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diff --git a/42736-0.txt b/42736-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..904886e --- /dev/null +++ b/42736-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18655 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42736 *** + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE MALTA: "Queen Adelaide visited Malta in 1838 and founded + the Anglican collegiate church of St Paul. Sir F. Hankey as chief + secretary was for many years the principal official of the civil + administration." 'visited' amended from 'vistied'. + + ARTICLE MALTA: "... whose decision affirmed the advisability of + legislation and the need for validating retrospectively marriages + not supported by either Maltese or English common law. " + 'advisability' amended from 'advisibility'. + + ARTICLE MAMMOTH CAVE: "... although the diameter of the area of the + whole cavern is less than 10 m., the combined length of all + accessible avenues is supposed to be about 150 m." 'combined' + amended from 'conbined'. + + ARTICLE MANCHE: "South of Granville the sands of St Pair are the + commencement of the great bay of Mont Saint Michel, 543 whose area + of 60,000 acres was covered with forest till the terrible tide of + the year 709." 'sands' amended from 'samds'. + + ARTICLE MANGAN, JAMES CLARENCE: "The Poems of James Clarence Mangan + (1903), and the Prose Writings (1904), were both edited by D. J. + O'Donoghue, who wrote in 1897 a complete account of the Life and + Writings of the poet." 'Mangan' amended from 'Magan'. + + ARTICLE MANILA: "In 1906 the total value of the exports was + $23,902,986 and the total value of the imports was $21,868,257." + Duplicate 'the' removed. + + ARTICLE MANN, HORACE: "Meanwhile he served, with conspicuous + ability, in the Massachusetts House of Representatives from 1827 to + 1833 and in the Massachusetts Senate from 1833 to 1837, for the + last two years as president." 'ability' amended from 'ailbity'. + + ARTICLE MANTEGNA, ANDREA: "It was painted in tempera about 1495, in + commemoration of the battle of Fornovo, which Gianfrancesco Gonzaga + found it convenient to represent to his lieges as an Italian + victory ..." 'Gianfrancesco' amended from 'Ginfrancesco'. + + ARTICLE MANURES and MANURING: "Clay land, as a rule, is not + benefited by their use, these soils containing generally an + abundance of potash." 'soils' amended from 'oils'. + + ARTICLE MANUSCRIPT: "... where also is described the mechanical + computation of the length of a text by measured lines, for the + purpose of calculating the pay of the scribe." 'of' amended from + 'or'. + + ARTICLE MAORI: "The Rarotongas call themselves Maori, and state + that their ancestors came from Hawaiki, and Parima and Manono are + the native names of two islands in the Samoan group." 'Parima' + amended from 'Pirima'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XVII, SLICE V + + Malta to Map, Walter + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + MALTA MANG LÖN + MALTA FEVER MANGNALL, RICHMAL + MALTE-BRUN, CONRAD MANGO + MALTHUS, THOMAS ROBERT MANGOSTEEN + MALTON MANGROVE + MALTZAN, HEINRICH VON MANICHAEISM + MALUS, ÉTIENNE LOUIS MANIFEST + MALVACEAE MANIHIKI + MALVASIA MANIKIALA + MALVERN MANILA + MALWA MANILA HEMP + MAMARONECK MANILIUS + MAMELI, GOFFREDO MANILIUS, GAIUS + MAMELUKE MANIN, DANIELE + MAMERTINI MANING, FREDERICK EDWARD + MAMERTINUS, CLAUDIUS MANIPLE + MAMIANI DELLA ROVERE, TERENZIO MANIPUR + MAMMALIA MANISA + MAMMARY GLAND MANISTEE + MAMMEE APPLE MANITOBA (lake of Canada) + MAMMON MANITOBA (province of Canada) + MAMMOTH MANITOU + MAMMOTH CAVE MANITOWOC + MAMORÉ MANIZALES + MAMUN MANKATO + MAMUND MANLEY, MARY DE LA RIVIERE + MAN MANLIUS + MAN, ISLE OF MANN, HORACE + MANAAR, GULF OF MANNA + MANACOR MANNERS, CHARLES + MANAGE MANNERS-SUTTON, CHARLES + MANAGUA MANNHEIM + MANAKIN MANNING, HENRY EDWARD + MANAOAG MANNY, SIR WALTER DE MANNY + MANÁOS MANNYNG, ROBERT + MANASSAS MANOEUVRES, MILITARY + MANASSEH (son of Hezekiah) MANOMETER + MANASSEH (tribe of Israel) MANOR + MANASSES, CONSTANTINE MANOR-HOUSE + MANASSES, PRAYER OF MANRESA + MANATI MANRIQUE, GÓMEZ + MANBHUM MANRIQUE, JORGE + MANCHA, LA MANSE + MANCHE MANSEL, HENRY LONGUEVILLE + MANCHESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF MANSFELD + MANCHESTER (Connecticut, U.S.A.) MANSFELD, ERNST + MANCHESTER (England) MANSFIELD, RICHARD + MANCHESTER (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) MANSFIELD, WILLIAM MURRAY + MANCHESTER (New Hampshire, U.S.A.) MANSFIELD (England) + MANCHESTER (Virginia, U.S.A.) MANSFIELD (Ohio, U.S.A.) + MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL MANSION + MANCHURIA MANSLAUGHTER + MANCINI, PASQUALE STANISLAO MANSON, GEORGE + MANCIPLE MANSUR + MANCUNIUM MANSURA + MANDAEANS MANT, RICHARD + MANDALAY MANTEGAZZA, PAOLO + MANDAMUS, WRIT OF MANTEGNA, ANDREA + MANDAN MANTELL, GIDEON ALGERNON + MANDARIN MANTES-SUR-SEINE + MANDASOR MANTEUFFEL, EDWIN + MANDATE MANTINEIA + MANDAUE MANTIS + MANDELIC ACID MANTIS-FLY + MANDER, CAREL VAN MANTLE + MANDEVILLE, BERNARD DE MANTON, THOMAS + MANDEVILLE, GEOFFREY DE MAN-TRAPS + MANDEVILLE, JEHAN DE MANTUA + MANDHATA MANU + MANDI MANUAL + MANDINGO MANUCODE + MANDLA MANUEL I., COMNENUS + MANDOLINE MANUEL II. PALAEOLOGUS + MANDRAKE MANUEL I. + MANDRILL MANUEL, EUGENE + MANDU MANUEL, JACQUES ANTOINE + MANDURIA MANUEL, LOUIS PIERRE + MANDVI MANUEL DE MELLO, DOM FRANCISCO + MANES MANUL + MANET, ÉDOUARD MANURES and MANURING + MANETENERIS MANUSCRIPT + MANETHO MANUTIUS + MANFRED MANWARING, ROBERT + MANFREDONIA MANYCH + MANGABEY MANYEMA + MANGALIA MANZANARES + MANGALORE MANZANILLO (Mexico) + MANGAN, JAMES CLARENCE MANZANILLO (Cuba) + MANGANESE MANZOLLI, PIER ANGELO + MANGANITE MANZONI, ALESSANDRO FRANCESCO ANTONIO + MANGBETTU MAORI + MANGEL-WURZEL MAP, WALTER + MANGLE + + + + +MALTA, the largest of the Maltese Islands, situated between Europe and +Africa, in the central channel which connects the eastern and western +basins of the Mediterranean Sea. The group belongs to the British +Empire. It extends over 29 m., and consists of Malta, 91 sq. m., GOZO +(q.v.) 20 sq. m., Comino (set apart as a quarantine station) 1 sq. m., +and the uninhabited rocks called Cominotto and Filfla. Malta (lat. of +Valletta Observatory 35° 53´ 55´´ N., long. 14° 30´ 45´´ W.) is about +60 m. from the nearest point of Sicily, 140 m. from the mainland of +Europe and 180 from Africa; it has a magnificent natural harbour. From +the dawn of maritime trade its possession has been important to the +strongest nations on the sea for the time being. + +Malta is about 17½ m. long by 8¼ broad; Gozo is 8¾ by 4½ m. This chain +of islands stretches from N.E. to S.E. On the S.W. the declivities +towards the sea are steep, and in places rise abruptly some 400 ft. from +deep water. The general slope of these ridges is towards the N.W., +facing Sicily and snow-capped Etna, the source of cool evening breezes. +The Bingemma range, rising 726 ft., is nearly at right angles to the +axis of the main island. The geological "Great Fault" stretches from sea +to sea at the foot of these hills. There are good anchorages in the +channels between Gozo and Comino, and between Comino and Malta. In +addition to the harbours of Valletta, there are in Malta, facing N.W., +the bays called Mellieha and St Paul's, the inlets of the Salina, of +Madalena, of St Julian and St Thomas; on the S.E. there is the large bay +of Marsa Scirocco. There are landing places on the S.W. at Fomh-il-rih +and Miggiarro. Mount Sceberras (on which Valletta is built) is a +precipitous promontory about 1 m. long, pointing N.E. It rises out of +deep water; well-sheltered creeks indent the opposite shores on both +sides. The waters on the S.E. form the "Grand Harbour," having a narrow +entrance between Ricasoli Point and Fort St Elmo. The series of bays to +the N.W., approached between the points of Tigne and St Elmo, is known +as the Marsamuscetto (or Quarantine) Harbour. + +Mighty fortifications and harbour works have assisted to make this ideal +situation an emporium of Mediterranean trade. During the Napoleonic wars +and the Crimean campaign the Grand Harbour was frequently overcrowded +with shipping. The gradual supplanting of sail by steamships has made +Malta a coaling station of primary importance. But the tendency to great +length and size in modern vessels caused those responsible for the civil +administration towards the end of the 19th century to realize that the +harbour accommodation was becoming inadequate for modern fleets and +first-class liners. A breakwater was therefore planned on the Monarch +shoal, to double the available anchorage area and increase the frontage +of deep-water wharves available in all weathers. + + + Geology and Water Supply. + + The Maltese Islands consist largely of Tertiary Limestone, with + somewhat variable beds of Crystalline Sandstone, Greensand and Marl or + Blue Clay. The series appears to be in line with similar formations at + Tripoli in Africa, Cagliari in Sardinia, and to the east of + Marseilles. To the south-east of the Great Fault (already mentioned) + the beds are more regular, comprising, in descending order, (a) Upper + Coralline Limestone; (b) Yellow, Black or Greensand; (c) Marl or Blue + Clay; (d) White, Grey and Pale Yellow Sandstone; (e) + Chocolate-coloured nodules with shells, &c.; (f) Yellow Sandstone; (g) + Lower Crystalline Limestone. The Lower Limestone probably belongs to + the Tongarian stage of the Oligocene series, and the Upper Coralline + Limestone to the Tortonian stage of the Miocene. The beds are not + folded. The general dip of the strata is from W.S.W. to E.N.E. North + of the Great Fault and at Comino the level of the beds is about 400 + ft. lower, bringing (c), the Marl, in juxtaposition with (g), the + semi-crystalline Limestone. There is a system of lesser faults, + parallel to the Great Fault, dividing the area into a number of + blocks, some of which have fallen more than others. There are also + indications of another series of faults roughly parallel to the + south-east coast, which point to the islands being fragments of a + former extensive plateau. The mammalian remains found in Pleistocene + deposits are of exceptional interest. Among the more remarkable forms + are a species of hippopotamus, the elephant (including a pigmy + variety), and a gigantic dormouse. In the Coralline Limestone the + following fossils have been noted:--_Spondylus_, _Ostrea_, _Pecten_, + _Cytherea_, _Arca_, _Terebratula_, _Orthis_, _Clavagella_, _Echinus_, + _Cidaris_, _Nucleolites_, _Brissus_, _Spatangus_; in the Marl the + _Nautilus zigzag_; in the Yellow, Black and Greensand shells of + _Lenticulites complanatus_, teeth and vertebrae of _Squalidae_ and + _Cetacea_; in the Sandstone _Vaginula depressa_, _Crystallaria_, + _Nodosaria_, _Brissus_, _Nucleolites_, _Pecten burdigallensis_, + _Scalaria_, _Scutella subrotunda_, _Spatangus_, _Nautilus_, _Ostrea + navicularis_ and _Pecten cristatus_ (see Captain Spratt's work and + papers by Lord Ducie and Dr Adams). + + The Blue Clay forms, at the higher levels, a stratum impervious to + water, and holds up the rainfall, which soaks through the spongy mass + of the superimposed coralline formations. Hence arise the springs + which run perennially, several of which have been collected into the + gravitation water supplies of the Vignacourt and Fawara aqueducts. The + larger part of the water supply, however, is now derived by pumping + from strata at about sea-level. These strata are generally impregnated + with salt water, and are practically impenetrable to the rain-water of + less weight. The honeycomb of rock, and capillary action, retard the + lighter fresh-water from sinking to the sea; the soakage from rain has + therefore to move horizontally, over the strata about sea-level, + seeking outlets. At this stage the rain-water is intercepted by wells, + and by galleries hewn for miles in the water-bearing rock. Large + reservoirs assist to store this water after it is raised, and to + equalize its distribution. + + + Climate and Hygiene. + + The climate is, for the greater part of the year, temperate and + healthy; the thermometer records an annual mean of 67° F. Between June + and September the temperature ranges from 75° to 90°; the mean for + December, January and February is 56°; March, May and November are + mild. Pleasant north-east winds blow for an average of 150 days a + year, cool northerly winds for 31 days, east winds 70 days, west for + 34 days. The north-west "Gregale" (Euroclydon of Acts xxvii. 14) blows + about the equinox, and occasionally, in the winter months, with almost + hurricane force for three days together; it is recorded to have caused + the drowning of 600 persons in the harbour in 1555. This wind has been + a constant menace to shipping at anchor; the new breakwater on the + Monarch Shoal was designed to resist its ravages. The regular tides + are hardly perceptible, but, under the influence of barometric + pressure and wind, the sea-level occasionally varies as much as 2 ft. + The average rainfall is 21 in.; it is, however, uncertain; periods of + drought have extended over three years. Snow is seen once or twice in + a generation; violent hailstorms occur. On the 19th of October 1898, + exceptionally large hailstones fell--one, over 4 in. in length, being + brought to the governor, Sir Arthur Fremantle, for inspection. + Mediterranean (sometimes called "Malta") fever has been traced by + Colonel David Bruce to a _Micrococcus melitensis_. The supply of water + under pressure is widely distributed and excellent. There is a modern + system of drainage for the towns, and all sewerage has been + intercepted from the Grand Harbour. There are efficient hospitals and + asylums, a system of sanitary inspection, and modernized quarantine + stations. + + + Flora. + + It is hardly possible to differentiate between imported and indigenous + plants. Among the marine flora may be mentioned _Porphyra laciniata_, + the edible laver; _Codium tomentosum_, a coarse species; _Padina + pavonia_, common in shallow water; _Ulva latissima_; _Haliseris + polypodioides_; _Sargassum bacciferum_; the well-known gulf weed, + probably transported from the Atlantic; _Zostera marina_, forming + dense beds in muddy bays; the roots are cast up by storms and are + valuable to dress the fields. Among the land plants may be noted the + blue anemone; the ranunculus along the road-sides, with a strong + perfume of violets; the Malta heath, which flowers at all seasons; + _Cynomorium coccineum_, the curious "Malta fungus," formerly so valued + for medicinal purposes that a guard was set for its preservation under + the rule of the Knights; the pheasant's-eye; three species of mallow + and geranium; _Oxalis cernua_, a very troublesome imported weed; + _Lotus edulis_; _Scorpiurus subvillosa_, wild and cultivated as + forage; two species of the horseshoe-vetch; the opium poppy; the + yellow and claret-coloured poppy; wild rose; _Crataegus azarolus_, of + which the fruit is delicious preserved; the ice-plant; squirting + cucumber; many species of _Umbelliferae_; _Labiatae_, to which the + spicy flavour of the honey (equal to that of Mt Hymettus) is ascribed; + snap-dragons; broom-rape; glass-wort; _Salsola soda_, which produces + when burnt a considerable amount of alkali; there are fifteen species + of orchids; the _gladiolus_ and _iris_ are also found; _Urginia + scilla_, the medicinal squill, abounds with its large bulbous roots + near the sea; seventeen species of sedges and seventy-seven grasses + have been recorded. + + + Fauna. + + There are four species of lizard and three snakes, none of which is + venomous; a land tortoise, a turtle and a frog. Of birds very few are + indigenous; the jackdaw, blue solitary thrush, spectacled warbler, the + robin, kestrel and the herring-gull. A bird known locally as _Hangi_, + not met elsewhere in Europe, nests at Filfla. Flights of quail and + turtle doves, as well as teal and ducks, stay long enough to afford + sport. Of migratory birds over two hundred species have been + enumerated. The only wild mammalia in the island are the hedgehogs, + two species of weasel, the Norway rat, and the domestic mouse. The + Maltese dog was never wild and has ceased to exist as a breed. + + Malta has several species of zoophytes, sponges, mollusca and + crustacea. Insect life is represented by plant-bugs, locusts, + crickets, grasshoppers, cockroaches, dragon-flies, butterflies, + numerous varieties of moths, bees and mosquitoes. + + Among the fish may be mentioned the tunny, dolphin, mackerel, sardine, + sea-bream, dentice and pagnell; wrasse, of exquisite rainbow hue and + good for food; members of the herring family, sardines, anchovies, + flying-fish, sea-pike; a few representatives of the cod family, and + some flat fish; soles (very rare); _Cernus_ which grows to large size; + several species of grey and red mullet; eleven species of _Triglidae_, + including the beautiful flying gurnard whose colours rival the + angel-fish of the West Indies; and eighteen species of mackerel, all + migratory. + +[Illustration: Map of Malta.] + + + Population and Language. + +The real population of Malta, viz. of the country districts, is to be +differentiated from the cosmopolitan fringe of the cities. There is +continuous historical evidence that Malta remains to-day what Diodorus +Siculus described it in the 1st century, "a colony of the Phoenicians"; +this branch of the Caucasian race came down the great rivers to the +Persian Gulf and thence to Palestine. It carried the art of navigation +through the Mediterranean, along the Atlantic seaboard as far as Great +Britain, leaving colonies along its path. In prehistoric times one of +these colonies displaced previous inhabitants of Libyan origin. The +similarity of the megalithic temples of Malta and of Stonehenge connect +along the shores of western Europe the earliest evidence of Phoenician +civilization. Philology proves that, though called "Canaanites" from +having sojourned in that land, the Phoenicians have no racial connexion +with the African descendants of Ham. No subsequent invader of Malta +attempted to displace the Phoenician race in the country districts. The +Carthaginians governed settlements of kindred races with a light hand; +the Romans took over the Maltese as "dedititii," not as a conquered +race. Their conversion by St Paul added difference of religion to the +causes which prevented mixture of race. The Arabs from Sicily came to +eject the Byzantine garrison; they treated the Maltese as friends, and +were not sufficiently numerous to colonize. The Normans came as +fellow-Christians and deliverers; they found very few Arabs in Malta. +The fallacy that Maltese is a dialect of Arabia has been luminously +disproved by A. E. Caruana, _Sull' origine della lingua Maltese_. + +The upper classes have Norman, Spanish and Italian origin. The knights +of St John of Jerusalem, commonly called "of Malta," were drawn from the +nobility of Catholic Europe. They took vows of celibacy, but they +frequently gave refuge in Malta to relatives driven to seek asylum from +feudal wars and disturbances in their own lands. At the British +occupation there were about two dozen families bearing titles of +nobility granted, or recognized, by the Grand Masters, and descending +by primogeniture. These "privileges" were guaranteed, together with the +rights and religion of the islanders, when they became British subjects, +but no government has ever recognized papal titles in Malta. High and +low, all speak among themselves the Phoenician Maltese, altogether +different from the Italian language; Italian was only spoken by 13.24% +in 1901. Such Italian as is spoken by the lingering minority has marked +divergences of pronunciation and inflexion from the language of Rome and +Florence. In 1901, in addition to visitors and the naval and military +forces, 18,922 Maltese spoke English, and the number has been rapidly +increasing. + +In appearance the Maltese are a handsome, well-formed race, about the +middle height, and well set up; they have escaped the negroid +contamination noticeable in Sicily, and their features are less dark +than the southern Italians. The women are generally smaller than the +men, with black eyes, fine hair and graceful carriage. They are a +thrifty and industrious people, prolific and devoted to their offspring, +good-humoured, quick-tempered and impressionable. The food of the +working classes is principally bread, with oil, olives, cheese and +fruit, sometimes fish, but seldom meat; common wine is largely imported +from southern Europe. The Maltese are strict adherents to the Roman +Catholic religion, and enthusiastic observers of festivals, fasts and +ceremonials. + +In 1906 the birth-rate was 40.68 per thousand, and the excess of births +over deaths 2637. In April 1907 the estimated population was 206,690 of +whom 21,911 were in Gozo. This phenomenal congestion of population gives +interest to records of its growth; in the 10th century there were 16,767 +inhabitants in Malta and 4514 in Gozo; the total population in 1514 was +22,000. Estimates made at the arrival of the knights (1530) varied from +15,000 to 25,000: it was then necessary to import annually 10,000 +quarters of grain from Sicily. The population in 1551 was, Malta 24,000, +Gozo 7000. In 1582, 20,000 quarters of imported grain were required to +avert famine. A census of 1590 makes the population 30,500; in that year +3000 died of want. The numbers rose in 1601 to 33,000; in 1614 to +41,084; in 1632 to 50,113; in 1667 to 55,155; in 1667 11,000 are said to +have died of plague out of the total population. At the end of the rule +of the knights (1798) the population was estimated at 100,000; sickness, +famine and emigration during the blockade of the French in Valletta +probably reduced the inhabitants to 80,000. In 1829 the population was +114,236; in 1836, 119,878 (inclusive of the garrison); in 1873, 145,605; +at the census in 1901 the civil population was 184,742. Sanitation +decreases the death-rate, religion keeps up the birth-rate. Nothing is +done to promote emigration or to introduce manufactures. + + _Towns and Villages._--The capital is named after its founder, the + Grand Master de la Valette, but from its foundation it has been called + Valletta (pop. 1901, 24,685); it contains the palace of the Grand + Masters, the magnificent Auberges of the several "Langues" of the + Order, the unique cathedral of St John with the tombs of the Knights + and magnificent tapestries and marble work; a fine opera house and + hospital are conspicuous. Between the inner fortifications of Valletta + and the outer works, across the neck of the peninsula, is the suburb + of Floriana (pop. 7278). To the south-east of Valletta, at the other + side of the Grand Harbour, are the cities of Senglea (pop. 8093), + Vittoriosa (pop. 8993); and Cospicua (pop. 12,184); this group is + often spoken of as "The Three Cities." The old capital, near the + centre of the island is variously called Notabile, Città Vecchia + (q.v.), and Medina, with its suburb Rabat, its population in 1901 was + 7515; here are the catacombs and the ancient cathedral of Malta. + Across the Marsamuscetto Harbour of Valletta is a considerable modern + town called Sliema. The villages of Malta are Mellieha, St Paul's Bay, + Musta, Birchircara, Lia, Atterd, Balzan, Naxaro, Gargur, Misida, S. + Julian's, S. Giuseppe, Dingli, Zebbug, Siggieui, Curmi, Luca, Tarxein, + Zurrico, Crendi, Micabbiba, Circop, Zabbar, Asciak, Zeitun, Gudia and + Marsa Scirocco. The chief town of Gozo is called Victoria, and there + are several small villages. + +_Industry and Trade._--The area under cultivation in 1906 was 41,534 +acres. As a rule the tillers of the soil live away from their lands, in +some neighbouring village. The fields are small and composed of terraces +by which the soil has been walled up along the contours of the hills, +with enormous labour, to save it from being washed away. Viewed from +the sea, the top of one wall just appearing above the next produces a +barren effect; but the aspect of the land from a hill in early spring is +a beautiful contrast of luxuriant verdure. It is estimated that there +are about 10,000 small holdings averaging about four acres and intensely +cultivated. The grain crops are maize, wheat and barley; the two latter +are frequently sown together. In 1906, 13,000 acres produced 17,975 +quarters of wheat and 12,000 quarters of barley. The principal fodder +crops are green barley and a tall clover called "sulla" (_Hedysarum +coronarum_), having a beautiful purple blossom. Vegetables of all sorts +are easily grown, and a rotation of these is raised on land irrigated +from wells and springs. Potatoes and onions are grown for exportation at +seasons when they are scarce in northern Europe. The rent of average +land is about £2 an acre, of very good land over £3; favoured spots, +irrigated from running springs, are worth up to £12 an acre. Two, and +often three, crops are raised in the year; on irrigated land more than +twice as many croppings are possible. The presence of phosphates +accounts for the fertility of a shallow soil. There is a considerable +area under vines, but it is generally more profitable to sell the fruit +as grapes than to convert it into wine. Some of the best oranges in the +world are grown, and exported; but sufficient care is not taken to keep +down insect pests, and to replace old trees. Figs, apricots, nectarines +and peaches grow to perfection. Some cotton is raised as a rotation +crop, but no care is taken to improve the quality. The caroub tree and +the prickly pear are extensively cultivated. There are exceptionally +fine breeds of cattle, asses and goats; cows of a large and very +powerful build are used for ploughing. The supply of butchers' meat has +to be kept up by constant importations. More than two-thirds of the +wheat comes from abroad; fish, vegetables and fruit are also imported +from Sicily in considerable quantities. Excellent honey is produced in +Malta; at certain seasons tunny-fish and young dolphin (lampuca) are +abundant; other varieties of fish are caught all the year round. + +About 5000 women and children are engaged in producing Maltese lace. The +weaving of cotton by hand-looms survives as a languishing industry. +Pottery is manufactured on a small scale; ornamental carvings are made +in Maltese stone and exported to a limited extent. The principal +resources of Malta are derived from its being an important military +station and the headquarters of the Mediterranean fleet. There are great +naval docks, refitting yards, magazines and stores on the south-east +side of the Grand Harbour; small vessels of war have also been built +here. Steamers of several lines call regularly, and there is a daily +mail to Syracuse. The shipping cleared in 1905-1906 was 3524 vessels of +3,718,168 tons. Internal communications include a railway about eight +miles long from Valletta to Notabile; there are electric tramways and +motor omnibus services in several directions. The currency is English. +Local weights and measures include the cantar, 175 lb.; salm, one +imperial quarter; cafiso, 4½ gallons; canna, 6 ft. 10½ in.; the tumolo +(256 sq. ca.), about a third of an acre. + +The principal exports of local produce are potatoes, cumin seed, +vegetables, oranges, goats and sheep, cotton goods and stone. + +To keep alive, in a fair standard of comfort, the population of 206,690, +food supplies have to be imported for nine and a half months in the +year. The annual value of exports would be set off against imported food +for about one month and a half. The Maltese have to pay for food imports +by imperial wages, earned in connexion with naval and military services, +by commercial services to passing steamers and visitors, by earnings +which emigrants send home from northern Africa and elsewhere, and by +interest on investments of Maltese capital abroad. A long absence of the +Mediterranean fleet, and withdrawals of imperial forces, produce +immediate distress. + + _Finance._--The financial position in 1906-1907 is indicated by the + following: Public revenue £513,594 (including £51,039 carried to + revenue from capital); expenditure £446,849; imports (actual), + £1,219,819; imports in transit, £5,876,981; exports (actual), + £123,510; exports in transit £6,127,277; imports from the United + Kingdom (actual), £218,461. In March 1907 there were 8159 depositors + in the government savings bank, with £569,731 to their credit. + +_Government._--Malta is a crown colony, within the jurisdiction of a +high commissioner and a commander-in-chief, to whom important questions +of policy are reserved; in other matters the administration is under a +military governor (£3000), assisted by a civil lieutenant-governor or +chief secretary. There is an executive council, now comprising eleven +members with the governor as president. The legislative council, under +letters patent of the 3rd of June 1903, is composed of the governor +(president), ten official members, and eight elected members. There are +eight electoral districts with a total of about 10,000 electors. A voter +is qualified on an income from property of £6, or by paying rent to the +same amount, or having the qualifications required to serve as a common +juror. There are no municipal institutions. Letters patent, orders in +council, and local ordinances have the force of law. The laws of +Justinian are still the basis of the common law, the Code of Rohan is +not altogether abrogated, and considerable weight is still given to the +Roman Canon Law. The principal provisions of the Napoleonic Code and +some English enactments have been copied in a series of ordinances +forming the Statute Law. Latin was the language of the courts till 1784, +and was not completely supplanted by Italian till 1815. The partial use +of English (with illogical limitations to the detriment of the +Maltese-born British subjects who speak English) was introduced by local +ordinances and orders in council at the end of the 19th century. The +Maltese, of whom 86% cannot understand Italian, are still liable to be +tried, even for their lives, in Italian, to them a foreign language. The +endeavour to restrict juries to those who understand Italian reveals +glaring incongruities. + + _Education._--There were, in 1906, 98 elementary day schools, and 33 + night schools. The attendance on the 1st of September 1905 was 16,530, + the percentage on those enrolled 84.6; the total enrolment was 18,719. + The average cost per pupil in these schools was 35s. 11d. a year on + daily attendance. There is a secondary school for girls in Valletta, + and one for boys in Gozo. A lyceum in Malta had an average attendance + of 464. The number of students at the university was about 150. The + average cost per student in the lyceum was £8, 0s. 11d.; in the + university £26, 10s. 1d. The fees in these institutions are almost + nominal, the middle-classes are thus educated at the expense of the + masses. In the 18th century the government of the Knights and of the + Inquisition did not favour the education of the people, after 1800 + British governors were slow to make any substantial change. About the + middle of the 19th century it began to be recognized that the + education of the people was more conducive to the safety of the + fortress than to leave in ignorance congested masses of southern race + liable to be swayed spasmodically by prejudice. At first an attempt + was made to make Maltese a literary language by adapting the Arabic + characters to record it in print. This failed for several reasons, the + foremost being that the language was not Arabic but Phoenician, and + because professors and teachers, whose personal ascendancy was based + on the official prominence of Italian, did not realize that + educational institutions existed for the rising generation rather than + to provide salaries for alien teachers and men behind the times. + Various educational schemes were proposed, but they were easier to + propose than to carry into effect: no one, except Mr Savona, had the + ability to urge English as the basis of instruction, and he agitated + and was installed as director of education and made a member of the + Executive. The obstruction which he encountered alarmed him, and he + compromised by adopting a mixed system of both English and Italian, + _pari passu_, as the basis of Maltese education; he resigned after a + brief effort. Mr Savona's attempt to teach the Maltese children + simultaneously two foreign languages (of which they were quite + ignorant, and their teachers only partially conversant) without first + teaching how to read and write the native Maltese systematically was + continued for some years under an eminent archaeologist, Dr A. A. + Caruana, who became Director of Education. He began to give some + preference to English indirectly. On his resignation Sir G. Strickland + established a new system of education based on the principle of + beginning from the bottom, by teaching to read and write in Maltese as + the medium for assimilating, at a further stage, either English or + Italian, one at a time, and aiming at imparting general knowledge in + colloquial English. A series of school books, in the Maltese language + printed in Roman characters, with translations in English interlined + in different type, was produced at the government printing office and + sold at cost price. The parents and guardians were called upon to + select whether each child should learn English or Italian next after + learning reading, writing and arithmetic in Maltese. About 89% + recorded their preference in favour of English at the outset; then, as + a result of violent political agitation, this percentage was + considerably lowered, but soon crept up again. Teachers and professors + who were weak in English, lawyers, newspaper men and others, combined + to deprive these reforms of their legitimate consequence, viz. that + after a number of years English should be the language of the courts + as well as of education, and to protect those belonging to the old + order of knowledge from the competition of young Maltese better + educated than themselves, whose rapid rise everywhere would be assured + by knowing English thoroughly. An order in council was enacted in 1899 + providing that no Maltese (except students of theology) should + thenceforth suffer any detriment through inability to pass + examinations in Italian, in either the schools or university, but the + fraction of the Maltese who claim to speak Italian (13.24%) still + command sufficient influence to hamper the full enjoyment of this + emancipation by the majority. In the university most of the textbooks + used are English, nevertheless many of the lectures are still + delivered in Italian--for the convenience of some professors or to + please the politicians, rather than for the benefit of the students. + The number of students who enter the university without passing any + examination in Italian is rapidly increasing; the longer the period of + transition, the greater the detriment to the rising generation. + +_History and Antiquities._--The earliest inhabitants of Malta (Melita) +and Gozo (Gaulos) belonged to a culture-circle which included the whole +of the western Mediterranean, and to a race which perhaps originated +from North Africa; and it is they, and not the Phoenicians, who were the +builders of the remarkable megalithic monuments which these islands +contain, the Gigantia in Gozo, Hagiar Kim and Mnaidra near Crendi, the +rock-cut hypogeum of Halsaflieni,[1] and the megalithic buildings on the +hill of Corradino in Malta, being the most noteworthy. The +contemporaneity of these structures has been demonstrated by the +identity of the pottery and other objects discovered in them, including +some remarkable steatopygic figures in stone, and it is clear that they +belong to the neolithic period, numerous flints, but no metal, having +been found. Those that have been mentioned seem to have been sanctuaries +(some of them in part dwelling-places), but Halsaflieni was an enormous +ossuary, of which others may have existed in other parts of the island; +for the numerous rock-cut tombs which are everywhere to be seen belong +to the Phoenician and Roman periods. In these buildings there is a great +preference for apsidal terminations to the internal chambers, and the +façades are as a rule slightly curved. The numerous niches, generally +containing sacrificial (?) tables,[2] are often approached by +window-like openings hewn out of one of the flat slabs by which they are +enclosed. The surface of the stones in the interior is often pitted, as +a form of ornamentation. Even the barren islet of Comino, between Malta +and Gozo, was inhabited in prehistoric times. + +To the Phoenician period, besides the tombs already mentioned, belong +some remains of houses and cisterns, and (probably) a few round towers +which are scattered about the island, while the important Roman house at +Cittavecchia is the finest monument of this period in the islands. + +The Carthaginians came to Malta in the 6th century B.C., not as +conquerors, but as friends of a sister Phoenician colony (Freeman, +_Hist. Sicily_, i. 255): Carthage in her struggle with Rome was at last +driven to levy oppressive tribute, whereupon the Maltese gave up the +Punic garrison to Titus Sempronius under circumstances described by Livy +(xxi. 51). The Romans did not treat the Maltese as conquered enemies, +and at once gave them the privileges of a _municipium_; Cicero (_in +Verrem_) refers to the Maltese as "Socii." Nothing was to be gained by +displacing the Phoenician inhabitants in a country from which any race +less thrifty would find life impossible by agriculture. On the strength +of a monument bearing his name, it has been surmised that Hannibal was +born in Malta, while his father was governor-general of Sicily; he +certainly did not die in Malta. There is evidence from Cicero (_in +Verrem_) that a very high stage of manufacturing and commercial +prosperity, attained in Carthaginian times, continued in Malta under +the Romans. The Phoenician temple of Juno, which stood on the site of +Fort St Angelo, is also mentioned by Valerius Maximus. An inscription +records the restoration of the temple of Proserpine by Cheriston, a +freed-man of Augustus and procurator of Malta. Diodorus Siculus (L. V., +c. 4) speaks of the importance and ornamentation of Maltese dwellings, +and to this day remains of palaces and dwellings of the Roman period +indicate a high degree of civilization and wealth. When forced to select +a place of exile, Cicero was at first (_ad Att._ III. 4, X. i. 8, 9) +attracted to Malta, over which he had ruled as quaestor 75 B.C. Among +his Maltese friends were Aulus Licinius and Diodorus. Lucius Castricius +is mentioned as a Roman governor under Augustus. Publius was "chief of +the island" when St Paul was shipwrecked (Acts xxvii. 7); and is said to +have become the first Christian bishop of Malta. The site where the +cathedral at Notabile now stands is reputed to have been the residence +of Publius and to have been converted by him into the first Christian +place of worship, which was rebuilt in 1090 by Count Roger, the Norman +conqueror of Malta. The Maltese catacombs are strikingly similar to +those of Rome, and were likewise used as places of burial and of refuge +in time of persecution. They contain clear indication of the interment +of martyrs. St Paul's Bay was the site of shipwreck of the apostle in +A.D. 58; the "topon diathalasson" referred to in Acts is the strait +between Malta and the islet of Selmun. The claim that St Paul was +shipwrecked at Meleda off the Dalmatian coast, and not at Malta, has +been clearly set at rest, on nautical grounds, by Mr Smith of Jordanhill +(_Voyage and Shipwreck of St Paul_, London, 1848). According to +tradition and to St Chrysostom (_Hom._ 54) the stay of the apostle +resulted in the conversion of the Maltese to Christianity. The +description of the islanders in Acts as "barbaroi" confirms the +testimony of Diodorus Siculus that they were Phoenicians, neither +hellenized nor romanized. The bishopric of Malta is referred to by Rocco +Pirro (_Sicilia sacra_), and by Gregory the Great (_Epist._ 2, 44; 9, +63; 10, 1). It appears that Malta was not materially affected by the +Greek schism, and remained subject to Rome. + +On the final division of the Roman dominions in A.D. 395 Malta was +assigned to the empire of Constantinople. On the third Arab invasion, +A.D. 870, the Maltese joined forces against the Byzantine garrison, and +3000 Greeks were massacred. Unable to garrison the island with a large +force, the Arabs cleared a zone between the central stronghold, Medina, +and the suburb called Rabat, to restrict the fortified area. Many Arab +coins, some Kufic inscriptions and several burial-places were left by +the Arabs; but they did not establish their religion or leave a +permanent impression on the Phoenician inhabitants, or deprive the +Maltese language of the characteristics which differentiate it from +Arabic. There is no historical evidence that the domination of the Goths +and Vandals in the Mediterranean ever extended to Malta; there are fine +Gothic arches in two old palaces at Notabile, but these were built after +the Norman conquest of Malta. In 1090 Count Roger the Norman (son of +Tancred de Hauteville), then master of Sicily, came to Malta with a +small retinue; the Arab garrison was unable to offer effective +opposition, and the Maltese were willing and able to welcome the Normans +as deliverers and to hold the island after the immediate withdrawal of +Count Roger. A bishop of Malta was witness to a document in 1090. The +Phoenician population had continued Christian during the mild Arab rule. +Under the Normans the power of the Roman Church quickly augmented, +tithes were granted, and ecclesiastical buildings erected and endowed. +The Normans, like the Arabs, were not numerically strong; the rule of +both, in Sicily as well as Malta, was based on a recognition of +municipal institutions under local officials; the Normans, however, +exterminated the Mahommedans. Gradually feudal customs asserted +themselves. In 1193 Margarito Brundusio received Malta as a fief with +the title of count; he was Grand Admiral of Sicily. Constance, wife of +the emperor Henry IV. of Germany became, in 1194, heiress of Sicily and +Malta; she was the last of the Norman dynasty. The Grand Admiral of +Sicily in 1223 was Henry, count of Malta. He had led 300 Maltese at the +capture of two forts in Tripoli by the Genoese. In 1265 Pope Alexander +IV. conferred the crown of Sicily on Charles of Anjou to the detriment +of Manfred, from whom the French won the kingdom at the battle of +Benevento. Under the will of Corradino a representative of the blood of +Roger the Norman, Peter of Aragon claimed the succession, and it came to +him by the revolution known as "the Sicilian Vespers" when 28,000 French +were exterminated in Sicily. Charles held Malta for two years longer, +when the Aragonese fleet met the French off Malta, and finally crushed +them in the Grand Harbour. In 1427 the Turks raided Malta and Gozo, they +carried many of the inhabitants into captivity, but gained no foothold. +The Maltese joined the Spaniards in a disastrous raid against Gerbi on +the African coast in 1432. In 1492 the Aragonese expelled the Jews. +Dissatisfaction arose under Aragonese rule from the periodical grants of +Malta, as a marquisate or countship, to great officers of state or +illegitimate descendants of the sovereign. Exemption was obtained from +these incidences of feudalism by large payments to the Crown in return +for charters covenanting that Malta should for ever be administered +under the royal exchequer without the intervention of intermediary +feudal lords. This compact was twice broken, and in 1428 the Maltese +paid King Alfonso 30,000 florins for a confirmation of privileges, with +a proviso that entitled them to resist by force of arms any intermediate +lord that his successors might attempt to impose. Under the Aragonese, +Malta, as regards local affairs, was administered by a _Università_ or +municipal commonwealth with wide and indefinite powers, including the +election of its officers, Capitan di Verga, Jurats, &c. The minutes of +the "Consiglio Popolare" of this period are preserved, showing it had no +legislative power; this was vested in the king, and was exercised +despotically in the interests of the Crown. The Knights of St John +having been driven from Rhodes by the Turks, obtained the grant of +Malta, Gozo and Tripoli in 1530 from the emperor Charles V., subject to +a reversion in favour of the emperor's successor in the kingdom of +Aragon should the knights leave Malta, and to the annual tribute of a +falcon in acknowledgment that Malta was under the suzerainty of Spain. +The Maltese, at first, challenged the grant as a breach of the charter +of King Alfonso, but eventually welcomed the knights. The Grand Master +de l'Isle Adam, on entering the ancient capital of Notabile, swore for +himself and his successors to maintain the rights and liberties of the +Maltese. The Order of St John took up its abode on the promontory +guarded by the castle of St Angelo on the southern shore of the Grand +Harbour, and, in expectation of attacks from the Turks, commenced to +fortify the neighbouring town called the Borgo. The knights lived apart +from the Maltese, and derived their principal revenues from estates of +the Order in the richest countries of Europe. They accumulated wealth by +war, or by privateering against the Turks and their allies. The African +Arabs under Selim Pasha in 1551 ravaged Gozo, after an unsuccessful +attempt on Malta, repulsed by cavalry under Upton, an English knight. +The Order of St John and the Christian Maltese now realized that an +attempt to exterminate them would soon be made by Soliman II., and +careful preparations were made to meet the attack. + +The great siege of Malta which made the island and its knights famous, +and checked the advance of Mahommedan power in southern and western +Europe, began in May 1565. The fighting men of the defenders are +variously recorded between 6100 and 9121; the roll comprises one English +knight, Oliver Starkey. The Mahommedan forces were estimated from 29,000 +to 38,500. Jehan Parisot de la Valette had participated in the defence +of Rhodes, and in many naval engagements. He had been taken prisoner by +Dragut, who made him row for a year as a galley slave till ransomed. +This Grand Master had gained the confidence of Philip of Spain, the +friendship of the viceroy of Sicily, of the pope and of the Genoese +admiral, Doria. The Sultan placed his troops under the veteran Mustapha, +and his galleys under his youthful relative Piali, he hesitated to make +either supreme and ordered them to await the arrival of Dragut with his +Algerian allies, before deciding on their final plans. Meanwhile, +against Mustapha's better judgment, Piali induced the council of war to +attack St Elmo, in order to open the way for his fleet to an anchorage, +safe in all weathers, in Marsamuscetto harbour. This strategical blunder +was turned to the best advantage by La Valette, who so prolonged the +most heroic defence of St Elmo that the Turks lost 7000 killed and as +many wounded before exterminating the 1200 defenders, who fell at their +post. In the interval Dragut was mortally wounded, the attack on +Notabile was neglected, valuable time lost, and the main objective (the +Borgo) and St Angelo left intact. The subsequent siege of St Angelo, and +its supporting fortifications, was marked by the greatest bravery on +both sides. The knights and their Maltese troops fought for death or +victory, without asking or giving quarter. The Grand Master proved as +wise a leader as he was brave. By September food and ammunition were +getting scarce, a large relieving force was expected from Sicily, and +Piali became restive, on the approach of the equinox, for the safety of +his galleys. At last the viceroy of Sicily, who had the Spanish and +allied fleets at his disposal, was spurred to action by his council. He +timidly landed about 6000 or 8000 troops at the north-west of Malta and +withdrew. The Turks began a hurried embarcation and allowed the +Christians to join forces at Notabile; then, hearing less alarming +particulars of the relieving force, Mustapha relanded his reluctant +troops, faced his enemies in the open, and was driven in confusion to +his ships on the 8th of September. + +The Order thus reached the highest pinnacle of its fame, and new knights +flocked to be enrolled therein from the flower of the nobility of +Europe; La Valette refused a cardinal's hat, determined not to impair +his independence. He made his name immortal by founding on Mt Sceberras +"a city built by gentlemen for gentlemen" and making Valletta a +magnificent example of fortification, unrivalled in the world. The pope +and other sovereigns donated vast sums for this new bulwark of +Christianity, but, as its ramparts grew in strength, the knights were +slow to seek the enemy in his own waters, and became false to their +traditional strategy as a naval power. Nevertheless, they harassed +Turkish commerce and made booty in minor engagements throughout the 16th +and 18th centuries, and they took part as an allied Christian power in +the great victory of Lepanto. With the growth of wealth and security the +martial spirit of the Order began to wane, and so also did its friendly +relations with the Maltese. The field for recruiting its members, as +well as its landed estates, became restricted by the Reformation in +England and Germany, and the French knights gradually gained a +preponderance which upset the international equilibrium of the Order. +The election of elderly Grand Masters became prevalent, the turmoil and +chances of frequent elections being acceptable to younger members. The +civil government became neglected and disorganized, licentiousness +increased, and riots began to be threatening. Expenditure on costly +buildings was almost ceaseless, and kept the people alive. In 1614 the +Vignacourt aqueduct was constructed. The Jesuits established a +university, but they were expelled and their property confiscated in +1768. British ships of war visited Malta in 1675, and in 1688 a fleet +under the duke of Grafton came to Valletta. The fortifications of the +"Three Cities" were greatly strengthened under the Grand Master Cotoner. + +In 1722 the Turkish prisoners and slaves, then very numerous, formed a +conspiracy to rise and seize the island. Premature discovery was +followed by prompt suppression. Castle St Angelo and the fort of St +James were, in 1775, surprised by rebels, clamouring against bad +government; this rising is known as the Rebellion of the Priests, from +its leader, Mannarino. The last but one of the Grand Masters who reigned +in Malta, de Rohan, restored good government, abated abuses and +promulgated a code of laws; but the ascendancy acquired by the +Inquisition over the Order, the confiscation of the property of the +knights in France on the outbreak of the Revolution, and the intrigues +of the French made the task of regenerating the Order evidently hopeless +in the changed conditions of Christendom. On the death of Rohan the +French knights disagreed as to the selection of his successor, and a +minority were able to elect, in 1797, a German of weak character, +Ferdinand Hompesch, as the last Grand Master to rule in Malta. Bonaparte +had arranged to obtain Malta by treachery, and he took possession +without resistance in June 1798; after a stay of six days he proceeded +with the bulk of his forces to Egypt, leaving General Vaubois with 6000 +troops to hold Valletta. The exiled knights made an attempt to +reconstruct themselves under the emperor Paul of Russia, but finally the +Catholic parent stem of the Order settled in Rome and continues there +under papal auspices. It still comprises members who take vows of +celibacy and prove the requisite number of quarterings. + +Towards the close of the rule of the knights in Malta feudal +institutions had been shaken to their foundations, but the transition to +republican rule was too sudden and extreme for the people to accept it. +The French plundered the churches, abolished monks, nuns and nobles, and +set up forthwith the ways and doings of the French Revolution. Among +other laws Bonaparte enacted that French should at once be the official +language, that 30 young men should every year be sent to France for +their education; that all foreign monks be expelled, that no new priests +be ordained before employment could be found for those existing; that +ecclesiastical jurisdiction should cease; that neither the bishop nor +the priests could charge fees for sacramental ministrations, &c. +Stoppage of trade, absence of work (in a population of which more than +half had been living on foreign revenues of the knights), and famine, +followed the defeat of Bonaparte at the Nile, and the failure of his +plans to make Malta a centre of French trade. An attempt to seize church +valuables at Notabile was forcibly resisted by the Maltese, and general +discontent broke out into open rebellion on the 2nd of September 1798. +The French soon discovered to their dismay that, from behind the rubble +walls of every field, the agile Maltese were unassailable. The prospect +of an English blockade of Malta encouraged the revolt, of which Canon +Caruana became the leader. Nelson was appealed to, and with the aid of +Portuguese allies he established a blockade and deputed Captain Ball, R. +N. (afterwards the first governor) to assume, on the 9th of February +1799, the provisional administration of Malta and to superintend +operations on land. Nelson recognized the movement in Malta as a +successful revolution against the French, and upheld the contention that +the king of Sicily (as successor to Charles V. in that part of the +former kingdom of Aragon) was the legitimate sovereign of Malta. British +troops were landed to assist in the siege; few lives were lost in actual +combat, nevertheless famine and sickness killed thousands of the +inhabitants, and finally forced the French to surrender to the allies. +Canon Caruana and other leaders of the Maltese aspired to obtain for +Malta the freedom of the Roman Catholic religion guaranteed by England +in Canada and other dependencies, and promoted a petition in order that +Malta should come under the strong power of England rather than revert +to the kingdom of the two Sicilies. + +The Treaty of Amiens (1802) provided for the restoration of the island +to the Order of St John; against this the Maltese strongly protested, +realizing that it would be followed by the re-establishment of French +influence. The English flag was flown side by side with the Neapolitan, +and England actually renewed war with France sooner than give up Malta. +The Treaty of Paris (1814), with the acclamations of the Maltese, +confirmed Great Britain in the aggregation of Malta to the empire. + +A period elapsed before the government of Malta again became +self-supporting, during which over £600,000 was contributed by the +British exchequer in aid of revenue, and for the importation of +food-stuffs. The restoration of Church property, the re-establishment of +law and administration on lines to which the people were accustomed +before the French invasion, and the claiming for the Crown of the vast +landed property of the knights, were the first cares of British civil +rule. As successor to the Order, the Crown claimed and eventually +established (by the negotiations in Rome of Sir Frederick Hankey, Sir +Gerald Strickland and Sir Lintorn Simmons) with regard to the +presentation of the bishopric (worth about £4000 a year) the right to +veto the appointment of distasteful candidates. This right was exercised +to secure the nomination of Canon Caruana and later of Monsignor Pace. +When the pledge, given by the Treaty of Amiens, to restore the Order of +St John with a national Maltese "langue," could not be fulfilled, +political leaders began demanding instead the re-establishment of the +"Consiglio Popolare" of Norman times (without reflecting that it never +had legislative power); but by degrees popular aspirations developed in +favour of a free constitution on English lines. The British authorities +steadily maintained that, at least until the mass of the people became +educated, representative institutions would merely screen irresponsible +oligarchies. After the Treaty of Paris stability of government +developed, and many important reforms were introduced under the strong +government of the masterful Sir Thomas Maitland; he acted promptly, +without seeking popularity or fearing the reverse, and he ultimately +gained more real respect than any other governor, not excepting the +marquess of Hastings, who was a brilliant and sympathetic administrator. +Trial by jury for criminal cases was established in 1829. A council of +government, of which the members were nominated, was constituted by +letters patent in 1835, but this measure only increased the agitation +for a representative legislature. Freedom of the press and many salutary +innovations were brought about on a report of John Austin and G. C. +Lewis, royal commissioners, appointed in 1836. The basis of taxation was +widened, sinecures abolished, schools opened in the country districts, +legal procedure simplified, and Police established on an English +footing. Queen Adelaide visited Malta in 1838 and founded the Anglican +collegiate church of St Paul. Sir F. Hankey as chief secretary was for +many years the principal official of the civil administration. In 1847 +Mr R. Moore O'Ferrall was appointed civil governor. In June 1849 the +constitution of the council was altered to comprise ten nominated and +eight elected members. + +The revolutions in Italy caused about this time many, including Crispi +and some of the most intellectual Italians, to take refuge in Malta. +These foreigners introduced new life into politics and the press, and +made it fashionable for educated Maltese to delude themselves with the +idea that the Maltese were Italians, because a few of them could speak +the language of the peninsula. A clerical reaction followed against new +progressive ideas and English methods of development. After much +unreasoning vituperation the Irish Catholic civil governor, who had +arrived amidst the acclamations of all, left his post in disgust. His +successor as civil governor was Sir W. Reid, who had formerly held +military command. His determined attempts to promote education met with +intense opposition and little success. At this period the Crimean War +brought great wealth and commercial prosperity to Malta. Under Sir G. Le +Marchant, in 1858, the nominal rule of military governors was +re-established, but the civil administration was largely confided to Sir +Victor Houlton as chief secretary, whilst the real power began to be +concentrated in the hands of Sir A. Dingli, the Crown advocate, who was +the interpreter of the law, and largely its maker, as well as the +principal depository of local knowledge, able to prevent the preferment +of rivals, and to countenance the barrier which difference of language +created between governors and governed. The civil service gravitated +into the hands of a clique. At this period much money was spent on the +Marsa extension of the Grand Harbour, but the rapid increase in the size +of steamships made the scheme inadequate, and limited its value +prematurely. The military defences were entirely remodelled under Sir G. +Le Marchant, and considerable municipal improvements and embellishments +were completed. But this governor was obstructed and misrepresented by +local politicians as vehemently as his predecessors and his successors. +Ministers at home have often appeared to be inclined to the policy of +pleasing by avoiding the reforming of what might be left as it was +found. Sir A. Dingli adapted a considerable portion of the Napoleonic +Code in a series of Malta Ordinances, but stopped short at points likely +to cause agitation. Sir P. Julyan was appointed royal commissioner on +the civil establishments, and Sir P. Keenan on education; their work +revived the reform movement in 1881. Mr Savona led an agitation for a +more sincere system of education on English lines. Fierce opposition +ensued, and the _pari passu_ compromise was adopted to which reference +is made in the section on _Education_ above; Mr Savona was an able +organizer, and began the real emancipation of the Maltese masses from +educational ignorance; but he succumbed to agitation before +accomplishing substantial results. + +An executive council was established in 1881, and the franchise was +extended in 1883. A quarter of a century of Sir Victor Houlton's policy +of _laissez-faire_ was changed in 1883 by the appointment of Sir Walter +Hely-Hutchinson as chief secretary. An attempt was made to utilize fully +the abilities of this eminent administrator by creating him civil +lieutenant-governor, in whom to concentrate both the real and the +nominal power of detailed administration; but the military authorities +objected to his corresponding directly with the Colonial Office; and a +political deadlock began to develop. Sir A. Dingli was transferred from +an administrative office to that of chief justice. With the continuance +of military power over details, the public could not understand where +responsibility really rested. The elected members under the leadership +of Dr Mizzi clamoured for more power, opposed reforms and protested +against the carrying of government measures by the casting vote of a +military governor as president of the council. To force a crisis, +abstention of elected members from the council was resorted to, together +with the election of notoriously unfit candidates. Under these +circumstances a constitution of a more severe type was recommended by +those responsible for the government of Malta and was about to be +adopted, as the only alternative to a deadlock, by the imperial +authorities. + +A regulation excluding Maltese from the navy (because of their speaking +on board a language that their officers did not understand) provoked +from Trinity College, Cambridge, the Strickland correspondence in _The +Times_ on the constitutional rights of the Maltese, and a leading +article induced the Colonial Office to try an experiment known as the +Strickland-Mizzi Constitution of 1887. This constitution (abolished in +1903) ended a period of government by presidential casting votes and +official ascendancy. For the first time the elected members were placed +in a majority; they were given three seats in the executive council; in +local questions the government had to make every effort to carry the +majority by persuasion. When persuasion failed and imperial interests, +or the rights of unrepresented minorities, were involved the power of +the Crown to legislate by order in council could be (and was) freely +used. This system had the merit of counteracting any abuse of power by +the bureaucracy. It brought to bear on officials effective criticism, +which made them alert and hard-working. Governor Simmons eventually gave +his support to the new constitution, which was received with +acclamation. Strickland, who had been elected while an undergraduate on +the cry of equality of rights for Maltese and English, and Mizzi, the +leader of the anti-English agitation, were, as soon as elected, given +seats in the executive council to cooperate with the government; but +their aims were irreconcilable. Mizzi wanted to undo the educational +forms of Mr Savona, to ensure the predominance of the Italian language +and to work the council as a caucus. Strickland desired to replace +bureaucratic government by a system more in touch with the independent +gentlemen of the country, and to introduce English ideas and precedents. +Friction soon arose. Mizzi cared little for a constitution that did not +make him complete master of the situation, and resigned his post in the +government. + +Sir Walter Hely-Hutchinson left Malta in March 1889, and was succeeded +by Sir Gerald Strickland (Count Delia Catena), who lost no time in +pushing, and carrying with a rapidity that was considered hasty, reforms +that had been retarded for years. The majorities behind the government +began to dwindle and agitation to grow. Meanwhile the Royal Malta +Militia was established as a link between the Maltese and the garrison. +The police were reorganized with proper pay, criminal laws were +rigorously enforced. A naval officer was placed over the police to +diminish difficulties with the naval authorities and sailors. A marine +force was raised to stop smuggling; and the subtraction of coal during +coaling operations was stopped by drastic legislation. The civil service +was reorganized so as to reward merit and work by promotion. Tenders +were strictly enforced in letting government property and contracts; a +largely increased revenue was applied on water supply, drainage and +other works. Lepers were segregated by law. + +The Malta marriage question evoked widespread agitation; Sir A. Dingli +had refrained from making any provision in his code as to marrying. The +Maltese relied on the Roman Canon Law, the English on the common law of +England, Scots or Irish had nothing but the English law to fall back +upon. Maltese authorities were ignorant of the disabilities of British +Nonconformists at common law, and they had not perceived that persons +with a British domicile could not evade their own laws by marrying in +Malta, e.g. that an English girl up to the age of 21 required the +father's or guardian's consent from which a Maltese was legally exempt +at 18. Sir G. Strickland preferred legislation to the covering up of +difficulties by governors' licences and appeals to incongruous +precedents. Sir Lintorn Simmons was appointed envoy to the Holy See, to +ascertain how far legislation might be pushed in the direction of civil +marriage without justifying clerical agitation and obstruction in the +council. He succeeded in coming to an agreement with Rome. Nevertheless +Sir A. Dingli and ecclesiastics of all denominations, for conflicting +reasons, swelled the opposition against the liberal concessions obtained +from Leo XIII. The legal necessity for legislation in accordance with +the agreement was, nevertheless, on a special reference, submitted to +the privy council, whose decision affirmed the advisability of +legislation and the need for validating retrospectively marriages not +supported by either Maltese or English common law. Agitation in the +imperial parliament stopped government action, but the publicity of the +finding of the privy council warned all concerned against the risk of +neglecting the common law of the empire whenever they were not prepared +to follow the _lex loci contractus_. + +Since the British occupation it was disputed whether the military +authorities had the right to alienate for the benefit of the imperial +exchequer fortress sites no longer required for defence. The reversion +of such property was claimed for the local civil government, and the +principles governing these rights were ultimately laid down by an order +in council, which also determined military rights to restrict buildings +within the range of forts. The co-operation of naval and military +authorities was obtained for the construction, at imperial expense, of +the breakwater designed to save Malta from being abandoned by long and +deep draft modern vessels. British-born subjects were given the right to +be tried in English. The new system of education (already described) was +set up, and many new schools were built with funds provided by order in +council against the wishes of the elected majority. + +An order in council (1899) making English the language of the courts +after fifteen years (by which the Maltese would have obtained the right +to be tried in English) was promulgated at a time when the system of +taxation was also being revised; henceforth agitation in favour of +Italian and against taxation attained proportions unpleasant for those +who preferred popularity to reform and progress. The elected members +demanded the recall of Sir G. Strickland on his refusing to change his +policy. The military governor gave way, as regards making English the +language of the courts on a fixed date, but educational reforms and the +imposition of new taxes (those in Malta being 27s. 6d. per head, against +93s. in England) were enacted by an order in council notwithstanding the +agitation. Mr Mereweather was appointed chief secretary and civil +lieutenant-governor in 1902, and Sir Gerald Strickland became governor +and commander-in-chief of the Leeward Islands. Governor Sir F. Grenfell +was created a peer. Strenuous efforts were made to placate the Italian +party in the administration of the educational reforms; but, as these +were not repealed, elected members refused supply, and kept away from +the council. Persistence in this course led to the repeal by +letters-patent of 1903 of the Strickland-Mizzi Constitution of 1887. In +place of occasional orders in council for important matters in urgent +cases, bureaucratic government with an official majority was again, with +its drawbacks, fully re-established for all local affairs great and +small. The representatives of the people were repeatedly re-elected, +only to resign again and again as a protest against a restricted +constitution. + + Authorities.--Kenrick's _Phoenicia_ (1855); A. A. Caruana's _Reports + on Phoenician and Roman Antiquities in Malta_ (1881 and 1882); Albert + Mayr, _Die Insel Malta im Altertum_ (1909); James Smith, _Voyage and + Shipwreck of St Paul_ (1866); R. Pirro, _Sicilia sacra_; T. Fazello, + _Storia di Sicilia_ (1833); C. de Bazincourt, _Histoire de la Sicile_ + (1846); G. F. Abela, _Malta illustrata_ (1772); J. Quintin, _Insulae + Melitae descriptio_ (1536); G. W. von Streitburg, _Reyse nach der + Inselmalta_ (1632); R. Gregoria, _Considerazioni sopra la storia di + Sicilia_ (1839); F. C. A. Davalos, _Tableau historique de Malte_ + (1802); Houel, _Voyage pittoresque_ (vol. iv., 1787); G. P. Badger, + _Description of Malta and Gozo_ (1858); G. N. Goodwin, _Guide to and + Natural History of Maltese Islands_ (1800); Whitworth Porter, _History + of Knights of Malta_ (1858); A. Bigelow, _Travels in Malta and Sicily_ + (1831); M. Miège, _Histoire de Malte_ (1840); Parliamentary Papers, + reports by Mr Rownell on Taxation and Expenditure in Malta (1878), by + Sir F. Julyan on Civil Establishments (1880); and Mr Keenan on the + Educational System (1880), (the last two deal with the language + question); F. Vella, _Maltese Grammar for the Use of the English_ + (1831); _Malta Penny Magazine_ (1839-1841); J. T. Mifsud, _Biblioteca + Maltese_ (1764); C. M. de Piro, _Squarci di storia_; Michele Acciardi, + _Mustafa bascia di Rodi schiavo in Malta_ (1761); A. F. Freiherr, + _Reise nach Malta in 1830_ (Vienna, 1837); B. Niderstedt, _Malta vetus + et nova_, 1660; F. Panzavecchia, _Storia dell' isola di Malta_; N. W. + Senior, _Conversations on Egypt and Malta_ (1882); G. A. Vassallo, + _Storia di Malta_ (1890); H. Felsch, _Reisebeschreibung_ (1858); W. + Hardman, _Malta_, 1798-1815 (1909); A. Nieuterberg, _Malta_ (1879); + Terrinoni, _La Presa di Malta_ (1860); Azzopardi, _Presa di Malta_ + (1864); Castagna, _Storia di Malta_ (1900); Boisredon, Ransijat, + _Blocus et siège de Malte_ (1802); Buchon, _Nouvelles recherches + historiques_; C. Samminniateli, Zabarella, _L' Assedio di Malta del + 1565_ (1902); Professor G. B. Mifsud, _Guida al corso di Procedura + Penale Maltese_ (1907); P. de Bono Debono, _Storia della legislazione + in Malta_ (1897); Monsignor A. Mifsud, _L'Origine della sovranità + della Grand Brettagna su Malta_ (1907); A. A. Caruana, _Frammento + critico della storia di Malta_ (1899); Ancient Pagan Tombs and + Christian Cemeteries in the Island of Malta, _Explored and Surveyed + from 1881 to 1897_; Strickland, _Remarks and Correspondence on the + Constitution of Malta_ (1887); A. Mayr, _Die vorgeschichtlichen + Denkmäler von Malta_ (1901); A. E. Caruana, _Sull' origine della + lingua Maltese_ (1896); J. C. Grech, _Flora melitensis_ (1853); Furse, + _Medagliere Gerosolimitano;_ Pisani, _Medagliere_; Galizia, _Church of + St John_; J. Murray, "The Maltese Islands, with special reference to + their Geological Structure," _Scottish Geog. Mag._ (vol. vi., 1890); + J. W. Gregory, "The Maltese Fossil Echinoidea and their evidence on + the correlation of the Maltese Rocks," _Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._ (vol. + xxxvi., 1892); J. H. Cook, _The Har Dalam Cavern, Malta, Evidences of + Prehistoric Man in Malta_; _Collegamento geodetico delle isole maltesi + con la Sicilia_ (1902); A. Zeri, _I porti delle isole del gruppo di + Malta_ (1906); G. F. Bonamico, _Delle glossipietre di Malta_ (1688). + + Brydone, Teonge, John Dryden jun., W. Tallack, Rev. H. Seddall, + Boisgolin, Rev. W. K. Bedford, W. H. Bartlett, St Priest. Msgr. Bres, + M. G. Borch, Oliver Drapper, John Davy, G. M. Letard, Taafe, Busuttil, + T. MacGill, J. Quintana, have also written on Malta. For natural + science see the works of Dr A. L. Adams, Professor E. Forbes, Captain + Spratt, Dr G. Gulia, C. A. Wright and Wood's _Tourist Flora_. + + For the language question, see Mr Chamberlain's speech in the House of + Commons, on the 28th of January 1902. Also parliamentary papers for + Grievances of the Maltese Nobility, and Constitutional Changes. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See T. Zammit, _The Halsaflieni prehistoric hypogeum at Casal + Paula, Malta_ (Malta, 1910). + + [2] Sometimes the pillar which represents the _baetylus_, which seems + to have been the object of worship, (see A. J. Evans in _Journal of + Hellenic Studies_, xxi., 1901) stands free sometimes it serves as + support to the table stone which covers the niche, and sometimes + again monolithic tables occur. Conical stones (possibly themselves + _baetyli_) are also found. + + + + +MALTA (or MEDITERRANEAN) FEVER, a disease long prevalent of Malta and +formerly at Gibraltar, as well as other Mediterranean centres, +characterized by prolonged high temperature, with anaemia, pain and +swelling in the joints, and neuritis, lasting on an average four months +but extending even to two or three years. Its pathology was long +obscure, but owing to conclusive research on the part of Colonel +(afterwards Sir) David Bruce, to which contributions were made by +various officers of the R.A.M.C. and others, this problem had now been +solved. A specific micro-organism, the _Micrococcus melitensis_, was +discovered in 1887, and it was traced to the milk of the Maltese goats. +A commission was sent out to Malta in 1904 to investigate the question, +and after three years' work its conclusions were embodied in a report by +Colonel Bruce in 1907. It was shown that the disappearance of the +disease from Gibraltar had synchronized with the non-importation of +goats from Malta; and preventive measures adopted in Malta in 1906, by +banishing goats' milk from the military and naval dietary, put a stop to +the occurrence of cases. In the treatment of Malta fever a vaccine has +been used with considerable success. + + + + +MALTE-BRUN, CONRAD (1755-1826), French geographer, was born on the 12th +of August 1755 at Thisted in Denmark, and died at Paris on the 14th of +December 1826. His original name was Malte Conrad Bruun. While a student +at Copenhagen he made himself famous partly by his verses, but more by +the violence of his political pamphleteering; and at length, in 1800, +the legal actions which the government authorities had from time to time +instituted against him culminated in a sentence of banishment. The +principles which he had advocated were those of the French Revolution, +and after first seeking asylum in Sweden he found his way to Paris. +There he looked forward to a political career; but, when Napoleon's +personal ambition began to unfold itself, Malte-Brun was bold enough to +protest, and to turn elsewhere for employment and advancement. He was +associated with Edme Mentelle (1730-1815) in the compilation of the +_Géographie mathématique ... de toutes les parties du monde_ (Paris, +1803-1807, 16 vols.), and he became recognized as one of the best +geographers of France. He is remembered, not only as the author of six +volumes of the learned _Précis de la géographie universelle_ (Paris, +1810-1829), continued by other hands after his death, but also as the +originator of the _Annales des voyages_ (1808), and one of the founders +of the Geographical Society of Paris. His second son, VICTOR ADOLPHE +MALTE-BRUN (1816-1889), followed his father's career of geographer, and +was a voluminous author. + + + + +MALTHUS, THOMAS ROBERT (1766-1834), English economist, was born in 1766 +at the Rookery, near Guildford, Surrey, a small estate owned by his +father, Daniel Malthus, a gentleman of good family and independent +fortune, of considerable culture, the friend and correspondent of +Rousseau and one of his executors. Young Malthus was never sent to a +public school, but received his education from private tutors. In 1784 +he was sent to Cambridge, where he was ninth wrangler, and became fellow +of his college (Jesus) in 1797. The same year he received orders, and +undertook the charge of a small parish in Surrey. In the following year +he published the first edition of his great work, _An Essay on the +Principle of Population as it affects the Future Improvement of Society, +with Remarks on the Speculations of Mr Godwin, M. Condorcet, and other +Writers_. The work excited a good deal of surprise as well as attention; +and with characteristic thoroughness and love of truth the author went +abroad to collect materials for the verification and more exhaustive +treatment of his views. As Britain was then at war with France, only the +northern countries of Europe were quite open to his research at that +time; but during the brief Peace of Amiens Malthus continued his +investigations in France and Switzerland. The result of these labours +appeared in the greatly enlarged and more mature edition of his work +published in 1803. In 1805 Malthus married happily, and not long after +was appointed professor of modern history and political economy in the +East India Company's College at Haileybury. This post he retained till +his death suddenly from heart disease on the 23rd of December 1834. +Malthus was one of the most amiable, candid and cultured of men. In all +his private relations he was not only without reproach, but +distinguished for the beauty of his character. He bore popular abuse and +misrepresentation without the slightest murmur or sourness of temper. +The aim of his inquiries was to promote the happiness of mankind, which +could be better accomplished by pointing out the real possibilities of +progress than by indulging in vague dreams of perfectibility apart from +the actual facts which condition human life. + +Malthus's _Essay on Population_ grew out of some discussions which he +had with his father respecting the perfectibility of society. His father +shared the theories on that subject of Condorcet and Godwin; and his son +combated them on the ground that the realization of a happy society will +always be hindered by the miseries consequent on the tendency of +population to increase faster than the means of subsistence. His father +was struck by the weight and originality of his views, asked him to put +them in writing, and then recommended the publication of the manuscript. +It was in this way the _Essay_ saw the light. Thus it will be seen that +both historically and philosophically the doctrine of Malthus was a +corrective reaction against the superficial optimism diffused by the +school of Rousseau. It was the same optimism, with its easy methods of +regenerating society and its fatal blindness to the real conditions that +circumscribe human life, that was responsible for the wild theories of +the French Revolution and many of its consequent excesses. + +The project of a formal and detailed treatise on population was an +afterthought of Malthus. The essay in which he had studied a hypothetic +future led him to examine the effects of the principle he had put +forward on the past and present state of society; and he undertook an +historical examination of these effects, and sought to draw such +inferences in relation to the actual state of things as experience +seemed to warrant. In its original form he had spoken of no checks to +population but those which came under the head either of vice or of +misery. In the 1803 edition he introduced the new element of the +preventive check supplied by what he calls "moral restraint," and is +thus enabled to "soften some of the harshest conclusions" at which he +had before arrived. The treatise passed through six editions in his +lifetime, and in all of them he introduced various additions and +corrections. That of 1816 is the last he revised, and supplies the final +text from which it has since been reprinted. + +Notwithstanding the great development which he gave to his work and the +almost unprecedented amount of discussion to which it gave rise, it +remains a matter of some difficulty to discover what solid contribution +he has made to our knowledge, nor is it easy to ascertain precisely what +practical precepts, not already familiar, he founded on his theoretic +principles. This twofold vagueness is well brought out in his celebrated +correspondence with Nassau Senior, in the course of which it seems to be +made apparent that his doctrine is new not so much in its essence as in +the phraseology in which it is couched. He himself tells us that when, +after the publication of the original essay, the main argument of which +he had deduced from David Hume, Robert Wallace, Adam Smith and Richard +Price, he began to inquire more closely into the subject, he found that +"much more had been done" upon it "than he had been aware of." It had +"been treated in such a manner by some of the French economists, +occasionally by Montesquieu, and, among English writers, by Dr Franklin, +Sir James Steuart, Arthur Young and Rev. J. Townsend, as to create a +natural surprise that it had not excited more of the public attention." +"Much, however," he thought, "remained yet to be done. The comparison +between the increase of population and food had not, perhaps, been +stated with sufficient force and precision," and "few inquiries had been +made into the various modes by which the level" between population and +the means of subsistence "is effected." The first desideratum here +mentioned--the want, namely, of an accurate statement of the relation +between the increase of population and food--Malthus doubtless supposed +to have been supplied by the celebrated proposition that "population +increases in a geometrical, food in an arithmetical ratio." This +proposition, however, has been conclusively shown to be erroneous, there +being no such difference of law between the increase of man and that of +the organic beings which form his food. When the formula cited is not +used, other somewhat nebulous expressions are sometimes employed, as, +for example, that "population has a tendency to increase faster than +food," a sentence in which both are treated as if they were spontaneous +growths, and which, on account of the ambiguity of the word "tendency," +is admittedly consistent with the fact asserted by Senior, that food +tends to increase faster than population. It must always have been +perfectly well known that population will probably (though not +necessarily) increase with every augmentation of the supply of +subsistence, and may, in some instances, inconveniently press upon, or +even for a certain time exceed, the number properly corresponding to +that supply. Nor could it ever have been doubted that war, disease, +poverty--the last two often the consequences of vice--are causes which +keep population down. In fact, the way in which abundance, increase of +numbers, want, increase of deaths, succeed each other in the natural +economy, when reason does not intervene, had been fully explained by +Joseph Townsend in his _Dissertation on the Poor Laws_ (1786) which was +known to Malthus. Again, it is surely plain enough that the apprehension +by individuals of the evils of poverty, or a sense of duty to their +possible offspring, may retard the increase of population, and has in +all civilized communities operated to a certain extent in that way. It +is only when such obvious truths are clothed in the technical +terminology of "positive" and "preventive checks" that they appear novel +and profound; and yet they appear to contain the whole message of +Malthus to mankind. The laborious apparatus of historical and +statistical facts respecting the several countries of the globe, adduced +in the altered form of the essay, though it contains a good deal that is +curious and interesting, establishes no general result which was not +previously well known. + +It would seem, then, that what has been ambitiously called Malthus's +theory of population, instead of being a great discovery as some have +represented it, or a poisonous novelty, as others have considered it, is +no more than a formal enunciation of obvious, though sometimes +neglected, facts. The pretentious language often applied to it by +economists is objectionable, as being apt to make us forget that the +whole subject with which it deals is as yet very imperfectly +understood--the causes which modify the force of the sexual instinct, +and those which lead to variations in fecundity, still awaiting a +complete investigation. + +It is the law of diminishing returns from land, involving as it +does--though only hypothetically--the prospect of a continuously +increasing difficulty in obtaining the necessary sustenance for all the +members of a society, that gives the principal importance to population +as an economic factor. It is, in fact, the confluence of the Malthusian +ideas with the theories of Ricardo, especially with the corollaries +which the latter deduced from the doctrine of rent (though these were +not accepted by Malthus), that has led to the introduction of population +as an element in the discussion of so many economic questions in modern +times. + +Malthus had undoubtedly the great merit of having called public +attention in a striking and impressive way to a subject which had +neither theoretically nor practically been sufficiently considered. But +he and his followers appear to have greatly exaggerated both the +magnitude and the urgency of the dangers to which they pointed.