour-plated" hide of those animals. - - _Nails, Claws and Hoofs._--With few exceptions, the terminal - extremities of the digits of both limbs of mammals are more or less - protected or armed by epidermic plates or sheaths, constituting the - various forms of nails, claws or hoofs. These are absent in the - Cetacea alone. A perforated spur, with a special secreting gland in - connexion with it, is found attached to each hind-leg of the males of - the existing species of Monotremata. - - _Scent-glands, &c._--Besides the universally distributed sweat-glands - connected with the hair-system, most mammals have special glands in - modified portions of the skin, often involuted to form a shallow - recess or a deep sac with a narrow opening, situated in various parts - of the surface of the body, and secreting odorous substances, by the - aid of which individuals recognize one another. These probably afford - the principal means by which wild animals are able to become aware of - the presence of other members of the species, even at great distances. - - To this group of structures belong the suborbital face-gland, - "larmier," or "crumen," of antelopes and deer, the frontal gland of - the muntjak and of bats of the genus _Phyllorhina_, the chin-gland of - the chevrotains and of _Taphozous_ and certain other bats, the - glandular patch behind the ear of the chamois and the reed-buck, the - glands on the lower parts of the legs of most deer and a few antelopes - (the position of which is indicated by tufts of long and often - specially coloured hair), the interdigital foot-glands of goats, - sheep, and many other ruminants, the temporal gland of elephants, the - lateral glands of the musk-shrew, the gland on the back of the hyrax - and the peccary (from the presence of which the latter animal takes - the name _Dicotyles_), the gland on the tails of the members of the - dog-tribe, the preputial glands of the musk-deer and beaver (both well - known for the use made of their powerfully odorous secretion in - perfumery), and also of the swine and hare, the anal glands of - Carnivora, the perineal gland of the civet (also of commercial value), - the caudal glands of the fox and goat, the gland on the wing-membrane - of bats of the genus _Saccopteryx_, the post-digital gland of the - rhinoceros, &c. Very generally these glands are common to both sexes, - and it is in such cases that their function as a means of mutual - recognition is most evident. It has been suggested that the - above-mentioned callosities or "chestnuts" on the limbs of horses are - vestigial scent-glands; and it is noteworthy that scrapings or - shavings from their surface have a powerful attraction for other - horses, and are also used by poachers and burglars to keep dogs - silent. The position of such glands on the lower portions of the limbs - is plainly favourable to a recognition-taint being left in the tracks - of terrestrial animals; and antelopes have been observed deliberately - to rub the secretion from their face-glands on tree-trunks. When - glands are confined to the male, their function is no doubt sexual; - the secretion forming part of the attraction, or stimulus, to the - other sex. - - [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Upper and Lower Teeth of one side of the Mouth - of a Dolphin (_Lagenorhynchus_), as an example of the homoeodont type - of dentition. The bone covering the outer side of the roots of the - teeth has been removed to show their simple character.] - - _Dentition._--In the great majority of mammals the teeth form a - definite series, of which the hinder elements are of a more or less - complex type, while those in front are simpler. With the exception of - the marsupials, a set of deciduous, or milk, teeth is developed in - most mammals with a complicated type of dentition; these milk-teeth - being shed at a comparatively early period (occasionally even _in - utero_), when they are succeeded by the larger permanent series, which - is the only other ever developed. This double series of teeth thus - forms a very characteristic feature of mammals generally. Both the - milk and the permanent dentition display the aforesaid complexity of - the hinder teeth as compared with those in front, and since the number - of milk-teeth is always considerably less than that of the permanent - set, it follows that the hinder milk-teeth are usually more complex - than the teeth of which they are the predecessors in the permanent - series, and represent functionally, not their immediate successors, - but those more posterior permanent teeth which have no direct - predecessors. This character is clearly seen in those animals in which - the various members of the lateral or cheek series are well - differentiated from each other in form, as the Carnivora, and also in - man. - - In mammals with two sets of teeth the number of those of the permanent - series preceded by milk-teeth varies greatly, being sometimes, as in - marsupials and some rodents, as few as one on each side of each jaw, - and in other cases including the larger portion of the series. As a - rule, the teeth of the two sides of the jaws are alike in number and - character, except in cases of accidental or abnormal variation, and in - the tusks of the narwhal, in which the left is of immense size, and - the right rudimentary. In mammals, such as dolphins and some - armadillos, which have a large series of similar teeth, not always - constant in number in different individuals, there may indeed be - differences in the two sides; but, apart from these in describing the - dentition of any mammal, it is generally sufficient to give the number - and characters of the teeth of one side only. As the teeth of the - upper and the lower jaws work against each other in masticating, there - is a general correspondence or harmony between them, the projections - of one series, when the mouth is closed, fitting into corresponding - depressions of the other. There is also a general resemblance in the - number, characters and mode of succession of both series; so that, - although individual teeth of the upper and lower jaws may not be in - the strict sense of the term homologous parts, there is a great - convenience in applying the same descriptive terms to the one which - are used for the other. - - The simplest dentition is that of many species of dolphin (fig. 1), in - which the crowns are single-pointed, slightly curved cones, and the - roots also single and tapering; so that all the teeth are alike in - form from the anterior to the posterior end of the series, though it - may be with some slight difference in size, those at the two - extremities being rather smaller than the others. Such a dentition is - called "homoeodont" (Gr. [Greek: homoios], like, [Greek: odous], - tooth), and in the case cited, as the teeth are never changed, it is - also monophyodont (Gr. [Greek: monos], alone, single, [Greek: phyein], - to generate, [Greek: odous], tooth). Such teeth are adapted only for - catching slippery living prey, like fish. - - In a very large number of mammals the teeth of different parts of the - series are more or less differentiated in character; and, accordingly, - have different functions to perform. The front teeth are simple and - one-rooted, and are adapted for cutting and seizing. They are called - "incisors." The back, lateral or cheek teeth, on the other hand, have - broader and more complex crowns, tuberculated or ridged, and supported - on two or more roots. They crush or grind the food, and are hence - called "molars." Many mammals have, between these two sets, a tooth at - each corner of the mouth, longer and more pointed than the others, - adapted for tearing or stabbing, or for fixing struggling prey. From - the conspicuous development of such teeth in the Carnivora, especially - the dogs, they have received the name of "canines." A dentition with - its component parts so differently formed that these distinctive terms - are applicable to them is called heterodont (Gr. [Greek: heteros], - different). In most cases, though by no means invariably, mammals with - a heterodont dentition are also diphyodont (Gr. [Greek: diphyes], of - double form). - - [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Milk and Permanent Dentitions of Upper (I.) - and Lower (II.) Jaws of the Dog (_Canis_), with the symbols by which - the different teeth are designated. The third upper molar (_m_ 3) is - the only tooth wanting to complete the typical heterodont mammalian - dentition.] - - This general arrangement is obvious in a considerable number of - mammals; and examination shows that, under great modifications in - detail, there is a remarkable uniformity of essential characters in - the dentition of a large number of members of the class belonging to - different orders and not otherwise closely allied, so much that it is - possible to formulate a common plan of dentition from which the others - have been derived by the alteration of some and the suppression of - other members of the series, and occasionally, but very rarely, by - addition. In this generalized form of mammalian dentition the total - number of teeth present is 44, or 11 above and 11 below on each side. - Those of each jaw are placed in continuous series without intervals - between them; and, although the anterior teeth are simple and - single-rooted, and the posterior teeth complex and with several roots, - the transition between the two kinds is gradual. - - In dividing and grouping such teeth for the purpose of description and - comparison more definite characters are required than those derived - merely from form or function. The first step towards a classification - rests on the fact that the upper jaw is composed of two bones, the - premaxilla and the maxilla, and that the division or suture between - these bones separates the three front teeth from the rest. These three - teeth, which are implanted in the premaxilla, form a distinct group, - to which the name of "incisor" is applied. This distinction is, - however, not so important as it appears at first sight, for their - connexion with the bone is only of a secondary nature, and, although - it happens conveniently that in the great majority of cases the - division between the bones coincides with the interspace between the - third and fourth tooth of the series, still, when it does not, as in - the mole, too much weight must not be given to this fact, if it - contravenes other reasons for determining the homologies of the teeth. - The eight remaining teeth of the upper jaw offer a natural division, - inasmuch as the three hindmost never have milk-predecessors; and, - although some of the anterior teeth may be in the same case, the - particular one preceding these three always has such a predecessor. - These three, then, are grouped as the "molars." Of the five teeth - between the incisors and molars the most anterior, or the one usually - situated close behind the pre-maxillary suture, very generally assumes - a lengthened and pointed form, and constitutes the "canine" of the - Carnivora, the tusk of the boar, &c. It is customary, therefore, to - call this tooth, whatever its size or form, the "canine." The - remaining four are the "premolars." This system has been objected to - as artificial, and in many cases not descriptive, the distinction - between premolars and canine especially being sometimes not obvious; - but the terms are now in such general use, and also so convenient, - that it is not likely they will be superseded. It is frequently - convenient to refer to all the teeth behind the canine as the - "cheek-teeth." - - With regard to the lower teeth the difficulties are greater, owing to - the absence of any suture corresponding to that which defines the - incisors above; but since the number of the teeth is the same, since - the corresponding teeth are preceded by milk-teeth, and since in the - large majority of cases it is the fourth tooth of the series which is - modified in the same way as the canine (or fourth tooth) of the upper - jaw, it is reasonable to adopt the same divisions as with the upper - series, and to call the first three, which are implanted in the part - of the mandible opposite to the premaxilla, the incisors, the next the - canine, the next four the premolars, and the last three the molars. - - It may be observed that when the mouth is closed, especially when the - opposed surfaces of the teeth present an irregular outline, the - corresponding upper and lower teeth are not exactly opposite, - otherwise the two series could not fit into one another, but as a rule - the points of the lower teeth shut into the interspaces in front of - the corresponding teeth of the upper jaw. This is very distinct in the - canine teeth of the Carnivora, and is a useful guide in determining - the homologies of the teeth of the two jaws. - - For the sake of brevity the complete dentition is described by the - following formula, the numbers above the line representing the teeth - of the upper, those below the line those of the lower jaw: incisors - (3--3)/(3--3), canines (1--1)/(1--1), premolars (4--4)/(4--4), molars, - (3--3)/(3--3) = (11--11)/(11--11) total 44. As, however, initial - letters may be substituted for the names of each group, and it is - unnecessary to give more than the numbers of the teeth on one side of - the mouth, the formula may be abbreviated into: - - _i_ 3/3, _c_ 1/1, _p_ 4/4, _m_ 3/3; total 44. - - The individual teeth of each group are enumerated from before - backwards, and by such a formula as the following:-- - - _i_ 1, _i_ 2, _i_ 3, _c_, _p_ 1, _p_ 2, _p_ 3, _p_ 4, _m_ 1, _m_ 2, _m_ 3 - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - _i_ 1, _i_ 2, _i_ 3, _c_, _p_ 1, _p_ 2, _p_ 3, _p_ 4, _m_ 1, _m_ 2, _m_ 3 - - a special numerical designation is given by which each one can be - indicated. In mentioning any single tooth, such a sign as m1 will mean - the first upper molar, m1 the first lower molar, and so on. - - When, as is the case among nearly all existing mammals with the - exception of the members of the genera _Sus_ (pigs), _Gymnura_ - (rat-shrew), _Talpa_ (moles) and _Myogale_ (desmans) the number of - teeth is reduced below the typical forty-four, it appears to be an - almost universal rule that if one of the incisors is missing it is the - second, or middle one, while the premolars commence to disappear from - the front end of the series and the molars from the hinder end. - - The milk-dentition is expressed by a similar formula, _d_ for - deciduous, being added before the letter expressive of the nature of - the tooth. As the three molars and (almost invariably) the first - premolar of the permanent series have no predecessors, the typical - milk-dentition would be expressed as follows: _di_ 3/3, _dc_ 1/1, _dm_ - 3/3 = 28. The teeth which precede the premolars of the permanent - series are called either milk-molar or milk-premolar. When there is a - marked difference between the premolars and molars of the permanent - dentition, the first milk-molar resembles a premolar, while the last - has the characters of the posterior molar. It is sometimes convenient - to refer to all the seven cheek-teeth as members of a single - continuous series (which they undoubtedly are), and for this purpose - the following nomenclature has been proposed:-- - - Upper Jaw. Lower Jaw. - Cheek-tooth 1 Protus. Protid. - " 2 Deuterus. Deuterid. - " 3 Tritus. Tritid. - " 4 Tetartus. Tetartid. - " 5 Pemptus. Pemptid. - " 6 Hectus. Hectid. - " 7 Hebdomus. Hebdomid. - - With the exception of the Cetacea, most of the Edentata, and the - Sirenia, in which the teeth, when present, have been specialized in a - retrograde or aberrant manner, the placental mammals as a whole have a - dentition conforming more or less closely to the foregoing type. - - With the marsupials the case is, however, somewhat different; the - whole number not being limited to 44, owing largely to the fact that - the number of upper incisors may exceed three pairs, reaching indeed - in some instances to as many as five. Moreover, with the exception of - the wombats, the number of pairs of incisors in the upper always - exceeds those in the lower. When fully developed, the number of - cheek-teeth is, however, seven; and it is probable that, as in - placentals, the first four of these are premolars and the remaining - three molars, although it was long held that these numbers should be - transposed. The most remarkable feature about the marsupial dentition - is that, at most, only a single pair of teeth is replaced in each jaw; - this pair, on the assumption that there are four premolars, - representing the third of that series. With the exception of this - replacing pair of teeth in each jaw, it is considered by many - authorities that the marsupial dentition corresponds to the deciduous, - or milk, dentition of placentals. If this be really the case, the - rudiments of an earlier set of teeth which have been detected in the - jaws of some members of the order, represent, not the milk-series, but - a prelacteal dentition. On the assumption that these functional teeth - correspond to the milk-series of placentals, marsupials in this - respect agree exactly with modern elephants, in which the same - peculiarity exists. - - In very few mammals are teeth entirely absent. Even in the whalebone - whales their germs are formed in the same manner and at the same - period of life as in other mammals, and even become partially - calcified, although they never rise above the gums, and completely - disappear before birth. In the American anteaters and the pangolins - among the Edentata no traces of teeth have been found at any age. - Adult monotremes are in like case, although the duck-billed platypus - (_Ornithorhynchus_) has teeth when young on the sides of the jaws. The - northern sea-cow (_Rhytina_), now extinct, appears to have been - toothless throughout life. - - In different groups of mammals the dentition is variously specialized - in accordance with the nature of the food on which the members of - these groups subsist. From this point of view the various adaptive - modifications of mammalian dentition may be roughly grouped under the - headings of piscivorous, carnivorous, insectivorous, omnivorous and - herbivorous. - - The fish-eating, or piscivorous, type of dentition is exemplified - under two phases in the dolphins and in the seals (being in the latter - instance a kind of retrograde modification from the carnivorous type). - In the dolphins, and in a somewhat less marked degree among the seals, - this type of dentition consists of an extensive series of conical, - nearly equal-sized, sharp-pointed teeth, implanted in an elongated and - rather narrow mouth (fig. 1), and adapted to seize slippery prey - without either tearing or masticating. In the dolphins the teeth form - simple cones, but in the seals they are often trident-like; while in - the otters the dentition differs but little from the ordinary - carnivorous type. - - This carnivorous adaptation, in which the function is to hold and kill - struggling animals, often of large size, attains its highest - development in the cats (_Felidae_). The canines are in consequence - greatly developed, of a cutting and piercing type, and from their wide - separation in the mouth give a firm hold; the jaws being as short as - is consistent with the free action of the canines, or tusks, so that - no power is lost. The incisors are small, so as not to interfere with - the penetrating action of the tusks; and the crowns of some of the - teeth of the cheek-series are modified into scissor-like blades, in - order to rasp off the flesh from the bones, or to crack the bones - themselves, while the later teeth of this series tend to disappear. - - In the insectivorous type, as exemplified in moles and shrew-mice, the - middle pair of incisors in each jaw are long and pointed so as to have - a forceps-like action for seizing insects, the hard coats of which are - broken up by the numerous sharp cusps surmounting the cheek-teeth. - - In the omnivorous type, as exemplified in man and monkeys, and to a - less specialized degree in swine, the incisors are of moderate and - nearly equal size; the canines, if enlarged, serve for other purposes - than holding prey, and such enlargement is usually confined to those - of the males; while the cheek-teeth have broad flattened crowns - surmounted by rounded bosses, or tubercles. - - In the herbivorous modification, as seen in three distinct phases in - the horse, the kangaroo, and in ruminants, the incisors are generally - well developed in one or both jaws, and have a nipping action, either - against one another or against a toothless hard pad in the upper jaw; - while the canines are usually small or absent, at least in the upper - jaw, but in the lower jaw may be approximated and assimilated to the - incisors. The cheek-teeth are large, with broad flattened crowns - surmounted either by simple transverse ridges, or complicated by - elevations and infoldings. In the specialized forms the premolars tend - to become more or less completely like the molars; and, contrary to - what obtains among the Carnivora, the whole series of cheek-teeth - (with the occasional exception of the first) is very strongly - developed. - - Opinions differ as to the mode in which the more complicated - cheek-teeth of mammals have been evolved from a simpler type of tooth. - According to one theory, this has been brought about by the fusion of - two or more teeth of a simple conical type to form a compound tooth. A - more generally accepted view--especially among palaeontologists--is - the tritubercular theory, according to which the most generalized type - of tooth consists of three cusps arranged in a triangle, with the apex - pointing inwards in the teeth of the upper jaw. Additions of extra - cusps form teeth of a more complicated type. Each cusp of the - primitive triangle has received a separate name, both in the teeth of - the upper and of the lower jaw, while names have also been assigned to - super-added cusps. Molar teeth of the simple tritubercular type - persist in the golden moles (_Chrysochloris_) among the Insectivora - and also in the marsupial mole (_Notoryctes_) among the marsupials. - The type is, moreover, common among the mammals of the early Eocene, - and still more so in those of the Jurassic epoch; this forming one of - the strongest arguments in favour of the tritubercular theory. (See - Professor H. F. Osborn, "Palaeontological Evidence for the Original - Tritubercular Theory," in vol. xvii. (new series) of the _American - Journal of Science_, 1904.) - - _Digestive System._--As already mentioned, mammals are specially - characterized by the division of the body-cavity into two main - chambers, by means of the horizontal muscular partition known as the - diaphragm, which is perforated by the great blood-vessels and the - alimentary tube. The mouth of the great majority of mammals is - peculiar for being guarded by thick fleshy lips, which are, however, - absent in the Cetacea; their principal function being to seize the - food, for which purpose they are endowed, as a rule, with more or less - strongly marked prehensile power. The roof of the mouth is formed by - the palate, terminating behind by a muscular, contractile arch, having - in man and a few other species a median projection called the uvula, - beneath which the mouth communicates with the pharynx. The anterior - part of the palate is composed of mucous membrane tightly stretched - over the flat or slightly concave bony layer which separates the mouth - from the nasal passages, and is generally raised into a series of - transverse ridges, which sometimes, as in ruminants, attain a - considerable development. In the floor of the mouth, between the two - branches of the lower jaw, and supported behind by the hyoid - apparatus, lies the tongue, an organ the free surface of which, - especially in its posterior part, is devoted to the sense of taste, - but which by reason of its great mobility (being composed almost - entirely of muscular fibres) performs important mechanical functions - connected with masticating and procuring food. Its modifications of - form in different mammals are numerous. Between the long, extensile, - worm-like tongue of the anteaters, essential to the peculiar mode of - feeding of those animals, and the short, immovable and almost - functionless tongue of the porpoise, every intermediate condition is - found. Whatever the form, the upper surface is, however, covered with - numerous fine papillae, in which the terminal filaments of the - taste-nerve are distributed. In some mammals, notably lemurs, occurs a - hard structure known as the sublingua, which may terminate in a free - horny tip. If, as has been suggested, this organ represents the tongue - of reptiles, the mammalian tongue will obviously be a super-added - organ distinctive of the class. - - [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Diagrammatic Plan of the general arrangement - of the Alimentary Canal in a typical Mammal. - - o, oesophagus; - st, stomach; - p, pylorus; - ss, small intestine (abbreviated); - c, caecum; - ll, large intestine or - colon, ending in - r, the rectum.] - - Salivary glands, of which the most constant are the parotid and the - submaxillary, are always present in terrestrial mammals. Next in - constancy are the "sublingual," closely associated with the - last-named, at all events in the locality in which the secretion is - poured out; and the "zygomatic," found only in some mammals in the - cheek, just under cover of the anterior part of the zygomatic arch, - the duct entering the mouth-cavity near that of the parotid. - - The alimentary, or intestinal, canal varies greatly in relative length - and capacity in different mammals, and also offers manifold - peculiarities of form, being sometimes a simple cylindrical tube of - nearly uniform calibre throughout, but more often subject to - alterations of form and capacity in different portions of its - course--the most characteristic and constant being the division into - an upper and narrower and a lower and wider portion, called - respectively the small and the large intestine; the former being - arbitrarily divided into duodenum, jejunum and ileum, and the latter - into colon and rectum. One of the most striking peculiarities of this - part of the canal is the frequent presence of a blind pouch, "caecum," - situated at the junction of the large and the small intestine. Their - structure presents an immense variety of development, from the - smallest bulging of a portion of the side-wall of the tube to a huge - and complex sac, greatly exceeding in capacity the remainder of the - alimentary canal. It is only in herbivorous mammals that the caecum is - developed to this great extent, and among these there is a - complementary relationship between the size and complexity of the - organ and that of the stomach. Where the latter is simple the caecum - is generally the largest, and vice versa. In vol. xvii. (1905) of the - _Transactions_ of the Zoological Society of London, Dr P. Chalmers - Mitchell has identified the paired caeca, or blind appendages, of the - intestine of birds with the usually single caecum of mammals. These - caeca occur in birds (as in mammals) at the junction of the small with - the large intestine; and while in ordinary perching-birds they are - reduced to small nipple-like buds of no functional importance, in many - other birds--owls for instance--they form quite long receptacles. - Among mammals, the horse and the dog may be cited as instances where - the single caecum is of large size, this being especially the case of - the former, where it is of enormous dimensions; in human beings, on - the other hand, the caecum is rudimentary, and best known in connexion - with "appendicitis." The existence of paired caeca was previously - known in a few armadillos and anteaters, but Dr Mitchell has shown - that they are common in these groups, while he has also recorded their - occurrence in the hyrax and the manati. With the aid of these - instances of paired caeca, coupled with the frequent existence of a - rudiment of its missing fellow when only one is functional, the author - has been enabled to demonstrate conclusively that these double organs - in birds correspond in relations with their normally single - representative in mammals. - - In mammals both caecum and colon are often sacculated, a disposition - caused by the arrangement of the longitudinal bands of muscular tissue - in their walls; but the small intestine is always smooth and - simple-walled externally, though its lining membrane often exhibits - contrivances for increasing the absorbing surface without adding to - the general bulk of the organ, such as the numerous small tags, or - "villi," by which it is everywhere beset, and the more obvious - transverse, longitudinal, or reticulating folds projecting into the - interior, met with in many animals, of which the "valvulae - conniventes" of man form well-known examples. Besides the crypts of - Lieberkuhn found throughout the intestinal canal, and the glands of - Brunner confined to the duodenum, there are other structures in the - mucous membrane, about the nature of which there is still much - uncertainty, called "solitary" and "agminated" glands, the latter more - commonly known by the name of "Peyer's patches." Of the liver little - need be said, except that in all living mammals it has been divided - into a number of distinct lobes, which have received separate names. - It has, indeed, been suggested that in the earlier mammals the liver - was a simple undivided organ. This, however, is denied by G. Ruge - (vol. xxix. of Gegenbaur's _Morphologisches Jahrbuch_). - -_Origin of Mammals._--That mammals have become differentiated from a -lower type of vertebrates at least as early as the commencement of the -Jurassic period is abundantly testified by the occurrence of the remains -of small species in strata of that epoch, some of which are mentioned in -the articles MARSUPIALIA and MONOTREMATA (q.v.). Possibly mammalian -remains also occur in the antecedent Triassic epoch, some -palaeontologists regarding the South African _Tritylodon_ as a mammal, -while others consider that it was probably a reptile. Whatever may be -the true state of the case with regard to that animal probably also -holds good in the case of the approximately contemporaneous European -_Microlestes_. Of the European Jurassic (or Oolitic) mammals our -knowledge is unfortunately very imperfect; and from the scarcity of -their remains it is quite probable that they are merely stragglers from -the region (possibly Africa) where the class was first differentiated. -It is not till the early Eocene that mammals become a dominant type in -the northern hemisphere. - -It is now practically certain that mammals are descended from reptiles. -Dr H. Gadow, in a paper on the origin of mammals contributed to the -_Zeitschrift fur Morphologie_, sums up as follows: "Mammals are -descendants of reptiles as surely as they [the latter] have been evolved -from Amphibia. This does not mean that any of the living groups of -reptiles can claim their honour of ancestry, but it means that the -mammals have branched where the principal reptilian groups meet, and -that is a long way back. The Theromorpha, especially small Theriodontia, -alone show us what these creatures were like." It may be explained that -the Theromorpha, or Anomodontia, are those extinct reptiles so common in -the early Secondary (Triassic) deposits of South Africa, some of which -present a remarkable resemblance in their dentition and skeleton to -mammals, while others come equally near amphibians. A difficulty -naturally arises with regard to the fact that in reptiles the occipital -condyle by which the skull articulates with the vertebral column is -single, although composed of three elements, whereas in amphibians and -mammals the articulation is formed by a pair of condyles. Nevertheless, -according to Professor H. F. Osborn, the tripartite reptilian condyle, -by the loss of its median element, has given rise to the paired -mammalian condyles; so that this difficulty disappears. The fate of the -reptilian quadrate bone (which is reduced to very small dimensions in -the Anomodontia) has been referred to in an earlier section of the -present article, where some mention has also been made of the -disappearance in mammals of the hinder elements of the reptilian lower -jaw, so as to leave the single bone (dentary) of each half of this part -of the skeleton in mammals. - -Most of the earliest known mammals appear to be related to the -Marsupialia and Insectivora. Others however (inclusive of _Tritylodon_ -and _Microlestes_, if they be really mammals), seem nearer to the -Monotremata; and the question has yet to be decided whether placentals -and marsupials on the one hand, and monotremes on the other are not -independently derived from reptilian ancestors. - -With regard to the evolution of marsupials and placentals, it has been -pointed out that the majority of modern marsupials exhibit in the -structure of their feet traces of the former opposability of the thumb -and great toe to the other digits; and it has accordingly been argued -that all marsupials are descended from arboreal ancestors. This doctrine -is now receiving widespread acceptation among anatomical naturalists; -and in the _American Naturalist_ for 1904, Dr W. D. Matthew, an American -palaeontologist, considers himself provisionally justified in so -extending it as to include all mammals. That is to say, he believes -that, with the exception of the duckbill and the echidna, the mammalian -class as a whole can lay claim to descent from small arboreal forms. -This view is, of course, almost entirely based upon palaeontological -considerations; and these, in the author's opinion, admit of the -conclusion that all modern placental and marsupial mammals are descended -from a common ancestral stock, of which the members were small in bodily -size. These ancestral mammals, in addition to their small size, were -characterized by the presence of five toes to each foot, of which the -first was more or less completely opposable to the other four. The -evidence in favour of this primitive opposability is considerable. In -all the groups which are at present arboreal, the palaeontological -evidence goes to show that their ancestors were likewise so; while -since, in the case of modern terrestrial forms, the structure of the -wrist and ankle joints tends to approximate to the arboreal type, as we -recede in time, the available evidence, so far as it goes, is in favour -of Dr Matthew's contention. - -The same author also discusses the proposition from another standpoint, -namely, the condition of the earth's surface in Cretaceous times. His -theory is that in the early Cretaceous epoch the animals of the world -were mostly aerial, amphibious, aquatic or arboreal; the flora of the -land being undeveloped as compared with its present state. On the other -hand, towards the close of the Cretaceous epoch (when the Chalk was in -course of deposition), the spread of a great upland flora vastly -extended the territory available for mammalian life. Accordingly, it was -at this epoch that the small ancestral insectivorous mammals first -forsook their arboreal habitat to try a life on the open plains, where -their descendants developed on the one hand into the carnivorous and -other groups, in which the toes are armed with nails or claws, and on -the other into the hoofed group, inclusive of such monsters as the -elephant and the giraffe. The hypothesis is not free from certain -difficulties, one of which will be noticed later. - -_Classification._--Existing mammals may be primarily divided into three -main groups, or subclasses, of which the second and third are much more -closely related to one another than is either of them to the first. -These three classes are the Monotremata (or Prototheria), the -Marsupialia (Didelphia, or Metatheria), and the Placentalia -(Monodelphia, or Eutheria); the distinctive characters of each being -given in separate articles (see MONOTREMATA, MARSUPIALIA and -MONODELPHIA.) - - The existing monotremes and marsupials are each represented only by a - single order; but the placentals are divided into the following - ordinal and subordinal groups, those which are extinct being marked - with an asterisk (*):-- - - 1. Insectivora (Moles, Hedgehogs, &c.). - 2. Chiroptera (Bats). - 3. Dermoptera (Colugo, or Flying Lemur). - 4. Edentata:-- - a. Xenarthra (Anteaters, Sloths and Armadillos). - b. Pholidota (Pangolins). - c. Tubulidentata (Ant-bears, or Aard-varks). - 5. Rodentia (Gnawing Mammals):-- - a. Duplicidentata (Hares and Picas). - b. Simplicidentata (Rats, Beavers, &c.). - 6. *Tillodontia (_Tillotherium_). - 7. Carnivora:-- - a. Fissipedia (Cats, Dogs, Bears, &c.). - b. Pinnipedia (Seals and Walruses). - c. *Creodonta (_Hyaenodon_, &c.). - 8. Cetacea (Whales and Dolphins):-- - a. *Archaeoceti (_Zeuglodon_, &c.). - b. Odontoceti (Spermwhales and Dolphins). - c. Mystacoceti (Whalebone Whales). - 9. Sirenia (Dugongs and Manatis). - 10. Ungulata (Hoofed Mammals):-- - a. Proboscidea (Elephants and Mastodons). - b. Hyracoidea (Hyraxes). - c. *Barypoda (_Arsinoitherium_). - d. *Toxodontia (_Toxodon_, &c.). - e. *Amblypoda (_Uintatherium_, &c.). - f. *Litopterna (_Macrauchenia_, &c.). - g. *Ancylopoda (_Chalicotherium_, &c.). - h. *Condylarthra (_Phenacodus_, &c.). - i. Perissodactyla (Tapirs, Horses, &c.). - j. Artiodactyla (Ruminants, Swine, &c.). - 11. Primates:-- - a. Prosimiae (Lemurs and Galagos). - b. Anthropoidea (Monkeys, Apes and Man). - - Separate articles are devoted to each of these orders, where - references will be found to other articles dealing with some of the - minor groups and a number of the more representative species. - - _Relationships of the Groups._--As we recede in time we find the - extinct representatives of many of these orders approximating more and - more closely to a common generalized type, so that in a large number - of early Eocene forms it is often difficult to decide to which group - they should be assigned. - - The Insectivora are certainly the lowest group of existing placental - mammals, and exhibit many signs of affinity with marsupials; they may - even be a more generalized group than the latter. From the Insectivora - the bats, or Chiroptera, are evidently a specialized lateral offshoot; - while the Dermoptera may be another branch from the same stock. As to - the Edentata, it is still a matter of uncertainty whether the - pangolins (Pholidota) and the ant-bears (Tubulidentata) are rightly - referred to an order typically represented by the sloths, anteaters, - and armadillos of South and Central America, or whether the two - first-named groups have any close relationship with one another. Much - uncertainty prevails with regard to the ancestry of the group as a - whole, although some of the earlier South American forms have a - comparatively full series of teeth, which are also of a less - degenerate type than those of their modern representatives. - - An almost equal degree of doubt obtains with regard to the ancestry of - that very compact and well-defined group the Rodentia. If, however, - the so-called Proglires of the lower Eocene are really ancestral - rodents, the order is brought into comparatively close connexion with - the early generalized types of clawed, or unguiculate mammals. Whether - the extinct Tillodontia are most nearly allied to the Rodentia, the - Carnivore or the Ungulata, and whether they are really entitled to - constitute an ordinal group by themselves, must remain for the present - open questions. - - The Carnivora, as represented by the (mainly) Eocene Creodonta, are - evidently an ancient and generalized type. As regards the number and - form of their permanent teeth, at any rate, creodonts present such a - marked similarity to carnivorous marsupials, that it is difficult to - believe the two groups are not allied, although the nature of the - relationship is not yet understood, and the minute internal structure - of the teeth is unlike that of marsupials and similar to that of - modern Carnivora. There is the further possibility that creodonts may - be directly descended from the carnivorous reptiles; a descent which - if proved might introduce some difficulty with regard to the - above-mentioned theory as to the arboreal ancestry of mammals - generally. Be this as it may, there can be little doubt that the - creodonts are related to the Insectivora, which, as stated above, show - decided signs of kinship with the marsupials. - - A much more interesting relationship of the creodont carnivora has, - however, been established on the evidence of recent discoveries in - Egypt. From remains of Eocene age in that country Dr E. Fraas, of - Stuttgart, has demonstrated the derivation of the whale-like - _Zeuglodon_ from the creodonts. Dr C. E. Andrews has, moreover, not - only brought forward additional evidence in favour of this most - remarkable line of descent, but is confident--which Professor Fraas - was not--that _Zeuglodon_ itself is an ancestral cetacean, and - consequently that whales are the highly modified descendants of - creodonts. It must be admitted, however, that the links between - _Zeuglodon_ and typical cetaceans are at present unknown; but it may - be hoped that these will be eventually brought to light from the - deposits of the Mokattam Range, near Cairo. Whales and dolphins being - thus demonstrated to be nothing more than highly modified Carnivora, - might almost be included in the same ordinal group. - - An analogous statement may be made with regard to the sea-cows, or - Sirenia, which appear to be derivates from the great herbivorous order - of Ungulata, and might consequently be included in that group, as - indeed has been already done in Dr Max Weber's classification. It is - with the proboscidean suborder of the Ungulata to which the Sirenia - are most nearly related; the nature of this relationship being - described by Dr Andrews as follows:-- - - "In the first place, the occurrence of the most primitive Sirenians - with which we are acquainted in the same region as the most - generalized proboscidean, _Moeritherium_, is in favour of such a view, - and this is further supported by the similarity of the brain-structure - and, to some extent, of the pelvis in the earliest-known members of - the two groups. Moreover, in the anatomy of the soft-parts of the - recent forms there are a number of remarkable points of resemblance. - Among the common characters may be noted the possession of: (1) - pectoral mammae; (2) abdominal testes; (3) a bifid apex of the heart; - (4) bilophodont molars with a tendency to the formation of an - additional lobe from the posterior part of the cingulum. The peculiar - mode of displacement of the teeth from behind forwards in some members - of both groups may perhaps indicate a relationship, although in the - case of the Sirenia the replacement takes place by means of a - succession of similar molars, while in the Proboscidea the molars - remain the same numerically, but increase greatly in size and number - of transverse ridges." - - These and certain other facts referred to by the same author point to - the conclusion that not only are the Sirenia and the Proboscidea - derived from a single ancestral stock, but that the Hyracoidea--and so - _Arsinoitherium_--are also derivatives from the same stock, which must - necessarily have been Ethiopian. - - Of the other suborders of ungulates, the Toxodontia and Litopterna are - exclusively South American, and while the former may possibly be - related to the Hyracoidea and Barypoda, the latter is perhaps more - nearly akin to the Perissodactyla. The Amblypoda, on the other hand, - are perhaps not far removed from the ancestral Proboscidea, which - depart comparatively little from the generalized ungulate type. The - latter is represented by the Eocene Condylarthra, which undoubtedly - gave rise to the Perissodactyla and Artiodactyla, and probably to - most, if not all, of the other groups. The Condylarthra, in their - turn, approximate closely to the ancestral Carnivora, as they also do - in some degree to the ancestral Primates. As regards the latter order, - although we are at present unacquainted with all the connecting links - between the lemurs and the monkeys, there is little doubt that the - ancestors of the former represent the stock from which the latter have - originated. C. D. Earle, in the _American Naturalist_ for 1897, - observes that "so far as the palaeontological evidence goes it is - decidedly in favour of the view that apes and lemurs are closely - related. Beginning with the earliest known lemur, _Anaptomorphus_, - this genus shows tendencies towards the anthropoids, and, when we pass - up into the Oligocene of the Old World, _Adapis_ is a decidedly mixed - type, and probably not far from the common stem-form which gave origin - to both suborders of the Primates. In regard to _Tarsius_, it is - evidently a type nearly between the lemurs and apes, but with many - essential characters belonging to the former group." - -_Distribution._--For an account of the "realms" and "regions" into which -the surface of the globe has been divided by those who have made a -special study of the geographical distribution of animals, see -ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION. For the purposes of such zoo-geographical -divisions, mammals are much better adapted than birds, owing to their -much more limited powers of dispersal; most of them (exclusive of the -purely aquatic forms, such as seals, whales, dolphins and sea-cows) -being unable to cross anything more than a very narrow arm of the sea. -Consequently, the presence of nearly allied groups of mammals in areas -now separated by considerable stretches of sea proves that at no very -distant date such tracts must have had a land-connexion. In the case of -the southern continents the difficulty is, however, to determine whether -allied groups of mammals (and other animals) have reached their present -isolated habitats by dispersal from the north along widely sundered -longitudinal lines, or whether such a distribution implies the former -existence of equatorial land-connexions. It may be added that even bats -are unable to cross large tracts of sea; and the fact that fruit-bats of -the genus _Pteropus_ are found in Madagascar and the Seychelles, as well -as in India, while they are absent from Africa, is held to be an -important link in the chain of evidence demonstrating a former -land-connexion between Madagascar and India. - -There is another point of view from which mammals are of especial -importance in regard to geographical distribution, namely their -comparatively late rise and dispersal, or "radiation," as compared with -reptiles. - -As regards terrestrial mammals (with which alone we are at present -concerned), one of the most striking features in their distribution is -their practical absence from oceanic islands; the only species found in -such localities being either small forms which might have been carried -on floating timber, or such as have been introduced by human agency. -This absence of mammalian life in oceanic islands extends even to New -Zealand, where the indigenous mammals comprise only two peculiar species -of bats, the so-called Maori rat having been introduced by man. - - One of the leading features in mammalian distribution is the fact that - the Monotremata, or egg-laying mammals, are exclusively confined to - Australia and Papua, with the adjacent islands. The marsupials also - attain their maximum development in Australia ("Notogaea" of the - distributionists), extending, however, as far west as Celebes and the - Moluccas, although in these islands they form an insignificant - minority among an extensive placental fauna, being represented only by - the cuscuses (_Phalanger_), a group unknown in either Papua or - Australia. Very different, on the other hand, is the condition of - things in Australia and Papua, where marsupials (and monotremes) are - the dominant forms of mammalian life, the placentals being represented - (apart from bats, which are mainly of an Asiatic type) only by a - number of more or less aberrant rodents belonging to the mouse-tribe, - and in Australia by the dingo, or native dog, and in New Guinea by a - wild pig. The dingo was, however, almost certainly brought from Asia - by the ancestors of the modern natives; while the Papuan pig is also - in all probability a human introduction, very likely of much later - date. The origin of the Australasian fauna is a question pertaining to - the article ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION. The remaining marsupials (namely - the families _Didelphyidae_ and _Epanorthidae_) are American, and - mainly South and Central American at the present day; although during - the early part of the Tertiary period representatives of the - first-named family ranged all over the northern hemisphere. - - The Insectivora (except a few shrews which have entered from the - north) are absent from South America, and appear to have been mainly - an Old World group, the only forms which have entered North America - being the shrew-mice (_Soricidae_) and moles (_Talpidae_). The - occurrence of one aberrant group (_Solenodon_) in the West Indies is, - however, noteworthy. The family with the widest distribution is the - _Soricidae_, the _Talpidae_ being unknown in Africa. The tree-shrews - (_Tupaiidae_) are exclusively Asiatic, whereas the jumping-shrews - (_Macroscelididae_) are equally characteristic of the African - continent. Madagascar is the sole habitat of the tenrecs - (_Centetidae_), as is Southern Africa of the golden moles - (_Chrysochloridae_). It is, however, important to mention that an - extinct South American insectivore, _Necrolestes_, has been referred - to the family last mentioned; and even if this reference should not be - confirmed in the future, the occurrence of a representative of the - order in Patagonia is a fact of considerable importance in - distribution. - - The Rodentia have a wider geographical range than any other order of - terrestrial mammals, being, as already mentioned, represented by - numerous members of the mouse-tribe (_Muridae_) even in Australasia. - With the remarkable exception of Madagascar, where it is represented - by the _Nesomyidae_, that family has thus a cosmopolitan distribution. - Very noteworthy is the fact that, with the exception of Madagascar - (and of course Australia) the squirrel family (_Sciuridae_) is also - found in all parts of the world. Precisely the same may be said of the - hares, which, however, become scarce in South America. On the other - hand, the scaly-tailed squirrels (_Anomaluridae_), the jumping-hares - (_Pedetidae_), and the strand-moles (_Bathyergidae_) are exclusively - African; while the sewellels (_Haplodontidae_) and the pocket-gophers - (_Geomyidae_) are as characteristically North American, although a few - members of the latter have reached Central America. The beavers - (_Castoridae_) are restricted to the northern hemisphere, whereas the - dormice (_Gliridae_) and the mole-rats (_Spalacidae_) are exclusively - Old World forms, the latter only entering the north of Africa, in - which continent the former are largely developed. The jerboa group - (_Dipodidae_, or _Jaculidae_) is also mainly an Old World type, - although its aberrant representatives the jumping-mice (_Zapus_) have - effected an entrance into Arctic North America. Porcupines enjoy a - very wide range, being represented throughout the warmer parts of the - Old World, with the exception of Madagascar (and of course - Australasia), by the _Hystricidae_, and in the New World by the - _Erethizontidae_. Of the remaining families of the Simplicidentata, - all are southern, the cavies (_Caviidae_), chinchillas - (_Chinchillidae_), and degus (_Octodontidae_) being Central and South - American, while the _Capromyidae_ are common to southern America and - Africa, and the _Ctenodactylidae_ are exclusively African. The near - alliance of all these southern families, and the absence of so many - Old World families from Madagascar form two of the most striking - features in the distribution of the order. Lastly, among the - Duplicidentata, the picas (_Ochotonidae_ or _Lagomyidae_) form a group - confined to the colder or mountainous regions of the northern - hemisphere. - - Among the existing land Carnivora (of which no representatives except - the introduced dingo are found in Australasia) the cat-tribe - (_Felidae_) has now an almost cosmopolitan range, although it only - reached South America at a comparatively recent date. Its original - home was probably in the northern hemisphere; and it has no - representatives in Madagascar. The civet-tribe (_Viverridae_), on the - other hand, which is exclusively an Old World group, is abundant in - Madagascar, where it is represented by peculiar and aberrant types. - The hyenas (_Hyaenidae_), at any rate at the present day, to which - consideration is mainly limited, are likewise Old World. The dog-tribe - (_Canidae_), on the other hand, are, with the exception of Madagascar, - an almost cosmopolitan group. Their place of origin was, however, - almost entirely in the northern hemisphere, and not improbably in some - part of the Old World, where they gave rise to the bears (_Ursidae_). - The latter are abundant throughout the northern hemisphere, and have - even succeeded in penetrating into South America, but, with the - exception of the Mediterranean zone, have never succeeded in entering - Africa, and are therefore of course unknown in Madagascar. The raccoon - group (_Procyonidae_) is mainly American, being represented in the Old - World only by the pandas (_Aelurus_ and _Aeluropus_), of which the - latter apparently exhibits some affinity to the bears. The birthplace - of the group was evidently in the northern hemisphere--possibly in - east Central Asia. The weasel-tribe (_Mustelidae_) is clearly a - northern group, which has, however, succeeded in penetrating into - South America and Africa, although it has never reached Madagascar. - - The extinct creodonts, especially if they be the direct descendants of - the anomodont reptiles, may have originated in Africa, although they - are at present known in that continent only from the Fayum district. - Elsewhere they occur in South America and throughout a large part of - the northern hemisphere, where they appear to have survived in India - to the later Oligocene or Miocene. - - In the case of the great order, or assemblage, of Ungulata it is - necessary to pay somewhat more attention to fossil forms, since a - considerable number of groups are either altogether extinct or largely - on the wane. - - So far as is at present known, the earliest and most primitive group, - the Condylarthra, is a northern one, but whether first developed in - the eastern or the western hemisphere there is no sufficient evidence. - The more or less specialized Litopterna and Toxodontia, as severally - typified by the macrauchenia and the toxodon, are, on the other hand, - exclusively South American. With the primitive five-toed Amblypoda, as - represented by the coryphodon, we again reach a northern group, common - to the two hemispheres; but there is not improbably some connexion - between this group and the much more specialized Barypoda, as - represented by _Arsinoitherium_, of Africa. The Ancylopoda, again, - typified by _Chalicotherium_, and characterized by the claw-like - character of the digits, are probably another northern group, common - to the eastern and western hemispheres. - - Recent discoveries have demonstrated the African origin of the - elephants (Proboscidea) and hyraxes (Hyracoidea), the latter group - being still indeed mainly African, and in past times also limited to - Africa and the Mediterranean countries. As regards the elephants (now - restricted to Africa and tropical Asia), there appears to be evidence - that the ancestral mastodons, after having developed from African - forms probably not very far removed from the Amblypoda, migrated into - Asia, where they gave rise to the true elephants. Thence both - elephants and mastodons reached North America by the Bering Sea route; - while the former, which arrived earlier than the latter, eventually - penetrated into South America. - - The now waning group of Perissodactyla would appear to have originally - been a northern one, as all the three existing families, rhinoceroses - (_Rhinocerotidae_), tapirs (_Tapiridae_), and horses (_Equidae_), are - well represented in the Tertiaries of both halves of the northern - hemisphere. If eastern Central Asia were tentatively given as the - centre of radiation of the group, this might perhaps best accord with - the nature of the case. Rhinoceroses disappeared comparatively early - from the New World, and never reached South America. In Siberia and - northern Europe species of an African type survived till a - comparatively late epoch, so that the present relegation of the group - to tropical Asia and Africa may be regarded as a modern feature in - distribution. Horses, now unknown in a wild state in the New World, - although still widely spread in the Old, attained a more extensive - range in past times, having successfully invaded South America. On the - other hand, in common with the rest of the Perissodactyla, they never - reached Madagascar. In addition to the occurrence of their fossil - remains almost throughout the world, the former wide range of the - tapirs is attested by the fact of their living representatives being - confined to such widely sundered areas as Malaysia and tropical - America. - - The Artiodactyla are the only group of ungulates known to have been - represented in Madagascar; but since both these Malagasy forms--namely - two hippopotamuses (now extinct) and a river-hog--are capable of - swimming, it is most probable that they reached the island by crossing - the Mozambique Channel. As regards the deer-family (_Cervidae_), which - is unknown in Africa south of the Sahara, it is quite evident that it - originated in the northern half of the Old World, whence it reached - North America by the Bering Sea route, and eventually travelled into - South America. More light is required with regard to the past history - of the giraffe-family (_Giraffidae_), which includes the African okapi - and the extinct Indian _Sivatherium_, and is unknown in the New World. - Possibly, however, its birthplace may prove to be Africa; if so, we - shall have a case analogous to that of the African elephant, namely - that while giraffes flourished during the Pliocene in Asia (where - they may have originated), they survive only in Africa. An African - origin has also been suggested for the hollow-horned ruminants - (_Bovidae_); and if this were substantiated it would explain the - abundance of that family in Africa and the absence from the heart of - that continent of the deer-tribe. Some confirmation of this theory is - afforded by the fact that whereas we can recognize ancestral deer in - the Tertiaries of Europe we cannot point with certainty to the - forerunners of the _Bovidae_. Whether its birthplace was in Africa or - to the north, it is, however, clear that the hollow-horned ruminants - are essentially an Old World group, which only effected an entrance - into North America at a comparatively recent date, and never succeeded - in reaching South America. So far as it goes, this fact is also in - favour of the African ancestry of the group. - - The _Antilocapridae_ (prongbuck), whose relationships appear to be - rather with the _Cervidae_ than with the _Bovidae_, are on the other - hand apparently a North American group. The chevrotains - (_Tragulidae_), now surviving only in West and Central Africa and - tropical Asia, are conversely a purely Old World group. - - The camels (_Tylopoda_) certainly originated in the northern - hemisphere, but although their birthplace has been confidently claimed - for North America, an equal, if not stronger, claim may be made on the - part of Central Asia. From the latter area, where wild camels still - exist, the group may be assumed to have made its way at an early - period into North America; whence, at a much later date, it finally - penetrated into South America. In the Old World it seems to have - reached the fringe of the African continent, where its wanderings in a - wild state were stayed. - - The pigs (_Suidae_) and the hippopotamuses (_Hippopotamidae_) are - essentially Old World groups, the former of which has alone succeeded - in reaching America, where it is represented by the collateral branch - of the peccaries (_Dicotylinae_). An African origin would well explain - the present distribution of both groups, but further evidence on this - point is required before anything decisive can be affirmed, although - it is noteworthy that the earliest known pig (_Geniohyus_) is African. - The Suinae are at present spread all over the Old World, although the - African forms (other than the one from the north) are markedly - distinct from those inhabiting Europe and Asia. Hippopotamuses, on the - contrary, are now exclusively African, although they were represented - in tropical Asia during the Pliocene and over the greater part of - Europe at a later epoch. - - A brief notice with regard to the distribution of the Primates must - suffice, as their past history is too imperfectly known to admit of - generalizations being drawn. The main facts at the present day are, - firstly, the restriction of the Prosimiae, or lemurs, to the warmer - parts of the Old World, and their special abundance in Madagascar - (where other Primates are wanting); and, secondly, the wide structural - distinction between the monkeys of tropical America (Platyrrhina), and - the Old World monkeys and apes, or Catarrhina. It is, however, - noteworthy that extinct lemurs occur in the Tertiary deposits of both - halves of the northern hemisphere--a fact which has induced Dr J. L. - Wortman to suggest a polar origin for the entire group--a view we are - not yet prepared to endorse. For the distribution of the various - families and genera the reader may be referred to the article - PRIMATES; and it will suffice to mention here that while chimpanzees - and baboons are now restricted to Africa and (in the case of the - latter group) Arabia, they formerly occurred in India. - - As regards aquatic mammals, the greater number of the Cetacea, or - whales and dolphins, have, as might be expected, a very wide - distribution in the ocean. A few, on the other hand, have a very - restricted range, the Greenland right whale (_Balaena mysticetus_) - being, for instance, limited to the zone of the northern circumpolar - ice, while no corresponding species occurs in the southern hemisphere. - In this case, not only temperature, but also the peculiar mode of - feeding, may be the cause. The narwhal and the beluga have a very - similar distribution, though the latter occasionally ranges farther - south. The bottle-noses (_Hyperoodon_) are restricted to the North - Atlantic, never entering, so far as known, the tropical seas. Other - species are exclusively tropical or austral in their range. The pigmy - whale (_Neobalaena marginata_), for instance, has only been met with - in the seas round Australia, New Zealand and South America, while a - beaked whale (_Berardius arnouxi_) appears to be confined to the New - Zealand seas. - - The Cetacea, however, are by no means limited to the ocean, or even to - salt water, some entering large rivers for considerable distances, and - others being exclusively fluviatile. The susu (_Platanista_) is, for - instance, extensively distributed throughout nearly the whole of the - river systems of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Indus, ascending as high - as there is water enough to swim in, but apparently never passing out - to sea. The individuals inhabiting the Indus and the Ganges must - therefore have been for long ages isolated without developing any - distinctive anatomical characters, those by which _P. indi_ was - separated from _P. gangetica_ having been shown to be of no constant - value. _Orcella fluminalis_, again, appears to be limited to the - Irrawaddy; and at least two distinct species of dolphin, belonging to - different genera, are found in the Amazon. It is remarkable that none - of the great lakes or inland seas of the world is inhabited by - cetaceans. - - The great difference in the manner of life of the sea-cows, or - Sirenia, as compared with that of the Cetacea, causes a corresponding - difference in their geographical distribution. Slow in their - movements, and feeding on vegetable substances, they are confined to - the neighbourhood of rivers, estuaries or coasts, although there is a - possibility of accidental transport by currents across considerable - distances. Of the three genera existing within historic times, one - (_Manatus_) is exclusively confined to the shores of the tropical - Atlantic and the rivers entering into it, individuals scarcely - specifically distinguishable being found both on the American and the - African. The dugong (_Halicore_) is distributed in different colonies, - at present isolated, throughout the Indian Ocean from Arabia to North - Australia; while the _Rhytina_ or northern sea-cow was, for some time - before its extinction, limited to a single island in the extreme north - of the Pacific Ocean. - - The seals (_Pinnipedia_) although capable of traversing long reaches - of ocean, are less truly aquatic than the last two groups, always - resorting to the land or to ice-floes for breeding. The geographical - range of each species is generally more or less restricted, usually - according to climate, as they are mostly inhabitants either of the - Arctic or Antarctic seas and adjacent temperate regions, few being - found within the tropics. For this reason the northern and the - southern species are for the most part quite distinct. In fact, the - only known exception is the case of a colony of elephant-seals - (_Macrorhinus leoninus_), whose general range is in the southern - hemisphere, inhabiting the coast of California. In this case a - different specific name has been given to the northern form, but the - characters by which it is distinguished are of little importance, and - probably, except for the abnormal geographical distribution, would - never have been discovered. The most remarkable circumstance connected - with the distribution of seals is the presence of members of the order - in the three isolated great lakes or inland seas of Central Asia--the - Caspian, Aral and Baikal--which, notwithstanding their long isolation, - have varied but slightly from species now inhabiting the Polar Ocean. - - AUTHORITIES.--The above article is partly based on that of Sir W. H. - Flower in the 9th edition of this work. The literature connected with - mammals is so extensive that all that can be attempted here is to - refer the reader to a few textbooks, with the aid of which, combined - with that of the annual volumes of the _Zoological Record_, he may - obtain such information on the subject as he may require: F. E. - Beddard, "Mammals," _The Cambridge Natural History_, vol. x. (1902); - W. H. Flower and R. Lydekker, _The Study of Mammals_ (London, 1891); - Max Weber, _Die Saugethiere_ (Jena, 1904); W. T. Blanford, _The Fauna - of British India--Mammalia_ (1888-1891); D. G. Elliot, _Synopsis of - the Mammals of North America_ (Chicago, 1901) and _The Mammals of - Middle America and the West Indies_ (Chicago, 1904); W. L. Sclater, - _The Fauna of South Africa--Mammals_ (Cape Town, 1901-1902); W. K. - Parker, _Mammalian Descent_ (London, 1885); E. Trouessart, _Catalogus - mammalium, tam viventium quam fossilium_ (Paris, 1898-1899); and - supplement, 1904-1905; T. S. Palmer, _Index generum mammalium_ - (Washington, 1904); W. L. and P. L. Sclater, _The Geography of - Mammals_ (London, 1899); R. Lydekker, _A Geographical History of - Mammals_ (Cambridge, 1896). (W. H. F.; R. L.) - - - - -MAMMARY GLAND (Lat. _mamma_), or female breast, the organ by means of -which the young are suckled, and the possession of which, in some region -of the trunk, entitles the animal bearing it to a place in the order of -Mammalia. - -_Anatomy._--In the human female the gland extends vertically from the -second to the sixth rib, and transversely from the edge of the sternum -to the mid axillary line; it is embedded in the fat superficial to the -pectoralis major muscle, and a process which extends toward the arm-pit -is sometimes called the axillary tail. A little below the centre of the -glandular swelling is the _nipple_, surrounding which is a pigmented -circular patch called the areola; this is studded with slight nodules, -which are the openings of areolar glands secreting an oily fluid to -protect the skin during suckling. During the second or third month of -pregnancy the areola becomes more or less deeply pigmented, but this to -a large extent passes off after lactation ceases. In structure the gland -consists of some fifteen to twenty lobules, each of which has a -_lactiferous duct_ opening at the summit of the nipple, and branching in -the substance of the gland to form secondary lobules, the walls of which -are lined by cubical epithelium in which the milk is secreted. These -secondary lobules project into the surrounding fat, so that it is -difficult to dissect out the gland cleanly. Before opening at the nipple -each lactiferous duct has a fusiform dilatation called the _ampulla_. - - After the child-bearing period of life the breasts atrophy and tend to - become pendulous, while in some African races they are pendulous - throughout life. Variations in the mammary glands are common; often - the left breast is larger than the right, and in those rare cases in - which one breast is suppressed it is usually the right, though - suppression of the breast does not necessarily include absence of the - nipple. - - [Illustration: (From A. F. Dixon, Cunningham's _Text Book of Anatomy_.) - - FIG. 1.--Dissection of the Mammary Gland.] - - _Supernumerary nipples and glands_ are not uncommon, and, when they - occur, are usually situated in the mammary line which extends from the - anterior axillary fold to the spine of the pubis; hence, when an extra - nipple appears above the normal one, it is external to it, but, when - below, it is nearer the middle line. The condition of extra breasts is - known as _polymasty_, that of extra nipples as _polythely_, and it is - interesting to notice that the latter is commoner in males than in - females. O. Ammon (quoted by Wiedersheim) records the case of a German - soldier who had four nipples on each side. These nipples in the human - subject are seldom found below the costal margin. In normal males the - breast structure is present, but rudimentary, though it is not very - rare to find instances of boys about puberty in whom a small amount of - milk is secreted, and one case at least is recorded of a man who - suckled a child. A functional condition of the mammary glands in men - is known as _gynaekomasty_. (For further details see _The Structure of - Man_, by R. Wiedersheim, translated by H. and M. Bernard, and edited - by G. B. Howes, London, 1895.) - - _Embryology._--There is every probability that the mammary glands are - modified and hypertrophied sebaceous glands, and transitional stages - are seen in the areolar glands, which sometimes secrete milk. At an - early stage of foetal life a raised patch of ectoderm is seen, which - later on becomes a saucer-like depression; from the bottom of this - fifteen or twenty solid processes of cells, each presumably - representing a sebaceous gland, grow into the mesoderm which forms the - connective-tissue stroma of the mamma. Later on these processes - branch. The last stage is that the centre of the _mammary pit_ or - saucer-like depression once more grows up to form the nipple, and at - birth the processes become tubular, thus forming lactiferous ducts. - The glands grow little until the age of puberty, but their full - development is not reached until the birth of the first child. - - _Comparative Anatomy._--In the lower Mammals the mammary line, already - mentioned, appears in the embryo as a ridge, and in those which have - many young at a birth patches of this develop in the thoracic and - abdominal regions to form the mammae, while the intervening parts of - the ridge disappear. The number of mammae is not constant in animals - of the same species; as an instance of this it will be found that in - the dog the number of nipples varies from seven to ten, though animals - with many nipples are more liable to variation than those with few. - When only a few young are produced at a time the mammae are few, and - it seems to depend on the convenience of suckling in which part of the - mammary line the glands are developed. In the pouched Mammals - (Monotremes and Marsupials) inguinal mammae are found, and so they are - in most Ungulates as well as in the Cetacea. In the elephants, - Sirenia, Chiroptera and most of the Primates, on the other hand, they - are confined to the pectoral region, and this is also the case in some - Rodents, e.g. the jumping hare (_Pedetes caffer_). In the monotremes - the mammary pit remains throughout life, and the milk is conducted - along the hairs to the young, but in other Mammals nipples are formed - in one of two ways. One is that already described in Man, which is - common to the Marsupials and Primates, while in the other the margin - or _vallum_ of the mammary pit grows up, and so forms a nipple with a - very deep pit, into the bottom of which the lactiferous ducts open. - The latter is regarded as the primary arrangement. In the monotremes - the mammae are looked upon, not as modified sebaceous glands, as in - other Mammals, but as altered sweat glands. It is further of interest - to notice that in these primitive Mammals the glands are equally - developed in both sexes, and it is thought that among the bats the - male often assists in suckling the young (see G. Dobson, _Brit. Museum - Cat. of the Chiroptera_, London, 1878). These facts, together with the - occasional occurrence of gynaekomasty in man, make it probable that - the ancestral Mammal was an animal in which both sexes helped in the - process of lactation. - - For further details and literature up to 1906 see _Comparative Anatomy - of Vertebrates_, by R. Wiedersheim, adapted by W. N. Parker (1907), - and Bronn's _Classen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs_. (F. G. P.) - - _Diseases of the Mammary Gland._--Inflammation of the breast - (_mastitis_) is apt to occur in a woman who is suckling, and is due to - the presence of septic micro-organisms, which, as a rule, have found - their way into the milk-ducts, the lymphatics or the veins, through a - crack, or other wound, in a nipple which has been made sore by the - infant's vigorous attempts to obtain food. Especially is this septic - inflammation apt to occur if the nipple is depressed, or so badly - formed that the infant has difficulty in feeding from it. The inflamed - breast is enlarged, tender and painful, and the skin over it is hot, - and perhaps too reddened. The woman feels ill and feverish, and she - may shiver, or have a definite rigor--which suggests that the - inflammation is running on to the formation of an abscess. The abscess - may be superficial to, or beneath, the breast, but it is usually - within the breast itself. The infant should at once be weaned, the - milk-tension being relieved by the breast-pump. Fomentations should be - applied under waterproof jaconette, and the breast should be evenly - supported by a bandage or by the corsets. Belladonna and glycerine - should be smeared over the breast, with the view of checking the - secretion of milk, as well as of easing pain. But before this is done - six or eight leeches may be applied. On the first indication that - matter is collecting, an incision should be made, for if the matter is - allowed to remain locked up in the breast tissue the abscess will - rapidly increase in size, and the whole of the breast may become - infected and destroyed. Supposing that, in making the incision, no pus - is discovered, the relief to the vascular tension thus afforded will - be nevertheless highly beneficial. The operation had better be done - under a general anaesthetic, so that the surgeon can introduce a - probe, or his finger, into the wound, breaking down the partitions - which are likely to exist between separate abscesses, and thus enable - them to be drained through the one opening. As the discharge begins to - cease, the tenderness subsides, and gentle massage, or firm strapping - of the breast, will prove useful. The general treatment will consist - in the administration of an aperient, and, the tongue being clean, in - prescribing such drugs as quinine, strychnia and iron. The diet should - be liberal, but not carried to such excess that the power of digestion - and absorption is overtaxed. During the early acute stage of the - disease small doses of morphia may be necessary. When the tongue has - cleaned, a little wine may be given with advantage. - - _Chronic Eczema_ around the nipple of a woman late in life, with, - perhaps, localized ulceration, is known as _Paget's Disease_. The - importance of it is that cancerous infiltration is apt to pass from it - along the milk-ducts and to involve the breast in malignant disease. - Hence, when eczema about the nipple refuses to clear up under the - influence of soothing treatment, it is well to insist on the removal - of the entire breast. Sometimes this eczema is malignant from the - beginning, being associated with the active prolifization of the - epithelial cells of the milk-ducts, and with their escape into the - surrounding tissues. The nipple is retracted in most of these cases, - which, however, are not often met with. - - _Chronic Mastitis_ is of frequent occurrence in women who are past - middle age. The part of the breast involved is enlarged, hard, and - more or less tender and painful. It is sometimes impossible clinically - to distinguish this disease from cancer. True, the tumour is not so - definite or so hard as a cancer, nor is it attached to the skin, nor - to the muscles of the chest wall, and if there are any glands - secondarily enlarged in the arm-pit they are not so hard as they may - be in cancer. But all these are questions of degree. It is, of course, - highly inadvisable to leave it to time to clear up the diagnosis, for - a chronic mastitis, innocent at first, may eventually become - cancerous. If in any case the difficulty of distinguishing a chronic - mastitis from a malignant tumour of the breast is insuperable, the - safest course is to remove the breast and have it examined by the - microscope. The suggestion, sometimes made, as to the preliminary - removal of a small piece of the tumour for examination is not to be - recommended. - - A simple glandular tumour, _fibro-adenoma_, is apt to be found in the - breasts of youngish women, who may possibly give an account of some - blow or other injury; there may, however, be no history of injury. The - tumour is smooth, rounded or oval, and lies loose in the midst of the - breast; as a rule it is not tender. It is not associated with enlarged - glands in the arm-pit. The tumour had best be removed, though there is - no urgency about the operation, as the growth is absolutely innocent. - There is, however, no telling as to what course an innocent tumour of - the breast may take as middle age comes on. - - _Cysts of the Breast._--A _galactocele_ is a tumour due to the locking - up of milk in a greatly dilated duct. Other forms of cystic disease - may be due to serous or hydatid fluid, or to thin pus, being - surrounded by fibrous walls. Such cysts are best treated by free - incision, and by passing a gauze dressing into their depths. If the - tissue is occupied by many cysts, the whole breast had better be - removed. - - _Cancer of the Breast_ may be met with in men as well as in women; in - men, however, it is very rare. It is commonest in women between the - ages of forty and fifty. It is sometimes met with in women of twenty; - and the younger the individual the more malignant is the disease. - Married life seems to have no effect as regards the incidence of the - disease, but it often happens that a breast which gave trouble during - the period of suckling becomes later the subject of cancer; in other - cases there is a clear history of the attack having followed an - injury. It is, thus, as if inflammatory changes in the breast were the - direct cause of a later cancerous invasion. Though it is impossible to - affirm that heredity has a great influence in the incidence of cancer, - it is, nevertheless, remarkable that the members of certain families - are unusually prone to the disease. - - The chief feature of a cancerous tumour of the breast is its great - hardness. The technical name for the growth is _scirrhus_ (Gr. [Greek: - skiros], or [Greek: skirros], any hard coat or covering, _stucco_), - from its stony hardness. The tumour consists of a dense framework of - fibrous tissue, with groups of cancer-cells in the spaces. The - malignancy of the disease depends upon the cells, not upon the fibrous - tissue. In young subjects the cells predominate, but in old ones the - contraction of the fibrous tissue throughout the breast compresses and - destroys the cells, and this sometimes to such an extent that there is - at last nothing left at the site but contracted fibrous tissue, all - trace of malignancy having disappeared. This variety of the disease is - found in old people, and is called _atrophic cancer_. - - The cells of a cancerous breast are apt to be carried by the - lymphatics to the lymphatic glands in the arm-pit, and by the - bloodstream to the spinal column and to other parts of the skeleton, - and sometimes to the liver, which thus becomes large and hard, or to - the other breast. - - As the fibrous tissue around the tumour becomes invaded by the new - growth it undergoes contraction (much as a string becomes shorter when - it is wetted), and as this shortening of the fibrous bands increases - the nipple may be retracted, and the breast may be closely bound down - to the chest-wall; and, further, the skin overlying the tumour may be - drawn in towards the tumour so as to form a conspicuous dimple. Later, - the nutrition of this patch of skin may be so interfered with that it - mortifies or breaks down, and thus a cancerous ulcer is produced. This - ulcer slowly spreads, and its floor is covered with a discharge in - which septic micro-organisms undergo cultivation; in this way the - ulcer becomes highly offensive. By the use of antiseptic lotions and a - frequent change of dressings, however, all unpleasant smell can be - checked or prevented. As the ulcer extends it is apt to implicate - large blood-vessels, so that serious, and sometimes alarming, - haemorrhages take place. And if the breast had previously been in - pain, the bleeding is likely to give great relief. But repeated - haemorrhages bring on increasing exhaustion, and thus materially - hasten the end. - - There is at present only one trustworthy treatment for cancer, and - that is its free removal by operation. The entire breast and the - nipple must be sacrificed. At the present day the operation itself is - not a "dreadful" one. To be successful it must be very thorough, and - it must be done _early_. The patient, being under an anaesthetic, - feels nothing, and the subsequent dressings of the wound are attended - with scarcely any pain. There need be but a couple of days of - confinement to bed, and when the wound has soundly healed the patient - may be encouraged to use her arm. Should there be recurrence of - cancerous nodules in or about the wound, their removal should be - promptly and widely effected. The writer has records of one case in - which between the first operation and the last report there was a - space of over twenty-nine years, and another of fifteen years. Each of - these patients had one extensive operation, and four or five smaller - operations for dealing with recurrences. Each of them, however, might - be considered unlikely subjects for further return. - - For a _superficial cancer_ the X-rays may be of service, but many - applications of the rays are likely to be needed, and the case may - possibly refuse to yield to their influence, and, after loss of - valuable time, the disease may have eventually to be removed by the - knife. The great advantage which the treatment by the knife offers - over every other method is that the growth can be cleanly, efficiently - and promptly removed, and, with it, all the affected lymph-spaces, and - the lymphatic glands which are secondarily implicated. - - As regards the value of radium in the treatment of cancer of the - breast, the high expectations which were somewhat widely associated - with this newly-found element early in 1909 must be said to have been - unjustified by any precise results. Injections of radium salts have - been made into the substance of a cancer, and tubes of aluminium - containing the salt have been introduced into the growth, but no deep - cancer has thereby been cured. Radium has also been exposed again and - again on the surface of the affected breast, but similarly with no - great result. Unfortunately, whilst one is experimenting in the - treatment of an operable cancer, the epithelial cells of the growth - may be making their way towards distant parts, where no rays or - emanations could possibly reach them. Whatever may be the future of - radium as a therapeutic agent in the treatment of cancer of the - breast, it is certain that, on the facts as known at the beginning of - 1910, the only safe course is to remove the breast by direct - operation, together with the associated lymph-spaces and lymphatic - glands. And if this is done promptly and thoroughly cancer of the - breast will come more and more into the class of curable diseases. - (E. O.*) - - - - -MAMMEE APPLE, SOUTH AMERICAN OR ST DOMINGO APRICOT, the fruit of _Mammea -americana_ (natural order Clusiaceae), a large tree with opposite -leathery gland-dotted leaves, white, sweet-scented, short-stalked, -solitary or clustered axillary flowers and yellow fruit 3 to 6 in. in -diameter. The bitter rind encloses a sweet aromatic flesh, which is -eaten raw or steeped in wine or with sugar, and is also used for -preserves. There are one to four large rough seeds, which are bitter and -resinous, and used as anthelmintics. An aromatic liqueur distilled from -the flowers is known as _eau de creole_ in the West Indies, and the -acrid resinous gum is used to destroy the chigoes which attack the naked -feet of the negroes. The wood is durable and well adapted for building -purposes; it is beautifully grained and used for fancy work. - - - - -MAMMON, a word of Aramaic origin meaning "riches." The etymology is -doubtful; connexions with a word meaning "entrusted," or with the Hebrew -_matmon_, treasure, have been suggested. "Mammon," Gr. [Greek: mamonas] -(see Professor Eb. Nestle in _Ency. Bib._ s.v.), occurs in the Sermon on -the Mount (Matt. vi. 24) and the parable of the Unjust Steward (Luke -xvi. 9-13). The Authorized Version keeps the Syriac word. Wycliffe uses -"richessis." The _New English Dictionary_ quotes _Piers Plowman_ as -containing the earliest personification of the name. Nicholaus de Lyra -(commenting on the passage in Luke) says that _Mammon est nomen -daemonis_. There is no trace, however, of any Syriac god of such a name, -and the common identification of the name with a god of covetousness or -avarice is chiefly due to Milton (_Paradise Lost_, i. 678). - - - - -MAMMOTH (O. Russ. _mammot_, mod. _mamant_; the Tatar word _mama_, earth, -from which it is supposed to be derived, is not known to exist), a name -given to an extinct elephant, _Elephas primigenius_ of Blumenbach. -Probably no extinct animal has left such abundant evidence of its former -existence; immense numbers of bones, teeth, and more or less entire -carcases, or "mummies," as they may be called, having been discovered, -with the flesh, skin and hair _in situ_, in the frozen soil of the -tundra of northern Siberia. - -The general characteristics of the order PROBOSCIDEA, to which the -mammoth belongs, are given under that heading. The mammoth pertains to -the most highly specialized section of the group of elephants, which -also contains the modern Asiatic species. Of the whole group it is in -many respects, as in the size and form of the tusks and the characters -of the molar teeth, the farthest removed from the mastodon type, while -its nearest surviving relative, the Asiatic elephant (_E. maximus_), has -retained the slightly more generalized characters of the mammoth's -contemporaries of more southern climes, _E. columbi_ of America and _E. -armeniacus_ of the Old World. The tusks, or upper incisor teeth, which -were probably smaller in the female, in the adult males attained the -length of from 9 to 10 ft. measured along the outer curve. Upon leaving -the head they were directed at first downwards, and outwards, then -upwards and finally inwards at the tips, and generally with a tendency -to a spiral form not seen in other elephants. - - It is chiefly by the characters of the molar teeth that the various - extinct modifications of the elephant type are distinguished. Those of - the mammoth (fig. 2) differ from the corresponding organs of allied - species in great breadth of the crown as compared with the length, the - narrowness and crowding or close approximation of the ridges, the - thinness of the enamel, and its straightness, parallelism and absence - of "crimping," as seen on the worn surface or in a horizontal section - of the tooth. The molars, as in other elephants, are six in number on - each side above and below, succeeding each other from before - backwards. Of these Dr Falconer gave the prevailing "ridge-formula" - (or number of complete ridges in each tooth) as 4, 8, 12, 12, 16, 24, - as in _E. maximus_. Dr Leith-Adams, working from more abundant - materials, has shown that the number of ridges of each tooth, - especially those at the posterior end of the series, is subject to - individual variation, ranging in each tooth of the series within the - following limits: 3 to 4, 6 to 9, 9 to 12, 9 to 15, 14 to 16, 18 to - 27--excluding the small plates, called "talons," at each end. Besides - these variations in the number of ridges or plates of which each tooth - is composed, the thickness of the enamel varies so much as to have - given rise to a distinction between a "thick-plated" and a - "thin-plated" variety--the latter being most prevalent among specimens - from the Arctic regions. From the specimens with thick enamel plates - the transition to the other species mentioned above, including _E. - maximus_, is almost imperceptible. - - The bones of the skeleton generally more resemble those of the Indian - elephant than of any other species, but the skull differs in the - narrower summit, narrower temporal fossae, and more prolonged incisive - sheaths, supporting the roots of the enormous tusks. Among the - external characters by which the mammoth was distinguished from either - of the existing species of elephant was the dense clothing, not only - of long, coarse outer hair, but also of close under woolly hair of a - reddish-brown colour, evidently in adaptation to the cold climate it - inhabited. This character is represented in rude but graphic drawings - of prehistoric age found in caverns in the south of France. It should - be added that young Asiatic elephants often show considerable traces - of the woolly coat of the mammoth. The average height does not appear - to have exceeded that of either of the existing species of elephant. - -The geographical range of the mammoth was very extensive. There is -scarcely a county in England in which its remains have not been found in -alluvial gravel or in caverns, and numbers of its teeth are dredged in -the North Sea. In Scotland and Ireland its remains are less abundant, -and in Scandinavia and Finland they appear to be unknown; but they have -been found in vast numbers at various localities throughout the greater -part of central Europe (as far south as Santander and Rome), northern -Asia, and the northern part of the American continent. - -[Illustration: (From Tilesius.) - -Fig. 1.--Skeleton of Mammoth (_Elephas primigenius_), with portions of -the skin.] - -The mammoth belongs to the post-Tertiary or Pleistocene epoch and was -contemporaneous with man. There is evidence to show that it existed in -Britain before, during and after the glacial period. It is in northern -Siberia that its remains have been found in the greatest abundance and -in exceptional preservation. For a long period there has been from that -region an export of mammoth-ivory, fit for commercial purposes, to China -and to Europe. In the middle of the 10th century trade was carried on at -Khiva in fossil ivory. Middendorff estimated the number of tusks which -have yearly come into the market during the last two centuries at at -least a hundred pairs, but Nordenskiold considers this estimate too low. -Tusks are found along the whole shore-line between the mouth of the Obi -and Bering Strait, and the farther north the more numerous they become, -the islands of New Siberia being one of the favourite collecting -localities. The remains are found not only round the mouths of the great -rivers, but embedded in the frozen soil in such circumstances as to -indicate that the animals lived not far from the localities in which -they are found; and they are exposed either by the melting of the ice in -warm summers or the washing away of the sea-cliffs or river-banks. In -this way the bodies of more or less nearly perfect animals, often -standing in the erect position, with the soft parts and hairy covering -entire, have been brought to light. - -[Illustration: (From Owen.) - -FIG. 2.--Grinding surface of Upper Molar Tooth of the Mammoth (_Elephas -primigenius_). c, cement; d, dentine; e, enamel.] - - For geographical distribution and anatomical characters see Falconer's - _Paleontological Memoirs_, vol. ii (1868); B. Dawkins, "_Elephas - Primigenius_, its Range in Space and Time," _Quart. Journ. Geol. - Soc._, xxxv. 138 (1879); and A. Leith Adams, "Monograph of British - Fossil Elephants," part ii., _Palaeontographical Society_ (1879). - (W. H. F.; R. L.*) - - - - -MAMMOTH CAVE, a cave in Edmondson county, Kentucky, U.S.A., 37 deg. 14' -N. lat. and 86 deg. 12' W. long., by rail 85 m. S.S.W. of Louisville. -Steamboats run from the mouth of the Green river, near Evansville, -Indiana, to the Mammoth Cave landing. The cave is usually said to have -been discovered, in 1809, by a hunter named Hutchins; but the county -records, as early as 1797, fixed its entrance as the landmark for a -piece of real estate. Its mouth is in a forest ravine, 194 ft. above -Green river and 600 ft. above the sea. This aperture is not the original -mouth, the latter being a chasm a quarter of a mile north of it, and -leading into what is known as Dixon's cave. The two portions are not now -connected, though persons in one can make themselves heard by those in -the other. - -The cavernous limestone of Kentucky covers an area of 8000 sq. m., is -massive and homogeneous, and belongs to the Subcarboniferous period. It -shows few traces of dynamic disturbance, but has been carved, mainly by -erosion since the Miocene epoch, into many caverns, of which the Mammoth -Cave is the largest. - -The natural arch that admits one to Mammoth Cave has a span of 70 ft., -and from a ledge above it a cascade leaps 59 ft. to the rocks below, -where it disappears. A flight of stone steps leads the way down to a -narrow passage, through which the air rushes with violence, outward in -summer and inward in winter. The temperature of the cave is uniformly 54 -deg. F. throughout the year, and the atmosphere is both chemically and -optically of singular purity. While the lower levels are moist from the -large pools and rivers that have secret connexion with Green river, the -upper galleries are extremely dry. These conditions led at one time to -the erection of thirteen cottages at a point about 1 m. underground, for -the use of invalids, especially consumptives. The experiment failed, and -only two cottages now remain as curiosities. - -The Main Cave, from 40 to 300 ft. wide and from 35 to 125 ft. high, has -several vast rooms, e.g. the Rotunda, where are the ruins of the old -saltpetre works; the Star Chamber, where the protrusion of white -crystals through a coating of the black oxide of manganese creates an -optical illusion of great beauty; the Chief City, where an area of 2 -acres is covered by a vault 125 ft. high, and the floor is strewn with -rocky fragments, among which are found numerous half-burnt torches made -of canes, and other signs of prehistoric occupancy. Two skeletons were -exhumed near the Rotunda; but few other bones of any description have -been found. The so-called Mammoth Cave "mummies" (i.e. bodies kept by -being inhumed in nitrous earth), with accompanying utensils, ornaments, -braided sandals and other relics, were found in Short and Salt Caves -near by, and removed to Mammoth Cave for exhibition. The Main Cave, -which abruptly ends 4 m. from the entrance, is joined by winding -passages, with spacious galleries on different levels; and, although the -diameter of the area of the whole cavern is less than 10 m., the -combined length of all accessible avenues is supposed to be about 150 m. - -[Illustration: Map of Mammoth Cave, Kentucky.] - -The chief points of interest are arranged along two lines of -exploration, besides which there are certain side excursions. The "short -route" requires about four hours, and the "long route" nine. Audubon's -Avenue, the one nearest the entrance, is occupied in winter by myriads -of bats, that hang from the walls in clusters like swarms of bees. The -Gothic Avenue contains numerous large stalactites and stalagmites, and -an interesting place called the Chapel, and ends in a double dome and -cascade. Among the most surprising features of cave scenery are the -vertical shafts that pierce through all levels, from the uppermost -galleries, or even from the sink-holes, down to the lowest floor. These -are styled pits or domes, according to the position occupied by the -observer. A crevice behind a block of stone, 40 ft. long by 20 ft. wide, -called the Giant's Coffin, admits the explorer to a place where six -pits, varying in depth from 65 ft. to 200 ft., exist in an area of 600 -yds. This includes Gorin's Dome, which is viewed from a point midway in -its side, and also from its top, and was formerly regarded as the finest -room in the cavern. Others admire more the Mammoth Dome, at the -termination of Spark's Avenue, where a cataract falls from a height of -150 ft. amid walls wonderfully draped with stalactitic tapestry. The -Egyptian Temple, which is a continuation of the Mammoth Dome, contains -six massive columns, two of them quite perfect and 80 ft. high and 25 -ft. in diameter. The combined length of these contiguous chambers is 400 -ft. By a crevice above they are connected with an arm of Audubon's -Avenue. Lucy's Dome, one of the group of Jessup Domes, is supposed to be -the loftiest of all these vertical shafts. A pit called the "Maelstrom," -in Croghan's Hall, is the spot most remote from the mouth of the cave. -There are some fine stalactites near this pit, and others in the Fairy -Grotto and in Pensico Avenue; but, considering the magnitude of Mammoth -Cave, its poverty of stalactitic ornamentation is remarkable. The wealth -of crystals is, however, surprising, and these are of endless variety -and fantastic beauty. - -Cleveland's Cabinet and Marion's Avenue, each a mile long, are adorned -by myriads of gypsum rosettes and curiously twisted crystals, called -"oulopholites." These cave flowers are unfolded by pressure, as if a -sheaf were forced through a tight binding, or the crystal fibres curl -outward from the centre of the group. Thus spotless arches of 50 ft. -span are embellished by floral clusters and garlands, hiding nearly -every foot of the grey limestone. The botryoidal formations hanging by -thousands in Mary's Vineyard resemble mimic clusters of grapes, as the -oulopholites resemble roses. Again, there are chambers with drifts of -snowy crystals of the sulphate of magnesia, the ceilings so thickly -covered with their efflorescence that a loud concussion will cause them -to fall like flakes of snow. - -Many small rooms and tortuous paths, where nothing of special interest -can be found, are avoided as much as possible on the regular routes; but -certain disagreeable experiences are inevitable. There is peril also in -the vicinity of the deep pits. The one known as the Bottomless Pit was -for many years a barrier to all further exploration, but it is now -crossed by a wooden bridge. Long before the shaft had been cut as deep -as now the water flowed away by a channel gradually contracting to a -serpentine way, so extremely narrow as to be called the Fat Man's -Misery. The walls, only 18 in. apart, change direction eight times in -105 yds., while the distance from the sandy path to the ledge overhead -is but 5 ft. The rocky sides are finely marked with waves and ripples, -as if running water had suddenly been petrified. This winding way -conducts one to River Hall, beyond which lie the crystalline gardens -that have been described. It used to be said that, if this narrow -passage were blocked up, escape would be impossible; but an intricate -web of fissures, called the Corkscrew, has been discovered, by means of -which a good climber, ascending only a few hundred feet, lands 1000 yds. -from the mouth of the cave, and cuts off one or two miles. - -The waters, entering through numerous domes and pits, and falling, -during the rainy season, in cascades of great volume, are finally -collected in River Hall, where they form several extensive lakes, or -rivers, whose connexion with Green River is known to be in deep springs -appearing under arches on its margin. Whenever there is a freshet in -Green River the streams in the cave are joined in a continuous body of -water, the rise sometimes being 60 ft. above the low-water mark. The -subsidence within is less rapid than the rise; and the streams are -impassable for about seven months in each year. They are navigable from -May to October, and furnish interesting features of cave scenery. The -first approach is called the Dead Sea, embraced by cliffs 60 ft. high -and 100 ft. long, above which a path has been made, whence a stairway -leads down to the banks of the river Styx, a body of water 40 ft. long, -crossed by a natural bridge. Lake Lethe comes next--a broad basin -enclosed by walls 90 ft. high, below which a narrow path leads to a -pontoon at the neck of the lake. A beach of the finest yellow sand -extends for 500 yds. to Echo River, the largest of all being from 20 to -200 ft. wide, 10 to 40 ft. deep and about three-quarters of a mile long. -It is crossed by boats. The arched passage-way is very symmetrical, -varying in height from 19 to 35 ft., and famous for its musical -reverberations--not a distinct echo, but an harmonious prolongation of -sound for from 10 to 30 seconds after the original tone is produced. The -long vault has a certain keynote of its own, which, when firmly struck, -excites harmonics, including tones of incredible depth and sweetness. - -There are several other streams here besides those in River Hall. On one -of them F. J. Stevenson of London is said to have floated for seven -hours without finding its end. A glance at the accompanying map will -show that there is a labyrinth of avenues and chasms seldom visited and -never fully explored. New discoveries are frequently made. An exploring -party in 1904 found a curious complex of upper and lower galleries -accessible from the most eastern portion of the cave; beyond which -another party, in 1905, discovered several large domes previously -unknown. H. C. Hovey, in 1907, was led by expert guides into still -wilder recesses, where a series of five domes were found, that opened -into each other by tall gateways; each dome being 60 ft. in diameter and -175 ft. high. This magnificent group has since been named "Hovey's -Cathedral Domes." No instrumental survey of the Mammoth Cave has ever -been allowed by the management. The best map possible is therefore only -the result of estimates and partial measurements. The depths of the most -noted pits have easily been ascertained by line and plummet and the -height of several large domes has been found by the use of small -balloons. While making a survey exclusively for the cave-owners in 1908, -Max Kaemper of Berlin, Germany, forced an opening from the main cave -into a remarkable region to which the general name of "Violet City" was -given, in honour of Mrs Violet Blair Janin, who owned a third of the -Mammoth Cave estate. Special features are Kaemper Hall, Blair Castle, -the Marble Temple and Walhalla. There are eleven enormous pits, many -large fine stalactites and stalagmites and surprisingly beautiful mural -decorations. Dr Hovey made and published (1909) a new handbook embodying -all known discoveries of importance, with four sketch-maps of the routes -of usual exhibition. - -The fauna of Mammoth Cave has been classified by F. W. Putnam, A. S. -Packard and E. D. Cope, who have catalogued twenty-eight species truly -subterraneous, besides those that may be regarded as stragglers from the -surface. They are distributed thus: _Vertebrata_, 8 species; _Insecta_, -17; _Arachnida_, 12; _Myriapoda_, 2; _Crustacea_, 5; _Vermes_, 3; -_Mollusca_, 1. Ehrenberg adds a list of 8 Polygastric _Infusoria_, 1 -fossil infusorian, 5 _Phytolitharia_ and several microscopic fungi. A -bed of _Agaricus_ was found by the writer near the river Styx; and upon -this hint an attempt has been made to propagate edible fungi in this -locality. All the known forms of plant-life are either fungi or allied -to them, and many are only microscopic. The most interesting inhabitants -of Mammoth Cave are the blind, wingless grasshoppers, with extremely -long antennae; blind, colourless crayfish (_Cambarus pellucidus_, -Telk.); and the blind fish, _Amblyopsis spelaeus_, colourless and -viviparous, from 1 in. to 6 in. long. The _Cambarus_ and _Amblyopsis_ -have wide distribution, being found in many other caves, and also in -deep wells, in Kentucky and Indiana. Fish not blind are occasionally -caught, which are apparently identical with species existing in streams -outside. The true subterranean fauna may be regarded as chiefly of -Pleistocene origin; yet certain forms are possibly remnants of Tertiary -life. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Plan and Description of the Great and Wonderful Cave - in Kentucky_, by Dr Nahum Ward (1816); _Notes on the Mammoth Cave, - with a Map_, by Edmund F. Lee, C. E. (1835); _Rambles in the Mammoth - Cave in 1844_, by Alexander Bullitt, with map by Stephen Bishop; - guide-books by Wright (1858), Binkerd (1869), Forwood (1875), Proctor - (1878), Hovey (1882), &c., and Hovey and Call (1897); Hovey's - _Celebrated American Caverns_ (1882, &c.); and _The Mammoth Cave and - its Inhabitants_, by Packard and F. W. Putnam (1879). (H. C. H.) - - - - -MAMORE, a large river of Bolivia which unites with the Beni in 10 deg. -20' S. to form the Madeira, one of the largest tributaries of the -Amazon. It rises on the northern slope of the Sierra de Cochabamba east -of the city of Cochabamba, and is known as the Chimore down to its -junction with the Chapare, or Chapari. Its larger tributaries are the -Chapare, Secure, Apere and Yacuma from the west, and the Ichila, Guapay -or Grande, Ivari and Guapore from the east. Taking into account its -length only, the Guapay should be considered the upper part of the -Mamore; but it is shallow and obstructed, and carries a much smaller -volume of water. The Guapore, or Itenez, also rivals the Mamore in -length and volume, having its source in the Serra dos Parecis, Matto -Grosso, Brazil, a few miles from streams flowing northward to the -Tapajos and Amazon, and southward to the Paraguay and Parana. The Mamore -is interrupted by rapids a few miles above its junction with the Beni, -but a railway 180 m. long has been undertaken from below the rapids of -the Madeira. Above the rapids the river is navigable to Chimore, at the -foot of the _sierra_, and most of its tributaries are navigable for long -distances. Franz Keller (in _The Amazon and Madeira Rivers_; New York, -1874) gives the outflow of the Mamore at mean water level, and not -including the Guapore, as 2530 cub. in. per second, and the area of its -drainage basin, also not including the Guapore, as 9382 sq. m. - - See Edward D. Mathews, _Up the Amazon and Madeira Rivers_ (London, - 1879). - - - - -MAMUN (c. 786-833), originally ABDALLAH, surnamed AL-MA'MUN ("in whom -men trust"), the seventh of the Abbasid caliphs of Bagdad, was born -about A.D. 786, and was the second son of Harun al-Rashid. By Harun's -will he was successor-designate to his brother Amin, during whose reign -he was to be governor of the eastern part of the empire. On Harun's -death (809) Amin succeeded and Mamun acquiesced. Irritated, however, by -the treatment he received from Amin, and supported by a portion of the -army, Mamun speedily rebelled. A five years' struggle between the two -brothers ended in the death of Amin and the proclamation of Mamun as -caliph at Bagdad (Sept. 813). Various factions and revolts, which -disturbed the first years of his reign, were readily quelled by his -prudent and energetic measures. But a much more serious rebellion, -stirred up by his countenancing the heretical sect of Ali and adopting -their colours, soon after threatened his throne. His crown was actually -on the head of his uncle Ibrahim b. Mahdi (surnamed Mobarek) for a short -time (Barbier de Meynard, in _Journal Asiatique_, March-April 1869). -This inaugurated a period of tranquillity, which Mamun employed in -fostering literature and science. He had already, while governor of -Khorasan, founded a college there, and attracted to it the most eminent -men of the day, and Bagdad became the seat of academical instruction. At -his own expense he caused to be translated into Arabic many valuable -books from the Greek, Persian, Chaldean and Coptic languages; and he was -himself an ardent student of mathematics and astronomy. The first Arabic -translation of Euclid was dedicated to him in 813. Mamun founded -observatories at Bagdad and Kassiun (near Damascus), and succeeded in -determining the inclination of the ecliptic. He also caused a degree of -the meridian to be measured on the plain of Shinar; and he constructed -astronomical tables, which are said to be wonderfully accurate. - -In 827 he was converted to the heterodox faith of the Mo'tazilites, who -asserted the free-will of man and denied the eternity of the Koran. The -later years (829-830) of his reign were distracted by hostilities with -the Greek emperor Theophilus, while a series of revolts in different -parts of the Arabian empire betokened the decline of the military glory -of the caliphs. Spain and part of Africa had already asserted their -independence, and Egypt and Syria were now inclined to follow. In 833, -after quelling Egypt, at least nominally, Mamun marched into Cilicia to -prosecute the war with the Greeks, but died near Tarsus, leaving his -crown to a younger brother, Motasim. The death of Mamun ended an -important epoch in the history of science and letters and the period of -Arabian prosperity which his father's reign had begun. - - See further under CALIPHATE, sect. C., SS 5, 6, 7. - - - - -MAMUND, a Pathan tribe and valley on the Peshawar border of the -North-West Frontier Province of India. The Mamunds live partly in Bajour -and partly in Afghan territory, due north of the Mohmands, a much larger -tribe, with whom they must not be confounded. They are one of the clans -of the Tarkanis (q.v.), and number 6000 fighting men; they gave much -trouble during the Chitral Campaign in 1895, and again during the -Mohmand Expedition in 1897 they inflicted severe losses upon General -Jeffrey's brigade. (See MOHMAND.) - - - - -MAN, the word common to Teutonic languages for a single person of the -human race, of either sex, the Lat. _homo_, and Gr. [Greek: anthropos]; -also for the human race collectively, and for a full-grown adult male -human being. Teutonic languages, other than English, have usually -adopted a derivative in the first sense, e.g. German _Mensch_. -Philologists are not in agreement as to whether the Sanskrit _manu_ is -the direct source, or whether both are to be traced to a common root. -Doubt also is thrown on the theory that the word is to be referred to -the Indo-Germanic root, _men_, meaning "to think," seen in "mind," man -being essentially the thinking or intelligent animal. (See -ANTHROPOLOGY.) - - - - -MAN, ISLE OF (anc. _Mona_), a dominion of the crown of England, in the -Irish Sea. (For map, see ENGLAND, section I.) It is about 33 m. long by -about 12 broad in the broadest part. Its general form resembles that of -an heraldic lozenge, though its outline is very irregular, being -indented with numerous bays and narrow creeks. Its chief physical -characteristic is the close juxtaposition of mountain, glen and sea, -which has produced a variety and beauty of scenery unsurpassed in any -area of equal size elsewhere. - -The greater part of its surface is hilly. The hills, which reach their -culminating point in Snaefell (2034 ft.), have a definite tendency to -trend in the direction of the longer axis, but throw out many radiating -spurs, which frequently extend to the coast-line. They are, for the most -part, smooth and rounded in outline, the rocks being such as do not -favour the formation of crags, though, owing to the rapidity of their -descent, streams have frequently rent steep-walled craggy gulleys in -their sides. The strength of the prevalent westerly winds has caused -them to be treeless, except in some of the lower slopes, but they are -clad with verdure to their summits. Rising almost directly from the sea, -they appear higher than they really are, and therefore present a much -more imposing appearance than many hills of greater altitude. On the -south-west, where they descend precipitously into the sea, they unite -with the cliffs to the north and south of them to produce the most -striking part of the coast scenery for which the isle is remarkable. -But, indeed, the whole coast from Peel round by the Calf, past -Castletown and Douglas to Maughold Head, near Ramsey, is distinguished -by rugged grandeur. From Ramsey round by the Point of Ayre to within a -few miles of Peel extend low sandy cliffs, bordered by flat sandy -shores, which surround the northern plain. This plain is relieved only -by a low range of hills, the highest of which attains an elevation of -270 ft. The drainage of the island radiates from the neighbourhood of -Snaefell, from which mountain and its spurs streams have on all sides -found their way to the sea. The most important of these are the Sulby, -falling into the sea at Ramsey; the _Awin-glass_ (bright river) and the -_Awin-dhoo_ (dark river), which unite their waters near Douglas; the -_Neb_, at the mouth of which Peel is situated; and the _Awin-argid_ -(silver river, now called the Silverburn), which joins the sea at -Castletown. There are no lakes. The narrow, winding glens thus formed, -which are studded with clumps of fir, sycamore and mountain ash, -interspersed with patches of gorse, heather and fern, afford a striking -and beautiful contrast to the bare mountain tops. Traces of an older -system of drainage than that which now exists are noticeable in many -places, the most remarkable being the central depression between Douglas -and Peel. The chief bays are, on the east coast, Ramsey, with an -excellent anchorage, Laxey, Douglas, Derbyhaven, Castletown and Port St -Mary; and, on the west coast, Port Erin and Peel. - - _Geology._--The predominant feature in the stratigraphy of the Isle of - Man is, in the words of G. W. Lamplough,[1] "the central ridge of - slate and greywacke, which seems to have constituted an insulated - tract at as early a date as the beginning of the Carboniferous period. - This prototype of the present island appears afterwards to have been - enfolded and obliterated by the sediments of later times; but with the - progress of denudation the old ridge has once more emerged from - beneath this mantle." This mass of ancient rocks, the Manx Slate - Series, has been divided locally into the Barrule slates, the Agneesh - and other grit beds; and the Lonan and Niarbyl Flags. The whole series - strikes N.E.