[1] In +their conceptions a single social imperfection assumed such portentous +dimensions that it seemed to overcloud the whole heaven and threaten the +world with ruin. This doubtless arose from his having at first omitted +altogether from his view of the question the great counteracting agency +of moral restraint. Because a force exists, capable, if unchecked, of +producing certain results, it does not follow that those results are +imminent or even possible in the sphere of experience. A body thrown +from the hand would, under the single impulse of projection, move for +ever in a straight line; but it would not be reasonable to take special +action for the prevention of this result, ignoring the fact that it will +be sufficiently counteracted by the other forces which will come into +play. And such other forces exist in the case we are considering. If the +inherent energy of the principle of population (supposed everywhere the +same) is measured by the rate at which numbers increase under the most +favourable circumstances, surely the force of less favourable +circumstances, acting through prudential or altruistic motives, is +measured by the great difference between this maximum rate and those +which are observed to prevail in most European countries. Under a +rational system of institutions, the adaptation of numbers to the means +available for their support is effected by the felt or anticipated +pressure of circumstances and the fear of social degradation, within a +tolerable degree of approximation to what is desirable. To bring the +result nearer to the just standard, a higher measure of popular +enlightenment and more serious habits of moral reflection ought indeed +to be encouraged. But it is the duty of the individual to his possible +offspring, and not any vague notions as to the pressure of the national +population on subsistence, that will be adequate to influence conduct. + +It can scarcely be doubted that the favour which was at once accorded to +the views of Malthus in certain circles was due in part to an +impression, very welcome to the higher ranks of society, that they +tended to relieve the rich and powerful of responsibility for the +condition of the working classes, by showing that the latter had chiefly +themselves to blame, and not either the negligence of their superiors or +the institutions of the country. The application of his doctrines, too, +made by some of his successors had the effect of discouraging all active +effort for social improvement. Thus Chalmers "reviews _seriatim_ and +gravely sets aside all the schemes usually proposed for the amelioration +of the economic condition of the people" on the ground that an increase +of comfort will lead to an increase of numbers, and so the last state of +things will be worse than the first. + +Malthus has in more modern times derived a certain degree of reflected +lustre from the rise and wide acceptance of the Darwinian hypothesis. +Its author himself, in tracing its filiation, points to the phrase +"struggle for existence" used by Malthus in relation to the social +competition. Darwin believed that man advanced to his present high +condition through such a struggle, consequent on his rapid +multiplication. He regarded, it is true, the agency of this cause for +the improvement of the race as largely superseded by moral influences in +the more advanced social stages. Yet he considered it, even in these +stages, of so much importance towards that end that, notwithstanding the +individual suffering arising from the struggle for life, he deprecated +any great reduction in the natural, by which he seems to mean the +ordinary, rate of increase. + + Besides his great work, Malthus wrote _Observations on the Effect of + the Corn Laws_; _An Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of Rent_; + _Principles of Political Economy_; and _Definitions in Political + Economy_. His views on rent were of real importance. + + For his life see _Memoir_ by his friend Dr Otter, bishop of Chichester + (prefixed to 2nd ed., 1836, of the _Principles of Political Economy_), + and _Malthus and his Work_, by J. Bonar (London, 1885). Practically + every treatise on economics deals with Malthus and his essay, but the + following special works may be referred to: Soetbeer, _Die Stellung + der Sozialisten zur Malthusschen Bevölkerungslehre_ (Berlin, 1886); G. + de Molinari, _Malthus, essai sur le principe de population_ (Paris, + 1889); Cossa, _Il Principio di popolazione di T. R. Malthus_ (Milan, + 1895); and Ricardo, _Letters to Malthus_, ed. J. Bonar (1887). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Malthus himself said, "It is probable that, having found the bow + bent too much one way, I was induced to bend it too much the other in + order to make it straight." + + + + +MALTON, a market town in the Thirsk and Malton parliamentary division of +Yorkshire, England, 21 m. N.E. of York by a branch of the North Eastern +railway. The town comprises Old Malton and New Malton in the North +Riding, and Norton on the opposite side of the river Derwent, in the +East Riding. Pop. of urban district of Malton (1901), 4758; of urban +district of Norton 3842. The situation, on the wooded hills rising from +the narrow valley, is very picturesque. The church of St Michael is a +fine late Norman building with perpendicular tower; the church of St +Leonard, of mixed architecture, with square tower and spire, has three +Norman arches and a Norman font. The church of St Mary at Old Malton was +attached to a Gilbertine priory founded in 1150; it is transitional +Norman and Early English, with later insertions. Remains of the priory +are scanty, but include a crypt under a modern house. In the +neighbourhood of Malton are the slight but beautiful fragments of +Kirkham Abbey, an Early English Augustinian foundation of Walter l'Espec +(1131); and the fine mansion of Castle Howard, a massive building by +Vanbrugh, the seat of the earls of Carlisle, containing a noteworthy +collection of pictures. Malton possesses a town-hall, a corn exchange, a +museum, and a grammar-school founded in 1547. There are iron and brass +foundries, agricultural implement works, corn mills, tanneries and +breweries. In the neighbourhood are lime and whinstone quarries. + +Traces of a Romano-British village exist on the east side of the town, +but there appears to be no history of Malton before the Norman Conquest. +The greater part of Malton belonged to the crown in 1086 and was +evidently retained until Henry I. gave the castle and its appurtenances +to Eustace son of John, whose descendants took the name of Vescy. +Eustace meditated the deliverance of Malton Castle to King David of +Scotland in 1138, but his plans were altered owing to the battle of the +Standard. The "burgh" of Malton is mentioned in 1187, and in 1295 the +town returned two members to parliament. It was not represented again, +however, until 1640, when an act was passed to restore its ancient +privileges. In 1867 the number of members was reduced to one, and in +1885 the town was disfranchised. Until the 17th century the burgesses +had all the privileges of a borough by prescriptive right, and were +governed by two bailiffs and two under-bailiffs, but these liberties +were taken from them in 1684 and have never been revived. From that time +a bailiff and two constables were appointed at the court leet of the +lord of the manor until a local board was formed in 1854. In the 13th +century Agnes de Vescy, then lady of the manor, held a market in Malton +by prescription, and Camden writing about 1586 says that the lord of the +manor then held two weekly markets, on Tuesday and Saturday, the last +being the best cattle market in the county. The markets are now held on +Saturdays and alternate Tuesdays, and still belong to the lord of the +manor. + + + + +MALTZAN, HEINRICH VON, BARON ZU WARTENBURG UND PENZLIN (1826-1874), +German traveller, was born on the 6th of September 1826 near Dresden. He +studied law at Heidelberg, but on account of ill health spent much of +his time from 1850 in travel. Succeeding to his father's property in +1852, he extended the range of his journeys to Morocco and other parts +of Barbary, and before his return home in 1854 had also visited Egypt, +Palestine and other countries of the Levant. In 1856-1857 he was again +in Algeria; in 1858 he reached the city of Morocco; and in 1860 he +succeeded in performing the pilgrimage to Mecca, which he afterwards +described in _Meine Wallfahrt nach Mecca_ (Leipzig, 1865), but had to +flee for his life to Jidda without visiting Medina. He then visited Aden +and Bombay, and after some two years of study in Europe again began to +wander through the coasts and islands of the Mediterranean, repeatedly +visiting Algeria. His first book of travel, _Drei Jahre im Nordwesten +von Afrika_ (Leipzig), appeared in 1863, and was followed by a variety +of works and essays, popular and scientific. Maltzan's last book, _Reise +nach Südarabien_ (Brunswick, 1873), is chiefly valuable as a digest of +much information about little-known parts of south Arabia collected from +natives during a residence at Aden in 1870-1871. Among his other +services to science must be noticed his collection of Punic inscriptions +(_Reise in Tunis und Tripolis_, Leipzig, 1870), and the editing of +Adolph von Wrede's remarkable journey in Hadramut (_Reise in Hadramaut_, +&c., Brunswick, 1870). After long suffering from neuralgia, Maltzan died +by his own hand at Pisa on the 23rd of February 1874. + + + + +MALUS, ÉTIENNE LOUIS (1775-1812), French physicist, was born at Paris on +the 23rd of June 1775. He entered the military engineering school at +Mezières; but, being regarded as a suspected person, he was dismissed +without receiving a commission, and obliged to enter the army as a +private soldier. Being employed upon the fortifications of Dunkirk, he +attracted the notice of the director of the works, and was selected as a +member of the École polytechnique then to be established under G. Monge. +After three years at the École he was admitted into the corps of +engineers, and served in the army of the Sambre and Meuse; he was +present at the passage of the Rhine in 1797, and at the affairs of +Ukratz and Altenkirch. In 1798 he joined the Egyptian expedition and +remained in the East till 1801. On his return he held official posts +successively at Antwerp, Strassburg and Paris, and devoted himself to +optical research. A paper published in 1809 ("Sur une propriété de la +lumière réfléchie par les corps diaphanes") contained the discovery of +the polarization of light by reflection, which is specially associated +with his name, and in the following year he won a prize from the +Institute with his memoir, "Théorie de la double refraction de la +lumière dans les substances cristallines." He died of phthisis in Paris +on the 23rd of February 1812. + + + + +MALVACEAE, in botany, an order of Dicotyledons belonging to the series +Columniferae, to which belong also the orders Tiliaceae (containing +_Tilia_, the lime-tree), Bombaceae (containing _Adansonia_, the baobab), +Sterculiaceae (containing _Theobroma_, cocoa, and _Colo_, cola-nut). It +contains 39 genera with about 300 species, and occurs in all regions +except the coldest, the number of species increasing as we approach the +tropics. It is represented in Britain by three genera: _Malva_, mallow; +_Althaea_, marsh-mallow; and _Lavatera_, tree-mallow. The plants are +herbs, as in the British mallows, or, in the warmer parts of the earth, +shrubs or trees. The leaves are alternate and often palmately lobed or +divided; the stipules generally fall early. The leaves and young shoots +often bear stellate hairs and the tissues contain mucilage-sacs. The +regular, hermaphrodite, often showy flowers are borne in the leaf-axils, +solitary or in fasicles, or form more or less complicated cymose +arrangements. An epicalyx (see MALLOW, figs. 3, 4), formed by a whorl of +three or more bracteoles is generally present just beneath the calyx; +sometimes, as in _Abutilon_, it is absent. The parts of the flowers are +typically in fives (fig. 1); the five sepals, which have a valvate +aestivation, are succeeded by five often large showy petals which are +twisted in the bud; they are free to the base, where they are attached +to the staminal tube and fall with it when the flower withers. The very +numerous stamens are regarded as arising from the branching of a whorl +of five opposite the petals; they are united into a tube at the base, +and bear kidney-shaped one-celled anthers which open by a slit across +the top (fig. 2). The large spherical pollen-grains are covered with +spines. The carpels are one to numerous; when five in number, as in +_Abutilon_, they are opposite the petals, or, as in _Hibiscus_, opposite +the sepals. In the British genera and many others they are numerous, +forming a whorl round the top of the axis in the centre of the flower, +the united styles rising from the centre and bearing a corresponding +number of stigmatic branches. In _Malope_ the numerous carpels are +arranged one above the other in vertical rows. One or more anatropous +ovules are attached to the inner angle of each carpel; they are +generally ascending but sometimes pendulous or horizontal; the position +may vary, as in _Abutilon_, in one and the same carpel. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Floral Diagram of Hollyhock (_Althaea rosea_). + + a, Stamens. + b, Bract. + g, Pistil of carpels. + i, Epicalyx, formed from an involucre of bracteoles. + p, Petals. + s, Sepals.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2. + + 1, Anther. + 2, Pollen grain of Hollyhock (_Althaea rosea_) enlarged. The pollen + grain bears numerous spines, the dark spots indicate thin places in + the extine.] + +The flowers are proterandrous; when the flower opens the unripe stigmas +are hidden in the staminal tube and the anthers occupy the centre of the +flower; as the anthers dehisce the filaments bend backwards and finally +the ripe stigmas spread in the centre. Pollination is effected by +insects which visit the flower for the honey, which is secreted in pits +one between the base of each petal and is protected from rain by hairs +on the lower margin of the petals. In small pale-flowered forms, like +_Malva rotundifolia_, which attract few insects, self-pollination has +been observed, the style-arms twisting to bring the stigmatic surfaces +into contact with the anthers. + +Except in _Malvaviscus_ which has a berry, the fruits are dry. In +_Malva_ (see MALLOW) and allied genera they form one-seeded schizocarps +separating from the persistent central column and from each other. In +_Hibiscus_ and _Gossypium_ (cotton-plant, q.v.), the fruit is a capsule +splitting loculicidally. Distribution of the seeds is sometimes aided by +hooked outgrowths on the wall of the schizocarp, or by a hairy covering +on the seed, an extreme case of which is the cotton-plant where the seed +is buried in a mass of long tangled hairs--the cotton. The embryo is +generally large with much-folded cotyledons and a small amount of +endosperm. + + The largest genus, _Hibiscus_, contains 150 species, which are widely + distributed chiefly in the tropics; _H. rosasinensis_ is a well-known + greenhouse plant. _Abutilon_ (q.v.) contains 80 species, mainly + tropical; _Lavatera_, with 20 species, is chiefly Mediterranean; + _Althaea_ has about 15 species in temperate and warm regions, _A. + rosea_ being the hollyhock (q.v.); _Malva_ has about 30 species in the + north-temperate zone. Several genera are largely or exclusively + American. + + + + +MALVASIA (Gr. _Monemvasia_, i.e. the "city of the single approach or +entrance"; Ital. _Napoli di Malvasia_; Turk. _Mengeshe_ or _Beneshe_), +one of the principal fortresses and commercial centres of the Levant +during the middle ages, still represented by a considerable mass of +ruins and a town of about 550 inhabitants. It stood on the east coast of +the Morea, contiguous to the site of the ancient Epidaurus Limera, of +which it took the place. So extensive was its trade in wine that the +name of the place became familiar throughout Europe as the distinctive +appellation of a special kind--Ital. _Malvasia_; Span. _Malvagia_; Fr. +_Malvoisie_; Eng. _Malvesie_ or _Malmsey_. The wine was not of local +growth, but came for the most part from Tenos and others of the +Cyclades. + + As a fortress Malvasia played an important part in the struggles + between Byzantium, Venice and Turkey. The Byzantine emperors + considered it one of their most valuable posts in the Morea, and + rewarded its inhabitants for their fidelity by unusual privileges. + Phrantzes (Lib. IV. cap. xvi.) tells how the emperor Maurice made the + city (previously dependent in ecclesiastical matters on Corinth) a + metropolis or archbishop's see, and how Alexius Comnenus, and more + especially Andronicus II. (Palaeologus) gave the Monembasiotes freedom + from all sorts of exactions throughout the empire. It was captured + after a three years' siege by Guillaume de Villehardouin in 1248, but + the citizens retained their liberties and privileges, and the town was + restored to the Byzantine emperors in 1262. After many changes, it + placed itself under Venice from 1463 to 1540, when it was ceded to the + Turks. In 1689 it was the only town of the Morea which held out + against Morosini, and Cornaro his successor only succeeded in reducing + it by famine. In 1715 it capitulated to the Turks, and on the failure + of the insurrection of 1770 the leading families were scattered + abroad. As the first fortress which fell into the hands of the Greeks + in 1821, it became in the following year the seat of the first + national assembly. + + See Curtius, _Peloponnesos_, ii. 293 and 328; Castellan, _Lettres sur + la Morée_ (1808), for a plan; Valiero, _Hist. della guerra di Candia_ + (Venice, 1679), for details as to the fortress; W. Miller in _Journal + of Hellenic Studies_ (1907). + + + + +MALVERN, an inland watering-place in the Bewdley parliamentary division +of Worcestershire, England, 128 m. W.N.W. from London by the Great +Western railway, served also by a branch of the Midland railway from +Ashchurch on the Bristol-Birmingham line. Pop. of urban district(1901), +16,449. It is beautifully situated on the eastern slopes of the Malvern +Hills, which rise abruptly from the flat valley of the Severn to a +height of 1395 ft. in the Worcestershire Beacon. The district still +bears the name of Malvern Chase, originally a Crown-land and forest, +though it was granted to the earldom of Gloucester by Edward I. A ditch +along the summit of the hills determined the ancient boundary. Becoming +a notorious haunt of criminals, the tract was disafforested by Charles +I., with the exception of a portion known as the King's Chase, part of +which is included in the present common-land formed under the Malvern +Hills Act of 1884. + +Malvern was in early times an important ecclesiastical settlement, but +its modern fame rests on its fine situation, pure air, and chalybeate +and bituminous springs. The open-air cure for consumptive patients is +here extensively practised. + +The name Malvern is collectively applied to a line of small towns and +villages, extending along the foot of the hills for 5 m. The principal +is GREAT MALVERN, lying beneath the Worcestershire Beacon. It has a +joint station of the Great Western and Midland railways. Here was the +Benedictine priory which arose in 1083 out of a hermitage endowed by +Edward the Confessor. The priory church of SS. Mary and Michael is a +fine cruciform Perpendicular building, with an ornate central tower, +embodying the original Norman nave, and containing much early glass and +carved choir-stalls. The abbey gate and the refectory also remain. +There are here several hydropathic establishments, and beautiful +pleasure gardens. Malvern College, founded in 1862, is an important +English public school. A museum is attached to it. Mineral waters are +manufactured. At MALVERN WELLS, 2½ m. S., are the principal medicinal +springs, also the celebrated Holy Well, the water of which is of perfect +purity. There are extensive fishponds and hatcheries; and golf-links. +The Great Western railway has a station, and the Midland one at Hanley +Road. LITTLE MALVERN lies at the foot of the Herefordshire Beacon, which +is crowned by a British camp, 1½ m. S. of Malvern Wells. There was a +Benedictine priory here, of which traces remain in the church. MALVERN +LINK, 1 m. N.E. of Great Malvern, of which it forms a suburb, has a +station on the Great Western railway. WEST MALVERN and NORTH MALVERN, +named from their position relative to Great Malvern, are pleasant +residential quarters on the higher slopes of the hills. + + + + +MALWA, an historic province of India, which has given its name to one of +the political agencies into which Central India is divided. Strictly, +the name is confined to the hilly table-land, bounded S. by the Vindhyan +range, which drains N. into the river Chambal; but it has been extended +to include the Nerbudda valley farther south. Its derivation is from the +ancient tribe of Malavas about whom very little is known, except that +they founded the Vikrama Samvat, an era dating from 57 B.C., which is +popularly associated with a mythical king Vikramaditya. The earliest +name of the tract seems to have been Avanti, from its capital the modern +Ujjain. The position of the Malwa or Moholo mentioned by Hsuan Tsang +(7th century) is plausibly assigned to Gujarat. The first records of a +local dynasty are those of the Paramaras, a famous Rajput clan, who +ruled for about four centuries (800-1200), with their capital at Ujjain +and afterwards at Dhar. The Mahommedans invaded Malwa in 1235; and in +1401 Dilawar Khan Ghori founded an independent kingdom, which lasted +till 1531. The greatest ruler of this dynasty was Hoshang Shah +(1405-1435), who made Mandu (q.v.) his capital and embellished it with +magnificent buildings. In 1562 Malwa was annexed to the Mogul empire by +Akbar. On the break-up of that empire, Malwa was one of the first +provinces to be conquered by the Mahrattas. About 1743 the Mahratta +peshwa obtained from Delhi the title of governor, and deputed his +authority to three of his generals--Sindhia of Gwalior, Holkar of +Indore, and the Ponwar of Dhar who claims descent from the ancient +Paramaras. At the end of the 18th century Malwa became a cockpit for +fighting between the rival Mahratta powers, and the headquarters of the +Pindaris or irregular plunderers. The Pindaris were extirpated by the +campaign of Lord Hastings in 1817, and the country was reduced to order +by the energetic rule of Sir John Malcolm. Malwa is traditionally the +land of plenty, in which sufferers from famine in the neighbouring +tracts always take refuge. But in 1899-1900 it was itself visited by a +severe drought, which seriously diminished the population, and has since +been followed by plague. The most valuable product is opium. + +The Malwa agency has an area of 8919 sq. m. with a population (1901) of +1,054,753. It comprises the states of Dewas (senior and junior branch), +Jaora, Ratlam, Sitamau and Sailana, together with a large portion of +Gwalior, parts of Indore and Tonk, and about 35 petty estates and +holdings. The headquarters of the political agent are at Nimach. + +Malwa is also the name of a large tract in the Punjab, south of the +river Sutlej, which is one of the two chief homes of the Sikhs, the +other being known as Manjha. It includes the British districts of +Ferozpore and Ludhiana, together with the native states of Patiala, +Jind, Nabha and Maler Kotla. + + See J. Malcolm, _Central India_ (1823); C. E. Luard, _Bibliography of + Central India_ (1908), and _The Paramars of Dhar and Malwa_ (1908). + + + + +MAMARONECK, a township of Westchester county, New York, U.S.A., on Long +Island Sound, about 20 m. N.E. of New York City and a short distance +N.E. of New Rochelle. Pop. (1890), 2385; (1900) 3849; (1905) 5655; +(1910) 5602. Mamaroneck is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford +railway. The township includes the village of Larchmont (pop. in 1910, +1958), incorporated in 1891, and part of the village of Mamaroneck (pop. +in 1910, including the part in Rye township, 5699), incorporated in +1895. Larchmont is the headquarters of the Larchmont Yacht Club. The +site of Mamaroneck township was bought in 1660 from the Indians by John +Richbell, an Englishman, who obtained an English patent to the tract in +1668. The first settlement was made by relatives of his on the site of +Mamaroneck village in 1676, and the township was erected in 1788. On the +28th of August 1776, near Mamaroneck, a force of American militiamen +under Capt. John Flood attacked a body of Loyalist recruits under +William Lounsbury, killing the latter and taking several prisoners. Soon +afterwards Mamaroneck was occupied by the Queen's Rangers under Colonel +Robert Rogers. On the night of the 21st of October an attempt of a force +of Americans under Colonel John Haslet to surprise the Rangers failed, +and the Americans, after a hand-to-hand fight, withdrew with 36 +prisoners. Mamaroneck was the home of John Peter DeLancey (1753-1828), a +Loyalist soldier in the War of Independence, and was the birthplace of +his son William Heathcote DeLancey (1797-1865), a well-known Protestant +Episcopal clergyman, provost of the University of Pennsylvania in +1827-1832 and bishop of western New York from 1839 until his death. +James Fenimore Cooper, the novelist, married (1811) a daughter of John +Peter DeLancey; lived in Mamaroneck for several years, and here wrote +his first novel, _Precaution_, and planned _The Spy_. + + + + +MAMELI, GOFFREDO (1827-1849), Italian poet and patriot, was born at +Genoa of a noble Sardinian family. He received a sound classical +education at the Scolopi College, and later studied law and philosophy +at the university of Genoa. When nineteen years old he corresponded with +Mazzini, to whom he became whole-heartedly devoted; among other +patriotic poems he wrote a hymn to the Bandiera brothers, and in the +autumn of 1847 a song called "Fratelli d'Italia," which as Carducci +wrote, "resounded through every district and on every battlefield of the +peninsula in 1848 and 1849." Mameli served in the National Guard at +Genoa, and then joined the volunteers in the Lombard campaign of 1848, +but after the collapse of the movement in Lombardy he went to Rome, +where the republic was proclaimed and whence he sent the famous despatch +to Mazzini: "Roma! Repubblica! Venite!" At first he wrote political +articles in the newspapers, but when the French army approached the city +with hostile intentions he joined the fighting ranks and soon won +Garibaldi's esteem by his bravery. Although wounded in the engagement of +the 30th of April, he at once resumed his place in the ranks, but on the +3rd of June he was again wounded much more severely, and died in the +Pellegrini hospital on the 6th of July 1849. Besides the poems mentioned +above, he wrote hymns to Dante, to the Apostles, "Dio e popolo," &c. The +chief merit of his work lies in the spontaneity and enthusiasm for the +Italian cause which rendered it famous, in spite of certain technical +imperfections, and he well deserved the epithet of "The Tyrtaeus of the +Italian revolution." + + See A. G. Barrili, "G. Mameli nella vita e nell' arte," in _Nuova + Antologia_ (June 1, 1902); the same writer's edition of the _Scritti + editi ed inediti di G. Mameli_ (Genoa, 1902); Countess Martinengo + Cesaresco, _Italian Characters_ (London, 1901); A. Luzio, _Profili + Biografici_ (Milan, 1906); G. Trevelyan, _Garibaldi's Defence of the + Roman Republic_ (London, 1907). + + + + +MAMELUKE (anglicized through the French, from the Arabic _mamluk_, a +slave), the name given to a series of Egyptian sultans, originating +(1250) in the usurpation of supreme power by the bodyguard of Turkish +slaves first formed in Egypt under the successors of Saladin. See EGYPT: +_History_ (Moslem period). + + + + +MAMERTINI, or "children of Mars," the name taken by a band of Campanian +(or Samnite) freebooters who about 289 B.C. seized the Greek colony of +Messana at the north-east corner of Sicily, after having been hired by +Agathocles to defend it (Polyb. 1. 7. 2). The adventure is explained by +tradition (e.g. Festus 158, Müller) as the outcome of a _ver sacrum_; +the members of the expedition are said to have been the male children +born in a particular spring of which the produce had been vowed to +Apollo (cf. SAMNITES), and to have settled first in Sicily near +Tauromenium. An inscription survives (R. S. Conway, _Italic Dialects_, +1) which shows that they took with them the Oscan language as it was +spoken in Capua or Nola at that date, and the constitution usual in +Italic towns of a free community (_touta_ =) governed by two annual +magistrates (_meddices_). The inscription dedicated some large building +(possibly a fortification) to Apollo, which so far confirms the +tradition just noticed. Though in the Oscan language, the inscription is +written in the Greek alphabet common to south Italy from the 4th century +B.C. onwards, viz. the Tarentine Ionic, and so are the legends of two +coins of much the same date as the inscription (Conway, ib. 4). From 282 +onwards (B. V. Head, _Historia numorum_, 136) the legend itself is +Graecized ([Greek: MAMERTINON] instead of [Greek: MAAMERTINOUM]) which +shows how quickly here, as everywhere, "Graecia capta ferum victorem +cepit." On the Roman conquest of Sicily the town secured an independence +under treaty (Cicero, _Verr._ 3. 6. 13). The inhabitants were still +called Mamertines in the time of Strabo (vi. 2. 3). + + See further Mommsen, _C.I.L._ x. sub loc., and the references already + given. (R. S. C.) + + + + +MAMERTINUS, CLAUDIUS (4th century A.D.), one of the Latin panegyrists. +After the death of Julian, by whom he was evidently regarded with +special favour, he was praefect of Italy (365) under Valens and +Valentinian, but was subsequently (368) deprived of his office for +embezzlement. He was the author of an extant speech of thanks to Julian +for raising him to the consulship, delivered on the 1st of January 362 +at Constantinople. Two panegyrical addresses (also extant) to Maximian +(emperor A.D. 286-305) are attributed to an older _magister_ Mamertinus, +but it is probable that the corrupt MS. superscription contains the word +_memoriae_, and that they are by an unknown _magister memoriae_ (an +official whose duty consisted in communicating imperial rescripts and +decisions to the public). The first of these was delivered on the +birthday of Rome (April 21, 289), probably at Maximian's palace at +Augusta Trevirorum (Trèves), the second in 290 or 291, on the birthday +of the emperor. By some they are attributed to Eumenius (q.v.) who was a +_magister memoriae_ and the author of at least one (if not more) +panegyrics. + +The three speeches will be found in E. Bahrens, _Panegyrici latini_ +(1874); see also Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Literature_ (Eng. +trans.), § 417. 7. + + + + +MAMIANI DELLA ROVERE, TERENZIO, COUNT (1802-1885), Italian writer and +statesman, was born at Pesaro in 1799. Taking part in the outbreaks at +Bologna arising out of the accession of Pope Gregory XVI., he was +elected deputy for Pesaro to the assembly, and subsequently appointed +minister of the interior; but on the collapse of the revolutionary +movement he was exiled. He returned to Italy after the amnesty of 1846, +and in 1848 he was entrusted with the task of forming a ministry. He +remained prime minister, however, only for a few months, his political +views being anything but in harmony with those of the pope. He +subsequently retired to Genoa where he worked for Italian unity, was +elected deputy in 1856, and in 1860 became minister of education under +Cavour. In 1863 he was made minister to Greece, and in 1865 to +Switzerland, and later senator and councillor of state. Meanwhile, he +had founded at Genoa in 1849 the Academy of Philosophy, and in 1855 had +been appointed professor of the history of philosophy at Turin; and he +published several volumes, not only on philosophical and social +subjects, but of poetry, among them _Rinnovamente della filosofia antica +italiana_ (1836), _Teoria della Religione e dello stato_ (1869), _Kant e +l'ontologia_ (1879), _Religione dell' avenire_ (1880), _Di un nuovo +diritto europeo_ (1843, 1857). He died at Rome on the 21st of May, 1885. + + See _Indice delle opere di Terenzio Mamiani_ (Pesaro, 1887); Gaspare, + _Vita di Terenzio Mamiani_ (Ancona, 1887); Barzellotti, _Studii e + ritratti_ (Bologna, 1893). + + + + +MAMMALIA (from Lat. _mamma_, a teat or breast), the name proposed by the +Swedish naturalist Linnaeus for one of the classes, or primary +divisions, of vertebrated animals, the members of which are collectively +characterized by the presence in the females of special glands secreting +milk for the nourishment of the young. With the exception of the lowest +group, such glands always communicate with the exterior by means of the +teats, nipples or mammae, from which the class derives its name. The +class-name (modified by the French into _Mammifères_, and replaced in +German by the practically equivalent term _Säugethiere_) has been +anglicized into "Mammals" (mammal, in the singular). Of recent years, +and more especially in America, it has become a custom to designate the +study of mammals by the term "mammalogy." Etymologically, however, that +designation cannot be justified; for it is of hybrid (Latin and Greek) +origin, and is equivalent to "mastology," the science which deals with +the mammary gland (Gr. [Greek: mastos], woman's breast), a totally +different signification. As regards existing forms of life, the +limitations of the class are perfectly well defined and easy of +recognition; for although certain groups (not, by the way, whales, +which, although excluded in popular estimation from the class, are in +all essential respects typical mammals) are exceedingly aberrant, and +present structural features connecting them with the lower vertebrate +classes, yet they are by common consent retained in the class to which +they are obviously most nearly affiliated by their preponderating +characteristics. There is thus at the present day a great interval, +unbridged by any connecting links, between mammals and the other classes +of vertebrates. + +Not so, however, when the extinct forms of vertebrate life are taken +into consideration, for there is a group of reptiles from the early part +of the Secondary, or Mesozoic period, some of whose members must have +been so intimately related to mammals that, were the whole group fully +known, it would clearly be impossible to draw a distinction between +Mammalia on the one hand and Reptilia on the other. Indeed, as it is, we +are already partially acquainted with one of these early intermediate +creatures (_Tritylodon_), which forms a kind of zoological shuttlecock, +being, so to speak, hit from one group to another, and back again, by +the various zoologists by whom its scanty remains have been studied. +Considered collectively, mammals, which did not make their appearance on +the earth for some time after reptiles had existed, are certainly the +highest group of the whole vertebrate sub-kingdom. This expression must +not, however, be considered in too restricted a sense. In mammals, as in +other classes, there are low as well as high forms; but by any tests +that can be applied, especially those based on the state of development +of the central nervous system, it will be seen that the average exceeds +that of any other class, that many species of this class far excel those +of any other in perfection of structure, and that it contains one form +which is unquestionably the culminating point amongst organized beings. + +Mammals, then, are vertebrated animals, possessing the normal +characteristics of the members of that primary division of the animal +kingdom. They are separated from fishes and batrachians (Pisces and +Batrachians) on the one hand, and agree with reptiles, and birds +(Reptilia and Aves) on the other, in the possession during intra-uterine +life of the membranous vascular structures respectively known as the +amnion and the allantois, and likewise in the absence at this or any +other period of external gills. A four-chambered heart, with a complete +double circulation, and warm blood (less markedly so in the lowest group +than in the rest of the class), distinguish mammals from existing +reptiles, although not from birds. From both birds and reptiles the +class is distinguished, so far at any rate as existing forms are +concerned, by the following features: the absence of a nucleus in the +red corpuscles of the blood, which are nearly always circular in +outline; the free suspension of the lungs in a thoracic cavity, +separated from the abdominal cavity by a muscular partition, or +diaphragm, which is the chief agent in inflating the lungs in +respiration; the aorta, or main artery, forming but a single arch after +leaving the heart, which curves over the left terminal division of the +windpipe, or bronchus; the presence of more or fewer hairs on the skin +and the absence of feathers; the greater development of the bridge, or +commissure, connecting the two halves of the brain, which usually forms +a complete corpus callosum, or displays an unusually large size of its +anterior portion; the presence of a fully developed larynx at the upper +end of the trachea or windpipe, accompanied by the absence of a syrinx, +or expansion, near the lower end of the same; the circumstance that each +half of the lower jaw (except perhaps at a very early stage of +development) consists of a single piece articulating posteriorly with +the squamosal element of the skull without the intervention of a +separate quadrate bone; the absence of prefrontal bones in the skull; +the presence of a pair of lateral knobs, or condyles (in place of a +single median one), on the occipital aspect of the skull for +articulation with the first vertebra; and, lastly, the very obvious +character of the female being provided with milk-glands, by the +secretion of which the young (produced, except in the very lowest group, +alive and not by means of externally hatched eggs) are nourished for +some time after birth. + +In the majority of mammals both pairs of limbs are well developed and +adapted for walking or running. The fore-limbs may, however, be +modified, as in moles, for burrowing, or, as in bats, for flight, or +finally, as in whales and dolphins, for swimming, with the assumption in +this latter instance of a flipper-like form and the complete +disappearance of the hind-limbs. Special adaptations for climbing are +exhibited by both pairs of limbs in opossums, and for hanging to boughs +in sloths. In no instance are the fore-limbs wanting. + +In the great majority of mammals the hind extremity of the axis of the +body is prolonged into a tail. Very generally the tail has distinctly +the appearance of an appendage, but in some of the lower mammals, such +as the thylacine among marsupials, and the aard-vark or ant-bear among +the edentates, it is much thickened at the root, and passes insensibly +into the body, after the fashion common among reptiles. As regards +function, the tail may be a mere pendent appendage, or may be adapted to +grasp boughs in climbing, or even to collect food or materials for a +nest or sleeping place, as in the spider-monkeys, opossums and +rat-kangaroos. Among jumping animals it may serve as a balance, as in +the case of jerboas and kangaroos, while in the latter it is also used +as a support when resting; among many hoofed mammals it is used as a +fly-whisk; and in whales and dolphins, as well as in the African +_Potamogale_ and the North American musquash, it plays an important part +in swimming. Its supposed use as a trowel by the beaver is, however, not +supported by the actual facts of the case. + +As already indicated, the limbs of different mammals are specially +modified for various modes of life; and in many cases analogous +modifications occur, in greater or less degree, throughout the entire +body. Those modifications most noticeable in the case of cursorial types +may be briefly mentioned as examples. In this case, as might be +expected, the greatest modifications occur in the limbs, but correlated +with this is also an elongation of the head and neck in long-legged +types. Adaptation for speed is further exhibited in the moulding of the +shape of the body so as to present the minimum amount of resistance to +the air, as well as in increase in heart and lung capacity to meet the +extra expenditure of energy. Finally, in the jumping forms we meet with +an increase in the length and weight of the tail, which has to act as a +counterpoise. As regards the feet, a reduction in the number of digits +from the typical five is a frequent feature, more especially among the +hoofed mammals, where the culmination in this respect is attained by the +existing members of the horse tribe and certain representatives of the +extinct South American _Proterotheriidae_, both of which are +monodactyle. Brief reference may also be made to the morphological +importance of extraordinary length or shortness in the skulls of +mammals--dolichocephalism and brachycephalism; both these features being +apparently characteristic of specialized types, the former condition +being (as in the horse) often, although not invariably, connected with +length of limb and neck, and adaptation to speed, while brachycephalism +may be correlated with short limbs and an abbreviated neck. Exceptions +to this rule, as exemplified by the cats, are due to special adaptive +causes. In point of bodily size mammals present a greater range of +variation than is exhibited by any other living terrestrial animals, the +extremes in this respect being displayed by the African elephant on the +one hand and certain species of shrew-mice (whose head and body scarcely +exceed an inch and a half in length) on the other. When the aquatic +members of the class are taken into consideration, the maximum +dimensions are vastly greater, Sibbald's rorqual attaining a length of +fully 80 ft., and being probably the bulkiest and heaviest animal that +has ever existed. Within the limits of individual groups, it may be +accepted as a general rule that increase in bulk or stature implies +increased specialization; and, further, that the largest representatives +of any particular group are also approximately the latest. The latter +dictum must not, however, be pushed to an extreme, since the African +elephant, which is the largest living land mammal, attaining in +exceptional cases a height approaching 12 ft., was largely exceeded in +this respect by an extinct Indian species, whose height has been +estimated at between 15 and 16 ft. + +In regard to sense-organs, ophthalmoscopic observations on the eyes of +living mammals (other than man) have revealed the existence of great +variation in the arrangement of the blood-vessels, as well as in the +colour of the retina; blue and violet seem to be unknown, while red, +yellow and green form the predominating shades. In the main, the various +types of minute ocular structure correspond very closely to the +different groups into which mammals are divided, this correspondence +affording important testimony in the favour of the general correctness +of the classification. Among the exceptions are the South American +squirrel-monkeys, whose eyes approximate in structure to those of the +lemurs. Man and monkeys alone possess parallel and convergent vision of +the two eyes, while a divergent, and consequently a very widely +extended, vision is a prerogative of the lower mammals; squirrels, for +instance, and probably also hares and rabbits, being able to see an +object approaching them directly from behind without turning their +heads. + +An osteological question which has been much discussed is the fate of +the reptilian quadrate bone in the mammalian skull. In the opinion of F. +W. Thyng, who has carefully reviewed all the other theories, the balance +of evidence tends to show that the quadrate has been taken up into the +inner ear, where it is represented among the auditory ossicles by the +incus. + +Although the present article does not discuss mammalian osteology in +general (for which see VERTEBRATA), it is interesting to notice in this +connexion that the primitive condition of the mammalian tympanum +apparently consisted merely of a small and incomplete bony ring, with, +at most, an imperfect ventral wall to the tympanic cavity, and that a +close approximation to this original condition still persists in the +monotremes, especially _Ornithorhynchus_. The tympano-hyal is the +characteristic mammalian element in this region; but the entotympanic +likewise appears to be peculiar to the class, and to be unrepresented +among the lower vertebrates. The tympanum itself has been regarded as +representing one of the elements--probably the supra-angular--of the +compound reptilian lower jaw. The presence of only seven vertebrae in +the neck is a very constant feature among mammals; the exceptions being +very few. + +Two other points in connexion with mammalian osteology may be noticed. A +large number of mammals possess a perforation, or foramen, on the inner +side of the lower end of the humerus, and also a projection on the shaft +of the femur known as the third trochanter. From its occurrence in so +many of the lower vertebrates, the entepicondylar foramen of the +humerus, as it is called, is regarded by Dr E. Stromer as a primitive +structure, of which the original object was to protect certain nerves +and blood-vessels. It is remarkable that it should persist in the +spectacled bear of the Andes, although it has disappeared in all other +living members of the group. The third trochanter of the femur, on the +other hand, can scarcely be regarded as primitive, seeing that it is +absent in several of the lower groups of mammals. Neither can its +presence be attributed, as Professor A. Gaudry suggests, to the +reduction in the number of the toes, as otherwise it should not be found +in the rhinoceros. Its general absence in man forbids the idea of its +having any connexion with the upright posture. + + _Hair._--In the greater number of mammals the skin is more or less + densely clothed with a peculiarly modified form of epidermis known as + hair. This consists of hard, elongated, slender, cylindrical or + tapering, thread-like masses of epidermic tissue, each of which grows, + without branching, from a short prominence, or papilla, sunk at the + bottom of a pit, or follicle, in the true skin, or dermis. Such hairs, + either upon different parts of the skin of the same species, or in + different species, assume very diverse forms and are of various sizes + and degrees of rigidity--as seen in the fur of the mole, the bristles + of the pig, and the spines of the hedgehog and porcupine, which are + all modifications of the same structures. These differences arise + mainly from the different arrangement of the constituent elements into + which the epidermal cells are modified. Each hair is composed usually + of a cellular pithy internal portion, containing much air, and a + denser or more horny external or cortical part. In some mammals, as + deer, the substance of the hair is almost entirely composed of the + central medullary or cellular substance, and is consequently very + easily broken; in others the horny part prevails almost exclusively, + as in the bristles of the wild boar. In the three-toed sloth + (_Bradypus_) the hairs have a central horny axis and a pithy exterior. + Though generally nearly smooth, or but slightly scaly, the surface of + some hairs is imbricated; that is to say, shows projecting scale-like + processes, as in some bats, while in the two-toed sloth (_Choloepus_) + they are longitudinally grooved or fluted. Though usually more or less + cylindrical or circular in section, hairs are often elliptical or + flattened, as in the curly-haired races of men, the terminal portion + of the hair of moles and shrews, and conspicuously in the spines of + the spiny squirrels of the genus _Xerus_ and those of the mouse-like + _Platacanthomys_. Hair having a property of mutual cohesion or + "felting," which depends upon a roughened scaly surface and a tendency + to curl, as in domestic sheep, is called "wool." + + It has been shown by J. C. H. de Meijere that the insertion of the + individual hairs in the skin displays a definite arrangement, constant + for each species, but varying in different groups. In jerboas, for + example, a bunch of twelve or thirteen hairs springs from the same + point, while in the polar bear a single stout hair and several slender + ones arise together, and in the marmosets three equal-sized hairs form + regular groups. These tufts or groups likewise display an orderly and + definite grouping in different mammals, which suggests the origin of + such groups from the existence in primitive mammals of a scaly coat + comparable to that of reptiles, and indeed directly inherited + therefrom. + + In a large proportion of mammals there exist hairs of two distinct + types: the one long, stiff, and alone appearing on the surface, and + the other shorter, finer and softer, constituting the under-fur, which + may be compared to the down of birds. A well-known example is + furnished by the fur-bearing seals, in which the outer fur is removed + in the manufacture of commercial "seal-skin," leaving only the soft + and fine under-fur. + + Remarkable differences in the direction or slope of the hair are + noticeable on different parts of the body and limbs of many mammals, + especially in certain apes, where the hair of the fore-limbs is + inclined towards the elbow from above and from below. More remarkable + still is the fact that the direction of the slope often differs in + closely allied groups, as, for instance, in African and Asiatic + buffaloes, in which the hair of the middle line of the back has + opposite directions. Whorls of hair, as on the face of the horse and + the South American deer known as brockets, occur where the different + hair-slopes meet. In this connexion reference may be made to patches + or lines of long and generally white hairs situated on the back of + certain ruminants, which are capable of erection during periods of + excitement, and serve, apparently, as "flags" to guide the members of + a herd in flight. Such are the white chrysanthemum-like patches on the + rump of the Japanese deer and of the American prong-buck + (_Antilocapra_), and the line of hairs situated in a groove on the + loins of the African spring-buck. The white underside of the tail of + the rabbit and the yellow rump-patch of many deer are analogous. + + The eye-lashes, or _ciliae_, are familiar examples of a special local + development of hair. Special tufts of stout stiff hairs, sometimes + termed _vibrissae_, and connected with nerves, and in certain cases + with glands, occur in various regions. They are most common on the + head, while they constitute the "whiskers," or "feelers," of the cats + and many rodents. In other instances, notably in the lemurs, but also + in certain carnivora, rodents and marsupials, they occupy a position + on the fore-arm near the wrist, in connexion with glands, and receive + sensory powers from the radial nerve. In some mammals the hairy + covering is partial and limited to particular regions; in others, as + the hippopotamus and the sea-cows, or Sirenia, though scattered over + the whole surface, it is extremely short and scanty; but in none is + it reduced to so great an extent as in the Cetacea, in which it is + limited to a few small bristles confined to the neighbourhood of the + lips and nostrils, and often present only in the young, or even the + foetal condition. + + Some kinds of hairs, as those of the mane and tail of the horse, + persist throughout life, but more generally, as in the case of the + body-hair of the same animal, they are shed and renewed periodically, + generally annually. Many mammals have a longer hairy coat in winter, + which is shed as summer comes on; and some few, which inhabit + countries covered in winter with snow, as the Arctic fox, variable + hare and ermine, undergo a complete change of colour in the two + seasons, being white in winter and grey or brown in summer. There has + been much discussion as to whether this winter whitening is due to a + change in the colour of the individual hairs or to a change of coat. + It has, however, been demonstrated that the senile whitening of human + hair is due to the presence of phagocytes, which devour the + pigment-bodies; and from microscopic observations recently made by the + French naturalist Dr E. Trouessart, it appears that much the same kind + of action takes place in the hairs of mammals that turn white in + winter. Cold, by some means or other, causes the pigment-bodies to + shift from the normal positions, and to transfer themselves to other + layers of the hair, where they are attacked and devoured by + phagocytes. The winter whitening of mammals is, therefore, precisely + similar to the senile bleaching of human hair, no shift of the coat + taking place. Under the influence of exposure to intense cold a small + mammal has been observed to turn white in a single night, just as the + human hair has been known to blanch suddenly under the influence of + intense emotion, and in both cases extreme activity of the phagocytes + is apparently the inducing cause. The African golden-moles + (_Chrysochloris_), the desmans or water-moles (_Myogale_), and the + West African _Potamogale velox_, are remarkable as being the only + mammals whose hair reflects those iridescent tints so common in the + feathers of tropical birds. + + The principal and most obvious purpose of the hairy covering is to + protect the skin. Its function in the hairless Cetacea is discharged + by the specially modified and thickened layer of fatty tissue beneath + the skin known as "blubber." + + _Scales, &c._--True scales, or flat imbricated plates of horny + material, covering the greater part of the body, are found in one + family only of mammals, the pangolins or _Manidae_; but these are also + associated with hairs growing from the intervals between the scales or + on the parts of the skin not covered by them. Similarly imbricated + epidermic productions form the covering of the under-surface of the + tail of the African flying rodents of the family _Anomaluridae_; and + flat scutes, with the edges in apposition, and not overlaid, clothe + both surfaces of the tail of the beaver, rats and certain other + members of the rodent order, and also of some insectivora and + marsupials. Armadillos alone possess an external bony skeleton, + composed of plates of bony tissue, developed in the skin and covered + with scutes of horny epidermis. Other epidermic appendages are the + horns of ruminants and rhinoceroses--the former being elongated, + tapering, hollow caps of hardened epidermis of fibrous structure, + fitting on and growing from conical projections of the frontal bones + and always arranged in pairs, while the latter are of similar + structure, but without any internal bony support, and situated in the + middle line. Callosities, or bare patches covered with hardened and + thickened epidermis, are found on the buttocks of many apes, the + breast of camels, the inner side of the limbs of _Equidae_, the + grasping under-surface of the tail of prehensile-tailed monkeys, + opossums, &c. The greater part of the skin of the one-horned Asiatic + rhinoceros is immensely thickened and stiffened by an increase of the + tissue of both the skin and epidermis, constituting the well-known + jointed "armour-plated" hide of those animals. + + _Nails, Claws and Hoofs._--With few exceptions, the terminal + extremities of the digits of both limbs of mammals are more or less + protected or armed by epidermic plates or sheaths, constituting the + various forms of nails, claws or hoofs. These are absent in the + Cetacea alone. A perforated spur, with a special secreting gland in + connexion with it, is found attached to each hind-leg of the males of + the existing species of Monotremata. + + _Scent-glands, &c._--Besides the universally distributed sweat-glands + connected with the hair-system, most mammals have special glands in + modified portions of the skin, often involuted to form a shallow + recess or a deep sac with a narrow opening, situated in various parts + of the surface of the body, and secreting odorous substances, by the + aid of which individuals recognize one another. These probably afford + the principal means by which wild animals are able to become aware of + the presence of other members of the species, even at great distances. + + To this group of structures belong the suborbital face-gland, + "larmier," or "crumen," of antelopes and deer, the frontal gland of + the muntjak and of bats of the genus _Phyllorhina_, the chin-gland of + the chevrotains and of _Taphozous_ and certain other bats, the + glandular patch behind the ear of the chamois and the reed-buck, the + glands on the lower parts of the legs of most deer and a few antelopes + (the position of which is indicated by tufts of long and often + specially coloured hair), the interdigital foot-glands of goats, + sheep, and many other ruminants, the temporal gland of elephants, the + lateral glands of the musk-shrew, the gland on the back of the hyrax + and the peccary (from the presence of which the latter animal takes + the name _Dicotyles_), the gland on the tails of the members of the + dog-tribe, the preputial glands of the musk-deer and beaver (both well + known for the use made of their powerfully odorous secretion in + perfumery), and also of the swine and hare, the anal glands of + Carnivora, the perineal gland of the civet (also of commercial value), + the caudal glands of the fox and goat, the gland on the wing-membrane + of bats of the genus _Saccopteryx_, the post-digital gland of the + rhinoceros, &c. Very generally these glands are common to both sexes, + and it is in such cases that their function as a means of mutual + recognition is most evident. It has been suggested that the + above-mentioned callosities or "chestnuts" on the limbs of horses are + vestigial scent-glands; and it is noteworthy that scrapings or + shavings from their surface have a powerful attraction for other + horses, and are also used by poachers and burglars to keep dogs + silent. The position of such glands on the lower portions of the limbs + is plainly favourable to a recognition-taint being left in the tracks + of terrestrial animals; and antelopes have been observed deliberately + to rub the secretion from their face-glands on tree-trunks. When + glands are confined to the male, their function is no doubt sexual; + the secretion forming part of the attraction, or stimulus, to the + other sex. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Upper and Lower Teeth of one side of the Mouth + of a Dolphin (_Lagenorhynchus_), as an example of the homoeodont type + of dentition. The bone covering the outer side of the roots of the + teeth has been removed to show their simple character.] + + _Dentition._--In the great majority of mammals the teeth form a + definite series, of which the hinder elements are of a more or less + complex type, while those in front are simpler. With the exception of + the marsupials, a set of deciduous, or milk, teeth is developed in + most mammals with a complicated type of dentition; these milk-teeth + being shed at a comparatively early period (occasionally even _in + utero_), when they are succeeded by the larger permanent series, which + is the only other ever developed. This double series of teeth thus + forms a very characteristic feature of mammals generally. Both the + milk and the permanent dentition display the aforesaid complexity of + the hinder teeth as compared with those in front, and since the number + of milk-teeth is always considerably less than that of the permanent + set, it follows that the hinder milk-teeth are usually more complex + than the teeth of which they are the predecessors in the permanent + series, and represent functionally, not their immediate successors, + but those more posterior permanent teeth which have no direct + predecessors. This character is clearly seen in those animals in which + the various members of the lateral or cheek series are well + differentiated from each other in form, as the Carnivora, and also in + man. + + In mammals with two sets of teeth the number of those of the permanent + series preceded by milk-teeth varies greatly, being sometimes, as in + marsupials and some rodents, as few as one on each side of each jaw, + and in other cases including the larger portion of the series. As a + rule, the teeth of the two sides of the jaws are alike in number and + character, except in cases of accidental or abnormal variation, and in + the tusks of the narwhal, in which the left is of immense size, and + the right rudimentary. In mammals, such as dolphins and some + armadillos, which have a large series of similar teeth, not always + constant in number in different individuals, there may indeed be + differences in the two sides; but, apart from these in describing the + dentition of any mammal, it is generally sufficient to give the number + and characters of the teeth of one side only. As the teeth of the + upper and the lower jaws work against each other in masticating, there + is a general correspondence or harmony between them, the projections + of one series, when the mouth is closed, fitting into corresponding + depressions of the other. There is also a general resemblance in the + number, characters and mode of succession of both series; so that, + although individual teeth of the upper and lower jaws may not be in + the strict sense of the term homologous parts, there is a great + convenience in applying the same descriptive terms to the one which + are used for the other. + + The simplest dentition is that of many species of dolphin (fig. 1), in + which the crowns are single-pointed, slightly curved cones, and the + roots also single and tapering; so that all the teeth are alike in + form from the anterior to the posterior end of the series, though it + may be with some slight difference in size, those at the two + extremities being rather smaller than the others. Such a dentition is + called "homoeodont" (Gr. [Greek: homoios], like, [Greek: odous], + tooth), and in the case cited, as the teeth are never changed, it is + also monophyodont (Gr. [Greek: monos], alone, single, [Greek: phyein], + to generate, [Greek: odous], tooth). Such teeth are adapted only for + catching slippery living prey, like fish. + + In a very large number of mammals the teeth of different parts of the + series are more or less differentiated in character; and, accordingly, + have different functions to perform. The front teeth are simple and + one-rooted, and are adapted for cutting and seizing. They are called + "incisors." The back, lateral or cheek teeth, on the other hand, have + broader and more complex crowns, tuberculated or ridged, and supported + on two or more roots. They crush or grind the food, and are hence + called "molars." Many mammals have, between these two sets, a tooth at + each corner of the mouth, longer and more pointed than the others, + adapted for tearing or stabbing, or for fixing struggling prey. From + the conspicuous development of such teeth in the Carnivora, especially + the dogs, they have received the name of "canines." A dentition with + its component parts so differently formed that these distinctive terms + are applicable to them is called heterodont (Gr. [Greek: heteros], + different). In most cases, though by no means invariably, mammals with + a heterodont dentition are also diphyodont (Gr. [Greek: diphyês], of + double form). + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Milk and Permanent Dentitions of Upper (I.) + and Lower (II.) Jaws of the Dog (_Canis_), with the symbols by which + the different teeth are designated. The third upper molar (_m_ 3) is + the only tooth wanting to complete the typical heterodont mammalian + dentition.] + + This general arrangement is obvious in a considerable number of + mammals; and examination shows that, under great modifications in + detail, there is a remarkable uniformity of essential characters in + the dentition of a large number of members of the class belonging to + different orders and not otherwise closely allied, so much that it is + possible to formulate a common plan of dentition from which the others + have been derived by the alteration of some and the suppression of + other members of the series, and occasionally, but very rarely, by + addition. In this generalized form of mammalian dentition the total + number of teeth present is 44, or 11 above and 11 below on each side. + Those of each jaw are placed in continuous series without intervals + between them; and, although the anterior teeth are simple and + single-rooted, and the posterior teeth complex and with several roots, + the transition between the two kinds is gradual. + + In dividing and grouping such teeth for the purpose of description and + comparison more definite characters are required than those derived + merely from form or function. The first step towards a classification + rests on the fact that the upper jaw is composed of two bones, the + premaxilla and the maxilla, and that the division or suture between + these bones separates the three front teeth from the rest. These three + teeth, which are implanted in the premaxilla, form a distinct group, + to which the name of "incisor" is applied. This distinction is, + however, not so important as it appears at first sight, for their + connexion with the bone is only of a secondary nature, and, although + it happens conveniently that in the great majority of cases the + division between the bones coincides with the interspace between the + third and fourth tooth of the series, still, when it does not, as in + the mole, too much weight must not be given to this fact, if it + contravenes other reasons for determining the homologies of the teeth. + The eight remaining teeth of the upper jaw offer a natural division, + inasmuch as the three hindmost never have milk-predecessors; and, + although some of the anterior teeth may be in the same case, the + particular one preceding these three always has such a predecessor. + These three, then, are grouped as the "molars." Of the five teeth + between the incisors and molars the most anterior, or the one usually + situated close behind the pre-maxillary suture, very generally assumes + a lengthened and pointed form, and constitutes the "canine" of the + Carnivora, the tusk of the boar, &c. It is customary, therefore, to + call this tooth, whatever its size or form, the "canine." The + remaining four are the "premolars." This system has been objected to + as artificial, and in many cases not descriptive, the distinction + between premolars and canine especially being sometimes not obvious; + but the terms are now in such general use, and also so convenient, + that it is not likely they will be superseded. It is frequently + convenient to refer to all the teeth behind the canine as the + "cheek-teeth." + + With regard to the lower teeth the difficulties are greater, owing to + the absence of any suture corresponding to that which defines the + incisors above; but since the number of the teeth is the same, since + the corresponding teeth are preceded by milk-teeth, and since in the + large majority of cases it is the fourth tooth of the series which is + modified in the same way as the canine (or fourth tooth) of the upper + jaw, it is reasonable to adopt the same divisions as with the upper + series, and to call the first three, which are implanted in the part + of the mandible opposite to the premaxilla, the incisors, the next the + canine, the next four the premolars, and the last three the molars. + + It may be observed that when the mouth is closed, especially when the + opposed surfaces of the teeth present an irregular outline, the + corresponding upper and lower teeth are not exactly opposite, + otherwise the two series could not fit into one another, but as a rule + the points of the lower teeth shut into the interspaces in front of + the corresponding teeth of the upper jaw. This is very distinct in the + canine teeth of the Carnivora, and is a useful guide in determining + the homologies of the teeth of the two jaws. + + For the sake of brevity the complete dentition is described by the + following formula, the numbers above the line representing the teeth + of the upper, those below the line those of the lower jaw: incisors + (3--3)/(3--3), canines (1--1)/(1--1), premolars (4--4)/(4--4), molars, + (3--3)/(3--3) = (11--11)/(11--11) total 44. As, however, initial + letters may be substituted for the names of each group, and it is + unnecessary to give more than the numbers of the teeth on one side of + the mouth, the formula may be abbreviated into: + + _i_ 3/3, _c_ 1/1, _p_ 4/4, _m_ 3/3; total 44. + + The individual teeth of each group are enumerated from before + backwards, and by such a formula as the following:-- + + _i_ 1, _i_ 2, _i_ 3, _c_, _p_ 1, _p_ 2, _p_ 3, _p_ 4, _m_ 1, _m_ 2, _m_ 3 + ------------------------------------------------------------------------- + _i_ 1, _i_ 2, _i_ 3, _c_, _p_ 1, _p_ 2, _p_ 3, _p_ 4, _m_ 1, _m_ 2, _m_ 3 + + a special numerical designation is given by which each one can be + indicated. In mentioning any single tooth, such a sign as m1 will mean + the first upper molar, m1 the first lower molar, and so on. + + When, as is the case among nearly all existing mammals with the + exception of the members of the genera _Sus_ (pigs), _Gymnura_ + (rat-shrew), _Talpa_ (moles) and _Myogale_ (desmans) the number of + teeth is reduced below the typical forty-four, it appears to be an + almost universal rule that if one of the incisors is missing it is the + second, or middle one, while the premolars commence to disappear from + the front end of the series and the molars from the hinder end. + + The milk-dentition is expressed by a similar formula, _d_ for + deciduous, being added before the letter expressive of the nature of + the tooth. As the three molars and (almost invariably) the first + premolar of the permanent series have no predecessors, the typical + milk-dentition would be expressed as follows: _di_ 3/3, _dc_ 1/1, _dm_ + 3/3 = 28. The teeth which precede the premolars of the permanent + series are called either milk-molar or milk-premolar. When there is a + marked difference between the premolars and molars of the permanent + dentition, the first milk-molar resembles a premolar, while the last + has the characters of the posterior molar. It is sometimes convenient + to refer to all the seven cheek-teeth as members of a single + continuous series (which they undoubtedly are), and for this purpose + the following nomenclature has been proposed:-- + + Upper Jaw. Lower Jaw. + Cheek-tooth 1 Protus. Protid. + " 2 Deuterus. Deuterid. + " 3 Tritus. Tritid. + " 4 Tetartus. Tetartid. + " 5 Pemptus. Pemptid. + " 6 Hectus. Hectid. + " 7 Hebdomus. Hebdomid. + + With the exception of the Cetacea, most of the Edentata, and the + Sirenia, in which the teeth, when present, have been specialized in a + retrograde or aberrant manner, the placental mammals as a whole have a + dentition conforming more or less closely to the foregoing type. + + With the marsupials the case is, however, somewhat different; the + whole number not being limited to 44, owing largely to the fact that + the number of upper incisors may exceed three pairs, reaching indeed + in some instances to as many as five. Moreover, with the exception of + the wombats, the number of pairs of incisors in the upper always + exceeds those in the lower. When fully developed, the number of + cheek-teeth is, however, seven; and it is probable that, as in + placentals, the first four of these are premolars and the remaining + three molars, although it was long held that these numbers should be + transposed. The most remarkable feature about the marsupial dentition + is that, at most, only a single pair of teeth is replaced in each jaw; + this pair, on the assumption that there are four premolars, + representing the third of that series. With the exception of this + replacing pair of teeth in each jaw, it is considered by many + authorities that the marsupial dentition corresponds to the deciduous, + or milk, dentition of placentals. If this be really the case, the + rudiments of an earlier set of teeth which have been detected in the + jaws of some members of the order, represent, not the milk-series, but + a prelacteal dentition. On the assumption that these functional teeth + correspond to the milk-series of placentals, marsupials in this + respect agree exactly with modern elephants, in which the same + peculiarity exists. + + In very few mammals are teeth entirely absent. Even in the whalebone + whales their germs are formed in the same manner and at the same + period of life as in other mammals, and even become partially + calcified, although they never rise above the gums, and completely + disappear before birth. In the American anteaters and the pangolins + among the Edentata no traces of teeth have been found at any age. + Adult monotremes are in like case, although the duck-billed platypus + (_Ornithorhynchus_) has teeth when young on the sides of the jaws. The + northern sea-cow (_Rhytina_), now extinct, appears to have been + toothless throughout life. + + In different groups of mammals the dentition is variously specialized + in accordance with the nature of the food on which the members of + these groups subsist. From this point of view the various adaptive + modifications of mammalian dentition may be roughly grouped under the + headings of piscivorous, carnivorous, insectivorous, omnivorous and + herbivorous. + + The fish-eating, or piscivorous, type of dentition is exemplified + under two phases in the dolphins and in the seals (being in the latter + instance a kind of retrograde modification from the carnivorous type). + In the dolphins, and in a somewhat less marked degree among the seals, + this type of dentition consists of an extensive series of conical, + nearly equal-sized, sharp-pointed teeth, implanted in an elongated and + rather narrow mouth (fig. 1), and adapted to seize slippery prey + without either tearing or masticating. In the dolphins the teeth form + simple cones, but in the seals they are often trident-like; while in + the otters the dentition differs but little from the ordinary + carnivorous type. + + This carnivorous adaptation, in which the function is to hold and kill + struggling animals, often of large size, attains its highest + development in the cats (_Felidae_). The canines are in consequence + greatly developed, of a cutting and piercing type, and from their wide + separation in the mouth give a firm hold; the jaws being as short as + is consistent with the free action of the canines, or tusks, so that + no power is lost. The incisors are small, so as not to interfere with + the penetrating action of the tusks; and the crowns of some of the + teeth of the cheek-series are modified into scissor-like blades, in + order to rasp off the flesh from the bones, or to crack the bones + themselves, while the later teeth of this series tend to disappear. + + In the insectivorous type, as exemplified in moles and shrew-mice, the + middle pair of incisors in each jaw are long and pointed so as to have + a forceps-like action for seizing insects, the hard coats of which are + broken up by the numerous sharp cusps surmounting the cheek-teeth. + + In the omnivorous type, as exemplified in man and monkeys, and to a + less specialized degree in swine, the incisors are of moderate and + nearly equal size; the canines, if enlarged, serve for other purposes + than holding prey, and such enlargement is usually confined to those + of the males; while the cheek-teeth have broad flattened crowns + surmounted by rounded bosses, or tubercles. + + In the herbivorous modification, as seen in three distinct phases in + the horse, the kangaroo, and in ruminants, the incisors are generally + well developed in one or both jaws, and have a nipping action, either + against one another or against a toothless hard pad in the upper jaw; + while the canines are usually small or absent, at least in the upper + jaw, but in the lower jaw may be approximated and assimilated to the + incisors. The cheek-teeth are large, with broad flattened crowns + surmounted either by simple transverse ridges, or complicated by + elevations and infoldings. In the specialized forms the premolars tend + to become more or less completely like the molars; and, contrary to + what obtains among the Carnivora, the whole series of cheek-teeth + (with the occasional exception of the first) is very strongly + developed. + + Opinions differ as to the mode in which the more complicated + cheek-teeth of mammals have been evolved from a simpler type of tooth. + According to one theory, this has been brought about by the fusion of + two or more teeth of a simple conical type to form a compound tooth. A + more generally accepted view--especially among palaeontologists--is + the tritubercular theory, according to which the most generalized type + of tooth consists of three cusps arranged in a triangle, with the apex + pointing inwards in the teeth of the upper jaw. Additions of extra + cusps form teeth of a more complicated type. Each cusp of the + primitive triangle has received a separate name, both in the teeth of + the upper and of the lower jaw, while names have also been assigned to + super-added cusps. Molar teeth of the simple tritubercular type + persist in the golden moles (_Chrysochloris_) among the Insectivora + and also in the marsupial mole (_Notoryctes_) among the marsupials. + The type is, moreover, common among the mammals of the early Eocene, + and still more so in those of the Jurassic epoch; this forming one of + the strongest arguments in favour of the tritubercular theory. (See + Professor H. F. Osborn, "Palaeontological Evidence for the Original + Tritubercular Theory," in vol. xvii. (new series) of the _American + Journal of Science_, 1904.) + + _Digestive System._--As already mentioned, mammals are specially + characterized by the division of the body-cavity into two main + chambers, by means of the horizontal muscular partition known as the + diaphragm, which is perforated by the great blood-vessels and the + alimentary tube. The mouth of the great majority of mammals is + peculiar for being guarded by thick fleshy lips, which are, however, + absent in the Cetacea; their principal function being to seize the + food, for which purpose they are endowed, as a rule, with more or less + strongly marked prehensile power. The roof of the mouth is formed by + the palate, terminating behind by a muscular, contractile arch, having + in man and a few other species a median projection called the uvula, + beneath which the mouth communicates with the pharynx. The anterior + part of the palate is composed of mucous membrane tightly stretched + over the flat or slightly concave bony layer which separates the mouth + from the nasal passages, and is generally raised into a series of + transverse ridges, which sometimes, as in ruminants, attain a + considerable development. In the floor of the mouth, between the two + branches of the lower jaw, and supported behind by the hyoid + apparatus, lies the tongue, an organ the free surface of which, + especially in its posterior part, is devoted to the sense of taste, + but which by reason of its great mobility (being composed almost + entirely of muscular fibres) performs important mechanical functions + connected with masticating and procuring food. Its modifications of + form in different mammals are numerous. Between the long, extensile, + worm-like tongue of the anteaters, essential to the peculiar mode of + feeding of those animals, and the short, immovable and almost + functionless tongue of the porpoise, every intermediate condition is + found. Whatever the form, the upper surface is, however, covered with + numerous fine papillae, in which the terminal filaments of the + taste-nerve are distributed. In some mammals, notably lemurs, occurs a + hard structure known as the sublingua, which may terminate in a free + horny tip. If, as has been suggested, this organ represents the tongue + of reptiles, the mammalian tongue will obviously be a super-added + organ distinctive of the class. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Diagrammatic Plan of the general arrangement + of the Alimentary Canal in a typical Mammal. + + o, oesophagus; + st, stomach; + p, pylorus; + ss, small intestine (abbreviated); + c, caecum; + ll, large intestine or + colon, ending in + r, the rectum.] + + Salivary glands, of which the most constant are the parotid and the + submaxillary, are always present in terrestrial mammals. Next in + constancy are the "sublingual," closely associated with the + last-named, at all events in the locality in which the secretion is + poured out; and the "zygomatic," found only in some mammals in the + cheek, just under cover of the anterior part of the zygomatic arch, + the duct entering the mouth-cavity near that of the parotid. + + The alimentary, or intestinal, canal varies greatly in relative length + and capacity in different mammals, and also offers manifold + peculiarities of form, being sometimes a simple cylindrical tube of + nearly uniform calibre throughout, but more often subject to + alterations of form and capacity in different portions of its + course--the most characteristic and constant being the division into + an upper and narrower and a lower and wider portion, called + respectively the small and the large intestine; the former being + arbitrarily divided into duodenum, jejunum and ileum, and the latter + into colon and rectum. One of the most striking peculiarities of this + part of the canal is the frequent presence of a blind pouch, "caecum," + situated at the junction of the large and the small intestine. Their + structure presents an immense variety of development, from the + smallest bulging of a portion of the side-wall of the tube to a huge + and complex sac, greatly exceeding in capacity the remainder of the + alimentary canal. It is only in herbivorous mammals that the caecum is + developed to this great extent, and among these there is a + complementary relationship between the size and complexity of the + organ and that of the stomach. Where the latter is simple the caecum + is generally the largest, and vice versa. In vol. xvii. (1905) of the + _Transactions_ of the Zoological Society of London, Dr P. Chalmers + Mitchell has identified the paired caeca, or blind appendages, of the + intestine of birds with the usually single caecum of mammals. These + caeca occur in birds (as in mammals) at the junction of the small with + the large intestine; and while in ordinary perching-birds they are + reduced to small nipple-like buds of no functional importance, in many + other birds--owls for instance--they form quite long receptacles. + Among mammals, the horse and the dog may be cited as instances where + the single caecum is of large size, this being especially the case of + the former, where it is of enormous dimensions; in human beings, on + the other hand, the caecum is rudimentary, and best known in connexion + with "appendicitis." The existence of paired caeca was previously + known in a few armadillos and anteaters, but Dr Mitchell has shown + that they are common in these groups, while he has also recorded their + occurrence in the hyrax and the manati. With the aid of these + instances of paired caeca, coupled with the frequent existence of a + rudiment of its missing fellow when only one is functional, the author + has been enabled to demonstrate conclusively that these double organs + in birds correspond in relations with their normally single + representative in mammals. + + In mammals both caecum and colon are often sacculated, a disposition + caused by the arrangement of the longitudinal bands of muscular tissue + in their walls; but the small intestine is always smooth and + simple-walled externally, though its lining membrane often exhibits + contrivances for increasing the absorbing surface without adding to + the general bulk of the organ, such as the numerous small tags, or + "villi," by which it is everywhere beset, and the more obvious + transverse, longitudinal, or reticulating folds projecting into the + interior, met with in many animals, of which the "valvulae + conniventes" of man form well-known examples. Besides the crypts of + Lieberkühn found throughout the intestinal canal, and the glands of + Brunner confined to the duodenum, there are other structures in the + mucous membrane, about the nature of which there is still much + uncertainty, called "solitary" and "agminated" glands, the latter more + commonly known by the name of "Peyer's patches." Of the liver little + need be said, except that in all living mammals it has been divided + into a number of distinct lobes, which have received separate names. + It has, indeed, been suggested that in the earlier mammals the liver + was a simple undivided organ. This, however, is denied by G. Ruge + (vol. xxix. of Gegenbaur's _Morphologisches Jahrbuch_). + +_Origin of Mammals._--That mammals have become differentiated from a +lower type of vertebrates at least as early as the commencement of the +Jurassic period is abundantly testified by the occurrence of the remains +of small species in strata of that epoch, some of which are mentioned in +the articles MARSUPIALIA and MONOTREMATA (q.v.). Possibly mammalian +remains also occur in the antecedent Triassic epoch, some +palaeontologists regarding the South African _Tritylodon_ as a mammal, +while others consider that it was probably a reptile. Whatever may be +the true state of the case with regard to that animal probably also +holds good in the case of the approximately contemporaneous European +_Microlestes_. Of the European Jurassic (or Oolitic) mammals our +knowledge is unfortunately very imperfect; and from the scarcity of +their remains it is quite probable that they are merely stragglers from +the region (possibly Africa) where the class was first differentiated. +It is not till the early Eocene that mammals become a dominant type in +the northern hemisphere. + +It is now practically certain that mammals are descended from reptiles. +Dr H. Gadow, in a paper on the origin of mammals contributed to the +_Zeitschrift für Morphologie_, sums up as follows: "Mammals are +descendants of reptiles as surely as they [the latter] have been evolved +from Amphibia. This does not mean that any of the living groups of +reptiles can claim their honour of ancestry, but it means that the +mammals have branched where the principal reptilian groups meet, and +that is a long way back. The Theromorpha, especially small Theriodontia, +alone show us what these creatures were like." It may be explained that +the Theromorpha, or Anomodontia, are those extinct reptiles so common in +the early Secondary (Triassic) deposits of South Africa, some of which +present a remarkable resemblance in their dentition and skeleton to +mammals, while others come equally near amphibians. A difficulty +naturally arises with regard to the fact that in reptiles the occipital +condyle by which the skull articulates with the vertebral column is +single, although composed of three elements, whereas in amphibians and +mammals the articulation is formed by a pair of condyles. Nevertheless, +according to Professor H. F. Osborn, the tripartite reptilian condyle, +by the loss of its median element, has given rise to the paired +mammalian condyles; so that this difficulty disappears. The fate of the +reptilian quadrate bone (which is reduced to very small dimensions in +the Anomodontia) has been referred to in an earlier section of the +present article, where some mention has also been made of the +disappearance in mammals of the hinder elements of the reptilian lower +jaw, so as to leave the single bone (dentary) of each half of this part +of the skeleton in mammals. + +Most of the earliest known mammals appear to be related to the +Marsupialia and Insectivora. Others however (inclusive of _Tritylodon_ +and _Microlestes_, if they be really mammals), seem nearer to the +Monotremata; and the question has yet to be decided whether placentals +and marsupials on the one hand, and monotremes on the other are not +independently derived from reptilian ancestors. + +With regard to the evolution of marsupials and placentals, it has been +pointed out that the majority of modern marsupials exhibit in the +structure of their feet traces of the former opposability of the thumb +and great toe to the other digits; and it has accordingly been argued +that all marsupials are descended from arboreal ancestors. This doctrine +is now receiving widespread acceptation among anatomical naturalists; +and in the _American Naturalist_ for 1904, Dr W. D. Matthew, an American +palaeontologist, considers himself provisionally justified in so +extending it as to include all mammals. That is to say, he believes +that, with the exception of the duckbill and the echidna, the mammalian +class as a whole can lay claim to descent from small arboreal forms. +This view is, of course, almost entirely based upon palaeontological +considerations; and these, in the author's opinion, admit of the +conclusion that all modern placental and marsupial mammals are descended +from a common ancestral stock, of which the members were small in bodily +size. These ancestral mammals, in addition to their small size, were +characterized by the presence of five toes to each foot, of which the +first was more or less completely opposable to the other four. The +evidence in favour of this primitive opposability is considerable. In +all the groups which are at present arboreal, the palaeontological +evidence goes to show that their ancestors were likewise so; while +since, in the case of modern terrestrial forms, the structure of the +wrist and ankle joints tends to approximate to the arboreal type, as we +recede in time, the available evidence, so far as it goes, is in favour +of Dr Matthew's contention. + +The same author also discusses the proposition from another standpoint, +namely, the condition of the earth's surface in Cretaceous times. His +theory is that in the early Cretaceous epoch the animals of the world +were mostly aerial, amphibious, aquatic or arboreal; the flora of the +land being undeveloped as compared with its present state. On the other +hand, towards the close of the Cretaceous epoch (when the Chalk was in +course of deposition), the spread of a great upland flora vastly +extended the territory available for mammalian life. Accordingly, it was +at this epoch that the small ancestral insectivorous mammals first +forsook their arboreal habitat to try a life on the open plains, where +their descendants developed on the one hand into the carnivorous and +other groups, in which the toes are armed with nails or claws, and on +the other into the hoofed group, inclusive of such monsters as the +elephant and the giraffe. The hypothesis is not free from certain +difficulties, one of which will be noticed later. + +_Classification._--Existing mammals may be primarily divided into three +main groups, or subclasses, of which the second and third are much more +closely related to one another than is either of them to the first. +These three classes are the Monotremata (or Prototheria), the +Marsupialia (Didelphia, or Metatheria), and the Placentalia +(Monodelphia, or Eutheria); the distinctive characters of each being +given in separate articles (see MONOTREMATA, MARSUPIALIA and +MONODELPHIA.) + + The existing monotremes and marsupials are each represented only by a + single order; but the placentals are divided into the following + ordinal and subordinal groups, those which are extinct being marked + with an asterisk (*):-- + + 1. Insectivora (Moles, Hedgehogs, &c.). + 2. Chiroptera (Bats). + 3. Dermoptera (Colugo, or Flying Lemur). + 4. Edentata:-- + a. Xenarthra (Anteaters, Sloths and Armadillos). + b. Pholidota (Pangolins). + c. Tubulidentata (Ant-bears, or Aard-varks). + 5. Rodentia (Gnawing Mammals):-- + a. Duplicidentata (Hares and Picas). + b. Simplicidentata (Rats, Beavers, &c.). + 6. *Tillodontia (_Tillotherium_). + 7. Carnivora:-- + a. Fissipedia (Cats, Dogs, Bears, &c.). + b. Pinnipedia (Seals and Walruses). + c. *Creodonta (_Hyaenodon_, &c.). + 8. Cetacea (Whales and Dolphins):-- + a. *Archaeoceti (_Zeuglodon_, &c.). + b. Odontoceti (Spermwhales and Dolphins). + c. Mystacoceti (Whalebone Whales). + 9. Sirenia (Dugongs and Manatis). + 10. Ungulata (Hoofed Mammals):-- + a. Proboscidea (Elephants and Mastodons). + b. Hyracoidea (Hyraxes). + c. *Barypoda (_Arsinöitherium_). + d. *Toxodontia (_Toxodon_, &c.). + e. *Amblypoda (_Uintatherium_, &c.). + f. *Litopterna (_Macrauchenia_, &c.). + g. *Ancylopoda (_Chalicotherium_, &c.). + h. *Condylarthra (_Phenacodus_, &c.). + i. Perissodactyla (Tapirs, Horses, &c.). + j. Artiodactyla (Ruminants, Swine, &c.). + 11. Primates:-- + a. Prosimiae (Lemurs and Galagos). + b. Anthropoidea (Monkeys, Apes and Man). + + Separate articles are devoted to each of these orders, where + references will be found to other articles dealing with some of the + minor groups and a number of the more representative species. + + _Relationships of the Groups._--As we recede in time we find the + extinct representatives of many of these orders approximating more and + more closely to a common generalized type, so that in a large number + of early Eocene forms it is often difficult to decide to which group + they should be assigned. + + The Insectivora are certainly the lowest group of existing placental + mammals, and exhibit many signs of affinity with marsupials; they may + even be a more generalized group than the latter. From the Insectivora + the bats, or Chiroptera, are evidently a specialized lateral offshoot; + while the Dermoptera may be another branch from the same stock. As to + the Edentata, it is still a matter of uncertainty whether the + pangolins (Pholidota) and the ant-bears (Tubulidentata) are rightly + referred to an order typically represented by the sloths, anteaters, + and armadillos of South and Central America, or whether the two + first-named groups have any close relationship with one another. Much + uncertainty prevails with regard to the ancestry of the group as a + whole, although some of the earlier South American forms have a + comparatively full series of teeth, which are also of a less + degenerate type than those of their modern representatives. + + An almost equal degree of doubt obtains with regard to the ancestry of + that very compact and well-defined group the Rodentia. If, however, + the so-called Proglires of the lower Eocene are really ancestral + rodents, the order is brought into comparatively close connexion with + the early generalized types of clawed, or unguiculate mammals. Whether + the extinct Tillodontia are most nearly allied to the Rodentia, the + Carnivore or the Ungulata, and whether they are really entitled to + constitute an ordinal group by themselves, must remain for the present + open questions. + + The Carnivora, as represented by the (mainly) Eocene Creodonta, are + evidently an ancient and generalized type. As regards the number and + form of their permanent teeth, at any rate, creodonts present such a + marked similarity to carnivorous marsupials, that it is difficult to + believe the two groups are not allied, although the nature of the + relationship is not yet understood, and the minute internal structure + of the teeth is unlike that of marsupials and similar to that of + modern Carnivora. There is the further possibility that creodonts may + be directly descended from the carnivorous reptiles; a descent which + if proved might introduce some difficulty with regard to the + above-mentioned theory as to the arboreal ancestry of mammals + generally. Be this as it may, there can be little doubt that the + creodonts are related to the Insectivora, which, as stated above, show + decided signs of kinship with the marsupials. + + A much more interesting relationship of the creodont carnivora has, + however, been established on the evidence of recent discoveries in + Egypt. From remains of Eocene age in that country Dr E. Fraas, of + Stuttgart, has demonstrated the derivation of the whale-like + _Zeuglodon_ from the creodonts. Dr C. E. Andrews has, moreover, not + only brought forward additional evidence in favour of this most + remarkable line of descent, but is confident--which Professor Fraas + was not--that _Zeuglodon_ itself is an ancestral cetacean, and + consequently that whales are the highly modified descendants of + creodonts. It must be admitted, however, that the links between + _Zeuglodon_ and typical cetaceans are at present unknown; but it may + be hoped that these will be eventually brought to light from the + deposits of the Mokattam Range, near Cairo. Whales and dolphins being + thus demonstrated to be nothing more than highly modified Carnivora, + might almost be included in the same ordinal group. + + An analogous statement may be made with regard to the sea-cows, or + Sirenia, which appear to be derivates from the great herbivorous order + of Ungulata, and might consequently be included in that group, as + indeed has been already done in Dr Max Weber's classification. It is + with the proboscidean suborder of the Ungulata to which the Sirenia + are most nearly related; the nature of this relationship being + described by Dr Andrews as follows:-- + + "In the first place, the occurrence of the most primitive Sirenians + with which we are acquainted in the same region as the most + generalized proboscidean, _Moeritherium_, is in favour of such a view, + and this is further supported by the similarity of the brain-structure + and, to some extent, of the pelvis in the earliest-known members of + the two groups. Moreover, in the anatomy of the soft-parts of the + recent forms there are a number of remarkable points of resemblance. + Among the common characters may be noted the possession of: (1) + pectoral mammae; (2) abdominal testes; (3) a bifid apex of the heart; + (4) bilophodont molars with a tendency to the formation of an + additional lobe from the posterior part of the cingulum. The peculiar + mode of displacement of the teeth from behind forwards in some members + of both groups may perhaps indicate a relationship, although in the + case of the Sirenia the replacement takes place by means of a + succession of similar molars, while in the Proboscidea the molars + remain the same numerically, but increase greatly in size and number + of transverse ridges." + + These and certain other facts referred to by the same author point to + the conclusion that not only are the Sirenia and the Proboscidea + derived from a single ancestral stock, but that the Hyracoidea--and so + _Arsinöitherium_--are also derivatives from the same stock, which must + necessarily have been Ethiopian. + + Of the other suborders of ungulates, the Toxodontia and Litopterna are + exclusively South American, and while the former may possibly be + related to the Hyracoidea and Barypoda, the latter is perhaps more + nearly akin to the Perissodactyla. The Amblypoda, on the other hand, + are perhaps not far removed from the ancestral Proboscidea, which + depart comparatively little from the generalized ungulate type. The + latter is represented by the Eocene Condylarthra, which undoubtedly + gave rise to the Perissodactyla and Artiodactyla, and probably to + most, if not all, of the other groups. The Condylarthra, in their + turn, approximate closely to the ancestral Carnivora, as they also do + in some degree to the ancestral Primates. As regards the latter order, + although we are at present unacquainted with all the connecting links + between the lemurs and the monkeys, there is little doubt that the + ancestors of the former represent the stock from which the latter have + originated. C. D. Earle, in the _American Naturalist_ for 1897, + observes that "so far as the palaeontological evidence goes it is + decidedly in favour of the view that apes and lemurs are closely + related. Beginning with the earliest known lemur, _Anaptomorphus_, + this genus shows tendencies towards the anthropoids, and, when we pass + up into the Oligocene of the Old World, _Adapis_ is a decidedly mixed + type, and probably not far from the common stem-form which gave origin + to both suborders of the Primates. In regard to _Tarsius_, it is + evidently a type nearly between the lemurs and apes, but with many + essential characters belonging to the former group." + +_Distribution._--For an account of the "realms" and "regions" into which +the surface of the globe has been divided by those who have made a +special study of the geographical distribution of animals, see +ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION. For the purposes of such zoo-geographical +divisions, mammals are much better adapted than birds, owing to their +much more limited powers of dispersal; most of them (exclusive of the +purely aquatic forms, such as seals, whales, dolphins and sea-cows) +being unable to cross anything more than a very narrow arm of the sea. +Consequently, the presence of nearly allied groups of mammals in areas +now separated by considerable stretches of sea proves that at no very +distant date such tracts must have had a land-connexion. In the case of +the southern continents the difficulty is, however, to determine whether +allied groups of mammals (and other animals) have reached their present +isolated habitats by dispersal from the north along widely sundered +longitudinal lines, or whether such a distribution implies the former +existence of equatorial land-connexions. It may be added that even bats +are unable to cross large tracts of sea; and the fact that fruit-bats of +the genus _Pteropus_ are found in Madagascar and the Seychelles, as well +as in India, while they are absent from Africa, is held to be an +important link in the chain of evidence demonstrating a former +land-connexion between Madagascar and India. + +There is another point of view from which mammals are of especial +importance in regard to geographical distribution, namely their +comparatively late rise and dispersal, or "radiation," as compared with +reptiles. + +As regards terrestrial mammals (with which alone we are at present +concerned), one of the most striking features in their distribution is +their practical absence from oceanic islands; the only species found in +such localities being either small forms which might have been carried +on floating timber, or such as have been introduced by human agency. +This absence of mammalian life in oceanic islands extends even to New +Zealand, where the indigenous mammals comprise only two peculiar species +of bats, the so-called Maori rat having been introduced by man. + + One of the leading features in mammalian distribution is the fact that + the Monotremata, or egg-laying mammals, are exclusively confined to + Australia and Papua, with the adjacent islands. The marsupials also + attain their maximum development in Australia ("Notogaea" of the + distributionists), extending, however, as far west as Celebes and the + Moluccas, although in these islands they form an insignificant + minority among an extensive placental fauna, being represented only by + the cuscuses (_Phalanger_), a group unknown in either Papua or + Australia. Very different, on the other hand, is the condition of + things in Australia and Papua, where marsupials (and monotremes) are + the dominant forms of mammalian life, the placentals being represented + (apart from bats, which are mainly of an Asiatic type) only by a + number of more or less aberrant rodents belonging to the mouse-tribe, + and in Australia by the dingo, or native dog, and in New Guinea by a + wild pig. The dingo was, however, almost certainly brought from Asia + by the ancestors of the modern natives; while the Papuan pig is also + in all probability a human introduction, very likely of much later + date. The origin of the Australasian fauna is a question pertaining to + the article ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION. The remaining marsupials (namely + the families _Didelphyidae_ and _Epanorthidae_) are American, and + mainly South and Central American at the present day; although during + the early part of the Tertiary period representatives of the + first-named family ranged all over the northern hemisphere. + + The Insectivora (except a few shrews which have entered from the + north) are absent from South America, and appear to have been mainly + an Old World group, the only forms which have entered North America + being the shrew-mice (_Soricidae_) and moles (_Talpidae_). The + occurrence of one aberrant group (_Solenodon_) in the West Indies is, + however, noteworthy. The family with the widest distribution is the + _Soricidae_, the _Talpidae_ being unknown in Africa. The tree-shrews + (_Tupaiidae_) are exclusively Asiatic, whereas the jumping-shrews + (_Macroscelididae_) are equally characteristic of the African + continent. Madagascar is the sole habitat of the tenrecs + (_Centetidae_), as is Southern Africa of the golden moles + (_Chrysochloridae_). It is, however, important to mention that an + extinct South American insectivore, _Necrolestes_, has been referred + to the family last mentioned; and even if this reference should not be + confirmed in the future, the occurrence of a representative of the + order in Patagonia is a fact of considerable importance in + distribution. + + The Rodentia have a wider geographical range than any other order of + terrestrial mammals, being, as already mentioned, represented by + numerous members of the mouse-tribe (_Muridae_) even in Australasia. + With the remarkable exception of Madagascar, where it is represented + by the _Nesomyidae_, that family has thus a cosmopolitan distribution. + Very noteworthy is the fact that, with the exception of Madagascar + (and of course Australia) the squirrel family (_Sciuridae_) is also + found in all parts of the world. Precisely the same may be said of the + hares, which, however, become scarce in South America. On the other + hand, the scaly-tailed squirrels (_Anomaluridae_), the jumping-hares + (_Pedetidae_), and the strand-moles (_Bathyergidae_) are exclusively + African; while the sewellels (_Haplodontidae_) and the pocket-gophers + (_Geomyidae_) are as characteristically North American, although a few + members of the latter have reached Central America. The beavers + (_Castoridae_) are restricted to the northern hemisphere, whereas the + dormice (_Gliridae_) and the mole-rats (_Spalacidae_) are exclusively + Old World forms, the latter only entering the north of Africa, in + which continent the former are largely developed. The jerboa group + (_Dipodidae_, or _Jaculidae_) is also mainly an Old World type, + although its aberrant representatives the jumping-mice (_Zapus_) have + effected an entrance into Arctic North America. Porcupines enjoy a + very wide range, being represented throughout the warmer parts of the + Old World, with the exception of Madagascar (and of course + Australasia), by the _Hystricidae_, and in the New World by the + _Erethizontidae_. Of the remaining families of the Simplicidentata, + all are southern, the cavies (_Caviidae_), chinchillas + (_Chinchillidae_), and degus (_Octodontidae_) being Central and South + American, while the _Capromyidae_ are common to southern America and + Africa, and the _Ctenodactylidae_ are exclusively African. The near + alliance of all these southern families, and the absence of so many + Old World families from Madagascar form two of the most striking + features in the distribution of the order. Lastly, among the + Duplicidentata, the picas (_Ochotonidae_ or _Lagomyidae_) form a group + confined to the colder or mountainous regions of the northern + hemisphere. + + Among the existing land Carnivora (of which no representatives except + the introduced dingo are found in Australasia) the cat-tribe + (_Felidae_) has now an almost cosmopolitan range, although it only + reached South America at a comparatively recent date. Its original + home was probably in the northern hemisphere; and it has no + representatives in Madagascar. The civet-tribe (_Viverridae_), on the + other hand, which is exclusively an Old World group, is abundant in + Madagascar, where it is represented by peculiar and aberrant types. + The hyenas (_Hyaenidae_), at any rate at the present day, to which + consideration is mainly limited, are likewise Old World. The dog-tribe + (_Canidae_), on the other hand, are, with the exception of Madagascar, + an almost cosmopolitan group. Their place of origin was, however, + almost entirely in the northern hemisphere, and not improbably in some + part of the Old World, where they gave rise to the bears (_Ursidae_). + The latter are abundant throughout the northern hemisphere, and have + even succeeded in penetrating into South America, but, with the + exception of the Mediterranean zone, have never succeeded in entering + Africa, and are therefore of course unknown in Madagascar. The raccoon + group (_Procyonidae_) is mainly American, being represented in the Old + World only by the pandas (_Aelurus_ and _Aeluropus_), of which the + latter apparently exhibits some affinity to the bears. The birthplace + of the group was evidently in the northern hemisphere--possibly in + east Central Asia. The weasel-tribe (_Mustelidae_) is clearly a + northern group, which has, however, succeeded in penetrating into + South America and Africa, although it has never reached Madagascar. + + The extinct creodonts, especially if they be the direct descendants of + the anomodont reptiles, may have originated in Africa, although they + are at present known in that continent only from the Fayum district. + Elsewhere they occur in South America and throughout a large part of + the northern hemisphere, where they appear to have survived in India + to the later Oligocene or Miocene. + + In the case of the great order, or assemblage, of Ungulata it is + necessary to pay somewhat more attention to fossil forms, since a + considerable number of groups are either altogether extinct or largely + on the wane. + + So far as is at present known, the earliest and most primitive group, + the Condylarthra, is a northern one, but whether first developed in + the eastern or the western hemisphere there is no sufficient evidence. + The more or less specialized Litopterna and Toxodontia, as severally + typified by the macrauchenia and the toxodon, are, on the other hand, + exclusively South American. With the primitive five-toed Amblypoda, as + represented by the coryphodon, we again reach a northern group, common + to the two hemispheres; but there is not improbably some connexion + between this group and the much more specialized Barypoda, as + represented by _Arsinöitherium_, of Africa. The Ancylopoda, again, + typified by _Chalicotherium_, and characterized by the claw-like + character of the digits, are probably another northern group, common + to the eastern and western hemispheres. + + Recent discoveries have demonstrated the African origin of the + elephants (Proboscidea) and hyraxes (Hyracoidea), the latter group + being still indeed mainly African, and in past times also limited to + Africa and the Mediterranean countries. As regards the elephants (now + restricted to Africa and tropical Asia), there appears to be evidence + that the ancestral mastodons, after having developed from African + forms probably not very far removed from the Amblypoda, migrated into + Asia, where they gave rise to the true elephants. Thence both + elephants and mastodons reached North America by the Bering Sea route; + while the former, which arrived earlier than the latter, eventually + penetrated into South America. + + The now waning group of Perissodactyla would appear to have originally + been a northern one, as all the three existing families, rhinoceroses + (_Rhinocerotidae_), tapirs (_Tapiridae_), and horses (_Equidae_), are + well represented in the Tertiaries of both halves of the northern + hemisphere. If eastern Central Asia were tentatively given as the + centre of radiation of the group, this might perhaps best accord with + the nature of the case. Rhinoceroses disappeared comparatively early + from the New World, and never reached South America. In Siberia and + northern Europe species of an African type survived till a + comparatively late epoch, so that the present relegation of the group + to tropical Asia and Africa may be regarded as a modern feature in + distribution. Horses, now unknown in a wild state in the New World, + although still widely spread in the Old, attained a more extensive + range in past times, having successfully invaded South America. On the + other hand, in common with the rest of the Perissodactyla, they never + reached Madagascar. In addition to the occurrence of their fossil + remains almost throughout the world, the former wide range of the + tapirs is attested by the fact of their living representatives being + confined to such widely sundered areas as Malaysia and tropical + America. + + The Artiodactyla are the only group of ungulates known to have been + represented in Madagascar; but since both these Malagasy forms--namely + two hippopotamuses (now extinct) and a river-hog--are capable of + swimming, it is most probable that they reached the island by crossing + the Mozambique Channel. As regards the deer-family (_Cervidae_), which + is unknown in Africa south of the Sahara, it is quite evident that it + originated in the northern half of the Old World, whence it reached + North America by the Bering Sea route, and eventually travelled into + South America. More light is required with regard to the past history + of the giraffe-family (_Giraffidae_), which includes the African okapi + and the extinct Indian _Sivatherium_, and is unknown in the New World. + Possibly, however, its birthplace may prove to be Africa; if so, we + shall have a case analogous to that of the African elephant, namely + that while giraffes flourished during the Pliocene in Asia (where + they may have originated), they survive only in Africa. An African + origin has also been suggested for the hollow-horned ruminants + (_Bovidae_); and if this were substantiated it would explain the + abundance of that family in Africa and the absence from the heart of + that continent of the deer-tribe. Some confirmation of this theory is + afforded by the fact that whereas we can recognize ancestral deer in + the Tertiaries of Europe we cannot point with certainty to the + forerunners of the _Bovidae_. Whether its birthplace was in Africa or + to the north, it is, however, clear that the hollow-horned ruminants + are essentially an Old World group, which only effected an entrance + into North America at a comparatively recent date, and never succeeded + in reaching South America. So far as it goes, this fact is also in + favour of the African ancestry of the group. + + The _Antilocapridae_ (prongbuck), whose relationships appear to be + rather with the _Cervidae_ than with the _Bovidae_, are on the other + hand apparently a North American group. The chevrotains + (_Tragulidae_), now surviving only in West and Central Africa and + tropical Asia, are conversely a purely Old World group. + + The camels (_Tylopoda_) certainly originated in the northern + hemisphere, but although their birthplace has been confidently claimed + for North America, an equal, if not stronger, claim may be made on the + part of Central Asia. From the latter area, where wild camels still + exist, the group may be assumed to have made its way at an early + period into North America; whence, at a much later date, it finally + penetrated into South America. In the Old World it seems to have + reached the fringe of the African continent, where its wanderings in a + wild state were stayed. + + The pigs (_Suidae_) and the hippopotamuses (_Hippopotamidae_) are + essentially Old World groups, the former of which has alone succeeded + in reaching America, where it is represented by the collateral branch + of the peccaries (_Dicotylinae_). An African origin would well explain + the present distribution of both groups, but further evidence on this + point is required before anything decisive can be affirmed, although + it is noteworthy that the earliest known pig (_Geniohyus_) is African. + The Suinae are at present spread all over the Old World, although the + African forms (other than the one from the north) are markedly + distinct from those inhabiting Europe and Asia. Hippopotamuses, on the + contrary, are now exclusively African, although they were represented + in tropical Asia during the Pliocene and over the greater part of + Europe at a later epoch. + + A brief notice with regard to the distribution of the Primates must + suffice, as their past history is too imperfectly known to admit of + generalizations being drawn. The main facts at the present day are, + firstly, the restriction of the Prosimiae, or lemurs, to the warmer + parts of the Old World, and their special abundance in Madagascar + (where other Primates are wanting); and, secondly, the wide structural + distinction between the monkeys of tropical America (Platyrrhina), and + the Old World monkeys and apes, or Catarrhina. It is, however, + noteworthy that extinct lemurs occur in the Tertiary deposits of both + halves of the northern hemisphere--a fact which has induced Dr J. L. + Wortman to suggest a polar origin for the entire group--a view we are + not yet prepared to endorse. For the distribution of the various + families and genera the reader may be referred to the article + PRIMATES; and it will suffice to mention here that while chimpanzees + and baboons are now restricted to Africa and (in the case of the + latter group) Arabia, they formerly occurred in India. + + As regards aquatic mammals, the greater number of the Cetacea, or + whales and dolphins, have, as might be expected, a very wide + distribution in the ocean. A few, on the other hand, have a very + restricted range, the Greenland right whale (_Balaena mysticetus_) + being, for instance, limited to the zone of the northern circumpolar + ice, while no corresponding species occurs in the southern hemisphere. + In this case, not only temperature, but also the peculiar mode of + feeding, may be the cause. The narwhal and the beluga have a very + similar distribution, though the latter occasionally ranges farther + south. The bottle-noses (_Hyperöodon_) are restricted to the North + Atlantic, never entering, so far as known, the tropical seas. Other + species are exclusively tropical or austral in their range. The pigmy + whale (_Neobalaena marginata_), for instance, has only been met with + in the seas round Australia, New Zealand and South America, while a + beaked whale (_Berardius arnouxi_) appears to be confined to the New + Zealand seas. + + The Cetacea, however, are by no means limited to the ocean, or even to + salt water, some entering large rivers for considerable distances, and + others being exclusively fluviatile. The susu (_Platanista_) is, for + instance, extensively distributed throughout nearly the whole of the + river systems of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Indus, ascending as high + as there is water enough to swim in, but apparently never passing out + to sea. The individuals inhabiting the Indus and the Ganges must + therefore have been for long ages isolated without developing any + distinctive anatomical characters, those by which _P. indi_ was + separated from _P. gangetica_ having been shown to be of no constant + value. _Orcella fluminalis_, again, appears to be limited to the + Irrawaddy; and at least two distinct species of dolphin, belonging to + different genera, are found in the Amazon. It is remarkable that none + of the great lakes or inland seas of the world is inhabited by + cetaceans. + + The great difference in the manner of life of the sea-cows, or + Sirenia, as compared with that of the Cetacea, causes a corresponding + difference in their geographical distribution. Slow in their + movements, and feeding on vegetable substances, they are confined to + the neighbourhood of rivers, estuaries or coasts, although there is a + possibility of accidental transport by currents across considerable + distances. Of the three genera existing within historic times, one + (_Manatus_) is exclusively confined to the shores of the tropical + Atlantic and the rivers entering into it, individuals scarcely + specifically distinguishable being found both on the American and the + African. The dugong (_Halicore_) is distributed in different colonies, + at present isolated, throughout the Indian Ocean from Arabia to North + Australia; while the _Rhytina_ or northern sea-cow was, for some time + before its extinction, limited to a single island in the extreme north + of the Pacific Ocean. + + The seals (_Pinnipedia_) although capable of traversing long reaches + of ocean, are less truly aquatic than the last two groups, always + resorting to the land or to ice-floes for breeding. The geographical + range of each species is generally more or less restricted, usually + according to climate, as they are mostly inhabitants either of the + Arctic or Antarctic seas and adjacent temperate regions, few being + found within the tropics. For this reason the northern and the + southern species are for the most part quite distinct. In fact, the + only known exception is the case of a colony of elephant-seals + (_Macrorhinus leoninus_), whose general range is in the southern + hemisphere, inhabiting the coast of California. In this case a + different specific name has been given to the northern form, but the + characters by which it is distinguished are of little importance, and + probably, except for the abnormal geographical distribution, would + never have been discovered. The most remarkable circumstance connected + with the distribution of seals is the presence of members of the order + in the three isolated great lakes or inland seas of Central Asia--the + Caspian, Aral and Baikal--which, notwithstanding their long isolation, + have varied but slightly from species now inhabiting the Polar Ocean. + + AUTHORITIES.--The above article is partly based on that of Sir W. H. + Flower in the 9th edition of this work. The literature connected with + mammals is so extensive that all that can be attempted here is to + refer the reader to a few textbooks, with the aid of which, combined + with that of the annual volumes of the _Zoological Record_, he may + obtain such information on the subject as he may require: F. E. + Beddard, "Mammals," _The Cambridge Natural History_, vol. x. (1902); + W. H. Flower and R. Lydekker, _The Study of Mammals_ (London, 1891); + Max Weber, _Die Säugethiere_ (Jena, 1904); W. T. Blanford, _The Fauna + of British India--Mammalia_ (1888-1891); D. G. Elliot, _Synopsis of + the Mammals of North America_ (Chicago, 1901) and _The Mammals of + Middle America and the West Indies_ (Chicago, 1904); W. L. Sclater, + _The Fauna of South Africa--Mammals_ (Cape Town, 1901-1902); W. K. + Parker, _Mammalian Descent_ (London, 1885); E. Trouessart, _Catalogus + mammalium, tam viventium quam fossilium_ (Paris, 1898-1899); and + supplement, 1904-1905; T. S. Palmer, _Index generum mammalium_ + (Washington, 1904); W. L. and P. L. Sclater, _The Geography of + Mammals_ (London, 1899); R. Lydekker, _A Geographical History of + Mammals_ (Cambridge, 1896). (W. H. F.; R. L.) + + + + +MAMMARY GLAND (Lat. _mamma_), or female breast, the organ by means of +which the young are suckled, and the possession of which, in some region +of the trunk, entitles the animal bearing it to a place in the order of +Mammalia. + +_Anatomy._--In the human female the gland extends vertically from the +second to the sixth rib, and transversely from the edge of the sternum +to the mid axillary line; it is embedded in the fat superficial to the +pectoralis major muscle, and a process which extends toward the arm-pit +is sometimes called the axillary tail. A little below the centre of the +glandular swelling is the _nipple_, surrounding which is a pigmented +circular patch called the areola; this is studded with slight nodules, +which are the openings of areolar glands secreting an oily fluid to +protect the skin during suckling. During the second or third month of +pregnancy the areola becomes more or less deeply pigmented, but this to +a large extent passes off after lactation ceases. In structure the gland +consists of some fifteen to twenty lobules, each of which has a +_lactiferous duct_ opening at the summit of the nipple, and branching in +the substance of the gland to form secondary lobules, the walls of which +are lined by cubical epithelium in which the milk is secreted. These +secondary lobules project into the surrounding fat, so that it is +difficult to dissect out the gland cleanly. Before opening at the nipple +each lactiferous duct has a fusiform dilatation called the _ampulla_. + + After the child-bearing period of life the breasts atrophy and tend to + become pendulous, while in some African races they are pendulous + throughout life. Variations in the mammary glands are common; often + the left breast is larger than the right, and in those rare cases in + which one breast is suppressed it is usually the right, though + suppression of the breast does not necessarily include absence of the + nipple. + + [Illustration: (From A. F. Dixon, Cunningham's _Text Book of Anatomy_.) + + FIG. 1.--Dissection of the Mammary Gland.] + + _Supernumerary nipples and glands_ are not uncommon, and, when they + occur, are usually situated in the mammary line which extends from the + anterior axillary fold to the spine of the pubis; hence, when an extra + nipple appears above the normal one, it is external to it, but, when + below, it is nearer the middle line. The condition of extra breasts is + known as _polymasty_, that of extra nipples as _polythely_, and it is + interesting to notice that the latter is commoner in males than in + females. O. Ammon (quoted by Wiedersheim) records the case of a German + soldier who had four nipples on each side. These nipples in the human + subject are seldom found below the costal margin. In normal males the + breast structure is present, but rudimentary, though it is not very + rare to find instances of boys about puberty in whom a small amount of + milk is secreted, and one case at least is recorded of a man who + suckled a child. A functional condition of the mammary glands in men + is known as _gynaekomasty_. (For further details see _The Structure of + Man_, by R. Wiedersheim, translated by H. and M. Bernard, and edited + by G. B. Howes, London, 1895.) + + _Embryology._--There is every probability that the mammary glands are + modified and hypertrophied sebaceous glands, and transitional stages + are seen in the areolar glands, which sometimes secrete milk. At an + early stage of foetal life a raised patch of ectoderm is seen, which + later on becomes a saucer-like depression; from the bottom of this + fifteen or twenty solid processes of cells, each presumably + representing a sebaceous gland, grow into the mesoderm which forms the + connective-tissue stroma of the mamma. Later on these processes + branch. The last stage is that the centre of the _mammary pit_ or + saucer-like depression once more grows up to form the nipple, and at + birth the processes become tubular, thus forming lactiferous ducts. + The glands grow little until the age of puberty, but their full + development is not reached until the birth of the first child. + + _Comparative Anatomy._--In the lower Mammals the mammary line, already + mentioned, appears in the embryo as a ridge, and in those which have + many young at a birth patches of this develop in the thoracic and + abdominal regions to form the mammae, while the intervening parts of + the ridge disappear. The number of mammae is not constant in animals + of the same species; as an instance of this it will be found that in + the dog the number of nipples varies from seven to ten, though animals + with many nipples are more liable to variation than those with few. + When only a few young are produced at a time the mammae are few, and + it seems to depend on the convenience of suckling in which part of the + mammary line the glands are developed. In the pouched Mammals + (Monotremes and Marsupials) inguinal mammae are found, and so they are + in most Ungulates as well as in the Cetacea. In the elephants, + Sirenia, Chiroptera and most of the Primates, on the other hand, they + are confined to the pectoral region, and this is also the case in some + Rodents, e.g. the jumping hare (_Pedetes caffer_). In the monotremes + the mammary pit remains throughout life, and the milk is conducted + along the hairs to the young, but in other Mammals nipples are formed + in one of two ways. One is that already described in Man, which is + common to the Marsupials and Primates, while in the other the margin + or _vallum_ of the mammary pit grows up, and so forms a nipple with a + very deep pit, into the bottom of which the lactiferous ducts open. + The latter is regarded as the primary arrangement. In the monotremes + the mammae are looked upon, not as modified sebaceous glands, as in + other Mammals, but as altered sweat glands. It is further of interest + to notice that in these primitive Mammals the glands are equally + developed in both sexes, and it is thought that among the bats the + male often assists in suckling the young (see G. Dobson, _Brit. Museum + Cat. of the Chiroptera_, London, 1878). These facts, together with the + occasional occurrence of gynaekomasty in man, make it probable that + the ancestral Mammal was an animal in which both sexes helped in the + process of lactation. + + For further details and literature up to 1906 see _Comparative Anatomy + of Vertebrates_, by R. Wiedersheim, adapted by W. N. Parker (1907), + and Bronn's _Classen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs_. (F. G. P.) + + _Diseases of the Mammary Gland._--Inflammation of the breast + (_mastitis_) is apt to occur in a woman who is suckling, and is due to + the presence of septic micro-organisms, which, as a rule, have found + their way into the milk-ducts, the lymphatics or the veins, through a + crack, or other wound, in a nipple which has been made sore by the + infant's vigorous attempts to obtain food. Especially is this septic + inflammation apt to occur if the nipple is depressed, or so badly + formed that the infant has difficulty in feeding from it. The inflamed + breast is enlarged, tender and painful, and the skin over it is hot, + and perhaps too reddened. The woman feels ill and feverish, and she + may shiver, or have a definite rigor--which suggests that the + inflammation is running on to the formation of an abscess. The abscess + may be superficial to, or beneath, the breast, but it is usually + within the breast itself. The infant should at once be weaned, the + milk-tension being relieved by the breast-pump. Fomentations should be + applied under waterproof jaconette, and the breast should be evenly + supported by a bandage or by the corsets. Belladonna and glycerine + should be smeared over the breast, with the view of checking the + secretion of milk, as well as of easing pain. But before this is done + six or eight leeches may be applied. On the first indication that + matter is collecting, an incision should be made, for if the matter is + allowed to remain locked up in the breast tissue the abscess will + rapidly increase in size, and the whole of the breast may become + infected and destroyed. Supposing that, in making the incision, no pus + is discovered, the relief to the vascular tension thus afforded will + be nevertheless highly beneficial. The operation had better be done + under a general anaesthetic, so that the surgeon can introduce a + probe, or his finger, into the wound, breaking down the partitions + which are likely to exist between separate abscesses, and thus enable + them to be drained through the one opening. As the discharge begins to + cease, the tenderness subsides, and gentle massage, or firm strapping + of the breast, will prove useful. The general treatment will consist + in the administration of an aperient, and, the tongue being clean, in + prescribing such drugs as quinine, strychnia and iron. The diet should + be liberal, but not carried to such excess that the power of digestion + and absorption is overtaxed. During the early acute stage of the + disease small doses of morphia may be necessary. When the tongue has + cleaned, a little wine may be given with advantage. + + _Chronic Eczema_ around the nipple of a woman late in life, with, + perhaps, localized ulceration, is known as _Paget's Disease_. The + importance of it is that cancerous infiltration is apt to pass from it + along the milk-ducts and to involve the breast in malignant disease. + Hence, when eczema about the nipple refuses to clear up under the + influence of soothing treatment, it is well to insist on the removal + of the entire breast. Sometimes this eczema is malignant from the + beginning, being associated with the active prolifization of the + epithelial cells of the milk-ducts, and with their escape into the + surrounding tissues. The nipple is retracted in most of these cases, + which, however, are not often met with. + + _Chronic Mastitis_ is of frequent occurrence in women who are past + middle age. The part of the breast involved is enlarged, hard, and + more or less tender and painful. It is sometimes impossible clinically + to distinguish this disease from cancer. True, the tumour is not so + definite or so hard as a cancer, nor is it attached to the skin, nor + to the muscles of the chest wall, and if there are any glands + secondarily enlarged in the arm-pit they are not so hard as they may + be in cancer. But all these are questions of degree. It is, of course, + highly inadvisable to leave it to time to clear up the diagnosis, for + a chronic mastitis, innocent at first, may eventually become + cancerous. If in any case the difficulty of distinguishing a chronic + mastitis from a malignant tumour of the breast is insuperable, the + safest course is to remove the breast and have it examined by the + microscope. The suggestion, sometimes made, as to the preliminary + removal of a small piece of the tumour for examination is not to be + recommended. + + A simple glandular tumour, _fibro-adenoma_, is apt to be found in the + breasts of youngish women, who may possibly give an account of some + blow or other injury; there may, however, be no history of injury. The + tumour is smooth, rounded or oval, and lies loose in the midst of the + breast; as a rule it is not tender. It is not associated with enlarged + glands in the arm-pit. The tumour had best be removed, though there is + no urgency about the operation, as the growth is absolutely innocent. + There is, however, no telling as to what course an innocent tumour of + the breast may take as middle age comes on. + + _Cysts of the Breast._--A _galactocele_ is a tumour due to the locking + up of milk in a greatly dilated duct. Other forms of cystic disease + may be due to serous or hydatid fluid, or to thin pus, being + surrounded by fibrous walls. Such cysts are best treated by free + incision, and by passing a gauze dressing into their depths. If the + tissue is occupied by many cysts, the whole breast had better be + removed. + + _Cancer of the Breast_ may be met with in men as well as in women; in + men, however, it is very rare. It is commonest in women between the + ages of forty and fifty. It is sometimes met with in women of twenty; + and the younger the individual the more malignant is the disease. + Married life seems to have no effect as regards the incidence of the + disease, but it often happens that a breast which gave trouble during + the period of suckling becomes later the subject of cancer; in other + cases there is a clear history of the attack having followed an + injury. It is, thus, as if inflammatory changes in the breast were the + direct cause of a later cancerous invasion. Though it is impossible to + affirm that heredity has a great influence in the incidence of cancer, + it is, nevertheless, remarkable that the members of certain families + are unusually prone to the disease. + + The chief feature of a cancerous tumour of the breast is its great + hardness. The technical name for the growth is _scirrhus_ (Gr. [Greek: + skiros], or [Greek: skirros], any hard coat or covering, _stucco_), + from its stony hardness. The tumour consists of a dense framework of + fibrous tissue, with groups of cancer-cells in the spaces. The + malignancy of the disease depends upon the cells, not upon the fibrous + tissue. In young subjects the cells predominate, but in old ones the + contraction of the fibrous tissue throughout the breast compresses and + destroys the cells, and this sometimes to such an extent that there is + at last nothing left at the site but contracted fibrous tissue, all + trace of malignancy having disappeared. This variety of the disease is + found in old people, and is called _atrophic cancer_. + + The cells of a cancerous breast are apt to be carried by the + lymphatics to the lymphatic glands in the arm-pit, and by the + bloodstream to the spinal column and to other parts of the skeleton, + and sometimes to the liver, which thus becomes large and hard, or to + the other breast. + + As the fibrous tissue around the tumour becomes invaded by the new + growth it undergoes contraction (much as a string becomes shorter when + it is wetted), and as this shortening of the fibrous bands increases + the nipple may be retracted, and the breast may be closely bound down + to the chest-wall; and, further, the skin overlying the tumour may be + drawn in towards the tumour so as to form a conspicuous dimple. Later, + the nutrition of this patch of skin may be so interfered with that it + mortifies or breaks down, and thus a cancerous ulcer is produced. This + ulcer slowly spreads, and its floor is covered with a discharge in + which septic micro-organisms undergo cultivation; in this way the + ulcer becomes highly offensive. By the use of antiseptic lotions and a + frequent change of dressings, however, all unpleasant smell can be + checked or prevented. As the ulcer extends it is apt to implicate + large blood-vessels, so that serious, and sometimes alarming, + haemorrhages take place. And if the breast had previously been in + pain, the bleeding is likely to give great relief. But repeated + haemorrhages bring on increasing exhaustion, and thus materially + hasten the end. + + There is at present only one trustworthy treatment for cancer, and + that is its free removal by operation. The entire breast and the + nipple must be sacrificed. At the present day the operation itself is + not a "dreadful" one. To be successful it must be very thorough, and + it must be done _early_. The patient, being under an anaesthetic, + feels nothing, and the subsequent dressings of the wound are attended + with scarcely any pain. There need be but a couple of days of + confinement to bed, and when the wound has soundly healed the patient + may be encouraged to use her arm. Should there be recurrence of + cancerous nodules in or about the wound, their removal should be + promptly and widely effected. The writer has records of one case in + which between the first operation and the last report there was a + space of over twenty-nine years, and another of fifteen years. Each of + these patients had one extensive operation, and four or five smaller + operations for dealing with recurrences. Each of them, however, might + be considered unlikely subjects for further return. + + For a _superficial cancer_ the X-rays may be of service, but many + applications of the rays are likely to be needed, and the case may + possibly refuse to yield to their influence, and, after loss of + valuable time, the disease may have eventually to be removed by the + knife. The great advantage which the treatment by the knife offers + over every other method is that the growth can be cleanly, efficiently + and promptly removed, and, with it, all the affected lymph-spaces, and + the lymphatic glands which are secondarily implicated. + + As regards the value of radium in the treatment of cancer of the + breast, the high expectations which were somewhat widely associated + with this newly-found element early in 1909 must be said to have been + unjustified by any precise results. Injections of radium salts have + been made into the substance of a cancer, and tubes of aluminium + containing the salt have been introduced into the growth, but no deep + cancer has thereby been cured. Radium has also been exposed again and + again on the surface of the affected breast, but similarly with no + great result. Unfortunately, whilst one is experimenting in the + treatment of an operable cancer, the epithelial cells of the growth + may be making their way towards distant parts, where no rays or + emanations could possibly reach them. Whatever may be the future of + radium as a therapeutic agent in the treatment of cancer of the + breast, it is certain that, on the facts as known at the beginning of + 1910, the only safe course is to remove the breast by direct + operation, together with the associated lymph-spaces and lymphatic + glands. And if this is done promptly and thoroughly cancer of the + breast will come more and more into the class of curable diseases. + (E. O.*) + + + + +MAMMEE APPLE, SOUTH AMERICAN OR ST DOMINGO APRICOT, the fruit of _Mammea +americana_ (natural order Clusiaceae), a large tree with opposite +leathery gland-dotted leaves, white, sweet-scented, short-stalked, +solitary or clustered axillary flowers and yellow fruit 3 to 6 in. in +diameter. The bitter rind encloses a sweet aromatic flesh, which is +eaten raw or steeped in wine or with sugar, and is also used for +preserves. There are one to four large rough seeds, which are bitter and +resinous, and used as anthelmintics. An aromatic liqueur distilled from +the flowers is known as _eau de créole_ in the West Indies, and the +acrid resinous gum is used to destroy the chigoes which attack the naked +feet of the negroes. The wood is durable and well adapted for building +purposes; it is beautifully grained and used for fancy work. + + + + +MAMMON, a word of Aramaic origin meaning "riches." The etymology is +doubtful; connexions with a word meaning "entrusted," or with the Hebrew +_matmon_, treasure, have been suggested. "Mammon," Gr. [Greek: mamônâs] +(see Professor Eb. Nestle in _Ency. Bib._ s.v.), occurs in the Sermon on +the Mount (Matt. vi. 24) and the parable of the Unjust Steward (Luke +xvi. 9-13). The Authorized Version keeps the Syriac word. Wycliffe uses +"richessis." The _New English Dictionary_ quotes _Piers Plowman_ as +containing the earliest personification of the name. Nicholaus de Lyra +(commenting on the passage in Luke) says that _Mammon est nomen +daemonis_. There is no trace, however, of any Syriac god of such a name, +and the common identification of the name with a god of covetousness or +avarice is chiefly due to Milton (_Paradise Lost_, i. 678). + + + + +MAMMOTH (O. Russ. _mammot_, mod. _mamant_; the Tatar word _mama_, earth, +from which it is supposed to be derived, is not known to exist), a name +given to an extinct elephant, _Elephas primigenius_ of Blumenbach. +Probably no extinct animal has left such abundant evidence of its former +existence; immense numbers of bones, teeth, and more or less entire +carcases, or "mummies," as they may be called, having been discovered, +with the flesh, skin and hair _in situ_, in the frozen soil of the +tundra of northern Siberia. + +The general characteristics of the order PROBOSCIDEA, to which the +mammoth belongs, are given under that heading. The mammoth pertains to +the most highly specialized section of the group of elephants, which +also contains the modern Asiatic species. Of the whole group it is in +many respects, as in the size and form of the tusks and the characters +of the molar teeth, the farthest removed from the mastodon type, while +its nearest surviving relative, the Asiatic elephant (_E. maximus_), has +retained the slightly more generalized characters of the mammoth's +contemporaries of more southern climes, _E. columbi_ of America and _E. +armeniacus_ of the Old World. The tusks, or upper incisor teeth, which +were probably smaller in the female, in the adult males attained the +length of from 9 to 10 ft. measured along the outer curve. Upon leaving +the head they were directed at first downwards, and outwards, then +upwards and finally inwards at the tips, and generally with a tendency +to a spiral form not seen in other elephants. + + It is chiefly by the characters of the molar teeth that the various + extinct modifications of the elephant type are distinguished. Those of + the mammoth (fig. 2) differ from the corresponding organs of allied + species in great breadth of the crown as compared with the length, the + narrowness and crowding or close approximation of the ridges, the + thinness of the enamel, and its straightness, parallelism and absence + of "crimping," as seen on the worn surface or in a horizontal section + of the tooth. The molars, as in other elephants, are six in number on + each side above and below, succeeding each other from before + backwards. Of these Dr Falconer gave the prevailing "ridge-formula" + (or number of complete ridges in each tooth) as 4, 8, 12, 12, 16, 24, + as in _E. maximus_. Dr Leith-Adams, working from more abundant + materials, has shown that the number of ridges of each tooth, + especially those at the posterior end of the series, is subject to + individual variation, ranging in each tooth of the series within the + following limits: 3 to 4, 6 to 9, 9 to 12, 9 to 15, 14 to 16, 18 to + 27--excluding the small plates, called "talons," at each end. Besides + these variations in the number of ridges or plates of which each tooth + is composed, the thickness of the enamel varies so much as to have + given rise to a distinction between a "thick-plated" and a + "thin-plated" variety--the latter being most prevalent among specimens + from the Arctic regions. From the specimens with thick enamel plates + the transition to the other species mentioned above, including _E. + maximus_, is almost imperceptible. + + The bones of the skeleton generally more resemble those of the Indian + elephant than of any other species, but the skull differs in the + narrower summit, narrower temporal fossae, and more prolonged incisive + sheaths, supporting the roots of the enormous tusks. Among the + external characters by which the mammoth was distinguished from either + of the existing species of elephant was the dense clothing, not only + of long, coarse outer hair, but also of close under woolly hair of a + reddish-brown colour, evidently in adaptation to the cold climate it + inhabited. This character is represented in rude but graphic drawings + of prehistoric age found in caverns in the south of France. It should + be added that young Asiatic elephants often show considerable traces + of the woolly coat of the mammoth. The average height does not appear + to have exceeded that of either of the existing species of elephant. + +The geographical range of the mammoth was very extensive. There is +scarcely a county in England in which its remains have not been found in +alluvial gravel or in caverns, and numbers of its teeth are dredged in +the North Sea. In Scotland and Ireland its remains are less abundant, +and in Scandinavia and Finland they appear to be unknown; but they have +been found in vast numbers at various localities throughout the greater +part of central Europe (as far south as Santander and Rome), northern +Asia, and the northern part of the American continent. + +[Illustration: (From Tilesius.) + +Fig. 1.--Skeleton of Mammoth (_Elephas primigenius_), with portions of +the skin.] + +The mammoth belongs to the post-Tertiary or Pleistocene epoch and was +contemporaneous with man. There is evidence to show that it existed in +Britain before, during and after the glacial period. It is in northern +Siberia that its remains have been found in the greatest abundance and +in exceptional preservation. For a long period there has been from that +region an export of mammoth-ivory, fit for commercial purposes, to China +and to Europe. In the middle of the 10th century trade was carried on at +Khiva in fossil ivory. Middendorff estimated the number of tusks which +have yearly come into the market during the last two centuries at at +least a hundred pairs, but Nordenskiöld considers this estimate too low. +Tusks are found along the whole shore-line between the mouth of the Obi +and Bering Strait, and the farther north the more numerous they become, +the islands of New Siberia being one of the favourite collecting +localities. The remains are found not only round the mouths of the great +rivers, but embedded in the frozen soil in such circumstances as to +indicate that the animals lived not far from the localities in which +they are found; and they are exposed either by the melting of the ice in +warm summers or the washing away of the sea-cliffs or river-banks. In +this way the bodies of more or less nearly perfect animals, often +standing in the erect position, with the soft parts and hairy covering +entire, have been brought to light. + +[Illustration: (From Owen.) + +FIG. 2.--Grinding surface of Upper Molar Tooth of the Mammoth (_Elephas +primigenius_). c, cement; d, dentine; e, enamel.] + + For geographical distribution and anatomical characters see Falconer's + _Paleontological Memoirs_, vol. ii (1868); B. Dawkins, "_Elephas + Primigenius_, its Range in Space and Time," _Quart. Journ. Geol. + Soc._, xxxv. 138 (1879); and A. Leith Adams, "Monograph of British + Fossil Elephants," part ii., _Palaeontographical Society_ (1879). + (W. H. F.; R. L.*) + + + + +MAMMOTH CAVE, a cave in Edmondson county, Kentucky, U.S.A., 37° 14´ N. +lat. and 86° 12´ W. long., by rail 85 m. S.S.W. of Louisville. +Steamboats run from the mouth of the Green river, near Evansville, +Indiana, to the Mammoth Cave landing. The cave is usually said to have +been discovered, in 1809, by a hunter named Hutchins; but the county +records, as early as 1797, fixed its entrance as the landmark for a +piece of real estate. Its mouth is in a forest ravine, 194 ft. above +Green river and 600 ft. above the sea. This aperture is not the original +mouth, the latter being a chasm a quarter of a mile north of it, and +leading into what is known as Dixon's cave. The two portions are not now +connected, though persons in one can make themselves heard by those in +the other. + +The cavernous limestone of Kentucky covers an area of 8000 sq. m., is +massive and homogeneous, and belongs to the Subcarboniferous period. It +shows few traces of dynamic disturbance, but has been carved, mainly by +erosion since the Miocene epoch, into many caverns, of which the Mammoth +Cave is the largest. + +The natural arch that admits one to Mammoth Cave has a span of 70 ft., +and from a ledge above it a cascade leaps 59 ft. to the rocks below, +where it disappears. A flight of stone steps leads the way down to a +narrow passage, through which the air rushes with violence, outward in +summer and inward in winter. The temperature of the cave is uniformly +54° F. throughout the year, and the atmosphere is both chemically and +optically of singular purity. While the lower levels are moist from the +large pools and rivers that have secret connexion with Green river, the +upper galleries are extremely dry. These conditions led at one time to +the erection of thirteen cottages at a point about 1 m. underground, for +the use of invalids, especially consumptives. The experiment failed, and +only two cottages now remain as curiosities. + +The Main Cave, from 40 to 300 ft. wide and from 35 to 125 ft. high, has +several vast rooms, e.g. the Rotunda, where are the ruins of the old +saltpetre works; the Star Chamber, where the protrusion of white +crystals through a coating of the black oxide of manganese creates an +optical illusion of great beauty; the Chief City, where an area of 2 +acres is covered by a vault 125 ft. high, and the floor is strewn with +rocky fragments, among which are found numerous half-burnt torches made +of canes, and other signs of prehistoric occupancy. Two skeletons were +exhumed near the Rotunda; but few other bones of any description have +been found. The so-called Mammoth Cave "mummies" (i.e. bodies kept by +being inhumed in nitrous earth), with accompanying utensils, ornaments, +braided sandals and other relics, were found in Short and Salt Caves +near by, and removed to Mammoth Cave for exhibition. The Main Cave, +which abruptly ends 4 m. from the entrance, is joined by winding +passages, with spacious galleries on different levels; and, although the +diameter of the area of the whole cavern is less than 10 m., the +combined length of all accessible avenues is supposed to be about 150 m. + +[Illustration: Map of Mammoth Cave, Kentucky.] + +The chief points of interest are arranged along two lines of +exploration, besides which there are certain side excursions. The "short +route" requires about four hours, and the "long route" nine. Audubon's +Avenue, the one nearest the entrance, is occupied in winter by myriads +of bats, that hang from the walls in clusters like swarms of bees. The +Gothic Avenue contains numerous large stalactites and stalagmites, and +an interesting place called the Chapel, and ends in a double dome and +cascade. Among the most surprising features of cave scenery are the +vertical shafts that pierce through all levels, from the uppermost +galleries, or even from the sink-holes, down to the lowest floor. These +are styled pits or domes, according to the position occupied by the +observer. A crevice behind a block of stone, 40 ft. long by 20 ft. wide, +called the Giant's Coffin, admits the explorer to a place where six +pits, varying in depth from 65 ft. to 200 ft., exist in an area of 600 +yds. This includes Gorin's Dome, which is viewed from a point midway in +its side, and also from its top, and was formerly regarded as the finest +room in the cavern. Others admire more the Mammoth Dome, at the +termination of Spark's Avenue, where a cataract falls from a height of +150 ft. amid walls wonderfully draped with stalactitic tapestry. The +Egyptian Temple, which is a continuation of the Mammoth Dome, contains +six massive columns, two of them quite perfect and 80 ft. high and 25 +ft. in diameter. The combined length of these contiguous chambers is 400 +ft. By a crevice above they are connected with an arm of Audubon's +Avenue. Lucy's Dome, one of the group of Jessup Domes, is supposed to be +the loftiest of all these vertical shafts. A pit called the "Maelstrom," +in Croghan's Hall, is the spot most remote from the mouth of the cave. +There are some fine stalactites near this pit, and others in the Fairy +Grotto and in Pensico Avenue; but, considering the magnitude of Mammoth +Cave, its poverty of stalactitic ornamentation is remarkable. The wealth +of crystals is, however, surprising, and these are of endless variety +and fantastic beauty. + +Cleveland's Cabinet and Marion's Avenue, each a mile long, are adorned +by myriads of gypsum rosettes and curiously twisted crystals, called +"oulopholites." These cave flowers are unfolded by pressure, as if a +sheaf were forced through a tight binding, or the crystal fibres curl +outward from the centre of the group. Thus spotless arches of 50 ft. +span are embellished by floral clusters and garlands, hiding nearly +every foot of the grey limestone. The botryoidal formations hanging by +thousands in Mary's Vineyard resemble mimic clusters of grapes, as the +oulopholites resemble roses. Again, there are chambers with drifts of +snowy crystals of the sulphate of magnesia, the ceilings so thickly +covered with their efflorescence that a loud concussion will cause them +to fall like flakes of snow. + +Many small rooms and tortuous paths, where nothing of special interest +can be found, are avoided as much as possible on the regular routes; but +certain disagreeable experiences are inevitable. There is peril also in +the vicinity of the deep pits. The one known as the Bottomless Pit was +for many years a barrier to all further exploration, but it is now +crossed by a wooden bridge. Long before the shaft had been cut as deep +as now the water flowed away by a channel gradually contracting to a +serpentine way, so extremely narrow as to be called the Fat Man's +Misery. The walls, only 18 in. apart, change direction eight times in +105 yds., while the distance from the sandy path to the ledge overhead +is but 5 ft. The rocky sides are finely marked with waves and ripples, +as if running water had suddenly been petrified. This winding way +conducts one to River Hall, beyond which lie the crystalline gardens +that have been described. It used to be said that, if this narrow +passage were blocked up, escape would be impossible; but an intricate +web of fissures, called the Corkscrew, has been discovered, by means of +which a good climber, ascending only a few hundred feet, lands 1000 yds. +from the mouth of the cave, and cuts off one or two miles. + +The waters, entering through numerous domes and pits, and falling, +during the rainy season, in cascades of great volume, are finally +collected in River Hall, where they form several extensive lakes, or +rivers, whose connexion with Green River is known to be in deep springs +appearing under arches on its margin. Whenever there is a freshet in +Green River the streams in the cave are joined in a continuous body of +water, the rise sometimes being 60 ft. above the low-water mark. The +subsidence within is less rapid than the rise; and the streams are +impassable for about seven months in each year. They are navigable from +May to October, and furnish interesting features of cave scenery. The +first approach is called the Dead Sea, embraced by cliffs 60 ft. high +and 100 ft. long, above which a path has been made, whence a stairway +leads down to the banks of the river Styx, a body of water 40 ft. long, +crossed by a natural bridge. Lake Lethe comes next--a broad basin +enclosed by walls 90 ft. high, below which a narrow path leads to a +pontoon at the neck of the lake. A beach of the finest yellow sand +extends for 500 yds. to Echo River, the largest of all being from 20 to +200 ft. wide, 10 to 40 ft. deep and about three-quarters of a mile long. +It is crossed by boats. The arched passage-way is very symmetrical, +varying in height from 19 to 35 ft., and famous for its musical +reverberations--not a distinct echo, but an harmonious prolongation of +sound for from 10 to 30 seconds after the original tone is produced. The +long vault has a certain keynote of its own, which, when firmly struck, +excites harmonics, including tones of incredible depth and sweetness. + +There are several other streams here besides those in River Hall. On one +of them F. J. Stevenson of London is said to have floated for seven +hours without finding its end. A glance at the accompanying map will +show that there is a labyrinth of avenues and chasms seldom visited and +never fully explored. New discoveries are frequently made. An exploring +party in 1904 found a curious complex of upper and lower galleries +accessible from the most eastern portion of the cave; beyond which +another party, in 1905, discovered several large domes previously +unknown. H. C. Hovey, in 1907, was led by expert guides into still +wilder recesses, where a series of five domes were found, that opened +into each other by tall gateways; each dome being 60 ft. in diameter and +175 ft. high. This magnificent group has since been named "Hovey's +Cathedral Domes." No instrumental survey of the Mammoth Cave has ever +been allowed by the management. The best map possible is therefore only +the result of estimates and partial measurements. The depths of the most +noted pits have easily been ascertained by line and plummet and the +height of several large domes has been found by the use of small +balloons. While making a survey exclusively for the cave-owners in 1908, +Max Kaemper of Berlin, Germany, forced an opening from the main cave +into a remarkable region to which the general name of "Violet City" was +given, in honour of Mrs Violet Blair Janin, who owned a third of the +Mammoth Cave estate. Special features are Kaemper Hall, Blair Castle, +the Marble Temple and Walhalla. There are eleven enormous pits, many +large fine stalactites and stalagmites and surprisingly beautiful mural +decorations. Dr Hovey made and published (1909) a new handbook embodying +all known discoveries of importance, with four sketch-maps of the routes +of usual exhibition. + +The fauna of Mammoth Cave has been classified by F. W. Putnam, A. S. +Packard and E. D. Cope, who have catalogued twenty-eight species truly +subterraneous, besides those that may be regarded as stragglers from the +surface. They are distributed thus: _Vertebrata_, 8 species; _Insecta_, +17; _Arachnida_, 12; _Myriapoda_, 2; _Crustacea_, 5; _Vermes_, 3; +_Mollusca_, 1. Ehrenberg adds a list of 8 Polygastric _Infusoria_, 1 +fossil infusorian, 5 _Phytolitharia_ and several microscopic fungi. A +bed of _Agaricus_ was found by the writer near the river Styx; and upon +this hint an attempt has been made to propagate edible fungi in this +locality. All the known forms of plant-life are either fungi or allied +to them, and many are only microscopic. The most interesting inhabitants +of Mammoth Cave are the blind, wingless grasshoppers, with extremely +long antennae; blind, colourless crayfish (_Cambarus pellucidus_, +Telk.); and the blind fish, _Amblyopsis spelaeus_, colourless and +viviparous, from 1 in. to 6 in. long. The _Cambarus_ and _Amblyopsis_ +have wide distribution, being found in many other caves, and also in +deep wells, in Kentucky and Indiana. Fish not blind are occasionally +caught, which are apparently identical with species existing in streams +outside. The true subterranean fauna may be regarded as chiefly of +Pleistocene origin; yet certain forms are possibly remnants of Tertiary +life. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Plan and Description of the Great and Wonderful Cave + in Kentucky_, by Dr Nahum Ward (1816); _Notes on the Mammoth Cave, + with a Map_, by Edmund F. Lee, C. E. (1835); _Rambles in the Mammoth + Cave in 1844_, by Alexander Bullitt, with map by Stephen Bishop; + guide-books by Wright (1858), Binkerd (1869), Forwood (1875), Proctor + (1878), Hovey (1882), &c., and Hovey and Call (1897); Hovey's + _Celebrated American Caverns_ (1882, &c.); and _The Mammoth Cave and + its Inhabitants_, by Packard and F. W. Putnam (1879). (H. C. H.) + + + + +MAMORÉ, a large river of Bolivia which unites with the Beni in 10° 20´ +S. to form the Madeira, one of the largest tributaries of the Amazon. It +rises on the northern slope of the Sierra de Cochabamba east of the city +of Cochabamba, and is known as the Chimoré down to its junction with the +Chapare, or Chapari. Its larger tributaries are the Chapare, Sécure, +Apere and Yacuma from the west, and the Ichila, Guapay or Grande, Ivari +and Guaporé from the east. Taking into account its length only, the +Guapay should be considered the upper part of the Mamoré; but it is +shallow and obstructed, and carries a much smaller volume of water. The +Guaporé, or Itenez, also rivals the Mamoré in length and volume, having +its source in the Serra dos Parecis, Matto Grosso, Brazil, a few miles +from streams flowing northward to the Tapajos and Amazon, and southward +to the Paraguay and Paraná. The Mamoré is interrupted by rapids a few +miles above its junction with the Beni, but a railway 180 m. long has +been undertaken from below the rapids of the Madeira. Above the rapids +the river is navigable to Chimoré, at the foot of the _sierra_, and most +of its tributaries are navigable for long distances. Franz Keller (in +_The Amazon and Madeira Rivers_; New York, 1874) gives the outflow of +the Mamoré at mean water level, and not including the Guaporé, as 2530 +cub. in. per second, and the area of its drainage basin, also not +including the Guaporé, as 9382 sq. m. + + See Edward D. Mathews, _Up the Amazon and Madeira Rivers_ (London, + 1879). + + + + +MAMUN (c. 786-833), originally ABDALLAH, surnamed AL-MA'MUN ("in whom +men trust"), the seventh of the Abbasid caliphs of Bagdad, was born +about A.D. 786, and was the second son of Harun al-Rashid. By Harun's +will he was successor-designate to his brother Amin, during whose reign +he was to be governor of the eastern part of the empire. On Harun's +death (809) Amin succeeded and Mamun acquiesced. Irritated, however, by +the treatment he received from Amin, and supported by a portion of the +army, Mamun speedily rebelled. A five years' struggle between the two +brothers ended in the death of Amin and the proclamation of Mamun as +caliph at Bagdad (Sept. 813). Various factions and revolts, which +disturbed the first years of his reign, were readily quelled by his +prudent and energetic measures. But a much more serious rebellion, +stirred up by his countenancing the heretical sect of Ali and adopting +their colours, soon after threatened his throne. His crown was actually +on the head of his uncle Ibrahim b. Mahdi (surnamed Mobarek) for a short +time (Barbier de Meynard, in _Journal Asiatique_, March-April 1869). +This inaugurated a period of tranquillity, which Mamun employed in +fostering literature and science. He had already, while governor of +Khorasan, founded a college there, and attracted to it the most eminent +men of the day, and Bagdad became the seat of academical instruction. At +his own expense he caused to be translated into Arabic many valuable +books from the Greek, Persian, Chaldean and Coptic languages; and he was +himself an ardent student of mathematics and astronomy. The first Arabic +translation of Euclid was dedicated to him in 813. Mamun founded +observatories at Bagdad and Kassiun (near Damascus), and succeeded in +determining the inclination of the ecliptic. He also caused a degree of +the meridian to be measured on the plain of Shinar; and he constructed +astronomical tables, which are said to be wonderfully accurate. + +In 827 he was converted to the heterodox faith of the Mo'tazilites, who +asserted the free-will of man and denied the eternity of the Koran. The +later years (829-830) of his reign were distracted by hostilities with +the Greek emperor Theophilus, while a series of revolts in different +parts of the Arabian empire betokened the decline of the military glory +of the caliphs. Spain and part of Africa had already asserted their +independence, and Egypt and Syria were now inclined to follow. In 833, +after quelling Egypt, at least nominally, Mamun marched into Cilicia to +prosecute the war with the Greeks, but died near Tarsus, leaving his +crown to a younger brother, Motasim. The death of Mamun ended an +important epoch in the history of science and letters and the period of +Arabian prosperity which his father's reign had begun. + + See further under CALIPHATE, sect. C., §§ 5, 6, 7. + + + + +MAMUND, a Pathan tribe and valley on the Peshawar border of the +North-West Frontier Province of India. The Mamunds live partly in Bajour +and partly in Afghan territory, due north of the Mohmands, a much larger +tribe, with whom they must not be confounded. They are one of the clans +of the Tarkanis (q.v.), and number 6000 fighting men; they gave much +trouble during the Chitral Campaign in 1895, and again during the +Mohmand Expedition in 1897 they inflicted severe losses upon General +Jeffrey's brigade. (See MOHMAND.) + + + + +MAN, the word common to Teutonic languages for a single person of the +human race, of either sex, the Lat. _homo_, and Gr. [Greek: anthrôpos]; +also for the human race collectively, and for a full-grown adult male +human being. Teutonic languages, other than English, have usually +adopted a derivative in the first sense, e.g. German _Mensch_. +Philologists are not in agreement as to whether the Sanskrit _manu_ is +the direct source, or whether both are to be traced to a common root. +Doubt also is thrown on the theory that the word is to be referred to +the Indo-Germanic root, _men_, meaning "to think," seen in "mind," man +being essentially the thinking or intelligent animal. (See +ANTHROPOLOGY.) + + + + +MAN, ISLE OF (anc. _Mona_), a dominion of the crown of England, in the +Irish Sea. (For map, see ENGLAND, section I.) It is about 33 m. long by +about 12 broad in the broadest part. Its general form resembles that of +an heraldic lozenge, though its outline is very irregular, being +indented with numerous bays and narrow creeks. Its chief physical +characteristic is the close juxtaposition of mountain, glen and sea, +which has produced a variety and beauty of scenery unsurpassed in any +area of equal size elsewhere. + +The greater part of its surface is hilly. The hills, which reach their +culminating point in Snaefell (2034 ft.), have a definite tendency to +trend in the direction of the longer axis, but throw out many radiating +spurs, which frequently extend to the coast-line. They are, for the most +part, smooth and rounded in outline, the rocks being such as do not +favour the formation of crags, though, owing to the rapidity of their +descent, streams have frequently rent steep-walled craggy gulleys in +their sides. The strength of the prevalent westerly winds has caused +them to be treeless, except in some of the lower slopes, but they are +clad with verdure to their summits. Rising almost directly from the sea, +they appear higher than they really are, and therefore present a much +more imposing appearance than many hills of greater altitude. On the +south-west, where they descend precipitously into the sea, they unite +with the cliffs to the north and south of them to produce the most +striking part of the coast scenery for which the isle is remarkable. +But, indeed, the whole coast from Peel round by the Calf, past +Castletown and Douglas to Maughold Head, near Ramsey, is distinguished +by rugged grandeur. From Ramsey round by the Point of Ayre to within a +few miles of Peel extend low sandy cliffs, bordered by flat sandy +shores, which surround the northern plain. This plain is relieved only +by a low range of hills, the highest of which attains an elevation of +270 ft. The drainage of the island radiates from the neighbourhood of +Snaefell, from which mountain and its spurs streams have on all sides +found their way to the sea. The most important of these are the Sulby, +falling into the sea at Ramsey; the _Awin-glass_ (bright river) and the +_Awin-dhoo_ (dark river), which unite their waters near Douglas; the +_Neb_, at the mouth of which Peel is situated; and the _Awin-argid_ +(silver river, now called the Silverburn), which joins the sea at +Castletown. There are no lakes. The narrow, winding glens thus formed, +which are studded with clumps of fir, sycamore and mountain ash, +interspersed with patches of gorse, heather and fern, afford a striking +and beautiful contrast to the bare mountain tops. Traces of an older +system of drainage than that which now exists are noticeable in many +places, the most remarkable being the central depression between Douglas +and Peel. The chief bays are, on the east coast, Ramsey, with an +excellent anchorage, Laxey, Douglas, Derbyhaven, Castletown and Port St +Mary; and, on the west coast, Port Erin and Peel. + + _Geology._--The predominant feature in the stratigraphy of the Isle of + Man is, in the words of G. W. Lamplough,[1] "the central ridge of + slate and greywacke, which seems to have constituted an insulated + tract at as early a date as the beginning of the Carboniferous period. + This prototype of the present island appears afterwards to have been + enfolded and obliterated by the sediments of later times; but with the + progress of denudation the old ridge has once more emerged from + beneath this mantle." This mass of ancient rocks, the Manx Slate + Series, has been divided locally into the Barrule slates, the Agneesh + and other grit beds; and the Lonan and Niarbyl Flags. The whole series + strikes N.E.