-S.W., while structurally the strata form part of a - synclinorium, the higher beds being on the N.W. and S.E. sides of the - islands, the lower beds in the interior; although the subordinate dips - appear to indicate an anticlinal structure. These rocks have been - greatly crumpled; and in places, notably in Sully Glen, thrusting has - developed a well-marked crush-breccia. So much has this folding and - compression toughened the soft argillaceous rocks that the Barrule - Slate, for example, is almost everywhere found occupying the highest - points while the hard but more joined grits and flags occupy the lower - ground on the mountain flanks. The Manx Series is penetrated and - altered by large masses of granite at Dhoon, Foxdale and one or two - other spots; and dykes, more or less directly associated with these - masses, are numerous. No satisfactory fossils have yet been obtained - from these rocks, but they are regarded, provisionally, as of Upper - Cambrian age. Carboniferous rocks, including a basal conglomerate, - white limestone with abundant fossils, and the black "Posidonomya - Beds" (some of which are polished as a black marble) occur about - Castletown, Poolvash Bay and Langness; and the basement beds appear - again on the west coast at Peel. The cliffs and foreshore at Scarlet - Point exhibit contemporaneous Carboniferous tuffs, agglomerates and - basalts, as well as later dolerite dykes, in a most striking manner. - Here too may be seen some curious effects of thrusting in the - limestones. At the northern end of the island the Manx Slates end - abruptly in an ancient sea-cliff which crosses between Ramsey and - Ballaugh. The low-lying country beyond is formed of a thick mass of - glacial sands, gravels and boulder clay. In the Bride Hills are to be - seen glacial mounds rising 150 ft. above the level of the plain. The - depressions known as the Curragh, now drained but still peaty in - places, probably represent the sites of late glacial lakes. Glacial - deposits are found also in all parts of the island. Beneath the thick - drift of the plain, Carboniferous, Permian and Trassic rocks have been - proved to lie at some depth below the present sea-level. On the coast - near the Point of Ayr is a raised beach. Silver-bearing lead ore, zinc - and copper are the principal minerals found in the Isle of Man; the - most important mining centres being at Foxdale and Laxey. - - _Climate._--The island is liable to heavy gales from the south-west. - Of this the trend of the branches of the trees to the north-east is a - striking testimony. But it is equally subject to the influence of the - warm drift from the Atlantic, so that its winters are mild, and, - influenced by the less changeable temperature of the sea, its summers - cool. The mean annual temperature is 49 deg.0 F., the temperature of - the coldest month (January) being 41 deg.5, and the warmest (August) - 58 deg.5, giving an extreme annual range of temperature of 17 deg.1 - only, while the average temperature in spring is 46 deg.0, in summer - 57 deg.2, in autumn 50 deg.9 and in winter 42 deg.0. Further evidence - of the mildness of the climate is afforded by the fact that fuchsias, - hydrangeas, myrtles and escallonias grow luxuriantly in the open air. - Its rainfall, placed as it is between mountain districts in England, - Ireland, Scotland and Wales, is naturally rather wet than dry. - Statistics, however, reveal remarkable divergencies in the amounts of - rain in the different parts of the island, varying from 61 in. at - Snaefell to 25 in. at the Calf of Man. In the more populous districts - it varies from 46 in. at Ramsey, and 45 in. at Douglas, to 38 in. at - Peel and 34 in. at Castletown. Of sunshine the Isle of Man has a - larger share than any portion of the United Kingdom except the south - and south-east coasts and the Channel Islands. Briefly, then, the - climate of the island may be pronounced to be equable and sunny, and, - though humid, decidedly invigorating; its rainfall, though it varies - greatly, is excessive in the populous districts; and its winds are - strong and frequent, and usually mild and damp. - - _Fauna._--Like Ireland, the Isle of Man is exempt from snakes and - toads, a circumstance traditionally attributed to the agency of St - Patrick, the patron saint of both islands. Frogs, however, have been - introduced from Ireland, and both the sand lizard and the common - lizard are found. Badgers, moles, squirrels and voles are absent and - foxes are extinct. Fossil bones of the Irish elk are frequently found, - and a complete skeleton of this animal is to be seen at Castle Rushen. - The red deer, which is referred to in the ancient laws and pictured on - the runic crosses, became extinct by the beginning of the 18th - century. Hares are less plentiful than formerly, and rabbits are not - very numerous. Snipe are fairly common, and there are a few partridges - and grouse. The latter, which had become extinct, were reintroduced in - 1880. Woodcock, wild geese, wild ducks, plover, widgeon, teal, heron, - bittern, kingfishers and the Manx shearwater (_Puffinus anglorum_) - visit the island, but do not breed there. The puffin (_Fratercula - artica_) is still numerous on the Calf islet in the summer time. The - peregrine falcon, which breeds on the rocky coast, and the chough have - become very scarce. The legal protection of sea-birds (local act of - 1867) has led to an enormous increase in the number of gulls. A - variety of the domestic cat, remarkable for the absence or stunted - condition of the tail, is peculiar to the island. - - _Flora._--Like the fauna, the flora is chiefly remarkable for its - meagreness. It contains at most 450 species as compared with 690 in - Jersey. Alpine forms are absent. But what it lacks in variety it makes - up in beauty and quantity. For the profusion of the gorse-bloom and - the abundance of spring flowers, especially of primroses, and of - ferns, the Isle of Man is probably unrivalled. - -_People._--The Manx people of the present day are mainly of -Scandio-Celtic origin, with some slight traces of earlier races. They -have large and broad heads, usually broader than those of their brother -Celts (_Goidels_) in Ireland and Scotland, with very broad, but not -specially prominent cheek-bones. Their faces are usually either -scutiform, like those of the Northmen, or oval, which is the usual -Celtic type, and their noses are almost always of good length, and -straighter than is general among Celtic races. Light eyes and fair -complexion, with rather dark hair, are the more usual combinations. They -are usually rather tall and heavily built, their average height (males) -being 5 ft. 7(1/2) in., and average weight (naked) 155 lb. The tendency -of the population to increase is balanced by emigration. It reached its -maximum in 1891. Since then it has slightly declined. A noticeable -feature is its greater proportionate growth in the towns, especially in -Douglas, than in the country. The country population reached its maximum -in 1851. Since then it has been shrinking rapidly, especially in the -northern district. - - +---------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ - | Sheadings, Parishes | | | | | - | and Towns. | 1726. | 1821. | 1871. | 1901. | - +---------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ - | Rushen. | | | | | - | Malew (P.) | 890 | 2,649 | 2,466 | 2,113 | - | Castletown (T.) | 785 | 2,036 | 2,318 | 1,963 | - | Arbory (P.) | 661 | 1,455 | 1,350 | 802 | - | Rushen (P.) | 813 | 2,568 | 3,665 | 3,277 | - | Middle. | | | | | - | Santon (P.) | 376 | 800 | 628 | 468 | - | Braddan (P.) | 780 | 1,754 | 2,215 | 2,177 | - | Douglas (T.) | 810 | 6,054 | 13,846 | 19,149 | - | Onchan (P.) | 370 | 1,457 | 1,620 | 3,942 | - | Glenfalca. | | | | | - | Marown (P.) | 499 | 1,201 | 1,121 | 973 | - | German (P.) | 510 | 1,849 | 1,762 | 1,230 | - | Peel (T.) | 475 | 1,909 | 3,496 | 3,306 | - | Patrick (P.) | 745 | 2,031 | 2,888 | 1,925 | - | Garff. | | | | | - | Lonan (P.) | 547 | 1,846 | 3,741 | 2,513 | - | Maughold (P.) | 529 | 1,514 | 1,433 | 887 | - | Ramsey (T.) | 460 | 1,523 | 3,861 | 4,672 | - | Ayre. | | | | | - | Lezayre (P.) | 1,309 | 2,209 | 1,620 | 1,389 | - | Bride (P.) | 612 | 1,001 | 880 | 539 | - | Andreas (P.) | 967 | 2,229 | 1,757 | 1,144 | - | Michael. | | | | | - | Jurby (P.) | 483 | 1,108 | 788 | 504 | - | Ballaugh (P.) | 806 | 1,467 | 1,077 | 712 | - | Michael (P.) | 643 | 1,427 | 1,231 | 928 | - +---------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ - | Total | 14,070 | 40,087 | 53,763 | 54,613 | - +---------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ - - _Chief Political Divisions and Towns._--The island is divided into six - sheadings (so named from the Scandinavian _skeetha-thing_, or - ship-district), called Glenfaba, Middle, Rushen, Garff, Ayre and - Michael, each of which has its officer, the coroner, whose functions - are similar to those of a sheriff; and there are seventeen parishes. - For the towns see CASTLETOWN, DOUGLAS, PEEL and RAMSEY. The principal - villages are Ballasalla, Ballaugh, Foxdale, Laxey, Michael, Onchan, - Port Erin and Port St Mary. - - _Communications._--There is communication by steamer with Liverpool, - Glasgow, Greenock, Belfast, Silloth, Whitehaven, Belfast and Dublin - throughout the year and, during the summer season, there are also - steamers plying to Androssan, Heysham, Fleetwood and Blackpool. A - daily mail was established in 1879. The internal communications are - excellent. The roads are under the management of a board appointed by - the Tynwald Court, a surveyor-general, and parochial surveyors. They - are maintained by a system of licences on public-houses, carriages, - carts and dogs, and a rate on real property. There are railways - between Douglas, Ramsey, Peel, Castletown, Port Erin and Port St Mary, - the line between Douglas and Ramsey being via St John's and Michael. - Electric tramways run from Douglas to Ramsey via Laxey, from Douglas - to Port Soderick, and from Laxey to the summit of Snaefell. - - _Industries. (a) Agriculture._--The position of the Manx farmers, - though they generally pay higher rents than their compeers in those - countries do, is, except in the remote parts of the island, more - favourable than that of the English or Scottish farmers. The best land - is in the north and south. The farms are principally held on lease and - small holdings have almost entirely disappeared. The cultivated area - is about 93,000 acres, or 65% of the whole. The commons and - uncultivated lands on the mountains are also utilized for pasturage. - Oats occupy about three-fourths of the area under corn crops, barley - about one-sixth. The amount of wheat and other corn crops is very - trifling. Neither Manx wheat nor barley is as good on an average as - English; but oats is, on the whole, fully equal to what is grown on - the mainland. Turnips, which are an excellent crop, are largely - exported, and the dry and sandy soil of the north of the island is - very favourable for the growth of potatoes. The white and red clover - and the common grasses grow luxuriantly, and the pasturage is, - generally speaking, good. Some of the low-lying land, especially in - the north, is much in need of systematic drainage. The livestock, - largely in consequence of the premiums given by the insular government - and the local agricultural society to bulls, heavy and light stallions - and cart mares, now approximates very closely in quality to the stock - in the north of England. Dairying, owing to the large number of summer - visitors, is the most profitable department of agricultural industry. - Apples, pears and wall fruit do not succeed very well, but the soil is - favourable for the cultivation of strawberries, raspberries, - gooseberries, currants and vegetables. Both agricultural and - market-garden produce are quite insufficient to supply the demand in - the summer. - - _(b) Fishing._--The important place which the fishing industry - anciently held in the social organization of the Isle of Man is - quaintly reflected in the wording of the oath formerly taken by the - deemsters, who promised to execute the laws between the sovereign and - his subjects, and "betwixt party and party, as indifferently as the - herring backbone doth lie in the midst of the fish." The statutes and - records abound in evidence of the great extent to which both the - people and their rulers were dependent on the produce of the sea. The - most numerous fish are herrings, cod, mackerel, ling, haddock, plaice, - sole, fluke, turbot and brett. The industry is, however, in a decaying - condition, especially the herring fishery, which, for reasons which - have not been satisfactorily ascertained, fails periodically. The - amount of fish caught, except herrings, is not sufficient to supply - the local demand in the summer, though some of the fish named are - exported during the rest of the year. About 250 vessels, aggregating - 4260 tons, with crews numbering 4250, are employed in this industry. A - fish hatchery has been established at Port Erin by the insular - government. - - (c) _Mining._--There is no doubt that, in proportion to its area, the - metalliferous wealth of the Isle of Man has been very considerable. - Two of its mines, Laxey and Foxdale, have stood for a long series of - years in the first rank in the British Islands for productiveness of - zinc and silver lead respectively. These metals have constituted its - principal riches, but copper pyrites and hematite iron have also been - raised in marketable quantities, while only very small amounts of the - ores of nickel and antimony have been found. The mines are rented from - the Crown as lord of the manor. The value of the ore produced is about - L40,000 annually. Other economic products are clay, granite, - limestone, sandstone, slate (of an inferior quality) and salt, which - has been discovered near the Point of Ayre. - - (d) _Textiles, &c._--Since labour has become scarcer and dearer - textile industries have been declining, being unable to compete with - larger and more completely organized manufactories elsewhere. The - principal manufactured articles are woollen cloths and blankets, hemp - ropes and cotton, and herring nets. A few fishing vessels are built, - and brewing is a prosperous industry. But, apart from agriculture, the - most important industry (for so it may be called) is that of the - provision for summer visitors, nearly half a million of whom come to - the island annually. - - _Commerce._--The chief exports are lead, zinc, turnips, ropes, cotton - nets and salt. The imports consist chiefly of timber, provisions, - livestock, poultry, flour, fruit, vegetables and eggs. In 1906 the - tonnage of vessels (other than fishing or wind-bound vessels) cleared - for traffic was 720,790. The number of vessels (other than fishing - vessels) registered as belonging to the island in 1906 was 79. - -_Government._--The government of the island is vested in a -lieutenant-governor, appointed by the Crown; in a Council, which is the -upper branch of the legislature; in the House of Keys, which is the -lower branch; and in the Tynwald Court. The Council and Keys sit -separately as legislative bodies, but they sit in the Tynwald Court as -distinct bodies with co-ordinate powers to transact executive business -and to sign Bills. The Tynwald Court controls the surplus revenue, after -the payment of the cost of government and of a fixed contribution of -L10,000 to the imperial exchequer, subject to the supervision of the -Treasury and the veto of the lieutenant-governor, and it appoints boards -to manage the harbours, highways, education, local government, and -lunatic and poor asylums. The Imperial government, after intimating its -intention to Tynwald, fixes the rates of the customs duties, but Tynwald -can by resolution "impose, abolish or vary" the customs duties subject -to the approval of parliament or the Treasury, such change to take -effect immediately and to continue for six months, and, if parliament be -then sitting, to the end of the session, provided that the same be not -in the meantime annulled by the passing of an act of parliament, or a -Treasury minute. The approval of the sovereign of the United Kingdom in -Council is essential to every legislative enactment. Acts of the -imperial parliament do not affect the island except it be specially -named in them. The lieutenant-governor, who is the representative of the -sovereign, presides in the Council, in the Tynwald Court, in the High -Court of Justice (Staff of Government division) and in the Court of -General Gaol Delivery. He is the supreme executive authority, and he -shares the control of the legislative and administrative functions, -including the management of the revenue and the control of its surplus, -with the Tynwald Court; he has also the power of veto as regards the -disposal of surplus revenue and the nature of proposed harbour works, -and his signature is necessary to the validity of all acts. It has been -the practice for him to act as chancellor of the exchequer and to -initiate all questions concerning the raising or expenditure of public -funds. The Council consists of the lieutenant-governor, the lord-bishop -of the diocese, the clerk of the rolls, the two deemsters, the -attorney-general, the archdeacon (all of whom are appointed by the -Crown) and the vicar-general, who is appointed by the bishop. No act of -the governor and Council is valid unless it is the act of the governor -and at least two members of the Council. The House of Keys (for origin -of the name see KEY) is one of the most ancient legislative assemblies -in the world. It consists of twenty-four members, elected by male and -female owners or occupiers of property. Each of the six sheadings -elects three members; the towns of Castletown, Peel and Ramsey one each, -and Douglas five. There is no property qualification required of the -members, and the house sits for five years unless previously dissolved -by the lieutenant-governor. - - _Law._--The High Court of Justice, of which the lieutenant-governor is - president, contains three divisions: viz. the Chancery Division, in - which the clerk of the rolls sits as judge, the Common Law Division, - of which the deemsters are the judges, the Staff of Government - Division, in which the governor and three judges sit together. The - jurisdiction of the Chancery and Common Law Division is in the main - similar to that of the corresponding divisions in the English Courts. - The Staff of Government exercises appellate jurisdiction, similar to - that of the Appeal Courts in England. The Common Law Courts for the - southern division of the island are held at Douglas and Castletown - alternately and those for the northern division at Ramsey, once in - three months. Actions in these courts are heard by a deemster and a - special or common jury. The Chancery Court sits once a fortnight at - Douglas. The deemsters also have summary jurisdiction in matters of - debt, actions for liquidated damages under L50, suits for possession - of real or personal property, petitions for probate, &c. These courts, - called Deemsters' Courts, are held weekly, alternately at Douglas and - Castletown, by the deemster for the southern division of the island, - and at Ramsey and Peel by the deemster for the northern division. - Criminal cases are heard by the magistrates or a high-bailiff and are - (with the exception of minor cases which may be dealt with summarily) - sent on by them for trial by a deemster and a jury of six, who hear - the evidence and determine whether there is sufficient ground for - sending the case for trial before the Court of General Gaol Delivery, - thus discharging the functions of the Grand Jury in England. The Court - of General Gaol Delivery is the Supreme Criminal Court and is presided - over by the lieutenant-governor, who is assisted by the clerk of the - rolls and the two deemsters. The high-bailiffs hold weekly courts in - the four towns for the recovery of debts under forty shillings and for - the trial of cases usually brought before a stipendiary magistrate in - England. The magistrates (J.P.'s) also hold regular courts in the - towns for the trial of breaches of the peace and minor offences. There - is a coroner in each of the six sheadings. These officers are - appointed annually by the lieutenant-governor and perform duties - similar to those of a sheriff's officer in England. Inquests of death - are held by a high-bailiff and jury. The Manx Bar is distinct from - that of England. Its members, called "Advocates," combine the - functions of barrister and solicitor. The laws relating to real - property still retain much of their ancient peculiarity, but other - branches of law have of late years by various acts of Tynwald been - made practically identical with English law. - - As regards real property the general tenure is a customary freehold - devolving from each possessor to his next heir-at-law. The descent of - land follows the same rules as the descent of the crown of England. - The right of primogeniture extends to females in default of males in - the direct line. The interest of a widow or widower, being the first - wife or husband of a person deceased, is a life estate in one-half of - the lands which have descended hereditarily, and is forfeited by a - second marriage; a second husband or second wife is only entitled to a - life interest in one-fourth, if there be issue of the first marriage. - Of the land purchased by the husband the wife surviving him is - entitled to a life interest in one moiety. By a statute of the year - 1777 proprietors of land are empowered to grant leases for any term - not exceeding twenty-one years in possession without the consent of - the wife. - - _Church._--It is not known by whom Christianity was introduced into - Man, but from the large proportion of names of Irish ecclesiastics - surviving in the appellations of the old Manx _keeills_, or cells, - which are of similar type to the Irish oratories of the 6th and 7th - centuries, and in the dedications of the parish churches, which are - usually on ancient sites, it may be reasonably conjectured that - Manxmen were, for the most part, Christianized by Irish missionaries. - During the incursions of the pagan Vikings Christianity was almost - certainly extirpated and it was probably not reintroduced before the - beginning of the 11th century. The two most important events in the - history of the medieval Manx Church were the formation of the diocese - of _Sodor_ (q.v.) and the foundation of the abbey of Rushen, a branch - of the Cistercian abbey of Furness, in 1134. This latter event was - important because the Cistercians were exempted from all episcopal - visitation and control, by charter granted by the pope, and were, - therefore, only subject to his rule and that of the abbots of their - own order. From this time till the Reformation we find that there was - an almost continuous struggle between the laity and the spiritual - barons and monks, who had obtained great power and much property in - the island. In 1458 the diocese was placed under York. The dissolution - of the religious houses in Man was not brought about by the English - Act of 1539, which did not apply to the island, but by the arbitrary - action of Henry VIII. From such evidence as is available it would seem - that the Reformation was a very slow process. When Isaac Barrow (uncle - of his well-known namesake) became bishop in 1663 the condition of the - Church was deplorable, but under him and his able and saintly - successors, Thomas Wilson (1698-1755) and Mark Hildesley (1755-1773). - it attained to a very much higher level than the English Church during - the same period. After Hildesley's time it was again neglected, and - successful missions by John Wesley and others resulted in the - establishment and rapid increase of Nonconformity. It was not till the - second decade of the 19th century that the condition of the Church - began to improve again, and this improvement has steadily continued. - In 1878 a Sodor and Man theological school was established for the - training of candidates for holy orders. This school has been - affiliated to Durham University. In 1880 four rural deaneries were - established, and commissioners were constituted as trustees of - endowments for Church purposes. In 1895 a cathedral chapter, with four - canons, was constituted under the name of the "Dean and Chapter of - Man," the bishop being the dean of the cathedral church. A Church - Sustentation Fund was established by Bishop Straton in 1894, with a - view to supplementing the incomes of the clergy, which had been - greatly reduced on account of the low price of corn. There have been - several acts giving Nonconformists equal rights with Churchmen. Among - these are the Burials Acts of 1881 and 1895, which permit burials to - take place in churchyards without the rites of the Church of England, - and allow any burial service, provided it be Christian, in mortuary - chapels. At the present day Nonconformists, chiefly Wesleyan - Methodists, probably outnumber Churchmen, and there is a small number - of Roman Catholics and Presbyterians. The bishop, who has a seat, but - not a vote, in the House of Lords, is assisted by an archdeacon, a - vicar-general, a registrar and a sumner-general. The jurisdiction of - the only remaining ecclesiastical court, which is presided over by the - vicar-general, as representing the bishop, is mainly in connexion with - affiliation questions, the swearing-in of churchwardens and the - granting of faculties. The power of the Manx Convocation to make - canons, though not exercised since 1704, has never been abrogated, and - so far affords a token that the Manx Church is a separate national - Church governed by its own laws, which, however, must be approved by - the insular Legislature. - - _Education._--It was not till 1872, when the insular Legislature - passed the Public Elementary Education Act, that the Manx State - undertook any direct responsibility for education. This act differed - from the English Act of 1870 in three important particulars: (1) it at - once constituted every town and parish a school district under a - school board; (2) the attendance of children was made compulsory; and - (3) every elementary school, those in connexion with the Church of - Rome excepted, was obliged to provide for non-sectarian instruction in - religious subjects, and for the reading of the Bible accompanied by - suitable explanation. Since the date of this act education has made - extraordinary strides. It became free in 1892, and a higher-grade - school was established in Douglas in 1894. The public elementary - schools, which are nearly all managed by School Boards, are subject to - the control of a local "Council of Education" appointed by the Tynwald - Court; but, as the Manx Act of 1872 requires that, in order to obtain - a government grant, the schools shall fulfil the conditions contained - in the minutes of the education department at Whitehall, they are - examined by English inspectors and compelled to attain the same - standard of efficiency as the English and Welsh schools. In 1907 an - act establishing a system of secondary education was passed by the - Legislature. The total number of public elementary schools in 1906 was - 47, 42 being board and 5 denominational. Besides King William's - College, opened in 1833, which provided a similar education to that - obtainable at the English public schools, there are grammar schools in - Douglas, Ramsey and Castletown. - - The Manx language (see CELT: _Language_) still lingers, the census of - 1901 showing that there were about 4400 people who understood - something of it. There is now no one who does not speak English. - - _Economics._--Municipal government was established in 1860, and in - 1876 vaccination was made compulsory, as also was the registration of - births, marriages and deaths in 1878. It was not till 1884 that the - sanitation of the towns was seriously taken in hand; but ten years - more elapsed before the sanitary condition of the island was dealt - with by the passing of an act which constituted parish and village - districts, with commissioners elected by the people, who had, in - conjunction with a board elected by the Tynwald Court and an inspector - appointed by it, to attend to all questions relating to sanitation and - infectious diseases. As a result of these measures the death-rate has - been greatly reduced. In 1888 a permissive poor law was established; - it has been adopted by all the towns except Peel and by seven of the - seventeen country parishes. Before this date the poor had been - dependent on voluntary relief, which broke down owing to the growth of - a temporarily employed class occupied in administering to the wants of - the summer visitors. The total number of persons in receipt of poor - relief averages about 920, and that of lunatics about 212. The average - number of births during the five years 1902-1906 was 21.6, of - marriages 6.1, and of deaths 17.6 per thousand. The rateable annual - value of the parishes, towns and villages is about L400,000. The - revenue for the year ending the 31st of March 1907 was L86,365, and - the expenditure L75,728. The largest revenue raised was L91,193 in - 1901, and the debt reached its maximum amount, L219,531, in 1894. - -_History._--The history of the Isle of Man falls naturally into three -periods. In the first of these the island was inhabited by a Celtic -people. The next is marked by the Viking invasions and the establishment -of Scandinavian rule. The third period is that of the English dominion. -The secular history of the Isle of Man during the Celtic period is an -absolute blank, there being no trustworthy record of any event whatever -before the incursions of the Northmen, since the exploits attributed to -Baetan MacCairill, king of Ulster, at the end of the 6th century, which -were formally supposed to have been performed in the Isle of Man, really -occurred in the country between the Firths of Clyde and Forth. And it is -clear that, even if the supposed conquest of the Menavian islands--Man -and Anglesey--by Edwin of Northumbria, in 616, did take place, it could -not have led to any permanent results; for, when the English were driven -from the coasts of Cumberland and Lancashire soon afterwards, they could -not well have retained their hold on the island to the west of these -coasts. It is, however, possible that in 684, when Ecfrid laid Ireland -waste from Dublin to Drogheda, he temporarily occupied Man. During the -period of Scandinavian domination there are two main epochs--one before -the conquest of Man by Godred Crovan in 1079, and the other after it. -The earlier epoch is characterized by warfare and unsettled rule, the -later is comparatively peaceful. Between about A.D. 800 and 815 the -Vikings came to Man chiefly for plunder; between about 850 and 990, when -they settled in it, the island fell under the rule of the Scandinavian -kings of Dublin; and between 990 and 1079, it was subject to the -powerful earls of Orkney. The conqueror Godred Crovan was evidently a -remarkable man, though little information about him is attainable. -According to the _Chronicon Manniae_ he "subdued Dublin, and a great -part of Leinster, and held the Scots in such subjection that no one who -built a vessel dared to insert more than three bolts." The memory of -such a ruler would be likely to survive in tradition, and it seems -probable therefore that he is the person commemorated in Manx legend -under the name of King Gorse or Orry. The islands which were under his -rule were called the _Suethr-eyjar_ (Sudreys or the south isles), in -contradistinction to the _norethr-eyjar_, or the north isles, i.e. the -Orkneys and Shetlands, and they consisted of the Hebrides, and of all -the smaller western islands of Scotland, with Man. At a later date his -successors took the title of _Rex Manniae el Insularum_. Olaf, Godred's -son, was a powerful monarch, who, according to the Chronicle, maintained -"such close alliance with the kings of Ireland and Scotland that no one -ventured to disturb the Isles during his time" (1113-1152). His son, -Godred, who for a short period ruled over Dublin also, as a result of a -quarrel with Somerled, the ruler of Argyll, in 1156, lost the smaller -islands off the coast of Argyll. An independent sovereignty was thus -interposed between the two divisions of his kingdom. Early in the 13th -century, when Reginald of Man did homage to King John, we hear for the -first time of English intervention in the affairs of Man. But it was -into the hands of Scotland that the islands were ultimately to fall. -During the whole of the Scandinavian period the isles were nominally -under the suzerainty of the kings of Norway, but they only occasionally -asserted it with any vigour. The first to do so was Harold Haarfager -about 885, then came Magnus Barfod about 1100, both of whom conquered -the isles. From the middle of the 12th century till 1217 the suzerainty, -owing to the fact that Norway was a prey to civil dissensions, had been -of a very shadowy character. But after that date it became a reality and -Norway consequently came into collision with the growing power of -Scotland. Finally, in 1261, Alexander III. of Scotland sent envoys to -Norway to negotiate for the cession of the isles, but their efforts led -to no result. He therefore initiated hostilities which terminated in the -complete defeat of the Norwegian fleet at Largs in 1263. Magnus, king of -Man and the Isles, who had fought on the Norwegian side, was compelled -to surrender all the islands over which he had ruled, except Man, for -which he did homage. Two years later Magnus died and in 1266 the king of -Norway, in consideration of the sum of 4000 marks, ceded the islands, -including Man, to Scotland. But Scotland's rule over Man was not firmly -established till 1275, when the Manx were defeated in a decisive battle -at Ronaldsway, near Castletown. In 1290 we find Edward I. of England in -possession of Man, and it remained in English hands till 1313, when it -was taken by Robert Bruce after besieging Castle Rushen for five weeks. -Then, till 1346, when the battle of Neville's Cross decided the long -struggle between England and Scotland in England's favour, there -followed a confused period when Man was sometimes under English and -sometimes under Scottish rule. About 1333 it had been granted by King -Edward III. to William de Montacute, 1st earl of Salisbury, as his -absolute possession, without reserving any service to be rendered to -him. In 1392 his son sold the island "with the crowne" to Sir William Le -Scroope. In 1399 Henry IV. caused Le Scroope, who had taken Richard's -side, to be beheaded. The island then came into the possession of the -crown and was granted to Henry de Percy, earl of Northumberland, but, he -having been attainted, Henry IV., in 1406, made a grant of it, with the -patronage of the bishopric, to Sir John Stanley, his heirs and assigns, -on the service of rendering two falcons on paying homage and two falcons -to all future kings of England on their coronation. - -With the accession of the Stanleys to the throne there begins a better -epoch in Manx history. Though the island's new rulers rarely visited its -shores, they placed it under responsible governors, who, in the main, -seem to have treated it with justice. Of the thirteen members of the -family who ruled in Man, the second Sir John Stanley (1414-1432), James, -the 7th earl (1627-1651), and the 10th earl of the same name (1702-1736) -had the most important influence on it. The first curbed the power of -the spiritual barons, introduced trial by jury, instead of trial by -battle, and ordered the laws to be written. The second, known as the -Great Stanley, and his wife, Charlotte de la Tremoille (or Tremouille), -are probably the most striking figures in Manx history. In 1643 Charles -I. ordered him to go to Man, where the people, who were no doubt -influenced by what was taking place in England, threatened to revolt. -But his arrival, with English soldiers, soon put a stop to anything of -this kind. He conciliated the people by his affability, brought in -Englishmen to teach various handicrafts and tried to help the farmers by -improving the breed of Manx horses, and, at the same time, he restricted -the exactions of the Church. But the Manx people never had less liberty -than under his rule. They were heavily taxed; troops were quartered upon -them; and they also had the more lasting grievance of being compelled to -accept leases for three lives instead of holding their land by the -"straw" tenure which they considered to be equivalent to a customary -inheritance. Six months after the death of the king Stanley received a -summons from General Ireton to surrender the island, which he haughtily -declined. In August 1651 he went to England with some of his troops, -among whom were 300 Manxmen, to join King Charles II., and he and they -shared in the decisive defeat of the Royalists at Worcester. He was -captured and confined in Chester Castle, and, after being tried by court -martial, was executed at Wigan. Soon after his death the Manx Militia, -under the command of William Christian, rose against the Countess and -captured all the insular forts except Rushen and Peel. They were then -joined by a parliamentary force under Colonel Duckenfield, to whom the -Countess surrendered after a brief resistance. Fairfax had been -appointed "Lord of Man and the Isles" in September, so that Man -continued under a monarchical government and remained in the same -relation to England as before. The restoration of Stanley government in -1660 therefore caused as little friction and alteration as its temporary -cessation had. One of the first acts of the new lord, Charles (the 8th -earl), was to order Christian to be tried. He was found guilty and -executed. Of the other persons implicated in the rebellion only three -were excepted from the general amnesty. But by order in Council they -were pardoned, and the judges responsible for the sentence on Christian -were punished. His next act was to dispute the permanency of the -tenants' holdings, which they had not at first regarded as being -affected by the acceptance of leases, a proceeding which led to an -almost open rebellion against his authority and to the neglect of -agriculture. In lieu of it the people devoted themselves to the -fisheries and to contraband trade. The agrarian question was not settled -till 1704, when James, Charles's brother and successor, largely through -the influence of Bishop Wilson, entered into a compact with his tenants, -which was embodied in an act, called the "Act of Settlement." Their -compact secured the tenants in the possession of their estates in -perpetuity on condition of a fixed rent, and a small fine on succession -or alienation. From the great importance of this act to the Manx people -it has been called their _Magna Carta_. As time went on, and the value -of the estates increased, the rent payable to the lord became so small -in proportion as to be almost nominal. James died in 1736 and the -sovereignty of the isle passed to James Murray, 2nd duke of Atholl. In -1764 he was succeeded by his only surviving child Charlotte, Baroness -Strange, and her husband, John Murray, who, in right of his wife, became -Lord of Man. About 1720 the contraband trade greatly increased. In 1726 -it was, for a time, somewhat checked by the interposition of parliament, -but during the last ten years of the Atholl regime (1756-1765) it -assumed such proportions that, in the interests of the imperial revenue, -it became necessary to suppress it. With a view to so doing an Act of -Parliament, called the "Revesting Act," was passed in 1765, under which -the sovereign rights of the Atholls and the customs revenues of the -island were purchased for the sum of L70,000, and an annuity of L2000 -was granted to the duke and duchess. The Atholls still retained their -manorial rights, the patronage of the See, and certain other -perquisites, which were finally purchased for the excessive sum of -L417,144 in 1828. Up to the time of the Revestment the Tynwald Court -passed laws concerning the government of the island in all respects and -had control over its finances, subject to the approval of the lord. -After the Revestment, or rather after the passage of the "Mischief Act" -in the same year, Imperial Parliament legislated with respect to -customs, harbours and merchant shipping, and, in measures of a general -character, it occasionally inserted clauses by which penalties in -contravention of the acts of which they formed part might be enforced in -the island. It also assumed the control of the insular customs duties. -Such were the changes which, rather than the transference of the -sovereignty from the lord to the king of Great Britain and Ireland, -modified the Constitution of the Isle of Man. Its ancient laws and -tenures were not interfered with, but in many ways the Revestment -adversely affected it. The hereditary lords were far from being model -rulers, but most of them had taken some personal share in its -government, and had interested themselves in the well-being of its -inhabitants. But now the whole direction of its affairs was handed over -to officials, who regarded the island as a pestilent nest of smugglers, -from which it was their duty to extract as much revenue as possible. -Some alleviation of this state of things was experienced between 1793 -and 1826 when the 4th duke of Atholl was appointed governor, since, -though he quarrelled with the Keys and was unduly solicitous for his -pecuniary interests, he did occasionally exert himself to promote the -welfare of the island. After his departure the English officials resumed -their sway. But they were more considerate than before. Moreover, since -smuggling, which had only been checked, not suppressed, by the Revesting -Act, had by that time almost disappeared, and the Manx revenue was -producing a large and increasing surplus, the Isle of Man came to be -regarded more favourably, and, thanks to this fact and to the -representations of the Manx people to English ministers in 1837, 1844 -and 1853, it obtained a somewhat less stringent customs tariff and an -occasional dole towards erecting its much neglected public works. Since -1866, when the Isle of Man obtained a measure of at least nominal "Home -Rule," the Manx people have made remarkable progress, and at the present -day form a prosperous community. - -_Monuments._--The prehistoric monuments in Man are numerous. There are -earth entrenchments, seemingly of the earliest period; fragments of -stone circles and alignments; burial cairns with stone cists of several -successive periods; urn mounds and _crannoges_ or lake dwellings. The -monuments belonging to the historic period begin with the round tower on -Peel islet, the humble Celtic _keeills_ and the sculptured crosses in -which the island is especially rich. Of these crosses about one-fourth -have inscriptions in the old Norse language. The origin and history of -the early buildings remaining on the island are obscure. The castles of -Rushen and Peel are the only important buildings of a military character -which survive, but the remains of ecclesiastical buildings are numerous -and interesting, though, with the exception of St German's Cathedral on -Peel islet, now in ruins, they are only small and simple structures. - -_Arms._--There has been much controversy about the origin of the arms of -the island--the "three-legs" found on a beautiful pillar cross near -Maughhold churchyard belonging to the latter part of the 14th century. -It was probably originally a sun symbol and was brought from Sicily by -the Vikings. The motto _quocunque jeceris slabit_ is of comparatively -recent origin. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--History and Law: _The Manx Society's publications_, - vols. i.-xxxii., notably the _Chronicon Manniae_ (vols. xxii. and - xxiii., edited by Munch); Sir Spencer Walpole, K.C.B., _The Land of - Home Rule_, an essay on the history and constitution of the Isle of - Man (London, Longmans, Green & Co., 1893); A. W. Moore, M.A., C.V.O., - _The Diocese of Sodor and Man_, S.P.C.K.'s series of Diocesan - Histories (1893); and _A History of the Isle of Man_, (2 vols., - London, T. Fisher Unwin, 1900); _The Statutes of the Isle of Man from - 1817 to 1895_, Gill's edition, 6 vols. (vol. i. 1883 to vol. vi. 1897, - London, Eyre & Spottiswoode); Richard Sherward (Deemster), _Manx Law - Tenures_, a short treatise on the law relating to real estate in the - Isle of Man (Douglas Robinson Bros., 1899). Archaeology and Folklore: - P. M. C. Kermode, F. S. A. Scot., _Manx Crosses_ (London, Bemrose & - Sons, 1907); E. Alfred Jones, _The Old Church Plate of the Isle of - Man_ (Bemrose & Sons, 1907); A. W. Moore, C.V.O., M.A., _The Folklore - of the Isle of Man_ (London, D. Nutt, 1891). Language and Philology: - _A Dictionary of the Manx Language_ (Manx-English), by Archibald - Cregeen (1835); _A Practical Grammar of the Antient Gaelic, or - Language of the Isle of Man, usually called Manks_, by Rev. John - Kelly, LL.D.; _Manx Society's publications_, vol. ii. (1859, reprint - of edition of 1804); _The Manx Dictionary in two ports_ (Manx-English, - English-Manx), by Rev. John Kelly, William Gill and John Clarke; _Manx - Society's publications_, vol. xiii. (1866); _The Book of Common Prayer - in Manx Gaelic_, being translations made by Bishop Phillips in 1610 - and by the Manx clergy in 1765, edited by A. W. Moore, C.V.O., M.A., - and John Rhys, M.A., LL.D.; _Outlines of the Phonology of Manx - Gaelic_, by John Rhys (Oxford University Press, 2 vols., 1893-1894); - _First Lessons in Manx_, by Edmund Goodwin (Dublin, Celtic - Association, 1901); _Manx National Songs_, with English words, from - the MS. collection of the Deemster Gill, Dr J. Clague and W. H. Gill, - and arranged by W. H. Gill (London, Boosey & Co., 1896); _Manx Ballads - and Music_, edited by A. W. Moore (Douglas, G. and R. Johnson, 1896); - A. W. Moore's _The Surnames and Place Names of the Isle of Man_ - (London, Elliot Stock, 1906, 3rd ed.). Natural History: P. G. Ralfe, - _The Birds of the Isle of Man_ (Edinburgh, David Douglas, 1905). - - Hall Caine's novels, _The Deemster_, _The Manxman_, &c., have no doubt - tended to popularize the island. The most truthful description of the - social life of the people is to be found in a novel entitled _The - Captain of the Parish_, by John Quine. _Bibliotheca Monensis_ (_Manx - Society_, vol. xxiv.) contains a good list of MSS. and books relating - to the island up to 1876, and A. W. Moore's _History of the Isle of - Man_ has a list of the most important MSS. and books up to 1900. - (A. W. M.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] G. W. Lamplough, _The Geology of the Isle of Man_, Mem. Geol. - Survey (1903). - - - - -MANAAR, GULF OF, a portion of the Indian Ocean lying between the coast -of Madras and Ceylon. Its northern limit is the line of rocks and -islands called Adam's Bridge. Its extreme width from Cape Comorin to -Point de Galle is about 200 miles. - - - - -MANACOR, a town of Spain in the island of Majorca, 40 m. by rail E. of -Palma. Pop. (1900), 12,408. Manacor has a small trade in grain, fruit, -wine, oil and live stock. In the neighbourhood are the cave of Drach, -containing several underground lakes, and the caves of Arta, one of the -largest and finest groups of stalactite caverns in western Europe. - - - - -MANAGE, to control, direct, or be in a position or have the capacity to -do anything (from Ital. _maneggiare_, to train horses, literally to -handle; Lat. _manus_, hand). The word was first used of the "management" -of a horse. Its meanings have been much influenced by the French -_menager_, to direct a household or _menage_ (from late Lat. _mansio_, -house); hence to economize, to husband resources, &c. The French -_menage_, act of guiding or leading, from _mener_, to lead, seems also -to have influenced the meaning. - - - - -MANAGUA, the capital of Nicaragua, and of the department of Managua; on -the southern shore of Lake Managua, and on the railway from Diriamba to -El Viejo, 65 m. by rail S.E. of the Pacific port of Corinto. Pop. -(1905), about 30,000. Managua is a modern city, with many flourishing -industries and a rapidly growing population. Its chief buildings are -those erected after 1855, when it was chosen as the capital to put an -end to the rivalry between the then more important cities of Leon and -Granada. They include the Palacio Nacional or government buildings, -Corinthian in style, the national library and museum, an ornate -Renaissance structure, the barracks and the general post office. Owing -to its position on the lake, and its excellent communications by rail -and steamer, Managua obtained after 1855 an important export trade in -coffee, sugar, cocoa and cotton, although in 1876 it was temporarily -ruined by a great inundation. - - - - -MANAKIN, from the Dutch word _Manneken_, applied to certain small birds, -a name apparently introduced into English by G. Edwards (_Nat. Hist. -Birds_, i. 21) in or about 1743, since which time it has been accepted -generally, and is now used for those which form the family _Pipridae_. -The manakins are peculiar to the Neotropical Region and have many of the -habits of the titmouse family (_Paridae_), living in deep forests, -associating in small bands, and keeping continually in motion, but -feeding almost wholly on the large soft berries of the different kinds -of _Melastoma_. The _Pipridae_, however, have no close affinity with the -_Paridae_,[1] but belong to another great division of the order -_Passeres_, the _Clamatores_ group of the _Anisomyodae_. The manakins -are nearly all birds of gay appearance, generally exhibiting rich tints -of blue, crimson, scarlet, orange or yellow in combination with -chestnut, deep black, black and white, or olive green; and among their -most obvious characteristics are their short bill and feeble feet, of -which the outer toe is united to the middle toe for a good part of its -length. The tail, in most species very short, has in others the middle -feathers much elongated, and in one of the outer rectrices are -attenuated and produced into threads. They have been divided (Brit. Mus. -_Cat. Birds_, vol. xiv.) into nineteen genera with about seventy -species, of which eighteen are included under _Pipra_ itself. _P. -leucilla_, one of the best known, has a wide distribution from the -isthmus of Panama to Guiana and the valley of the Amazon; but it is one -of the most plainly coloured of the family, being black with a white -head. The genus _Machaeropterus_, consisting of four species, is very -remarkable for the extraordinary form of some of the secondary -wing-feathers in the males, in which the shaft is thickened and the webs -changed in shape, as described and illustrated by P. L. Sclater (_Proc. -Zool. Society_, 1860, p. 90; Ibis, 1862, p. 175[2]) in the case of the -beautiful _M. deliciosus_, and it has been observed that the wing-bones -of these birds are also much thickened, no doubt in correlation with -this abnormal structure. A like deviation from the ordinary character is -found in the allied genus _Chiromachaeris_, comprehending seven species, -and Sclater is of the opinion that it enables them to make the singular -noise for which they have long been noted, described by O. Salvin -(_Ibis_, 1860, p. 37) in the case of one of them, _M. candaei_, as -beginning "with a sharp note not unlike the crack of a whip," which is -"followed by a rattling sound not unlike the call of a landrail"; and it -is a similar habit that has obtained for another species, _M. edwardsi_, -the name in Cayenne, according to Buffon (_Hist. Nat. Oiseaux_, iv. -413), of _Cassenoisette_. (A. N.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Though Edwards called the species he figured (_ut supra_) a - titmouse, he properly remarked that there was no genus of European - birds to which he could liken it. - - [2] The figures are repeated by Darwin (_Descent of Man_, &c., ii. - 66). - - - - -MANAOAG, a town in the north central part of the province of Pangasinan, -Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the Angalacan river, 21 m. N.E. of -Lingayen. Pop. (1903), 16,793. The inhabitants devote themselves -especially to rice-culture, though tobacco, Indian corn, sugar-cane, -fruit and vegetables are also raised. A statue of the Virgin Mary here -is visited annually (especially during May) by thousands from Pangasinan -and adjoining provinces. The inhabitants are mostly Ilocanos. Manaoag -includes the town proper and eighteen barrios. - - - - -MANAOS, a city and port of Brazil and capital of the state of Amazonas, -on the left bank of the Rio Negro 12 m. above its junction with the -Solimoes, or Amazon, and 908 m. (Wappaus) above the mouth of the latter, -in lat. 3 deg. 8' 4" S., long. 60 deg. W. Pop. (1908), about 40,000, -including a large percentage of Indians, negroes and mixed-bloods; the -city is growing rapidly. Manaos stands on a slight eminence overlooking -the river, 106 ft. above sea-level, traversed by several "igarapes" -(canoe paths) or side channels, and beautified by the luxuriant -vegetation of the Amazon valley. The climate is agreeable and healthful, -the average temperature for the year (1902) being 84 deg., the number of -rainy days 130, and the total rainfall 66.4 in. Up to the beginning of -the 20th century the only noteworthy public edifices were the church of -N.S. da Conceicao, the St Sebastiao asylum and, possibly, a Misericordia -hospital; but a government building, a custom-house, a municipal hall, -courts of justice, a marketplace and a handsome theatre were -subsequently erected, and a modern water-supply system, electric light -and electric tramways were provided. The "igarapes" are spanned by a -number of bridges. Higher education is provided by a lyceum or high -school, besides which there is a noteworthy school (bearing the name of -Benjamin Constant) for poor orphan girls. Manaos has a famous botanical -garden, an interesting museum, a public library, and a meteorological -observatory. The port of Manaos, which is the commercial centre of the -whole upper Amazon region, was nothing but a river anchorage before -1902. In that year a foreign corporation began improvements, which -include a stone river-wall or quay, storehouses for merchandise, and -floating wharves or landing stages connected with the quay by floating -bridges or roadways. The floating wharves and bridges are made necessary -by the rise and fall of the river, the difference between the maximum -and minimum levels being about 33 ft. - -The principal exports are rubber, nuts, cacao, dried fish, hides and -piassava fibre. The markets of Manaos receive their supplies of beef -from the national stock ranges on the Rio Branco, and it is from this -region that hides and horns are received for export. The shipping -movement of the port has become large and important, the total arrivals -in 1907, including small trading boats, being 1589, of which 133 were -ocean-going steamers from Europe and the United States, 75 from south -Brazilian ports, and 227 river steamers from Para. This rapid growth in -its direct trade is due to a provincial law of 1878 which authorized an -abatement of 3% in the export duties on direct shipments, and a state -law of 1900 which made it compulsory to land and ship all products of -the state from the Manaos custom-house. - -The first European settlement on the site of Manaos was made in 1660, -when a small fort was built here by Francisco da Motta Falcao, and was -named Sao Jose de Rio Negro. The mission and village which followed was -called Villa de Barra, or Barra do Rio Negro (the name "Barra" being -derived from the "bar" in the current of the river, occasioned by the -setback caused by its encounter with the Amazon). It succeeded Barcellos -as the capital of the old _capitania_ of Rio Negro in 1809, and became -the capital of Amazonas when that province was created in 1850, its name -being then changed to Manaos, the name of the principal tribe of Indians -living on the Rio Negro at the time of its discovery. In 1892 Manaos -became the see of the new bishopric of Amazonas. - - - - -MANASSAS, a district of Prince William county, Virginia, and a town of -the district, about 30 m. W.S.W. of Washington, D.C. Pop. (1910) of the -district, 3381; of the town, 1217. The village of Manassas (in the -town), known also as Manassas Junction, is served by the Chesapeake & -Ohio and the Southern railways. North of the junction is Bull Run, a -small stream which empties into the Occoquan, an arm of the Potomac. In -this neighbourhood two important battles of the American Civil War, the -first and second battles of Bull Run, were fought on the 21st of July -1861 and on the 29th-30th of August 1862 respectively; by Southern -historians these battles are called the battles of Manassas. At Manassas -is the Manassas Industrial School for Coloured Youth (non-sectarian; -privately supported), which was founded in 1892 and opened in 1894; in -1908-1909 it had nine teachers (all negroes) and 121 pupils, all in -elementary grades. - - - - -MANASSEH (7th cent. B.C.), son of Hezekiah, and king of Judah (2 Kings -xxi. 1-18). His reign of fifty-five years was marked by a reaction -against the reforming policy of his father, and his persistent idolatry -and bloodshed were subsequently regarded as the cause of the destruction -of Jerusalem and of the dispersion of the people (2 Kings xxiii. 26 -seq.; Jer. xv. 4). As a vassal of Assyria he was contemporary with -Sennacherib, Esar-haddon (681-668 B.C.) and Assur-bani-pal (668-626 -B.C.), and his name (_Me-na-si-e_) appears among the tributaries of the -two latter. Little is known of his history. The chronicler, however, -relates that the Assyrian army took him in chains to Babylon, and that -after his repentance he returned, and distinguished himself by his -piety, by building operations in Jerusalem and by military organization -(2 Chron. xxxiii. 10 sqq.). The story of his penitence referred to in -xxxiii. 22, is untrustworthy, but the historical foundation may have -been some share in the revolt of the Babylonian Samas-sum-ukin (648 -B.C.), on which occasion he may have been summoned before Assur-bani-pal -with other rebels and subsequently reinstated. See further Driver, in -Hogarth, _Authority and Archaeology_, pp. 114 sqq. Manasseh was -succeeded by his son Amon, who after a brief reign of two years perished -in a conspiracy, his place being taken by Amon's son (or brother) Josiah -(q.v.). A lament formerly ascribed to Manasseh (cf. 2 Chron. xxxiii. 18) -is preserved in the Apocrypha (see MANASSES, PRAYER OF; and APOCRYPHAL -LITERATURE). On Judg. xviii. 30 (marg.), see JONATHAN. - - - - -MANASSEH (apparently Hebrew for "he who causes to forget," but see H. W. -Hogg, _Encyc. Bib._, s.v.); in the Bible, a tribe of Israel, the elder -but less important of the "sons" of Joseph. Its seat lay to the north of -Ephraim, but its boundaries can scarcely be defined. It merged itself -with its "brother" in the south, and with Issachar, Zebulun and other -tribes in the north (Josh. xvii. 7 sqq.). From the latter it was -separated for a time by a line of Canaanite cities extending from Dor to -Bethshean, which apparently were not all subdued till the days of David -or Solomon (Judg. i. 27; 1 Sam. xxxi. 10; 1 Kings ix. 15). Besides its -western settlement in the fertile glades of northern Samaria, running -out into the great plain, there were territories east of the Jordan -reckoned to Manasseh. Gilead and Bashan were said to have been taken by -Machir, and a number of places of uncertain identification were occupied -by Nobah and Jair (Num. xxxii. 41; Judg. x. 3-5). It seems most natural -to suppose that these districts were held before the Israelites crossed -over to the west (cf. the tradition Num. xxi., Deut. iii.). On the other -hand, in Judg. v. 14, Machir may conceivably belong to the west, and it -is possible that, according to another tradition, these movements were -the result of the complaint of the Joseph tribes that their original -territory was too restricted.[1] In the genealogical lists, Machir, -perhaps originally an independent branch, is the eldest son of Manasseh -(Josh. xvii. 1 _b_, 2); but according to later schemes he is Manasseh's -only son (Num. xxvi. 28-34). Intermixture with Arameans is indicated in -the view that he was the son of Manasseh and an Aramean concubine (1 -Chron. vii. 14), and this is supported by the statement that the -Arameans of Geshur and Maacah (cf. 2 Sam. x. 6; Gen. xxii. 24) dwelt -among the Israelites of eastern Jordan (Josh. xiii. 13). Subsequently, -at an unknown period of history, sixty cities were lost (1 Chron. ii. -23). The story of the daughters of the Manassite Zelophehad is of -interest for the Hebrew law of inheritance (Num. xxvii. 1-11, xxxvi.). - - Some details of the history of this twofold branch of the Israelites - are contained in the stories of Gideon (W. Manasseh) and Jephthah (E. - Manasseh). The relations between Saul and Jabesh-Gilead point to the - close bond uniting the two districts, but the details have been - variously interpreted: Winckler, for example, suggesting that Saul - himself was originally from E. Manasseh and that he followed in the - steps of Jephthah (_Keilinschr. u. d. alte Test._, pp. 216 seq. 227). - Generally speaking, its position in the west made it share the - fortunes of Ephraim, whilst on the east the proximity of Ammonites and - Moabites controlled its history; see also the articles on its southern - neighbours, GAD and REUBEN, and the articles GENEALOGY (Biblical); and - JEWS: _History_. (S. A. C.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] So Budde (_Richter u. Samuel_), who recovers certain old - fragments and arranges Josh. xvii. 14-18 (v. 18 read "hill-country of - Gilead"); Num. xxxii. 39, 41 seq.; Josh. xiii. 13. - - - - -MANASSES, CONSTANTINE, Byzantine chronicler, flourished in the 12th -century during the reign of Manuel I. (Comnenus) (1143-1180). He was the -author of a _Chronicle_ or historical synopsis of events from the -creation of the world to the end of the reign of Nicephorus Botaniates -(1081), written by direction of Irene, the emperor's sister-in-law. It -consists of about 7000 lines in the so-called "political" metre.[1] -There is little to be said of it, except that it is rather more poetical -than the iambic chronicle of Ephraim (about 150 years later). It -obtained great popularity and appeared in a free prose translation; it -was also translated into Slavonic. The poetical romance of the _Loves of -Aristander and Callithea_, also in "political" verse, is only known from -the fragments preserved in the [Greek: Rhodonia] (rose-garden) of -Macarius Chrysocephalus (14th century). Manasses also wrote a short -biography of Oppian, and some descriptive pieces (all except one -unpublished) on artistic and other subjects. - - EDITIONS.--_Chronicle_ in Bonn, _Corpus scriptorum hist. Byz._, 1st - ed. Bekker (1837) and in J. P. Migne, _Patrologia graeca_, cxxvii.; - _Aristander and Callithea_ in R. Hercher's _Scriptores erotici - graeci_, ii. (1859); "Life of Oppian" in A. Westermann, _Vitarum - scriptores graeci minores_ (1845). A long didactic poem in "political" - verse (edited by E. Miller in _Annuaire de l'assoc. pour - l'encouragement des etudes grecques en France_, ix. 1875) is - attributed to Manasses or one of his imitators. See also F. Hirsch, - _Byzantinische Studien_ (1876); C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der - byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] "Political" verse or metre is the name given to a kind of verse - found as early as the 6th century in proverbs, and characteristic of - Byzantine and modern Greek poetry. It takes no account of the - quantity of syllables; the scansion depends on accent, and there is - always an accent on the last syllable but one. It is specially used - of an iambic verse with fifteen syllables, i.e. seven feet and an - unaccented syllable over. Byron compares "A captain bold of Halifax - who lived in country quarters." Such facile metres are called - "political," in the sense of "commonplace," "of the city." Cf. - Gibbon's _Decline and Fall_ (ed. Bury, 1898), vi. 108; Du Cange, - _Gloss. med. et infin. lat._ (vi. 395), who has an interesting - quotation from Leo Allatius. Leo explains "political" as implying - that the verses are "scorta et meretrices, quod omnibus sunt - obsequiosae et peculiares, et servitutem publicam serviunt." - - - - -MANASSES, PRAYER OF, an apocryphal book of the Old Testament. This -writing, which since the Council of Trent has been relegated by the -Church of Rome to the position of an appendix to the Vulgate, was placed -by Luther and the translators of the English Bible among the apocryphal -books. In some MSS. of the Septuagint it is the eighth among the -canticles appended to the Psalter, though in many Greek psalters, which -include the canticles, it is not found at all. In Swete's Old Testament -in Greek, iii. 802 sqq., A is printed with the variants of T -(_Psalterium turicense_).[1] From the statements in 2 Chron. xxxiii. 12, -13, 18, 19, it follows that the Old Testament chronicler found a prayer -attributed to Manasseh in his Hebrew sources, _The History of the Kings -of Israel_ and _The History of the Seers_. Naturally the question arose, -had the existing Prayer of Manasses any direct connexion with the prayer -referred to by the chronicler? Ewald was of opinion that the Greek was -an actual translation of the lost Hebrew; but Ball more wisely takes it -as a free rendering of a lost Haggadic narrative founded on the older -document from which the chronicler drew his information. This view he -supports by showing that there was once a considerable literature in -circulation regarding Manasseh's later history. On the other hand most -scholars take the Prayer to have been written in Greek, e.g. Fritzsche, -Schurer and Ryssel (Kautzsch, _Apok. u. Pseud._ i. 165-168). - -This fine penitential prayer seems to have been modelled after the -penitential psalms. It exhibits considerable unity of thought, and the -style is, in the main, dignified and simple. - -As regards the date, Fritzsche, Ball and Ryssel agree in assigning this -psalm to the Maccabean period. Its eschatology and doctrine of "divine -forgiveness" may point to an earlier date. - - The best short account of the book is given by Ball (_Speaker's - Apocrypha_, ii. 361-371); see also Porter in Hastings's _Dict. Bible_, - iii. 232-233. (R. H. C.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Nestle (_Septuaginta Studien III._) contends that the text of A - and T is derived from the Apost. Const. ii. 22, or from its original, - and not from a MS. of the Septuagint. - - - - -MANATI (often anglicized as "manatee"), the name, adapted from the Carib -_manattoui_, given by the Spanish colonists of the West Indies to the -American representative of a small group of herbivorous aquatic mammals, -constituting, with their allies the dugong and the now extinct -_Rhytina_, the order Sirenia. The name, though possibly of Mandingo -origin (see MANDINGO), was latinized as _manatus_, furnished with hands, -thus referring the etymology to the somewhat hand-like form, or -hand-like use, of the fore-flippers, which alone serve these creatures -for limbs. Manatis, as shown in the illustration in the article SIRENIA, -are somewhat whale-like in shape, having a similar horizontally expanded -tail-fin; but here the resemblance to the Cetacea ceases, the whole -organization of these animals being constructed on entirely different -lines. The American manati, _Manatus_ (or, as some would have it, -_Trichechus latirostris_), inhabits the rivers of Florida, Mexico, -Central America and the West Indies, and measures from 9 to 13 feet in -length. The body is somewhat fish-like, but depressed and ending -posteriorly in a broad, flat, shovel-like horizontal tail, with rounded -edges. The head is of moderate size, oblong, with a blunt, truncated -muzzle, and divided from the body by a slight constriction or neck. The -fore limbs are flattened oval paddles, placed rather low on the sides of -the body, and showing externally no signs of division into fingers, but -with three diminutive flat nails near their extremities. No traces of -hind limbs are discernible either externally or internally; and there is -no dorsal fin. The mouth is peculiar, the tumid upper lip being cleft in -the middle line into two lobes, each of which is separately movable. The -nostrils are two semilunar valve-like slits at the apex of the muzzle. -The eyes are very minute, placed at the sides of the head, and with a -nearly circular aperture with wrinkled margins; and external ears are -wanting. The skin generally is of a dark greyish colour, not smooth or -glistening like that of whale or dolphin, but finely wrinkled. At a -little distance it appears naked, but close inspection, at all events in -young animals, shows a scanty covering of delicate hairs, and both upper -and under lips are supplied with short, stiff bristles. - -[Illustration: (From Murie.) - -Front view of head of American Manati, showing the eyes, nostrils, and -mouth. A, with the lobes of the upper lip divaricated; B, with the lip -contracted.] - -Manatis have a number--as many as 20 pairs in each jaw--of two-ridged -teeth, of which, however, but comparatively few are in use at once. They -lack the large tusks of the male dugong, and the fore part of the skull -is not so much bent down as in that animal. In life the palate has a -horny plate, with a similar one in the lower jaw. The skeleton is -described under SIRENIA. - -Manatis pass their life in the water, inhabiting bays, lagoons, -estuaries and large rivers, but the open sea is unsuited to their -peculiar mode of life. As a rule they prefer shallow water, in which, -when not feeding, they lie near the bottom. In deeper water they often -float, with the body much arched, the rounded back close to the -surface, and the head, limbs and tail hanging downwards. The air in the -lungs assists them to maintain this position. Their food consists -exclusively of aquatic plants, on which they feed beneath the water. -They are slow in their movements, and perfectly harmless, but are -subject to persecution for the sake of their oil, skin and flesh. -Frequent attempts have been made to keep specimens alive in captivity, -and sometimes with considerable success, one having lived in the -Brighton Aquarium for upwards of sixteen months. From such captive -specimens certain observations on the mode of life of these animals have -been made. We learn, for instance, that from the shoulder-joint the -flippers can be moved in all directions, and the elbow and wrist permit -of free extension and flexion. In feeding, manatis push the food towards -their mouths by means of one of the hands, or both used simultaneously, -and any one who has seen these members thus employed can believe the -stories of their carrying their young under their arms. Still more -interesting is the action of the peculiar lateral pads formed by the -divided upper lip, thus described by Professor A. Garrod: "These pads -have the power of transversely approaching towards and receding from one -another simultaneously (see fig.). When the animal is on the point of -seizing (say) a leaf of lettuce, the pads are diverged transversely in -such a way as to make a median gap of considerable breadth. Directly the -leaf is within grasp the lip-pads are approximated, the leaf is firmly -seized between their contiguous bristly surfaces, and then drawn inwards -by a backward movement of the lower margin of the lip as a whole." The -animal is thus enabled by the unaided means of the upper lip to -introduce food placed before it without the assistance of the -comparatively insignificant lower lip, the action recalling that of the -mouth of the silkworm and other caterpillars in which the mandibles -diverge and converge laterally during mastication. All trustworthy -observations indicate that the manati has not the power of voluntarily -leaving the water. None of the specimens in confinement has been -observed to emit any sound. - -The Amazonian manati (_M. inunguis_) is a much smaller species, not -exceeding 7 or 8 ft. in length, and without nails to the flippers. It -ascends most of the tributaries of the Amazon until stopped by rapids. -From a specimen which lived a short time in London it appears that the -lip-pads are less developed than in the northern species. The third -species is the West African _M. senegalensis_, which extends a distance -of about ten degrees south and sixteen north of the equator, and ranges -into the heart of the continent as far as Lake Tchad. From 8 to 10 ft. -appears to be the normal length; the weight of a specimen was 590 lb. -The colour is bluish black, with a tinge of olive-green above and yellow -below. (R. L.*) - - - - -MANBHUM, a district of British India, in the Chota Nagpur division of -Bengal. The administrative headquarters are at Purulia. Area, 4147 sq. -m.; pop. (1901), 1,301,364, showing an increase of 9.1% since 1891. -Manbhum district forms the first step of a gradual descent from the -table-land of Chota Nagpur to the delta of lower Bengal. In the northern -and eastern portions the country is open, and consists of a series of -rolling downs dotted here and there with isolated conical hills. In the -western and southern tracts the country is more broken and the scenery -much more picturesque. The principal hills are Dalma (3407 ft.), the -crowning peak of a range of the same name; Gangabari or Gajboro (2220 -ft.), the highest peak of the Baghmundi range, about 20 m. south-west of -Purulia; and Panchkot or Panchet (1600 ft.), on which stands the old -fort of the rajas of Panchet. The hills are covered with dense jungle. -The chief river is the Kasai, which flows through the district from -north-west to south-east into Midnapore, and on which a considerable -floating trade in _sal_ timber is carried on. The most numerous -aboriginal tribe are the Sontals; but the Bhumij Kols are the -characteristic race. In Manbhum they inhabit the country lying on both -sides of the Subanrekha. They are pure Mundas, but their compatriots to -the east have dropped the title of Munda and the use of their -distinctive language, have adopted Hindu customs, and are fast becoming -Hindus in religion. The Bhumij Kols of the Jungle Mahals were once the -terror of the surrounding districts; they are now more peaceful. - - Three principal crops of rice are grown, one sown broadcast early in - May on table-lands and the tops of ridges, an autumn crop, and a - winter crop, the last forming the chief harvest of the district. Other - crops are wheat, barley, Indian corn, pulses, oilseeds, linseeds, - jute, hemp, sugar-cane, indigo, pan and tobacco. Owing to the - completeness of the natural drainage, floods are unknown, but the - country is liable to droughts caused by deficient rainfall. The - principal articles of export are oilseeds, pulses, _ghi_, lac, indigo, - tussur silk (manufactured near Raghunathpur), timber, resin, coal, and - (in good seasons) rice. The chief imports are salt, piece goods, brass - utensils and unwrought iron. Cotton hand-loom weaving is carried on - all over the district. Manbhum contains the Jherria coalfield, in the - Damodar valley, where a large number of mines have been opened since - 1894. The United Free Church of Scotland has a mission at Pakheria, - with a printing press that issues a monthly journal in Sonthali; and a - German Lutheran mission has been established since 1864. The district - is traversed by the Bengal-Nagpur railway, while two branches of the - East Indian railway serve the coalfield. - - - - -MANCHA, LA (Arabic, _Al Mansha_, "the dry land" or "wilderness"), a name -which when employed in its widest sense denotes the bare and monotonous -elevated plateau of central Spain that stretches between the mountains -of Toledo and the western spurs of the hills of Cuenca, being bounded on -the S. by the Sierra Morena and on the N. by the Alcarria region. It -thus comprises portions of the modern provinces of Toledo, Albacete and -Cuenca, and the greater part of Ciudad Real. Down to the 16th century -the eastern portion was known as La Mancha de Montearagon or de Aragon, -and the western simply as La Mancha; afterwards the north-eastern and -south-western sections respectively were distinguished by the epithets -_Alta_ and _Baja_ (upper and lower). La Mancha is famous as the scene of -Cervantes' novel _Don Quixote_; in appearance, with its multitude of -windmills and vast tracts of arid land, it remains almost exactly as -Cervantes described it. Many villages, such as El Toboso and Argamasilla -de Alba, both near Alcazar de San Juan, are connected by tradition with -episodes in _Don Quixote_. - - - - -MANCHE, a department of north-western France, made up chiefly of the -Cotentin and the Avranchin districts of Normandy, and bounded W., N. and -N.E. by the English Channel (Fr. _La Manche_), from which it derives its -name, E. by the department of Calvados, S.E. by Orne, S. by Mayenne and -Ille-et-Vilaine. Pop. (1906), 487,443. Area, 2475 sq. m. - -The department is traversed from south to north by a range of hills, in -many parts picturesque, and connected in the south with those of Maine -and Brittany. In the country round Mortain, which has been called the -Switzerland of Normandy, they rise to a height of 1200 ft. The -coast-line, running northward along the bay of the Seine from the rocks -of Grand Camp to Cape Barfleur, thence westward to Cape la Hague, and -finally southward to the Bay of Mont St Michel, has a length of 200 -miles. The Vire and the Taute (which near the small port of Carentan -receives the Ouve as a tributary on the left) fall into the sea at the -Calvados border, and are united by a canal some miles above their -mouths. From the mouth of the Taute a low beach runs to the port of St -Vaast-la-Hougue, where the coast becomes rocky, with sandbanks. Off St -Vaast lies the fortified island of Tatihow, with the laboratory of -marine zoology of the Natural History Museum of Paris. Between Cape -Barfleur and Cape la Hague lie the roads of Cherbourg, protected by the -famous breakwater. The whole western coast is inhospitable; its small -havens, lying behind formidable barriers and reefs, are almost dry at -low tide. Great cliffs, such as the points of Jobourg (420 ft. high) and -Flamanville, alternate with long strands, such as that which extends for -30 m. from Cape Carteret to Granville. Between this coast and the -Channel Islands the tide, pent up between numerous sandbanks, flows with -a terrific force that has given these passages such ill-omened names as -_Passage de la Deroute_ and the like. The only important harbours are -Granville and the haven of refuge of Dielette between Granville and -Cherbourg. Carteret carries on a passenger traffic with the Channel -Islands. The chief stream is the Sienne, with its tributary the Soulle -flowing by Coutances. South of Granville the sands of St Pair are the -commencement of the great bay of Mont Saint Michel, whose area of -60,000 acres was covered with forest till the terrible tide of the year -709. The equinoctial tides reach a vertical height of nearly 50 ft. In -the bay the picturesque walls of the abbey rise from the summit of a -rock 400 ft. high. The See, which waters Avranches, and the Couesnon -(separating Manche from Ille-et-Vilaine) disembogue in the bay. - -The climate of Manche is mild and humid, from its propinquity to the -sea. Frosts are never severe; myrtles and fuchsias flourish in the open -air. Excessive heat is also unusual; the predominant winds are -south-west. - -The characteristic industry of the department is the rearing of horses -and cattle, carried on especially in the rich meadow of the eastern -Cotentin; sheep are raised in the western arrondissement of Coutances. -Wheat, buckwheat, barley and oats are the chief cereals cultivated. -Manche is one of the foremost departments for the production of -cider-apples and pears; plums and figs are also largely grown. Butter is -an important source of profit, as also are poultry and eggs. Flourishing -market-gardens are found in the west. The department contains valuable -granite quarries in the Cherbourg arrondissement and the Chausey -islands; building and other stone is quarried. - -Villedieu manufactures copper-ware and Sourdeval iron and other -metal-ware; and there are wool-spinning mills, paper-works and -leather-works, but the department as a whole is industrially -unimportant. There are oyster-beds on the coast (St Vaast, &c.), and the -maritime population, besides fishing for herring, mackerel, lobsters or -sole, collect seaweed for agricultural use. Coutances is the seat of a -bishopric of the province of Rouen. The department forms part of the -region of the X. army corps and of the circumscriptions of the academie -(educational division) and appeal-court of Caen. Cherbourg (q.v.), with -its important port, arsenal and shipbuilding yards, is the chief centre -of population. St Lo (q.v.) is the capital; there are six -arrondissements (St Lo, Avranches, Cherbourg, Coutances, Mortain, -Valognes), with 48 cantons and 647 communes. Avranches, Mortain, -Coutances, Granville and Mont Saint Michel receive separate treatment. -At Lessay and St Sauveur-le-Vicomte there are the remains of ancient -Benedictine abbeys, and Torigni-sur-Vire and Tourlaville (close to -Cherbourg) have interesting chateaux of the 16th century. Valognes, -which in the 17th and 18th centuries posed as a provincial centre of -culture, has a church (15th, 16th and 17th centuries) remarkable for its -dome, the only one of Gothic architecture in France. - - - - -MANCHESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The Manchester title, in the English -peerage, belongs to a branch of the family of Montagu (q.v.). The first -earl was SIR HENRY MONTAGU (c. 1563-1642), grandson of Sir Edward -Montagu, chief justice of the king's bench 1539-1545, who was named by -King Henry VIII. one of the executors of his will, and governor to his -son, Edward VI. Sir Henry Montagu, who was born at Boughton, -Northamptonshire, about 1563, was educated at Christ's College, -Cambridge, and, having been called to the bar, was elected recorder of -London in 1603, and in 1616 was made chief justice of the king's bench, -in which office it fell to him to pass sentence on Sir Walter Raleigh in -October 1618. In 1620 he was appointed lord high treasurer, being raised -to the peerage as Baron Montagu of Kimbolton, Huntingdonshire, and -Viscount Mandeville. He became president of the council in 1621, in -which office he was continued by Charles I., who created him earl of -Manchester[1] in 1626. In 1628 he became lord privy seal, and in 1635 a -commissioner of the treasury. Although from the beginning of his public -life in 1601, when he first entered parliament, Manchester had inclined -to the popular side in politics, he managed to retain to the end the -favour of the king. He was a judge of the Star Chamber, and one of the -most trusted councillors of Charles I. His loyalty, ability and honesty -were warmly praised by Clarendon. In conjunction with Coventry, the lord -keeper, he pronounced an opinion in favour of the legality of ship-money -in 1634. He died on the 7th of November 1642. Manchester was married -three times. One of his sons by his third wife was father of Charles -Montagu, created earl of Halifax in 1699. - -EDWARD MONTAGU, 2nd earl of Manchester (1602-1671), eldest son of the -1st earl by his first wife, Catherine Spencer, granddaughter of Sir John -Spencer of Althorpe, was born in 1602, and was educated at Sidney Sussex -College, Cambridge. He was member of parliament for Huntingdonshire -1623-1626, and in the latter year was raised to the peerage in his -father's lifetime as Baron Montagu of Kimbolton, but was known generally -by his courtesy title of Viscount Mandeville. His first wife, who was -related to the duke of Buckingham, having died in 1625 after two years -of marriage, Mandeville married in 1626 Anne, daughter of the 2nd earl -of Warwick. The influence of his father-in-law, who was afterwards -admiral on the side of the parliament, drew Mandeville to the popular -side in the questions in dispute with the crown, and at the beginning of -the Long Parliament he was one of the recognized leaders of the popular -party in the upper House, his name being joined with those of the five -members of the House of Commons impeached by the king in 1642. At the -outbreak of the Civil War, having succeeded his father in the earldom in -November 1642, Manchester commanded a regiment in the army of the earl -of Essex, and in August 1643 he was appointed major-general of the -parliamentary forces in the eastern counties, with Cromwell as his -second in command. Having become a member of the "committee of both -kingdoms" in 1644, he was in supreme command at Marston Moor (July 1, -1644); but in the subsequent operations his lack of energy brought him -into disagreement with Cromwell, and in November 1644 he strongly -expressed his disapproval of continuing the war (see CROMWELL, OLIVER). -Cromwell brought the shortcomings of Manchester before parliament in the -autumn of 1644; and early in the following year, anticipating the -self-denying ordinance, Manchester resigned his command. He took a -leading part in the frequent negotiations for an arrangement with -Charles, was custodian with Lenthall of the great seal 1646-1648, and -frequently presided in the House of Lords. He opposed the trial of the -king, and retired from public life during the Commonwealth; but after -the Restoration, which he actively assisted, he was loaded with honours -by Charles II. In 1667 he was made a general, and he died on the 5th of -May 1671. Manchester was made a K.G. in 1661, and became F.R.S. in 1667. -Men of such divergent sympathies as Baxter, Burnet and Clarendon agreed -in describing Manchester as a lovable and virtuous man, who loved peace -and moderation both in politics and religion. He was five times married, -leaving children by two of his wives, and was succeeded in the title by -his eldest son, Robert, 3rd earl of Manchester (1634-1683). - - See Lord Clarendon, _History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in - England_ (7 vols., Oxford, 1839) and _Life of Clarendon_ (Oxford, - 1827); S. R. Gardiner, _History of the Great Civil War_, 1642-1649. (4 - vols., London, 1886-1891); _The Quarrel between Manchester and - Cromwell_, Camden Soc., N.S. 12 (London, 1875); Sir Philip Warwick, - _Memoirs of the Reign of Charles I._ (London, 1701). - -CHARLES MONTAGU, 1st duke of Manchester (c. 1656-1722), son of Robert, -3rd earl of Manchester, was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and -succeeded to his father's earldom in 1683. Warmly sympathizing with the -Whig revolution of 1688, he attended William and Mary at their -coronation, fought under William at the Boyne, became a privy councillor -in 1698, and held various important diplomatic posts between that date -and 1714, when he received an appointment in the household of George I., -by whom on the 28th of April 1719 he was created duke of Manchester. He -died on the 20th of January 1722, and was succeeded successively in the -dukedom by his two sons, William 2nd duke of Manchester (1700-1739), and -Robert 3rd duke (c. 1710-1762), who was vice-chamberlain to Queen -Caroline, wife of George II. - -GEORGE MONTAGU, 4th duke of Manchester (1737-1788), was the son of -Robert, the 3rd duke. He was a supporter of Lord Rockingham, and an -active opponent in the House of Lords of Lord North's American policy. -In the Rockingham ministry of 1782 Manchester became lord chamberlain. -He died in September 1788. - -WILLIAM MONTAGU, 5th duke of Manchester (1768-1843), second son of the -preceding, was educated at Harrow, and having become a colonel in the -army in 1794, was appointed governor of Jamaica in 1808. Here he -remained, except for a visit to England (1811-1813) till 1827, -administering the colony with ability in a period of considerable -difficulty, and doing much to prepare the way for emancipation of the -slaves. From 1827 to 1830 he was postmaster-general in the cabinet of -the duke of Wellington, and died in Rome on the 18th of March 1843. His -wife was Susan, daughter of the 4th duke of Gordon. He was succeeded by -his son George, 6th duke (1799-1855), a captain in the navy; whose son -William Drogo, 7th duke (1823-1890), married Louise, daughter of the -Comte d'Alten of Hanover, who after his death married Spencer Cavendish, -8th duke of Devonshire. William was succeeded by his son George Victor -Drogo, 8th duke of Manchester (1853-1892), on whose death the title -devolved on his son, William Angus Drogo, 9th duke of Manchester (b. -1877). (R. J. M.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The title was derived, not from Manchester in Lancashire, but - from Manchester (or Godmanchester) in Huntingdonshire, where the - Montagu family estates were. - - - - -MANCHESTER, a township of Hartford county, Connecticut, U.S.A., about 9 -m. E. of Hartford. Pop.(1890), 8222; (1900), 10,601, of whom 3771 were -foreign-born; (1910 census) 13,641. Manchester is served by the New -York, New Haven & Hartford railway and by electric line connecting with -Hartford, Rockville and Stafford Springs. The township covers an area of -about 28 sq. m., and includes the villages of Manchester, South -Manchester, Buckland, Manchester Green and Highland Park. The Hockanum -River provides a good water power, and Manchester has various -manufactures. At South Manchester, an attractive industrial village, a -silk mill was built in 1838; the silk mills of one firm (Cheney -Brothers) here cover about 12 acres; the company has done much for its -employees, whose homes are almost all detached cottages in attractive -grounds. Manchester was originally a part of the township of Hartford, -and later a part of the township of East Hartford. The first settlement -within its present limits was made about 1672; the land was bought from -the Indians in 1676; and the township was separated from East Hartford -and incorporated in 1823. - - See also Meakin's _Model Factories and Villages_ (1905). - - - - -MANCHESTER, a city and county of a city, municipal, county and -parliamentary borough of Lancashire, England, 189 m. N.W. by N. of -London, and 31 m. E. by N. of Liverpool. It stands for the most part on -a level plain, the rising ground being chiefly on the north side. The -rivers are the Irwell, the Medlock, the Irk, and the Tib, the last -entirely overarched and covered by streets and warehouses. The Irwell, -which separates Manchester from Salford, is crossed by a series of -bridges and discharges itself into the Mersey, which is about 10 m. -distant. The chief part of the district, before it was covered with the -superficial drift of sand, gravel and clay, consisted of upper New Red -Sandstone with slight portions of lower New Red Sandstone, magnesian -marls and upper red marls, hard sandstone and limestone rock, and cold -clays and shales of contiguous coal-fields. The city, as its thousands -of brick-built houses show, has been for the most part dug out of its -own clay-fields. The parliamentary and municipal boroughs of Manchester -are not conterminous. The city boundaries, which in 1841 enclosed 4293 -acres, have been successively enlarged and now enclose 19,914 acres. - -There are four large stations for the Lancashire & Yorkshire, London & -North-Western, the Midland, Cheshire lines, Great Northern, and Great -Central railways, and many subsidiary stations for local traffic. -Tramways, as well as railways, run from Manchester to Oldham, Ashton, -Eccles, Stockport, &c., with which places the city is connected by -continuous lines of street. The length of the streets in the city of -Manchester is 758 m. (exclusive of those in the district of Withington, -which joined the city in 1905). The tramway lines within the city -boundaries extend to 111 m., and in addition there are 58 m. leased to -the corporation by adjacent local authorities. As a matter of fact, the -whole of south-east Lancashire and some portions of Cheshire are linked -to Manchester by railways and tramways so as to form one great urban -area, and the traveller passes from one town to another by lines of -street which, for the most part, are continuous. Facility of -communication is essential to the commercial prosperity of Manchester, -and its need was recognized by the duke of Bridgewater, whose canal, -constructed in 1761, has now been absorbed by the Manchester Ship Canal -(q.v.). The making of this early waterway was an event only less -important than the opening of the Manchester & Liverpool railway in -1830. - -The township of Manchester, which forms the nucleus of the city, is -comparatively small, and outlying hamlets having been added, its size -has increased without regularity of plan. Roughly speaking, the city -forms a square, with Market Street as its central thoroughfare. The -tendency of recent development is to reduce the irregularities so that -the other main streets may either run parallel to or intersect Market -Street. Deansgate, which formerly ended in a narrow tangle of buildings, -is now a broad road with many handsome buildings, and the same process -of widening, enlarging and rebuilding is going on, more or less, all -over Manchester. Market Street, which has not been widened since 1820, -has been termed, and with some reason, "the most congested street in -Europe"; but relief is anticipated from some of the other street -improvements. The centre of the city is occupied by business premises; -the factories and workshops are mainly on the eastern side. The most -important of the public buildings are in the centre and the south. The -latter is also the most favoured residential district, and at its -extremity is semi-rural in character. Large masses of the population -live beyond the city boundary and come to their daily avocations by -train and tram. Such a population is rarely homogeneous and Manchester -attracts citizens from every part of the globe; there are considerable -numbers of German, Armenian and Jewish residents. The houses are for the -most part of brick, the public buildings of stone, which is speedily -blackened by the smoky atmosphere. Many of the warehouses are of -considerable architectural merit, and in recent years the use of -terra-cotta has become more common. It is only in the suburbs that -gardens are possible; the air is laden with black dust, and the rivers, -in spite of all efforts, are in the central part of the city mere dirty -ditches. It is impossible to describe Manchester in general terms, for -within the city boundaries the conditions vary from the most squalid of -slums to suburban and almost rural beauty. - -_Churches._--Manchester is the seat of an Anglican bishopric, and the -chief ecclesiastical building is the cathedral, which, however, was -built simply as a parish church, and, although a fine specimen of the -Perpendicular period, is by no means what might be expected as the -cathedral of an important and wealthy diocese. In the course of -restoration a piece of Saxon sculpture came to light. This "Angel stone" -represents a winged figure with a scroll inscribed _In manus tuas -Domine_ in characters of the 8th century. The bulk of the building -belongs to the early part of the 15th century. The first warden was John -Huntington, rector of Ashton, who built the choir. The building, which -was noticed for its hard stone by Leland when he visited the town, did -not stand time and weather well, and by 1845 some portions of it were -rapidly decaying. This led to its restoration by James P. Holden. By -1868 the tower was almost completely renovated in a more durable stone. -Further restoration was carried out by J. S. Crowther, and the addition -of a porch and vestries was executed by Basil Champneys. The total -length is 220 ft. and the breadth 112 ft. There are several -stained-glass windows, including one to the memory of "Chinese Gordon." -The recumbent statues of Bishop James Fraser and of Hugh Birley, M.P., -should also be named. In the Ely chapel is the altar tomb of Bishop -James Stanley. In the stalls there are some curious _miserere_ carvings. -The tower is 139 ft. high, and contains a peal of ten bells, chiefly -from the foundry of the Rudhalls. There are two organs, one by Father -Smith, and a modern one in an oak case designed by Sir G. Scott. The -parish church was made collegiate in 1422, and when in 1847 the -bishopric of Manchester was created the warden and fellows became dean -and canons and the parish church became the cathedral. The first bishop -was James Prince Lee, who died in 1869; the second was James Fraser, who -died in 1885; the third was James Moorhouse, who resigned in 1903 and -was succeeded by Edmund Arbuthnott Knox. The church endowments are -considerable and have been the subject of a special act of parliament, -known as the Manchester Rectory Division Act of 1845, which provides -L1500 per annum for the dean and L600 to each of the four canons, and -divides the residue among the incumbents of the new churches formed out -of the old parish. - -[Illustration: Map of Manchester and Environs.] - -Of the Roman Catholic churches that of the Holy Name, which belongs to -the Jesuits, is remarkable for its costly decoration. The Greek Church -and most of the Nonconformist bodies have places of worship. There are -twelve Jewish synagogues. The meeting-house of the Society of Friends is -said to be the largest of the kind in the kingdom and will seat 1200 -persons. - -_Public Buildings._--The Royal Infirmary, founded in 1752, having become -inadequate for its purposes, a new building has been erected on the -south side of the city near the university, from designs by Edwin T. -Hall and John Brooke; it was opened in 1909 by king Edward VII. The -central site in Piccadilly thus became available for other purposes, and -the corporation gave instructions for plans to be made for a new library -and art gallery. The art gallery already existing in 1909 was founded as -the Royal Institution, but in 1882 passed under the control of the city -council. The building was designed by Sir Charles Barry. The collection -contains some fine paintings by Etty, Millais, Leighton and other -artists. The sculpture includes casts of the Elgin marbles and a statue -of Dr John Dalton by Chantrey. The most striking of the public buildings -is the town hall, probably the largest municipal building in the -country, but no longer entirely adequate to the increasing business of -the city council. It was completed in 1877 from designs by Alfred -Waterhouse, who selected as the style of architecture a form of Gothic, -but treated it very freely as purposes of utility required. The edifice -covers 8000 sq. yds., and includes more than two hundred and fifty -rooms. The building consists of continuous lines of corridors -surrounding a central courtyard and connected by bridges. The principal -tower is 286 ft. high to the top of the ball, and affords a view which -extends over a large part of south Lancashire and Cheshire and is -bounded only by the hills of Derbyshire. The tower contains a remarkable -peal of bells by Taylor of Loughborough, forming an almost perfect -chromatic scale of twenty-one bells; each bell has on it a line from -canto 105 of Tennyson's _In Memoriam_. The great hall is 100 ft. long -and 50 ft. wide, and contains a magnificent organ built by Cavaille-Coll -of Paris. The twelve panels of this room are filled with paintings by -Ford Madox Brown, illustrating the history and progress of the city. The -royal exchange is a fine specimen of Italian architecture and was -erected in 1869; the great meeting-hall is one of the largest rooms in -England, the ceiling having a clear area, without supports, of 120 ft. -in width. The exchange is seen at its best on market days (Tuesday and -Friday). The assize courts were built in 1864 from designs by -Waterhouse. The style is a mixture of Early English and Decorative, and -a large amount of decorative art has been expended on the building. The -branch Bank of England is a Doric building designed by C. R. Cockerell. -There are separate town-halls for the townships of Ardwick, Chorlton, -Hulme, Cheetham, Broughton and Pendleton. The Free Trade hall is a fine -structure in the Lombardo-Venetian style, and its great hall will -accommodate about five thousand people. It is used for public meetings, -concerts, &c., and was built by Edward Walters. The Athenaeum, designed -by Barry, was founded by Richard Cobden and others associated with him -for "the advancement and diffusion of knowledge." The institution has, -perhaps, not developed exactly on the lines contemplated by its -promoters, but it has been very useful. The advantages enjoyed by -members of social clubs, with the addition of facilities for educational -classes and the use of an excellent news-room and a well-selected -library, are offered in return for a payment which does not amount to a -penny a day. The mechanics' institution has developed into the school of -Technology, which now forms a part of the university. The Portico is a -good specimen of the older proprietary libraries and newsrooms. It dates -from 1806, and has a library. The Memorial Hall was built to commemorate -the memory of the ejected ministers of 1662; it is used for meetings, -scientific, educational, musical and religious. The Whitworth Institute -is governed by a corporate body originating from the liberal bequests of -Sir Joseph Whitworth. The Institute contains a valuable collection of -works of art and stands in the centre of a woodland park. In the park, -which has been transferred to the corporation, is a sculpture group of -"Christ and the Children," executed by George Tinworth from the designs -of R. D. Darbishire, by whom it was presented. The assize courts, built -from designs by Waterhouse (1864), the post office (1887), and the -police courts (1871) should also be named. Many fine structures suffer -from being hemmed in by streets which prevent the proportions from being -seen to advantage. - -_Monuments._--In Piccadilly are bronze statues of Wellington, Watt, -Dalton, Peel and Queen Victoria. Another statue of the Queen, by the -Princess Louise, is placed on the new porch of the cathedral. A bronze -statue of Cobden occupies a prominent position in St Ann's Square. There -also is the South African War Memorial of the Manchester Regiment. The -marble statue of the Prince Consort, covered by a Gothic canopy of -stone, is in front of the town hall, which dwarfs what would otherwise -be a striking monument. In Albert Square there are also statues of -Bishop Fraser, John Bright, Oliver Heywood and W. E. Gladstone. A statue -of J. P. Joule is in the town hall, which also contains memorials of -other worthies. The Queen's Park has a statue of Benjamin Brierley, a -well-known writer in the Lancashire dialect. The most picturesque is -Matthew Noble's bronze statue of Cromwell, placed on a huge block of -rough granite as pedestal. It stands at the junction of Deansgate and -Victoria Street, near the cathedral, and was presented to the town by -Mrs E. S. Heywood. - -_Education._--There are many educational facilities. The oldest -institution is the grammar school, which was founded in 1519 by Hugh -Oldham, bishop of Exeter, a native of the town. The master and usher -appointed by the bishop were to teach freely every child and scholar -coming to the school, "without any money or reward taken"; and the -bishop forbade the appointment of any member of the religious orders as -head master. Some corn mills were devised for the maintenance of the -school, which was further endowed at both the universities by Sarah, -duchess of Somerset, in 1692. The school has now two hundred and fifty -free scholars, whilst other pupils are received on payment of fees. -Among those educated at the grammar school were Thomas De Quincey, -Harrison Ainsworth and Samuel Bamford the Radical. After the grammar -school the oldest educational foundation is that of Humphrey Chetham, -whose bluecoat school, founded in 1653, is housed in the building -formerly occupied by the college of clergy. This also contains the -public library founded by Chetham, and is the most interesting relic of -antiquity in the city. The educational charity of William Hulme -(1631-1691) is administered under a scheme drawn up in 1881. Its income -is nearly L10,000 a year, and it supports a grammar school and aids -education in other ways. There are three high schools for girls. The -Nicholls hospital was founded in 1881 for the education of orphan boys. -Manchester was one of the first places to adopt the powers given by -Forster's Act of 1870, and on the abolition of school boards the -educational supervision was transferred to a committee of the -corporation strengthened by co-opted members. In addition to the -elementary schools, the municipality provides a large and well-equipped -school of technology, and a school of art to which is attached an arts -and crafts museum. There are a pupil teachers' college, a school of -domestic economy, special schools for feeble-minded children, and a -Royal College of Music. The schools for the deaf and dumb are situated -at Old Trafford, in a contiguous building of the same Gothic design as -the blind asylum, to which Thomas Henshaw left a bequest of L20,000. -There is also an adult deaf and dumb institution, containing a -news-room, lecture hall, chapel, &c., for the use of deaf mutes. - -The Victoria University of Manchester has developed from the college -founded by John Owens, who in 1846 bequeathed nearly L100,000 to -trustees for an institution in which should be taught "such branches of -learning and science as were then or might be hereafter usually taught -in English universities." It was opened in 1851 in a house which had -formerly been the residence of Cobden. In 1872 a new college building -was erected on the south side of the town from designs by Waterhouse. In -1880 a university charter was granted, excluding the faculties of -theology and medicine, and providing for the incorporation of University -College, Liverpool, and the College of Science, Leeds. The federal -institution thus created lasted until 1903, when the desire of Liverpool -for a separate university of its own led to a reconstruction. Manchester -University consists of one college--Owens College--in its greatly -enlarged form. The buildings include the Whitworth Hall (the gift of the -legatees of Sir Joseph Whitworth), the Manchester Museum and the -Christie Library, which is a building for the university library given -by R. C. Christie, who also bequeathed his own collection. Dr Lee, the -first bishop of Manchester, left his library to Owens College, and the -legatees of Sir Joseph Whitworth bought and presented E. A. Freeman's -books. The library has received other important special collections. The -benefactions to the university of Thomas Ashton are estimated at -L80,000. There are in Manchester a number of denominational colleges, -Wesleyan, Primitive Methodist, Unitarian, Baptist, &c., and many of the -students preparing for the ministry receive their arts training at the -university, the theological degrees of which are open to students -irrespective of creed. - - _Libraries, Museums and Societies._--Manchester is well provided with - libraries. The Chetham library, already named, contains some rare - manuscripts, the gem of the collection being a copy of the historical - compilation of Matthew Paris, with corrections in the author's - handwriting. There is a large collection of matter relating to the - history and archaeology of Lancashire and Cheshire, including the - transcripts of Lancashire MSS. bequeathed by Canon F. R. Raines. The - collections of broadsides formed by Mr J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps, and - the library of John Byrom, rich in mystics and shorthand writers, - should also be named. The Manchester Free Libraries were founded by - Sir John Potter in 1852. There is now a reference library containing - about 170,000 volumes, including an extensive series of English - historical works, a remarkable collection of books of political - economy and trade, and special collections relating to local history, - Dr Thomas Fuller, shorthand and the gipsies. The Henry Watson Music - Library, and the Thomas Greenwood Library for librarians were - presented to the reference library, and the Foreign Library was - purchased. Affiliated to the reference library there are nineteen - libraries, each of which includes a lending department and reading - rooms. The municipal libraries contain in the aggregate over 366,000 - vols. There are also libraries in connexion with the Athenaeum, the - School of Technology, the Portico, and many other institutions. The - most remarkable of the Manchester libraries is that founded by Mrs - Enriqueta Rylands, and named the John Rylands Library in memory of her - husband. The beautiful building was designed by Basil Champneys; the - library includes the famous Althorp collection, which was bought from - Earl Spencer. Mrs Rylands died in 1908, and by her will increased the - endowment of the library so that it has an income of L13,000 yearly. - She also bequeathed her own library. - - Manchester possesses numerous literary and scientific associations. - The oldest of these, the Literary and Philosophical Society, founded - in 1781, has a high reputation, and has numbered among its working - members John Dalton, Eaton Hodgkinson, William Fairbairn, J. P. Joule, - H. E. Roscoe and many other famous men of science. It has published a - series of memoirs and proceedings. The Manchester Statistical Society - was the first society of the kind established in the kingdom, and has - issued _Transactions_ containing many important papers. The Field - Naturalists' and Archaeologists' Society, the Microscopical Society, - the Botanists' Association, and the Geological Society may also be - named. Manchester is the headquarters of the Lancashire and Cheshire - Antiquarian Society and of several printing clubs, the Chetham, the - Record, the Lancashire Parish Registers societies. Seven daily papers - are published, and various weekly and other periodicals. The - journalism of Manchester takes high rank, the _Manchester Guardian_ - (Liberal) being one of the best newspapers in the country, while the - _Manchester Courier_ (Unionist) has an important local influence. The - _Manchester Quarterly_ is issued by the Manchester Literary Club, - which was founded in 1862. The success of the Art Treasures Exhibition - in 1857 was repeated in the Jubilee Exhibition of 1887. The Manchester - Academy of Fine Arts is a society of artists, and holds an annual - exhibition in the city art gallery. - - _Parks and Open Spaces._--There are fifty-three parks and open spaces. - The Queen's Park, at Harpurhey, is pleasantly situated, though - surrounded by cottages and manufactories. Philips Park is also - attractive, in spite of its close proximity to some of the most - densely populated portions of the town. The Alexandra Park has very - good ornamental grounds and a fine cactus house with a remarkable - collection presented by Charles Darrah. Some of the open spaces are - small; Boggart Hole Clough, where great efforts have been made to - preserve the natural features, is 76 acres in extent, and was the - largest until 1902, when Heaton Park, containing 692 acres, was - purchased. It was formerly the seat of the earls of Wilton, and - includes Heaton House, one of Wyatt's structures. In the Queen's Park - there is a museum, and periodical exhibitions of works of art are - held. The total area of the city parks is 1146 acres. The corporation - are also responsible for four cemeteries, having a total area of 228 - acres. - - _Recreation._--There are nine theatres, mostly large, and eight music - halls. The Theatre Royal was established as a patent theatre. When the - bill for it was before the House of Lords in 1775 it was advocated as - an antidote to Methodism. The Bellevue Zoological Gardens is a - favourite holiday place for working people. The Ancoats Recreation - Committee have since 1882 had Sunday lectures, and occasional - exhibitions of pictures, window gardening, &c. The Ancoats Art Museum - was founded to carry out the educational influences of art and culture - generally. In addition to works of art, there are concerts, lectures, - reading circles, &c. The museum is worked in connexion with a - university settlement. The German element in the population has - largely influenced the taste for music by which Manchester is - distinguished, and the orchestral concerts (notably under Charles - Halle) are famous. - -_Population._--From a census taken in 1773 it appears that there were -then in the township of Manchester and its out-townships 36,267 persons. -The first decennial census, 1801, showed the population to be 75,275; in -1851 it was 303,382; in 1901, 606,824. It is not easy to make an exact -comparison between different periods, because there have been successive -enlargements of the boundaries. The population has overflowed into the -surrounding districts, and if all that belongs to the urban area, of -which it is the centre, were included, greater Manchester would probably -rival London in the number of its inhabitants. - -_Manufactures and Commerce._--Manchester is the centre of the English -cotton industry (for details see COTTON and COTTON MANUFACTURE), but -owing to the enhanced value of land many mills and workshops have been -removed to the outskirts and to neighbouring villages and towns, so that -the centre of Manchester and an ever-widening circle around are now -chiefly devoted not so much to production as to the various offices of -distribution. It would be a mistake, however, to regard Manchester as -solely dependent upon the industries connected with cotton. There are -other important manufactures which in another community would be -described as gigantic. Wool and silk are manufactured on a considerable -scale, though the latter industry has for some years been on the -decline. The miscellaneous articles grouped under the designation of -small-wares occupy many hands. Machinery and tools are made in vast -quantities; the chemical industries of the city are also on a large -scale. In short, there are but few important manufactures that are -wholly unrepresented. The proximity of Manchester to the rich -coal-fields of Lancashire has had a marked influence upon its -prosperity; but for this, indeed, the rapid expansion of its industries -would have been impossible. - -The Manchester Bankers' Clearing House returns show an almost unbroken -yearly increase. The amount in 1872 was L72,805,510; in 1907 it was -L320,296,332; by the severe depression of 1908 it was reduced to -L288,555,307. Another test of prosperity is the increase in rateable -value. In 1839 it was L669,994; in 1871, L1,703,627; in 1881, -L2,301,225; in 1891, L2,798,005; in 1901, L3,394,879; in 1907, -L4,191,039; in 1909, L4,234,129. - -The commercial institutions of Manchester are too numerous for detailed -description; its chamber of commerce has for more than sixty years -exercised much influence on the trade of the district and of the nation. -Manchester is the headquarters of the Co-operative Wholesale Society, -and indeed of the cooperative movement generally. - -The most important event in the modern history of the district is the -creation of the Manchester Ship Canal (q.v.), by which Manchester and -Salford have a direct communication with the sea at Eastham, near -Liverpool. The canal was opened for traffic in January 1894. The -official opening ceremony was on the 21st of May 1894, when Queen -Victoria visited Manchester. The total expenditure on capital account -has been L16,567,881. The original share capital of L8,000,000 and -L1,812,000, raised by debentures, having been exhausted, the corporation -of Manchester advanced on loan a further sum of L5,000,000. - -_Municipality._--Manchester received a municipal charter in 1838, -received the title of city in 1853, and became a county borough in 1889. -The city is divided into 30 wards, and the corporation consists of 31 -aldermen and 93 councillors. The mayor received the title of lord mayor -in 1893. Unlike some of the municipalities, that of Manchester makes no -pecuniary allowance to its lord mayor, and the office is a costly one. - -The water supply is controlled by the corporation. The works at -Longdendale, begun in 1848, were completed, with extensions in 1884, at -a cost of L3,147,893. The area supplied by Manchester waterworks was -about 85 square miles, inhabited by a million people. The increase of -trade and population led to the obtaining of a further supply from Lake -Thirlmere, at the foot of Helvellyn and 96 miles from Manchester. The -watershed is about 11,000 acres. The daily consumption is over 38 -million gallons. Manchester supplies in bulk to many local authorities -in the district between Thirlmere and the city. The corporation have -also established works for the supply of hydraulic and electric power. - -The gas lighting of Manchester has been in the hands of the corporation -for many years, as also the supply of electricity both for lighting and -energy. When the works are complete the electricity committee will -supply an area of 45 sq. m. - - _Sanitary Condition._--Dr John Tatham constructed a Manchester - life-table based on the vital statistics of the decennium 1881-1890, - from which it appeared that, while in England and Wales of 1000 men - aged 25 nearly 800 survived to be 45 and of 1000 aged 45, 569 survived - to be 65, in Manchester the survivors were only 732 and 414 - respectively. The expectation of life, at 25, was, for England and - Wales 36.12 years, and for Manchester 30.69 years. But the death-rate - has since rapidly decreased; in 1891 it was 26.0 per thousand living; - in 1901 it was 21.6; in 1906 it was 19.0; in 1907 it was 17.9. The - deaths of infants under one year old amounted to 169 per 1000. The - reports of the medical officer show that whilst the density of the - population, the impurity of the atmosphere, and the pollution of the - streams are difficult elements in the sanitary problem, great efforts - have been made towards improving the health of the people. The - birth-rate in 1907 was 28.4, but the population is augmented by - immigration as well as by natural increase. The number of persons to - the acre is 33. - - _Administration of Justice._--The city has a stipendiary magistrate - who, in conjunction with lay magistrates, tries cases of summary - jurisdiction in the police courts. There are also quarter sessions, - presided over by a recorder. Separate sessions are held for the - Salford hundred. Certain sittings of the Court of Chancery for the - duchy of Lancaster are held in Manchester. In addition to the county - court, there is an ancient civil court known as the Salford Hundred - Court of Record. Assizes have been held since 1866. - - _Parliamentary Representation._--By the first Reform Bill Manchester - received in 1832 two representatives. In 1868 this was increased to - three, but each voter had only two votes. In 1885 the city was divided - into six divisions, each returning one member. Owing to the extension - of the city boundaries there are Manchester voters in the Stretford, - Prestwich and Gorton parliamentary divisions. - -_History._--Very little is known with certainty of the early history of -Manchester.[1] A Roman station of some importance existed at -Castlefield, and a fragment of the wall still exists. Another, perhaps -earlier, was at Hunt's Bank. In the 18th century considerable evidences -of Roman occupation were still visible; and from time to time, in the -course of excavation (especially during the making of the Bridgewater -Canal), Roman remains have been found. The coins were chiefly those of -Vespasian, Antoninus Pius, Trajan, Hadrian, Nero, Domitian, Vitellius -and Constantine. Investigations by the Lancashire and Cheshire -Antiquarian Society and the Classical Association have brought to light -many relics, chiefly of pottery. The period succeeding the Roman -occupation is for some time legendary. As late as the 17th century there -was a tradition that Tarquin, an enemy of King Arthur, kept the castle -of Manchester, and was killed by Lancelot of the Lake. The references to -the town in authentic annals are very few. It was probably one of the -scenes of the missionary preaching of Paulinus; and it is said (though -by a chronicler of comparatively late date) to have been the residence -of Ina, king of Wessex, and his queen Ethelberga, after he had defeated -Ivor, somewhere about the year 689. Almost the only point of certainty -in its history before the Conquest is that it suffered greatly from the -devastations of the Danes, and that in 923 Edward, who was then at -Thelwall, near Warrington, sent a number of his Mercian troops to repair -and garrison it. In Domesday Book Manchester, Salford, Rochdale and -Radcliffe are the only places named in south-east Lancashire, a district -now covered by populous towns. Large portions of it were then forest, -wood and waste lands. Twenty-one thanes held the manor or hundred of -Salford among them. The church of St Mary and the church of St Michael -in Manchester are both named in Domesday, and some difficulty has arisen -as to their proper identification. Some antiquaries consider that the -passage refers to the town only, whilst others think it relates to the -parish, and that, while St Mary's is the present cathedral, St Michael's -would be the present parish church of Ashton-under-Lyne. In 1301 -Manchester received a charter of manorial liberties and privileges from -its baron, Thomas Gresley, a descendant of one to whom the manor had -been given by Roger of Poictou, who was created by William the Conqueror -lord of all the land between the rivers Mersey and Ribble. The Gresleys -were succeeded by the De la Warrs, the last of whom was educated for the -priesthood, and became rector of the town. To avoid the evil of a -non-resident clergy, he made considerable additions to the lands of the -church, in order that it might be endowed as a collegiate institution. A -college of clergy was thus formed, whose fellows were bound to perform -the necessary services at the parish church, and to whom the old -baronial hall was granted as a place of residence. The manorial rights -passed to Sir Reginald West, a descendant of Joan Gresley, who was -summoned to parliament as Baron de la Warre. The West family, in 1579, -sold the manorial rights for L3000 to John Lacy, who, in 1596, resold -them to Sir Nicholas Mosley, whose descendants enjoyed the emoluments -derived from them until 1845, when they were purchased by the -municipality of Manchester for a sum of L200,000. The lord of the manor -had the right to tax and toll all articles brought for sale into the -market of the town. But, though the inhabitants were thus to a large -extent taxed for the benefit of one individual, they had a far greater -amount of local self-government than might have been supposed, and the -court leet, which was then the governing body of the town, had, though -in a rudimentary form, nearly all the powers now possessed by municipal -corporations. This court had not only control over the watching and -warding of the town, the regulation of the water supply, and the -cleaning of the streets, but also had power, which at times was used -freely, of interfering with the private liberty of their -fellow-citizens. Thus, no single woman was allowed to be a householder; -no person might employ other than the town musicians; and the amount to -be spent at wedding feasts and other festivities was carefully settled. -Under the protection of the barons the town appears to have steadily -increased in prosperity, and it early became an important seat of the -textile manufactures. Fulling mills were at work in the district in the -13th century; and documentary evidence exists to show that woollen -manufactures were carried on in Ancoats at that period. In 1538 Leland -described it as "the fairest, best-builded, quickest, and most populous -town in Lancashire." The right of sanctuary granted to the town in 1540 -was found so detrimental to its industrial pursuits that after very -brief experience the privilege was taken away. The college of Manchester -was dissolved in 1547, but was refounded in Mary's reign. Under her -successor the town became the headquarters of the commission for -establishing the Reformed religion. In 1641 we hear of the Manchester -people purchasing linen yarn from the Irish, weaving it, and returning -it for sale in a finished state. They also brought cotton wool from -Smyrna to work into fustians and dimities. An act passed in the reign of -Edward VI. regulates the length of cottons called Manchester, Lancashire -and Cheshire cottons. These, notwithstanding their name, were probably -all woollen textures. It is thought that some of the Flemish weavers who -were introduced into England by Queen Philippa of Hainault were settled -at Manchester; and Fuller has given an exceedingly quaint and -picturesque description of the manner in which these artisans were -welcomed by the inhabitants of the country they were about to enrich -with a new industry. The Flemish weavers were in all probability -reinforced by religious refugees from the Low Countries. - -In the civil wars, the town was besieged by the Royalists under Lord -Strange (better known as earl of Derby--"the great Stanley"); but was -successfully defended by the inhabitants under the command of a German -soldier of fortune, Colonel Rosworm, who complained with some bitterness -of their ingratitude to him. An earlier affray between the Puritans and -some of Lord Strange's followers is said to have occasioned the shedding -of the first blood in the struggle between the king and parliament. The -year 1694 witnessed the trial of those concerned in the so-called -Lancashire plot, which ended in the triumphant acquittal of the supposed -Jacobites. That the district really contained many ardent sympathizers -with the Stuarts was, however, shown in the rising of 1715, when the -clergy ranged themselves to a large extent on the side of the Pretender; -and was still more clearly shown in the rebellion of 1745, when the town -was occupied by Prince Charles Edward Stuart, and a regiment, known -afterwards as the Manchester regiment, was formed and placed under the -command of Colonel Francis Townley. In the fatal retreat of the Stuart -troops the Manchester contingent was left to garrison Carlisle, and -surrendered to the duke of Cumberland. The officers were taken to -London, where they were tried for high treason and beheaded on -Kennington Common. - -The variations of political action in Manchester had been exceedingly -marked. In the 16th century, although it produced both Roman Catholic -and Protestant martyrs, it was earnestly in favour of the Reformed -faith, and in the succeeding century it became indeed a stronghold of -Puritanism. Yet the successors of the Roundheads who defeated the army -of Charles I. were Jacobite in their sympathies, and by the latter half -of the 18th century had become imbued with the aggressive form of -patriotic sentiment known as anti-Jacobinism, which showed itself -chiefly in dislike of reform and reformers of every description. A -change, however, was imminent. The distress caused by war and taxation, -towards the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century, led -to bitter discontent, and the anomalies existing in the parliamentary -system of representation afforded only too fair an object of attack. -While single individuals in some portions of the country had the power -to return members of parliament for their pocket boroughs, great towns -like Manchester were entirely without representation. The popular -discontent was met by a policy of repression, culminating in the affair -of Peterloo, which may be regarded as the starting-point of the modern -reform agitation. This was in 1819, when an immense crowd assembled on -St Peter's Fields (now covered by the Free Trade Hall and warehouses) to -petition parliament for a redress of their grievances. The Riot Act was -read by a clerical magistrate; but in such a manner as to be quite -unheard by the mass of the people; and drunken yeomanry cavalry were -then turned loose upon the unresisting mass of spectators. The yeomanry -appear to have used their sabres freely; several people killed and many -more injured; and, although the magistrates received the thanks of the -prince regent and the ministry, their conduct excited the deepest -indignation throughout the entire country. Those who had organized the -meeting, including "Orator" Hunt with Samuel Bamford and other working -men, were imprisoned. - -Naturally enough, the Manchester politicians took an important part in -the Reform agitation; when the Act of 1832 was passed, the town sent as -its representatives the Right Hon. C. P. Thomson, vice-president of the -board of trade, and Mark Philips. With one notable exception, this was -the first time that Manchester had been represented in parliament since -its barons had seats in the House of Peers in the earlier centuries. In -1654 Charles Worsley and R. Radcliffe were nominated to represent it in -Cromwell's parliament. Worsley was a man of great ability, and has a -place in history as the man who carried out the injunction of the -Protector to "remove that bauble," the mace of the House of Commons. The -agitation for the repeal of the corn laws had its headquarters at -Manchester, and the success which attended it, not less than the active -interest taken by its inhabitants in public questions, has made the city -the home of other projects of reform. The "United Kingdom Alliance for -the Suppression of the Liquor Traffic" was founded there in 1853, and -during the continuance of the American War the adherents both of the -North and of the South deemed it desirable to have organizations in -Manchester to influence public opinion in favour of their respective -causes. A charter of incorporation was granted in 1838; a bishop was -appointed in 1847; and the town became a city in 1853. The Lancashire -cotton famine, caused by the Civil War in America, produced much -distress in the Manchester district, and led to a national movement to -help the starving operatives. The more recent annals of Manchester are a -record of industrial and commercial developments, and of increase in -educational opportunities of all kinds. Politically Manchester was -Liberal, of one or other shade, under the first Reform Act; a -Conservative member was first elected in 1868, and in 1874 two. Under -household suffrage in 1885 that party secured five out of six members; -in 1886 and 1892, three out of six. In 1895 and 1900 five Unionists were -elected, but in 1906 six Liberals were returned, one of whom (Mr Winston -Churchill) was defeated at a by-election in 1908. In 1910 three -Liberals, two Labour members and one Conservative were elected. - - AUTHORITIES.--Although several excellent books have been written on - subjects connected with the town, there is no adequate modern history. - The _History of Manchester_, by the Rev. John Whitaker, appeared in - 1771; it is a mere fragment, and, though containing much important - matter, requires to be very discreetly used. The following may be - recommended: John Reilly, _History of Manchester_, (1861); R. W. - Procter, _Manchester in Holiday Dress_ (1866), _Memorials of - Manchester Streets_ (1874), _Memorials of Byegone Manchester_ (1880); - Richard Buxton, _Botanical Guide to Manchester, &c._ (2nd ed., 1859); - Leo Grindon, _Manchester Flora_ (1859); Edward Baines, _History of - Lancashire_, edited by Croston (1886-1893), 5 vols.; W. A. Shaw, - _Manchester, Old and New_ (1894); W. E. A. Axon, _Annals of - Manchester_ (1885), _Cobden as a Citizen_ (1906); Harry Rawson, - _Historical Record of some Recent Enterprises of the Corporation of - Manchester_ (1894); _Official Manual of Manchester and Salford_ - (1909); J. P. Earwaker, _Court Leet Records of Manchester, 1552-1686, - 1731-1846_ (1884-1890), 12 vols.; _Constable's Accounts, 1612-1647, - 1743-1776_ (1891-1892), 3 vols.; _Manchester Municipal Code_ - (1894-1899), 5 vols.; George Saintsbury, _Manchester_ (1887); Thomas - Swindells, _Manchester Streets and Manchester Men_ (1906-1907), 3 - vols.; James Tait, _Medieval Manchester_ (1904); Charles Roeder, - _Roman Manchester_ (1900); Sir Bosdin Leech, _History of the - Manchester Ship Canal_ (1907), 2 vols. (W. E. A. A.