-S.W., while structurally the strata form part of a + synclinorium, the higher beds being on the N.W. and S.E. sides of the + islands, the lower beds in the interior; although the subordinate dips + appear to indicate an anticlinal structure. These rocks have been + greatly crumpled; and in places, notably in Sully Glen, thrusting has + developed a well-marked crush-breccia. So much has this folding and + compression toughened the soft argillaceous rocks that the Barrule + Slate, for example, is almost everywhere found occupying the highest + points while the hard but more joined grits and flags occupy the lower + ground on the mountain flanks. The Manx Series is penetrated and + altered by large masses of granite at Dhoon, Foxdale and one or two + other spots; and dykes, more or less directly associated with these + masses, are numerous. No satisfactory fossils have yet been obtained + from these rocks, but they are regarded, provisionally, as of Upper + Cambrian age. Carboniferous rocks, including a basal conglomerate, + white limestone with abundant fossils, and the black "Posidonomya + Beds" (some of which are polished as a black marble) occur about + Castletown, Poolvash Bay and Langness; and the basement beds appear + again on the west coast at Peel. The cliffs and foreshore at Scarlet + Point exhibit contemporaneous Carboniferous tuffs, agglomerates and + basalts, as well as later dolerite dykes, in a most striking manner. + Here too may be seen some curious effects of thrusting in the + limestones. At the northern end of the island the Manx Slates end + abruptly in an ancient sea-cliff which crosses between Ramsey and + Ballaugh. The low-lying country beyond is formed of a thick mass of + glacial sands, gravels and boulder clay. In the Bride Hills are to be + seen glacial mounds rising 150 ft. above the level of the plain. The + depressions known as the Curragh, now drained but still peaty in + places, probably represent the sites of late glacial lakes. Glacial + deposits are found also in all parts of the island. Beneath the thick + drift of the plain, Carboniferous, Permian and Trassic rocks have been + proved to lie at some depth below the present sea-level. On the coast + near the Point of Ayr is a raised beach. Silver-bearing lead ore, zinc + and copper are the principal minerals found in the Isle of Man; the + most important mining centres being at Foxdale and Laxey. + + _Climate._--The island is liable to heavy gales from the south-west. + Of this the trend of the branches of the trees to the north-east is a + striking testimony. But it is equally subject to the influence of the + warm drift from the Atlantic, so that its winters are mild, and, + influenced by the less changeable temperature of the sea, its summers + cool. The mean annual temperature is 49°.0 F., the temperature of the + coldest month (January) being 41°.5, and the warmest (August) 58°.5, + giving an extreme annual range of temperature of 17°.1 only, while the + average temperature in spring is 46°.0, in summer 57°.2, in autumn + 50°.9 and in winter 42°.0. Further evidence of the mildness of the + climate is afforded by the fact that fuchsias, hydrangeas, myrtles and + escallonias grow luxuriantly in the open air. Its rainfall, placed as + it is between mountain districts in England, Ireland, Scotland and + Wales, is naturally rather wet than dry. Statistics, however, reveal + remarkable divergencies in the amounts of rain in the different parts + of the island, varying from 61 in. at Snaefell to 25 in. at the Calf + of Man. In the more populous districts it varies from 46 in. at + Ramsey, and 45 in. at Douglas, to 38 in. at Peel and 34 in. at + Castletown. Of sunshine the Isle of Man has a larger share than any + portion of the United Kingdom except the south and south-east coasts + and the Channel Islands. Briefly, then, the climate of the island may + be pronounced to be equable and sunny, and, though humid, decidedly + invigorating; its rainfall, though it varies greatly, is excessive in + the populous districts; and its winds are strong and frequent, and + usually mild and damp. + + _Fauna._--Like Ireland, the Isle of Man is exempt from snakes and + toads, a circumstance traditionally attributed to the agency of St + Patrick, the patron saint of both islands. Frogs, however, have been + introduced from Ireland, and both the sand lizard and the common + lizard are found. Badgers, moles, squirrels and voles are absent and + foxes are extinct. Fossil bones of the Irish elk are frequently found, + and a complete skeleton of this animal is to be seen at Castle Rushen. + The red deer, which is referred to in the ancient laws and pictured on + the runic crosses, became extinct by the beginning of the 18th + century. Hares are less plentiful than formerly, and rabbits are not + very numerous. Snipe are fairly common, and there are a few partridges + and grouse. The latter, which had become extinct, were reintroduced in + 1880. Woodcock, wild geese, wild ducks, plover, widgeon, teal, heron, + bittern, kingfishers and the Manx shearwater (_Puffinus anglorum_) + visit the island, but do not breed there. The puffin (_Fratercula + artica_) is still numerous on the Calf islet in the summer time. The + peregrine falcon, which breeds on the rocky coast, and the chough have + become very scarce. The legal protection of sea-birds (local act of + 1867) has led to an enormous increase in the number of gulls. A + variety of the domestic cat, remarkable for the absence or stunted + condition of the tail, is peculiar to the island. + + _Flora._--Like the fauna, the flora is chiefly remarkable for its + meagreness. It contains at most 450 species as compared with 690 in + Jersey. Alpine forms are absent. But what it lacks in variety it makes + up in beauty and quantity. For the profusion of the gorse-bloom and + the abundance of spring flowers, especially of primroses, and of + ferns, the Isle of Man is probably unrivalled. + +_People._--The Manx people of the present day are mainly of +Scandio-Celtic origin, with some slight traces of earlier races. They +have large and broad heads, usually broader than those of their brother +Celts (_Goidels_) in Ireland and Scotland, with very broad, but not +specially prominent cheek-bones. Their faces are usually either +scutiform, like those of the Northmen, or oval, which is the usual +Celtic type, and their noses are almost always of good length, and +straighter than is general among Celtic races. Light eyes and fair +complexion, with rather dark hair, are the more usual combinations. They +are usually rather tall and heavily built, their average height (males) +being 5 ft. 7½ in., and average weight (naked) 155 lb. The tendency of +the population to increase is balanced by emigration. It reached its +maximum in 1891. Since then it has slightly declined. A noticeable +feature is its greater proportionate growth in the towns, especially in +Douglas, than in the country. The country population reached its maximum +in 1851. Since then it has been shrinking rapidly, especially in the +northern district. + + +---------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + | Sheadings, Parishes | | | | | + | and Towns. | 1726. | 1821. | 1871. | 1901. | + +---------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + | Rushen. | | | | | + | Malew (P.) | 890 | 2,649 | 2,466 | 2,113 | + | Castletown (T.) | 785 | 2,036 | 2,318 | 1,963 | + | Arbory (P.) | 661 | 1,455 | 1,350 | 802 | + | Rushen (P.) | 813 | 2,568 | 3,665 | 3,277 | + | Middle. | | | | | + | Santon (P.) | 376 | 800 | 628 | 468 | + | Braddan (P.) | 780 | 1,754 | 2,215 | 2,177 | + | Douglas (T.) | 810 | 6,054 | 13,846 | 19,149 | + | Onchan (P.) | 370 | 1,457 | 1,620 | 3,942 | + | Glenfalca. | | | | | + | Marown (P.) | 499 | 1,201 | 1,121 | 973 | + | German (P.) | 510 | 1,849 | 1,762 | 1,230 | + | Peel (T.) | 475 | 1,909 | 3,496 | 3,306 | + | Patrick (P.) | 745 | 2,031 | 2,888 | 1,925 | + | Garff. | | | | | + | Lonan (P.) | 547 | 1,846 | 3,741 | 2,513 | + | Maughold (P.) | 529 | 1,514 | 1,433 | 887 | + | Ramsey (T.) | 460 | 1,523 | 3,861 | 4,672 | + | Ayre. | | | | | + | Lezayre (P.) | 1,309 | 2,209 | 1,620 | 1,389 | + | Bride (P.) | 612 | 1,001 | 880 | 539 | + | Andreas (P.) | 967 | 2,229 | 1,757 | 1,144 | + | Michael. | | | | | + | Jurby (P.) | 483 | 1,108 | 788 | 504 | + | Ballaugh (P.) | 806 | 1,467 | 1,077 | 712 | + | Michael (P.) | 643 | 1,427 | 1,231 | 928 | + +---------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + | Total | 14,070 | 40,087 | 53,763 | 54,613 | + +---------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + + _Chief Political Divisions and Towns._--The island is divided into six + sheadings (so named from the Scandinavian _skeða-Þing_, or + ship-district), called Glenfaba, Middle, Rushen, Garff, Ayre and + Michael, each of which has its officer, the coroner, whose functions + are similar to those of a sheriff; and there are seventeen parishes. + For the towns see CASTLETOWN, DOUGLAS, PEEL and RAMSEY. The principal + villages are Ballasalla, Ballaugh, Foxdale, Laxey, Michael, Onchan, + Port Erin and Port St Mary. + + _Communications._--There is communication by steamer with Liverpool, + Glasgow, Greenock, Belfast, Silloth, Whitehaven, Belfast and Dublin + throughout the year and, during the summer season, there are also + steamers plying to Androssan, Heysham, Fleetwood and Blackpool. A + daily mail was established in 1879. The internal communications are + excellent. The roads are under the management of a board appointed by + the Tynwald Court, a surveyor-general, and parochial surveyors. They + are maintained by a system of licences on public-houses, carriages, + carts and dogs, and a rate on real property. There are railways + between Douglas, Ramsey, Peel, Castletown, Port Erin and Port St Mary, + the line between Douglas and Ramsey being via St John's and Michael. + Electric tramways run from Douglas to Ramsey via Laxey, from Douglas + to Port Soderick, and from Laxey to the summit of Snaefell. + + _Industries. (a) Agriculture._--The position of the Manx farmers, + though they generally pay higher rents than their compeers in those + countries do, is, except in the remote parts of the island, more + favourable than that of the English or Scottish farmers. The best land + is in the north and south. The farms are principally held on lease and + small holdings have almost entirely disappeared. The cultivated area + is about 93,000 acres, or 65% of the whole. The commons and + uncultivated lands on the mountains are also utilized for pasturage. + Oats occupy about three-fourths of the area under corn crops, barley + about one-sixth. The amount of wheat and other corn crops is very + trifling. Neither Manx wheat nor barley is as good on an average as + English; but oats is, on the whole, fully equal to what is grown on + the mainland. Turnips, which are an excellent crop, are largely + exported, and the dry and sandy soil of the north of the island is + very favourable for the growth of potatoes. The white and red clover + and the common grasses grow luxuriantly, and the pasturage is, + generally speaking, good. Some of the low-lying land, especially in + the north, is much in need of systematic drainage. The livestock, + largely in consequence of the premiums given by the insular government + and the local agricultural society to bulls, heavy and light stallions + and cart mares, now approximates very closely in quality to the stock + in the north of England. Dairying, owing to the large number of summer + visitors, is the most profitable department of agricultural industry. + Apples, pears and wall fruit do not succeed very well, but the soil is + favourable for the cultivation of strawberries, raspberries, + gooseberries, currants and vegetables. Both agricultural and + market-garden produce are quite insufficient to supply the demand in + the summer. + + _(b) Fishing._--The important place which the fishing industry + anciently held in the social organization of the Isle of Man is + quaintly reflected in the wording of the oath formerly taken by the + deemsters, who promised to execute the laws between the sovereign and + his subjects, and "betwixt party and party, as indifferently as the + herring backbone doth lie in the midst of the fish." The statutes and + records abound in evidence of the great extent to which both the + people and their rulers were dependent on the produce of the sea. The + most numerous fish are herrings, cod, mackerel, ling, haddock, plaice, + sole, fluke, turbot and brett. The industry is, however, in a decaying + condition, especially the herring fishery, which, for reasons which + have not been satisfactorily ascertained, fails periodically. The + amount of fish caught, except herrings, is not sufficient to supply + the local demand in the summer, though some of the fish named are + exported during the rest of the year. About 250 vessels, aggregating + 4260 tons, with crews numbering 4250, are employed in this industry. A + fish hatchery has been established at Port Erin by the insular + government. + + (c) _Mining._--There is no doubt that, in proportion to its area, the + metalliferous wealth of the Isle of Man has been very considerable. + Two of its mines, Laxey and Foxdale, have stood for a long series of + years in the first rank in the British Islands for productiveness of + zinc and silver lead respectively. These metals have constituted its + principal riches, but copper pyrites and hematite iron have also been + raised in marketable quantities, while only very small amounts of the + ores of nickel and antimony have been found. The mines are rented from + the Crown as lord of the manor. The value of the ore produced is about + £40,000 annually. Other economic products are clay, granite, + limestone, sandstone, slate (of an inferior quality) and salt, which + has been discovered near the Point of Ayre. + + (d) _Textiles, &c._--Since labour has become scarcer and dearer + textile industries have been declining, being unable to compete with + larger and more completely organized manufactories elsewhere. The + principal manufactured articles are woollen cloths and blankets, hemp + ropes and cotton, and herring nets. A few fishing vessels are built, + and brewing is a prosperous industry. But, apart from agriculture, the + most important industry (for so it may be called) is that of the + provision for summer visitors, nearly half a million of whom come to + the island annually. + + _Commerce._--The chief exports are lead, zinc, turnips, ropes, cotton + nets and salt. The imports consist chiefly of timber, provisions, + livestock, poultry, flour, fruit, vegetables and eggs. In 1906 the + tonnage of vessels (other than fishing or wind-bound vessels) cleared + for traffic was 720,790. The number of vessels (other than fishing + vessels) registered as belonging to the island in 1906 was 79. + +_Government._--The government of the island is vested in a +lieutenant-governor, appointed by the Crown; in a Council, which is the +upper branch of the legislature; in the House of Keys, which is the +lower branch; and in the Tynwald Court. The Council and Keys sit +separately as legislative bodies, but they sit in the Tynwald Court as +distinct bodies with co-ordinate powers to transact executive business +and to sign Bills. The Tynwald Court controls the surplus revenue, after +the payment of the cost of government and of a fixed contribution of +£10,000 to the imperial exchequer, subject to the supervision of the +Treasury and the veto of the lieutenant-governor, and it appoints boards +to manage the harbours, highways, education, local government, and +lunatic and poor asylums. The Imperial government, after intimating its +intention to Tynwald, fixes the rates of the customs duties, but Tynwald +can by resolution "impose, abolish or vary" the customs duties subject +to the approval of parliament or the Treasury, such change to take +effect immediately and to continue for six months, and, if parliament be +then sitting, to the end of the session, provided that the same be not +in the meantime annulled by the passing of an act of parliament, or a +Treasury minute. The approval of the sovereign of the United Kingdom in +Council is essential to every legislative enactment. Acts of the +imperial parliament do not affect the island except it be specially +named in them. The lieutenant-governor, who is the representative of the +sovereign, presides in the Council, in the Tynwald Court, in the High +Court of Justice (Staff of Government division) and in the Court of +General Gaol Delivery. He is the supreme executive authority, and he +shares the control of the legislative and administrative functions, +including the management of the revenue and the control of its surplus, +with the Tynwald Court; he has also the power of veto as regards the +disposal of surplus revenue and the nature of proposed harbour works, +and his signature is necessary to the validity of all acts. It has been +the practice for him to act as chancellor of the exchequer and to +initiate all questions concerning the raising or expenditure of public +funds. The Council consists of the lieutenant-governor, the lord-bishop +of the diocese, the clerk of the rolls, the two deemsters, the +attorney-general, the archdeacon (all of whom are appointed by the +Crown) and the vicar-general, who is appointed by the bishop. No act of +the governor and Council is valid unless it is the act of the governor +and at least two members of the Council. The House of Keys (for origin +of the name see KEY) is one of the most ancient legislative assemblies +in the world. It consists of twenty-four members, elected by male and +female owners or occupiers of property. Each of the six sheadings +elects three members; the towns of Castletown, Peel and Ramsey one each, +and Douglas five. There is no property qualification required of the +members, and the house sits for five years unless previously dissolved +by the lieutenant-governor. + + _Law._--The High Court of Justice, of which the lieutenant-governor is + president, contains three divisions: viz. the Chancery Division, in + which the clerk of the rolls sits as judge, the Common Law Division, + of which the deemsters are the judges, the Staff of Government + Division, in which the governor and three judges sit together. The + jurisdiction of the Chancery and Common Law Division is in the main + similar to that of the corresponding divisions in the English Courts. + The Staff of Government exercises appellate jurisdiction, similar to + that of the Appeal Courts in England. The Common Law Courts for the + southern division of the island are held at Douglas and Castletown + alternately and those for the northern division at Ramsey, once in + three months. Actions in these courts are heard by a deemster and a + special or common jury. The Chancery Court sits once a fortnight at + Douglas. The deemsters also have summary jurisdiction in matters of + debt, actions for liquidated damages under £50, suits for possession + of real or personal property, petitions for probate, &c. These courts, + called Deemsters' Courts, are held weekly, alternately at Douglas and + Castletown, by the deemster for the southern division of the island, + and at Ramsey and Peel by the deemster for the northern division. + Criminal cases are heard by the magistrates or a high-bailiff and are + (with the exception of minor cases which may be dealt with summarily) + sent on by them for trial by a deemster and a jury of six, who hear + the evidence and determine whether there is sufficient ground for + sending the case for trial before the Court of General Gaol Delivery, + thus discharging the functions of the Grand Jury in England. The Court + of General Gaol Delivery is the Supreme Criminal Court and is presided + over by the lieutenant-governor, who is assisted by the clerk of the + rolls and the two deemsters. The high-bailiffs hold weekly courts in + the four towns for the recovery of debts under forty shillings and for + the trial of cases usually brought before a stipendiary magistrate in + England. The magistrates (J.P.'s) also hold regular courts in the + towns for the trial of breaches of the peace and minor offences. There + is a coroner in each of the six sheadings. These officers are + appointed annually by the lieutenant-governor and perform duties + similar to those of a sheriff's officer in England. Inquests of death + are held by a high-bailiff and jury. The Manx Bar is distinct from + that of England. Its members, called "Advocates," combine the + functions of barrister and solicitor. The laws relating to real + property still retain much of their ancient peculiarity, but other + branches of law have of late years by various acts of Tynwald been + made practically identical with English law. + + As regards real property the general tenure is a customary freehold + devolving from each possessor to his next heir-at-law. The descent of + land follows the same rules as the descent of the crown of England. + The right of primogeniture extends to females in default of males in + the direct line. The interest of a widow or widower, being the first + wife or husband of a person deceased, is a life estate in one-half of + the lands which have descended hereditarily, and is forfeited by a + second marriage; a second husband or second wife is only entitled to a + life interest in one-fourth, if there be issue of the first marriage. + Of the land purchased by the husband the wife surviving him is + entitled to a life interest in one moiety. By a statute of the year + 1777 proprietors of land are empowered to grant leases for any term + not exceeding twenty-one years in possession without the consent of + the wife. + + _Church._--It is not known by whom Christianity was introduced into + Man, but from the large proportion of names of Irish ecclesiastics + surviving in the appellations of the old Manx _keeills_, or cells, + which are of similar type to the Irish oratories of the 6th and 7th + centuries, and in the dedications of the parish churches, which are + usually on ancient sites, it may be reasonably conjectured that + Manxmen were, for the most part, Christianized by Irish missionaries. + During the incursions of the pagan Vikings Christianity was almost + certainly extirpated and it was probably not reintroduced before the + beginning of the 11th century. The two most important events in the + history of the medieval Manx Church were the formation of the diocese + of _Sodor_ (q.v.) and the foundation of the abbey of Rushen, a branch + of the Cistercian abbey of Furness, in 1134. This latter event was + important because the Cistercians were exempted from all episcopal + visitation and control, by charter granted by the pope, and were, + therefore, only subject to his rule and that of the abbots of their + own order. From this time till the Reformation we find that there was + an almost continuous struggle between the laity and the spiritual + barons and monks, who had obtained great power and much property in + the island. In 1458 the diocese was placed under York. The dissolution + of the religious houses in Man was not brought about by the English + Act of 1539, which did not apply to the island, but by the arbitrary + action of Henry VIII. From such evidence as is available it would seem + that the Reformation was a very slow process. When Isaac Barrow (uncle + of his well-known namesake) became bishop in 1663 the condition of the + Church was deplorable, but under him and his able and saintly + successors, Thomas Wilson (1698-1755) and Mark Hildesley (1755-1773). + it attained to a very much higher level than the English Church during + the same period. After Hildesley's time it was again neglected, and + successful missions by John Wesley and others resulted in the + establishment and rapid increase of Nonconformity. It was not till the + second decade of the 19th century that the condition of the Church + began to improve again, and this improvement has steadily continued. + In 1878 a Sodor and Man theological school was established for the + training of candidates for holy orders. This school has been + affiliated to Durham University. In 1880 four rural deaneries were + established, and commissioners were constituted as trustees of + endowments for Church purposes. In 1895 a cathedral chapter, with four + canons, was constituted under the name of the "Dean and Chapter of + Man," the bishop being the dean of the cathedral church. A Church + Sustentation Fund was established by Bishop Straton in 1894, with a + view to supplementing the incomes of the clergy, which had been + greatly reduced on account of the low price of corn. There have been + several acts giving Nonconformists equal rights with Churchmen. Among + these are the Burials Acts of 1881 and 1895, which permit burials to + take place in churchyards without the rites of the Church of England, + and allow any burial service, provided it be Christian, in mortuary + chapels. At the present day Nonconformists, chiefly Wesleyan + Methodists, probably outnumber Churchmen, and there is a small number + of Roman Catholics and Presbyterians. The bishop, who has a seat, but + not a vote, in the House of Lords, is assisted by an archdeacon, a + vicar-general, a registrar and a sumner-general. The jurisdiction of + the only remaining ecclesiastical court, which is presided over by the + vicar-general, as representing the bishop, is mainly in connexion with + affiliation questions, the swearing-in of churchwardens and the + granting of faculties. The power of the Manx Convocation to make + canons, though not exercised since 1704, has never been abrogated, and + so far affords a token that the Manx Church is a separate national + Church governed by its own laws, which, however, must be approved by + the insular Legislature. + + _Education._--It was not till 1872, when the insular Legislature + passed the Public Elementary Education Act, that the Manx State + undertook any direct responsibility for education. This act differed + from the English Act of 1870 in three important particulars: (1) it at + once constituted every town and parish a school district under a + school board; (2) the attendance of children was made compulsory; and + (3) every elementary school, those in connexion with the Church of + Rome excepted, was obliged to provide for non-sectarian instruction in + religious subjects, and for the reading of the Bible accompanied by + suitable explanation. Since the date of this act education has made + extraordinary strides. It became free in 1892, and a higher-grade + school was established in Douglas in 1894. The public elementary + schools, which are nearly all managed by School Boards, are subject to + the control of a local "Council of Education" appointed by the Tynwald + Court; but, as the Manx Act of 1872 requires that, in order to obtain + a government grant, the schools shall fulfil the conditions contained + in the minutes of the education department at Whitehall, they are + examined by English inspectors and compelled to attain the same + standard of efficiency as the English and Welsh schools. In 1907 an + act establishing a system of secondary education was passed by the + Legislature. The total number of public elementary schools in 1906 was + 47, 42 being board and 5 denominational. Besides King William's + College, opened in 1833, which provided a similar education to that + obtainable at the English public schools, there are grammar schools in + Douglas, Ramsey and Castletown. + + The Manx language (see CELT: _Language_) still lingers, the census of + 1901 showing that there were about 4400 people who understood + something of it. There is now no one who does not speak English. + + _Economics._--Municipal government was established in 1860, and in + 1876 vaccination was made compulsory, as also was the registration of + births, marriages and deaths in 1878. It was not till 1884 that the + sanitation of the towns was seriously taken in hand; but ten years + more elapsed before the sanitary condition of the island was dealt + with by the passing of an act which constituted parish and village + districts, with commissioners elected by the people, who had, in + conjunction with a board elected by the Tynwald Court and an inspector + appointed by it, to attend to all questions relating to sanitation and + infectious diseases. As a result of these measures the death-rate has + been greatly reduced. In 1888 a permissive poor law was established; + it has been adopted by all the towns except Peel and by seven of the + seventeen country parishes. Before this date the poor had been + dependent on voluntary relief, which broke down owing to the growth of + a temporarily employed class occupied in administering to the wants of + the summer visitors. The total number of persons in receipt of poor + relief averages about 920, and that of lunatics about 212. The average + number of births during the five years 1902-1906 was 21.6, of + marriages 6.1, and of deaths 17.6 per thousand. The rateable annual + value of the parishes, towns and villages is about £400,000. The + revenue for the year ending the 31st of March 1907 was £86,365, and + the expenditure £75,728. The largest revenue raised was £91,193 in + 1901, and the debt reached its maximum amount, £219,531, in 1894. + +_History._--The history of the Isle of Man falls naturally into three +periods. In the first of these the island was inhabited by a Celtic +people. The next is marked by the Viking invasions and the establishment +of Scandinavian rule. The third period is that of the English dominion. +The secular history of the Isle of Man during the Celtic period is an +absolute blank, there being no trustworthy record of any event whatever +before the incursions of the Northmen, since the exploits attributed to +Baetan MacCairill, king of Ulster, at the end of the 6th century, which +were formally supposed to have been performed in the Isle of Man, really +occurred in the country between the Firths of Clyde and Forth. And it is +clear that, even if the supposed conquest of the Menavian islands--Man +and Anglesey--by Edwin of Northumbria, in 616, did take place, it could +not have led to any permanent results; for, when the English were driven +from the coasts of Cumberland and Lancashire soon afterwards, they could +not well have retained their hold on the island to the west of these +coasts. It is, however, possible that in 684, when Ecfrid laid Ireland +waste from Dublin to Drogheda, he temporarily occupied Man. During the +period of Scandinavian domination there are two main epochs--one before +the conquest of Man by Godred Crovan in 1079, and the other after it. +The earlier epoch is characterized by warfare and unsettled rule, the +later is comparatively peaceful. Between about A.D. 800 and 815 the +Vikings came to Man chiefly for plunder; between about 850 and 990, when +they settled in it, the island fell under the rule of the Scandinavian +kings of Dublin; and between 990 and 1079, it was subject to the +powerful earls of Orkney. The conqueror Godred Crovan was evidently a +remarkable man, though little information about him is attainable. +According to the _Chronicon Manniae_ he "subdued Dublin, and a great +part of Leinster, and held the Scots in such subjection that no one who +built a vessel dared to insert more than three bolts." The memory of +such a ruler would be likely to survive in tradition, and it seems +probable therefore that he is the person commemorated in Manx legend +under the name of King Gorse or Orry. The islands which were under his +rule were called the _Suðr-eyjar_ (Sudreys or the south isles), in +contradistinction to the _norðr-eyjar_, or the north isles, i.e. the +Orkneys and Shetlands, and they consisted of the Hebrides, and of all +the smaller western islands of Scotland, with Man. At a later date his +successors took the title of _Rex Manniae el Insularum_. Olaf, Godred's +son, was a powerful monarch, who, according to the Chronicle, maintained +"such close alliance with the kings of Ireland and Scotland that no one +ventured to disturb the Isles during his time" (1113-1152). His son, +Godred, who for a short period ruled over Dublin also, as a result of a +quarrel with Somerled, the ruler of Argyll, in 1156, lost the smaller +islands off the coast of Argyll. An independent sovereignty was thus +interposed between the two divisions of his kingdom. Early in the 13th +century, when Reginald of Man did homage to King John, we hear for the +first time of English intervention in the affairs of Man. But it was +into the hands of Scotland that the islands were ultimately to fall. +During the whole of the Scandinavian period the isles were nominally +under the suzerainty of the kings of Norway, but they only occasionally +asserted it with any vigour. The first to do so was Harold Haarfager +about 885, then came Magnus Barfod about 1100, both of whom conquered +the isles. From the middle of the 12th century till 1217 the suzerainty, +owing to the fact that Norway was a prey to civil dissensions, had been +of a very shadowy character. But after that date it became a reality and +Norway consequently came into collision with the growing power of +Scotland. Finally, in 1261, Alexander III. of Scotland sent envoys to +Norway to negotiate for the cession of the isles, but their efforts led +to no result. He therefore initiated hostilities which terminated in the +complete defeat of the Norwegian fleet at Largs in 1263. Magnus, king of +Man and the Isles, who had fought on the Norwegian side, was compelled +to surrender all the islands over which he had ruled, except Man, for +which he did homage. Two years later Magnus died and in 1266 the king of +Norway, in consideration of the sum of 4000 marks, ceded the islands, +including Man, to Scotland. But Scotland's rule over Man was not firmly +established till 1275, when the Manx were defeated in a decisive battle +at Ronaldsway, near Castletown. In 1290 we find Edward I. of England in +possession of Man, and it remained in English hands till 1313, when it +was taken by Robert Bruce after besieging Castle Rushen for five weeks. +Then, till 1346, when the battle of Neville's Cross decided the long +struggle between England and Scotland in England's favour, there +followed a confused period when Man was sometimes under English and +sometimes under Scottish rule. About 1333 it had been granted by King +Edward III. to William de Montacute, 1st earl of Salisbury, as his +absolute possession, without reserving any service to be rendered to +him. In 1392 his son sold the island "with the crowne" to Sir William Le +Scroope. In 1399 Henry IV. caused Le Scroope, who had taken Richard's +side, to be beheaded. The island then came into the possession of the +crown and was granted to Henry de Percy, earl of Northumberland, but, he +having been attainted, Henry IV., in 1406, made a grant of it, with the +patronage of the bishopric, to Sir John Stanley, his heirs and assigns, +on the service of rendering two falcons on paying homage and two falcons +to all future kings of England on their coronation. + +With the accession of the Stanleys to the throne there begins a better +epoch in Manx history. Though the island's new rulers rarely visited its +shores, they placed it under responsible governors, who, in the main, +seem to have treated it with justice. Of the thirteen members of the +family who ruled in Man, the second Sir John Stanley (1414-1432), James, +the 7th earl (1627-1651), and the 10th earl of the same name (1702-1736) +had the most important influence on it. The first curbed the power of +the spiritual barons, introduced trial by jury, instead of trial by +battle, and ordered the laws to be written. The second, known as the +Great Stanley, and his wife, Charlotte de la Tremoille (or Tremouille), +are probably the most striking figures in Manx history. In 1643 Charles +I. ordered him to go to Man, where the people, who were no doubt +influenced by what was taking place in England, threatened to revolt. +But his arrival, with English soldiers, soon put a stop to anything of +this kind. He conciliated the people by his affability, brought in +Englishmen to teach various handicrafts and tried to help the farmers by +improving the breed of Manx horses, and, at the same time, he restricted +the exactions of the Church. But the Manx people never had less liberty +than under his rule. They were heavily taxed; troops were quartered upon +them; and they also had the more lasting grievance of being compelled to +accept leases for three lives instead of holding their land by the +"straw" tenure which they considered to be equivalent to a customary +inheritance. Six months after the death of the king Stanley received a +summons from General Ireton to surrender the island, which he haughtily +declined. In August 1651 he went to England with some of his troops, +among whom were 300 Manxmen, to join King Charles II., and he and they +shared in the decisive defeat of the Royalists at Worcester. He was +captured and confined in Chester Castle, and, after being tried by court +martial, was executed at Wigan. Soon after his death the Manx Militia, +under the command of William Christian, rose against the Countess and +captured all the insular forts except Rushen and Peel. They were then +joined by a parliamentary force under Colonel Duckenfield, to whom the +Countess surrendered after a brief resistance. Fairfax had been +appointed "Lord of Man and the Isles" in September, so that Man +continued under a monarchical government and remained in the same +relation to England as before. The restoration of Stanley government in +1660 therefore caused as little friction and alteration as its temporary +cessation had. One of the first acts of the new lord, Charles (the 8th +earl), was to order Christian to be tried. He was found guilty and +executed. Of the other persons implicated in the rebellion only three +were excepted from the general amnesty. But by order in Council they +were pardoned, and the judges responsible for the sentence on Christian +were punished. His next act was to dispute the permanency of the +tenants' holdings, which they had not at first regarded as being +affected by the acceptance of leases, a proceeding which led to an +almost open rebellion against his authority and to the neglect of +agriculture. In lieu of it the people devoted themselves to the +fisheries and to contraband trade. The agrarian question was not settled +till 1704, when James, Charles's brother and successor, largely through +the influence of Bishop Wilson, entered into a compact with his tenants, +which was embodied in an act, called the "Act of Settlement." Their +compact secured the tenants in the possession of their estates in +perpetuity on condition of a fixed rent, and a small fine on succession +or alienation. From the great importance of this act to the Manx people +it has been called their _Magna Carta_. As time went on, and the value +of the estates increased, the rent payable to the lord became so small +in proportion as to be almost nominal. James died in 1736 and the +sovereignty of the isle passed to James Murray, 2nd duke of Atholl. In +1764 he was succeeded by his only surviving child Charlotte, Baroness +Strange, and her husband, John Murray, who, in right of his wife, became +Lord of Man. About 1720 the contraband trade greatly increased. In 1726 +it was, for a time, somewhat checked by the interposition of parliament, +but during the last ten years of the Atholl régime (1756-1765) it +assumed such proportions that, in the interests of the imperial revenue, +it became necessary to suppress it. With a view to so doing an Act of +Parliament, called the "Revesting Act," was passed in 1765, under which +the sovereign rights of the Atholls and the customs revenues of the +island were purchased for the sum of £70,000, and an annuity of £2000 +was granted to the duke and duchess. The Atholls still retained their +manorial rights, the patronage of the See, and certain other +perquisites, which were finally purchased for the excessive sum of +£417,144 in 1828. Up to the time of the Revestment the Tynwald Court +passed laws concerning the government of the island in all respects and +had control over its finances, subject to the approval of the lord. +After the Revestment, or rather after the passage of the "Mischief Act" +in the same year, Imperial Parliament legislated with respect to +customs, harbours and merchant shipping, and, in measures of a general +character, it occasionally inserted clauses by which penalties in +contravention of the acts of which they formed part might be enforced in +the island. It also assumed the control of the insular customs duties. +Such were the changes which, rather than the transference of the +sovereignty from the lord to the king of Great Britain and Ireland, +modified the Constitution of the Isle of Man. Its ancient laws and +tenures were not interfered with, but in many ways the Revestment +adversely affected it. The hereditary lords were far from being model +rulers, but most of them had taken some personal share in its +government, and had interested themselves in the well-being of its +inhabitants. But now the whole direction of its affairs was handed over +to officials, who regarded the island as a pestilent nest of smugglers, +from which it was their duty to extract as much revenue as possible. +Some alleviation of this state of things was experienced between 1793 +and 1826 when the 4th duke of Atholl was appointed governor, since, +though he quarrelled with the Keys and was unduly solicitous for his +pecuniary interests, he did occasionally exert himself to promote the +welfare of the island. After his departure the English officials resumed +their sway. But they were more considerate than before. Moreover, since +smuggling, which had only been checked, not suppressed, by the Revesting +Act, had by that time almost disappeared, and the Manx revenue was +producing a large and increasing surplus, the Isle of Man came to be +regarded more favourably, and, thanks to this fact and to the +representations of the Manx people to English ministers in 1837, 1844 +and 1853, it obtained a somewhat less stringent customs tariff and an +occasional dole towards erecting its much neglected public works. Since +1866, when the Isle of Man obtained a measure of at least nominal "Home +Rule," the Manx people have made remarkable progress, and at the present +day form a prosperous community. + +_Monuments._--The prehistoric monuments in Man are numerous. There are +earth entrenchments, seemingly of the earliest period; fragments of +stone circles and alignments; burial cairns with stone cists of several +successive periods; urn mounds and _crannoges_ or lake dwellings. The +monuments belonging to the historic period begin with the round tower on +Peel islet, the humble Celtic _keeills_ and the sculptured crosses in +which the island is especially rich. Of these crosses about one-fourth +have inscriptions in the old Norse language. The origin and history of +the early buildings remaining on the island are obscure. The castles of +Rushen and Peel are the only important buildings of a military character +which survive, but the remains of ecclesiastical buildings are numerous +and interesting, though, with the exception of St German's Cathedral on +Peel islet, now in ruins, they are only small and simple structures. + +_Arms._--There has been much controversy about the origin of the arms of +the island--the "three-legs" found on a beautiful pillar cross near +Maughhold churchyard belonging to the latter part of the 14th century. +It was probably originally a sun symbol and was brought from Sicily by +the Vikings. The motto _quocunque jeceris slabit_ is of comparatively +recent origin. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--History and Law: _The Manx Society's publications_, + vols. i.-xxxii., notably the _Chronicon Manniae_ (vols. xxii. and + xxiii., edited by Munch); Sir Spencer Walpole, K.C.B., _The Land of + Home Rule_, an essay on the history and constitution of the Isle of + Man (London, Longmans, Green & Co., 1893); A. W. Moore, M.A., C.V.O., + _The Diocese of Sodor and Man_, S.P.C.K.'s series of Diocesan + Histories (1893); and _A History of the Isle of Man_, (2 vols., + London, T. Fisher Unwin, 1900); _The Statutes of the Isle of Man from + 1817 to 1895_, Gill's edition, 6 vols. (vol. i. 1883 to vol. vi. 1897, + London, Eyre & Spottiswoode); Richard Sherward (Deemster), _Manx Law + Tenures_, a short treatise on the law relating to real estate in the + Isle of Man (Douglas Robinson Bros., 1899). Archaeology and Folklore: + P. M. C. Kermode, F. S. A. Scot., _Manx Crosses_ (London, Bemrose & + Sons, 1907); E. Alfred Jones, _The Old Church Plate of the Isle of + Man_ (Bemrose & Sons, 1907); A. W. Moore, C.V.O., M.A., _The Folklore + of the Isle of Man_ (London, D. Nutt, 1891). Language and Philology: + _A Dictionary of the Manx Language_ (Manx-English), by Archibald + Cregeen (1835); _A Practical Grammar of the Antient Gaelic, or + Language of the Isle of Man, usually called Manks_, by Rev. John + Kelly, LL.D.; _Manx Society's publications_, vol. ii. (1859, reprint + of edition of 1804); _The Manx Dictionary in two ports_ (Manx-English, + English-Manx), by Rev. John Kelly, William Gill and John Clarke; _Manx + Society's publications_, vol. xiii. (1866); _The Book of Common Prayer + in Manx Gaelic_, being translations made by Bishop Phillips in 1610 + and by the Manx clergy in 1765, edited by A. W. Moore, C.V.O., M.A., + and John Rhys, M.A., LL.D.; _Outlines of the Phonology of Manx + Gaelic_, by John Rhys (Oxford University Press, 2 vols., 1893-1894); + _First Lessons in Manx_, by Edmund Goodwin (Dublin, Celtic + Association, 1901); _Manx National Songs_, with English words, from + the MS. collection of the Deemster Gill, Dr J. Clague and W. H. Gill, + and arranged by W. H. Gill (London, Boosey & Co., 1896); _Manx Ballads + and Music_, edited by A. W. Moore (Douglas, G. and R. Johnson, 1896); + A. W. Moore's _The Surnames and Place Names of the Isle of Man_ + (London, Elliot Stock, 1906, 3rd ed.). Natural History: P. G. Ralfe, + _The Birds of the Isle of Man_ (Edinburgh, David Douglas, 1905). + + Hall Caine's novels, _The Deemster_, _The Manxman_, &c., have no doubt + tended to popularize the island. The most truthful description of the + social life of the people is to be found in a novel entitled _The + Captain of the Parish_, by John Quine. _Bibliotheca Monensis_ (_Manx + Society_, vol. xxiv.) contains a good list of MSS. and books relating + to the island up to 1876, and A. W. Moore's _History of the Isle of + Man_ has a list of the most important MSS. and books up to 1900. + (A. W. M.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] G. W. Lamplough, _The Geology of the Isle of Man_, Mem. Geol. + Survey (1903). + + + + +MANAAR, GULF OF, a portion of the Indian Ocean lying between the coast +of Madras and Ceylon. Its northern limit is the line of rocks and +islands called Adam's Bridge. Its extreme width from Cape Comorin to +Point de Galle is about 200 miles. + + + + +MANACOR, a town of Spain in the island of Majorca, 40 m. by rail E. of +Palma. Pop. (1900), 12,408. Manacor has a small trade in grain, fruit, +wine, oil and live stock. In the neighbourhood are the cave of Drach, +containing several underground lakes, and the caves of Artá, one of the +largest and finest groups of stalactite caverns in western Europe. + + + + +MANAGE, to control, direct, or be in a position or have the capacity to +do anything (from Ital. _maneggiare_, to train horses, literally to +handle; Lat. _manus_, hand). The word was first used of the "management" +of a horse. Its meanings have been much influenced by the French +_ménager_, to direct a household or _ménage_ (from late Lat. _mansio_, +house); hence to economize, to husband resources, &c. The French +_ménage_, act of guiding or leading, from _mener_, to lead, seems also +to have influenced the meaning. + + + + +MANAGUA, the capital of Nicaragua, and of the department of Managua; on +the southern shore of Lake Managua, and on the railway from Diriamba to +El Viejo, 65 m. by rail S.E. of the Pacific port of Corinto. Pop. +(1905), about 30,000. Managua is a modern city, with many flourishing +industries and a rapidly growing population. Its chief buildings are +those erected after 1855, when it was chosen as the capital to put an +end to the rivalry between the then more important cities of Leon and +Granada. They include the Palacio Nacional or government buildings, +Corinthian in style, the national library and museum, an ornate +Renaissance structure, the barracks and the general post office. Owing +to its position on the lake, and its excellent communications by rail +and steamer, Managua obtained after 1855 an important export trade in +coffee, sugar, cocoa and cotton, although in 1876 it was temporarily +ruined by a great inundation. + + + + +MANAKIN, from the Dutch word _Manneken_, applied to certain small birds, +a name apparently introduced into English by G. Edwards (_Nat. Hist. +Birds_, i. 21) in or about 1743, since which time it has been accepted +generally, and is now used for those which form the family _Pipridae_. +The manakins are peculiar to the Neotropical Region and have many of the +habits of the titmouse family (_Paridae_), living in deep forests, +associating in small bands, and keeping continually in motion, but +feeding almost wholly on the large soft berries of the different kinds +of _Melastoma_. The _Pipridae_, however, have no close affinity with the +_Paridae_,[1] but belong to another great division of the order +_Passeres_, the _Clamatores_ group of the _Anisomyodae_. The manakins +are nearly all birds of gay appearance, generally exhibiting rich tints +of blue, crimson, scarlet, orange or yellow in combination with +chestnut, deep black, black and white, or olive green; and among their +most obvious characteristics are their short bill and feeble feet, of +which the outer toe is united to the middle toe for a good part of its +length. The tail, in most species very short, has in others the middle +feathers much elongated, and in one of the outer rectrices are +attenuated and produced into threads. They have been divided (Brit. Mus. +_Cat. Birds_, vol. xiv.) into nineteen genera with about seventy +species, of which eighteen are included under _Pipra_ itself. _P. +leucilla_, one of the best known, has a wide distribution from the +isthmus of Panama to Guiana and the valley of the Amazon; but it is one +of the most plainly coloured of the family, being black with a white +head. The genus _Machaeropterus_, consisting of four species, is very +remarkable for the extraordinary form of some of the secondary +wing-feathers in the males, in which the shaft is thickened and the webs +changed in shape, as described and illustrated by P. L. Sclater (_Proc. +Zool. Society_, 1860, p. 90; Ibis, 1862, p. 175[2]) in the case of the +beautiful _M. deliciosus_, and it has been observed that the wing-bones +of these birds are also much thickened, no doubt in correlation with +this abnormal structure. A like deviation from the ordinary character is +found in the allied genus _Chiromachaeris_, comprehending seven species, +and Sclater is of the opinion that it enables them to make the singular +noise for which they have long been noted, described by O. Salvin +(_Ibis_, 1860, p. 37) in the case of one of them, _M. candaei_, as +beginning "with a sharp note not unlike the crack of a whip," which is +"followed by a rattling sound not unlike the call of a landrail"; and it +is a similar habit that has obtained for another species, _M. edwardsi_, +the name in Cayenne, according to Buffon (_Hist. Nat. Oiseaux_, iv. +413), of _Cassenoisette_. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Though Edwards called the species he figured (_ut supra_) a + titmouse, he properly remarked that there was no genus of European + birds to which he could liken it. + + [2] The figures are repeated by Darwin (_Descent of Man_, &c., ii. + 66). + + + + +MANAOAG, a town in the north central part of the province of Pangasinán, +Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the Angalacan river, 21 m. N.E. of +Lingayen. Pop. (1903), 16,793. The inhabitants devote themselves +especially to rice-culture, though tobacco, Indian corn, sugar-cane, +fruit and vegetables are also raised. A statue of the Virgin Mary here +is visited annually (especially during May) by thousands from Pangasinán +and adjoining provinces. The inhabitants are mostly Ilocanos. Manaoag +includes the town proper and eighteen barrios. + + + + +MANÁOS, a city and port of Brazil and capital of the state of Amazonas, +on the left bank of the Rio Negro 12 m. above its junction with the +Solimões, or Amazon, and 908 m. (Wappäus) above the mouth of the latter, +in lat. 3° 8´ 4´´ S., long. 60° W. Pop. (1908), about 40,000, including +a large percentage of Indians, negroes and mixed-bloods; the city is +growing rapidly. Manáos stands on a slight eminence overlooking the +river, 106 ft. above sea-level, traversed by several "igarapés" (canoe +paths) or side channels, and beautified by the luxuriant vegetation of +the Amazon valley. The climate is agreeable and healthful, the average +temperature for the year (1902) being 84°, the number of rainy days 130, +and the total rainfall 66.4 in. Up to the beginning of the 20th century +the only noteworthy public edifices were the church of N.S. da +Conceição, the St Sebastião asylum and, possibly, a Misericordia +hospital; but a government building, a custom-house, a municipal hall, +courts of justice, a marketplace and a handsome theatre were +subsequently erected, and a modern water-supply system, electric light +and electric tramways were provided. The "igarapés" are spanned by a +number of bridges. Higher education is provided by a lyceum or high +school, besides which there is a noteworthy school (bearing the name of +Benjamin Constant) for poor orphan girls. Manáos has a famous botanical +garden, an interesting museum, a public library, and a meteorological +observatory. The port of Manáos, which is the commercial centre of the +whole upper Amazon region, was nothing but a river anchorage before +1902. In that year a foreign corporation began improvements, which +include a stone river-wall or quay, storehouses for merchandise, and +floating wharves or landing stages connected with the quay by floating +bridges or roadways. The floating wharves and bridges are made necessary +by the rise and fall of the river, the difference between the maximum +and minimum levels being about 33 ft. + +The principal exports are rubber, nuts, cacao, dried fish, hides and +piassava fibre. The markets of Manáos receive their supplies of beef +from the national stock ranges on the Rio Branco, and it is from this +region that hides and horns are received for export. The shipping +movement of the port has become large and important, the total arrivals +in 1907, including small trading boats, being 1589, of which 133 were +ocean-going steamers from Europe and the United States, 75 from south +Brazilian ports, and 227 river steamers from Pará. This rapid growth in +its direct trade is due to a provincial law of 1878 which authorized an +abatement of 3% in the export duties on direct shipments, and a state +law of 1900 which made it compulsory to land and ship all products of +the state from the Manáos custom-house. + +The first European settlement on the site of Manáos was made in 1660, +when a small fort was built here by Francisco da Motta Falcão, and was +named São José de Rio Negro. The mission and village which followed was +called Villa de Barra, or Barra do Rio Negro (the name "Barra" being +derived from the "bar" in the current of the river, occasioned by the +setback caused by its encounter with the Amazon). It succeeded Barcellos +as the capital of the old _capitania_ of Rio Negro in 1809, and became +the capital of Amazonas when that province was created in 1850, its name +being then changed to Manáos, the name of the principal tribe of Indians +living on the Rio Negro at the time of its discovery. In 1892 Manáos +became the see of the new bishopric of Amazonas. + + + + +MANASSAS, a district of Prince William county, Virginia, and a town of +the district, about 30 m. W.S.W. of Washington, D.C. Pop. (1910) of the +district, 3381; of the town, 1217. The village of Manassas (in the +town), known also as Manassas Junction, is served by the Chesapeake & +Ohio and the Southern railways. North of the junction is Bull Run, a +small stream which empties into the Occoquan, an arm of the Potomac. In +this neighbourhood two important battles of the American Civil War, the +first and second battles of Bull Run, were fought on the 21st of July +1861 and on the 29th-30th of August 1862 respectively; by Southern +historians these battles are called the battles of Manassas. At Manassas +is the Manassas Industrial School for Coloured Youth (non-sectarian; +privately supported), which was founded in 1892 and opened in 1894; in +1908-1909 it had nine teachers (all negroes) and 121 pupils, all in +elementary grades. + + + + +MANASSEH (7th cent. B.C.), son of Hezekiah, and king of Judah (2 Kings +xxi. 1-18). His reign of fifty-five years was marked by a reaction +against the reforming policy of his father, and his persistent idolatry +and bloodshed were subsequently regarded as the cause of the destruction +of Jerusalem and of the dispersion of the people (2 Kings xxiii. 26 +seq.; Jer. xv. 4). As a vassal of Assyria he was contemporary with +Sennacherib, Esar-haddon (681-668 B.C.) and Assur-bani-pal (668-626 +B.C.), and his name (_Me-na-si-e_) appears among the tributaries of the +two latter. Little is known of his history. The chronicler, however, +relates that the Assyrian army took him in chains to Babylon, and that +after his repentance he returned, and distinguished himself by his +piety, by building operations in Jerusalem and by military organization +(2 Chron. xxxiii. 10 sqq.). The story of his penitence referred to in +xxxiii. 22, is untrustworthy, but the historical foundation may have +been some share in the revolt of the Babylonian Samas-sum-ukin (648 +B.C.), on which occasion he may have been summoned before Assur-bani-pal +with other rebels and subsequently reinstated. See further Driver, in +Hogarth, _Authority and Archaeology_, pp. 114 sqq. Manasseh was +succeeded by his son Amon, who after a brief reign of two years perished +in a conspiracy, his place being taken by Amon's son (or brother) Josiah +(q.v.). A lament formerly ascribed to Manasseh (cf. 2 Chron. xxxiii. 18) +is preserved in the Apocrypha (see MANASSES, PRAYER OF; and APOCRYPHAL +LITERATURE). On Judg. xviii. 30 (marg.), see JONATHAN. + + + + +MANASSEH (apparently Hebrew for "he who causes to forget," but see H. W. +Hogg, _Encyc. Bib._, s.v.); in the Bible, a tribe of Israel, the elder +but less important of the "sons" of Joseph. Its seat lay to the north of +Ephraim, but its boundaries can scarcely be defined. It merged itself +with its "brother" in the south, and with Issachar, Zebulun and other +tribes in the north (Josh. xvii. 7 sqq.). From the latter it was +separated for a time by a line of Canaanite cities extending from Dor to +Bethshean, which apparently were not all subdued till the days of David +or Solomon (Judg. i. 27; 1 Sam. xxxi. 10; 1 Kings ix. 15). Besides its +western settlement in the fertile glades of northern Samaria, running +out into the great plain, there were territories east of the Jordan +reckoned to Manasseh. Gilead and Bashan were said to have been taken by +Machir, and a number of places of uncertain identification were occupied +by Nobah and Jair (Num. xxxii. 41; Judg. x. 3-5). It seems most natural +to suppose that these districts were held before the Israelites crossed +over to the west (cf. the tradition Num. xxi., Deut. iii.). On the other +hand, in Judg. v. 14, Machir may conceivably belong to the west, and it +is possible that, according to another tradition, these movements were +the result of the complaint of the Joseph tribes that their original +territory was too restricted.[1] In the genealogical lists, Machir, +perhaps originally an independent branch, is the eldest son of Manasseh +(Josh. xvii. 1 _b_, 2); but according to later schemes he is Manasseh's +only son (Num. xxvi. 28-34). Intermixture with Arameans is indicated in +the view that he was the son of Manasseh and an Aramean concubine (1 +Chron. vii. 14), and this is supported by the statement that the +Arameans of Geshur and Maacah (cf. 2 Sam. x. 6; Gen. xxii. 24) dwelt +among the Israelites of eastern Jordan (Josh. xiii. 13). Subsequently, +at an unknown period of history, sixty cities were lost (1 Chron. ii. +23). The story of the daughters of the Manassite Zelophehad is of +interest for the Hebrew law of inheritance (Num. xxvii. 1-11, xxxvi.). + + Some details of the history of this twofold branch of the Israelites + are contained in the stories of Gideon (W. Manasseh) and Jephthah (E. + Manasseh). The relations between Saul and Jabesh-Gilead point to the + close bond uniting the two districts, but the details have been + variously interpreted: Winckler, for example, suggesting that Saul + himself was originally from E. Manasseh and that he followed in the + steps of Jephthah (_Keilinschr. u. d. alte Test._, pp. 216 seq. 227). + Generally speaking, its position in the west made it share the + fortunes of Ephraim, whilst on the east the proximity of Ammonites and + Moabites controlled its history; see also the articles on its southern + neighbours, GAD and REUBEN, and the articles GENEALOGY (Biblical); and + JEWS: _History_. (S. A. C.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] So Budde (_Richter u. Samuel_), who recovers certain old + fragments and arranges Josh. xvii. 14-18 (v. 18 read "hill-country of + Gilead"); Num. xxxii. 39, 41 seq.; Josh. xiii. 13. + + + + +MANASSES, CONSTANTINE, Byzantine chronicler, flourished in the 12th +century during the reign of Manuel I. (Comnenus) (1143-1180). He was the +author of a _Chronicle_ or historical synopsis of events from the +creation of the world to the end of the reign of Nicephorus Botaniates +(1081), written by direction of Irene, the emperor's sister-in-law. It +consists of about 7000 lines in the so-called "political" metre.[1] +There is little to be said of it, except that it is rather more poetical +than the iambic chronicle of Ephraim (about 150 years later). It +obtained great popularity and appeared in a free prose translation; it +was also translated into Slavonic. The poetical romance of the _Loves of +Aristander and Callithea_, also in "political" verse, is only known from +the fragments preserved in the [Greek: Rhodônia] (rose-garden) of +Macarius Chrysocephalus (14th century). Manasses also wrote a short +biography of Oppian, and some descriptive pieces (all except one +unpublished) on artistic and other subjects. + + EDITIONS.--_Chronicle_ in Bonn, _Corpus scriptorum hist. Byz._, 1st + ed. Bekker (1837) and in J. P. Migne, _Patrologia graeca_, cxxvii.; + _Aristander and Callithea_ in R. Hercher's _Scriptores erotici + graeci_, ii. (1859); "Life of Oppian" in A. Westermann, _Vitarum + scriptores graeci minores_ (1845). A long didactic poem in "political" + verse (edited by E. Miller in _Annuaire de l'assoc. pour + l'encouragement des études grecques en France_, ix. 1875) is + attributed to Manasses or one of his imitators. See also F. Hirsch, + _Byzantinische Studien_ (1876); C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der + byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] "Political" verse or metre is the name given to a kind of verse + found as early as the 6th century in proverbs, and characteristic of + Byzantine and modern Greek poetry. It takes no account of the + quantity of syllables; the scansion depends on accent, and there is + always an accent on the last syllable but one. It is specially used + of an iambic verse with fifteen syllables, i.e. seven feet and an + unaccented syllable over. Byron compares "A captain bold of Halifax + who lived in country quarters." Such facile metres are called + "political," in the sense of "commonplace," "of the city." Cf. + Gibbon's _Decline and Fall_ (ed. Bury, 1898), vi. 108; Du Cange, + _Gloss. med. et infin. lat._ (vi. 395), who has an interesting + quotation from Leo Allatius. Leo explains "political" as implying + that the verses are "scorta et meretrices, quod omnibus sunt + obsequiosae et peculiares, et servitutem publicam serviunt." + + + + +MANASSES, PRAYER OF, an apocryphal book of the Old Testament. This +writing, which since the Council of Trent has been relegated by the +Church of Rome to the position of an appendix to the Vulgate, was placed +by Luther and the translators of the English Bible among the apocryphal +books. In some MSS. of the Septuagint it is the eighth among the +canticles appended to the Psalter, though in many Greek psalters, which +include the canticles, it is not found at all. In Swete's Old Testament +in Greek, iii. 802 sqq., A is printed with the variants of T +(_Psalterium turicense_).[1] From the statements in 2 Chron. xxxiii. 12, +13, 18, 19, it follows that the Old Testament chronicler found a prayer +attributed to Manasseh in his Hebrew sources, _The History of the Kings +of Israel_ and _The History of the Seers_. Naturally the question arose, +had the existing Prayer of Manasses any direct connexion with the prayer +referred to by the chronicler? Ewald was of opinion that the Greek was +an actual translation of the lost Hebrew; but Ball more wisely takes it +as a free rendering of a lost Haggadic narrative founded on the older +document from which the chronicler drew his information. This view he +supports by showing that there was once a considerable literature in +circulation regarding Manasseh's later history. On the other hand most +scholars take the Prayer to have been written in Greek, e.g. Fritzsche, +Schürer and Ryssel (Kautzsch, _Apok. u. Pseud._ i. 165-168). + +This fine penitential prayer seems to have been modelled after the +penitential psalms. It exhibits considerable unity of thought, and the +style is, in the main, dignified and simple. + +As regards the date, Fritzsche, Ball and Ryssel agree in assigning this +psalm to the Maccabean period. Its eschatology and doctrine of "divine +forgiveness" may point to an earlier date. + + The best short account of the book is given by Ball (_Speaker's + Apocrypha_, ii. 361-371); see also Porter in Hastings's _Dict. Bible_, + iii. 232-233. (R. H. C.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Nestle (_Septuaginta Studien III._) contends that the text of A + and T is derived from the Apost. Const. ii. 22, or from its original, + and not from a MS. of the Septuagint. + + + + +MANATI (often anglicized as "manatee"), the name, adapted from the Carib +_manattouï_, given by the Spanish colonists of the West Indies to the +American representative of a small group of herbivorous aquatic mammals, +constituting, with their allies the dugong and the now extinct +_Rhytina_, the order Sirenia. The name, though possibly of Mandingo +origin (see MANDINGO), was latinized as _manatus_, furnished with hands, +thus referring the etymology to the somewhat hand-like form, or +hand-like use, of the fore-flippers, which alone serve these creatures +for limbs. Manatis, as shown in the illustration in the article SIRENIA, +are somewhat whale-like in shape, having a similar horizontally expanded +tail-fin; but here the resemblance to the Cetacea ceases, the whole +organization of these animals being constructed on entirely different +lines. The American manati, _Manatus_ (or, as some would have it, +_Trichechus latirostris_), inhabits the rivers of Florida, Mexico, +Central America and the West Indies, and measures from 9 to 13 feet in +length. The body is somewhat fish-like, but depressed and ending +posteriorly in a broad, flat, shovel-like horizontal tail, with rounded +edges. The head is of moderate size, oblong, with a blunt, truncated +muzzle, and divided from the body by a slight constriction or neck. The +fore limbs are flattened oval paddles, placed rather low on the sides of +the body, and showing externally no signs of division into fingers, but +with three diminutive flat nails near their extremities. No traces of +hind limbs are discernible either externally or internally; and there is +no dorsal fin. The mouth is peculiar, the tumid upper lip being cleft in +the middle line into two lobes, each of which is separately movable. The +nostrils are two semilunar valve-like slits at the apex of the muzzle. +The eyes are very minute, placed at the sides of the head, and with a +nearly circular aperture with wrinkled margins; and external ears are +wanting. The skin generally is of a dark greyish colour, not smooth or +glistening like that of whale or dolphin, but finely wrinkled. At a +little distance it appears naked, but close inspection, at all events in +young animals, shows a scanty covering of delicate hairs, and both upper +and under lips are supplied with short, stiff bristles. + +[Illustration: (From Murie.) + +Front view of head of American Manati, showing the eyes, nostrils, and +mouth. A, with the lobes of the upper lip divaricated; B, with the lip +contracted.] + +Manatis have a number--as many as 20 pairs in each jaw--of two-ridged +teeth, of which, however, but comparatively few are in use at once. They +lack the large tusks of the male dugong, and the fore part of the skull +is not so much bent down as in that animal. In life the palate has a +horny plate, with a similar one in the lower jaw. The skeleton is +described under SIRENIA. + +Manatis pass their life in the water, inhabiting bays, lagoons, +estuaries and large rivers, but the open sea is unsuited to their +peculiar mode of life. As a rule they prefer shallow water, in which, +when not feeding, they lie near the bottom. In deeper water they often +float, with the body much arched, the rounded back close to the +surface, and the head, limbs and tail hanging downwards. The air in the +lungs assists them to maintain this position. Their food consists +exclusively of aquatic plants, on which they feed beneath the water. +They are slow in their movements, and perfectly harmless, but are +subject to persecution for the sake of their oil, skin and flesh. +Frequent attempts have been made to keep specimens alive in captivity, +and sometimes with considerable success, one having lived in the +Brighton Aquarium for upwards of sixteen months. From such captive +specimens certain observations on the mode of life of these animals have +been made. We learn, for instance, that from the shoulder-joint the +flippers can be moved in all directions, and the elbow and wrist permit +of free extension and flexion. In feeding, manatis push the food towards +their mouths by means of one of the hands, or both used simultaneously, +and any one who has seen these members thus employed can believe the +stories of their carrying their young under their arms. Still more +interesting is the action of the peculiar lateral pads formed by the +divided upper lip, thus described by Professor A. Garrod: "These pads +have the power of transversely approaching towards and receding from one +another simultaneously (see fig.). When the animal is on the point of +seizing (say) a leaf of lettuce, the pads are diverged transversely in +such a way as to make a median gap of considerable breadth. Directly the +leaf is within grasp the lip-pads are approximated, the leaf is firmly +seized between their contiguous bristly surfaces, and then drawn inwards +by a backward movement of the lower margin of the lip as a whole." The +animal is thus enabled by the unaided means of the upper lip to +introduce food placed before it without the assistance of the +comparatively insignificant lower lip, the action recalling that of the +mouth of the silkworm and other caterpillars in which the mandibles +diverge and converge laterally during mastication. All trustworthy +observations indicate that the manati has not the power of voluntarily +leaving the water. None of the specimens in confinement has been +observed to emit any sound. + +The Amazonian manati (_M. inunguis_) is a much smaller species, not +exceeding 7 or 8 ft. in length, and without nails to the flippers. It +ascends most of the tributaries of the Amazon until stopped by rapids. +From a specimen which lived a short time in London it appears that the +lip-pads are less developed than in the northern species. The third +species is the West African _M. senegalensis_, which extends a distance +of about ten degrees south and sixteen north of the equator, and ranges +into the heart of the continent as far as Lake Tchad. From 8 to 10 ft. +appears to be the normal length; the weight of a specimen was 590 lb. +The colour is bluish black, with a tinge of olive-green above and yellow +below. (R. L.*) + + + + +MANBHUM, a district of British India, in the Chota Nagpur division of +Bengal. The administrative headquarters are at Purulia. Area, 4147 sq. +m.; pop. (1901), 1,301,364, showing an increase of 9.1% since 1891. +Manbhum district forms the first step of a gradual descent from the +table-land of Chota Nagpur to the delta of lower Bengal. In the northern +and eastern portions the country is open, and consists of a series of +rolling downs dotted here and there with isolated conical hills. In the +western and southern tracts the country is more broken and the scenery +much more picturesque. The principal hills are Dalma (3407 ft.), the +crowning peak of a range of the same name; Gangabari or Gajboro (2220 +ft.), the highest peak of the Baghmundi range, about 20 m. south-west of +Purulia; and Panchkot or Panchet (1600 ft.), on which stands the old +fort of the rajas of Panchet. The hills are covered with dense jungle. +The chief river is the Kasai, which flows through the district from +north-west to south-east into Midnapore, and on which a considerable +floating trade in _sal_ timber is carried on. The most numerous +aboriginal tribe are the Sontals; but the Bhumij Kols are the +characteristic race. In Manbhum they inhabit the country lying on both +sides of the Subanrekha. They are pure Mundas, but their compatriots to +the east have dropped the title of Munda and the use of their +distinctive language, have adopted Hindu customs, and are fast becoming +Hindus in religion. The Bhumij Kols of the Jungle Mahals were once the +terror of the surrounding districts; they are now more peaceful. + + Three principal crops of rice are grown, one sown broadcast early in + May on table-lands and the tops of ridges, an autumn crop, and a + winter crop, the last forming the chief harvest of the district. Other + crops are wheat, barley, Indian corn, pulses, oilseeds, linseeds, + jute, hemp, sugar-cane, indigo, pan and tobacco. Owing to the + completeness of the natural drainage, floods are unknown, but the + country is liable to droughts caused by deficient rainfall. The + principal articles of export are oilseeds, pulses, _ghi_, lac, indigo, + tussur silk (manufactured near Raghunathpur), timber, resin, coal, and + (in good seasons) rice. The chief imports are salt, piece goods, brass + utensils and unwrought iron. Cotton hand-loom weaving is carried on + all over the district. Manbhum contains the Jherria coalfield, in the + Damodar valley, where a large number of mines have been opened since + 1894. The United Free Church of Scotland has a mission at Pakheria, + with a printing press that issues a monthly journal in Sonthali; and a + German Lutheran mission has been established since 1864. The district + is traversed by the Bengal-Nagpur railway, while two branches of the + East Indian railway serve the coalfield. + + + + +MANCHA, LA (Arabic, _Al Mansha_, "the dry land" or "wilderness"), a name +which when employed in its widest sense denotes the bare and monotonous +elevated plateau of central Spain that stretches between the mountains +of Toledo and the western spurs of the hills of Cuenca, being bounded on +the S. by the Sierra Morena and on the N. by the Alcarria region. It +thus comprises portions of the modern provinces of Toledo, Albacete and +Cuenca, and the greater part of Ciudad Real. Down to the 16th century +the eastern portion was known as La Mancha de Montearagon or de Aragon, +and the western simply as La Mancha; afterwards the north-eastern and +south-western sections respectively were distinguished by the epithets +_Alta_ and _Baja_ (upper and lower). La Mancha is famous as the scene of +Cervantes' novel _Don Quixote_; in appearance, with its multitude of +windmills and vast tracts of arid land, it remains almost exactly as +Cervantes described it. Many villages, such as El Toboso and Argamasilla +de Alba, both near Alcázar de San Juan, are connected by tradition with +episodes in _Don Quixote_. + + + + +MANCHE, a department of north-western France, made up chiefly of the +Cotentin and the Avranchin districts of Normandy, and bounded W., N. and +N.E. by the English Channel (Fr. _La Manche_), from which it derives its +name, E. by the department of Calvados, S.E. by Orne, S. by Mayenne and +Ille-et-Vilaine. Pop. (1906), 487,443. Area, 2475 sq. m. + +The department is traversed from south to north by a range of hills, in +many parts picturesque, and connected in the south with those of Maine +and Brittany. In the country round Mortain, which has been called the +Switzerland of Normandy, they rise to a height of 1200 ft. The +coast-line, running northward along the bay of the Seine from the rocks +of Grand Camp to Cape Barfleur, thence westward to Cape la Hague, and +finally southward to the Bay of Mont St Michel, has a length of 200 +miles. The Vire and the Taute (which near the small port of Carentan +receives the Ouve as a tributary on the left) fall into the sea at the +Calvados border, and are united by a canal some miles above their +mouths. From the mouth of the Taute a low beach runs to the port of St +Vaast-la-Hougue, where the coast becomes rocky, with sandbanks. Off St +Vaast lies the fortified island of Tatihow, with the laboratory of +marine zoology of the Natural History Museum of Paris. Between Cape +Barfleur and Cape la Hague lie the roads of Cherbourg, protected by the +famous breakwater. The whole western coast is inhospitable; its small +havens, lying behind formidable barriers and reefs, are almost dry at +low tide. Great cliffs, such as the points of Jobourg (420 ft. high) and +Flamanville, alternate with long strands, such as that which extends for +30 m. from Cape Carteret to Granville. Between this coast and the +Channel Islands the tide, pent up between numerous sandbanks, flows with +a terrific force that has given these passages such ill-omened names as +_Passage de la Déroute_ and the like. The only important harbours are +Granville and the haven of refuge of Diélette between Granville and +Cherbourg. Carteret carries on a passenger traffic with the Channel +Islands. The chief stream is the Sienne, with its tributary the Soulle +flowing by Coutances. South of Granville the sands of St Pair are the +commencement of the great bay of Mont Saint Michel, whose area of +60,000 acres was covered with forest till the terrible tide of the year +709. The equinoctial tides reach a vertical height of nearly 50 ft. In +the bay the picturesque walls of the abbey rise from the summit of a +rock 400 ft. high. The Sée, which waters Avranches, and the Couesnon +(separating Manche from Ille-et-Vilaine) disembogue in the bay. + +The climate of Manche is mild and humid, from its propinquity to the +sea. Frosts are never severe; myrtles and fuchsias flourish in the open +air. Excessive heat is also unusual; the predominant winds are +south-west. + +The characteristic industry of the department is the rearing of horses +and cattle, carried on especially in the rich meadow of the eastern +Cotentin; sheep are raised in the western arrondissement of Coutances. +Wheat, buckwheat, barley and oats are the chief cereals cultivated. +Manche is one of the foremost departments for the production of +cider-apples and pears; plums and figs are also largely grown. Butter is +an important source of profit, as also are poultry and eggs. Flourishing +market-gardens are found in the west. The department contains valuable +granite quarries in the Cherbourg arrondissement and the Chausey +islands; building and other stone is quarried. + +Villedieu manufactures copper-ware and Sourdeval iron and other +metal-ware; and there are wool-spinning mills, paper-works and +leather-works, but the department as a whole is industrially +unimportant. There are oyster-beds on the coast (St Vaast, &c.), and the +maritime population, besides fishing for herring, mackerel, lobsters or +sole, collect seaweed for agricultural use. Coutances is the seat of a +bishopric of the province of Rouen. The department forms part of the +region of the X. army corps and of the circumscriptions of the académie +(educational division) and appeal-court of Caen. Cherbourg (q.v.), with +its important port, arsenal and shipbuilding yards, is the chief centre +of population. St Lô (q.v.) is the capital; there are six +arrondissements (St Lô, Avranches, Cherbourg, Coutances, Mortain, +Valognes), with 48 cantons and 647 communes. Avranches, Mortain, +Coutances, Granville and Mont Saint Michel receive separate treatment. +At Lessay and St Sauveur-le-Vicomte there are the remains of ancient +Benedictine abbeys, and Torigni-sur-Vire and Tourlaville (close to +Cherbourg) have interesting châteaux of the 16th century. Valognes, +which in the 17th and 18th centuries posed as a provincial centre of +culture, has a church (15th, 16th and 17th centuries) remarkable for its +dome, the only one of Gothic architecture in France. + + + + +MANCHESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The Manchester title, in the English +peerage, belongs to a branch of the family of Montagu (q.v.). The first +earl was SIR HENRY MONTAGU (c. 1563-1642), grandson of Sir Edward +Montagu, chief justice of the king's bench 1539-1545, who was named by +King Henry VIII. one of the executors of his will, and governor to his +son, Edward VI. Sir Henry Montagu, who was born at Boughton, +Northamptonshire, about 1563, was educated at Christ's College, +Cambridge, and, having been called to the bar, was elected recorder of +London in 1603, and in 1616 was made chief justice of the king's bench, +in which office it fell to him to pass sentence on Sir Walter Raleigh in +October 1618. In 1620 he was appointed lord high treasurer, being raised +to the peerage as Baron Montagu of Kimbolton, Huntingdonshire, and +Viscount Mandeville. He became president of the council in 1621, in +which office he was continued by Charles I., who created him earl of +Manchester[1] in 1626. In 1628 he became lord privy seal, and in 1635 a +commissioner of the treasury. Although from the beginning of his public +life in 1601, when he first entered parliament, Manchester had inclined +to the popular side in politics, he managed to retain to the end the +favour of the king. He was a judge of the Star Chamber, and one of the +most trusted councillors of Charles I. His loyalty, ability and honesty +were warmly praised by Clarendon. In conjunction with Coventry, the lord +keeper, he pronounced an opinion in favour of the legality of ship-money +in 1634. He died on the 7th of November 1642. Manchester was married +three times. One of his sons by his third wife was father of Charles +Montagu, created earl of Halifax in 1699. + +EDWARD MONTAGU, 2nd earl of Manchester (1602-1671), eldest son of the +1st earl by his first wife, Catherine Spencer, granddaughter of Sir John +Spencer of Althorpe, was born in 1602, and was educated at Sidney Sussex +College, Cambridge. He was member of parliament for Huntingdonshire +1623-1626, and in the latter year was raised to the peerage in his +father's lifetime as Baron Montagu of Kimbolton, but was known generally +by his courtesy title of Viscount Mandeville. His first wife, who was +related to the duke of Buckingham, having died in 1625 after two years +of marriage, Mandeville married in 1626 Anne, daughter of the 2nd earl +of Warwick. The influence of his father-in-law, who was afterwards +admiral on the side of the parliament, drew Mandeville to the popular +side in the questions in dispute with the crown, and at the beginning of +the Long Parliament he was one of the recognized leaders of the popular +party in the upper House, his name being joined with those of the five +members of the House of Commons impeached by the king in 1642. At the +outbreak of the Civil War, having succeeded his father in the earldom in +November 1642, Manchester commanded a regiment in the army of the earl +of Essex, and in August 1643 he was appointed major-general of the +parliamentary forces in the eastern counties, with Cromwell as his +second in command. Having become a member of the "committee of both +kingdoms" in 1644, he was in supreme command at Marston Moor (July 1, +1644); but in the subsequent operations his lack of energy brought him +into disagreement with Cromwell, and in November 1644 he strongly +expressed his disapproval of continuing the war (see CROMWELL, OLIVER). +Cromwell brought the shortcomings of Manchester before parliament in the +autumn of 1644; and early in the following year, anticipating the +self-denying ordinance, Manchester resigned his command. He took a +leading part in the frequent negotiations for an arrangement with +Charles, was custodian with Lenthall of the great seal 1646-1648, and +frequently presided in the House of Lords. He opposed the trial of the +king, and retired from public life during the Commonwealth; but after +the Restoration, which he actively assisted, he was loaded with honours +by Charles II. In 1667 he was made a general, and he died on the 5th of +May 1671. Manchester was made a K.G. in 1661, and became F.R.S. in 1667. +Men of such divergent sympathies as Baxter, Burnet and Clarendon agreed +in describing Manchester as a lovable and virtuous man, who loved peace +and moderation both in politics and religion. He was five times married, +leaving children by two of his wives, and was succeeded in the title by +his eldest son, Robert, 3rd earl of Manchester (1634-1683). + + See Lord Clarendon, _History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in + England_ (7 vols., Oxford, 1839) and _Life of Clarendon_ (Oxford, + 1827); S. R. Gardiner, _History of the Great Civil War_, 1642-1649. (4 + vols., London, 1886-1891); _The Quarrel between Manchester and + Cromwell_, Camden Soc., N.S. 12 (London, 1875); Sir Philip Warwick, + _Memoirs of the Reign of Charles I._ (London, 1701). + +CHARLES MONTAGU, 1st duke of Manchester (c. 1656-1722), son of Robert, +3rd earl of Manchester, was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and +succeeded to his father's earldom in 1683. Warmly sympathizing with the +Whig revolution of 1688, he attended William and Mary at their +coronation, fought under William at the Boyne, became a privy councillor +in 1698, and held various important diplomatic posts between that date +and 1714, when he received an appointment in the household of George I., +by whom on the 28th of April 1719 he was created duke of Manchester. He +died on the 20th of January 1722, and was succeeded successively in the +dukedom by his two sons, William 2nd duke of Manchester (1700-1739), and +Robert 3rd duke (c. 1710-1762), who was vice-chamberlain to Queen +Caroline, wife of George II. + +GEORGE MONTAGU, 4th duke of Manchester (1737-1788), was the son of +Robert, the 3rd duke. He was a supporter of Lord Rockingham, and an +active opponent in the House of Lords of Lord North's American policy. +In the Rockingham ministry of 1782 Manchester became lord chamberlain. +He died in September 1788. + +WILLIAM MONTAGU, 5th duke of Manchester (1768-1843), second son of the +preceding, was educated at Harrow, and having become a colonel in the +army in 1794, was appointed governor of Jamaica in 1808. Here he +remained, except for a visit to England (1811-1813) till 1827, +administering the colony with ability in a period of considerable +difficulty, and doing much to prepare the way for emancipation of the +slaves. From 1827 to 1830 he was postmaster-general in the cabinet of +the duke of Wellington, and died in Rome on the 18th of March 1843. His +wife was Susan, daughter of the 4th duke of Gordon. He was succeeded by +his son George, 6th duke (1799-1855), a captain in the navy; whose son +William Drogo, 7th duke (1823-1890), married Louise, daughter of the +Comte d'Alten of Hanover, who after his death married Spencer Cavendish, +8th duke of Devonshire. William was succeeded by his son George Victor +Drogo, 8th duke of Manchester (1853-1892), on whose death the title +devolved on his son, William Angus Drogo, 9th duke of Manchester (b. +1877). (R. J. M.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The title was derived, not from Manchester in Lancashire, but + from Manchester (or Godmanchester) in Huntingdonshire, where the + Montagu family estates were. + + + + +MANCHESTER, a township of Hartford county, Connecticut, U.S.A., about 9 +m. E. of Hartford. Pop.(1890), 8222; (1900), 10,601, of whom 3771 were +foreign-born; (1910 census) 13,641. Manchester is served by the New +York, New Haven & Hartford railway and by electric line connecting with +Hartford, Rockville and Stafford Springs. The township covers an area of +about 28 sq. m., and includes the villages of Manchester, South +Manchester, Buckland, Manchester Green and Highland Park. The Hockanum +River provides a good water power, and Manchester has various +manufactures. At South Manchester, an attractive industrial village, a +silk mill was built in 1838; the silk mills of one firm (Cheney +Brothers) here cover about 12 acres; the company has done much for its +employees, whose homes are almost all detached cottages in attractive +grounds. Manchester was originally a part of the township of Hartford, +and later a part of the township of East Hartford. The first settlement +within its present limits was made about 1672; the land was bought from +the Indians in 1676; and the township was separated from East Hartford +and incorporated in 1823. + + See also Meakin's _Model Factories and Villages_ (1905). + + + + +MANCHESTER, a city and county of a city, municipal, county and +parliamentary borough of Lancashire, England, 189 m. N.W. by N. of +London, and 31 m. E. by N. of Liverpool. It stands for the most part on +a level plain, the rising ground being chiefly on the north side. The +rivers are the Irwell, the Medlock, the Irk, and the Tib, the last +entirely overarched and covered by streets and warehouses. The Irwell, +which separates Manchester from Salford, is crossed by a series of +bridges and discharges itself into the Mersey, which is about 10 m. +distant. The chief part of the district, before it was covered with the +superficial drift of sand, gravel and clay, consisted of upper New Red +Sandstone with slight portions of lower New Red Sandstone, magnesian +marls and upper red marls, hard sandstone and limestone rock, and cold +clays and shales of contiguous coal-fields. The city, as its thousands +of brick-built houses show, has been for the most part dug out of its +own clay-fields. The parliamentary and municipal boroughs of Manchester +are not conterminous. The city boundaries, which in 1841 enclosed 4293 +acres, have been successively enlarged and now enclose 19,914 acres. + +There are four large stations for the Lancashire & Yorkshire, London & +North-Western, the Midland, Cheshire lines, Great Northern, and Great +Central railways, and many subsidiary stations for local traffic. +Tramways, as well as railways, run from Manchester to Oldham, Ashton, +Eccles, Stockport, &c., with which places the city is connected by +continuous lines of street. The length of the streets in the city of +Manchester is 758 m. (exclusive of those in the district of Withington, +which joined the city in 1905). The tramway lines within the city +boundaries extend to 111 m., and in addition there are 58 m. leased to +the corporation by adjacent local authorities. As a matter of fact, the +whole of south-east Lancashire and some portions of Cheshire are linked +to Manchester by railways and tramways so as to form one great urban +area, and the traveller passes from one town to another by lines of +street which, for the most part, are continuous. Facility of +communication is essential to the commercial prosperity of Manchester, +and its need was recognized by the duke of Bridgewater, whose canal, +constructed in 1761, has now been absorbed by the Manchester Ship Canal +(q.v.). The making of this early waterway was an event only less +important than the opening of the Manchester & Liverpool railway in +1830. + +The township of Manchester, which forms the nucleus of the city, is +comparatively small, and outlying hamlets having been added, its size +has increased without regularity of plan. Roughly speaking, the city +forms a square, with Market Street as its central thoroughfare. The +tendency of recent development is to reduce the irregularities so that +the other main streets may either run parallel to or intersect Market +Street. Deansgate, which formerly ended in a narrow tangle of buildings, +is now a broad road with many handsome buildings, and the same process +of widening, enlarging and rebuilding is going on, more or less, all +over Manchester. Market Street, which has not been widened since 1820, +has been termed, and with some reason, "the most congested street in +Europe"; but relief is anticipated from some of the other street +improvements. The centre of the city is occupied by business premises; +the factories and workshops are mainly on the eastern side. The most +important of the public buildings are in the centre and the south. The +latter is also the most favoured residential district, and at its +extremity is semi-rural in character. Large masses of the population +live beyond the city boundary and come to their daily avocations by +train and tram. Such a population is rarely homogeneous and Manchester +attracts citizens from every part of the globe; there are considerable +numbers of German, Armenian and Jewish residents. The houses are for the +most part of brick, the public buildings of stone, which is speedily +blackened by the smoky atmosphere. Many of the warehouses are of +considerable architectural merit, and in recent years the use of +terra-cotta has become more common. It is only in the suburbs that +gardens are possible; the air is laden with black dust, and the rivers, +in spite of all efforts, are in the central part of the city mere dirty +ditches. It is impossible to describe Manchester in general terms, for +within the city boundaries the conditions vary from the most squalid of +slums to suburban and almost rural beauty. + +_Churches._--Manchester is the seat of an Anglican bishopric, and the +chief ecclesiastical building is the cathedral, which, however, was +built simply as a parish church, and, although a fine specimen of the +Perpendicular period, is by no means what might be expected as the +cathedral of an important and wealthy diocese. In the course of +restoration a piece of Saxon sculpture came to light. This "Angel stone" +represents a winged figure with a scroll inscribed _In manus tuas +Domine_ in characters of the 8th century. The bulk of the building +belongs to the early part of the 15th century. The first warden was John +Huntington, rector of Ashton, who built the choir. The building, which +was noticed for its hard stone by Leland when he visited the town, did +not stand time and weather well, and by 1845 some portions of it were +rapidly decaying. This led to its restoration by James P. Holden. By +1868 the tower was almost completely renovated in a more durable stone. +Further restoration was carried out by J. S. Crowther, and the addition +of a porch and vestries was executed by Basil Champneys. The total +length is 220 ft. and the breadth 112 ft. There are several +stained-glass windows, including one to the memory of "Chinese Gordon." +The recumbent statues of Bishop James Fraser and of Hugh Birley, M.P., +should also be named. In the Ely chapel is the altar tomb of Bishop +James Stanley. In the stalls there are some curious _miserere_ carvings. +The tower is 139 ft. high, and contains a peal of ten bells, chiefly +from the foundry of the Rudhalls. There are two organs, one by Father +Smith, and a modern one in an oak case designed by Sir G. Scott. The +parish church was made collegiate in 1422, and when in 1847 the +bishopric of Manchester was created the warden and fellows became dean +and canons and the parish church became the cathedral. The first bishop +was James Prince Lee, who died in 1869; the second was James Fraser, who +died in 1885; the third was James Moorhouse, who resigned in 1903 and +was succeeded by Edmund Arbuthnott Knox. The church endowments are +considerable and have been the subject of a special act of parliament, +known as the Manchester Rectory Division Act of 1845, which provides +£1500 per annum for the dean and £600 to each of the four canons, and +divides the residue among the incumbents of the new churches formed out +of the old parish. + +[Illustration: Map of Manchester and Environs.] + +Of the Roman Catholic churches that of the Holy Name, which belongs to +the Jesuits, is remarkable for its costly decoration. The Greek Church +and most of the Nonconformist bodies have places of worship. There are +twelve Jewish synagogues. The meeting-house of the Society of Friends is +said to be the largest of the kind in the kingdom and will seat 1200 +persons. + +_Public Buildings._--The Royal Infirmary, founded in 1752, having become +inadequate for its purposes, a new building has been erected on the +south side of the city near the university, from designs by Edwin T. +Hall and John Brooke; it was opened in 1909 by king Edward VII. The +central site in Piccadilly thus became available for other purposes, and +the corporation gave instructions for plans to be made for a new library +and art gallery. The art gallery already existing in 1909 was founded as +the Royal Institution, but in 1882 passed under the control of the city +council. The building was designed by Sir Charles Barry. The collection +contains some fine paintings by Etty, Millais, Leighton and other +artists. The sculpture includes casts of the Elgin marbles and a statue +of Dr John Dalton by Chantrey. The most striking of the public buildings +is the town hall, probably the largest municipal building in the +country, but no longer entirely adequate to the increasing business of +the city council. It was completed in 1877 from designs by Alfred +Waterhouse, who selected as the style of architecture a form of Gothic, +but treated it very freely as purposes of utility required. The edifice +covers 8000 sq. yds., and includes more than two hundred and fifty +rooms. The building consists of continuous lines of corridors +surrounding a central courtyard and connected by bridges. The principal +tower is 286 ft. high to the top of the ball, and affords a view which +extends over a large part of south Lancashire and Cheshire and is +bounded only by the hills of Derbyshire. The tower contains a remarkable +peal of bells by Taylor of Loughborough, forming an almost perfect +chromatic scale of twenty-one bells; each bell has on it a line from +canto 105 of Tennyson's _In Memoriam_. The great hall is 100 ft. long +and 50 ft. wide, and contains a magnificent organ built by Cavaillé-Coll +of Paris. The twelve panels of this room are filled with paintings by +Ford Madox Brown, illustrating the history and progress of the city. The +royal exchange is a fine specimen of Italian architecture and was +erected in 1869; the great meeting-hall is one of the largest rooms in +England, the ceiling having a clear area, without supports, of 120 ft. +in width. The exchange is seen at its best on market days (Tuesday and +Friday). The assize courts were built in 1864 from designs by +Waterhouse. The style is a mixture of Early English and Decorative, and +a large amount of decorative art has been expended on the building. The +branch Bank of England is a Doric building designed by C. R. Cockerell. +There are separate town-halls for the townships of Ardwick, Chorlton, +Hulme, Cheetham, Broughton and Pendleton. The Free Trade hall is a fine +structure in the Lombardo-Venetian style, and its great hall will +accommodate about five thousand people. It is used for public meetings, +concerts, &c., and was built by Edward Walters. The Athenaeum, designed +by Barry, was founded by Richard Cobden and others associated with him +for "the advancement and diffusion of knowledge." The institution has, +perhaps, not developed exactly on the lines contemplated by its +promoters, but it has been very useful. The advantages enjoyed by +members of social clubs, with the addition of facilities for educational +classes and the use of an excellent news-room and a well-selected +library, are offered in return for a payment which does not amount to a +penny a day. The mechanics' institution has developed into the school of +Technology, which now forms a part of the university. The Portico is a +good specimen of the older proprietary libraries and newsrooms. It dates +from 1806, and has a library. The Memorial Hall was built to commemorate +the memory of the ejected ministers of 1662; it is used for meetings, +scientific, educational, musical and religious. The Whitworth Institute +is governed by a corporate body originating from the liberal bequests of +Sir Joseph Whitworth. The Institute contains a valuable collection of +works of art and stands in the centre of a woodland park. In the park, +which has been transferred to the corporation, is a sculpture group of +"Christ and the Children," executed by George Tinworth from the designs +of R. D. Darbishire, by whom it was presented. The assize courts, built +from designs by Waterhouse (1864), the post office (1887), and the +police courts (1871) should also be named. Many fine structures suffer +from being hemmed in by streets which prevent the proportions from being +seen to advantage. + +_Monuments._--In Piccadilly are bronze statues of Wellington, Watt, +Dalton, Peel and Queen Victoria. Another statue of the Queen, by the +Princess Louise, is placed on the new porch of the cathedral. A bronze +statue of Cobden occupies a prominent position in St Ann's Square. There +also is the South African War Memorial of the Manchester Regiment. The +marble statue of the Prince Consort, covered by a Gothic canopy of +stone, is in front of the town hall, which dwarfs what would otherwise +be a striking monument. In Albert Square there are also statues of +Bishop Fraser, John Bright, Oliver Heywood and W. E. Gladstone. A statue +of J. P. Joule is in the town hall, which also contains memorials of +other worthies. The Queen's Park has a statue of Benjamin Brierley, a +well-known writer in the Lancashire dialect. The most picturesque is +Matthew Noble's bronze statue of Cromwell, placed on a huge block of +rough granite as pedestal. It stands at the junction of Deansgate and +Victoria Street, near the cathedral, and was presented to the town by +Mrs E. S. Heywood. + +_Education._--There are many educational facilities. The oldest +institution is the grammar school, which was founded in 1519 by Hugh +Oldham, bishop of Exeter, a native of the town. The master and usher +appointed by the bishop were to teach freely every child and scholar +coming to the school, "without any money or reward taken"; and the +bishop forbade the appointment of any member of the religious orders as +head master. Some corn mills were devised for the maintenance of the +school, which was further endowed at both the universities by Sarah, +duchess of Somerset, in 1692. The school has now two hundred and fifty +free scholars, whilst other pupils are received on payment of fees. +Among those educated at the grammar school were Thomas De Quincey, +Harrison Ainsworth and Samuel Bamford the Radical. After the grammar +school the oldest educational foundation is that of Humphrey Chetham, +whose bluecoat school, founded in 1653, is housed in the building +formerly occupied by the college of clergy. This also contains the +public library founded by Chetham, and is the most interesting relic of +antiquity in the city. The educational charity of William Hulme +(1631-1691) is administered under a scheme drawn up in 1881. Its income +is nearly £10,000 a year, and it supports a grammar school and aids +education in other ways. There are three high schools for girls. The +Nicholls hospital was founded in 1881 for the education of orphan boys. +Manchester was one of the first places to adopt the powers given by +Forster's Act of 1870, and on the abolition of school boards the +educational supervision was transferred to a committee of the +corporation strengthened by co-opted members. In addition to the +elementary schools, the municipality provides a large and well-equipped +school of technology, and a school of art to which is attached an arts +and crafts museum. There are a pupil teachers' college, a school of +domestic economy, special schools for feeble-minded children, and a +Royal College of Music. The schools for the deaf and dumb are situated +at Old Trafford, in a contiguous building of the same Gothic design as +the blind asylum, to which Thomas Henshaw left a bequest of £20,000. +There is also an adult deaf and dumb institution, containing a +news-room, lecture hall, chapel, &c., for the use of deaf mutes. + +The Victoria University of Manchester has developed from the college +founded by John Owens, who in 1846 bequeathed nearly £100,000 to +trustees for an institution in which should be taught "such branches of +learning and science as were then or might be hereafter usually taught +in English universities." It was opened in 1851 in a house which had +formerly been the residence of Cobden. In 1872 a new college building +was erected on the south side of the town from designs by Waterhouse. In +1880 a university charter was granted, excluding the faculties of +theology and medicine, and providing for the incorporation of University +College, Liverpool, and the College of Science, Leeds. The federal +institution thus created lasted until 1903, when the desire of Liverpool +for a separate university of its own led to a reconstruction. Manchester +University consists of one college--Owens College--in its greatly +enlarged form. The buildings include the Whitworth Hall (the gift of the +legatees of Sir Joseph Whitworth), the Manchester Museum and the +Christie Library, which is a building for the university library given +by R. C. Christie, who also bequeathed his own collection. Dr Lee, the +first bishop of Manchester, left his library to Owens College, and the +legatees of Sir Joseph Whitworth bought and presented E. A. Freeman's +books. The library has received other important special collections. The +benefactions to the university of Thomas Ashton are estimated at +£80,000. There are in Manchester a number of denominational colleges, +Wesleyan, Primitive Methodist, Unitarian, Baptist, &c., and many of the +students preparing for the ministry receive their arts training at the +university, the theological degrees of which are open to students +irrespective of creed. + + _Libraries, Museums and Societies._--Manchester is well provided with + libraries. The Chetham library, already named, contains some rare + manuscripts, the gem of the collection being a copy of the historical + compilation of Matthew Paris, with corrections in the author's + handwriting. There is a large collection of matter relating to the + history and archaeology of Lancashire and Cheshire, including the + transcripts of Lancashire MSS. bequeathed by Canon F. R. Raines. The + collections of broadsides formed by Mr J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps, and + the library of John Byrom, rich in mystics and shorthand writers, + should also be named. The Manchester Free Libraries were founded by + Sir John Potter in 1852. There is now a reference library containing + about 170,000 volumes, including an extensive series of English + historical works, a remarkable collection of books of political + economy and trade, and special collections relating to local history, + Dr Thomas Fuller, shorthand and the gipsies. The Henry Watson Music + Library, and the Thomas Greenwood Library for librarians were + presented to the reference library, and the Foreign Library was + purchased. Affiliated to the reference library there are nineteen + libraries, each of which includes a lending department and reading + rooms. The municipal libraries contain in the aggregate over 366,000 + vols. There are also libraries in connexion with the Athenaeum, the + School of Technology, the Portico, and many other institutions. The + most remarkable of the Manchester libraries is that founded by Mrs + Enriqueta Rylands, and named the John Rylands Library in memory of her + husband. The beautiful building was designed by Basil Champneys; the + library includes the famous Althorp collection, which was bought from + Earl Spencer. Mrs Rylands died in 1908, and by her will increased the + endowment of the library so that it has an income of £13,000 yearly. + She also bequeathed her own library. + + Manchester possesses numerous literary and scientific associations. + The oldest of these, the Literary and Philosophical Society, founded + in 1781, has a high reputation, and has numbered among its working + members John Dalton, Eaton Hodgkinson, William Fairbairn, J. P. Joule, + H. E. Roscoe and many other famous men of science. It has published a + series of memoirs and proceedings. The Manchester Statistical Society + was the first society of the kind established in the kingdom, and has + issued _Transactions_ containing many important papers. The Field + Naturalists' and Archaeologists' Society, the Microscopical Society, + the Botanists' Association, and the Geological Society may also be + named. Manchester is the headquarters of the Lancashire and Cheshire + Antiquarian Society and of several printing clubs, the Chetham, the + Record, the Lancashire Parish Registers societies. Seven daily papers + are published, and various weekly and other periodicals. The + journalism of Manchester takes high rank, the _Manchester Guardian_ + (Liberal) being one of the best newspapers in the country, while the + _Manchester Courier_ (Unionist) has an important local influence. The + _Manchester Quarterly_ is issued by the Manchester Literary Club, + which was founded in 1862. The success of the Art Treasures Exhibition + in 1857 was repeated in the Jubilee Exhibition of 1887. The Manchester + Academy of Fine Arts is a society of artists, and holds an annual + exhibition in the city art gallery. + + _Parks and Open Spaces._--There are fifty-three parks and open spaces. + The Queen's Park, at Harpurhey, is pleasantly situated, though + surrounded by cottages and manufactories. Philips Park is also + attractive, in spite of its close proximity to some of the most + densely populated portions of the town. The Alexandra Park has very + good ornamental grounds and a fine cactus house with a remarkable + collection presented by Charles Darrah. Some of the open spaces are + small; Boggart Hole Clough, where great efforts have been made to + preserve the natural features, is 76 acres in extent, and was the + largest until 1902, when Heaton Park, containing 692 acres, was + purchased. It was formerly the seat of the earls of Wilton, and + includes Heaton House, one of Wyatt's structures. In the Queen's Park + there is a museum, and periodical exhibitions of works of art are + held. The total area of the city parks is 1146 acres. The corporation + are also responsible for four cemeteries, having a total area of 228 + acres. + + _Recreation._--There are nine theatres, mostly large, and eight music + halls. The Theatre Royal was established as a patent theatre. When the + bill for it was before the House of Lords in 1775 it was advocated as + an antidote to Methodism. The Bellevue Zoological Gardens is a + favourite holiday place for working people. The Ancoats Recreation + Committee have since 1882 had Sunday lectures, and occasional + exhibitions of pictures, window gardening, &c. The Ancoats Art Museum + was founded to carry out the educational influences of art and culture + generally. In addition to works of art, there are concerts, lectures, + reading circles, &c. The museum is worked in connexion with a + university settlement. The German element in the population has + largely influenced the taste for music by which Manchester is + distinguished, and the orchestral concerts (notably under Charles + Hallé) are famous. + +_Population._--From a census taken in 1773 it appears that there were +then in the township of Manchester and its out-townships 36,267 persons. +The first decennial census, 1801, showed the population to be 75,275; in +1851 it was 303,382; in 1901, 606,824. It is not easy to make an exact +comparison between different periods, because there have been successive +enlargements of the boundaries. The population has overflowed into the +surrounding districts, and if all that belongs to the urban area, of +which it is the centre, were included, greater Manchester would probably +rival London in the number of its inhabitants. + +_Manufactures and Commerce._--Manchester is the centre of the English +cotton industry (for details see COTTON and COTTON MANUFACTURE), but +owing to the enhanced value of land many mills and workshops have been +removed to the outskirts and to neighbouring villages and towns, so that +the centre of Manchester and an ever-widening circle around are now +chiefly devoted not so much to production as to the various offices of +distribution. It would be a mistake, however, to regard Manchester as +solely dependent upon the industries connected with cotton. There are +other important manufactures which in another community would be +described as gigantic. Wool and silk are manufactured on a considerable +scale, though the latter industry has for some years been on the +decline. The miscellaneous articles grouped under the designation of +small-wares occupy many hands. Machinery and tools are made in vast +quantities; the chemical industries of the city are also on a large +scale. In short, there are but few important manufactures that are +wholly unrepresented. The proximity of Manchester to the rich +coal-fields of Lancashire has had a marked influence upon its +prosperity; but for this, indeed, the rapid expansion of its industries +would have been impossible. + +The Manchester Bankers' Clearing House returns show an almost unbroken +yearly increase. The amount in 1872 was £72,805,510; in 1907 it was +£320,296,332; by the severe depression of 1908 it was reduced to +£288,555,307. Another test of prosperity is the increase in rateable +value. In 1839 it was £669,994; in 1871, £1,703,627; in 1881, +£2,301,225; in 1891, £2,798,005; in 1901, £3,394,879; in 1907, +£4,191,039; in 1909, £4,234,129. + +The commercial institutions of Manchester are too numerous for detailed +description; its chamber of commerce has for more than sixty years +exercised much influence on the trade of the district and of the nation. +Manchester is the headquarters of the Co-operative Wholesale Society, +and indeed of the cooperative movement generally. + +The most important event in the modern history of the district is the +creation of the Manchester Ship Canal (q.v.), by which Manchester and +Salford have a direct communication with the sea at Eastham, near +Liverpool. The canal was opened for traffic in January 1894. The +official opening ceremony was on the 21st of May 1894, when Queen +Victoria visited Manchester. The total expenditure on capital account +has been £16,567,881. The original share capital of £8,000,000 and +£1,812,000, raised by debentures, having been exhausted, the corporation +of Manchester advanced on loan a further sum of £5,000,000. + +_Municipality._--Manchester received a municipal charter in 1838, +received the title of city in 1853, and became a county borough in 1889. +The city is divided into 30 wards, and the corporation consists of 31 +aldermen and 93 councillors. The mayor received the title of lord mayor +in 1893. Unlike some of the municipalities, that of Manchester makes no +pecuniary allowance to its lord mayor, and the office is a costly one. + +The water supply is controlled by the corporation. The works at +Longdendale, begun in 1848, were completed, with extensions in 1884, at +a cost of £3,147,893. The area supplied by Manchester waterworks was +about 85 square miles, inhabited by a million people. The increase of +trade and population led to the obtaining of a further supply from Lake +Thirlmere, at the foot of Helvellyn and 96 miles from Manchester. The +watershed is about 11,000 acres. The daily consumption is over 38 +million gallons. Manchester supplies in bulk to many local authorities +in the district between Thirlmere and the city. The corporation have +also established works for the supply of hydraulic and electric power. + +The gas lighting of Manchester has been in the hands of the corporation +for many years, as also the supply of electricity both for lighting and +energy. When the works are complete the electricity committee will +supply an area of 45 sq. m. + + _Sanitary Condition._--Dr John Tatham constructed a Manchester + life-table based on the vital statistics of the decennium 1881-1890, + from which it appeared that, while in England and Wales of 1000 men + aged 25 nearly 800 survived to be 45 and of 1000 aged 45, 569 survived + to be 65, in Manchester the survivors were only 732 and 414 + respectively. The expectation of life, at 25, was, for England and + Wales 36.12 years, and for Manchester 30.69 years. But the death-rate + has since rapidly decreased; in 1891 it was 26.0 per thousand living; + in 1901 it was 21.6; in 1906 it was 19.0; in 1907 it was 17.9. The + deaths of infants under one year old amounted to 169 per 1000. The + reports of the medical officer show that whilst the density of the + population, the impurity of the atmosphere, and the pollution of the + streams are difficult elements in the sanitary problem, great efforts + have been made towards improving the health of the people. The + birth-rate in 1907 was 28.4, but the population is augmented by + immigration as well as by natural increase. The number of persons to + the acre is 33. + + _Administration of Justice._--The city has a stipendiary magistrate + who, in conjunction with lay magistrates, tries cases of summary + jurisdiction in the police courts. There are also quarter sessions, + presided over by a recorder. Separate sessions are held for the + Salford hundred. Certain sittings of the Court of Chancery for the + duchy of Lancaster are held in Manchester. In addition to the county + court, there is an ancient civil court known as the Salford Hundred + Court of Record. Assizes have been held since 1866. + + _Parliamentary Representation._--By the first Reform Bill Manchester + received in 1832 two representatives. In 1868 this was increased to + three, but each voter had only two votes. In 1885 the city was divided + into six divisions, each returning one member. Owing to the extension + of the city boundaries there are Manchester voters in the Stretford, + Prestwich and Gorton parliamentary divisions. + +_History._--Very little is known with certainty of the early history of +Manchester.[1] A Roman station of some importance existed at +Castlefield, and a fragment of the wall still exists. Another, perhaps +earlier, was at Hunt's Bank. In the 18th century considerable evidences +of Roman occupation were still visible; and from time to time, in the +course of excavation (especially during the making of the Bridgewater +Canal), Roman remains have been found. The coins were chiefly those of +Vespasian, Antoninus Pius, Trajan, Hadrian, Nero, Domitian, Vitellius +and Constantine. Investigations by the Lancashire and Cheshire +Antiquarian Society and the Classical Association have brought to light +many relics, chiefly of pottery. The period succeeding the Roman +occupation is for some time legendary. As late as the 17th century there +was a tradition that Tarquin, an enemy of King Arthur, kept the castle +of Manchester, and was killed by Lancelot of the Lake. The references to +the town in authentic annals are very few. It was probably one of the +scenes of the missionary preaching of Paulinus; and it is said (though +by a chronicler of comparatively late date) to have been the residence +of Ina, king of Wessex, and his queen Ethelberga, after he had defeated +Ivor, somewhere about the year 689. Almost the only point of certainty +in its history before the Conquest is that it suffered greatly from the +devastations of the Danes, and that in 923 Edward, who was then at +Thelwall, near Warrington, sent a number of his Mercian troops to repair +and garrison it. In Domesday Book Manchester, Salford, Rochdale and +Radcliffe are the only places named in south-east Lancashire, a district +now covered by populous towns. Large portions of it were then forest, +wood and waste lands. Twenty-one thanes held the manor or hundred of +Salford among them. The church of St Mary and the church of St Michael +in Manchester are both named in Domesday, and some difficulty has arisen +as to their proper identification. Some antiquaries consider that the +passage refers to the town only, whilst others think it relates to the +parish, and that, while St Mary's is the present cathedral, St Michael's +would be the present parish church of Ashton-under-Lyne. In 1301 +Manchester received a charter of manorial liberties and privileges from +its baron, Thomas Gresley, a descendant of one to whom the manor had +been given by Roger of Poictou, who was created by William the Conqueror +lord of all the land between the rivers Mersey and Ribble. The Gresleys +were succeeded by the De la Warrs, the last of whom was educated for the +priesthood, and became rector of the town. To avoid the evil of a +non-resident clergy, he made considerable additions to the lands of the +church, in order that it might be endowed as a collegiate institution. A +college of clergy was thus formed, whose fellows were bound to perform +the necessary services at the parish church, and to whom the old +baronial hall was granted as a place of residence. The manorial rights +passed to Sir Reginald West, a descendant of Joan Gresley, who was +summoned to parliament as Baron de la Warre. The West family, in 1579, +sold the manorial rights for £3000 to John Lacy, who, in 1596, resold +them to Sir Nicholas Mosley, whose descendants enjoyed the emoluments +derived from them until 1845, when they were purchased by the +municipality of Manchester for a sum of £200,000. The lord of the manor +had the right to tax and toll all articles brought for sale into the +market of the town. But, though the inhabitants were thus to a large +extent taxed for the benefit of one individual, they had a far greater +amount of local self-government than might have been supposed, and the +court leet, which was then the governing body of the town, had, though +in a rudimentary form, nearly all the powers now possessed by municipal +corporations. This court had not only control over the watching and +warding of the town, the regulation of the water supply, and the +cleaning of the streets, but also had power, which at times was used +freely, of interfering with the private liberty of their +fellow-citizens. Thus, no single woman was allowed to be a householder; +no person might employ other than the town musicians; and the amount to +be spent at wedding feasts and other festivities was carefully settled. +Under the protection of the barons the town appears to have steadily +increased in prosperity, and it early became an important seat of the +textile manufactures. Fulling mills were at work in the district in the +13th century; and documentary evidence exists to show that woollen +manufactures were carried on in Ancoats at that period. In 1538 Leland +described it as "the fairest, best-builded, quickest, and most populous +town in Lancashire." The right of sanctuary granted to the town in 1540 +was found so detrimental to its industrial pursuits that after very +brief experience the privilege was taken away. The college of Manchester +was dissolved in 1547, but was refounded in Mary's reign. Under her +successor the town became the headquarters of the commission for +establishing the Reformed religion. In 1641 we hear of the Manchester +people purchasing linen yarn from the Irish, weaving it, and returning +it for sale in a finished state. They also brought cotton wool from +Smyrna to work into fustians and dimities. An act passed in the reign of +Edward VI. regulates the length of cottons called Manchester, Lancashire +and Cheshire cottons. These, notwithstanding their name, were probably +all woollen textures. It is thought that some of the Flemish weavers who +were introduced into England by Queen Philippa of Hainault were settled +at Manchester; and Fuller has given an exceedingly quaint and +picturesque description of the manner in which these artisans were +welcomed by the inhabitants of the country they were about to enrich +with a new industry. The Flemish weavers were in all probability +reinforced by religious refugees from the Low Countries. + +In the civil wars, the town was besieged by the Royalists under Lord +Strange (better known as earl of Derby--"the great Stanley"); but was +successfully defended by the inhabitants under the command of a German +soldier of fortune, Colonel Rosworm, who complained with some bitterness +of their ingratitude to him. An earlier affray between the Puritans and +some of Lord Strange's followers is said to have occasioned the shedding +of the first blood in the struggle between the king and parliament. The +year 1694 witnessed the trial of those concerned in the so-called +Lancashire plot, which ended in the triumphant acquittal of the supposed +Jacobites. That the district really contained many ardent sympathizers +with the Stuarts was, however, shown in the rising of 1715, when the +clergy ranged themselves to a large extent on the side of the Pretender; +and was still more clearly shown in the rebellion of 1745, when the town +was occupied by Prince Charles Edward Stuart, and a regiment, known +afterwards as the Manchester regiment, was formed and placed under the +command of Colonel Francis Townley. In the fatal retreat of the Stuart +troops the Manchester contingent was left to garrison Carlisle, and +surrendered to the duke of Cumberland. The officers were taken to +London, where they were tried for high treason and beheaded on +Kennington Common. + +The variations of political action in Manchester had been exceedingly +marked. In the 16th century, although it produced both Roman Catholic +and Protestant martyrs, it was earnestly in favour of the Reformed +faith, and in the succeeding century it became indeed a stronghold of +Puritanism. Yet the successors of the Roundheads who defeated the army +of Charles I. were Jacobite in their sympathies, and by the latter half +of the 18th century had become imbued with the aggressive form of +patriotic sentiment known as anti-Jacobinism, which showed itself +chiefly in dislike of reform and reformers of every description. A +change, however, was imminent. The distress caused by war and taxation, +towards the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century, led +to bitter discontent, and the anomalies existing in the parliamentary +system of representation afforded only too fair an object of attack. +While single individuals in some portions of the country had the power +to return members of parliament for their pocket boroughs, great towns +like Manchester were entirely without representation. The popular +discontent was met by a policy of repression, culminating in the affair +of Peterloo, which may be regarded as the starting-point of the modern +reform agitation. This was in 1819, when an immense crowd assembled on +St Peter's Fields (now covered by the Free Trade Hall and warehouses) to +petition parliament for a redress of their grievances. The Riot Act was +read by a clerical magistrate; but in such a manner as to be quite +unheard by the mass of the people; and drunken yeomanry cavalry were +then turned loose upon the unresisting mass of spectators. The yeomanry +appear to have used their sabres freely; several people killed and many +more injured; and, although the magistrates received the thanks of the +prince regent and the ministry, their conduct excited the deepest +indignation throughout the entire country. Those who had organized the +meeting, including "Orator" Hunt with Samuel Bamford and other working +men, were imprisoned. + +Naturally enough, the Manchester politicians took an important part in +the Reform agitation; when the Act of 1832 was passed, the town sent as +its representatives the Right Hon. C. P. Thomson, vice-president of the +board of trade, and Mark Philips. With one notable exception, this was +the first time that Manchester had been represented in parliament since +its barons had seats in the House of Peers in the earlier centuries. In +1654 Charles Worsley and R. Radcliffe were nominated to represent it in +Cromwell's parliament. Worsley was a man of great ability, and has a +place in history as the man who carried out the injunction of the +Protector to "remove that bauble," the mace of the House of Commons. The +agitation for the repeal of the corn laws had its headquarters at +Manchester, and the success which attended it, not less than the active +interest taken by its inhabitants in public questions, has made the city +the home of other projects of reform. The "United Kingdom Alliance for +the Suppression of the Liquor Traffic" was founded there in 1853, and +during the continuance of the American War the adherents both of the +North and of the South deemed it desirable to have organizations in +Manchester to influence public opinion in favour of their respective +causes. A charter of incorporation was granted in 1838; a bishop was +appointed in 1847; and the town became a city in 1853. The Lancashire +cotton famine, caused by the Civil War in America, produced much +distress in the Manchester district, and led to a national movement to +help the starving operatives. The more recent annals of Manchester are a +record of industrial and commercial developments, and of increase in +educational opportunities of all kinds. Politically Manchester was +Liberal, of one or other shade, under the first Reform Act; a +Conservative member was first elected in 1868, and in 1874 two. Under +household suffrage in 1885 that party secured five out of six members; +in 1886 and 1892, three out of six. In 1895 and 1900 five Unionists were +elected, but in 1906 six Liberals were returned, one of whom (Mr Winston +Churchill) was defeated at a by-election in 1908. In 1910 three +Liberals, two Labour members and one Conservative were elected. + + AUTHORITIES.--Although several excellent books have been written on + subjects connected with the town, there is no adequate modern history. + The _History of Manchester_, by the Rev. John Whitaker, appeared in + 1771; it is a mere fragment, and, though containing much important + matter, requires to be very discreetly used. The following may be + recommended: John Reilly, _History of Manchester_, (1861); R. W. + Procter, _Manchester in Holiday Dress_ (1866), _Memorials of + Manchester Streets_ (1874), _Memorials of Byegone Manchester_ (1880); + Richard Buxton, _Botanical Guide to Manchester, &c._ (2nd ed., 1859); + Leo Grindon, _Manchester Flora_ (1859); Edward Baines, _History of + Lancashire_, edited by Croston (1886-1893), 5 vols.; W. A. Shaw, + _Manchester, Old and New_ (1894); W. E. A. Axon, _Annals of + Manchester_ (1885), _Cobden as a Citizen_ (1906); Harry Rawson, + _Historical Record of some Recent Enterprises of the Corporation of + Manchester_ (1894); _Official Manual of Manchester and Salford_ + (1909); J. P. Earwaker, _Court Leet Records of Manchester, 1552-1686, + 1731-1846_ (1884-1890), 12 vols.; _Constable's Accounts, 1612-1647, + 1743-1776_ (1891-1892), 3 vols.; _Manchester Municipal Code_ + (1894-1899), 5 vols.; George Saintsbury, _Manchester_ (1887); Thomas + Swindells, _Manchester Streets and Manchester Men_ (1906-1907), 3 + vols.; James Tait, _Medieval Manchester_ (1904); Charles Roeder, + _Roman Manchester_ (1900); Sir Bosdin Leech, _History of the + Manchester Ship Canal_ (1907), 2 vols. (W. E. A. A.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] In the _Antonine Itinerary_ the name Mancunium (q.v.) or Mamucium + is given. This is the origin of the modern name, and has supplied the + adjective "Mancunian" (cf. "Old Mancunians" applied to old boys of + Manchester Grammar School). + + + + +MANCHESTER (popularly Manchester-by-the-Sea), a township of Essex +county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., about 25 m. N.E. of Boston, on +Massachusetts Bay. Pop. (1900), 2522; (1905, state census), 2618; +(1910), 2673. Area, 7.64 sq. m. It is served by the Boston & Maine +railroad, and is connected with neighbouring towns and cities by +electric lines. The township, heavily wooded in parts, and with +picturesque shores alternating between rocky headlands and sandy +beaches, stretches for several miles along the coast between Beverly on +the west and Gloucester on the east. It is one of the most beautiful +watering-places in America, and is the favourite summer residence of +many of the foreign diplomats at Washington. The "singing beach" is a +stretch of white sand, which, when trodden upon, emits a curious musical +sound. Manchester, originally a part of Salem, was settled about 1630 +and was at first known as Jeffrey's Creek. It was incorporated +separately under its present name in 1645. + + See _Manchester Town Records_ (2 vols., Salem, 1889-1891), and D. F. + Lamson, _History of the Town of Manchester, 1645-1895_ (Manchester, + 1895). + + + + +MANCHESTER, the largest city of New Hampshire, U.S.A., and one of the +county-seats of Hillsboro county, on the Merrimac river, at the mouth of +the Piscataquog river, (by rail) 18 m. S. of Concord and 57 m. N.N.W. of +Boston. Pop. (1890), 44,126; (1900), 56,987; (1910 U.S. census) 70,063. +Of the total population in 1900, 24,257 were foreign-born, including +13,429 French-Canadians; and 37,530 were of foreign parentage (both +parents foreign-born), including 18,839 of French-Canadian parentage. +Manchester is served by the Southern, the Western, the White Mountains, +and the Worcester Nashua & Portland divisions of the Boston & Maine +railroad, and by inter-urban electric lines. It is situated on a plain +about 90 ft. above the Merrimac river (which is spanned here by three +bridges), commands extensive views of the beautiful Merrimac valley, and +covers a land area of about 33 sq. m. On the east side of the city are +two connected lakes known as Lake Massabesic (30 m. in circumference). +Manchester is known for the attractive appearance of the residence +districts in which the factory operatives live, detached homes and +"corporation boarding-houses," instead of tenement houses, being the +rule. The Institute of Arts and Sciences (incorporated in 1898) provides +lecture courses and classes in science, art and music. Among the other +public buildings and institutions are the United States Government +building, the city-hall, the county-court-house, the city library (1854; +the outgrowth of the Manchester Athenaeum, established in 1844), St +Anselm's College (R.C.), a Roman Catholic cathedral, four Roman Catholic +convents, the Elliot hospital, the Sacred Heart hospital and the +hospital of Notre Dame de Lourdes, the State industrial school, the +State house of correction, the Gale home for aged women, an old ladies' +home (R.C.), St Martha's home for working girls, the Manchester +children's home and four orphan asylums. In the largest of five public +squares is a soldiers' monument, consisting of a granite column 50 ft. +high, surmounted by a statue of Victory. The city has two parks, and in +one of them, overlooking the Merrimac, is a monument to the memory of +General John Stark, who was born and was buried here. The water-supply +is obtained from Lake Massabesic. Amoskeag Falls in the Merrimac are 55 +ft. in height, and by means of hydraulic canals Manchester is provided +with a fine water-power. Steam power is also used, and the city is by +far the most important manufacturing centre in the state. It is +extensively engaged in the manufacture of cotton goods, boots and shoes, +worsted goods, hosiery and other knit goods, and locomotives; among the +other manufactures are linen goods, steam fire-engines, paper, edge +tools, soap, leather, carriages and beer. The value of the city's +factory products increased from $24,628,345 in 1900 to $30,696,926 in +1905, or 24.6%. In 1905 Manchester produced 24.8% of the total factory +product of the state. Manchester ranks fifth among the cities of the +United States in cotton manufacturing, and ninth among the cities of the +country in the manufacture of boots and shoes. + +On account of the abundance of fish in the river here, Amoskeag Falls +and vicinity were a favourite resort of the Penacook Indians, and it is +said that John Eliot, the "Apostle to the Indians," preached to them +here in the summer of 1651. The first white settlement within the +present limits of Manchester was made in 1722 by Scottish-Irish +immigrants at Goffe's Falls, 5 m. below Amoskeag Falls. In 1723 a cabin +was built by some of these immigrants at the greater falls, and +gradually a small settlement grew up there. In 1735 Massachusetts +granted to a body of men known as "Tyng's Snow-Shoe Scouts" and their +descendants a tract of land 3 m. wide along the east bank of the +Merrimac, designated as "Tyng's Township." The Scottish-Irish claimed +this tract as part of their grant from New Hampshire, and there arose +between the rival claimants a bitter controversy which lasted until May +1741, when the courts decided against the Massachusetts claimants. In +1751 the territory formerly known as "Tyng's Township," and sometimes +called "Harrytown," with portions of Chester and Londonderry, was +incorporated as a township under the name Derryfield; in 1810 the name +was changed to Manchester, the change having been suggested by the +town's manufacturing possibilities; and in 1846 Manchester was chartered +as a city. The first sawmill was erected as early as 1736, and during +the years from 1794 to 1807 a canal was constructed around the Amoskeag +Falls through which to carry lumber. As late as 1830 the town had a +population of only 877, but in 1831 the Amoskeag Manufacturing Company +was incorporated, the construction of hydraulic canals and the erection +of cotton mills followed, the villages of Piscataquog and Amoskeag were +annexed in 1853, and the population increased to 3235 in 1840, to 8841 +in 1860, and to 33,592 in 1880. + + Consult M. D. Clarke, _Manchester, A Brief Record of its Past and a + Picture of its Present_ (Manchester, 1875). + + + + +MANCHESTER, a former city of Chesterfield county, Virginia, U.S.A., (on +the S. side of the James river), since 1910 a part of Richmond. Pop. +(1900), 9715, of whom 3338 were negroes; (1906 estimate), 9997. It is +served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line, and the +Southern railways, by electric lines to Richmond and Petersburg, and by +numerous river boats. It is finely situated in a bend of the river, with +about 2 m. of water front; on the heights above is Forest Hill park, a +pleasure resort, and adjacent to it Woodland Heights, a beautiful +residential district. From the surrounding country come much +agricultural produce, coal, lumber, bricks and granite. There is a good +harbour and excellent water power. Among the manufactures are paper, +flour, cotton goods, leather, brick, railway supplies, &c. The value of +the city's factory products increased from $1,621,358 in 1900 to +$3,226,268 in 1905, or 99%. + + + + +MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL. The advantage of a waterway for the conveyance of +goods between eastern Lancashire and the sea is so obvious that so far +back as the year 1721 Thomas Steers designed a plan for continuing to +Manchester the barge navigation which then existed between Liverpool and +Warrington. Parliamentary powers were then obtained to improve the +rivers Mersey and Irwell from Warrington to Manchester by means of +locks and weirs. This work was successfully carried out, and proved of +great benefit to the trade of the district. The duke of Bridgewater, who +had made a canal from his collieries at Worsley to Manchester, +afterwards continued the canal to the Mersey at Runcorn; this extension +was opened in 1722 and competed with the Mersey and Irwell navigation, +both routes being navigated by barges carrying about fifty tons of +cargo. The Liverpool & Manchester railway at a later date afforded +further facilities for conveyance of goods, but the high rates of +carriage, added to heavy charges at the Liverpool docks, prejudiced +trade, and the question was mooted of a ship canal to bring cotton, +timber, grain and other goods direct to Manchester without +transshipment. The first plan was made by William Chapman in 1825, and +was followed by one designed by Henry Palmer in 1840, but it was not +until the year 1882 that the movement was originated that culminated in +the opening of the Manchester Ship Canal by Queen Victoria on the 21st +of May 1894. + + In determining the plan of the canal the main point which arose was + whether it should be made with locks or whether it should be on the + sea-level throughout, and therefore tidal. The advantage of a still + waterway in navigating large steamers, and the facilities afforded by + one constant water-level for works on the banks and the quick + discharge of goods at the terminal docks at Manchester, secured the + adoption of the plans for a canal with locks as designed by Sir E. + Leader Williams. The fresh-water portion of the canal extended between + Manchester and Runcorn, while from the latter place to Garston it was + proposed to improve the upper Mersey estuary by constructing training + walls and dredging to form a deep central channel. Parliamentary + powers to construct the canal were sought in the session of 1883, when + the bill passed the committee of the House of Commons but was rejected + by the committee of the House of Lords. Brought forward again the next + year, it was passed by the Lords but thrown out by the Commons. The + opposition from Liverpool and the railway companies was very strong; + to meet to some extent that of the former, a continuation of the canal + was proposed from Runcorn to Eastham along the Cheshire side of the + Mersey, instead of a trained channel in the estuary, and in this form + the bill was again introduced in the session of 1885, and, + notwithstanding strong opposition, was passed by both houses of + parliament. The cost of this contest to promoters and opponents + exceeded £400,000, the various committees on the bill having sat over + 175 days. Owing to difficulties in raising the capital the works were + not begun until November 1887. + + The total length of the canal is 35½ m. and it may be regarded as + divided into three sections. From Eastham to Runcorn it is near or + through the Mersey estuary for 12¾ m., and thence to Latchford near + Warrington, 8¼ m., it is inland; both these sections have the same + water-level, which is raised by high tides. At Latchford the locks + stop tidal action, and the canal is fed by the waters of the rivers + Mersey and Irwell from that point to Manchester, 14½ m. from + Latchford. The canal begins on the Cheshire side of the Mersey at + Eastham, about 6 m. above Liverpool. The entrance is well sheltered + and adjoins a good low-water channel communicating with the Sloyne + deep at Liverpool. Three entrance locks have been provided close to + and parallel with each other, their length and width being 600 by 80, + 350 by 50, and 150 by 30 ft. These locks maintain the water-level in + the canal nearly to mean high-water level (14 ft. 2 in. above the + Liverpool datum); when the tide rises above that height the lock gates + are opened and the tide flows up to Latchford, giving on high spring + tides an additional depth of water of about 7 ft. On the ebb tide this + water is returned to the Mersey through large sluices at Randles Creek + and at the junction of the river Weaver with the canal, the level of + the canal thus being reduced to its normal height. The canal + throughout to Manchester has a minimum depth of 28 ft.; the depth + originally was 26 ft., but the lock sills were placed 2 ft. lower to + allow of the channel being dredged to 28 ft. when necessary. The + minimum width at bottom is 120 ft., allowing large vessels to pass + each other at any point on the canal; this width is considerably + increased at the locks and other parts. The slopes are generally about + 1½ to 1, but are flatter through some portions; in rock-cutting the + sides are nearly vertical. From Eastham to Runcorn the canal is + alternately inland and on the foreshore of the estuary, on which + embankments were constructed to act as dams and keep out the tide + during the excavation of the canal, and afterwards to maintain the + water-level at low water in the estuary; both sides are faced with + heavy coursed stone. The material for the embankments was principally + clay excavated from the cuttings. In some places, where the foundation + was of a porous nature, sheeting piles of timber had to be used. At + Ellesmere Port, where the embankment is 6200 ft. long on sand, 13,000 + whole timber sheeting piles 35 ft. long were driven, to secure the + base of the embankment on each side; water jets under pressure through + 1½ in. wrought-iron pipes were used at the foot of each pile to assist + the sinking, which was found most difficult by ordinary means. At the + river Weaver ten Stoney roller sluices are built, each 30 ft. span, + with heavy stone and concrete piers and foundations; at Runcorn, + where the river Mersey is narrow, a concrete sea-wall 4300 ft. long + was substituted for the embankment. At various points under the canal + cast-iron siphon pipes were laid to carry off any land drainage which + was at a lower level than the canal; the largest of these siphons were + constructed to allow the tidal and fresh water of the river Gowy to + pass under the canal at Stanlow Point, between Eastham and Ellesmere + Port. Two 12-ft. siphons are there placed close together, built of + cast-iron segments; they are each 400 ft. long, and were laid on + concrete 4 ft. below the bottom of the canal. From Runcorn to + Latchford the canal is nearly straight, the depth of cutting varying + from 35 to 70 ft., partly in rock, but generally in alluvial deposit. + The whole length of the canal passes through the New Red Sandstone + formation, with its overlying beds of gravel, clay, sand and silt, + which gave much trouble during the progress of the work; retaining + walls of stone and brickwork had to be built in these places to + maintain the sides of the canal from slips and injury from the wash of + steamers. + + The canal from Latchford to Manchester is in heavy cutting through the + valleys of the rivers Mersey and Irwell. As these rivers are + circuitous in course, only very small portions could be utilized in + forming the canal; a line as nearly straight as possible was therefore + adopted, and involved many crossings of the river channels. During the + whole progress of the work these had to be kept open for the discharge + of floods and land water, and in some places temporary cuts of + considerable length had to be made for the same object. In November + 1890 and December 1891 high winter floods covered the whole of the + river valleys, filling many miles of the unfinished canal and causing + great damage to the slopes. Altogether 23 m. of canal had to be pumped + out to enable the work to be completed. After the cuttings between the + river channels were finished, the end dams were removed, and the + rivers Irwell and Mersey were turned into the new channel now forming + the upper portion of the ship canal. The total rise to the level of + the docks at Manchester from the ordinary level of the water in the + tidal portion of the canal below Latchford locks is 60 ft. 6 in.; this + is obtained by an average rise of about 15 ft. at each of the sets of + locks at Latchford, Irlam (7½ m. nearer Manchester), Barton (2 m. + farther) and Mode Wheel (3½ m. above Barton locks at the entrance to + the Manchester docks). For the greater part of this last length the + canal is widened at bottom from 120 ft., its normal width, to 170 ft., + to enable vessels to lie at timber and other wharves without + interfering with the passage of large vessels to or from the docks. + The locks are in duplicate, one being 600 ft. long by 65 ft. wide, the + other 350 ft. long by 45 ft. wide, with Stoney's sluices adjacent. + They are filled or emptied in five minutes by large culverts on each + side with side openings into the lock. Concrete with facings of blue + Staffordshire brick is largely used, and the copings, sills, hollow + quoins and fender courses are of Cornish granite. The lock gates are + constructed of greenheart timber. The sluices near the locks take the + place of the weirs used in the old Mersey and Irwell navigation; they + are 30 ft. span each, four being generally used at each set of locks. + In ordinary seasons any water not used for lockage purposes passes + over the tops of the sluices, which are kept closed; in flood times + the sluices are raised to a height which will pass off floods with a + comparatively small rise in the canal. There are eight hydraulic + installations on the canal, each having duplicate steam-engines and + boilers; the mains exceed 7 m. in length, the pressure being 700 lb. + to the inch. They work the cranes, lifts and capstans at the docks, + lock gates and culvert sluices, coal tips, swing bridges and aqueduct. + + At Barton, near Manchester, the Bridgewater canal crosses the river + Irwell on the first navigable aqueduct constructed in England. It was + the work of James Brindley, and since it was built at only sufficient + height to allow of barges passing under it, means had to be found to + allow of this important canal being maintained, and yet to permit + steamers to use the ship canal below it. Brindley's canal is on one + level throughout its whole length, and as its water supply is only + sufficient for the flight of locks by which it descends at Runcorn to + the Mersey, locks down to the ship canal would have involved the waste + of a lock of water on each side and caused serious delay to the + traffic. Sir E. Leader Williams surmounted the difficulty by means of + a swing aqueduct for the Bridgewater canal, which when closed enables + the traffic to pass as before, while it is opened to allow of ships + crossing it on the lower level of the ship canal. The water in the + swing portions of the aqueduct when opened is retained by closing + gates at each end, similar gates being shut at the same time across + the fixed portion of the aqueduct. The swing portion is a large steel + trough carried by side girders, 234 ft. long and 33 ft. high in the + centre, tapering 4 ft. to the ends; the waterway is 19 ft. wide and 6 + ft. deep. The whole works on a central pier with similar arrangements + to the largest swing bridges on the canal; it has two spans over the + ship canal of 90 ft. each. It is somewhat singular that the first + fixed canal aqueduct in England should, after the lapse of 136 years, + be replaced by the first swing aqueduct ever constructed. The swing + aqueduct is moved by hydraulic power, and has never given any trouble + in working, even in times of severe frost. The weight of the movable + portion, including the water, is 1600 tons. + + The manner of dealing with the five lines of railways that were cut + through by the canal was one of importance, both in the interests of + the travelling public and the trade on the canal; they are all lines + with a heavy traffic, including the main line of the London & North + Western railway near Warrington, with its important route to + Scotland. Swing bridges, although in use on some lines to cross + navigations, are dangerous and inconvenient, and high-level deviation + lines were adopted for each railway crossing the canal. No such + alteration of a railway had been previously sanctioned by parliament, + and it was only the importance of a ship canal to Manchester that + secured the requisite powers against the strong opposition of the + railway companies. Embankments were made close to and parallel with + the old lines, beginning about a mile and a quarter from the canal on + each side, the canal itself being crossed by viaducts which give a + clear headway of 75 ft. at ordinary water-level. Vessels with high + masts trading on the canal are provided with telescopic or sliding + top-masts. The gradients on the railways rising up to the viaducts are + 1 in 135. The span of the viaducts is so arranged as to maintain the + full width of the canal for navigation; and as the railways generally + cross the canal on the skew, this necessitated girders in some cases + of 300 ft. span. There are nine main roads requiring swing bridges + across the canal; all below Barton have a span giving a clear waterway + of 120 ft. The width of these bridges varies with the importance of + the roads from 20 to 36 ft., and they are constructed of steel, their + weight ranging from 500 to 1000 tons each. They work on a live ring of + conical cast-iron rollers and are moved by hydraulic power supplied by + steam, gas or oil engines. The Trafford Road bridge at the docks at + Manchester is the heaviest swing bridge on the canal; being of extra + width, it weighs 1800 tons. + + The canal being virtually one long dock, wharves at various points + have been erected to enable chemical or manufacturing works to be + carried on, widenings being provided where necessary. At Ellesmere + Port coal tips and sheds have been erected, and the canal is in direct + communication with the docks there as well as at Weston Point and + Runcorn, where a large trade is carried on with the Staffordshire + Potteries and the Cheshire salt districts. At Partington branches from + the railways connect the canal with the Yorkshire and Lancashire + coal-fields, and the canal is widened out 65 ft. on each side for six + hydraulic coal tips. At Mode Wheel there are extensive abattoirs and + lairages, erected by the Manchester Corporation; also large petroleum + oil tanks, graving dock and pontoons, cold-air meat stores and other + accommodation for traffic. At Manchester the area of the docks is 104 + acres, with 152 acres of quay space, having over 5 m. of frontage to + the docks, which are provided with a number of three-storey transit + sheds, thirteen seven-storey and seven four-storey warehouses, and a + large grain silo. The London & North Western and Lancashire & + Yorkshire railway companies and the Cheshire Lines Committee have made + branch lines to the docks, the railways and sidings at which are over + 30 miles in length. Much traffic is also carted, or dealt with by + inland canals in direct communication with the docks. The substitution + of a wide and deep canal, nearly straight, for comparatively shallow + and narrow winding rivers, and the use of large sluices in place of + fixed weirs to carry off the river water, have been of great advantage + to the district in greatly reducing the height of floods. + + The total amount of excavation in the canal, docks and subsidiary work + amounted to over 54 million cub. yds., nearly one-fourth of which was + sandstone rock; the excavated material was used in forming the railway + deviation embankments, filling up the old beds of the rivers and + raising low lands near the canal. As many men were employed on the + works as could be obtained, but the number never exceeded 17,000, and + the greater part of the excavation was done by about eighty steam + navvies and land dredgers. For the conveyance of excavation and + materials, 228 miles of temporary railway lines were laid, and 173 + locomotives, 6300 wagons and trucks, and 316 fixed and portable + steam-engines and cranes were employed, the total cost of the plant + being nearly £1,000,000. The expenditure on the works, including plant + and equipment, to the 1st of January 1900, was £10,327,666. The + purchase of the Mersey and Irwell and Bridgewater navigations + (£1,786,651), land and compensation (£1,223,809), interest on capital + during constructions (£1,170,733), and parliamentary, superintendence + and general expenses brought up the total amount to £15,248,437. + + The traffic on the canal gradually increased from 925,659 tons in 1894 + to 2,778,108 tons in 1899 and 5,210,759 tons in 1907. After its + opening considerable reductions were made in the railway rates of + carriage and the charges at the Liverpool docks in order to meet the + lower cost of conveyance by shipping passing up it. The result has + been of great advantage to the trade of Lancashire and the surrounding + districts, and the saving in the cost of carriage, estimated at + £700,000 a year, assists manufacturers to meet the competition of + their foreign opponents who have the advantage of low rates of + carriage on the improved waterways of America, Germany, France and + Belgium. Before the construction of the canal, large manufacturers had + left Manchester to establish their works at ports like Glasgow, where + they could save the cost of inland carriage. Since its opening, new + industries have been started at Manchester and along its banks, + warehouses and mills that were formerly empty are now occupied, while + nearly 10,000 new houses have been built for the accommodation of the + workpeople required to meet the enlarged trade of the city. + + For further details see Sir Bosdin Leech, _History of the Manchester + Ship Canal_ (Manchester, 1907). (E. L. W.) + + + + +MANCHURIA, the name by which the territory in the east of Asia occupied +by the Manchus is known in Europe. By the Chinese it is called the +country of the Manchus, an epithet meaning "pure," chosen by the founder +of the dynasty which now rules over Manchuria and China as an +appropriate designation for his family. Manchuria lies in a +north-westerly and south-easterly direction between 39° and 53° N. and +between 116° and 134° E., and is wedged in between China and Mongolia on +the west and north-west, and Korea and the Russian territory on the Amur +on the east and north. More definitely, it is bounded N. by the Amur, E. +by the Usuri, S. by the Gulf of Liao-tung, the Yellow Sea and Korea, and +W. by Chih-li and Mongolia. The territory thus defined is about 800 m. +in length and 500 m. in width, and contains about 390,000 sq. m. It is +divided into three provinces, viz. Hei-lung-kiang or Northern Manchuria, +Kirin or Central Manchuria, and Sheng-king or Southern Manchuria. +Physically the country is divided into two regions, the one a series of +mountain ranges occupying the northern and eastern portions of the +kingdom, and the other a plain which stretches southwards from Mukden, +the capital, to the Gulf of Liao-tung. + +A system of parallel ranges of mountains, culminating in the Chinese +Ch'ang pai Shan, "the long white mountains," on the Korean frontier, +runs in a north-easterly direction from the shores of the Gulf of +Liao-tung. In its course through Eastern Manchuria it forms the +watershed of the Sungari, Usuri and other rivers, and in the south that +of the Ya-lu and many smaller streams. It also forms the eastern +boundary of the great plain of Liao-tung. The mountains of this system +reach their greatest height on the south-east of Kirin, where their +snow-capped peaks rise to the elevation of 8000 ft. The scenery among +them is justly celebrated, more especially in the neighbourhood of +Haich'eng, Siu-yen and the Korean Gate. + +The three principal rivers of Manchuria are the Sungari, Mutan-kiang and +Usuri already mentioned. Of these the Sungari, which is the largest, +rises on the northern slopes of the Ch'ang pai Shan range, and runs in a +north-westerly direction to its junction with the Nonni, from which +point it turns north-east until it empties itself into the Amur. It is +navigable by native junks above Kirin, which city may also be reached by +steamer. In its long course it varies greatly both in depth and width, +in some parts being only a few feet deep and spreading out to a width of +more than a mile, while in other and mountainous portions of its course +its channel is narrowed to 300 or 400 ft., and its depth is increased in +inverse ratio. The Usuri rises in about 44° N. and 131° E., and after +running a north-easterly course for nearly 500 m. it also joins the +Amur. The Mutan-kiang takes its rise, like the Sungari, on the northern +slopes of the Ch'ang pai Shan range, and not far from the sources of +that river. It takes a north-easterly course as far as the city of +Ninguta, at which point it turns northward, and so continues until it +joins the Sungari at San-sing. It is navigable by junks between that +city and Ninguta, though the torrents in its course make the voyage +backwards and forwards one of considerable difficulty. Next in +importance to these rivers are the Liao and Ya-lu, the former of which +rises in Mongolia, and after running in an easterly direction for about +400 m. enters Manchuria in about 43° N., and turning southward empties +itself into the Gulf of Liao-tung. The Ya-lu rises in Korea, and is the +frontier river of that country. + +_Provinces and Towns._--Mukden, or as it is called by the Chinese +Sheng-king, the capital city of Manchuria, is situated in the province +of Sheng-king, occupies a fine position on the river Hun-ho, an affluent +of the Liao, and is a city of considerable pretensions. Liao-yang, which +was once the capital of the country, is also in the province of +Sheng-king. The other cities in the province are Kin-chow-fu on the west +of the Gulf of Liao-tung; Kin-chow, on the western extremity of the +Liao-tung peninsula; Kai-ping, on the north-western shore of the same +peninsula; Hai-cheng, on the road from Niu-chwang to Mukden; Ki-yuen, a +populous and prosperous city in the north of the province; and +Sing-king, east of Mukden, the original seat of the founders of the +present dynasty. The most important commercial place, however, is the +treaty port of Niu-chwang, at the head of the Gulf of Liao-tung. +According to the custom-house returns the value of the foreign imports +and exports in the year 1880 was £691,954 and £1,117,790 respectively, +besides a large native trade carried on in junks. In 1904 the value of +foreign imports had risen to £2,757,962, but the exports amounted to +£1,742,859 only, the comparatively low figure being accounted for by the +Russo-Japanese war. + +The province of Kirin, or Central Manchuria, is bounded on the N. and +N.W. by the Sungari, on the S. by Sheng-king and Korea, on the W. by +Mongolia, and on the E. by the Usuri and the maritime Russian province. +It contains an area of about 90,000 sq. m., and is entirely mountainous +with the exception of a stretch of plain country in its north-western +corner. This plain produces large quantities of indigo and opium, and is +physically remarkable for the number of isolated conical hills which dot +its surface. These sometimes occur in a direct line at intervals of 15 +or 20 m., and elsewhere are scattered about "like dish-covers on a +table." Kirin, the capital of the province, occupies a magnificent +position, being surrounded on the north, west and south by a +semicircular range of mountains with the broad stream of the Sungari +flowing across the front. The local trade is considerable. A-She-ho, on +the Ashe, with a population of 60,000; Petuna (Chinese, Sing-chung), on +the Sungari, population 30,000; San-sing, near the junction of the +Sungari and Mutan-kiang; La-lin, 120 m. to the north of Kirin, +population 20,000; Harbin or Kharbin and Ninguta are the other principal +cities in the province. + +Hei-lung-kiang, or Northern Manchuria, which contains about 195,000 sq. +m., is bounded on the N. and N.E. by the Amur, on the S. by the Sungari, +and on the W. by the Nonni and Mongolia. It is traversed by the Great +and Lesser Khingan mountains and their offshoots. This province is +thinly populated, and is cultivated only along the lines of its rivers. +The only towns of any importance are Tsitsihar and Mergen, both situated +on the Nonni and Khailar in the west. + + _Climate, Flora, Fauna._--The climate over the greater part of the + country varies between extremes of heat and cold, the thermometer + ranging between 90° F. in the summer and 10° below zero in the winter. + As in the north of China, the rivers are frozen up during the four + winter months. After a short spring the heat of summer succeeds, which + in its turn is followed by an autumn of six weeks' duration. The great + plain in Sheng-king is in many parts swampy, and in the neighbourhood + of the sea, where the soil emits a saline exudation such as is also + common in the north of China, it is perfectly sterile. In other parts + fine crops of millet and various kinds of grain are grown, and on it + trees flourish abundantly. The trees and plants are much the same as + those common in England, and severe as the weather is in winter the + less elevated mountains are covered to their summits with trees. The + wild animals also are those known in Europe, with the addition of + tigers and panthers. Bears, wild boars, hares, wolves, foxes and wild + cats are very common, and in the north sables are found in great + numbers. One of the most noticeable of the birds is the Mongolian lark + (_Melanocorypha mongolica_), which is found in a wild state both in + Manchuria and in the desert of Mongolia. This bird is exported in + large numbers to northern China, where it is much prized on account of + its extraordinary power of imitation. The Manchurian crane is common, + as also are eagles, cuckoos, laughing doves, &c. Insects abound, owing + to the swampy nature of much of the country. The rivers are well + stocked with fish, especially with salmon, which forms a common + article of food. In such immense shoals do these fish appear in some + of the smaller streams that numbers are squeezed out on to the banks + and there perish. + + _Products and Industries._--In minerals Manchuria is very rich: coal, + gold, iron (as well as magnetic iron ore), and precious stones are + found in large quantities. Gold mines are worked at several places in + the northern part of Manchuria, of which the principal are on the Muho + river, an affluent of the Amur, and near the Russian frontier. Mines + are also worked at Kwanyin-shan, opposite the Russian frontier town of + Radevska, and at Chia-pi-kou, on an affluent of the upper Sungari. + Indigo and opium are the most lucrative crops. The indigo plant is + grown in large quantities in the plain country to the north of Mukden, + and is transported thence to the coast in carts, each of which carries + rather more than a ton weight of the dye. The poppy is cultivated + wherever it will grow, the crop being far more profitable than that of + any other product. Cotton, tobacco, pulse, millet, wheat and barley + are also grown. + + _Population._--The population is estimated as follows for each of the + three divisions:-- + + Province of Sheng-king (Feng T'ien) 4,000,000 + " " Kirin 6,500,000 + " " Hei-lung-kiang 2,000,000 + ---------- + Total 12,500,000 + + _Communications._--Four principal highways traverse Manchuria. The + first runs from Peking to Kirin via Mukden, where it sends off a + branch to Korea. At Kirin it bifurcates, one branch going to San-sing, + the extreme north-eastern town of the province of Kirin, and the other + to Possiet Bay on the coast via Ninguta. The second road runs from the + treaty port of Niu-chwang through Mukden to Petuna in the + north-western corner of the Kirin province, and thence to Tsitsihar, + Mergen and the Amur. The third also starts from Niu-chwang, and + strikes southward to Kin-chow at the extremity of the Liao-tung + peninsula. The fourth connects Niu-chwang with the Gate of Korea. + + [Illustration: Map of Manchuria.] + + + Manchurian Railways. + + The original Manchurian railway was constructed under an agreement + made in 1896 between the Chinese government and the Russo-Chinese + bank, an institution founded in 1895 to develop Russian interests in + the East. The Chinese Eastern Railway Company was formed by the bank + under this agreement, to construct and work the line, and surveys were + made in 1897, the town of Harbin being founded as headquarters for the + work. The line, which affords through communication from Europe by way + of the Trans-Siberian system, enters Manchuria near a station of that + name in the north-west corner of the country, passes Khailar, and runs + south-east, near Tsitsihar, to Harbin. Thence the main line continues + in the same general direction to the eastern frontier of Manchuria, + and so to Vladivostok. In 1898 Russia obtained a lease of the + Liao-tung peninsula, and a clause of this contract empowered her to + connect Port Arthur and Dalny (now Tairen) with the main Manchurian + railway by a branch southward from Harbin. In spite of interruption + caused by the Boxer outbreak, through communication was established in + 1901. Under the Russo-Japanese treaty of August 1905, after the war, + supplemented by a convention between Japan and China concluded in + December of the same year, Japan took over the line from Port Arthur + as far as Kwang-cheng-tsze, now known as the Southern Manchurian + railway (508 m.). Branches were promoted (a) from Mukden to Antung on + the Ya-lu, to connect with the Korean system, and (b) from + Kwang-cheng-tsze to Kirin. The rest of the original Manchurian system + (1088 miles) remains under Russian control. In the south-west of + Manchuria a line of the imperial railways of Northern China gives + connexion from Peking, and Branches at Kou-pang-tsze to Sin-min-ting + and to Niu-chwang, and the link between Sin-min-ting and Mukden is + also under Chinese control. The lines now under Russian control were + laid down, and remain, on the 5 ft. gauge which is the Russian + standard; but after the Russian control of the southern lines was lost + the gauge was altered from that standard. + +_History._--Manchu, as has been said, is not the name of the country but +of the people who inhabit it. The name was adopted by a ruler who rose +to power in the beginning of the 13th century. Before that time the +Manchus were more or less a shifting population, and, being broken up +into a number of tribes, they went mainly under the distinctive name of +those clans which exercised lordship over them. Thus under the Cbow +dynasty (1122-225 B.C.) they were known as Sewshin, and at subsequent +periods as Yih-low, Wuh-keih, Moh-hoh, Pohai, Nüchih and according to +the Chinese historians also as Khitan. Throughout their history they +appear as a rude people, the tribute they brought to the Chinese court +consisting of stone arrow-heads, hawks, gold, and latterly ginseng. +Assuming that, as the Chinese say, the Khitans were Manchus, the first +appearance of the Manchus, as a people, in China dates from the +beginning of the 10th century, when the Khitans, having first conquered +the kingdom of Pohai, crossed the frontier into China and established +the Liao or Iron dynasty in the northern portion of the empire. These +invaders were in their turn overthrown two centuries later by another +invasion from Manchuria. These new conquerors were Nüchihs, and +therefore direct ancestors of the Manchus. On assuming the imperial +yellow in China their chief adopted the title of Kin or "Golden" for his +dynasty. "Iron" (Liao), he said, "rusts, but gold always keeps its +purity and colour, therefore my dynasty shall be called Kin." In a +little more than a century, however, the Kins were driven out of China +by the Mongols under Jenghiz Khan. But before the close of their rule a +miraculous event occurred on the Chang-pai-Shan mountains which is +popularly believed to have laid the seeds of the greatness of the +present rulers of the empire. Three heaven-born maidens, so runs the +legend, were bathing one day in a lake under the Chang-pai-Shan +mountains when a passing magpie dropped a ripe red fruit into the lap of +one of them. The maiden ate the fruit, and in due course a child was +born to her, whom she named Aisin Gioro, or the Golden. When quite a lad +Aisin Gioro was elected chief over three contending clans, and +established his capital at Otoli near the Chang-pai-Shan mountains. His +reign, however, was brief, for his subjects rose and murdered him, with +all his sons except the youngest, Fancha, who, like the infant Haitu in +Mongolian history, was miraculously saved. Nothing is recorded of the +facts of Aisin Gioro's reign except that he named the people over whom +he reigned Manchu, or "Pure." His descendants, through the rescued +Fancha, fell into complete obscurity until about the middle of the 16th +century, when one of them, Nurhachu by name, a chieftain of a small +tribe, rose to power. Nurhachu played with skill and daring the rôle +which had been played by Jenghiz Khan more than three centuries before +in Mongolia. With even greater success than his Mongolian counterpart, +Nurhachu drew tribe after tribe under his sway, and after numerous wars +with Korea and Mongolia he established his rule over the whole of +Manchuria. Being thus the sovereign of an empire, he, again like Jenghiz +Khan, adopted for himself the title of Ying-ming, "Brave and +Illustrious," and took for his reign the title of T'ien-ming. Thirteen +years later, in 1617, after numerous border fights with the Chinese, +Nurhachu drew up a list of "seven hates," or indictments, against his +southern neighbours, and, not getting the satisfaction he demanded, +declared war against them. The progress of this war, the peace hastily +patched up, the equally hasty alliance and its consequences, being +matters of Chinese history, are treated in the article CHINA. + +Manchuria was claimed by Russia as her particular sphere of interest +towards the close of the 19th century, and in the course of the +disturbances of 1900 Russian troops occupied various parts of the +country. Eventually a Manchurian convention was arranged between China +and Russia, by which Russia was to evacuate the province; but no actual +ratification of this convention was made by Russia. The Anglo-German +agreement of October 1900, to which Japan also became a party, and by +which it was agreed to "maintain undiminished the territorial condition +of the Chinese empire," was considered by Great Britain and Japan not to +exclude Manchuria; but Germany, on the other hand, declared that +Manchuria was of no interest to her. The Anglo-Japanese treaty of 1902, +however, was ostensibly directed towards the preservation of Manchuria +in Chinese hands. British capital has been invested in the extension of +the Chinese Northern railway to Niu-chwang, and the fact was officially +recognized by an agreement between Great Britain and Russia in 1899. One +result of the Russo-Japanese War was the evacuation of Manchuria by the +Russians, which, after the conclusion of peace in 1905, was handed over +by Japan to China. + + See H. E. M. James, _The Long White Mountain_ (London, 1888); D. + Christie, _Ten Years in Manchuria_ (Paisley, 1895); F. E. + Younghusband, _The Heart of a Continent: a Narrative of Travels in + Manchuria_ (London, 1896); P. H. Kent, _Railway Enterprise in China_ + (London, 1907). (R. K. D.) + + + + +MANCINI, PASQUALE STANISLAO (1817-1888), Italian jurist and statesman, +was born at Castel Baronia, in the province of Avellino, on the 17th of +March 1817. At Naples, where he studied law and displayed great literary +activity, he rapidly acquired a prominent position, and in 1848 was +instrumental in persuading Ferdinand II. to participate in the war +against Austria. Twice he declined the offer of a portfolio in the +Neapolitan cabinet, and upon the triumph of the reactionary party +undertook the defence of the Liberal political prisoners. Threatened +with imprisonment in his turn, he fled to Piedmont, where he obtained a +university professorship and became preceptor of the crown prince +Humbert. In 1860 he prepared the legislative unification of Italy, +opposed the idea of an alliance between Piedmont and Naples, and, after +the fall of the Bourbons, was sent to Naples as administrator of +justice, in which capacity he suppressed the religious orders, revoked +the Concordat, proclaimed the right of the state to Church property, and +unified civil and commercial jurisprudence. In 1862 he became minister +of public instruction in the Rattazzi cabinet, and induced the Chamber +to abolish capital punishment. Thereafter, for fourteen years, he +devoted himself chiefly to questions of international law and +arbitration, but in 1876, upon the advent of the Left to power, became +minister of justice in the Depretis cabinet. His Liberalism found +expression in the extension of press freedom, the repeal of imprisonment +for debt, and the abolition of ecclesiastical tithes. During the +Conclave of 1878 he succeeded, by negotiations with Cardinal Pecci +(afterwards Leo XIII.), in inducing the Sacred College to remain in +Rome, and, after the election of the new pope, arranged for his +temporary absence from the Vatican for the purpose of settling private +business. Resigning office in March 1878, he resumed the practice of +law, and secured the annulment of Garibaldi's marriage. The fall of +Cairoli led to Mancini's appointment (1881) to the ministry of foreign +affairs in the Depretis administration. The growing desire in Italy for +alliance with Austria and Germany did not at first secure his approval; +nevertheless he accompanied King Humbert to Vienna and conducted the +negotiations which led to the informal acceptance of the Triple +Alliance. His desire to retain French confidence was the chief motive of +his refusal in July 1882 to share in the British expedition to Egypt, +but, finding his efforts fruitless when the existence of the Triple +Alliance came to be known, he veered to the English interest and +obtained assent in London to the Italian expedition to Massawa. An +indiscreet announcement of the limitations of the Triple Alliance +contributed to his fall in June 1885, when he was succeeded by Count di +Robilant. He died in Rome on the 26th of December 1888. + + + + +MANCIPLE, the official title of the caterer at a college, an inn of +court, or other institution. Sometimes also the chief cook. The medieval +Latin _manceps_, formed from _mancipium_, acquisition by purchase (see +ROMAN LAW), meant a purchaser of stores, and _mancipium_ became used of +his office. It is from the latter word that the O. Fr. _manciple_ is +taken. + + + + +MANCUNIUM, the name often (though perhaps incorrectly) given as the +Romano-British name of Manchester. Here, close to the Medlock, in the +district still called Castlefield near Knott Mill, stood in Roman days a +fort garrisoned by a cohort of Roman auxiliary soldiers. The site is now +obscured by houses, railways and the Rochdale canal, but vestiges of +Roman ramparts can still be seen, and other remains were found in 1907 +and previous years. Traces of Romano-British inhabitation have been +noted elsewhere in Manchester, especially near the cathedral. But there +was no town here; we can trace nothing more than a fort guarding the +roads running north through Lancashire and east into Yorkshire, and the +dwellings of women-folk and traders which would naturally spring up +outside such a fort. The ancient name is unknown. Our Roman authorities +give both Mancunium and Mamucium, but it is not clear that either form +is correct. + + See W. T. Watkin's _Roman Lancashire_; C. Roeder's _Roman Manchester_, + and the account edited by F. Bruton of the excavations in 1907. + (F. J. H.) + + + + +MANDAEANS, also known as Sabians, Nasoraeans, or St John's +Christians,[1] an Oriental sect of great antiquity, interesting to the +theologian as almost the only surviving example of a religion +compounded of Christian, heathen and Jewish elements on a type which is +essentially that of ancient Gnosticism. + +The Mandaeans are found in the marshy lands of South Babylonia +(al-bataih), particularly in the neighbourhood of Basra (or Bussorah), +and in Khuzistan (Disful, Shuster).