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] In the _Antonine Itinerary_ the name Mancunium (q.v.) or Mamucium - is given. This is the origin of the modern name, and has supplied the - adjective "Mancunian" (cf. "Old Mancunians" applied to old boys of - Manchester Grammar School). - - - - -MANCHESTER (popularly Manchester-by-the-Sea), a township of Essex -county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., about 25 m. N.E. of Boston, on -Massachusetts Bay. Pop. (1900), 2522; (1905, state census), 2618; -(1910), 2673. Area, 7.64 sq. m. It is served by the Boston & Maine -railroad, and is connected with neighbouring towns and cities by -electric lines. The township, heavily wooded in parts, and with -picturesque shores alternating between rocky headlands and sandy -beaches, stretches for several miles along the coast between Beverly on -the west and Gloucester on the east. It is one of the most beautiful -watering-places in America, and is the favourite summer residence of -many of the foreign diplomats at Washington. The "singing beach" is a -stretch of white sand, which, when trodden upon, emits a curious musical -sound. Manchester, originally a part of Salem, was settled about 1630 -and was at first known as Jeffrey's Creek. It was incorporated -separately under its present name in 1645. - - See _Manchester Town Records_ (2 vols., Salem, 1889-1891), and D. F. - Lamson, _History of the Town of Manchester, 1645-1895_ (Manchester, - 1895). - - - - -MANCHESTER, the largest city of New Hampshire, U.S.A., and one of the -county-seats of Hillsboro county, on the Merrimac river, at the mouth of -the Piscataquog river, (by rail) 18 m. S. of Concord and 57 m. N.N.W. of -Boston. Pop. (1890), 44,126; (1900), 56,987; (1910 U.S. census) 70,063. -Of the total population in 1900, 24,257 were foreign-born, including -13,429 French-Canadians; and 37,530 were of foreign parentage (both -parents foreign-born), including 18,839 of French-Canadian parentage. -Manchester is served by the Southern, the Western, the White Mountains, -and the Worcester Nashua & Portland divisions of the Boston & Maine -railroad, and by inter-urban electric lines. It is situated on a plain -about 90 ft. above the Merrimac river (which is spanned here by three -bridges), commands extensive views of the beautiful Merrimac valley, and -covers a land area of about 33 sq. m. On the east side of the city are -two connected lakes known as Lake Massabesic (30 m. in circumference). -Manchester is known for the attractive appearance of the residence -districts in which the factory operatives live, detached homes and -"corporation boarding-houses," instead of tenement houses, being the -rule. The Institute of Arts and Sciences (incorporated in 1898) provides -lecture courses and classes in science, art and music. Among the other -public buildings and institutions are the United States Government -building, the city-hall, the county-court-house, the city library (1854; -the outgrowth of the Manchester Athenaeum, established in 1844), St -Anselm's College (R.C.), a Roman Catholic cathedral, four Roman Catholic -convents, the Elliot hospital, the Sacred Heart hospital and the -hospital of Notre Dame de Lourdes, the State industrial school, the -State house of correction, the Gale home for aged women, an old ladies' -home (R.C.), St Martha's home for working girls, the Manchester -children's home and four orphan asylums. In the largest of five public -squares is a soldiers' monument, consisting of a granite column 50 ft. -high, surmounted by a statue of Victory. The city has two parks, and in -one of them, overlooking the Merrimac, is a monument to the memory of -General John Stark, who was born and was buried here. The water-supply -is obtained from Lake Massabesic. Amoskeag Falls in the Merrimac are 55 -ft. in height, and by means of hydraulic canals Manchester is provided -with a fine water-power. Steam power is also used, and the city is by -far the most important manufacturing centre in the state. It is -extensively engaged in the manufacture of cotton goods, boots and shoes, -worsted goods, hosiery and other knit goods, and locomotives; among the -other manufactures are linen goods, steam fire-engines, paper, edge -tools, soap, leather, carriages and beer. The value of the city's -factory products increased from $24,628,345 in 1900 to $30,696,926 in -1905, or 24.6%. In 1905 Manchester produced 24.8% of the total factory -product of the state. Manchester ranks fifth among the cities of the -United States in cotton manufacturing, and ninth among the cities of the -country in the manufacture of boots and shoes. - -On account of the abundance of fish in the river here, Amoskeag Falls -and vicinity were a favourite resort of the Penacook Indians, and it is -said that John Eliot, the "Apostle to the Indians," preached to them -here in the summer of 1651. The first white settlement within the -present limits of Manchester was made in 1722 by Scottish-Irish -immigrants at Goffe's Falls, 5 m. below Amoskeag Falls. In 1723 a cabin -was built by some of these immigrants at the greater falls, and -gradually a small settlement grew up there. In 1735 Massachusetts -granted to a body of men known as "Tyng's Snow-Shoe Scouts" and their -descendants a tract of land 3 m. wide along the east bank of the -Merrimac, designated as "Tyng's Township." The Scottish-Irish claimed -this tract as part of their grant from New Hampshire, and there arose -between the rival claimants a bitter controversy which lasted until May -1741, when the courts decided against the Massachusetts claimants. In -1751 the territory formerly known as "Tyng's Township," and sometimes -called "Harrytown," with portions of Chester and Londonderry, was -incorporated as a township under the name Derryfield; in 1810 the name -was changed to Manchester, the change having been suggested by the -town's manufacturing possibilities; and in 1846 Manchester was chartered -as a city. The first sawmill was erected as early as 1736, and during -the years from 1794 to 1807 a canal was constructed around the Amoskeag -Falls through which to carry lumber. As late as 1830 the town had a -population of only 877, but in 1831 the Amoskeag Manufacturing Company -was incorporated, the construction of hydraulic canals and the erection -of cotton mills followed, the villages of Piscataquog and Amoskeag were -annexed in 1853, and the population increased to 3235 in 1840, to 8841 -in 1860, and to 33,592 in 1880. - - Consult M. D. Clarke, _Manchester, A Brief Record of its Past and a - Picture of its Present_ (Manchester, 1875). - - - - -MANCHESTER, a former city of Chesterfield county, Virginia, U.S.A., (on -the S. side of the James river), since 1910 a part of Richmond. Pop. -(1900), 9715, of whom 3338 were negroes; (1906 estimate), 9997. It is -served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line, and the -Southern railways, by electric lines to Richmond and Petersburg, and by -numerous river boats. It is finely situated in a bend of the river, with -about 2 m. of water front; on the heights above is Forest Hill park, a -pleasure resort, and adjacent to it Woodland Heights, a beautiful -residential district. From the surrounding country come much -agricultural produce, coal, lumber, bricks and granite. There is a good -harbour and excellent water power. Among the manufactures are paper, -flour, cotton goods, leather, brick, railway supplies, &c. The value of -the city's factory products increased from $1,621,358 in 1900 to -$3,226,268 in 1905, or 99%. - - - - -MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL. The advantage of a waterway for the conveyance of -goods between eastern Lancashire and the sea is so obvious that so far -back as the year 1721 Thomas Steers designed a plan for continuing to -Manchester the barge navigation which then existed between Liverpool and -Warrington. Parliamentary powers were then obtained to improve the -rivers Mersey and Irwell from Warrington to Manchester by means of -locks and weirs. This work was successfully carried out, and proved of -great benefit to the trade of the district. The duke of Bridgewater, who -had made a canal from his collieries at Worsley to Manchester, -afterwards continued the canal to the Mersey at Runcorn; this extension -was opened in 1722 and competed with the Mersey and Irwell navigation, -both routes being navigated by barges carrying about fifty tons of -cargo. The Liverpool & Manchester railway at a later date afforded -further facilities for conveyance of goods, but the high rates of -carriage, added to heavy charges at the Liverpool docks, prejudiced -trade, and the question was mooted of a ship canal to bring cotton, -timber, grain and other goods direct to Manchester without -transshipment. The first plan was made by William Chapman in 1825, and -was followed by one designed by Henry Palmer in 1840, but it was not -until the year 1882 that the movement was originated that culminated in -the opening of the Manchester Ship Canal by Queen Victoria on the 21st -of May 1894. - - In determining the plan of the canal the main point which arose was - whether it should be made with locks or whether it should be on the - sea-level throughout, and therefore tidal. The advantage of a still - waterway in navigating large steamers, and the facilities afforded by - one constant water-level for works on the banks and the quick - discharge of goods at the terminal docks at Manchester, secured the - adoption of the plans for a canal with locks as designed by Sir E. - Leader Williams. The fresh-water portion of the canal extended between - Manchester and Runcorn, while from the latter place to Garston it was - proposed to improve the upper Mersey estuary by constructing training - walls and dredging to form a deep central channel. Parliamentary - powers to construct the canal were sought in the session of 1883, when - the bill passed the committee of the House of Commons but was rejected - by the committee of the House of Lords. Brought forward again the next - year, it was passed by the Lords but thrown out by the Commons. The - opposition from Liverpool and the railway companies was very strong; - to meet to some extent that of the former, a continuation of the canal - was proposed from Runcorn to Eastham along the Cheshire side of the - Mersey, instead of a trained channel in the estuary, and in this form - the bill was again introduced in the session of 1885, and, - notwithstanding strong opposition, was passed by both houses of - parliament. The cost of this contest to promoters and opponents - exceeded L400,000, the various committees on the bill having sat over - 175 days. Owing to difficulties in raising the capital the works were - not begun until November 1887. - - The total length of the canal is 35(1/2) m. and it may be regarded as - divided into three sections. From Eastham to Runcorn it is near or - through the Mersey estuary for 12(3/4) m., and thence to Latchford - near Warrington, 8(1/4) m., it is inland; both these sections have the - same water-level, which is raised by high tides. At Latchford the - locks stop tidal action, and the canal is fed by the waters of the - rivers Mersey and Irwell from that point to Manchester, 14(1/2) m. - from Latchford. The canal begins on the Cheshire side of the Mersey at - Eastham, about 6 m. above Liverpool. The entrance is well sheltered - and adjoins a good low-water channel communicating with the Sloyne - deep at Liverpool. Three entrance locks have been provided close to - and parallel with each other, their length and width being 600 by 80, - 350 by 50, and 150 by 30 ft. These locks maintain the water-level in - the canal nearly to mean high-water level (14 ft. 2 in. above the - Liverpool datum); when the tide rises above that height the lock gates - are opened and the tide flows up to Latchford, giving on high spring - tides an additional depth of water of about 7 ft. On the ebb tide this - water is returned to the Mersey through large sluices at Randles Creek - and at the junction of the river Weaver with the canal, the level of - the canal thus being reduced to its normal height. The canal - throughout to Manchester has a minimum depth of 28 ft.; the depth - originally was 26 ft., but the lock sills were placed 2 ft. lower to - allow of the channel being dredged to 28 ft. when necessary. The - minimum width at bottom is 120 ft., allowing large vessels to pass - each other at any point on the canal; this width is considerably - increased at the locks and other parts. The slopes are generally about - 1(1/2) to 1, but are flatter through some portions; in rock-cutting - the sides are nearly vertical. From Eastham to Runcorn the canal is - alternately inland and on the foreshore of the estuary, on which - embankments were constructed to act as dams and keep out the tide - during the excavation of the canal, and afterwards to maintain the - water-level at low water in the estuary; both sides are faced with - heavy coursed stone. The material for the embankments was principally - clay excavated from the cuttings. In some places, where the foundation - was of a porous nature, sheeting piles of timber had to be used. At - Ellesmere Port, where the embankment is 6200 ft. long on sand, 13,000 - whole timber sheeting piles 35 ft. long were driven, to secure the - base of the embankment on each side; water jets under pressure through - 1(1/2) in. wrought-iron pipes were used at the foot of each pile to - assist the sinking, which was found most difficult by ordinary means. - At the river Weaver ten Stoney roller sluices are built, each 30 ft. - span, with heavy stone and concrete piers and foundations; at Runcorn, - where the river Mersey is narrow, a concrete sea-wall 4300 ft. long - was substituted for the embankment. At various points under the canal - cast-iron siphon pipes were laid to carry off any land drainage which - was at a lower level than the canal; the largest of these siphons were - constructed to allow the tidal and fresh water of the river Gowy to - pass under the canal at Stanlow Point, between Eastham and Ellesmere - Port. Two 12-ft. siphons are there placed close together, built of - cast-iron segments; they are each 400 ft. long, and were laid on - concrete 4 ft. below the bottom of the canal. From Runcorn to - Latchford the canal is nearly straight, the depth of cutting varying - from 35 to 70 ft., partly in rock, but generally in alluvial deposit. - The whole length of the canal passes through the New Red Sandstone - formation, with its overlying beds of gravel, clay, sand and silt, - which gave much trouble during the progress of the work; retaining - walls of stone and brickwork had to be built in these places to - maintain the sides of the canal from slips and injury from the wash of - steamers. - - The canal from Latchford to Manchester is in heavy cutting through the - valleys of the rivers Mersey and Irwell. As these rivers are - circuitous in course, only very small portions could be utilized in - forming the canal; a line as nearly straight as possible was therefore - adopted, and involved many crossings of the river channels. During the - whole progress of the work these had to be kept open for the discharge - of floods and land water, and in some places temporary cuts of - considerable length had to be made for the same object. In November - 1890 and December 1891 high winter floods covered the whole of the - river valleys, filling many miles of the unfinished canal and causing - great damage to the slopes. Altogether 23 m. of canal had to be pumped - out to enable the work to be completed. After the cuttings between the - river channels were finished, the end dams were removed, and the - rivers Irwell and Mersey were turned into the new channel now forming - the upper portion of the ship canal. The total rise to the level of - the docks at Manchester from the ordinary level of the water in the - tidal portion of the canal below Latchford locks is 60 ft. 6 in.; this - is obtained by an average rise of about 15 ft. at each of the sets of - locks at Latchford, Irlam (7(1/2) m. nearer Manchester), Barton (2 m. - farther) and Mode Wheel (3(1/2) m. above Barton locks at the entrance - to the Manchester docks). For the greater part of this last length the - canal is widened at bottom from 120 ft., its normal width, to 170 ft., - to enable vessels to lie at timber and other wharves without - interfering with the passage of large vessels to or from the docks. - The locks are in duplicate, one being 600 ft. long by 65 ft. wide, the - other 350 ft. long by 45 ft. wide, with Stoney's sluices adjacent. - They are filled or emptied in five minutes by large culverts on each - side with side openings into the lock. Concrete with facings of blue - Staffordshire brick is largely used, and the copings, sills, hollow - quoins and fender courses are of Cornish granite. The lock gates are - constructed of greenheart timber. The sluices near the locks take the - place of the weirs used in the old Mersey and Irwell navigation; they - are 30 ft. span each, four being generally used at each set of locks. - In ordinary seasons any water not used for lockage purposes passes - over the tops of the sluices, which are kept closed; in flood times - the sluices are raised to a height which will pass off floods with a - comparatively small rise in the canal. There are eight hydraulic - installations on the canal, each having duplicate steam-engines and - boilers; the mains exceed 7 m. in length, the pressure being 700 lb. - to the inch. They work the cranes, lifts and capstans at the docks, - lock gates and culvert sluices, coal tips, swing bridges and aqueduct. - - At Barton, near Manchester, the Bridgewater canal crosses the river - Irwell on the first navigable aqueduct constructed in England. It was - the work of James Brindley, and since it was built at only sufficient - height to allow of barges passing under it, means had to be found to - allow of this important canal being maintained, and yet to permit - steamers to use the ship canal below it. Brindley's canal is on one - level throughout its whole length, and as its water supply is only - sufficient for the flight of locks by which it descends at Runcorn to - the Mersey, locks down to the ship canal would have involved the waste - of a lock of water on each side and caused serious delay to the - traffic. Sir E. Leader Williams surmounted the difficulty by means of - a swing aqueduct for the Bridgewater canal, which when closed enables - the traffic to pass as before, while it is opened to allow of ships - crossing it on the lower level of the ship canal. The water in the - swing portions of the aqueduct when opened is retained by closing - gates at each end, similar gates being shut at the same time across - the fixed portion of the aqueduct. The swing portion is a large steel - trough carried by side girders, 234 ft. long and 33 ft. high in the - centre, tapering 4 ft. to the ends; the waterway is 19 ft. wide and 6 - ft. deep. The whole works on a central pier with similar arrangements - to the largest swing bridges on the canal; it has two spans over the - ship canal of 90 ft. each. It is somewhat singular that the first - fixed canal aqueduct in England should, after the lapse of 136 years, - be replaced by the first swing aqueduct ever constructed. The swing - aqueduct is moved by hydraulic power, and has never given any trouble - in working, even in times of severe frost. The weight of the movable - portion, including the water, is 1600 tons. - - The manner of dealing with the five lines of railways that were cut - through by the canal was one of importance, both in the interests of - the travelling public and the trade on the canal; they are all lines - with a heavy traffic, including the main line of the London & North - Western railway near Warrington, with its important route to - Scotland. Swing bridges, although in use on some lines to cross - navigations, are dangerous and inconvenient, and high-level deviation - lines were adopted for each railway crossing the canal. No such - alteration of a railway had been previously sanctioned by parliament, - and it was only the importance of a ship canal to Manchester that - secured the requisite powers against the strong opposition of the - railway companies. Embankments were made close to and parallel with - the old lines, beginning about a mile and a quarter from the canal on - each side, the canal itself being crossed by viaducts which give a - clear headway of 75 ft. at ordinary water-level. Vessels with high - masts trading on the canal are provided with telescopic or sliding - top-masts. The gradients on the railways rising up to the viaducts are - 1 in 135. The span of the viaducts is so arranged as to maintain the - full width of the canal for navigation; and as the railways generally - cross the canal on the skew, this necessitated girders in some cases - of 300 ft. span. There are nine main roads requiring swing bridges - across the canal; all below Barton have a span giving a clear waterway - of 120 ft. The width of these bridges varies with the importance of - the roads from 20 to 36 ft., and they are constructed of steel, their - weight ranging from 500 to 1000 tons each. They work on a live ring of - conical cast-iron rollers and are moved by hydraulic power supplied by - steam, gas or oil engines. The Trafford Road bridge at the docks at - Manchester is the heaviest swing bridge on the canal; being of extra - width, it weighs 1800 tons. - - The canal being virtually one long dock, wharves at various points - have been erected to enable chemical or manufacturing works to be - carried on, widenings being provided where necessary. At Ellesmere - Port coal tips and sheds have been erected, and the canal is in direct - communication with the docks there as well as at Weston Point and - Runcorn, where a large trade is carried on with the Staffordshire - Potteries and the Cheshire salt districts. At Partington branches from - the railways connect the canal with the Yorkshire and Lancashire - coal-fields, and the canal is widened out 65 ft. on each side for six - hydraulic coal tips. At Mode Wheel there are extensive abattoirs and - lairages, erected by the Manchester Corporation; also large petroleum - oil tanks, graving dock and pontoons, cold-air meat stores and other - accommodation for traffic. At Manchester the area of the docks is 104 - acres, with 152 acres of quay space, having over 5 m. of frontage to - the docks, which are provided with a number of three-storey transit - sheds, thirteen seven-storey and seven four-storey warehouses, and a - large grain silo. The London & North Western and Lancashire & - Yorkshire railway companies and the Cheshire Lines Committee have made - branch lines to the docks, the railways and sidings at which are over - 30 miles in length. Much traffic is also carted, or dealt with by - inland canals in direct communication with the docks. The substitution - of a wide and deep canal, nearly straight, for comparatively shallow - and narrow winding rivers, and the use of large sluices in place of - fixed weirs to carry off the river water, have been of great advantage - to the district in greatly reducing the height of floods. - - The total amount of excavation in the canal, docks and subsidiary work - amounted to over 54 million cub. yds., nearly one-fourth of which was - sandstone rock; the excavated material was used in forming the railway - deviation embankments, filling up the old beds of the rivers and - raising low lands near the canal. As many men were employed on the - works as could be obtained, but the number never exceeded 17,000, and - the greater part of the excavation was done by about eighty steam - navvies and land dredgers. For the conveyance of excavation and - materials, 228 miles of temporary railway lines were laid, and 173 - locomotives, 6300 wagons and trucks, and 316 fixed and portable - steam-engines and cranes were employed, the total cost of the plant - being nearly L1,000,000. The expenditure on the works, including plant - and equipment, to the 1st of January 1900, was L10,327,666. The - purchase of the Mersey and Irwell and Bridgewater navigations - (L1,786,651), land and compensation (L1,223,809), interest on capital - during constructions (L1,170,733), and parliamentary, superintendence - and general expenses brought up the total amount to L15,248,437. - - The traffic on the canal gradually increased from 925,659 tons in 1894 - to 2,778,108 tons in 1899 and 5,210,759 tons in 1907. After its - opening considerable reductions were made in the railway rates of - carriage and the charges at the Liverpool docks in order to meet the - lower cost of conveyance by shipping passing up it. The result has - been of great advantage to the trade of Lancashire and the surrounding - districts, and the saving in the cost of carriage, estimated at - L700,000 a year, assists manufacturers to meet the competition of - their foreign opponents who have the advantage of low rates of - carriage on the improved waterways of America, Germany, France and - Belgium. Before the construction of the canal, large manufacturers had - left Manchester to establish their works at ports like Glasgow, where - they could save the cost of inland carriage. Since its opening, new - industries have been started at Manchester and along its banks, - warehouses and mills that were formerly empty are now occupied, while - nearly 10,000 new houses have been built for the accommodation of the - workpeople required to meet the enlarged trade of the city. - - For further details see Sir Bosdin Leech, _History of the Manchester - Ship Canal_ (Manchester, 1907). (E. L. W.) - - - - -MANCHURIA, the name by which the territory in the east of Asia occupied -by the Manchus is known in Europe. By the Chinese it is called the -country of the Manchus, an epithet meaning "pure," chosen by the founder -of the dynasty which now rules over Manchuria and China as an -appropriate designation for his family. Manchuria lies in a -north-westerly and south-easterly direction between 39 deg. and 53 deg. -N. and between 116 deg. and 134 deg. E., and is wedged in between China -and Mongolia on the west and north-west, and Korea and the Russian -territory on the Amur on the east and north. More definitely, it is -bounded N. by the Amur, E. by the Usuri, S. by the Gulf of Liao-tung, -the Yellow Sea and Korea, and W. by Chih-li and Mongolia. The territory -thus defined is about 800 m. in length and 500 m. in width, and contains -about 390,000 sq. m. It is divided into three provinces, viz. -Hei-lung-kiang or Northern Manchuria, Kirin or Central Manchuria, and -Sheng-king or Southern Manchuria. Physically the country is divided into -two regions, the one a series of mountain ranges occupying the northern -and eastern portions of the kingdom, and the other a plain which -stretches southwards from Mukden, the capital, to the Gulf of Liao-tung. - -A system of parallel ranges of mountains, culminating in the Chinese -Ch'ang pai Shan, "the long white mountains," on the Korean frontier, -runs in a north-easterly direction from the shores of the Gulf of -Liao-tung. In its course through Eastern Manchuria it forms the -watershed of the Sungari, Usuri and other rivers, and in the south that -of the Ya-lu and many smaller streams. It also forms the eastern -boundary of the great plain of Liao-tung. The mountains of this system -reach their greatest height on the south-east of Kirin, where their -snow-capped peaks rise to the elevation of 8000 ft. The scenery among -them is justly celebrated, more especially in the neighbourhood of -Haich'eng, Siu-yen and the Korean Gate. - -The three principal rivers of Manchuria are the Sungari, Mutan-kiang and -Usuri already mentioned. Of these the Sungari, which is the largest, -rises on the northern slopes of the Ch'ang pai Shan range, and runs in a -north-westerly direction to its junction with the Nonni, from which -point it turns north-east until it empties itself into the Amur. It is -navigable by native junks above Kirin, which city may also be reached by -steamer. In its long course it varies greatly both in depth and width, -in some parts being only a few feet deep and spreading out to a width of -more than a mile, while in other and mountainous portions of its course -its channel is narrowed to 300 or 400 ft., and its depth is increased in -inverse ratio. The Usuri rises in about 44 deg. N. and 131 deg. E., and -after running a north-easterly course for nearly 500 m. it also joins -the Amur. The Mutan-kiang takes its rise, like the Sungari, on the -northern slopes of the Ch'ang pai Shan range, and not far from the -sources of that river. It takes a north-easterly course as far as the -city of Ninguta, at which point it turns northward, and so continues -until it joins the Sungari at San-sing. It is navigable by junks between -that city and Ninguta, though the torrents in its course make the voyage -backwards and forwards one of considerable difficulty. Next in -importance to these rivers are the Liao and Ya-lu, the former of which -rises in Mongolia, and after running in an easterly direction for about -400 m. enters Manchuria in about 43 deg. N., and turning southward -empties itself into the Gulf of Liao-tung. The Ya-lu rises in Korea, and -is the frontier river of that country. - -_Provinces and Towns._--Mukden, or as it is called by the Chinese -Sheng-king, the capital city of Manchuria, is situated in the province -of Sheng-king, occupies a fine position on the river Hun-ho, an affluent -of the Liao, and is a city of considerable pretensions. Liao-yang, which -was once the capital of the country, is also in the province of -Sheng-king. The other cities in the province are Kin-chow-fu on the west -of the Gulf of Liao-tung; Kin-chow, on the western extremity of the -Liao-tung peninsula; Kai-ping, on the north-western shore of the same -peninsula; Hai-cheng, on the road from Niu-chwang to Mukden; Ki-yuen, a -populous and prosperous city in the north of the province; and -Sing-king, east of Mukden, the original seat of the founders of the -present dynasty. The most important commercial place, however, is the -treaty port of Niu-chwang, at the head of the Gulf of Liao-tung. -According to the custom-house returns the value of the foreign imports -and exports in the year 1880 was L691,954 and L1,117,790 respectively, -besides a large native trade carried on in junks. In 1904 the value of -foreign imports had risen to L2,757,962, but the exports amounted to -L1,742,859 only, the comparatively low figure being accounted for by the -Russo-Japanese war. - -The province of Kirin, or Central Manchuria, is bounded on the N. and -N.W. by the Sungari, on the S. by Sheng-king and Korea, on the W. by -Mongolia, and on the E. by the Usuri and the maritime Russian province. -It contains an area of about 90,000 sq. m., and is entirely mountainous -with the exception of a stretch of plain country in its north-western -corner. This plain produces large quantities of indigo and opium, and is -physically remarkable for the number of isolated conical hills which dot -its surface. These sometimes occur in a direct line at intervals of 15 -or 20 m., and elsewhere are scattered about "like dish-covers on a -table." Kirin, the capital of the province, occupies a magnificent -position, being surrounded on the north, west and south by a -semicircular range of mountains with the broad stream of the Sungari -flowing across the front. The local trade is considerable. A-She-ho, on -the Ashe, with a population of 60,000; Petuna (Chinese, Sing-chung), on -the Sungari, population 30,000; San-sing, near the junction of the -Sungari and Mutan-kiang; La-lin, 120 m. to the north of Kirin, -population 20,000; Harbin or Kharbin and Ninguta are the other principal -cities in the province. - -Hei-lung-kiang, or Northern Manchuria, which contains about 195,000 sq. -m., is bounded on the N. and N.E. by the Amur, on the S. by the Sungari, -and on the W. by the Nonni and Mongolia. It is traversed by the Great -and Lesser Khingan mountains and their offshoots. This province is -thinly populated, and is cultivated only along the lines of its rivers. -The only towns of any importance are Tsitsihar and Mergen, both situated -on the Nonni and Khailar in the west. - - _Climate, Flora, Fauna._--The climate over the greater part of the - country varies between extremes of heat and cold, the thermometer - ranging between 90 deg. F. in the summer and 10 deg. below zero in the - winter. As in the north of China, the rivers are frozen up during the - four winter months. After a short spring the heat of summer succeeds, - which in its turn is followed by an autumn of six weeks' duration. The - great plain in Sheng-king is in many parts swampy, and in the - neighbourhood of the sea, where the soil emits a saline exudation such - as is also common in the north of China, it is perfectly sterile. In - other parts fine crops of millet and various kinds of grain are grown, - and on it trees flourish abundantly. The trees and plants are much the - same as those common in England, and severe as the weather is in - winter the less elevated mountains are covered to their summits with - trees. The wild animals also are those known in Europe, with the - addition of tigers and panthers. Bears, wild boars, hares, wolves, - foxes and wild cats are very common, and in the north sables are found - in great numbers. One of the most noticeable of the birds is the - Mongolian lark (_Melanocorypha mongolica_), which is found in a wild - state both in Manchuria and in the desert of Mongolia. This bird is - exported in large numbers to northern China, where it is much prized - on account of its extraordinary power of imitation. The Manchurian - crane is common, as also are eagles, cuckoos, laughing doves, &c. - Insects abound, owing to the swampy nature of much of the country. The - rivers are well stocked with fish, especially with salmon, which forms - a common article of food. In such immense shoals do these fish appear - in some of the smaller streams that numbers are squeezed out on to the - banks and there perish. - - _Products and Industries._--In minerals Manchuria is very rich: coal, - gold, iron (as well as magnetic iron ore), and precious stones are - found in large quantities. Gold mines are worked at several places in - the northern part of Manchuria, of which the principal are on the Muho - river, an affluent of the Amur, and near the Russian frontier. Mines - are also worked at Kwanyin-shan, opposite the Russian frontier town of - Radevska, and at Chia-pi-kou, on an affluent of the upper Sungari. - Indigo and opium are the most lucrative crops. The indigo plant is - grown in large quantities in the plain country to the north of Mukden, - and is transported thence to the coast in carts, each of which carries - rather more than a ton weight of the dye. The poppy is cultivated - wherever it will grow, the crop being far more profitable than that of - any other product. Cotton, tobacco, pulse, millet, wheat and barley - are also grown. - - _Population._--The population is estimated as follows for each of the - three divisions:-- - - Province of Sheng-king (Feng T'ien) 4,000,000 - " " Kirin 6,500,000 - " " Hei-lung-kiang 2,000,000 - ---------- - Total 12,500,000 - - _Communications._--Four principal highways traverse Manchuria. The - first runs from Peking to Kirin via Mukden, where it sends off a - branch to Korea. At Kirin it bifurcates, one branch going to San-sing, - the extreme north-eastern town of the province of Kirin, and the other - to Possiet Bay on the coast via Ninguta. The second road runs from the - treaty port of Niu-chwang through Mukden to Petuna in the - north-western corner of the Kirin province, and thence to Tsitsihar, - Mergen and the Amur. The third also starts from Niu-chwang, and - strikes southward to Kin-chow at the extremity of the Liao-tung - peninsula. The fourth connects Niu-chwang with the Gate of Korea. - - [Illustration: Map of Manchuria.] - - - Manchurian Railways. - - The original Manchurian railway was constructed under an agreement - made in 1896 between the Chinese government and the Russo-Chinese - bank, an institution founded in 1895 to develop Russian interests in - the East. The Chinese Eastern Railway Company was formed by the bank - under this agreement, to construct and work the line, and surveys were - made in 1897, the town of Harbin being founded as headquarters for the - work. The line, which affords through communication from Europe by way - of the Trans-Siberian system, enters Manchuria near a station of that - name in the north-west corner of the country, passes Khailar, and runs - south-east, near Tsitsihar, to Harbin. Thence the main line continues - in the same general direction to the eastern frontier of Manchuria, - and so to Vladivostok. In 1898 Russia obtained a lease of the - Liao-tung peninsula, and a clause of this contract empowered her to - connect Port Arthur and Dalny (now Tairen) with the main Manchurian - railway by a branch southward from Harbin. In spite of interruption - caused by the Boxer outbreak, through communication was established in - 1901. Under the Russo-Japanese treaty of August 1905, after the war, - supplemented by a convention between Japan and China concluded in - December of the same year, Japan took over the line from Port Arthur - as far as Kwang-cheng-tsze, now known as the Southern Manchurian - railway (508 m.). Branches were promoted (a) from Mukden to Antung on - the Ya-lu, to connect with the Korean system, and (b) from - Kwang-cheng-tsze to Kirin. The rest of the original Manchurian system - (1088 miles) remains under Russian control. In the south-west of - Manchuria a line of the imperial railways of Northern China gives - connexion from Peking, and Branches at Kou-pang-tsze to Sin-min-ting - and to Niu-chwang, and the link between Sin-min-ting and Mukden is - also under Chinese control. The lines now under Russian control were - laid down, and remain, on the 5 ft. gauge which is the Russian - standard; but after the Russian control of the southern lines was lost - the gauge was altered from that standard. - -_History._--Manchu, as has been said, is not the name of the country but -of the people who inhabit it. The name was adopted by a ruler who rose -to power in the beginning of the 13th century. Before that time the -Manchus were more or less a shifting population, and, being broken up -into a number of tribes, they went mainly under the distinctive name of -those clans which exercised lordship over them. Thus under the Cbow -dynasty (1122-225 B.C.) they were known as Sewshin, and at subsequent -periods as Yih-low, Wuh-keih, Moh-hoh, Pohai, Nuchih and according to -the Chinese historians also as Khitan. Throughout their history they -appear as a rude people, the tribute they brought to the Chinese court -consisting of stone arrow-heads, hawks, gold, and latterly ginseng. -Assuming that, as the Chinese say, the Khitans were Manchus, the first -appearance of the Manchus, as a people, in China dates from the -beginning of the 10th century, when the Khitans, having first conquered -the kingdom of Pohai, crossed the frontier into China and established -the Liao or Iron dynasty in the northern portion of the empire. These -invaders were in their turn overthrown two centuries later by another -invasion from Manchuria. These new conquerors were Nuchihs, and -therefore direct ancestors of the Manchus. On assuming the imperial -yellow in China their chief adopted the title of Kin or "Golden" for his -dynasty. "Iron" (Liao), he said, "rusts, but gold always keeps its -purity and colour, therefore my dynasty shall be called Kin." In a -little more than a century, however, the Kins were driven out of China -by the Mongols under Jenghiz Khan. But before the close of their rule a -miraculous event occurred on the Chang-pai-Shan mountains which is -popularly believed to have laid the seeds of the greatness of the -present rulers of the empire. Three heaven-born maidens, so runs the -legend, were bathing one day in a lake under the Chang-pai-Shan -mountains when a passing magpie dropped a ripe red fruit into the lap of -one of them. The maiden ate the fruit, and in due course a child was -born to her, whom she named Aisin Gioro, or the Golden. When quite a lad -Aisin Gioro was elected chief over three contending clans, and -established his capital at Otoli near the Chang-pai-Shan mountains. His -reign, however, was brief, for his subjects rose and murdered him, with -all his sons except the youngest, Fancha, who, like the infant Haitu in -Mongolian history, was miraculously saved. Nothing is recorded of the -facts of Aisin Gioro's reign except that he named the people over whom -he reigned Manchu, or "Pure." His descendants, through the rescued -Fancha, fell into complete obscurity until about the middle of the 16th -century, when one of them, Nurhachu by name, a chieftain of a small -tribe, rose to power. Nurhachu played with skill and daring the role -which had been played by Jenghiz Khan more than three centuries before -in Mongolia. With even greater success than his Mongolian counterpart, -Nurhachu drew tribe after tribe under his sway, and after numerous wars -with Korea and Mongolia he established his rule over the whole of -Manchuria. Being thus the sovereign of an empire, he, again like Jenghiz -Khan, adopted for himself the title of Ying-ming, "Brave and -Illustrious," and took for his reign the title of T'ien-ming. Thirteen -years later, in 1617, after numerous border fights with the Chinese, -Nurhachu drew up a list of "seven hates," or indictments, against his -southern neighbours, and, not getting the satisfaction he demanded, -declared war against them. The progress of this war, the peace hastily -patched up, the equally hasty alliance and its consequences, being -matters of Chinese history, are treated in the article CHINA. - -Manchuria was claimed by Russia as her particular sphere of interest -towards the close of the 19th century, and in the course of the -disturbances of 1900 Russian troops occupied various parts of the -country. Eventually a Manchurian convention was arranged between China -and Russia, by which Russia was to evacuate the province; but no actual -ratification of this convention was made by Russia. The Anglo-German -agreement of October 1900, to which Japan also became a party, and by -which it was agreed to "maintain undiminished the territorial condition -of the Chinese empire," was considered by Great Britain and Japan not to -exclude Manchuria; but Germany, on the other hand, declared that -Manchuria was of no interest to her. The Anglo-Japanese treaty of 1902, -however, was ostensibly directed towards the preservation of Manchuria -in Chinese hands. British capital has been invested in the extension of -the Chinese Northern railway to Niu-chwang, and the fact was officially -recognized by an agreement between Great Britain and Russia in 1899. One -result of the Russo-Japanese War was the evacuation of Manchuria by the -Russians, which, after the conclusion of peace in 1905, was handed over -by Japan to China. - - See H. E. M. James, _The Long White Mountain_ (London, 1888); D. - Christie, _Ten Years in Manchuria_ (Paisley, 1895); F. E. - Younghusband, _The Heart of a Continent: a Narrative of Travels in - Manchuria_ (London, 1896); P. H. Kent, _Railway Enterprise in China_ - (London, 1907). (R. K. D.) - - - - -MANCINI, PASQUALE STANISLAO (1817-1888), Italian jurist and statesman, -was born at Castel Baronia, in the province of Avellino, on the 17th of -March 1817. At Naples, where he studied law and displayed great literary -activity, he rapidly acquired a prominent position, and in 1848 was -instrumental in persuading Ferdinand II. to participate in the war -against Austria. Twice he declined the offer of a portfolio in the -Neapolitan cabinet, and upon the triumph of the reactionary party -undertook the defence of the Liberal political prisoners. Threatened -with imprisonment in his turn, he fled to Piedmont, where he obtained a -university professorship and became preceptor of the crown prince -Humbert. In 1860 he prepared the legislative unification of Italy, -opposed the idea of an alliance between Piedmont and Naples, and, after -the fall of the Bourbons, was sent to Naples as administrator of -justice, in which capacity he suppressed the religious orders, revoked -the Concordat, proclaimed the right of the state to Church property, and -unified civil and commercial jurisprudence. In 1862 he became minister -of public instruction in the Rattazzi cabinet, and induced the Chamber -to abolish capital punishment. Thereafter, for fourteen years, he -devoted himself chiefly to questions of international law and -arbitration, but in 1876, upon the advent of the Left to power, became -minister of justice in the Depretis cabinet. His Liberalism found -expression in the extension of press freedom, the repeal of imprisonment -for debt, and the abolition of ecclesiastical tithes. During the -Conclave of 1878 he succeeded, by negotiations with Cardinal Pecci -(afterwards Leo XIII.), in inducing the Sacred College to remain in -Rome, and, after the election of the new pope, arranged for his -temporary absence from the Vatican for the purpose of settling private -business. Resigning office in March 1878, he resumed the practice of -law, and secured the annulment of Garibaldi's marriage. The fall of -Cairoli led to Mancini's appointment (1881) to the ministry of foreign -affairs in the Depretis administration. The growing desire in Italy for -alliance with Austria and Germany did not at first secure his approval; -nevertheless he accompanied King Humbert to Vienna and conducted the -negotiations which led to the informal acceptance of the Triple -Alliance. His desire to retain French confidence was the chief motive of -his refusal in July 1882 to share in the British expedition to Egypt, -but, finding his efforts fruitless when the existence of the Triple -Alliance came to be known, he veered to the English interest and -obtained assent in London to the Italian expedition to Massawa. An -indiscreet announcement of the limitations of the Triple Alliance -contributed to his fall in June 1885, when he was succeeded by Count di -Robilant. He died in Rome on the 26th of December 1888. - - - - -MANCIPLE, the official title of the caterer at a college, an inn of -court, or other institution. Sometimes also the chief cook. The medieval -Latin _manceps_, formed from _mancipium_, acquisition by purchase (see -ROMAN LAW), meant a purchaser of stores, and _mancipium_ became used of -his office. It is from the latter word that the O. Fr. _manciple_ is -taken. - - - - -MANCUNIUM, the name often (though perhaps incorrectly) given as the -Romano-British name of Manchester. Here, close to the Medlock, in the -district still called Castlefield near Knott Mill, stood in Roman days a -fort garrisoned by a cohort of Roman auxiliary soldiers. The site is now -obscured by houses, railways and the Rochdale canal, but vestiges of -Roman ramparts can still be seen, and other remains were found in 1907 -and previous years. Traces of Romano-British inhabitation have been -noted elsewhere in Manchester, especially near the cathedral. But there -was no town here; we can trace nothing more than a fort guarding the -roads running north through Lancashire and east into Yorkshire, and the -dwellings of women-folk and traders which would naturally spring up -outside such a fort. The ancient name is unknown. Our Roman authorities -give both Mancunium and Mamucium, but it is not clear that either form -is correct. - - See W. T. Watkin's _Roman Lancashire_; C. Roeder's _Roman Manchester_, - and the account edited by F. Bruton of the excavations in 1907. - (F. J. H.) - - - - -MANDAEANS, also known as Sabians, Nasoraeans, or St John's -Christians,[1] an Oriental sect of great antiquity, interesting to the -theologian as almost the only surviving example of a religion -compounded of Christian, heathen and Jewish elements on a type which is -essentially that of ancient Gnosticism. - -The Mandaeans are found in the marshy lands of South Babylonia -(al-bataih), particularly in the neighbourhood of Basra (or Bussorah), -and in Khuzistan (Disful, Shuster).[2] They speak the languages of the -localities in which they are settled (Arabic or Persian), but the -language of their sacred books is an Aramaic dialect, which has its -closest affinities with that of the Babylonian Talmud, written in a -peculiar character suggestive of the old Palmyrene.[3] The existence of -the Mandaeans has been known since the middle of the 17th century, when -the first Christian missionaries, Ignatius a Jesu[4] and Angelus a -Sancto, began to labour among them at Basra; further information was -gathered at a somewhat later date by Pietro della Valle[5] and Jean de -Thevenot[6] (1633-1667), and in the following century by Engelbrecht -Kaempfer (1651-1716), Jean Chardin (1643-1713) and Carsten Niebuhr. In -recent times they have been visited by A. H. Petermann[7] and Albrecht -Socin, and Siouffi[8] published in 1880 a full and accurate account of -their manners and customs, taken from the lips of a converted Mandaean. -For our knowledge of their doctrinal system, however, we still depend -chiefly upon the sacred books already mentioned, consisting of fragments -of very various antiquity derived from an older literature.[9] Of these -the largest and most important is the _Sidra rabba_ ("Great Book"), -known also as _Ginza_ ("Treasure"), consisting of two unequal parts, of -which the larger is called _yamina_ (to the right hand) and the smaller -_s'mala_ (to the left hand), because of the manner in which they are -bound together. The former is intended for the living; the latter -consists chiefly of prayers to be read at the burial of priests. As -regards doctrine, the work is exhaustive; but it is diffuse, obscure, -and occasionally self-contradictory, as might be expected in a work -which consists of a number of unconnected paragraphs of various -authorship and date. The last section of the "right-hand" part (the -"Book of Kings") is one of the older portions, and from its allusion to -"the Persian and Arabian kings" may be dated somewhere between A.D. 700 -and 900. Many of the doctrinal portions may in substance well be still -older, and date from the time of the Sassanids. None of the MSS., -however, is older than the 16th century.[10] - -The following sketch represents, as far as can be gathered from these -heterogeneous sources, the principal features of the Mandaean system. -The ground and origin of all things is _Pira_, or more correctly _Pera -rabba_ ("the great abyss," or from [Hebrew: paar], "to split," cf. the -Gnostic [Greek: buthos], or more probably cf. Heb. _peri_, "the great -fruit"), associated with whom, and forming a triad with him, are the -primal aeons _Ayar ziva rabba_, "the great shining aether," and _Mana -rabba d'ekara_, "the great spirit of glory," usually called simply _Mana -rabba_. The last-named, the most prominent of the three, is the king of -light properly so called, from whom the development of all things -begins. From him emanates _Yard^ena rabba_, "the great Jordan," which, -as the higher-world soul, permeates the whole aether, the domain of -Ayar. Alongside of _Mana rabba_ frequent mention is made of _D'mutha_, -his "image," as a female power; the name "image of the father" arises -out of the same conception as that which gives rise to the name of -[Greek: ennoia] among the Greek Gnostics. _Mana rabba_ called into being -the highest of the aeons properly so called, _Hayye Kadmaye_, "Primal -Life," and then withdrew into deepest secrecy, visible indeed to the -highest but not to the lowest aeons (cf. [Greek: Sophia] and [Greek: -Propator]), yet manifesting himself also to the souls of the more pious -of the Mandaeans after their separation from the body. Primal Life, who -is properly speaking the Mandaean god, has the same predicates as the -primal spirit, and every prayer, as well as every section of the sacred -books, begins by invoking him.[11] The extremely fantastic delineation -of the world of light by which _Hayye Kadmaye_ is surrounded (see for -example the beginning of _Sidra rabba_) corresponds very closely with -the Manichaean description of the abode of the "king of the paradise of -light." The king of light "sits in the far north in might and glory." -The Primal Light unfolds himself by five great branches, viz. "the -highest purest light, the gentle wind, the harmony of sounds, the voice -of all the aeons, and the beauty of their forms," all these being -treated as abstractions and personified. Out of the further development -and combination of these primary manifestations arise numerous aeons -(_'Uthre_, "splendours," from [Hebrew: atar], "is rich"), of which the -number is often stated to be three hundred and sixty. They are divided -into a number of classes (kings, hypostases, forms, &c.); the proper -names by which they are invoked are many, and for the most part obscure, -borrowed doubtless, to some extent, from the Parsee angelology. From the -First Life proceeds as a principal emanation the "Second Life," _Hayye -Tinyane_, generally called _Yoshamin_. This last name is evidently meant -to be Hebrew, "Yahweh of the heavens," the God of the Jews being of a -secondary rank in the usual Gnostic style. The next emanation after -_Yoshamin_ is "the messenger of life" (_Manda d'hayye_, literally -[Greek: gnosis tes zoes]), the most important figure in the entire -system, the mediator and redeemer, the [Greek: logos] and the Christ of -the Mandaeans, from whom, as already stated, they take their name. He -belongs to the heathen Gnosis, and is in his essence the same as the -Babylonian Marduk. _Yoshamin_ desired to raise himself above the Primal -Light, but failed in the attempt, and was punished by removal out of the -pure aetherial world into that of inferior light. Manda, on the other -hand, continues with the First Life and _Mana rabba_, and is called his -"beloved son," the "first born," "high priest" and "word of life." The -"Life" calls into existence in the visible world a series of three great -Helpers, Hibil, Shithil and Anosh (late Judaeo-Babylonian -transformations of the well-known names of the book of Genesis), the -guardians of souls. The last son of the Second Life is _Hayye -t'lithaye_, the "Third Life," usually called father of the Uthre (_Aba -d' 'Uthre_, _Abathur_). His usual epithet is "the Ancient" (_'Atiqa_), -and he is also called "the deeply hidden and guarded." He stands on the -borderland between the here and the hereafter, like the mysterious -[Greek: preobutes tritos] or _senex tertius_ of Mani, whose becoming -visible will betoken the end of the world. Abathur sits on the farthest -verge of the world of light that lies towards the lower regions, and -weighs in his balance the deeds of the departed spirits who ascend to -him. Beneath him was originally nothing but a huge void with muddy black -water at the bottom, in which his image was reflected, becoming -ultimately solidified into P'tahil, his son, who now partakes of the -nature of matter. The demiurge of the Mandaeans, and corresponding to -the Ialdabaoth of the Ophites, he at the instance of his father frames -the earth and men--according to some passages in conjunction with the -seven bad planetary spirits. He created Adam and Eve, but was unable to -make them stand upright, whereupon Hibil, Shithil and Anosh were sent by -the First Life to infuse into their forms spirit from _Mana rabba_ -himself. Hibil, at the instance of the supreme God, also taught men -about the world of light and the aeons, and especially gave them to know -that not P'tahil but another was their creator and supreme God, who as -"the great king of light, without number, without limit," stands far -above him. At the same time he enjoined the pair to marry and people the -world. P'tahil had now lost his power over men, and was driven by his -father out of the world of light into a place beneath it, whence he -shall at the day of judgment be raised, and after receiving baptism be -made king of the 'Uthre with divine honours. - -The underworld is made up of four vestibules and three hells properly so -called. The vestibules have each two rulers, Zartay and Zartanay, Hag -and Mag, Gaf and Gafan, Anatan and Kin. In the highest hell rules alone -the grisly king Sh'dum, "the warrior"; in the storey immediately beneath -is Giv, "the great"; and in the lowest is Krun or Karkum, the oldest and -most powerful of all, commonly called "the great mountain of flesh" -(_Tura rabba d'besra_), but also "the first-born of darkness." In the -vestibules dirty water is still to be met with, but the hells are full -of scorching consuming fire, except Krun's domain, where is nought but -dust, ashes and vacancy. Into these regions descended Hibil the -brilliant, in the power of _Mana rabba_, just as in the Manichaean -mythology the "primal man," armed with the elements of the king of -light, descends to a contest with the primal devil. Hibil lingers, -gradually unfolding his power, in each of the vestibules, and finally -passing from hell to hell reaches Karkum. Hibil allows himself to be -half swallowed by the monster, but is unhurt, and compels his antagonist -to recognize the superiority of _Mana rabba_, the God of light, and to -divulge his profoundest secret, the hidden name of darkness. Armed with -this he returns through the successive hells, compelling the disclosure -of every secret, depriving the rulers of their power, and barring the -doors of the several regions. From the fourth vestibule he brought the -female devil Ruha, daughter of Kin, and set her over the whole four. -This Ruha, the mother of falsehood and lies, of poisoning and -fornication is an anti-Christian parody of the Ruha d'Qudsha (Holy -Spirit) of the Syriac Church. She is the mother of Ur, the personified -fire of hell, who in anger and pride made a violent onset on the world -of light (compare the similar occurrence in the Manichaean mythology), -but was mastered by Hibil and thrown in chains down to the "black -water," and imprisoned within seven iron and seven golden walls. By Ur, -Ruha, while P'tahil was engaged in his work of creation, became mother -of three sets of seven, twelve and five sons respectively; all were -translated by P'tahil to the heavenly firmament (like the Archons of -Mani), the first group forming the planets and the next the signs of the -zodiac, while the third is as yet undetermined. Of the names of the -planets Estera (Ishtar Venus, also called Ruha d'Qudsha, "holy spirit"), -Enba (Nebo, Mercury), Sin (moon), Kewan (Saturn), Bil (Jupiter), and -Nirig (Nirgal, Mars) reveal their Babylonian origin; Il or Il Il, the -sun, is also known as Kadush and Adunay (the Adonai of the Old -Testament); as lord of the planetary spirits his place is in the midst -of them; they are the source of all temptation and evil amongst men. The -houses of the planets, as well as the earth and a second world -immediately to the north of it, rest upon anvils laid by Hibil on the -belly of Ur. - -In the Mandaean representation the sky is an ocean of water, pure and -clear, but of more than adamantine solidity, upon which the stars and -planets sail. Its transparency allows us to see even to the pole star, -who is the central sun around whom all the heavenly bodies move. Wearing -a jewelled crown, he stands before Abathur's door at the gate of the -world of light; the Mandaeans accordingly invariably pray with their -faces turned northward. The earth is conceived of as a round disk, -slightly sloping towards the south, surrounded on three sides by the -sea, but on the north by a high mountain of turquoises; behind this is -the abode of the blest, a sort of inferior paradise, inhabited by the -Egyptians who were saved from drowning with Pharaoh in the Red Sea, and -whom the Mandaeans look upon as their ancestors, Pharaoh himself having -been their first high priest and king. The total duration of the earth -they fix at four hundred and eighty thousand years, divided into seven -epochs, in each of which one of the planets rules. The _Sidra Rabba_ -knows of three total destructions of the human race by fire and water, -pestilence and sword, a single pair alone surviving in each case. In the -Mandaean view the Old Testament saints are false prophets; such as -Abraham, who arose six thousand years after Nu(Noah) during the reign of -the sun, Misha (Moses), in whose time the true religion was professed by -the Egyptians, and Shlimun (Solomon) bar Davith, the lord of the demons. -Another false prophet and magician was Yishu M'shiha, who was in fact a -manifestation of the planet Mercury. Forty-two years before his day, -under King Pontius Pilate, there had appeared the true prophet Yahya or -John son of Zechariah, an incarnation of Hibil, of whose birth and -childhood fantastic stories are told. Yahya by a mistake gave baptism to -the false Messiah, who had feigned humility; on the completion of his -mission, after undergoing a seeming execution, he returned clothed with -light into the kingdom of light. As a contemporary of Yahya and the -false Messiah Hibil's younger brother Anosh 'Uthra came down from -heaven, caused himself to be baptized by Yahya, wrought miracles of -healing and of raising the dead, and brought about the crucifixion of -the false Messiah. He preached the true religion, destroyed Jerusalem -("Urashlam," i.e. "the devil finished it"), which had been built by -Adunay, dispersed over the world the Jews who had put Yahya to death, -and previous to his return into the worlds of light sent forth three -hundred and sixty prophets for the diffusion of the true religion. All -this speaks of intense hatred alike of Jews and Christians; the fasts, -celibacy and monastic and anchoret life of the latter are peculiarly -objectionable to the Mandaeans. Two hundred and forty years after the -appearing of the false Messiah there came to the world sixty thousand -saints out of Pharaoh's world to take the place of the Mandaeans, who -had been completely extirpated; their high priest had his residence in -Damascus. The last false prophet was M'hammad or Ahmat bar Bisbat -(Mahomet), but Anosh, who remained close beside him and his immediate -successors, prevented hostilities against the true believers, who claim -to have had in Babylonia, under the Abbasids, four hundred places of -worship. Subsequent persecutions compelled their withdrawal to 'Ammara -in the neighbourhood of Wasit, and ultimately to Khuzistan. At the end -of the world the devil Ur will swallow up the earth and the other -intermediate higher worlds, and thereupon will burst and fall into the -abyss of darkness where, along with all the worlds and powers of -darkness, he will ultimately cease to be, so that thenceforward the -universe will consist of but one everlasting world of light. - - The chief depositaries of these Mandaean mysteries are the priests, - who enjoy a high degree of power and social regard. The priesthood has - three grades: (1) the _Sh'kanda_ or deacon is generally chosen from - episcopal or priestly families, and must be without bodily blemish. - The candidate for orders must be at least nineteen years old and have - undergone twelve years' preparation; he is then qualified to assist - the priesthood in the ceremonies of religion. (2) The _Tarmida_ (i.e. - "Talmida," "initiated") or priest is ordained by a bishop and two - priests or by four priests after a long and extremely painful period - of preparation. (3) The _Ganzivra_ ("treasurer") or bishop, the - highest dignitary, is chosen from the whole body of the Tarmidas after - a variety of tests, and possesses unlimited authority over the - clergy. A supreme priestly rank, that of _Rish 'amma_, or "head of the - people," is recognized, but only in theory; since the time of Pharaoh - this sovereign pontificate has only once been filled. Women are - admitted to priestly offices as well as men. The priestly dress, which - is all white, consists of drawers, an upper garment, and a girdle with - the so-called _taga_ ("crown"); in all ceremonies the celebrants must - be barefoot. By far the most frequent and important of the religious - ceremonies is that of baptism (_masbutha_), which is called for in a - great variety of cases, not only for children but for adults, where - consecration or purification is required, as for example on all - Sundays and feast days, after contact with a dead body, after return - from abroad, after neglect of any formality on the part of a priest in - the discharge of his functions. In all these cases baptism is - performed by total immersion in running water, but during the five - days' baptismal festival the rite is observed wholesale by mere - sprinkling of large masses of the faithful at once. The Mandaeans - observe also with the elements of bread (_pehta_) and wine (_mambuha_, - lit. "fountain") a sort of eucharist, which has a special sanctifying - efficacy, and is usually dispensed at festivals, but only to baptized - persons of good repute who have never willingly denied the Mandaean - faith. In receiving it the communicant must not touch the host with - his finger; otherwise it loses its virtue. The hosts are made by the - priests from unleavened fine flour. The Mandaean places of worship, - being designed only for the priests and their assistants (the - worshippers remaining in the forecourt), are excessively small, and - very simply furnished; two windows, a door that opens towards the - south so that those who enter have their faces turned towards the pole - star, a few boards in the corner, and a gabled roof complete the whole - structure; there is neither altar nor decoration of any kind. The - neighbourhood of running water (for baptisms) is essential. At the - consecration of a church the sacrifice of a dove (the bird of Ishtar) - has place among the ceremonies. Besides Sundays there are six great - feasts: (1) that of the New Year (_Nauruz rabba_), on the first day of - the first month of winter; (2) _Dehwa h' nina_, the anniversary of the - happy return of _Hibil Ziva_ from the kingdom of darkness into that of - light, lasting five days, beginning with the 18th of the first month - of spring; (3) the _Marwana_, in commemoration of the drowned - Egyptians, on the first day of the second month of spring; (4) the - great five days' baptismal festival (_pantsha_), the chief feast, kept - on the five intercalary days at the end of the second month of - summer--during its continuance every Mandaean, male and female, must - dress in white and bathe thrice daily; (5) _Dehwa d'daimana_, in - honour of one of the three hundred and sixty 'Uthras, on the first day - of the second month of autumn; (6) _Kanshe Zahla_, the preparation - feast, held on the last day of the year. There are also fast days - called m'battal (Arab.), on which it is forbidden to kill any living - thing or eat flesh. These, however, are really "rest-days," as fasting - is forbidden in Mandaeism. The year is solar, and has twelve months of - thirty days each, with five intercalary days between the eighth and - the ninth month. Of the seven days of the week, next to Sunday - (habshaba) Thursday has a special sacredness as the day of _Hibil - Ziva_. As regards secular occupation, the present Mandaeans are - goldsmiths, ironworkers, and house and ship carpenters. The _Sidra - Rabba_ lays great stress upon the duty of procreation, and marriage is - a duty. In the 17th century, according to the old travellers, they - numbered about 20,000 families, but at the present day they hardly - number more than 1200 souls. In external appearance the Mandaean is - distinguished from the Moslem only by a brown coat and a - parti-coloured headcloth with a cord twisted round it. They have some - peculiar deathbed rites: a deacon with some attendants waits upon the - dying, and as death approaches administers a bath first of warm and - afterwards of cold water; a holy dress, consisting of seven pieces - (rasta), is then put on; the feet are directed towards the north and - the head turned to the south, so that the body faces the pole star. - After the burial a funeral feast is held in the house of mourning. - - The Mandaeans are strictly reticent about their theological dogmas in - the presence of strangers; and the knowledge they actually possess of - these is extremely small. The foundation of the system is obviously to - be sought in Gnosticism, and more particularly in the older type of - that doctrine (known from the serpent symbol as Ophite or Naassene) - which obtained in Mesopotamia and Further Asia generally. But it is - equally plain that the Ophite nucleus has from time to time received - very numerous and often curiously perverted accretions from Babylonian - Judaism, Oriental Christianity and Parsism, exhibiting a striking - example of religious syncretism. In the Gnostic basis itself it is not - difficult to recognize the general features of the religion of ancient - Babylonia, and thus we are brought nearer a solution of the problem as - to the origin of Gnosticism in general. It is certain that Babylonia, - the seat of the present Mandaeans, must be regarded also as the cradle - in which their system was reared; it is impossible to think of them as - coming from Palestine, or to attribute to their doctrines a Jewish or - Christian origin. They do not spring historically from the disciples - of John the Baptist (Acts xviii. 25; xix. 3 seq.; _Recog. Clem._ i. - 54); the tradition in which he and the Jordan figure so largely is not - original, and is therefore worthless; at the same time it is true that - their baptismal praxis and its interpretation place them in the same - religious group with the Hemerobaptists of Eusebius (_H. E._ iv. 22) - and Epiphanius (_Haer._, xvii.), or with the sect of disciples of - John who remained apart from Christianity. Their reverence for John is - of a piece with their whole syncretizing attitude towards the New - Testament. Indeed, as has been seen, they appropriate the entire - personale of the Bible from Adam, Seth, Abel, Enos and Pharaoh to - Jesus and John, a phenomenon which bears witness to the close - relations of the Mandaean doctrine both with Judaism and - Christianity--not the less close because they were relations of - hostility. The history of religion presents other examples of the - degradation of holy to demonic figures on occasion of religious - schism. The use of the word "Jordan," even in the plural, for "sacred - water," is precisely similar to that by the Naassenes described in the - _Philosophumena_ (v. 7); there [Greek: ho megas Iordanes] denotes the - spiritualizing sanctifying fluid which pervades the world of light. - The notions of the Egyptians and the Red Sea, according to the same - work (v. 16), are used by the Peratae much as by the Mandaeans. And - the position assigned by the Sethians ([Greek: Sethianoi]) to Seth is - precisely similar to that given by the Mandaeans to Abel. Both alike - are merely old Babylonian divinities in a new Biblical garb. The - genesis of Mandaeism and the older gnosis from the old and elaborate - Babylonio-Chaldaean religion is clearly seen also in the fact that the - names of the old pantheon (as for example those of the planetary - divinities) are retained, but their holders degraded to the position - of demons--a conclusion confirmed by the fact that the Mandaeans, like - the allied Ophites, Peratae and Manichaeans, certainly have their - original seat in Mesopotamia and Babylonia. It seems clear that the - trinity of Anu, Bel, and Ea in the old Babylonian religion has its - counterpart in the Mandaean Pira, Ayar, and Mana rabba. The D'mutha of - Mana is the Damkina, the wife of Ea, mentioned by Damascius as [Greek: - Danke], wife of [Greek: Ahos]. Manda d'hayye and his image Hibil Ziva - with his incarnations clearly correspond to the old Babylonian Marduk, - Merodach, the "first-born" son of Ea, with his incarnations, the chief - divinity of the city of Babylon, the mediator and redeemer in the old - religion. Hibil's contest with darkness has its prototype in Marduk's - battle with chaos, the dragon Tiamat, which (another striking - parallel) partially swallows Marduk, just as is related of Hibil and - the Manichaean primal man. Other features are borrowed by the Mandaean - mythology under this head from the well-known epos of Istar's - _descensus ad inferos_. The sanctity with which water is invested by - the Mandaeans is to be explained by the fact that Ea has his seat "in - the depths of the world sea." - - Cf. K. Kessler's article, "Mandaer," in Herzog-Hauck's - _Realencyklopadie_, and the same author's paper, "Ueber Gnosis u. - altbabylonische Religion," in the _Abhandh. d. funften internationalen - Orientalisten-congresses zu Berlin_ (Berlin, 1882); also W. Brandt's - _Mandaische Religion_ (Leipzig, 1889), and M. N. Siouffi's _Etudes sur - la religion des Soubbas_ (Paris, 1880). (K. K.; G. W. T.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] The first of these names (not Mendaeans or Mandaites) is that - given by themselves, and means [Greek: gnostikoi], followers of - Gnosis ([Hebrew: mandaia], from [Hebrew: manda], Hebr. [Hebrew: - madda]). The Gnosis of which they profess themselves adherents is a - _personification_, the aeon and mediator "knowledge of life" (see - below). The title Nasoraeans (Nasoraye), according to Petermann, they - give only to those among themselves who are most distinguished for - knowledge and character. Like the Arabic Nasara, it is originally - identical with the name of the half heathen half Jewish-Christian - [Greek: Nazoraioi], and indicates an early connexion with that sect. - The inappropriate designation of St John's Christians arises from the - early and imperfect acquaintance of Christian missionaries, who had - regard merely to the reverence in which the name of the Baptist is - held among them, and their frequent baptisms. In their dealings with - members of other communions the designation they take is Sabians, in - Arabic Sabi'una, from [Hebrew: tzva] = [Hebrew: tzeva], to baptize, - thus claiming the toleration extended by the Koran (Sur, 5,.73; 22, - 17; 2, 59) to those of that name. - - [2] In 1882 they were said to have shrunk to 200 families, and to be - seeking a new settlement on the Tigris, to escape the persecutions to - which they are exposed. - - [3] See T. Noldeke's admirable _Mandaische Grammatik_ (Halle, 1875). - - [4] _Narratio originis, rituum, et errorum Christianorum S. Joannis_ - (Rome, 1652). - - [5] _Reisebeschreibung_, part iv. (Geneva, 1674). - - [6] _Voyage au Levant_ (Paris, 1664). - - [7] _Reisen im Orient_, ii. 447 seq. - - [8] M. M. Siouffi, _Etudes sur la religion ... des Soubbas_ (Paris, - 1880). - - [9] Mandaean MSS. occur in the British Museum, the Bodleian Library, - the Bibliotheque Nationale of France, and also in Rome, Weimar and - Berlin. A number of Mandaean inscriptions relating to popular beliefs - and superstitions have been published by H. Pognon, _Inscriptions - mandaites_ (2 vols., Paris, 1898-1899), also by M. Lidzbarski in his - _Ephemeris_ (Giessen, 1900 seq.). - - [10] The first printed edition and translation of the _Sidra rabba_, - by Matth. Norberg (_Codex Nazaraeus, liber Adami appellatus_, 3 - vols., Copenhagen, 1815-1816, followed by a lexicon in 1816, and an - onomasticon in 1817), is so defective as to be quite useless; even - the name Book of Adam is unknown to the Mandaeans. Petermann's - _Thesaurus s. Liber magnus, vulgo "Liber Adami" appellatus, opus - Mandaeorum summi panderis_ (2 vols., Berlin and Leipzig, 1867), is an - excellent metallographic reproduction of the Paris MS. A German - translation of about a quarter of this work has been published in W. - Brandt's _Mandaische Schriften_, with notes (Gottingen, 1893). A - critical edition still remains a desideratum. Next in importance to - the _Sidra rabba_ is the _Sidra d'Yahya_, or "Book of John," - otherwise known as the _D'rasche d'Malke_, "Discourses of the Kings," - which has not as yet been printed as a whole, although portions nave - been published by Lorsbach and Tychsen (see _Museum f. bibl. u. - orient. Lit._ (1807), and Staudlin's _Beitr. z. Phil. u. Gesch. d. - Relig. u. Sittenlehre_ 1796 seq.). The _Kolasta_ (Ar. _Khulasa_, - "Quintessence"), or according to its fuller title _'Enyane uderashe - d'masbutha umassektha_ ("Songs and Discourses of Baptism and the - Ascent," viz. of the soul after death), has been admirably - lithographed by Euting (Stuttgart, 1867). It is also known as _Sidra - d'neshmatha_, "Book of Souls," and besides hymns and doctrinal - discourses contains prayers to be offered by the priests at sacrifice - and at meals, as well as other liturgical matter. The Mandaean - marriage service occurs both in Paris and in Oxford as an independent - MS. The _Diwan_, hitherto unpublished, contains the ritual for - atonement. The _Asfar malwashe_, or "Book of the Zodiac," is - astrological. Of smaller pieces many are magical and used as amulets. - - [11] The use of the word "life" in a personal sense is usual in - Gnosticism; compare the [Greek: Zoe] of Valentin and _el-hayat - el-muallama_, "the dark life," of Mani in the _Fihirst_. - - - - -MANDALAY, formerly the capital of independent Burma, now the -headquarters of the Mandalay division and district, as well as the chief -town in Upper Burma, stands on the left bank of the Irrawaddy, in 21 -deg. 59' N. and 96 deg. 8' E. Its height above mean sea-level is 315 ft. -Mandalay was built in 1856-1857 by King Mindon. It is now divided into -the municipal area and the cantonment. The town covers an area of 6 m. -from north to south and 3 from east to west, and has well-metalled roads -lined with avenues of trees and regularly lighted and watered. The -cantonment consists of the area inside the old city walls, and is now -called Fort Dufferin. In the centre stands the palace, a group of wooden -buildings, many of them highly carved and gilt, resting on a brick -platform 900 ft. by 500 ft., and 6 ft. high. The greater part of it is -now utilized for military and other offices. The garrison consists of a -brigade belonging to the Burma command of the Indian army. There are -many fine pagodas and monastic buildings in the town. The population in -1901 was 183,816, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade. The population -is very mixed. Besides Burmese there are Zerbadis (the offspring of a -Mahommedan with a Burman wife), Mahommedans, Hindus, Jews, Chinese, -Shans and Manipuris (called Kathe), Kachins and Palaungs. Trains run -from Mandalay to Rangoon, Myit-kyina, and up the Mandalay-Kunlong -railway. The steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company also ply in all -directions. There are twenty bazaars, the chief of which, the Zegyo, was -burnt in 1897, and again in 1906, but rebuilt. - -The MANDALAY DISTRICT has an area of 2117 sq. m. and a population (1901) -of 366,507, giving a density of 177 inhabitants to the square mile. -About 600 sq. m. along the Irrawaddy river are flat land, nearly all -cultivated. In the north and east there are some 1500 sq. m. of high -hills and table-lands, forming geographically a portion of the Shan -table-land. Here the fall to the plains averages 3000 to 4000 ft. in a -distance of 10 m. This part of the district is well wooded and watered. -The Maymyo subdivision has very fine plateaus of 3000 to 3600 ft. in -height. The highest peaks are between 4000 and 5000 ft. above sea-level. -The Irrawaddy, the Myit-nge and the Madaya are the chief rivers. The -last two come from the Shan States, and are navigable for between 20 and -30 m. There are many canals, most of which have fallen greatly into -disrepair, and the Aungbinle, Nanda and Shwepyi lakes also supply water -for cultivation. A systematic irrigation scheme has been undertaken by -the government. The Sagyin hills near Madaya are noted for their -alabaster; rubies are also found in small quantities. There are 335 sq. -m. of forest reserves in the district, but there is little teak. The -climate is dry and healthy. During May and June and till August strong -winds prevail. The thermometer rises to about 107 deg. in the shade in -the hot weather, and the minimum in the month of December is about 55 -deg. The rainfall is light, the average being under 30 in. - -The DIVISION includes the districts of Mandalay, Bhamo, Myit-kyina, -Katha and Ruby Mines, with a total area of 29,373 sq. m., and a -population (1901) of 777,338, giving an average density of 30 -inhabitants to the square mile. (J. G. Sc.) - - - - -MANDAMUS, WRIT OF, in English law, a high prerogative writ issuing from -the High Court of Justice (named from the first word in the Latin form -of the writ) containing a command in the name of the king, directed to -inferior courts, corporations, or individuals, ordering them to do a -specific act within the duty of their office, or which they are bound by -statute to do, and performance whereof the applicant for the writ has a -specific legal right to enforce. Direct orders from the sovereign to -subjects commanding the performance of particular acts were common in -early times, and to this class of orders _mandamus_ originally belonged. -It became customary for the court of king's bench, in cases where a -legal duty was established but no sufficient means existed for enforcing -it, to order performance by this writ. Under the Judicature Acts and the -_Crown Office Rules_, 1906 (r. 49), the powers of the court of king's -bench as to the grant of the prerogative writ of mandamus are -exercisable only in the king's bench division of the High Court. - -The writ though of right is not of course: i.e. the applicant cannot -have it merely for the asking, but must satisfy the High Court that -circumstances exist calling for its issue. The procedure regulating the -grant and enforcement of the writ is determined by the _Crown Office -Rules_, 1906 (rr. 49-68, 125). - - _Mandamus_ has always been regarded as an exceptional remedy to - supplement the deficiencies of the common law, or defects of justice. - Where another legal or equitable remedy exists, equally appropriate, - convenient, speedy, beneficial and effectual, the writ will as a rule - be refused. It is occasionally granted even when a remedy by - indictment is available: but is not issued unless the existence of the - duty and refusal to perform it are clearly established, nor where - performance in fact has become impossible. The writ is used to compel - inferior courts to hear and determine according to law cases within - their jurisdiction, e.g. where a county court or justices in petty or - quarter sessions refuse to assume a jurisdiction which they possess to - deal with a matter brought before them. It has in recent years been - employed to compel municipal bodies to discharge their duties as to - providing proper sewerage for their districts and to compel - anti-vaccinationist guardians of the poor to appoint officers for the - execution of the Vaccination Acts; and it is also employed to compel - the promoters of railway and similar undertakings to discharge duties - imposed upon them towards the public by their special acts, e.g. with - reference to highways, &c., affected by their railways or other - undertakings. The courts do not prescribe the specific manner in which - the duty is to be discharged, but do not stay their hands until - substantial compliance is established. - - Besides the prerogative common-law writ there are a number of orders, - made by the High Court under statutory authority, and described as or - as being in the nature of mandamus, e.g. mandamus to proceed to the - election of a corporate officer of a municipal corporation (Municipal - Corporations Act 1882, s. 225); orders in the nature of mandamus to - justices to hear and determine a matter within their jurisdiction, or - to state and sign a case under the enactments relating to special - cases. - - At common law mandamus lies only for the performance of acts of a - public or official character. The enforcement of merely private - obligations, such as those arising from contracts, is not within its - scope. By s. 68 of the Common Law Procedure Act 1854, the plaintiff in - any action other than replevin and ejectment was empowered to claim a - writ of mandamus to compel the defendant to fulfil any duty in the - fulfilment of which the plaintiff was personally interested. By s. 25 - (8) of the Judicature Act 1873 a mandamus may be granted by an - interlocutory order of the High Court in all cases in which it shall - appear to the court just or convenient that such an order should be - made. This enactment does not deal with the prerogative mandamus but - empowers the king's bench and the chancery divisions to grant an - interlocutory mandamus in any pending cause or matter by an order - other than the final judgment and even by an order made after the - judgment. S. 68 of the act of 1854 has been repealed and replaced by - Order LIII. of the _Rules of the Supreme Court_. The remedy thus - created is an attempt to engraft upon the old common law remedy by - damages a right in the nature of specific performance of the duty in - question. It is not limited to cases in which the prerogative writ - would be granted; but mandamus is not granted when the result desired - can be obtained by some remedy equally convenient, beneficial and - effective, or a particular and different remedy is provided by - statute. An action for mandamus does not lie against judicial officers - such as justices. The mandamus issued in the action is no longer a - writ of mandamus, but a judgment or order having effect equivalent to - the writ formerly used. - - _Mandatory Injunction._--The High Court has a jurisdiction derived - from the court of chancery to grant injunctions at the suit of the - attorney-general or of private persons. Ordinarily these injunctions - are in the form of prohibition or restraint and not of command. But - occasionally mandatory injunctions are granted in the form of a direct - command by the court. - - _Specific Performance._--The jurisdiction of the High Court, derived - from the court of chancery, to decree specific performance of - contracts has some resemblance to mandamus in the domains of public or - quasi-public law. - - _Ireland._--The law of Ireland as to mandamus is derived from that of - England, and differs therefrom only in minor details. - - _British Possessions._--In a British possession the power to issue the - prerogative writ is usually vested in the Supreme Court by its charter - or by local legislation. - - _United States._--The writ has passed into the law of the United - States. "There is in the federal judiciary an employment of the writ - substantially as the old prerogative writ in the king's bench - practice, also as a mode of exercising appellate jurisdiction, also as - a proceeding ancillary to a judgment previously rendered, in exercise - of original jurisdiction, as when a circuit court having rendered a - judgment against a county issues a mandamus requiring its officers to - levy a tax to provide for the payment of the judgment." And in the - various states mandamus is used under varying regulations, mandate - being in some cases substituted as the name of the proceeding. - - - - -MANDAN, a tribe of North American Indians of Siouan stock. When first -met they were living on the Missouri at the mouth of the Heart river. At -the beginning of the 19th century they were driven up the Missouri by -the Sioux. In 1845 they joined the Gros Ventres and later the Arikaras, -and settled in their present position at Fort Berthold reservation, -North Dakota. The Mandans have always been agricultural; they are noted -for their ceremonies, and from the tattooing on face and breast were -described in the sign language as "the tattooed people." - - - - -MANDARIN, the common name for all public officials in China, the Chinese -name for whom is _kwan_ or _kwun_. The word comes through the Portuguese -from Malay _mantri_, a counsellor or minister of state. The ultimate -origin of this word is the Sanskrit root _man-_, meaning to "think," -seen in "man," "mind," &c. The term "mandarin" is not, in its western -usage, applied indiscriminately to all civil and military officials, but -only to those who are entitled to wear a "button," which is a spherical -knob, about an inch in diameter, affixed to the top of the official cap -or hat. These officials, civil and military alike, are divided into nine -grades or classes, each grade being distinguished by a button of a -particular colour. The grade to which an official belongs is not -necessarily related to the office he holds. The button which -distinguishes the first grade is a transparent red stone; the second -grade, a red coral button; the third, a sapphire; the fourth, a blue -opaque stone; the fifth, a crystal button; the sixth, an opaque white -shell button; the seventh, a plain gold button; the eighth, a worked -gold button; and the ninth, a worked silver button. The mandarins also -wear certain insignia embroidered on their official robes, and have -girdle clasps of different material. The first grade have, for civilians -an embroidered Manchurian crane on the breast and back, for the military -an embroidered unicorn with a girdle clasp of jade set in rubies. The -second grade, for civilians an embroidered golden pheasant, for the -military a lion with a girdle clasp of gold set in rubies. The third -grade, for civilians a peacock, for the military a leopard with a clasp -of worked gold. The fourth grade, for civilians a wild goose, for the -military a tiger, and a clasp of worked gold with a silver button. The -fifth grade, for civilians a silver pheasant, for the military a bear -and a clasp of plain gold with a silver button. The sixth grade, for -civilians an egret, for the military a tiger-cat with a mother-of-pearl -clasp. The seventh grade, for civilians a mandarin duck, for the -military a mottled bear with a silver clasp. The eighth grade, for -civilians a quail, for the military a seal with a clear horn clasp. The -ninth grade, for civilians a long-tailed jay, for the military a -rhinoceros with a buffalo-horn clasp. - -The "mandarin language" is the Chinese, which is spoken in official and -legal circles; it is also spoken over a considerable portion of the -country, particularly the northern and central parts, though not perhaps -with the same purity. Mandarin duck (_anas galericulata_) and Mandarin -orange (_citrus nobilis_) possibly derive their names, by analogy, from -the sense of superiority implied in the title "mandarin." - - See _Society in China_, by Sir R. K. Douglas; _L'Empire du milieu_, by - E. and O. Reclus. - - - - -MANDASOR, or MANDSAUR, a town of Central India, in the native state of -Gwalior, on the Rajputana railway, 31 m. S. of Neemuch. Pop. (1901), -20,936. It gave its name to the treaty with Holkar, which concluded the -Mahratta-Pindari War in 1818. It is a centre of the Malwa opium trade. - -Mandasor and its neighbourhood are full of archaeological interest. An -inscription discovered near the town indicated the erection of a temple -of the sun in 437, and at Sondani are two great monolith pillars -recording a victory of Yasodharma, king of Malwa, in 528. The fort dates -from the 14th and 15th centuries. Hindu and Jain remains are numerous, -though the town is now entirely Mahommedan. - - - - -MANDATE (_Mandatum_), a contract in Roman law constituted by one person -(the _mandatarius_) promising to do something gratuitously at the -request of another (the _mandator_), who undertakes to indemnify him -against loss. The jurist distinguished the different cases of mandatum -according as the object of the contract was the benefit of the mandator -or a third person singly, or the mandator and a third person, the -mandator and the mandatarius, or the mandatarius and a third person -together. When the benefit was that of the mandatarius alone, the -obligations of the contract were held not to arise, although the form of -the contract might exist, the commission being held to be merely advice -tendered to the mandatarius, and acted on by him at his own risk. -Mandatum was classified as one of the contracts established by consent -of the parties alone; but, as there was really no obligation of any kind -until the mandatarius had acted on the mandate, it has with more -propriety been referred to the contracts created by the supply of some -fact (_re_). The obligations of the mandatarius under the contract were, -briefly, to do what he had promised according to his instructions, -observing ordinary diligence in taking care of any property entrusted to -him, and handing over to his principal the results of his action, -including the right to sue in his name. On the other hand, the principal -was bound to recoup him his expenses and indemnify him against loss -through obligations he might have incurred. - - The essentials and the terminology of the contract are preserved in - most modern systems of law. But in English law mandate, under that - name, can hardly be said to exist as a separate form of contract. To - some extent the law of mandatum corresponds partly to the law of - principal and agent, partly to that of principal and surety. "Mandate" - is retained to signify the contract more generally known as gratuitous - bailment. It is restricted to personal property, and it implies the - delivery of something to the bailee, both of which conditions are - unknown in the mandatum of the civil law (see BAILMENT). - - - - -MANDAUE, a town of the province of Cebu, island of Cebu, Philippine -Islands, on the E. coast and E. coast road, about 4 m. N.E. of the town -of Cebu, the capital. Pop. (1903), 11,078; in the same year the town of -Consolacion (pop. 5511) was merged with Mandaue. Its climate is very -hot, but healthy. The principal industries are the raising of Indian -corn and sugar-cane and the manufacture of salt from sea-water. -Cebu-Visayan is the language. - - - - -MANDELIC ACID (Phenylglycollic Acid), C8H8O3 or C6H5.CH(OH).COOH, an -isomer of the cresotinic and the oxymethylbenzoic acids. Since the -molecule contains an asymmetric carbon atom, the acid exists in three -forms, one being an inactive "racemic" mixture, and the other two being -optically active forms. The inactive variety is known as _paramandelic -acid_. It may be prepared by the action of hydrochloric acid on the -addition compound of benzaldehyde and hydrocyanic acid:-- - - C6H5CHO + HCN + HCl + 2H2O = C6H5.CHOH.COOH + NH4Cl, - -(F. L. Winckler, _Ann._, 1836, 18, 310), by boiling phenylchlor-acetic -acid with alkalis (A. Spiegel, _Ber._, 1881, 14, 239), by heating -benzoylformaldehyde with alkalis (H. v. Pechmann, _Ber._, 1887, 20, -2905), and by the action of dilute alkalies on [omega]-dibromacetophenone -(C. Engler, _Ber._, 1887, 20, 2202):-- - - C6H5COCHBr2 + 3KHO = 2KBr + H2O + C6H5.CHOH.CO2K. - -It crystallizes from water in large rhombic crystals, which melt at 118 -deg. C. Oxidizing agents convert it into benzaldehyde. When heated with -hydriodic acid and phosphorus it forms phenylacetic acid; whilst -concentrated hydrobromic acid and hydrochloric acid at moderate -temperatures convert it into phenylbrom- and phenylchlor-acetic acids. -The inactive mixture may be resolved into its active components by -fractional crystallization of the cinchonine salt, when the salt of the -_dextro_ modification separates first; or the ammonium salt may be -fermented by _Penicillium glaucum_, when the _laevo_ form is destroyed -and the _dextro_ form remains untouched; on the other hand, -_Saccharomyces ellipsoideus_ destroys the _dextro_ form, but does not -touch the _laevo_ form. A mixture of the two forms in equivalent -quantities produces the inactive variety, which is also obtained when -either form is heated for some hours to 160 deg. C. - - - - -MANDER, CAREL VAN (1548-1606), Dutch painter, poet and biographer, was -born of a noble family at Meulebeke. He studied under Lucas de Heere at -Ghent, and in 1568-1569 under Pieter Vlerick at Kortryck. The next five -years he devoted to the writing of religious plays for which he also -painted the scenery. Then followed three years in Rome (1574-1577), -where he is said to have been the first to discover the catacombs. On -his return journey he passed through Vienna, where, together with the -sculptor Hans Mont, he made the triumphal arch for the entry of the -emperor Rudolph. After many vicissitudes caused by war, loss of fortune -and plague, he settled at Haarlem where, in conjunction with Goltzius -and Cornelisz, he founded a successful academy of painting. His fame is, -however, principally based upon a voluminous biographical work on the -paintings of various epochs--a book that has become for the northern -countries what Vasari's _Lives of the Painters_ became for Italy. It was -completed in 1603 and published in 1604, in which year Van Mander -removed to Amsterdam, where he died in 1606. - - - - -MANDEVILLE, BERNARD DE (1670-1733), English philosopher and satirist, -was born at Dordrecht, where his father practised as a physician. On -leaving the Erasmus school at Rotterdam he gave proof of his ability by -an _Oratio scholastica de medicina_ (1685), and at Leiden University in -1689 he maintained a thesis _De brutorum operationibus_, in which he -advocated the Cartesian theory of automatism among animals. In 1691 he -took his medical degree, pronouncing an "inaugural disputation," _De -chylosi vitiata_. Afterwards he came to England "to learn the language," -and succeeded so remarkably that many refused to believe he was a -foreigner. As a physician he seems to have done little, and lived poorly -on a pension given him by some Dutch merchants and money which he earned -from distillers for advocating the use of spirits. His conversational -abilities won him the friendship of Lord Macclesfield (chief justice -1710-1718) who introduced him to Addison, described by Mandeville as "a -parson in a tye-wig." He died in January (19th or 21st) 1733/4 at -Hackney. - -The work by which he is known is the _Fable of the Bees_, published -first in 1705 under the title of _The Grumbling Hive, or Knaves Turn'd -Honest_ (two hundred doggerel couplets). In 1714 it was republished -anonymously with _Remarks_ and _An Enquiry into the Origin of Moral -Virtue_. In 1723 a later edition appeared, including _An Essay on -Charity and Charity Schools_, and _A Search into the Nature of Society_. -The book was primarily written as a political satire on the state of -England in 1705, when the Tories were accusing Marlborough and the -ministry of advocating the French War for personal reasons. The edition -of 1723 was presented as a nuisance by the Grand Jury of Middlesex, was -denounced in the _London Journal_ by "Theophilus Philo-Britannus," and -attacked by many writers, notably by Archibald Campbell (1691-1756) in -his _Aretelogia_ (published as his own by Alexander Innes in 1728; -afterwards by Campbell, under his own name, in 1733, as _Enquiry into -the Original of Moral Virtue_). The _Fable_ was reprinted in 1729, a -ninth edition appeared in 1755, and it has often been reprinted in more -recent times. Berkeley attacked it in the second dialogue of the -_Alciphron_ (1732) and John Brown criticized him in his _Essay upon -Shaftesbury's Characteristics_ (1751). - -Mandeville's philosophy gave great offence at the time, and has always -been stigmatized as false, cynical and degrading. His main thesis is -that the actions of men cannot be divided into lower and higher. The -higher life of man is merely a fiction introduced by philosophers and -rulers to simplify government and the relations of society. In fact, -virtue (which he defined as "every performance by which man, contrary to -the impulse of nature, should endeavour the benefit of others, or the -conquest of his own passions, out of a rational ambition of being good") -is actually detrimental to the state in its commercial and intellectual -progress, for it is the vices (i.e. the self-regarding actions of men) -which alone, by means of inventions and the circulation of capital in -connexion with luxurious living, stimulate society into action and -progress. In the _Fable_ he shows a society possessed of all the virtues -"blest with content and honesty," falling into apathy and utterly -paralyzed. The absence of self-love (cf. Hobbes) is the death of -progress. The so-called higher virtues are mere hypocrisy, and arise -from the selfish desire to be superior to the brutes. "The moral virtues -are the political offspring which flattery begot upon pride." Similarly -he arrives at the great paradox that "private vices are public -benefits." But his best work and that in which he approximates most -nearly to modern views is his account of the origin of society. His _a -priori_ theories should be compared with Maine's historical inquiries -(_Ancient Law_, c. V.). He endeavours to show that all social laws are -the crystallized results of selfish aggrandizement and protective -alliances among the weak. Denying any form of moral sense or conscience, -he regards all the social virtues as evolved from the instinct for -self-preservation, the give-and-take arrangements between the partners -in a defensive and offensive alliance, and the feelings of pride and -vanity artificially fed by politicians, as an antidote to dissension and -chaos. Mandeville's ironical paradoxes are interesting mainly as a -criticism of the "amiable" idealism of Shaftesbury, and in comparison -with the serious egoistic systems of Hobbes and Helvetius. It is mere -prejudice to deny that Mandeville had considerable philosophic insight; -at the same time he was mainly negative or critical, and, as he himself -said, he was writing for "the entertainment of people of knowledge and -education." He may be said to have cleared the ground for the coming -utilitarianism. - - WORKS.--_Typhon: a Burlesque Poem_ (1704); _Aesop Dress'd, or a - Collection of Fables writ in Familiar Verse_ (1704); _The Planter's - Charity_ (1704); _The Virgin Unmasked_ (1709, 1724, 1731, 1742), a - work in which the coarser side of his nature is prominent; _Treatise - of the Hypochondriack and Hysterick Passions_ (1711, 1715, 1730) - admired by Johnson (Mandeville here protests against merely - speculative therapeutics, and advances fanciful theories of his own - about animal spirits in connexion with "stomachic ferment": he shows a - knowledge of Locke's methods, and an admiration for Sydenham); _Free - Thoughts on Religion_ (1720); _A Conference about Whoring_ (1725); _An - Enquiry into the Causes of the Frequent Executions at Tyburn_ (1725); - _The Origin of Honour and the Usefulness of Christianity in War_ - (1732). Other works attributed, wrongly, to him are _A Modest Defence - of Public Stews_ (1724); _The World Unmasked_ (1736) and _Zoologia - medicinalis hibernica_ (1744). - - See Hill's _Boswell_, iii. 291-293; L. Stephen's _English Thought in - the Eighteenth Century_, A. Bain's _Moral Science_ (593-598); - Windelband's _History of Ethics_ (Eng. trans. Tufts); J. M. Robertson, - _Pioneer Humanists_ (1907); P. Sakmann, _Bernard de Mandeville und die - Bienenfabel-Controverse_ (Freiburg i/Br., 1897), and compare articles - ETHICS, SHAFTESBURY, HOBBES. (J. M. M.). - - - - -MANDEVILLE, GEOFFREY DE (d. 1144), earl of Essex, succeeded his father, -William, as constable of the Tower of London in or shortly before 1130. -Though a great Essex landowner, he played no conspicuous part in history -till 1140, when Stephen created him earl of Essex in reward for his -services against the empress Matilda. After the defeat and capture of -Stephen at Lincoln (1141) the earl deserted to Matilda, but before the -end of the year, learning that Stephen's release was imminent, returned -to his original allegiance. In 1142 he was again intriguing with the -empress; but before he could openly join her cause he was detected and -deprived of his castles by the king. In 1143-1144 Geoffrey maintained -himself as a rebel and a bandit in the fen-country, using the Isle of -Ely and Ramsey Abbey as his headquarters. He was besieged by Stephen in -the fens, and met his death in September 1144 in consequence of a wound -received in a skirmish. His career is interesting for two reasons. The -charters which he extorted from Stephen and Matilda illustrate the -peculiar form taken by the ambitions of English feudatories. The most -important concessions are grants of offices and jurisdictions which had -the effect of making Mandeville a viceroy with full powers in Essex, -Middlesex and London, and Hertfordshire. His career as an outlaw -exemplifies the worst excesses of the anarchy which prevailed in some -parts of England during the civil wars of 1140-1147, and it is probable -that the deeds of Mandeville inspired the rhetorical description, in the -Peterborough Chronicle of this period, when "men said openly that Christ -and his saints were asleep." - - See J. H. Round, _Geoffrey de Mandeville, a Study of the Anarchy_ - (London, 1892). (H. W. C. D.) - - - - -MANDEVILLE, JEHAN DE ("Sir John Mandeville"), the name claimed by the -compiler of a singular book of travels, written in French, and published -between 1357 and 1371. By aid of translations into many other languages -it acquired extraordinary popularity, while a few interpolated words in -a particular edition of an English version gained for Mandeville in -modern times the spurious credit of being "the father of English prose." - -In his preface the compiler calls himself a knight, and states that he -was born and bred in England, of the town of St Albans; had crossed the -sea on Michaelmas Day 1322; had travelled by way of Turkey (Asia Minor), -Armenia the little (Cilicia) and the great, Tartary, Persia, Syria, -Arabia, Egypt upper and lower, Libya, great part of Ethiopia, Chaldaea, -Amazonia, India the less, the greater and the middle, and many countries -about India; had often been to Jerusalem, and had written in Romance as -more generally understood than Latin. In the body of the work we hear -that he had been at Paris and Constantinople; had served the sultan of -Egypt a long time in his wars against the Bedawin, had been vainly -offered by him a princely marriage and a great estate on condition of -renouncing Christianity, and had left Egypt under sultan Melech -Madabron, i.e. Muzaffar or Mudhaffar[1] (who reigned in 1346-1347); had -been at Mount Sinai, and had visited the Holy Land with letters under -the great seal of the sultan, which gave him extraordinary facilities; -had been in Russia, Livonia, Cracow, Lithuania, "en roialme daresten" (? -de Daresten or Silistria), and many other parts near Tartary, but not in -Tartary itself; had drunk of the well of youth at Polombe (Quilon on the -Malabar coast), and still seemed to feel the better; had taken -astronomical observations on the way to Lamory (Sumatra), as well as in -Brabant, Germany, Bohemia and still farther north; had been at an isle -called Pathen in the Indian Ocean; had been at Cansay (Hangchow-fu) in -China, and had served the emperor of China fifteen months against the -king of Manzi; had been among rocks of adamant in the Indian Ocean; had -been through a haunted valley, which he places near "Milstorak" (i.e. -Malasgird in Armenia); had been driven home against his will in 1357 by -arthritic gout; and had written his book as a consolation for his -"wretched rest." The paragraph which states that he had had his book -confirmed at Rome by the pope is an interpolation of the English -version. - -Part at least of the personal history of Mandeville is mere invention. -Nor is any contemporary corroboration of the existence of such a Jehan -de Mandeville known. Some French MSS., not contemporary, give a Latin -letter of presentation from him to Edward III., but so vague that it -might have been penned by any writer on any subject. It is in fact -beyond reasonable doubt that the travels were in large part compiled by -a Liege physician, known as Johains a le Barbe or Jehan a la Barbe, -otherwise Jehan de Bourgogne. - -The evidence of this is in a modernized extract quoted by the Liege -herald, Louis Abry[2] (1643-1720), from the lost fourth book of the -_Myreur des Hystors_ of Johans des Preis, styled d'Oultremouse. In this -"Jean de Bourgogne, dit a la Barbe," is said to have revealed himself on -his deathbed to d'Oultremouse, whom he made his executor, and to have -described himself in his will as "messire Jean de Mandeville, chevalier, -comte de Montfort en Angleterre et seigneur de l'isle de Campdi et du -chateau Perouse." It is added that, having had the misfortune to kill an -unnamed count in his own country, he engaged himself to travel through -the three parts of the world, arrived at Liege in 1343, was a great -naturalist, profound philosopher and astrologer, and had a remarkable -knowledge of physic. And the identification is confirmed by the fact -that in the now destroyed church of the Guillelmins was a tombstone of -Mandeville, with a Latin inscription stating that he was otherwise named -"ad Barbam," was a professor of medicine, and died at Liege on the 17th -of November 1372: this inscription is quoted as far back as 1462. - -Even before his death the Liege physician seems to have confessed to a -share in the composition of the work. In the common Latin abridged -version of it, at the end of c. vii., the author says that when stopping -in the sultan's court at Cairo he met a venerable and expert physician -of "our" parts, that they rarely came into conversation because their -duties were of a different kind, but that long afterwards at Liege he -composed this treatise at the exhortation and with the help (_hortatu et -adiutorio_) of the same venerable man, as he will narrate at the end of -it. And in the last chapter he says that in 1355, in returning home, he -came to Liege, and being laid up with old age and arthritic gout in the -street called Bassesauenyr, i.e. Basse Savenir, consulted the -physicians. That one came in who was more venerable than the others by -reason of his age and white hairs, was evidently expert in his art, and -was commonly called Magister Iohannes ad Barbam. That a chance remark of -the latter caused the renewal of their old Cairo acquaintance, and that -Ad Barbam, after showing his medical skill on Mandeville, urgently -begged him to write his travels; "and so at length, by his advice and -help, _monitu et adiutorio_, was composed this treatise, of which I had -certainly proposed to write nothing until at least I had reached my own -parts in England." He goes on to speak of himself as being now lodged in -Liege, "which is only two days distant from the sea of England"; and it -is stated in the colophon (and in the MSS.) that the book was first -published in French by Mandeville, its author, in 1355, at Liege, and -soon after in the same city translated into "the said" Latin form. -Moreover, a MS. of the French text extant at Liege about 1860[3] -contained a similar statement, and added that the author lodged at a -hostel called "al hoste Henkin Levo": this MS. gave the physician's name -as "Johains de Bourgogne dit ale barbe," which doubtless conveys its -local form. - -There is no contemporary English mention of any English knight named -Jehan de Mandeville, nor are the arms said to have been on the Liege -tomb like any known Mandeville arms. But Dr G. F. Warner has ingeniously -suggested that de Bourgogne may be a certain Johan de Bourgoyne, who was -pardoned by parliament on the 20th of August 1321 for having taken part -in the attack on the Despensers, but whose pardon was revoked in May -1322, the year in which "Mandeville" professes to have left England. And -it should now be added that among the persons similarly pardoned _on the -recommendation of the same nobleman_ was a Joh^an Mangevilayn, whose -name appears closely related to that of "de Mandeville"[4]--which is -merely a later form of "de Magneville." - -Mangeuilain occurs in Yorkshire as early as 16 Hen. I. (_Pipe Roll -Soc._, xv. 40), but is very rare, and (failing evidence of any place -named Mangeville) seems to be merely a variant spelling of Magnevillain. -The meaning may be simply "of Magneville," _de_ Magneville; but the -family of a 14th century bishop of Nevers were called both "Mandevilain" -and "de Mandevilain"--where Mandevilain seems a derivative place-name, -meaning the Magneville or Mandeville district. In any case it is clear -that the name "de Mandeville" might be suggested to de Bourgogne by that -of his fellow-culprit Mangevilayn, and it is even possible that the two -fled to England together, were in Egypt together, met again at Liege, -and shared in the compilation of the _Travels_. - -Whether after the appearance of the _Travels_ either de Bourgogne or -"Mangevilayn" visited England is very doubtful. St Albans Abbey had a -sapphire ring, and Canterbury a crystal orb, said to have been given by -Mandeville; but these might have been sent from Liege, and it will -appear later that the Liege physician possessed and wrote about precious -stones. St Albans also had a legend that a ruined marble tomb of -Mandeville (represented cross-legged and in armour, with sword and -shield) once stood in the abbey; this may be true of "Mangevilayn" or it -may be a mere myth. - -It is a little curious that the name preceding Mangevilayn in the list -of persons pardoned is "Johan le Barber." Did this suggest to de -Bourgogne the _alias_ "a le Barbe," or was that only a Liege nickname? -Note also that the arms on Mandeville's tomb were borne by the Tyrrells -of Hertfordshire (the county in which St Albans lies); for of course the -crescent on the lion's breast is only the "difference" indicating a -second son. - -Leaving this question, there remains the equally complex one whether the -book contains any facts and knowledge acquired by actual travels and -residence in the East. Possibly it may, but only as a small portion of -the section which treats of the Holy Land and the ways of getting -thither, of Egypt, and in general of the Levant. The prologue, indeed, -points almost exclusively to the Holy Land as the subject of the work. -The mention of more distant regions comes in only towards the end of -this prologue, and (in a manner) as an afterthought. - -By far the greater part of these more distant travels, extending in fact -from Trebizond to Hormuz, India, the Malay Archipelago, and China, and -back again to western Asia, has been appropriated from the narrative of -Friar Odoric (written in 1330). These passages, as served up by -Mandeville, are almost always, indeed, swollen with interpolated -particulars, usually of an extravagant kind, whilst in no few cases the -writer has failed to understand the passages which he adopts from Odoric -and professes to give as his own experiences. Thus (p. 209),[5] where -Odoric has given a most curious and veracious account of the Chinese -custom of employing tame cormorants to catch fish, the cormorants are -converted by Mandeville into "little beasts called _loyres_ (_layre_, -B), which are taught to go into the water" (the word _loyre_ being -apparently used here for "otter," _lutra_, for which the Provencal is -_luria_ or _loiria_). - -At a very early date the coincidence of Mandeville's stories with those -of Odoric was recognized, insomuch that a MS. of Odoric which is or was -in the chapter library at Mainz begins with the words: _Incipit -Itinerarius fidelis fratris Odorici socii Militis Mendavil per Indian; -licet hic [read ille] prius el alter posterius peregrinationem suam -descripsit._ At a later day Sir T. Herbert calls Odoric "travelling -companion of our Sir John"; and Purchas, with most perverse injustice, -whilst calling Mandeville, next to Polo, "if next ... the greatest Asian -traveller that ever the world had," insinuates that Odoric's story was -stolen from Mandeville's. Mandeville himself is crafty enough, at least -in one passage, to anticipate criticism by suggesting the probability of -his having travelled with Odoric (see p. 282 and below). - -Much, again, of Mandeville's matter, particularly in Asiatic geography -and history, is taken bodily from the _Historiae Orientis_ of Hetoum, an -Armenian of princely family, who became a monk of the Praemonstrant -order, and in 1307 dictated this work on the East, in the French tongue -at Poitiers, out of his own extraordinary acquaintance with Asia and its -history in his own time. - -It is curious that no passage in Mandeville can be plausibly traced to -Marco Polo, with one exception. This is (p. 163) where he states that at -Hormuz the people during the great heat lie in water--a circumstance -mentioned by Polo, though not by Odoric. We should suppose it most -likely that this fact had been interpolated in the copy of Odoric used -by Mandeville, for if he had borrowed it direct from Polo he would have -borrowed more. - -A good deal about the manners and customs of the Tatars is demonstrably -derived from the famous work of the Franciscan Ioannes de Plano Carpini, -who went as the pope's ambassador to the Tatars in 1245-1247; but Dr -Warner considers that the immediate source for Mandeville was the -_Speculum historiale_ of Vincent de Beauvais. Though the passages in -question are all to be found in Plano Carpini more or less exactly, the -expression is condensed and the order changed. For examples compare -Mandeville, p. 250, on the tasks done by Tatar women, with Plano -Carpini, p. 643;[6] Mandeville, p. 250, on Tatar habits of eating, with -Plano Carpini, pp. 639-640; Mandeville, p. 231, on the titles borne on -the seals of the Great Khan, with Plano Carpini, p. 715, &c. - -The account of Prester John is taken from the famous _Epistle_ of that -imaginary potentate, which was so widely diffused in the 13th century, -and created that renown which made it incumbent on every traveller in -Asia to find some new tale to tell of him. Many fabulous stories, again, -of monsters, such as cyclopes, sciapodes, hippopodes, monoscelides, -anthropophagi, and men whose heads did grow beneath their shoulders, of -the phoenix and the weeping crocodile, such as Pliny has collected, are -introduced here and there, derived no doubt from him, Solinus, the -bestiaries, or the _Speculum naturale_ of Vincent de Beauvais. And -interspersed, especially in the chapters about the Levant, are the -stories and legends that were retailed to every pilgrim, such as the -legend of Seth and the grains of paradise from which grew the wood of -the cross, that of the shooting of old Cain by Lamech, that of the -castle of the sparrow-hawk (which appears in the tale of Melusina), -those of the origin of the balsam plants at Matariya, of the dragon of -Cos, of the river Sabbation, &c. - -Even in that part of the book which might be supposed to represent some -genuine experience there are the plainest traces that another work has -been made use of, more or less--we might almost say as a framework to -fill up. This is the itinerary of the German knight Wilhelm von -Boldensele, written in 1336 at the desire of Cardinal Talleyrand de -Perigord.[7] A cursory comparison of this with Mandeville leaves no -doubt that the latter has followed its thread, though digressing on -every side, and too often eliminating the singular good sense of the -German traveller. We may indicate as examples Boldensele's account of -Cyprus (Mandeville, p. 28 and p. 10), of Tyre and the coast of Palestine -(Mandeville, 29, 30, 33, 34), of the journey from Gaza to Egypt (34), -passages about Babylon of Egypt (40), about Mecca (42), the general -account of Egypt (45), the pyramids (52), some of the wonders of Cairo, -such as the slave-market, the chicken-hatching stoves, and the apples of -paradise, i.e. plantains (49), the Red Sea (57), the convent on Sinai -(58, 60), the account of the church of the Holy Sepulchre (74-76), &c. -There is, indeed, only a small residuum of the book to which genuine -character, as containing the experiences of the author, can possibly be -attributed. Yet, as has been intimated, the borrowed stories are -frequently claimed as such experiences. In addition to those already -mentioned, he alleges that he had witnessed the curious exhibition of -the garden of transmigrated souls (described by Odoric) at Cansay, i.e. -Hangchow-fu (211). He and his fellows with their valets had remained -fifteen months in service with the emperor of Cathay in his wars against -the king of Manzi--Manzi, or Southern China, having ceased to be a -separate kingdom some seventy years before the time referred to. But the -most notable of these false statements occurs in his adoption from -Odoric of the story of the Valley Perilous (282). This is, in its -original form, apparently founded on real experiences of Odoric viewed -through a haze of excitement and superstition. Mandeville, whilst -swelling the wonders of the tale with a variety of extravagant touches, -appears to safeguard himself from the reader's possible discovery that -it was stolen by the interpolation: "And some of our fellows accorded to -enter, and some not. So there were with us two worthy men, Friars Minor, -that were of Lombardy, who said that if any man would enter they would -go in with us. And when they had said so, upon the gracious trust of God -and of them, we caused mass to be sung, and made every man to be shriven -and houselled; and then we entered, fourteen persons; but at our going -out we were but nine," &c. - -In referring to this passage it is only fair to recognize that the -description (though the suggestion of the greatest part exists in -Odoric) displays a good deal of imaginative power; and there is much in -the account of Christian's passage through the Valley of the Shadow of -Death, in Bunyan's famous allegory, which indicates a possibility that -John Bunyan may have read and remembered this episode either in -Mandeville or in Hakluyt's Odoric. - -Nor does it follow that the whole work is borrowed or fictitious. Even -the great Moorish traveller Ibn Batuta, accurate and veracious in the -main, seems--in one part at least of his narrative--to invent -experiences; and in such works as those of Jan van Hees and Arnold von -Harff we have examples of pilgrims to the Holy Land whose narratives -begin apparently in sober truth, and gradually pass into flourishes of -fiction and extravagance. So in Mandeville also we find particulars not -yet traced to other writers, and which may therefore be provisionally -assigned either to the writer's own experience or to knowledge acquired -by colloquial intercourse in the East. - -It is difficult to decide on the character of his statements as to -recent Egyptian history. In his account of that country (pp. 37, 38) -though the series of the Comanian (i.e. of the Bahri Mameluke) sultans -is borrowed from Hetoum down to the accession of _Melechnasser_, i.e. -Malik al-Nasir (Nasir ud-din Mahommed), who came first to the throne in -1293, Mandeville appears to speak from his own knowledge when he adds -that this "_Melechnasser_ reigned long and governed wisely." In fact, -though twice displaced in the early part of his life, Malik Nasir -reigned till 1341, a duration unparalleled in Mahommedan Egypt, whilst -we are told that during the last thirty years of his reign Egypt rose to -a high pitch of wealth and prosperity. Mandeville, however, then goes on -to say that his eldest son, _Melechemader_, was chosen to succeed; but -this prince was caused privily to be slain by his brother, who took the -kingdom under the name of _Melechmadabron_. "And he was Soldan when I -departed from those countries." Now Malik Nasir Mahommed was followed in -succession by no less than eight of his sons in thirteen years, the -first three of whom reigned in aggregate only a few months. The names -mentioned by Mandeville appear to represent those of the fourth and -sixth of the eight, viz. Salih 'Imad ud-din Isma'il, and Mozaffar (Saif -ud-din Hajji); and these the statements of Mandeville do not fit. - -On several occasions Arabic words are given, but are not always -recognizable, owing perhaps to the carelessness of copyists in such -matters. Thus, we find (p. 50) the names (not satisfactorily identified) -of the wood, fruit and sap of the balsam plant; (p. 99) of bitumen, -"alkatran" (_al-Katran_); (p. 168) of the three different kinds of -pepper (long pepper, black pepper and white pepper) as _sorbotin_, -_fulful_ and _bano_ or _bauo_ (_fulful_ is the common Arabic word for -pepper; the others have not been satisfactorily explained). But these, -and the particulars of his narrative for which no literary sources have -yet been found, are too few to constitute a proof of personal -experience. - -Mandeville, again, in some passages shows a correct idea of the form of -the earth, and of position in latitude ascertained by observation of the -pole star; he knows that there are antipodes, and that if ships were -sent on voyages of discovery they might sail round the world. And he -tells a curious story, which he had heard in his youth, how a worthy man -did travel ever eastward until he came to his own country again (p. -183). But he repeatedly asserts the old belief that Jerusalem was in the -centre of the world (79, 183), and maintains in proof of this that at -the equinox a spear planted erect in Jerusalem casts no shadow at noon, -which, if true, would equally consist with the sphericity of the earth, -provided that the city were on the equator. - -The sources of the book, which include various authors besides those -whom we have specified, have been laboriously investigated by Dr Albert -Bovenschen[8] and Dr G. F. Warner,[9] and to them the reader must be -referred for more detailed information on the subject. - - The oldest known MS. of the original--once Barrois's, afterwards the - earl of Ashburnham's, now Nouv. Acq. Franc. 