[2] They speak the languages of the +localities in which they are settled (Arabic or Persian), but the +language of their sacred books is an Aramaic dialect, which has its +closest affinities with that of the Babylonian Talmud, written in a +peculiar character suggestive of the old Palmyrene.[3] The existence of +the Mandaeans has been known since the middle of the 17th century, when +the first Christian missionaries, Ignatius a Jesu[4] and Angelus a +Sancto, began to labour among them at Basra; further information was +gathered at a somewhat later date by Pietro della Valle[5] and Jean de +Thévenot[6] (1633-1667), and in the following century by Engelbrecht +Kaempfer (1651-1716), Jean Chardin (1643-1713) and Carsten Niebuhr. In +recent times they have been visited by A. H. Petermann[7] and Albrecht +Socin, and Siouffi[8] published in 1880 a full and accurate account of +their manners and customs, taken from the lips of a converted Mandaean. +For our knowledge of their doctrinal system, however, we still depend +chiefly upon the sacred books already mentioned, consisting of fragments +of very various antiquity derived from an older literature.[9] Of these +the largest and most important is the _Sidra rabba_ ("Great Book"), +known also as _Ginza_ ("Treasure"), consisting of two unequal parts, of +which the larger is called _yamina_ (to the right hand) and the smaller +_s'mala_ (to the left hand), because of the manner in which they are +bound together. The former is intended for the living; the latter +consists chiefly of prayers to be read at the burial of priests. As +regards doctrine, the work is exhaustive; but it is diffuse, obscure, +and occasionally self-contradictory, as might be expected in a work +which consists of a number of unconnected paragraphs of various +authorship and date. The last section of the "right-hand" part (the +"Book of Kings") is one of the older portions, and from its allusion to +"the Persian and Arabian kings" may be dated somewhere between A.D. 700 +and 900. Many of the doctrinal portions may in substance well be still +older, and date from the time of the Sassanids. None of the MSS., +however, is older than the 16th century.[10] + +The following sketch represents, as far as can be gathered from these +heterogeneous sources, the principal features of the Mandaean system. +The ground and origin of all things is _Pira_, or more correctly _Pera +rabba_ ("the great abyss," or from [Hebrew: paar], "to split," cf. the +Gnostic [Greek: buthos], or more probably cf. Heb. _peri_, "the great +fruit"), associated with whom, and forming a triad with him, are the +primal aeons _Ayar ziva rabba_, "the great shining aether," and _Mana +rabba d'ekara_, "the great spirit of glory," usually called simply _Mana +rabba_. The last-named, the most prominent of the three, is the king of +light properly so called, from whom the development of all things +begins. From him emanates _Yard^ena rabba_, "the great Jordan," which, +as the higher-world soul, permeates the whole aether, the domain of +Ayar. Alongside of _Mana rabba_ frequent mention is made of _D'mutha_, +his "image," as a female power; the name "image of the father" arises +out of the same conception as that which gives rise to the name of +[Greek: ennoia] among the Greek Gnostics. _Mana rabba_ called into being +the highest of the aeons properly so called, _Hayye Kadmaye_, "Primal +Life," and then withdrew into deepest secrecy, visible indeed to the +highest but not to the lowest aeons (cf. [Greek: Sophia] and [Greek: +Propatôr]), yet manifesting himself also to the souls of the more pious +of the Mandaeans after their separation from the body. Primal Life, who +is properly speaking the Mandaean god, has the same predicates as the +primal spirit, and every prayer, as well as every section of the sacred +books, begins by invoking him.[11] The extremely fantastic delineation +of the world of light by which _Hayye Kadmaye_ is surrounded (see for +example the beginning of _Sidra rabba_) corresponds very closely with +the Manichaean description of the abode of the "king of the paradise of +light." The king of light "sits in the far north in might and glory." +The Primal Light unfolds himself by five great branches, viz. "the +highest purest light, the gentle wind, the harmony of sounds, the voice +of all the aeons, and the beauty of their forms," all these being +treated as abstractions and personified. Out of the further development +and combination of these primary manifestations arise numerous aeons +(_'Uthre_, "splendours," from [Hebrew: atar], "is rich"), of which the +number is often stated to be three hundred and sixty. They are divided +into a number of classes (kings, hypostases, forms, &c.); the proper +names by which they are invoked are many, and for the most part obscure, +borrowed doubtless, to some extent, from the Parsee angelology. From the +First Life proceeds as a principal emanation the "Second Life," _Hayye +Tinyane_, generally called _Yoshamin_. This last name is evidently meant +to be Hebrew, "Yahweh of the heavens," the God of the Jews being of a +secondary rank in the usual Gnostic style. The next emanation after +_Yoshamin_ is "the messenger of life" (_Manda d'hayye_, literally +[Greek: gnôsis tês zôês]), the most important figure in the entire +system, the mediator and redeemer, the [Greek: logos] and the Christ of +the Mandaeans, from whom, as already stated, they take their name. He +belongs to the heathen Gnosis, and is in his essence the same as the +Babylonian Marduk. _Yoshamin_ desired to raise himself above the Primal +Light, but failed in the attempt, and was punished by removal out of the +pure aetherial world into that of inferior light. Manda, on the other +hand, continues with the First Life and _Mana rabba_, and is called his +"beloved son," the "first born," "high priest" and "word of life." The +"Life" calls into existence in the visible world a series of three great +Helpers, Hibil, Shithil and Anosh (late Judaeo-Babylonian +transformations of the well-known names of the book of Genesis), the +guardians of souls. The last son of the Second Life is _Hayye +t'lithaye_, the "Third Life," usually called father of the Uthre (_Aba +d' 'Uthre_, _Abathur_). His usual epithet is "the Ancient" (_'Atiqa_), +and he is also called "the deeply hidden and guarded." He stands on the +borderland between the here and the hereafter, like the mysterious +[Greek: preobutês tritos] or _senex tertius_ of Mani, whose becoming +visible will betoken the end of the world. Abathur sits on the farthest +verge of the world of light that lies towards the lower regions, and +weighs in his balance the deeds of the departed spirits who ascend to +him. Beneath him was originally nothing but a huge void with muddy black +water at the bottom, in which his image was reflected, becoming +ultimately solidified into P'tahil, his son, who now partakes of the +nature of matter. The demiurge of the Mandaeans, and corresponding to +the Ialdabaoth of the Ophites, he at the instance of his father frames +the earth and men--according to some passages in conjunction with the +seven bad planetary spirits. He created Adam and Eve, but was unable to +make them stand upright, whereupon Hibil, Shithil and Anosh were sent by +the First Life to infuse into their forms spirit from _Mana rabba_ +himself. Hibil, at the instance of the supreme God, also taught men +about the world of light and the aeons, and especially gave them to know +that not P'tahil but another was their creator and supreme God, who as +"the great king of light, without number, without limit," stands far +above him. At the same time he enjoined the pair to marry and people the +world. P'tahil had now lost his power over men, and was driven by his +father out of the world of light into a place beneath it, whence he +shall at the day of judgment be raised, and after receiving baptism be +made king of the 'Uthre with divine honours. + +The underworld is made up of four vestibules and three hells properly so +called. The vestibules have each two rulers, Zartay and Zartanay, Hag +and Mag, Gaf and Gafan, Anatan and Kin. In the highest hell rules alone +the grisly king Sh'dum, "the warrior"; in the storey immediately beneath +is Giv, "the great"; and in the lowest is Krun or Karkum, the oldest and +most powerful of all, commonly called "the great mountain of flesh" +(_Tura rabba d'besra_), but also "the first-born of darkness." In the +vestibules dirty water is still to be met with, but the hells are full +of scorching consuming fire, except Krun's domain, where is nought but +dust, ashes and vacancy. Into these regions descended Hibil the +brilliant, in the power of _Mana rabba_, just as in the Manichaean +mythology the "primal man," armed with the elements of the king of +light, descends to a contest with the primal devil. Hibil lingers, +gradually unfolding his power, in each of the vestibules, and finally +passing from hell to hell reaches Karkum. Hibil allows himself to be +half swallowed by the monster, but is unhurt, and compels his antagonist +to recognize the superiority of _Mana rabba_, the God of light, and to +divulge his profoundest secret, the hidden name of darkness. Armed with +this he returns through the successive hells, compelling the disclosure +of every secret, depriving the rulers of their power, and barring the +doors of the several regions. From the fourth vestibule he brought the +female devil Ruha, daughter of Kin, and set her over the whole four. +This Ruha, the mother of falsehood and lies, of poisoning and +fornication is an anti-Christian parody of the Ruha d'Qudsha (Holy +Spirit) of the Syriac Church. She is the mother of Ur, the personified +fire of hell, who in anger and pride made a violent onset on the world +of light (compare the similar occurrence in the Manichaean mythology), +but was mastered by Hibil and thrown in chains down to the "black +water," and imprisoned within seven iron and seven golden walls. By Ur, +Ruha, while P'tahil was engaged in his work of creation, became mother +of three sets of seven, twelve and five sons respectively; all were +translated by P'tahil to the heavenly firmament (like the Archons of +Mani), the first group forming the planets and the next the signs of the +zodiac, while the third is as yet undetermined. Of the names of the +planets Estera (Ishtar Venus, also called Ruha d'Qudsha, "holy spirit"), +Enba (Nebo, Mercury), Sin (moon), Kewan (Saturn), Bil (Jupiter), and +Nirig (Nirgal, Mars) reveal their Babylonian origin; Il or Il Il, the +sun, is also known as Kadush and Adunay (the Adonai of the Old +Testament); as lord of the planetary spirits his place is in the midst +of them; they are the source of all temptation and evil amongst men. The +houses of the planets, as well as the earth and a second world +immediately to the north of it, rest upon anvils laid by Hibil on the +belly of Ur. + +In the Mandaean representation the sky is an ocean of water, pure and +clear, but of more than adamantine solidity, upon which the stars and +planets sail. Its transparency allows us to see even to the pole star, +who is the central sun around whom all the heavenly bodies move. Wearing +a jewelled crown, he stands before Abathur's door at the gate of the +world of light; the Mandaeans accordingly invariably pray with their +faces turned northward. The earth is conceived of as a round disk, +slightly sloping towards the south, surrounded on three sides by the +sea, but on the north by a high mountain of turquoises; behind this is +the abode of the blest, a sort of inferior paradise, inhabited by the +Egyptians who were saved from drowning with Pharaoh in the Red Sea, and +whom the Mandaeans look upon as their ancestors, Pharaoh himself having +been their first high priest and king. The total duration of the earth +they fix at four hundred and eighty thousand years, divided into seven +epochs, in each of which one of the planets rules. The _Sidra Rabba_ +knows of three total destructions of the human race by fire and water, +pestilence and sword, a single pair alone surviving in each case. In the +Mandaean view the Old Testament saints are false prophets; such as +Abraham, who arose six thousand years after Nu(Noah) during the reign of +the sun, Misha (Moses), in whose time the true religion was professed by +the Egyptians, and Shlimun (Solomon) bar Davith, the lord of the demons. +Another false prophet and magician was Yishu M'shiha, who was in fact a +manifestation of the planet Mercury. Forty-two years before his day, +under King Pontius Pilate, there had appeared the true prophet Yahya or +John son of Zechariah, an incarnation of Hibil, of whose birth and +childhood fantastic stories are told. Yahya by a mistake gave baptism to +the false Messiah, who had feigned humility; on the completion of his +mission, after undergoing a seeming execution, he returned clothed with +light into the kingdom of light. As a contemporary of Yahya and the +false Messiah Hibil's younger brother Anosh 'Uthra came down from +heaven, caused himself to be baptized by Yahya, wrought miracles of +healing and of raising the dead, and brought about the crucifixion of +the false Messiah. He preached the true religion, destroyed Jerusalem +("Urashlam," i.e. "the devil finished it"), which had been built by +Adunay, dispersed over the world the Jews who had put Yahya to death, +and previous to his return into the worlds of light sent forth three +hundred and sixty prophets for the diffusion of the true religion. All +this speaks of intense hatred alike of Jews and Christians; the fasts, +celibacy and monastic and anchoret life of the latter are peculiarly +objectionable to the Mandaeans. Two hundred and forty years after the +appearing of the false Messiah there came to the world sixty thousand +saints out of Pharaoh's world to take the place of the Mandaeans, who +had been completely extirpated; their high priest had his residence in +Damascus. The last false prophet was M'hammad or Ahmat bar Bisbat +(Mahomet), but Anosh, who remained close beside him and his immediate +successors, prevented hostilities against the true believers, who claim +to have had in Babylonia, under the Abbasids, four hundred places of +worship. Subsequent persecutions compelled their withdrawal to 'Ammara +in the neighbourhood of Wasit, and ultimately to Khuzistan. At the end +of the world the devil Ur will swallow up the earth and the other +intermediate higher worlds, and thereupon will burst and fall into the +abyss of darkness where, along with all the worlds and powers of +darkness, he will ultimately cease to be, so that thenceforward the +universe will consist of but one everlasting world of light. + + The chief depositaries of these Mandaean mysteries are the priests, + who enjoy a high degree of power and social regard. The priesthood has + three grades: (1) the _Sh'kanda_ or deacon is generally chosen from + episcopal or priestly families, and must be without bodily blemish. + The candidate for orders must be at least nineteen years old and have + undergone twelve years' preparation; he is then qualified to assist + the priesthood in the ceremonies of religion. (2) The _Tarmida_ (i.e. + "Talmida," "initiated") or priest is ordained by a bishop and two + priests or by four priests after a long and extremely painful period + of preparation. (3) The _Ganzivra_ ("treasurer") or bishop, the + highest dignitary, is chosen from the whole body of the Tarmidas after + a variety of tests, and possesses unlimited authority over the + clergy. A supreme priestly rank, that of _Rish 'amma_, or "head of the + people," is recognized, but only in theory; since the time of Pharaoh + this sovereign pontificate has only once been filled. Women are + admitted to priestly offices as well as men. The priestly dress, which + is all white, consists of drawers, an upper garment, and a girdle with + the so-called _taga_ ("crown"); in all ceremonies the celebrants must + be barefoot. By far the most frequent and important of the religious + ceremonies is that of baptism (_masbutha_), which is called for in a + great variety of cases, not only for children but for adults, where + consecration or purification is required, as for example on all + Sundays and feast days, after contact with a dead body, after return + from abroad, after neglect of any formality on the part of a priest in + the discharge of his functions. In all these cases baptism is + performed by total immersion in running water, but during the five + days' baptismal festival the rite is observed wholesale by mere + sprinkling of large masses of the faithful at once. The Mandaeans + observe also with the elements of bread (_pehta_) and wine (_mambuha_, + lit. "fountain") a sort of eucharist, which has a special sanctifying + efficacy, and is usually dispensed at festivals, but only to baptized + persons of good repute who have never willingly denied the Mandaean + faith. In receiving it the communicant must not touch the host with + his finger; otherwise it loses its virtue. The hosts are made by the + priests from unleavened fine flour. The Mandaean places of worship, + being designed only for the priests and their assistants (the + worshippers remaining in the forecourt), are excessively small, and + very simply furnished; two windows, a door that opens towards the + south so that those who enter have their faces turned towards the pole + star, a few boards in the corner, and a gabled roof complete the whole + structure; there is neither altar nor decoration of any kind. The + neighbourhood of running water (for baptisms) is essential. At the + consecration of a church the sacrifice of a dove (the bird of Ishtar) + has place among the ceremonies. Besides Sundays there are six great + feasts: (1) that of the New Year (_Nauruz rabba_), on the first day of + the first month of winter; (2) _Dehwa h' nina_, the anniversary of the + happy return of _Hibil Ziva_ from the kingdom of darkness into that of + light, lasting five days, beginning with the 18th of the first month + of spring; (3) the _Marwana_, in commemoration of the drowned + Egyptians, on the first day of the second month of spring; (4) the + great five days' baptismal festival (_pantsha_), the chief feast, kept + on the five intercalary days at the end of the second month of + summer--during its continuance every Mandaean, male and female, must + dress in white and bathe thrice daily; (5) _Dehwa d'daimana_, in + honour of one of the three hundred and sixty 'Uthras, on the first day + of the second month of autumn; (6) _Kanshe Zahla_, the preparation + feast, held on the last day of the year. There are also fast days + called m'battal (Arab.), on which it is forbidden to kill any living + thing or eat flesh. These, however, are really "rest-days," as fasting + is forbidden in Mandaeism. The year is solar, and has twelve months of + thirty days each, with five intercalary days between the eighth and + the ninth month. Of the seven days of the week, next to Sunday + (habshaba) Thursday has a special sacredness as the day of _Hibil + Ziva_. As regards secular occupation, the present Mandaeans are + goldsmiths, ironworkers, and house and ship carpenters. The _Sidra + Rabba_ lays great stress upon the duty of procreation, and marriage is + a duty. In the 17th century, according to the old travellers, they + numbered about 20,000 families, but at the present day they hardly + number more than 1200 souls. In external appearance the Mandaean is + distinguished from the Moslem only by a brown coat and a + parti-coloured headcloth with a cord twisted round it. They have some + peculiar deathbed rites: a deacon with some attendants waits upon the + dying, and as death approaches administers a bath first of warm and + afterwards of cold water; a holy dress, consisting of seven pieces + (rasta), is then put on; the feet are directed towards the north and + the head turned to the south, so that the body faces the pole star. + After the burial a funeral feast is held in the house of mourning. + + The Mandaeans are strictly reticent about their theological dogmas in + the presence of strangers; and the knowledge they actually possess of + these is extremely small. The foundation of the system is obviously to + be sought in Gnosticism, and more particularly in the older type of + that doctrine (known from the serpent symbol as Ophite or Naassene) + which obtained in Mesopotamia and Further Asia generally. But it is + equally plain that the Ophite nucleus has from time to time received + very numerous and often curiously perverted accretions from Babylonian + Judaism, Oriental Christianity and Parsism, exhibiting a striking + example of religious syncretism. In the Gnostic basis itself it is not + difficult to recognize the general features of the religion of ancient + Babylonia, and thus we are brought nearer a solution of the problem as + to the origin of Gnosticism in general. It is certain that Babylonia, + the seat of the present Mandaeans, must be regarded also as the cradle + in which their system was reared; it is impossible to think of them as + coming from Palestine, or to attribute to their doctrines a Jewish or + Christian origin. They do not spring historically from the disciples + of John the Baptist (Acts xviii. 25; xix. 3 seq.; _Recog. Clem._ i. + 54); the tradition in which he and the Jordan figure so largely is not + original, and is therefore worthless; at the same time it is true that + their baptismal praxis and its interpretation place them in the same + religious group with the Hemerobaptists of Eusebius (_H. E._ iv. 22) + and Epiphanius (_Haer._, xvii.), or with the sect of disciples of + John who remained apart from Christianity. Their reverence for John is + of a piece with their whole syncretizing attitude towards the New + Testament. Indeed, as has been seen, they appropriate the entire + personale of the Bible from Adam, Seth, Abel, Enos and Pharaoh to + Jesus and John, a phenomenon which bears witness to the close + relations of the Mandaean doctrine both with Judaism and + Christianity--not the less close because they were relations of + hostility. The history of religion presents other examples of the + degradation of holy to demonic figures on occasion of religious + schism. The use of the word "Jordan," even in the plural, for "sacred + water," is precisely similar to that by the Naassenes described in the + _Philosophumena_ (v. 7); there [Greek: ho megas Iordanês] denotes the + spiritualizing sanctifying fluid which pervades the world of light. + The notions of the Egyptians and the Red Sea, according to the same + work (v. 16), are used by the Peratae much as by the Mandaeans. And + the position assigned by the Sethians ([Greek: Sêthianoi]) to Seth is + precisely similar to that given by the Mandaeans to Abel. Both alike + are merely old Babylonian divinities in a new Biblical garb. The + genesis of Mandaeism and the older gnosis from the old and elaborate + Babylonio-Chaldaean religion is clearly seen also in the fact that the + names of the old pantheon (as for example those of the planetary + divinities) are retained, but their holders degraded to the position + of demons--a conclusion confirmed by the fact that the Mandaeans, like + the allied Ophites, Peratae and Manichaeans, certainly have their + original seat in Mesopotamia and Babylonia. It seems clear that the + trinity of Anu, Bel, and Ea in the old Babylonian religion has its + counterpart in the Mandaean Pira, Ayar, and Mana rabba. The D'mutha of + Mana is the Damkina, the wife of Ea, mentioned by Damascius as [Greek: + Dankê], wife of [Greek: Ahos]. Manda d'hayye and his image Hibil Ziva + with his incarnations clearly correspond to the old Babylonian Marduk, + Merodach, the "first-born" son of Ea, with his incarnations, the chief + divinity of the city of Babylon, the mediator and redeemer in the old + religion. Hibil's contest with darkness has its prototype in Marduk's + battle with chaos, the dragon Tiamat, which (another striking + parallel) partially swallows Marduk, just as is related of Hibil and + the Manichaean primal man. Other features are borrowed by the Mandaean + mythology under this head from the well-known epos of Istar's + _descensus ad inferos_. The sanctity with which water is invested by + the Mandaeans is to be explained by the fact that Ea has his seat "in + the depths of the world sea." + + Cf. K. Kessler's article, "Mandäer," in Herzog-Hauck's + _Realencyklopädie_, and the same author's paper, "Ueber Gnosis u. + altbabylonische Religion," in the _Abhandh. d. funften internationalen + Orientalisten-congresses zu Berlin_ (Berlin, 1882); also W. Brandt's + _Mandäische Religion_ (Leipzig, 1889), and M. N. Siouffi's _Études sur + la religion des Soubbas_ (Paris, 1880). (K. K.; G. W. T.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The first of these names (not Mendaeans or Mandaites) is that + given by themselves, and means [Greek: gnostikoi], followers of + Gnosis ([Hebrew: mandaia], from [Hebrew: manda], Hebr. [Hebrew: + madda]). The Gnosis of which they profess themselves adherents is a + _personification_, the æon and mediator "knowledge of life" (see + below). The title Nasoraeans (Nasoraye), according to Petermann, they + give only to those among themselves who are most distinguished for + knowledge and character. Like the Arabic Nasara, it is originally + identical with the name of the half heathen half Jewish-Christian + [Greek: Nazoraioi], and indicates an early connexion with that sect. + The inappropriate designation of St John's Christians arises from the + early and imperfect acquaintance of Christian missionaries, who had + regard merely to the reverence in which the name of the Baptist is + held among them, and their frequent baptisms. In their dealings with + members of other communions the designation they take is Sabians, in + Arabic Sabi'una, from [Hebrew: tzva] = [Hebrew: tzeva], to baptize, + thus claiming the toleration extended by the Koran (Sur, 5,.73; 22, + 17; 2, 59) to those of that name. + + [2] In 1882 they were said to have shrunk to 200 families, and to be + seeking a new settlement on the Tigris, to escape the persecutions to + which they are exposed. + + [3] See T. Nöldeke's admirable _Mandäische Grammatik_ (Halle, 1875). + + [4] _Narratio originis, rituum, et errorum Christianorum S. Joannis_ + (Rome, 1652). + + [5] _Reisebeschreibung_, part iv. (Geneva, 1674). + + [6] _Voyage au Levant_ (Paris, 1664). + + [7] _Reisen im Orient_, ii. 447 seq. + + [8] M. M. Siouffi, _Études sur la religion ... des Soubbas_ (Paris, + 1880). + + [9] Mandaean MSS. occur in the British Museum, the Bodleian Library, + the Bibliothèque Nationale of France, and also in Rome, Weimar and + Berlin. A number of Mandaean inscriptions relating to popular beliefs + and superstitions have been published by H. Pognon, _Inscriptions + mandaites_ (2 vols., Paris, 1898-1899), also by M. Lidzbarski in his + _Ephemeris_ (Giessen, 1900 seq.). + + [10] The first printed edition and translation of the _Sidra rabba_, + by Matth. Norberg (_Codex Nazaraeus, liber Adami appellatus_, 3 + vols., Copenhagen, 1815-1816, followed by a lexicon in 1816, and an + onomasticon in 1817), is so defective as to be quite useless; even + the name Book of Adam is unknown to the Mandaeans. Petermann's + _Thesaurus s. Liber magnus, vulgo "Liber Adami" appellatus, opus + Mandaeorum summi panderis_ (2 vols., Berlin and Leipzig, 1867), is an + excellent metallographic reproduction of the Paris MS. A German + translation of about a quarter of this work has been published in W. + Brandt's _Mandäische Schriften_, with notes (Göttingen, 1893). A + critical edition still remains a desideratum. Next in importance to + the _Sidra rabba_ is the _Sidra d'Yahya_, or "Book of John," + otherwise known as the _D'rasche d'Malke_, "Discourses of the Kings," + which has not as yet been printed as a whole, although portions nave + been published by Lorsbach and Tychsen (see _Museum f. bibl. u. + orient. Lit._ (1807), and Stäudlin's _Beitr. z. Phil. u. Gesch. d. + Relig. u. Sittenlehre_ 1796 seq.). The _Kolasta_ (Ar. _Khulasa_, + "Quintessence"), or according to its fuller title _'Enyane uderashe + d'masbutha umassektha_ ("Songs and Discourses of Baptism and the + Ascent," viz. of the soul after death), has been admirably + lithographed by Euting (Stuttgart, 1867). It is also known as _Sidra + d'neshmatha_, "Book of Souls," and besides hymns and doctrinal + discourses contains prayers to be offered by the priests at sacrifice + and at meals, as well as other liturgical matter. The Mandaean + marriage service occurs both in Paris and in Oxford as an independent + MS. The _Diwan_, hitherto unpublished, contains the ritual for + atonement. The _Asfar malwashe_, or "Book of the Zodiac," is + astrological. Of smaller pieces many are magical and used as amulets. + + [11] The use of the word "life" in a personal sense is usual in + Gnosticism; compare the [Greek: Zôê] of Valentin and _el-hayat + el-muallama_, "the dark life," of Mani in the _Fihirst_. + + + + +MANDALAY, formerly the capital of independent Burma, now the +headquarters of the Mandalay division and district, as well as the chief +town in Upper Burma, stands on the left bank of the Irrawaddy, in 21° +59´ N. and 96° 8´ E. Its height above mean sea-level is 315 ft. Mandalay +was built in 1856-1857 by King Mindon. It is now divided into the +municipal area and the cantonment. The town covers an area of 6 m. from +north to south and 3 from east to west, and has well-metalled roads +lined with avenues of trees and regularly lighted and watered. The +cantonment consists of the area inside the old city walls, and is now +called Fort Dufferin. In the centre stands the palace, a group of wooden +buildings, many of them highly carved and gilt, resting on a brick +platform 900 ft. by 500 ft., and 6 ft. high. The greater part of it is +now utilized for military and other offices. The garrison consists of a +brigade belonging to the Burma command of the Indian army. There are +many fine pagodas and monastic buildings in the town. The population in +1901 was 183,816, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade. The population +is very mixed. Besides Burmese there are Zerbadis (the offspring of a +Mahommedan with a Burman wife), Mahommedans, Hindus, Jews, Chinese, +Shans and Manipuris (called Kathe), Kachins and Palaungs. Trains run +from Mandalay to Rangoon, Myit-kyina, and up the Mandalay-Kunlong +railway. The steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company also ply in all +directions. There are twenty bazaars, the chief of which, the Zegyo, was +burnt in 1897, and again in 1906, but rebuilt. + +The MANDALAY DISTRICT has an area of 2117 sq. m. and a population (1901) +of 366,507, giving a density of 177 inhabitants to the square mile. +About 600 sq. m. along the Irrawaddy river are flat land, nearly all +cultivated. In the north and east there are some 1500 sq. m. of high +hills and table-lands, forming geographically a portion of the Shan +table-land. Here the fall to the plains averages 3000 to 4000 ft. in a +distance of 10 m. This part of the district is well wooded and watered. +The Maymyo subdivision has very fine plateaus of 3000 to 3600 ft. in +height. The highest peaks are between 4000 and 5000 ft. above sea-level. +The Irrawaddy, the Myit-ngè and the Madaya are the chief rivers. The +last two come from the Shan States, and are navigable for between 20 and +30 m. There are many canals, most of which have fallen greatly into +disrepair, and the Aungbinle, Nanda and Shwepyi lakes also supply water +for cultivation. A systematic irrigation scheme has been undertaken by +the government. The Sagyin hills near Madaya are noted for their +alabaster; rubies are also found in small quantities. There are 335 sq. +m. of forest reserves in the district, but there is little teak. The +climate is dry and healthy. During May and June and till August strong +winds prevail. The thermometer rises to about 107° in the shade in the +hot weather, and the minimum in the month of December is about 55°. The +rainfall is light, the average being under 30 in. + +The DIVISION includes the districts of Mandalay, Bhamo, Myit-kyina, +Katha and Ruby Mines, with a total area of 29,373 sq. m., and a +population (1901) of 777,338, giving an average density of 30 +inhabitants to the square mile. (J. G. Sc.) + + + + +MANDAMUS, WRIT OF, in English law, a high prerogative writ issuing from +the High Court of Justice (named from the first word in the Latin form +of the writ) containing a command in the name of the king, directed to +inferior courts, corporations, or individuals, ordering them to do a +specific act within the duty of their office, or which they are bound by +statute to do, and performance whereof the applicant for the writ has a +specific legal right to enforce. Direct orders from the sovereign to +subjects commanding the performance of particular acts were common in +early times, and to this class of orders _mandamus_ originally belonged. +It became customary for the court of king's bench, in cases where a +legal duty was established but no sufficient means existed for enforcing +it, to order performance by this writ. Under the Judicature Acts and the +_Crown Office Rules_, 1906 (r. 49), the powers of the court of king's +bench as to the grant of the prerogative writ of mandamus are +exercisable only in the king's bench division of the High Court. + +The writ though of right is not of course: i.e. the applicant cannot +have it merely for the asking, but must satisfy the High Court that +circumstances exist calling for its issue. The procedure regulating the +grant and enforcement of the writ is determined by the _Crown Office +Rules_, 1906 (rr. 49-68, 125). + + _Mandamus_ has always been regarded as an exceptional remedy to + supplement the deficiencies of the common law, or defects of justice. + Where another legal or equitable remedy exists, equally appropriate, + convenient, speedy, beneficial and effectual, the writ will as a rule + be refused. It is occasionally granted even when a remedy by + indictment is available: but is not issued unless the existence of the + duty and refusal to perform it are clearly established, nor where + performance in fact has become impossible. The writ is used to compel + inferior courts to hear and determine according to law cases within + their jurisdiction, e.g. where a county court or justices in petty or + quarter sessions refuse to assume a jurisdiction which they possess to + deal with a matter brought before them. It has in recent years been + employed to compel municipal bodies to discharge their duties as to + providing proper sewerage for their districts and to compel + anti-vaccinationist guardians of the poor to appoint officers for the + execution of the Vaccination Acts; and it is also employed to compel + the promoters of railway and similar undertakings to discharge duties + imposed upon them towards the public by their special acts, e.g. with + reference to highways, &c., affected by their railways or other + undertakings. The courts do not prescribe the specific manner in which + the duty is to be discharged, but do not stay their hands until + substantial compliance is established. + + Besides the prerogative common-law writ there are a number of orders, + made by the High Court under statutory authority, and described as or + as being in the nature of mandamus, e.g. mandamus to proceed to the + election of a corporate officer of a municipal corporation (Municipal + Corporations Act 1882, s. 225); orders in the nature of mandamus to + justices to hear and determine a matter within their jurisdiction, or + to state and sign a case under the enactments relating to special + cases. + + At common law mandamus lies only for the performance of acts of a + public or official character. The enforcement of merely private + obligations, such as those arising from contracts, is not within its + scope. By s. 68 of the Common Law Procedure Act 1854, the plaintiff in + any action other than replevin and ejectment was empowered to claim a + writ of mandamus to compel the defendant to fulfil any duty in the + fulfilment of which the plaintiff was personally interested. By s. 25 + (8) of the Judicature Act 1873 a mandamus may be granted by an + interlocutory order of the High Court in all cases in which it shall + appear to the court just or convenient that such an order should be + made. This enactment does not deal with the prerogative mandamus but + empowers the king's bench and the chancery divisions to grant an + interlocutory mandamus in any pending cause or matter by an order + other than the final judgment and even by an order made after the + judgment. S. 68 of the act of 1854 has been repealed and replaced by + Order LIII. of the _Rules of the Supreme Court_. The remedy thus + created is an attempt to engraft upon the old common law remedy by + damages a right in the nature of specific performance of the duty in + question. It is not limited to cases in which the prerogative writ + would be granted; but mandamus is not granted when the result desired + can be obtained by some remedy equally convenient, beneficial and + effective, or a particular and different remedy is provided by + statute. An action for mandamus does not lie against judicial officers + such as justices. The mandamus issued in the action is no longer a + writ of mandamus, but a judgment or order having effect equivalent to + the writ formerly used. + + _Mandatory Injunction._--The High Court has a jurisdiction derived + from the court of chancery to grant injunctions at the suit of the + attorney-general or of private persons. Ordinarily these injunctions + are in the form of prohibition or restraint and not of command. But + occasionally mandatory injunctions are granted in the form of a direct + command by the court. + + _Specific Performance._--The jurisdiction of the High Court, derived + from the court of chancery, to decree specific performance of + contracts has some resemblance to mandamus in the domains of public or + quasi-public law. + + _Ireland._--The law of Ireland as to mandamus is derived from that of + England, and differs therefrom only in minor details. + + _British Possessions._--In a British possession the power to issue the + prerogative writ is usually vested in the Supreme Court by its charter + or by local legislation. + + _United States._--The writ has passed into the law of the United + States. "There is in the federal judiciary an employment of the writ + substantially as the old prerogative writ in the king's bench + practice, also as a mode of exercising appellate jurisdiction, also as + a proceeding ancillary to a judgment previously rendered, in exercise + of original jurisdiction, as when a circuit court having rendered a + judgment against a county issues a mandamus requiring its officers to + levy a tax to provide for the payment of the judgment." And in the + various states mandamus is used under varying regulations, mandate + being in some cases substituted as the name of the proceeding. + + + + +MANDAN, a tribe of North American Indians of Siouan stock. When first +met they were living on the Missouri at the mouth of the Heart river. At +the beginning of the 19th century they were driven up the Missouri by +the Sioux. In 1845 they joined the Gros Ventres and later the Arikaras, +and settled in their present position at Fort Berthold reservation, +North Dakota. The Mandans have always been agricultural; they are noted +for their ceremonies, and from the tattooing on face and breast were +described in the sign language as "the tattooed people." + + + + +MANDARIN, the common name for all public officials in China, the Chinese +name for whom is _kwan_ or _kwun_. The word comes through the Portuguese +from Malay _mantri_, a counsellor or minister of state. The ultimate +origin of this word is the Sanskrit root _man-_, meaning to "think," +seen in "man," "mind," &c. The term "mandarin" is not, in its western +usage, applied indiscriminately to all civil and military officials, but +only to those who are entitled to wear a "button," which is a spherical +knob, about an inch in diameter, affixed to the top of the official cap +or hat. These officials, civil and military alike, are divided into nine +grades or classes, each grade being distinguished by a button of a +particular colour. The grade to which an official belongs is not +necessarily related to the office he holds. The button which +distinguishes the first grade is a transparent red stone; the second +grade, a red coral button; the third, a sapphire; the fourth, a blue +opaque stone; the fifth, a crystal button; the sixth, an opaque white +shell button; the seventh, a plain gold button; the eighth, a worked +gold button; and the ninth, a worked silver button. The mandarins also +wear certain insignia embroidered on their official robes, and have +girdle clasps of different material. The first grade have, for civilians +an embroidered Manchurian crane on the breast and back, for the military +an embroidered unicorn with a girdle clasp of jade set in rubies. The +second grade, for civilians an embroidered golden pheasant, for the +military a lion with a girdle clasp of gold set in rubies. The third +grade, for civilians a peacock, for the military a leopard with a clasp +of worked gold. The fourth grade, for civilians a wild goose, for the +military a tiger, and a clasp of worked gold with a silver button. The +fifth grade, for civilians a silver pheasant, for the military a bear +and a clasp of plain gold with a silver button. The sixth grade, for +civilians an egret, for the military a tiger-cat with a mother-of-pearl +clasp. The seventh grade, for civilians a mandarin duck, for the +military a mottled bear with a silver clasp. The eighth grade, for +civilians a quail, for the military a seal with a clear horn clasp. The +ninth grade, for civilians a long-tailed jay, for the military a +rhinoceros with a buffalo-horn clasp. + +The "mandarin language" is the Chinese, which is spoken in official and +legal circles; it is also spoken over a considerable portion of the +country, particularly the northern and central parts, though not perhaps +with the same purity. Mandarin duck (_anas galericulata_) and Mandarin +orange (_citrus nobilis_) possibly derive their names, by analogy, from +the sense of superiority implied in the title "mandarin." + + See _Society in China_, by Sir R. K. Douglas; _L'Empire du milieu_, by + E. and O. Reclus. + + + + +MANDASOR, or MANDSAUR, a town of Central India, in the native state of +Gwalior, on the Rajputana railway, 31 m. S. of Neemuch. Pop. (1901), +20,936. It gave its name to the treaty with Holkar, which concluded the +Mahratta-Pindari War in 1818. It is a centre of the Malwa opium trade. + +Mandasor and its neighbourhood are full of archaeological interest. An +inscription discovered near the town indicated the erection of a temple +of the sun in 437, and at Sondani are two great monolith pillars +recording a victory of Yasodharma, king of Malwa, in 528. The fort dates +from the 14th and 15th centuries. Hindu and Jain remains are numerous, +though the town is now entirely Mahommedan. + + + + +MANDATE (_Mandatum_), a contract in Roman law constituted by one person +(the _mandatarius_) promising to do something gratuitously at the +request of another (the _mandator_), who undertakes to indemnify him +against loss. The jurist distinguished the different cases of mandatum +according as the object of the contract was the benefit of the mandator +or a third person singly, or the mandator and a third person, the +mandator and the mandatarius, or the mandatarius and a third person +together. When the benefit was that of the mandatarius alone, the +obligations of the contract were held not to arise, although the form of +the contract might exist, the commission being held to be merely advice +tendered to the mandatarius, and acted on by him at his own risk. +Mandatum was classified as one of the contracts established by consent +of the parties alone; but, as there was really no obligation of any kind +until the mandatarius had acted on the mandate, it has with more +propriety been referred to the contracts created by the supply of some +fact (_re_). The obligations of the mandatarius under the contract were, +briefly, to do what he had promised according to his instructions, +observing ordinary diligence in taking care of any property entrusted to +him, and handing over to his principal the results of his action, +including the right to sue in his name. On the other hand, the principal +was bound to recoup him his expenses and indemnify him against loss +through obligations he might have incurred. + + The essentials and the terminology of the contract are preserved in + most modern systems of law. But in English law mandate, under that + name, can hardly be said to exist as a separate form of contract. To + some extent the law of mandatum corresponds partly to the law of + principal and agent, partly to that of principal and surety. "Mandate" + is retained to signify the contract more generally known as gratuitous + bailment. It is restricted to personal property, and it implies the + delivery of something to the bailee, both of which conditions are + unknown in the mandatum of the civil law (see BAILMENT). + + + + +MANDAUE, a town of the province of Cebú, island of Cebú, Philippine +Islands, on the E. coast and E. coast road, about 4 m. N.E. of the town +of Cebú, the capital. Pop. (1903), 11,078; in the same year the town of +Consolación (pop. 5511) was merged with Mandaue. Its climate is very +hot, but healthy. The principal industries are the raising of Indian +corn and sugar-cane and the manufacture of salt from sea-water. +Cebú-Visayan is the language. + + + + +MANDELIC ACID (Phenylglycollic Acid), C8H8O3 or C6H5·CH(OH)·COOH, an +isomer of the cresotinic and the oxymethylbenzoic acids. Since the +molecule contains an asymmetric carbon atom, the acid exists in three +forms, one being an inactive "racemic" mixture, and the other two being +optically active forms. The inactive variety is known as _paramandelic +acid_. It may be prepared by the action of hydrochloric acid on the +addition compound of benzaldehyde and hydrocyanic acid:-- + + C6H5CHO + HCN + HCl + 2H2O = C6H5·CHOH·COOH + NH4Cl, + +(F. L. Winckler, _Ann._, 1836, 18, 310), by boiling phenylchlor-acetic +acid with alkalis (A. Spiegel, _Ber._, 1881, 14, 239), by heating +benzoylformaldehyde with alkalis (H. v. Pechmann, _Ber._, 1887, 20, +2905), and by the action of dilute alkalies on [omega]-dibromacetophenone +(C. Engler, _Ber._, 1887, 20, 2202):-- + + C6H5COCHBr2 + 3KHO = 2KBr + H2O + C6H5·CHOH·CO2K. + +It crystallizes from water in large rhombic crystals, which melt at 118° +C. Oxidizing agents convert it into benzaldehyde. When heated with +hydriodic acid and phosphorus it forms phenylacetic acid; whilst +concentrated hydrobromic acid and hydrochloric acid at moderate +temperatures convert it into phenylbrom- and phenylchlor-acetic acids. +The inactive mixture may be resolved into its active components by +fractional crystallization of the cinchonine salt, when the salt of the +_dextro_ modification separates first; or the ammonium salt may be +fermented by _Penicillium glaucum_, when the _laevo_ form is destroyed +and the _dextro_ form remains untouched; on the other hand, +_Saccharomyces ellipsoïdeus_ destroys the _dextro_ form, but does not +touch the _laevo_ form. A mixture of the two forms in equivalent +quantities produces the inactive variety, which is also obtained when +either form is heated for some hours to 160° C. + + + + +MANDER, CAREL VAN (1548-1606), Dutch painter, poet and biographer, was +born of a noble family at Meulebeke. He studied under Lucas de Heere at +Ghent, and in 1568-1569 under Pieter Vlerick at Kortryck. The next five +years he devoted to the writing of religious plays for which he also +painted the scenery. Then followed three years in Rome (1574-1577), +where he is said to have been the first to discover the catacombs. On +his return journey he passed through Vienna, where, together with the +sculptor Hans Mont, he made the triumphal arch for the entry of the +emperor Rudolph. After many vicissitudes caused by war, loss of fortune +and plague, he settled at Haarlem where, in conjunction with Goltzius +and Cornelisz, he founded a successful academy of painting. His fame is, +however, principally based upon a voluminous biographical work on the +paintings of various epochs--a book that has become for the northern +countries what Vasari's _Lives of the Painters_ became for Italy. It was +completed in 1603 and published in 1604, in which year Van Mander +removed to Amsterdam, where he died in 1606. + + + + +MANDEVILLE, BERNARD DE (1670-1733), English philosopher and satirist, +was born at Dordrecht, where his father practised as a physician. On +leaving the Erasmus school at Rotterdam he gave proof of his ability by +an _Oratio scholastica de medicina_ (1685), and at Leiden University in +1689 he maintained a thesis _De brutorum operationibus_, in which he +advocated the Cartesian theory of automatism among animals. In 1691 he +took his medical degree, pronouncing an "inaugural disputation," _De +chylosi vitiata_. Afterwards he came to England "to learn the language," +and succeeded so remarkably that many refused to believe he was a +foreigner. As a physician he seems to have done little, and lived poorly +on a pension given him by some Dutch merchants and money which he earned +from distillers for advocating the use of spirits. His conversational +abilities won him the friendship of Lord Macclesfield (chief justice +1710-1718) who introduced him to Addison, described by Mandeville as "a +parson in a tye-wig." He died in January (19th or 21st) 1733/4 at +Hackney. + +The work by which he is known is the _Fable of the Bees_, published +first in 1705 under the title of _The Grumbling Hive, or Knaves Turn'd +Honest_ (two hundred doggerel couplets). In 1714 it was republished +anonymously with _Remarks_ and _An Enquiry into the Origin of Moral +Virtue_. In 1723 a later edition appeared, including _An Essay on +Charity and Charity Schools_, and _A Search into the Nature of Society_. +The book was primarily written as a political satire on the state of +England in 1705, when the Tories were accusing Marlborough and the +ministry of advocating the French War for personal reasons. The edition +of 1723 was presented as a nuisance by the Grand Jury of Middlesex, was +denounced in the _London Journal_ by "Theophilus Philo-Britannus," and +attacked by many writers, notably by Archibald Campbell (1691-1756) in +his _Aretelogia_ (published as his own by Alexander Innes in 1728; +afterwards by Campbell, under his own name, in 1733, as _Enquiry into +the Original of Moral Virtue_). The _Fable_ was reprinted in 1729, a +ninth edition appeared in 1755, and it has often been reprinted in more +recent times. Berkeley attacked it in the second dialogue of the +_Alciphron_ (1732) and John Brown criticized him in his _Essay upon +Shaftesbury's Characteristics_ (1751). + +Mandeville's philosophy gave great offence at the time, and has always +been stigmatized as false, cynical and degrading. His main thesis is +that the actions of men cannot be divided into lower and higher. The +higher life of man is merely a fiction introduced by philosophers and +rulers to simplify government and the relations of society. In fact, +virtue (which he defined as "every performance by which man, contrary to +the impulse of nature, should endeavour the benefit of others, or the +conquest of his own passions, out of a rational ambition of being good") +is actually detrimental to the state in its commercial and intellectual +progress, for it is the vices (i.e. the self-regarding actions of men) +which alone, by means of inventions and the circulation of capital in +connexion with luxurious living, stimulate society into action and +progress. In the _Fable_ he shows a society possessed of all the virtues +"blest with content and honesty," falling into apathy and utterly +paralyzed. The absence of self-love (cf. Hobbes) is the death of +progress. The so-called higher virtues are mere hypocrisy, and arise +from the selfish desire to be superior to the brutes. "The moral virtues +are the political offspring which flattery begot upon pride." Similarly +he arrives at the great paradox that "private vices are public +benefits." But his best work and that in which he approximates most +nearly to modern views is his account of the origin of society. His _a +priori_ theories should be compared with Maine's historical inquiries +(_Ancient Law_, c. V.). He endeavours to show that all social laws are +the crystallized results of selfish aggrandizement and protective +alliances among the weak. Denying any form of moral sense or conscience, +he regards all the social virtues as evolved from the instinct for +self-preservation, the give-and-take arrangements between the partners +in a defensive and offensive alliance, and the feelings of pride and +vanity artificially fed by politicians, as an antidote to dissension and +chaos. Mandeville's ironical paradoxes are interesting mainly as a +criticism of the "amiable" idealism of Shaftesbury, and in comparison +with the serious egoistic systems of Hobbes and Helvetius. It is mere +prejudice to deny that Mandeville had considerable philosophic insight; +at the same time he was mainly negative or critical, and, as he himself +said, he was writing for "the entertainment of people of knowledge and +education." He may be said to have cleared the ground for the coming +utilitarianism. + + WORKS.--_Typhon: a Burlesque Poem_ (1704); _Aesop Dress'd, or a + Collection of Fables writ in Familiar Verse_ (1704); _The Planter's + Charity_ (1704); _The Virgin Unmasked_ (1709, 1724, 1731, 1742), a + work in which the coarser side of his nature is prominent; _Treatise + of the Hypochondriack and Hysterick Passions_ (1711, 1715, 1730) + admired by Johnson (Mandeville here protests against merely + speculative therapeutics, and advances fanciful theories of his own + about animal spirits in connexion with "stomachic ferment": he shows a + knowledge of Locke's methods, and an admiration for Sydenham); _Free + Thoughts on Religion_ (1720); _A Conference about Whoring_ (1725); _An + Enquiry into the Causes of the Frequent Executions at Tyburn_ (1725); + _The Origin of Honour and the Usefulness of Christianity in War_ + (1732). Other works attributed, wrongly, to him are _A Modest Defence + of Public Stews_ (1724); _The World Unmasked_ (1736) and _Zoologia + medicinalis hibernica_ (1744). + + See Hill's _Boswell_, iii. 291-293; L. Stephen's _English Thought in + the Eighteenth Century_, A. Bain's _Moral Science_ (593-598); + Windelband's _History of Ethics_ (Eng. trans. Tufts); J. M. Robertson, + _Pioneer Humanists_ (1907); P. Sakmann, _Bernard de Mandeville und die + Bienenfabel-Controverse_ (Freiburg i/Br., 1897), and compare articles + ETHICS, SHAFTESBURY, HOBBES. (J. M. M.). + + + + +MANDEVILLE, GEOFFREY DE (d. 1144), earl of Essex, succeeded his father, +William, as constable of the Tower of London in or shortly before 1130. +Though a great Essex landowner, he played no conspicuous part in history +till 1140, when Stephen created him earl of Essex in reward for his +services against the empress Matilda. After the defeat and capture of +Stephen at Lincoln (1141) the earl deserted to Matilda, but before the +end of the year, learning that Stephen's release was imminent, returned +to his original allegiance. In 1142 he was again intriguing with the +empress; but before he could openly join her cause he was detected and +deprived of his castles by the king. In 1143-1144 Geoffrey maintained +himself as a rebel and a bandit in the fen-country, using the Isle of +Ely and Ramsey Abbey as his headquarters. He was besieged by Stephen in +the fens, and met his death in September 1144 in consequence of a wound +received in a skirmish. His career is interesting for two reasons. The +charters which he extorted from Stephen and Matilda illustrate the +peculiar form taken by the ambitions of English feudatories. The most +important concessions are grants of offices and jurisdictions which had +the effect of making Mandeville a viceroy with full powers in Essex, +Middlesex and London, and Hertfordshire. His career as an outlaw +exemplifies the worst excesses of the anarchy which prevailed in some +parts of England during the civil wars of 1140-1147, and it is probable +that the deeds of Mandeville inspired the rhetorical description, in the +Peterborough Chronicle of this period, when "men said openly that Christ +and his saints were asleep." + + See J. H. Round, _Geoffrey de Mandeville, a Study of the Anarchy_ + (London, 1892). (H. W. C. D.) + + + + +MANDEVILLE, JEHAN DE ("Sir John Mandeville"), the name claimed by the +compiler of a singular book of travels, written in French, and published +between 1357 and 1371. By aid of translations into many other languages +it acquired extraordinary popularity, while a few interpolated words in +a particular edition of an English version gained for Mandeville in +modern times the spurious credit of being "the father of English prose." + +In his preface the compiler calls himself a knight, and states that he +was born and bred in England, of the town of St Albans; had crossed the +sea on Michaelmas Day 1322; had travelled by way of Turkey (Asia Minor), +Armenia the little (Cilicia) and the great, Tartary, Persia, Syria, +Arabia, Egypt upper and lower, Libya, great part of Ethiopia, Chaldaea, +Amazonia, India the less, the greater and the middle, and many countries +about India; had often been to Jerusalem, and had written in Romance as +more generally understood than Latin. In the body of the work we hear +that he had been at Paris and Constantinople; had served the sultan of +Egypt a long time in his wars against the Bedawin, had been vainly +offered by him a princely marriage and a great estate on condition of +renouncing Christianity, and had left Egypt under sultan Melech +Madabron, i.e. Muzaffar or Mudhaffar[1] (who reigned in 1346-1347); had +been at Mount Sinai, and had visited the Holy Land with letters under +the great seal of the sultan, which gave him extraordinary facilities; +had been in Russia, Livonia, Cracow, Lithuania, "en roialme daresten" (? +de Daresten or Silistria), and many other parts near Tartary, but not in +Tartary itself; had drunk of the well of youth at Polombe (Quilon on the +Malabar coast), and still seemed to feel the better; had taken +astronomical observations on the way to Lamory (Sumatra), as well as in +Brabant, Germany, Bohemia and still farther north; had been at an isle +called Pathen in the Indian Ocean; had been at Cansay (Hangchow-fu) in +China, and had served the emperor of China fifteen months against the +king of Manzi; had been among rocks of adamant in the Indian Ocean; had +been through a haunted valley, which he places near "Milstorak" (i.e. +Malasgird in Armenia); had been driven home against his will in 1357 by +arthritic gout; and had written his book as a consolation for his +"wretched rest." The paragraph which states that he had had his book +confirmed at Rome by the pope is an interpolation of the English +version. + +Part at least of the personal history of Mandeville is mere invention. +Nor is any contemporary corroboration of the existence of such a Jehan +de Mandeville known. Some French MSS., not contemporary, give a Latin +letter of presentation from him to Edward III., but so vague that it +might have been penned by any writer on any subject. It is in fact +beyond reasonable doubt that the travels were in large part compiled by +a Liége physician, known as Johains à le Barbe or Jehan à la Barbe, +otherwise Jehan de Bourgogne. + +The evidence of this is in a modernized extract quoted by the Liége +herald, Louis Abry[2] (1643-1720), from the lost fourth book of the +_Myreur des Hystors_ of Johans des Preis, styled d'Oultremouse. In this +"Jean de Bourgogne, dit à la Barbe," is said to have revealed himself on +his deathbed to d'Oultremouse, whom he made his executor, and to have +described himself in his will as "messire Jean de Mandeville, chevalier, +comte de Montfort en Angleterre et seigneur de l'isle de Campdi et du +château Pérouse." It is added that, having had the misfortune to kill an +unnamed count in his own country, he engaged himself to travel through +the three parts of the world, arrived at Liége in 1343, was a great +naturalist, profound philosopher and astrologer, and had a remarkable +knowledge of physic. And the identification is confirmed by the fact +that in the now destroyed church of the Guillelmins was a tombstone of +Mandeville, with a Latin inscription stating that he was otherwise named +"ad Barbam," was a professor of medicine, and died at Liége on the 17th +of November 1372: this inscription is quoted as far back as 1462. + +Even before his death the Liége physician seems to have confessed to a +share in the composition of the work. In the common Latin abridged +version of it, at the end of c. vii., the author says that when stopping +in the sultan's court at Cairo he met a venerable and expert physician +of "our" parts, that they rarely came into conversation because their +duties were of a different kind, but that long afterwards at Liége he +composed this treatise at the exhortation and with the help (_hortatu et +adiutorio_) of the same venerable man, as he will narrate at the end of +it. And in the last chapter he says that in 1355, in returning home, he +came to Liége, and being laid up with old age and arthritic gout in the +street called Bassesauenyr, i.e. Basse Savenir, consulted the +physicians. That one came in who was more venerable than the others by +reason of his age and white hairs, was evidently expert in his art, and +was commonly called Magister Iohannes ad Barbam. That a chance remark of +the latter caused the renewal of their old Cairo acquaintance, and that +Ad Barbam, after showing his medical skill on Mandeville, urgently +begged him to write his travels; "and so at length, by his advice and +help, _monitu et adiutorio_, was composed this treatise, of which I had +certainly proposed to write nothing until at least I had reached my own +parts in England." He goes on to speak of himself as being now lodged in +Liége, "which is only two days distant from the sea of England"; and it +is stated in the colophon (and in the MSS.) that the book was first +published in French by Mandeville, its author, in 1355, at Liége, and +soon after in the same city translated into "the said" Latin form. +Moreover, a MS. of the French text extant at Liége about 1860[3] +contained a similar statement, and added that the author lodged at a +hostel called "al hoste Henkin Levo": this MS. gave the physician's name +as "Johains de Bourgogne dit ale barbe," which doubtless conveys its +local form. + +There is no contemporary English mention of any English knight named +Jehan de Mandeville, nor are the arms said to have been on the Liége +tomb like any known Mandeville arms. But Dr G. F. Warner has ingeniously +suggested that de Bourgogne may be a certain Johan de Bourgoyne, who was +pardoned by parliament on the 20th of August 1321 for having taken part +in the attack on the Despensers, but whose pardon was revoked in May +1322, the year in which "Mandeville" professes to have left England. And +it should now be added that among the persons similarly pardoned _on the +recommendation of the same nobleman_ was a Joh^an Mangevilayn, whose +name appears closely related to that of "de Mandeville"[4]--which is +merely a later form of "de Magneville." + +Mangeuilain occurs in Yorkshire as early as 16 Hen. I. (_Pipe Roll +Soc._, xv. 40), but is very rare, and (failing evidence of any place +named Mangeville) seems to be merely a variant spelling of Magnevillain. +The meaning may be simply "of Magneville," _de_ Magneville; but the +family of a 14th century bishop of Nevers were called both "Mandevilain" +and "de Mandevilain"--where Mandevilain seems a derivative place-name, +meaning the Magneville or Mandeville district. In any case it is clear +that the name "de Mandeville" might be suggested to de Bourgogne by that +of his fellow-culprit Mangevilayn, and it is even possible that the two +fled to England together, were in Egypt together, met again at Liége, +and shared in the compilation of the _Travels_. + +Whether after the appearance of the _Travels_ either de Bourgogne or +"Mangevilayn" visited England is very doubtful. St Albans Abbey had a +sapphire ring, and Canterbury a crystal orb, said to have been given by +Mandeville; but these might have been sent from Liége, and it will +appear later that the Liége physician possessed and wrote about precious +stones. St Albans also had a legend that a ruined marble tomb of +Mandeville (represented cross-legged and in armour, with sword and +shield) once stood in the abbey; this may be true of "Mangevilayn" or it +may be a mere myth. + +It is a little curious that the name preceding Mangevilayn in the list +of persons pardoned is "Johan le Barber." Did this suggest to de +Bourgogne the _alias_ "à le Barbe," or was that only a Liége nickname? +Note also that the arms on Mandeville's tomb were borne by the Tyrrells +of Hertfordshire (the county in which St Albans lies); for of course the +crescent on the lion's breast is only the "difference" indicating a +second son. + +Leaving this question, there remains the equally complex one whether the +book contains any facts and knowledge acquired by actual travels and +residence in the East. Possibly it may, but only as a small portion of +the section which treats of the Holy Land and the ways of getting +thither, of Egypt, and in general of the Levant. The prologue, indeed, +points almost exclusively to the Holy Land as the subject of the work. +The mention of more distant regions comes in only towards the end of +this prologue, and (in a manner) as an afterthought. + +By far the greater part of these more distant travels, extending in fact +from Trebizond to Hormuz, India, the Malay Archipelago, and China, and +back again to western Asia, has been appropriated from the narrative of +Friar Odoric (written in 1330). These passages, as served up by +Mandeville, are almost always, indeed, swollen with interpolated +particulars, usually of an extravagant kind, whilst in no few cases the +writer has failed to understand the passages which he adopts from Odoric +and professes to give as his own experiences. Thus (p. 209),[5] where +Odoric has given a most curious and veracious account of the Chinese +custom of employing tame cormorants to catch fish, the cormorants are +converted by Mandeville into "little beasts called _loyres_ (_layre_, +B), which are taught to go into the water" (the word _loyre_ being +apparently used here for "otter," _lutra_, for which the Provençal is +_luria_ or _loiria_). + +At a very early date the coincidence of Mandeville's stories with those +of Odoric was recognized, insomuch that a MS. of Odoric which is or was +in the chapter library at Mainz begins with the words: _Incipit +Itinerarius fidelis fratris Odorici socii Militis Mendavil per Indian; +licet hic [read ille] prius el alter posterius peregrinationem suam +descripsit._ At a later day Sir T. Herbert calls Odoric "travelling +companion of our Sir John"; and Purchas, with most perverse injustice, +whilst calling Mandeville, next to Polo, "if next ... the greatest Asian +traveller that ever the world had," insinuates that Odoric's story was +stolen from Mandeville's. Mandeville himself is crafty enough, at least +in one passage, to anticipate criticism by suggesting the probability of +his having travelled with Odoric (see p. 282 and below). + +Much, again, of Mandeville's matter, particularly in Asiatic geography +and history, is taken bodily from the _Historiae Orientis_ of Hetoum, an +Armenian of princely family, who became a monk of the Praemonstrant +order, and in 1307 dictated this work on the East, in the French tongue +at Poitiers, out of his own extraordinary acquaintance with Asia and its +history in his own time. + +It is curious that no passage in Mandeville can be plausibly traced to +Marco Polo, with one exception. This is (p. 163) where he states that at +Hormuz the people during the great heat lie in water--a circumstance +mentioned by Polo, though not by Odoric. We should suppose it most +likely that this fact had been interpolated in the copy of Odoric used +by Mandeville, for if he had borrowed it direct from Polo he would have +borrowed more. + +A good deal about the manners and customs of the Tatars is demonstrably +derived from the famous work of the Franciscan Ioannes de Plano Carpini, +who went as the pope's ambassador to the Tatars in 1245-1247; but Dr +Warner considers that the immediate source for Mandeville was the +_Speculum historiale_ of Vincent de Beauvais. Though the passages in +question are all to be found in Plano Carpini more or less exactly, the +expression is condensed and the order changed. For examples compare +Mandeville, p. 250, on the tasks done by Tatar women, with Plano +Carpini, p. 643;[6] Mandeville, p. 250, on Tatar habits of eating, with +Plano Carpini, pp. 639-640; Mandeville, p. 231, on the titles borne on +the seals of the Great Khan, with Plano Carpini, p. 715, &c. + +The account of Prester John is taken from the famous _Epistle_ of that +imaginary potentate, which was so widely diffused in the 13th century, +and created that renown which made it incumbent on every traveller in +Asia to find some new tale to tell of him. Many fabulous stories, again, +of monsters, such as cyclopes, sciapodes, hippopodes, monoscelides, +anthropophagi, and men whose heads did grow beneath their shoulders, of +the phoenix and the weeping crocodile, such as Pliny has collected, are +introduced here and there, derived no doubt from him, Solinus, the +bestiaries, or the _Speculum naturale_ of Vincent de Beauvais. And +interspersed, especially in the chapters about the Levant, are the +stories and legends that were retailed to every pilgrim, such as the +legend of Seth and the grains of paradise from which grew the wood of +the cross, that of the shooting of old Cain by Lamech, that of the +castle of the sparrow-hawk (which appears in the tale of Melusina), +those of the origin of the balsam plants at Matariya, of the dragon of +Cos, of the river Sabbation, &c. + +Even in that part of the book which might be supposed to represent some +genuine experience there are the plainest traces that another work has +been made use of, more or less--we might almost say as a framework to +fill up. This is the itinerary of the German knight Wilhelm von +Boldensele, written in 1336 at the desire of Cardinal Talleyrand de +Perigord.[7] A cursory comparison of this with Mandeville leaves no +doubt that the latter has followed its thread, though digressing on +every side, and too often eliminating the singular good sense of the +German traveller. We may indicate as examples Boldensele's account of +Cyprus (Mandeville, p. 28 and p. 10), of Tyre and the coast of Palestine +(Mandeville, 29, 30, 33, 34), of the journey from Gaza to Egypt (34), +passages about Babylon of Egypt (40), about Mecca (42), the general +account of Egypt (45), the pyramids (52), some of the wonders of Cairo, +such as the slave-market, the chicken-hatching stoves, and the apples of +paradise, i.e. plantains (49), the Red Sea (57), the convent on Sinai +(58, 60), the account of the church of the Holy Sepulchre (74-76), &c. +There is, indeed, only a small residuum of the book to which genuine +character, as containing the experiences of the author, can possibly be +attributed. Yet, as has been intimated, the borrowed stories are +frequently claimed as such experiences. In addition to those already +mentioned, he alleges that he had witnessed the curious exhibition of +the garden of transmigrated souls (described by Odoric) at Cansay, i.e. +Hangchow-fu (211). He and his fellows with their valets had remained +fifteen months in service with the emperor of Cathay in his wars against +the king of Manzi--Manzi, or Southern China, having ceased to be a +separate kingdom some seventy years before the time referred to. But the +most notable of these false statements occurs in his adoption from +Odoric of the story of the Valley Perilous (282). This is, in its +original form, apparently founded on real experiences of Odoric viewed +through a haze of excitement and superstition. Mandeville, whilst +swelling the wonders of the tale with a variety of extravagant touches, +appears to safeguard himself from the reader's possible discovery that +it was stolen by the interpolation: "And some of our fellows accorded to +enter, and some not. So there were with us two worthy men, Friars Minor, +that were of Lombardy, who said that if any man would enter they would +go in with us. And when they had said so, upon the gracious trust of God +and of them, we caused mass to be sung, and made every man to be shriven +and houselled; and then we entered, fourteen persons; but at our going +out we were but nine," &c. + +In referring to this passage it is only fair to recognize that the +description (though the suggestion of the greatest part exists in +Odoric) displays a good deal of imaginative power; and there is much in +the account of Christian's passage through the Valley of the Shadow of +Death, in Bunyan's famous allegory, which indicates a possibility that +John Bunyan may have read and remembered this episode either in +Mandeville or in Hakluyt's Odoric. + +Nor does it follow that the whole work is borrowed or fictitious. Even +the great Moorish traveller Ibn Batuta, accurate and veracious in the +main, seems--in one part at least of his narrative--to invent +experiences; and in such works as those of Jan van Hees and Arnold von +Harff we have examples of pilgrims to the Holy Land whose narratives +begin apparently in sober truth, and gradually pass into flourishes of +fiction and extravagance. So in Mandeville also we find particulars not +yet traced to other writers, and which may therefore be provisionally +assigned either to the writer's own experience or to knowledge acquired +by colloquial intercourse in the East. + +It is difficult to decide on the character of his statements as to +recent Egyptian history. In his account of that country (pp. 37, 38) +though the series of the Comanian (i.e. of the Bahri Mameluke) sultans +is borrowed from Hetoum down to the accession of _Melechnasser_, i.e. +Malik al-Nasir (Nasir ud-din Mahommed), who came first to the throne in +1293, Mandeville appears to speak from his own knowledge when he adds +that this "_Melechnasser_ reigned long and governed wisely." In fact, +though twice displaced in the early part of his life, Malik Nasir +reigned till 1341, a duration unparalleled in Mahommedan Egypt, whilst +we are told that during the last thirty years of his reign Egypt rose to +a high pitch of wealth and prosperity. Mandeville, however, then goes on +to say that his eldest son, _Melechemader_, was chosen to succeed; but +this prince was caused privily to be slain by his brother, who took the +kingdom under the name of _Melechmadabron_. "And he was Soldan when I +departed from those countries." Now Malik Nasir Mahommed was followed in +succession by no less than eight of his sons in thirteen years, the +first three of whom reigned in aggregate only a few months. The names +mentioned by Mandeville appear to represent those of the fourth and +sixth of the eight, viz. Salih 'Imad ud-din Isma'il, and Mozaffar (Saif +ud-din Hajji); and these the statements of Mandeville do not fit. + +On several occasions Arabic words are given, but are not always +recognizable, owing perhaps to the carelessness of copyists in such +matters. Thus, we find (p. 50) the names (not satisfactorily identified) +of the wood, fruit and sap of the balsam plant; (p. 99) of bitumen, +"alkatran" (_al-Katran_); (p. 168) of the three different kinds of +pepper (long pepper, black pepper and white pepper) as _sorbotin_, +_fulful_ and _bano_ or _bauo_ (_fulful_ is the common Arabic word for +pepper; the others have not been satisfactorily explained). But these, +and the particulars of his narrative for which no literary sources have +yet been found, are too few to constitute a proof of personal +experience. + +Mandeville, again, in some passages shows a correct idea of the form of +the earth, and of position in latitude ascertained by observation of the +pole star; he knows that there are antipodes, and that if ships were +sent on voyages of discovery they might sail round the world. And he +tells a curious story, which he had heard in his youth, how a worthy man +did travel ever eastward until he came to his own country again (p. +183). But he repeatedly asserts the old belief that Jerusalem was in the +centre of the world (79, 183), and maintains in proof of this that at +the equinox a spear planted erect in Jerusalem casts no shadow at noon, +which, if true, would equally consist with the sphericity of the earth, +provided that the city were on the equator. + +The sources of the book, which include various authors besides those +whom we have specified, have been laboriously investigated by Dr Albert +Bovenschen[8] and Dr G. F. Warner,[9] and to them the reader must be +referred for more detailed information on the subject. + + The oldest known MS. of the original--once Barrois's, afterwards the + earl of Ashburnham's, now Nouv. Acq. Franç. 4515 in the Bibliothèque + Nationale, Paris--is dated 1371, but is nevertheless very inaccurate + in proper names. An early printed Latin translation made from the + French has been already quoted, but four others, unprinted, have been + discovered by Dr J. Vogels.[10] They exist in eight MSS., of which + seven are in Great Britain, while the eighth was copied by a monk of + Abingdon; probably, therefore, all these unprinted translations were + executed in this country. From one of them, according to Dr + Vogels,[11] an English version was made which has never been printed + and is now extant only in free abbreviations, contained in two 15th + century MSS. in the Bodleian Library, Oxford--MS. e Museo 116, and MS. + Rawlinson D. 99: the former, which is the better, is in Midland + dialect, and may possibly have belonged to the Augustinian priory of + St Osyth in Essex, while the latter is in Southern dialect. + + The first English translation direct from the French was made (at + least as early as the beginning of the 15th century) from a MS. of + which many pages were lost.[12] Writing of the name Califfes + (Khalif), the author says (_Roxburghe Club ed._, p. 18) that it is + _tant a dire come roi(s). Il y soleit auoir v. soudans_--"as much as + to say king. There used to be 5 sultans." In the defective French MS. + a page ended with _Il y so_; then came a gap, and the next page went + on with part of the description of Mount Sinai, _Et est celle vallee + mult froide_ (ibid. p. 32). Consequently the corresponding English + version has "That ys to say amonge hem _Roys Ils_ and this vale ys ful + colde"! All English printed texts before 1725, and Ashton's 1887 + edition, follow these defective copies, and in only two known MSS. has + the lacuna been detected and filled up. + + One of them is the British Museum MS. Egerton 1982 (Northern dialect, + about 1410-1420?), in which, according to Dr Vogels, the corresponding + portion has been borrowed from that English version which had already + been made from the Latin. The other is in the British Museum MS. + Cotton Titus C. xvi. (Midland dialect, about 1410-1420?), representing + a text completed, and revised throughout, from the French, though not + by a competent hand. The Egerton text, edited by Dr G. F. Warner, has + been printed by the Roxburghe Club, while the Cotton text, first + printed in 1725 and 1727, is in modern reprints the current English + version. + + That none of the forms of the English version can be from the same + hand which wrote the original is made patent by their glaring errors + of translation, but the Cotton text asserts in the preface that it was + made by Mandeville himself, and this assertion was till lately taken + on trust by almost all modern historians of English literature. The + words of the original "je eusse cest livret mis en latin ... mais ... + je l'ay mis en romant" were mistranslated as if "je eusse" meant "I + had" instead of "I should have," and then (whether of fraudulent + intent or by the error of a copyist thinking to supply an accidental + omission) the words were added "and translated it agen out of Frensche + into Englyssche." Matzner (_Altenglische Sprachproben_, I., ii., + 154-155) seems to have been the first to show that the current English + text cannot possibly have been made by Mandeville himself. Of the + original French there is no satisfactory edition, but Dr Vogels has + undertaken a critical text, and Dr Warner has added to his Egerton + English text the French of a British Museum MS. with variants from + three others. + + It remains to mention certain other works bearing the name of + Mandeville or de Bourgogne. + + MS. Add. C. 280 in the Bodleian appends to the "Travels" a short + French life of St Alban of _Germany_, the author of which calls + himself Joh^an Mandivill[e], knight, formerly of the town of St Alban, + and says he writes to correct an impression prevalent among his + countrymen that there was no other saint of the name: this life is + followed by part of a French herbal. + + To Mandeville (by whom de Bourgogne is clearly meant) + d'Oultremouse[13] ascribes a Latin "lappidaire selon l'oppinion des + Indois," from which he quotes twelve passages, stating that the author + (whom he calls knight, lord of Montfort, of Castelperouse, and of the + isle of Campdi) had been "baillez en Alexandrie" seven years, and had + been presented by a Saracen friend with some fine jewels which had + passed into d'Oultremouse's own possession: of this _Lapidaire_, a + French version, which seems to have been completed after 1479, has + been several times printed.[14] A MS. of Mandeville's travels offered + for sale in 1862[15] is said to have been divided into five books: (1) + the travels, (2) _de là forme de la terre et comment et par quelle + manière elle fut faite_, (3) _de la forme del ciel_, (4) _des herbes + selon les yndois et les philosophes par de là_, and (5) _ly + lapidaire_--while the cataloguer supposed Mandeville to have been the + author of a concluding piece entitled _La Venianche de nostre Signeur + Ihesu-Crist fayte par Vespasian fil del empereur de Romme et comment + Iozeph daramathye fu deliures de la prizon_. From the treatise on + herbs a passage is quoted asserting it to have been composed in 1357 + in honour of the author's natural lord, Edward, king of England. This + date is corroborated by the title of king of Scotland given to Edward, + who had received from Baliol the surrender of the crown and kingly + dignity on the 20th of January 1356, but on the 3rd of October 1357 + released King David and made peace with Scotland: unfortunately we are + not told whether the treatise contains the author's name, and, if so, + _what_ name. Tanner (_Bibliotheca_) alleges that Mandeville wrote + several books on medicine, and among the Ashmolean MSS. in the + Bodleian are a medical receipt by John de Magna Villa (No. 1479), an + alchemical receipt by him (No. 1407), and another alchemical receipt + by Johannes de Villa Magna (No. 1441). + + Finally, de Bourgogne wrote under his own name a treatise on the + plague,[16] extant in Latin, French and English texts, and in Latin + and English abridgments. Herein he describes himself as Johannes de + Burgundia, otherwise called _cum Barba_, citizen of Liége and + professor of the art of medicine; says that he had practised forty + years and had been in Liége in the plague of 1365; and adds that he + had previously written a treatise on the cause of the plague, + according to the indications of astrology (beginning _Deus deorum_), + and another on distinguishing pestilential diseases (beginning _Cum + nimium propter instans tempus epidimiale_). "Burgundia" is sometimes + corrupted into "Burdegalia," and in English translations of the + abridgment almost always appears as "Burdews" (Bordeaux) or the like. + MS. Rawlinson D. 251 (15th century) in the Bodleian also contains a + large number of English medical receipts, headed "P_r_actica + phisicalia M_agist_ri Joh_ann_is de Burgu_n_dia." + + See further Dr G. F. Warner's article in the _Dictionary of National + Biography_ for a comprehensive account, and for bibliographical + references; Ulysse Chevalier's _Répertoire des sources historiques du + moyen age_ for references generally; and the _Zeitschr. f. celt. + Philologie_ II., i. 126, for an edition and translation, by Dr Whitley + Stokes, of Fingin O'Mahony's Irish version of the _Travels_. + (E. W. B. N.; H. Y.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The _on_ in Madabron apparently represents the Arabic nunation, + though its use in such a case is very odd. + + [2] Quoted again from him by the contemporary Liége herald, Lefort, + and from Lefort in 1866 by Dr S. Bormans. Dr J. Vogels communicated + it in 1884 to Mr E. W. B. Nicholson, who wrote on it in the _Academy_ + of April 12, 1884. + + [3] See Dr G. F. Warner's edition (Roxburghe Club), p. 38. In the + _Bull. de l'Institut archéologique Liégeois_, iv. (1860), p. 171, M. + Ferd. Henaux quotes the passage from "MSS. de la Bibliothèque + publique de Liége, à l'Université, no. 360, fol. 118," but the MS. is + not in the 1875 printed catalogue of the University Library, which + has no Old French MS. of Mandeville at present. It was probably lent + out and not returned. + + [4] The de Mandevilles, earls of Essex, were originally styled de + Magneville, and Leland, in his _Comm. de Script. Britt._ (CDV), calls + our Mandeville himself "Joannes Magnovillanus, alias Mandeville." + + [5] Page indications like this refer to passages in the 1866 reissue + of Halliwell's edition, as being probably the most ready of access. + But all these passages have also been verified as substantially + occurring in Barrois's French MS. Nouv. Acq. Franç. 4515 in the + Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, mentioned below (of A.D. 1371), cited + B, and in that numbered xxxix. of the Grenville collection (British + Museum), which dates probably from the early part of the 15th + century, cited G. + + [6] Viz. in D'Avezac's ed. in tom. iv. of _Rec. de voyages et de + mémoires_ pub. by the Soc. de Géog., 1839. + + [7] It is found in the _Thesaurus_ of Canisius (1604), v. pt. ii. p. + 95, and in the ed. of the same by Basnage (1725), iv. 337. + + [8] _Die Quellen für die Reisebeschreibung des Johann von Mandeville, + Inaugural-Dissertation ... Leipzig_ (Berlin, 1888). This was revised + and enlarged as "Untersuchungen über Johann von Mandeville und die + Quellen seiner Reisebeschreibung," in the _Zeitschrift der + Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin_, Bd. 23, Heft 3 u. 4 (No. 135, + 136). + + [9] In his edition (Roxburghe Club). + + [10] _Die ungedruckten lateinischen Versionen Mandeville's_ (Crefeld, + 1886). + + [11] _Handschriftliche Untersuchungen über die englische Version + Mandeville's_ (Crefeld, 1891), p. 46. + + [12] Dr Vogels controverts these positions, arguing that the first + English version from the French was the complete Cotton text, and + that the defective English copies were made from a defective English + MS. His supposed evidences of the priority of the Cotton text equally + consist with its being a later revision, and for _Roys Ils_ in the + defective English MSS. he has only offered a laboured and improbable + explanation. + + [13] Stanislas Bormans, Introduction to d'Oultremouse's Chronicle, + pp. lxxxix., xc.; see also Warner's edition of the Travels, p. xxxv. + The ascription is on ff. 5 and 6 of _Le Tresorier de philosophie + naturele des pierres precieuses_, an unprinted work by d'Oultremouse + in MS. Fonds français 12326 of the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. The + passage about Alexandria is on f. 81. + + [14] See L. Pannier, _Les Lapidaires français_, pp. 189-204: not + knowing d'Oultremouse's evidence, he has discredited the attribution + to Mandeville and doubted the existence of a Latin original. + + [15] _Description ... d'une collection ... d'anciens manuscrits ... + réunis par les soins de M. J. Techener_, pt. i. (Paris, 1862), p. 159 + (referred to by Pannier, pp. 193-194). + + [16] Respecting this, see David Murray, _The Black Book of Paisley_, + &c. (1885), and _John de Burdeus_, &c. (1891). + + + + +MANDHATA, a village with temples in India, in Nimar district of the +Central Provinces, on the south bank of the Narbada. Pop. (1901), 832. +It is a famous place of Hindu pilgrimage, as containing one of the +twelve great _lingas_ of Siva; and as late as the beginning of the 19th +century it was the scene of the self-immolation of devotees who threw +themselves from the cliffs into the river. + + + + +MANDI, a native state of India, within the Punjab. It ranks as the most +important of the hill states to which British influence extended in 1846 +after the first Sikh War. The territory lies among the lower ranges of +the Himalaya, between Kangra and Kulu. The country is mountainous, being +intersected by two great parallel ranges, reaching to an average height +of 5000 to 7000 ft. above sea-level. The valleys between the hill ranges +are fertile, and produce all the ordinary grains, besides more valuable +crops of rice, maize, sugar-cane, poppy and tobacco. Iron is found in +places, and also gold in small quantities. Area, 1200 sq. m.; pop. +(1901), 174,045; estimated revenue, £28,000; tribute, £6666. The chief, +whose title is raja, is a Rajput of old family. Considerable sums have +been expended on roads and bridges. An important product of the state is +salt, which is mined in two places. + +The town of Mandi is on the Beas, which is here a mountain torrent, +crossed by a fine iron bridge; 2991 ft. above sea-level; 88 m. from +Simla. Pop. (1901), 8144. It was founded in 1527, and contains a palace +of the 17th century and other buildings of interest. It is a mart for +transfrontier trade with Tibet and Yarkand. + + See _Mandi State Gazetteer_ (Lahore, 1908). + + + + +MANDINGO, the name currently given to a very important division of negro +peoples in West Africa. It is seemingly a corruption of a term applied to +an important section of this group, the Mande-nka or Mande-nga. The +present writer has usually heard this word pronounced by the Mandingo +themselves "Mandiña," or even "Madiña." It seems to be derived from the +racial name _Mande_, coupled with the suffix _nka_ or _nke_, meaning +"people," the people of Mande. Then again this word Mande seems to take +the varying forms of _Male_, _Meli_, _Mane_, _Madi_, and, according to +such authorities as Binger, Delafosse and Desplagnes, it is connected +with a word _Mali_, which means "hippopotamus" or else "manati"--probably +the latter. According to Desplagnes, the word is further divisible into +_ma_, which would have meant "fish," and _nde_, a syllable to which he +ascribes the meaning of "father." In no Mandingo dialect known to the +present writer (or in any other known African language) does the vocable +_ma_ apply to "fish," and in only one very doubtful far eastern Mandingo +dialect is the root _nde_ or any other similar sound applied to "father." +This etymology must be abandoned, probably in favour of _Mani_, _Mali_, +_Madi_, _Mande_, meaning "hippopotamus," and in some cases the other big +water mammal, the manati.[1] + +The West African tribes speaking Mandingo languages vary very much in +outward appearance. Some of them may be West African negroes of the +forest type with little or no intermixture with the Caucasian; others, +such as the typical Mandingos or the Susus, obviously contain a +non-negro element in their physique. This last type resembles very +strongly the Swahilis of the Zanzibar littoral or other crosses between +the Arab and the negro; and though nearly always black-skinned, often +has a well-shaped nose and a fairly full beard. The tribes dwelling in +the West African forest, but speaking languages of Mandingo type, do not +perhaps exhibit the very prognathous, short-limbed, "ugly" development +of West African negro, but are of rather a refined type, and some of +them are lighter in skin colour than the more Arab-looking Mandingos of +the north. But in these forest Mandingos the beard is scanty. +Occasionally the Mandingo physical type appears in eastern Liberia and +on the Ivory Coast amongst people speaking Kru languages. In other cases +it is associated with the Senufo speech-family. + +Delafosse divides the Mandingo group linguistically into three main +sections: (1) the _Mande-tamu_, (2) the _Mande-fu_, and (3) the +_Mande-tã_, according as they use for the numeral 10 the root _tamu_, +_tã_ or _fu_. Of the first group are the important tribes of the +Soni-nké (called Sarakulle by the Fula, and Sarakolé by the French); the +Swaninki people of Azer, and the oases of Tishitt, Wadan and Walata in +the south-west Sahara; and the Bozo, who are the fishermen along the +banks of the Upper Niger and the Bani from Jenné to Timbuktu. The +Soni-nké are also known as Marka, and they include (according to Binger) +the Samogho and even the Kurtei along the banks of the Niger east of +Timbuktu as far as Say. + +The group of Mande-tã would include the Bamana (incorrectly called +Bambara) of the upper Senegal and of Segu on the Upper Niger, the +Toronke, the Mandenga, the Numu of the district west of the Black Volta, +the Vai of south-western Liberia, and the Dyula or Gyula of the region +at the back of the Ivory Coast. + +The group of the Mande-fu includes a great many different languages and +dialects, chiefly in the forest region of Sierra Leone and Liberia, and +also the dialects of the celebrated Susu or Soso tribe, and the Mandingo +tribes of Futa Jallon, of the Grand Scarcies River and of the interior +of the Ivory Coast, and of the regions between the eastern affluents of +the Upper Niger and the Black Volta. To this group Delafosse joins the +Boko dialect spoken by people dwelling to the west of the Lower Niger at +Bussa--between Bussa and Borgu. If this hypothesis be correct it gives a +curious eastern extension to the range of the Mandingo family at the +present day; or it may be a vestige left by the Mandingo invasion which, +according to legend, came in prehistoric times from the Hausa countries +across the Niger to Senegambia. It is remarkable that this Boko dialect +as recorded by the missionary Koelle most resembles certain dialects in +central Liberia and in the Ivory Coast hinterland. + +The Mandingos, coming from the East and riding on horses (according to +tradition), seem to have invaded western Nigeria about A.D. 1000 (if not +earlier), and to have gradually displaced and absorbed the Songhai or +Fula (in other words, Negroid, "White") rulers of the countries in the +basin of the Upper Niger or along its navigable course as far as the +Bussa Rapids and the forest region. On the ruins of these Songhai, +Berber, or Fula kingdoms rose the empire of Mali (Melle). Considerable +sections of the Mandingo invaders had adopted Mahommedanism, and +extended a great Mahommedan empire of western Nigeria far northwards +into the Sahara Desert. In the 16th century the Songhai regained supreme +power. See _infra_, § _The Melle Empire_. + +Although the Mandingos, and especially the Susu section, may have come +as conquerors, they devoted themselves through the succeeding centuries +more and more to commerce. They became to the extreme west of Africa +what the Hausa are in the west-central regions. Some of the Mandingo +invasions, especially in the forest region, left little more than the +imposition of their language; but where there was any element of +Caucasian blood (for the original Mandingo invaders were evidently +dashed with the Caucasian by intermingling with some of the negroid +races of north-central Africa), they imposed a degree of civilization +which excluded cannibalism (still rampant in much of the forest region +of West Africa), introduced working in leather and in metals, and was +everywhere signalized by a passionate love of music, a characteristic of +all true Mandingo tribes at the present day. It is noteworthy that many +of the instruments affected by the Mandingos are found again in the more +civilized regions of Bantu Africa, as well as in the central Sudan. Many +of these types of musical instruments can also be traced originally to +ancient Egypt. The Mandingos also seem to have brought with them in +their westward march the Egyptian type of ox, with the long, erect +horns. It would almost seem as if this breed had been preceded by the +zebu or humped ox; though these two types are evidently of common origin +so far as derivation from one wild species is concerned. The Mandingos +maintain the system of totems or clans, and each section or tribe +identifies itself with a symbol, which is usually an animal or a plant. +The Mandenga are supposed to have either the manati or the hippopotamus +as _tanna_. (Binger states that the manati was the totem of the Mande +group, to which perhaps belonged originally the Susu and the Dyula.) The +Bamana are the people of the crocodile; the Samanke are the people of +the elephant; the Samokho of the snake. Other totems or symbols of +special families or castes are the dog, the calabash or gourd, the lion, +the green monkey, the leopard, the monitor lizard, a certain spice +called bandugu, certain rats, the python, the puff-adder, &c. + + AUTHORITIES.--The bibliography dealing with the Mandingo peoples is + very extensive, but only the following works need be cited: Captain L. + G. Binger, _Du Niger au Golfe de Guinée_, &c. (1892); Maurice + Delafosse, _Vocabulaires comparatifs de plus de 60 langues et + dialectes parlés à la Côte d'Ivoire_, &c. (1904); Lieut. Desplagnes, + _Le Plateau central nigérien_ (1907); Lady Lugard, _A Tropical + Dependency_ (1905); Sir Harry Johnston, _Liberia_ (1906). Most of + these works contain extensive bibliographies. (H. H. J.) + +_The Melle Empire._--The tradition which ascribes the arrival of the +Mandingo in the western Sudan to the 10th or 11th century is referred to +in the previous section. It is not known by whom the Melle (Mali) state +was founded. Neither is there certainty as to the site of the capital, +also called Melle. Idrisi in the 12th century describes the Wangara (a +Hausa name for the Mandingo) as a powerful people, and El Bakri writes +in similar terms. But the first king whose name is preserved was +Baramindana, believed to have reigned from 1213 to 1235. His territory +lay south of that of Jenné, partly within the bend of the Niger and +partly west of that river. The people were already Moslem, and the +capital was a rendezvous for merchants from all parts of the western +Sudan and the Barbary States. Mari Jatah (or Diara), Baramindana's +successor, about the middle of the 13th century conquered the Susu, then +masters of Ghanata (Ghana). Early in the 14th century Mansa, i.e. +Sultan, Kunkur Musa, extended the empire, known as the Mellistine, to +its greatest limits, making himself master of Timbuktu, Gao and all the +Songhoi dominions. His authority extended northward over the Sahara to +the Tuat oases. Mansa Suleiman was on the throne when in 1352-1353 Melle +was visited by Ibn Batuta. By this monarch the empire was divided into +three great provinces, ruled by viceroys. For a century afterwards Melle +appears to have been the dominant Sudan state west of the Lower Niger, +but it had to meet the hostility of the growing power of the pagan +Mossi, of the Tuareg in the north and of the Songhoi, who under Sunni +Ali (c. 1325) had already regained a measure of independence. Cadamosto +nevertheless describes Melle in 1454 as being still the most powerful of +the negro-land kingdoms and the most important for its traffic in gold +and slaves. The Songhoi sovereign Askia is said to have completed the +conquest of Melle at the beginning of the 16th century. It nevertheless +retained some sort of national existence--though with the advent of the +Moors in the Niger countries (end of the 16th century) native +civilization suffered a blow from which it never recovered. Civil war is +said to have finally wrought the ruin of Melle about the middle of the +17th century.[2] The Portuguese, from their first appearance on the +Senegal and Gambia, entered into friendly relations with the rulers of +Melle. Barros relates (_Da Asia_, Decade I.) that John II. of Portugal +sent embassies to the court of Melle by way of the Gambia (end of the +15th century). At that time the authority of Melle was said to extend +westward to the coast. The king, pressed by the Mossi, the Songhoi and +the Fula, solicited the help of his "friends and allies" the +Portuguese--with what result does not appear; but in 1534 Barros himself +despatched an ambassador to the king of Melle concerning the trade of +the Gambia. By way of that river the Portuguese themselves penetrated as +far as Bambuk, a country conquered by the Mandingo in the 12th century. +By Barros the name of the Melle ruler is given as Mandi Mansa, which may +be the native form for "Sultan of the Mandi" (Mandingo). + + See further TIMBUKTU and the authorities there cited; cf. also L. + Marc, _Le Pays Mossi_ (Paris, 1909). Lists of Mandingo sovereigns are + given in Stokvis, _Manuel d'histoire_, vol. i. (Leiden, 1888). + (F. R. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Indeed it is possible that the European name for this + Sirenian--manati--derived from the West Indies, is the corruption of + a West African word _manti_, applied very naturally to the animal by + the West African slaves, who at once recognized it as similar to the + creature found on the West African coast in their own rivers, and + also on the Upper Niger. + + [2] On the ruins of the old Melle dominions arose five smaller + kingdoms, representing different sections of the Mandingo peoples. + + + + +MANDLA, a town and district of British India, in the Jubbulpore division +of the Central Provinces. The town is on the river Nerbudda, 1787 ft. +above the sea. It has a manufacture of bell-metal vessels. Pop. (1901), +5054. The district of Mandla, among the Satpura hills, has an area of +5054 sq. m. It consists of a wild highland region, broken up by the +valleys of numerous rivers and streams. The Nerbudda flows through the +centre of the district, receiving several tributaries which take their +rise in the Maikal hills, a range densely clothed with _sal_ forest, and +forming part of the great watershed between eastern and western India. +The loftiest mountain is Chauradadar, about 3400 ft. high. Tigers +abound, and the proportion of deaths caused by wild animals is greater +than in any other district of the Central Provinces. The magnificent +_sal_ forests which formerly clothed the highlands have suffered greatly +from the nomadic system of cultivation practised by the hill tribes, who +burned the wood and sowed their crops in the ashes; but measures have +been taken to prevent further damage. The population in 1901 was +318,400, showing a decrease of 6.5% in the decade, due to famine. The +aboriginal or hill tribes are more numerous in Mandla than in any other +district of the Central Provinces, particularly the Gonds. The principal +crops are rice, wheat, other food grains, pulse and oilseeds. There is a +little manufacture of country cloth. A branch of the Bengal-Nagpur +railway touches the south-western border of the district. Mandla +suffered most severely from the famine of 1896-1897, partly owing to its +inaccessibility, and partly from the shy habits of the aboriginal +tribes. The registered death-rate in 1907 was as high as 96 per +thousand. + + + + +MANDOLINE (Fr. _mandoline_; Ger. _Mandoline_; It. _mandolina_), the +treble member of the lute family, and therefore a stringed instrument of +great antiquity. The mandoline is classified amongst the stringed +instruments having a vaulted back, which is more accentuated than even +that of the lute. The mandoline is strung with steel and brass wire +strings. There are two varieties of mandolines, both Italian: (1) the +_Neapolitan_, 2 ft. long, which is the best known, and has four courses +of pairs of unisons tuned like the violin in fifths; (2) the _Milanese_, +which is slightly larger and has five or six courses of pairs of +unisons. The neck is covered by a finger-board, on which are distributed +the twelve or more frets which form nuts at the correct points under the +strings on which the fingers must press to obtain the chromatic +semitones of the scale. The strings are twanged by means of a plectrum +or pick, held between the thumb and first finger of the right hand. In +order to strike a string the pick is given a gliding motion over the +string combined with a _down_ or an _up_ movement, respectively +indicated by signs over the notes. In order to sustain notes on the +mandoline the effect known as _tremolo_ is employed; it is produced by +means of a double movement of the pick up and down over a pair of +strings. + + The mandoline is a derivative of the mandola or mandore, which was + smaller than the lute but larger than either of the mandolines + described above. It had from four to eight courses of strings, the + _chanterelle_ or melody string being single and the others in pairs of + unisons. The mandore is mentioned in Robert de Calenson (12th cent.), + and elsewhere; it may be identified with the pandura. + + The Neapolitan mandoline was scored for by Mozart as an accompaniment + to the celebrated serenade in _Don Juan_. Beethoven wrote for it a + _Sonatina per il mandolino_, dedicated to his friend Krumpholz. Grétry + and Paisiello also introduced it into their operas as an accompaniment + to serenades. + + The earliest method for the mandoline was published by Fouchette in + Paris in 1770. The earliest mention of the instrument in England, in + 1707, is quoted in Ashton's _Social Life in the Reign of Queen Anne_: + "Signior Conti will play ... on the mandoline, an instrument not known + yet." (K. S.) + + + + +MANDRAKE (_Mandragora officinarum_), a plant of the potato family, order +Solanaceae, a native of the Mediterranean region. It has a short stem +bearing a tuft of ovate leaves, with a thick fleshy and often forked +root. The flowers are solitary, with a purple bell-shaped corolla; the +fruit is a fleshy orange-coloured berry. The mandrake has been long +known for its poisonous properties and supposed virtues. It acts as an +emetic, purgative and narcotic, and was much esteemed in old times; but, +except in Africa and the East, where it is used as a narcotic and +anti-spasmodic, it has fallen into well-earned disrepute. In ancient +times, according to Isidorus and Serapion, it was used as a narcotic to +diminish sensibility under surgical operations, and the same use is +mentioned by Kazwini, i. 297, s.v. "Luffah" Shakespeare more than once +alludes to this plant, as in _Antony and Cleopatra_: "Give me to drink +mandragora." The notion that the plant shrieked when touched is alluded +to in _Romeo and Juliet_: "And shrieks like mandrakes torn out of the +earth, that living mortals, hearing them, run mad." The mandrake, often +growing like the lower limbs of a man, was supposed to have other +virtues, and was much used for love philtres, while the fruit was +supposed, and in the East is still supposed, to facilitate pregnancy +(Aug., _C. Faust_. xxii. 56; cf. Gen. xxx. 14, where the Hebrew [Hebrew: +dadarom] is undoubtedly the mandrake). Like the mallow, the mandrake was +potent in all kinds of enchantment (see Maimonides in Chwolson, +_Ssabier_, ii. 459). Dioscorides identifies it with the [Greek: +kirkaia], the root named after the enchantress Circe. To it appears to +apply the fable of the magical herb Baaras, which cured demoniacs, and +was procured at great risk or by the death of a dog employed to drag it +up, in Josephus (_B. J._ vii. 6, § 3). The German name of the plant +(_Alraune_; O. H. G. _Alrûna_) indicates the prophetic power supposed to +be in little images (homunculi, Goldmännchen, Galgenmännchen) made of +this root which were cherished as oracles. The possession of such roots +was thought to ensure prosperity. (See Du Cange, s.vv. "Mandragora" and +Littré.) + + Gerard in 1597 (_Herball_, p. 280) described male and female + mandrakes, and Dioscorides also recognizes two such plants + corresponding to the spring and autumn species (_M. vernalis_ and _M. + officinarum_ respectively), differing in the colour of the foliage and + shape of fruit. + + + + +MANDRILL (a name formed by the prefix "man" to the word "drill," which +was used in ancient literature to denote an ape, and is probably of West +African origin), the common title of the most hideous and most +brilliantly coloured of all the African monkeys collectively denominated +baboons and constituting the genus _Papio_. Together with the _drill_ +(q.v.), the mandrill, _Papio maimon_, constitutes the subgenus _Maimon_, +which is exclusively West African in distribution, and characterized, +among other peculiarities, by the extreme shortness of the tail, and the +great development of the longitudinal bony swellings, covered during +life with naked skin, on the sides of the muzzle. As a whole, the +mandrill is characterized by heaviness of body, stoutness and strength +of limb, and exceeding shortness of tail, which is a mere stump, not 2 +in. long, and usually carried erect. It is, moreover, remarkable for the +prominence of its brow-ridges, beneath which the small and closely +approximated eyes are deeply sunk; the immense size of the canine teeth; +and more especially for the extraordinarily vivid colouring of some +parts of the skin. The body generally is covered with soft hair--light +olive-brown above and silvery grey beneath--and the chin is furnished +underneath with a small pointed yellow beard. The hair of the forehead +and temples is directed upwards so as to meet in a point on the crown, +which gives the head a triangular appearance. The ears are naked, and +bluish black. The hands and feet are naked, and black. A large space +around the greatly developed callosities on the buttocks, as well as the +upper part of the insides of the thighs, is naked and of a crimson +colour, shading off on the sides to lilac or blue, which, depending upon +injection of the superficial blood-vessels, varies in intensity +according to the condition of the animal--increasing under excitement, +fading during sickness, and disappearing after death. It is, however, in +the face that the most remarkable disposition of vivid hues occurs, more +resembling those of a brilliantly coloured flower than what might be +expected in a mammal. The cheek-prominences are of an intense blue, the +effect of which is heightened by deeply sunk longitudinal furrows of a +darker tint, while the central line and termination of the nose are +bright scarlet. It is only to fully adult males that this description +applies. The female is of much smaller size, and more slender; and, +though the general tone of the hairy parts of the body is the same, the +prominences, furrows, and colouring of the face are much less marked. +The young males have black faces. + +Old males are remarkable for the ferocity of their disposition, as well +as for other disagreeable qualities; but when young they can easily be +tamed. Like baboons, mandrills appear to be indiscriminate eaters, +feeding on fruit, roots, reptiles, insects, scorpions, &c., and inhabit +open rocky ground rather than forests. Not much is known of the +mandrill's habits in the wild state, nor of the exact limits of its +geographical distribution; the specimens brought to Europe coming from +the west coast of tropical Africa, from Guinea to the Gaboon. (See also +PRIMATES.) (W. H. F.; R. L.*) + + + + +MANDU, or MANDOGARH, a ruined city in the Dhar state of Central India, +the ancient capital of the Mahommedan kingdom of Malwa. The city is +situated at an elevation of 2079 ft. and extends for 8 m. along the +crest of the Vindhyan mountains. It reached its greatest splendour in +the 15th century under Hoshang Shah (1405-1434). The circuit of the +battlemented wall is nearly 23 m., enclosing a large number of palaces, +mosques and other buildings. The oldest mosque dates from 1405; the +finest is the Jama Masjid or great mosque, a notable example of Pathan +architecture, founded by Hoshang Shah. The marble-domed tomb of this +ruler is also magnificent. + + For a description and history of Mandu, see Sir James Campbell's + _Gazetteer of Bombay_, vol. i. part ii. (1896), and _Journal of the + Bombay Asiatic Society_ (vol. xxi.). + + + + +MANDURIA, a city of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce, from which +it is 27 m. W. by road (22 m. E. of Taranto), 270 ft. above sea-level, +and 8 m. N. of the coast. Pop. (1901), 12,199 (town); 13,190 (commune). +It is close to the site of the ancient Manduria, considerable remains of +the defences of which can still be seen; they consisted of a double line +of wall built of rectangular blocks of stone, without mortar, and with a +broad ditch in front. Some tombs with gold ornaments were found in 1886 +(L. Viola in _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1886, 100). It was an important +stronghold of the Messapii against Tarentum, and Archidamus III., king +of Sparta, fell beneath its walls in 338 B.C., while leading the army of +the latter (Plut., _Agis_, 3, calls the place Mandonion: see s.v. +ARCHIDAMUS). It revolted to Hannibal, but was stormed by the Romans in +209 B.C. Pliny mentions a spring here which never changed its level, and +may still be seen. The town was destroyed by the Saracens in the 10th +century; the inhabitants settled themselves on the site of the present +town, at first called Casalnuovo, which resumed the old name in 1700. + (T. As.) + + + + +MANDVI, a seaport of India, in the native state of Cutch, within the +Gujarat province of Bombay, 36 m. from Bhuj, and 182 m. by sea from +Karachi. Pop. (1901), 24,683. It is a weekly port of call for steamers +of the British India line, vessels of 70 tons cannot come nearer than +500 yards. The pilots and sailors of Mandvi have a high reputation. + + + + +MANES, in Roman mythology, the disembodied and immortal spirits of the +dead. The word is an old adjective--_manis_, _manus_, meaning "good," +the opposite of which is _immanis_; hence the Manes, clearly a +euphemistic term, are the "good people." They were looked upon as gods; +hence the dedication, of great antiquity and frequent occurrence, +_Divis_ or _Dis Manibus_ in sepulchral inscriptions, used even in +Christian times. When a body was consumed on the funeral pyre, relations +and friends invoked the deceased as a divinity, and the law of the +Twelve Tables prescribed that the rights of the divine Manes should be +respected, and that each man should regard the dead members of his +family as gods. Their home was in the bowels of the earth, from which +they only emerged at certain times. It was an old Italian +custom--especially at the foundation of cities--to dig a pit in the form +of an inverted sky (hence called _mundus_), the lower part of which was +supposed to be sacred to the gods of the underworld, including the +Manes. Such a pit existed on the Palatine at Rome. It was covered by a +stone called _lapis manalis_, representing the entrance to the lower +world, which was removed three times in the year (Aug. 24, Oct. 5, Nov. +8). The Manes were then believed to issue forth, and these days were +regarded as _religiosi_--that is, all important business in public and +private life was suspended. Offerings were made to propitiate the dead: +libations of water, wine, warm milk, honey, oil, and the blood of +sacrificial victims--black sheep, pigs and oxen (_suovetaurilia_)--was +poured upon the graves; ointment and incense were offered, lamps were +lighted, and the grave was adorned with garlands of flowers, especially +roses and violets. Beans, eggs, lentils, salt, bread and wine, placed on +the grave, formed the chief part of a meal partaken of by the mourners. +There was also a public state festival in honour of the dead, called +Parentalia, held from the 13th to the 21st of February, the last month +of the old Roman year, the last day of the festival being called +Feralia. During its continuance all the temples were shut, marriages +were forbidden, and the magistrates had to appear without the insignia +of their office. + +There was considerable analogy between the Manes and the received idea +of "souls"--and there was a corresponding idea that they could be +conjured up and appear as ghosts. They were also supposed to have the +power of sending dreams. It is to be noticed that, unlike the Lares, the +Manes are never spoken of singly. + + For authorities, see LARES and PENATES. + + + + +MANET, ÉDOUARD (1832-1883), French painter, regarded as the most +important master of Impressionism (q.v.), was born in Paris on the 23rd +of January 1832. After spending some time under the tuition of the Abbé +Poiloup, he entered the Collège Rollin, where his passion for drawing +led him to neglect all his other lessons. His studies finished in 1848, +he was placed on board the ship _Guadeloupe_, voyaging to Rio de +Janeiro. On his return he first studied in Couture's studio (1851), +where his independence often infuriated his master. For six years he was +an intermittent visitor to the studio, constantly taking leave to +travel, and going first to Cassel, Dresden, Vienna and Munich, and +afterwards to Florence, Rome and Venice, where he made some stay. Some +important drawings date from this period, and one picture, "A Nymph +Surprised." Then, after imitating Couture, more or less, in "The +Absinthe-drinker" (1866), and Courbet in "The Old Musician," he devoted +himself almost exclusively to the study of the Spanish masters in the +Louvre. A group was already gathering round him--Whistler, Legros, and +Fantin-Latour haunted his studio in the Rue Guyot. His "Spaniard playing +the Guitar," in the Salon of 1861, excited much animadversion. Delacroix +alone defended Manet, but, this notwithstanding, his "Fifer of the +Guard" and "Breakfast on the Grass" were refused by the jury. Then the +"Exhibition of the Rejected" was opened, and round Manet a group was +formed, including Bracquemond, Legros, Jongkind, Whistler, Harpignies +and Fantin-Latour, the writers Zola, Duranty and Duret, and Astruc the +sculptor. In 1863, when an amateur, M. Martinet, lent an exhibition-room +to Manet, the painter exhibited fourteen pictures; and then, in 1864, +contributed again to the Salon "The Angels at the Tomb" and "A +Bullfight." Of this picture he afterwards kept nothing but the toreador +in the foreground, and it is now known as "The Dead Man." In 1865 he +sent to the Salon "Christ reviled by the Soldiers" and the famous +"Olympia," which was hailed with mockery and laughter. It represents a +nude woman reclining on a couch, behind which is seen the head of a +negress who carries a bunch of flowers. A black cat at her feet +emphasizes the whiteness of the sheet on which the woman lies. This work +(now in the Louvre) was presented to the Luxembourg by a subscription +started by Claude Monet (1890). It was hung in 1897 among the +Caillebotte collection, which included the "Balcony," and a study of a +female head called "Angelina." This production, of a highly independent +individuality, secured Manet's exclusion from the Salon of 1866, so that +he determined to exhibit his pictures in a place apart during the Great +Exhibition of 1867. In a large gallery in the Avenue de l'Alma, half of +which was occupied by Courbet, he hung no fewer than fifty paintings. +Only one important picture was absent, "The Execution of the Emperor +Maximilian"; its exhibition was prohibited by the authorities. From that +time, in spite of the fierce hostility of some adversaries, Manet's +energy and that of his supporters began to gain the day. His "Young +Girl" (Salon of 1868) was justly appreciated, as well as the portrait of +Lola; but the "Balcony" and the "Breakfast" (1869) were as severely +handled as the "Olympia" had been. In 1870 he exhibited "The Music +Lesson" and a portrait of Mlle E. Gonzales. Not long before the +Franco-Prussian War, Manet, finding himself in the country with a +friend, for the first time discovered the true value of open air to the +effects of painting in his picture "The Garden," which gave rise to the +"open air" or _plein air_ school. After fighting as a gunner, he +returned to his family in the Pyrenees, where he painted "The Battle of +the _Kearsarge_ and the _Alabama_." His "Bon Bock" (1873) created a +_furore_. But in 1875, as in 1869, there was a fresh outburst of abuse, +this time of the "Railroad," "Polichinelle," and "Argenteuil," and the +jury excluded the artist, who for the second time arranged an exhibition +in his studio. In 1877 his "Hamlet" was admitted to the Salon, but +"Nana" was rejected. The following works were exhibited at the Salon of +1881: "In the Conservatory," "In a Boat," and the portraits of Rochefort +and Proust; and the Cross of the Legion of Honour was conferred on the +painter on the 31st of December in that year. Manet died in Paris on the +20th of April 1883. He left, besides his pictures, a number of pastels +and engravings. He illustrated _Les Chats_ by Champfleury, and Edgar +Allan Poe's _The Raven_. + + See Zola, _Manet_ (Paris, 1867); E. Bazire, _Manet_ (Paris, 1884); G. + Geffroy, _La Vie artistique_ (1893). (H. Fr.) + + + + +MANETENERIS, a tribe of South American Indians of the upper Purus river, +and between it and the Jurua, north-western Brazil. They manufacture +cotton cloth, and have iron axes and fish hooks. The men wear long +ponchos, the women sacks open at the bottom. The Maneteneris are +essentially a waterside people. Their cedarwood canoes are very long and +beautifully made. + + + + +MANETHO ([Greek: Manethôn] in an inscription of Carthage; [Greek: +Manethôs] in a papyrus), Egyptian priest and annalist, was a native of +Sebennytus in the Delta. The name which he bears has a good Egyptian +appearance, and has been found on a contemporary papyrus probably +referring to the man himself. The evidence of Plutarch and other +indications connect him with the reigns of Ptolemy I. and II. His most +important work was an Egyptian history in Greek, for which he translated +the native records. It is now only known by some fragments of narrative +in Josephus's treatise _Against Apion_, and by tables of dynasties and +kings with lengths of reigns, divided into three books, in the works of +Christian chronographers. The earliest and best of the latter is Julius +Africanus, besides whom Eusebius and some falsifying apologists offer +the same materials; the chief text is that preserved in the +_Chronographia_ of Georgius Syncellus. It is difficult to judge the +value of the original from these extracts: it is clear from the +different versions of the lists that they have been corrupted. Manetho's +work was probably based on native lists like that of the Turin Papyrus +of Kings: even his division into dynasties may have been derived from +such. The fragments of narrative give a very confused idea of Egyptian +history in the time of the Hyksos and the XVIIIth Dynasty. The royal +lists, too, are crowded with errors of detail, both in the names and +order of the kings, and in the lengths attributed to the reigns. The +brief notes attached to some of the names may be derived from Manetho's +narrative, but they are chiefly references to kings mentioned by +Herodotus or to marvels that were supposed to have occurred: they +certainly possess little historical value. A puzzling annotation to the +name of Bocchoris, "in whose time a lamb spake 990 years," has been well +explained by Krall's reading of a demotic story written in the +twenty-third year of Augustus. According to this a lamb prophesied that +after Bocchoris's reign Egypt should be in the hands of the oppressor +900 years; in Africanus's day it was necessary to lengthen the period in +order to keep up the spirits of the patriots after the stated term had +expired. This is evidently not from the pure text of Manetho. +Notwithstanding all their defects, the fragments of Manetho have +provided the accepted scheme of Egyptian dynasties and have been of +great service to scholars ever since the first months of Champollion's +decipherment. + + See C. Müller, _Fragmenta historicorum graecorum_, ii. 511-616; A. + Wiedemann, _Aegyptische Geschichte_ (Gotha, 1884), pp. 121 et sqq.; J. + Krall in _Festgaben für Büdinger_ (Innsbruck, 1898); Grenfell and + Hunt, _El Hibeh Papyri_, i. 223; also the section on chronology in + EGYPT, and generally books on Egyptian history and chronology. + (F. Ll. G.) + + + + +MANFRED (c. 1232-1266), king of Sicily, was a natural son of the emperor +Frederick II. by Bianca Lancia, or Lanzia, who is reported on somewhat +slender evidence to have been married to the emperor just before his +death. Frederick himself appears to have regarded Manfred as legitimate, +and by his will named him as prince of Tarentum and appointed him as the +representative in Italy of his half-brother, the German king, Conrad IV. +Although only about eighteen years of age Manfred acted loyally and with +vigour in the execution of his trust, and when Conrad appeared in +southern Italy in 1252 his authority was quickly and generally +acknowledged. When in May 1254 the German king died, Manfred, after +refusing to surrender Sicily to Pope Innocent IV., accepted the regency +on behalf of Conradin, the infant son of Conrad. But the strength of the +papal party in the Sicilian kingdom rendered the position of the regent +so precarious that he decided to open negotiations with Innocent. By a +treaty made in September 1254, Apulia passed under the authority of the +pope, who was personally conducted by Manfred into his new possession. +But Manfred's suspicions being aroused by the demeanour of the papal +retinue, he fled to the Saracens at Lucera. Aided by Saracen allies, he +defeated the papal troops at Foggia on the 2nd of December 1254, and +soon established his authority over Sicily and the Sicilian possessions +on the mainland. + +Taking advantage in 1258 of a rumour that Conradin was dead, Manfred was +crowned king of Sicily at Palermo on the 10th of August in that year. +The falsehood of this report was soon manifest; but the new king, +supported by the popular voice, declined to abdicate, and pointed out to +Conradin's envoys the necessity for a strong native ruler. But the pope, +to whom the Saracen alliance was a serious offence, declared Manfred's +coronation void and pronounced sentence of excommunication. Undeterred +by this sentence Manfred sought to obtain power in central and northern +Italy, and in conjunction with the Ghibellines his forces defeated the +Guelphs at Monte Aperto on the 4th of September 1260. He was then +recognized as protector of Tuscany by the citizens of Florence, who did +homage to his representative, and he was chosen senator of the Romans by +a faction in the city. Terrified by these proceedings, Pope Urban IV. +implored aid from France, and persuaded Charles count of Anjou, a +brother of King Louis IX., to accept the investiture of the kingdom of +Sicily at his hands. Hearing of the approach of Charles, Manfred issued +a manifesto to the Romans, in which he not only defended his rule over +Italy but even claimed the imperial crown. The rival armies met near +Benevento on the 26th of February 1266, where, although the Germans +fought with undaunted courage, the cowardice of the Italians quickly +brought destruction on Manfred's army. The king himself, refusing to +fly, rushed into the midst of his enemies and was killed. Over his body, +which was buried on the battlefield, a huge heap of stones was placed, +but afterwards with the consent of the pope the remains were unearthed, +cast out of the papal territory, and interred on the banks of the Liris. +Manfred was twice married. His first wife was Beatrice, daughter of +Amadeus IV. count of Savoy, by whom he had a daughter, Constance, who +became the wife of Peter III. king of Aragon; and his second wife, who +died in prison in 1271, was Helena, daughter of Michael II. despot of +Epirus. Contemporaries praise the noble and magnanimous character of +Manfred, who was renowned for his physical beauty and intellectual +attainments. + + Manfred forms the subject of dramas by E. B. S. Raupach, O. Marbach + and F. W. Roggee. Three letters written by Manfred are published by J. + B. Carusius in _Bibliotheca historica regni Siciliae_ (Palermo, 1732). + See Cesare, _Storia di Manfredi_ (Naples, 1837); Münch, _König + Manfred_ (Stuttgart, 1840); Riccio, _Alcuni studii storici intorno a + Manfredi e Conradino_ (Naples, 1850); F. W. Schirrmacher, _Die letzten + Hohenstaufen_ (Göttingen, 1871); Capesso, _Historia diplomatica regni + Siciliae_ (Naples, 1874); A. Karst, _Geschichte Manfreds vom Tode + Friedrichs II. bis zu seiner Krönung_ (Berlin, 1897); and K. Hampe, + _Urban IV. und Manfred_ (Heidelberg, 1905). + + + + +MANFREDONIA, a town and archiepiscopal see (with Viesti) of Apulia, +Italy, in the province of Foggia, from which it is 22½ m. N.E. by rail, +situated on the coast, facing E., 13 ft. above sea-level, to the south +of Monte Gargano, and giving its name to the gulf to the east of it. +Pop. (1901), 11,549. It was founded by Manfred in 1263, and destroyed by +the Turks in 1620; but the medieval castle of the Angevins and parts of +the town walls are well preserved. In the church of S. Domenico, the +chapel of the Maddalena contains old paintings of the 14th century. Two +miles to the south-west is the fine cathedral of S. Maria Maggiore di +Siponto, built in 1117 in the Romanesque style, with a dome and crypt. +S. Leonardo, nearer Foggia, belonging to the Teutonic order, is of the +same date. This marks the site of the ancient Sipontum, the harbour of +Arpi, which became a Roman colony in 194 B.C., and was not deserted in +favour of Manfredonia until the 13th century, having become unhealthy +owing to the stagnation of the water in the lagoons. + + See A. Beltramelli, _Il Gargano_ (Bergamo, 1907). (T. As.) + + + + +MANGABEY, a name (probably of French origin) applied to the West African +monkeys of the genus _Cercocebus_, the more typical representatives of +which are characterized by their bare, flesh-coloured upper eye-lids, +and the uniformly coloured hairs of the fur. (See PRIMATES.) + + + + +MANGALIA, a town in the department of Constantza Rumania, situated on +the Black Sea, and at the mouth of a small stream, the Mangalia, 10 m. +N. of the Bulgarian frontier. Pop. (1900), 1459. The inhabitants, among +whom are many Turks and Bulgarians, are mostly fisherfolk. Mangalia is +to be identified with the Thracian Kallatis or Acervetis, a colony of +Miletus which continued to be a flourishing place to the close of the +Roman period. In the 14th century it had 30,000 inhabitants, and a large +trade with Genoa. + + + + +MANGALORE, a seaport of British India, administrative headquarters of +the South Kanara district of Madras, and terminus of the west coast line +of the Madras railway. Pop. (1901), 44,108. The harbour is formed by the +backwater of two small rivers. Vessels ride in 24 to 30 ft. of water, +and load from and unload into lighters. The chief exports are coffee, +coco-nut products, timber, rice and spices. Mangalore clears and exports +all the coffee of Coorg, and trades directly with Arabia and the +Persian Gulf. There is a small shipbuilding industry. The town has a +large Roman Catholic population, with a European bishop, several +churches, a convent and a college. It is the headquarters of the Basel +Lutheran mission, which possesses one of the most active printing +presses in southern India, and has also successfully introduced the +industries of weaving and the manufacture of tiles. Two colleges +(Government and St Aloysius) are situated here. Mangalore was gallantly +defended by Colonel John Campbell of the 42nd regiment from May 6, 1783, +to January 30, 1784, with a garrison of 1850 men, of whom 412 were +English, against Tippoo Sultan's whole army. + + + + +MANGAN, JAMES CLARENCE (1803-1849), Irish poet, was born in Dublin on +the 1st of May 1803. His baptismal name was James, the "Clarence" being +his own addition. His father, a grocer, who boasted of the terror with +which he inspired his children, had ruined himself by imprudent +speculation and extravagant hospitality. The burden of supporting the +family fell on James, who entered a scrivener's office, at the age of +fifteen, and drudged as a copying clerk for ten years. He was employed +for some time in the library of Trinity College, and in 1833 he found a +place in the Irish Ordnance Survey. He suffered a disappointment in +love, and continued ill health drove him to the use of opium. He was +habitually the victim of hallucinations which at times threatened his +reason. For Charles Maturin, the eccentric author of _Melmoth_, he +cherished a deep admiration, the results of which are evident in his +prose stories. He belonged to the Comet Club, a group of youthful +enthusiasts who carried on war in their paper, the _Comet_, against the +levying of tithes on behalf of the Protestant clergy. Contributions to +the _Dublin Penny Journal_ followed; and to the _Dublin University +Magazine_ he sent translations from the German poets. The mystical +tendency of German poetry had a special appeal for him. He chose poems +that were attuned to his own melancholy temperament, and did much that +was excellent in this field. He also wrote versions of old Irish poems, +though his knowledge of the language, at any rate at the beginning of +his career, was but slight. Some of his best-known Irish poems, however, +_O'Hussey's Ode to the Maguire_, for instance, follow the originals very +closely. Besides these were "translations" from Arabic, Turkish and +Persian. How much of these languages he knew is uncertain, but he had +read widely in Oriental subjects, and some of the poems are exquisite +though the original authors whom he cites are frequently mythical. He +took a mischievous pleasure in mystifying his readers, and in practising +extraordinary metres. For the _Nation_ he wrote from the beginning +(1842) of its career, and much of his best work appeared in it. He +afterwards contributed to the _United Irishman_. On the 20th of June +1849 he died at Meath Hospital, Dublin, of cholera. It was alleged at +the time that starvation was the real cause. This statement was untrue, +but there is no doubt that his wretched poverty made him ill able to +withstand disease. + +Mangan holds a high place among Irish poets, but his fame was deferred +by the inequality and mass of his work, much of which lay buried in +inaccessible newspaper files under his many pseudonyms, "Vacuus," +"Terrae Filius," "Clarence," &c. Of his genius, morbid though it +sometimes is, as in his tragic autobiographical ballad of _The Nameless +One_, there can be no question. He expressed with rare sincerity the +tragedy of Irish hopes and aspirations, and he furnished abundant proof +of his versatility in his excellent nonsense verses, which are in +strange contrast with the general trend of his work. + + An autobiography which appeared in the _Irish Monthly_ (1882) does not + reproduce the real facts of his career with any fidelity. For some + time after his death there was no adequate edition of his works, but + _German Anthology_ (1845), and _The Poets and Poetry of Munster_ + (1849) had appeared during his lifetime. In 1850 Hercules Ellis + included thirty of his ballads in his _Romances and Ballads of + Ireland_. Other selections appeared subsequently, notably one (1897), + by Miss L. I. Guiney. _The Poems of James Clarence Mangan_ (1903), and + the _Prose Writings_ (1904), were both edited by D. J. O'Donoghue, who + wrote in 1897 a complete account of the _Life and Writings_ of the + poet. + + + + +MANGANESE [symbol Mn; atomic weight, 54.93 (O = 16)], a metallic +chemical element. Its dioxide (pyrolusite) has been known from very +early times, and was at first mistaken for a magnetic oxide of iron. In +1740 J. H. Pott showed that it did not contain iron and that it yielded +a definite series of salts, whilst in 1774 C. Scheele proved that it was +the oxide of a distinctive metal. Manganese is found widely distributed +in nature, being generally found to a greater or less extent associated +with the carbonates and silicates of iron, calcium and magnesium, and +also as the minerals braunite, hausmannite, psilomelane, manganite, +manganese spar and hauerite. It has also been recognized in the +atmosphere of the sun (A. Cornu, _Comptes rendus_, 1878, 86, pp. 315, +530), in sea water, and in many mineral waters. + +The metal was isolated by J. G. Gahn in 1774, and in 1807 J. F. John +(_Gehlen's Jour. chem. phys._, 1807, 3, p. 452) obtained an impure metal +by reducing the carbonate at a high temperature with charcoal, mixed +with a small quantity of oil. R. Bunsen prepared the metal by +electrolysing manganese chloride in a porous cell surrounded by a carbon +crucible containing hydrochloric acid. Various reduction methods have +been employed for the isolation of the metal. C. Brunner (_Pogg. Ann._, +1857, 101, p. 264) reduced the fluoride by metallic sodium, and E. +Glatzel (_Ber._, 1889, 22, p. 2857) the chloride by magnesium, H. +Moissan (_Ann. Chim. Phys._, 1896 (7) 9, p. 286) reduced the oxide with +carbon in the electric furnace; and H. Goldschmidt has prepared the +metal from the oxide by means of his "thermite" process (see CHROMIUM). +W. H. Green and W. H. Wahl [German patent 70773 (1893)] prepare a 97% +manganese from pyrolusite by heating it with 30% sulphuric acid, the +product being then converted into manganous oxide by heating in a +current of reducing gas at a dull red heat, cooled in a reducing +atmosphere, and finally reduced by heating with granulated aluminium in +a magnesia crucible with lime and fluorspar as a flux. A purer metal is +obtained by reducing manganese amalgam by hydrogen (O. Prelinger, +_Monats._, 1894, 14, p. 353). + +Prelinger's manganese has a specific gravity of 7.42, and the variety +obtained by distilling pure manganese amalgam _in vacuo_ is pyrophoric +(A. Guntz, _Bull. Soc._ [3], 7, 275), and burns when heated in a current +of sulphur dioxide. The pure metal readily evolves hydrogen when acted +upon by sulphuric and hydrochloric acids, and is readily attacked by +dilute nitric acid. It precipitates many metals from solutions of their +salts. It is employed commercially in the manufacture of special steels. +(See IRON AND STEEL.) + + + COMPOUNDS + + Manganese forms several oxides, the most important of which are + manganous oxide, MnO, trimanganese tetroxide, Mn3O4, manganese + sesquioxide, Mn2O3, manganese dioxide, MnO2, manganese trioxide, MnO3, + and manganese heptoxide, Mn3O7. + + _Manganous oxide_, MnO, is obtained by heating a mixture of anhydrous + manganese chloride and sodium carbonate with a small quantity of + ammonium chloride (J. v. Liebig and F. Wöhler, _Pogg. Ann._, 1830, 21, + p. 584); or by reducing the higher oxides with hydrogen or carbon + monoxide. It is a dark coloured powder of specific gravity 5.09. + _Manganous hydroxide_, Mn(OH)2, is obtained as a white precipitate on + adding a solution of a caustic alkali to a manganous salt. For the + preparation of the crystalline variety identical with the mineral + pyrochroite (see A. de Schulten, _Comptes rendus_, 1887, 105, p. + 1265). It rapidly oxidizes on exposure to air and turns brown, going + ultimately to the sesquioxide. _Trimanganese tetroxide_, Mn3O4, is + produced more or less pure when the other oxides are heated. It may be + obtained crystalline by heating manganese sulphate and potassium + sulphate to a bright red heat (H. Debray, _Comptes rendus_, 1861, 52, + p. 985). It is a reddish-brown powder, which when heated with + hydrochloric acid yields chlorine. _Manganese sesquioxide_, Mn2O3, + found native as the mineral braunite, may be obtained by igniting the + other oxides in a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen, containing not more + than 26% of the latter gas (W. Dittmar, _Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1864, 17, + p. 294). The hydrated form, found native as the mineral manganite, is + produced by the spontaneous oxidation of manganous hydroxide. In the + hydrated condition it is a dark brown powder which readily loses water + at above 100° C., it dissolves in hot nitric acid, giving manganous + nitrate and manganese dioxide: 2MnO(OH) + 2HNO3 = Mn(NO3)2 + MnO2 + + 2H2O. _Manganese dioxide_, or pyrolusite (q.v.), MnO2, the most + important oxide, may be prepared by heating crystallized manganous + nitrate until red fumes are given off, decanting the clear liquid, and + heating to 150° to 160° C. for 40 to 60 hours (A. Gorgen, _Bull. + Soc._, 1890 [3], 4, p. 16), or by heating manganese carbonate to 260° + C. in the presence of air and washing the residue with very dilute + cold hydrochloric acid. It is a hard black solid which readily loses + oxygen when strongly heated, leaving a residue of Mn3O4. When heated + with concentrated hydrochloric acid it yields chlorine, and with + concentrated sulphuric acid it yields oxygen. It is reduced to the + monoxide when heated in a current of hydrogen. It is a strong + oxidizing agent. It dissolves in cold concentrated hydrochloric acid, + forming a dark brown solution which probably contains manganic + chloride (see R. J. Meyer, _Zeit. anorg. Chem._, 1899, 22, p. 169; G. + Neumann, _Monats._, 1894, 15, p. 489). It is almost impossible to + prepare a pure hydrated manganese dioxide owing to the readiness with + which it loses oxygen, leaving residues of the type _x_MnO·_y_MnO2. + Such mixtures are obtained by the action of alkaline hypochlorites on + manganous salts, or by suspending manganous carbonate in water and + passing chlorine through the mixture. The solid matter is filtered + off, washed with water, and warmed with 10% nitric acid (A. Gorgen). + It is a dark brown powder, which reddens litmus. Manganese dioxide + combines with other basic oxides to form _manganites_, and on this + property is based the Weldon process for the recovery of manganese + from the waste liquors of the chlorine stills (see CHLORINE). The + manganites are amorphous brown solids, insoluble in water, and + decomposed by hydrochloric acid with the evolution of chlorine. + _Manganese trioxide_, MnO3, is obtained in small quantity as an + unstable deliquescent red solid by dropping a solution of potassium + permanganate in sulphuric acid on to dry sodium carbonate (B. Franke, + _Jour. prak. Chem._, 1887 [2], 36, p. 31). Above 50° C. it decomposes + into the dioxide and oxygen. It dissolves in water forming manganic + acid, H2MnO4. _Manganese heptoxide_, Mn2O7, prepared by adding pure + potassium permanganate to well cooled, concentrated sulphuric acid, + when the oxide separates as a dark oil (H. Aschoff, _Pogg. Ann._, + 1860, 111, p. 217), is very unstable, continually giving off oxygen. + It decomposes violently on heating, and explodes in contact with + hydrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, &c. It dissolves in water to form a + deep red solution which contains _permanganic acid_, HMnO4. This acid + is also formed by decomposing barium or lead permanganate with dilute + sulphuric acid. It is only known in aqueous solution. This solution is + of a deep violet-red colour, and is somewhat fluorescent; it + decomposes on exposure to light, or when heated. It is a monobasic + acid, and a very powerful oxidizing agent (M. M. P. Muir, _Jour. Chem. + Soc._, 1907, 91, p. 1485). + + _Manganous Salts._--The anhydrous _chloride_, MnCl2, is obtained as a + rose-red crystalline solid by passing hydrochloric acid gas over + manganese carbonate, first in the cold and afterwards at a moderate + red heat. The hydrated chloride, MnCl2·4H2O, is obtained in rose-red + crystals by dissolving the metal or its carbonate in aqueous + hydrochloric acid and concentrating the solution. It may be obtained + in at least two different forms, one isomorphous with NaCl·2H2O, by + concentrating the solution between 15° C. and 20°C.; the other, + isomorphous with FeCl2·4H2O, by slow evaporation of the mother liquors + from the former. It forms double salts with the chlorides of the + alkali metals. The _bromide_ MnBr2·4H2O, _iodide_, MnI2, and + _fluoride_, MnF2, are known. + + _Manganous Sulphate_, MnSO4, is prepared by strongly heating a paste + of pyrolusite and concentrated sulphuric acid until acid fumes cease + to be evolved. The ferric and aluminium sulphates present are thus + converted into insoluble basic salts, and the residue yields manganous + sulphate when extracted with water. The salt crystallizes with varying + quantities of water, according to the temperature at which + crystallization is effected: between -4° C. and +6° C. with 7H2O, + between 15° C. and 20° C. with 5H2O, and between 25° C. and 31° C. + with 4H2O. It crystallizes in large pink crystals, the colour of which + is probably due to the presence of a small quantity of manganic + sulphate or of a cobalt sulphate. It combines with the sulphates of + the alkali metals to form double salts. + + _Manganous Nitrate_, Mn(NO3)2·6H2O, obtained by dissolving the + carbonate in nitric acid and concentrating the solution, crystallizes + from nitric acid solutions in long colourless needles, which melt at + 25.8° C. and boil at 129.5° C. with some decomposition. + + _Manganous Carbonate_, MnCO3, found native as manganese spar, may be + prepared as an amorphous powder by heating manganese chloride with + sodium carbonate in a sealed tube to 150° C., or in the hydrated form + as a white flocculent precipitate by adding sodium carbonate to a + manganous salt. In the moist condition it rapidly turns brown on + exposure to air. + + _Manganous Sulphide_, MnS, found native as manganese glance, may be + obtained by heating the monoxide or carbonate in a porcelain tube in a + current of carbon bisulphide vapour. R. Schneider (_Pogg. Ann._, 1874, + 151, 449) obtained a crystalline variety by melting sulphur with + anhydrous manganous sulphate and dry potassium carbonate, extracting + the residue and drying it in a current of hydrogen. Four sulphides are + known; the red and green are anhydrous, a grey variety contains much + water, whilst the pink is a mixture of the grey and red (J. C. Olsen + and W. S. Rapalje, _Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc._, 1904, 26, p. 1615). + Ammonium sulphide alone gives incomplete precipitation of the + sulphide. In the presence of ammonium salts the precipitate is dirty + white in colour, whilst in the presence of free ammonia it is a buff + colour. This form of the sulphide is readily oxidized when exposed in + the moist condition, and is easily decomposed by dilute mineral acids. + + _Manganese Disulphide_, MnS2, found native as hauerite, is formed as a + red coloured powder by heating manganous sulphate with potassium + polysulphide in a sealed tube at 160°-170° C. (H. v. Senarmont, _Jour. + prak. Chem._, 1850, 51, p. 385). + + _Manganic Salts._--The sulphate, Mn2(SO4)3, is prepared by gradually + heating at 138° C. a mixture of concentrated sulphuric and manganese + dioxide until the whole becomes of a dark green colour. The excess of + acid is removed by spreading the mass on a porous plate, the residue + stirred for some hours with nitric acid, again spread on a porous + plate, and finally dried quickly at about 130° C. It is a dark green + deliquescent powder which decomposes on heating or on exposure to + moist air. It is readily decomposed by dilute acids. With potassium + sulphate in the presence of sulphuric acid it forms potassium + manganese alum, K2SO4·Mn2(SO4)2·24H2O. A. Piccini (_Zeit. anorg. + Chem._ 1898, 17, p. 355) has also obtained a manganese caesium alum. + _Manganic Fluoride_, MnF3, a solid obtained by the action of fluorine + on manganous chloride, is decomposed by heat into manganous fluoride + and fluorine. By suspending the dioxide in carbon tetrachloride and + passing in hydrochloric acid gas, W. B. Holmes (_Abst. J.C.S._, 1907, + ii., p. 873) obtained a black trichloride and a reddish-brown + tetrachloride. + + _Manganese Carbide_, Mn3C, is prepared by heating manganous oxide with + sugar charcoal in an electric furnace, or by fusing manganese chloride + and calcium carbide. Water decomposes it, giving methane and hydrogen + (H. Moissan); Mn3C + 6H2O = 3Mn(OH)2 + CH4 + H2. + + _Manganates._--These salts are derived from manganic acid H2MnO4. + Those of the alkali metals are prepared by fusing manganese dioxide + with sodium or potassium hydroxide in the presence of air or of some + oxidizing agent (nitre, potassium chlorate, &c.); MnO2 + 2KHO + O = + K2MnO4 + H2O. In the absence of air the reaction proceeds slightly + differently, some manganese sesquioxide being formed; 3MnO2 + 2KHO = + K2MnO4 + Mn2O3 + H2O. The fused mass has a dark olive-green colour, + and dissolves in a small quantity of cold water to a green solution, + which is, however, only stable in the presence of an excess of alkali. + The green solution is readily converted into a pink one of + permanganate by a large dilution with water, or by passing carbon + dioxide through it: 3K2MnO4 + 2CO2 = 2K2CO3 + 2KMnO4 + MnO2. + + _Permanganates_ are the salts of permanganic acid, HMnO4. The + _potassium_ salt, KMnO4, may be prepared by passing chlorine or carbon + dioxide through an aqueous solution of potassium manganate, or by the + electrolytic oxidation of the manganate at the anode [German patent + 101710 (1898)]. It crystallizes in dark purple-red prisms, isomorphous + with potassium perchlorate. It acts as a powerful oxidizing agent, + both in acid and alkaline solution; in the first case two molecules + yield five atoms of available oxygen and in the second, three atoms: + + 2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 3H2O + 5O; + 2KMnO4 + 3H2O = 2MnO2·H2O + 2KHO + 3O. + + It completely decomposes hydrogen peroxide in sulphuric acid + solution-- + + 2KMnO4 + 5H2O2 + 3H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 8H2O + 5O2. + + It decomposes when heated to + + 200° - 240° C.: 2KMnO4 = K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2; + + and when warmed with hydrochloric acid it yields chlorine: + + 2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2. + + _Sodium Permanganate_, NaMnO4.3H2O (?), may be prepared in a similar + manner, or by precipitating the silver salt with sodium chloride. It + crystallizes with great difficulty. A solution of the crude salt is + used as a disinfectant under the name of "Condy's fluid." + + _Ammonium Permanganate_, NH4·MnO4, explodes violently on rubbing, and + its aqueous solution decomposes on boiling (W. Muthmann, _Ber._, 1893, + 26, p. 1018); NH4·MnO4 = MnO2 + N2 + 2H2O. + + _Barium Permanganate_, BaMn2O3, crystallizes in almost black needles, + and is formed by passing carbon dioxide through water containing + suspended barium manganate. + + _Detection._--Manganese salts can be detected by the amethyst colour + they impart to a borax-bead when heated in the Bunsen flame, and by + the green mass formed when they are fused with a mixture of sodium + carbonate and potassium nitrate. Manganese may be estimated + quantitatively by precipitation as carbonate, this salt being then + converted into the oxide, Mn3O4 by ignition; or by precipitation as + hydrated dioxide by means of ammonia and bromine water, followed by + ignition to Mn3O4. The valuation of pyrolusite is generally carried + out by means of a distillation with hydrochloric acid, the liberated + chlorine passing through a solution of potassium iodide, and the + amount of iodine liberated being ascertained by means of a standard + solution of sodium thiosulphate. + + The atomic weight of manganese has been frequently determined. J. + Berzelius, by analysis of the chloride, obtained the value 54.86; K. + v. Hauer (_Sitzb. Akad. Wien._, 1857, 25, p. 132), by conversion of + the sulphate into sulphide, obtained the value 54.78; J. Dewar and A. + Scott (_Chem. News_, 1883, 47, p. 98), by analysis of silver + permanganate, obtained the value 55.038; J. M. Weeren (_Stahl. u._ + _Eisen_, 1893, 13, p. 559), by conversion of manganous oxide into the + sulphate obtained the value 54.883, and of the sulphate into sulphide + the value 54.876 (H = 1), and finally G. P. Baxter and Hines (_Jour. + Amer. Chem. Soc._, 1906, 28, p. 1360), by analyses of the chloride and + bromide, obtained 54.96 (O = 16). + + + + +MANGANITE, a mineral consisting of hydrated manganese sesquioxide, +Mn2O3·H2O, crystallizing in the orthorhombic system and isomorphous with +diaspore and göthite. Crystals are prismatic and deeply striated +parallel to their length; they are often grouped together in bundles. +The colour is dark steel-grey to iron-black, and the lustre brilliant +and submetallic: the streak is dark reddish-brown. The hardness is 4, +and the specific gravity 4.3. There is a perfect cleavage parallel to +the brachypinacoid, and less perfect cleavage parallel to the prism +faces _m_. Twinned crystals are not infrequent. The mineral contains +89.7% of manganese sesquioxide; it dissolves in hydrochloric acid with +evolution of chlorine. The best crystallized specimens are those from +Ilfeld in the Harz, where the mineral occurs with calcite and barytes in +veins traversing porphyry. Crystals have also been found at Ilmenau in +Thuringia, Neukirch near Schlettstadt in Alsace ("newkirkite"), Granam +near Towie in Aberdeenshire, Upton Pyne near Exeter and Negaunee in +Michigan. As an ore of manganese it is much less abundant than +pyrolusite or psilomelane. The name manganite was given by W. Haidinger +in 1827: French authors adopt F. S. Beudant's name "acerdèse," (Gr. +[Greek: âkerdês], unprofitable) because the mineral is of little value +for bleaching purposes as compared with pyrolusite. (L. J. S.) + +[Illustration] + + + + +MANGBETTU (_Monbuttu_), a negroid people of Central Africa living to the +south of the Niam-Niam in the Welle district of Belgian Congo. They +number about a million. Their country is a table-land at an altitude of +2500 to 2800 ft. Despite its abundant animal life, luxuriant vegetation +and rich crops of plantain and oil-palm, the Mangbettu have been some of +the most inveterate cannibals in Africa; but since the Congo State +established posts in the country (c. 1895) considerable efforts have +been made to stamp out cannibalism. Physically the Mangbettu differ +greatly from their negro neighbours. They are not so black and their +faces are less negroid, many having quite aquiline noses. The beard, +too, is fuller than in most negroes. They appear to have imposed their +language and customs on the surrounding tribes, the Mundu, Abisanga, &c. +Once a considerable power, they have practically disappeared as far as +the original stock is concerned; their language and culture, however, +remain, maintained by their subjects, with whom they have to a large +extent intermixed. The men wear bark cloth, the art of weaving being +unknown, the women a simple loin cloth, often not that. Both sexes paint +the body in elaborate designs. As potters, sculptors, boatbuilders and +masons the Mangbettu have had few rivals in Africa. Their huts, with +pointed roofs, were not only larger and better built, but were cleaner +than those of their neighbours, and some of their more important +buildings were of great size and exhibited some skill in architecture. + + See G. A. Schweinfurth, _Heart of Africa_ (1874); W. Junker, _Travels + in Africa_ (1890); G. Casati, _Ten Years in Equatoria_ (1891). + + + + +MANGEL-WURZEL, or field-beet, a variety of the common beet, known +botanically as _Beta vulgaris_, var. _macrorhiza_. The name is German +and means literally "root of scarcity." R. C. A. Prior (_Popular Names +of British Plants_) says it was originally mangold, a word of doubtful +meaning. The so-called root consists of the much thickened primary root +together with the "hypocotyl," i.e. the original stem between the root +and the seed-leaves. A transverse section of the root shows a similar +structure to the beet, namely a series of concentric rings of firmer +"woody" tissue alternating with rings of soft thin-walled parenchymatous +"bast-tissue" which often has a crimson or yellowish tint. The root is a +store of carbohydrate food-stuff in the form of sugar, which is formed +in the first year of growth when the stem remains short and bears a +rosette of large leaves. If the plant be allowed to remain in the +ground till the following year strong leafy angular aerial stems are +developed, 3 ft. or more in height, which branch and bear the +inflorescences. The flowers are arranged in dense sessile clusters +subtended by a small bract, and resemble those of the true beet. The +so-called seeds are clusters of spurious fruits. After fertilization the +fleshy receptacle and the base of the perianth of each flower enlarge +and the flowers in a cluster become united; the fleshy parts with the +ovaries, each of which contains one seed, become hard and woody. Hence +several seeds are present in one "seed" of commerce, which necessitates +the careful thinning of a young crop, as several seedlings may spring +from one "seed." + +This plant is very susceptible of injury from frost, and hence in the +short summer of Scotland it can neither be sown so early nor left in the +ground so late as would be requisite for its mature growth. But it is +peculiarly adapted for those southern parts of England where the climate +is too hot and dry for the successful cultivation of the turnip. In +feeding quality it rivals the swede; it is much relished by +livestock--pigs especially doing remarkably well upon it; and it keeps +in good condition till midsummer if required. The valuable constituent +of mangel is dry matter which averages about 12% as against 11% in +swedes. Of this two-thirds may be sugar, which only develops fully +during storage. Indeed, it is only after it has been some months in the +store heap that mangel becomes a palatable and safe food for cattle. It +is, moreover, exempt from the attacks of the turnip beetle. On all these +accounts, therefore, it is peculiarly valuable in those parts of Great +Britain where the summer is usually hot and dry. + +Up to the act of depositing the seed, the processes of preparation for +mangel are similar to those described for the turnip; winter dunging +being even more appropriate for the former than for the latter. The +common drilling machines are easily fitted for sowing its large rough +seeds, which should be sown from the beginning of April to the middle of +May and may be deposited either on ridges or on the flat. The after +culture is like that of the turnip. The plants are thinned out at +distances of not less than 15 in. apart. Transplanting can be used for +filling up of gaps with more certainty of success than in the case of +swedes, but it is much more economical to avoid such gaps by sowing a +little swede seed along with the mangel. Several varieties of the plant +are cultivated--those in best repute being the long red, the yellow +globe and the tankard, intermediate in shape. This crop requires a +heavier dressing of manure than the turnip to grow it in perfection, and +is much benefited by having salt mixed with the manure at the rate of 2 +or 3 cwt. per acre. Nitrogenous manures are of more marked value than +phosphatic manures. The crop requires to be secured in store heaps as +early in autumn as possible, as it is easily injured by frost. + + + + +MANGLE. (1) A machine for pressing and smoothing clothes after washing +(see LAUNDRY). The word was adopted from the Dutch; _mangel-stok_ means +a rolling pin, and _linnen mangelen_, to press linen by rolling; +similarly in O. Ital. _mangano_ meant, according to Florio, "a presse to +press buckrom," &c. The origin of the word is to be found in the +medieval Latin name, _manganum_, _mangonus_ or _mangana_, for an engine +of war, the "mangonel," for hurling stones and other missiles (see +CATAPULT). The Latin word was adapted from the Greek [Greek: magganon], +a trick or device, cognate with [Greek: mêchanê], a machine. (2) To cut +in pieces, to damage or disfigure; to mutilate. This word is of obscure +origin. According to the _New English Dictionary_ it presents an +Anglo-French _mahangler_, a form of _mahaigner_ from which the English +"maim" is derived, cf. the old form "mayhem," surviving in legal +phraseology. Skeat connects the word with the Latin _mancus_, maimed, +with which "maim" is not cognate. + + + + +MANG LÖN, a state in the northern Shan states of Burma. It is the chief +state of the Wa or Vü tribes, some of whom are head-hunters, and Mang +Lön is the only one which as yet has direct relations with the British +government. Estimated area, 3000 sq. m.; estimated population, 40,000. +The state extends from about 21° 30´ to 23° N., or for 100 m. along the +river Salween. Its width varies greatly, from a mile or even less on +either side of the river to perhaps 40 m. at its broadest part near +Taküt, the capital. It is divided into East and West Mang Lön, the +boundary being the Salween. There are no Wa in West Mang Lön. Shans form +the chief population, but there are Palaungs, Chinese and Yanglam, +besides Lahu. The bulk of the population in East Mang Lön is Wa, but +there are many Shans and Lahu. Both portions are very hilly; the only +flat land is along the banks of streams in the valleys, and here the +Shans are settled. There are prosperous settlements and bazaars at Nawng +Hkam and Möng Kao in West Mang Lön. The Wa of Mang Lön have given up +head-hunting, and many profess Buddhism. The capital, Taküt, is perched +on a hill-top 6000 ft. above sea-level. The sawbwa is a Wa, and has +control over two sub-states, Mot Hai to the north and Maw Hpa to the +south. + + + + +MANGNALL, RICHMAL (1769-1820), English schoolmistress, was born, +probably at Manchester, on the 7th of March 1769. She was a pupil and +finally mistress of a school at Crofton Hall, near Wakefield, Yorkshire, +which she conducted most successfully until her death there on the 1st +of May 1820. She was the author of _Historical and Miscellaneous +Questions for the Use of Young People_ (1800), generally known as +"Mangnall's Questions," which was prominent in the education of English +girls in the first half of the 19th century. + + + + +MANGO. The mango-tree (_Mangifera indica_, natural order Anacardiaceae) +is a native of tropical Asia, but is now extensively cultivated in the +tropical and subtropical regions of the New as well as the Old World. It +is indigenous in India at the base of the Himalayas, and in Further +India and the Andaman Islands (see A. de Candolle, _Origin of Cultivated +Plants_). The cultivation of the fruit must have spread at an early age +over the Indian Peninsula, and it now grows everywhere in the plains. It +grows rapidly to a height of 30 to 40 ft., and its dense, spreading and +glossy foliage would secure its cultivation for the sake of its shade +and beauty alone. Its fruit, a drupe, though in the wild variety (not to +be confused with that of _Spondias mangifera_, belonging to the same +order, also called wild mango in India) stringy and sour, from its +containing much gallic acid, and with a disagreeable flavour of +turpentine, has become sweet and luscious through culture and selection, +to which we owe many varieties, differing not only in flavour but also +in size, from that of a plum to that of an apple. When unripe, they are +used to make pickles, tarts and preserves; ripe, they form a wholesome +and very agreeable dessert. In times of scarcity the kernels also are +eaten. The timber, although soft and liable to decay, serves for common +purposes, and, mixed with sandal-wood, is employed in cremation by the +Hindus. It is usually propagated by grafts, or by layering or inarching, +rather than by seed. + + See G. Watt, _Dictionary of the Economic Products of India_ (1891). + + + + +MANGOSTEEN (_Garcinia Mangostana_), a tree belonging to the order +Guttiferae. It is a native of the Malay Peninsula, and is extensively +cultivated in southern Tenasserim, and in some places in the Madras +presidency. Poor results have followed the attempt to introduce it to +other countries; and A. de Candolle refers to it as one of the most +local among cultivated plants both in its origin, habitation and +cultivation. It belongs to a family in which the mean area of the +species is very restricted. It is an evergreen about 20 ft. high, and is +somewhat fir-like in general form, but the leaves are large, oval, +entire, leathery and glistening. Its fruit, the much-valued mangosteen, +is about the size and shape of an orange, and is somewhat similarly +partitioned, but is of a reddish-brown to chestnut colour. Its thick +rind yields a very astringent juice, rich in tannin, and containing a +gamboge-like resin. The soft and juicy pulp is snow-white or +rose-coloured, and of delicious flavour and perfume. It is wholesome, +and may be administered in fever. + +The genus _Garcinia_ is a genus of trees containing about fifty species +in the tropics of the Old World, and usually yielding a yellow gum-resin +(gamboge). _G. Morella_, a native of India, yields the true gamboge. + + + + +MANGROVE. The remarkable "mangrove forests" which fringe tidal +estuaries, overrun salt marshes, and line muddy coasts in the tropics of +both Old and New Worlds, are composed of trees and shrubs belonging +mainly to the Rhizophoraceae, but including, especially in the eastern +mangrove formations of Further India and the Malay Archipelago, members +of other orders of Dicotyledons, such as Lythraceae (_Sonneratia_), +Verbenaceae (_Avicennia_), and the acaulescent Nipa-palm. Their trunks +and branches constantly emit adventitious roots, which, descending in +arched fashion, strike at some distance from the parent stem, and send +up new trunks, the forest thus spreading like a banyan grove. An +advantage in dispersal, very characteristic of the order, is afforded by +the seeds, which have a striking peculiarity of germination. While the +fruit is still attached to the parent branch the long radicle emerges +from the seed and descends rapidly towards the mud, where it may even +establish itself before falling off. Owing to its clubbed shape, this is +always in the right position; the plumule then makes its appearance. An +interesting feature of the mangrove is the air-roots, erect or kneed +branches of the roots, which project above the mud, and are provided +with minute openings (stomata or lenticels), into which the air passes +and is then carried by means of passages in the soft spongy tissue to +the roots which spread beneath the mud. The wood of some species is hard +and durable, and the astringent bark is used in tanning. The fruit of +the common mangrove, _Rhizophora Mangle_, is sweet and wholesome, and +yields a light wine. + + + + +MANICHAEISM. Towards the close of the 3rd century two great religions +stood opposed to one another in western Europe, one wholly Iranian, +namely Mithraism, the other of Jewish origin, but not without Iranian +elements, part and parcel probably of the Judaism which gave it birth, +namely Christianity. Professor Franz Cumont has traced the progress of +Mithraism all over the Balkan Peninsula, Italy, the Rhine-lands, +Britain, Spain and Latin Africa. It was peculiarly the religion of the +Roman garrisons, and was carried by the legionaries wherever they went. +It was an austere religion, inculcating self-restraint, courage and +honesty; it secured peace of conscience through forgiveness of sins, and +abated for those who were initiated in its mysteries the superstitious +terrors of death and the world to come. In these respects it resembled +Christianity. Soldiers may have espoused it rather than the rival faith, +because in the primitive age Christian discipline denied them the +sacraments, on the ground that they were professional shedders of blood. +The cumbrous mythology and cosmogony of Mithraism at last weakened its +hold upon men's minds, and it disappeared during the 4th century before +a victorious Catholicism, yet not until another faith, equally Iranian +in its mythology and cosmological beliefs, had taken its place. This new +faith was that of Mani, which spread with a rapidity only to be +explained by supposing that Mithraism had prepared men's minds for its +reception. + +Mani professed to blend the teachings of Christ with the old Persian +Magism. Kessler, the latest historian of Manichaeism, opines that Mani's +own declaration on this point is not to be relied upon, and has tried to +prove that it was rather of Semitic or Chaldaic origin. He certainly +shows that the old Assyrian mythology influenced Mani, but not that this +element did not reach him through Persian channels. In genuine +Manichaean documents we only find the name Mani, but Manes, [Greek: +Manês], Manichaeus, meet us in 4th-century Greek and Latin documents. In +the _Acta Archelai_ his first name is said to have been Cubricus, which +Kessler explains as a corruption of Shuravik, a name common among the +Arabs of the Syrian desert. + +_Life of Mani._--According to the Mahommedan tradition, which is more +trustworthy than the account contained in these _Acta_, Mani was a +high-born Persian of Ecbatana. The year of his birth is uncertain, but +Kessler accepts as reliable the statement made by Biruni, that Mani was +born in the year 527 of the astronomers of Babylon (A.D. 215-216). He +received a careful education at Ctesiphon from his father Fatak, Babak +or Patak ([Greek: Patekios]). As the father connected himself at a later +period with the confession of the _Moghtasilah_, or "Baptists," in +southern Babylonia, the son also was brought up in the religious +doctrines and exercises of this sect. These Baptists (see the _Fihrist_) +were apparently connected with the Elkesaites and the Hemerobaptists, +and certainly with the Mandaeans. It is probable that this Babylonian +sect had absorbed Christian elements. Thus the boy early became +acquainted with very different forms of religion. If even a small part +of the stories about his father is founded on fact, it was he who first +introduced Mani to that medley of religions out of which his system +arose. Manichaean tradition relates that Mani received revelations while +yet a boy, and assumed a critical attitude towards the religious +instruction that was being imparted to him. This is the more incredible +since the same tradition informs us that the boy was as yet prohibited +from making public use of his new religious views. It was only when Mani +had reached the age of twenty-five or thirty years that he began to +proclaim his new religion. This he did at the court of the Persian king, +Shapur I., and, according to the story, on the coronation day of that +monarch (241/2). A Persian tradition says that he had previously been a +Christian presbyter, but this is certainly incorrect. Mani did not +remain long in Persia, but undertook long journeys for the purpose of +spreading his religion, and also sent forth disciples. According to the +_Acta Archelai_, his missionary activity extended westwards into the +territory of the Christian church; but from Oriental sources it is +certain that Mani rather went into Transoxiana, western China, and +southwards as far as India. His labours there as well as in Persia were +not without result. Like Mahomet after him and the founder of the +Elkesaites before him, he gave himself out for the last and highest +prophet, who was to surpass all previous divine revelation, which only +possessed a relative value, and to set up the perfect religion. In the +closing years of the reign of Shapur I. (c. 270) Mani returned to the +Persian capital, and gained adherents even at court. But the dominant +priestly caste of the Magians, on whose support the king was dependent, +were naturally hostile to him, and after some successes Mani was made a +prisoner, and had then to flee. The successor of Shapur, Hormizd +(272-273), appears to have been favourably disposed towards him, but +Bahram I. abandoned him to the fanaticism of the Magians, and caused him +to be crucified in the capital in the year 276/7. The corpse was flayed, +and Mani's adherents were cruelly persecuted by the king. + + _Mani's Writings._--Mani himself composed a large number of works and + epistles, which were in great part still known to the Mahommedan + historians, but are now mostly lost. The later heads of the Manichaean + churches also wrote religious treatises, so that the ancient + Manichaean literature must have been very extensive. According to the + _Fihrist_, Mani made use of the Persian and Syriac languages; but, + like the Oriental Marcionites before him, he invented an alphabet of + his own, which the _Fihrist_ has handed down to us. In this alphabet + the sacred books of the Manichaeans were written, even at a later + period. The _Fihrist_ reckons seven principal works of Mani, six being + in the Syriac and one in the Persian language; regarding some of these + we also have information in Epiphanius, Augustine, Titus of Bostra, + and Photius, as well as in the formula of abjuration (Cotelerius, _PP. + Apost. Opp._ i. 543) and in the _Acta Archelai_. They are (1) _The + Book of Secrets_ (see _Acta Archel._), containing discussions bearing + on the Christian sects spread throughout the East, especially the + Marcionites and Bardesanites, and dealing also with their conception + of the Old and New Testaments; (2) _The Book of the Giants_ (Demons?); + (3) _The Book of Precepts for Hearers_ (probably identical with the + _Epistola Fundamenti_ of Augustine and with the _Book of Chapters_ of + Epiphanius and the _Acta Archelai_; this was the most widely spread + and most popular Manichaean work, having been translated into Greek + and Latin; it contained a short summary of all the doctrines of + fundamental authority); (4) _The Book Shahpurakan_ (Flügel was unable + to explain this name; according to Kessler it signifies "epistle to + King Shapur"; the treatise was of an eschatological character); (5) + _The Book of Quickening_ (Kessler identifies this work with the + "Thesaurus [vitae]" of the _Acta Archelai_, Epiphanius, Photius and + Augustine, and if this be correct it also must have been in use among + the Latin Manichaeans); (6) _The Book [Greek: pragmateia]_ (of unknown + contents); (7) a book in the Persian language, the title of which is + not given in our present text of the _Fihrist_, but which is in all + probability identical with the "holy gospel" of the Manichaeans + (mentioned in the _Acta Archel._ and many other authorities). It was + this work which the Manichaeans set up in opposition to the Gospels. + Besides these principal works, Mani also wrote a large number of + smaller treatises and epistles. The practice of writing epistles was + continued by his successors. These Manichaean dissertations also + became known in the Graeco-Roman Empire, and existed in + collections.