4515 in the Bibliotheque - Nationale, Paris--is dated 1371, but is nevertheless very inaccurate - in proper names. An early printed Latin translation made from the - French has been already quoted, but four others, unprinted, have been - discovered by Dr J. Vogels.[10] They exist in eight MSS., of which - seven are in Great Britain, while the eighth was copied by a monk of - Abingdon; probably, therefore, all these unprinted translations were - executed in this country. From one of them, according to Dr - Vogels,[11] an English version was made which has never been printed - and is now extant only in free abbreviations, contained in two 15th - century MSS. in the Bodleian Library, Oxford--MS. e Museo 116, and MS. - Rawlinson D. 99: the former, which is the better, is in Midland - dialect, and may possibly have belonged to the Augustinian priory of - St Osyth in Essex, while the latter is in Southern dialect. - - The first English translation direct from the French was made (at - least as early as the beginning of the 15th century) from a MS. of - which many pages were lost.[12] Writing of the name Califfes - (Khalif), the author says (_Roxburghe Club ed._, p. 18) that it is - _tant a dire come roi(s). Il y soleit auoir v. soudans_--"as much as - to say king. There used to be 5 sultans." In the defective French MS. - a page ended with _Il y so_; then came a gap, and the next page went - on with part of the description of Mount Sinai, _Et est celle vallee - mult froide_ (ibid. p. 32). Consequently the corresponding English - version has "That ys to say amonge hem _Roys Ils_ and this vale ys ful - colde"! All English printed texts before 1725, and Ashton's 1887 - edition, follow these defective copies, and in only two known MSS. has - the lacuna been detected and filled up. - - One of them is the British Museum MS. Egerton 1982 (Northern dialect, - about 1410-1420?), in which, according to Dr Vogels, the corresponding - portion has been borrowed from that English version which had already - been made from the Latin. The other is in the British Museum MS. - Cotton Titus C. xvi. (Midland dialect, about 1410-1420?), representing - a text completed, and revised throughout, from the French, though not - by a competent hand. The Egerton text, edited by Dr G. F. Warner, has - been printed by the Roxburghe Club, while the Cotton text, first - printed in 1725 and 1727, is in modern reprints the current English - version. - - That none of the forms of the English version can be from the same - hand which wrote the original is made patent by their glaring errors - of translation, but the Cotton text asserts in the preface that it was - made by Mandeville himself, and this assertion was till lately taken - on trust by almost all modern historians of English literature. The - words of the original "je eusse cest livret mis en latin ... mais ... - je l'ay mis en romant" were mistranslated as if "je eusse" meant "I - had" instead of "I should have," and then (whether of fraudulent - intent or by the error of a copyist thinking to supply an accidental - omission) the words were added "and translated it agen out of Frensche - into Englyssche." Matzner (_Altenglische Sprachproben_, I., ii., - 154-155) seems to have been the first to show that the current English - text cannot possibly have been made by Mandeville himself. Of the - original French there is no satisfactory edition, but Dr Vogels has - undertaken a critical text, and Dr Warner has added to his Egerton - English text the French of a British Museum MS. with variants from - three others. - - It remains to mention certain other works bearing the name of - Mandeville or de Bourgogne. - - MS. Add. C. 280 in the Bodleian appends to the "Travels" a short - French life of St Alban of _Germany_, the author of which calls - himself Joh^an Mandivill[e], knight, formerly of the town of St Alban, - and says he writes to correct an impression prevalent among his - countrymen that there was no other saint of the name: this life is - followed by part of a French herbal. - - To Mandeville (by whom de Bourgogne is clearly meant) - d'Oultremouse[13] ascribes a Latin "lappidaire selon l'oppinion des - Indois," from which he quotes twelve passages, stating that the author - (whom he calls knight, lord of Montfort, of Castelperouse, and of the - isle of Campdi) had been "baillez en Alexandrie" seven years, and had - been presented by a Saracen friend with some fine jewels which had - passed into d'Oultremouse's own possession: of this _Lapidaire_, a - French version, which seems to have been completed after 1479, has - been several times printed.[14] A MS. of Mandeville's travels offered - for sale in 1862[15] is said to have been divided into five books: (1) - the travels, (2) _de la forme de la terre et comment et par quelle - maniere elle fut faite_, (3) _de la forme del ciel_, (4) _des herbes - selon les yndois et les philosophes par de la_, and (5) _ly - lapidaire_--while the cataloguer supposed Mandeville to have been the - author of a concluding piece entitled _La Venianche de nostre Signeur - Ihesu-Crist fayte par Vespasian fil del empereur de Romme et comment - Iozeph daramathye fu deliures de la prizon_. From the treatise on - herbs a passage is quoted asserting it to have been composed in 1357 - in honour of the author's natural lord, Edward, king of England. This - date is corroborated by the title of king of Scotland given to Edward, - who had received from Baliol the surrender of the crown and kingly - dignity on the 20th of January 1356, but on the 3rd of October 1357 - released King David and made peace with Scotland: unfortunately we are - not told whether the treatise contains the author's name, and, if so, - _what_ name. Tanner (_Bibliotheca_) alleges that Mandeville wrote - several books on medicine, and among the Ashmolean MSS. in the - Bodleian are a medical receipt by John de Magna Villa (No. 1479), an - alchemical receipt by him (No. 1407), and another alchemical receipt - by Johannes de Villa Magna (No. 1441). - - Finally, de Bourgogne wrote under his own name a treatise on the - plague,[16] extant in Latin, French and English texts, and in Latin - and English abridgments. Herein he describes himself as Johannes de - Burgundia, otherwise called _cum Barba_, citizen of Liege and - professor of the art of medicine; says that he had practised forty - years and had been in Liege in the plague of 1365; and adds that he - had previously written a treatise on the cause of the plague, - according to the indications of astrology (beginning _Deus deorum_), - and another on distinguishing pestilential diseases (beginning _Cum - nimium propter instans tempus epidimiale_). "Burgundia" is sometimes - corrupted into "Burdegalia," and in English translations of the - abridgment almost always appears as "Burdews" (Bordeaux) or the like. - MS. Rawlinson D. 251 (15th century) in the Bodleian also contains a - large number of English medical receipts, headed "P_r_actica - phisicalia M_agist_ri Joh_ann_is de Burgu_n_dia." - - See further Dr G. F. Warner's article in the _Dictionary of National - Biography_ for a comprehensive account, and for bibliographical - references; Ulysse Chevalier's _Repertoire des sources historiques du - moyen age_ for references generally; and the _Zeitschr. f. celt. - Philologie_ II., i. 126, for an edition and translation, by Dr Whitley - Stokes, of Fingin O'Mahony's Irish version of the _Travels_. - (E. W. B. N.; H. Y.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] The _on_ in Madabron apparently represents the Arabic nunation, - though its use in such a case is very odd. - - [2] Quoted again from him by the contemporary Liege herald, Lefort, - and from Lefort in 1866 by Dr S. Bormans. Dr J. Vogels communicated - it in 1884 to Mr E. W. B. Nicholson, who wrote on it in the _Academy_ - of April 12, 1884. - - [3] See Dr G. F. Warner's edition (Roxburghe Club), p. 38. In the - _Bull. de l'Institut archeologique Liegeois_, iv. (1860), p. 171, M. - Ferd. Henaux quotes the passage from "MSS. de la Bibliotheque - publique de Liege, a l'Universite, no. 360, fol. 118," but the MS. is - not in the 1875 printed catalogue of the University Library, which - has no Old French MS. of Mandeville at present. It was probably lent - out and not returned. - - [4] The de Mandevilles, earls of Essex, were originally styled de - Magneville, and Leland, in his _Comm. de Script. Britt._ (CDV), calls - our Mandeville himself "Joannes Magnovillanus, alias Mandeville." - - [5] Page indications like this refer to passages in the 1866 reissue - of Halliwell's edition, as being probably the most ready of access. - But all these passages have also been verified as substantially - occurring in Barrois's French MS. Nouv. Acq. Franc. 4515 in the - Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, mentioned below (of A.D. 1371), cited - B, and in that numbered xxxix. of the Grenville collection (British - Museum), which dates probably from the early part of the 15th - century, cited G. - - [6] Viz. in D'Avezac's ed. in tom. iv. of _Rec. de voyages et de - memoires_ pub. by the Soc. de Geog., 1839. - - [7] It is found in the _Thesaurus_ of Canisius (1604), v. pt. ii. p. - 95, and in the ed. of the same by Basnage (1725), iv. 337. - - [8] _Die Quellen fur die Reisebeschreibung des Johann von Mandeville, - Inaugural-Dissertation ... Leipzig_ (Berlin, 1888). This was revised - and enlarged as "Untersuchungen uber Johann von Mandeville und die - Quellen seiner Reisebeschreibung," in the _Zeitschrift der - Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde zu Berlin_, Bd. 23, Heft 3 u. 4 (No. 135, - 136). - - [9] In his edition (Roxburghe Club). - - [10] _Die ungedruckten lateinischen Versionen Mandeville's_ (Crefeld, - 1886). - - [11] _Handschriftliche Untersuchungen uber die englische Version - Mandeville's_ (Crefeld, 1891), p. 46. - - [12] Dr Vogels controverts these positions, arguing that the first - English version from the French was the complete Cotton text, and - that the defective English copies were made from a defective English - MS. His supposed evidences of the priority of the Cotton text equally - consist with its being a later revision, and for _Roys Ils_ in the - defective English MSS. he has only offered a laboured and improbable - explanation. - - [13] Stanislas Bormans, Introduction to d'Oultremouse's Chronicle, - pp. lxxxix., xc.; see also Warner's edition of the Travels, p. xxxv. - The ascription is on ff. 5 and 6 of _Le Tresorier de philosophie - naturele des pierres precieuses_, an unprinted work by d'Oultremouse - in MS. Fonds francais 12326 of the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. The - passage about Alexandria is on f. 81. - - [14] See L. Pannier, _Les Lapidaires francais_, pp. 189-204: not - knowing d'Oultremouse's evidence, he has discredited the attribution - to Mandeville and doubted the existence of a Latin original. - - [15] _Description ... d'une collection ... d'anciens manuscrits ... - reunis par les soins de M. J. Techener_, pt. i. (Paris, 1862), p. 159 - (referred to by Pannier, pp. 193-194). - - [16] Respecting this, see David Murray, _The Black Book of Paisley_, - &c. (1885), and _John de Burdeus_, &c. (1891). - - - - -MANDHATA, a village with temples in India, in Nimar district of the -Central Provinces, on the south bank of the Narbada. Pop. (1901), 832. -It is a famous place of Hindu pilgrimage, as containing one of the -twelve great _lingas_ of Siva; and as late as the beginning of the 19th -century it was the scene of the self-immolation of devotees who threw -themselves from the cliffs into the river. - - - - -MANDI, a native state of India, within the Punjab. It ranks as the most -important of the hill states to which British influence extended in 1846 -after the first Sikh War. The territory lies among the lower ranges of -the Himalaya, between Kangra and Kulu. The country is mountainous, being -intersected by two great parallel ranges, reaching to an average height -of 5000 to 7000 ft. above sea-level. The valleys between the hill ranges -are fertile, and produce all the ordinary grains, besides more valuable -crops of rice, maize, sugar-cane, poppy and tobacco. Iron is found in -places, and also gold in small quantities. Area, 1200 sq. m.; pop. -(1901), 174,045; estimated revenue, L28,000; tribute, L6666. The chief, -whose title is raja, is a Rajput of old family. Considerable sums have -been expended on roads and bridges. An important product of the state is -salt, which is mined in two places. - -The town of Mandi is on the Beas, which is here a mountain torrent, -crossed by a fine iron bridge; 2991 ft. above sea-level; 88 m. from -Simla. Pop. (1901), 8144. It was founded in 1527, and contains a palace -of the 17th century and other buildings of interest. It is a mart for -transfrontier trade with Tibet and Yarkand. - - See _Mandi State Gazetteer_ (Lahore, 1908). - - - - -MANDINGO, the name currently given to a very important division of negro -peoples in West Africa. It is seemingly a corruption of a term applied to -an important section of this group, the Mande-nka or Mande-nga. The -present writer has usually heard this word pronounced by the Mandingo -themselves "Mandina," or even "Madina." It seems to be derived from the -racial name _Mande_, coupled with the suffix _nka_ or _nke_, meaning -"people," the people of Mande. Then again this word Mande seems to take -the varying forms of _Male_, _Meli_, _Mane_, _Madi_, and, according to -such authorities as Binger, Delafosse and Desplagnes, it is connected -with a word _Mali_, which means "hippopotamus" or else "manati"--probably -the latter. According to Desplagnes, the word is further divisible into -_ma_, which would have meant "fish," and _nde_, a syllable to which he -ascribes the meaning of "father." In no Mandingo dialect known to the -present writer (or in any other known African language) does the vocable -_ma_ apply to "fish," and in only one very doubtful far eastern Mandingo -dialect is the root _nde_ or any other similar sound applied to "father." -This etymology must be abandoned, probably in favour of _Mani_, _Mali_, -_Madi_, _Mande_, meaning "hippopotamus," and in some cases the other big -water mammal, the manati.[1] - -The West African tribes speaking Mandingo languages vary very much in -outward appearance. Some of them may be West African negroes of the -forest type with little or no intermixture with the Caucasian; others, -such as the typical Mandingos or the Susus, obviously contain a -non-negro element in their physique. This last type resembles very -strongly the Swahilis of the Zanzibar littoral or other crosses between -the Arab and the negro; and though nearly always black-skinned, often -has a well-shaped nose and a fairly full beard. The tribes dwelling in -the West African forest, but speaking languages of Mandingo type, do not -perhaps exhibit the very prognathous, short-limbed, "ugly" development -of West African negro, but are of rather a refined type, and some of -them are lighter in skin colour than the more Arab-looking Mandingos of -the north. But in these forest Mandingos the beard is scanty. -Occasionally the Mandingo physical type appears in eastern Liberia and -on the Ivory Coast amongst people speaking Kru languages. In other cases -it is associated with the Senufo speech-family. - -Delafosse divides the Mandingo group linguistically into three main -sections: (1) the _Mande-tamu_, (2) the _Mande-fu_, and (3) the -_Mande-ta_, according as they use for the numeral 10 the root _tamu_, -_ta_ or _fu_. Of the first group are the important tribes of the -Soni-nke (called Sarakulle by the Fula, and Sarakole by the French); the -Swaninki people of Azer, and the oases of Tishitt, Wadan and Walata in -the south-west Sahara; and the Bozo, who are the fishermen along the -banks of the Upper Niger and the Bani from Jenne to Timbuktu. The -Soni-nke are also known as Marka, and they include (according to Binger) -the Samogho and even the Kurtei along the banks of the Niger east of -Timbuktu as far as Say. - -The group of Mande-ta would include the Bamana (incorrectly called -Bambara) of the upper Senegal and of Segu on the Upper Niger, the -Toronke, the Mandenga, the Numu of the district west of the Black Volta, -the Vai of south-western Liberia, and the Dyula or Gyula of the region -at the back of the Ivory Coast. - -The group of the Mande-fu includes a great many different languages and -dialects, chiefly in the forest region of Sierra Leone and Liberia, and -also the dialects of the celebrated Susu or Soso tribe, and the Mandingo -tribes of Futa Jallon, of the Grand Scarcies River and of the interior -of the Ivory Coast, and of the regions between the eastern affluents of -the Upper Niger and the Black Volta. To this group Delafosse joins the -Boko dialect spoken by people dwelling to the west of the Lower Niger at -Bussa--between Bussa and Borgu. If this hypothesis be correct it gives a -curious eastern extension to the range of the Mandingo family at the -present day; or it may be a vestige left by the Mandingo invasion which, -according to legend, came in prehistoric times from the Hausa countries -across the Niger to Senegambia. It is remarkable that this Boko dialect -as recorded by the missionary Koelle most resembles certain dialects in -central Liberia and in the Ivory Coast hinterland. - -The Mandingos, coming from the East and riding on horses (according to -tradition), seem to have invaded western Nigeria about A.D. 1000 (if not -earlier), and to have gradually displaced and absorbed the Songhai or -Fula (in other words, Negroid, "White") rulers of the countries in the -basin of the Upper Niger or along its navigable course as far as the -Bussa Rapids and the forest region. On the ruins of these Songhai, -Berber, or Fula kingdoms rose the empire of Mali (Melle). Considerable -sections of the Mandingo invaders had adopted Mahommedanism, and -extended a great Mahommedan empire of western Nigeria far northwards -into the Sahara Desert. In the 16th century the Songhai regained supreme -power. See _infra_, S _The Melle Empire_. - -Although the Mandingos, and especially the Susu section, may have come -as conquerors, they devoted themselves through the succeeding centuries -more and more to commerce. They became to the extreme west of Africa -what the Hausa are in the west-central regions. Some of the Mandingo -invasions, especially in the forest region, left little more than the -imposition of their language; but where there was any element of -Caucasian blood (for the original Mandingo invaders were evidently -dashed with the Caucasian by intermingling with some of the negroid -races of north-central Africa), they imposed a degree of civilization -which excluded cannibalism (still rampant in much of the forest region -of West Africa), introduced working in leather and in metals, and was -everywhere signalized by a passionate love of music, a characteristic of -all true Mandingo tribes at the present day. It is noteworthy that many -of the instruments affected by the Mandingos are found again in the more -civilized regions of Bantu Africa, as well as in the central Sudan. Many -of these types of musical instruments can also be traced originally to -ancient Egypt. The Mandingos also seem to have brought with them in -their westward march the Egyptian type of ox, with the long, erect -horns. It would almost seem as if this breed had been preceded by the -zebu or humped ox; though these two types are evidently of common origin -so far as derivation from one wild species is concerned. The Mandingos -maintain the system of totems or clans, and each section or tribe -identifies itself with a symbol, which is usually an animal or a plant. -The Mandenga are supposed to have either the manati or the hippopotamus -as _tanna_. (Binger states that the manati was the totem of the Mande -group, to which perhaps belonged originally the Susu and the Dyula.) The -Bamana are the people of the crocodile; the Samanke are the people of -the elephant; the Samokho of the snake. Other totems or symbols of -special families or castes are the dog, the calabash or gourd, the lion, -the green monkey, the leopard, the monitor lizard, a certain spice -called bandugu, certain rats, the python, the puff-adder, &c. - - AUTHORITIES.--The bibliography dealing with the Mandingo peoples is - very extensive, but only the following works need be cited: Captain L. - G. Binger, _Du Niger au Golfe de Guinee_, &c. (1892); Maurice - Delafosse, _Vocabulaires comparatifs de plus de 60 langues et - dialectes parles a la Cote d'Ivoire_, &c. (1904); Lieut. Desplagnes, - _Le Plateau central nigerien_ (1907); Lady Lugard, _A Tropical - Dependency_ (1905); Sir Harry Johnston, _Liberia_ (1906). Most of - these works contain extensive bibliographies. (H. H. J.) - -_The Melle Empire._--The tradition which ascribes the arrival of the -Mandingo in the western Sudan to the 10th or 11th century is referred to -in the previous section. It is not known by whom the Melle (Mali) state -was founded. Neither is there certainty as to the site of the capital, -also called Melle. Idrisi in the 12th century describes the Wangara (a -Hausa name for the Mandingo) as a powerful people, and El Bakri writes -in similar terms. But the first king whose name is preserved was -Baramindana, believed to have reigned from 1213 to 1235. His territory -lay south of that of Jenne, partly within the bend of the Niger and -partly west of that river. The people were already Moslem, and the -capital was a rendezvous for merchants from all parts of the western -Sudan and the Barbary States. Mari Jatah (or Diara), Baramindana's -successor, about the middle of the 13th century conquered the Susu, then -masters of Ghanata (Ghana). Early in the 14th century Mansa, i.e. -Sultan, Kunkur Musa, extended the empire, known as the Mellistine, to -its greatest limits, making himself master of Timbuktu, Gao and all the -Songhoi dominions. His authority extended northward over the Sahara to -the Tuat oases. Mansa Suleiman was on the throne when in 1352-1353 Melle -was visited by Ibn Batuta. By this monarch the empire was divided into -three great provinces, ruled by viceroys. For a century afterwards Melle -appears to have been the dominant Sudan state west of the Lower Niger, -but it had to meet the hostility of the growing power of the pagan -Mossi, of the Tuareg in the north and of the Songhoi, who under Sunni -Ali (c. 1325) had already regained a measure of independence. Cadamosto -nevertheless describes Melle in 1454 as being still the most powerful of -the negro-land kingdoms and the most important for its traffic in gold -and slaves. The Songhoi sovereign Askia is said to have completed the -conquest of Melle at the beginning of the 16th century. It nevertheless -retained some sort of national existence--though with the advent of the -Moors in the Niger countries (end of the 16th century) native -civilization suffered a blow from which it never recovered. Civil war is -said to have finally wrought the ruin of Melle about the middle of the -17th century.[2] The Portuguese, from their first appearance on the -Senegal and Gambia, entered into friendly relations with the rulers of -Melle. Barros relates (_Da Asia_, Decade I.) that John II. of Portugal -sent embassies to the court of Melle by way of the Gambia (end of the -15th century). At that time the authority of Melle was said to extend -westward to the coast. The king, pressed by the Mossi, the Songhoi and -the Fula, solicited the help of his "friends and allies" the -Portuguese--with what result does not appear; but in 1534 Barros himself -despatched an ambassador to the king of Melle concerning the trade of -the Gambia. By way of that river the Portuguese themselves penetrated as -far as Bambuk, a country conquered by the Mandingo in the 12th century. -By Barros the name of the Melle ruler is given as Mandi Mansa, which may -be the native form for "Sultan of the Mandi" (Mandingo). - - See further TIMBUKTU and the authorities there cited; cf. also L. - Marc, _Le Pays Mossi_ (Paris, 1909). Lists of Mandingo sovereigns are - given in Stokvis, _Manuel d'histoire_, vol. i. (Leiden, 1888). - (F. R. C.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Indeed it is possible that the European name for this - Sirenian--manati--derived from the West Indies, is the corruption of - a West African word _manti_, applied very naturally to the animal by - the West African slaves, who at once recognized it as similar to the - creature found on the West African coast in their own rivers, and - also on the Upper Niger. - - [2] On the ruins of the old Melle dominions arose five smaller - kingdoms, representing different sections of the Mandingo peoples. - - - - -MANDLA, a town and district of British India, in the Jubbulpore division -of the Central Provinces. The town is on the river Nerbudda, 1787 ft. -above the sea. It has a manufacture of bell-metal vessels. Pop. (1901), -5054. The district of Mandla, among the Satpura hills, has an area of -5054 sq. m. It consists of a wild highland region, broken up by the -valleys of numerous rivers and streams. The Nerbudda flows through the -centre of the district, receiving several tributaries which take their -rise in the Maikal hills, a range densely clothed with _sal_ forest, and -forming part of the great watershed between eastern and western India. -The loftiest mountain is Chauradadar, about 3400 ft. high. Tigers -abound, and the proportion of deaths caused by wild animals is greater -than in any other district of the Central Provinces. The magnificent -_sal_ forests which formerly clothed the highlands have suffered greatly -from the nomadic system of cultivation practised by the hill tribes, who -burned the wood and sowed their crops in the ashes; but measures have -been taken to prevent further damage. The population in 1901 was -318,400, showing a decrease of 6.5% in the decade, due to famine. The -aboriginal or hill tribes are more numerous in Mandla than in any other -district of the Central Provinces, particularly the Gonds. The principal -crops are rice, wheat, other food grains, pulse and oilseeds. There is a -little manufacture of country cloth. A branch of the Bengal-Nagpur -railway touches the south-western border of the district. Mandla -suffered most severely from the famine of 1896-1897, partly owing to its -inaccessibility, and partly from the shy habits of the aboriginal -tribes. The registered death-rate in 1907 was as high as 96 per -thousand. - - - - -MANDOLINE (Fr. _mandoline_; Ger. _Mandoline_; It. _mandolina_), the -treble member of the lute family, and therefore a stringed instrument of -great antiquity. The mandoline is classified amongst the stringed -instruments having a vaulted back, which is more accentuated than even -that of the lute. The mandoline is strung with steel and brass wire -strings. There are two varieties of mandolines, both Italian: (1) the -_Neapolitan_, 2 ft. long, which is the best known, and has four courses -of pairs of unisons tuned like the violin in fifths; (2) the _Milanese_, -which is slightly larger and has five or six courses of pairs of -unisons. The neck is covered by a finger-board, on which are distributed -the twelve or more frets which form nuts at the correct points under the -strings on which the fingers must press to obtain the chromatic -semitones of the scale. The strings are twanged by means of a plectrum -or pick, held between the thumb and first finger of the right hand. In -order to strike a string the pick is given a gliding motion over the -string combined with a _down_ or an _up_ movement, respectively -indicated by signs over the notes. In order to sustain notes on the -mandoline the effect known as _tremolo_ is employed; it is produced by -means of a double movement of the pick up and down over a pair of -strings. - - The mandoline is a derivative of the mandola or mandore, which was - smaller than the lute but larger than either of the mandolines - described above. It had from four to eight courses of strings, the - _chanterelle_ or melody string being single and the others in pairs of - unisons. The mandore is mentioned in Robert de Calenson (12th cent.), - and elsewhere; it may be identified with the pandura. - - The Neapolitan mandoline was scored for by Mozart as an accompaniment - to the celebrated serenade in _Don Juan_. Beethoven wrote for it a - _Sonatina per il mandolino_, dedicated to his friend Krumpholz. Gretry - and Paisiello also introduced it into their operas as an accompaniment - to serenades. - - The earliest method for the mandoline was published by Fouchette in - Paris in 1770. The earliest mention of the instrument in England, in - 1707, is quoted in Ashton's _Social Life in the Reign of Queen Anne_: - "Signior Conti will play ... on the mandoline, an instrument not known - yet." (K. S.) - - - - -MANDRAKE (_Mandragora officinarum_), a plant of the potato family, order -Solanaceae, a native of the Mediterranean region. It has a short stem -bearing a tuft of ovate leaves, with a thick fleshy and often forked -root. The flowers are solitary, with a purple bell-shaped corolla; the -fruit is a fleshy orange-coloured berry. The mandrake has been long -known for its poisonous properties and supposed virtues. It acts as an -emetic, purgative and narcotic, and was much esteemed in old times; but, -except in Africa and the East, where it is used as a narcotic and -anti-spasmodic, it has fallen into well-earned disrepute. In ancient -times, according to Isidorus and Serapion, it was used as a narcotic to -diminish sensibility under surgical operations, and the same use is -mentioned by Kazwini, i. 297, s.v. "Luffah" Shakespeare more than once -alludes to this plant, as in _Antony and Cleopatra_: "Give me to drink -mandragora." The notion that the plant shrieked when touched is alluded -to in _Romeo and Juliet_: "And shrieks like mandrakes torn out of the -earth, that living mortals, hearing them, run mad." The mandrake, often -growing like the lower limbs of a man, was supposed to have other -virtues, and was much used for love philtres, while the fruit was -supposed, and in the East is still supposed, to facilitate pregnancy -(Aug., _C. Faust_. xxii. 56; cf. Gen. xxx. 14, where the Hebrew [Hebrew: -dadarom] is undoubtedly the mandrake). Like the mallow, the mandrake was -potent in all kinds of enchantment (see Maimonides in Chwolson, -_Ssabier_, ii. 459). Dioscorides identifies it with the [Greek: -kirkaia], the root named after the enchantress Circe. To it appears to -apply the fable of the magical herb Baaras, which cured demoniacs, and -was procured at great risk or by the death of a dog employed to drag it -up, in Josephus (_B. J._ vii. 6, S 3). The German name of the plant -(_Alraune_; O. H. G. _Alruna_) indicates the prophetic power supposed to -be in little images (homunculi, Goldmannchen, Galgenmannchen) made of -this root which were cherished as oracles. The possession of such roots -was thought to ensure prosperity. (See Du Cange, s.vv. "Mandragora" and -Littre.) - - Gerard in 1597 (_Herball_, p. 280) described male and female - mandrakes, and Dioscorides also recognizes two such plants - corresponding to the spring and autumn species (_M. vernalis_ and _M. - officinarum_ respectively), differing in the colour of the foliage and - shape of fruit. - - - - -MANDRILL (a name formed by the prefix "man" to the word "drill," which -was used in ancient literature to denote an ape, and is probably of West -African origin), the common title of the most hideous and most -brilliantly coloured of all the African monkeys collectively denominated -baboons and constituting the genus _Papio_. Together with the _drill_ -(q.v.), the mandrill, _Papio maimon_, constitutes the subgenus _Maimon_, -which is exclusively West African in distribution, and characterized, -among other peculiarities, by the extreme shortness of the tail, and the -great development of the longitudinal bony swellings, covered during -life with naked skin, on the sides of the muzzle. As a whole, the -mandrill is characterized by heaviness of body, stoutness and strength -of limb, and exceeding shortness of tail, which is a mere stump, not 2 -in. long, and usually carried erect. It is, moreover, remarkable for the -prominence of its brow-ridges, beneath which the small and closely -approximated eyes are deeply sunk; the immense size of the canine teeth; -and more especially for the extraordinarily vivid colouring of some -parts of the skin. The body generally is covered with soft hair--light -olive-brown above and silvery grey beneath--and the chin is furnished -underneath with a small pointed yellow beard. The hair of the forehead -and temples is directed upwards so as to meet in a point on the crown, -which gives the head a triangular appearance. The ears are naked, and -bluish black. The hands and feet are naked, and black. A large space -around the greatly developed callosities on the buttocks, as well as the -upper part of the insides of the thighs, is naked and of a crimson -colour, shading off on the sides to lilac or blue, which, depending upon -injection of the superficial blood-vessels, varies in intensity -according to the condition of the animal--increasing under excitement, -fading during sickness, and disappearing after death. It is, however, in -the face that the most remarkable disposition of vivid hues occurs, more -resembling those of a brilliantly coloured flower than what might be -expected in a mammal. The cheek-prominences are of an intense blue, the -effect of which is heightened by deeply sunk longitudinal furrows of a -darker tint, while the central line and termination of the nose are -bright scarlet. It is only to fully adult males that this description -applies. The female is of much smaller size, and more slender; and, -though the general tone of the hairy parts of the body is the same, the -prominences, furrows, and colouring of the face are much less marked. -The young males have black faces. - -Old males are remarkable for the ferocity of their disposition, as well -as for other disagreeable qualities; but when young they can easily be -tamed. Like baboons, mandrills appear to be indiscriminate eaters, -feeding on fruit, roots, reptiles, insects, scorpions, &c., and inhabit -open rocky ground rather than forests. Not much is known of the -mandrill's habits in the wild state, nor of the exact limits of its -geographical distribution; the specimens brought to Europe coming from -the west coast of tropical Africa, from Guinea to the Gaboon. (See also -PRIMATES.) (W. H. F.; R. L.*) - - - - -MANDU, or MANDOGARH, a ruined city in the Dhar state of Central India, -the ancient capital of the Mahommedan kingdom of Malwa. The city is -situated at an elevation of 2079 ft. and extends for 8 m. along the -crest of the Vindhyan mountains. It reached its greatest splendour in -the 15th century under Hoshang Shah (1405-1434). The circuit of the -battlemented wall is nearly 23 m., enclosing a large number of palaces, -mosques and other buildings. The oldest mosque dates from 1405; the -finest is the Jama Masjid or great mosque, a notable example of Pathan -architecture, founded by Hoshang Shah. The marble-domed tomb of this -ruler is also magnificent. - - For a description and history of Mandu, see Sir James Campbell's - _Gazetteer of Bombay_, vol. i. part ii. (1896), and _Journal of the - Bombay Asiatic Society_ (vol. xxi.). - - - - -MANDURIA, a city of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce, from which -it is 27 m. W. by road (22 m. E. of Taranto), 270 ft. above sea-level, -and 8 m. N. of the coast. Pop. (1901), 12,199 (town); 13,190 (commune). -It is close to the site of the ancient Manduria, considerable remains of -the defences of which can still be seen; they consisted of a double line -of wall built of rectangular blocks of stone, without mortar, and with a -broad ditch in front. Some tombs with gold ornaments were found in 1886 -(L. Viola in _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1886, 100). It was an important -stronghold of the Messapii against Tarentum, and Archidamus III., king -of Sparta, fell beneath its walls in 338 B.C., while leading the army of -the latter (Plut., _Agis_, 3, calls the place Mandonion: see s.v. -ARCHIDAMUS). It revolted to Hannibal, but was stormed by the Romans in -209 B.C. Pliny mentions a spring here which never changed its level, and -may still be seen. The town was destroyed by the Saracens in the 10th -century; the inhabitants settled themselves on the site of the present -town, at first called Casalnuovo, which resumed the old name in 1700. - (T. As.) - - - - -MANDVI, a seaport of India, in the native state of Cutch, within the -Gujarat province of Bombay, 36 m. from Bhuj, and 182 m. by sea from -Karachi. Pop. (1901), 24,683. It is a weekly port of call for steamers -of the British India line, vessels of 70 tons cannot come nearer than -500 yards. The pilots and sailors of Mandvi have a high reputation. - - - - -MANES, in Roman mythology, the disembodied and immortal spirits of the -dead. The word is an old adjective--_manis_, _manus_, meaning "good," -the opposite of which is _immanis_; hence the Manes, clearly a -euphemistic term, are the "good people." They were looked upon as gods; -hence the dedication, of great antiquity and frequent occurrence, -_Divis_ or _Dis Manibus_ in sepulchral inscriptions, used even in -Christian times. When a body was consumed on the funeral pyre, relations -and friends invoked the deceased as a divinity, and the law of the -Twelve Tables prescribed that the rights of the divine Manes should be -respected, and that each man should regard the dead members of his -family as gods. Their home was in the bowels of the earth, from which -they only emerged at certain times. It was an old Italian -custom--especially at the foundation of cities--to dig a pit in the form -of an inverted sky (hence called _mundus_), the lower part of which was -supposed to be sacred to the gods of the underworld, including the -Manes. Such a pit existed on the Palatine at Rome. It was covered by a -stone called _lapis manalis_, representing the entrance to the lower -world, which was removed three times in the year (Aug. 24, Oct. 5, Nov. -8). The Manes were then believed to issue forth, and these days were -regarded as _religiosi_--that is, all important business in public and -private life was suspended. Offerings were made to propitiate the dead: -libations of water, wine, warm milk, honey, oil, and the blood of -sacrificial victims--black sheep, pigs and oxen (_suovetaurilia_)--was -poured upon the graves; ointment and incense were offered, lamps were -lighted, and the grave was adorned with garlands of flowers, especially -roses and violets. Beans, eggs, lentils, salt, bread and wine, placed on -the grave, formed the chief part of a meal partaken of by the mourners. -There was also a public state festival in honour of the dead, called -Parentalia, held from the 13th to the 21st of February, the last month -of the old Roman year, the last day of the festival being called -Feralia. During its continuance all the temples were shut, marriages -were forbidden, and the magistrates had to appear without the insignia -of their office. - -There was considerable analogy between the Manes and the received idea -of "souls"--and there was a corresponding idea that they could be -conjured up and appear as ghosts. They were also supposed to have the -power of sending dreams. It is to be noticed that, unlike the Lares, the -Manes are never spoken of singly. - - For authorities, see LARES and PENATES. - - - - -MANET, EDOUARD (1832-1883), French painter, regarded as the most -important master of Impressionism (q.v.), was born in Paris on the 23rd -of January 1832. After spending some time under the tuition of the Abbe -Poiloup, he entered the College Rollin, where his passion for drawing -led him to neglect all his other lessons. His studies finished in 1848, -he was placed on board the ship _Guadeloupe_, voyaging to Rio de -Janeiro. On his return he first studied in Couture's studio (1851), -where his independence often infuriated his master. For six years he was -an intermittent visitor to the studio, constantly taking leave to -travel, and going first to Cassel, Dresden, Vienna and Munich, and -afterwards to Florence, Rome and Venice, where he made some stay. Some -important drawings date from this period, and one picture, "A Nymph -Surprised." Then, after imitating Couture, more or less, in "The -Absinthe-drinker" (1866), and Courbet in "The Old Musician," he devoted -himself almost exclusively to the study of the Spanish masters in the -Louvre. A group was already gathering round him--Whistler, Legros, and -Fantin-Latour haunted his studio in the Rue Guyot. His "Spaniard playing -the Guitar," in the Salon of 1861, excited much animadversion. Delacroix -alone defended Manet, but, this notwithstanding, his "Fifer of the -Guard" and "Breakfast on the Grass" were refused by the jury. Then the -"Exhibition of the Rejected" was opened, and round Manet a group was -formed, including Bracquemond, Legros, Jongkind, Whistler, Harpignies -and Fantin-Latour, the writers Zola, Duranty and Duret, and Astruc the -sculptor. In 1863, when an amateur, M. Martinet, lent an exhibition-room -to Manet, the painter exhibited fourteen pictures; and then, in 1864, -contributed again to the Salon "The Angels at the Tomb" and "A -Bullfight." Of this picture he afterwards kept nothing but the toreador -in the foreground, and it is now known as "The Dead Man." In 1865 he -sent to the Salon "Christ reviled by the Soldiers" and the famous -"Olympia," which was hailed with mockery and laughter. It represents a -nude woman reclining on a couch, behind which is seen the head of a -negress who carries a bunch of flowers. A black cat at her feet -emphasizes the whiteness of the sheet on which the woman lies. This work -(now in the Louvre) was presented to the Luxembourg by a subscription -started by Claude Monet (1890). It was hung in 1897 among the -Caillebotte collection, which included the "Balcony," and a study of a -female head called "Angelina." This production, of a highly independent -individuality, secured Manet's exclusion from the Salon of 1866, so that -he determined to exhibit his pictures in a place apart during the Great -Exhibition of 1867. In a large gallery in the Avenue de l'Alma, half of -which was occupied by Courbet, he hung no fewer than fifty paintings. -Only one important picture was absent, "The Execution of the Emperor -Maximilian"; its exhibition was prohibited by the authorities. From that -time, in spite of the fierce hostility of some adversaries, Manet's -energy and that of his supporters began to gain the day. His "Young -Girl" (Salon of 1868) was justly appreciated, as well as the portrait of -Lola; but the "Balcony" and the "Breakfast" (1869) were as severely -handled as the "Olympia" had been. In 1870 he exhibited "The Music -Lesson" and a portrait of Mlle E. Gonzales. Not long before the -Franco-Prussian War, Manet, finding himself in the country with a -friend, for the first time discovered the true value of open air to the -effects of painting in his picture "The Garden," which gave rise to the -"open air" or _plein air_ school. After fighting as a gunner, he -returned to his family in the Pyrenees, where he painted "The Battle of -the _Kearsarge_ and the _Alabama_." His "Bon Bock" (1873) created a -_furore_. But in 1875, as in 1869, there was a fresh outburst of abuse, -this time of the "Railroad," "Polichinelle," and "Argenteuil," and the -jury excluded the artist, who for the second time arranged an exhibition -in his studio. In 1877 his "Hamlet" was admitted to the Salon, but -"Nana" was rejected. The following works were exhibited at the Salon of -1881: "In the Conservatory," "In a Boat," and the portraits of Rochefort -and Proust; and the Cross of the Legion of Honour was conferred on the -painter on the 31st of December in that year. Manet died in Paris on the -20th of April 1883. He left, besides his pictures, a number of pastels -and engravings. He illustrated _Les Chats_ by Champfleury, and Edgar -Allan Poe's _The Raven_. - - See Zola, _Manet_ (Paris, 1867); E. Bazire, _Manet_ (Paris, 1884); G. - Geffroy, _La Vie artistique_ (1893). (H. Fr.) - - - - -MANETENERIS, a tribe of South American Indians of the upper Purus river, -and between it and the Jurua, north-western Brazil. They manufacture -cotton cloth, and have iron axes and fish hooks. The men wear long -ponchos, the women sacks open at the bottom. The Maneteneris are -essentially a waterside people. Their cedarwood canoes are very long and -beautifully made. - - - - -MANETHO ([Greek: Manethon] in an inscription of Carthage; [Greek: -Manethos] in a papyrus), Egyptian priest and annalist, was a native of -Sebennytus in the Delta. The name which he bears has a good Egyptian -appearance, and has been found on a contemporary papyrus probably -referring to the man himself. The evidence of Plutarch and other -indications connect him with the reigns of Ptolemy I. and II. His most -important work was an Egyptian history in Greek, for which he translated -the native records. It is now only known by some fragments of narrative -in Josephus's treatise _Against Apion_, and by tables of dynasties and -kings with lengths of reigns, divided into three books, in the works of -Christian chronographers. The earliest and best of the latter is Julius -Africanus, besides whom Eusebius and some falsifying apologists offer -the same materials; the chief text is that preserved in the -_Chronographia_ of Georgius Syncellus. It is difficult to judge the -value of the original from these extracts: it is clear from the -different versions of the lists that they have been corrupted. Manetho's -work was probably based on native lists like that of the Turin Papyrus -of Kings: even his division into dynasties may have been derived from -such. The fragments of narrative give a very confused idea of Egyptian -history in the time of the Hyksos and the XVIIIth Dynasty. The royal -lists, too, are crowded with errors of detail, both in the names and -order of the kings, and in the lengths attributed to the reigns. The -brief notes attached to some of the names may be derived from Manetho's -narrative, but they are chiefly references to kings mentioned by -Herodotus or to marvels that were supposed to have occurred: they -certainly possess little historical value. A puzzling annotation to the -name of Bocchoris, "in whose time a lamb spake 990 years," has been well -explained by Krall's reading of a demotic story written in the -twenty-third year of Augustus. According to this a lamb prophesied that -after Bocchoris's reign Egypt should be in the hands of the oppressor -900 years; in Africanus's day it was necessary to lengthen the period in -order to keep up the spirits of the patriots after the stated term had -expired. This is evidently not from the pure text of Manetho. -Notwithstanding all their defects, the fragments of Manetho have -provided the accepted scheme of Egyptian dynasties and have been of -great service to scholars ever since the first months of Champollion's -decipherment. - - See C. Muller, _Fragmenta historicorum graecorum_, ii. 511-616; A. - Wiedemann, _Aegyptische Geschichte_ (Gotha, 1884), pp. 121 et sqq.; J. - Krall in _Festgaben fur Budinger_ (Innsbruck, 1898); Grenfell and - Hunt, _El Hibeh Papyri_, i. 223; also the section on chronology in - EGYPT, and generally books on Egyptian history and chronology. - (F. Ll. G.) - - - - -MANFRED (c. 1232-1266), king of Sicily, was a natural son of the emperor -Frederick II. by Bianca Lancia, or Lanzia, who is reported on somewhat -slender evidence to have been married to the emperor just before his -death. Frederick himself appears to have regarded Manfred as legitimate, -and by his will named him as prince of Tarentum and appointed him as the -representative in Italy of his half-brother, the German king, Conrad IV. -Although only about eighteen years of age Manfred acted loyally and with -vigour in the execution of his trust, and when Conrad appeared in -southern Italy in 1252 his authority was quickly and generally -acknowledged. When in May 1254 the German king died, Manfred, after -refusing to surrender Sicily to Pope Innocent IV., accepted the regency -on behalf of Conradin, the infant son of Conrad. But the strength of the -papal party in the Sicilian kingdom rendered the position of the regent -so precarious that he decided to open negotiations with Innocent. By a -treaty made in September 1254, Apulia passed under the authority of the -pope, who was personally conducted by Manfred into his new possession. -But Manfred's suspicions being aroused by the demeanour of the papal -retinue, he fled to the Saracens at Lucera. Aided by Saracen allies, he -defeated the papal troops at Foggia on the 2nd of December 1254, and -soon established his authority over Sicily and the Sicilian possessions -on the mainland. - -Taking advantage in 1258 of a rumour that Conradin was dead, Manfred was -crowned king of Sicily at Palermo on the 10th of August in that year. -The falsehood of this report was soon manifest; but the new king, -supported by the popular voice, declined to abdicate, and pointed out to -Conradin's envoys the necessity for a strong native ruler. But the pope, -to whom the Saracen alliance was a serious offence, declared Manfred's -coronation void and pronounced sentence of excommunication. Undeterred -by this sentence Manfred sought to obtain power in central and northern -Italy, and in conjunction with the Ghibellines his forces defeated the -Guelphs at Monte Aperto on the 4th of September 1260. He was then -recognized as protector of Tuscany by the citizens of Florence, who did -homage to his representative, and he was chosen senator of the Romans by -a faction in the city. Terrified by these proceedings, Pope Urban IV. -implored aid from France, and persuaded Charles count of Anjou, a -brother of King Louis IX., to accept the investiture of the kingdom of -Sicily at his hands. Hearing of the approach of Charles, Manfred issued -a manifesto to the Romans, in which he not only defended his rule over -Italy but even claimed the imperial crown. The rival armies met near -Benevento on the 26th of February 1266, where, although the Germans -fought with undaunted courage, the cowardice of the Italians quickly -brought destruction on Manfred's army. The king himself, refusing to -fly, rushed into the midst of his enemies and was killed. Over his body, -which was buried on the battlefield, a huge heap of stones was placed, -but afterwards with the consent of the pope the remains were unearthed, -cast out of the papal territory, and interred on the banks of the Liris. -Manfred was twice married. His first wife was Beatrice, daughter of -Amadeus IV. count of Savoy, by whom he had a daughter, Constance, who -became the wife of Peter III. king of Aragon; and his second wife, who -died in prison in 1271, was Helena, daughter of Michael II. despot of -Epirus. Contemporaries praise the noble and magnanimous character of -Manfred, who was renowned for his physical beauty and intellectual -attainments. - - Manfred forms the subject of dramas by E. B. S. Raupach, O. Marbach - and F. W. Roggee. Three letters written by Manfred are published by J. - B. Carusius in _Bibliotheca historica regni Siciliae_ (Palermo, 1732). - See Cesare, _Storia di Manfredi_ (Naples, 1837); Munch, _Konig - Manfred_ (Stuttgart, 1840); Riccio, _Alcuni studii storici intorno a - Manfredi e Conradino_ (Naples, 1850); F. W. Schirrmacher, _Die letzten - Hohenstaufen_ (Gottingen, 1871); Capesso, _Historia diplomatica regni - Siciliae_ (Naples, 1874); A. Karst, _Geschichte Manfreds vom Tode - Friedrichs II. bis zu seiner Kronung_ (Berlin, 1897); and K. Hampe, - _Urban IV. und Manfred_ (Heidelberg, 1905). - - - - -MANFREDONIA, a town and archiepiscopal see (with Viesti) of Apulia, -Italy, in the province of Foggia, from which it is 22(1/2) m. N.E. by -rail, situated on the coast, facing E., 13 ft. above sea-level, to the -south of Monte Gargano, and giving its name to the gulf to the east of -it. Pop. (1901), 11,549. It was founded by Manfred in 1263, and -destroyed by the Turks in 1620; but the medieval castle of the Angevins -and parts of the town walls are well preserved. In the church of S. -Domenico, the chapel of the Maddalena contains old paintings of the 14th -century. Two miles to the south-west is the fine cathedral of S. Maria -Maggiore di Siponto, built in 1117 in the Romanesque style, with a dome -and crypt. S. Leonardo, nearer Foggia, belonging to the Teutonic order, -is of the same date. This marks the site of the ancient Sipontum, the -harbour of Arpi, which became a Roman colony in 194 B.C., and was not -deserted in favour of Manfredonia until the 13th century, having become -unhealthy owing to the stagnation of the water in the lagoons. - - See A. Beltramelli, _Il Gargano_ (Bergamo, 1907). (T. As.) - - - - -MANGABEY, a name (probably of French origin) applied to the West African -monkeys of the genus _Cercocebus_, the more typical representatives of -which are characterized by their bare, flesh-coloured upper eye-lids, -and the uniformly coloured hairs of the fur. (See PRIMATES.) - - - - -MANGALIA, a town in the department of Constantza Rumania, situated on -the Black Sea, and at the mouth of a small stream, the Mangalia, 10 m. -N. of the Bulgarian frontier. Pop. (1900), 1459. The inhabitants, among -whom are many Turks and Bulgarians, are mostly fisherfolk. Mangalia is -to be identified with the Thracian Kallatis or Acervetis, a colony of -Miletus which continued to be a flourishing place to the close of the -Roman period. In the 14th century it had 30,000 inhabitants, and a large -trade with Genoa. - - - - -MANGALORE, a seaport of British India, administrative headquarters of -the South Kanara district of Madras, and terminus of the west coast line -of the Madras railway. Pop. (1901), 44,108. The harbour is formed by the -backwater of two small rivers. Vessels ride in 24 to 30 ft. of water, -and load from and unload into lighters. The chief exports are coffee, -coco-nut products, timber, rice and spices. Mangalore clears and exports -all the coffee of Coorg, and trades directly with Arabia and the -Persian Gulf. There is a small shipbuilding industry. The town has a -large Roman Catholic population, with a European bishop, several -churches, a convent and a college. It is the headquarters of the Basel -Lutheran mission, which possesses one of the most active printing -presses in southern India, and has also successfully introduced the -industries of weaving and the manufacture of tiles. Two colleges -(Government and St Aloysius) are situated here. Mangalore was gallantly -defended by Colonel John Campbell of the 42nd regiment from May 6, 1783, -to January 30, 1784, with a garrison of 1850 men, of whom 412 were -English, against Tippoo Sultan's whole army. - - - - -MANGAN, JAMES CLARENCE (1803-1849), Irish poet, was born in Dublin on -the 1st of May 1803. His baptismal name was James, the "Clarence" being -his own addition. His father, a grocer, who boasted of the terror with -which he inspired his children, had ruined himself by imprudent -speculation and extravagant hospitality. The burden of supporting the -family fell on James, who entered a scrivener's office, at the age of -fifteen, and drudged as a copying clerk for ten years. He was employed -for some time in the library of Trinity College, and in 1833 he found a -place in the Irish Ordnance Survey. He suffered a disappointment in -love, and continued ill health drove him to the use of opium. He was -habitually the victim of hallucinations which at times threatened his -reason. For Charles Maturin, the eccentric author of _Melmoth_, he -cherished a deep admiration, the results of which are evident in his -prose stories. He belonged to the Comet Club, a group of youthful -enthusiasts who carried on war in their paper, the _Comet_, against the -levying of tithes on behalf of the Protestant clergy. Contributions to -the _Dublin Penny Journal_ followed; and to the _Dublin University -Magazine_ he sent translations from the German poets. The mystical -tendency of German poetry had a special appeal for him. He chose poems -that were attuned to his own melancholy temperament, and did much that -was excellent in this field. He also wrote versions of old Irish poems, -though his knowledge of the language, at any rate at the beginning of -his career, was but slight. Some of his best-known Irish poems, however, -_O'Hussey's Ode to the Maguire_, for instance, follow the originals very -closely. Besides these were "translations" from Arabic, Turkish and -Persian. How much of these languages he knew is uncertain, but he had -read widely in Oriental subjects, and some of the poems are exquisite -though the original authors whom he cites are frequently mythical. He -took a mischievous pleasure in mystifying his readers, and in practising -extraordinary metres. For the _Nation_ he wrote from the beginning -(1842) of its career, and much of his best work appeared in it. He -afterwards contributed to the _United Irishman_. On the 20th of June -1849 he died at Meath Hospital, Dublin, of cholera. It was alleged at -the time that starvation was the real cause. This statement was untrue, -but there is no doubt that his wretched poverty made him ill able to -withstand disease. - -Mangan holds a high place among Irish poets, but his fame was deferred -by the inequality and mass of his work, much of which lay buried in -inaccessible newspaper files under his many pseudonyms, "Vacuus," -"Terrae Filius," "Clarence," &c. Of his genius, morbid though it -sometimes is, as in his tragic autobiographical ballad of _The Nameless -One_, there can be no question. He expressed with rare sincerity the -tragedy of Irish hopes and aspirations, and he furnished abundant proof -of his versatility in his excellent nonsense verses, which are in -strange contrast with the general trend of his work. - - An autobiography which appeared in the _Irish Monthly_ (1882) does not - reproduce the real facts of his career with any fidelity. For some - time after his death there was no adequate edition of his works, but - _German Anthology_ (1845), and _The Poets and Poetry of Munster_ - (1849) had appeared during his lifetime. In 1850 Hercules Ellis - included thirty of his ballads in his _Romances and Ballads of - Ireland_. Other selections appeared subsequently, notably one (1897), - by Miss L. I. Guiney. _The Poems of James Clarence Mangan_ (1903), and - the _Prose Writings_ (1904), were both edited by D. J. O'Donoghue, who - wrote in 1897 a complete account of the _Life and Writings_ of the - poet. - - - - -MANGANESE [symbol Mn; atomic weight, 54.93 (O = 16)], a metallic -chemical element. Its dioxide (pyrolusite) has been known from very -early times, and was at first mistaken for a magnetic oxide of iron. In -1740 J. H. Pott showed that it did not contain iron and that it yielded -a definite series of salts, whilst in 1774 C. Scheele proved that it was -the oxide of a distinctive metal. Manganese is found widely distributed -in nature, being generally found to a greater or less extent associated -with the carbonates and silicates of iron, calcium and magnesium, and -also as the minerals braunite, hausmannite, psilomelane, manganite, -manganese spar and hauerite. It has also been recognized in the -atmosphere of the sun (A. Cornu, _Comptes rendus_, 1878, 86, pp. 315, -530), in sea water, and in many mineral waters. - -The metal was isolated by J. G. Gahn in 1774, and in 1807 J. F. John -(_Gehlen's Jour. chem. phys._, 1807, 3, p. 452) obtained an impure metal -by reducing the carbonate at a high temperature with charcoal, mixed -with a small quantity of oil. R. Bunsen prepared the metal by -electrolysing manganese chloride in a porous cell surrounded by a carbon -crucible containing hydrochloric acid. Various reduction methods have -been employed for the isolation of the metal. C. Brunner (_Pogg. Ann._, -1857, 101, p. 264) reduced the fluoride by metallic sodium, and E. -Glatzel (_Ber._, 1889, 22, p. 2857) the chloride by magnesium, H. -Moissan (_Ann. Chim. Phys._, 1896 (7) 9, p. 286) reduced the oxide with -carbon in the electric furnace; and H. Goldschmidt has prepared the -metal from the oxide by means of his "thermite" process (see CHROMIUM). -W. H. Green and W. H. Wahl [German patent 70773 (1893)] prepare a 97% -manganese from pyrolusite by heating it with 30% sulphuric acid, the -product being then converted into manganous oxide by heating in a -current of reducing gas at a dull red heat, cooled in a reducing -atmosphere, and finally reduced by heating with granulated aluminium in -a magnesia crucible with lime and fluorspar as a flux. A purer metal is -obtained by reducing manganese amalgam by hydrogen (O. Prelinger, -_Monats._, 1894, 14, p. 353). - -Prelinger's manganese has a specific gravity of 7.42, and the variety -obtained by distilling pure manganese amalgam _in vacuo_ is pyrophoric -(A. Guntz, _Bull. Soc._ [3], 7, 275), and burns when heated in a current -of sulphur dioxide. The pure metal readily evolves hydrogen when acted -upon by sulphuric and hydrochloric acids, and is readily attacked by -dilute nitric acid. It precipitates many metals from solutions of their -salts. It is employed commercially in the manufacture of special steels. -(See IRON AND STEEL.) - - - COMPOUNDS - - Manganese forms several oxides, the most important of which are - manganous oxide, MnO, trimanganese tetroxide, Mn3O4, manganese - sesquioxide, Mn2O3, manganese dioxide, MnO2, manganese trioxide, MnO3, - and manganese heptoxide, Mn3O7. - - _Manganous oxide_, MnO, is obtained by heating a mixture of anhydrous - manganese chloride and sodium carbonate with a small quantity of - ammonium chloride (J. v. Liebig and F. Wohler, _Pogg. Ann._, 1830, 21, - p. 584); or by reducing the higher oxides with hydrogen or carbon - monoxide. It is a dark coloured powder of specific gravity 5.09. - _Manganous hydroxide_, Mn(OH)2, is obtained as a white precipitate on - adding a solution of a caustic alkali to a manganous salt. For the - preparation of the crystalline variety identical with the mineral - pyrochroite (see A. de Schulten, _Comptes rendus_, 1887, 105, p. - 1265). It rapidly oxidizes on exposure to air and turns brown, going - ultimately to the sesquioxide. _Trimanganese tetroxide_, Mn3O4, is - produced more or less pure when the other oxides are heated. It may be - obtained crystalline by heating manganese sulphate and potassium - sulphate to a bright red heat (H. Debray, _Comptes rendus_, 1861, 52, - p. 985). It is a reddish-brown powder, which when heated with - hydrochloric acid yields chlorine. _Manganese sesquioxide_, Mn2O3, - found native as the mineral braunite, may be obtained by igniting the - other oxides in a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen, containing not more - than 26% of the latter gas (W. Dittmar, _Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1864, 17, - p. 294). The hydrated form, found native as the mineral manganite, is - produced by the spontaneous oxidation of manganous hydroxide. In the - hydrated condition it is a dark brown powder which readily loses water - at above 100 deg. C., it dissolves in hot nitric acid, giving - manganous nitrate and manganese dioxide: 2MnO(OH) + 2HNO3 = Mn(NO3)2 + - MnO2 + 2H2O. _Manganese dioxide_, or pyrolusite (q.v.), MnO2, the most - important oxide, may be prepared by heating crystallized manganous - nitrate until red fumes are given off, decanting the clear liquid, and - heating to 150 deg. to 160 deg. C. for 40 to 60 hours (A. Gorgen, - _Bull. Soc._, 1890 [3], 4, p. 16), or by heating manganese carbonate - to 260 deg. C. in the presence of air and washing the residue with - very dilute cold hydrochloric acid. It is a hard black solid which - readily loses oxygen when strongly heated, leaving a residue of Mn3O4. - When heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid it yields chlorine, - and with concentrated sulphuric acid it yields oxygen. It is reduced - to the monoxide when heated in a current of hydrogen. It is a strong - oxidizing agent. It dissolves in cold concentrated hydrochloric acid, - forming a dark brown solution which probably contains manganic - chloride (see R. J. Meyer, _Zeit. anorg. Chem._, 1899, 22, p. 169; G. - Neumann, _Monats._, 1894, 15, p. 489). It is almost impossible to - prepare a pure hydrated manganese dioxide owing to the readiness with - which it loses oxygen, leaving residues of the type _x_MnO._y_MnO2. - Such mixtures are obtained by the action of alkaline hypochlorites on - manganous salts, or by suspending manganous carbonate in water and - passing chlorine through the mixture. The solid matter is filtered - off, washed with water, and warmed with 10% nitric acid (A. Gorgen). - It is a dark brown powder, which reddens litmus. Manganese dioxide - combines with other basic oxides to form _manganites_, and on this - property is based the Weldon process for the recovery of manganese - from the waste liquors of the chlorine stills (see CHLORINE). The - manganites are amorphous brown solids, insoluble in water, and - decomposed by hydrochloric acid with the evolution of chlorine. - _Manganese trioxide_, MnO3, is obtained in small quantity as an - unstable deliquescent red solid by dropping a solution of potassium - permanganate in sulphuric acid on to dry sodium carbonate (B. Franke, - _Jour. prak. Chem._, 1887 [2], 36, p. 31). Above 50 deg. C. it - decomposes into the dioxide and oxygen. It dissolves in water forming - manganic acid, H2MnO4. _Manganese heptoxide_, Mn2O7, prepared by - adding pure potassium permanganate to well cooled, concentrated - sulphuric acid, when the oxide separates as a dark oil (H. Aschoff, - _Pogg. Ann._, 1860, 111, p. 217), is very unstable, continually giving - off oxygen. It decomposes violently on heating, and explodes in - contact with hydrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, &c. It dissolves in water - to form a deep red solution which contains _permanganic acid_, HMnO4. - This acid is also formed by decomposing barium or lead permanganate - with dilute sulphuric acid. It is only known in aqueous solution. This - solution is of a deep violet-red colour, and is somewhat fluorescent; - it decomposes on exposure to light, or when heated. It is a monobasic - acid, and a very powerful oxidizing agent (M. M. P. Muir, _Jour. Chem. - Soc._, 1907, 91, p. 1485). - - _Manganous Salts._--The anhydrous _chloride_, MnCl2, is obtained as a - rose-red crystalline solid by passing hydrochloric acid gas over - manganese carbonate, first in the cold and afterwards at a moderate - red heat. The hydrated chloride, MnCl2.4H2O, is obtained in rose-red - crystals by dissolving the metal or its carbonate in aqueous - hydrochloric acid and concentrating the solution. It may be obtained - in at least two different forms, one isomorphous with NaCl.2H2O, by - concentrating the solution between 15 deg. C. and 20 deg.C.; the other, - isomorphous with FeCl2.4H2O, by slow evaporation of the mother liquors - from the former. It forms double salts with the chlorides of the - alkali metals. The _bromide_ MnBr2.4H2O, _iodide_, MnI2, and - _fluoride_, MnF2, are known. - - _Manganous Sulphate_, MnSO4, is prepared by strongly heating a paste - of pyrolusite and concentrated sulphuric acid until acid fumes cease - to be evolved. The ferric and aluminium sulphates present are thus - converted into insoluble basic salts, and the residue yields manganous - sulphate when extracted with water. The salt crystallizes with varying - quantities of water, according to the temperature at which - crystallization is effected: between -4 deg. C. and +6 deg. C. with - 7H2O, between 15 deg. C. and 20 deg. C. with 5H2O, and between 25 deg. - C. and 31 deg. C. with 4H2O. It crystallizes in large pink crystals, - the colour of which is probably due to the presence of a small - quantity of manganic sulphate or of a cobalt sulphate. It combines - with the sulphates of the alkali metals to form double salts. - - _Manganous Nitrate_, Mn(NO3)2.6H2O, obtained by dissolving the - carbonate in nitric acid and concentrating the solution, crystallizes - from nitric acid solutions in long colourless needles, which melt at - 25.8 deg. C. and boil at 129.5 deg. C. with some decomposition. - - _Manganous Carbonate_, MnCO3, found native as manganese spar, may be - prepared as an amorphous powder by heating manganese chloride with - sodium carbonate in a sealed tube to 150 deg. C., or in the hydrated - form as a white flocculent precipitate by adding sodium carbonate to a - manganous salt. In the moist condition it rapidly turns brown on - exposure to air. - - _Manganous Sulphide_, MnS, found native as manganese glance, may be - obtained by heating the monoxide or carbonate in a porcelain tube in a - current of carbon bisulphide vapour. R. Schneider (_Pogg. Ann._, 1874, - 151, 449) obtained a crystalline variety by melting sulphur with - anhydrous manganous sulphate and dry potassium carbonate, extracting - the residue and drying it in a current of hydrogen. Four sulphides are - known; the red and green are anhydrous, a grey variety contains much - water, whilst the pink is a mixture of the grey and red (J. C. Olsen - and W. S. Rapalje, _Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc._, 1904, 26, p. 1615). - Ammonium sulphide alone gives incomplete precipitation of the - sulphide. In the presence of ammonium salts the precipitate is dirty - white in colour, whilst in the presence of free ammonia it is a buff - colour. This form of the sulphide is readily oxidized when exposed in - the moist condition, and is easily decomposed by dilute mineral acids. - - _Manganese Disulphide_, MnS2, found native as hauerite, is formed as a - red coloured powder by heating manganous sulphate with potassium - polysulphide in a sealed tube at 160 deg.-170 deg. C. (H. v. - Senarmont, _Jour. prak. Chem._, 1850, 51, p. 385). - - _Manganic Salts._--The sulphate, Mn2(SO4)3, is prepared by gradually - heating at 138 deg. C. a mixture of concentrated sulphuric and - manganese dioxide until the whole becomes of a dark green colour. The - excess of acid is removed by spreading the mass on a porous plate, the - residue stirred for some hours with nitric acid, again spread on a - porous plate, and finally dried quickly at about 130 deg. C. It is a - dark green deliquescent powder which decomposes on heating or on - exposure to moist air. It is readily decomposed by dilute acids. With - potassium sulphate in the presence of sulphuric acid it forms - potassium manganese alum, K2SO4.Mn2(SO4)2.24H2O. A. Piccini (_Zeit. - anorg. Chem._ 1898, 17, p. 355) has also obtained a manganese caesium - alum. _Manganic Fluoride_, MnF3, a solid obtained by the action of - fluorine on manganous chloride, is decomposed by heat into manganous - fluoride and fluorine. By suspending the dioxide in carbon - tetrachloride and passing in hydrochloric acid gas, W. B. Holmes - (_Abst. J.C.S._, 1907, ii., p. 873) obtained a black trichloride and a - reddish-brown tetrachloride. - - _Manganese Carbide_, Mn3C, is prepared by heating manganous oxide with - sugar charcoal in an electric furnace, or by fusing manganese chloride - and calcium carbide. Water decomposes it, giving methane and hydrogen - (H. Moissan); Mn3C + 6H2O = 3Mn(OH)2 + CH4 + H2. - - _Manganates._--These salts are derived from manganic acid H2MnO4. - Those of the alkali metals are prepared by fusing manganese dioxide - with sodium or potassium hydroxide in the presence of air or of some - oxidizing agent (nitre, potassium chlorate, &c.); MnO2 + 2KHO + O = - K2MnO4 + H2O. In the absence of air the reaction proceeds slightly - differently, some manganese sesquioxide being formed; 3MnO2 + 2KHO = - K2MnO4 + Mn2O3 + H2O. The fused mass has a dark olive-green colour, - and dissolves in a small quantity of cold water to a green solution, - which is, however, only stable in the presence of an excess of alkali. - The green solution is readily converted into a pink one of - permanganate by a large dilution with water, or by passing carbon - dioxide through it: 3K2MnO4 + 2CO2 = 2K2CO3 + 2KMnO4 + MnO2. - - _Permanganates_ are the salts of permanganic acid, HMnO4. The - _potassium_ salt, KMnO4, may be prepared by passing chlorine or carbon - dioxide through an aqueous solution of potassium manganate, or by the - electrolytic oxidation of the manganate at the anode [German patent - 101710 (1898)]. It crystallizes in dark purple-red prisms, isomorphous - with potassium perchlorate. It acts as a powerful oxidizing agent, - both in acid and alkaline solution; in the first case two molecules - yield five atoms of available oxygen and in the second, three atoms: - - 2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 3H2O + 5O; - 2KMnO4 + 3H2O = 2MnO2.H2O + 2KHO + 3O. - - It completely decomposes hydrogen peroxide in sulphuric acid - solution-- - - 2KMnO4 + 5H2O2 + 3H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 8H2O + 5O2. - - It decomposes when heated to - - 200 deg. - 240 deg. C.: 2KMnO4 = K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2; - - and when warmed with hydrochloric acid it yields chlorine: - - 2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2. - - _Sodium Permanganate_, NaMnO4.3H2O (?), may be prepared in a similar - manner, or by precipitating the silver salt with sodium chloride. It - crystallizes with great difficulty. A solution of the crude salt is - used as a disinfectant under the name of "Condy's fluid." - - _Ammonium Permanganate_, NH4.MnO4, explodes violently on rubbing, and - its aqueous solution decomposes on boiling (W. Muthmann, _Ber._, 1893, - 26, p. 1018); NH4.MnO4 = MnO2 + N2 + 2H2O. - - _Barium Permanganate_, BaMn2O3, crystallizes in almost black needles, - and is formed by passing carbon dioxide through water containing - suspended barium manganate. - - _Detection._--Manganese salts can be detected by the amethyst colour - they impart to a borax-bead when heated in the Bunsen flame, and by - the green mass formed when they are fused with a mixture of sodium - carbonate and potassium nitrate. Manganese may be estimated - quantitatively by precipitation as carbonate, this salt being then - converted into the oxide, Mn3O4 by ignition; or by precipitation as - hydrated dioxide by means of ammonia and bromine water, followed by - ignition to Mn3O4. The valuation of pyrolusite is generally carried - out by means of a distillation with hydrochloric acid, the liberated - chlorine passing through a solution of potassium iodide, and the - amount of iodine liberated being ascertained by means of a standard - solution of sodium thiosulphate. - - The atomic weight of manganese has been frequently determined. J. - Berzelius, by analysis of the chloride, obtained the value 54.86; K. - v. Hauer (_Sitzb. Akad. Wien._, 1857, 25, p. 132), by conversion of - the sulphate into sulphide, obtained the value 54.78; J. Dewar and A. - Scott (_Chem. News_, 1883, 47, p. 98), by analysis of silver - permanganate, obtained the value 55.038; J. M. Weeren (_Stahl. u._ - _Eisen_, 1893, 13, p. 559), by conversion of manganous oxide into the - sulphate obtained the value 54.883, and of the sulphate into sulphide - the value 54.876 (H = 1), and finally G. P. Baxter and Hines (_Jour. - Amer. Chem. Soc._, 1906, 28, p. 1360), by analyses of the chloride and - bromide, obtained 54.96 (O = 16). - - - - -MANGANITE, a mineral consisting of hydrated manganese sesquioxide, -Mn2O3.H2O, crystallizing in the orthorhombic system and isomorphous with -diaspore and gothite. Crystals are prismatic and deeply striated -parallel to their length; they are often grouped together in bundles. -The colour is dark steel-grey to iron-black, and the lustre brilliant -and submetallic: the streak is dark reddish-brown. The hardness is 4, -and the specific gravity 4.3. There is a perfect cleavage parallel to -the brachypinacoid, and less perfect cleavage parallel to the prism -faces _m_. Twinned crystals are not infrequent. The mineral contains -89.7% of manganese sesquioxide; it dissolves in hydrochloric acid with -evolution of chlorine. The best crystallized specimens are those from -Ilfeld in the Harz, where the mineral occurs with calcite and barytes in -veins traversing porphyry. Crystals have also been found at Ilmenau in -Thuringia, Neukirch near Schlettstadt in Alsace ("newkirkite"), Granam -near Towie in Aberdeenshire, Upton Pyne near Exeter and Negaunee in -Michigan. As an ore of manganese it is much less abundant than -pyrolusite or psilomelane. The name manganite was given by W. Haidinger -in 1827: French authors adopt F. S. Beudant's name "acerdese," (Gr. -[Greek: akerdes], unprofitable) because the mineral is of little value -for bleaching purposes as compared with pyrolusite. (L. J. S.) - -[Illustration] - - - - -MANGBETTU (_Monbuttu_), a negroid people of Central Africa living to the -south of the Niam-Niam in the Welle district of Belgian Congo. They -number about a million. Their country is a table-land at an altitude of -2500 to 2800 ft. Despite its abundant animal life, luxuriant vegetation -and rich crops of plantain and oil-palm, the Mangbettu have been some of -the most inveterate cannibals in Africa; but since the Congo State -established posts in the country (c. 1895) considerable efforts have -been made to stamp out cannibalism. Physically the Mangbettu differ -greatly from their negro neighbours. They are not so black and their -faces are less negroid, many having quite aquiline noses. The beard, -too, is fuller than in most negroes. They appear to have imposed their -language and customs on the surrounding tribes, the Mundu, Abisanga, &c. -Once a considerable power, they have practically disappeared as far as -the original stock is concerned; their language and culture, however, -remain, maintained by their subjects, with whom they have to a large -extent intermixed. The men wear bark cloth, the art of weaving being -unknown, the women a simple loin cloth, often not that. Both sexes paint -the body in elaborate designs. As potters, sculptors, boatbuilders and -masons the Mangbettu have had few rivals in Africa. Their huts, with -pointed roofs, were not only larger and better built, but were cleaner -than those of their neighbours, and some of their more important -buildings were of great size and exhibited some skill in architecture. - - See G. A. Schweinfurth, _Heart of Africa_ (1874); W. Junker, _Travels - in Africa_ (1890); G. Casati, _Ten Years in Equatoria_ (1891). - - - - -MANGEL-WURZEL, or field-beet, a variety of the common beet, known -botanically as _Beta vulgaris_, var. _macrorhiza_. The name is German -and means literally "root of scarcity." R. C. A. Prior (_Popular Names -of British Plants_) says it was originally mangold, a word of doubtful -meaning. The so-called root consists of the much thickened primary root -together with the "hypocotyl," i.e. the original stem between the root -and the seed-leaves. A transverse section of the root shows a similar -structure to the beet, namely a series of concentric rings of firmer -"woody" tissue alternating with rings of soft thin-walled parenchymatous -"bast-tissue" which often has a crimson or yellowish tint. The root is a -store of carbohydrate food-stuff in the form of sugar, which is formed -in the first year of growth when the stem remains short and bears a -rosette of large leaves. If the plant be allowed to remain in the -ground till the following year strong leafy angular aerial stems are -developed, 3 ft. or more in height, which branch and bear the -inflorescences. The flowers are arranged in dense sessile clusters -subtended by a small bract, and resemble those of the true beet. The -so-called seeds are clusters of spurious fruits. After fertilization the -fleshy receptacle and the base of the perianth of each flower enlarge -and the flowers in a cluster become united; the fleshy parts with the -ovaries, each of which contains one seed, become hard and woody. Hence -several seeds are present in one "seed" of commerce, which necessitates -the careful thinning of a young crop, as several seedlings may spring -from one "seed." - -This plant is very susceptible of injury from frost, and hence in the -short summer of Scotland it can neither be sown so early nor left in the -ground so late as would be requisite for its mature growth. But it is -peculiarly adapted for those southern parts of England where the climate -is too hot and dry for the successful cultivation of the turnip. In -feeding quality it rivals the swede; it is much relished by -livestock--pigs especially doing remarkably well upon it; and it keeps -in good condition till midsummer if required. The valuable constituent -of mangel is dry matter which averages about 12% as against 11% in -swedes. Of this two-thirds may be sugar, which only develops fully -during storage. Indeed, it is only after it has been some months in the -store heap that mangel becomes a palatable and safe food for cattle. It -is, moreover, exempt from the attacks of the turnip beetle. On all these -accounts, therefore, it is peculiarly valuable in those parts of Great -Britain where the summer is usually hot and dry. - -Up to the act of depositing the seed, the processes of preparation for -mangel are similar to those described for the turnip; winter dunging -being even more appropriate for the former than for the latter. The -common drilling machines are easily fitted for sowing its large rough -seeds, which should be sown from the beginning of April to the middle of -May and may be deposited either on ridges or on the flat. The after -culture is like that of the turnip. The plants are thinned out at -distances of not less than 15 in. apart. Transplanting can be used for -filling up of gaps with more certainty of success than in the case of -swedes, but it is much more economical to avoid such gaps by sowing a -little swede seed along with the mangel. Several varieties of the plant -are cultivated--those in best repute being the long red, the yellow -globe and the tankard, intermediate in shape. This crop requires a -heavier dressing of manure than the turnip to grow it in perfection, and -is much benefited by having salt mixed with the manure at the rate of 2 -or 3 cwt. per acre. Nitrogenous manures are of more marked value than -phosphatic manures. The crop requires to be secured in store heaps as -early in autumn as possible, as it is easily injured by frost. - - - - -MANGLE. (1) A machine for pressing and smoothing clothes after washing -(see LAUNDRY). The word was adopted from the Dutch; _mangel-stok_ means -a rolling pin, and _linnen mangelen_, to press linen by rolling; -similarly in O. Ital. _mangano_ meant, according to Florio, "a presse to -press buckrom," &c. The origin of the word is to be found in the -medieval Latin name, _manganum_, _mangonus_ or _mangana_, for an engine -of war, the "mangonel," for hurling stones and other missiles (see -CATAPULT). The Latin word was adapted from the Greek [Greek: magganon], -a trick or device, cognate with [Greek: mechane], a machine. (2) To cut -in pieces, to damage or disfigure; to mutilate. This word is of obscure -origin. According to the _New English Dictionary_ it presents an -Anglo-French _mahangler_, a form of _mahaigner_ from which the English -"maim" is derived, cf. the old form "mayhem," surviving in legal -phraseology. Skeat connects the word with the Latin _mancus_, maimed, -with which "maim" is not cognate. - - - - -MANG LON, a state in the northern Shan states of Burma. It is the chief -state of the Wa or Vu tribes, some of whom are head-hunters, and Mang -Lon is the only one which as yet has direct relations with the British -government. Estimated area, 3000 sq. m.; estimated population, 40,000. -The state extends from about 21 deg. 30' to 23 deg. N., or for 100 m. -along the river Salween. Its width varies greatly, from a mile or even -less on either side of the river to perhaps 40 m. at its broadest part -near Takut, the capital. It is divided into East and West Mang Lon, the -boundary being the Salween. There are no Wa in West Mang Lon. Shans form -the chief population, but there are Palaungs, Chinese and Yanglam, -besides Lahu. The bulk of the population in East Mang Lon is Wa, but -there are many Shans and Lahu. Both portions are very hilly; the only -flat land is along the banks of streams in the valleys, and here the -Shans are settled. There are prosperous settlements and bazaars at Nawng -Hkam and Mong Kao in West Mang Lon. The Wa of Mang Lon have given up -head-hunting, and many profess Buddhism. The capital, Takut, is perched -on a hill-top 6000 ft. above sea-level. The sawbwa is a Wa, and has -control over two sub-states, Mot Hai to the north and Maw Hpa to the -south. - - - - -MANGNALL, RICHMAL (1769-1820), English schoolmistress, was born, -probably at Manchester, on the 7th of March 1769. She was a pupil and -finally mistress of a school at Crofton Hall, near Wakefield, Yorkshire, -which she conducted most successfully until her death there on the 1st -of May 1820. She was the author of _Historical and Miscellaneous -Questions for the Use of Young People_ (1800), generally known as -"Mangnall's Questions," which was prominent in the education of English -girls in the first half of the 19th century. - - - - -MANGO. The mango-tree (_Mangifera indica_, natural order Anacardiaceae) -is a native of tropical Asia, but is now extensively cultivated in the -tropical and subtropical regions of the New as well as the Old World. It -is indigenous in India at the base of the Himalayas, and in Further -India and the Andaman Islands (see A. de Candolle, _Origin of Cultivated -Plants_). The cultivation of the fruit must have spread at an early age -over the Indian Peninsula, and it now grows everywhere in the plains. It -grows rapidly to a height of 30 to 40 ft., and its dense, spreading and -glossy foliage would secure its cultivation for the sake of its shade -and beauty alone. Its fruit, a drupe, though in the wild variety (not to -be confused with that of _Spondias mangifera_, belonging to the same -order, also called wild mango in India) stringy and sour, from its -containing much gallic acid, and with a disagreeable flavour of -turpentine, has become sweet and luscious through culture and selection, -to which we owe many varieties, differing not only in flavour but also -in size, from that of a plum to that of an apple. When unripe, they are -used to make pickles, tarts and preserves; ripe, they form a wholesome -and very agreeable dessert. In times of scarcity the kernels also are -eaten. The timber, although soft and liable to decay, serves for common -purposes, and, mixed with sandal-wood, is employed in cremation by the -Hindus. It is usually propagated by grafts, or by layering or inarching, -rather than by seed. - - See G. Watt, _Dictionary of the Economic Products of India_ (1891). - - - - -MANGOSTEEN (_Garcinia Mangostana_), a tree belonging to the order -Guttiferae. It is a native of the Malay Peninsula, and is extensively -cultivated in southern Tenasserim, and in some places in the Madras -presidency. Poor results have followed the attempt to introduce it to -other countries; and A. de Candolle refers to it as one of the most -local among cultivated plants both in its origin, habitation and -cultivation. It belongs to a family in which the mean area of the -species is very restricted. It is an evergreen about 20 ft. high, and is -somewhat fir-like in general form, but the leaves are large, oval, -entire, leathery and glistening. Its fruit, the much-valued mangosteen, -is about the size and shape of an orange, and is somewhat similarly -partitioned, but is of a reddish-brown to chestnut colour. Its thick -rind yields a very astringent juice, rich in tannin, and containing a -gamboge-like resin. The soft and juicy pulp is snow-white or -rose-coloured, and of delicious flavour and perfume. It is wholesome, -and may be administered in fever. - -The genus _Garcinia_ is a genus of trees containing about fifty species -in the tropics of the Old World, and usually yielding a yellow gum-resin -(gamboge). _G. Morella_, a native of India, yields the true gamboge. - - - - -MANGROVE. The remarkable "mangrove forests" which fringe tidal -estuaries, overrun salt marshes, and line muddy coasts in the tropics of -both Old and New Worlds, are composed of trees and shrubs belonging -mainly to the Rhizophoraceae, but including, especially in the eastern -mangrove formations of Further India and the Malay Archipelago, members -of other orders of Dicotyledons, such as Lythraceae (_Sonneratia_), -Verbenaceae (_Avicennia_), and the acaulescent Nipa-palm. Their trunks -and branches constantly emit adventitious roots, which, descending in -arched fashion, strike at some distance from the parent stem, and send -up new trunks, the forest thus spreading like a banyan grove. An -advantage in dispersal, very characteristic of the order, is afforded by -the seeds, which have a striking peculiarity of germination. While the -fruit is still attached to the parent branch the long radicle emerges -from the seed and descends rapidly towards the mud, where it may even -establish itself before falling off. Owing to its clubbed shape, this is -always in the right position; the plumule then makes its appearance. An -interesting feature of the mangrove is the air-roots, erect or kneed -branches of the roots, which project above the mud, and are provided -with minute openings (stomata or lenticels), into which the air passes -and is then carried by means of passages in the soft spongy tissue to -the roots which spread beneath the mud. The wood of some species is hard -and durable, and the astringent bark is used in tanning. The fruit of -the common mangrove, _Rhizophora Mangle_, is sweet and wholesome, and -yields a light wine. - - - - -MANICHAEISM. Towards the close of the 3rd century two great religions -stood opposed to one another in western Europe, one wholly Iranian, -namely Mithraism, the other of Jewish origin, but not without Iranian -elements, part and parcel probably of the Judaism which gave it birth, -namely Christianity. Professor Franz Cumont has traced the progress of -Mithraism all over the Balkan Peninsula, Italy, the Rhine-lands, -Britain, Spain and Latin Africa. It was peculiarly the religion of the -Roman garrisons, and was carried by the legionaries wherever they went. -It was an austere religion, inculcating self-restraint, courage and -honesty; it secured peace of conscience through forgiveness of sins, and -abated for those who were initiated in its mysteries the superstitious -terrors of death and the world to come. In these respects it resembled -Christianity. Soldiers may have espoused it rather than the rival faith, -because in the primitive age Christian discipline denied them the -sacraments, on the ground that they were professional shedders of blood. -The cumbrous mythology and cosmogony of Mithraism at last weakened its -hold upon men's minds, and it disappeared during the 4th century before -a victorious Catholicism, yet not until another faith, equally Iranian -in its mythology and cosmological beliefs, had taken its place. This new -faith was that of Mani, which spread with a rapidity only to be -explained by supposing that Mithraism had prepared men's minds for its -reception. - -Mani professed to blend the teachings of Christ with the old Persian -Magism. Kessler, the latest historian of Manichaeism, opines that Mani's -own declaration on this point is not to be relied upon, and has tried to -prove that it was rather of Semitic or Chaldaic origin. He certainly -shows that the old Assyrian mythology influenced Mani, but not that this -element did not reach him through Persian channels. In genuine -Manichaean documents we only find the name Mani, but Manes, [Greek: -Manes], Manichaeus, meet us in 4th-century Greek and Latin documents. In -the _Acta Archelai_ his first name is said to have been Cubricus, which -Kessler explains as a corruption of Shuravik, a name common among the -Arabs of the Syrian desert. - -_Life of Mani._--According to the Mahommedan tradition, which is more -trustworthy than the account contained in these _Acta_, Mani was a -high-born Persian of Ecbatana. The year of his birth is uncertain, but -Kessler accepts as reliable the statement made by Biruni, that Mani was -born in the year 527 of the astronomers of Babylon (A.D. 215-216). He -received a careful education at Ctesiphon from his father Fatak, Babak -or Patak ([Greek: Patekios]). As the father connected himself at a later -period with the confession of the _Moghtasilah_, or "Baptists," in -southern Babylonia, the son also was brought up in the religious -doctrines and exercises of this sect. These Baptists (see the _Fihrist_) -were apparently connected with the Elkesaites and the Hemerobaptists, -and certainly with the Mandaeans. It is probable that this Babylonian -sect had absorbed Christian elements. Thus the boy early became -acquainted with very different forms of religion. If even a small part -of the stories about his father is founded on fact, it was he who first -introduced Mani to that medley of religions out of which his system -arose. Manichaean tradition relates that Mani received revelations while -yet a boy, and assumed a critical attitude towards the religious -instruction that was being imparted to him. This is the more incredible -since the same tradition informs us that the boy was as yet prohibited -from making public use of his new religious views. It was only when Mani -had reached the age of twenty-five or thirty years that he began to -proclaim his new religion. This he did at the court of the Persian king, -Shapur I., and, according to the story, on the coronation day of that -monarch (241/2). A Persian tradition says that he had previously been a -Christian presbyter, but this is certainly incorrect. Mani did not -remain long in Persia, but undertook long journeys for the purpose of -spreading his religion, and also sent forth disciples. According to the -_Acta Archelai_, his missionary activity extended westwards into the -territory of the Christian church; but from Oriental sources it is -certain that Mani rather went into Transoxiana, western China, and -southwards as far as India. His labours there as well as in Persia were -not without result. Like Mahomet after him and the founder of the -Elkesaites before him, he gave himself out for the last and highest -prophet, who was to surpass all previous divine revelation, which only -possessed a relative value, and to set up the perfect religion. In the -closing years of the reign of Shapur I. (c. 270) Mani returned to the -Persian capital, and gained adherents even at court. But the dominant -priestly caste of the Magians, on whose support the king was dependent, -were naturally hostile to him, and after some successes Mani was made a -prisoner, and had then to flee. The successor of Shapur, Hormizd -(272-273), appears to have been favourably disposed towards him, but -Bahram I. abandoned him to the fanaticism of the Magians, and caused him -to be crucified in the capital in the year 276/7. The corpse was flayed, -and Mani's adherents were cruelly persecuted by the king. - - _Mani's Writings._--Mani himself composed a large number of works and - epistles, which were in great part still known to the Mahommedan - historians, but are now mostly lost. The later heads of the Manichaean - churches also wrote religious treatises, so that the ancient - Manichaean literature must have been very extensive. According to the - _Fihrist_, Mani made use of the Persian and Syriac languages; but, - like the Oriental Marcionites before him, he invented an alphabet of - his own, which the _Fihrist_ has handed down to us. In this alphabet - the sacred books of the Manichaeans were written, even at a later - period. The _Fihrist_ reckons seven principal works of Mani, six being - in the Syriac and one in the Persian language; regarding some of these - we also have information in Epiphanius, Augustine, Titus of Bostra, - and Photius, as well as in the formula of abjuration (Cotelerius, _PP. - Apost. Opp._ i. 543) and in the _Acta Archelai_. They are (1) _The - Book of Secrets_ (see _Acta Archel._), containing discussions bearing - on the Christian sects spread throughout the East, especially the - Marcionites and Bardesanites, and dealing also with their conception - of the Old and New Testaments; (2) _The Book of the Giants_ (Demons?); - (3) _The Book of Precepts for Hearers_ (probably identical with the - _Epistola Fundamenti_ of Augustine and with the _Book of Chapters_ of - Epiphanius and the _Acta Archelai_; this was the most widely spread - and most popular Manichaean work, having been translated into Greek - and Latin; it contained a short summary of all the doctrines of - fundamental authority); (4) _The Book Shahpurakan_ (Flugel was unable - to explain this name; according to Kessler it signifies "epistle to - King Shapur"; the treatise was of an eschatological character); (5) - _The Book of Quickening_ (Kessler identifies this work with the - "Thesaurus [vitae]" of the _Acta Archelai_, Epiphanius, Photius and - Augustine, and if this be correct it also must have been in use among - the Latin Manichaeans); (6) _The Book [Greek: pragmateia]_ (of unknown - contents); (7) a book in the Persian language, the title of which is - not given in our present text of the _Fihrist_, but which is in all - probability identical with the "holy gospel" of the Manichaeans - (mentioned in the _Acta Archel._ and many other authorities). It was - this work which the Manichaeans set up in opposition to the Gospels. - Besides these principal works, Mani also wrote a large number of - smaller treatises and epistles. The practice of writing epistles was - continued by his successors. These Manichaean dissertations also - became known in the Graeco-Roman Empire, and existed in - collections.[1] There also existed a Manichaean book of memorabilia, - and of prayers, in Greek, as well as many others,[2] all of which were - destroyed by the Christian bishops acting in conjunction with the - authorities. A Manichaean epistle, addressed to one Marcellus, has, - however, been preserved for us in the _Acta Archelai_.[3] - -_Manichaean System._--Though the leading features of Manichaean doctrine -can be exhibited clearly even at the present day, and though it is -undoubted that Mani himself drew up a complete system, many details are -nevertheless uncertain, since they are differently described in -different sources, and it often remains doubtful which of the accounts -that have been transmitted to us represents the original teaching of the -founder. - -The Manichaean system is one of consistent, uncompromising dualism, in -the form of a fantastic philosophy of nature. The physical and the -ethical are not distinguished, and in this respect the character of the -system is thoroughly materialistic; for when Mani co-ordinates good with -light, and evil with darkness, this is no mere figure of speech, but -light is actually good and darkness evil. From this it follows that -religious knowledge involves the knowledge of nature and her elements, -and that redemption consists in a physical process of freeing the -element of light from the darkness. Under such circumstances ethics -becomes a doctrine of abstinence in regard to all elements which have -their source within the sphere of darkness. - -The self-contradictory character of the present world forms the point of -departure for Mani's speculations. This contradiction presents itself to -his mind primarily as elemental, and only in the second instance as -ethical, inasmuch as he considers the sensual nature of man to be the -outflow of the evil elements in nature. From the contradictory character -of the world he concludes the existence of two beings, originally quite -separate from each other--light and darkness. Each is to be thought of -according to the analogy of a kingdom. Light presents itself to us as -the good primal spirit (God, radiant with the ten [twelve] virtues of -love, faith, fidelity, high-mindedness, wisdom, meekness, knowledge, -understanding, mystery and insight), and then further as the heavens of -light and the earth of light, with their guardians the glorious aeons. -Darkness is likewise a spiritual kingdom (more correctly, it also is -conceived of as a spiritual and feminine personification), but it has no -"God" at its head. It embraces an "earth of darkness." As the earth of -light has five tokens (the mild zephyr, cooling wind, bright light, -quickening fire, and clear water), so has the earth of darkness also -five (mist, heat, the sirocco, darkness and vapour). Satan with his -demons was born from the kingdom of darkness. These two kingdoms stood -opposed to each other from all eternity, touching each other on one -side, but remaining unmingled. Then Satan began to rage, and made an -incursion into the kingdom of light, into the earth of light. The God of -light, with his _syzygy_, "the spirit of his right hand," now begot the -primal man, and sent him, equipped with the five pure elements, to fight -against Satan. But the latter proved himself the stronger, and the -primal man was for a moment vanquished. And although the God of light -himself now took to the field, and with the help of new aeons (the -spirit of life, &c.) inflicted total defeat upon Satan, and set the -primal man free; the latter had already been robbed of part of his -light by the darkness, and the five dark elements had already mingled -themselves with the generations of light. It only remained now for the -primal man to descend into the abyss and prevent the further increase of -the generations of darkness by cutting off their roots; but he could not -immediately separate again the elements that had once mingled. These -mixed elements are the elements of the present visible world, which was -formed from them at the command of the God of light. The forming of the -world is in itself the beginning of the deliverance of the imprisoned -elements of light. The world is represented as an orderly structure of -various heavens and various earths, which is borne and supported by the -aeons, the angels of light. It possesses in the sun and moon, which are -in their nature almost quite pure, large reservoirs, in which the -portions of light that have been rescued are stored up. In the sun -dwells the primal man himself, as well as the glorious spirits which -carry on the work of redemption; in the moon the mother of life is -enthroned. The twelve constellations of the zodiac form an ingenious -machine, a great wheel with buckets, which pour into the sun and moon, -those shining ships that sail continually through space, the portions of -light set free from the world. Here they are purified anew, and attain -finally to the kingdom of pure light and to God Himself. The later -Western Manichaeans termed those portions of light which are scattered -throughout the world--in its elements and organisms--awaiting their -deliverance, the _Jesus patibilis_. - -It is significant of the materialistic and pessimistic character of the -system that, while the formation of the world is considered as a work of -the good spirits, the creation of man is referred to the princes of -darkness. The first man, Adam, was engendered by Satan in conjunction -with "sin," "cupidity," "desire." But the spirit of darkness drove into -him all the portions of light he had stolen, in order to be able to -dominate them the more securely. Hence Adam is a discordant being, -created in the image of Satan, but carrying within him the stronger -spark of light. Eve is given him by Satan as his companion. She is -seductive sensuousness, though also having in her a small spark of -light. But if the first human beings thus stood entirely under the -dominion of the devil, the glorious spirits took them under their care -from the very outset, sending aeons down to them (including Jesus), who -instructed them regarding their nature, and in particular warned Adam -against sensuality. But this first man fell under the temptation of -sexual desire. Cain and Abel indeed are not sons of Adam, but of Satan -and Eve; Seth, however, who is full of light, is the offspring of Adam -by Eve. Thus did mankind come into existence, its various members -possessing very different shares of light, but the men having uniformly -a larger measure of it than the women. In the course of history the -demons sought to bind men to themselves by means of sensuality, error -and false religions (among which is to be reckoned above all the -religion of Moses and the prophets), while the spirits of light carried -on their process of distillation with the view of gaining the pure light -which exists in the world. But these good spirits can only save men by -imparting to them the true _gnosis_ concerning nature and her forces, -and by calling them away from the service of darkness and sensuality. To -this end prophets, preachers of true knowledge, have been sent into the -world. Mani, following the example of the gnostic Jewish Christians, -appears to have held Adam, Noah, Abraham (perhaps Zoroaster and Buddha) -to be such prophets. Probably Jesus was also accounted a prophet who had -descended from the world of light--not, however, the historical Jesus, -the devilish Messiah of the Jews, but a contemporaneous phantom Jesus, -who neither suffered nor died (_Jesus impatibilis_). According to the -teaching of some Manichaeans, it was the primal man who disseminated the -true gnosis in the character of Christ. But at all events Mani himself, -on his own claim, is to be reckoned the last and greatest prophet, who -took up the work of Jesus impatibilis and of Paul (for he too finds -recognition), and first brought full knowledge. He is the "leader," the -"ambassador of the light," the "Paraclete." It is only through his -agency and that of his imitators, "the elect," that the separation of -the light from the darkness can be completed. The system contains very -fantastic descriptions of the processes by which the portions of light -when once set free finally ascend even to the God of light. He who -during his lifetime did not become one of the elect, who did not -completely redeem himself, has to go through a severe process of -purification on the other side of the grave, till he too is gathered to -the blessedness of the light. It is erroneous, however, to ascribe, as -has been done, a doctrine of transmigration to the Manichaeans. Of -course men's bodies as well as the souls of the unsaved, who according -to the oldest conception have in them no light whatever, fall under the -sway of the powers of darkness. A later view, adapted to the Christian -one, represents the portions of light in the unsaved as actually -becoming lost. When the elements of light have at last been completely, -or as far as possible, delivered from the world, the end of all things -comes. All glorious spirits assemble, the God of light himself appears, -accompanied by the aeons and the perfected just ones. The angels -supporting the world withdraw themselves from their burden, and -everything falls in ruins. A tremendous conflagration consumes the -world; the perfect separation of the two powers takes place once more; -high above is the kingdom of light, again brought into a condition of -completeness, and deep below is the (? now powerless) darkness. - - _Ethics, Social Polity and Worship of the Manichaeans._--On the basis - of such a cosmical philosophy, ethics can only have a dualistic - ascetic character. Manichaean ethics is not merely negative, however, - since it is necessary to cherish, strengthen and purify the elements - of light, as well as free oneself from the elements of darkness. The - aim is not self-destruction, but self-preservation; and yet the ethics - of Manichaeism appears in point of fact as thoroughly ascetic. The - Manichaean had, above all, to refrain from sensual enjoyment, shutting - himself up against it by three seals--the _signaculum oris_, _manus_ - and _sinus_. The _signaculum oris_ forbids all eating of unclean food - (which included all bodies of animals, wine, &c.--vegetable diet being - allowed because plants contained more light, though the killing of - plants, or even plucking their fruit and breaking their twigs, was not - permitted), as well as all impure speech. The _signaculum manus_ - prohibits all traffic with things generally, in so far as they carry - in them elements of darkness. Finally, by the _signaculum sinus_ every - gratification of sexual desire, and hence also marriage, are - forbidden. Besides all this, life was further regulated by an - exceedingly rigorous system of fasts. Certain astronomical - conjunctions determined the selection of the fast-days, which in their - total number amounted to nearly a quarter of the year. Sunday was - regularly solemnized as one, and the practice was also generally - observed on Monday. Hours of prayer were determined with equal - exactness. The Manichaean had to pray four times a day, each prayer - being preceded by ablutions. The worshipper turned towards the sun, or - the moon, or the north, as the seat of light; but it is erroneous to - conclude from this, as has been done, that in Manichaeism the sun and - moon were themselves objects of worship. Forms of prayer used by the - Manichaeans have been preserved to us in the _Fihrist_. The prayers - are addressed to the God of light, to the whole kingdom of light, to - the glorious angels, and to Mani himself, who is apostrophized in them - as "the great tree, which is all salvation." According to Kessler, - these prayers are closely related to the Mandaean and the ancient - Babylonian hymns. An asceticism so strict and painful as that demanded - by Manichaeism could only be practised by few; hence the religion must - have abandoned all attempts at an extensive propaganda had it not - conceded the principle of a twofold morality. A distinction was made - in the community between the _electi_ (_perfecti_), the perfect - Manichaeans, and the _catechumeni_ (_auditores_), the secular - Manichaeans. Only the former submitted themselves to all the demands - made by their religion; for the latter the stringency of the precepts - was relaxed. They had to avoid idolatry, sorcery, avarice, falsehood, - fornication, &c.; above all, they were not allowed to kill any living - being (the ten commandments of Mani). They had also to free themselves - as much as possible from the world; but in truth they lived very much - as their non-Manichaean fellow-citizens. We have here essentially the - same condition of things as in the Catholic Church, where a twofold - morality was also in force, that of the religious orders and that of - secular Christians--only that the position of the electi in - Manichaeism was a more distinguished one than that of the monks in - Catholicism. For, after all, the Christian monks never quite forgot - that salvation is given by God through Christ, whereas the Manichaean - _electi_ were actually themselves redeemers. Hence it was the duty of - the _auditores_ to pay the greatest respect and most assiduous - attention to the _electi_. These "perfect ones," wasting away under - their asceticism, were objects of admiration and of the most elaborate - solicitude.[4] Food was presented to them in abundance, and by their - eating it the _electi_ set free the portions of light from the - vegetables. They prayed for the _auditores_, they blessed them and - interceded for them, thereby shortening the process of purification - the latter had to pass through after death. It was only the _electi_, - too, who possessed full knowledge of religious truths, a point of - distinction from Catholicism. - - The distinction between _electi_ and _auditores_, however, does not - exhaust the conception of the Manichaean Church; on the contrary, the - latter possessed a hierarchy of three ranks, so that there were - altogether five gradations in the community. These were regarded as a - copy of the ranks of the kingdom of light. At the head stood the - _teachers_ ("the sons of meekness," Mani himself and his successors); - then follow the _administrators_ ("the sons of knowledge," the - bishops); then the _elders_ ("the sons of understanding," the - presbyters); the _electi_ ("the sons of mystery"); and finally the - _auditores_ ("the sons of insight"). The number of the _electi_ must - always have been small. According to Augustine the teachers were - twelve and the bishops seventy-two in number. One of the teachers - appears to have occupied the position of superior at the head of the - whole Manichaean Church. At least Augustine speaks of such a - personage, and the _Fihrist_ also has knowledge of a chief of all - Manichaeans. The constitution, therefore, had a monarchic head. - - The worship of the Manichaeans must have been very simple, and must - have essentially consisted of prayers, hymns and ceremonies of - adoration. This simple service promoted the secret dissemination of - their doctrines. The Manichaeans too, at least in the West, appear to - have adapted themselves to the Church's system of festivals. The - _electi_ celebrated special feasts; but the principal festival with - all classes was the _Bema_ ([Greek: bema]), the feast of the - "teacher's chair," held in commemoration of the death of Mani in the - month of March. The faithful prostrated themselves before an adorned - but empty chair, which was raised upon a podium of five steps. Long - fasts accompanied the feasts. The Christian and Mahommedan historians - could learn little of the Manichaean mysteries and "sacraments," and - hence the former charged them with obscene rites and abominable - usages. It may be held as undoubted that the later Manichaeans - celebrated mysteries analogous to Christian baptism and the Lord's - Supper, which may have rested upon ancient consecration rites and - other ceremonies instituted by Mani himself and having their origin in - nature worship. - -_Recent Discoveries._--F. Cumont (_Revue d'histoire et de litterature -religieuse_, t. xii., 1907, No. 2) showed that one at least of the -fundamental myths of Mani was borrowed from the Avesta, namely, that -which recounts how through the manifestation of the virgin of light and -of the messenger of salvation to the libidinous princes of darkness the -vital substance or light held captive in their limbs was liberated and -recovered for the realm of light. The legend of the _Omophorus_ and -_Splenditeneus_, rival giants who sustain earth and luminous heavens on -their respective shoulders, even if it already figures in the cuneiform -texts of Assyria, is yet to be traced in Mithraic bas-reliefs. It also -may therefore have come to Mani through Magian channels. - -When, however, we turn to the numerous fragments of authentic Manichaean -liturgies and hymns lately discovered in Turfan in East Turkestan, -Mani's direct indebtedness to the cycle of Magian legends rather than to -Chaldaic sources (as Kessler argued) is clearly exhibited. - - In fr. 472, taken from the Shapurakan, as part of a description of the - sun-god in his ship or reservoir the sun, we have a mention of Az and - Ahriman and the devas (demons), the Pairikas. Az in the Avestan - mythology was the demon serpent who murders Gayomert in the old - Persian legend, and an ally of Ahriman, as also are the _Pairikas_ or - Peris. In the same fragment we read of the ruin of _Azidahaka - Mazainya_, which name Darmesteter interprets in the Persian sources as - the demon serpent, the sorcerer (_Ormazd et Ahriman_, Paris, 1877, p. - 157). In fr. 470, descriptive of the conflagration of the world, we - read of how, after Az and the demons have been struck down, the pious - man is purified and led up to sun and moon and to the being of Ahura - Mazda, the Divine. - - In another fragment (388) of a hymn Mani describes himself as "the - first stranger" (cf. Matt. xxv. 43), the son of the god Zarvan, the - Ruler-Child. In the orthodox literature of fire-worship Zarvan was - Time or Destiny. Later on Zarvan was elevated to the position of - supreme principle, creator of Ormazd and Ahriman, and, long before - Mani, Zarvan accompanied Mithras in all his westward migrations. - - In fr. 20, in an enumeration of angels, we hear of Narsus, who may be - the Neryosang (Armenian Nerses or Narsai) of the Avesta. The other - angels are Jacob, the mighty angel and leader of angels, the Lord Bar - Simus, Qaftinus the mighty, Raphael, Gabriel, Michael, Sarael and - Nastikus--a truly Catholic list. - - In fr. 4 a rubric enjoins the recital of the hymn of the _Frasegerd_. - Here we recognize a technical term of the Avesta--namely, the - "Frasho-kereti," that is the reanimation of the world or resurrection - of the dead (Darmesteter, _op. cit._, p. 239). In this hymn we read - how the gods shall release us from this sinful time, from the - oppression of this world. In fr. 4, under the rubric Bar Simus, we - find the god Mihir (Mihryazd), the liberator, the compassionate, - invoked along with Fredon, the good; and later on we read as follows: - "with his mighty glance may the god of pure name, Predon, the king and - Jacob Nareman, protect religion and us the sons." Mihr or Mithras and - Feridoun or Thraetaona, the slayer of Ajis (or Azi) Dahaka, also - Nariman, spelled Nairimanau, are familiar figures in the old Persian - pantheon. In the same prayer the votary begs that "new blessing may - come, new victory from the god Zarvan over the glories and angels, the - spirits of this world, to the end that he accept our holy religion, - become a watcher within and without, helper and protector," and the - prayer ends thus: "I invoke the angels, the strong ones, the mighty, - Raphael, Michael, Gabriel, Sarael, who shall protect us from all - adversity, and free us from the wicked Ahriman." - - In fr. 176 Jesus is invoked: "Jesus, of the gods first new moon, thou - art God.... Jesus, O Lord, of waxing fame full moon, O Jesus. Lord ... - light, our hearts' prayer. Jesus, God and Vahman. Sheen God! We will - praise the God Naresaf. Mar Mani will we bless. O new moon and spring. - Lord, we will bless. The angels, the gods ... New sun, Mihr." - - In the above Vahman is Vohu Mano, the good thought or inspiration of - the Zoroastrian religion. Mihr is Mithras. The god Naresaf is also - invoked in other fragments. - - In fr. 74 is invoked, together with Jesus and Mani, the "strong mighty - Zrosch, the redeemer of souls." In the Avesta Sraosha is the angel - that guards the world at night from demons, and is styled "the - righteous" or "the strong." - - Fr. 38 is as follows: "Mithras (MS. Mitra) great ... messenger of the - gods, mediator (or interpreter) of religion, of the elect one - Jesus--virgin of light. Mar Mani, Jesus--virgin of light, Mar Mani. Do - thou in me make peace, O light-bringer, mayest thou redeem my soul - from this born-dead (existence)." - - Fr. 543 runs thus: "... and ladder of the Mazdean faith. Thou, new - teacher of Chorasan (of the East), and promoter of those that have the - good faith. For thou wast born under a glittering star in the family - of the rulers. Elect are these--Jesus and Vahman." - -The above examples bear out Mani's own declaration, as reported by the -_Fihrist_, that his faith was a blend of the old Magian cult with -Christianity. Whether the Hebrew names of angels came to him direct from -the Jews or not we cannot tell, but they were, as the Greek magical -papyri prove, widely diffused among the Gentiles long before his age. -The Armenian writer Eznik (c. 425) also attests that Mani's teaching was -merely that of the Magi, _plus_ an ascetic morality, for which they -hated and slew him. - -Just as the background of Christianity was formed by the Hebrew -scriptures, and just as the Hebrew legends of the creation became the -basis of its scheme of human redemption from evil, so the Avesta, with -its quaint cosmogony and myths, formed the background of Mani's new -faith. He seems to have quarrelled with the later Magism because it was -not dualistic enough, for in fr. 28 we have such a passage as the -following: "They also that adore the fire, the burning, by this they -themselves recognize that their end shall be in fire. And they say that -Ormuzd and Ahriman are brothers, and in consequence of this saying they -shall come to annihilation." In the same fragment the Christians are -condemned as worshippers of idols, unless indeed the writer has genuine -pagans in view. There is a mention of Marcion in the same context, but -it is unintelligible. There can be no doubt that in the form in which -Mani became acquainted with it Christianity had been disengaged and -liberated from the womb of Judaism which gave it birth. This -presentation of it as an ethical system of universal import was the -joint work of Paul and Marcion. - -It remains to add that in these newly found fragments Mani styles -himself "the apostle (_lit._ the sent forth) of Jesus the friend in the -love of the Father, of God." He uses the formula: "Praise and laud to -the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit." In fr. 4 he attests that he -was sprung from the land Babel; in fr. 566 that he was a physician from -the land Babel. Fr. 3 recounts his interview with King Shapur I. The -Gospel of Peter seems to have been in use, for one lengthy citation is -taken from it in fr. 18. The Manichaeans of Chinese Turkestan also used -a version of the _Shepherd_ of Hermas. Several of the hymns (e.g. in fr. -7 and 32) reproduce the ideas and almost the phases of the Syriac "Hymn -of the Soul," so confirming the hypothesis that Mani was influenced by -Bardesanes. - - With the exception of a few fragments written in a Pehlevi dialect, - all this recovered Manichaean literature is in the Ouigour or Vigur - dialect of Tatar. The alphabet used is the one adapted by Mani himself - from the Syriac estrangelo. The fragments are 800 in number, both on - paper and vellum, written and adorned with the pious care and good - taste which the Manichaeans are known to have bestowed on their - manuscripts. They were brought back by Professor Grunwedel and Dr Huth - from Turfan in East Turkestan, and were partly translated by Dr F. W. - K. Muller in the _Abhandtungen der k. preuss. Akademie der - Wissenschaften_ (Berlin, 1904). Much of this literature is still left - in Turfan, where the natives use the sheets of Vigur and Chinese - vellum MSS. as window-panes in their huts. The Russian and German - governments have sent out fresh expeditions to rescue what is left - before it is too late. We may thus hope to recover some priceless - monuments of early Christianity, hymns and treatises perhaps of - Marcion and Bardesanes, the Gospel of Peter, and even the Diatessaron. - Muller's translations includes a long extract of Mani's book called - _Schapurakan_, parts of his _Evangelium_, and epistles, with - liturgies, hymns and prayers, for Tatar Khans who espoused the faith - in Khorasan. - -_Manichaeism and Christianity._--It is very difficult to determine what -was the extent of Mani's knowledge of Christianity, how much he himself -borrowed from it, and through what channels it reached him. It is -certain that Manichaeism, in those districts where it was brought much -into contact with Christianity, became additionally influenced by the -latter at a very early period. The Western Manichaeans of the 4th and -5th centuries are much more like Christians than their Eastern brethren. -In this respect Manichaeism experienced the same kind of development as -Neo-Platonism. As regards Mani himself, it is safest to assume that he -held both Judaism and Catholic Christianity to be entirely false -religions. It is indeed true that he not only described himself as the -promised Paraclete--for this designation probably originated with -himself--but also conceded a high place in his system to "Jesus"; we can -only conclude from this, however, that he distinguished between -Christianity and Christianity. The religion which had proceeded from the -historical Jesus he repudiated together with its founder, and -Catholicism as well as Judaism he looked upon as a religion of the -devil. But he distinguished between the Jesus of darkness and the Jesus -of light who had lived and acted contemporaneously with the former. This -distinction agrees with that made by the gnostic Basilides no less -strikingly than the Manichaean criticism of the Old Testament does with -that propounded by the Marcionites (see the _Acta Archelai_, in which -Mani is made to utter the antitheses of Marcion). Finally, the -Manichaean doctrines exhibit points of similarity to those of the -Christian Elkesaites. The historical relation of Mani to Christianity is -then as follows. From Catholicism, which he very probably had no -detailed knowledge of, he borrowed nothing, rejecting it as devilish -error. On the other hand, he looked upon what he considered to be -Christianity proper--that is, Christianity as it had been developed -among the sects of Basilidians, Marcionites, and perhaps Bardesanites, -as a comparatively valuable and sound religion. He took from it the -moral teaching of the Sermon on the Mount, and a criticism of the Old -Testament and of Judaism so far as he required it. Indications of the -influence of Marcionitism are found in the high estimation in which Mani -held the apostle Paul, and in the fact that he explicitly rejects the -Book of Acts. Mani appears to have given recognition to a portion of the -historical matter of the Gospels, and to have interpreted it in -accordance with his own doctrine. - -_Manichaeism and Buddhism._--It remains to be asked whether Buddhistic -elements can also be detected in Manichaeism. Most modern scholars since -F. C. Baur have answered this question in the affirmative. According to -Kessler, Mani made use of the teaching of Buddha, at least as far as -ethics was concerned. It cannot be doubted that Mani, who undertook long -journeys as far as India, knew of Buddhism. The name Buddha (Buddas) -which occurs in the legendary account of Mani, and perhaps in the -latter's own writings, indicates further that he had occupied his -attention with Buddhism when engaged in the work of founding his new -religion. But his borrowings from this source must have been quite -insignificant. A detailed comparison shows the difference between -Buddhism and Manichaeism in all their principal doctrines to be very -great, while it becomes evident that the points of resemblance are -almost everywhere accidental. This is also true of the ethics and the -asceticism of the two systems. There is not a single point in -Manichaeism which demands for its explanation an appeal to Buddhism. -Such being the case, the relationship between the two religions remains -a mere possibility, a possibility which the inquiry of Geyler (_Das -System des Manichaeismus und sein Verhaltniss zum Buddhismus_, Jena, -1875) has not been able to elevate into a probability. - -_The Secret of Manichaeism._--How are we to explain the rapid spread of -Manichaeism, and the fact that it really became one of the great -religions? What gave it strength was that it united an ancient mythology -and a thorough-going materialistic dualism with an exceedingly simple -spiritual worship and a strict morality. On comparing it with the -Semitic religions of nature we perceive that it was free from their -sensuous _cultus_, substituting instead a spiritual worship as well as a -strict morality. Manichaeism was thus able to satisfy the new wants of -an old world. It offered revelation, redemption, moral virtue and -immortality, spiritual benefits on the basis of the religion of nature. -A further source of strength lay in the simple yet firm social -organization which was given by Mani himself to his new institution. The -wise man and the ignorant, the enthusiast and the man of the world, -could all find acceptance here, and there was laid on no one more than -he was able and willing to bear. Each one, however, was attached and led -onward by the prospect of a higher rank to be attained, while the -intellectually gifted had an additional inducement in the assurance that -they did not require to submit themselves to any authority, but would be -led to God by pure reason. Thus adapted from the first to individual -requirements, this religion also showed itself able to appropriate from -time to time foreign elements. Originally furnished from fragments of -various religions, it could increase or diminish this possession without -rupturing its own elastic framework. And, after all, great adaptability -is just as necessary for a universal religion as a divine founder in -whom the highest revelation of God may be seen and reverenced. -Manichaeism indeed, though it applies the title "redeemer" to Mani, has -really no knowledge of a redeemer, but only of a physical and gnostic -process of redemption; on the other hand, it possesses in Mani the -supreme prophet of God. If we consider in conclusion that Manichaeism -gave a simple, apparently profound, and yet convenient solution of the -problem of good and evil, a problem that had become peculiarly -oppressive to the human race in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, we shall have -named the most important factors which account for the rapid spread of -the system. - -_Sketch of the History of Manichaeism._--Manichaeism first gained a firm -footing in the East, i.e. in Persia, Mesopotamia and Transoxiana. The -persecutions it had to endure did not hinder its extension. The seat of -the Manichaean pope was for centuries in Babylon, at a later period in -Samarkand. Even after the conquests of Islam the Manichaean Church -continued to maintain itself, indeed it seems to have become still more -widely diffused by the victorious campaigns of the Mahommedans, and it -frequently gained secret adherents among the latter themselves. Its -doctrine and discipline underwent little change in the East; in -particular, it drew no nearer to the Christian religion. More than once, -however, Manichaeism experienced attempts at reformation; for of course -the _auditores_ very easily became worldly in character, and movements of -reformation led temporarily to divisions and the formation of sects. -Towards the close of the 10th century, at the time the _Fihirst_ was -written, the Manichaeans in Mesopotamia and Persia had already been in -large measure ousted from the towns, and had withdrawn to the villages. -But in Turkestan, and as far as the Chinese frontier, there existed -numerous Manichaean communities and even whole tribes that had adopted -the name of Mani. Probably it was the great migrations of the Mongolian -race that first put an end to Manichaeism in Central Asia. But even in -the 15th century there were Manichaeans living beside the -Thomas-Christians on the coast of Malabar in India (see Germann, _Die -Thomas-Christen_, 1875). Manichaeism first penetrated the Greek-Roman -Empire about the year 280, in the time of the emperor Probus (see the -_Chronicon_ of Eusebius). If we may take the edict of Diocletian against -the Manichaeans as genuine, the system must have gained a firm footing in -the West by the beginning of the 4th century, but we know that as late as -about the year 325 Eusebius had not any accurate knowledge of the sect. -It was only subsequent to about 330 that Manichaeism spread rapidly in -the Roman Empire. Its adherents were recruited on the one hand from the -old gnostic sects (especially from the Marcionites--Manichaeism exerted -besides this a strong influence on the development of the Marcionite -churches of the 4th century), on the other hand from the large number of -the "cultured," who were striving after a "rational" and yet in some -manner Christian religion. Its polemics and its criticism of the Catholic -Church now became the strong side of Manichaeism, especially in the West. -It admitted the stumbling-blocks which the Old Testament offers to every -intelligent reader, and gave itself out as a Christianity without the Old -Testament. Instead of the subtle Catholic theories concerning divine -predestination and human freedom, and instead of a difficult theodicaea, -it offered an exceedingly simple conception of sin and goodness. The -doctrine of the incarnation of God, which was especially objectionable to -those who were going over to the new universal religion from the old -cults, was not proclaimed by Manichaeism. In its rejection of this -doctrine Manichaeism agreed with Neo-Platonism; but, while the latter, -notwithstanding all its attempts to conform itself to Christianity, could -find no formula by which to inaugurate within its own limits the special -veneration of Christ, the Western Manichaeans succeeded in giving their -teaching a Christian tinge. The only part of the Manichaean mythology -that became popular was the crude, physical dualism. The barbaric -elements were judiciously screened from view as a "mystery"; they were, -indeed, here and there explicitly disavowed even by the initiated. The -farther Manichaeism advanced into the West the more Christian and -philosophic did it become. In Syria it maintained itself in comparative -purity. In North Africa it found its most numerous adherents, gaining -secret support even among the clergy. Augustine was an _auditor_ for nine -years, while Faustus was at that time the most esteemed Manichaean -teacher in the West. Augustine in his later writings against the -Manichaeans deals chiefly with the following problems: (1) the relation -between knowledge and faith, and between reason and authority; (2) the -nature of good and evil, and the origin of the latter; (3) the existence -of free will, and its relation to the divine omnipotence; (4) the -relation of the evil in the world to the divine government. - -The Christian Byzantine and Roman emperors, from Valens onwards, enacted -strict laws against the Manichaeans. But at first these bore little -fruit. The _auditores_ were difficult to trace out, and besides they -really gave little occasion for persecution. In Rome itself between 370 -and 440 Manichaeism gained a large amount of support, especially among -the scholars and public teachers. It also made its way into the life of -the people by means of a popular literature in which the apostles were -made to play a prominent part (_Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles_). -Manichaeism in the West had also some experience of attempts at -reformation from the ascetic side, but of these we know little. In Rome -Leo the Great was the first who took energetic measures, along with the -state authorities, against the system. Valentinian III. decreed -banishment against its adherents, Justinian the punishment of death. In -North Africa Manichaeism appears to have been extinguished by the -persecution of the Vandals. But it still continued to exist elsewhere, -both in the Byzantine Empire and in the West, and in the earlier part of -the middle ages it gave an impulse to the formation of new sects, which -remained related to it. And if it has not been quite proved that so -early as the 4th century the Priscillianists of Spain were influenced by -Manichaeism, it is at least undoubted that the Paulicians and Bogomiles, -as well as the Catharists and the Albigenses, are to be traced back to -Manichaeism (and Marcionitism). Thus the system, not indeed of Mani the -Persian, but of Manichaeism as modified by Christian influences, -accompanied the Catholic Church until the 13th century. - - _Sources._--(a) Oriental. Among the sources for a history of - Manichaeism the most important are the Oriental. Of these the - Mahommedan, though of comparatively late date, are distinguished by - the excellent manner in which they have been transmitted to us, as - well as by their impartiality. They must be named first, because - ancient Manichaean writings have been used in their construction. At - the head of all stands En-Nedim, _Fihrist_ (c. 980), ed. by Flugel - (1871-1872); cf. the latter's work _Mani, seine Lehre u. seine - Schriften_ (1862). See also Shahrastani, _Kitab al-milal wan-nuhal_ - (12th cent.), ed. by Cureton (1846) and translated into German by - Haarbrucker (1851), and individual notes and excerpts by Tabari (10th - cent.), Al-Biruni (11th cent.), and other Arabian and Persian - historians. Next come the Turfan fragments described in the body of - this article. See also W. Brandt, _Schriften aus der Genza oder Sidva - Rabba_ (Gottingen, 1893). - - Of the Christian Orientals those that afford most information are - Ephraem Syrus (d. 373), in various writings; the Armenian Esnik - (German translation by J. M. Schmid, Vienna, 1900, see also _Zeitsch. - f. hist. Theol._, 1840, ii.; Langlois, _Collection_, ii. 375 seq.), - who wrote in the 5th century against Marcion and Mani; and the - Alexandrian patriarch Eutychius (d. 916), _Annales_, ed. Pococke - (1628). There are, besides, scattered pieces of information in - Aphraates (4th cent.), Barhebraeus (13th cent.) and others. The newly - found Syriac _Book of Scholia_ of Theodor bar Khouni (see Pognon, _Les - Coupes de Kouabir_, Paris, 1898) gives many details about Mani's - teaching (also ed. without translation by Dr M. Lewin, Berlin, 1905). - - (b) Greek and Latin. The earliest mention of the Manichaeans in the - Graeco-Roman Empire is to be found in an edict of Diocletian (see - Hanel, _Cod. Gregor._, tit. xv.), which is held by some to be - spurious, while others assign it to one or other of the years 287, - 290, 296, 308 (so Mason, _The Persec. of Diocl._, pp. 275 seq.). - Eusebius gives a short account of the sect (_H. E._, vii. 31). It was - the _Acta Archelai_, however, that became the principal source on the - subject of Manichaeism for Greek and Roman writers. These _Acta_ are - not indeed what they give themselves out for, viz. an account of a - disputation held between Mani and the bishop Archelaus of Cascar, in - Mesopotamia; but they nevertheless contain much that is trustworthy, - especially regarding the doctrine of Mani, and they also include - Manichaean documents. They consist of various distinct pieces, and - originated in the beginning of the 4th century, probably at Edessa. - They were translated as early as the first half of the same century - from the Syriac (as is maintained by Jerome, _De vir. illust._, 72; - though this is doubted by modern scholars) into Greek, and soon - afterwards into Latin. It is only this secondary Latin version that we - possess (ed. by C. H. Beeson; Leipzig, 1906, under title _Hegemonius - acta Archelai_); earlier editions, Zacagni (1698); Routh, _Reliquiae - sac._, vol. v. (1848); translated in Clark's _Ante-Nicene Library_, - vol. xx.; small fragments of the Greek version have been preserved. - Regarding the _Acta Archelai_, see Zittwitz in _Zeitschr. f. d. - histor. Theol._ (1873) and Oblasinski, _Acta disp. Arch. el Manetis_ - (1874). In the form in which we now possess them, they are a - compilation after the pattern of the _Clementine Homilies_, and have - been subjected to manifold redactions. These _Acta_ were used by Cyril - of Jerusalem (_Catech._ 6), Epiphanius (_Haer._ 66), and a great - number of other writers. All the Greek and Latin heresiologists have - included the Manichaeans in their catalogues; but they seldom adduce - any independent information regarding them (see Theodoret, _Haer. - fab._ i. 26). Important matter is to be found in the resolutions of - the councils from the 4th century onwards (see Mansi, _Acta concil._, - and Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_, vols. i.-iii.), and also in the - controversial writings of Titus of Bostra (6th century), [Greek: Pros - Manichaious] (ed. Lagarde, 1859), and of Alexander of Lycopolis - [Greek: Logos pros tas Manichaiou doxas] (ed. Combefis; transl. in - _Ante-Nic. Lib._, vol. xiv.). Of the Byzantines, the most worthy of - mention are John of Damascus (_De haeres._ and _Dialog._) and Photius - (_cod._ 179 _Biblioth._). The struggle with the Paulicians and the - Bogomiles, who were often simply identified with the Manichaeans, - again directed attention to the latter. In the West the works of - Augustine are the great repertory for information on the subject of - Manichaeism (_Contra epistolam Manichaei, quam vocant fundamenti_; - _Contra Faustum Manichaeum_; _Contra Fortunatum_; _Contra Adimantum_; - _Contra Secundinum_; _De actis cum Felice Manichaeo_; _De genesi c. - Manichaeos_; _De natura boni_; _De duabus animabus_; _De utilitate - credendi_; _De moribus eccl. cathol. et de moribus Manichaeorum_; _De - haeres._). The more complete the picture, however, which may here be - obtained of Manichaeism, the more cautious must we be in making - generalizations from it, for it is beyond doubt that Western - Manichaeism adopted Christian elements which are wanting in the - original and in the Oriental Manichaeism. The "Dispute of Paul the - Persian with a Manichaean" in Migne _P.G._, 88, col. 529-578 (first - ed. by A. Mai) is shown by G. Mercati, _Studi e testi_ (Rome, 1901) to - be the _proces verbal_ of an actual discussion held under Justinian at - Constantinople in 527. - - LITERATURE.--The most important works on Manichaeism are Beausobre, - _Hist. critique de Manichee et du Manicheisme_ (2 vols., 1734 seq.; - the Christian elements in Manichaeism are here strongly, indeed too - strongly, emphasized); Baur, _Das manich. Religionssystem_ (1831; in - this work Manichaean speculation is exhibited from a speculative - standpoint); Flugel, _Mani_ (1862; a very careful investigation on the - basis of the _Fihrist_); Kessler, _Untersuchung zur Genesis des - manich. Religionssystems_ (1876); and the article "Mani, Manichaer," - by the same writer in Herzog-Hauck's _R.E._, xii. 193-228; Kessler, - _Mani_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1889, 1903); Ernest Rochat, _Essai sur Mani - et sa doctrine_ (Geneva, 1897); _Recherches sur le manicheisme: I. La - cosmogonie manicheisme d'apres Theodore Bar Khoui_, by Franz Cumont - (Brussels, 1908); _II. Fragments syriaques d'ouvrages manicheens_, by - Kugener and F. Cumont. _III. Les Formules grecques d'abjuration - imposees aux manicheens_, by F. Cumont. The accounts of Mosheim, - Lardner, Walch and Schrockh, as well as the monograph by Trechsel, - _Ueber Kanon, Kritik und Exegese der Manichaer_ (1832), may also be - mentioned as still useful. The various researches which have been made - regarding Parsism, the ancient Semitic religions, Gnosticism, &c., are - of the greatest importance for the investigation of Manichaeism. - (A. Ha.; F. C. C.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] A [Greek: biblion epistolon] is spoken of in the formula of - abjuration, and an _Epistola ad virginem Menoch_ by Augustine. - Fabricius has collected the "Greek Fragments of Manichaean Epistles" - in his _Bibliotheca Graeca_ (vii. 311 seq.). - - [2] The _Canticum amatorium_ is cited by Augustine. - - [3] Zittwitz assumes that this epistle was in its original form of - much larger extent, and that the author of the _Acts_ took out of it - the matter for the speeches which he makes Mani deliver during his - disputation with Bishop Archelaus. The same scholar traces back the - account by Turbo in the _Acts_, and the historical data given in the - fourth section, to the writings of Turbo, a Mesopotamian, who is - assumed to have been a Manichaean renegade and a Christian. But as to - this difference of opinion is at least allowable. - - [4] Analogous to this is the veneration in which the Catholic monks - and the Neoplatonic "philosophers" were held; but the prestige of the - Manichaean _electi_ was greater than that of the monks and the - philosophers. - - - - -MANIFEST (Lat. _manifestus_, clear, open to view), in commercial law, a -document delivered to the officer of customs by the captain of a ship -before leaving port, giving a description of the shipped goods of every -kind, and setting forth the marks, numbers and descriptions of the -packages and the names of the consignors thereof. In England, by the -Revenue Act 1884, s. 3, where goods are exported for which no bond is -required, a manifest must be delivered to the officer of customs by the -master or owner of the ship within six days after the final clearance, -or a declaration in lieu thereof, the penalty in default being a sum not -exceeding five pounds. - - - - -MANIHIKI (MANAHIKI, MONAHIKI), a scattered archipelago in the central -Pacific Ocean, between 4 deg. and 11 deg. S., and 150 deg. and 162 deg. -W., seldom visited, and producing only a little copra and guano. It may -be taken to include the Caroline or Thornton Islands, Vostok and Flint -to the east; Suvarov, Manihiki or Humphrey, and Tongareva or Penrhyn to -the west, and Starbuck and Malden to the north, the whole thus roughly -forming the three corners of a triangle. There are pearl and pearl-shell -fisheries at Tongareva and Suvarov. The natives (about 1000) are -Polynesians and nominally Christian. There are ancient stone buildings -of former inhabitants on Malden Island. The islands were mostly -discovered early in the 19th century, and were annexed by Great Britain -mainly in 1888-1889. - - - - -MANIKIALA, a village of India, in Rawalpindi district of the Punjab. -Pop. (1901), 734. It contains one of the largest _stupas_ or Buddhist -memorial shrines in N. India, and the one first known to Europeans, who -early detected traces of Greek influence in the sculpture. The _stupa_ -was excavated by General Court in 1834, and has been identified by Sir -A. Cunningham with the scene of Buddha's "body-offering." - - - - -MANILA, the capital city and principal port of the Philippine Islands, -situated on the W. coast of the island of Luzon, on the E. shore of -Manila Bay, at the mouth of the Pasig river, in lat. 14 deg. 35' 31" N., -and in long. 120 deg. 58' 8" E. It is about 4890 m. W.S.W. of Honolulu, -6990 m. W.S.W. of San Francisco, 628 m. S.E. of Hong-Kong, and 1630 m. -S. by W. of Yokohama. Pop. (1876), 93,595; (1887), 176,777; (1903), -219,928. Of the total population in 1903, 185,351 were of the brown -race, 21,838 were of the yellow race, 7943 were of the white race, and -232 were of the black race (230 of those of this race were -foreign-born), and 4564 were of mixed races; of the same total 131,659, -or nearly 60% were males. The foreign-born in 1903 numbered 29,491, -comprising 21,083 natives of China, 4300 natives of the United States of -America, 2065 natives of Spain, and 721 natives of Japan. Nearly all of -the brown race were native-born, and 80.6% of them were Tagalogs. - -The city covers an area of about 20 sq. m. of low ground, through which -flow the Pasig river and several _esteros_, or tidewater creeks. To the -west is the broad expanse of Manila Bay, beyond which are the rugged -Mariveles Mountains; to the eastward the city extends about half-way to -Laguna de Bay, a lake nearly as large as Manila Bay and surrounded on -three sides by mountains. On the south bank of the Pasig and fronting -the bay for nearly a mile is the "Ancient City," or Intramuros, enclosed -by walls 2(1/2) m. long, with a maximum height of 25 ft., built about -1590. Formerly a moat flanked the city on the land sides, and a -drawbridge at each of six gates was raised every night. But this -practice was discontinued in 1852 and the moat was filled with earth in -1905. In the north-west angle of the walled enclosure stands Fort -Santiago, which was built at the same time as the walls to defend the -entrance to the river; the remaining space is occupied largely by a fine -cathedral, churches, convents, schools, and government buildings. -Outside the walls the modern city has been formed by the union of -several towns whose names are still retained as the names of districts. -The Pasig river is crossed by two modern steel cantilever bridges. Near -the north-east angle of Intramuros is the Bridge of Spain, a stone -structure across the Pasig, leading to Binondo, the principal shopping -and financial district; here is the Escolta, the most busy thoroughfare -of the city, and the Rosario, noted for its Chinese shops. Between -Binondo and the bay is San Nicholas, with the United States custom-house -and large shipping interests. North of San Nicholas is Tondo, the most -densely populated district; in the suburbs, outside the fire limits, the -greater part of the inhabitants live in native houses of bamboo frames -roofed and sided with nipa palm, and the thoroughfares consist of narrow -streets and navigable streams. Paco, south-west of Intramuros, has some -large cigar factories, and a large cemetery where the dead are buried in -niches in two concentric circular walls. Ermita and Malate along the bay -in the south part of the city, San Miguel on the north bank of the river -above Intramuros, and Sampaloc farther north, are the more attractive -residential districts. - - Most of the white inhabitants live in Ermita and Malate, or in San - Miguel, where there are several handsome villas along the river front, - among them that of the governor-general of the Philippines. The better - sort of houses in Manila have two storeys, the lower one built of - brick or stone and the upper one of wood, roofed with red Spanish tile - or with corrugated iron; the upper storey contains the living-rooms, - and the lower has servants' rooms, storehouses, stables, - carriage-houses and poultry yards. On account of the warm climate the - cornices are wide, the upper storey projects over the lower, and the - outer walls are fitted with sliding frames. Translucent oyster shells - are a common substitute for glass; and the walls are white-washed, but - on account of the frequency of earthquakes are not plastered. More - than one half of the dwellings in the city are mere shacks or nipa - huts. Few of the public buildings are attractive or imposing. There - are, however, some churches with graceful towers and beautiful facades - and a few attractive monuments; among the latter are one standing on - the Magellan Plaza (Plaza or Paseo de Magellanes) beside the Pasig, to - the memory of Ferdinand Magellan, the discoverer of the islands; and - another by A. Querol on the shore of the bay, to the memory of Don - Miguel de Legaspi (d. 1572), the founder of the Spanish city, and of - Andres de Urdaneta (1498-1568), the Augustinian friar who accompanied - Legaspi to Cebu (but not to what is now Manila). - -Many improvements have been made in and about the city since the -American occupation in 1898. The small tram-cars drawn by native ponies -have been replaced by a modern American electric street-railway service, -and the railway service to and from other towns on the island of Luzon -has been extended; in 1908, 267 m. were open to traffic and 400 m. were -under construction. Connected with Manila by electric railway is Fort -William McKinley, a U.S. army post in the hills five miles away, -quartering about 3000 men. The scheme for dredging some of the _esteros_ -in order to make them more navigable and for filling in others has been -in part executed. But the greatest improvement affecting transportation -is the construction of a safe and deep harbour. Although Manila Bay is -nearly landlocked, it is so large that in times of strong winds it -becomes nearly as turbulent as the open sea, and it was formerly so -shallow that vessels drawing more than 16 ft. could approach no nearer -than two miles to the shore, where typhoons of the south-west monsoon -not infrequently obliged them to lie several days before they could be -unloaded. Two long jetties or breakwaters have now been constructed, -about 350 acres of harbour area have been dredged to a depth of 30 ft., -and two wharves of steel and concrete, one 600 ft. long and 70 ft. wide, -and the other 650 ft. long and 110 ft. wide, were in process of -construction in 1909. The Pasig river has been dredged up to the Bridge -of Spain to a depth of 18 ft. and from the Bridge of Spain to Laguna de -Bay to a depth of 6 ft. The construction of the harbour was begun about -1880 by the Spanish government, but the work was less than one-third -completed when the Americans took possession. Among other American -improvements were: an efficient fire department, a sewer system whereby -the sewage by means of pumps is discharged into the bay more than a mile -from the shore; a system of gravity waterworks (1908) whereby the city's -water supply is taken from the Mariquina river about 23 m. from the city -into a storage reservoir which has a capacity of 2,000,000,000 gallons -and is 212 ft. above the sea; the extension of the Luneta, the principal -pleasure-ground; a boulevard for several miles along the bay; a -botanical garden; and new market buildings. - - _Climate._--Manila has a spring and summer hot season, an autumn and - winter cooler season, a summer and autumn rainy season, and a winter - and spring dry season. For the twenty years 1883-1902 the annual - average of mean monthly temperatures was 26.8 deg. C., the maximum - being 27.4 deg. in 1889 and 1897, and the minimum 26.2 deg. in 1884. - From May until October the prevailing wind is south-east, from - November to January it is north, and from February to April it is - east. July and August are the cloudiest months of the year; the - average number of rainy days in each of those months being 21, and in - February or March only 3. The annual average of rainy days is 138: 94 - in the wet season (average precipitation for the six months, 1556.3 - mm.) and 44 in the dry season (average precipitation for the six dry - months, 382 mm.). Thunderstorms are frequent and occasionally very - severe, between May and September; the annual average of thunderstorms - for the decennium 1888-1897 was 505, the greatest frequency was in May - (average 100.3) and in June (average 90.7); the severity of these - storms may be imagined from the fact that in a half-hour between 5 and - 6 P.M. on the 21st of May 1892 the fall (probably the maximum) was 60 - mm. The air is very damp: for the period 1883-1902 the annual average - of humidity was 79.4%, the lowest average for any one month was 66.6% - in April 1896 (the average for the twenty Aprils was 70.7), and the - highest average for any one month was 89.9% for September 1897 (the - average for the twenty Septembers was 85.5). The city is so situated - as to be affected by shocks from all the various seismological centres - of Luzon, especially those from the active volcano Taal, 35 m. south - of the city. At the Manila observatory, about 1 m. south-east of the - walled city, the number of perceptible earthquakes registered by - seismograph between 1880 and 1897 inclusive was 221; the greatest - numbers for any one year were 26 in 1882 and 23 in 1892, and the - least, 5 in 1896 and 6 in 1889 and in 1894; the average number in each - May was 1.44, in each July, 1.33, and in January and in February 0.72; - the frequency is much greater in each of the spring summer months - (except June, average 0.78) than in the months of autumn and winter. - - _Public Institutions._--The public school system of Manila includes, - besides the common schools and Manila high school, the American - school, the Philippine normal school (1901), the Philippine school of - arts and trades (1901), the Philippine medical school (1907) and the - Philippine school of commerce (1908). The Philippine government also - maintains here a bureau of science which publishes the monthly - _Philippine Journal of Science_, and co-operates with the Jesuits in - maintaining, in Ermita, the Manila observatory (meteorological, - seismological and astronomical), which is one of the best equipped - institutions of the kind in the East. The royal and pontifical - university of St Thomas Aquinas (generally known as the university of - Santo Tomas) was founded in 1857 with faculties of theology, law, - philosophy, science, medicine and pharmacy, and grew out of a - seminary, for the foundation of which Philip II. of Spain gave a grant - in 1585, and which opened in 1601; and of the Dominican college of St - Thomas, dating from 1611. Other educational institutions are the - (Dominican) San Jose medical and pharmaceutical college, San Juan de - Letran (Dominican), which is a primary and secondary school, the - ateneo municipal, a corresponding secondary and primary school under - the charge of the Jesuits, and the college of St Isabel, a girls' - school. In 1908 there were thirty-four newspapers and periodicals - published in the city, of which thirteen were Spanish, fourteen were - English, two were Chinese, and five were Tagalog; the principal - dailies were the _Manila Times_, _Cablenews American_, _El Comercio_, - _El Libertas_, _El Mercantil_, _El Renacimiento_ and _La Democracia_. - There are several Spanish hospitals in Manila, in two of which the - city's indigent sick are cared for at its expense; in connexion with - another a reform school is maintained; and there are a general - hospital, built by the government, a government hospital for - contagious diseases, a government hospital for government employees, a - government hospital for lepers, an army hospital, a free dispensary - and hospital supported by American philanthropists, St Paul's hospital - (Roman Catholic), University hospital (Protestant Episcopal), and the - Mary Johnson hospital (Methodist Episcopal). There are several - American Protestant churches in the city, notably a Protestant - Episcopal cathedral and training schools for native teachers. In - Bibilid prison, in the Santa Cruz district, nearly 80% of the - prisoners of the archipelago are confined; it is under the control of - the department of public instruction and its inmates are given an - opportunity to learn one or more useful trades. - - _Trade and Industry._--Manila is important chiefly for its commerce, - and to make it the chief distributing point for American goods - consigned to Eastern markets the American government undertook the - harbour improvements, and abolished the tonnage dues levied under - Spanish rule. Manila is the greatest hemp market in the world; 110,399 - tons, valued at $19,444,769, were exported from the archipelago in - 1906, almost all being shipped from Manila. Other important exports - are sugar, copra and tobacco. The imports represent a great variety of - food stuffs and manufactured articles. In 1906 the total value of the - exports was $23,902,986 and the total value of the imports was - $21,868,257. The coastwise trade is large. The principal manufactures - are tobacco, cigars, cigarettes, malt liquors, distilled liquors, - cotton fabrics, clothing, ice, lumber, foundry and machine shop - products, carriages, waggons, furniture and boots and shoes. There is - some ship and boat building. Lumber is sawed by steam power, and - cotton mills in the Tondo district are operated by steam. In the - foundries and machine shops small engines, boilers and church bells - are made, and the government maintains an ice and cold-storage plant. - With these exceptions manufacturing is in a rather primitive state. - Another industry of importance, especially in the district of Tondo, - is fishing, and the city's markets are well supplied with many - varieties of choice fish. - -_Administration._--Manila is governed under a charter enacted in 1901 by -the Philippine commission, and amended in 1903. This vests the -legislative and administrative authority mainly in a municipal board of -five members, of whom three are appointed by the governor of the -Philippines by the advice and with the consent of the Philippine -commission, and the others are the president of the advisory board and -the city engineer. The administration is divided into eight departments: -engineering and public works; sewer and waterworks construction; -sanitation and transportation; assessments and collections; police, -fire, law and schools. There are no elective offices, but there is an -advisory board, appointed by the governor and consisting of one member -from each of eleven districts; its recommendations the municipal board -must seek on all important matters. The administration of justice is -vested in a municipal court and in one court under justices of the peace -and auxiliary justices; the administration of school affairs is vested -in a special board of six members; and matters pertaining to health are -administered by the insular bureau of health. - -_History._--The Spanish city of Manila (named from "nilad," a weed or -bush which grew in the locality) was founded by Legaspi in 1571. The -site had been previously occupied by a town under a Mahommedan -chieftain, but this town had been burned before Legaspi gained -possession, although a native settlement still remained, within the -present district of Tondo. In 1572, while its fortifications were still -slight, the Spanish city was attacked and was nearly captured by a force -of Chinese pirates who greatly outnumbered the Spaniards. About 1590 the -construction of the present walls and other defences was begun. At the -beginning of the 17th century Manila had become the commercial -metropolis of the Far East. To it came fleets from China, Japan, India, -Malacca and other places in the Far East for an exchange of wares, and -from it rich cargoes were sent by way of Mexico to the mother country in -exchange for much cheaper goods. Before the close of the century, -however, a decline began, from which there was but little recovery under -Spanish rule. Several causes contributed to this, among them the waning -of the power of Spain, an exclusive commercial policy, dishonest -administration, hostilities with the Chinese, ravages of the Malay -pirates, and the growth of Dutch commerce. On several occasions the city -has been visited with destructive earthquakes; those of 1645 and 1863 -were especially disastrous. In 1762, during war between England and -Spain, an English force under Vice-Admiral Sir Samuel Cornish (d. 1770) -and Lieut.-General Sir William Draper (1721-1787) breached the walls and -captured the city, but by the Treaty of Paris (1763) it was returned to -Spain. In 1837 the port of Manila was opened to foreign trade, and there -was a steady but slow increase in prosperity up to about 1890. During -this period, however, progress was hampered by vested interests, and the -spirit of rebellion among the natives became increasingly threatening. -About 1892 a large number of Filipinos in and near Manila formed a -secret association whose object was independence and separation from -Spain. In August 1896 members of this association began an attack; and -late in December the movement was reinforced as a result of the -execution in Manila of Dr Jose Rizal y Mercado (1861-1896), a Filipino -patriot. It spread to the provinces, and was only in part suppressed -when, in April 1898, the United States declared war against Spain. On -the 1st of May an American fleet under Commodore George Dewey destroyed -the Spanish fleet stationed in Manila Bay (see SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR). -The smouldering Filipino revolt then broke out afresh and an American -army under General Wesley Merritt (1836- ) was sent from San Francisco -to assist in capturing the city. The Spaniards, after making a rather -weak defence, surrendered it on the 13th of August 1898. Trouble now -arose between the Americans and the Filipinos under the leadership of -Emilio Aguinaldo, for the latter wished to establish a government of -their own. On the night of the 4th of February 1899 the Filipinos -attacked the American army which was defending the city, but were -repulsed after suffering a heavy loss. A military government, however, -was maintained in the city until August 1901. - - - - -MANILA HEMP, the most valuable of all fibres for cordage, the produce of -the leaf-stalks of _Musa textilis_, a native of the Philippine Islands. -The plant, called _abaca_ by the islanders, throws up a spurious stem -from its underground rootstocks, consisting of a cluster of sheathing -leaf-stalks, which rise to a height of from 15 to 25 ft. and spread out -into a crown of huge undivided leaves characteristic of the various -species of _Musa_ (plantain, banana, &c.). From 12 to 20 clusters are -developed on each rhizome. In its native regions the plant is rudely -cultivated solely as a source of fibre; it requires little attention, -and when about three years old develops flowers on a central stem, at -which stage it is in the most favourable condition for yielding fibre. -The stock is then cut down, and the sheathing stalks are torn asunder -and reduced to small strips. These strips in their fresh succulent -condition are drawn between a knife-edged instrument and a hard wooden -block to which it is fixed. The knife is kept in contact with the block -except when lifted to introduce the ribbons. Sufficient weight is -suspended to the end of the knife to keep back all pith when the -operator is drawing forward the ribbon between the block and knife. By -repeated scraping in this way the soft cellular matter which surrounds -the fibre is removed, and the fibre so cleaned has only to be hung up to -dry in the open air, when, without further treatment, it is ready for -use. Each stock yields, on an average, a little under 1 lb. of fibre; -and two natives cutting down plants and separating fibre will prepare -not more than 25 lb. per day. The fibre yielded by the outer layer of -leaf-stalks is hard, fully developed and strong, and used for cordage, -but the produce of the inner stalks is increasingly thin, fine and weak. -The finer fibre is used by the natives, without spinning or twisting -(the ends of the single fibres being knotted or gummed together), for -making exceedingly fine, light and transparent yet comparatively strong -textures, which they use as articles of dress and ornament. According to -Warden, "muslin and grass-cloth are made from the finest fibres of -Manila hemp, and some of them are so fine that a garment made of them -may, it is said, be enclosed in the hollow of the hand." In Europe, -especially in France, articles of clothing, such as shirts, veils, -neckerchiefs and women's hats, are made from _abaca_. It is also used -for matting and twines. It is of a light colour, very lustrous, and -possesses great strength, being thus exceptionally suitable for the best -class of ropes. It is extensively used for marine and other cordage. The -hemp exported for cordage purposes is a somewhat woody fibre, of a -bright brownish-white colour, and possessing great durability and -strain-resisting power. The strength of Manila hemp compared with -English hemp is indicated by the fact that a Manila rope 3(1/4) in. in -circumference and 2 fathoms long stood a strain of 4669 lb. before -giving way, while a similar rope of English hemp broke with 3885 lb. The -fibre contains a very considerable amount of adherent pectinous matter, -and in its so-called dry condition an unusually large proportion, as -much as 12% of water. In a damp atmosphere the fibre absorbs moisture so -freely that it has been found to contain not less than 40% of water, a -circumstance which dealers in the raw fibre should bear in mind. From -the old and disintegrated ropes is made the well-known manila paper. The -plant has been introduced into tropical lands--the West Indies, India, -Borneo, &c.--but only in the Philippines has the fibre been successfully -produced as an article of commerce. It is distributed throughout the -greater part of the Philippine Archipelago. The area of successful -cultivation lies approximately between 6 deg. and 15 deg. N. and 121 -deg. and 126 deg. E.; it may be successfully cultivated up to about 4000 -ft. above sea-level. The provinces, or islands, where cultivation is -most successful are those with a heavy and evenly distributed rainfall. -H. T. Edwards, fibre expert to the Philippine bureau of agriculture, -wrote in 1904:-- - - "The opportunities for increasing the production of _abaca_ in the - Philippines are almost unlimited. Enormous areas of good _abaca_ land - are as yet untouched, while the greater part of land already under - cultivation might yield a greatly increased product if more careful - attention were given to the various details of cultivation. The - introduction of irrigation will make possible the planting of _abaca_ - in many districts where it is now unknown. The _perfection_ of a - machine for the extraction of the fibre will increase the entire - output by nearly one-third, as this amount is now lost by the wasteful - hand-stripping process." - -Hitherto, while numerous attempts have been made to extract the fibre -with machinery, some obstacle has always prevented the general use of -the process. The exports have increased with great rapidity, as shown by -the following table:-- - - 1870 31,426 tons. - 1880 50,482 " - 1890 67,864 " - 1900 89,438 " - 1904 121,637 " - -In 1901 the value of the export was $14,453,410, or 62.3% of the total -exports from the Philippines. The fibre is now so valuable that Manila -hemp cordage is freely adulterated by manufacturers, chiefly by -admixture of phormium (New Zealand flax) and Russian hemp. - - - - -MANILIUS, a Roman poet, author of a poem in five books called -_Astronomica_. The author is neither quoted nor mentioned by any ancient -writer. Even his name is uncertain, but it was probably Marcus Manilius; -in the earlier MSS. the author is anonymous, the later give Manilius, -Manlius, Mallius. The poem itself implies that the writer lived under -Augustus or Tiberius, and that he was a citizen of and resident in Rome. -According to R. Bentley he was an Asiatic Greek; according to F. Jacob -an African. His work is one of great learning; he had studied his -subject in the best writers, and generally represents the most advanced -views of the ancients on astronomy (or rather astrology). He frequently -imitates Lucretius, whom he resembles in earnestness and originality and -in the power of enlivening the dry bones of his subject. Although his -diction presents some peculiarities, the style is metrically correct. -Firmicus, who wrote in the time of Constantine, exhibits so many points -of resemblance with the work of Manilius that he must either have used -him or have followed some work that Manilius also followed. As Firmicus -says that hardly any Roman except Caesar, Cicero and Fronto had treated -the subject, it is probable that he did not know the work of Manilius. -The latest event referred to in the poem (i. 898) is the great defeat of -Varus by Arminius in the Teutoburgiensis Saltus (A.D. 9). The fifth book -was not written till the reign of Tiberius; the work appears to be -incomplete, and was probably never published. - - See editions by J. Scaliger (1579); R. Bentley (1739); F. Jacob - (1846); A. G. Pingre (1786); and T. Breiter (Leipzig, 1907; and - commentary 1909); of book i. by A. E. Housman (1903). On the subject - generally see M. Bechert, _De emendandi Manilii Ratione_ (1878) and - _De M. M. Astronomicorum Poeta_ (1891); B. Freier, _De M. Astronom. - Aetate_ (1880); A. Cramer, _De Manilii Elocutione_ (very full; 1882); - G. Lanson, _De Manilio Poeta_, with select bibliog. (1887); P. - Monceaux, _Les Africains_ (a study of the Latin literature of Africa; - 1894); R. Ellis, _Noctes Manilianae_ (1891); J. P. Postgate, _Silva - Maniliana_ (1897), chiefly on textual questions; P. Thomas, - _Lucubrationes Manilianae_ (1888), a collation of the Gemblacensis - (Gembloux) MS.; F. Plessis, _La Poesie latine_ (1909), pp. 477-483. - - - - -MANILIUS, GAIUS, Roman tribune of the people in 66 B.C. At the beginning -of his year of office (Dec. 67) he succeeded in getting a law passed -(_de libertinorum suffragiis_), which gave freedmen the privilege of -voting together with those who had manumitted them, that is, in the same -tribe as their patroni; this law, however, was almost immediately -declared null and void by the senate. Both parties in the state were -offended by the law, and Manilius endeavoured to secure the support of -Pompey by proposing to confer upon him the command of the war against -Mithradates with unlimited power (see POMPEY). The proposal was -supported by Cicero in his speech, _Pro lege Manilia_, and carried -almost unanimously. Manilius was later accused by the aristocratical -party on some unknown charge and defended by Cicero. He was probably -convicted, but nothing further is heard of him. - - See Cicero's speech; Dio Cassius xxxvi. 25-27; Plutarch, _Pompey_, 30; - Vell. Pat. ii. 33; art. ROME: _History_, S II. - - - - -MANIN, DANIELE (1804-1857), Venetian patriot and statesman, was born in -Venice, on the 13th of May 1804. He was the son of a converted Jew, who -took the name of Manin because that patrician family stood sponsors to -him, as the custom then was. He studied law at Padua, and then practised -at the bar of his native city. A man of great learning and a profound -jurist, he was inspired from an early age with a deep hatred for -Austria. The heroic but foolhardy attempt of the brothers Bandiera, -Venetians who had served in the Austrian navy against the Neapolitan -Bourbons in 1844, was the first event to cause an awakening of Venetian -patriotism, and in 1847 Manin presented a petition to the Venetian -congregation, a shadowy consultative assembly tolerated by Austria but -without any power, informing the emperor of the wants of the nation. He -was arrested on a charge of high treason (Jan. 18, 1848), but this only -served to increase the agitation of the Venetians, who were beginning to -know and love Manin. Two months later, when all Italy and half the rest -of Europe were in the throes of revolution, the people forced Count -Palffy, the Austrian governor, to release him (March 17). The Austrians -soon lost all control of the city, the arsenal was seized by the -revolutionists, and under the direction of Manin a civic guard and a -provisional government were instituted. The Austrians evacuated Venice -on the 26th of March, and Manin became president of the Venetian -republic. He was already in favour of Italian unity, and though not -anxious for annexation to Piedmont (he would have preferred to invoke -French aid), he gave way to the will of the majority, and resigned his -powers to the Piedmontese commissioners on the 7th of August. But after -the Piedmontese defeats in Lombardy, and the armistice by which King -Charles Albert abandoned Lombardy and Venetia to Austria, the Venetians -attempted to lynch the royal commissioners, whose lives Manin saved with -difficulty; an assembly was summoned, and a triumvirate formed with -Manin at its head. Towards the end of 1848 the Austrians, having been -heavily reinforced, reoccupied all the Venetian mainland; but the -citizens, hard-pressed and threatened with a siege, showed the greatest -devotion to the cause of freedom, all sharing in the dangers and -hardships and all giving what they could afford to the state treasury. -Early in 1849 Manin was again chosen president of the republic, and -conducted the defence of the city with great ability. After the defeat -of Charles Albert's forlorn hope at Novara in March the Venetian -assembly voted "Resistance at all costs!" and granted Manin unlimited -powers. Meanwhile the Austrian forces closed round the city; but Manin -showed an astonishing power of organization, in which he was ably -seconded by the Neapolitan general, Guglielmo Pepe. But on the 26th of -May the Venetians were forced to abandon Fort Malghera, half-way between -the city and the mainland; food was becoming scarce, on the 19th of June -the powder magazine blew up, and in July cholera broke out. Then the -Austrian batteries began to bombard Venice itself, and when the -Sardinian fleet withdrew from the Adriatic the city was also attacked by -sea, while certain demagogues caused internal trouble. At last, on the -24th of August 1849, when all provisions and ammunition were exhausted, -Manin, who had courted death in vain, succeeded in negotiating an -honourable capitulation, on terms of amnesty to all save Manin himself, -Pepe and some others, who were to go into exile. On the 27th Manin left -Venice for ever on board a French ship. His wife died at Marseilles, and -he himself reached Paris broken in health and almost destitute, having -spent all his fortune for Venice. In Paris he maintained himself by -teaching and became a leader among the Italian exiles. There he became a -convert from republicanism to monarchism, being convinced that only -under the auspices of King Victor Emmanuel could Italy be freed, and -together with Giorgio Pallavicini and Giuseppe La Farina he founded the -_Societa Nazionale Italiana_ with the object of propagating the idea of -unity under the Piedmontese monarchy. His last years were embittered by -the terrible sufferings of his daughter, who died in 1854, and he -himself died on the 22nd of September 1857, and was buried in Ary -Scheffer's family tomb. In 1868, two years after the Austrians finally -departed from Venice, his remains were brought to his native city and -honoured with a public funeral. Manin was a man of the greatest honesty, -and possessed genuinely statesmanlike qualities. He believed in Italian -unity when most men, even Cavour, regarded it as a vain thing, and his -work of propaganda by means of the National Society greatly contributed -to the success of the cause. - - See A. Errera, _Vita di D. Manin_ (Venice, 1872); P. de la Farge, - _Documents, &c., de D. Manin_ (Paris, 1860); Henri Martin, _D. Manin_ - (Paris, 1859); V. Marchesi, _Settant' anni della storia di Venezia_ - (Turin) and an excellent monograph in Countess Martinengo Cesaresco's - _Italian Characters_ (London, 1901). - - - - -MANING, FREDERICK EDWARD (1812-1883), New Zealand judge and author, son -of Frederick Maning, of Johnville, county Dublin, was born on the 5th of -July 1812. His father emigrated to Tasmania in the ship "Ardent" in 1824 -and took up a grant of land there. Young Maning served in the fatuous -expedition which attempted to drive in the Tasmanian blacks by sweeping -with an unbroken line of armed men across the island. Soon afterwards he -decided to try the life of a trader among the wild tribes of New -Zealand, and, landing in the beautiful inlet of Hokianga in 1833, took -up his abode among the Ngapuhi. With them the tall Irish lad--he stood 6 -ft. 3 in.--full of daring and good-humour and as fond of fun as of -fighting, quickly became a prime favourite, was adopted into the tribe, -married a chief's daughter, and became a "Pakeha-Maori" (foreigner -turned Maori). With the profits of his trading he bought a farm of 200 -acres on the Hokianga, for which, unlike most white adventurers of the -time, he paid full value. When New Zealand was peacefully annexed in -1840, Maning's advice to the Maori was against the arrangement, but from -the moment of annexation he became a loyal friend to the government, and -in the wars of 1845-46 his influence was exerted with effect in the -settlers' favour. Again, in 1860, he persuaded the Ngapuhi to volunteer -to put down the insurrection in Taranaki. Finally, at the end of 1865, -he entered the public service as a judge of the native lands court, -where his unequalled knowledge of the Maori language, customs, -traditions and prejudices was of solid value. In this office he served -until 1881, when ill-health drove him to resign, and two years later to -seek surgical aid in London, where, however, he died of cancer on the -25th of July 1883. At his wish, his body was taken back to New Zealand -and buried there. A bust of him is placed in the public library at -Auckland. Maning is chiefly remembered as the author of two short books, -_Old New Zealand and History of the War in the North of New Zealand -against the Chief Heke_. Both books were reprinted in London in 1876 and -1884, with an introduction by the earl of Pembroke. - - - - -MANIPLE (Lat. _manipulus_, from _manus_, hand, and _plere_, to fill), a -liturgical vestment of the Catholic Church, proper to all orders from -the subdeacon upwards. It is a narrow strip of material, silk or -half-silk, about a yard long, worn on the left fore-arm in such a way -that the ends hang down to an equal length on either side. In order to -secure it, it is sometimes tied on with strings attached underneath, -sometimes provided with a hole in the lining through which the arm is -passed. It is ornamented with three crosses, one in the centre and one -at each end, that in the centre being obligatory, and is often -elaborately embroidered. It is the special ensign of the office of -subdeacon, and at the ordination is placed on the arm of the new -subdeacon by the bishop with the words: "Take the maniple, the symbol of -the fruit of good works."[1] It is strictly a "mass vestment," being -worn, with certain exceptions (e.g. by a subdeacon singing the Gospel at -the service of blessing the palms), only at Mass, by the celebrant and -the ministers assisting. - -The most common name for the maniple up to the beginning of the 11th -century in the Latin Church was _mappula_ (dim. of _mappa_, cloth), the -Roman name for the vestment until the time of Innocent III. The -designation _manipulus_ did not come into general use until the 15th -century. Father Braun (_Liturg. Gewandung_, p. 517) gives other early -medieval names: _sudanum_, _fano_, _mantile_, all of them meaning -"cloth" or "handkerchief." He traces the vestment ultimately to a white -linen cloth of ceremony (_pallium linostinum_) worn in the 4th century -by the Roman clergy over the left arm, and peculiar at that time to -them. Its ultimate origin is obscure, but is probably traceable to some -ceremonial handkerchiefs commonly carried by Roman dignitaries, e.g. -those with which the magistrates were wont to signal the opening of the -games of the circus. As late as the 9th century, indeed, the maniple was -still a handkerchief, held folded in the left hand. By what process it -became changed into a narrow strip is not known; the earliest extant -specimen of the band-like maniple is that found in the grave of St -Cuthbert (9th century); by the 11th century (except in the case of -subdeacons, whose maniples would seem to have continued for a while to -be cloths in practical use) the maniple had universally assumed its -present general form and purely ceremonial character. - -The maniple was originally carried in the left hand. In pictures of the -9th, 10th and 11th centuries it is represented as either so carried or -as hung over the left fore-arm. By the 12th century the rule according -to which it is worn over the left arm had been universally accepted. -According to present usage the maniple is put on by priests after the -alb and girdle; by deacons and subdeacons after the dalmatic or tunicle; -by bishops at the altar after the _Confiteor_, except at masses for the -dead, when it is assumed before the stole.[2] - -In the East the maniple in its Western form is known only to the -Armenians, where it is peculiar to subdeacons. This vestment is not -derived from the Roman rite, but is properly a stole, which the -subdeacons used to carry in the left hand. It is now laid over the -subdeacon's left arm at ordination. The true equivalent of the maniple -(in the Greek and Armenian rites only) is not, as has been assumed, the -_epimanikion_, a sort of loose, embroidered cuff (see VESTMENTS), but -the _epigonation_. This is a square of silk, stiffened with cardboard, -surrounded by an embroidered border, and usually decorated in the -middle with a cross or a sword (the "sword of the Spirit," which it is -supposed to symbolize); sometimes, however, the space within the border -is embroidered with pictures. It is worn only by bishops and the higher -clergy, and derives its name from the fact that it hangs down over the -knee ([Greek: gony]). It is worn on the right side, under the -_phelonion_, but when the _sakkos_ is worn instead of the _phelonion_, -by metropolitans, &c., it is attached to this. The _epigonation_, like -the maniple, was originally a cloth held in the hand; a fact -sufficiently proved by the ancient name [Greek: egcheirion] ([Greek: -cheir], hand), which it retained until the 12th century. For -convenience' sake this cloth came to be suspended from the girdle on the -right side, and is thus represented in the earliest extant paintings -(see Braun, p. 552). The name _epigonation_, which appears in the latter -half of the 12th century, probably marks the date of the complete -conventionalizing of the original cloth into the present stiff -embroidered square; but the earliest representations of the vestment in -its actual form date from the 14th century, e.g. the mosaic of St -Athanasius in the chapel of St Zeno in St Mark's at Venice. - - See J. Braun, S. J., _Die liturgische Gewandung_ (Freiburg im - Breisgau, 1907), pp. 515-561. and the bibliography to VESTMENTS. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] According to Father Braun this custom cannot be traced earlier - than the 9th century. It forms no essential part of the ordination - ceremony (_Liturg. Gewandung_, p. 548). - - [2] For the evolution of these rules see Braun, _op. cit._ pp. 546 - seq. - - - - -MANIPUR, a native state on the north-east frontier of India, in -political subordination to the lieutenant-governor of Eastern Bengal and -Assam. Area, 8456 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 284,465. It is bounded on the N. -by the Naga country and the hills overlooking the Assam valley, on the -W. by Cachar district, on the E. by Upper Burma, and on the S. by the -Lushai hills. The state consists of a wide valley, estimated at about -650 sq. m., and a large surrounding tract of mountainous country. The -hill ranges generally run north and south, with occasional connecting -spurs and ridges of lower elevation between. Their greatest altitude is -in the north, where they reach to upwards of 8000 ft. above sea-level. -The principal geographical feature in the valley is the Logtak lake, an -irregular sheet of water of considerable size, but said to be yearly -growing smaller. The valley is watered by numerous rivers, the Barak -being the most important. The hills are densely clothed with tree jungle -and large forest timber. Some silk is produced and there are a few -primitive manufacturing industries, e.g. of pottery. Rice and forest -produce, however, are the principal exports. The road from Manipur to -the Assam-Bengal railway at Dimapur is the principal trade route. - -The kingdom of Manipur, or, as the Burmans call it, Kasse or Kathe, -first emerges from obscurity as a neighbour and ally of the Shan kingdom -of Pong, which had its capital at Mogaung. The valley appears to have -been originally occupied by several tribes which came from different -directions. Although their general facial characteristics are Mongolian, -there is a great diversity of feature among the Manipuris, some of them -showing a regularity approaching the Aryan type. In the valley the -people are chiefly Hindus, that religion being of recent introduction. -Their own name for themselves is Meithei, and their language is a branch -of the Kuki-Chin family, spoken by 273,000 persons in all India in 1901. -One of their peculiarities is the high position enjoyed by women, who -conduct most of the trade of the valley. They have a caste system of -their own, different from that of India, and chiefly founded on the -system of _lallup_, or forced labour, which has been abolished by the -British. Every male between the ages of seventeen and sixty was formerly -obliged to place his services at the disposal of the state for a certain -number of days each year, and to different classes of the people -different employments were assigned. About four hundred Mahommedan -families, descendants of settlers from Bengal, reside to the east of the -capital. The aboriginal hill-men belong to one of the two great -divisions of Nagas and Kukis, and are subdivided into innumerable clans -and sections with slight differences in language, customs or dress. The -state is noted for the excellence of its breed of ponies. The English -game of polo was introduced from Manipur, where it forms a great -national pastime. - -The first relations of the British with Manipur date from 1762, when the -raja solicited British aid to repel a Burmese invasion, and a treaty -was entered into. The force was recalled, and little communication -between the two countries took place until 1824, on the outbreak of the -first Burmese War. British assistance was again invoked by the raja, and -the Burmese were finally expelled from both the Assam and the Manipur -valleys. Disputed successions have always been a cause of trouble. The -raja, Chandra Kirtti Singh, died in 1886, and was succeeded by his -eldest son, Sur Chandra Singh, who appointed his next brother, Kula -Chandra Dhuya Singh, _jubraj_, or heir-apparent. In 1890 another -brother, the _senapati_, or commander-in-chief, Tikendrajit Singh, -dethroned the raja, and installed the _jubraj_ as regent, the ex-raja -retiring to Calcutta. In March 1891 the chief commissioner of Assam -(Quinton) marched to Manipur with 400 Gurkhas, in order to settle the -question of succession. His purpose was to recognize the new ruler, but -to remove the _senapati_. After some futile negotiations, Quinton sent -an ultimatum, requiring the surrender of the _senapati_, by the hands of -the political resident, F. Grimwood, but no result followed. An attempt -was then made to arrest the _senapati_, but after some sharp fighting, -in which Lieut. Brackenbury was killed, he escaped; and the Manipuris -then attacked the British residency with an overwhelming force. Quinton -was compelled to ask for a parley, and he, Colonel Skene, Grimwood, -Cossins and Lieut. Simpson, unarmed, went to the fort to negotiate. They -were all there treacherously murdered, and when the news arrived the -Gurkhas retreated to Cachar, Mrs Grimwood and the wounded being with -them. This led to a military expedition, which did not encounter much -resistance. The various columns, converging on Manipur, found it -deserted; and the regent, _senapati_, and others were captured during -May. After a formal trial the _senapati_ and one of the generals of the -rebellion were hanged and the regent was transported to the Andaman -Islands. But it was decided to preserve the existence of the state, and -a child of the ruling family, named Chura Chand, of the age of five, was -nominated raja. He was sent to be educated in the Mayo College at -Ajmere, and he afterwards served for two years in the imperial cadet -corps. Meanwhile the administration was conducted under British -supervision. The opportunity was seized for abolishing slavery and -unpaid forced labour, a land revenue of Rs. 2 per acre being substituted -in the valley and a house-tax in the hills. The boundaries of the state -were demarcated, disarmament was carried out, and the construction of -roads was pushed forward. In 1901 Manipur was visited by Lord Curzon, on -his way from Cachar to Burma. In May 1907 the government of the state -was handed over to Chura Chand, who was to be assisted by a council of -six Manipuris, with a member of the Indian civil service as -vice-president. At the same time it was announced that the government of -India would support the raja with all its powers and suppress summarily -all attempts to displace him. The revenue is L26,000. The capital is -Imphal, which is really an overgrown village; pop. (1901), 67,093. - - See Mrs Ethel St Clair Grimwood, _My Three Years in Manipur_ (1891); - _Manipur State Gazetteer_ (Calcutta, 1905); T. C. Hodson, _The - Meitheis_ (1908). - - - - -MANISA (anc. _Magnesia ad Sipylum_), the chief town of the Saru-khan -sanjak of the Aidin (Smyrna) vilayet of Asia Minor, situated in the -valley of the Gediz Chai (Hermus), at the foot of Mt Sipylus, and -connected by railway with Smyrna and Afium Kara-Hissar. Pop. about -35,000, half being Mussulman. Manisa is an important commercial centre, -and contains interesting buildings dating from the times of the Seljuk -and early Osmanli sultans, including mosques built by Murad II. and III. -and a Mevlevi _Tekke_ second only to that at Konia. It is the seat of a -flourishing American mission. In 1204 Manisa was occupied by John Ducas, -who when he became emperor made it the Byzantine seat of government. In -1305, after the inhabitants had massacred the Catalan garrison, Roger de -Flor besieged it unsuccessfully. In 1313 the town was taken by Saru Khan -and became the capital of the Turcoman emirate of that name. In 1398 it -submitted to the Osmanli sultan Bayezid I., and in 1402 was made a -treasure city by Timur. In 1419 it was the scene of the insurrection of -the liberal reformer, Bedr ed-Din, which was crushed by Prince Murad, -whose residence in the town as Murad II., after twice abdicating the -throne, is one of the most romantic stories in Turkish history. In the -17th century Manisa became the residence of the greatest of the Dere Bey -families, Kara Osman Oglu, Turcoman by origin, and possibly connected -with the former emirs of Sarukhan, which seems to have risen to power by -farming the taxes of a province which princes of the house of Othman had -often governed and regarded with especial affection. The _liva_ of -Sarukhan was one of the twenty-two in the Ottoman Empire leased on a -life tenure up to the time of Mahmud II. In the 18th century the family -of Kara Osman Oglu (or Karasman) ruled _de facto_ all west central -Anatolia, one member being lord of Bergama and another of Aidin, while -the head of the house held Manisa with all the Hermus valley and had -greater power in Smyrna than the representative of the capitan pasha in -whose province that city nominally lay. Outside their own fiefs the -family had so much property that it was commonly said they could sleep -in a house of their own at any stage from Smyrna to Baghdad. The last of -its great beys was Haji Hussein Zade, who was frequently called in to -Smyrna on the petition of his friends, the European merchants, to assure -tranquillity in the troublous times consequent on Napoleon's invasion of -Egypt, and the British and Russian attacks on the Porte early in the -19th century. He always acquitted himself well, but having refused to -bring his contingent to the grand vizier when on the march to Egypt in -1798, and awakened the jealousy of the capitan pasha, he was in -continual danger. Exiled in 1812, he was subsequently restored to -Manisa, and died there in 1821. His son succeeded after sanguinary -tumults; but Mahmud II., who had long marked the family for destruction, -was so hostile towards it, after he had got rid of the janissaries, that -it had lost all but the shadow of power by 1830. Descendants survived in -Manisa who retained a special right of granting title-deeds within the -district, independent of the local administration. (D. G. H.) - - - - -MANISTEE, a city and the county-seat of Manistee county, Michigan, -U.S.A., on the Manistee river (which here broadens into a small lake) -near its entrance into Lake Michigan, about 114 m. W.N.W. of Grand -Rapids. Pop. (1890), 12,812; (1900), 14,260 (4966 foreign-born); (1904, -state census), 12,708; (1910), 12,381. It is served by the Pere -Marquette, the Manistee & Grand Rapids, the Manistee & North-Eastern, -and the Manistee & Luther railways, and by steamboat lines to Chicago, -Milwaukee and other lake ports. The channel between Lake Manistee and -Lake Michigan has been considerably improved since 1867 by the Federal -government. There is a United States life-saving station at the harbour -entrance. The city has a county normal school, a school for the deaf and -dumb, a domestic science and manual training school, a business college, -and a Carnegie library. Manistee is a summer resort, with good trout -streams and well-known brine-baths. One mile from the city limits, on -Lake Michigan, is Orchard Beach, a bathing resort, connected with the -city by electric railway; and about 9 m. north of Manistee is Portage -Lake (about 2 m. long and 1 m. wide), a fishing resort and harbour of -refuge (with a good channel from Lake Michigan), connected with the city -by steamboat and railway. Manistee has large lumber interests, is the -centre of an extensive fruit-growing region, and has various -manufactures, including lumber and salt.[1] The total value of the -factory product in 1904 was $3,256,601. The municipality owns and -operates its waterworks. Manistee (the name being taken from a former -Ottawa Indian village, probably on Little Traverse Bay, Mich.) was -settled about 1849, and was chartered as a city in 1869, the charter of -that year being revised in 1890. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] There is a very large salt block at Eastlake, 1 m. east of - Manistee, and Filer City, a few miles south-east, is another source - of supply. - - - - -MANITOBA, a lake of Manitoba province, Canada, situated between 50 deg. -11' and 51 deg. 48' N. and 97 deg. 56' and 99 deg. 35' W. It has an area -of 1711 sq. m., a length of shore line of 535 m., and is at an altitude -of 810 ft. above the sea. It has a total length of 119 m., a maximum -width of 29 m., discharge of 14,833 cub. ft. per second, and has an -average depth of 12 ft. Its shores are low, and for the most part -swampy. The Waterhen river, which carries the discharge of Lake -Winnipegosis, is the only considerable stream entering the lake. It is -drained by the Little Saskatchewan river into Lake Winnipeg. It was -discovered by De la Verendrye in 1739. - - - - -MANITOBA, one of the western provinces of the Dominion of Canada, -situated midway between the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts of the -Dominion, about 1090 m. due west of Quebec. It is bounded S. by the -parallel 49 deg. N., which divides it from the United States; W. by 101 -deg. 20' W.; N. by 52 deg. 50' N.; and E. by the western boundary of -Ontario. Manitoba formerly belonged to the Hudson's Bay Company, and -after the transfer of its territory to Canada was admitted in 1870 as -the fifth province of the Dominion. At that time the infant province had -an area of 13,500 sq. m., and some 12,000 people, chiefly Indian -half-breeds. In 1881 the limits were increased as above, and the -province now contains upwards of 73,956 sq. m., extending 264 m. from -north to south and upwards of 300 from east to west. The old district of -Assiniboia, the result of the efforts in colonization by the earl of -Selkirk in 1811 and succeeding years, was the nucleus of the province. - -The name Manitoba sprang from the union of two Indian words, _Manito_ -(the Great Spirit), and _Waba_ (the "narrows" of the lake, which may -readily be seen on the map). This well-known strait was a sacred place -to the Crees and Saulteaux, who, impressed by the weird sound made by -the wind as it rushed through the narrows, as simple children of the -prairies called them _Manito-Waba_, or the "Great Spirit's narrows." The -name, arising from this unusual sound, has been by metonymy translated -into "God's Voice." The word was afterwards contracted into its present -form. As there is no accent in Indian words, the natural pronunciation -of this name would be Man-i-to-ba. On this account, the custom of both -the French and English people of the country was for years before and -for several years after 1870 to pronounce it Man-i-to-ba, and even in -some cases to spell it "Manitobah." After the formation of the province -and the familiar use of the provincial name in the Dominion parliament, -where it has occupied much attention for a generation, the pronunciation -has changed, so that the province is universally known from ocean to -ocean as Man-i-to-ba. - - _Physical Features._--The drainage of Manitoba is entirely - north-eastward to Hudson Bay. The three lakes--whose greatest lengths - are 260,122 and 119 m. respectively--are Winnipeg, Winnipegosis and - Manitoba. They are all of irregular shape, but average respectively - 30, 18 and 10 m. in width. They are fresh, shallow and tideless. - Winnipegosis and Manitoba at high water, in spring-time, discharge - their overflow through small streams into Winnipeg. The chief rivers - emptying into Lake Winnipeg are the Winnipeg, the Red and the - Saskatchewan. The Assiniboine river enters the Red river 45 m. from - Lake Winnipeg, and at the confluence of the rivers ("The Forks") is - situated the city of Winnipeg. The Winnipeg, which flows from the - territory lying south-east of Lake Winnipeg, is a noble river some 200 - m. long, which after leaving Lake of the Woods dashes with its clear - water over many cascades, and traverses very beautiful scenery. At its - falls from Lake of the Woods is one of the greatest and most easily - utilized water-powers in the world, and from falls lower down the - river electric power for the city of Winnipeg is obtained. The Red - river is at intervals subject to freshets. In a century's experience - of the Selkirk colonists there have been four "floods." The highest - level of the site of the city of Winnipeg is said to have been under 5 - ft. of water for several weeks in May and June in 1826, and 2(1/2) ft. - in 1852, not covered in 1861; only the lowest levels were under water - in 1882. The extent of overflow has thus on each occasion been less. - The loose soil on the banks of the river is every year carried away in - great masses, and the channel has so widened as to render the - recurrence of an overflow unlikely. The Saskatchewan, though not in - the province, empties into Lake Winnipeg less than half a degree from - the northern boundary. It is a mighty river, rising in the Rocky - Mountains, and crossing eighteen degrees of longitude. Near its mouth - are the Grand Rapids. Above these steamers ply to Fort Edmonton, a - point upwards of 800 m. north-west of the city of Winnipeg. Steamers - run from Grand Rapids, through Lake Winnipeg, up Red river to the city - of Winnipeg, important locks having been constructed on the river at - St Andrews. - - The surface of Manitoba is somewhat level and monotonous. It is - chiefly a prairie region, with treeless plains of from 5 to 40 m. - extent, covered in summer with an exuberant vegetable growth, which - dies every year. The river banks, however, are fringed with trees, and - in the more undulating lands the timber belts vary from a few hundreds - of yards to 5 or 10 m. in width, forming at times forests of no - inconsiderable size. The chief trees of the country are the aspen - (_Populus tremuloides_), the ash-leaved maple (_Negundo aceroides_), - oak (_Quercus alba_), elm (_Ulmus Americana_), and many varieties of - willow. The strawberry, raspberry, currant, plum, cherry and grape are - indigenous. - - [Illustration: Map of Manitoba.] - - _Climate._--The climate of Manitoba, being that of a region of wide - extent and of similar conditions, is not subject to frequent - variations. Winter, with cold but clear and bracing weather, usually - sets in about the middle of November, and ends with March. In April - and May the rivers have opened, the snow has disappeared, and the - opportunity has been afforded the farmer of sowing his grain. June is - often wet, but most favourable for the springing crops; July and - August are warm, but, excepting two or three days at a time, not - uncomfortably so; while the autumn weeks of late August and September - are very pleasant. Harvest generally extends from the middle of August - to near the end of September. The chief crops of the farmer are wheat - (which from its flinty hardness and full kernel is the specialty of - the Canadian north-west), oats, barley and pease. Hay is made of the - native prairie grasses, which grow luxuriantly. From the richness and - mellowness of the soil potatoes and all taproots reach a great size. - Heavy dews in summer give the needed moisture after the rains of June - have ceased. The traveller and farmer are at times annoyed by the - mosquito. - -_Area and Population._--The area is 73,956 sq. m., of which 64,066 are -land and 9890 water. Pop. (1871), 18,995; (1881), 62,260; (1891), -152,506; (1901), 254,947 (138,332 males, 116,615 females); (1906), -365,688 (205,183 males and 160,505 females). The principal cities and -towns are: Winnipeg (90,153), Brandon (10,408), Portage la Prairie -(5106), St Boniface (5119), West Selkirk (2701), and Morden (1437). In -1901, 49,102 families inhabited 48,415 houses, and the proportion of the -urban population to the rural was 27.5 to 72.5. Classified according to -place of birth, the principal nationalities were as follows in 1901: -Canada, 180,853; England, 20,392; Scotland, 8099; Ireland, 4537; other -British possessions, 490; Germany, 2291; Iceland, 5403; Austria, 11,570; -Russia and Poland, 8854; Scandinavia, 1772; United States, 6922; other -countries, 4028. In 1901 the Indians numbered 5827; half-breeds, 10,372. -Of the Indian half-breeds, one half are of English-speaking parentage, -and chiefly of Orkney origin; the remainder are known as Metis or -Bois-brules, and are descended from French-Canadian voyageurs. In 1875 a -number of Russian Mennonites (descendants of the Anabaptists of the -Reformation) came to the country. They originally emigrated from -Germany to the plains of southern Russia, but came over to Manitoba to -escape the conscription. They number upwards of 15,000. About 4000 -French Canadians, who had emigrated from Quebec to the United States, -have also made the province their home, as well as Icelanders now -numbering 20,000. During the decade ending 1907 large reserves were -settled with Ruthenians often known as Galicians, Poles and other -peoples from central and northern Europe. Some 30,000 of these are found -in the province. The remainder of the population is chiefly made up of -English-speaking people from the other provinces of the Dominion, from -the United States, from England and Scotland and the north of Ireland. - -_Religion._--Classified according to religion, the various denominations -were, in 1901, as follows: Presbyterians, 65,310; Episcopalians, 44,874; -Methodists, 49,909; Roman Catholics, 35,622; Baptists, 9098; Lutherans, -16,473; Mennonites, 15,222; Greek Catholics, 7898; other denominations, -9903; not specified, 638. - -_Government._--The province is under a lieutenant-governor, appointed -for a term of five years, with an executive council of six members, -responsible to the local legislature, which consists of forty-two -members. It has four members in the Canadian Senate and ten in the House -of Commons. - -_Education._--The dual system of education, established in 1871, was -abolished in 1890, and the administrative machinery consolidated under a -minister of the Crown and an advisory board. This act was amended in -1897 to meet the wishes of the Roman Catholic minority, but separate -schools were not re-established; nor was the council divided into -denominational committees. There are collegiate institutes for more -advanced education at Winnipeg, Brandon and Portage la Prairie, with a -total of 1094 pupils enrolled. There is also a normal school at Winnipeg -for the training of teachers. Higher education is represented by the -provincial university, which teaches science and mathematics, holds -examinations, distributes scholarships, and grants degrees in all -subjects. It has affiliated to it colleges of the Roman Catholic, -Episcopalian, Presbyterian and Methodist denominations, with medical and -pharmaceutical colleges. The arts colleges of the churches carry on the -several courses required by the university, and send their students to -the examinations of the university. A well-equipped agricultural college -near Winnipeg is provided for sons and daughters of farmers. - -_Agriculture_ is the prevailing industry of Manitoba. Dairy-farming is -rapidly increasing in importance, and creameries for the manufacture of -butter and cheese are established in almost all parts of the province. -Large numbers of horses, cattle, swine and poultry are reared. The -growth of cereals is the largest department of agriculture followed. - - The following statistics are interesting:-- - - +-------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ - | | 1883. | 1890. | 1894. | 1901. | - +-------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ - | | Bushels. | Bushels. | Bushels. | Bushels. | - | Wheat | 5,686,355 | 14,665,769 | 17,172,883 | 50,502,085 | - | Oats | 9,478,965 | 9,513,443 | 11,907,854 | 27,796,588 | - | Barley | 1,898,430 | 2,069,415 | 2,981,716 | 6,536,155 | - | Flax | No statistics collected | 366,000 | 266,420 | - | Rye | " | " | 59,924 | 62,261 | - | Peas | " | " | 18,434 | 16,349 | - | Potatoes | " | " | 2,035,336 | 4,797,433 | - | Other roots | " | " | 1,841,942 | 2,925,362 | - +-------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ - - The enormous development of the wheat-growing industry is shown by - these and the following statistics:-- - - Wheat inspected in Winnipeg. - - 1902 51,833,000 bushels - 1903 40,396,650 " - 1904 39,784,900 " - 1905 55,849,840 " - 1906 66,636,390 " - - These figures do not include the wheat ground into flour and sent by - way of British Columbia to Asia and Australia, nor the wheat retained - by the farmers for seed. The Dominion government maintains an - experimental farm of 670 acres at Brandon. The fisheries are all - fresh-water, principally white-fish, pickerel and pike. Large - quantities of fresh fish caught in lakes Winnipeg and Manitoba are - exported to all parts of the United States. - - _Communications._--The region of the Red River and Assiniboine valleys - was opened up by the fur traders, who came by the waterways from Lake - Superior, and afterwards by the water communication with Hudson Bay. - While these early traders used the canoe and the York boat,[1] yet the - steamboat played an important part in the early history of the region - from 1868 till 1885, when access from the United States was gained by - steamers down the Red River. The completion of the St Andrew's Rapids - canal on Red River, and the Grand Rapids canal on the Saskatchewan - river will again give an impetus to inland navigation on the - tributaries of Lake Winnipeg. Lake Manitoba also affords opportunity - for inland shipping. - - The broad expanse of prairie-land in the western provinces of Canada - is well suited for the cheap and expeditious building of railways. The - first connexion with the United States was by two railways coming down - the Red River valley. But the desire for Canadian unity led the - Dominion to assist a transcontinental line connecting Manitoba with - eastern Canada. The building of the Canadian Pacific railway through - almost continuous rocks for 800 miles was one of the greatest - engineering feats of modern times. Immediately on the formation of the - Canadian Pacific railway company branch lines were begun at Winnipeg - and there are eight radial lines running from this centre to all parts - of the country. Winnipeg is thus connected with Montreal on the east, - and Vancouver on the west, and is the central point of the Canadian - Pacific system, having railway yards and equipment equalled by few - places in America. In opposition to the Canadian Pacific railway a - southern line was built from Winnipeg to the American boundary. This - fell into the hands of the Northern Pacific railway, but was purchased - by the promoters of the Canadian Northern railway. This railway has - six radiating lines leaving the city of Winnipeg, and its main line - connects Port Arthur on Lake Superior with Edmonton in the west. The - Canadian Northern railway has a remarkable network of railways - connecting Winnipeg with every corner of Manitoba. The Great Northern - railway has also three branch lines in Manitoba and one of these has - Winnipeg as its terminus. The grand Trunk Pacific railway, the great - transcontinental line promoted by the Laurier government, passes - through Manitoba north of the Canadian Pacific, coming from the east - deflects southward to pass through Winnipeg, and then strikes - northward in a direct line of easy gradients to find its way through - the Rocky Mountains to its terminus of Prince Rupert on the north - coast of British Columbia. - -_History._--The first white settlement in Manitoba was made by Pierre -Gaultier de Varennes, Sieur de la Verendrye (d. 1749), who, gradually -pushing westward from Lake Superior, reached Lake Winnipeg in 1733, and -in the following year built a fort not far from the present Fort -Alexander. In October 1738 he built another at Fort Rouge, at the -junction of the Red and Assiniboine rivers, where is now the city of -Winnipeg. After the British conquest of 1763 the west became the scene -of a rapidly increasing fur trade, and for many years there was keen -rivalry between the Hudson's Bay Company, with its headquarters in -England, and the North-West Company of Montreal. French and Scottish -farmers and fur-traders gradually settled along the Red River, and by -their frequent marriages with the Indians produced a race of metis or -half-breeds. From 1811 to 1818 Lord Selkirk's attempted colonization -greatly increased the population; from the time of his failure till 1869 -the settlers lived quietly under the mild rule of the Hudson's Bay -Company. In that year the newly formed Dominion of Canada bought from -the company its territorial and political rights. A too hasty occupation -by Canadian officials and settlers led to the rebellion of the Metis -under Louis Riel, a native leader. The rebellion was quieted and Sir -Garnet Wolseley (now Lord Wolseley) was sent from Canada by the lake -route, with several regiments of troops--regulars and volunteers. The -Manitoba Act constituting the province was passed by the Canadian -parliament in 1870. (See RED RIVER SETTLEMENT; and RIEL, LOUIS.) - -The admixture of races and religions, and its position as the key to the -great West, have ever since made Manitoba the storm centre of Canadian -politics. In the charter granted by the Canadian parliament to the -Canadian Pacific railway a clause giving it for twenty years control -over the railway construction of the province led to a fierce agitation, -till the clause was repealed in 1888. Till 1884 an equally fierce -agitation was carried on against Ontario with regard to the eastern -boundary of Manitoba. (See ONTARIO.) In both these disputes the -provincial leader was the Hon. John Norquay, in whose veins ran a large -admixture of Indian blood. In 1890 changes in the school system -unfavourable to the Roman Catholic Church led to a constitutional -struggle, to which was due the defeat of the Federal ministry in 1896. -Since 1896 its rapid material progress has produced numerous economic -problems and disputes, many of which are still unsolved. - (G. Br.; W. L. G.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] A round-bottomed, strongly built boat, 30 to 36 ft. long, - propelled by 8 men. It was devised by the Hudson's Bay Company for - carrying freight, as a substitute for the less serviceable canoe, and - was named after their York factory, the centre to which the traders - brought down the furs for shipment to England and from which they - took back merchandise and supplies to the interior of Rupert's Land. - - - - -MANITOU or MANITO (Algonquian Indian, "mystery," "supernatural"), among -certain American Indian tribes, a spirit or genius of good or evil. The -manitou is almost always an animal, each individual having one assigned -him, generally by dream-inspiration, at the greatest religious act of -his life--his first fast. This animal then becomes his fetish; its skin -is carried as a charm, and representations of it are tattooed and -painted on the body or engraved on the weapons. - - - - -MANITOWOC (Indian, "Spirit-land"), a city and the county-seat of -Manitowoc county, Wisconsin, on the W. shore of Lake Michigan, 75 m. N. -of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890), 7710; (1900), 11,786, of whom 2998 were -foreign-born; (1910 census), 13,027. It is served by the Chicago & -North-Western, and the Wisconsin Central railways; by ferry across the -lake to Frankfort, Mich., and Ludington, Mich.; by the Ann Arbor and the -Pere Marquette railways; and by the Goodrich line of lake steamers. The -city is finely situated on high ground above the lake at the mouth of -the Manitowoc river. At Manitowoc are the county insane asylum and a -Polish orphan asylum. The city has a training school for county -teachers, a business college, two hospitals and a Carnegie library. -There are ship-yards for the construction of both steel and wooden -vessels, and several grain elevators. The value of the factory products -increased from $1,935,442 in 1900 to $4,427,816 in 1905, or 128.8 per -cent.--a greater increase than that of any other city in the state -during this period. There is a good harbour, and the city has a -considerable lake commerce in grain, flour, and dairy products. Jacques -Vieau established here a post for the North-west Company of fur traders -in 1795. The first permanent settlement was made about 1836, and -Manitowoc was chartered as a city in 1870. In Manitowoc county, 18 m. -south-west of the city of Manitowoc, is St Nazianz, an unorganized -village near which in 1854 a colony or community of German Roman -Catholics was established under the leadership of Father Ambrose Oswald, -the primary object being to enable poor people by combination and -co-operation to supply themselves with the comforts of life at minimum -expense and have as much time as possible left for religious thought and -worship. The title of the colony's land was vested in Father Oswald -after the panic of 1857 until his death in 1874, when he devised the -lands to "the colony founded by me." The colony had no legal existence -at the time, but was then incorporated as the "Roman Catholic Religious -Society of St Nazianz," and as such sued successfully for the bequest. -Financially the colony was successful, but as there were some desertions -and no new recruits after Father Oswald's death, there were few members -by 1909. There are no longer any traces of communism, and the colony's -property is actually held by an organization of the local Roman Catholic -church. - - - - -MANIZALES, a city of Colombia and capital of the department of Caldas -(up to 1905 the northern part of Antioquia), 75 m. S. of Medellin, on -the old trade route across the Cordillera between Honda, on the -Magdalena, and the Cauca Valley. Pop. (1906, estimate), 20,000. The city -is situated on a plateau of the western slope of the Cordillera, 6988 -ft. above the sea. It is surrounded by rich mineral and agricultural -districts. - - - - -MANKATO, a city and the county-seat of Blue Earth county, Minnesota, -U.S.A., at the southern bend of the Minnesota river, where it is joined -by the Blue Earth about 86 m. S.W. of Minneapolis. Pop. (1890), 8838; -(1900), 10,599, of whom 2578 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 10,365. -Mankato is served by the Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha, the -Chicago & North-Western (both "North-Western Lines"), the Chicago, -Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Chicago Great-Western railways. The city -has two fine parks, a Carnegie library, a Federal building, the Immanuel -and St Joseph hospitals, two commercial colleges, and a state normal -school (1868). The numerous lakes in the neighbourhood, particularly -Lake Madison and Lake Washington, are widely known as summer resorts. -Four miles west of the city is Minneopa state park (area, 60 acres), in -which are Minneopa Falls (60 ft.) and a fine gorge; the park was -established by the state in 1905-1906. Mankato has an extensive trade in -dairy and agricultural products (especially grain), stone (a pinkish -buff limestone is quarried in the vicinity), and forest products. The -value of its factory products increased from $1,887,315 in 1900 to -$3,422,117 in 1905, or 81.3%. - -Mankato was settled about 1853, and was first chartered as a city in -1868. On or near the site of the city stood a village of the Mankato -("blue earth") band of the Mdewakanton Sioux, who derived their name -from one of their chiefs, "Old Mankato." In this region occurred the -Sioux uprising of 1862, and from this point operations were carried on -which eventually resulted in the subjugation of the Indians and the -hanging, at Mankato, in December 1862, of 38 leaders of the revolt. In -the uprising the Mankato band was led by another chief named Mankato, -who took part in the attack on Ft Ridgeley, Minn., in August, in the -engagement on the 3rd of September at Birch Coolie, Minn., and in that -on the 23rd of September at Wood Lake, where he was killed. - - - - -MANLEY, MARY DE LA RIVIERE (c. 1663-1724), English writer, daughter of -Sir Roger Manley, governor of the Channel Islands, was born on the 7th -of April 1663 in Jersey. She wrote her own biography under the title of -_The Adventures of Rivella, or the History of the Author of the -Atalantis_ by "Sir Charles Lovemore" (1714). According to her own -account she was left an orphan at the age of sixteen, and beguiled into -a mock marriage with a kinsman who deserted her basely three years -afterwards. She was patronized for a short time by the duchess of -Cleveland, and wrote an unsuccessful comedy, _The Lost Lover_ (1696); in -freedom of speech she equalled the most licentious writers of comedy in -that generation. Her tragedy, _The Royal Mischief_ (1696) was more -successful. From 1696 Mrs Manley was a favourite member of witty and -fashionable society. In 1705 appeared _The Secret History of Queen Zarah -and the Zarazians_, a satire on Sarah, duchess of Marlborough, in the -guise of romance. This was probably by Mrs Manley, who, four years -later, achieved her principal triumph as a writer by her _Secret Memoirs -... of Several Persons of Quality_ (1709), a scandalous chronicle "from -the New Atalantis, an island in the Mediterranean." She was arrested in -the autumn of 1709 as the author of a libellous publication, but was -discharged by the court of queen's bench on the 13th of February 1710. -Mrs Manley sought in this scandalous narrative to expose the private -vices of the ministers whom Swift, Bolingbroke and Harley combined to -drive from office. During the keen political campaign in 1711 she wrote -several pamphlets, and many numbers of the _Examiner_, criticizing -persons and policy with equal vivacity. Later were published her tragedy -_Lucius_ (1717); _The Power of Love, in Seven Novels_ (1720), and _A -Stage Coach Journey to Exeter_ (1725). - - - - -MANLIUS, the name of a Roman gens, chiefly patrician, but containing -plebeian families also. - -1. MARCUS MANLIUS CAPITOLINUS, a patrician, consul 392 B.C. According to -tradition, when in 390 B.C. the besieging Gauls were attempting to scale -the Capitol, he was roused by the cackling of the sacred geese, rushed -to the spot and threw down the foremost assailants (Livy v. 47; -Plutarch, _Camillus_, 27). Several years after, seeing a centurion led -to prison for debt, he freed him with his own money, and even sold his -estate to relieve other poor debtors, while he accused the senate of -embezzling public money. He was charged with aspiring to kingly power, -and condemned by the comitia, but not until the assembly had adjourned -to a place without the walls, where they could no longer see the Capitol -which he had saved. His house on the Capitol (the origin of his surname) -was razed, and the Manlii resolved that henceforth no patrician Manlius -should bear the name of Marcus. According to Mommsen, the story of the -saving of the Capitol was a later invention to explain his surname, and -his attempt to relieve the debtors a fiction of the times of Cinna. - - Livy vi. 14-20; Plutarch, _Camillus_, 36; Cicero, _De domo_, 38. - -2. TITUS MANLIUS IMPERIOSUS TORQUATUS, twice dictator (353, 349 B.C.) -and three times consul (347, 344, 340). When his father, L. Manlius -Imperiosus (dictator 363), was brought to trial by the tribune M. -Pomponius for abusing his office of dictator, he forced Pomponius to -drop the accusation by threatening his life (Livy vii. 3-5). In 360, -during a war with the Gauls, he slew one of the enemy, a man of gigantic -stature, in single combat, and took from him a torques (neck-ornament), -whence his surname. When the Latins demanded an equal share in the -government of the confederacy, Manlius vowed to kill with his own hand -the first Latin he saw in the senate-house. The Latins and Campanians -revolted, and Manlius, consul for the third time, marched into Campania -and gained two great victories, near Vesuvius, where P. Decius Mus -(q.v.), his colleague, "devoted" himself in order to gain the day, and -at Trifanum. In this campaign Manlius executed his own son, who had -killed an enemy in single combat, and thus disobeyed the express command -of the consuls. - - Livy vii. 4, 10, 27, viii. 3; Cicero, _De off._ iii. 31. - -3. TITUS MANLIUS TORQUATUS, consul 235 B.C. and 224, censor 231, -dictator 208. In his first consulship he subjugated Sardinia, recently -acquired from the Carthaginians, when the temple of Janus was shut for -the second time in Roman history (Livy i. 19). In 216 he opposed the -ransoming of the Romans taken prisoners at Cannae; and in 215 he was -sent to Sardinia and defeated a Carthaginian attempt to regain -possession of the island. - - Livy xxiii. 34; Polybius ii. 31. - -4. GNAEUS MANLIUS VULSO, praetor 195, consul 189. He was sent to Asia to -conclude peace with Antiochus III., king of Syria. He marched into -Pamphylia, defeated the Celts of Galatia on Mt Olympus and drove them -back across the Halys. In the winter, assisted by ten delegates sent -from Rome, he settled the terms of peace with Antiochus, and in 187 -received the honour of a triumph. - - Polybius xxii. 16-25; Livy xxxviii. 12-28, 37-50; xxxix. 6. - - - - -MANN, HORACE (1796-1859), American educationist, was born in Franklin, -Massachusetts, on the 4th of May 1796. His childhood and youth were -passed in poverty, and his health was early impaired by hard manual -labour. His only means for gratifying his eager desire for books was the -small library founded in his native town by Benjamin Franklin and -consisting principally of histories and treatises on theology. At the -age of twenty he was fitted, in six months, for college, and in 1819, -graduated with highest honours, from the Brown University at Providence, -Rhode Island, having devoted himself so unremittingly to his studies as -to weaken further his naturally feeble constitution. He then studied law -for a short time at Wrentham, Massachusetts; was tutor in Latin and -Greek (1820-1822) and librarian (1821-1823) at Brown University; studied -during 1821-1823 in the famous law school conducted by Judge James Gould -at Litchfield, Connecticut; and in 1823 was admitted to the Norfolk -(Mass.) bar. For fourteen years, first at Dedham, Massachusetts, and -after 1833 at Boston, he devoted himself, with great success, to his -profession. Meanwhile he served, with conspicuous ability, in the -Massachusetts House of Representatives from 1827 to 1833 and in the -Massachusetts Senate from 1833 to 1837, for the last two years as -president. It was not until he became secretary (1837) of the newly -created board of education of Massachusetts, that he began the work -which was soon to place him in the foremost rank of American -educationists. He held this position till 1848, and worked with a -remarkable intensity--holding teachers' conventions, delivering numerous -lectures and addresses, carrying on an extensive correspondence, -introducing numerous reforms, planning and inaugurating the -Massachusetts normal school system, founding and editing _The Common -School Journal_ (1838), and preparing a series of _Annual Reports_, -which had a wide circulation and are still considered as being "among -the best expositions, if, indeed, they are not the very best ones, of -the practical benefits of a common school education both to the -individual and to the state" (Hinsdale). The practical result of his -work was the virtual revolutionizing of the common school system of -Massachusetts, and indirectly of the common school systems of other -states. In carrying out his work he met with bitter opposition, being -attacked particularly by certain school-masters of Boston who strongly -disapproved of his pedagogical theories and innovations, and by various -religious sectaries, who contended against the exclusion of all -sectarian instruction from the schools. He answered these attacks in -kind, sometimes perhaps with unnecessary vehemence and rancour, but he -never faltered in his work, and, an optimist by nature, a disciple of -his friend George Combe (q.v.), and a believer in the indefinite -improvability of mankind, he was sustained throughout by his conviction -that nothing could so much benefit the race, morally, intellectually and -materially, as education. Resigning the secretaryship in 1848, he was -elected to the national House of Representatives, as an anti-slavery -Whig to succeed John Quincy Adams, and was re-elected in 1849, and, as -an independent candidate, in 1850, serving until March 1853. In 1852 he -was the candidate of the Free-soilers for the governorship of -Massachusetts, but was defeated. In Congress he was one of the ablest -opponents of slavery, contending particularly against the Compromise -Measures of 1850, but he was never technically an Abolitionist and he -disapproved of the Radicalism of Garrison and his followers. From 1853 -until his death, on the second of August 1859, he was president of the -newly established Antioch College at Yellow Springs, Ohio, where he -taught political economy, intellectual and moral philosophy, and natural -theology. The college received insufficient financial support and -suffered from the attacks of religious sectaries--he himself was charged -with insincerity because, previously a Unitarian, he joined the -Christian Connexion, by which the college was founded--but he earned the -love of his students, and by his many addresses exerted a beneficial -influence upon education in the Middle West. - - A collected edition of Mann's writings, together with a memoir (1 - vol.) by his second wife, Mary Peabody Mann, a sister of Miss E. P. - Peabody, was published (in 5 vols. at Boston in 1867-1891) as the - _Life and Works of Horace Mann_. Of subsequent biographies the best is - probably Burke A. Hinsdale's _Horace Mann and the Common School - Revival in the United Stales_ (New York, 1898), in "The Great - Educators" series. Among other biographies O. H. Lang's _Horace Mann, - his Life and Work_ (New York, 1893), Albert E. Winship's _Horace Mann, - the Educator_ (Boston, 1896), and George A. Hubbell's _Life of Horace - Mann, Educator, Patriot and Reformer_ (Philadelphia, 1910), may be - mentioned. In vol. I. of the _Report_ for 1895-1896 of the United - States commissioner of education there is a detailed "Bibliography of - Horace Mann," containing more than 700 titles. - - - - -MANNA, a concrete saccharine exudation obtained by making incisions on -the trunk of the flowering or manna ash tree, _Fraxinus Ornus_. The -manna ash is a small tree found in Italy, and extending to Switzerland, -South Tirol, Hungary, Greece, Turkey and Asia Minor. It also grows in -the islands of Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia. It blossoms early in -summer, producing numerous clusters of whitish flowers. At the present -day the manna of commerce is collected exclusively in Sicily from -cultivated trees, chiefly in the districts around Capaci, Carini, Cinisi -and Favarota, small towns 20 to 25 m. W. of Palermo, and in the -townships of Geraci, Castelbuono, and other places in the district of -Cefalu, 50 to 70 m. E. of Palermo. In the _frassinetti_ or plantations -the trees are placed about 7 ft. apart, and after they are eight years -old, and the trunk at least 3 in. in diameter, the collection of manna -is begun. This operation is performed in July or August during the dry -weather, by making transverse incisions 1(1/2) to 2 in. long, and about 1 -in. apart, through the bark, one cut being made each day, the first at -the bottom of the tree, another directly above the first, and so on. In -succeeding years the process is repeated on the untouched sides of the -trunk, until the tree has been cut all round and exhausted. It is then -cut down, and a young plant arising from the same root takes its place. -The finest or flaky manna appears to have been allowed to harden on the -stem. A very superior kind, obtained by allowing the juice to encrust -pieces of wood or straws inserted in the cuts, is called _manna a -cannolo_. The fragments adhering to the stem, after the finest flakes -have been removed are scraped off, and form the small or Tolfa manna of -commerce. That which flows from the lower incisions is often collected -on tiles or on a concave piece of the prickly pear (_Opunlia_), but is -less crystalline and more glutinous, and is less esteemed. - -Manna of good quality dissolves at ordinary temperatures in about 6 -parts of water, forming a clear liquid. Its chief constituent is mannite -or manna sugar, a hexatomic alcohol, C6H8(OH)6, which likewise occurs, -in much smaller quantity, in certain species of the brown seaweed, -_Fucus_, and in plants of several widely separated natural orders. -Mannite is obtained by extracting manna with alcohol and crystallizing -the solution. The best manna contains 70 to 80%. It crystallizes in -shining rhombic prisms from its aqueous solution and as delicate needles -from alcohol. Manna possesses mildly laxative properties, and on account -of its sweet taste is employed as a mild aperient for children. It is -less used in England now than formerly, but is still largely consumed in -South America. In Italy mannite is prepared for sale in the shape of -small cones resembling loaf sugar in shape, and is frequently prescribed -in medicine instead of manna. - -The manna of the present day appears to have been unknown before the -15th century, although a mountain in Sicily with the Arabic name -Gibelman, i.e. "manna mountain," appears to point to its collection -there during the period that the island was held by the Saracens, -827-1070. In the 16th century it was collected in Calabria, and until -recently was produced in the Tuscan Maremma, but none is now brought -into commerce from Italy, although the name of Tolfa, a town near Civita -Vecchia, is still applied to an inferior variety of the drug. - - Various other kinds of manna are known, but none of these has been - found to contain mannite. Alhagi manna (Persian and Arabic - _tar-angubin_, also known as terendschabin) is the produce of _Alhagi - maurorum_, a small, spiny, leguminous plant, growing in Arabia, Asia - Minor, Persia, Afghanistan, Baluchistan and northern India. This manna - occurs in the form of small, roundish, hard, dry tears, varying from - the size of a mustard seed to that of a coriander, of a light-brown - colour, sweet taste, and senna-like odour. The spines and pods of the - plant are often mixed with it. It is collected near Kandahar and - Herat, and imported into India from Cabul and Kandahar. Tamarisk manna - (Persian _gaz-angubin_, tamarisk honey) exudes in June and July from - the slender branches of _Tamarix gallica_, var. _mannifera_, in the - form of honey-like drops, which, in the cold temperature of the early - morning, are found in the solid state. This secretion is caused by the - puncture of an insect, _Coccus manniparus_. In the valleys of the - peninsula of Sinai, especially in the Wady el-Sheikh, this manna - (Arabic _man_) is collected by the Arabs and sold to the monks of St - Catherine, who supply it to the pilgrims visiting the convent. It is - found also in Persia and the Punjab, but does not appear to be - collected in any quantity. This kind of manna seems to be alluded to - by Herodotus (vii. 31). Under the same name of _gaz-angubin_ there are - sold commonly in the Persian bazaars round cakes, of which a chief - ingredient is a manna obtained to the south-west of Ispahan, in the - month of August, by shaking the branches or scraping the stems of - _Astragalus florulentus_ and _A. adscendens_.[1] _Shir Khist_, a manna - known to writers on materia medica in the 16th century, is imported - into India from Afghanistan and Turkestan to a limited extent; it is - the produce of _Cotoneaster nummularia_ (_Rosaceae_), and to a less - extent of _Atraphaxis spinosa_ (_Polygonaceae_); it is brought chiefly - from Herat. - - Oak manna or _Gueze-elefi_, according to Haussknecht, is collected - from the twigs of _Quercus Vallonia_ and _Q. persica_, on which it is - produced by the puncture of an insect during the month of August. This - manna occurs in the state of agglutinated tears, and forms an object - of some industry among the wandering tribes of Kurdistan. It is - collected before sunrise, by shaking the grains of manna on to linen - cloths spread out beneath the trees, or by dipping the small branches - in hot water and evaporating the solution thus obtained. A substance - collected by the inhabitants of Laristan from _Pyrus glabra_ strongly - resembles oak manna in appearance. - - Australian or Eucalyptus manna is found on the leaves of _Eucalyptus - viminalis_, _E. Gunnii_, var. _rubida_, _E. pulverulenta_, &c. The - Lerp manna of Australia is of animal origin. - - Briancon manna is met with on the leaves of the common Larch (q.v.), - and _bide-khecht_ on those of the willow, _Salix fragilis_; and a kind - of manna was at one time obtained from the cedar. - - The manna of the Biblical narrative, notwithstanding the miraculous - circumstances which distinguish it from anything now known, answers in - its description very closely to the tamarisk manna. - - See Bentley and Trimen, _Medicinal Plants_ (1880); Watt, _Dictionary - of Economic Products of India_, under "Manna" (1891). For analyses see - A. Ebert, _Abst. J.C.S._, 1909, 96, p. 176. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] See _Bombay Lit. Tr._, vol. i. art. 16, for details as to the - _gazangubin_. A common Persian sweetmeat consists of wheat-flour - kneaded with manna into a thick paste. - - - - -MANNERS, CHARLES (1857- ), English musician, whose real name was -Southcote Mansergh, was born in London, son of Colonel Mansergh, an -Irishman. He had a fine bass voice, and was educated for the musical -profession in Dublin and at the Royal Academy of Music in London. He -began singing in opera in 1881, and in 1882 had great success as the -sentry in _Iolanthe_ at the Savoy, following this with numerous -engagements in opera both in England and America. He married the singer -Fanny Moody, already a leading soprano on the operatic stage, in 1890; -and in 1897 they formed the Moody-Manners opera company, which had a -great success in the provinces and undertook seasons in London in 1902. -Manners and his wife were assisted by some other excellent artists, and -their enterprise had considerable influence on contemporary English -music. - - - - -MANNERS-SUTTON, CHARLES (1755-1828), archbishop of Canterbury, was -educated at Charterhouse and Cambridge. In 1785 he was appointed to the -family living at Averham-with-Kelham, in Nottinghamshire, and in 1791 -became dean of Peterborough. He was consecrated bishop of Norwich in -1792, and two years later received the appointment of dean of Windsor -_in commendam_. In 1805 he was chosen to succeed Archbishop Moore in the -see of Canterbury. During his primacy the old archiepiscopal palace at -Croydon was sold and the country palace of Addington bought with the -proceeds. He presided over the first meeting which issued in the -foundation of the National Society, and subsequently lent the scheme his -strong support. He also exerted himself to promote the establishment of -the Indian episcopate. His only published works are two sermons, one -preached before the Lords (London, 1794), the other before the Society -for the Propagation of the Gospel (London, 1797). His brother, THOMAS -MANNERS-SUTTON, 1st BARON MANNERS (1756-1842), was lord chancellor of -Ireland. For his son Charles see CANTERBURY, 1ST VISCOUNT. - - - - -MANNHEIM, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Baden, lying on the -right bank of the Rhine, at its confluence with the Neckar, 39 m. by -rail N. of Karlsruhe, 10 m. W. of Heidelberg and 55 m. S. of -Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. (1900), 141,131; (1905), 162,607 (of whom about -70,000 are Roman Catholics and 6000 Jews). It is perhaps the most -regularly built town in Germany, consisting of twelve parallel streets -intersected at right angles by others, which cut it up into 136 square -sections of equal size. These blocks are distinguished, after the -American fashion, by letters and numerals. Except on the south side all -the streets debouch on the promenade, which forms a circle round the -town on the site of the old ramparts. Outside this ring are the suburbs -Schwetzinger-Vorstadt to the south and Neckar-Vorstadt to the north, -others being Lindenhof, Muhlau, Neckarau and Kaferthal. Mannheim is -connected by a handsome bridge with Ludwigshafen, a rapidly growing -commercial and manufacturing town on the left bank of the Rhine, in -Bavarian territory. The Neckar is spanned by two bridges. - -Nearly the whole of the south-west side of the town is occupied by the -palace (1720-1759), formerly the residence of the elector palatine of -the Rhine. It is one of the largest buildings of the kind in Germany, -covering an area of 15 acres, and having a frontage of about 600 yards. -It has 1500 windows. The left wing was totally destroyed by the -bombardment of 1795, but has since been restored. The palace contains a -picture gallery and collections of natural history and antiquities, and -in front of it are two monumental fountains and a monument to the -emperor William I. The large and beautiful gardens at the back form the -public park of the town. Among the other prominent buildings arc the -theatre, the arsenal, the synagogue, the "Kaufhaus," the town-hall -(_Rathaus_, 1771) and the observatory. A newer building is the fine -municipal Festhalle with magnificent rooms. The only noteworthy churches -are the Jesuit church (1737-1760), the interior of which is lavishly -decorated with marble and painting; the Koncordienkirche and the -Schlosskirche. In front of the theatre are statues of Schiller, August -Wilhelm Iffland the actor, and Wolfgang Heribert von Dalberg -(1750-1806), intendant of the theatre in the time of Schiller. Mannheim -is the chief commercial town on the upper Rhine, and yields in -importance to Cologne alone among the lower Rhenish towns. It stands at -the head of the effective navigation on the Rhine, and is not only the -largest port on the upper course of that stream, but is the principal -emporium for south Germany for such commodities as cereals, coal, -petroleum, timber, sugar and tobacco, with a large trade in hops, wine -and other south German produce. Owing to the rapid increase in the -traffic, a new harbour at the mouth of the Neckar was opened in 1898. -The industries are equal in importance to the transit trade, and embrace -metal-working, iron-founding and machine building, the manufacture of -electric plant, celluloid, automobiles, furniture, cables and chemicals, -sugar refining, cigar and tobacco making, and brewing. - -Mannheim is the seat of the central board for the navigation of the -Rhine, of a high court of justice, and of the grand ducal commissioner -for north Baden. - -_History._--The name of Mannheim was connected with its present site in -the 8th century, when a small village belonging to the abbey of Lorsch -lay in the marshy district between the Neckar and the Rhine. To the -south of this village, on the Rhine, was the castle of Eicholzheim, -which acquired some celebrity as the place of confinement assigned to -Pope John XXIII. by the council of Constance. The history of modern -Mannheim begins, however, with the opening of the 17th century, when the -elector palatine Frederick IV. founded a town here, which was peopled -chiefly with Protestant refugees from Holland. The strongly fortified -castle which he erected at the same time had the unfortunate result of -making the infant town an object of contention in the Thirty Years' War, -during which it was five times taken and retaken. In 1688 Mannheim, -which had in the meantime recovered from its former disasters, was -captured by the French, and in 1689 it was burned down. Ten years later -it was rebuilt on an extended scale, and provided with fortifications by -the elector John William. For its subsequent importance it was indebted -to the elector Charles Philip, who, owing to ecclesiastical disputes, -transferred his residence from Heidelberg to Mannheim in 1720. It -remained the capital of the Palatinate for nearly sixty years, being -especially flourishing under the elector Charles Theodore. In 1794 -Mannheim fell into the hands of the French, and in the following year it -was retaken by the Austrians after a severe bombardment, which left -scarcely a single building uninjured. In 1803 it was assigned to the -grand duke of Baden, who caused the fortifications to be razed. Towards -the end of the 18th century Mannheim attained great celebrity in the -literary world as the place where Schiller's early plays were performed -for the first time. It was at Mannheim that Kotzebue was assassinated in -1819. During the revolution in Baden in 1849 the town was for a time in -the hands of the insurgents, and was afterwards occupied by the -Prussians. - - See Feder, _Geschichte der Stadt Mannheim_ (1875-1877, 2 vols., new - ed. 1903); Pichler, _Chronik des Hof- und National Theaters in - Mannheim_ (Mannheim, 1879); Landgraf, _Mannheim und Ludwigshafen_ - (Zurich, 1890); _Die wirtschaftliche Bedeutung Mannheims_, published - by the Mannheim Chamber of Commerce (Mannheim, 1905); the _Forschungen - zur Geschichte Mannheims und der Pfalz_, published by the _Mannheimer - Altertumsverein_ (Leipzig, 1898); and the annual _Chronik der - Hauptstadt Mannheim_ (1901 seq.). - - - - -MANNING, HENRY EDWARD (1808-1892), English Roman Catholic cardinal, was -born at Totteridge, Hertfordshire, on the 15th of July 1808,[1] being -the third and youngest son of William Manning, a West India merchant, -who was a director of the Bank of England and governor, 1812-1813, and -who sat in Parliament for some thirty years, representing in the Tory -interest Plympton Earle, Lymington, Evesham, and Penryn consecutively. -His mother, Mary, daughter of Henry Leroy Hunter, of Beech Hill, -Reading, was of a family said to be of French extraction. Manning's -boyhood was mainly spent at Coombe Bank, Sundridge, Kent, where he had -for companions Charles and Christopher Wordsworth, afterwards bishops of -St Andrews and of Lincoln. He was educated at Harrow, 1822-1827, Dr G. -Butler being then the head master, but obtained no distinction beyond -being in the cricket eleven in 1825. He matriculated at Balliol College, -Oxford, in 1827, and soon made his mark as a debater at the Union, where -Gladstone succeeded him as president in 1830. At this date he was -ambitious of a political career, but his father had sustained severe -losses in business, and in these circumstances Manning, having graduated -with first-class honours in 1830, obtained the year following, through -Viscount Goderich, a post as supernumerary clerk in the colonial office. -This, however, he resigned in 1832, his thoughts having been turned -towards a clerical career under Evangelical influences, which affected -him deeply throughout life. Returning to Oxford, he was elected a fellow -of Merton College, and was ordained; and in 1833 he was presented to the -rectory of Lavington-with-Graffham in Sussex by Mrs Sargent, whose -granddaughter Caroline he married on the 7th of November 1833, the -ceremony being performed by the bride's brother-in-law, Samuel -Wilberforce, afterwards bishop of Oxford and of Winchester. Manning's -married life was of brief duration. His young and beautiful wife was of -a consumptive family, and died childless (July 24, 1837). The lasting -sadness that thus early overshadowed him tended to facilitate his -acceptance of the austere teaching of the Oxford Tracts; and though he -was never an acknowledged disciple of Newman, it was due to the latter's -influence that from this date his theology assumed an increasingly High -Church character, and his printed sermon on the "Rule of Faith" was -taken as a public profession of his alliance with the Tractarians. In -1838 he took a leading part in the Church education movement, by which -diocesan boards were established throughout the country; and he wrote an -open letter to his bishop in criticism of the recent appointment of the -ecclesiastical commission. In December of that year he paid his first -visit to Rome, and called on Dr Wiseman in company with W. E. Gladstone. -In January 1841 Shuttleworth, bishop of Chichester, appointed him -archdeacon, whereupon he began a personal visitation of each parish -within his district, completing the task in 1843. In 1842 he published a -treatise on _The Unity of the Church_, and his reputation as an eloquent -and earnest preacher being by this time considerable, he was in the same -year appointed select preacher by his university, thus being called upon -to fill from time to time the pulpit which Newman, as vicar of St -Mary's, was just ceasing to occupy. Four volumes of his sermons appeared -between the years 1842 and 1850, and these had reached the 7th, 4th, 3rd -and 2nd editions respectively in 1850, but were not afterwards -reprinted. In 1844 his portrait was painted by Richmond, and the same -year he published a volume of university sermons, in which, however, was -not included the one on the Gunpowder Plot. This sermon had much annoyed -Newman and his more advanced disciples, but it was a proof that at that -date Manning was loyal to the Church of England as Protestant. Newman's -secession in 1845 placed Manning in a position of greater -responsibility, as one of the High Church leaders, along with Pusey and -Keble and Marriott; but it was with Gladstone and James Hope (afterwards -Hope-Scott) that he was at this time most closely associated. In the -spring of 1847 he was seriously ill, and that autumn and the following -winter he spent abroad, chiefly in Rome, where he saw Newman "wearing -the Oratorian habit and dead to the world." He had public and private -audiences with the pope on the 9th of April and the 11th of May 1848, -but recorded next to nothing in his diary concerning them, though -numerous other entries show an eager interest in everything connected -with the Roman Church, and private papers also indicate that he -recognized at this time grave defects in the Church of England and a -mysterious attractiveness in Roman Catholicism, going so far as to -question whether he might not one day be a Roman Catholic himself. -Returning to England, he protested, but with moderation, against the -appointment of Hampden as bishop of Hereford, and continued to take an -active part in the religious education controversy. Through the -influence of Samuel Wilberforce, he was offered the post of sub-almoner -to Queen Victoria, always recognized as a stepping-stone to the -episcopal bench, and his refusal of it was honourably consonant with all -else in his career as an Anglican dignitary, in which he united pastoral -diligence with an asceticism that was then quite exceptional. In 1850 -the decision of the privy council, that the bishop of Exeter was bound -to institute the Rev. G. C. Gorham to the benefice of Brampford Speke in -spite of the latter's acknowledged disbelief in the doctrine of -baptismal regeneration, brought to a crisis the position within the -Church of England of those who believed in that Church as a legitimate -part of the infallible _Ecclesia docens_. Manning made it clear that he -regarded the matter as vital, though he did not act on this conviction -until no hope remained of the decision being set aside or practically -annulled by joint action of the bishops. In July he addressed to his -bishop an open letter on "The Appellate Jurisdiction of the Crown in -Matters Spiritual," and he also took part in a meeting in London which -protested against the decision. In the autumn of this year (1850) was -the great popular outcry against the "Papal aggression" (see WISEMAN), -and Manning, feeling himself unable to take part in this protest, -resigned, early in December his benefice and his archdeaconry; and -writing to Hope-Scott, who a little later became a Roman Catholic with -him, stated his conviction that the alternative was "either Rome or -licence of thought and will." He was received into the Roman Catholic -Church by Father Brownbill, S.J., at the church in Farm Street, on -Passion Sunday, the 6th of April 1851. On the following Sunday he was -confirmed and received to communion by Cardinal Wiseman, who also, -within ten weeks of his reception, ordained him priest. Manning -thereupon proceeded to Rome to pursue his theological studies, residing -at the college known as the "Academy for Noble Ecclesiastics," and -attending lectures by Perrone and Passaglia among others. The pope -frequently received him in private audience, and in 1854 conferred on -him the degree of D.D. During his visits to England he was at the -disposal of Cardinal Wiseman, who through him, at the time of the -Crimean War, was enabled to obtain from the government the concession -that for the future Roman Catholic army chaplains should not be regarded -as part of the staff of the Protestant chaplain-general. In 1857 the -pope, _proprio motu_, appointed him provost (or head of the chapter) of -Westminster, and the same year he took up his residence in Bayswater as -superior of a community known as the "Oblates of St Charles," an -association of secular priests on the same lines as the institute of the -Oratory, but with this difference, that they are by their constitution -at the beck and call of the bishop in whose diocese they live. The -community was thus of the greatest service to Cardinal Wiseman, whose -right-hand man Manning thenceforward became. During the eight years of -his life at Bayswater he was most active in all the duties of the -priesthood, preaching, hearing confessions, and receiving converts; and -he was notably zealous to promote in England all that was specially -Roman and papal, thus giving offence to old-fashioned Catholics, both -clerical and lay, many of whom were largely influenced by Gallican -ideas, and had with difficulty accepted the restoration of the hierarchy -in 1850. In 1860 he delivered a course of lectures on the pope's -temporal power, at that date seriously threatened, and shortly -afterwards he was appointed a papal domestic prelate, thus becoming a -"Monsignor," to be addressed as "Right Reverend." He was now generally -recognized as the able and effective leader of the Ultramontane party -among English Roman Catholics, acting always, however, in subordination -to Cardinal Wiseman; and on the latter's death (Feb. 15, 1865) it was -felt that, if Manning should succeed to the vacant archbishopric, the -triumph of Ultramontanism would be secured. Such a consummation not -being desired by the Westminster chapter, they submitted to the pope -three names, and Manning's was not one of them. Great efforts were made -to secure the succession for the titular archbishop Errington, who at -one time had been Wiseman's coadjutor with that right reserved to him, -but who had been ousted from that position by the pope acting under -Manning's influence. In such circumstances Pius IX. could hardly do -otherwise than ignore Errington's nomination, as he also ignored the -nomination of Clifford, bishop of Clifton, and of Grant, bishop of -Southwark; and, by what he humorously described as "the Lord's own _coup -d'etat_," he appointed Manning to the archiepiscopal see. Consecrated at -the pro-cathedral at Moorfields (since destroyed) by Dr Ullathorne, -bishop of Birmingham (June 8, 1865), and enthroned there (Nov. 6), after -receiving the _pallium_ in Rome, Manning began his work as archbishop by -devoting himself especially to the religious education of the poor and -to the establishment of Catholic industrial and reformatory schools. He -steadily opposed whatever might encourage the admission of Catholics to -the national universities, and so put his foot down on Newman's project -to open a branch house of the Oratory at Oxford with himself as -superior. He made an unsuccessful and costly effort to establish a -Catholic university at Kensington, and he also made provision for a -diocesan seminary of strictly ecclesiastical type. Jealous of the -exclusive claims of the Roman Church, he procured a further condemnation -at Rome of the "Association for the Promotion of the Unity of -Christendom," which advocated prayers for the accomplishment of a kind -of federal union between the Roman, Greek and Anglican Churches, and in -a pastoral letter he insisted on the heretical assumption implied in -such an undertaking. He also worked for the due recognition of the -dignity of the secular or pastoral clergy, whose position seemed to be -threatened by the growing ascendancy of the regulars, and especially of -the Jesuits, whom, as a practically distinct organization within the -Church, he steadily opposed. In addition to his diocesan synods, he -presided in 1873 over the fourth provincial synod of Westminster, which -legislated on "acatholic" universities, church music, mixed marriages, -and the order of a priest's household, having previously taken part, as -theologian, in the provincial synods of 1853 and 1859, with a hand in -the preparation of their decrees. But it was chiefly through his -strenuous advocacy of the policy of defining papal infallibility at the -Vatican council (1869-1870) that Manning's name obtained world-wide -renown. In this he was instant in season and out of season. He brought -to Rome a petition in its favour from his chapter at Westminster, and -during the progress of the council he laboured incessantly to overcome -the opposition of the "inopportunists." And he never ceased to regard it -as one of the chief privileges of his life that he had been able to take -an active part in securing the definition, and in having heard with his -own ears that doctrine proclaimed as a part of divine revelation. In -1875 he published a reply to Gladstone's attack on the Vatican decrees; -and on the 15th of March in that year he was created cardinal, with the -title of SS. Andrew and Gregory on the Coelian. He was present at the -death of Pius IX. (Feb. 7, 1878); and in the subsequent conclave, while -some Italian cardinals were prepared to vote for his election to fill -the vacant chair, he himself supported Cardinal Pecci, afterwards known -as Leo XIII. With him, however, Manning found less sympathy than with -his predecessor, though Manning's advocacy of the claims of labour -attracted Leo's attention, and influenced the encyclical which he issued -on the subject. After the Vatican council, and more especially after the -death of Pius IX., Manning devoted his attention mainly to social -questions, and with these his name was popularly associated during the -last fifteen years of his life. From 1872 onwards he was a strict -teetotaller, not touching alcohol even as a medicine, and there was some -murmuring among his clergy that his teaching on this subject verged on -heresy. But his example and his zeal profoundly influenced for good the -Irish poor forming the majority of his flock; and the "League of the -Cross" which he founded, and which held annual demonstrations at the -Crystal Palace, numbered nearly 30,000 members in London alone in 1874. -He sat on two royal commissions, the one on the housing of the working -classes (1884), and the other on primary education (1886); and in each -case the report showed evident marks of his influence, which his -fellow-commissioners recognized as that of a wise and competent social -reformer. In the cause of labour he was active for many years, and in -1872 he set an example to the clergy of all the churches by taking a -prominent part in a meeting held in Exeter Hall on behalf of the newly -established Agricultural Labourers' Union, Joseph Arch and Charles -Bradlaugh being among those who sat with him on the platform. In later -years his strenuous advocacy of the claims of the working classes, and -his declaration that "every man has a right to work or to bread" led to -his being denounced as a Socialist. That he was such he denied more than -once (Lemire, _Le Cardinal Manning et son action sociale_, Paris, 1893, -p. 210), nor was he ever a Socialist in principle; but he favoured some -of the methods of Socialism, because they alone seemed to him -practically to meet the case of that pressing poverty which appealed to -his heart. He took a leading part in the settlement of the dockers' -strike in the autumn of 1889, and his patient and effectual action on -this and on similar occasions secured for him the esteem and affection -of great numbers of working men, so that his death on the 14th of -January 1892, and his funeral a week later, were the occasion for a -remarkable demonstration of popular veneration. The Roman Catholic -Cathedral at Westminster is his joint memorial with his predecessor, -Cardinal Wiseman. - -Whatever may have been the value of Manning's services to the Roman -Catholic Church in England in bringing it, as he did, up to a high level -of what in earlier years was commonly denounced as Ultramontanism, it is -certain that by his social action, as well as by the earnestness and -holiness of his life, he greatly advanced, in the minds of his -countrymen generally, their estimate of the character and value of -Catholicism. Pre-eminently he was a devout ecclesiastic, a "great -priest"; and his sermons, both Anglican and Catholic, are marked by -fervour and dignity, by a conviction of his own authoritative mission as -preacher, and by an eloquent insistence on considerations such as warm -the heart and bend the will rather than on such as force the intellect -to assent. But many of his instincts were those of a statesman, a -diplomatist, a man of the world, even of a business man; and herein lay, -at least in part, the secret of his influence and success. -Intellectually he did not stand in the front rank. He was neither a -philosopher nor a literary genius. Among his many publications, written, -it is only fair to admit, amidst the urgent pressure of practical work, -there is barely a page or even a sentence that bears the stamp of -immortality. But within a somewhat narrower field he worked with -patience, industry, and self-denying zeal; his ambition, which seemed to -many personal, was rather the outcome of his devotion to the cause of -the Church; and in the later years of his life especially he showed that -he loved righteousness and hated iniquity, and that he realized as -clearly as any one that the service of God was incomplete without the -service of man. - - The publication in 1896 of Manning's _Life_, by Purcell, was the - occasion for some controversy on the ethics of biography. Edward - Purcell was an obscure Catholic journalist, to whom Manning, late in - life, had entrusted, rather by way of charitable bequest, his private - diaries and other confidential papers. It thus came to pass that in - Purcell's voluminous biography much that was obviously never intended - for the public eye was, perhaps inadvertently, printed, together with - a good deal of ungenerous comment. The facts disclosed which mainly - attracted attention were: (1) that Manning, while yet formally an - Anglican, and while publicly and privately dissuading others from - joining the Roman Catholic Church, was yet within a little convinced - that it was his own duty and destiny to take that step himself; (2) - that he was continually intriguing at the back-stairs of the Vatican - for the furtherance of his own views as to what was desirable in - matters ecclesiastical; (3) that his relations with Newman were very - unfriendly; and (4) that, while for the most part he exhibited towards - his own clergy a frigid and masterful demeanour, he held privately - very cordial relations with men of diverse religions or of no - theological beliefs at all. And certainly Manning does betray in these - autobiographical fragments an unheroic sensitiveness to the verdict of - posterity on his career. But independent critics (among whom may - specially be named Francois de Pressense) held that Manning came well - through the ordeal, and that Purcell's _Life_ had great value as an - unintentionally frank revelation of character. (A. W. Hu.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Purcell's assertion that the year of his birth was 1807 rests on - no trustworthy evidence. - - - - -MANNY, SIR WALTER DE MANNY, BARON DE (d. 1372), soldier of fortune and -founder of the Charterhouse, younger son of Jean de Mauny, known as Le -Borgne de Mauny, by his wife Jeanne de Jenlain, was a native of Hainaut, -from whose counts he claimed descent. Manny--the name is thus spelt by -most English writers--was a patron and friend of Froissart, in whose -chronicles his exploits have a conspicuous and probably an exaggerated -place. He appears to have first come to England as an esquire of Queen -Philippa in 1327, and he took a distinguished part in the Scottish wars -of Edward III. In 1337 he was placed in command of an English fleet, and -in the following year accompanied Edward to the continent, where in the -campaigns of the next few years he proved himself one of the boldest and -ablest of the English king's military commanders. He was summoned to -parliament as a baron by writ from the 12th of November 1347 to the 8th -of January 1371. In 1359 he was made a knight of the Garter; and at -various times he received extensive grants of land both in England and -in France. He was frequently employed by King Edward in the conduct of -diplomatic negotiations as well as in military commands. He was one of -those charged with the safe custody of the French king John when a -prisoner at Calais in 1360; in 1369 he was second in command under John -of Gaunt in his invasion of France. - -But Manny is chiefly remembered for his share in the foundation of the -Charterhouse in London. In 1349 he bought some acres of land near -Smithfield, which were consecrated as a burying-place where large -numbers of the victims of the Black Death were interred; and here he -built a chapel, from which the place obtained the name of -"Newchurchhaw." The chapel and ground were bought from Manny by the -bishop of London, Michael de Northburgh, who died in 1361 and by his -will bequeathed a large sum of money to found there a Carthusian -convent. It is not clear whether this direction was ever carried out; -for in 1371 Manny obtained letters patent from King Edward III. -permitting him to found, apparently on the same site, a Carthusian -monastery called "La Salutation Mere Dieu," where the monks were to pray -for the soul of Northburgh as well as for the soul of Manny himself. The -bishop's bequest may have contributed to the building and endowment of -the house; or possibly, as seems to be implied by a bull granted by -Urban VI. in 1378, there were originally two kindred establishments -owing their foundation to Northburgh and Manny respectively. At all -events Manny, who died early in 1372, left instructions that he was to -be buried in the church of the Carthusian monastery founded by himself. -About 1335 he married Margaret, daughter and heiress of Thomas -Plantagenet, earl of Norfolk, son of King Edward I., whose first husband -had been John, Lord Segrave. This lady, who outlived Manny by many -years, was countess of Norfolk in her own right, and she was created -duchess of Norfolk in 1397. Manny left no surviving son. His daughter -Anne, Baroness de Manny in her own right, married John Hastings, 2nd -earl of Pembroke; and on the death of her only son unmarried in 1389, -the barony of Manny became extinct. - - See _Oeuvres de Froissart, I. Chroniques_, edited by Baron Kervyn de - Lettenhove (Brussels, 1867-1877), and the Globe edition of - _Froissart's Chronicles_ (Eng. trans., London, 1895); G. F. Beltz, - _Memorials of the Most Noble Order of the Garter_ (London, 1841); - _Chronicon Angliae 1323-1388_, edited by E. Maunde Thompson (Rolls - series 64, London, 1874); Philip Bearcroft, _An Historical Account of - Thomas Sutton and of his Foundation in Charterhouse_ (London, 1737). - - - - -MANNYNG, ROBERT (ROBERT OF BRUNNE) (c. 1264-1340?), English poet, was a -native of Brunne, now Bourne, in Lincolnshire. About 6 m. from Bourne -was the Gilbertine monastery of Sempringham, founded by Sir Gilbert de -Sempringham in 1139. The foundation provided for seven to thirteen -canons, with a number of lay brothers and a community of nuns. No books -were allowed to the lay brothers and nothing could be written in the -monastery without the prior's consent. Mannyng entered this house in -1288, when, according to the rules, he must have been at least 24 years -of age, if, as is supposed, he was a lay brother. He says he was at -Cambridge with Robert de Bruce and his two brothers, Thomas and -Alexander, but this does not necessarily imply that he was a -fellow-student. There was a Gilbertine monastery at Cambridge, and -Mannyng may have been there on business connected with his order. When -he wrote _Handlyng Synne_ he had been (11. 63-76) fifteen years in the -priory, beginning to write in "englysch rime in 1303." Thirty-five years -later he began his _Story of Inglande_, and had removed (11. 139, &c.) -to the monastery of Sixille (now Sixhills), near Market Rasen, in north -Lincolnshire. - -_Handlyng Synne_, a poem of nearly 13,000 lines, is a free translation, -with many additions and amplifications, from William of Waddington's -_Manuel des Pechiez_. It is a series of metrical homilies on the Ten -Commandments, the Seven Deadly Sins and the Seven Sacraments, -illustrated by a number of amusing stories from various sources. The -_Cursor Mundi_ had turned religious history into something not very -different from a romance of chivalry, and in the stories of _Handlyng -Synne_ the influence of the _fabliaux_ is not far to seek. Mannyng wrote -in the English tongue not for learned but for "lewd" men, "that talys -and ryme wyl blethly here," to occupy the leisure hours during which -they might otherwise fall into "vylanye, dedly synne or other folye." -Each of his twenty-four topics has its complement of stories. He tells -of the English observance of Saturday afternoon as holy to the Virgin, -and has much to say of popular amusements, which become sins when they -keep people away from church. Tournaments in particular are fertile -occasions of all the deadly sins; and mystery plays, except those of the -birth and resurrection of Christ performed in the churches, also lead -men into transgression. He inveighs against the oppression of the poor -by the rich, reproves those who, weary of matins or mass, spend their -time in church "jangling," telling tales, and wondering where they will -get the best ale, and revives the legend of the dancers at the church -door during mass who were cursed by the priest and went on dancing for a -twelvemonth without cessation. He loved music himself, and justified -this profane pleasure by the example of Bishop Grosseteste, who lodged -his harper in the chamber next his own; but he holds up as a warning to -gleemen the fate of the minstrel who sang loud while the bishop said -grace, and was miserably killed by a falling stone in consequence. The -old monk's keen observation makes the book a far more valuable -contribution to history than his professed chronicle. It is a storehouse -of quaint stories and out-of-the-way information on manners and customs. - -His chronicle, _The Story of Inglande_, was also written for the solace -and amusement of the unlearned when they sit together in fellowship (11. -6-10). The earlier half is written in octosyllabic verse, and begins -with the story of the Deluge. The genealogy of Locrine, king of Britain, -is traced back to Noah, through Aeneas, and the chronicler relates the -incidents of the Trojan war as told by Dares the Phrygian. From this -point he follows closely the _Brut_ of Wace. He loved stories for their -own sake, and found fault with Wace for questioning the miraculous -elements in the legend of Arthur. In the second half of his chronicle, -which is less simple in style, he translates from the French of Pierre -de Langtoft. He writes in rhyming alexandrines, and in the latter part -of the work uses middle rhymes. Mannyng's _Chronicle_ marks a change in -national sentiment. Though he regards the Norman domination as a -"bondage," he is loud in his praises of Edward I., "Edward of Inglond." - -The linguistic importance of Mannyng's work is very great. He used very -few of those Teutonic words which, though still in use, were eventually -to drop out of the language, and he introduced a great number of French -words destined to be permanently adopted in English. Moreover, he -employed comparatively few obsolete inflexions, and his work no doubt -furthered the adoption of the Midland dialect as the acknowledged -literary instrument. T. L. Kington-Oliphant (_Old and Middle English_, -1878) regards his work as the definite starting point of the New English -which with slight changes was to form the language of the Book of Common -Prayer. - -A third work, usually ascribed to Mannyng, chiefly on the ground of its -existing side by side with the _Handlyng Synne_ in the Harleian and -Bodleian MSS., is the _Medytacyuns of the Soper of oure lorde Jhesu, And -also of hys passyun And eke of the peynes of hys swete modyr, Mayden -marye_, a free translation of St Bonaventura's _De coena et passione -Domini..._. - - Robert of Brunne's _Chronicle_ exists in two MSS.: Petyt MS. 511, - written in the Northern dialect, in the Inner Temple library; and - Lambeth MS. 131 in a Midland dialect. The first part was edited _The - Story of England ..._ (1887) for the Rolls Series, with an - introductory essay by F. J. Furnivall; the second part was published - by Thomas Hearne as _Peter Langtoft's Chronicle ..._ (1725). Peter - Langtoft's French version was edited by Thomas Wright for the "Rolls - Series" in 1866. Of _Handlyng Synne_ there are complete MSS. in the - Bodleian library (MS. 415) and in the British Museum (Harleian MS. - 1701), and a fragment in the library of Dulwich College (MS. 24). It - was edited, with Waddington's text in parallel columns, by F. J. - Furnivall for the Roxburghe Club (1862), and for the Early English - Text Society (1901-1903). The _Meditacyun_ was edited from the - Bodleian and Harleian MSS. by J. Meadow Cooper for the same society - (1875). See also Gerhard Hellmers, _Ueber die Sprache Robert Mannyngs - of Brunne und uber die Autorschaft der ihm zugeschriebenen Meditations - ..._ (Gottingen, 1885), which contains an analysis of the dialectic - peculiarities of Mannyng's work; O. Boerner, "Die Sprache Robert - Mannyngs" ... in _Studien zur engl. Philologie_ (vol. xii., Halle, - 1904) and Oskar Preussner, _Robert Mannyng of Brunne's Ubersetzung von - Pierre de Langtofts Chronicle_ (Breslau, 1891). All accounts of his - life are based on his own work. For the Sempringham priory see - Dugdale, _Monasticon_ vi. 947 seq., and Miss Rose Graham's _S. Gilbert - of Sempringham and the Gilbertines_ (1901). - - - - -MANOEUVRES, MILITARY. Manoeuvres may be defined as the higher training -for war of troops of all arms in large bodies, and have been carried out -in most countries ever since the first formation of standing armies. In -England no manoeuvres or camps of exercise appear to have been held till -the beginning of the 19th century, when Sir John Moore trained the -famous Light Brigade at Shorncliffe camp. In France, however, under -Louis XIV., large camps of instruction were frequently held, the -earliest recorded being that of 18,000 troops at Compiegne in 1666; and -these were continued at intervals under his successor. At these French -camps much time was devoted to ceremonial, and the manoeuvres performed -were of an elementary description. Still their effect upon the training -of the army for war was far-reaching, and bore fruit in the numerous -wars in the first half of the 18th century. Moreover, experiments were -made with proposed tactical systems and technical improvements, as in -the case of the contest between _l'ordre mince_ and _l'ordre profonde_ -(see INFANTRY) between 1785 and 1790. Other countries followed suit, but -it was reserved for Frederick the Great to inaugurate a system of real -manoeuvres and to develop on the training-ground the system of tactics -which bore such good fruit in his various campaigns. The numbers of -troops assembled were large; for example, at Spandau in 1753, when -36,000 men carried out manoeuvres for twelve days. The king laid the -greatest stress on these exercises, and took immense pains to turn to -account the experience gained in his campaigns. Great secrecy was -observed, and before the Seven Years' War no stranger was allowed to be -present. The result of all this careful training was shown in the Seven -Years' War, and after it the Prussian manoeuvres gained a reputation -which they have maintained to this day. But with the passing away of the -great king they became more and more pedantic, and the fatal results -were shown in 1806. After the Napoleonic wars yearly manoeuvres became -the custom in every large Continental army. Great Britain alone thought -she could dispense with them, perhaps because of the constant practical -training her troops and officers received in the various Indian and -colonial wars; and it was not till 1853 that, by the advice of the -Prince Consort, a body of troops were gathered together for a camp of -exercise on Chobham Common, and that eventually a standing camp of -exercise was evolved out of the temporary camp formed during the Crimean -War at Aldershot. - - Most continental armies have, since the great successes of the Germans - in 1870, copied more or less their system of military training; hence - it is appropriate to consider their methods first. The whole training - of the army is based on a yearly programme of gradual progression, - from the joining of the recruits in October to the training by squads, - companies, battalions and regiments, the latter finishing their field - training about the middle of August, when the manoeuvre period begins. - First of all, the brigades go through five working days of drills on - flat ground, to get them under the hand of their commanders and - prepare them for manoeuvres. Then follow ten working days of - manoeuvres in new and varied ground, of which four are "brigade," four - "divisional" and two "corps" manoeuvres, in each case the unit named - being divided into two portions of all arms, which manoeuvre against - one another. Each year two or more army corps carry out manoeuvres - before the emperor, working against one another. The chief feature of - the German manoeuvres is the free hand allowed to leaders of sides. Of - course, for reasons of supply and transport, it is necessary to keep - the troops within a certain area, but the general and special ideas[1] - are so framed that, while retaining their own initiative, the leaders - of sides have to give such orders as will suit the arrangements made - by the director of manoeuvres for supply. The faculty of quartering - troops on private individuals to any extent, and the fact of the - troops being provided with portable tent equipment, give great - latitude to the German leaders in their choice of quarters for troops, - and so increase the similitude of manoeuvres to war. The Austrian and - Italian manoeuvres are a close copy of the German, but those of the - French present the peculiarity of a certain amount of prearrangement, - especially at grand manoeuvres, when it is frequently laid down - beforehand which side is to be victorious. Thus a series of pictures - of war is presented, but the manoeuvres are hardly a test of the skill - of the rival leaders. But, just as in recent years in France this - practice has been modified, so also the entire liberty given to - commanders in the German manoeuvres in 1906-7 had to be curtailed in - the following years owing to the strain of forced marches which it - entailed on the troops. - - In Russia the climatic and social conditions, and the distribution of - the army, necessitate a quite peculiar system. The troops leave their - barracks and move into standing camps, generally in May, and in these - for about three months their training up to that in battalions is - carried out on the drill ground. Camps of mixed units are then formed - for a month, and from them, but always over the same ground, the - manoeuvres of regiments, brigades and divisions are performed. Then - follow the so-called mobile manoeuvres, which last for ten days or a - fortnight. Of all European manoeuvres these are perhaps the nearest - approach to war, for the sides start a great distance apart, and ample - time is allowed for cavalry reconnaissance. Besides, the Russian - soldier does not require elaborate arrangements for supply; hence the - director is not so tied down by consideration of this matter as in - other armies. A political colour is sometimes given to such large - assemblages of troops, especially when the manoeuvres take place in - frontier districts. - - In England the military authorities have long been hampered in the - organization of manoeuvres by the necessity of carrying them out on - very limited portions of government land or on areas lent as a favour - by, or hired from, private individuals. There has been no want of - recognition by the military authorities of the necessity for, and - value of, manoeuvres, and the training at the camps of instruction has - been supplemented as far as possible by small manoeuvres on such - portions of country as could be made available. But, with the - exception of spasmodic efforts in 1871 and 1872, it was not until 1897 - that the government allowed itself to be convinced by its military - advisers, and passed a Military Manoeuvres Act, by which certain - districts could be "proclaimed" for purposes of manoeuvres, and troops - in consequence could traverse all ground. In 1898 the first manoeuvres - under this Act were held in Wilts and Dorset, and were intended to be - repeated at fixed intervals in future years. In addition, every effort - was made to add to the existing permanent training grounds for troops, - and ground was acquired on Salisbury Plain with the intention of - developing it into a second Aldershot. But the training on those - well-known grounds, excellent as it is in itself as a preparation, is - not "manoeuvres," and never can do away with the necessity for them, - with a more or less free hand given to the leaders over fresh country. - - Much misconception prevails as to the nature and limitation of the - military instruction to be imparted at manoeuvres. Manoeuvres are a - school for the leaders, in a less degree for the led, and - consequently the minor details of instruction must be completed, and - the troops fully trained as units, before they can take part in them - with advantage. The time during which large bodies of troops can be - kept together for manoeuvres is too short, and the expense too great, - to justify time being spent on exercises which might as well be - carried out in the ordinary stations or at the great training camps. - Therefore it may be laid down as a principle that manoeuvres, properly - so-called, should be begun with units not smaller than a brigade of - infantry on each side, with a due proportion of the other arms - attached. It is useful if these can precede the manoeuvres of larger - bodies, as the training is then progressive and the result more - satisfactory.[2] - - The choice of ground is of great importance. Its extent should be - proportionate to the force to be employed and the nature of the - instruction to be imparted. It should not be too hilly nor yet too - flat, but both descriptions should be judiciously combined; and regard - must be had to the water supply and the road and railway net for the - convenience of the supply service. Once the ground has been selected, - the general and special ideas must be so framed that the troops are - thereby confined to the chosen ground without seeming to tie the hands - of the leaders of sides. It is of great advantage if the same idea can - be maintained throughout each series of operations, as thereby the - interest of all concerned and the likeness to actual warfare are - increased; and, if possible, the "state of war" should be continuous - also. Within the limits of the special idea, the utmost latitude - should be left to leaders; but if the orders of one or both sides seem - to render a collision unlikely, the director should so modify the - special idea as to compel one or other to re-cast his orders in such a - way that contact is brought about. Such interference will scarcely be - necessary after the first issues of orders in each series. In war the - number of marching days vastly outnumbers those of fighting, but in - manoeuvres this must not be allowed; tactical instruction is what is - desired, and a manoeuvre day in which none is imparted is not fully - utilized. It is not necessary that all the troops should be engaged, - but at least the advanced bodies must come into contact, and the rest - must carry out marches as on active service. Each action should be - fought to its end, "Cease firing" being sounded when the crisis has - been reached; and on a decision being given by the director, one side - should retire and the fight be broken off in a proper military manner. - The troops should place outposts each day, and act in all respects as - if on active service. - - The quartering and supply of troops are the chief difficulties in the - arrangement of manoeuvres, and afford ample opportunity for the - practising of the officers and departments responsible for these - matters. In England, where in peace it is not possible to billet - troops on private individuals, quartering must be replaced by - encampments or bivouacs, and the selection of ground for them affords - invaluable practice. If possible, their position should be selected to - conform to the military situation; but if it is found necessary, for - reasons of water or food supply, to withdraw troops to positions other - than such as they would occupy in real warfare, time should be allowed - them on the following day to regain the positions they would otherwise - have occupied. It is next to impossible, for various reasons, - financial and other, to organize the food supply in manoeuvres as it - would be in war. Sufficient transport cadres cannot be kept up in - peace, and consequently recourse must be had to hired transport, which - cannot be treated as a military body. Again, food cannot be - requisitioned, and local purchase at the time cannot be trusted to; so - depots of supplies must be formed beforehand in the manoeuvres area, - which more or less tie the hands of the supply service. Still, with a - judicious choice of the points at which these are formed, much may be - done to approximate to service conditions, and the more nearly these - are realized the more instructive for the supply will the manoeuvres - become. - - Finally, a word must be said as to the umpire staff, which represents - the bullets. The most careful selection of officers for this important - duty is necessary, and they must have sufficient authority and be in - sufficient number to make their influence everywhere felt. Their - principal object should be to come to a decision quickly, so as to - prevent the occurrence of unreal situations; and by constant - intercommunication they must ensure uniformity in their decisions, and - so maintain continuity of the action all over the manoeuvres - battlefield. (J. M. Gr.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] The "general idea" is a document, communicated to both sides, - containing such general information of the war--the supposed - frontiers, previous battles, &c.--as would be matters of common - knowledge. The "special idea" of each side comprises the instructions - upon which it is acting. - - [2] Manoeuvres incidentally afford an excellent opportunity of - testing new patterns of equipment, transport or other materiel under - conditions approximating to those of active service. - - - - -MANOMETER (Gr. [Greek: manos], thin or loose; [Greek: metron], a -measure), an instrument for measuring the pressures exerted by gases or -vapours. An alternative name is pressure gauge, but this term may -conveniently be restricted to manometers used in connexion with -steam-boilers, &c. The principle of hydrostatics suggest the most common -forms. Suppose we have a U tube (fig. 1), containing a liquid: if the -pressures on the surfaces of the liquid be equal, then the surfaces will -be at the same height. If, on the other hand, the pressure in one limb -be greater than the pressure in the other, the surfaces will be at -different heights, the difference being directly proportional to the -difference of pressures and inversely as the specific gravity of the -liquid used. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.] - - Two forms are in use: (1) the "open-tube," in which the pressure in - one limb is equal to the atmospheric pressure, and (2) the - "closed-tube," in which the experimental pressure is balanced against - the liquid column and the air compressed into the upper part of a - closed limb of the tube. In the "open tube" form (fig. 1) the pressure - on the surface a is equal to the pressure on the surface at b (one - atmosphere) _plus_ the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the liquid - column of height a b. The liquid commonly used is mercury. If a scale - be placed behind the limbs of the tube, so that the difference a b can - be directly determined, then the pressure in a is at once expressible - as P + a b in millimetres or inches of mercury, where P is the - atmospheric pressure, known from an ordinary barometric observation. - In the "closed tube" form (fig. 2) the calculation is not so simple, - for the variation of pressure on the mercury surface in the closed - limb has to be taken into account. Suppose the length of the air - column in the closed limb be h when the mercury is at the same height - in both tubes. Applying the experimental pressure to the open end, if - this be greater than atmospheric pressure the mercury column will rise - and the air column diminish in the closed limb. Let the length of the - air column be h', then its pressure is h/h' atmospheres. The - difference in height of the mercury columns in the two limbs is 2(h - - h'), and the pressure in the open limb is obviously equal to that of a - column of mercury of length 2(h - h'), plus h/h' atmospheres. These - instruments are equally serviceable for determining pressures less - than one atmosphere. In laboratory practice, e.g. when it is required - to determine the degree of exhaust of a water pump, a common form - consists of a vertical glass tube having its lower end immersed in a - basin of mercury, and its upper end connected by means of an - intermediate vessel to the exhaust. The mercury rises in the tube, and - the difference between the barometric height and the length of the - mercury column gives the pressure attained. - - - - -MANOR. Any definition of a manor, in land tenure, must take note of two -elements--economic and political. The manor has an estate for its basis, -although it need not coincide with an estate, but may be wider. It is -also a political unit, a district formed for purposes of government, -although the political functions made over to it may greatly vary. As a -lordship based on land tenure, the manor necessarily comprises a ruler -and a population dependent on him, and the characteristic trait of such -dependence consists not in ownership extending over persons, as in -slave-holding communities, nor in contractual arrangements, as in a -modern economic organization, but in various forms and degrees of -subjection, chiefly regulated by custom. In the sense mentioned the -manor is by no means a peculiarly English institution; it occurs in -every country where feudalism got a hold. Under other names we find it -not only in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, but also, to a certain -extent, in the Byzantine Empire, Russia, Japan, &c. It is especially -representative of an aristocratic stage in the development of European -nations. When tribal notions and arrangements ceased to be sufficient -for upholding their commonwealths, when social and political life had to -be built up on the basis of land-tenure, the type of manorial -organization came forward in natural course. It was closely connected -with natural economy, and was suited to a narrow horizon of economic -wants and political requirements. At the same time it provided links for -a kind of national federation of military estates. We shall only speak -of the course of manorial evolution in France and Germany, because this -presents the clearest expression of the fundamental principles of -manorial life and the best material for comparison with English facts. - -One problem common to the entire European world has to be considered -from the very beginning. Does the manor date from the Roman Empire, or -not? Can its chief features be traced in Roman institutions? There can -be no doubt that at the end of the Roman period certain traits are -noticeable which might, under favourable conditions, develop into a -manorial combination. Great estates with political functions, -populations subjected to the political lordship of landowners, appear in -the closing centuries of the empire, and have to be reckoned with as -precursors of medieval manorial life. The original organization of the -ancient world was built up on the self-government of cities and on the -sharp distinction between citizens and slaves. Both features were -gradually modified by the Roman Empire. Self-government was atrophied by -bureaucratic interference; the economy based on the exploitation of -slaves began to give way before relations in which the elements of -freedom and serfdom were oddly mixed. During the last centuries of its -existence the Western Empire became more and more a conglomerate of -barbaric and half-civilized populations, and it is not strange that the -characteristic germs of feudalism began to show themselves within its -territory as well as outside it. As far as political institutions are -concerned, we notice that the central power, after claiming an absolute -sway over its subjects, is obliged more and more to lean on private -forces in order to maintain itself. One of its favourite resources in -the 4th and 5th centuries consists in making great landowners -responsible for the good behaviour of their tenants and even of their -less important neighbours. The _saltus_, the great domain, is -occasionally recognized as a separate district exempt from the ordinary -administration of the city, subordinated to its owner in respect of -taxes and police. Even in ordinary estates (_fundi_) there is a tendency -to make the landowner responsible for military conscription, for the -presentation of criminals to justice. On the other hand the incumbents -of ecclesiastical offices are nominated in accordance with the wishes of -patrons among the landowners; in the administration of justice the -influence of this same class makes itself felt more and more. Nor are -signs of a convergent evolution wanting on the economic side. Slaves are -used more and more as small householders provided with rural tenements -and burdened with rents and services. Free peasant farmers holding by -free agreement get more and more reduced to a status of half-free -settlers occupying their tenancies on the strength of custom and -traditional ascription to the glebe. Eventually this status is -recognized as a distinct class by imperial legislation. Ominous symptoms -of growing political disruption and of an aristocratic transformation of -society were visible everywhere at the close of the empire. Yet there -could be no talk of a manorial system as long as the empire and the -commercial intercourse protected by it continued to exist. - -The fall of the empire hastened the course of evolution. It brought into -prominence barbaric tribes who were unable to uphold either the -political power or the economic system of the Romans. The Germans had -from old certain manorial features in the constitution of their -government and husbandry. The owner of a house had always been possessed -of a certain political power within its precincts, as well as within the -fenced area surrounding it: the peace of the dwelling and the peace of -the hedged-in yard were recognized by the legal customs of all the -German tribes. The aristocratic superiority of warriors over all classes -engaged in base peaceful work was also deeply engraved in the minds of -the fighting and conquering tribes. On the other hand the downfall of -complicated forms of civilization and civil intercourse rendered -necessary a kind of subjection in which tributary labourers were left to -a certain extent to manage their own affairs. The Germanic conqueror was -unable to move slaves about like draughts: he had no scope for a -complicated administration of capital and work. The natural outcome was -to have recourse to serfdom with its convenient system of tribute and -services. - -But, as in the case of the Roman Empire, the formation of regular manors -was held back for a time in the early Germanic monarchies by the -lingering influence of tribal organization. In the second period of -medieval development in continental Europe, in the Carolingian epoch, -the features of the estate as a political unit are more sharply marked. -Notwithstanding the immense efforts of Charles Martel, Pippin and -Charlemagne to strengthen the tottering edifice of the Frankish Empire, -public authority had to compromise with aristocratic forces in order to -ensure regular government. As regards military organization this is -expressed in the recognition of the power of _seniores_, called upon to -lead their vassals in the host; as regards jurisdiction, in the increase -of the numbers of commended freemen who seek to interpose the powerful -patronage of lay and secular magnates between themselves and the Crown. -Great estates arose not only on the lands belonging to the king, but on -that of churches and of lay potentates, and the constitution of these -estates, as described for instance in the Polyptique of St Germain des -Pres or in the "Brevium exempla ad describendas res ecclesiasticas et -fiscales" (_Capitularia_, ed. Boretius, i. 250), reminds us forcibly of -that of later feudal estates. They contain a home-farm, with a court and -a _casa indominicata_, or manor-house, some holdings (_mansi_) of free -men (_ingenuiles_), of serfs (_serviles_), and perhaps of half-free -people (_lidiles_). The rents and services of this dependent population -are stated in detail, as in later custumals, and there is information -about the agricultural implements, the stores and stock on the -home-farm. Thus the economic basis of the manor exists in more or less -complete order, but it cannot be said as yet to form the prevailing type -of land tenure in the country. Holdings of independent free men and -village organizations of ancient type still surround the great estates, -and in the case of ecclesiastical possessions we are often in a position -to watch their gradual extension at the expense of the neighbouring free -settlers, by way of direct encroachment, and by that of surrender and -commendation on the part of the weaker citizens. Another factor which -plays a great part in the gradual process of infeudation is the rise of -private jurisdictions, which falls chiefly into the 10th and 11th -centuries. The struggle against Northmen, Magyars and Slavs gave a -crowning touch to the process of localization of political life and of -the aristocratic constitution of society. - -In order to describe the full-grown continental manor of the 11th -century it is better to take French examples than German, Italian or -Spanish. Feudalism in France attained the greatest extension and utmost -regularity, while in other European countries it was hampered and -intermixed with other institutional features. The expression best -corresponding to the English "manor," in the sense of an organized -district, was _seigneurie_. _Manoir_ is in use, and is, of course, a -French word corresponding to _manerium_, but it meant strictly "mansion" -or chief homestead in France. _Baronie_ is another term which might be -employed in some instances as an equivalent of the English manor, but, -in a sense, it designates only one species of a larger genus, the estate -of a full baron in contrast to a mere knight's fee, as well as to a -principality. Some of the attributes of a baron are, however, typical, -as the purest expression of manorial rights, and may be used in a -general characterization of the latter. - - The _seigneurie_ may be considered from three points of view--as a - unit of administration, as an economic unit, and as a union of social - classes. - - (a) In principle the disruption of political life brought about by - feudalism ought to have resulted in the complete administrative - independence of the manor. _Chaque baron est souverain dans sa - baronie_ is a proverb meant to express this radical view of manorial - separatism. As a matter of fact this separatism was never completely - realized, and even at the time of the greatest prevalence of feudalism - the little sovereigns of France were combined into a loose federation - of independent fiefs. Still, the proverb was not a mere play of words, - and it took a long time for the kings of France to break in - potentates, like the little Sire de Coucy in the immediate vicinity of - Paris, who sported in his crest the self-complacent motto: _Je ne suis - ni comte, ni marquis, je suis le sire de Coucy_. The institutional - expression of this aspect of feudalism in the life of the _seigneurie_ - was the jurisdiction combined with the latter. The principal origin of - this jurisdiction was the dismemberment of royal justice, the - acquisition by certain landowners of the right of holding royal pleas. - The assumption of authority over public tribunals of any kind was - naturally considered as equivalent to such a transmission of royal - right. But other sources may be noticed also. It was assumed by French - feudal law that in all cases when land was granted by a _seigneur_ in - subinfeudation the recipients would be bound to appear as members of a - court of tenants for the settlement of conflicts in regard to land. A - third source may be traced in the extension of the patrimonial justice - of a person over his serfs and personal dependents to the classes of - free and half-free population connected with the _seigneurie_ in one - way or another. There arose in consequence of these assumptions of - jurisdiction a most bewildering confusion of tribunals and judicial - rights. It happened sometimes that the question as to who should be - the judge in some particular contest was decided by matter-of-fact - seizure--the holder of pleas who was the first on the spot to proclaim - himself judge in a case was deemed entitled to jurisdiction. In other - cases one _seigneur_ held the pleas in a certain place for six days in - the week, while some competitor of his possessed jurisdiction during - the seventh. A certain order was brought into this feudal chaos by the - classification of judiciary functions according to the four categories - of high, middle, low and tenurial justice. The scope of the first - three subdivisions is sufficiently explained by their names; the - fourth concerned cases arising from subinfeudation. As a rule the - baron or _seigneur_ sat in justice with a court of assessors or peers, - but the constitution of such courts varied a great deal. They - represented partly the succession of the old popular courts with their - _scabini_, partly courts of vassals and tenants. In strict feudal law - an appeal was allowed from a lower to a higher court only in a case of - a denial of justice (_denie de justice_), not in error or revision of - sentence. This rule was, however, very often infringed, and gave way - ultimately before the restoration of royal justice. - - (b) The economic fabric of the French _seigneurie_ varied greatly, - according to localities. In the north of France it was not unlike that - of the English manor. The capital messuage, or castle, and the - home-farm of the lord, were surrounded by dependent holdings, - _censives_, paying rent, and villein tenements burdened with services. - Between these tenancies there were various ties of neighbourhood and - economic solidarity recalling the open-field cultivation in England - and Germany. When the harvest was removed from the open strips they - returned to a state of undivided pasture in which the householders of - the village exercised rights of common with their cattle. Wild pasture - and woods were used more or less in the same fashion as in England - (_droit de pacage de vaine pature_). The inhabitants often formed - courts and held meetings in order to settle the by-laws, and to - adjudicate as to trespasses and encroachments (_courts colongeres_). - In the south, individual property was more prevalent and the villagers - were not so closely united by ties of neighbourhood. Yet even there - the dependent households were arranged into _mansi_ or _colonicae_, - subjected to approximately equal impositions in respect of rents and - services. In any case the characteristic dualism of manorial life, the - combined working of a central home-farm, and of its economic - satellites providing necessary help in the way of services, and - contributing towards the formation of manorial stores, is quite as - much a feature of French as of English medieval husbandry. - - (c) The social relations between the manorial lord and his subjects - are marked by various forms of the exploitation of the latter by the - former. Apart from jurisdictional profits, rents and agricultural - services, dues of all kinds are exacted from the rural population. - Some of these dues have to be traced to servile origins, although they - were evidently gradually extended to groups of people who were not - descended from downright serfs but had lapsed into a state of - considerable subjection. The _main morte_ of rustic tenants meant that - they had no goods of their own, but held movable property on - sufferance without the right of passing it on to their successors. As - a matter of fact, sons were admitted to inheritance after their - fathers, and sometimes succession was extended to other relatives, but - the person taking inheritance paid a heavy fine for entering into - possession, or gave up a horse, an ox, or some other especially - valuable piece of property. The _formariage_ corresponded to the - English _merchetum_, and was exacted from rustics on the marriage of - their daughters. Although this payment assumed very different shapes, - and sometimes only appeared in case consorts belonged to different - lords, it was considered a badge of serfdom. _Chevage_ (_capitagium_) - might be exacted as a poll-tax from all the unfree inhabitants of a - _seigneurie_, or, more especially, from those who left it to look for - sustenance abroad. The power of the lord as a landowner was more - particularly expressed in his right of pre-emption (_retrait - seigneurial_), and in taxes on alienation (_lods et ventes_). As a - person wielding political authority, a kind of sovereignty, the lord - enjoyed divers rights which are commonly attributed to the state--the - right of coining money, of levying direct taxes and toll (_tallagium, - tolneta_) and of instituting monopolies. These latter were of common - occurrence, and might take the shape, for instance, of forcing the - inhabitants to make use of the lord's mill (_moulin banal_), or of his - oven (_four banal_), or of his bull (_taureau banal_). - -In Germany the history of the manorial system is bound up with the -evolution of the _Grundherrschaft_ (landlordship) as opposed to -_Gutsherrschaft_ (estate-ownership). The latter need not include any -elements of public authority and aristocratic supremacy: the former is -necessarily connected with public functions and aristocratic standing. -The centre of the _Grundherrschaft_ was the _Hof_, the court or hall of -the lord, from which the political and economic rights of the lord -radiated. The struggle of the military aristocracy and of -ecclesiastical institutions with common freedom was more protracted than -in France or England; the lordships very often took the shape of -disparate rights over holdings and groups of population scattered over -wide tracts of country and intermixed with estates and inhabitants -subjected to entirely different authority. Therefore the aspect of -German manorialism is more confused and heterogeneous than that of the -French or English systems. One remarkable feature of it is the -consistent separation of criminal justice from other kinds of -jurisdiction on Church property. Episcopal sees and abbeys delegated -their share of criminal justice to lay magnates in the neighbourhood -(_Vogtei_), and this division of power became a source of various -conflicts and of many entangled relations. The main lines of German -manorialism are not radically different from those of France and -England. The communal element, the _Dorfverband_, is usually more -strongly developed than in France, and assumes a form more akin to the -English township. But there were regions, e.g. Westphalia, where the -population had settled in separate farms (_Hofsystem_), and where the -communal solidarity was reduced to a union for administrative purposes -and for the use of pasture. - -It need hardly be added that every step in the direction of more active -economic intercourse and more efficient public authority tended to -lessen the influence of the manorial system in so far as the latter was -based on the localization of government, natural husbandry and -aristocratic authority. - - See Fustel de Coulanges, _Histoire des institutions de la France_, - especially the volumes "L'Alleu et le domaine rural" and "L'Invasion - germanique"; Beaudouin, "Les Grands domaines dans l'empire romain" - (_Nouvelle revue de droit francais et etranger_, 1898); T. Flach, _Les - Origines de l'ancienne France_, I., II., III. (1886); Paul Viollet, - _Histoire des institutions de la France_, I., II. (1890, 1898); A. - Luchaire, _Manuel des institutions francaises_ (1892); G. Waitz, - _Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte_, I.-VIII. (1865-1883); K. T. von - Inama-Sternegg, _Deutsche Wirtschaftsgeschichte_, I., II. (1879-1891); - K. Lamprecht, _Deutsches Wirtschaftsleben_, I.-IV. (1885); A. Meitzen, - _Ansiedelungen, Wanderungen und Agrarwesen der Volker Europas_, I.-IV. - (1895 ff.); W. Wittich, _Die Grundherrschaft in Nordwestdeutschland_ - (1896); G. F. von Maurer, _Geschichte der Mark-, Dorf- und - Hofverfassung in Deutschland_; and F. Seebohm, _The English Village - Community_ (1883). (P. Vi.) - - - Rights of Lord and Tenants. - - Rights of Villeins. - - Cotters. - -_The Manor in England._--It will be most convenient to describe a -typical English manor in its best known period, the 13th century, and to -indicate briefly the modifications of the type which varying conditions -may produce. Topographically such a manor consisted partly of the houses -of the inhabitants more or less closely clustered together, and -surrounded by arable land divided into large fields, two or three in -number. Each of these fields was divided again into shots or furlongs, -and each of the shots was broken up into cultivated strips a pole wide, -each containing an acre, separated by narrow balks of turf. There were -also certain meadows for supplying hay; and beyond the cultivated land -lay the wood and waste of the manor. Portions of arable or meadow land -might be found apart from the organization of the remainder; the lord of -the manor might have a park, and each householder a garden, but the land -of the manor was the open fields, the meadows and the wastes or common. -The condition of the inhabitants of such a manor is as complex as its -geography. At the head of the society came the lord of the manor, with -his hall, court, or manor-house, and the land immediately about it, and -his demesne both in the fields and in the meadow land. The arable -demesne consisted of certain of the acre strips lying scattered over the -various furlongs; his meadow was a portion assigned to him each year by -the custom of the manor. He had also rights over the surrounding waste -paramount to those enjoyed by the other inhabitants. Part of his demesne -land would be granted out to free tenants to hold at a rent or by -military or other service; part would be in the lord's own hands, and -cultivated by him. Each part so granted out will carry with it a share -in the meadow land and in the profits of the waste. These rights of the -free tenants over the waste limited the lord's power over it. He could -not by enclosure diminish their interest in it. The statute of Merton in -1236 and the second statute of Westminster in 1285 marked the utmost -limit of enclosure allowed in the 13th century. Below the lord and the -free tenants came the villeins, natives, bondmen, or holders of virgates -or yard-lands, each holding a house, a fixed number of acre strips, a -share of the meadow and of the profits of the waste. The number of -strips so held was usually about thirty; but virgates of fifteen acres -or even eighty are not unknown. In any one manor, however, the holdings -of all the villeins were equal. Normally the holder of a virgate was -unfree; he had no rights in the eye of the law against his lord, who was -protected from all suits by the _exceptio villenagii_; he could not -without leave quit the manor, and could be reclaimed by process of law -if he did; the strict contention of law deprived him of all right to -hold property; and in many cases he was subject to certain degrading -incidents, such as _merchet_ (_merchetum_), a payment due to the lord -upon the marriage of a daughter, which was regarded as a special mark of -unfree condition. But there are certain limitations to be made. Firstly, -all these incidents of tenure, even merchet, might not affect the -personal status of the tenant; he might still be free, though holding by -an unfree tenure; secondly, even if unfree, he was not exposed to the -arbitrary will of his lord but was protected by the custom of the manor -as interpreted by the manor court. Moreover, he was not a slave, he was -not bought and sold apart from his holding. The hardship of his -condition lay in the services due from him. As a rule a villein paid for -his holding in money, in labour and in kind. In money he paid, firstly, -a small fixed rent called rent of assize; and, secondly, dues under -various names, partly in lieu of services commuted into money payments, -and partly for the privileges and profits enjoyed by him on the waste of -the manor. In labour he paid more heavily. Week by week he had to come -with his own plough and oxen to plough the lord's demesne; when -ploughing was done he had to harrow, to reap the crops, to thresh and -carry them, or do whatever might be required of him, until his allotted -number of days labour in the year was done. Beyond this his lord might -request of him extra days in harvest or other seasons of emergency, and -these requests could not be denied. Further, all the carriage of the -manor was provided by the villeins, even to places as much as a hundred -miles away from the manor. The mending of the ploughs, hedging, -ditching, sheepshearing and other miscellaneous work also fell upon him, -and it is sometimes hard to see what time remained to him to work upon -his own holding. In kind he usually rendered honey, eggs, chickens and -perhaps a ploughshare, but these payments were almost always small in -value. Another class of inhabitants remains to be mentioned--the -cotters. These are the poor of the manor, who hold a cottage and garden, -or perhaps one acre or half an acre in the fields. They were unfree in -condition, and in most manors their services were modelled upon those of -the villeins. From their ranks were usually drawn the shepherd of the -manor, the bee-keeper and other minor officials of the manor. - - - Staff. - -A complicated organization necessarily involves administrators. Just as -the services of the tenants and even their names vary from manor to -manor, so does the nature of the staff. Highest in rank came the -steward; he was attached to no manor in particular, but controlled a -group, travelling from one to another to take accounts, to hold the -courts, and generally represent the lord. Under him are the officers of -the several manors. First came the bailiff or beadle, the representative -of the lord in the manor; his duty was to collect the rents and -services, to gather in the lord's crops and account for the receipts and -expenditure of the manor. Closely connected with him was the "messor" or -reaper; in many cases, indeed, "reaper" seems to have been only another -name for the bailiff. But the villeins were not without their own -officer, the provost or reeve. His duty was to arrange the distribution -of the services due from the tenants, and, as their representative, to -assist the bailiff in the management of the manor. Sometimes the same -man appears to have united both offices, and we find the reeve -accounting to the lord for the issues of the manor. To these important -officials may be added a number of smaller ones, the shepherd, the -swineherd, the bee-keeper, the cowherd, the ploughman and so on, mostly -selected from the cotters, and occupying their small holdings by the -services expressed in their titles. The number varies with the -constitution and needs of each estate, and they are often replaced by -hired labour. - - - Manor Court. - -The most complicated structure in the system is the manor court. The -complication is, indeed, partly the work of lawyers interpreting -institutions they did not understand by formulae not adapted to describe -them. But beyond this there remain the facts that the court was the -meeting-point of the lord and the tenants both free and unfree, that any -question touching on the power and constitution of the court was bound -to affect the interests of the lord and the tenants, and that there was -no external power capable of settling such questions as did arise. Amid -this maze a few clear lines can be laid down. In the first place, so far -as the 13th century goes, all the discussion that has collected about -the terms court leet, court baron and court customary may be put aside; -it relates to questions which in the 13th century were only just -emerging. The manor court at that date exercised its criminal, civil, or -manorial jurisdiction as one court; its names may differ, the parties -before it may be free or unfree, but the court is the same. Its -president was the lord's steward; the bailiff was the lord's -representative and the public prosecutor; and the tenants of the manor, -both free and unfree, attended at the court and gave judgment in the -cases brought before it. To modern ears the constitution sounds -unfamiliar. The president of the court settled the procedure of the -court, carried it out, and gave the final sentence, but over the law of -the court he had no power. All that is comprised in the word "judgment" -was settled by the body of tenants present at the court. This attendance -was, indeed, compulsory, and absence subjected to a fine any tenant -owing and refusing the service known as "suit of court." It may be asked -who in these courts settled questions of fact. The answer must be that -disputed questions of fact could only be settled in one way, by ordeal; -and that in most manorial courts the method employed was the wager of -law. The business of the court may be divided into criminal, manorial -and civil. Its powers under the first head depended on the franchises -enjoyed by the lord in the particular manor; for the most part only -petty offences were triable, such as small thefts, breaches of the -assize of bread and ale, assaults, and the like; except under special -conditions, the justice of great offences remained in the king. But -offences against the custom of the manor, such as bad ploughing, -improper taking of wood from the lord's woods, and the like, were of -course the staple criminal business of the court. Under the head of -manorial business the court dealt with the choice of the manorial -officers, and had some power of making regulations for the management of -the manor; but its most important function was the recording of the -surrenders and admittances of the villein tenants. Into the history and -meaning of this form of land transfer it is not necessary to enter here. -But it must be noted that the conveyance of a villein's holding was -effected by the vendor surrendering his land to the lord, who thereupon -admitted the purchaser to the holding. The same procedure was employed -in all cases of transfer of land, and the transaction was regularly -recorded upon the rolls of the court among the records of all the other -business transacted there. Finally, the court dealt with all suits as to -land within the manor, questions of dower and inheritance, and with -civil suits not connected with land. But it need hardly be said that in -an ordinary rural manor very few of these would occur. - -It will be clear on consideration that the manor court as here described -consisted of conflicting elements of very different origin and history. -Founded partly on express grants of franchises, partly on the inherent -right of a feudal lord to hold a court for his free tenants, partly on -the obscure community traceable among the unfree inhabitants of the -manor, it is incapable of strict legal definition. All these elements, -moreover, contain in themselves reasons for the decay which gradually -came over the system. The history of the decay of the manorial -jurisdictions in England has not yet been written. On the one hand were -the king's courts, with new and improved processes of law; on the other -hand the gradual disintegration which marks the history of the manor -during the 14th and 15th centuries. The criminal jurisdiction was the -first to disappear, and was closely followed by the civil jurisdiction -over the free tenants; and in modern times all that is left is the -jurisdiction over the customary tenants and their holdings, and that in -an attenuated form. - - A few words must be given to the legal theories of the 15th century on - the manor court. It would seem to have become the law that to the - existence of the manor two courts were necessary--a court customary - for customary tenants, and a court baron for free tenants. In the - court customary the lord's steward is the judge; in the court baron - the freeholders are the judges. If the freeholders in the manor - diminish to less than two in number the court baron cannot be held, - and the manor perishes. Nor can it be revived by the grant of new - freehold tenures, because under the statute of _Quia Emptores_ such - new freeholders would hold not of the lord of the manor, but of his - lord. The customary tenants and the court customary may survive, but - the manor is only a reputed manor. Of the 13th century all this is - untrue, but even at that date the existence of free tenants was in a - measure essential to the existence of the manor court. If there were - none the jurisdiction of the court over free tenants of course - collapsed; but in addition to this the lord also lost his power of - exercising the highest criminal franchises, even if he otherwise - possessed them; he could, for instance, no longer hang a murderer on - his own gallows. Perhaps it may be said that to the exercise of the - feudal power and of the royal franchises the presence of free tenants - was necessary. But it is clear that no such condition was necessary to - the existence of the manor. - - Apart from the change in the court of the manor, the most important - thread in its history is the process which converted the villein into - the copyholder. Here again the subject is imperfectly explored, and - part of it is still subject to controversy. In the strict view of - contemporary lawyers the holding of the villein tenant of the 13th - century was at the will of the lord, and the king's courts of law - would not protect him in his possession. If, however, the villein were - a tenant on the king's ancient demesne his condition was improved. The - writs of _monstraverunt_ and the little writ of right close protected - him from the improper exaction of services and from ejection by the - lord. But in ordinary manors there was no such immunity. That ejection - was common cannot be believed, but it was legally possible; and it was - not until the well-known decision of Danby, C. J., and Bryan, C. J., - in 7 Edw. IV., that the courts of law would entertain an action of - trespass brought against his lord by a customary tenant. From that - date the courts, both of law and equity, begin to intervene; and the - records of the Courts of Star Chamber and Requests show that in the - Tudor period equitable suits brought by tenants against their lords - are not infrequent. Side by side with the alteration in the legal - condition of the manor there went on an economic change. The labour - rents and other services slowly disappeared, and were replaced by - money payments. The field divisions gave way before inclosures, - effected sometimes by the lords and sometimes by the tenants. Change - in legal and agricultural practice went on side by side, and finally - the manor ceased to be an important social form, and became only a - peculiar form of land tenure and the abode of antiquarian curiosities. - - See G. L. von Maurer, _Einleitung in die Geschichte der Hof-, Mark-, - Dorf- und Stadtverfassung in Deutschland_ (Erlangen, 1856); G. Nasse, - _Zur Geschichte der mittelalterlichen Feldgemeinschaft in England_ - (Bonn, 1869); H. S. Maine, _Village Communities in the East and West_ - (Cambridge, 1872); F. Seebohm, _The English Village Community_ (1883); - W. J. Ashley, _English Economic History_, pts. i. ii. (1888-1893); F. - W. Maitland, _Select Pleas in Manorial Courts_ (London, Selden - Society, 1888); P. Vinogradoff, _Villainage in England_ (Cambridge, - 1892); _The Growth of the Manor_ (1905) and _English Society in the - 11th Century_ (1908); A. Meitzen, _Siedelung und Agrarwesen der - Westgermanen und Ostgermanen_ (Berlin, 1896); W. Cunningham, _Growth - of English Industry and Commerce_ (Cambridge, 1896); F. Pollock and F. - W. Maitland, _History of English Law_ (Cambridge, 1896); F. W. - Maitland, _Doomsday Book and Beyond_ (Cambridge, 1897); and C. M. - Andrews, _The Old English Manor_ (1892). (C. G. Cr.) - - - - -MANOR-HOUSE (Lat. _manerium_; Fr. _manoir_), in architecture, the name -given to the dwelling-house of the lord of the manor. The manor-house -was generally arranged for defence against robbers and thieves and was -often surrounded by a moat with drawbridge, but was not provided with a -keep or with towers or lofty curtain walls so as to stand a siege. The -early buildings were comparatively small, square in plan, comprising a -hall with one or two adjacent chambers; at a later period wings were -added, thus forming three sides of a quadrangle, like the house designed -by John Thorpe as his residence, the plan of which is among his drawings -in the Soane Museum. One of the most ancient examples is the -manor-house built by Richard Coeur de Lion at Southampton as a -rendezvous when he was about to cross into France. This consisted of a -hall and chapel on the first floor, with cellars on the ground floor; -the walls of this structure, with the chimney-piece, are still in -existence. The distinction between the "manor-house" and "castle" is not -always very clearly defined; in France such buildings as the castles of -Aydon (Northumberland) and of Stokesay (Shropshire) would be regarded as -manor-houses in that they were built as country houses and not as -fortresses, like Coucy and Pierrefonds; some of the smaller castles in -France were, in the 16th century, transformed into manor-houses by the -introduction of windows on the second floors of their towers and the -partial destruction of their curtain walls, as in the manor-houses of -Sedieres (Correze), Nantouillet and Compiegne; and in the same century, -as at Chenonceaux, Blois and Chambord, though angle towers and -machicolated parapets still formed part of the design, they were -considered to be purely decorative features. The same is found in -England; thus in Thornbury and Hurstmonceaux castles, and in Cowdray -House, the fortifications were more for show than for use. There is an -interesting example of a French manor-house near Dieppe, known as the -Manoir-d'Ango, built in 1525, of which a great portion still exists, -where the proprietor Ango received Francois I., so that it must have -been of considerable size. - - In England the principal examples of which remains exist are the - manor-houses of Appleton, Berkshire, with a moat; King John's house at - Warnford (Hampshire); Boothby Ragnell, Lincolnshire, with traces of - moat; Godmersham, Kent; Little Wenham Hall, Suffolk, built partly in - brick and flint, and one of the earliest in which the bricks, probably - imported from Flanders, are found; Charney Hall, Berkshire (T-shaped - in plan in two storeys); Longthorpe House, near Peterborough; - Stokesay, Shropshire, already referred to; Cottesford, Oxfordshire; - Woodcraft, Northamptonshire; Acton Burnell, Shropshire; Old Soar, - Plaxtol, Kent, in two storeys, the ground storey vaulted and used as - cellar and storehouse, and the upper floor with hall, solar and - chapel. The foundation of all these dates from the 13th century. - Ightham Mote, Kent, portions of which, with the moat, date from the - 14th century, is one of the best preserved manor-houses; then follow - Norborough Hall, Northamptonshire; Creslow manor-house, Bucks, with - moat; Sutton Courtenay, Berkshire; the Court Lodge, Great Chart, Kent; - Stanton St Quentin, Great Chalfield, and South Wraxhall, all in Wilts; - Meare manor-house, Somerset; Ockwell, Berks; Kingfield manor-house, - Derbyshire; Kirby Muxloe, Leicestershire; Stoke Albany, - Northamptonshire; and, in the 16th century, Large Marney Hall, Essex - (1520); Sutton Place, Surrey (1530); the Vyne, Hampshire, already - influenced by the first Renaissance. In the 17th and 18th centuries - the manor-house is generally rectangular in plan, and, though well and - solidly built, would seem to have been erected more with a view to - internal comfort than to exterior embellishments. There is one other - type of manor-house, which partakes of the character of the castle in - its design, and takes the form of a tower, rectangular or square, with - angle turrets and in several storeys; in France it is represented by - the manor-houses of St Medard near Bordeaux and Camarsae (Dordogne), - and in England by Tattershall Castle, Lincolnshire and Middleton - Tower, Norfolk, both being in brick. (R. P. S.) - - - - -MANRESA, a town of north-eastern Spain, in the province of Barcelona, on -the river Cardoner and the Barcelona-Lerida railway. Pop. (1900), -23,252. Manresa is the chief town of the highlands watered by the -Cardoner and upper Llobregat, which meet below the town, and are also -connected by a canal 18 m. long. Two bridges, one built of stone and -dating from the Roman period, the other constructed of iron in 1804, -unite the older and larger part of Manresa with the modern suburbs on -the right bank of the river. The principal buildings are the collegiate -church of Santa Maria de la Seo, the Dominican monastery, and the church -of San Ignazio, built over the cavern (_cueva santa_) where Ignatius de -Loyola spent most of the year 1522 in penitentiary exercises and the -composition of his _Exercitia spiritualia_. Santa Maria is a fine -example of Spanish Gothic, and consists, like many Catalan churches, of -nave and chancel, aisles and ambulatory, without transepts. One of its -chief treasures is an exquisite 15th-century Florentine altar-frontal, -preserved in the sacristy. The Dominican monastery, adjoining the _cueva -santa_, commands a magnificent view of the Montserrat (q.v.), and is -used for the accommodation of the pilgrims who yearly visit the cavern -in thousands. Manresa has important iron-foundries and manufactures of -woollen, cotton and linen goods, ribbons, hats, paper, soap, chemicals, -spirits and flour. Building-stone is quarried near the town. - -Manresa is probably the _Munorisa_ of the Romans, which was the capital -of the Jacetani or Jaccetani, an important tribe of the south-eastern -Pyrenees. A large portion of the town was burned by the French in 1811. - - - - -MANRIQUE, GOMEZ (1412?-1490?), Spanish poet, soldier, politician and -dramatist, was born at Amusco. The fifth son of Pedro Manrique, -_adelantado mayor_ of Leon, and nephew of Santillana (q.v.), Gomez -Manrique was introduced into public life at an early age, took a -prominent part against the constable Alvaro de Luna during the reign of -John II., went into opposition against Miguel Lucas de Iranzo in the -reign of Henry IV., and declared in favour of the infanta Isabel, whose -marriage with Ferdinand he promoted. Besides being a distinguished -soldier, he acted as a moderating political influence and, when -appointed _corregidor_ of Toledo, was active in protecting the converted -Jews from popular resentment. His will was signed on the 31st of May -1490, and he is known to have died before the 16th of February 1491. He -inherited the literary taste of his uncle Santillana, and was greatly -esteemed in his own age; but his reputation was afterwards eclipsed by -that of his nephew Jorge Manrique (q.v.), whose _Coplas_ were -continually reproduced. Gomez Manrique's poems were not printed till -1885, when they were edited by Antonio Paz y Melia. They at once -revealed him to be a poet of eminent merit, and it seems certain that -his _Consejos_, addressed to Diego Arias de Avila, inspired the more -famous _Coplas_ of his nephew. His didactic verses are modelled upon -those of Santillana, and his satires are somewhat coarse in thought and -expression; but his place in the history of Spanish literature is secure -as the earliest Spanish dramatist whose name has reached posterity. He -wrote the _Representacion del nascimiento de Nuestro Senor_, a play on -the Passion, and two _momos_, or interludes, played at court. - - - - -MANRIQUE, JORGE (1440?-1478), Spanish poet and soldier, was born -probably at Paredes de Nava. The fourth son of Rodrigo Manrique, count -de Paredes, he became like the rest of his family a fervent partisan of -Queen Isabel, served with great distinction in many engagements, and was -made _comendador_ of Montizon in the order of Santiago. He was killed in -a skirmish near the fortress of Garci-Munoz in 1478, and was buried in -the church attached to the convent of Ucles. His love-songs, satires, -and acrostic verses are merely ingenious compositions in the taste of -his age; he owes his imperishable renown to a single poem, the _Coplas -por la muerte de su padre_, an elegy of forty stanzas on the death of -his father, which was apparently first printed in the _Cancionero -llamado de Fray Inigo de Mendoza_ about the year 1482. There is no -foundation for the theory that Manrique drew his inspiration from an -Arabic poem by Abu 'l-Baka Salih ar-Rundi; the form of the _Coplas_ is -influenced by the _Consejos_ of his uncle, Gomez Manrique, and the -matter derives from the Bible, from Boethius and from other sources -readily accessible. The great sonorous commonplaces on death are -vitalized by the intensely personal grief of the poet, who lent a new -solemnity and significance to thoughts which had been for centuries the -common property of mankind. It was given to Jorge Manrique to have one -single moment of sublime expression, and this isolated achievement has -won him a fame undimmed by any change of taste during four centuries. - - The best edition of the _Coplas_ is that issued by R. Foulche-Delbosc - in the _Bibliotheca hispanica_; the poem has been admirably translated - by Longfellow. Manrique's other verses were mostly printed in Hernando - del Castillo's _Cancionero general_ (1511). - - - - -MANSE (Med. Lat. _mansa_, _mansus_ or _mansum_, from _manere_, to dwell, -remain), originally a dwelling-house together with a portion of land -sufficient for the support of a family. It is defined by Du Cange -(_Glossarium, s.v. Mansus_) as _... certam agri portionem quae coleretur -et in qua coloni aedes esset_. The term was particularly applied, in -ecclesiastical law, to the house and glebe to which every church was -entitled by common right, the rule of canon law being _sancitum est ut -unicuique ecclesiae unus mansus integer absque ullo servitio tribuatur_ -(Phillimore, _Eccles. Law_, 1895, ii. 1125). The word is now chiefly -used for the residence of a minister of the Established Church of -Scotland; to this every minister of a rural parish is entitled, and the -landed proprietors must build and keep it up. "Manse" is also loosely -used for the residence of a minister of various Free Church -denominations (see GLEBE). - - - - -MANSEL, HENRY LONGUEVILLE (1820-1871), English philosopher, was born at -Cosgrove, Northamptonshire (where his father, also Henry Longueville -Mansel, fourth son of General John Mansel, was rector), on the 6th of -October 1820. He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School and St John's -College, Oxford. He took a double first in 1843, and became tutor of his -college. He was appointed reader in moral and metaphysical philosophy at -Magdalen College in 1855, and Waynflete professor in 1859. He was a -great opponent of university reform and of the Hegelianism which was -then beginning to take root in Oxford. In 1867 he succeeded A. P. -Stanley as professor of ecclesiastical history, and in 1868 he was -appointed dean of St Paul's. He died on the 31st of July 1871. - -The philosophy of Mansel, like that of Sir William Hamilton, was mainly -due to Aristotle, Kant and Reid. Like Hamilton, Mansel maintained the -purely formal character of logic, the duality of consciousness as -testifying to both self and the external world, and the limitation of -knowledge to the finite and "conditioned." His doctrines were developed -in his edition of Aldrich's _Artis logicae rudimenta_ (1849)--his chief -contribution to the reviving study of Aristotle--and in his _Prolegomena -logica: an Inquiry into the Psychological Character of Logical -Processes_ (1851, 2nd ed. enlarged 1862), in which the limits of logic -as the "science of formal thinking" are rigorously determined. In his -Bampton lectures on _The Limits of Religious Thought_ (1858, 5th ed. -1867; Danish trans. 1888) he applied to Christian theology the -metaphysical agnosticism which seemed to result from Kant's criticism, -and which had been developed in Hamilton's _Philosophy of the -Unconditioned_. While denying all knowledge of the supersensuous, Mansel -deviated from Kant in contending that cognition of the ego as it really -is is itself a fact of experience. Consciousness, he held--agreeing thus -with the doctrine of "natural realism" which Hamilton developed from -Reid--implies knowledge both of self and of the external world. The -latter Mansel's psychology reduces to consciousness of our organism as -extended; with the former is given consciousness of free will and moral -obligation. A summary of his philosophy is contained in his article -"Metaphysics" in the 8th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ -(separately published, 1860). Mansel wrote also _The Philosophy of the -Conditioned_ (1866) in reply to Mill's criticism of Hamilton; _Letters, -Lectures, and Reviews_ (ed. Chandler, 1873), and _The Gnostic Heresies_ -(ed. J. B. Lightfoot, 1875, with a biographical sketch by Lord -Carnarvon). He wrote a commentary on the first two gospels in the -_Speaker's Commentary_. - - See J. W. Burgon, _Lives of Twelve Good Men_ (1888-1889); James - Martineau, _Essays, Reviews and Addresses_ (London, 1891), iii. 117 - seq.; A. W. Benn, _History of Rationalism_ (1906), ii. 100-112; - Masson, _Recent British Philosophy_ (3rd ed., London, 1877), pp. 252 - seq.; Sir Leslie Stephen in _Dict. Nat. Biog._ - - - - -MANSFELD, the name of an old and illustrious German family which took -its name from Mansfeld in Saxony, where it was seated from the 11th to -the 18th century. One of its earliest members was Hoyer von Mansfeld (d. -1115), a partisan of the emperor Henry V. during his struggles with the -Saxons; he fought for Henry at Warnstadt and was killed in his service -at Welfesholz. Still more famous was Albert, count of Mansfeld -(1480-1560), an intimate friend of Luther and one of the earliest and -staunchest supporters of the Reformation. He helped to crush the rising -of the peasants under Thomas Munzer in Thuringia in 1525; he was a -member of the league of Schmalkalden, and took part in all the movements -of the Protestants against Charles V. With Albert was associated his -brother Gebhard, and another member of the family was Johann Gebhard, -elector of Cologne from 1558 to 1562. A scion of another branch of the -Mansfelds was Peter Ernst, Furst von Mansfeld (1517-1604), governor of -Luxemburg, who unlike his kinsmen was loyal to Charles V. He went with -the emperor to Tunis and fought for him in France. He was equally loyal -to his son, Philip II. of Spain, whom he served at St Quentin and in the -Netherlands. He distinguished himself in the field and found time to -lead a body of troops to aid the king of France against the Huguenots. -In this capacity he was present in 1569 at the battle of Moncontour, -where another member of his family, Count Wolrad of Mansfeld (d. 1578) -was among the Huguenot leaders. The Mansfeld family became extinct in -1780 on the death of Josef Wenzel Nepomuk, prince of Fondi, the lands -being divided between Saxony and Prussia. - - See L. F. Niemann, _Geschichte der Grafen von Mansfeld_ (Aschersleben, - 1834). - - - - -MANSFELD, ERNST, GRAF VON (c. 1580-1626), German soldier, was an -illegitimate son of Peter Ernst, Furst von Mansfeld, and passed his -early years in his father's palace at Luxemburg. He gained his earliest -military experiences in Hungary, where his half-brother Charles -(1543-1595,) also a soldier of renown, held a high command in the -imperial army. Later he served under the Archduke Leopold, until that -prince's ingratitude, real or fancied, drove him into the arms of the -enemies of the house of Habsburg. Although remaining a Roman Catholic he -allied himself with the Protestant princes, and during the earlier part -of the Thirty Years' War he was one of their foremost champions. He was -despatched by Charles Emmanuel, duke of Savoy, at the head of about 2000 -men to aid the revolting Bohemians when war broke out in 1618. He took -Pilsen, but in the summer of 1619 he was defeated at Zablat; after this -he offered his services to the emperor Ferdinand II. and remained -inactive while the titular king of Bohemia, Frederick V., elector -palatine of the Rhine, was driven in headlong rout from Prague. -Mansfeld, however, was soon appointed by Frederick to command his army -in Bohemia, and in 1621 he took up his position in the Upper Palatinate, -successfully resisting the efforts made by Tilly to dislodge him. From -the Upper he passed into the Rhenish Palatinate. Here he relieved -Frankenthal and took Hagenau; then, joined by his master, the elector -Frederick, he defeated Tilly at Wiesloch in April 1622 and plundered -Alsace and Hesse. But Mansfeld's ravages were not confined to the lands -of his enemies; they were ruinous to the districts he was commissioned -to defend. At length Frederick was obliged to dismiss Mansfeld's troops -from his service. Then joining Christian of Brunswick the count led his -army through Lorraine, devastating the country as he went, and in August -1622 defeating the Spaniards at Fleurus. He next entered the service of -the United Provinces and took up his quarters in East Friesland, -capturing fortresses and inflicting great hardships upon the -inhabitants. A mercenary and a leader of mercenaries, Mansfeld often -interrupted his campaigns by journeys made for the purpose of raising -money, or in other words of selling his services to the highest bidder, -and in these diplomatic matters he showed considerable skill. About 1624 -he paid three visits to London, where he was hailed as a hero by the -populace, and at least one to Paris. James I. was anxious to furnish him -with men and money for the recovery of the palatinate, but it was not -until January 1625 that Mansfeld and his army of "raw and poor rascals" -sailed from Dover to the Netherlands. Later in the year, the Thirty -Years' War having been renewed under the leadership of Christian IV., -king of Denmark, he re-entered Germany to take part therein. But on the -25th of April 1626 Wallenstein inflicted a severe defeat upon him at the -bridge of Dessau. Mansfeld, however, quickly raised another army, with -which he intended to attack the hereditary lands of the house of -Austria, and pursued by Wallenstein he pressed forward towards Hungary, -where he hoped to accomplish his purpose by the aid of Bethlem Gabor, -prince of Transylvania. But when Gabor changed his policy and made peace -with the emperor, Mansfeld was compelled to disband his troops. He set -out for Venice, but when he reached Rakowitza he was taken ill, and -here he died on the 29th of November 1626. He was buried at Spalato. - - See F. Stieve, _Ernst von Mansfeld_ (Munich, 1890); R. Reuss, _Graf - Ernst von Mansfeld im bohmischen Kriege_ (Brunswick, 1865); A. C. de - Villermont, _Ernest de Mansfeldt_ (Brussels, 1866); L. Graf Uetterodt - zu Schaffenberg, _Ernst Graf zu Mansfeld_ (Gotha, 1867); J. Grossmann, - _Des Grafen Ernst von Mansfeld letzte Plane und Thaten_ (Breslau, - 1870); E. Fischer, _Des Mansfelders Tod_ (Berlin, 1873); S. R. - Gardiner, _History of England_, vols. iv. and v. (1901); J. L. Motley, - _Life and Death of John of Barneveld_ (ed. 1904; vol. ii.). - - - - -MANSFIELD, RICHARD (1857-1907), American actor, was born on the 24th of -May 1857, in Berlin, his mother being Madame [Erminia] Rudersdorff -(1822-1882), the singer, and his father, Maurice Mansfield (d. 1861), a -London wine merchant. He first appeared on the stage at St George's -Hall, London, and then drifted into light opera, playing the -Major-General in _The Pirates of Penzance_, and the Lord High -Executioner in _The Mikado_, both in the English provinces and in -America. In 1883 he joined A. M. Palmer's Union Square theatre company -in New York, and made a great hit as Baron Chevrial in _A Parisian -Romance_. He appeared successfully in several plays adapted from -well-known stories, and his rendering (1887) of the doubled title-parts -in R. L. Stevenson's _Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde_ created a -profound impression. It was with this play that he made his London -reputation during a season (1888) at the Lyceum theatre, by invitation -of Henry Irving. He produced Richard III. the next year at the Globe. -Among his other chief successes were _Prince Karl_, _Cyrano de Bergerac_ -and _Monsieur Beaucaire_. He was one of the earliest to produce G. -Bernard Shaw's plays in America, appearing in 1894 as Bluntschli in -_Arms and the Man_, and as Dick Dudgeon in _The Devil's Disciple_ in -1897. As a manager and producer of plays Mansfield was remarkable for -his lavish staging. He died in New London, Connecticut, on the 30th of -August 1907. - - See the lives by Paul Wilstach (1908) and William Winter (1910). - - - - -MANSFIELD, WILLIAM MURRAY, 1ST EARL OF (1705-1793), English judge, was -born at Scone in Perthshire, on the 2nd of March 1705. He was a younger -son of David Murray, 5th Viscount Stormont (c. 1665-1731), the dignity -having been granted in 1621 by James I. to his friend and helper, Sir -David Murray (d. 1631), a Scottish politician of some note. Lord -Stormont's family was Jacobite in its politics, and his second son James -(c. 1690-1728), being apparently mixed up in some of the plots of the -time, joined the court of the exiled Stuarts and in 1721 was created -earl of Dunbar by James Edward, the Old Pretender. - -William Murray was educated at Perth grammar school and Westminster -School, of which he was a king's scholar. Entering Christ Church, -Oxford, he graduated in 1727. A friend of the family, Lord Foley, -provided the funds for his legal training, and he became a member of -Lincoln's Inn on his departure from Oxford, being called to the bar in -1730. He was a good scholar and mixed with the best literary society, -being an intimate friend of Alexander Pope. His appearance in some -important Scottish appeal cases brought him into notice, and in Scotland -at least he acquired an immense reputation by his appearance for the -city of Edinburgh when it was threatened with disfranchisement for the -affair of the Porteous mob. His English practice had as yet been scanty, -but in 1737 a single speech in a jury trial of note placed him at the -head of the bar, and from this time he had all he could attend to. In -1738 he married Lady Elizabeth Finch, daughter of the earl of -Winchelsea. His political career began in 1742 with his appointment as -solicitor-general. During the next fourteen years he was one of the most -conspicuous figures in the parliamentary history of the time. By birth a -Jacobite, by association a Tory, he was nevertheless a Moderate, and his -politics were really dominated by his legal interests. Although holding -an office of subordinate rank, he was the chief defender of the -government in the House of Commons, and during the time that Pitt was in -opposition had to bear the brunt of his attacks. In 1754 he became -attorney-general, and for the next two years acted as leader of the -House of Commons under the administration of the duke of Newcastle. But -in 1756, when the government was evidently approaching its fall, an -unexpected vacancy occurred in the chief justiceship of the king's -bench, and he claimed the office, being at the same time raised to the -peerage as Baron Mansfield. - -From this time the chief interest of his career lies in his judicial -work, but he did not wholly dissever himself from politics. He became by -a singular arrangement, only repeated in the case of Lord Ellenborough, -a member of the cabinet, and remained in that position through various -changes of administration for nearly fifteen years, and, although he -persistently refused the chancellorship, he acted as Speaker of the -House of Lords while the Great Seal was in commission. During the time -of Pitt's ascendancy he took but little part in politics, but while Lord -Bute was in power his influence was very considerable, and seems mostly -to have been exerted in favour of a more moderate line of policy. He was -on the whole a supporter of the prerogative, but within definite limits. -Macaulay terms him, justly enough, "the father of modern Toryism, of -Toryism modified to suit an order of things in which the House of -Commons is the most powerful body in the state." During the stormy -session of 1770 he came into violent collision with Chatham and Camden -in the questions that arose out of the Middlesex election and the trials -for political libel; and in the subsequent years he was made the subject -of the bitter attacks of Junius, in which his early Jacobite connexions, -and his apparent leanings to arbitrary power, were used against him with -extraordinary ability and virulence. In 1776 he was created earl of -Mansfield. In 1783, although he declined to re-enter the cabinet, he -acted as Speaker of the House of Lords during the coalition ministry, -and with this his political career may be said to have closed. He -continued to act as chief justice until his resignation in June 1788, -and after five years spent in retirement died on the 20th of March 1793. -He left no family, but his title had been re-granted in 1792 with a -direct remainder to his nephew David Murray, 7th Viscount Stormont -(1727-1796). The 2nd earl was ambassador to Vienna and then to Paris; he -was secretary of state for the southern department from 1779 to 1782, -and lord president of the council in 1783, and again from 1794 until his -death. In 1906 his descendant Alan David Murray (b. 1864) became 6th -earl of Mansfield. - -Lord Mansfield's great reputation rests chiefly on his judicial career. -The political trials over which he presided, although they gave rise to -numerous accusations against him, were conducted with singular fairness -and propriety. He was accused with especial bitterness of favouring -arbitrary power by the law which he laid down in the trials for libel -which arose out of the publications of Junius and Horne Tooke, and which -at a later time he reaffirmed in the case of the dean of St Asaph (see -LIBEL). But we must remember that his view of the law was concurred in -by the great majority of the judges and lawyers of that time, and was -supported by undoubted precedents. In other instances, when the -government was equally concerned, he was wholly free from suspicion. He -supported Lord Camden's decision against general warrants, and reversed -the outlawry of Wilkes. He was always ready to protect the rights of -conscience, whether they were claimed by Dissenters or Catholics, and -the popular fury which led to the destruction of his house during the -Gordon riots was mainly due to the fact that a Catholic priest, who was -accused of saying Mass, had escaped the penal laws by his charge to the -jury. His chief celebrity, however, is founded upon the consummate -ability with which he discharged the civil duties of his office. He has -always been recognized as the founder of English mercantile law. The -common law as it existed before his time was wholly inadequate to cope -with the new cases and customs which arose with the increasing -development of commerce. The facts were left to the jury to decide as -best they might, and no principle was ever extracted from them which -might serve as a guide in subsequent cases. Mansfield found the law in -this chaotic state, and left it in a form that was almost equivalent to -a code. He defined almost every principle that governed commercial -transactions in such a manner that his successors had only to apply the -rules he had laid down. His knowledge of Roman and foreign law, and the -general width of his education, freed him from the danger of relying too -exclusively upon narrow precedents, and afforded him a storehouse of -principles and illustrations, while the grasp and acuteness of his -intellect enabled him to put his judgments in a form which almost always -commanded assent. A similar influence was exerted by him in other -branches of the common law; and although, after his retirement, a -reaction took place, and he was regarded for a while as one who had -corrupted the ancient principles of English law, these prejudices passed -rapidly away, and the value of his work in bringing the older law into -harmony with the needs of modern society has long been fully recognized. - - See Holliday's _Life_ (1797); Campbell's _Chief Justices_; Foss's - _Judges_; Greville's _Memoirs, passim_; Horace Walpole's _Letters_; - and other memoirs and works on the period. - - - - -MANSFIELD, a market town and municipal borough in the Mansfield -parliamentary division of Nottinghamshire, England, on the small river -Mann or Maun; the junction of several branches of the Midland railway, -by which it is 142 m. N.N.W. from London. Pop. (1891), 13,094; (1901), -15,250. Area, 7068 acres. The church of St Peter is partly Early Norman, -and partly Perpendicular. There is a grammar school founded by Queen -Elizabeth in 1561, occupying modern buildings. Twelve almshouses were -founded by Elizabeth Heath in 1693, and to these six were afterwards -added. There are a number of other charities. The industries are the -manufacture of lace, thread, boots and machinery, iron-founding and -brewing. In the neighbourhood, as at Mansfield Woodhouse to the north, -there are quarries of limestone, sandstone and freestone. The town is -governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. During the heptarchy -Mansfield was occasionally the residence of the Mercian kings, and it -was afterwards a favourite resort of Norman sovereigns, lying as it does -on the western outskirts of Sherwood Forest. By Henry VIII. the manor -was granted to the earl of Surrey. Afterwards it went by exchange to the -duke of Newcastle, and thence to the Portland family. The town obtained -a fair from Richard II. in 1377. It became a municipal borough in 1891. - - - - -MANSFIELD, a city and the county-seat of Richland county, Ohio, U.S.A., -about 65 m. S.W. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890), 13,473; (1900), 17,640, of -whom 1781 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 20,768. It is served by the -Pennsylvania (Pittsburg, Ft Wayne & Chicago division), the Erie, and the -Baltimore & Ohio railways. It is built on an eminence (1150 ft.), and -has two public parks, a substantial court-house, a soldiers' and -sailors' memorial building, a public library, a hospital and many fine -residences. It is the seat of the Ohio state reformatory. Mansfield has -an extensive trade with the surrounding agricultural country, but its -largest interests are in manufactures. The total factory product in 1905 -was valued at $7,353,578. There are natural gas wells in the vicinity. -The waterworks and the sewage disposal plant are owned and operated by -the municipality. Mansfield was laid out in 1808, and was named in -honour of Lieut.-Colonel Jared Mansfield (1759-1830), United States -surveyor of Ohio and the North-west Territory in 1803-1812, and -professor of natural and experimental philosophy at West Point from 1812 -to 1828. Mansfield was incorporated as a village in 1828 and was first -chartered as a city in 1857. It was the home of John Sherman from 1840 -until his death. - - - - -MANSION (through O. Fr. _mansion_, mod. _maison_, from Lat. _mansio_, -dwelling-place, stage on a journey; _manere_, to remain), a term applied -in early English use to the principal house of the lord of a manor. By -the Settled Land Act 1890, S 10, subsec. 2, repealing S 15 of the act of -1882, "the principal mansion house ... on any settled land shall not be -sold or exchanged or leased by the tenant for life without the consent -of the trustees of the settlement or an order of the court." The -principles guiding an English court of law for making or refusing such -an order are laid down in _In re the Marquess of Ailesbury's Settled -Estate_ (1892), 1 Ch. 506, 546; A.C. 356. In general usage, the term -"mansion" is given to any large and important house in town or country; -and "mansion house" to the official residence, when provided, of the -mayor of a borough, particularly to that of the lord mayors of London -and Dublin. From the general meaning of a conspicuously large -dwelling-place comes the modern employment of the term "mansions," in -London and elsewhere, for large buildings composed of "flats." - - - - -MANSLAUGHTER (O. Eng., _mannslaeht_, from _mann_, man, and _slaeht_, act -of slaying, _slean_, to slay, properly to smite; cf. Ger. _schlagen_, -_Schlacht_, battle), a term in English law signifying "unlawful homicide -without malice aforethought" (Stephen, _Digest of the Criminal Law_, -Art. 223). The distinction between manslaughter and murder and other -forms of homicide is treated under HOMICIDE. - - - - -MANSON, GEORGE (1850-1876), Scottish water-colour painter, was born in -Edinburgh on the 3rd of December 1850. When about fifteen he was -apprenticed as a woodcutter with W. & R. Chambers, with whom he remained -for over five years, diligently employing all his spare time in the -study and practice of art, and producing in his morning and evening -hours water-colours of much delicacy and beauty. In 1871 he devoted -himself exclusively to painting. His subjects were derived from humble -Scottish life--especially child-life, varied occasionally by -portraiture, by landscape, and by views of picturesque architecture. In -1873 he visited Normandy, Belgium and Holland; in the following year he -spent several months in Sark; and in 1875 he resided at St Lo, and in -Paris, where he mastered the processes of etching. Meanwhile in his -water-colour work he had been adding more of breadth and power to the -tenderness and richness of colour which distinguished his early -pictures, and he was planning more complex and important subjects. But -his health had been gradually failing, and he was ordered to Lympstone -in Devonshire, where he died on the 27th of February 1876. - - A volume of photographs from his water-colours and sketches, with a - memoir by J. M. Gray, was published in 1880. For an account of - Manson's technical method as a wood engraver see P. G. Hamerton's - _Graphic Arts_, p. 311. - - - - -MANSUR (Arab. "victorious"), a surname (_laqab_) assumed by a large -number of Mahommedan princes. The best known are: (1) ABU JA'FAR IBN -MAHOMMED, second caliph of the Abbasid house, who reigned A.D. 754-775 -(see CALIPHATE: S C, S2); (2) ABU TAHIR ISMA'IL IBN AL-QAIM, the third -Fatimite caliph of Africa (946-953) (see FATIMITES); (3) ABU YUSUF YA -'QUB IBN YUSUF, often described as Jacob Almanzor, of the Moorish -dynasty of the Almohades, conqueror of Alfonso III. in the battle of -Alarcos (1195); (4) IBN ABI 'AMIR MAHOMMED, commonly called Almanzor by -European writers, of an ancient but not illustrious Arab family, which -had its seat at Torrox near Algeciras. The last-named was born A.D. 939, -and began life as a lawyer at Cordova. In 967 he obtained a place at the -court of Hakam II., the Andalusian caliph, and by an unusual combination -of the talents of a courtier with administrative ability rapidly rose to -distinction, enjoying the powerful support of Subh, the favourite of the -caliph and mother of his heir Hisham. The death of Hakam (976) and the -accession of a minor gave fresh scope to his genius, and in 978 he -became chief minister. The weak young caliph was absorbed in exercises -of piety, but at first Mansur had to share the power with his -father-in-law Ghalib, the best general of Andalusia, and with the mother -of Hisham. At last a rupture took place between the two ministers. -Ghalib professed himself the champion of the caliph and called in the -aid of the Christians of Leon; but Mansur, anticipating the struggle, -had long before remodelled the army and secured its support. Ghalib fell -in battle (981); a victorious campaign chastised the Leonese; and on his -return to Cordova the victor assumed his regal surname of _al-Mansur -billah_, and became practically sovereign of Andalusia. The caliph was a -mere prisoner of state, and Mansur ultimately assumed the title as well -as the prerogatives of king (996). Unscrupulous in the means by which he -rose to power, he wielded the sovereignty nobly. His strict justice and -enlightened administration were not less notable than the military -prowess by which he is best known. His arms were the terror of the -Christians, and raised the Moslem power in Spain to a pitch it had never -before attained. In Africa his armies were for a time hard pressed by -the revolt of Ziri, viceroy of Mauretania, but before his death this -enemy had also fallen. Mansur died at Medinaceli on the 10th of August -1002, and was succeeded by his son Mozaffar. - - - - -MANSURA, the capital of the province of Dakahlia, Lower Egypt, near the -west side of Lake Menzala, and on the Cairo-Damietta railway. Pop. -(1907), 40,279. It dates from 1221, and is famous as the scene of the -battle of Mansura, fought on the 8th of February 1250, between the -crusaders commanded by the king of France, St Louis, and the Egyptians. -The battle was drawn, but it led to the retreat of the crusaders on -Damietta, and to the surrender of St Louis. Mansura has several -cotton-ginning, cotton, linen and sail-cloth factories. - - - - -MANT, RICHARD (1776-1848), English divine, was born at Southampton on -the 12th of February 1776, and was educated at Winchester and Trinity -College, Oxford. He was elected fellow of Oriel in 1798, and after -taking orders held a curacy at Southampton (1802), and then the vicarage -of Coggeshall, Essex (1810). In 1811 he was Bampton lecturer, in 1816 -was made rector of St Botolph's, and in 1820 bishop of Killaloe and -Kilfenoragh (Ireland). In 1823 he was translated to Down and Connor, to -which Dromore was added in 1842. In connexion with the Rev. George -D'Oyly he wrote a commentary on the whole Bible. Other works by him were -the _Psalms in an English Metrical Version_ (1842) and a _History of the -Church of Ireland_ (1839-1841; 2 vols.). - - - - -MANTEGAZZA, PAOLO (1831-1910), Italian physiologist and anthropologist, -was born at Monza on the 31st of October 1831. After spending his -student-days at the universities of Pisa and Milan, he gained his M.D. -degree at Pavia in 1854. After travelling in Europe, India and America, -he practised as a doctor in the Argentine Republic and Paraguay. -Returning to Italy in 1858 he was appointed surgeon at Milan Hospital -and professor of general pathology at Pavia. In 1870 he was nominated -professor of anthropology at the Instituto di Studii Superiori, -Florence. Here he founded the first Museum of Anthropology and Ethnology -in Italy, and later the Italian Anthropological Society. From 1865 to -1876 he was deputy for Monza in the Italian parliament, subsequently -being elected to the senate. He became the object of bitter attacks on -the ground of the extent to which he carried the practice of -vivisection. His published works include _Fisiologia del dolore_ (1880); -_Fisiologia dell' amore_ (1896); _Elementi d' igiene_ (1875); _Fisonomia -e mimica_ (1883); _Le Estasi umane_ (1887). - - - - -MANTEGNA, ANDREA (1431-1506), one of the chief heroes in the advance of -painting in Italy, was born in Vicenza, of very humble parentage. It is -said that in his earliest boyhood Andrea was, like Giotto, put to -shepherding or cattle-herding; this is not likely, and can at any rate -have lasted only a very short while, as his natural genius for art -developed with singular precocity, and excited the attention of -Francesco Squarcione, who entered him in the gild of painters before he -had completed his eleventh year. - -Squarcione, whose original vocation was tailoring, appears to have had a -remarkable enthusiasm for ancient art, and a proportionate faculty for -acting, with profit to himself and others, as a sort of artistic -middleman; his own performances as a painter were merely mediocre. He -travelled in Italy, and perhaps in Greece also, collecting antique -statues, reliefs, vases, &c., forming the largest collection then extant -of such works, making drawings from them himself, and throwing open his -stores for others to study from, and then undertaking works on -commission for which his pupils no less than himself were made -available. As many as one hundred and thirty-seven painters and -pictorial students passed through his school, established towards 1440, -which became famous all over Italy. Mantegna was, as he deserved to be, -Squarcione's favourite pupil. Squarcione adopted him as his son, and -purposed making him the heir of his fortune. Andrea was only seventeen -when he painted, in the church of S. Sofia in Padua, a Madonna picture -of exceptional and recognized excellence. He was no doubt fully aware of -having achieved no common feat, as he marked the work with his name and -the date, and the years of his age. This painting was destroyed in the -17th century. - -As the youth progressed in his studies, he came under the influence of -Jacopo Bellini, a painter considerably superior to Squarcione, father of -the celebrated painters Giovanni and Gentile, and of a daughter -Nicolosia; and in 1454 Jacopo gave Nicolosia to Andrea in marriage. This -connexion of Andrea with the pictorial rival of Squarcione is generally -assigned as the reason why the latter became alienated from the son of -his adoption, and always afterwards hostile to him. Another suggestion, -which rests, however, merely on its own internal probability, is that -Squarcione had at the outset used his pupil Andrea as the unavowed -executant of certain commissions, but that after a while Andrea began -painting on his own account, thus injuring the professional interests of -his chief. The remarkably definite and original style formed by Mantegna -may be traced out as founded on the study of the antique in Squarcione's -atelier, followed by a diligent application of principles of work -exemplified by Paolo Uccello and Donatello, with the practical guidance -and example of Jacopo Bellini in the sequel. - -Among the other early works of Mantegna are the fresco of two saints -over the entrance porch of the church of S. Antonio in Padua, 1452, and -an altar-piece of St Luke and other saints for the church of S. -Giustina, now in the Brera Gallery in Milan, 1453. It's probable, -however, that before this time some of the pupils of Squarcione, -including Mantegna, had already begun that series of frescoes in the -chapel of S. Cristoforo, in the church of S. Agostino degli Eremitani, -by which the great painter's reputation was fully confirmed, and which -remain to this day conspicuous among his finest achievements.[1] The now -censorious Squarcione found much to carp at in the earlier works of this -series, illustrating the life of St James; he said the figures were like -men of stone, and had better have been coloured stone-colour at once. -Andrea, conscious as he was of his own great faculty and mastery, seems -nevertheless to have felt that there was something in his old -preceptor's strictures; and the later subjects, from the legend of St -Christopher, combine with his other excellences more of natural -character and vivacity. Trained as he had been to the study of marbles -and the severity of the antique, and openly avowing that he considered -the antique superior to nature as being more eclectic in form, he now -and always affected precision of outline, dignity of idea and of figure, -and he thus tended towards rigidity, and to an austere wholeness rather -than gracious sensitiveness of expression. His draperies are tight and -closely folded, being studied (as it is said) from models draped in -paper and woven fabrics gummed. Figures slim, muscular and bony, action -impetuous but of arrested energy, tawny landscape, gritty with littering -pebbles, mark the athletic hauteur of his style. He never changed, -though he developed and perfected, the manner which he had adopted in -Padua; his colouring, at first rather neutral and undecided, -strengthened and matured. There is throughout his works more balancing -of colour than fineness of tone. One of his great aims was optical -illusion, carried out by a mastery of perspective which, though not -always impeccably correct, nor absolutely superior in principle to the -highest contemporary point of attainment, was worked out by himself with -strenuous labour, and an effect of actuality astonishing in those times. - -Successful and admired though he was in Padua, Mantegna left his native -city at an early age, and never afterwards resettled there; the -hostility of Squarcione has been assigned as the cause. The rest of his -life was passed in Verona, Mantua and Rome--chiefly Mantua; Venice and -Florence have also been named, but without confirmation. - -It may have been in 1459 that he went to Verona; and he painted, though -not on the spot, a grand altar-piece for the church of S. Zeno, a -Madonna and angels, with four saints on each side. The Marquis Lodovico -Gonzaga of Mantua had for some time been pressing Mantegna to enter his -service; and the following year, 1460, was perhaps the one in which he -actually established himself at the Mantuan court, residing at first -from time to time at Goito, but, from December 1466 onwards, with his -family in Mantua itself. His engagement was for a salary of 75 lire -(about L30) a month, a sum so large for that period as to mark -conspicuously the high regard in which his art was held. He was in fact -the first painter of any eminence ever domiciled in Mantua. He built a -stately house in the city, and adorned it with a multitude of paintings. -The house remains, but the pictures have perished. Some of his early -Mantuan works are in that apartment of the Castello which is termed the -Camera degli Sposi--full compositions in fresco, including various -portraits of the Gonzaga family, and some figures of genii, &c. In 1488 -he went to Rome at the request of Pope Innocent VIII., to paint the -frescoes in the chapel of the Belvedere in the Vatican; the marquis of -Mantua (Federigo) created him a cavaliere before his departure. This -series of frescoes, including a noted "Baptism of Christ," was -ruthlessly destroyed by Pius VI. in laying out the Museo Pio-Clementino. -The pope treated Mantegna with less liberality than he had been used to -at the Mantuan court; but on the whole their connexion, which ceased in -1490, was not unsatisfactory to either party. Mantegna then returned to -Mantua, and went on with a series of works--the nine tempera-pictures, -each of them 9 ft. square, of the "Triumph of Caesar"--which he had -probably begun before his leaving for Rome, and which are now in Hampton -Court. These superbly invented and designed compositions, gorgeous with -all splendour of subject-matter and accessory, and with the classical -learning and enthusiasm of one of the master-spirits of the age, have -always been accounted of the first rank among Mantegna's works. They -were sold in 1628 along with the bulk of the Mantuan art treasures, and -were not, as is commonly said, plundered in the sack of Mantua in 1630. -They are now greatly damaged by patchy repaintings. Another work of -Mantegna's later years was the so-called "Madonna della Vittoria," now -in the Louvre. It was painted in tempera about 1495, in commemoration of -the battle of Fornovo, which Gianfrancesco Gonzaga found it convenient -to represent to his lieges as an Italian victory, though in fact it had -been a French victory; the church which originally housed the picture -was built from Mantegna's own design. The Madonna is here depicted with -various saints, the archangel Michael and St Maurice holding her mantle, -which is extended over the kneeling Gianfrancesco Gonzaga, amid a -profusion of rich festooning and other accessory. Though not in all -respects of his highest order of execution, this counts among the most -obviously beautiful and attractive of Mantegna's works--from which the -qualities of beauty and attraction are often excluded, in the stringent -pursuit of those other excellences more germane to his severe genius, -tense energy passing into haggard passion. - -Vasari eulogizes Mantegna for his courteous, distinguished and -praiseworthy deportment, although there are indications of his having -been not a little litigious in disposition. With his fellow-pupils at -Padua he had been affectionate; and for two of them, Dario da Trevigi -and Marco Zoppo, he retained a steady friendship. That he had a high -opinion of himself was natural, for no artist of his epoch could produce -more manifest vouchers of marked and progressive attainment. He became -very expensive in his habits, fell at times into difficulties, and had -to urge his valid claims upon the marquis's attention. After his return -to Mantua from Rome his prosperity was at its height, until the death of -his wife. He then formed some other connexion, and became at an advanced -age the father of a natural son, Giovanni Andrea; and at the last, -although he continued launching out into various expenses and schemes, -he had serious tribulations, such as the banishment from Mantua of his -son Francesco, who had incurred the marquis's displeasure. Perhaps the -aged master and connoisseur regarded as barely less trying the hard -necessity of parting with a beloved antique bust of Faustina. Very soon -after this transaction he died in Mantua, on the 13th of September 1506. -In 1517 a handsome monument was set up to him by his sons in the church -of S. Andrea, where he had painted the altar-piece of the mortuary -chapel. - - Mantegna was no less eminent as an engraver, though his history in - that respect is somewhat obscure, partly because he never signed or - dated any of his plates, unless in one single disputed instance, 1472. - The account which has come down to us is that Mantegna began engraving - in Rome, prompted by the engravings produced by Baccio Baldini of - Florence after Sandro Botticelli; nor is there anything positive to - invalidate this account, except the consideration that it would - consign all the numerous and elaborate engravings made by Mantegna to - the last sixteen or seventeen years of his life, which seems a scanty - space for them, and besides the earlier engravings indicate an earlier - period of his artistic style. It has been suggested that he began - engraving while still in Padua, under the tuition of a distinguished - goldsmith, Niccolo. He engraved about fifty plates, according to the - usual reckoning; some thirty of them are mostly accounted - indisputable--often large, full of figures, and highly studied. Some - recent connoisseurs, however, ask us to restrict to seven the number - of his genuine extant engravings--which appears unreasonable. Among - the principal examples are "Roman Triumphs" (not the same compositions - as the Hampton Court pictures), "A Bacchanal Festival," "Hercules and - Antaeus," "Marine Gods," "Judith with the Head of Holophernes," the - "Deposition from the Cross," the "Entombment," the "Resurrection," the - "Man of Sorrows," the "Virgin in a Grotto." Mantegna has sometimes - been credited with the important invention of engraving with the burin - on copper. This claim cannot be sustained on a comparison of dates, - but at any rate he introduced the art into upper Italy. Several of his - engravings are supposed to be executed on some metal less hard than - copper. The technique of himself and his followers is characterized by - the strongly marked forms of the design, and by the oblique formal - hatchings of the shadows. The prints are frequently to be found in two - states, or editions. In the first state the prints have been taken off - with the roller, or even by hand-pressing, and they are weak in tint; - in the second state the printing press has been used, and the ink is - stronger. - - The influence of Mantegna on the style and tendency of his age was - very marked, and extended not only to his own flourishing Mantuan - school, but over Italian art generally. His vigorous perspectives and - trenchant foreshortenings pioneered the way to other artists: in solid - antique taste, and the power of reviving the aspect of a remote age - with some approach to system and consistency, he distanced all - contemporary competition. He did not, however, leave behind him many - scholars of superior faculty. His two legitimate sons were painters of - only ordinary ability. His favourite pupil was known as Carlo del - Mantegna; Caroto of Verona was another pupil, Bonsignori an imitator. - Giovanni Bellini, in his earlier works, obviously followed the lead of - his brother-in-law Andrea. - - The works painted by Mantegna, apart from his frescoes, are not - numerous; some thirty-five to forty are regarded as fully - authenticated. We may name, besides those already specified--in the - Naples Museum, "St Euphemia," a fine early work; in Casa Melzi, Milan, - the "Madonna and Child with Chanting Angels" (1461); in the Tribune of - the Uffizi, Florence, three pictures remarkable for scrupulous finish; - in the Berlin Museum, the "Dead Christ with two Angels"; in the - Louvre, the two celebrated pictures of mythic allegory--"Parnassus" - and "Minerva Triumphing over the Vices"; in the National Gallery, - London, the "Agony in the Garden," the "Virgin and Child Enthroned, - with the Baptist and the Magdalen," a late example; the monochrome of - "Vestals," brought from Hamilton Palace; the "Triumph of Scipio" (or - Phrygian Mother of the Gods received by the Roman Commonwealth), a - tempera in chiaroscuro, painted only a few months before the master's - death; in the Brera, Milan, the "Dead Christ, with the two Maries - weeping," a remarkable _tour de force_ in the way of foreshortening, - which, though it has a stunted appearance, is in correct technical - perspective as seen from all points of view. With all its exceptional - merit, this is an eminently ugly picture. It remained in Mantegna's - studio unsold at his death, and was disposed of to liquidate debts. - - Not to speak of earlier periods, a great deal has been written - concerning Mantegna of late years. See the works by Maud Crutwell - (1901), Paul Kristeller (1901), H. Thode (1897), Paul Yriarte (1901), - Julia Cartwright, _Mantegna and Francia_ (1881). (W. M. R.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] His fellow-workers were Bono of Ferrara, Ansuino of Forli, and - Niccolo Pizzolo, to whom considerable sections of the - fresco-paintings are to be assigned. The acts of St James and St - Christopher are the leading subjects of the series. St James - Exorcizing may have been commenced by Pizzolo, and completed by - Mantegna. The Calling of St James to the Apostleship appears to be - Mantegna's design, partially carried out by Pizzolo; the subjects of - St James baptizing, his appearing before the judge, and going to - execution, and most of the legend of St Christopher, are entirely by - Mantegna. - - - - -MANTELL, GIDEON ALGERNON (1790-1852), English geologist and -palaeontologist, was born in 1790 at Lewes, Sussex. Educated for the -medical profession, he first practised in his native town, afterwards in -1835 in Brighton, and finally at Clapham, near London. He found time to -prosecute researches on the palaeontology of the Secondary rocks, -particularly in Sussex--a region which he made classical in the history -of discovery. While he was still a country doctor at Lewes his eminence -as a geological investigator was fully recognized on the publication of -his work on _The Fossils of the South Downs_ (1822). His most remarkable -discoveries were made in the Wealden formations. He demonstrated the -fresh-water origin of the strata, and from them he brought to light and -described the remarkable Dinosaurian reptiles known as _Iguanodon_, -_Hylaeosaurus_, _Pelorosaurus_ and _Regnosaurus_. For these researches -he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society and a Royal -medal by the Royal Society. He was elected F.R.S. in 1825. Among his -other contributions to the literature of palaeontology was his -description of the Triassic reptile _Telerpelon elginense_. Towards the -end of his life Dr Mantell retired to London, where he died on the 10th -of November 1852. His eldest son, WALTER BALDOCK DURRANT MANTELL -(1820-1895), settled in New Zealand, and there attained high public -positions, eventually being secretary for Crown-lands. He obtained -remains of the _Notornis_, a recently extinct bird, and also brought -forward evidence to show that the moas were contemporaries of man. - - In addition to the works above mentioned Dr Mantell was author of - _Illustrations of the Geology of Sussex_ (4to, 1827); _Geology of the - South-east of England_ (1833); _The Wonders of Geology_, 2 vols. - (1838; ed. 7, 1857); _Geological Excursions round the Isle of Wight, - and along the Adjacent Coast of Dorsetshire_ (1847; ed. 3, 1854); - _Petrifactions and their Teachings_ (1851); _The Medals of Creation_ - (2 vols., 1854). - - - - -MANTES-SUR-SEINE, a town of northern France, capital of an -arrondissement in the department of Seine-et-Oise on the left bank of -the Seine, 34 m. W.N.W. of Paris by rail. Pop. (1906), 8113. The chief -building in Mantes is the celebrated church of Notre-Dame which dates in -the main from the end of the 12th century. A previous edifice was burnt -down by William the Conqueror together with the rest of the town, at the -capture of which he lost his life in 1087; he is said to have bequeathed -a large sum for the rebuilding of the church. The plan, which bears a -marked resemblance to that of Notre-Dame at Paris, includes a nave, -aisles and choir, but no transepts. Three portals open into the church -on the west, the two northernmost, which date from the 12th century, -being decorated with fine carving; that to the south is of the 14th -century and still more ornate. A fine rose-window and an open gallery, -above which rise the summits of the western towers, occupy the upper -part of the facade. In the interior, chapels dating from the 13th and -14th centuries are of interest. The tower of St Maclou (14th century), -relic of an old church and the hotel de ville (15th to 17th centuries), -are among the older buildings of the town, and there is a fountain of -the Renaissance period. Modern bridges and a medieval bridge unite -Mantes with the opposite bank of the Seine on which the town of Limay is -built. The town has a sub-prefecture and a tribunal of first instance. -Mantes was occupied by the English from 1346 to 1364, and from 1416 to -1449. - - - - -MANTEUFFEL, EDWIN, FREIHERR VON (1809-1885), Prussian general field -marshal, son of the president of the superior court of Magdeburg, was -born at Dresden on the 24th of February 1809. He was brought up with his -cousin, Otto von Manteuffel (1805-1882), the Prussian statesman, entered -the guard cavalry at Berlin in 1827, and became an officer in 1828. -After attending the War Academy for two years, and serving successively -as aide-de-camp to General von Muffling and to Prince Albert of Prussia, -he was promoted captain in 1843 and major in 1848, when he became -aide-de-camp to Frederick William IV., whose confidence he had gained -during the revolutionary movement in Berlin. Promoted lieutenant-colonel -in 1852, and colonel to command the 5th Uhlans in 1853, he was sent on -important diplomatic missions to Vienna and St Petersburg. In 1857 he -became major-general and chief of the military cabinet. He gave hearty -support to the prince regent's plans for the reorganization of the army. -In 1861 he was violently attacked in a pamphlet by Karl Twesten -(1820-1870), a Liberal leader, whom he wounded in a duel. He served as -lieutenant-general (to which rank he was promoted on the coronation of -William I., Oct. 18, 1861) in the Danish war of 1864, and at its -conclusion was appointed civil and military governor of Schleswig. In -the Austrian War of 1866 he first occupied Holstein and afterwards -commanded a division under Vogel von Falkenstein in the Hanoverian -campaign, and succeeded him, in July, in command of the Army of the Main -(see SEVEN WEEKS' WAR). His successful operations ended with the -occupation of Wurzburg, and he received the order _pour le merite_. He -was, however, on account of his monarchist political views and almost -bigoted Roman Catholicism, regarded by the parliament as a reactionary, -and, unlike the other army commanders, he was not granted a money reward -for his services. He then went on a diplomatic mission to St Petersburg, -where he was _persona grata_, and succeeded in gaining Russia's assent -to the new position in north Germany. On returning he was gazetted to -the colonelcy of the 5th Dragoons. He was appointed to the command of -the IX. (Schleswig-Holstein) army corps in 1866. But having formerly -exercised both civil and military control in the Elbe duchies he was -unwilling to be a purely military commander under one of his late civil -subordinates, and retired from the army for a year. In 1868, however, he -returned to active service. In the Franco-German War of 1870-71 he -commanded the I. corps under Steinmetz, distinguishing himself in the -battle of Colombey-Neuilly, and in the repulse of Bazaine at Noisseville -(see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR; and METZ). He succeeded Steinmetz in October in -the command of the I. army, won the battle of Amiens against General -Farre, and occupied Rouen, but was less fortunate against Faidherbe at -Pont Noyelles and Bapaume. In January 1871 he commanded the newly formed -Army of the South, which he led, in spite of hard frost, through the -Cote d'Or and over the plateau of Langres, cut off Bourbaki's army of -the east (80,000 men), and, after the action of Pontarlier, compelled it -to cross the Swiss frontier, where it was disarmed. His immediate reward -was the Grand Cross of the order of the Iron Cross, and at the -conclusion of peace he received the Black Eagle. When the Southern Army -was disbanded Manteuffel commanded first the II. army, and, from June -1871 until 1873, the army of occupation left in France, showing great -tact in a difficult position. On leaving France at the close of the -occupation, the emperor promoted Manteuffel to the rank of general field -marshal and awarded him a large grant in money, and about the same time -Alexander II. of Russia gave him the order of St Andrew. After this he -was employed on several diplomatic missions, was for a time governor of -Berlin, and in 1879, perhaps, as was commonly reported, because he was -considered by Bismarck as a formidable rival, he was appointed -governor-general of Alsace-Lorraine; and this office he exercised--more -in the spirit, some said, of a Prussian than of a German official--until -his death at Carlsbad, Bohemia, on the 17th of June 1885. - - See lives by v. Collas (Berlin, 1874), and K. H. Keck (Bielefeld and - Leipzig, 1890). - - - - -MANTINEIA, or MANTINEA, an ancient city of Arcadia, Greece, situated in -the long narrow plain running north and south, which is now called after -the chief town Tripolitsa. Tegea was in the same valley, about 10 m. S. -of Mantineia, and the two cities continually disputed the supremacy of -the district. In every great war we find them ranged on opposite sides, -except when superior force constrained both. The worship and mysteries -of Cora at Mantineia were famous. The valley in which the city lies has -no opening to the coast, and the water finds its way, often only with -much care and artificial aid, through underground passages -(_katavothra_) to the sea. It is bounded on the west by Mount Maenalus, -on the east by Mount Artemision. - -Mantineia is mentioned in the Homeric catalogue of ships, but in early -Greek times existed only as a cluster of villages inhabited by a purely -agricultural community. In the 6th century it was still insignificant as -compared with the neighbouring city of Tegea, and submitted more readily -to Spartan overlordship. The political history of Mantineia begins soon -after the Persian wars, when its five constituent villages, at the -suggestion of Argos, were merged into one city, whose military strength -forthwith secured it a leading position in the Peloponnesus. Its policy -was henceforth guided by three main considerations. Its democratic -constitution, which seems to have been entirely congenial to the -population of small freeholders, and its ambition to gain control over -the Alpheus watershed and both the Arcadian high roads to the isthmus, -frequently estranged Mantineia from Sparta and threw it into the arms of -Argos. But the chronic frontier disputes with Tegea, which turned the -two cities into bitter enemies, contributed most of all to determine -their several policies. About 469 B.C. Mantineia alone of Arcadian -townships refused to join the league of Tegea and Argos against Sparta. -Though formally enrolled on the same side during the Peloponnesian War -the two cities used the truce of 423 to wage a fierce but indecisive war -with each other. In the time following the peace of Nicias the -Mantineians, whose attempts at expansion beyond Mount Maenalus were -being foiled by Sparta, formed a powerful alliance with Argos, Elis and -Athens (420), which the Spartans, assisted by Tegea, broke up after a -pitched battle in the city's territory (418). In the subsequent years -Mantineia still found opportunity to give the Athenians covert help, and -during the Corinthian War (394-387) scarcely disguised its sympathy with -the anti-Spartan league. In 385 the Spartans seized a pretext to besiege -and dismantle Mantineia and to scatter its inhabitants among four -villages. The city was reconstituted after the battle of Leuctra and -under its statesman Lycomedes played a prominent part in organizing the -Arcadian League (370). But the long-standing jealousy against Tegea, and -a recent one against the new foundation of Megalopolis, created -dissensions which resulted in Mantineia passing over to the Spartan -side. In the following campaign of 362 Mantineia, after narrowly -escaping capture by the Theban general Epaminondas, became the scene of -a decisive conflict in which the latter achieved a notable victory but -lost his own life. After the withdrawal of the Thebans from Arcadia -Mantineia failed to recover its pre-eminence from Megalopolis, with -which city it had frequent disputes. In contrast with the Macedonian -sympathies of Megalopolis Mantineia joined the leagues against Antipater -(322) and Antigonus Gonatas (266). A change of constitution, imposed -perhaps by the Macedonians, was nullified (about 250) by a revolution -through which democracy was restored. About 235 B.C. Mantineia entered -the Achaean League, from which it had obtained protection against -Spartan encroachments, but soon passed in turn to the Aetolians and to -Cleomenes III. of Sparta. A renewed defection, inspired apparently by -aversion to the aristocratic government of the Achaeans and jealousy of -Megalopolis, was punished in 222 by a thorough devastation of the city, -which was now reconstituted as a dependency of Argos and renamed -Antigoneia in honour of the Achaeans' ally Antigonus Doson. Mantineia -regained its autonomous position in the Achaean League in 192, and its -original name during a visit of the emperor Hadrian in A.D. 133. Under -the later Roman Empire the city dwindled into a mere village, which -since the 6th century bore the Slavonic name of Goritza. It finally -became a prey to the malaria which arose when the plain fell out of -cultivation, and under Turkish rule disappeared altogether. - (M. O. B. C.) - -[Illustration: Plan of Agora of Mantineia.] - -The site was excavated by M. Fougeres, of the French School at Athens, -in 1888. The plan of the agora and adjacent buildings has been -recovered, and the walls have been completely investigated. The town was -situated in an unusual position for a Greek city, on a flat marshy -plain, and its walls form a regular ellipse about 2(1/2) m. in -circumference. When the town was first formed in 470 B.C. by the -"synoecism" of the neighbouring villages, the river Ophis flowed through -the midst of it, and the Spartan king Agesipolis dammed it up below the -town and so flooded out the Mantineians and sapped their walls, which -were of unbaked brick. Accordingly, when the city was rebuilt in 370 -B.C., the river Ophis was divided into two branches, which between them -encircled the walls; and the walls themselves were constructed to a -height of about 3 to 6 feet of stone, the rest being of unbaked brick. -These are the walls of which the remains are still extant. There are -towers about every 80 ft.; and the gates are so arranged that the -passage inwards usually runs from right to left, and so an attacking -force would have to expose its right or shieldless side. Within the -walls the most conspicuous landmark is the theatre, which, unlike the -majority of Greek theatres, consists entirely of an artificial mound -standing up from the level plain. Only about a quarter of its original -height remains. Its _scena_ is of rather irregular shape, and borders -one of the narrow ends of the agora. Close to it are the foundations of -several temples, one of them sacred to the hero Podaros. The agora is of -unsymmetrical form; its sides are bordered by porticoes, interrupted by -streets, like the primitive agora of Elis as described by Pausanias, and -unlike the regular agoras of Ionic type. Most of these porticoes were of -Roman period--the finest of them were erected, as we learn from -inscriptions, by a lady named Epigone: one, which faced south, had a -double colonnade, and was called the [Greek: Baite]: close to it was a -large exedra. The foundations of a square market-hall of earlier date -were found beneath this. On the opposite side of the agora was an -extensive Bouleuterion or senate-house. Traces remain of paved roads -both within the agora and leading out of it; but the whole site is now a -deserted and feverish swamp. The site is interesting for comparison with -Megalopolis; the nature of its plan seems to imply that its main -features must survive from the earlier "synoecism" a century before the -time of Epaminondas. - - See Strabo viii. 337; Pausanias viii. 8; Thucyd. iv. 134, v.; - Xenophon, _Hellenica_, iv.-vii.; Diodorus xv. 85-87; Polybius ii. 57 - sqq., vi. 43; D. Worenka, _Mantineia_ (1905); B. V. Head, _Historia - numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), pp. 376-377; G. Fougeres in _Bulletin de - correspondance hellenique_ (1890), id. _Mantinee et l'Arcadie - orientale_ (Paris, 1898). Consult also TEGEA; ARCADIA. - - Five battles are recorded to have been fought near Mantineia; 418, 362 - (see above), 295 (Demetrius Poliorcetes defeats Archidamus of Sparta), - 242 (Aratus beats Agis of Sparta), 207 (Philopoemen beats Machanidas - of Sparta). The battles of 362 and 207 are discussed at length by J. - Kromayer, _Antike Schtachtfelder in Griechenland_ (Berlin, 1903), - 27-123, 281-314; _Wiener Studien_ (1905), pp. 1-16. (E. Gr.) - - - - -MANTIS, an insect belonging to the order _Orthoptera_. Probably no other -insect has been the subject of so many and widespread legends and -superstitions as the common "praying mantis," _Mantis religiosa_, L. The -ancient Greeks endowed it with supernatural powers ([Greek: mantis], a -diviner); the Turks and Arabs hold that it prays constantly with its -face turned towards Mecca; the Provencals call it _Prega-Diou_ -(_Prie-Dieu_); and numerous more or less similar names--preacher, saint, -nun, mendicant, soothsayer, &c.--are widely diffused throughout southern -Europe. In Nubia it is held in great esteem, and the Hottentots, if not -indeed worshipping the local species (_M. fausta_), as one traveller has -alleged, at least appear to regard its alighting upon any person both as -a token of saintliness and an omen of good fortune. - -Yet these are "not the saints but the tigers of the insect world." The -front pair of limbs are very peculiarly modified--the coxa being greatly -elongated, while the strong third joint or femur bears on its curved -underside a channel armed on each edge by strong movable spines. Into -this groove the stout tibia is capable of closing like the blade of a -pen-knife, its sharp, serrated edge being adapted to cut and hold. Thus -armed, with head raised upon the much-elongated and semi-erect -prothorax, and with the half-opened fore-limbs held outwards in the -characteristic devotional attitude, it rests motionless upon the four -posterior limbs waiting for prey, or occasionally stalks it with slow -and silent movements, finally seizing it with its knife-blades and -devouring it. Although apparently not daring to attack ants, these -insects destroy great numbers of flies, grasshoppers and caterpillars, -and the larger South-American species even attack small frogs, lizards -and birds. They are very pugnacious, fencing with their sword-like limbs -"like hussars with sabres," the larger frequently devouring the smaller, -and the females the males. The Chinese keep them in bamboo cages, and -match them like fighting-cocks. - -The common species fixes its somewhat nut-like egg capsules on the stems -of plants in September. The young are hatched in early summer, and -resemble the adults, but are without wings. - -[Illustration: Praying Mantis (_Mantis religiosa_).] - -The green coloration and shape of the typical mantis are procryptic, -serving to conceal the insect alike from its enemies and prey. The -passage from leaf to flower simulation is but a step which, without -interfering with the protective value of the coloration so far as -insectivorous foes are concerned, carries with it the additional -advantage of attracting flower-feeding insects within reach of the -raptorial limbs. This method of allurement has been perfected in certain -tropical species of _Mantidae_ by the development on the prothorax and -raptorial limbs of laminate expansions so coloured on the under side as -to resemble papilionaceous or other blossoms, to which the likeness is -enhanced by a gentle swaying kept up by the insect in imitation of the -effect of a lightly blowing breeze. As instances of this may be cited -_Idalum diabolicum_, an African insect, and _Gongylus gongyloides_, -which comes from India. Examples of another species (_Empusa eugena_) -when standing upon the ground deceptively imitate in shape and hue a -greenish white anemone tinted at the edges with rose; and Bates records -what appears to be a true case of aggressive mimicry practised by a -Brazilian species which exactly resembles the white ants it preys upon. - - - - -MANTIS-FLY, the name given to neuropterous insects of the family -_Mantispidae_, related to the ant-lions, lace-wing flies, &c., and named -from their superficial resemblance to a _Mantis_ owing to the length of -the prothorax and the shape and prehensorial nature of the anterior -legs. The larva, at first campodeiform, makes its way into the egg-case -of a spider or the nest of a wasp to feed upon the eggs or young. -Subsequently it changes into a fat grub with short legs. When full grown -it spins a silken cocoon in which the transformation into the pupa is -effected. The latter escapes from its double case before moulting into -the mature insect. - - - - -MANTLE, a long flowing cloak without sleeves, worn by either sex. -Particularly applied to the long robe worn over the armour by the -men-at-arms of the middle ages, the name is still given to the robes of -state of kings, peers, and the members of an order of knights. Thus the -"electoral mantle" was a robe of office worn by the imperial electors, -and the Teutonic knights were known as the _orde alborum mantellorum_ -from their white mantles. As an article of women's dress a mantle now -means a loose cloak or cape, of any length, and made of silk, velvet, or -other rich material. The word is derived from the Latin _mantellum_ or -_mantelum_, a cloak, and is probably the same as, or another form of, -_mantelium_ or _mantele_, a table-napkin or table-cloth, from _manus_, -hand, and _tela_, a cloth. A late Latin _mantum_, from which several -Romance languages have taken words (cf. Ital. _manto_, and Fr. _mante_), -must, as the _New English Dictionary_ points out, be a "back-formation," -and this will explain the diminutive form of the Spanish _mantilla_. -From the old French _mantel_ came the English compounds "mantel-piece," -"mantel-shelf," for the stone or wood beam which serves as a support for -the structure above a fire-place, together with the whole framework, -whether of wood, stone, &c., that acts as an ornament of the same (see -CHIMNEYPIECE). The modern French form _manteau_ is used in English -chiefly as a dressmaker's term for a woman's mantle. "Mantua," much used -in the 18th century for a similar garment, is probably a corruption of -_manteau_, due to silk or other materials coming from the Italian town -of that name, and known by the trade name of "mantuas." The Spanish -_mantilla_ is a covering for the head and shoulders of white or black -lace or other material, the characteristic head-dress of women in -southern and central Spain. It is occasionally seen in the other parts -of Spain and Spanish countries, and also in Portugal. - -"Mantle" is used in many transferred senses, all with the meaning of -"covering," as in zoology, for an enclosing sac or integument; thus it -is applied to the "tunic" or layer of connective-tissue forming the -body-wall of ascidians enclosing muscle-fibres, blood-sinuses and nerves -(see TUNICATA). The term is also used for a meshed cap of refractory -oxides employed in systems of incandescent lighting (see LIGHTING). The -verb is used for the creaming or frothing of liquids and of the -suffusing of the skin with blood. In heraldry "mantling," also known as -"panache," "lambrequin" or "contoise," is an ornamental appendage to an -escutcheon, of flowing drapery, forming a background (see HERALDRY). - - - - -MANTON, THOMAS (1620-1677), English Nonconformist divine, was born at -Laurence Lydiard, Somerset, in 1620, and was educated at Hart Hall, -Oxford. Joseph Hall, bishop of Norwich, ordained him deacon: he never -took priest's orders, holding that "he was properly ordained to the -ministerial office." He was one of the clerks at the Westminster -Assembly, one of Cromwell's chaplains and a "trier," and held livings at -Stoke Newington (1645) and St Paul's, Covent Garden (1656). He -disapproved of the execution of Charles I. In 1658 he assisted Baxter to -draw up the "Fundamentals of Religion." He helped to restore Charles II. -and became one of his chaplains, refusing the deanery of Rochester. In -1662 he lost his living under the Act of Uniformity and preached in his -own rooms and in other parts of London. For this he was arrested in -1670. - - His works are best known in the collected edition by J. C. Ryle (22 - vols. 1870-1875). - - - - -MAN-TRAPS, mechanical devices for catching poachers and trespassers. -They have taken many forms, the most usual being like a large rat-trap, -the steel springs being armed with teeth which met in the victim's leg. -Since 1827 they have been illegal in England, except in houses between -sunset and sunrise as a defence against burglars. - - - - -MANTUA (Ital. _Mantova_), a fortified city of Lombardy, Italy, the -capital of the province of Mantua, the see of a bishop, and the centre -of a military district, 25 m. S.S.W. of Verona and 100 m. E.S.E. of -Milan by rail. Pop. (1906), 31,783. It is situated 88 ft. above the -level of the Adriatic on an almost insular site in the midst of the -swampy lagoons of the Mincio. As the belt of marshy ground along the -south side can be laid under water at pleasure, the site of the city -proper, exclusive of the considerable suburbs of Borgo di Fortezza to -the north and Borgo di San Giorgio to the east, may still be said to -consist, as it formerly did more distinctly, of two islands separated by -a narrow channel and united by a number of bridges. On the west side -lies Lago Superiore, on the east side Lago Inferiore--the boundary -between the two being marked by the _Argine del Mulino_, a long mole -stretching northward from the north-west angle of the city to the -citadel. - -On the highest ground in the city rises the cathedral, the interior of -which was built after his death according to the plans of Giulio Romano; -it has double aisles, a fine fretted ceiling, a dome-covered transept, a -bad baroque facade, and a large unfinished Romanesque tower. Much more -important architecturally is the church of St Andrea, built towards the -close of the 15th century, after plans by Leon Battista Alberti, and -consisting of a single, barrel-vaulted nave 350 ft. long by 62 ft. wide. -It has a noble facade with a deeply recessed portico, and a brick -campanile of 1414. The interior is decorated with 18th-century frescoes, -to which period the dome also belongs. Mantegna is buried in one of the -side chapels. S. Sebastiano is another work of Alberti's. The old ducal -palace--one of the largest buildings of its kind in Europe--was begun in -1302 for Guido Bonaccolsi, and probably completed in 1328 for Ludovico -Gonzaga; but many of the accessory apartments are of much later date, -and the internal decorations are for the most part the work of Giulio -Romano and his pupils. There are also some fine rooms of the early 19th -century. Close by are the Piazza dell' Erbe and the Piazza Sordello, -with Gothic palaces. The Castello di Corte here, the old castle of the -Gonzagas (1395-1406), erected by Bartolino da Novara, the architect of -the castle of Ferrara, now contains the archives, and has some fine -frescoes by Mantegna with scenes from the life of Ludovico Gonzaga. -Outside of the city, to the south of Porta Pusterla, stands the Palazzo -del Te, Giulio's architectural masterpiece, erected for Frederick -Gonzaga in 1523-1535; of the numerous fresco-covered chambers which it -contains, perhaps the most celebrated is the Sala dei Giganti, where, by -a combination of mechanical with artistic devices, the rout of the -Titans still contending with artillery of uptorn rocks against the -pursuit and thunderbolts of Jove appears to rush downwards on the -spectator. The architecture of Giulio's own house in the town is also -good. - -Mantua has an academy of arts and sciences (_Accademia Vergiliana_), -occupying a fine building erected by Piermarini, a public library -founded in 1780 by Maria Theresa, a museum of antiquities dating from -1779, many of which have been brought from Sabbioneta, a small residence -town of the Gonzagas in the late 16th century, a mineralogical museum, a -good botanical garden, and an observatory. There are ironworks, -tanneries, breweries, oil-mills and flour-mills in the town, which also -has printing, furriery, doll-making and playing-card industries. As a -fortress Mantua was long one of the most formidable in Europe, a force -of thirty to forty thousand men finding accommodation within its walls; -but it had two serious defects--the marshy climate told heavily on the -health of the garrison, and effective sorties were almost impossible. It -lies on the main line of railway between Verona and Modena; and is also -connected by rail with Cremona and with Monselice, on the line from -Padua to Bologna, and by steam tramway with Brescia and other places. - -S. Maria delle Grazie, standing some 5 m. outside the town, was -consecrated in 1399 as an act of thanksgiving for the cessation of the -plague, and has a curious collection of _ex voto_ pictures (wax -figures), and also the tombs of the Gonzaga family. - -Mantua had still a strong Etruscan element in its population during the -Roman period. It became a Roman municipium, with the rest of Gallia -Transpadana; but Martial calls it little Mantua, and had it not been for -Virgil's interest in his native place, and in the expulsion of a number -of the Mantuans (and among them the poet himself) from their lands in -favour of Octavian's soldiers, we should probably have heard almost -nothing of its existence. In 568 the Lombards found Mantua a walled town -of some strength; recovered from their grasp in 590 by the exarch of -Ravenna, it was again captured by Agilulf in 601. The 9th century was -the period of episcopal supremacy, and in the 11th the city formed part -of the vast possessions of Bonifacio, marquis of Canossa. From him it -passed to Geoffrey, duke of Lorraine, and afterwards to the countess -Matilda, whose support of the pope led to the conquest of Mantua by the -emperor Henry IV. in 1090. Reduced to obedience by Matilda in 1113, the -city obtained its liberty on her death, and instituted a communal -government of its own, _salva imperiali justitia_. It afterwards joined -the Lombard League; and the unsuccessful attack made by Frederick II. in -1236 brought it a confirmation of its privileges. But after a period of -internal discord Ludovico Gonzaga attained to power (1328), and was -recognized as imperial vicar (1329); and from that time till the death -of Ferdinando Carbo in 1708 the Gonzagas were masters of Mantua (see -GONZAGA). Under Gian Francesco II., the first marquis, Ludovico III., -Gian Francesco III. (whose wife was Isabella d'Este), and Federico II., -the first duke of Mantua, the city rose rapidly into importance as a -seat of industry and culture. It was stormed and sacked by the Austrians -in 1630, and never quite recovered. Claimed in 1708 as a fief of the -empire by Joseph I., it was governed for the greater part of the century -by the Austrians. In June 1796 it was besieged by Napoleon; but in spite -of terrific bombardments it held out till February 1797. A three days' -bombardment in 1799 again placed Mantua in the hands of the Austrians; -and, though restored to the French by the peace of Luneville (1801), it -became Austrian once more from 1814 till 1866. Between 1849 and 1859, -when the whole of Lombardy except Mantua was, by the peace of -Villafranca, ceded to Italy, the city was the scene of violent political -persecution. - - See Gaet. Susani, _Nuovo prospetto delle pitture, &c., di Mantova_ - (Mantua, 1830); Carlo d'Arco, _Delle arti e degli artefici di Mantova_ - (Mantua, 1857); and _Storia di Mantova_ (Mantua, 1874). - - - - -MANU (Sanskrit, "man"), in Hindu mythology, the first man, ancestor of -the world. In the Satapatha-Brahmana he is represented as a holy man, -the chief figure in a flood-myth. Warned by a fish of the impending -disaster he built a ship, and when the waters rose was dragged by the -fish, which he harnessed to his craft, beyond the northern mountains. -When the deluge ceased, a daughter was miraculously born to him and this -pair became the ancestors of the human race. In the later scriptures the -fish is declared an incarnation of Brahma. See SANSKRIT LITERATURE; -INDIAN LAW (_Hindu_). - - - - -MANUAL, i.e. belonging to the hand (Lat. _manus_), a word chiefly used -to describe an occupation which employs the hands, as opposed to that -which chiefly or entirely employs the mind. Particular uses of the word -are: "sign-manual," a signature or autograph, especially one affixed to -a state document; "manual-exercise," in military usage, drill in the -handling of the rifle; "manual alphabet," the formation of the letters -of the alphabet by the fingers of one or both hands for communication -with the deaf and dumb; and "manual acts," the breaking of the bread, -and the taking of the cup in the hands by the officiating priest in -consecrating the elements during the celebration of the Eucharist. The -use of the word for tools and implements to be used by the hand, as -distinct from machinery, only survives in the "manual fire-engine." From -the late Latin use of _manuale_ as a substantive, meaning "handbook," -comes the use of the word for a book treating a subject in a concise -way, but more particularly of a book of offices, containing the forms to -be used in the administration of the sacraments other than the Mass, but -including communion out of the Mass, also the forms for churching, -burials, &c. In the Roman Church such a book is usually called a -_rituale_, "manual" being the name given to it in the English Church -before the Reformation. The keyboard of an organ, as played by the -hands, is called the "manual," in distinction from the "pedal" keys -played by the feet. - - - - -MANUCODE, from the French, an abbreviation of _Manucodiata_, and the -Latinized form of the Malay _Manukdewata_, meaning, says Crawfurd -(_Malay and Engl. Dictionary_, p. 97), the "bird of the gods," and a -name applied for more than two hundred years apparently to -birds-of-paradise in general. In the original sense of its inventor, -Montbeillard (_Hist. nat. oiseaux_, iii. 163), _Manucode_ was restricted -to the king bird-of-paradise and three allied species; but in English it -has curiously been transferred[1] to a small group of species whose -relationship to the _Paradiseidae_ has been frequently doubted, and must -be considered uncertain. These manucodes have a glossy steel-blue -plumage of much beauty, but are distinguished from other birds of -similar coloration by the outer and middle toes being united for some -distance, and by the extraordinary convolution of the trachea, in the -males at least, with which is correlated the loud and clear voice of the -birds. The convoluted portion of the trachea lies on the breast, between -the skin and the muscles, much as is found in the females of the painted -snipes (_Rostratula_), in the males of the curassows (_Cracidae_), and -in a few other birds, but wholly unknown elsewhere among the _Passeres_. -The manucodes are peculiar to the Papuan sub-region (including therein -the peninsula of Cape York), and comprehend, according to R. B. Sharpe -(_Cat. B. Brit. Museum_, iii. 164), two genera, for the first of which, -distinguished by the elongated tufts on the head, he adopts R. P. -Lesson's name _Phonygama_, and for the second, having no tufts, but the -feathers of the head crisped, that of _Manucodia_; and W. A. Forbes -(_Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1882, p. 349) observed that the validity of the -separation was confirmed by their tracheal formation. Of _Phonygama_ -Sharpe recognizes three species, _P. keraudreni_ (the type) and _P. -jamesi_, both from New Guinea, and _P. gouldi_, the Australian -representative species; but the first two are considered by D. G. Elliot -(_Ibis._ 1878, p. 56) and Count Salvadori (_Ornitol. della Papuasia_, -ii. 510) to be inseparable. There is a greater unanimity in regard to -the species of the so-called genus _Manucodia_ proper, of which four are -admitted--_M. chalybeata_ or _chalybea_ from north-western New Guinea, -_M. comriei_ from the south-eastern part of the same country, _M. atra_ -of wide distribution within the Papuan area, and _M. jobiensis_ peculiar -to the island which gives it a name. Little is known of the habits of -these birds, except that they are, as already mentioned, remarkable for -their vocal powers, which, in _P. keraudreni_, Lesson describes (_Voy. -de la Coquille_, "Zoologie," i. 638) as enabling them to pass through -every note of the gamut. (A. N.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] _Manucodiata_ was used by M. J. Brisson (_Ornithologie_, ii. 130) - as a generic term equivalent to the Linnaean _Paradisea_. In 1783 - Boddaert, when assigning scientific names to the birds figured by - Daubenton, called the subject of one of them (_Pl. enlum._ 634) - _Manucodia chalybea_, the first word being apparently an accidental - curtailment of the name of Brisson's genus to which he referred it. - Nevertheless some writers have taken it as evidence of an intention - to found a new genus by that name, and hence the importation of - _Manucodia_ into scientific nomenclature, and the English form to - correspond. - - - - -MANUEL I., COMNENUS (c. 1120-1180), Byzantine emperor (1143-1180), the -fourth son of John II., was born about 1120. Having distinguished -himself in his father's Turkish war, he was nominated emperor in -preference to his elder surviving brother. Endowed with a fine physique -and great personal courage, he devoted himself whole-heartedly to a -military career. He endeavoured to restore by force of arms the -predominance of the Byzantine empire in the Mediterranean countries, and -so was involved in conflict with his neighbours on all sides. In 1144 he -brought back Raymond of Antioch to his allegiance, and in the following -year drove the Turks out of Isauria. In 1147 he granted a passage -through his dominions to two armies of crusaders under Conrad III. of -Germany and Louis VII. of France; but the numerous outbreaks of overt or -secret hostility between the Franks and the Greeks on their line of -march, for which both sides were to blame, nearly precipitated a -conflict between Manuel and his guests. In the same year the emperor -made war upon Roger of Sicily, whose fleet captured Corfu and plundered -the Greek towns, but in 1148 was defeated with the help of the -Venetians. In 1149 Manuel recovered Corfu and prepared to take the -offensive against the Normans. With an army mainly composed of mercenary -Italians he invaded Sicily and Apulia, and although the progress of both -these expeditions was arrested by defeats on land and sea, Manuel -maintained a foothold in southern Italy, which was secured to him by a -peace in 1155, and continued to interfere in Italian politics. In his -endeavour to weaken the control of Venice over the trade of his empire -he made treaties with Pisa and Genoa; to check the aspirations of -Frederic I. of Germany he supported the free Italian cities with his -gold and negotiated with pope Alexander III. In spite of his -friendliness towards the Roman church Manuel was refused the title of -"Augustus" by Alexander, and he nowhere succeeded in attaching the -Italians permanently to his interests. None the less in a war with the -Venetians (1172-74), he not only held his ground in Italy but drove his -enemies out of the Aegean Sea. On his northern frontier Manuel reduced -the rebellious Serbs to vassalage (1150-52) and made repeated attacks -upon the Hungarians with a view to annexing their territory along the -Save. In the wars of 1151-53 and 1163-68 he led his troops into Hungary -but failed to maintain himself there; in 1168, however, a decisive -victory near Semlin enabled him to conclude a peace by which Dalmatia -and other frontier strips were ceded to him. In 1169 he sent a joint -expedition with King Amalric of Jerusalem to Egypt, which retired after -an ineffectual attempt to capture Damietta. In 1158-59 he fought with -success against Raymond of Antioch and the Turks of Iconium, but in -later wars against the latter he made no headway. In 1176 he was -decisively beaten by them in the pass of Myriokephalon, where he allowed -himself to be surprised in line of march. This disaster, though partly -retrieved in the campaign of the following year, had a serious effect -upon his vitality; henceforth he declined in health and in 1180 -succumbed to a slow fever. - -In spite of his military prowess Manuel achieved but in a slight degree -his object of restoring the East Roman empire. His victories were -counterbalanced by numerous defeats, sustained by his subordinates, and -his lack of statesmanlike talent prevented his securing the loyalty of -his subjects. The expense of keeping up his mercenary establishment and -the sumptuous magnificence of his court put a severe strain upon the -financial resources of the state. The subsequent rapid collapse of the -Byzantine empire was largely due to his brilliant but unproductive -reign. Manuel married, firstly, a sister-in-law of Conrad III. of -Germany; and secondly, a daughter of Raymond of Antioch. His successor, -Alexis II., was a son of the latter. - - See John Cinnamus, _History of John and Manuel_ (ed. 1836, Bonn); E. - Gibbon, _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ (ed. Bury, London, - 1896), v. 229 sqq., vi. 214 sqq.; G. Finlay, _History of Greece_ (ed. - 1877, Oxford), iii. 143-197; H. v. Kap-Herr, _Die abendlandische - Politik Kaiser Manuels_ (Strassburg, 1881). (M. O. B. C.) - - - - -MANUEL II. PALAEOLOGUS (1350-1425), Byzantine emperor from 1391 to 1425, -was born in 1350. At the time of his father's death he was a hostage at -the court of Bayezid at Brusa, but succeeded in making his escape; he -was forthwith besieged in Constantinople by the sultan, whose victory -over the Christians at Nicopolis, however (Sept. 28, 1396), did not -secure for him the capital. Manuel subsequently set out in person to -seek help from the West, and for this purpose visited Italy, France, -Germany and England, but without material success; the victory of Timur -in 1402, and the death of Bayezid in the following year were the first -events to give him a genuine respite from Ottoman oppression. He stood -on friendly terms with Mahommed I., but was again besieged in his -capital by Murad II. in 1422. Shortly before his death he was forced to -sign an agreement whereby the Byzantine empire undertook to pay tribute -to the sultan. - - Manuel was the author of numerous works of varied - character--theological, rhetorical, poetical and letters. Most of - these are printed in Migne, _Patrologia graeca_, clvi.; the letters - have been edited by E. Legrand (1893). There is a special monograph, - by B. de Xivrey (in _Memoires de l'Institut de France_, xix. (1853), - highly commended by C. Krumbacher, whose _Geschichte der - byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897) should also be consulted. - - - - -MANUEL I. (d. 1263), emperor of Trebizond, surnamed the Great Captain -([Greek: ho strategikotatos]), was the second son of Alexius I., first -emperor of Trebizond, and ruled from 1228 to 1263. He was unable to -deliver his empire from vassalage, first to the Seljuks and afterwards -to the Mongols. He vainly negotiated for a dynastic alliance with the -Franks, by which he hoped to secure the help of Crusaders. - -MANUEL II., the descendant of Manuel I., reigned only a few months in -1332-1333. Manuel III. reigned from 1390 to 1417, but the only interest -attaching to his name arises from his connexion with Timur, whose vassal -he became without resistance. - - See G. Finlay, _History of Greece_ (ed. 1877, Oxford), iv. 338-340, - 340-341, 386; Ph. Fallmerayer, _Geschichte des Kaisertums Trapezunt_ - (Munich, 1827), i. chs. 8, 14, ii. chs. 4, 5; T. E. Evangelides, - [Greek: Historia tes Trapezountos] (Odessa, 1898), 71-73, 87-88, - 126-132. - - - - -MANUEL, EUGENE (1823-1901), French poet and man of letters, was born in -Paris, the son of a Jewish doctor, on the 13th of July 1823. He was -educated at the Ecole Normale, and taught rhetoric for some years in -provincial schools and then in Paris. In 1870 he entered the department -of public instruction, and in 1878 became inspector-general. His works -include: _Pages intimes_ (1866), which received a prize from the -Academy; _Poemes populaires_ (1874); _Pendant la guerre_ (1871), -patriotic poems, which were forbidden in Alsace-Lorraine by the German -authorities; _En voyage_ (1881), poems; _La France_ (4 vols., -1854-1858); a school-book written in collaboration with his -brother-in-law, Levi Alavares; _Les Ouvriers_ (1870), a drama dealing -with social questions, which was crowned by the Academy; _L'Absent_ -(1873), a comedy; _Poesies du foyer et de l'ecole_ (1889), and editions -of the works of J. B. Rousseau (1852) and Andre Chenier (1884). He died -in Paris in 1901. - - His _Poesies completes_ (2 vols., 1899) contained some fresh poems; to - his _Melanges en prose_ (Paris, 1905) is prefixed an introductory note - by A. Cahen. - - - - -MANUEL, JACQUES ANTOINE (1775-1827), French politician and orator, was -born on the 10th of December 1775. When seventeen years old he entered -the army, which he left in 1797 to become a lawyer. In 1814 he was -chosen a member of the chamber of representatives, and in 1815 he urged -the claim of Napoleon's son to the French throne and protested against -the restoration of the Bourbons. After this event be actively opposed -the government, his eloquence making him the foremost orator among the -members of the Left. In February 1823 his opposition to the proposed -expedition into Spain to help Ferdinand VII. against his rebellious -subjects produced a tumult in the Assembly. Manuel was expelled, but he -refused to accept this sentence, and force was employed to remove him. -He died on the 20th of August 1827. - - - - -MANUEL, LOUIS PIERRE (1751-1793), French writer and Revolutionist, was -born at Montargis (Loiret). He entered the Congregation of the Christian -Doctrine, and became tutor to the son of a Paris banker. In 1783 he -published a pamphlet, called _Essais historiques, critiques, -litteraires, et philosophiques_, for which he was imprisoned in the -Bastille. He embraced the revolutionary ideas, and after the taking of -the Bastille became a member of the provisional municipality of Paris. -He was one of the leaders of the _emeutes_ of the 20th of June and the -10th of August 1792, played an important part in the formation of the -revolutionary commune which assured the success of the latter _coup_, -and was made _procureur_ of the commune. He was present at the September -massacres and saved several prisoners, and on the 7th of September 1792 -was elected one of the deputies from Paris to the convention, where he -was one of the promoters of the proclamation of the republic. He -suppressed the decoration of the Cross of St Louis, which he called a -stain on a man's coat, and demanded the sale of the palace of -Versailles. His missions to the king, however, changed his sentiments; -he became reconciled to Louis, courageously refused to vote for the -death of the sovereign, and had to tender his resignation as deputy. He -retired to Montargis, where he was arrested, and was guillotined in -Paris on the 17th of November 1793. Besides the work cited above and his -political pamphlets, he was the author of _Coup d'oeil philosophique sur -le regne de St Louis_ (1786); _L'Annee francaise_ (1788); _La Bastille -devoilee_ (1789); _La Police de Paris devoilee_ (1791); and _Lettres sur -la Revolution_ (1792). In 1792 he was prosecuted for publishing an -edition of the _Lettres de Mirabeau a Sophie_, but was acquitted. - - - - -MANUEL DE MELLO, DOM FRANCISCO (? 1611-1666), Portuguese writer, a -connexion on his father's side of the royal house of Braganza, was a -native of Lisbon. He studied the Humanities at the Jesuit College of S. -Antao, where he showed a precocious talent, and tradition says that at -the age of fourteen he composed a poem in _ottava rima_ to celebrate the -recovery of Bahia from the Dutch, while at seventeen he wrote a -scientific work, _Concordancias mathematicas_. The death of his father, -Dom Luiz de Mello, drove him early to soldiering, and having joined a -contingent for the Flanders war, he found himself in the historic storm -of January 1627, when the pick of the Portuguese fleet suffered -shipwreck in the Bay of Biscay. He spent much of the next ten years of -his life in military routine work in the Peninsula, varied by visits to -the court of Madrid, where he contracted a friendship with the Spanish -poet Quevedo and earned the favour of the powerful minister Olivares. In -1637 the latter despatched him in company with the conde de Linhares on -a mission to pacify the revolted city of Evora, and on the same occasion -the duke of Braganza, afterwards King John IV. (for whom he acted as -confidential agent at Madrid), employed him to satisfy King Philip of -his loyalty to the Spanish crown. In the following year he suffered a -short imprisonment in Lisbon. In 1639 he was appointed colonel of one of -the regiments raised for service in Flanders, and in June that year he -took a leading part in defending Corunna against a French fleet -commanded by the archbishop of Bordeaux, while in the following August -he directed the embarcation of an expeditionary force of 10,000 men when -Admiral Oquendo sailed with seventy ships to meet the French and Dutch. -He came safely through the naval defeat in the channel suffered by the -Spaniards at the hands of Van Tromp, and on the outbreak of the -Catalonian rebellion became chief of the staff to the commander-in-chief -of the royal forces, and was selected to write an account of the -campaign, the _Historia de la guerra de Cataluna,_ which became a -Spanish classic. On the proclamation of Portuguese independence in 1640 -he was imprisoned by order of Olivares, and when released hastened to -offer his sword to John IV. He travelled to England, where he spent some -time at the court of Charles I., and thence passing over to Holland -assisted the Portuguese ambassador to equip a fleet in aid of Portugal, -and himself brought it safely to Lisbon in October 1641. For the next -three years he was employed in various important military commissions -and further busied himself in defending by his pen the king's title to -his newly acquired throne. An intrigue with the beautiful countess of -Villa Nova, and her husband's jealousy, led to his arrest on the 19th of -November 1644 on a false charge of assassination, and he lay in prison -about nine years. Though his innocence was clear, the court of his -Order, that of Christ, influenced by his enemies, deprived him of his -_commenda_ and sentenced him to perpetual banishment in India with a -heavy money fine, and the king would not intervene to save him. Owing -perhaps to the intercession of the queen regent of France and other -powerful friends, his sentence was finally commuted into one of exile to -Brazil. During his long imprisonment he finished and printed his history -of the Catalonian War, and also wrote and published a volume of Spanish -verses and some religious treatises, and composed in Portuguese a volume -of homely philosophy, the _Carta de Guia de Casados_ and a _Memorial_ in -his own defence to the king, which Herculano considered "perhaps the -most eloquent piece of reasoning in the language." During his exile in -Brazil, whither he sailed on the 17th of April 1655, he lived at Bahia, -where he wrote one of his _Epanaphoras de varia historia_ and two parts -of his masterpiece, the _Apologos dialogaes_. He returned home in 1659, -and from then until 1663 we find him on and off in Lisbon, frequenting -the celebrated _Academia dos Generosos_, of which he was five times -elected president. In the last year he proceeded to Parma and Rome, by -way of England, and France, and Alphonso VI. charged him to negotiate -with the Curia about the provision of bishops for Portuguese sees and to -report on suitable marriages for the king and his brother. During his -stay in Rome he published his _Obras morales_, dedicated to Queen -Catherine, wife of Charles II. of England, and his _Cartas familiares_. -On his way back to Portugal he printed his _Obras metricas_ at Lyons in -May 1665, and he died in Lisbon the following year. - -Manuel de Mello's early Spanish verses are tainted with Gongorism, but -his Portuguese sonnets and _cartas_ on moral subjects are notable for -their power, sincerity and perfection of form. He strove successfully to -emancipate himself from foreign faults of style, and by virtue of his -native genius, and his knowledge of the traditional poetry of the -people, and the best Quinhentista models, he became Portugal's leading -lyric poet and prose writer of the 17th century. As with Camoens, -imprisonments and exile contributed to make Manuel de Mello a great -writer. His _Letters_, addressed to the leading nobles, ecclesiastics, -diplomats and literati of the time, are written in a conversational -style, lighted up by flashes of wit and enriched with apposite -illustrations and quotations. His commerce with the best authors appears -in the _Hospital das lettras_, a brilliant chapter of criticism forming -part of the _Apologos dialogaes_. His comedy in _redondilhas_, the _Auto -do Fidalgo Aprendiz_, is one of the last and quite the worthiest -production of the school of Gil Vicente, and may be considered an -anticipation of Moliere's _Le Bourgeois gentilhomme_. - - There is no uniform edition of his works, but a list of them will be - found in his _Obras morales_, and the various editions are set out in - Innocencio da Silva's _Diccionario bibliographico portugues_. See _Dom - Francisco Manuel de Mello, his Life and Writings_, by Edgar Prestage - (Manchester, 1905), "D. Francisco Manuel de Mello, documentos - biographicos" and "D. Francisco Manuel de Mello, obras autographas e - ineditas," by the same writer, in the _Archivo historico portuguez_ - for 1909. Manuel de Mello's prose style is considered at length by G. - Cirot in _Mariana historien_ (Bordeaux, 1905). pp. 378 seq. - (E. Pr.) - - - - -MANUL (_Felis manul_), a long-haired small wild cat from the deserts of -Central Asia, ranging from Tibet to Siberia. The coat is long and soft, -pale silvery grey or light buff in hue, marked with black on the chest -and upper parts of the limbs, with transverse stripes on the loins and -rings on the tail of the same hue. The Manul preys upon small mammals -and birds. A separate generic name, _Trichaelurus_, has been proposed -for this species by Dr K. Satunin. - - - - -MANURES AND MANURING. The term "manure" originally meant that which was -"worked by hand" (Fr. _manoeuvre_), but gradually came to apply to any -process by which the soil could be improved. Prominent among such -processes was that of directly applying "manure" to the land, manure in -this sense being what we now call "farmyard manure" or "dung," the -excreta of farm animals mixed with straw or other litter. Gradually, -however, the use of the term spread to other materials, some of home -origin, some imported, some manufactured by artificial processes, but -all useful as a means of improving the fertility of the soil. Hence we -have two main classes of manures: (a) what may be termed "natural -manures," and (b) "artificial manures." Manures, again, may be divided -according to the materials from which they are made--e.g. "bone manure," -"fish manure," "wool manure," &c.; or according to the constituents -which they mainly supply--e.g. "phosphatic manures," "potash manures," -"nitrogenous manures," or there may be numerous combinations of these to -form mixed or "compound" manures. Whatever it be, the word "manure" is -now generally applied to anything which is used for fertilizing the -soil. In America the term "fertilizers" is more generally adopted, and -in Great Britain the introduction of the "Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs -Act" has effected a certain amount of change in the same direction. The -modern tendency to turn attention less to the consideration of manurial -applications given to land and more to the physical and mechanical -changes introduced thereby in the soil itself, would seem to be carrying -the word "manure" back more to its original meaning. - -The subject of manures and their application involves a prior -consideration of plant life and its requirements. The plant, growing in -the soil, and surrounded by the atmosphere, derives from these two -sources its nourishment and means of growth through the various stages -of its development. - - Chemical analysis has shown that plants are composed of water, organic - or combustible matters, and inorganic or mineral matters. Water - constitutes by far the greater part of a living plant; a grass crop - will contain about 75% of water, a turnip crop 89 or 90%. The organic - or combustible matters are those which are lost, along with the water, - when the plant is burnt; the inorganic or mineral matters are those - which are left behind as an "ash" after the burning. The combustible - matter is composed of six elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, - nitrogen, sulphur and a little phosphorus. About one-half of the - combustible matter of plants is carbon. Along with hydrogen and oxygen - the carbon forms the cellulose, starch, sugar, &c., which plants - contain, and with these same elements and sulphur the carbon forms the - albuminoids of plants. The inorganic or mineral matters comprise a - comparatively small part of the plant, but they contain, as essential - constituents of plant life, the following elements: potassium, - calcium, magnesium, iron, phosphorus and sulphur. In addition, other, - but not essential, elements are found in the ash e.g. sodium, silicon - and chlorine, together with small quantities of manganese and other - rarer elements. - - The above constituents that have been classed as "essential," are - necessary for the growth of the plant, and absence of any one will - involve failure. This has been shown by growing plants in water - dissolved in which are salts of the elements present in plants. By - omitting in turn one or other of the elements aforesaid it is found - that the plants will not grow after they have used up the materials - contained in the seed itself. These elements are accordingly termed - "essential," and it therefore becomes necessary to inquire how they - are to be supplied. - - The atmosphere is the great storehouse of organic plant food. The - leaves take up, through their stomata, the carbonic acid and other - gases of the atmosphere. The carbonic acid, under the influence of - light, is decomposed in the chlorophyll cells, oxygen is given off and - carbon is assimilated, being subsequently built up into the various - organic bodies forming the plant's structure. It would seem, too, that - plants can take up a small quantity of ammonia by their leaves, and - also water to some extent, but the free or uncombined nitrogen of the - air cannot be directly assimilated by the leaves of plants. - - From the soil, on the other hand, the plant obtains, by means of its - roots, its mineral requirements, also sulphur and phosphorus, and - nearly all its nitrogen and water. Carbon, too, in the case of fungi, - is obtained from the decayed vegetable matter in the soil. The roots - are able not only to take up soluble salts that are presented to them, - but they can attack and render soluble the solid constituents of the - soil, thus transforming them into available plant food. In this way - important substances, such as phosphoric acid and potash, are supplied - to the plant, as also lime. Roots can further supply themselves with - nitrogen in the form of nitrates, the ammonia and other nitrogenous - bodies undergoing ready conversion into nitrates in the soil. These - various mineral constituents, being now transferred to the plant, go - to form new tissue, and ultimately seed, or else accumulate in the sap - and are deposited on the older tissue. - - Whether the nitrogen of the air can be utilized by plants or not has - been long and strenuously discussed, Boussingault first, and then - Lawes, Gilbert and Pugh, maintaining that there was no evidence of - this utilization. But it was always recognized that certain plants, - clover for example, enriched the land with nitrogen to an extent - greater than could be accounted for by the mere supply to them of - nitrates in the soil. Ultimately Hellriegel supplied the explanation - by showing that, at all events, certain of the Leguminosae, by the - medium of swellings or "nodules" on their roots, were able to fix the - atmospheric nitrogen in the soil, and to convert it into nitrates for - the use of the plant. This was found to be the result of the action of - certain organisms within the nodules themselves, which in turn fed - upon the carbohydrates of the plant and were thus living in a state of - "symbiosis" with it. So far, however, this has not been shown to be - the case with any other plants than the Leguminosae, and, though it is - asserted by some that many other plants can take up the nitrogen of - the air directly through their leaves, there is no clear evidence as - yet of this. - -We must now consider how the different requirements of the plant in -regard to the elements necessary to maintain its life and to build up -its structure affect the question of manuring. - -Under conditions of natural growth and decay, when no crops are gathered -in, or consumed on the land by live stock, the herbage, on dying down -and decaying, returns to the atmosphere and the soil the elements taken -from them during life; but, under cultivation, a succession of crops -deprives the land of the constituents which are essential to healthy and -luxuriant growth. Without an adequate return to the land of the matters -removed in the produce, its fertility cannot be maintained for many -years. In newly opened countries, where old forests have been cleared -and the land brought under cultivation, the virgin soil often possesses -at first a high degree of fertility, but gradually its productive power -decreases from year to year. Where land is plentiful and easy to be -obtained it is more convenient to clear fresh forest land than to -improve more or less exhausted land by the application of manure, labour -and skill. But in all densely peopled countries, and where the former -mode of cultivation cannot be followed, it is necessary to resort to -artificial means to restore the natural fertility of the land and to -maintain and increase its productiveness. That continuous cropping -without return of manure ends in deterioration of the soil is well seen -in the case of the wheat-growing areas in America. Crops of wheat were -taken one after another, the straw was burned and nothing was returned -to the land; the produce began to fall off and the cultivators moved on -to fresh lands, there to meet, in time, with the same experience; and -now that the available land has been more or less intensely occupied, or -that new land is too far removed for ready transport of the produce, it -has been found necessary to introduce the system of manuring, and -America now manufactures and uses for herself large quantities of -artificial and other manures. - -That the same exhaustion of soil would go on in Great Britain, if -unchecked by manuring, is known to every practical farmer, and, if -evidence were needed, it is supplied by the renowned Rothamsted -experiments of Lawes and Gilbert, on a heavy land, and also by the more -recent Woburn experiments of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, -conducted on a light sandy soil. The following table will illustrate -this point, and show also how under a system of manuring the fertility -is maintained:-- - -TABLE 1.--Showing Exhaustion of Land by continuous Cropping without -Manure, and the maintenance of fertility through manuring. (Rothamsted -50 years; Woburn 30 years.) - - +-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | 1. Rothamsted (heavy land). | - +------+-----+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | | | | Average yield of corn per acre. | - | | | +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+-------------+ - |Crop. |Plot.| Treatment. | 8 years, | 10 years,| 10 years,| 10 years,| 10 years,| 10 years,| Average | - | | | |1844-1851.|1852-1861.|1862-1871.|1872-1881.|1882-1891.|1892-1901.| of 50 years,| - | | | | | | | | | | 1852-1901. | - +------+-----+--------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+-------------+ - | | | | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | - |Wheat | 3 |Unmanured | | | | | | | | - | | | continuously | 17.2 | 15.9 | 14.5 | 10.4 | 12.6 | 12.3 | 43.1 | - | | 2 |Farm-yard | | | | | | | | - | | | manure yearly| 28.0 | 34.2 | 37.5 | 28.7 | 38.2 | 39.2 | 35.6 | - |Barley| 7-2 |Unmanured | | | | | | | | - | | | continuously | -- | 22.4 | 17.5 | 13.7 | 12.7 | 10.0 | 15.3 | - | | 1-0 |Farm-yard | | | | | | | | - | | | manure yearly| -- | 45.0 | 51.5 | 50.2 | 47.6 | 44.3 | 47.7 | - +------+-----+--------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+-------------+ - | 2. Woburn (light land). | - +------+-----+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | | | | Average yield of corn per acre. | - | | | +-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+ - |Crop. |Plot.| Treatment. | 10 years, | 10 years, | 10 years, | Average | - | | | | 1877-1886. | 1887-1896. | 1897-1906. | of 30 years, | - | | | | | | | 1877-1906. | - +------+-----+--------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+ - | | | | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | - |Wheat | 7 |Unmanured | | | | | - | | | continuously | 17.4 | 14.5 | 10.8 | 14.2 | - | | 11b |Farm-yard | | | | | - | | | manure yearly| 26.7 | 27.8 | 24.0 | 26.2 | - |Barley| 7 |Unmanured | | | | | - | | | continuously | 23.0 | 18.1 | 13.3 | 18.1 | - | | 11b |Farm-yard | | | | | - | | | manure yearly| 40.0 | 39.9 | 36.6 | 38.8 | - +------+-----+--------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+ - -Whereas on the heavier and richer land of Rothamsted the produce of -unmanured wheat has fallen in 58 years from 17.2 bushels to 12.3 -bushels, on the lighter and poorer soil of Woburn it has fallen in 30 -years from 17.4 bushels to 10.8 bushels; barley has in 50 years at -Rothamsted gone from 22.4 bushels to 10 bushels, whilst at Woburn (which -is better suited for barley) it has fallen in 30 years from 23 bushels -to 13.3 bushels. At both Rothamsted and Woburn the application of -farm-yard manure has kept the produce of wheat and barley practically up -to what it was at the beginning, or even increased it. Similar -conclusions can be drawn from the use of artificial manures at each of -the experimental stations named, exemplifying the fact that with -suitable manuring crops of wheat or barley can be grown years after year -without the land undergoing deterioration, whereas if left unmanured it -gradually declines in fertility. Practical proof has further been given -of this in the well-known "continuous corn-growing" system pursued, in -his regular farming, by Mr John Prout of Sawbridgeworth, Herts, and -subsequently by his son, Mr W. A. Prout, since the year 1862. By -supplying, in the form of artificial manures, the necessary constituents -for his crops, Mr Prout was enabled to grow year after year, with only -an occasional interval for a clover crop and to allow of cleaning the -land, excellent crops of wheat, barley and oats, and without, it may be -added, the use of farm-yard manure at all. - -In considering the economical use of manures on the land regard must be -had to the following points: (1) the requirements of the crops intended -to be cultivated; (2) the physical condition of the soil; (3) the -chemical composition of the soil; and (4) the composition of the manure. -Briefly stated, the guiding principle of manuring economically and -profitably is to meet the requirements of the crops intended to be -cultivated, by incorporating with the soil, in the most efficacious -states of combination, the materials in which it is deficient, or which -the various crops usually grown on the farm do not find in the land in a -sufficiently available condition to ensure an abundant harvest. Soils -vary greatly in composition, and hence it will be readily understood -that in one locality or on one particular field a certain manure may be -used with great benefit, while in another field the same manure has -little or no effect upon the produce. - -For plant life to thrive certain elements are necessary, viz. carbon, -hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, among the organic or -combustible matters, and among the inorganic or mineral matters, -potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, phosphorus and sulphur. We must now -examine the extent to which these necessary elements occur in either of -the two great storehouses, the atmosphere and the soil, and how their -removal in the form of crops may be made up for by the use of manures, -so that the soil may be maintained in a state of fertility. Further, we -must consider what functions these elements perform in regard to plant -life, and, lastly, the forms in which they can best be applied for the -use of crops. - -Of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen there is no lack, the atmosphere -providing carbonic acid in abundance, and rain giving the elements -hydrogen and oxygen, so that these are supplied from natural sources. -Iron, magnesium and sulphur also are seldom or never deficient in soils, -and do not require to be supplemented by manuring. Accordingly, the -elements for which there is the greatest demand by plants, and which the -soil does not provide in sufficiency, are nitrogen, phosphorus, -potassium, and, possibly, calcium. Manuring, apart from the physical and -mechanical advantages which it confers upon soils, practically resolves -itself, therefore, into the supply of nitrogen, phosphorus and -potassium, and it is with the supply of these that we shall accordingly -deal in particular. - - 1. _Nitrogen._--Though we are still far from knowing what are the - exact functions which nitrogen fulfils in plant life, there is no - doubt as to the important part which it plays in the vegetable growth - of the plant and in the formation of stem and leaf. Without a - sufficiency of nitrogen the plant would be stunted in growth. Its - growth, indeed, may be said to be measured by the supply of nitrogen, - for while mineral constituents like phosphoric acid and potash are - only taken up to the extent that the plant can use them i.e. according - to its rate of growth, this actual growth itself would seem to be - determined by the extent of the nitrogen supply. This it is which - causes the ready response given to a crop by the application of some - quickly-acting nitrogenous material like nitrate of soda, and which is - marked by the dark-green colour produced and the pushing-on of the - growth. Similarly, this use of nitrogen, by prolonging growth, defers - maturity, while over-use of nitrogen tends to produce increase of leaf - and lateness of ripening. Along with this growth of the vegetative - portions, and seen, in the case of corn crops, mainly in the straw, - there is a corresponding decrease, from the use of nitrogen in excess, - in the quality of the grain. In corn a smaller grain and lesser weight - per bushel are the result of over-nitrogen manuring. The composition - of the grain is likewise affected, becoming more nitrogenous. With - crops, however, where rapid green growth is required, nitrogen effects - the purpose well, though here, too, over-manuring with nitrogen will - tend to produce rankness and coarseness of growth. Experiments at - Rothamsted and elsewhere, as well as everyday practice of the farm, - bear testimony to the paramount importance of nitrogen-supply, and to - the crops it is capable of raising. This applies not only to corn - crops of all kinds, but to root crops, grass, potatoes, &c. Leguminous - crops alone seem to have no need of it. In view of this practical - experience, Liebig's "mineral theory"--according to which he laid down - that plants only needed to have mineral constituents, such as - phosphoric acid, potash and lime, supplied to them--reads strangely - nowadays. The use of mineral manures without nitrogen other than that - already present in the soil or supplied in rain has been shown, alike - at Rothamsted and Woburn, to produce crops of wheat and barley little - better than those from unmanured land. The lack of nitrogen in - ordinary cultivated soils is much more marked than is that of mineral - constituents, and consequently even with the application of nitrogen - alone (as by the use of nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia), good - crops have been grown for a large number of years. This has been shown - both at Rothamsted and at Woburn. On the other hand, experiments at - these stations have demonstrated that better and more lasting results - are obtained by the judicious use of nitrogenous materials in - conjunction with phosphates and potash. - - The form in which nitrogen is taken up by plants is mainly, if not - wholly, that of nitrates, which are readily-soluble salts. Ammonia and - other nitrogenous bodies undergo in the soil, through the agency of - nitrifying organisms present in it (_Bacterium nitrificans_, &c.), - rapid conversion into nitrates, and as such are easily assimilable by - the plant. Similarly, they are the constituents which are most readily - removed in drainage, and hence the adequate supply of nitrogen for the - plant's use is a constant problem in agriculture. Experiments on the - rate of removal of nitrates from the soil by drainage showed that - every inch of rain passing through the drains caused a loss of 2(1/2) - lb. of nitrogen per acre (Voelcker and Frankland). At the same time, - soils, as Way showed, have the power of absorbing, in different - degrees, ammonia from its solution in water, and when salts of ammonia - are passed through soils the ammonia alone is absorbed, the acids - passing, generally in combination with lime, into the drainage. - - Other experiments at Rothamsted on drainage showed that, though large - quantities of ammonia salts were applied to the land, the drainage - water contained merely traces of ammonia, but, on the other hand, - nitrates in quantity, thus proving that it is as nitrates, and not as - ammonia, that plants mainly, if not entirely, take up their - nitrogenous food. - - From these investigations it follows that much more nitrogen must be - added to the land than would be needed to produce a given increase in - the crop. Nitrogen, then, being so all-important, the question is, - where is it to come from? We have seen that the leaves take up only - minute quantities of ammonia, comparatively small amounts are supplied - in the rain, dew, snow, &c.,[1] and in the case of Leguminosae alone - have we any evidence of plants being able to provide themselves with - nitrogen from atmospheric sources. Some few organisms present in - fertile soils, e.g. _Azotobacter chroococcum_, have also the power, - under certain conditions, of fixing the free nitrogen of the - atmosphere without the intervention of a "host," but all these sources - would be very inadequate to meet the demands of an intensive - cultivation. An ordinary fertile arable soil will not show, on - analysis, much more than .15% of nitrogen, and it is evident that the - great source of supply of the needed nitrogen must be the direct - manuring of the soil with materials containing nitrogen. These - materials will be considered in detail later. - - 2. _Phosphorus._--This is the most important mineral element which has - to be supplied to the soil by the agency of manuring. It occurs in - ordinary fertile soils to the extent of only about .15%, reckoned as - phosphoric acid, and though its absence in sufficiency is not so - marked or so soon shown under prolonged cultivation as is that of - nitrogen, yet the fact that it is needed by all classes of crops, and - that its application in manurial form is attended with great benefits, - makes its supply one of great importance. From the time that Liebig, - in 1840, suggested the treatment of bones with sulphuric acid in order - to make them more readily available for the use of crops, and that the - late Sir John Lawes (in 1843) began the dissolving of mineral - phosphates for the purpose of manufacturing superphosphate, the - "artificial manure" trade took its rise, and ever since then the whole - globe has been exploited for the purpose of obtaining the raw - phosphatic materials which form the base of the artificial manures of - the past and of the present day. The functions which phosphoric acid - fulfils in plant life would appear to be connected rather with the - maturing of the plant than with the actual growth of the structure. - Phosphates are found concentrated in those parts of the plant where - cell growth and reproduction are most active. More especially is this - the case with the seed in which phosphates are present in greatest - quantity. While nitrogen delays maturity, phosphoric acid has just the - opposite effect, and cereal crops not sufficiently supplied with it - ripen much more tardily than do others. Moreover, the grain is formed - more early when phosphatic manures have been given than when they are - withheld. Phosphates increase the proportion of corn to straw, and, as - regards the grain itself, they render it less nitrogenous, richer in - phosphates, and altogether improve its quality. - - While these are the principal functions of phosphates, they also - exercise an influence on the young plant in its early stages. This is - well seen in the almost universal practice of applying superphosphate - to the young turnip or swede crop in order to push it beyond the - attack of "fly." Undoubtedly phosphates in readily available form - stimulate the young seedling, enabling it to develop root growth, and, - later on, causing the plant to "tiller out" well. Phosphoric acid - occurs in the soil bound up with the oxides of iron and alumina, or, - it may be, with lime, and the extent to which it may become useful to - plants will depend largely upon the readiness with which it becomes - available. For the purpose of ascertaining this different analytical - methods have been suggested, the best known one being that of B. Dyer, - in which a 1% solution of citric acid is used as a solvent. As a - result of experimenting with Rothamsted soils of known capability it - has been put forward that if a soil shows, by this treatment, less - than .01% of phosphoric acid it is in need of phosphatic manuring. - - Experiments carried on for many years at Rothamsted and Woburn have - clearly established the beneficial effects of phosphatic manuring on - corn crops, for though no material increase marks the application of - mineral manures in the absence of nitrogen, yet the results when - phosphates and nitrogen are used together are very much greater than - when nitrogen alone has been applied; and this is true as regards not - only the better ripening and quality of the grain, but also as regards - the actual crop increase. - - With root crops phosphates are almost indispensable; and, owing to the - limited power which these crops have of utilizing the phosphoric acid - in the soil, the supply of a readily available phosphatic manure like - superphosphate is of the highest importance. - - The assimilation of phosphoric acid goes on in a cereal crop after the - time of flowering and to a later date than does that of nitrogen and - potash, and it is ultimately stored in the seed. Soils possess a - retentive power for phosphoric acid which enables the latter to be - conserved and not removed to any extent by drainage. This function is - exercised mainly by the presence of oxide of iron. Alumina acts in a - similar way. In the case of soils that contain clay only traces of - phosphoric acid are found in the drainage water. - - 3. _Potassium._--The element third in importance, which requires to be - supplied by manuring, is potassium, or, as it is generally expressed, - potash. This in its functions resembles phosphoric acid somewhat, - being concerned rather with the mature development of the plant than - with its actual increase of growth. Like phosphoric acid, potash is - found concentrated throughout the plant in the early stages of its - growth, but, unlike it, is in the case of a cereal crop all taken up - by the time of full bloom, whereas with phosphoric acid the - assimilation continues later. Potash would appear to have an intimate - connexion with the quality of crops, and to be favourable to the - production of seed and fruit rather than to stem and leaf development. - Certain crops, such as vegetables, fruit, hops, as well as root crops - generally, make special demands upon potash supply, and, as checking - the tendency to over-development of leaf, &c., induced by nitrogenous - manures when used alone, potash has great practical importance. Potash - appears to be bound up in a special way with the process of - assimilation, for it has been clearly shown that whenever potash is - deficient the formation of the carbohydrates, such as sugar, starch - and cellulose, does not go on properly. Hellriegel and Wilfarth showed - by experiment the dependence of starch formation on an adequate supply - of potash. Cereal grains remained small and undeveloped when potash - was withheld, because the formation of starch did not go on. The same - effect has been strikingly shown in the Rothamsted experiments with - mangels, a plot receiving potash salts as manure giving a crop of - roots nearly 2(1/2) times as heavy as that grown on a plot which has - received no potash. In this case the increase is due almost entirely - to the sugar and other carbohydrates elaborated in the leaves, and not - to any increase of mineral constituents. - - The effect of potash on maturity is somewhat uncertain, inasmuch as in - the case of grain crops it would appear to delay maturity and to - hasten it in that of root crops. - - The influence of potash on particular crops is very marked. On clovers - and other leguminous crops it is highly beneficial, while on grass - land it is of particular importance as inducing the spread of clovers - and other leguminous herbage. This is well seen in the Rothamsted - grass experiments, where with a mineral manure containing potash - one-half of the herbage is leguminous in nature, whereas the same - manure without potash gives only 15% of leguminous plants. Similarly, - where nitrogen is used by itself and no potash given there are no - leguminous plants at all to be found. Potash occurs in an ordinary - fertile soil to the extent of about .20%; a sandy soil will have less, - a clay soil may have considerably more. Potash, however, is mostly - bound up in the soil in the form of insoluble silicates, and these are - often in a far from available form, but require cultivation, the use - of lime and other means for getting them acted on by the air and - moisture, and so liberating the potash. According to B. Dyer's method - of ascertaining the availability of potash in soils, the amount of - potash soluble in a 1% citric acid solution should be about .005%, - otherwise the addition of potash manures will be a requisite. In the - case of soils containing much lime a larger quantity would, no doubt, - be needed. - - Potash, like phosphoric acid, is readily retained by soils, and so is - not subject to any considerable losses by drainage. This retention is - exercised by the ferric-oxide and alumina in soils, but still more so - by the double silicates, and to some extent also by the humus of the - soil. Potash will be liberated from its salts by the action of lime in - the soil, the lime taking the place of the potash. Lime is, therefore, - of much importance in setting free fresh stores of potash. Soda salts - also, when in considerable excess, are able to liberate potash from - its compounds, and to this is probably due, in many cases, the - beneficial action attending the use of common salt. - - 4. _Calcium._--Though calcium, or lime, is found in sufficiency in - most cultivated soils, there are, nevertheless, soils in which lime is - clearly deficient and where that deficiency has shown itself in - practice. Moreover, so comparatively easy is the removal of lime from - the soil by drainage, and so important is the part which lime plays in - liberating potash from its compounds, and in helping to retain bases - in the soil so that they are not lost in drainage, that the - significance of lime cannot be ignored. Further, the availability of - both potash and phosphoric acid in the soil has been found to be much - increased by the presence of lime. Lime, as carbonate of calcium, is - also necessary for the process of nitrification to go on in the soil. - Some sandy soils, and even some clays, contain so little lime as to - call for the direct supply of lime as an addition to the soil. When - this is the case nothing can adequately take the place of lime, and in - this sense lime may be called a "manure." In the majority of cases, - however, the practice of liming or chalking, which was a common one in - former times, was resorted to mainly because of the ameliorating - effects it produced on the land, both in a mechanical and in a - physical direction. Thus, on clay soil it flocculates the particles, - rendering the soil less tenacious of moisture, improving the drainage - and making the soil warmer. Nor must the directly chemical results be - overlooked, for in addition to those already mentioned, of liberating - plant food (chiefly potash and phosphoric acid), retaining bases, and - aiding nitrification, lime acts in a special way as regards the - sourness or "acidity" which is sometimes produced in land when lime is - deficient. In soils that are acid through the accumulation of humic - acid nitrification does not go on, and bacterial life is repressed. - The addition of lime has the effect of "sweetening" the land, and of - restoring its bacterial activity. This acidity is also seen in the - occurrence of the disease known as "finger and toe" in turnips, the - fungus producing this being one that thrives in an acid soil. It is - only found in soils poor in lime, and the only remedy for it is - liming. The growth of weeds like spurry, marigold, sorrel, &c., is - also a sign of land being wanting in lime. The most striking instance - of this "soil acidity" is that afforded by the Woburn experiments, - where, on a soil originally poor in lime, the soil has, through the - continuous use of ammonia salts, been impoverished of its lime to such - an extent that it has become quite sterile and is distinctly acid in - character. The application of lime, however, to such a soil has had - the effect of quite restoring its fertility. - - The amount of lime which soils contain is a very variable one, chalk - soils being very rich in lime, whereas sandy and peaty soils are - generally very poor in it. If the amount of lime in a soil falls below - 1% of carbonate of lime on the dried soil, the soil will sooner or - later require liming. - - 5. _Magnesium._--This is not known to be deficient in soils, although - an essential element in them, and it is seldom directly applied as a - manurial ingredient. Some natural potash salts, such as kainit, - contain magnesia salts in considerable quantity; but their influence - is not known to be of beneficial nature, though, like common salt, - magnesia salts will, doubtless, render some of the potash in the soil - available. At the same time magnesia salts are not without their - influence on crops, and experiments have been undertaken at the Woburn - experimental farm and elsewhere to determine the nature of this - influence. Carbonate of magnesia has been tried in connexion with - potato-growing, and, it is said, with good results. - - 6. _Iron._--Iron is another essential ingredient of soil that is found - in abundance and does not call for special application in manurial - form. Iron is essential for the formation of chlorophyll in the - leaves, and its presence is believed also to be beneficial for the - development of colour in flowers, and for producing flavour in fruits - and in vines especially. Ferrous sulphate has, partly with this view, - and partly for its fungus-resisting properties, been suggested as a - desirable constituent of manures. The function performed by ferric - oxide in the soil of retaining phosphoric acid, potash and ammonia has - been already alluded to. - - 7. _Sulphur._--This, the last of the "essential" elements, is seldom - specially employed in manurial form. There would appear to be no lack - of it for the plant's supply, and it is little required except for the - building-up, with carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, of the - albuminoids. There are few artificial manures which do not contain - considerable amounts of sulphur, notably superphosphate. Sulphate of - lime (gypsum) is sometimes applied to the land direct as a way of - giving lime; this is employed in the case of clover and hops - principally. - -Having thus dealt with the essential ingredients which plants must have, -and which may require to be supplied to them in the form of additional -manures, we may briefly pass over the other constituents found in -plants, which may, or may not, be given as manures. - - 8. _Sodium._--This is a widely distributed element. The influence of - common salt (chloride of sodium) in liberating, when used in large - excess, potash from the silicates in which it is combined in the soil - has been already referred to, and in this way common salt and also - nitrate of soda (the two forms in which soda salts are used as - manures) may have some benefit. The principal purpose for which common - salt, however, is used, is that of retaining moisture in the land. It - is specially useful in a dry season, or for succulent crops such as - cabbage, kale, &c., or again for plants of maritime origin (such as - mangels), which thrive near the sea shore. - - 9. _Silicon._--All soils contain silica in abundance. Though silica - forms so large a part of the ash of plants and is especially abundant - in the straw of cereals, there is no evidence that it is required in - plant life. Popularly, it is believed to "stiffen" the stems of - cereals and grasses, but plants grown without it will do perfectly - well. It would, however, appear that soluble silica does play some - part in enabling phosphoric acid to be better assimilated by the - plant. Silicates, however, have not justified their use as direct - fertilizers. - - 10. _Chlorine._--A certain amount of chlorine is brought down in the - rain, and chlorides are also used in the form of common salt, with the - effect, as aforesaid, of liberating potash from silicates, when given - in excess, but there is no evidence as to any particular part which - the chlorine itself plays. - - 11. _Manganese_, &c.--Manganese occurs in minute quantities in most - plants, and it, along with lithium (found largely in the - tobacco-plant), caesium, titanium, uranium and other rare elements, - may be found in soils. Experiments at the Woburn pot-culture station - and elsewhere, point to stimulating effects on vegetation produced by - the action of minute doses of salts of these elements, but, so far, - their use as manurial ingredients need not be considered in practice. - - 12. _Humus._--Though not an element, or itself essential, this body, - which may be described as decayed vegetable matter, is not without - importance in plant life. Of it, farm-yard manure is to a large extent - composed, and many "organic manures," as they are termed, contain it - in quantity. Dead leaves, decayed vegetation, the stubble of cereal - crops and many waste materials add humus to the land, and this humus, - by exposure to the air, is always undergoing further changes in the - soil, opening it out, distributing carbonic acid through it, and - supplying it, in its further decomposition, with nitrogen. The - principal effects of humus on the soil are of a physical character, - and it exercises particular benefit through its power of retaining - moisture. Humus, however, has a distinct chemical action, in that it - forms combinations with iron, calcium and ammonia. It thus becomes one - of the principal sources of supply of the nitrogenous food of plants, - and a soil rich in humus is one rich in nitrogen. The nitrogen in - humus is not directly available as a food for plants, but many kinds - of fungi and bacteria are capable of converting it into ammonia, from - which, by the agency of nitrifying organisms, it is turned into - nitrates and made available for the use of plants. Humus is able to - retain phosphoric acid, potash, ammonia and other bases. So important - were the functions of humus considered at one time that on this Thaer - built his "humus theory," which was, in effect, that, if humus was - supplied to the soil, plants required nothing more. This was based, - however, on the erroneous belief that the carbon, of which the bulk of - the plant consists, was derived from the humus of the soil, and not, - as we now know it to be, from the carbonic acid of the atmosphere. - This theory was in turn replaced by the "mineral theory" of Liebig, - and then both of them by the "nitrogen theory" of Lawes and Gilbert. - -We pass next to review, in the light of the foregoing, the manures in -common use at the present day. - -Manures, as already stated, may be variously classified according to the -materials they are made from, the constituents which they chiefly -supply, or the uses to which they are put. But, except with certain few -manures, such as nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia and potash salts, -which are used purely for one particular purpose, it is impossible to -make any definite classification of manures, owing to the fact that the -majority of them serve more than one purpose, and contain more than one -fertilizing constituent of value. It is only on broad lines, therefore, -that any division can be framed. Between so-called "natural" manures -like farm-yard manure, seaweed, wool waste, shoddy, bones, &c., which -undergo no particular artificial preparation, and manufactured manures -like superphosphate, dissolved bones, and other artificially prepared -materials, there may, however, be a distinction drawn, as also between -these and such materials as are imported and used without further -preparation, e.g. nitrate of soda, kainit, &c. On the whole, the best -classification to attempt is that according to the fertilizing -constituents which each principally supplies, and this will be adopted -here, with the necessary qualifications. - - -I.--NITROGENOUS (WHOLLY OR MAINLY) MANURES - -These divided themselves into: (a) Natural nitrogenous manures; (b) -imported or manufactured manures. - - - a. NATURAL NITROGENOUS MANURES - - Under this heading come--farm-yard manure; seaweed; refuse cakes and - meals; wool dust and shoddy; hoofs and horns; blood; soot; sewage - sludge. - - _Farm-yard Manure._--This is the most important, as well as the most - generally used, of all natural manures. It consists of the solid and - liquid excreta of animals that are fed at the homestead, together with - the material used as litter. The composition of farm-yard manure will - vary greatly according to the conditions under which it is produced. - The principal determining factors are (1) the nature and age of the - animals producing it, (2) the food that is given them, (3) the kind - and quantity of litter used, (4) whether it be made in feeding-boxes, - covered yards or open yards, (5) the length of time and the way in - which it has been stored. The following analysis represents the - general composition of well-made farm-yard manure, in which the litter - used is straw:-- - - Water 75.42 - *Organic matter 16.52 - Oxide of iron and alumina .36 - Lime 2.28 - Magnesia .14 - Potash .48 - Soda .08 - **Phosphoric acid .44 - Sulphuric acid .12 - Chlorine .02 - Carbonic acid, &c. 1.38 - Silica 2.76 - ------ - 100.00 - ------ - - * Containing nitrogen = .59%, - which is equal to ammonia .72% - - ** Equal to phosphate of lime .96 - - Put broadly, farm-yard manure will contain from 65 to 80% of water, - from .45 to .65% of nitrogen, from .4 to .8% of potash, and from .2 to - .5% of phosphoric acid. - - This analysis shows that farm-yard manure contains all the - constituents, without exception, which are required by cultivated - crops in order to bring them to perfection, and hence it may be called - a "perfect" manure. Dung, it may be observed, contains a great variety - of organic and inorganic compounds of various degrees of solubility, - and this complexity of composition--difficult, if not impossible, to - imitate by art--is one of the circumstances which render farm-yard - manure a perfect as well as a universal manure. - - The excrements of different kinds of animals vary in composition, and - those of the same animal will vary according to the nature and - quantity of the food given, the age of the animal, and the way it is - generally treated. Thus, a young animal which is growing, needs food - to produce bone and muscle, and voids poorer dung than one which is - fully grown and only has to keep up its condition. Similarly, a - milking-cow will produce poorer dung than a fattening bullock. Again, - cake-feeding will produce a richer manure than feeding without cake. - Straw is the most general litter used, but peat-moss litter, sawdust, - &c., may be used, and they will affect the quality of the manure to - some extent. Peat-moss is the best absorbent and has a higher manurial - value than straw. Box-fed manure, and that made in covered yards will - suffer much less loss than that made in an open yard. Lastly, manure - kept in a heap covered with earth will be much richer than that left - in an uncovered heap. The solid and liquid excrements differ much in - composition, for, while the former contain principally phosphoric - acid, lime, magnesia, and silica and comparatively little nitrogen, - the urine is almost destitute of phosphoric acid, and abounds in - alkaline salts (including salts of potash) and in nitrogenous organic - matters, among which are urea and uric acid, and which on - decomposition yield ammonia. Unless, therefore, the two kinds of - excrements are mixed, a perfect manure supplying all the needs of the - plant is not obtained; care must accordingly be taken to absorb all - the urine by the litter. Farm-yard manure, it is well known, is much - affected by the length of time and the way in which it has been kept. - Fresh dung is soluble in water only to a limited extent, and, in - consequence, it acts more slowly on vegetation, and the action lasts - longer than when dung is used which has been kept some time; fresh - dung is therefore generally used in autumn or winter, and thoroughly - rotten dung in spring, when an immediate forcing effect is required. - - The changes which farm-yard manure undergoes on keeping, have been - made the subject of much inquiry. In Germany, Maercker and - Schneidewind; in France, Muntz and Girard; and in England, Voelcker, - Wood, Russell and others, have investigated these losses, coming to - very similar conclusions concerning them. Perhaps the most complete - set of experiments is one conducted at the Woburn experimental station - and extending over three years (1899-1901). The dung was cake-fed - manure made in feeding-boxes from which no drainage issued, and, after - removal, it was kept in a heap, covered with earth. Hence it was made - under as good conditions as possible; but, even then, the - losses--after deduction for live-weight increase of the animals--were - found to be 15% of the total nitrogen of the food, during the making, - and 34% (or a further 19%) during storing and by the time the manure - came to be put on the land. Accordingly, under ordinary farm - conditions it is quite clear that only about 50% of the nitrogen of - the food given is recovered in the dung that goes on the land. This is - the figure which Lawes and Gilbert suggested in the practical - application of their Tables of Compensation for Unexhausted Manure - Value. - - During the fermentation of dung a large proportion of the - non-nitrogenous organic matters disappear in the forms of carbonic - acid and water, while another portion is converted into humic acids - which fix the ammonia gradually produced from the nitrogenous - constituents of the solid and liquid excreta. The mineral matters - remain behind entirely in the rotten dung, if care be taken to prevent - loss by drainage. For proper decomposition, both air and moisture are - requisite, while extreme dryness or too much water will arrest the due - fermentation of the mass. - - Well-fermented dung is more concentrated and consequently more - efficacious than fresh farm-yard manure. Neither fresh nor rotten dung - contains any appreciable quantity of volatile ammonia, and there is no - advantage from applying gypsum, dilute acid, superphosphate, kainit, - or other substances recommended as fixers of ammonia. If dung is - carted into the field and spread out at once in thin layers it will - suffer comparatively little loss. But if dung be kept for a length of - time in shallow heaps, or in open straw-yards and exposed to rain, it - loses by drainage a considerable proportion of its most valuable - soluble fertilizing constituents. Experiments with farm-yard manure - kept in an open yard showed that, after twelve months' exposure to the - weather, nearly all the soluble nitrogen and 78.2% of the soluble - mineral matters were lost by drainage (A. Voelcker). To prevent this - loss, farm-yard manure, as had been pointed out, should, whenever - possible, be carted into the field, spread out at once, and ploughed - in at the convenience of the farmer. It is, however, not always - practicable to apply farm-yard manure just at the time it is made, - and, as the manure heap cannot be altogether dispensed with, it is - necessary to see how the manure may best be kept. The best dung is - that made in regular pits or feeding-boxes. In them the urine is - thoroughly absorbed, and, the manure being more compact through the - constant treading, air enters less freely and the decomposition goes - on less rapidly, the volatile matters, in consequence, not being so - readily lost. External agents, such as rain, wind, sun, &c., do not - affect the manure as they would in the case of open yards. Next best - to box-fed manure is that made in covered yards, then that in sheds, - and lastly that in open yards. When removed from the box or yard, the - manure should be put in a heap upon a floor of clay or - well-beaten-down earth, and then be covered with earth. When kept in - an open yard, care should be taken not to let spoutings of buildings - lead on to it, and if there be a liquid-manure tank, this might be - pumped out over the manure again when the latter is too dry. - - The advantages of farm-yard manure consist, not only in its supplying - all the constituents of plant food, but also in the improved physical - condition of the soil which results from its application, inasmuch as - the land is thereby kept porous, and air is allowed free access. - While, however, farm-yard manure has these advantages, experience has - shown that artificial manures, properly selected so as to meet the - requirements of the crops intended to be grown on the particular land, - may be employed to greater advantage. In farm-yard manure about - two-thirds of the weight is water and one-third dry matter; a large - bulk thus contains only a small proportion of fertilizing substances, - and expense is incurred for carriage of much useless matter when dung - has to be carted to distant fields. When a plentiful supply of good - farm-yard manure can be produced on the farm or bought at a moderate - price in the immediate neighbourhood, it is economy to use it either - alone or in conjunction with artificial manures; but when food is dear - and fattening does not pay, or farm-yard manure is expensive to buy, - it will be found more economical to use artificial manures. This has - obtained confirmation from the experience of Mr Prout, at - Sawbridgeworth, Herts, where since 1866, successive crops of corn have - been grown, and entirely with the use of artificial manures. - - The real difficulty with farm-yard manure is to get enough of it, and, - if it were available in sufficiency, it would be safe to say that - farmers generally would not require to go farther in regard to the - manuring of any of the crops of the farm. Moreover, experiments at - Rothamsted and Woburn have shown of how "lasting" a character - farm-yard manure is, its influence having told for some 15 to 20 years - after its application had ceased. - - Light land is benefited by farm-yard manure through its supplying to - the soil organic matter, and imparting to it "substance" whereby it - becomes more consolidated and is better able to retain the manurial - ingredients given to it. By improving the soil's moisture-holding - capacity, moreover, "burning" of the land is prevented. - - With heavy clay soils the advantages are that these are kept more open - in texture, drainage is improved, and the soil rendered easier of - working. On light land, well-rotted manure is best to apply; and in - spring, whereas on heavy land freshly-made, "long," manure is best, - and should be put on in autumn or winter. - - Farm-yard manure, where the supply is limited, is mostly saved for the - root-crop, which, however, generally needs a little superphosphate to - start it, as farm-yard manure is not sufficiently rich in this - constituent. It serves a great purpose in retaining the needed - moisture in the soil for the root crop. - - For potato-growing, for vegetables, and in market-gardening, farm-yard - manure is almost indispensable. On grass-land and on clover-ley it is - also very useful, and in the neighbourhood of large towns is employed - greatly for the production of hay. - - For corn crops also, and especially for wheat on heavy land, farm-yard - manure is much used, and, in a dry season in particular, shows - excellent results, though experiments at Rothamsted and Woburn have - shown that, on heavy and light land alike, heavier crops of wheat and - barley can be produced in average seasons by artificial manures. - - _Seaweed._--Along the sea-coast seaweed is collected, put in heaps and - allowed to rot, being subsequently used on the land, just as farm-yard - manure is. According to the nature of the weed and its water-contents, - it may have from .3 to 1% of nitrogen, or more, with potash in some - quantity. - - _Green-manuring._--Though properly belonging to cultivation rather - than to manuring, and acting chiefly as a means of improving the - condition of the soil, the practice of green-manuring carries with it - manurial benefits also, in that it supplies humus and nitrogen to the - soil, and provides a substitute for farm-yard manure. The ploughing-in - of a leguminous green-crop which has collected nitrogen from the - atmosphere should result in a greater accumulation of nitrogen for a - succeeding corn-crop, and thus supply the cheapest form of manuring. - Green-manuring is most beneficial on light land, poor in vegetable - matter. - - _Manure Cakes, Malt Dust, Spent Hops, &c._--Many waste materials of - this kind are used because of their supplying, in the form of - nitrogenous organic matter, nitrogen for crop uses. The nitrogen in - these is of somewhat slow-acting, but lasting, nature. In addition to - nitrogen, some of these materials, e.g. rape cake, cotton cake and - castor cake, contain appreciable amounts of phosphoric acid and - potash. Rape cake, or "land cake," as it is called in Norfolk, is used - considerably for wheat. It is also believed to be a preventive of - wireworm, and so is often employed for potatoes and root-crops. - Rape-seed from which the oil has been extracted by chemical means, and - which is called "rape refuse," is made use of in hop-gardens as a - slowly acting supplier of nitrogen. It will contain 4 to 5% of - nitrogen with 3 to 4% of phosphates. Damaged cotton and other - feeding-cakes, no longer fit for feeding, are ground into meal and put - on the land. Castor cake is directly imported for manurial purposes, - and will have up to 5% of nitrogen with 4 to 5% of phosphates. Spent - hops, malt dust and other waste materials are similarly used. The - principal use of these materials is on light land, and to give bulk to - the soil while supplying nitrogen in suitable form. - - _Wool-dust, Shoddy, &c._--The clippings from wool, the refuse from - cloth factories, silk, fur and hair waste, carpet clippings and - similar waste materials are comprised in this category. They are - valuable purely for their nitrogen, and should be purchased according - to their nitrogen-contents. They are favourite materials with - hop-growers and fruit-farmers, whose experience leads them to prefer a - manure which supplies its nitrogen in organic form, and which acts - continuously, if not too readily. It is the custom in hop-lands to - manure the soil annually with large quantities of these waste - materials till it has much fertility stored up in it for succeeding - crops. According to its nature, wool-dust or shoddy may contain - anything from 3% of nitrogen up to 14%. - - Leather is another waste material of the same class, but the process - of tanning it has undergone makes its nitrogen but very slowly - available and it is avoided, in consequence, as a manure. There have - been several processes started with the object of rendering leather - more useful as a manure. - - _Hoofs and Horns._--The clippings and shavings from horn factories are - largely used by some hop-growers, and, though very slow in their - action, they will contain 14 to 15% of nitrogen. They are sometimes - very finely ground and sold as "keronikon," chiefly for use in - compound artificial manures. - - _Dried Blood_ is another purely nitrogenous material, which however - seldom finds its way to the farmer, being used up eagerly by the - artificial manure maker. It will contain from 12 to 14% of nitrogen. - It is obtained by simply evaporating down the blood obtained from - slaughter-houses. It is the most rapidly acting of the organic - nitrogenous materials enumerated, and, when obtainable, is a favourite - manure with fruit-growers, being also used for root and vegetable - growing. - - _Soot_ is an article of very variable nature. It owes its manurial - value mainly to the ammonia salts it contains, and a good sample will - have about 4% of ammonia. It is frequently adulterated, being mixed - with ashes, earth, &c. Flue sweepings of factory chimneys are - sometimes sold as soot, but possess little value. Besides the ammonia - that soot contains, there would undoubtedly seem to be a value - attaching to the carbonaceous matter. Soot is a favourite top-dressing - for wheat on heavy land, and is efficacious in keeping off slugs, &c. - Speaking generally, the lighter a sample of soot is the more likely is - it to be genuine. - - _Sewage Manure._--Where methods of dealing with the solid matters of - sewage are in operation, it frequently happens that these matters are - dried, generally with the aid of lime, and sold locally. Occasionally - they are prepared with the addition of other fertilizing materials and - made up as special manures. It may be taken for granted that sewage - refuse by itself is not worth transporting to any distance. When made - up with lime, the "sludge," as it is generally termed, is often useful - because of the lime it contains. But, on the whole, the value of such - preparations has been greatly exaggerated. Where land is in need of - organic matter, or where it is desirable to consolidate light land by - the addition of material of this class, sludge may, however, have - decided value on mechanical and physical grounds, but such land - requires to be near at hand. - - - b. _Imported or Manufactured Nitrogenous Manures._ - - These are nitrate of soda; sulphate of ammonia; calcium cyanamide; - calcium nitrate. - - _Nitrate of Soda._--This is the best known and most generally used of - purely nitrogenous manures. It comes from the rainless districts of - Chile and Peru, from which it was first shipped about the year 1830. - By 1899 the export had reached to 1,344,550 tons. It is uncertain what - its origin is, but it is generally believed to be the deposit from an - ancient sea which was raised by volcanic eruption and its waters - evaporated. Another theory puts it as the deposit from the saline - residues of fresh-water streams. The crude deposit is termed - _caliche_, and from this (which contains common salt and sulphates of - soda, potash and lime) the nitrate is crystallized out and obtained as - a salt containing 95 to 96% pure nitrate of soda. It is sold on a - basis of 95% pure, and is but little subject to adulteration. - - As a quickly acting nitrogenous manure nitrate of soda has no equal, - and it is in great demand as a top-dressing for corn crops, also for - roots. On grass-land, if used alone, it tends to produce grass but to - exterminate leguminous herbage. Its tendency with corn crops is to - produce, if used in quantity, inferiority of quality in grain. It can - be employed in conjunction with superphosphate and other artificial - manures, though it should not be mixed with them long before the - mixture is to be put on. It is a very soluble salt, and the nitrogen - being in the form of nitrates, it can be readily taken up by plants. - On the other hand, it is readily removed from the soil by drainage, - and its effects last only for a single season. Owing to its - solubility, it requires to be used in much larger amount than the crop - actually will take up. On a heavy soil it has a bad influence if used - repeatedly and in quantity, causing the land to "run," and making the - tilth bad. Though, doubtless, exhaustive to the soil, when used alone, - there is no evidence yet of nitrate of soda causing land to "run out," - as has been shown to be the case with sulphate of ammonia. One cwt. to - the acre is a common dressing for corn crops, but for mangels it has - been used to advantage up to 4 cwt. per acre. As a top-dressing for - corn crops it differs little in its crop-results from its rival - sulphate of ammonia, but in a dry season it answers better, owing to - its more ready solubility and quicker action, whereas in a wet season - sulphate of ammonia does better. - - _Sulphate of Ammonia._--This is the great competitor with nitrate of - soda, and, like the latter, is useful purely as a nitrogenous manure. - It is obtained in the manufacture of gas and as a by-product in the - distillation of shale, &c., as also from coke ovens. By adding - sulphuric acid to the ammoniacal liquor distilled over from the coal, - &c., the salt is crystallized out. It is seldom adulterated, and, as - sold in commerce, generally contains 24 to 25% of ammonia. It is not - quite so readily soluble as nitrate of soda; it does not act quite so - quickly on crops, but is less easily removed from the soil by - drainage, leaving also a slight amount of residue for a second crop. - It is nearly as efficacious as a top-dressing for corn crops as is - nitrate of soda, and for some crops, e.g. potatoes, it is considered - superior. It may also be used like nitrate of soda for root crops. On - grass-land its effect in increasing gramineous but reducing leguminous - herbage is similar to that of nitrate of soda, but with corn crops it - has not the same deteriorating influence on the quality of grain. It - can be mixed quite well with superphosphate and other artificial - manures, and is therefore a common form in which nitrogen is supplied - in compound manures. It does not produce the bad effect on the tilth - of certain soils that nitrate of soda does, but it is open to the - objection that, if used continually on soil poor in lime, it will - gradually exhaust the soil and leave it in an acid condition, so that - the soil is unable to bear crops again until fertility is restored by - the addition of lime. A usual dressing of sulphate of ammonia is 1 - cwt. per acre. - - _Calcium Cyanamide._--This is a new product which represents the - earliest result of the utilization, in a commercial form, of - atmospheric nitrogen as a manurial substance. It is obtained by - passing nitrogen gas over the heated calcium carbide obtained in the - electric furnace, the nitrogen then uniting with the carbide to form - calcium cyanamide. The product contains from 19 to 20% of nitrogen, - and, though still under trial as a nitrogenous manure, it bids fair to - form a valuable source of supply, especially should the natural - deposits of nitrate of soda become exhausted. The cost of production - limits its manufacture to places where electrical power can be cheaply - generated. In its action it would seem to resemble most closely - sulphate of ammonia. - - _Calcium Nitrate._--This is another product of the utilization of - atmospheric nitrogen as a manurial agent. Nitrogen and oxygen are made - to combine within the electric arc and the nitric acid produced is - then combined with lime, forming nitrate of lime. Nitrate of lime - contains, as put on the market, about 13% of nitrogen. In its action - it should be very similar to nitrate of soda, with, possibly, some - added benefit to certain soils by reason of the lime it contains. Like - cyanamide, it is still in the experimental stage as regards its - agricultural use, and can only be produced where electric power is - cheaply obtainable. - - Neither material is altogether free from objection, the cyanamide - heating when mixed with other manures and even with soil, and being - liable to give off acetylene gas owing to the presence of calcium - carbide, whereas the calcium nitrate is a salt which on exposure to a - moist atmosphere readily deliquesces. - - -II.--PHOSPHATIC MANURES - -Under the heading of manures that are used purely for their phosphatic -benefit to the soil are superphosphate and basic slag. - - _Superphosphate._--This is the typical phosphatic manure, and is the - base of the numerous artificial manures used on the farm. - Superphosphate is made by dissolving raw phosphatic minerals in - sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), the tribasic phosphate of lime which - these contain being converted into the so-called "soluble phosphate," - sulphate of lime being formed at the same time. The first impetus to - the manufacture of superphosphate was given by Liebig, when he - suggested, in 1840, the treatment of bones with oil of vitriol in - order to make them act more quickly in the soil. Lawes subsequently, - in 1843, applied this to mineral phosphates, using phosphorite, first - of all, and the great manufacture of mineral superphosphate then - began. Coprolites, as found in Cambridgeshire, Suffolk, Bedfordshire - and elsewhere were the raw materials at first employed in the United - Kingdom. But gradually the demand for the new manure became so great - that distant parts of the world were searched to bring in the raw - material for conversion into superphosphate. Many new sources of - supply have been worked, and many worked out or abandoned in favour of - better and richer phosphates. Among these were the crystalline - apatites of Canada and Norway, French, Spanish and German (Lahn) - phosphates, and, at a later period, Carolina (land and river), - Florida, Tennessee, Somme, Belgian, Algerian and Tunisian phosphates. - In addition to these came other materials which, in their origin, were - really of the nature of guano, being bird deposits the ammoniacal - matters of which were gradually washed out. The mineral matters - remained and altered the composition of the original rock on which the - guano was deposited, thus forming rich deposits of phosphate of lime. - Such were the phosphates obtained from many of the islands of the West - Indies and South Pacific, and known under such various names as - Sombrero, Curacao, Aruba, Maiden Island, Megillones, Baker Island, - Fanning Islands, Lacepedes Islands, &c. guanos. Few of these are now - worked, but their place has been largely taken by the rich deposits of - Ocean Island and Christmas Island, which are of similar origin. The - principal supplies of phosphatic minerals at the present time come - from Florida, Algeria, Tunis, Ocean Island and Christmas Island. Other - phosphates imported are Redonda and Alta Vela phosphates, but these - consist mainly of phosphate of alumina, and are not used for - superphosphate manufacture but for phosphorus production. - - Coprolites, as formerly used, contained from 50 to 60% of phosphate of - lime, but they are not worked now, the richer sources, which are also - better adapted for superphosphate manufacture, having taken their - place. The amount of oxide of iron and alumina in raw phosphates is of - great importance, as phosphates containing these bodies are liable to - cause superphosphate to "go back" or form what is called "reverted" - phosphate, the percentage of "soluble phosphate" being reduced - thereby. For this reason many of the older supplies have been replaced - by newer and better ones. Florida rock phosphate of high grade - contains 75 to 78% of phosphate of lime, and Florida land pebble - phosphate about 70%. Algerian and Tunisian phosphates have from 55 to - 65% of phosphate of lime, and are very free from iron and alumina, - this fitting them especially for superphosphate making. Tennessee - phosphate has about 70% of phosphate, Somme and Belgian phosphates 40 - to 50%, while Ocean Island and Christmas Island phosphates are of very - high grade and yield over 80 and up to 86% of phosphate of lime. - Superphosphate is made by finely grinding the raw phosphate and mixing - it with oil of vitriol (chamber acid); what actual product is formed - is a matter of some uncertainty, but it is a phosphate soluble in - water, and believed to be mono-calcic phosphate. This is the true - "soluble phosphate," but in commercial transactions it is universal to - express the amount in terms of the original tribasic phosphate which - has been rendered soluble. Ordinary grades of mineral superphosphate - give from 25 to 27% of soluble phosphate and higher grades 30 to 35%. - On reaching the soil, the soluble phosphate becomes precipitated by - the calcium and iron compounds in the soil. But it is precipitated in - a very fine form of division, in which it is readily attacked by the - plant roots. Superphosphate is used practically for all crops, - including cereals, clover and other leguminous crops. Its use tends to - early maturity in a crop. Its value for giving a start to root crops - is particularly recognized, and root crops generally are dependent on - it, as they have little power of utilizing the phosphoric acid in the - soil itself. On land poor in lime superphosphate must be used with - caution owing to its acid nature, and in such cases an undissolved - phosphate is preferable. The quantity in which it is applied ranges - from 2 and 3 cwt. per acre to 5 cwt. It suffers but little loss - through drainage, and will exercise an influence on crops beyond the - year of application. - - _Basic Slag._--This other principal phosphatic manure is of more - recent origin, and is an undissolved phosphate. It is the waste - product of steel-making where the Thomas-Gilchrist or "basic" process - of manufacture has been employed. This process is used with ores - containing much phosphorus, the removal of which is necessary in - steel-manufacture. The "converters" which hold the molten iron are - lined with lime and magnesia, and the impurities of the iron form a - "slag" with these materials. For a long time the slag was regarded as - a waste product, but ultimately it was found that, by grinding it very - finely, it had distinct agricultural value, and now its use is - universal. Basic slag is of various grades, containing 12 to 20% of - phosphoric acid, which is believed to exist in the form of a - tetracalcic phosphate. This phosphate is found to be readily attacked - by a weak solution of citric acid, and this probably accounts for the - comparative ease with which plants can utilize the phosphate. With it - is also a good deal of lime, and the presence of this undoubtedly, in - many cases, accounts partly for the benefits that follow the use of - basic slag. It should be very finely ground; a common standard is that - 80 to 90% should pass through a sieve having 10,000 meshes to the - square inch. - - The principal use of basic slag is on grass-land, especially where the - soil is heavy or clayey. Its effect on such land in causing white - clover to appear is in many cases most remarkable, and without doubt, - much poor, cold grass-land has been immensely benefited by its use. It - is also employed for root crops; but its effect on these, as on - cereals, is not so marked as on grass-land. On light land its benefit - is not nearly so great or universal as on heavier land. - - -III.--MANURES CONTAINING NITROGEN AND PHOSPHATES - -These may be classified as follows: (a) Natural manures--bones, fish and -meat guanos, Peruvian guano, bats' guano; (b) Manufactured -manures--dissolved bones, compound manures. - - - a. _Natural Manures_ - - _Bones.._--The value and use of these in agriculture has long been - known, as also the comparative slowness of their action, which latter - induced Liebig to suggest their treatment with sulphuric acid. Natural - bones will contain from 45 to 50% of phosphate of lime with 4 to - 4(1/2)% of nitrogen. It is usual to boil bones lightly after - collection, in order to remove the adhering particles of flesh and the - fat. If steamed under pressure the nitrogenous matter is to a great - extent extracted, yielding glue, size, gelatine, &c., and the - bones--known then in agriculture as "steamed bones"--will contain from - 55 to 60% of phosphate of lime with 1 to 1(1/2)% of nitrogen. Bones - are also imported from India, and these are of a very hard and dry - nature. Bones are principally used for root crops, and to some extent - on grass-land. The more finely they are ground the quicker is their - action, but they are a slow-acting manure, which remains some years in - the land. Mixed with superphosphate, bone meal forms an excellent - manure for roots, and obviates the difficulty of using superphosphate - on land poor in lime. Steamed bones, sometimes ground into flour, are - much used in dairy pastures. - - _Fish and Meat Guanos._--The term "guano," though generally applied to - these manures, is wrongly so used, for they are in no sense guano - (meaning thereby the droppings of sea birds). They are really fish or - meat refuse, being generally the dried fish-offal or the residue from - meat-extract manufacture. They vary much in composition, according to - their origin, some being highly nitrogenous (11 to 12% nitrogen) and - comparatively low in phosphate of lime, and others being more highly - phosphatic (30 to 40% phosphate of lime) with lower nitrogen. These - materials are to some extent used for root and vegetable crops, and - chiefly for hop-growing, but they go largely also to the artificial - manure maker. - - _Peruvian Guano._--This material, though once a name to conjure with, - has now not much more than an academic interest, owing to the rapid - exhaustion of the supplies. It is true guano, i.e. the deposit of sea - birds, and was originally found on islands off the coast of Peru. - Peruvian guano was first discovered in 1804 by A. von Humboldt, and - the wonderful results attending its use gave an enormous impulse to - its exportation. The Chincha Islands yielded the finest qualities of - guano, this giving up to 14 and 15% of nitrogen. Gradually the Chincha - Islands deposits became worked out, and other sources, such as the - Pabellon de Pica, Lobos, Guanape and Huanillos deposits were worked in - turn. In many instances the guano had suffered from washing by rain or - by decomposition, or in other cases the bare rock was reached and the - shipments contained some considerable quantity of this rocky matter, - so that the highly nitrogenous guanos were no longer forthcoming and - deposits more phosphatic in character took their place. Gradually the - shipments fell off, and with them the great reputation of the guano as - a manure. On some of the islands the birds, after having been driven - off, have returned and fresh deposits are being formed. On the west - coast of Africa also some new deposits have been found, and a certain - amount of guano comes from Ichaboe Island; but the trade will never be - what it once was. Occasional shipments come from the Ballista Islands, - giving from 10 to 11% of nitrogen with 11 to 12% of phosphoric acid, - and lower-grade guanos (7% of nitrogen and 16% of phosphoric acid) are - arriving from Guanape, while from Lobos de Tierra comes a still lower - grade. - - The particular feature that marked guano was that it contained both - its nitrogenous and phosphatic ingredients in forms in which they - could be very readily assimilated by plants. Moreover, the occurrence - of the nitrogenous and phosphatic matters in different forms of - combination gave to them a special value, and one that could not be - exactly imitated in artificial manures. The nitrogenous matters, e.g., - exist as urates, carbonates, oxalates and phosphates of ammonia, and a - particular nitrogenous body termed "guanine" is also found. Guano - contains much alkaline salts, and is, from its containing alike - phosphates, nitrogen and potash in suitable forms and quantity, an - exceedingly well balanced manure. In agriculture it is used for corn - crops, and also for root crops, potatoes and hops. It is esteemed for - barley, as tending to produce good quality. For vegetable and - market-garden crops that require forcing guano is also still in - demand. The more phosphatic kinds are sometimes treated with sulphuric - acid, and constitute "Dissolved Peruvian Guano." - - _Bats' Guano._--In caves in New Zealand, parts of America, South - Africa and elsewhere, are found deposits formed by bats, and these are - used to some extent as a manure, though they have no great commercial - value. - - - b. _Manufactured Manures_ - - _Dissolved Bones._--These are bones treated with oil of vitriol, as in - superphosphate manufacture. By this treatment bones become much more - readily available, and are used to a considerable extent, more - especially for root crops. Their composition varies with the method of - manufacture and the extent to which they are dissolved. Speaking - generally, they will have from 11 to 19% of soluble phosphate, with 20 - to 24% of insoluble phosphates, and if pure should contain 3% of - nitrogen. When mixed with superphosphate in varying amount, or if made - with steamed and not raw bone, they are generally known under the - indefinite name of "bone manure." - - _Compound Manures._--To this class belong the manures of every - description which it is the aim of the artificial manure manufacturer - to compound for particular purposes or to suit particular soils or - crops. The base of all these is, as a rule, mineral superphosphate or - else dissolved bones, or the two together, and with these are mixed - numerous different manurial substances calculated to supply definite - amounts of nitrogen, potash, &c. Such manures, the trade in which is a - very large one, are variously known as "corn manure," "turnip manure," - "grass manure" and the like, and much care is bestowed on their - compounding and on their preparation in good condition to allow of - their ready distribution over the land. - - -IV.--POTASH MANURES - -These, with few exceptions, are natural products from the potash mines -of Stassfurt (Prussia). Until the discovery of these deposits, in 1861, -the use of potash as a fertilizing constituent was very limited, being -confined practically to the employment of wood ashes. At the present -time a small quantity of potash salts--principally carbonate of -potash--is obtained from sugar refinery and other manufacturing -processes, but the great bulk of the potash supply comes from the German -mines. In these the different natural salts occur in different layers -and in conjunction with layers of rock-salt, carbonate of lime and other -minerals, from which they have to be separated out and undergo -subsequently a partial purification by re-crystallization. - - The principal potash salts used in agriculture are--(1) sulphate of - potash, which is about 90% pure; (2) kainit, an impure form of - sulphate of potash, and containing much common salt and magnesia - salts, and giving about 12% of potash (K2O); (3) muriate of potash, - which is used to a great extent in agriculture, and contains 75 to 90% - of muriate of potash; and (4) potash manure salts, a mixture of - different salts and containing from 20 to 30% of potash. - - Potash is much esteemed in agriculture, more especially on light land - (which is frequently deficient in it) and on peaty soils, and for use - with root crops and potatoes in particular. For fruit and vegetable - growing and for flowers potash manures are in constant request. Clay - land, as a rule, is not benefited by their use, these soils containing - generally an abundance of potash. Along with basic slag, potash salts - have been frequently used for grass on light land with advantage. - - -V.--MISCELLANEOUS MANURES - -There are, in addition to the foregoing, certain materials which in a -limited sense only can be called "manures," but the influences of which -are mostly seen in the mechanical and physical improvements which they -effect in soil. Such are salt, and also lime in its different forms. - - _Salt._--The action of salt in liberating potash from the soil has - been explained. As a manure it is sometimes used along with nitrate of - soda as a top-dressing for corn crops, in the belief that it stiffens - the straw. For root crops also, and mangels in particular, it is - employed; also for cabbage and other vegetables. - - _Lime._--The use of this is almost solely to be considered as a soil - improvement, and not as that of a manure. Sulphate of lime (gypsum) - is, however, occasionally used as a dressing for clover, and also for - hops. The fact that superphosphate itself contains a considerable - amount of sulphate of lime renders the special application of gypsum - unnecessary, as a rule. - - As compared with "natural" manures, like farm-yard manure, artificial - manures have the disadvantage that they, unlike it, do not improve the - physical condition of the soil. Artificial manures have, however, the - advantage over farm-yard manure that they can supply in a small - compass, and even if used in small quantity, the needed nitrogen, - phosphoric acid and potash, &c., which crops require, and which - farm-yard manure has but in small proportion. They, further, present - the expensive fertilizing matters in a concentrated form, and by their - application save expense in labour. (J. A. V.*) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The amount of nitrogen thus deposited annually was found at - Rothamsted to be 7.21 lb. per acre. - - - - -MANUSCRIPT, a term applied to any document written by the human hand -(Lat. _manu scriptum_) with the aid of pen, pencil or other instrument -which can be used with cursive facility, as distinguished from an -inscription engraved with chisel or graver, worked laboriously. By usage -the word has come to be employed in a special sense to indicate a -written work of the ancient world or of the middle ages; collections of -such "ancient manuscripts" being highly prized and being stored for -preservation in public libraries. Down to the time of the invention of -printing, and until the printed book had driven it out of the field, the -manuscript was the vehicle for the conservation and dissemination of -literature, and discharged all the functions of the modern book. In the -present article a description is given of the development of the ancient -manuscript, particularly among the Greeks and Romans, leading on to the -medieval manuscripts of Europe, and bringing down the history of the -latter to the invention of printing; the history of the printed volume -is dealt with in the article BOOK (q.v.). - - _Materials._--The handbooks on palaeography describe in full the - different materials which have been employed from remote time to - receive writing, and may be referred to for minuter details. To - dispose, in the first place, of the harder materials that have been - put under requisition, we find metals both referred to by writers and - actually represented by surviving examples. Thin leaves of gold or - silver were recommended for the inscription of charms in particular. - Leaden plates were in common use for incantations; the material was - cheap and was supposed to be durable. On such plates were scratched - the _dirae_ or solemn devotions of obnoxious persons to the infernal - deities; many examples have survived. As an instance of the use of - soft substance afterwards hardened may be cited the practice by the - Babylonians and Assyrians of writing, or rather of puncturing, their - cuneiform characters on clay tablets while moist, which were - afterwards dried in the heat of the sun or baked in the oven. - Potsherds, or _ostraka_, were employed for all kinds of temporary - purposes. Thousands of them have been found in Egypt inscribed with - tax receipts and ephemeral drafts and memoranda, children's dictation - lessons, &c. Analogous to the clay documents of western Asia are the - tablets coated with wax in vogue among the Greeks and Romans, offering - a surface not to be inscribed with the pen but to be scratched with - the sharp pointed _stilus_. These will be described more fully below. - With them we class the wooden boards, generally whitened with a - coating of paint or composition and adapted for the pen, which were - common in Egypt, and were specially used for educational purposes. - Such boards were also employed for official notices in Athens in the - 4th century B.C. - - Of the more pliant, and therefore generally more convenient, - substances there were many, such as animal skins and vegetable - growths. Practically we might confine our attention to three of them: - papyrus, parchment or vellum, and paper, the employment of which, each - in turn, as a writing material became almost universal. But there are - also others which must be mentioned. - - In a primitive state of society leaves of plants and trees strong - enough for the purpose might be taken as a ready-made material to - receive writing. Palm leaves are used for this purpose to the present - day in parts of India; and the references in classical authors to - leaves as early writing material among the Greeks and Romans cannot be - dismissed as entirely fanciful. - - The bark of trees, and particularly the inner bark of the lime-tree, - [Greek: philyra,] _tilia_, was employed. The fact that the Latin word - _liber_, bark, eventually meant also a book, would be sufficient proof - that that material was once in common literary use, even if it were - not referred to by writers. - - Linen, too, was a writing material among the early Romans, as it was - also among the Etruscans, and as it had been to some extent among the - Egyptians. - - Skins of animals, tanned, have doubtless served as a writing material - from the very earliest period of the use of letters. The Egyptians - occasionally employed this material. Instances of the use of leather - in western Asia are recorded by ancient authors, and from Herodotus we - learn that the Ionian Greeks applied to the rolls of the - later-imported papyrus the title [Greek: diphtherai], skins, by which - they had designated their writing material of leather. The Jews, also, - to the present day hold to the ancient Eastern custom and inscribe the - law upon skin rolls. - - But generally these materials were superseded in the old world by the - famous Egyptian writing material manufactured from the papyrus plant, - which gradually passed beyond the boundaries of its native land and - was imported at a remote period into other countries. Into Greece and - into Rome it was introduced at so early a time that practically it was - the vehicle for classical literature throughout its course. A - description of the manufacture and use of this material will be found - under PAPYRUS. Here it need only be noted that papyrus is associated - in Greek and Roman literature with the roll form of the ancient - manuscript, as will be more fully explained below, and that it was the - supersession of this material by parchment or vellum which led to the - change of shape to the book form. - - The introduction of the new material, parchment or vellum, was not a - revival of the use of animal skins as followed by the old world. The - skins were now not tanned into leather, but were prepared by a new - process to provide a material, thin, strong, flexible, and smooth of - surface on both faces. This improved process was the secret of the - success of the new material in ousting the time-honoured papyrus from - its high position. The common story, as told by Pliny, that Eumenes - II. of Pergamum (197-158 B.C.), seeking to extend the library of his - capital, was opposed by the jealousy of the Ptolemies, who forbade the - export of papyrus, hoping thus to check the growth of a rival library, - and that he was thus compelled to have recourse to skins as a writing - material, at all events points to Pergamum as the chief centre of - trade in the material, [Greek: pergamene,] _charta pergamena_. The old - terms [Greek: diphtherai], _membranae_, applied originally to the - older leather, were transferred to the newly improved substance. In - describing MSS. written on, this material, by common consent the term - parchment has in modern times given place to that of vellum, properly - applicable only to calfskin, but now generally used in reference to a - medieval skin-book of any kind. Parchment is a title now usually - reserved for the hard sheepskin or other skin material on which law - deeds are engrossed. (See PARCHMENT.) - - Vellum had a long career as a writing material for the literature of - the early centuries of our era and of the middle ages. But in its turn - it eventually gave place to paper (q.v.). As early as the 13th century - paper, an Asiatic invention, was making its way into Europe and was - adopted in the Eastern Empire as a material for Greek literature side - by side with vellum. It soon afterwards began to appear in the - countries of southern Europe. In the course of the 14th century the - use of it became fairly established, and in the middle of the century - a number of paper manuscripts were produced along with those on - vellum, particularly in Italy. Finally, in the 15th century paper - became the common material for the manuscript book. The new paper, - however, made no further change in the form of the manuscript. It - possessed exactly the same qualities, as a writing material, as - vellum: it could be inscribed on both sides; it could be made up into - quires and bound in the codex form; and it had the further advantage - of being easily manufactured in large quantities, and therefore of - being comparatively cheap. - -_The Forms of the Manuscript Book._--In describing the development of -the manuscript book in the ancient world, and subsequently in the middle -ages, we have to deal with it in two forms. The common form of the book -of the ancient world was the _roll_, composed of one continuous sheet of -material and inscribed only on one side. This form had a long career. In -Egyptian literature it can be traced back for thousands of years. In -Greek literature it may he assumed to have been in vogue from the -earliest times; actual examples have survived of the latter part of the -4th and beginning of the 3rd centuries B.C. As to its early use in Latin -literature we cannot speak so definitely; but Rome followed the example -of Greece in letters, and therefore no doubt also in the material shape -of literary productions. Both in Greek and Latin literature the roll -lasted down to the early centuries of the Christian era. It was -superseded by the _codex_, the manuscript in book form (in the modern -sense of the word book), composed of separate leaves stitched together -into quires and made available to receive writing on both sides of the -material. This form is still in vogue as the modern printed book, and -probably will never be superseded. But the codex in this developed shape -was only an evolution from the early waxen tablets of the Greeks and -Romans, two or more of which, hinged together, formed the primitive -codex which suggested the later form. Therefore it will be necessary to -include the description of the tablets with that of the later codex. - - - The Roll. - -The ordinary terms in use among the Greeks for a book (that is, a roll) -were [Greek: biblos] (another form of [Greek: bublos], papyrus) and its -diminutive [Greek: biblion], which included the idea of a written book. -The corresponding Latin terms were _liber_ and _libellus_; _volumen_ was -a rolled-up roll. A roll of material uninscribed was [Greek: chartes], -_charta_, or [Greek: tomos] (originally a _cutting_ of papyrus), -applicable also to a roll containing a portion or division of a large -work which extended to more than one roll. A work contained within the -compass of a single roll was a [Greek: monobiblos], or [Greek: -monobiblon]. The term [Greek: teuchos] seems also to have meant a single -roll, but it was also applied at a later time to indicate a work -contained in several rolls. - -In writing the text of a work, the scribe might choose to make use of -separate sheets of papyrus, [Greek: kollemata], _schedae_, and then join -them to one another consecutively so as to make up the roll; or he might -purchase from the stationers a _scapus_, or ready-made roll of twenty -sheets at most; and if this length were not sufficient, he might add -other sheets or _scapi_, and thus make a roll of indefinite length. But -proverbially a great book was a great evil, and, considering the -inconvenience of unrolling a long roll, not only for perusal, but, still -more so, for occasional reference, the practice of subdividing lengthy -works into divisions of convenient size, adapted to the capacity of -moderate-sized rolls, must have come into vogue at a very early period. - -It was the practice to write on one side only of the papyrus; to write -on both front and back of a roll would obviously be a clumsy and -irritating method. Works intended for the market were never -_opisthograph_. Of course the blank backs of written rolls which had -become obsolete might be turned to account for personal or temporary -purposes, as we learn not only from references in classical authors but -also from actual examples. The most interesting extant case of an -opisthograph papyrus is the copy of Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_ -in the British Museum, which is written on the back of a farmer's -accounts, of the end of the 1st century--but only for private use. It -being the rule, then, to confine the writing to one side of the -material, that is, to the inner surface of the made-up roll, that -surface was more carefully prepared and smoothed than the other; and, -further, the joints of the several sheets were so well made that they -offered no obstacle to the action of the pen. Still further, care was -taken that this, the _recto_ surface of the material, should be that in -which the shreds of papyrus of which it was composed lay horizontally, -so that the pen might move freely along the fibres; the shreds of the -_verso_ side, on the other hand, being in vertical position. This point -is of some importance, as, in cases where two different handwritings are -found on the two sides of a papyrus, it may be usually assumed that the -one on the _recto_ surface is the earlier. - -The text was written in columns, [Greek: selides], _paginae_, the width -of which seems not to have been prescribed, but which for calligraphic -effect were by preference made narrow, sufficient margins being left at -head and foot. The average width of the columns in the best extant -papyri ranges from two to three-and-a-half inches. The written lines -were parallel with the length of the roll, so that the columns stood, so -to say, with the height of the rolled-up roll, and were disclosed -consecutively as the roll was unwound. Ruling with lead to guide the -writing is mentioned by writers, but it does not appear that the -practice was generally followed. The number of lines in the several -columns of extant papyri is not constant, nor is the marginal boundary -of the beginnings of the lines, for the accuracy of which a ruled -vertical line would have proved useful, ordinarily kept even. No doubt -in practice the horizontal fibres of the material were found to afford a -sufficient guide for the lines of writing. - -If the title of the work was to be given, the scribe appears to have -written it ordinarily at the end of the text. But something more was -needed. To be obliged to unroll a text to the end, in order to ascertain -the name of the author, would be the height of inconvenience. Its title -was therefore sometimes written at the head of the text. It appears also -that at an early period it was inscribed on the outside of the roll, so -as to be visible as the roll lay in a chest or on the shelf. But a more -general practice was to attach to the top edge of the roll a label or -ticket, [Greek: sillubos], or [Greek: sittubos], _titulus_, _index_, -which hung down if the roll lay on the shelf, or was conveniently read -if the roll stood along with others in the ordinary cylindrical -roll-box, [Greek: kiste], [Greek: kibotos], _cista_, _capsa_. One such -label made of papyrus has survived and is in the British Museum. - -The scribe would not commence his text at the very beginning, nor would -he carry it quite down to the end, of the roll. He would leave blank a -sufficient length of material at either extremity, where the roll would -naturally be most exposed to wear and tear by handling in unrolling and -re-rolling; and, further, the extreme vertical edges might each be -strengthened by the addition of a strip of papyrus so as to form a -double thickness of material. - -According to the particulars given by classical authors, the roll would -be finished off somewhat elaborately; but the details described by them -must be taken to apply to the more expensive productions of the book -trade, corresponding with the full-bound volumes of our days. In -practice, a large proportion of working copies and ordinary editions -must have been dealt with more simply. Firstly, the roll should be -rolled up round a central stick, of wood or bone, called the [Greek: -omphalos], _umbilicus_, to which the last sheet of the papyrus may or -may not have been attached. But as a matter of fact no rolling-sticks -have been found in company with extant papyri, and it has therefore been -suggested that they were not attached to the material but were rolled in -loose, and were therefore liable to drop out. In some instances, as in -the rolls found at Herculaneum, a central core of papyrus instead of a -stick was thought sufficient. The edges, _frontes_, of the roll, after -it had been rolled up, were shorn and were rubbed smooth with pumice, -and they were sometimes coloured. A valuable roll might be protected -with a vellum wrapper, [Greek: phainoles], _paenula_, stained with -colour; and, further, it might be secured with ornamental thongs. The -central stick might also be adorned with knobs or "horns," plain or -coloured. This seems to be the natural explanation of the [Greek: -kerata], or _cornua_, mentioned by the ancient writers. Finally, the -title-label described above was attached to the completed roll, now -ready for the book-market. - -In the perusal of a work the reader held the roll upright and unrolled -it gradually with the right hand; with the left hand he rolled up in the -reverse direction what he had read. Thus, when he had finished, the roll -had become reversed, the beginning of the text being now in the centre -of the roll and the end of it being outside. The roll was "explicitus ad -umbilicum," or "ad sua cornua." It had therefore now to be unrolled -afresh and to be re-rolled into its normal shape--a troublesome process -which the lazy man shirked, and which the careful man accomplished by -making the revolutions with his two hands while he held the revolving -material steady under his chin. - -Although the codex or manuscript in book-form began to make its way in -Greek and Roman literature as early as the 1st century of our era, the -roll maintained its position as the recognized type of literary document -down to the 3rd, and even into the 4th, century, when it was altogether -superseded. We shall proceed to describe the codex after giving some -account of the waxen, or, to speak more correctly, the waxed, tablet, -its precursor in the book-form. - - - The Waxen Tablet. - -The ordinary waxen tablet in use among the Greeks and Romans was a small -oblong slab of wood, beech, fir, and especially box, the surface of -which on one or both sides, with the exception of the surrounding -margins which were left intact in order to form a frame, was sunk to a -slight depth and was therein coated with a thin layer of wax, usually -black. The tablet thus presented the appearance of a child's -school-slate of the present day. Such tablets were single, double, -triple, or of several pieces or leaves. In Greek they were called -[Greek: pinax], [Greek: pinakis], [Greek: deltos], [Greek: deltion].: in -Latin _cera_, _tabula_, _tabella_, &c. Two or more put together and held -together by rings or thongs acting as hinges formed a _caudex_ or -_codex_, literally a stock of wood, which a set of tablets might -resemble, and from which they might actually be made by cleaving the -wood. A codex of two leaves was called [Greek: dithuroi], [Greek: -diptucha], _diptycha_; of three, [Greek: triptucha], _triptycha_: and so -on. The triptych appears to have been most generally used. A general -term was also _libellus_. - -Tablets served for the ordinary minor affairs of life: for memoranda, -literary and other notes and drafts, school exercises, accounts, &c. The -writing incised with the stilus could be easily obliterated by smoothing -the wax, and the _tabula rasa_ was thus rendered available for a fresh -inscription. But tablets were also employed for official purposes, when -documents had to be protected from unauthorized scrutiny or from injury. -Thus they were the receptacles for wills, conveyances, and other legal -transactions; and in such cases they were closed against inspection by -being bound round with threads which were covered by the witnesses' -seals. - -Small tablets, _codicilli_, _pugillares_, often of more valuable -material, such as ivory, served for correspondence among other purposes; -very small specimens are mentioned as _vitelliani_, for the exchange of -love-letters. - -A certain number of Greek waxen tablets have been recovered, chiefly -from Egypt, but none of them is very early. They are generally of the -3rd century, and are mostly inscribed with school exercises. The largest -and most perfect extant codex is one in the British Museum (Add. MS. -33,270), perhaps of the 3rd century, being made up of nine leaves, -measuring nearly 9 by 7 in., and inscribed with documents in shorthand. - -Of Latin tablets we are fortunate in having a fairly large number of -examples. Exclusive of a few isolated specimens, they are the result of -two important finds. Twenty-four tablets containing the records of a -burial club, A.D. 131-167, were recovered between 1786 and 1855 from -some ancient mining works in Dacia. In 1875 as many as 127 tablets, -containing deeds connected with sales by auction and payment of taxes, -A.D. 15-62, were found in the ruins of Pompeii. These specimens have -afforded the means of ascertaining the mechanical arrangement of waxen -tablets when adopted for legal instruments among the Romans. Most of -them are triptychs, severally cloven from single blocks of wood. Subject -to some variations, the triptych was usually arranged as follows. Of the -six sides or pages of the codex, pages 1 and 6 (the outside pages) were -of plain wood; pages 2, 3, 5 were waxed; and page 4, which had a groove -cut across the middle was sometimes of plain wood, sometimes waxed. The -authentic deed was inscribed with the stilus on the waxed pages 2 and 3; -and the first two leaves were then bound round with three twisted -threads which passed down the groove so as to close the deed from -inspection. On page 4 the witnesses' names were then inscribed (in ink -if the page was plain; with the stilus if waxed), and their seals were -impressed in the groove, thus securing the threads. In addition to the -protection afforded to the seals from casual injury by their position in -the groove, the third leaf acted as a cover to them. On page 5 an -abstract or duplicate of the deed, as required by law, was inscribed. -The arrangement of the Dacian tablets differed in this respect, that -page 4 was waxed, and that the duplicate copy was begun on that page in -the space on the left of the groove, that on the right being reserved -for the names of the witnesses. In the case of one of the Pompeian -tablets the threads and seals still remain. - -The survival of the use of tablets to a late time should be noted. St -Augustine refers to his tablets, and St Hilary of Arles also mentions -their employment for the purpose of correspondence; there is a record of -a letter written _in tabella_ as late as A.D. 1148. They were very -commonly used throughout the middle ages in all the west of Europe. -Specimens inscribed with money accounts of the 13th and 14th centuries -have survived in France, and similar documents of the 14th and 15th -centuries are to be found in several of the municipal archives of -Germany. Reference to their use in England occurs in literature, and -specimens of the 14th or 15th century are said to have been dug up in -Ireland. In Italy their employment is both recorded and proved by actual -examples of the 13th and 14th centuries. With the beginning of the 16th -century they seem to have practically come to an end, although a few -survivals of the custom of writing on wax have lingered to modern times. - - - The Codex. - -As already stated, the _codex_, or MS. in book-form, owed its existence -to the substitution of vellum for papyrus as the common writing material -for Greek and Roman literature. The fact that vellum was a tough -material capable of being inscribed on both sides, that writing, -particularly if freshly written, could be easily washed off or erased -from it, and that the material could thus be made available for second -use, no doubt contributed largely to its ready adoption. In Rome in the -1st century B.C. it was used, like the waxen tablets for notes, drafts, -memoranda, &c.; and vellum tablets began to take the place of the -_cerae_. References are not wanting in the classical writers to its -employment for such temporary purposes. To what extent it was at first -pressed into the service of literature and used in the preparation of -books for the market must remain uncertain. But in the first three -centuries of our era it may be assumed that vellum codices were not -numerous. The papyrus roll still held its position as the _liber_ or -book of literature. Yet we learn from the poems of Martial that in his -day the works of some of the best classical authors were to be had on -vellum. From the way in which, in his _Apophoreta_, he has contrasted as -exchangeable gifts certain works written respectively on papyrus and on -vellum, it has been argued that vellum at that time was a cheap -material, inferior to papyrus, and only used for roughly written copies. -Up to a certain point this may be true, but the fact that the earliest -great vellum Greek codices of the Bible and of Latin classical authors, -dating back to the 4th century, are composed of very finely prepared -material would indicate a perfection of manufacture of long standing. - -But, apart from the references of writers, we have the results of recent -excavations in Egypt to enable us to form a more correct judgment on the -early history of the vellum codex. There have been found a certain -number of inscribed leaves and fragments of vellum of early date which -without doubt originally formed part of codices or MSS. in book-form. It -is true that they are not numerous, but from the character of the -writing certain of them can be individually assigned to the 3rd, to the -2nd, and even to the 1st century. We may then take it for an established -fact that the codex form of MS. was gradually thrusting its way into use -in the first centuries of our era. - -The convenience of the codex form for easy reference was also a special -recommendation in its favour. There can be little doubt that such -compilations as public registers must at once have been drawn up in the -new form. The jurists also were quick to adopt it, and the very title -"codex" has been attached to great legal compilations, such as those of -Theodosius and Justinian. Again, the book-form was favoured by the early -Christians. The Bible, the book which before all others became the great -work of reference in their hands, could only be consulted with -convenience and despatch in the new form. A single codex could hold the -contents of a work which formerly must have been distributed through -many volumes in roll-form. The term [Greek: somation], which was one of -the names given to a codex, was expressive of its capacity. Turning -again to discoveries in Egypt, it appears that in the early centuries -the codex-form had become so usual among the Christians in that land -that even the native material, papyrus, the recognized material for the -roll, was now also made up by them into leaved books. The greater number -of papyri of the 3rd century containing Christian writings, fragments of -the Scriptures, the "Sayings of Our Lord," and the like, are in -book-form. On the other hand, the large majority of the non-Christian -papyri of the same period keep to the old roll-form. Thus the codex -becomes at once identified with the new religion, while the papyrus roll -to the last is the chosen vehicle of pagan literature. - -In the 4th century the struggle between the roll and the codex for -supremacy in the literary field was finished, and the victory of the -codex was achieved. Henceforward the roll-form remained in use for -records and legal documents, and in certain instances for liturgies; and -for such purposes it survives to the present day. But so completely was -it superseded in literature by the codex that even when papyrus, the -material once identified with the roll-form, was used as it sometimes -was down to the 6th and 7th centuries and later, it was made up into the -leaved codex, not only in Egypt but also in western Europe. - - - Quires. - -The shape which the codex usually assumed in the early centuries of the -middle ages was the broad quarto. The quires or gatherings of which the -book was formed generally consisted, in the earliest examples, of four -sheets folded to make eight leaves ([Greek: tetras] or [Greek: -tetradion], _quaternio_), although occasionally quinterns, or quires of -five sheets (ten leaves), were adopted. Sexterns, or quires of six -sheets (twelve leaves), came into use at a later period. In making up -the quires, care was generally taken to lay the sheets of vellum in such -a way that hair-side faced hair-side, and flesh-side faced flesh-side; -so that, when the book was opened, the two pages before the reader had -the same appearance, either the yellow tinge of the hair-side, or the -fresh whiteness of the flesh-side. In Greek MSS. the arrangement of the -sheets was afterwards reduced to a system; the first sheet was laid with -the flesh-side downwards, so that that side began the quire; yet in so -early an example as the Codex Alexandrinus the first page of a quire is -the hair-side. In Latin MSS. also the hair-side appears generally to -have formed the first page. When paper came into general use for codices -in the 15th century, it was not an uncommon practice to give the paper -quires additional strength by an admixture of vellum, a sheet of the -latter material forming the outer leaves, and sometimes the middle -leaves also, of the quire. The quire mark, or "signature," was usually -written at the foot of the last page, but in some early instances (e.g. -the Codex Alexandrinus) it appears at the head of the first page of each -quire. The numbering of the separate leaves in a quire, in the fashion -followed by early printers, came in in the 14th century. Catch-words to -connect the quires appear first in the 11th century and are not uncommon -in the 12th century. - - - Ruling. - -No exact system was followed in ruling the guiding lines on the pages of -the codex. In the case of papyri it was enough to mark with the pencil -the vertical marginal lines to bound the text, if indeed even this was -considered needful (see above); the fibres of the papyrus were a -sufficient guide for the lines of writing. On vellum it became necessary -to rule lines to keep the writing even. These lines were at first drawn -with a blunt point, almost invariably on the hair (or outer) side of the -skin, and strongly enough to be in relief on the flesh (or inner) side. -Marginal lines were drawn to bound the text laterally; but the ruled -lines which guided the writing were not infrequently drawn right across -the sheet. Each sheet should be ruled separately; but two or more sheets -were often laid and ruled together, the lines being drawn with so much -force that the lower sheets also received the impressions. In rare -instances lines are found ruled on both sides of the leaf, as in some -parts of the Codex Alexandrinus. In this same MS. and in other early -codices the ruling was not always drawn for every line of writing, but -was occasionally spaced so that the writing ran between the ruled lines -as well as on them. The lines were evenly spaced by means of guiding -pricks made at measured intervals with a compass or rotary instrument -down the margins; in some early MSS. these pricks run down the middle of -the page. Ruling with the plummet or lead-point is found in the 11th -century and came into ordinary use in the 12th century; coloured inks, -e.g. red and violet, were used for ornamental ruling in the 15th -century. - - - Columns. - -_Mechanical Arrangement of Writing in MSS._--It has already been stated -above that in the papyrus rolls the text was written in columns. They -stood with convenient intervals between them and with fair margins at -top and bottom. The length of the lines was to some extent governed by -the nature of the text. If it was a poetical work, the metrical line was -naturally the line of the column, unless, as sometimes was the case, the -verse was written continuously as prose. For prose works a narrow column -was preferred. It is noticeable that the columns in papyri have a -tendency to lean to the right instead of being perpendicular--an -indication that it was not the practice to rule marginal lines. In -codices the columnar arrangement was also largely followed, and the -number of columns in a page was commonly two. There are instances, -however, of a larger number. The Codex Sinaiticus of the Bible has four -columns to the page; and the Codex Vaticanus, three columns. And the -tricolumnar arrangement occurs every now and then in later MSS. - - - Text without separation of Words. - -In both Greek and Latin literary MSS. of early date the writing runs on -continuously without separation of words. This practice however, may be -regarded as rather artificial, as in papyri written in non-literary -hands and in Latin deeds also, contemporary with these early literary -MSS., there is a tendency to separation. In a text thus continuously -written occasional ambiguities necessarily occurred, and then a dot or -apostrophe might be inserted between words to aid the reader. Following -the system of separation of words which appears in ancient inscriptions, -wherein the several words are marked off by single, double, or treble -dots or points, the words of the fragmentary poem on the battle of -Actium found at Herculaneum are separated by single points, probably to -facilitate reading aloud; monosyllables or short prepositions and -conjunctions, however, being left unseparated from the words immediately -following them--a system which is found in practice at a later time. But -such marks of separation are not to be confounded with similar marks of -punctuation whereby sentences are marked off and the sense of the text -is made clear. Throughout the career of the uncial codices down to the -6th century, continuity of text was maintained. In the 7th century there -is some evidence of separation of words, but without system. In early -Latin minuscule codices partial separation in an uncertain and -hesitating manner went on to the time of the Carolingian reform. In -early Irish and English MSS., however, separation is more consistently -practised. In the 9th and 10th centuries long words tend to separation, -but short words, prepositions and conjunctions, still cling to the -following word. It was not till the 11th century that the smaller words -at length stood apart, and systematic separation of words was -established. In Greek minuscule codices of the 10th century a certain -degree of separation takes place; yet a large proportion of words remain -linked together, and they are even incorrectly divided. Indeed a correct -system of distinct separation of words in Greek texts was never -thoroughly established even as late as the 15th century. - - - Paragraphs. - -But while distinction of words was disregarded in early literary texts, -distinction of important pauses in the sense was recognized from the -first. The papyrus of the _Persae_ of Timotheus of Miletus, the oldest -MS. of a Greek classic in existence, of the end of the 4th century B.C., -is written in independent paragraphs. This is a natural system, the -simplicity of which has caused it to be the system of modern times. But, -in addition, the Greek scribe also separated paragraphs by inserting a -short horizontal stroke, [Greek: paragraphos], between them at the -commencement of the lines of writing. It should be noted that this -stroke indicated the close of a passage, and therefore belonged to the -paragraph just concluded, and did not stand for an initial sign for the -new paragraph which followed. The dividing stroke was also used to mark -off the different speeches of a play. Besides the stroke, a wedge-shaped -sign or tick might be used. But to make every paragraph stand distinctly -by itself would have entailed a certain loss of space. If the concluding -line were short, there would remain a long space unfilled. Therefore, -when this occurred, it became customary to leave only a short space -blank to mark the termination of the paragraph, and then to proceed with -the new paragraph in the same line, the [Greek: paragraphos] at the same -time preventing possible ambiguity. The next step was to project the -first letter of the first full line of the new paragraph slightly into -the margin, as a still further distinction; and lastly to enlarge it. -The enlargement of the letter gave it so much prominence that the -dividing stroke could then be dispensed with, and in this form the new -paragraph was henceforward indicated in Greek MSS., it being immaterial -whether the enlarged letter was the initial or a medial letter of a -word. As early as the 5th century there is evidence that the [Greek: -paragraphos] was losing its meaning with the scribes, for in the Codex -Alexandrinus of the Bible it is not infrequently found in anomalous -positions, particularly above the initial letters of different books, as -if it were a mere ornament. - -In Latin MSS. there was no such fixed system of marking off paragraphs -as that just described. A new paragraph began with a new line, or a -brief space in a line separated the conclusion of a paragraph from the -beginning of the next one. It was only by the ultimate introduction of -large letters, as the initial letters of the several sentences and -paragraphs, and by the establishment of a system of punctuation, in the -modern sense of the word, that a complete arrangement of the text was -possible into sentences and paragraphs in accordance with its sense. - - - Punctuation. - -From the earliest times an elementary system of punctuation by points is -found in papyri. Thus the papyrus of the _Curse of Artemisia_, at -Vienna, which is at least as early as the 3rd century B.C., and in one -or two other ancient examples, a double point, resembling the modern -colon, separates sentences. But more commonly a single point, placed -high in the line of writing, is employed. This single punctuation was -reduced to a system by the Alexandrian grammarians, its invention being -ascribed to Aristophanes of Byzantium, 260 B.C. The point placed high on -a level with the top of the letters had the value of a full-stop; in the -middle of the line of writing, of a comma; and low down on the line, of -a semicolon. But these distinctions were not observed in the MSS. In the -early vellum codices both the high and the middle point are found. In -medieval MSS. other signs, coming nearer to our modern system, make -their appearance. In Latin MSS. by the 7th century the high point has -the value of the modern comma, the semicolon appears with its present -value, and a point emphasized with additional signs, such as a second -point or point and dash, marks a full-stop. In the Carolingian period -the comma appears, as well as the inverted semicolon holding a position -between our comma and semicolon. - - - Division of Words at the End of a Line. - -Another detail which required the scribe's attention in writing his text -was the division of the last word in a line, when for want of room a -portion of it had to be carried over into the next line. It was -preferable, indeed, to avoid such division, and in the papyri as well as -in the codices letters might be reduced in size and huddled together at -the end of the line with this view. In the early codices too it was a -common practice to link letters together in monogrammatic form, such as -the common verbal terminations _ur_, _unt_, and thus save space. But -when the division of a word was necessary, it was subject to certain -rules. According to the Greek practice the division was ordinarily made -after a vowel, as [Greek: etu|chon] (even monosyllables might be so -treated, as [Greek: ou|k]). But in the case of double consonants the -division fell after the first of them, as [Greek: ip|pos]: and, when the -first of two or more consonants was a liquid or nasal the division -followed it, as [Greek: ophthal|mos], [Greek: man|thano]. When a word -was compounded with a preposition, the division usually followed the -preposition, as [Greek: pros|eipon], but not infrequently the normal -practice of dividing after a vowel prevailed, as [Greek: pro|seipon]. In -Latin the true syllabic division was followed, but occasionally the -scribes adopted the Greek system and divided after a vowel. - - - Colometry. - -A modification of the practice of writing the text continuously was -allowed in the case of certain works. Rhetorical texts, such as the -orations of Demosthenes and Cicero, and the text of the Bible, might be -broken up into short clauses or sense-lines, apparently with the view of -assisting reading aloud. Instances of MSS. so written are still extant. -This system, to which the name of "colometry" has been given, is the -arrangement by _cola_ and _commata_ referred to by St Jerome in his -preface to Isaiah. It will be found more fully explained under the -heading of STICHOMETRY; where also is described the mechanical -computation of the length of a text by measured lines, for the purpose -of calculating the pay of the scribe. - - - Titles and Colophons. - - Quotations. - -The title of a MS., both in roll-form and in codex-form, was frequently -written at the end of the text, but even at an early date it stood in -some instances at the beginning; and the latter practice in course of -time prevailed, although even in the 15th century the title was -sometimes reserved for the close of the MS. In this latter position it -might stand alone or be accompanied by other particulars concerning the -MS., such as the length of the work, the date of writing, the name of -the scribe, &c., all combined in a final paragraph called the colophon. -For distinction, title and colophon might be written in red, as might -also the first few lines of the text. This method of rubrication was a -very early practice, appearing even in ancient Egyptian papyri. Such -rubrics and titles and colophons were at first written in the same -character as the text; afterwards, when the admixture of different kinds -of writing was allowed, capitals and uncials were used at discretion. -Running titles or head-lines are found in some of the earliest Latin -MSS. in the same characters as the text, but of a small size. Quotations -were usually indicated by ticks or arrow-heads in the margin, serving -the purpose of the modern inverted commas. Sometimes the quoted words -were arranged as a sub-paragraph or indented passage. In commentaries of -later date, the quotations from the work commented upon were often -written in a different style from the text of the commentary itself. - - _Accentuation, &c._--Accentuation was not systematically applied to - Greek MSS. before the 7th century, but even in the literary papyri it - appears occasionally. In the latter instances accents were applied - specially to assist the reader, and they seem to have been used more - frequently in texts which may have presented greater difficulties than - usual. For example, they are found fairly plentifully in the papyrus - of Bacchylides of the 1st century B.C. In the less well-written papyri - they are fewer in number; and papyri written in non-literary hands are - practically devoid of them. Accents have been frequently added to the - ancient texts of Homer, as in the Harris and Bankes papyri, but - apparently long after the date of the writing. They were not used in - the early uncial MSS. Breathings also appear occasionally in the - papyri. The rough and the smooth breathings are found in the form of - the two halves of the H (|- -|) in the Bacchylides papyrus; in other - papyri they are in rectangular form, never rounded like an apostrophe; - in fact rounded breathings do not come into general use until the 12th - century. Other signs resembling accents are used occasionally in Greek - MSS. For example, a short accent or horizontal stroke was employed to - indicate a single-letter word, and an apostrophe was sometimes used to - separate words in order to prevent ambiguity and was placed after - words ending in [kappa], [chi], [xi], [rho], and after proper names - not having a Greek termination. - - Accents were seldom employed by Latin scribes. In early Irish and - English MSS., in particular, an acute accent is occasionally found - over a monosyllabic word or one consisting of a single letter. In the - 9th and 10th centuries a curious occasional practice obtained among - the correctors of the texts of expressing the aspirate by the Greek - half-eta symbol |-, instead of writing the letter _h_ in the ordinary - way--perhaps only an affectation. - - _Corrections._--For obliteration or removing pen strokes from the - surface of the material the sponge was used in ancient times. While - the writing was still fresh, the scribe could easily wash off the ink - by this means; and for a fragile material, such as papyrus, he could - well use no other. On vellum he might use sponge or knife. But after a - MS. had left his hands it would undergo revision at the hands of a - corrector, who had to deal with the text in a different manner. He - could no longer conveniently apply the sponge. On hard material he - might still use the knife to erase letters or words or sentences. But - he could also use his pen for such purposes. Thus we find that a very - early system of indicating erasure was the placing of dots or minute - strokes above the letters to be thus "expunged." The same marks were - also (and generally at later periods) placed under the letters; in - rare instances they stood inside them. It need scarcely be said that - letters were also struck out with strokes of the pen or altered into - others, and that letters and words were interlined. A long sentence, - however, which could not be admitted between the lines, was entered in - the margin, and its place in the text indicated by corresponding - reference marks, such as _hd._, _hs._ = _hic deest_, _hoc supra_ or - _hic scribas_, &c. - - _Abbreviations and Contractions._--The practice of shortening words in - writing has played an important part in the history of the ancient and - the medieval manuscript. Two reasons have disposed men to follow this - practice: firstly, the desire to avoid the labour of writing over and - over again words or portions of words of common occurrence which can - be readily understood in a shortened form as when written in full; - and, secondly, the necessity of saving space at a time when it was an - object to make the most of the writing material to hand. To meet the - former requirement, a simple and limited method alone was needed; to - satisfy the second, a more elaborate system was necessary. The most - natural method of reducing the length of a word is to suppress as much - as possible of its termination, consistently with intelligibility, - that is, by simple _abbreviation_. But if space of any appreciable - value is to be saved in a page of writing, a system is necessary for - eliminating letters from the body of the word as well as curtailing - the termination, that is, a system of _contraction_ as well as - abbreviation; and, in addition, the employment of arbitrary signs, - analogous to shorthand, will serve still further to condense the text. - An elaborate system of contraction of this nature was naturally only - fully developed after very long practice. Both in Greek and in Latin - MSS. from the 9th to the 15th century such a system was in full force. - - Different kinds of literature were, according to their nature, more or - less abbreviated and contracted. From early times such curtailment was - more freely employed in works written in technical language, such as - works on law or grammar or mathematics, wherein particular words are - more liable to repetition, than in MSS. of general literature. The - oldest system of abbreviation is that in which a single letter (nearly - always the initial letter) or at most two or three letters represent - the whole word. This system we know was in common use among both Greek - and Latin writers, and ancient inscriptions afford plentiful examples. - It is well adapted for the brief expression of the common words and - phrases in works of a technical nature (as for example such a phrase - as C D E R N E = _cujus de ea re notio est_); but for general - literature it is of little use, and practically has been restricted to - express proper names and numerals. - - - Abbreviation in Greek MSS. - - When abbreviations were employed only with the view of speed in - writing, it is obvious that they would occur more frequently in the - ephemeral documents of daily life than in carefully written literary - works intended for the book-market. Hence they are not to be found in - Greek papyri of the latter class. On the other hand in literary papyri - written in non-literary script they naturally occur just as they would - in contemporary common documents. As early as the 3rd and 2nd - centuries B.C. the ordinary method of abbreviation was to omit the - termination or latter portion of the word and to mark the omission by - a short horizontal stroke or dash; or the letter which immediately - preceded the omission was written above the line as a key to the - reading, as [Greek: te^l] for [Greek: telos]. Such a system obviously - might be extended indefinitely at the discretion of the writer. But in - addition, at quite an early period, symbols and monogrammatic forms - for particular words must have been developed, for they are found in - common use in cursive papyri. A notable instance of their employment - in a full degree occurs in the papyrus of Aristotle's _Constitution of - Athens_, of the 1st century. - - Like the well-written literary papyri, the early vellum uncial codices - of the Bible, being inscribed with calligraphic formality, avoided in - principle the use of abbreviations. But by the 4th to the 6th century, - the period when they were chiefly produced, the contraction or - abbreviation of certain words and terminations had, it seems, become - so fixed by usage that the contracted forms were adopted in the texts. - They are [Greek: ThS] = [Greek: theos], [Greek: IS] = [Greek: iesous], - [Greek: ChS] = [Greek: christos], [Greek: PNA] = [Greek: pneuma], - [Greek: SER] = [Greek: soter], [Greek: KS] = [Greek: kurios], [Greek: - STROS] = [Greek: stauros], [Greek: PER] = [Greek: pater], [Greek: MER] - = [Greek: meter], [Greek: US] = [Greek: huios], [Greek: ANOS] = - [Greek: anthropos], [Greek: OUNOS] = [Greek: ouranos], [Greek: K] = - [Greek: kai], [Greek: T] = [Greek: tai], [Greek: M] = [Greek: mou], - [Greek: moi], &c. Final N, especially at the end of a line, was - dropped, and its place occupied by the horizontal stroke, as [Greek: - TO ]. - - But while this limited system was used in biblical, and also in - liturgical MSS., in profane literature a greater licence was - recognized. For example, in a fragment of a mathematical work at - Milan, of the 7th century, we find instances of abbreviation by - dropping terminations, just as in the earlier papyri, and, in - addition, contracted particles and prepositions are numerous. - Technical works, in fact, inherited the system instituted in the early - papyri written in non-literary or cursive hands; and this system, - undergoing continual development, had a larger scope when the cursive - writing was cast into a literary form and became the literary - minuscule script of the middle ages. From the 9th century onwards a - fully developed system of abbreviation and contraction was practised - in Greek MSS., comprising the early system of the papyri, the special - contractions of the early biblical MSS., and also a large number of - special symbols, derived in great measure from tachygraphical signs. - - In the early Greek minuscule MSS. contractions are not very frequent - in the texts; but in the marginal glosses, where it was an object to - save space, they are found in great numbers as early as the 10th - century. The MS. of Nonnus, of A.D. 972, in the British Museum - (Wattenb. and Von Vels., _Exempla_, 7) is an instance of a text - contracted to a degree that almost amounts to tachygraphy. In the - 12th, 13th and 14th centuries texts were fully contracted; and as the - writing became more cursive contraction-marks were more carelessly - applied, until, in the 15th century, they degenerated into mere - flourishes. - - - Abbreviations in Latin MSS. - - As far back as material is available for comparison, it appears that - abbreviations and contractions in Latin MSS. followed the same lines - as those in Greek MSS. We have no very early papyri written in Latin - as we have in Greek to show us what the practice of Roman writers was - in the 3rd and 2nd and early 1st centuries B.C.; but there can be - little doubt that in that remote time there was followed in Latin - writing a system of abbreviation similar to that in Greek, that is, by - curtailment of terminations, and that in ephemeral documents written - in cursive characters such abbreviation was allowed more freely than - in carefully written literary works. The early system of representing - words by their initial letters has already been referred to. It was in - common use, as we know, in the inscriptions on coins and monuments, - and to some extent in the texts of Roman writers. But the ambiguity - which must have always accompanied such a system of single-letter - abbreviations, or _sigla_, naturally induced an improvement by - expressing a word by two or more of its letters. Hence was developed - the more regular syllabic system of the Romans, by which the leading - letters of the several syllables were written, as EG = _ergo_, HR = - _heres_, ST = _satis_. At a later time Christian writers secured - greater exactness by expressing the final letter of a contracted word, - as _ds_ = _deus_, _do_ = _deo_, _scs_ = _sanctus_. Further, certain - marks and signs, many derived from shorthand symbols, came into use to - indicate inflections and terminations; or the terminating letter or a - leading letter to indicate the termination might be written above the - line, as Q^o = _quo_, V^m = _verum_, N^o = _noster_, S^i = _sint_. - This practice became capable of greater development later on. Among - the special signs are c = _est_, [symbol] = _vel_, _n_ = _non_, p' = - _pre_, [symbol] = _per_, [symbol] = _pro_, [symbol] = termination - _us_. The letter _q_ with distinctive strokes applied in different - positions represented the often recurring relative and other short - words, as _quod_, _quia_. - - In Latin Biblical uncial MSS. the same restrictions on abbreviations - were exercised as in the Greek. The sacred names and titles DS = - _deus_, DMS, DNS = _dominus_, SCS = _sanctus_, SPS = _spiritus_, and - others appear in the oldest codices. The contracted terminations Q. = - _que_, B. = _bus_, and the omission of final _m_, or (more rarely) - final _n_, are common to all Latin MSS. of the earliest period. There - is a peculiarity about the contracted form of our Saviour's name that - it is always written by the Latin scribes in letters imitating the - Greek IHC, XPC, _ihc_, _xpc_, and _ihs_, _xps_. - - The full development of the medieval system of abbreviation and - contraction was effected at the time when the Carolingian schools were - compelling the reform of the handwriting of western Europe. Then came - a freer practice of abbreviation by suppression of terminations and - the latter portions of words, the omission of which was indicated by - the ordinary signs, the horizontal or oblique stroke or the - apostrophe; then came also a freer practice of contraction by omitting - letters and syllables from the middle as well as the end of words, as - oio, _omnino_, prb, _presbyter_; and then from the practice of writing - above the line a leading letter of an omitted syllable, as int^a = - _intra_, t^r = _tur_, conventional signs, with special significations, - were also gradually developed. Such growths are well illustrated in - the change undergone by the semicolon, which was attached to the end - of a word to indicate the omission of the termination, as b; = _bus_, - q; = _que_, deb; = _debet_, and which in course of time became - converted into a z, a form which survives in our ordinary - abbreviation, viz. (i.e. vi; = _videlicet_). The different forms of - contraction were common to all the nations of western Europe. The - Spanish scribes, however, attached different values to certain of - them. For example, in Visigothic MSS., _qm_, which elsewhere - represented _quoniam_, may be read as _quum_; and [symbol], which - elsewhere = _pro_, is here = _per_. Nor must the use of arbitrary - symbols for special words be forgotten. These are generally - adaptations of the shorthand signs known as Tironian notes. Such are - [symbol] = _autem_, [symbol] = _est_, [symbol] = _ejus_, [symbol] = - _enim_, [symbol] = _et_, v and u = _ut_, which were employed - particularly in early MSS. of English and Irish origin. - - By the 11th century the system of Latin contractions had been reduced - to exact rules; and from this time onwards it was universally - practised. It reached its culminating point in the 13th century, the - period of increasing demand for MSS., when it became more than ever - necessary to economize space. After this date the exact formation of - the signs of contractions was less strictly observed, and the system - deteriorated together with the decline of handwriting. In conclusion, - it may be noticed that in MSS. written in the vernacular tongues - contractions are more rarely used than in Latin texts. A system suited - to the inflexions and terminations of this language could not be - readily adapted to other languages so different in grammatical - structure. - - _Palimpsests, &c._--Palimpsest MSS., that is, MSS. written upon - material from which older writing has been previously removed by - washing or scraping, are described in a separate article (PALIMPSEST). - The ornamentation of MSS. is fully dealt with under the headings - ILLUMINATED MSS., and MINIATURES. - - _Writing Implements._--In conclusion, a few words may be added - respecting the writing implements employed in the production of MSS. - The reed, [Greek: kalamos], _calamus_, was adapted for tracing - characters either on papyrus or vellum. By the ancient Egyptians, and - also probably by the early Greek scribes in Egypt, it was used with a - soft brush-like point, rather as a paint-brush than as a pen. The - Greek and Roman scribes used the reed cut to a point and slit like the - quill-pen; and it survived as a writing implement into the middle - ages. For scratching letters on the waxen tablet the sharp pointed - bodkin, [Greek: stylos], [Greek: grapheion], _stilus_, _graphium_, was - necessary, made of iron, bronze, ivory, or other suitable material, - with a knobbed or flattened butt-end wherewith corrections could be - made by smoothening the wax surface (hence _vertere stilum_, to - correct). Although there is no very early record of the use of quills - as pens, it is obvious that, well adapted as they are for the purpose - and to be had everywhere, they must have been in request even in - ancient times as they afterwards were in the middle ages. Bronze pens, - fashioned exactly on the model of the quill-pen, that is in form of a - tube ending in a slit nib (sometimes even with a nib at each end), of - late Roman manufacture, are still in existence. A score of them are to - be found scattered among public and private museums. The ruler for - guiding ruled lines was the [Greek: kanon], _canon_, _regula_; the - pencil was the [Greek: molubdos], _plumbum_, the plummet; the pricker - for marking the spacing out of the ruled lines was the [Greek: - diabates], _circinus_, _punctorium_; the pen-knife, [Greek: - glyphanon], [Greek: smile], _scalprum_; the erasing-knife, _rasorium_, - _novacula_. - - _Inks._--Inks of various colours were employed from early times. The - ink of the early papyri is a deep glossy black; in the Byzantine - period it deteriorates. In the middle ages black ink is generally of - excellent quality; it tends to deteriorate from the 14th century. But - its quality varies in different countries at different periods. Red - ink, besides being used for titles and colophons, also served for - contrast, as, for example, in glosses. In the Carolingian period - entire MSS. were occasionally written in red ink. Other coloured - inks--green, violet and yellow--are also found, at an early date. Gold - and silver writing fluids were used in the texts of the ancient purple - vellum MSS., and writing in gold was reintroduced under Charlemagne - for codices of ordinary white vellum. It was introduced into English - MSS. in the 10th century. - - AUTHORITIES.--H. Geraud, _Essai sur les livres dans l'antiquite_ - (1840); E. Egger, _Histoire du livre depuis ses origines jusqu'a nos - jours_ (1880); T. Birt, _Das antike Buchwesen_ (1882) and _Die - Buchrolle in der Kunst_ (1907); W. Wattenbach, _Das Schriftwesen im - Mittelalter_ (1896); K. Dziatzko, _Untersuchungen uber ausgewahlte - Kapitel des antiken Buchwesens_ (1900); J. W. Clark, _The Care of - Books_ (1901); W. Schubart, _Das Buch bei den Griechen und Romern_ - (1907); and generally the authorities quoted in the article - PALAEOGRAPHY. See also TEXTUAL CRITICISM. (E. M. T.) - - - - -MANUTIUS, the Latin name of an Italian family (Mannucci, Manuzio), -famous in the history of printing as organizers of the Aldine press. - -1. ALDUS MANUTIUS (1450-1515). Teobaldo Mannucci, better known as Aldo -Manuzio, the founder of the Aldine press, was born in 1450 at Sermoneta -in the Papal States. He received a scholar's training, studying Latin at -Rome under Gasparino da Verona, and Greek at Ferrara under Guarino da -Verona. In 1482 he went to reside at Mirandola with his old friend and -fellow-student, the illustrious Giovanni Pico. There he stayed two -years, prosecuting his studies in Greek literature. Before Pico removed -to Florence, he procured for Aldo the post of tutor to his nephews -Alberto and Lionello Pio, princes of Carpi. Alberto Pio supplied Aldo -with funds for starting his printing press, and gave him lands at Carpi. -It was Aldo's ambition to secure the literature of Greece from further -accident by committing its chief masterpieces to type. Before his time -four Italian towns had won the honours of Greek publications: Milan, -with the grammar of Lascaris, Aesop, Theocritus, a Greek Psalter, and -Isocrates, between 1476 and 1493; Venice, with the _Erotemala_ of -Chrysoloras in 1484; Vicenza, with reprints of Lascaris's grammar and -the _Erolemata_, in 1488 and 1490; Florence, with Alopa's Homer, in -1488. Of these works, only three, the Milanese Theocritus and Isocrates -and the Florentine Homer, were classics. Aldo selected Venice as the -most appropriate station for his labours. He settled there in 1490, and -soon afterwards gave to the world editions of the _Hero and Leander_ of -Musaeus, the _Galeomyomachia_, and the Greek Psalter. These have no -date; but they are the earliest tracts issued from his press, and are -called by him "Precursors of the Greek Library." - -At Venice Aldo gathered an army of Greek scholars and compositors around -him. His trade was carried on by Greeks, and Greek was the language of -his household. Instructions to type-setters and binders were given in -Greek. The prefaces to his editions were written in Greek. Greeks from -Crete collated MSS., read proofs, and gave models of calligraphy for -casts of Greek type. Not counting the craftsmen employed in merely -manual labour, Aldo entertained as many as thirty of these Greek -assistants in his family. His own industry and energy were unremitting. -In 1495 he issued the first volume of his Aristotle. Four more volumes -completed the work in 1497-1498. Nine comedies of Aristophanes appeared -in 1498. Thucydides, Sophocles and Herodotus followed in 1502; -Xenophon's _Hellenics_ and Euripides in 1503; Demosthenes in 1504. The -troubles of Italy, which pressed heavily on Venice at this epoch, -suspended Aldo's labours for a while. But in 1508 he resumed his series -with an edition of the minor Greek orators; and in 1509 appeared the -lesser works of Plutarch. Then came another stoppage. The league of -Cambray had driven Venice back to her lagoons, and all the forces of the -republic were concentrated on a struggle to the death with the allied -powers of Europe. In 1513 Aldo reappeared with Plato, which he dedicated -to Leo X. in a preface eloquently and earnestly comparing the miseries -of warfare and the woes of Italy with the sublime and tranquil objects -of the student's life. Pindar, Hesychius, and Athenaeus followed in -1514. - -These complete the list of Aldo's prime services to Greek literature. -But it may be well in this place to observe that his successors -continued his work by giving Pausanias, Strabo, Aeschylus, Galen, -Hippocrates and Longinus to the world in first editions. Omission has -been made of Aldo's reprints, in order that the attention of the reader -might be concentrated on his labours in editing Greek classics from MSS. -Other presses were at work in Italy; and, as the classics issued from -Florence, Rome or Milan, Aldo took them up, bestowing in each case fresh -industry upon the collation of codices and the correction of texts. Nor -was the Aldine press idle in regard to Latin and Italian classics. The -_Asolani_ of Bembo, the collected writings of Poliziano, the -_Hypnerotomachia Poliphili_, Dante's _Divine Comedy_, Petrarch's poems, -a collection of early Latin poets of the Christian era, the letters of -the younger Pliny, the poems of Pontanus, Sannazzaro's _Arcadia_, -Quintilian, Valerius Maximus, and the _Adagia_ of Erasmus were printed, -either in first editions, or with a beauty of type and paper never -reached before, between the years 1495 and 1514. For these Italian and -Latin editions Aldo had the elegant type struck which bears his name. It -is said to have been copied from Petrarch's handwriting, and was cast -under the direction of Francesco da Bologna, who has been identified by -Panizzi with Francia the painter. - -Aldo's enthusiasm for Greek literature was not confined to the -printing-room. Whatever the students of this century may think of his -scholarship, they must allow that only vast erudition and thorough -familiarity with the Greek language could have enabled him to accomplish -what he did. In his own days Aldo's learning won the hearty -acknowledgment of ripe scholars. To his fellow workers he was uniformly -generous, free from jealousy, and prodigal of praise. While aiming at -that excellence of typography which renders his editions the treasures -of the book-collector, he strove at the same time to make them cheap. We -may perhaps roughly estimate the current price of his pocket series of -Greek, Latin and Italian classics, begun in 1501, at 2s. per volume of -our present money. The five volumes of the Aristotle cost about L8. His -great undertaking was carried on under continual difficulties, arising -from strikes among his workmen, the piracies of rivals, and the -interruptions of war. When he died, bequeathing Greek literature as an -inalienable possession to the world, he was a poor man. In order to -promote Greek studies, Aldo founded an academy of Hellenists in 1500 -under the title of the New Academy. Its rules were written in Greek. Its -members were obliged to speak Greek. Their names were Hellenized, and -their official titles were Greek. The biographies of all the famous men -who were enrolled in this academy must be sought in the pages of Didot's -_Alde Manuce_. It is enough here to mention that they included Erasmus -and the English Linacre. - -In 1499 Aldo married Maria, daughter of Andrea Torresano of Asola. -Andrea had already bought the press established by Nicholas Jenson at -Venice. Therefore Aldo's marriage combined two important publishing -firms. Henceforth the names Aldus and Asolanus were associated on the -title pages of the Aldine publications; and after Aldo's death in 1515, -Andrea and his two sons carried on the business during the minority of -Aldo's children. The device of the dolphin and the anchor, and the motto -_festina lente_, which indicated quickness combined with firmness in the -execution of a great scheme, were never wholly abandoned by the Aldines -until the expiration of their firm in the third generation. - -2. PAULUS MANUTIUS (1512-1574). By his marriage with Maria Torresano, -Aldo had three sons, the youngest of whom, Paolo, was born in 1512. He -had the misfortune to lose his father at the age of two. After this -event his grandfather and two uncles, the three Asolani, carried on the -Aldine press, while Paolo prosecuted his early studies at Venice. -Excessive application hurt his health, which remained weak during the -rest of his life. At the age of twenty-one he had acquired a solid -reputation for scholarship and learning. In 1533 Paolo undertook the -conduct of his father's business, which had latterly been much neglected -by his uncles. In the interregnum between Aldo's death and Paolo's -succession (1514-1533) the Asolani continued to issue books, the best of -which were Latin classics. But, though their publications count a large -number of first editions, and some are works of considerable magnitude, -they were not brought out with the scholarly perfection at which Aldo -aimed. The Asolani attempted to perform the whole duties of editing, and -to reserve all its honours for themselves, dispensing with the service -of competent collaborators. The result was that some of their editions, -especially their Aeschylus of 1518, are singularly bad. Paolo determined -to restore the glories of the house, and in 1540 he separated from his -uncles. The field of Greek literature having been well-nigh exhausted, -he devoted himself principally to the Latin classics. He was a -passionate Ciceronian, and perhaps his chief contributions to -scholarship are the corrected editions of Cicero's letters and orations, -his own epistles in a Ciceronian style, and his Latin version of -Demosthenes. Throughout his life he combined the occupations of a -student and a printer, winning an even higher celebrity in the former -field than his father had done. Four treatises from his pen on Roman -antiquities deserve to be commemorated for their erudition no less than -for the elegance of their Latinity. Several Italian cities contended for -the possession of so rare a man; and he received tempting offers from -the Spanish court. Yet his life was a long struggle with pecuniary -difficulties. To prepare correct editions of the classics, and to print -them in a splendid style, has always been a costly undertaking. And, -though Paolo's publications were highly esteemed, their sale was slow. -In 1556 he received for a time external support from the Venetian -Academy, founded by Federigo Badoaro. But Badoaro failed disgracefully -in 1559, and the academy was extinct in 1562. Meanwhile Paolo had -established his brother, Antonio, a man of good parts but indifferent -conduct, in a printing office and book shop at Bologna. Antonio died in -1559, having been a source of trouble and expense to Paolo during the -last four years of his life. Other pecuniary embarrassments arose from a -contract for supplying fish to Venice, into which Paolo had somewhat -strangely entered with the government. In 1561 pope Pius IV. invited him -to Rome, offering him a yearly stipend of 500 ducats, and undertaking to -establish and maintain his press there. The profits on publications were -to be divided between Paolo Manuzio and the Apostolic camera. Paolo -accepted the invitation, and spent the larger portion of his life, under -three papacies, with varying fortunes, in the city of Rome. Ill-health, -the commercial interests he had left behind at Venice, and the coldness -shown him by pope Pius V., induced him at various times and for several -reasons to leave Rome. As was natural, his editions after his removal to -Rome were mostly Latin works of theology and Biblical or patristic -literature. - -Paolo married Caterina Odoni in 1546. She brought him three sons and one -daughter. His eldest son, the younger Aldus, succeeded him in the -management of the Venetian printing house when his father settled at -Rome in 1561. Paolo had never been a strong man, and his health was -overtaxed with studies and commercial worries. Yet he lived into his -sixty-second year, and died at Rome in 1574. - -3. ALDUS MANUTIUS, JUNIOR (1547-1597). The younger Aldo born in the year -after his father Paolo's marriage, proved what is called an infant -prodigy. When he was nine years old his name was placed upon the title -page of the famous _Eleganze della lingua Toscana e Latina_. The -_Eleganze_ was probably a book made for his instruction and in his -company by his father. In 1561, at the age of fourteen, he produced a -work upon Latin spelling, called _Orthographiae ratio_. During a visit -to his father at Rome in the next year he was able to improve this -treatise by the study of inscriptions, and in 1575 he completed his -labours in the same field by the publication of an _Epitome -orthographiae_. Whether Aldo was the sole composer of the work on -spelling, in its first edition, may be doubted; but he appropriated the -subject and made it his own. Probably his greatest service to -scholarship is this analysis of the principles of orthography in Latin. - -Aldo remained at Venice, studying literature and superintending the -Aldine press. In 1572 he married Francesca Lucrezia daughter of -Bartolommeo Giunta, and great-grandchild of the first Giunta, who -founded the famous printing house in Venice. This was an alliance which -augured well of the Giunta for the future of the Aldines, especially as -Aldo had recently found time to publish a new revised edition of -Velleius Paterculus. Two years later the death of his father at Rome -placed Aldo at the head of the firm. In concert with the Giunta, he now -edited an extensive collection of Italian letters, and in 1576 he -published his commentary upon the _Ars poetica_ of Horace. About the -same time, that is to say, about the year 1576, he was appointed -professor of literature to the Cancelleria at Venice. The Aldine press -continued through this period to issue books, but none of signal merit; -and in 1585 Aldo determined to quit his native city for Bologna, where -he occupied the chair of eloquence for a few months. In 1587 he left -Bologna for Pisa, and there, in his quality of professor, he made the -curious mistake of printing Alberti's comedy _Philodoxius_ as a work of -the classic Lepidus. Sixtus V. drew him in 1588 from Tuscany to Rome; -and at Rome he hoped to make a permanent settlement as lecturer. But his -public lessons were ill attended, and he soon fell back upon his old -vocation of publisher under the patronage of a new pope, Clement VIII. -In 1597 he died, leaving children, but none who cared or had capacity to -carry on the Aldine press. Aldo himself, though a precocious student, a -scholar of no mean ability, and a publisher of some distinction, was the -least remarkable of the three men who gave books to the public under the -old Aldine ensign. This does not of necessity mean that we should adopt -Scaliger's critique of the younger Aldo without reservation. Scaliger -called him "a poverty-stricken talent, slow in operation; his work is -very commonplace; he aped his father." What is true in this remark lies -partly in the fact that scholarship in Aldo's days had flown beyond the -Alps, where a new growth of erudition, on a basis different from that of -the Italian Renaissance, had begun. - - See Renouard's _Annales de l'imprimerie des Aldes_ (Paris, 1834); - Didot's _Alde Manuce_ (Paris, 1873); Omont's _Catalogue_ of Aldine - publications (Paris, 1892). (J. A. S.) - - - - -MANWARING, ROBERT, English 18th-century furniture designer and cabinet -maker. The dates of his birth and death are unknown. He was a -contemporary and imitator of Chippendale, and not the least considerable -of his rivals. He prided himself upon work which he described as -"genteel," and his speciality was chairs. He manifests the same -surprising variations of quality that are noticed in the work of nearly -all the English cabinet-makers of the second half of the 18th century, -and while his best had an undeniable elegance his worst was exceedingly -bad--squat, ill-proportioned and confused. Some of his chairbacks are so -nearly identical with Chippendale's that it is difficult to suppose that -the one did not copy from the other, and most of the designs of the -greater man enjoyed priority of date. During a portion of his career -Manwaring was a devotee of the Chinese taste; he likewise practised in -the Gothic manner. He appears to have introduced the small bracket -between the front rail of the seat and the top of the chair leg, or at -all events to have made such constant use of it that it has come to be -regarded as characteristic of his work. Manwaring described certain of -his own work as "elegant and superb," and as possessing "grandeur and -magnificence." He did not confine himself to furniture but produced many -designs for rustic gates and railings, often very extravagant. One of -his most absurd rural chairs has rock-work with a waterfall in the back. - - Among Manwaring's writings were _The Cabinet and Chair Makers' Real - Friend and Companion, or the Whole System of Chairmaking Made Plain - and Easy_ (1765); _The Carpenters' Compleat Guide to Gothic Railing_ - (1765); and _The Chair-makers' Guide_ (1766). - - - - -MANYCH, a river and depression in S. Russia, stretching between the -lower river Don and the Caspian Sea, through the Don Cossacks territory -and between the government of Astrakhan on the N. and that of Stavropol -on the S. During the greater part of the year it is either dry or -occupied in part by a string of saline lakes (_limans_ or _ilmens_); but -in spring when the streams swell which empty into it, the water flows in -two opposite directions from the highest point (near Shara-Khulusun). -The western stream flows westwards, with an inclination northwards, -until it reaches the Don, though when the latter river is running high, -its water penetrates some 60 miles up the Manych. The eastern stream -dies away in the sandy steppe about 25 miles from the Caspian, though it -is said sometimes to reach the Kuma through the Huiduk, a tributary of -the Kuma. Total length of the depression, 330 m. For its significance as -a former (geologic) connexion between the Sea of Azov and the Caspian -Sea, see CASPIAN SEA. By some authorities the Manych depression is taken -as part of the boundary between Europe and Asia. - - - - -MANYEMA (_Una-Ma-Nyema_, eaters of flesh), a powerful and warlike -Bantu-Negroid people in the south-east of the Congo basin. Physically -they are of a light colour, with well formed noses and not over-full -lips, the women being described as singularly pretty and graceful. -Manyemaland was for the greater part of the 19th century an Eldorado of -the Arab slave raiders. - - - - -MANZANARES, a town of Spain, in the province of Ciudad Real, on the -river Azuer, a large sub-tributary of the Zancara, and on the railways -from Madrid to Ciudad Real and Linares. Pop. (1900), 11,229. Manzanares -is one of the chief towns of La Mancha, and thus in the centre of the -district described by Cervantes in _Don Quixote_. Its citadel was -founded as a Christian fortress after the defeat of the Moors at Las -Navas de Tolosa (1212). Bull-fights were formerly held in the main -_plaza_, where galleries to accommodate spectators were built between -the buttresses of an ancient parish church. Manzanares has manufactures -of soap, bricks and pottery, and an active trade in wheat, wine, -spirits, aniseed and saffron. - - - - -MANZANILLO, a town and port on the Pacific coast of Mexico, in the state -of Colima, 52 m. by rail W.S.W. of the city of that name. It is situated -on a large harbour partly formed and sheltered by a long island -extending southwards parallel with the coast. Southward also, and in the -vicinity of the town, is the large stagnant, shallow lagoon of Cayutlan -which renders the town unhealthy. Manzanillo is a commercial town of -comparatively recent creation. Its new harbour works, the construction -of which was begun in 1899, and its railway connexion with central -Mexico, promise to make it one of the chief Pacific ports of the -republic. These works include a breakwater 1300 ft. long, with a depth -of 12 to 70 ft. and a maximum breadth of 320 ft. at the base and 25 ft. -on top, and all the necessary berthing and mechanical facilities for the -handling of cargoes. A narrow-gauge railway was built between Colima and -Manzanillo toward the end of the nineteenth century, but the traffic was -only sufficient for a tri-weekly service up to 1908, when the gauge was -widened and the railway became part of the Mexican Central branch, -completed in that year from Irapuato through Guadalajara to Colima. The -exports include hides and skins, palm leaf hats, Indian corn, coffee, -palm oil, fruit, lumber and minerals. - - - - -MANZANILLO, an important commercial city of Cuba, in Santiago province, -on the gulf of Guacanabo, about 17 m. S. of the mouth of the Rio Cauto, -on the shore of Manzanillo Bay. Pop. (1907), 15,819. It is shut off to -the east and south by the Sierra Maestra. Besides the Cauto, the rivers -Yara and Buey are near the city. Manzanillo is the only coast town of -importance between Trinidad and Santiago. It exports large quantities of -sugar, hides, tobacco, and bees-wax; also some cedar and mahogany. The -history of the settlement begins in 1784, but the port was already -important at that time for a trade in woods and fruits; French and -English corsairs resorted thither for shipbuilding woods. The settlement -was sacked by the French in 1792, and in the following year a fort was -built for its protection. In 1833 it received an _ayuntamiento_ -(council) and in 1837, for its "loyalty" in not following the lead of -Santiago in proclaiming the Spanish Constitution, received from the -crown the title of _Fiel_. In 1827 the port was opened to commerce, -national and foreign. - - - - -MANZOLLI, PIER ANGELO, Italian author, was born about the end of the -fifteenth century at La Stellata, near Ferrara. He wrote a poem entitled -_Zodiacus vitae_, published at Basel in 1543, and dedicated to Hercules -II. of Ferrara. The poem is full of didactic writing on the subject of -human happiness in connexion with scientific knowledge, and combines -metaphysical speculation with satirical attacks on ecclesiastical -hypocrisy, and especially on the Pope and on Luther. It was translated -into several languages, but fell under the ban of the Inquisition on the -ground of its rationalizing tendencies. - - - - -MANZONI, ALESSANDRO FRANCESCO TOMMASO ANTONIO (1785-1873), Italian poet -and novelist, was born at Milan on the 7th of March 1785. Don Pietro, -his father, then about fifty, represented an old family settled near -Lecco, but originally feudal lords of Barzio, in the Valsassina, where -the memory of their violence is still perpetuated in a local proverb, -comparing it to that of the mountain torrent. The poet's maternal -grandfather, Cesare Beccaria, was a well-known author, and his mother -Giulia a woman of some literary ability. Manzoni's intellect was slow in -maturing, and at the various colleges where his school days were passed -he ranked among the dunces. At fifteen, however, he developed a passion -for poetry, and wrote two sonnets of considerable merit. On the death of -his father in 1805, he joined his mother at Auteuil, and spent two years -there, mixing in the literary set of the so-called "ideologues," -philosophers of the 18th century school, among whom he made many -friends, notably Claude Fauriel. There too he imbibed the negative creed -of Voltairianism, and only after his marriage, and under the influence -of his wife, did he exchange it for that fervent Catholicism which -coloured his later life. In 1806-1807, while at Auteuil, he first -appeared before the public as a poet, with two pieces, one entitled -_Urania_, in the classical style, of which he became later the most -conspicuous adversary, the other an elegy in blank verse, on the death -of Count Carlo Imbonati, from whom, through his mother, he inherited -considerable property, including the villa of Brusuglio, thenceforward -his principal residence. - -Manzoni's marriage in 1808 to Henriette Blondel, daughter of a Genevese -banker, proved a most happy one, and he led for many years a retired -domestic life, divided between literature and the picturesque husbandry -of Lombardy. His intellectual energy at this period was devoted to the -composition of the _Inni sacri_, a series of sacred lyrics, and a -treatise on Catholic morality, forming a task undertaken under religious -guidance, in reparation for his early lapse from faith. In 1818 he had -to sell his paternal inheritance, as his affairs had gone to ruin in the -hands of a dishonest agent. His characteristic generosity was shown on -this occasion in his dealings with his peasants, who were heavily -indebted to him. He not only cancelled on the spot the record of all -sums owing to him, but bade them keep for themselves the whole of the -coming maize harvest. - -In 1819 Manzoni published his first tragedy, _Il Conte di Carmagnola_, -which, boldly violating all classical conventionalisms, excited a lively -controversy. It was severely criticized in the _Quarterly Review_, in an -article to which Goethe replied in its defence, "one genius," as Count -de Gubernatis remarks, "having divined the other." The death of Napoleon -in 1821 inspired Manzoni's powerful stanzas _Il Cinque maggio_, the most -popular lyric in the Italian language. The political events of that -year, and the imprisonment of many of his friends, weighed much on -Manzoni's mind, and the historical studies in which he sought -distraction during his subsequent retirement at Brusuglio suggested his -great work. Round the episode of the _Innominato_, historically -identified with Bernardino Visconti, the novel _I Promessi sposi_ began -to grow into shape, and was completed in September 1822. The work when -published, after revision by friends in 1825-1827, at the rate of a -volume a year, at once raised its author to the first rank of literary -fame. In 1822, Manzoni published his second tragedy _Adelchi_, turning -on the overthrow by Charlemagne of the Lombard domination in Italy, and -containing many veiled allusions to the existing Austrian rule. With -these works Manzoni's literary career was practically closed. But he -laboriously revised _I Promessi sposi_ in the Tuscan idiom, and in 1840 -republished it in that form, with a sort of sequel, _La Storia della -Colonna infame_, of very inferior interest. He also wrote a small -treatise on the Italian language. - -The end of the poet's long life was saddened by domestic sorrows. The -loss of his wife in 1833 was followed by that of several of his -children, and of his mother. In 1837 he married his second wife, Teresa -Borri, widow of Count Stampa, whom he also survived, while of nine -children born to him in his two marriages all but two preceded him to -the grave. The death of his eldest son, Pier Luigi, on the 28th of April -1873, was the final blow which hastened his end; he fell ill -immediately, and died of cerebral meningitis, on the 22nd of May. His -country mourned him with almost royal pomp, and his remains, after lying -in state for some days, were followed to the cemetery of Milan by a vast -cortege, including the royal princes and all the great officers of -state. But his noblest monument was Verdi's _Requiem_, specially written -to honour his memory. - - Biographical sketches of Manzoni have been published by Cesare Cantu - (1885), Angelo de Gubernatis (1879), Arturo Graf (1898). Some of his - letters have been published by Giovanni Sforza (1882). - - - - -MAORI (pronounced "Mowri"; a Polynesian word meaning "native," -"indigenous"; the word occurs in distinction from _pakeha_, "stranger," -in other parts of Polynesia in the forms _Maoi_ and _Maoli_), the name -of the race inhabiting New Zealand when first visited by Tasman in 1642. - -That they were not indigenous, but had displaced an earlier Melanesian -or Papuan race, the true aborigines, is certain. The Maoris are -Polynesians, and, in common with the majority of their kinsfolk -throughout the Pacific, they have traditions which point to Savaii, -originally Savaiki, the largest island of the Samoan group, as their -cradleland. They say they came to New Zealand from "Hawaiki," and they -appear to distinguish between a large and small, or a nearer and -farther, "Hawaiki." "The seed of our coming is from Hawaiki; the seed of -our nourishing, the seed of mankind." Their great chief, Te Kupe, first -landed, they say, on Aotearoa, as they called the north island, and, -pleased with his discovery, returned to Hawaiki to tell his -fellow-countrymen. Thereafter he returned with seven war canoes, each -holding a hundred warriors, priests, stone idols and sacred weapons, as -well as native plants and animals. Hawaiki, the name of Te Kupe's -traditional home, is identical with several other Polynesian -place-names, e.g. Hawaii, Apai in the Tonga Islands, Evava in the -Marquesas, all of which are held to be derived from Savii or Savaiki. Dr -Thomson, in his _Story of New Zealand_, quotes a Maori tradition, -published by Sir George Grey, that certain islands, among which it names -Rarotonga, Parima and Manono, are islands near Hawaiki. The Rarotongas -call themselves Maori, and state that their ancestors came from Hawaiki, -and Parima and Manono are the native names of two islands in the Samoan -group. The almost identical languages of the Rarotongas and the Maoris -strengthen the theory that the two peoples are descended from -Polynesians migrating, possibly at widely different dates, from Samoa. -The distance from Rarotonga to New Zealand is about 2000 m., and, with -the aid of the trade wind, large canoes could traverse the distance -within a month. Moreover the fauna and flora of New Zealand in many ways -resemble those of Samoa. Thus it would seem certain that the Maoris, -starting from "further Hawaiki," or Samoa, first touched at Rarotonga, -"nearer Hawaiki," whence, after forming a settlement, they journeyed on -to New Zealand. Maori tradition is explicit as to the cause of the -exodus from Samoa, gives the names of the canoes in which the journey -was made and the time of year at which the coast of New Zealand was -sighted. On the question of the date a comparison of genealogies of -Maori chiefs shows that, up to the beginning of the 20th century, about -eighteen generations or probably not much more than five centuries had -passed since the first Maori arrivals. There is some evidence that the -"tradition of the six canoes" does not represent the first contact of -the Polynesian race with New Zealand. If earlier immigrants from Samoa -or other eastern Pacific islands arrived they must have become absorbed -into the native Papuan population--arguing from the absence of any -distinct tradition earlier than that "of the six canoes." Some have -sought to find in the Morioris of Chatham Island the remnants of this -Papuan-Polynesian population, expelled by Te Kupe and his followers. The -extraordinary ruined fortifications found, and the knowledge of the -higher art of war displayed by the Maoris, suggest (what is no doubt the -fact) that there was a hard fight for them when they first arrived, but -the greatest resistance must have been from the purer Papuan -inhabitants, and not from the half-castes who were probably easily -overwhelmed. The shell heaps found on the coasts and elsewhere dispose -of the theory that New Zealand was uninhabited or practically so six -centuries back. - -Any description of the Maoris, who in recent years have come more and -more under the influence of white civilization, must necessarily refer -rather to what they have been than what they are. Physically the Maoris -are true Polynesians, tall, well-built, with straight or slightly curved -noses, high foreheads and oval faces. Their colour is usually a darker -brown than that of their kinsfolk of the eastern Pacific, but -light-complexioned Maoris, almost European in features, are met with. -Their hair is black and straight or wavy, scarcely ever curly. They have -long been celebrated for their tattooing, the designs being most -elaborate. - -Among the most industrious of Polynesian races, they have always been -famed for wood-carving; and in building, weaving and dyeing they had -made great advances before the whites arrived. They are also good -farmers and bold seamen. In the Maori wars they showed much strategic -skill, and their knowledge of fortification was very remarkable. -Politically the Maoris have always been democratic. No approach to a -monarchy ever existed. Each tribe under its chief was autonomous. Tribal -lands were held in common and each man was entitled to a share in the -products. They had slaves, but so few as not to alter the social -conditions. Every Maori was a soldier, and war was the chief business -and joy of his life. Tribal wars were incessant. The weapons were wooden -spears, clubs and stone tomahawks. Cannibalism, which earned them in -earlier years a terrible name, was generally restricted to the -bloodthirsty banquets which always followed a victory. The Maoris ate -their enemies' hearts to gain their courage, but to whatever degree -animistic beliefs may have once contributed to their cannibalism, it is -certain that long before Captain Cook's visit religious sanction for the -custom had long given place to mere gluttonous enjoyment. - -The Maoris had no regular marriage ceremony. Polygamy was universal, and -even to-day they are not strictly monogamous. The power of the husband -over the wife was absolute, but women took their meals with the men, -were allowed a voice in the tribe's affairs, and sometimes accompanied -the men into battle. Some tribes were endogamic, and there matriarchy -was the rule, descent being traced through the female line. Ferocious as -they were in war, the Maoris are generally hospitable and affectionate -in their home-life, and a pleasant characteristic, noticed by Captain -Cook, is their respect and care of the old. The Maoris buried their -dead, the cemeteries being ornamented with carved posts. Their religion -was a nature-worship intimately connected with the veneration of -ancestors. There was a belief in the soul, which was supposed to dwell -in the left eye. They had no doubt as to a future state, but no definite -idea of a supreme being. They had no places of worship, nor, though they -had sacred wooden figures, is there any reason to consider that they -were idolaters in the strict sense of the word. The custom of taboo was -very fully developed. Nowadays they are all nominally Christians. While -they had no written language, a considerable oral literature of songs, -legends and traditions existed. Their priesthood was a highly trained -profession, and they had schools which taught a knowledge of the stars -and constellations, for many of which they had names. All Maoris are -natural orators and poets, and a chief was expected to add these -accomplishments to his prowess as a warrior or his skill as a seaman. -The Maoris of to-day are law-abiding, peaceable and indolent. They have -been called the Britons of the south, and their courage in defending -their country and their intelligence amply justify the compliment. By -the New Zealanders they are cordially liked. At the census of 1906 they -numbered 47,731, as against 45,470 in 1874; and there were 6516 -half-castes. See also POLYNESIA and SAMOA. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Sir G. Grey, _Polynesian Mythology and Maori Legends_ - (Wellington, 1885); A. de Quatrefages, _Les Polynesiens et leurs - migrations_ (Paris, 1866); Abraham Fornander, _An Account of the - Polynesian Race_ (1877-1885); Henri Mager, _Le Monde polynesien_ - (Paris, 1902); Pierre Adolphe Lesson, _Les Polynesiens, leur origine, - &c._ (Paris, 1880-1884); W. Pember Reeves, _New Zealand_; A. R. - Wallace, _Australasia_ (Stanford's Compendium, 1894); G. W. Rusden, - _History of New Zealand_ (1895); Alfred Saunders, _History of New - Zealand_ (1896); James Cowan, _The Maoris of New Zealand_ (1909). - - - - -MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9), medieval ecclesiastic, author and -wit, to whose authority the main body of prose Arthurian literature has, -at one time or another, been assigned, flourished in the latter part of -the 12th and early years of the 13th centuries. Concerning the date of -his birth and his parentage nothing definite is known, but as he -ascribes his position at court to the merits of his parents they were -probably people of some importance. He studied at Paris under Girard la -Pucelle, who began to teach in or about 1160, but as he states in his -book _De nugis curialium_ that he was at the court of Henry II. before -1162, his residence at Paris must have been practically comprised in the -decade 1150-1160. - -Map's career was an active and varied one; he was clerk of the royal -household and justice itinerant; in 1179 he was present at the Lateran -council at Rome, on his way thither being entertained by the count of -Champagne; at this time he apparently held a plurality of ecclesiastical -benefices, being a prebend of St Paul's, canon and precentor of Lincoln -and parson of Westbury, Gloucestershire. There seems to be no record of -his ordination, but as he was a candidate for the see of Hereford in -1199 it is most probable that he was in priest's orders. The last -reference to him, as living, is in 1208, when an order for payment to -him is on record, but Giraldus Cambrensis, in the second edition of his -_Hibernica_, redacted in 1210, utters a prayer for his soul, "cujus -animae propitietur Deus," a proof that he was no longer alive. - -The special interest of Map lies in the perplexing question of his -relation to the Arthurian legend and literature. He is invariably cited -as the author of the _Lancelot_ proper (consisting of two parts), the -_Queste_ and the _Mort Artus_, all three of which are now generally -found in one manuscript under the title of _Lancelot_. The _Mort Artus_, -however, we know to be the prose working over of an earlier and -independent poem. Sundry manuscripts of the yet more extensive -compilation which begins with the _Grand Saint Graal_ also refer to Map -as having composed the cycle in conjunction with Robert de Borron, to -whom, as a rule, the _Grand Saint Graal_ and _Merlin_ are exclusively -assigned. The curious _Merlin_ text, Bibl. Nat. 337 (fonds Francais), -refers throughout to Map as authority; and the enormous _Lancelot_ -codex, B. N. 112, a combination of the _Lancelot_ and the _Tristan_, -also couples his name with that of Robert de Borron. In fact it may -safely be said that, with the exception of the prose _Tristan_, always -attributed either to Luces de Gast, or Helie de Borron, the authority of -Map has been invoked for the entire vast mass of Arthurian prose -romantic literature. Now it is practically impossible that one man, and -that one an occupier of court and public offices, constantly employed in -royal and public business, very frequently travelling abroad (e.g. we -know he was at Limoges in 1173; at Rome in 1179; in Anjou in 1183; and -at Angers in 1199), could have found the necessary leisure. On this -point we have the testimony of his one undoubted work, _De nugis -curialium_, which he tells us he composed "by snatches" during his -residence at court. _De nugis_ is a comparatively small book; if it were -difficult to find leisure for that, much more would it have been -difficult to find the time requisite for the composition of one only of -the many long-winded romances which have been fathered on Map. Giraldus -Cambrensis, with whom he was on most friendly terms, and who frequently -refers to and quotes him, records a speech in which Map contrasted -Giraldus' labours with his own, apparently to the disadvantage of the -latter, "vos scripta dedistis, et nos verba"--a phrase which has been -interpreted as meaning that Map himself had produced no literary work. -But inasmuch as the _De nugis_ is undoubtedly, and certain satirical -poems directed against the loose life of the clergy of the day most -probably, his work, the speech must not be taken too literally. It seems -difficult also to believe that Map's name should be so constantly -connected with our Arthurian tradition without any ground whatever; -though it must be admitted that he himself never makes any such -claim--the references in the romances are all couched in the third -person, and bear no sign of being other than the record by the copyist -of a traditional attribution. - -A different and very interesting piece of evidence is afforded by the -_Ipomedon_ of Hue de Rotelande; in relating how his hero appeared at a -tournament three days running, in three different suits of armour, red, -black and white, the author remarks, - - _Sul ne sai pas de mentir l'art_ - _Walter Map reset ben sa part._ - -This apparently indicated that Map, also, had made himself responsible -for a similar story. Now this incident of the "Three Days' Tournament" -is found alike in the prose _Lancelot_ and in the German _Lanzelet_, -this latter translated from a French poem which, in 1194, was in the -possession of Hugo de Morville. The _Ipomedon_ was written somewhere in -the decade 1180-1190, and there is no evidence of the prose romance -having then been in existence. We have no manuscript of any prose -Arthurian romance earlier than the 13th century, to which period Gaston -Paris assigned them; they are certainly posterior to the verse romances. -Chretien de Troyes, in his _Cliges_ (the date of which falls somewhere -in the decade 1160-1170), knew and utilized the story of the "Three -Days' Tournament," and moreover makes Lancelot take part in it. Map was, -as we have seen, frequently in France; Chretien had for patroness Marie, -countess of Champagne, step-daughter to Henry II., Map's patron; Map's -position was distinctly superior to that of Chretien. Taking all the -evidence into consideration it seems more probable that Map had, at a -comparatively early date, before he became so important an official, -composed a poem on the subject of Lancelot, which was the direct source -of the German version, and which Chretien also knew and followed. - - The form in which certain of the references to him are couched favours - the above view; the compiler of _Guiron le Cortois_ says in his - prologue that "_maistre Gautier Map qui fu clers au roi Henry--devisa - cil l'estoire de monseigneur Lancelot du Lac, que d'autre chose ne - parla il mie gramment en son livre_"; and in another place he refers - to Map, "_qui fit lou propre livre de monsoingnour Lancelot dou Lac_." - Now only during the early part of his career could Map fairly be - referred to as simple "_clers au roi Henry_," and both extracts - emphasize the fact that his work dealt, almost exclusively, with - Lancelot. Neither of these passages would fit the prose romance, as we - know it, but both might well suit the lost French source of the - _Lanzelet_; where we are in a position to compare the German versions - of French romances with their originals we find, as a rule, that the - translators have followed their source faithfully. - - One of the references to Map's works in the _Merlin_ manuscript above - referred to (B.N. 337) has an interesting touch not found elsewhere. - After saying how Map translated the romance from the Latin at the - bidding of King Henry, the usual statement, the scribe adds "_qui - riche loier l'en dona_." It is of course possible that Map's rise at - court may have been due to his having hit the literary taste of the - monarch, who, we know, was interested in the Arthurian tradition, but - it must be admitted that direct evidence on the subject is practically - nil, and that in the present condition of our knowledge we can only - advance possible hypotheses. - - See art. "Map" in _Dict. Nat. Biog. De nugis curialium_ and the - _Latin Poems attributed to Map_ have been edited for the Camden - Society by T. Wright (1841). For discussion of his authorship of the - _Lancelot_ cf. _The Three Days' Tournament_, Grimm Library XV. See - also under LANCELOT. The passages relating to Map cited above have - been frequently quoted by scholars, e.g. Hucher, _Le Grand Saint - Graal_; Paulin Paris, _Romans de la Table Ronde_; Alfred Nutt, - _Studies in the Legend of the Holy Grail_. (J. L. 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