[1] There also existed a Manichaean book of memorabilia, + and of prayers, in Greek, as well as many others,[2] all of which were + destroyed by the Christian bishops acting in conjunction with the + authorities. A Manichaean epistle, addressed to one Marcellus, has, + however, been preserved for us in the _Acta Archelai_.[3] + +_Manichaean System._--Though the leading features of Manichaean doctrine +can be exhibited clearly even at the present day, and though it is +undoubted that Mani himself drew up a complete system, many details are +nevertheless uncertain, since they are differently described in +different sources, and it often remains doubtful which of the accounts +that have been transmitted to us represents the original teaching of the +founder. + +The Manichaean system is one of consistent, uncompromising dualism, in +the form of a fantastic philosophy of nature. The physical and the +ethical are not distinguished, and in this respect the character of the +system is thoroughly materialistic; for when Mani co-ordinates good with +light, and evil with darkness, this is no mere figure of speech, but +light is actually good and darkness evil. From this it follows that +religious knowledge involves the knowledge of nature and her elements, +and that redemption consists in a physical process of freeing the +element of light from the darkness. Under such circumstances ethics +becomes a doctrine of abstinence in regard to all elements which have +their source within the sphere of darkness. + +The self-contradictory character of the present world forms the point of +departure for Mani's speculations. This contradiction presents itself to +his mind primarily as elemental, and only in the second instance as +ethical, inasmuch as he considers the sensual nature of man to be the +outflow of the evil elements in nature. From the contradictory character +of the world he concludes the existence of two beings, originally quite +separate from each other--light and darkness. Each is to be thought of +according to the analogy of a kingdom. Light presents itself to us as +the good primal spirit (God, radiant with the ten [twelve] virtues of +love, faith, fidelity, high-mindedness, wisdom, meekness, knowledge, +understanding, mystery and insight), and then further as the heavens of +light and the earth of light, with their guardians the glorious aeons. +Darkness is likewise a spiritual kingdom (more correctly, it also is +conceived of as a spiritual and feminine personification), but it has no +"God" at its head. It embraces an "earth of darkness." As the earth of +light has five tokens (the mild zephyr, cooling wind, bright light, +quickening fire, and clear water), so has the earth of darkness also +five (mist, heat, the sirocco, darkness and vapour). Satan with his +demons was born from the kingdom of darkness. These two kingdoms stood +opposed to each other from all eternity, touching each other on one +side, but remaining unmingled. Then Satan began to rage, and made an +incursion into the kingdom of light, into the earth of light. The God of +light, with his _syzygy_, "the spirit of his right hand," now begot the +primal man, and sent him, equipped with the five pure elements, to fight +against Satan. But the latter proved himself the stronger, and the +primal man was for a moment vanquished. And although the God of light +himself now took to the field, and with the help of new aeons (the +spirit of life, &c.) inflicted total defeat upon Satan, and set the +primal man free; the latter had already been robbed of part of his +light by the darkness, and the five dark elements had already mingled +themselves with the generations of light. It only remained now for the +primal man to descend into the abyss and prevent the further increase of +the generations of darkness by cutting off their roots; but he could not +immediately separate again the elements that had once mingled. These +mixed elements are the elements of the present visible world, which was +formed from them at the command of the God of light. The forming of the +world is in itself the beginning of the deliverance of the imprisoned +elements of light. The world is represented as an orderly structure of +various heavens and various earths, which is borne and supported by the +aeons, the angels of light. It possesses in the sun and moon, which are +in their nature almost quite pure, large reservoirs, in which the +portions of light that have been rescued are stored up. In the sun +dwells the primal man himself, as well as the glorious spirits which +carry on the work of redemption; in the moon the mother of life is +enthroned. The twelve constellations of the zodiac form an ingenious +machine, a great wheel with buckets, which pour into the sun and moon, +those shining ships that sail continually through space, the portions of +light set free from the world. Here they are purified anew, and attain +finally to the kingdom of pure light and to God Himself. The later +Western Manichaeans termed those portions of light which are scattered +throughout the world--in its elements and organisms--awaiting their +deliverance, the _Jesus patibilis_. + +It is significant of the materialistic and pessimistic character of the +system that, while the formation of the world is considered as a work of +the good spirits, the creation of man is referred to the princes of +darkness. The first man, Adam, was engendered by Satan in conjunction +with "sin," "cupidity," "desire." But the spirit of darkness drove into +him all the portions of light he had stolen, in order to be able to +dominate them the more securely. Hence Adam is a discordant being, +created in the image of Satan, but carrying within him the stronger +spark of light. Eve is given him by Satan as his companion. She is +seductive sensuousness, though also having in her a small spark of +light. But if the first human beings thus stood entirely under the +dominion of the devil, the glorious spirits took them under their care +from the very outset, sending aeons down to them (including Jesus), who +instructed them regarding their nature, and in particular warned Adam +against sensuality. But this first man fell under the temptation of +sexual desire. Cain and Abel indeed are not sons of Adam, but of Satan +and Eve; Seth, however, who is full of light, is the offspring of Adam +by Eve. Thus did mankind come into existence, its various members +possessing very different shares of light, but the men having uniformly +a larger measure of it than the women. In the course of history the +demons sought to bind men to themselves by means of sensuality, error +and false religions (among which is to be reckoned above all the +religion of Moses and the prophets), while the spirits of light carried +on their process of distillation with the view of gaining the pure light +which exists in the world. But these good spirits can only save men by +imparting to them the true _gnosis_ concerning nature and her forces, +and by calling them away from the service of darkness and sensuality. To +this end prophets, preachers of true knowledge, have been sent into the +world. Mani, following the example of the gnostic Jewish Christians, +appears to have held Adam, Noah, Abraham (perhaps Zoroaster and Buddha) +to be such prophets. Probably Jesus was also accounted a prophet who had +descended from the world of light--not, however, the historical Jesus, +the devilish Messiah of the Jews, but a contemporaneous phantom Jesus, +who neither suffered nor died (_Jesus impatibilis_). According to the +teaching of some Manichaeans, it was the primal man who disseminated the +true gnosis in the character of Christ. But at all events Mani himself, +on his own claim, is to be reckoned the last and greatest prophet, who +took up the work of Jesus impatibilis and of Paul (for he too finds +recognition), and first brought full knowledge. He is the "leader," the +"ambassador of the light," the "Paraclete." It is only through his +agency and that of his imitators, "the elect," that the separation of +the light from the darkness can be completed. The system contains very +fantastic descriptions of the processes by which the portions of light +when once set free finally ascend even to the God of light. He who +during his lifetime did not become one of the elect, who did not +completely redeem himself, has to go through a severe process of +purification on the other side of the grave, till he too is gathered to +the blessedness of the light. It is erroneous, however, to ascribe, as +has been done, a doctrine of transmigration to the Manichaeans. Of +course men's bodies as well as the souls of the unsaved, who according +to the oldest conception have in them no light whatever, fall under the +sway of the powers of darkness. A later view, adapted to the Christian +one, represents the portions of light in the unsaved as actually +becoming lost. When the elements of light have at last been completely, +or as far as possible, delivered from the world, the end of all things +comes. All glorious spirits assemble, the God of light himself appears, +accompanied by the aeons and the perfected just ones. The angels +supporting the world withdraw themselves from their burden, and +everything falls in ruins. A tremendous conflagration consumes the +world; the perfect separation of the two powers takes place once more; +high above is the kingdom of light, again brought into a condition of +completeness, and deep below is the (? now powerless) darkness. + + _Ethics, Social Polity and Worship of the Manichaeans._--On the basis + of such a cosmical philosophy, ethics can only have a dualistic + ascetic character. Manichaean ethics is not merely negative, however, + since it is necessary to cherish, strengthen and purify the elements + of light, as well as free oneself from the elements of darkness. The + aim is not self-destruction, but self-preservation; and yet the ethics + of Manichaeism appears in point of fact as thoroughly ascetic. The + Manichaean had, above all, to refrain from sensual enjoyment, shutting + himself up against it by three seals--the _signaculum oris_, _manus_ + and _sinus_. The _signaculum oris_ forbids all eating of unclean food + (which included all bodies of animals, wine, &c.--vegetable diet being + allowed because plants contained more light, though the killing of + plants, or even plucking their fruit and breaking their twigs, was not + permitted), as well as all impure speech. The _signaculum manus_ + prohibits all traffic with things generally, in so far as they carry + in them elements of darkness. Finally, by the _signaculum sinus_ every + gratification of sexual desire, and hence also marriage, are + forbidden. Besides all this, life was further regulated by an + exceedingly rigorous system of fasts. Certain astronomical + conjunctions determined the selection of the fast-days, which in their + total number amounted to nearly a quarter of the year. Sunday was + regularly solemnized as one, and the practice was also generally + observed on Monday. Hours of prayer were determined with equal + exactness. The Manichaean had to pray four times a day, each prayer + being preceded by ablutions. The worshipper turned towards the sun, or + the moon, or the north, as the seat of light; but it is erroneous to + conclude from this, as has been done, that in Manichaeism the sun and + moon were themselves objects of worship. Forms of prayer used by the + Manichaeans have been preserved to us in the _Fihrist_. The prayers + are addressed to the God of light, to the whole kingdom of light, to + the glorious angels, and to Mani himself, who is apostrophized in them + as "the great tree, which is all salvation." According to Kessler, + these prayers are closely related to the Mandaean and the ancient + Babylonian hymns. An asceticism so strict and painful as that demanded + by Manichaeism could only be practised by few; hence the religion must + have abandoned all attempts at an extensive propaganda had it not + conceded the principle of a twofold morality. A distinction was made + in the community between the _electi_ (_perfecti_), the perfect + Manichaeans, and the _catechumeni_ (_auditores_), the secular + Manichaeans. Only the former submitted themselves to all the demands + made by their religion; for the latter the stringency of the precepts + was relaxed. They had to avoid idolatry, sorcery, avarice, falsehood, + fornication, &c.; above all, they were not allowed to kill any living + being (the ten commandments of Mani). They had also to free themselves + as much as possible from the world; but in truth they lived very much + as their non-Manichaean fellow-citizens. We have here essentially the + same condition of things as in the Catholic Church, where a twofold + morality was also in force, that of the religious orders and that of + secular Christians--only that the position of the electi in + Manichaeism was a more distinguished one than that of the monks in + Catholicism. For, after all, the Christian monks never quite forgot + that salvation is given by God through Christ, whereas the Manichaean + _electi_ were actually themselves redeemers. Hence it was the duty of + the _auditores_ to pay the greatest respect and most assiduous + attention to the _electi_. These "perfect ones," wasting away under + their asceticism, were objects of admiration and of the most elaborate + solicitude.[4] Food was presented to them in abundance, and by their + eating it the _electi_ set free the portions of light from the + vegetables. They prayed for the _auditores_, they blessed them and + interceded for them, thereby shortening the process of purification + the latter had to pass through after death. It was only the _electi_, + too, who possessed full knowledge of religious truths, a point of + distinction from Catholicism. + + The distinction between _electi_ and _auditores_, however, does not + exhaust the conception of the Manichaean Church; on the contrary, the + latter possessed a hierarchy of three ranks, so that there were + altogether five gradations in the community. These were regarded as a + copy of the ranks of the kingdom of light. At the head stood the + _teachers_ ("the sons of meekness," Mani himself and his successors); + then follow the _administrators_ ("the sons of knowledge," the + bishops); then the _elders_ ("the sons of understanding," the + presbyters); the _electi_ ("the sons of mystery"); and finally the + _auditores_ ("the sons of insight"). The number of the _electi_ must + always have been small. According to Augustine the teachers were + twelve and the bishops seventy-two in number. One of the teachers + appears to have occupied the position of superior at the head of the + whole Manichaean Church. At least Augustine speaks of such a + personage, and the _Fihrist_ also has knowledge of a chief of all + Manichaeans. The constitution, therefore, had a monarchic head. + + The worship of the Manichaeans must have been very simple, and must + have essentially consisted of prayers, hymns and ceremonies of + adoration. This simple service promoted the secret dissemination of + their doctrines. The Manichaeans too, at least in the West, appear to + have adapted themselves to the Church's system of festivals. The + _electi_ celebrated special feasts; but the principal festival with + all classes was the _Bema_ ([Greek: bêma]), the feast of the + "teacher's chair," held in commemoration of the death of Mani in the + month of March. The faithful prostrated themselves before an adorned + but empty chair, which was raised upon a podium of five steps. Long + fasts accompanied the feasts. The Christian and Mahommedan historians + could learn little of the Manichaean mysteries and "sacraments," and + hence the former charged them with obscene rites and abominable + usages. It may be held as undoubted that the later Manichaeans + celebrated mysteries analogous to Christian baptism and the Lord's + Supper, which may have rested upon ancient consecration rites and + other ceremonies instituted by Mani himself and having their origin in + nature worship. + +_Recent Discoveries._--F. Cumont (_Revue d'histoire et de littérature +religieuse_, t. xii., 1907, No. 2) showed that one at least of the +fundamental myths of Mani was borrowed from the Avesta, namely, that +which recounts how through the manifestation of the virgin of light and +of the messenger of salvation to the libidinous princes of darkness the +vital substance or light held captive in their limbs was liberated and +recovered for the realm of light. The legend of the _Omophorus_ and +_Splenditeneus_, rival giants who sustain earth and luminous heavens on +their respective shoulders, even if it already figures in the cuneiform +texts of Assyria, is yet to be traced in Mithraic bas-reliefs. It also +may therefore have come to Mani through Magian channels. + +When, however, we turn to the numerous fragments of authentic Manichaean +liturgies and hymns lately discovered in Turfan in East Turkestan, +Mani's direct indebtedness to the cycle of Magian legends rather than to +Chaldaic sources (as Kessler argued) is clearly exhibited. + + In fr. 472, taken from the Shapurakan, as part of a description of the + sun-god in his ship or reservoir the sun, we have a mention of Az and + Ahriman and the devas (demons), the Pairikas. Az in the Avestan + mythology was the demon serpent who murders Gayomert in the old + Persian legend, and an ally of Ahriman, as also are the _Pairikas_ or + Peris. In the same fragment we read of the ruin of _Azidahaka + Mazainya_, which name Darmesteter interprets in the Persian sources as + the demon serpent, the sorcerer (_Ormazd et Ahriman_, Paris, 1877, p. + 157). In fr. 470, descriptive of the conflagration of the world, we + read of how, after Az and the demons have been struck down, the pious + man is purified and led up to sun and moon and to the being of Ahura + Mazda, the Divine. + + In another fragment (388) of a hymn Mani describes himself as "the + first stranger" (cf. Matt. xxv. 43), the son of the god Zarvan, the + Ruler-Child. In the orthodox literature of fire-worship Zarvan was + Time or Destiny. Later on Zarvan was elevated to the position of + supreme principle, creator of Ormazd and Ahriman, and, long before + Mani, Zarvan accompanied Mithras in all his westward migrations. + + In fr. 20, in an enumeration of angels, we hear of Narsus, who may be + the Neryosang (Armenian Nerses or Narsai) of the Avesta. The other + angels are Jacob, the mighty angel and leader of angels, the Lord Bar + Simus, Qaftinus the mighty, Raphael, Gabriel, Michael, Sarael and + Nastikus--a truly Catholic list. + + In fr. 4 a rubric enjoins the recital of the hymn of the _Frasegerd_. + Here we recognize a technical term of the Avesta--namely, the + "Frasho-kereti," that is the reanimation of the world or resurrection + of the dead (Darmesteter, _op. cit._, p. 239). In this hymn we read + how the gods shall release us from this sinful time, from the + oppression of this world. In fr. 4, under the rubric Bar Simus, we + find the god Mihir (Mihryazd), the liberator, the compassionate, + invoked along with Fredon, the good; and later on we read as follows: + "with his mighty glance may the god of pure name, Predon, the king and + Jacob Nareman, protect religion and us the sons." Mihr or Mithras and + Feridoun or Thraetaona, the slayer of Ajis (or Azi) Dahaka, also + Nariman, spelled Nairimanau, are familiar figures in the old Persian + pantheon. In the same prayer the votary begs that "new blessing may + come, new victory from the god Zarvan over the glories and angels, the + spirits of this world, to the end that he accept our holy religion, + become a watcher within and without, helper and protector," and the + prayer ends thus: "I invoke the angels, the strong ones, the mighty, + Raphael, Michael, Gabriel, Sarael, who shall protect us from all + adversity, and free us from the wicked Ahriman." + + In fr. 176 Jesus is invoked: "Jesus, of the gods first new moon, thou + art God.... Jesus, O Lord, of waxing fame full moon, O Jesus. Lord ... + light, our hearts' prayer. Jesus, God and Vahman. Sheen God! We will + praise the God Naresaf. Mar Mani will we bless. O new moon and spring. + Lord, we will bless. The angels, the gods ... New sun, Mihr." + + In the above Vahman is Vohu Mano, the good thought or inspiration of + the Zoroastrian religion. Mihr is Mithras. The god Naresaf is also + invoked in other fragments. + + In fr. 74 is invoked, together with Jesus and Mani, the "strong mighty + Zrosch, the redeemer of souls." In the Avesta Sraosha is the angel + that guards the world at night from demons, and is styled "the + righteous" or "the strong." + + Fr. 38 is as follows: "Mithras (MS. Mitra) great ... messenger of the + gods, mediator (or interpreter) of religion, of the elect one + Jesus--virgin of light. Mar Mani, Jesus--virgin of light, Mar Mani. Do + thou in me make peace, O light-bringer, mayest thou redeem my soul + from this born-dead (existence)." + + Fr. 543 runs thus: "... and ladder of the Mazdean faith. Thou, new + teacher of Chorasan (of the East), and promoter of those that have the + good faith. For thou wast born under a glittering star in the family + of the rulers. Elect are these--Jesus and Vahman." + +The above examples bear out Mani's own declaration, as reported by the +_Fihrist_, that his faith was a blend of the old Magian cult with +Christianity. Whether the Hebrew names of angels came to him direct from +the Jews or not we cannot tell, but they were, as the Greek magical +papyri prove, widely diffused among the Gentiles long before his age. +The Armenian writer Eznik (c. 425) also attests that Mani's teaching was +merely that of the Magi, _plus_ an ascetic morality, for which they +hated and slew him. + +Just as the background of Christianity was formed by the Hebrew +scriptures, and just as the Hebrew legends of the creation became the +basis of its scheme of human redemption from evil, so the Avesta, with +its quaint cosmogony and myths, formed the background of Mani's new +faith. He seems to have quarrelled with the later Magism because it was +not dualistic enough, for in fr. 28 we have such a passage as the +following: "They also that adore the fire, the burning, by this they +themselves recognize that their end shall be in fire. And they say that +Ormuzd and Ahriman are brothers, and in consequence of this saying they +shall come to annihilation." In the same fragment the Christians are +condemned as worshippers of idols, unless indeed the writer has genuine +pagans in view. There is a mention of Marcion in the same context, but +it is unintelligible. There can be no doubt that in the form in which +Mani became acquainted with it Christianity had been disengaged and +liberated from the womb of Judaism which gave it birth. This +presentation of it as an ethical system of universal import was the +joint work of Paul and Marcion. + +It remains to add that in these newly found fragments Mani styles +himself "the apostle (_lit._ the sent forth) of Jesus the friend in the +love of the Father, of God." He uses the formula: "Praise and laud to +the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit." In fr. 4 he attests that he +was sprung from the land Babel; in fr. 566 that he was a physician from +the land Babel. Fr. 3 recounts his interview with King Shapur I. The +Gospel of Peter seems to have been in use, for one lengthy citation is +taken from it in fr. 18. The Manichaeans of Chinese Turkestan also used +a version of the _Shepherd_ of Hermas. Several of the hymns (e.g. in fr. +7 and 32) reproduce the ideas and almost the phases of the Syriac "Hymn +of the Soul," so confirming the hypothesis that Mani was influenced by +Bardesanes. + + With the exception of a few fragments written in a Pehlevi dialect, + all this recovered Manichaean literature is in the Ouigour or Vigur + dialect of Tatar. The alphabet used is the one adapted by Mani himself + from the Syriac estrangelo. The fragments are 800 in number, both on + paper and vellum, written and adorned with the pious care and good + taste which the Manichaeans are known to have bestowed on their + manuscripts. They were brought back by Professor Grünwedel and Dr Huth + from Turfan in East Turkestan, and were partly translated by Dr F. W. + K. Müller in the _Abhandtungen der k. preuss. Akademie der + Wissenschaften_ (Berlin, 1904). Much of this literature is still left + in Turfan, where the natives use the sheets of Vigur and Chinese + vellum MSS. as window-panes in their huts. The Russian and German + governments have sent out fresh expeditions to rescue what is left + before it is too late. We may thus hope to recover some priceless + monuments of early Christianity, hymns and treatises perhaps of + Marcion and Bardesanes, the Gospel of Peter, and even the Diatessaron. + Müller's translations includes a long extract of Mani's book called + _Schapurakan_, parts of his _Evangelium_, and epistles, with + liturgies, hymns and prayers, for Tatar Khans who espoused the faith + in Khorasan. + +_Manichaeism and Christianity._--It is very difficult to determine what +was the extent of Mani's knowledge of Christianity, how much he himself +borrowed from it, and through what channels it reached him. It is +certain that Manichaeism, in those districts where it was brought much +into contact with Christianity, became additionally influenced by the +latter at a very early period. The Western Manichaeans of the 4th and +5th centuries are much more like Christians than their Eastern brethren. +In this respect Manichaeism experienced the same kind of development as +Neo-Platonism. As regards Mani himself, it is safest to assume that he +held both Judaism and Catholic Christianity to be entirely false +religions. It is indeed true that he not only described himself as the +promised Paraclete--for this designation probably originated with +himself--but also conceded a high place in his system to "Jesus"; we can +only conclude from this, however, that he distinguished between +Christianity and Christianity. The religion which had proceeded from the +historical Jesus he repudiated together with its founder, and +Catholicism as well as Judaism he looked upon as a religion of the +devil. But he distinguished between the Jesus of darkness and the Jesus +of light who had lived and acted contemporaneously with the former. This +distinction agrees with that made by the gnostic Basilides no less +strikingly than the Manichaean criticism of the Old Testament does with +that propounded by the Marcionites (see the _Acta Archelai_, in which +Mani is made to utter the antitheses of Marcion). Finally, the +Manichaean doctrines exhibit points of similarity to those of the +Christian Elkesaites. The historical relation of Mani to Christianity is +then as follows. From Catholicism, which he very probably had no +detailed knowledge of, he borrowed nothing, rejecting it as devilish +error. On the other hand, he looked upon what he considered to be +Christianity proper--that is, Christianity as it had been developed +among the sects of Basilidians, Marcionites, and perhaps Bardesanites, +as a comparatively valuable and sound religion. He took from it the +moral teaching of the Sermon on the Mount, and a criticism of the Old +Testament and of Judaism so far as he required it. Indications of the +influence of Marcionitism are found in the high estimation in which Mani +held the apostle Paul, and in the fact that he explicitly rejects the +Book of Acts. Mani appears to have given recognition to a portion of the +historical matter of the Gospels, and to have interpreted it in +accordance with his own doctrine. + +_Manichaeism and Buddhism._--It remains to be asked whether Buddhistic +elements can also be detected in Manichaeism. Most modern scholars since +F. C. Baur have answered this question in the affirmative. According to +Kessler, Mani made use of the teaching of Buddha, at least as far as +ethics was concerned. It cannot be doubted that Mani, who undertook long +journeys as far as India, knew of Buddhism. The name Buddha (Buddas) +which occurs in the legendary account of Mani, and perhaps in the +latter's own writings, indicates further that he had occupied his +attention with Buddhism when engaged in the work of founding his new +religion. But his borrowings from this source must have been quite +insignificant. A detailed comparison shows the difference between +Buddhism and Manichaeism in all their principal doctrines to be very +great, while it becomes evident that the points of resemblance are +almost everywhere accidental. This is also true of the ethics and the +asceticism of the two systems. There is not a single point in +Manichaeism which demands for its explanation an appeal to Buddhism. +Such being the case, the relationship between the two religions remains +a mere possibility, a possibility which the inquiry of Geyler (_Das +System des Manichaeismus und sein Verhältniss zum Buddhismus_, Jena, +1875) has not been able to elevate into a probability. + +_The Secret of Manichaeism._--How are we to explain the rapid spread of +Manichaeism, and the fact that it really became one of the great +religions? What gave it strength was that it united an ancient mythology +and a thorough-going materialistic dualism with an exceedingly simple +spiritual worship and a strict morality. On comparing it with the +Semitic religions of nature we perceive that it was free from their +sensuous _cultus_, substituting instead a spiritual worship as well as a +strict morality. Manichaeism was thus able to satisfy the new wants of +an old world. It offered revelation, redemption, moral virtue and +immortality, spiritual benefits on the basis of the religion of nature. +A further source of strength lay in the simple yet firm social +organization which was given by Mani himself to his new institution. The +wise man and the ignorant, the enthusiast and the man of the world, +could all find acceptance here, and there was laid on no one more than +he was able and willing to bear. Each one, however, was attached and led +onward by the prospect of a higher rank to be attained, while the +intellectually gifted had an additional inducement in the assurance that +they did not require to submit themselves to any authority, but would be +led to God by pure reason. Thus adapted from the first to individual +requirements, this religion also showed itself able to appropriate from +time to time foreign elements. Originally furnished from fragments of +various religions, it could increase or diminish this possession without +rupturing its own elastic framework. And, after all, great adaptability +is just as necessary for a universal religion as a divine founder in +whom the highest revelation of God may be seen and reverenced. +Manichaeism indeed, though it applies the title "redeemer" to Mani, has +really no knowledge of a redeemer, but only of a physical and gnostic +process of redemption; on the other hand, it possesses in Mani the +supreme prophet of God. If we consider in conclusion that Manichaeism +gave a simple, apparently profound, and yet convenient solution of the +problem of good and evil, a problem that had become peculiarly +oppressive to the human race in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, we shall have +named the most important factors which account for the rapid spread of +the system. + +_Sketch of the History of Manichaeism._--Manichaeism first gained a firm +footing in the East, i.e. in Persia, Mesopotamia and Transoxiana. The +persecutions it had to endure did not hinder its extension. The seat of +the Manichaean pope was for centuries in Babylon, at a later period in +Samarkand. Even after the conquests of Islam the Manichaean Church +continued to maintain itself, indeed it seems to have become still more +widely diffused by the victorious campaigns of the Mahommedans, and it +frequently gained secret adherents among the latter themselves. Its +doctrine and discipline underwent little change in the East; in +particular, it drew no nearer to the Christian religion. More than once, +however, Manichaeism experienced attempts at reformation; for of course +the _auditores_ very easily became worldly in character, and movements of +reformation led temporarily to divisions and the formation of sects. +Towards the close of the 10th century, at the time the _Fihirst_ was +written, the Manichaeans in Mesopotamia and Persia had already been in +large measure ousted from the towns, and had withdrawn to the villages. +But in Turkestan, and as far as the Chinese frontier, there existed +numerous Manichaean communities and even whole tribes that had adopted +the name of Mani. Probably it was the great migrations of the Mongolian +race that first put an end to Manichaeism in Central Asia. But even in +the 15th century there were Manichaeans living beside the +Thomas-Christians on the coast of Malabar in India (see Germann, _Die +Thomas-Christen_, 1875). Manichaeism first penetrated the Greek-Roman +Empire about the year 280, in the time of the emperor Probus (see the +_Chronicon_ of Eusebius). If we may take the edict of Diocletian against +the Manichaeans as genuine, the system must have gained a firm footing in +the West by the beginning of the 4th century, but we know that as late as +about the year 325 Eusebius had not any accurate knowledge of the sect. +It was only subsequent to about 330 that Manichaeism spread rapidly in +the Roman Empire. Its adherents were recruited on the one hand from the +old gnostic sects (especially from the Marcionites--Manichaeism exerted +besides this a strong influence on the development of the Marcionite +churches of the 4th century), on the other hand from the large number of +the "cultured," who were striving after a "rational" and yet in some +manner Christian religion. Its polemics and its criticism of the Catholic +Church now became the strong side of Manichaeism, especially in the West. +It admitted the stumbling-blocks which the Old Testament offers to every +intelligent reader, and gave itself out as a Christianity without the Old +Testament. Instead of the subtle Catholic theories concerning divine +predestination and human freedom, and instead of a difficult theodicaea, +it offered an exceedingly simple conception of sin and goodness. The +doctrine of the incarnation of God, which was especially objectionable to +those who were going over to the new universal religion from the old +cults, was not proclaimed by Manichaeism. In its rejection of this +doctrine Manichaeism agreed with Neo-Platonism; but, while the latter, +notwithstanding all its attempts to conform itself to Christianity, could +find no formula by which to inaugurate within its own limits the special +veneration of Christ, the Western Manichaeans succeeded in giving their +teaching a Christian tinge. The only part of the Manichaean mythology +that became popular was the crude, physical dualism. The barbaric +elements were judiciously screened from view as a "mystery"; they were, +indeed, here and there explicitly disavowed even by the initiated. The +farther Manichaeism advanced into the West the more Christian and +philosophic did it become. In Syria it maintained itself in comparative +purity. In North Africa it found its most numerous adherents, gaining +secret support even among the clergy. Augustine was an _auditor_ for nine +years, while Faustus was at that time the most esteemed Manichaean +teacher in the West. Augustine in his later writings against the +Manichaeans deals chiefly with the following problems: (1) the relation +between knowledge and faith, and between reason and authority; (2) the +nature of good and evil, and the origin of the latter; (3) the existence +of free will, and its relation to the divine omnipotence; (4) the +relation of the evil in the world to the divine government. + +The Christian Byzantine and Roman emperors, from Valens onwards, enacted +strict laws against the Manichaeans. But at first these bore little +fruit. The _auditores_ were difficult to trace out, and besides they +really gave little occasion for persecution. In Rome itself between 370 +and 440 Manichaeism gained a large amount of support, especially among +the scholars and public teachers. It also made its way into the life of +the people by means of a popular literature in which the apostles were +made to play a prominent part (_Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles_). +Manichaeism in the West had also some experience of attempts at +reformation from the ascetic side, but of these we know little. In Rome +Leo the Great was the first who took energetic measures, along with the +state authorities, against the system. Valentinian III. decreed +banishment against its adherents, Justinian the punishment of death. In +North Africa Manichaeism appears to have been extinguished by the +persecution of the Vandals. But it still continued to exist elsewhere, +both in the Byzantine Empire and in the West, and in the earlier part of +the middle ages it gave an impulse to the formation of new sects, which +remained related to it. And if it has not been quite proved that so +early as the 4th century the Priscillianists of Spain were influenced by +Manichaeism, it is at least undoubted that the Paulicians and Bogomiles, +as well as the Catharists and the Albigenses, are to be traced back to +Manichaeism (and Marcionitism). Thus the system, not indeed of Mani the +Persian, but of Manichaeism as modified by Christian influences, +accompanied the Catholic Church until the 13th century. + + _Sources._--(a) Oriental. Among the sources for a history of + Manichaeism the most important are the Oriental. Of these the + Mahommedan, though of comparatively late date, are distinguished by + the excellent manner in which they have been transmitted to us, as + well as by their impartiality. They must be named first, because + ancient Manichaean writings have been used in their construction. At + the head of all stands En-Nedim, _Fihrist_ (c. 980), ed. by Flügel + (1871-1872); cf. the latter's work _Mani, seine Lehre u. seine + Schriften_ (1862). See also Shahrastani, _Kitab al-milal wan-nuhal_ + (12th cent.), ed. by Cureton (1846) and translated into German by + Haarbrücker (1851), and individual notes and excerpts by Tabari (10th + cent.), Al-Biruni (11th cent.), and other Arabian and Persian + historians. Next come the Turfan fragments described in the body of + this article. See also W. Brandt, _Schriften aus der Genza oder Sidva + Rabba_ (Göttingen, 1893). + + Of the Christian Orientals those that afford most information are + Ephraem Syrus (d. 373), in various writings; the Armenian Esnik + (German translation by J. M. Schmid, Vienna, 1900, see also _Zeitsch. + f. hist. Theol._, 1840, ii.; Langlois, _Collection_, ii. 375 seq.), + who wrote in the 5th century against Marcion and Mani; and the + Alexandrian patriarch Eutychius (d. 916), _Annales_, ed. Pococke + (1628). There are, besides, scattered pieces of information in + Aphraates (4th cent.), Barhebraeus (13th cent.) and others. The newly + found Syriac _Book of Scholia_ of Theodor bar Khouni (see Pognon, _Les + Coupes de Kouabir_, Paris, 1898) gives many details about Mani's + teaching (also ed. without translation by Dr M. Lewin, Berlin, 1905). + + (b) Greek and Latin. The earliest mention of the Manichaeans in the + Graeco-Roman Empire is to be found in an edict of Diocletian (see + Hänel, _Cod. Gregor._, tit. xv.), which is held by some to be + spurious, while others assign it to one or other of the years 287, + 290, 296, 308 (so Mason, _The Persec. of Diocl._, pp. 275 seq.). + Eusebius gives a short account of the sect (_H. E._, vii. 31). It was + the _Acta Archelai_, however, that became the principal source on the + subject of Manichaeism for Greek and Roman writers. These _Acta_ are + not indeed what they give themselves out for, viz. an account of a + disputation held between Mani and the bishop Archelaus of Cascar, in + Mesopotamia; but they nevertheless contain much that is trustworthy, + especially regarding the doctrine of Mani, and they also include + Manichaean documents. They consist of various distinct pieces, and + originated in the beginning of the 4th century, probably at Edessa. + They were translated as early as the first half of the same century + from the Syriac (as is maintained by Jerome, _De vir. illust._, 72; + though this is doubted by modern scholars) into Greek, and soon + afterwards into Latin. It is only this secondary Latin version that we + possess (ed. by C. H. Beeson; Leipzig, 1906, under title _Hegemonius + acta Archelai_); earlier editions, Zacagni (1698); Routh, _Reliquiae + sac._, vol. v. (1848); translated in Clark's _Ante-Nicene Library_, + vol. xx.; small fragments of the Greek version have been preserved. + Regarding the _Acta Archelai_, see Zittwitz in _Zeitschr. f. d. + histor. Theol._ (1873) and Oblasinski, _Acta disp. Arch. el Manetis_ + (1874). In the form in which we now possess them, they are a + compilation after the pattern of the _Clementine Homilies_, and have + been subjected to manifold redactions. These _Acta_ were used by Cyril + of Jerusalem (_Catech._ 6), Epiphanius (_Haer._ 66), and a great + number of other writers. All the Greek and Latin heresiologists have + included the Manichaeans in their catalogues; but they seldom adduce + any independent information regarding them (see Theodoret, _Haer. + fab._ i. 26). Important matter is to be found in the resolutions of + the councils from the 4th century onwards (see Mansi, _Acta concil._, + and Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_, vols. i.-iii.), and also in the + controversial writings of Titus of Bostra (6th century), [Greek: Pros + Manichaious] (ed. Lagarde, 1859), and of Alexander of Lycopolis + [Greek: Logos pros tas Manichaiou doxas] (ed. Combefis; transl. in + _Ante-Nic. Lib._, vol. xiv.). Of the Byzantines, the most worthy of + mention are John of Damascus (_De haeres._ and _Dialog._) and Photius + (_cod._ 179 _Biblioth._). The struggle with the Paulicians and the + Bogomiles, who were often simply identified with the Manichaeans, + again directed attention to the latter. In the West the works of + Augustine are the great repertory for information on the subject of + Manichaeism (_Contra epistolam Manichaei, quam vocant fundamenti_; + _Contra Faustum Manichaeum_; _Contra Fortunatum_; _Contra Adimantum_; + _Contra Secundinum_; _De actis cum Felice Manichaeo_; _De genesi c. + Manichaeos_; _De natura boni_; _De duabus animabus_; _De utilitate + credendi_; _De moribus eccl. cathol. et de moribus Manichaeorum_; _De + haeres._). The more complete the picture, however, which may here be + obtained of Manichaeism, the more cautious must we be in making + generalizations from it, for it is beyond doubt that Western + Manichaeism adopted Christian elements which are wanting in the + original and in the Oriental Manichaeism. The "Dispute of Paul the + Persian with a Manichaean" in Migne _P.G._, 88, col. 529-578 (first + ed. by A. Mai) is shown by G. Mercati, _Studi e testi_ (Rome, 1901) to + be the _procès verbal_ of an actual discussion held under Justinian at + Constantinople in 527. + + LITERATURE.--The most important works on Manichaeism are Beausobre, + _Hist. critique de Manichée et du Manichéisme_ (2 vols., 1734 seq.; + the Christian elements in Manichaeism are here strongly, indeed too + strongly, emphasized); Baur, _Das manich. Religionssystem_ (1831; in + this work Manichaean speculation is exhibited from a speculative + standpoint); Flügel, _Mani_ (1862; a very careful investigation on the + basis of the _Fihrist_); Kessler, _Untersuchung zur Genesis des + manich. Religionssystems_ (1876); and the article "Mani, Manichäer," + by the same writer in Herzog-Hauck's _R.E._, xii. 193-228; Kessler, + _Mani_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1889, 1903); Ernest Rochat, _Essai sur Mani + et sa doctrine_ (Geneva, 1897); _Recherches sur le manichéisme: I. La + cosmogonie manichéisme d'après Théodore Bar Khôui_, by Franz Cumont + (Brussels, 1908); _II. Fragments syriaques d'ouvrages manichéens_, by + Kugener and F. Cumont. _III. Les Formules grecques d'abjuration + imposées aux manichéens_, by F. Cumont. The accounts of Mosheim, + Lardner, Walch and Schröckh, as well as the monograph by Trechsel, + _Ueber Kanon, Kritik und Exegese der Manichäer_ (1832), may also be + mentioned as still useful. The various researches which have been made + regarding Parsism, the ancient Semitic religions, Gnosticism, &c., are + of the greatest importance for the investigation of Manichaeism. + (A. Ha.; F. C. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] A [Greek: biblion epistolôn] is spoken of in the formula of + abjuration, and an _Epistola ad virginem Menoch_ by Augustine. + Fabricius has collected the "Greek Fragments of Manichaean Epistles" + in his _Bibliotheca Graeca_ (vii. 311 seq.). + + [2] The _Canticum amatorium_ is cited by Augustine. + + [3] Zittwitz assumes that this epistle was in its original form of + much larger extent, and that the author of the _Acts_ took out of it + the matter for the speeches which he makes Mani deliver during his + disputation with Bishop Archelaus. The same scholar traces back the + account by Turbo in the _Acts_, and the historical data given in the + fourth section, to the writings of Turbo, a Mesopotamian, who is + assumed to have been a Manichaean renegade and a Christian. But as to + this difference of opinion is at least allowable. + + [4] Analogous to this is the veneration in which the Catholic monks + and the Neoplatonic "philosophers" were held; but the prestige of the + Manichaean _electi_ was greater than that of the monks and the + philosophers. + + + + +MANIFEST (Lat. _manifestus_, clear, open to view), in commercial law, a +document delivered to the officer of customs by the captain of a ship +before leaving port, giving a description of the shipped goods of every +kind, and setting forth the marks, numbers and descriptions of the +packages and the names of the consignors thereof. In England, by the +Revenue Act 1884, s. 3, where goods are exported for which no bond is +required, a manifest must be delivered to the officer of customs by the +master or owner of the ship within six days after the final clearance, +or a declaration in lieu thereof, the penalty in default being a sum not +exceeding five pounds. + + + + +MANIHIKI (MANAHIKI, MONAHIKI), a scattered archipelago in the central +Pacific Ocean, between 4° and 11° S., and 150° and 162° W., seldom +visited, and producing only a little copra and guano. It may be taken to +include the Caroline or Thornton Islands, Vostok and Flint to the east; +Suvarov, Manihiki or Humphrey, and Tongareva or Penrhyn to the west, and +Starbuck and Malden to the north, the whole thus roughly forming the +three corners of a triangle. There are pearl and pearl-shell fisheries +at Tongareva and Suvarov. The natives (about 1000) are Polynesians and +nominally Christian. There are ancient stone buildings of former +inhabitants on Malden Island. The islands were mostly discovered early +in the 19th century, and were annexed by Great Britain mainly in +1888-1889. + + + + +MANIKIALA, a village of India, in Rawalpindi district of the Punjab. +Pop. (1901), 734. It contains one of the largest _stupas_ or Buddhist +memorial shrines in N. India, and the one first known to Europeans, who +early detected traces of Greek influence in the sculpture. The _stupa_ +was excavated by General Court in 1834, and has been identified by Sir +A. Cunningham with the scene of Buddha's "body-offering." + + + + +MANILA, the capital city and principal port of the Philippine Islands, +situated on the W. coast of the island of Luzon, on the E. shore of +Manila Bay, at the mouth of the Pasig river, in lat. 14° 35´ 31´´ N., +and in long. 120° 58´ 8´´ E. It is about 4890 m. W.S.W. of Honolulu, +6990 m. W.S.W. of San Francisco, 628 m. S.E. of Hong-Kong, and 1630 m. +S. by W. of Yokohama. Pop. (1876), 93,595; (1887), 176,777; (1903), +219,928. Of the total population in 1903, 185,351 were of the brown +race, 21,838 were of the yellow race, 7943 were of the white race, and +232 were of the black race (230 of those of this race were +foreign-born), and 4564 were of mixed races; of the same total 131,659, +or nearly 60% were males. The foreign-born in 1903 numbered 29,491, +comprising 21,083 natives of China, 4300 natives of the United States of +America, 2065 natives of Spain, and 721 natives of Japan. Nearly all of +the brown race were native-born, and 80.6% of them were Tagalogs. + +The city covers an area of about 20 sq. m. of low ground, through which +flow the Pasig river and several _esteros_, or tidewater creeks. To the +west is the broad expanse of Manila Bay, beyond which are the rugged +Mariveles Mountains; to the eastward the city extends about half-way to +Laguna de Bay, a lake nearly as large as Manila Bay and surrounded on +three sides by mountains. On the south bank of the Pasig and fronting +the bay for nearly a mile is the "Ancient City," or Intramuros, enclosed +by walls 2½ m. long, with a maximum height of 25 ft., built about 1590. +Formerly a moat flanked the city on the land sides, and a drawbridge at +each of six gates was raised every night. But this practice was +discontinued in 1852 and the moat was filled with earth in 1905. In the +north-west angle of the walled enclosure stands Fort Santiago, which was +built at the same time as the walls to defend the entrance to the river; +the remaining space is occupied largely by a fine cathedral, churches, +convents, schools, and government buildings. Outside the walls the +modern city has been formed by the union of several towns whose names +are still retained as the names of districts. The Pasig river is crossed +by two modern steel cantilever bridges. Near the north-east angle of +Intramuros is the Bridge of Spain, a stone structure across the Pasig, +leading to Binondo, the principal shopping and financial district; here +is the Escolta, the most busy thoroughfare of the city, and the Rosario, +noted for its Chinese shops. Between Binondo and the bay is San +Nicholas, with the United States custom-house and large shipping +interests. North of San Nicholas is Tondo, the most densely populated +district; in the suburbs, outside the fire limits, the greater part of +the inhabitants live in native houses of bamboo frames roofed and sided +with nipa palm, and the thoroughfares consist of narrow streets and +navigable streams. Paco, south-west of Intramuros, has some large cigar +factories, and a large cemetery where the dead are buried in niches in +two concentric circular walls. Ermita and Malate along the bay in the +south part of the city, San Miguel on the north bank of the river above +Intramuros, and Sampaloc farther north, are the more attractive +residential districts. + + Most of the white inhabitants live in Ermita and Malate, or in San + Miguel, where there are several handsome villas along the river front, + among them that of the governor-general of the Philippines. The better + sort of houses in Manila have two storeys, the lower one built of + brick or stone and the upper one of wood, roofed with red Spanish tile + or with corrugated iron; the upper storey contains the living-rooms, + and the lower has servants' rooms, storehouses, stables, + carriage-houses and poultry yards. On account of the warm climate the + cornices are wide, the upper storey projects over the lower, and the + outer walls are fitted with sliding frames. Translucent oyster shells + are a common substitute for glass; and the walls are white-washed, but + on account of the frequency of earthquakes are not plastered. More + than one half of the dwellings in the city are mere shacks or nipa + huts. Few of the public buildings are attractive or imposing. There + are, however, some churches with graceful towers and beautiful façades + and a few attractive monuments; among the latter are one standing on + the Magellan Plaza (Plaza or Paseo de Magellanes) beside the Pasig, to + the memory of Ferdinand Magellan, the discoverer of the islands; and + another by A. Querol on the shore of the bay, to the memory of Don + Miguel de Legaspi (d. 1572), the founder of the Spanish city, and of + Andres de Urdaneta (1498-1568), the Augustinian friar who accompanied + Legaspi to Cebu (but not to what is now Manila). + +Many improvements have been made in and about the city since the +American occupation in 1898. The small tram-cars drawn by native ponies +have been replaced by a modern American electric street-railway service, +and the railway service to and from other towns on the island of Luzon +has been extended; in 1908, 267 m. were open to traffic and 400 m. were +under construction. Connected with Manila by electric railway is Fort +William McKinley, a U.S. army post in the hills five miles away, +quartering about 3000 men. The scheme for dredging some of the _esteros_ +in order to make them more navigable and for filling in others has been +in part executed. But the greatest improvement affecting transportation +is the construction of a safe and deep harbour. Although Manila Bay is +nearly landlocked, it is so large that in times of strong winds it +becomes nearly as turbulent as the open sea, and it was formerly so +shallow that vessels drawing more than 16 ft. could approach no nearer +than two miles to the shore, where typhoons of the south-west monsoon +not infrequently obliged them to lie several days before they could be +unloaded. Two long jetties or breakwaters have now been constructed, +about 350 acres of harbour area have been dredged to a depth of 30 ft., +and two wharves of steel and concrete, one 600 ft. long and 70 ft. wide, +and the other 650 ft. long and 110 ft. wide, were in process of +construction in 1909. The Pasig river has been dredged up to the Bridge +of Spain to a depth of 18 ft. and from the Bridge of Spain to Laguna de +Bay to a depth of 6 ft. The construction of the harbour was begun about +1880 by the Spanish government, but the work was less than one-third +completed when the Americans took possession. Among other American +improvements were: an efficient fire department, a sewer system whereby +the sewage by means of pumps is discharged into the bay more than a mile +from the shore; a system of gravity waterworks (1908) whereby the city's +water supply is taken from the Mariquina river about 23 m. from the city +into a storage reservoir which has a capacity of 2,000,000,000 gallons +and is 212 ft. above the sea; the extension of the Luneta, the principal +pleasure-ground; a boulevard for several miles along the bay; a +botanical garden; and new market buildings. + + _Climate._--Manila has a spring and summer hot season, an autumn and + winter cooler season, a summer and autumn rainy season, and a winter + and spring dry season. For the twenty years 1883-1902 the annual + average of mean monthly temperatures was 26.8° C., the maximum being + 27.4° in 1889 and 1897, and the minimum 26.2° in 1884. From May until + October the prevailing wind is south-east, from November to January it + is north, and from February to April it is east. July and August are + the cloudiest months of the year; the average number of rainy days in + each of those months being 21, and in February or March only 3. The + annual average of rainy days is 138: 94 in the wet season (average + precipitation for the six months, 1556.3 mm.) and 44 in the dry season + (average precipitation for the six dry months, 382 mm.). Thunderstorms + are frequent and occasionally very severe, between May and September; + the annual average of thunderstorms for the decennium 1888-1897 was + 505, the greatest frequency was in May (average 100.3) and in June + (average 90.7); the severity of these storms may be imagined from the + fact that in a half-hour between 5 and 6 P.M. on the 21st of May 1892 + the fall (probably the maximum) was 60 mm. The air is very damp: for + the period 1883-1902 the annual average of humidity was 79.4%, the + lowest average for any one month was 66.6% in April 1896 (the average + for the twenty Aprils was 70.7), and the highest average for any one + month was 89.9% for September 1897 (the average for the twenty + Septembers was 85.5). The city is so situated as to be affected by + shocks from all the various seismological centres of Luzon, especially + those from the active volcano Taal, 35 m. south of the city. At the + Manila observatory, about 1 m. south-east of the walled city, the + number of perceptible earthquakes registered by seismograph between + 1880 and 1897 inclusive was 221; the greatest numbers for any one year + were 26 in 1882 and 23 in 1892, and the least, 5 in 1896 and 6 in 1889 + and in 1894; the average number in each May was 1.44, in each July, + 1.33, and in January and in February 0.72; the frequency is much + greater in each of the spring summer months (except June, average + 0.78) than in the months of autumn and winter. + + _Public Institutions._--The public school system of Manila includes, + besides the common schools and Manila high school, the American + school, the Philippine normal school (1901), the Philippine school of + arts and trades (1901), the Philippine medical school (1907) and the + Philippine school of commerce (1908). The Philippine government also + maintains here a bureau of science which publishes the monthly + _Philippine Journal of Science_, and co-operates with the Jesuits in + maintaining, in Ermita, the Manila observatory (meteorological, + seismological and astronomical), which is one of the best equipped + institutions of the kind in the East. The royal and pontifical + university of St Thomas Aquinas (generally known as the university of + Santo Tomas) was founded in 1857 with faculties of theology, law, + philosophy, science, medicine and pharmacy, and grew out of a + seminary, for the foundation of which Philip II. of Spain gave a grant + in 1585, and which opened in 1601; and of the Dominican college of St + Thomas, dating from 1611. Other educational institutions are the + (Dominican) San José medical and pharmaceutical college, San Juan de + Letrán (Dominican), which is a primary and secondary school, the + ateneo municipal, a corresponding secondary and primary school under + the charge of the Jesuits, and the college of St Isabel, a girls' + school. In 1908 there were thirty-four newspapers and periodicals + published in the city, of which thirteen were Spanish, fourteen were + English, two were Chinese, and five were Tagalog; the principal + dailies were the _Manila Times_, _Cablenews American_, _El Comercio_, + _El Libertas_, _El Mercantil_, _El Renacimiento_ and _La Democracia_. + There are several Spanish hospitals in Manila, in two of which the + city's indigent sick are cared for at its expense; in connexion with + another a reform school is maintained; and there are a general + hospital, built by the government, a government hospital for + contagious diseases, a government hospital for government employees, a + government hospital for lepers, an army hospital, a free dispensary + and hospital supported by American philanthropists, St Paul's hospital + (Roman Catholic), University hospital (Protestant Episcopal), and the + Mary Johnson hospital (Methodist Episcopal). There are several + American Protestant churches in the city, notably a Protestant + Episcopal cathedral and training schools for native teachers. In + Bibilid prison, in the Santa Cruz district, nearly 80% of the + prisoners of the archipelago are confined; it is under the control of + the department of public instruction and its inmates are given an + opportunity to learn one or more useful trades. + + _Trade and Industry._--Manila is important chiefly for its commerce, + and to make it the chief distributing point for American goods + consigned to Eastern markets the American government undertook the + harbour improvements, and abolished the tonnage dues levied under + Spanish rule. Manila is the greatest hemp market in the world; 110,399 + tons, valued at $19,444,769, were exported from the archipelago in + 1906, almost all being shipped from Manila. Other important exports + are sugar, copra and tobacco. The imports represent a great variety of + food stuffs and manufactured articles. In 1906 the total value of the + exports was $23,902,986 and the total value of the imports was + $21,868,257. The coastwise trade is large. The principal manufactures + are tobacco, cigars, cigarettes, malt liquors, distilled liquors, + cotton fabrics, clothing, ice, lumber, foundry and machine shop + products, carriages, waggons, furniture and boots and shoes. There is + some ship and boat building. Lumber is sawed by steam power, and + cotton mills in the Tondo district are operated by steam. In the + foundries and machine shops small engines, boilers and church bells + are made, and the government maintains an ice and cold-storage plant. + With these exceptions manufacturing is in a rather primitive state. + Another industry of importance, especially in the district of Tondo, + is fishing, and the city's markets are well supplied with many + varieties of choice fish. + +_Administration._--Manila is governed under a charter enacted in 1901 by +the Philippine commission, and amended in 1903. This vests the +legislative and administrative authority mainly in a municipal board of +five members, of whom three are appointed by the governor of the +Philippines by the advice and with the consent of the Philippine +commission, and the others are the president of the advisory board and +the city engineer. The administration is divided into eight departments: +engineering and public works; sewer and waterworks construction; +sanitation and transportation; assessments and collections; police, +fire, law and schools. There are no elective offices, but there is an +advisory board, appointed by the governor and consisting of one member +from each of eleven districts; its recommendations the municipal board +must seek on all important matters. The administration of justice is +vested in a municipal court and in one court under justices of the peace +and auxiliary justices; the administration of school affairs is vested +in a special board of six members; and matters pertaining to health are +administered by the insular bureau of health. + +_History._--The Spanish city of Manila (named from "nilad," a weed or +bush which grew in the locality) was founded by Legaspi in 1571. The +site had been previously occupied by a town under a Mahommedan +chieftain, but this town had been burned before Legaspi gained +possession, although a native settlement still remained, within the +present district of Tondo. In 1572, while its fortifications were still +slight, the Spanish city was attacked and was nearly captured by a force +of Chinese pirates who greatly outnumbered the Spaniards. About 1590 the +construction of the present walls and other defences was begun. At the +beginning of the 17th century Manila had become the commercial +metropolis of the Far East. To it came fleets from China, Japan, India, +Malacca and other places in the Far East for an exchange of wares, and +from it rich cargoes were sent by way of Mexico to the mother country in +exchange for much cheaper goods. Before the close of the century, +however, a decline began, from which there was but little recovery under +Spanish rule. Several causes contributed to this, among them the waning +of the power of Spain, an exclusive commercial policy, dishonest +administration, hostilities with the Chinese, ravages of the Malay +pirates, and the growth of Dutch commerce. On several occasions the city +has been visited with destructive earthquakes; those of 1645 and 1863 +were especially disastrous. In 1762, during war between England and +Spain, an English force under Vice-Admiral Sir Samuel Cornish (d. 1770) +and Lieut.-General Sir William Draper (1721-1787) breached the walls and +captured the city, but by the Treaty of Paris (1763) it was returned to +Spain. In 1837 the port of Manila was opened to foreign trade, and there +was a steady but slow increase in prosperity up to about 1890. During +this period, however, progress was hampered by vested interests, and the +spirit of rebellion among the natives became increasingly threatening. +About 1892 a large number of Filipinos in and near Manila formed a +secret association whose object was independence and separation from +Spain. In August 1896 members of this association began an attack; and +late in December the movement was reinforced as a result of the +execution in Manila of Dr José Rizal y Mercado (1861-1896), a Filipino +patriot. It spread to the provinces, and was only in part suppressed +when, in April 1898, the United States declared war against Spain. On +the 1st of May an American fleet under Commodore George Dewey destroyed +the Spanish fleet stationed in Manila Bay (see SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR). +The smouldering Filipino revolt then broke out afresh and an American +army under General Wesley Merritt (1836- ) was sent from San Francisco +to assist in capturing the city. The Spaniards, after making a rather +weak defence, surrendered it on the 13th of August 1898. Trouble now +arose between the Americans and the Filipinos under the leadership of +Emilio Aguinaldo, for the latter wished to establish a government of +their own. On the night of the 4th of February 1899 the Filipinos +attacked the American army which was defending the city, but were +repulsed after suffering a heavy loss. A military government, however, +was maintained in the city until August 1901. + + + + +MANILA HEMP, the most valuable of all fibres for cordage, the produce of +the leaf-stalks of _Musa textilis_, a native of the Philippine Islands. +The plant, called _abacá_ by the islanders, throws up a spurious stem +from its underground rootstocks, consisting of a cluster of sheathing +leaf-stalks, which rise to a height of from 15 to 25 ft. and spread out +into a crown of huge undivided leaves characteristic of the various +species of _Musa_ (plantain, banana, &c.). From 12 to 20 clusters are +developed on each rhizome. In its native regions the plant is rudely +cultivated solely as a source of fibre; it requires little attention, +and when about three years old develops flowers on a central stem, at +which stage it is in the most favourable condition for yielding fibre. +The stock is then cut down, and the sheathing stalks are torn asunder +and reduced to small strips. These strips in their fresh succulent +condition are drawn between a knife-edged instrument and a hard wooden +block to which it is fixed. The knife is kept in contact with the block +except when lifted to introduce the ribbons. Sufficient weight is +suspended to the end of the knife to keep back all pith when the +operator is drawing forward the ribbon between the block and knife. By +repeated scraping in this way the soft cellular matter which surrounds +the fibre is removed, and the fibre so cleaned has only to be hung up to +dry in the open air, when, without further treatment, it is ready for +use. Each stock yields, on an average, a little under 1 lb. of fibre; +and two natives cutting down plants and separating fibre will prepare +not more than 25 lb. per day. The fibre yielded by the outer layer of +leaf-stalks is hard, fully developed and strong, and used for cordage, +but the produce of the inner stalks is increasingly thin, fine and weak. +The finer fibre is used by the natives, without spinning or twisting +(the ends of the single fibres being knotted or gummed together), for +making exceedingly fine, light and transparent yet comparatively strong +textures, which they use as articles of dress and ornament. According to +Warden, "muslin and grass-cloth are made from the finest fibres of +Manila hemp, and some of them are so fine that a garment made of them +may, it is said, be enclosed in the hollow of the hand." In Europe, +especially in France, articles of clothing, such as shirts, veils, +neckerchiefs and women's hats, are made from _abacá_. It is also used +for matting and twines. It is of a light colour, very lustrous, and +possesses great strength, being thus exceptionally suitable for the best +class of ropes. It is extensively used for marine and other cordage. The +hemp exported for cordage purposes is a somewhat woody fibre, of a +bright brownish-white colour, and possessing great durability and +strain-resisting power. The strength of Manila hemp compared with +English hemp is indicated by the fact that a Manila rope 3¼ in. in +circumference and 2 fathoms long stood a strain of 4669 lb. before +giving way, while a similar rope of English hemp broke with 3885 lb. The +fibre contains a very considerable amount of adherent pectinous matter, +and in its so-called dry condition an unusually large proportion, as +much as 12% of water. In a damp atmosphere the fibre absorbs moisture so +freely that it has been found to contain not less than 40% of water, a +circumstance which dealers in the raw fibre should bear in mind. From +the old and disintegrated ropes is made the well-known manila paper. The +plant has been introduced into tropical lands--the West Indies, India, +Borneo, &c.--but only in the Philippines has the fibre been successfully +produced as an article of commerce. It is distributed throughout the +greater part of the Philippine Archipelago. The area of successful +cultivation lies approximately between 6° and 15° N. and 121° and 126° +E.; it may be successfully cultivated up to about 4000 ft. above +sea-level. The provinces, or islands, where cultivation is most +successful are those with a heavy and evenly distributed rainfall. H. T. +Edwards, fibre expert to the Philippine bureau of agriculture, wrote in +1904:-- + + "The opportunities for increasing the production of _abacá_ in the + Philippines are almost unlimited. Enormous areas of good _abacá_ land + are as yet untouched, while the greater part of land already under + cultivation might yield a greatly increased product if more careful + attention were given to the various details of cultivation. The + introduction of irrigation will make possible the planting of _abacá_ + in many districts where it is now unknown. The _perfection_ of a + machine for the extraction of the fibre will increase the entire + output by nearly one-third, as this amount is now lost by the wasteful + hand-stripping process." + +Hitherto, while numerous attempts have been made to extract the fibre +with machinery, some obstacle has always prevented the general use of +the process. The exports have increased with great rapidity, as shown by +the following table:-- + + 1870 31,426 tons. + 1880 50,482 " + 1890 67,864 " + 1900 89,438 " + 1904 121,637 " + +In 1901 the value of the export was $14,453,410, or 62.3% of the total +exports from the Philippines. The fibre is now so valuable that Manila +hemp cordage is freely adulterated by manufacturers, chiefly by +admixture of phormium (New Zealand flax) and Russian hemp. + + + + +MANILIUS, a Roman poet, author of a poem in five books called +_Astronomica_. The author is neither quoted nor mentioned by any ancient +writer. Even his name is uncertain, but it was probably Marcus Manilius; +in the earlier MSS. the author is anonymous, the later give Manilius, +Manlius, Mallius. The poem itself implies that the writer lived under +Augustus or Tiberius, and that he was a citizen of and resident in Rome. +According to R. Bentley he was an Asiatic Greek; according to F. Jacob +an African. His work is one of great learning; he had studied his +subject in the best writers, and generally represents the most advanced +views of the ancients on astronomy (or rather astrology). He frequently +imitates Lucretius, whom he resembles in earnestness and originality and +in the power of enlivening the dry bones of his subject. Although his +diction presents some peculiarities, the style is metrically correct. +Firmicus, who wrote in the time of Constantine, exhibits so many points +of resemblance with the work of Manilius that he must either have used +him or have followed some work that Manilius also followed. As Firmicus +says that hardly any Roman except Caesar, Cicero and Fronto had treated +the subject, it is probable that he did not know the work of Manilius. +The latest event referred to in the poem (i. 898) is the great defeat of +Varus by Arminius in the Teutoburgiensis Saltus (A.D. 9). The fifth book +was not written till the reign of Tiberius; the work appears to be +incomplete, and was probably never published. + + See editions by J. Scaliger (1579); R. Bentley (1739); F. Jacob + (1846); A. G. Pingré (1786); and T. Breiter (Leipzig, 1907; and + commentary 1909); of book i. by A. E. Housman (1903). On the subject + generally see M. Bechert, _De emendandi Manilii Ratione_ (1878) and + _De M. M. Astronomicorum Poeta_ (1891); B. Freier, _De M. Astronom. + Aetate_ (1880); A. Cramer, _De Manilii Elocutione_ (very full; 1882); + G. Lanson, _De Manilio Poeta_, with select bibliog. (1887); P. + Monceaux, _Les Africains_ (a study of the Latin literature of Africa; + 1894); R. Ellis, _Noctes Manilianae_ (1891); J. P. Postgate, _Silva + Maniliana_ (1897), chiefly on textual questions; P. Thomas, + _Lucubrationes Manilianae_ (1888), a collation of the Gemblacensis + (Gembloux) MS.; F. Plessis, _La Poesie latine_ (1909), pp. 477-483. + + + + +MANILIUS, GAIUS, Roman tribune of the people in 66 B.C. At the beginning +of his year of office (Dec. 67) he succeeded in getting a law passed +(_de libertinorum suffragiis_), which gave freedmen the privilege of +voting together with those who had manumitted them, that is, in the same +tribe as their patroni; this law, however, was almost immediately +declared null and void by the senate. Both parties in the state were +offended by the law, and Manilius endeavoured to secure the support of +Pompey by proposing to confer upon him the command of the war against +Mithradates with unlimited power (see POMPEY). The proposal was +supported by Cicero in his speech, _Pro lege Manilia_, and carried +almost unanimously. Manilius was later accused by the aristocratical +party on some unknown charge and defended by Cicero. He was probably +convicted, but nothing further is heard of him. + + See Cicero's speech; Dio Cassius xxxvi. 25-27; Plutarch, _Pompey_, 30; + Vell. Pat. ii. 33; art. ROME: _History_, § II. + + + + +MANIN, DANIELE (1804-1857), Venetian patriot and statesman, was born in +Venice, on the 13th of May 1804. He was the son of a converted Jew, who +took the name of Manin because that patrician family stood sponsors to +him, as the custom then was. He studied law at Padua, and then practised +at the bar of his native city. A man of great learning and a profound +jurist, he was inspired from an early age with a deep hatred for +Austria. The heroic but foolhardy attempt of the brothers Bandiera, +Venetians who had served in the Austrian navy against the Neapolitan +Bourbons in 1844, was the first event to cause an awakening of Venetian +patriotism, and in 1847 Manin presented a petition to the Venetian +congregation, a shadowy consultative assembly tolerated by Austria but +without any power, informing the emperor of the wants of the nation. He +was arrested on a charge of high treason (Jan. 18, 1848), but this only +served to increase the agitation of the Venetians, who were beginning to +know and love Manin. Two months later, when all Italy and half the rest +of Europe were in the throes of revolution, the people forced Count +Palffy, the Austrian governor, to release him (March 17). The Austrians +soon lost all control of the city, the arsenal was seized by the +revolutionists, and under the direction of Manin a civic guard and a +provisional government were instituted. The Austrians evacuated Venice +on the 26th of March, and Manin became president of the Venetian +republic. He was already in favour of Italian unity, and though not +anxious for annexation to Piedmont (he would have preferred to invoke +French aid), he gave way to the will of the majority, and resigned his +powers to the Piedmontese commissioners on the 7th of August. But after +the Piedmontese defeats in Lombardy, and the armistice by which King +Charles Albert abandoned Lombardy and Venetia to Austria, the Venetians +attempted to lynch the royal commissioners, whose lives Manin saved with +difficulty; an assembly was summoned, and a triumvirate formed with +Manin at its head. Towards the end of 1848 the Austrians, having been +heavily reinforced, reoccupied all the Venetian mainland; but the +citizens, hard-pressed and threatened with a siege, showed the greatest +devotion to the cause of freedom, all sharing in the dangers and +hardships and all giving what they could afford to the state treasury. +Early in 1849 Manin was again chosen president of the republic, and +conducted the defence of the city with great ability. After the defeat +of Charles Albert's forlorn hope at Novara in March the Venetian +assembly voted "Resistance at all costs!" and granted Manin unlimited +powers. Meanwhile the Austrian forces closed round the city; but Manin +showed an astonishing power of organization, in which he was ably +seconded by the Neapolitan general, Guglielmo Pepe. But on the 26th of +May the Venetians were forced to abandon Fort Malghera, half-way between +the city and the mainland; food was becoming scarce, on the 19th of June +the powder magazine blew up, and in July cholera broke out. Then the +Austrian batteries began to bombard Venice itself, and when the +Sardinian fleet withdrew from the Adriatic the city was also attacked by +sea, while certain demagogues caused internal trouble. At last, on the +24th of August 1849, when all provisions and ammunition were exhausted, +Manin, who had courted death in vain, succeeded in negotiating an +honourable capitulation, on terms of amnesty to all save Manin himself, +Pepe and some others, who were to go into exile. On the 27th Manin left +Venice for ever on board a French ship. His wife died at Marseilles, and +he himself reached Paris broken in health and almost destitute, having +spent all his fortune for Venice. In Paris he maintained himself by +teaching and became a leader among the Italian exiles. There he became a +convert from republicanism to monarchism, being convinced that only +under the auspices of King Victor Emmanuel could Italy be freed, and +together with Giorgio Pallavicini and Giuseppe La Farina he founded the +_Società Nazionale Italiana_ with the object of propagating the idea of +unity under the Piedmontese monarchy. His last years were embittered by +the terrible sufferings of his daughter, who died in 1854, and he +himself died on the 22nd of September 1857, and was buried in Ary +Scheffer's family tomb. In 1868, two years after the Austrians finally +departed from Venice, his remains were brought to his native city and +honoured with a public funeral. Manin was a man of the greatest honesty, +and possessed genuinely statesmanlike qualities. He believed in Italian +unity when most men, even Cavour, regarded it as a vain thing, and his +work of propaganda by means of the National Society greatly contributed +to the success of the cause. + + See A. Errera, _Vita di D. Manin_ (Venice, 1872); P. de la Farge, + _Documents, &c., de D. Manin_ (Paris, 1860); Henri Martin, _D. Manin_ + (Paris, 1859); V. Marchesi, _Settant' anni della storia di Venezia_ + (Turin) and an excellent monograph in Countess Martinengo Cesaresco's + _Italian Characters_ (London, 1901). + + + + +MANING, FREDERICK EDWARD (1812-1883), New Zealand judge and author, son +of Frederick Maning, of Johnville, county Dublin, was born on the 5th of +July 1812. His father emigrated to Tasmania in the ship "Ardent" in 1824 +and took up a grant of land there. Young Maning served in the fatuous +expedition which attempted to drive in the Tasmanian blacks by sweeping +with an unbroken line of armed men across the island. Soon afterwards he +decided to try the life of a trader among the wild tribes of New +Zealand, and, landing in the beautiful inlet of Hokianga in 1833, took +up his abode among the Ngapuhi. With them the tall Irish lad--he stood 6 +ft. 3 in.--full of daring and good-humour and as fond of fun as of +fighting, quickly became a prime favourite, was adopted into the tribe, +married a chief's daughter, and became a "Pakeha-Maori" (foreigner +turned Maori). With the profits of his trading he bought a farm of 200 +acres on the Hokianga, for which, unlike most white adventurers of the +time, he paid full value. When New Zealand was peacefully annexed in +1840, Maning's advice to the Maori was against the arrangement, but from +the moment of annexation he became a loyal friend to the government, and +in the wars of 1845-46 his influence was exerted with effect in the +settlers' favour. Again, in 1860, he persuaded the Ngapuhi to volunteer +to put down the insurrection in Taranaki. Finally, at the end of 1865, +he entered the public service as a judge of the native lands court, +where his unequalled knowledge of the Maori language, customs, +traditions and prejudices was of solid value. In this office he served +until 1881, when ill-health drove him to resign, and two years later to +seek surgical aid in London, where, however, he died of cancer on the +25th of July 1883. At his wish, his body was taken back to New Zealand +and buried there. A bust of him is placed in the public library at +Auckland. Maning is chiefly remembered as the author of two short books, +_Old New Zealand and History of the War in the North of New Zealand +against the Chief Heké_. Both books were reprinted in London in 1876 and +1884, with an introduction by the earl of Pembroke. + + + + +MANIPLE (Lat. _manipulus_, from _manus_, hand, and _plere_, to fill), a +liturgical vestment of the Catholic Church, proper to all orders from +the subdeacon upwards. It is a narrow strip of material, silk or +half-silk, about a yard long, worn on the left fore-arm in such a way +that the ends hang down to an equal length on either side. In order to +secure it, it is sometimes tied on with strings attached underneath, +sometimes provided with a hole in the lining through which the arm is +passed. It is ornamented with three crosses, one in the centre and one +at each end, that in the centre being obligatory, and is often +elaborately embroidered. It is the special ensign of the office of +subdeacon, and at the ordination is placed on the arm of the new +subdeacon by the bishop with the words: "Take the maniple, the symbol of +the fruit of good works."[1] It is strictly a "mass vestment," being +worn, with certain exceptions (e.g. by a subdeacon singing the Gospel at +the service of blessing the palms), only at Mass, by the celebrant and +the ministers assisting. + +The most common name for the maniple up to the beginning of the 11th +century in the Latin Church was _mappula_ (dim. of _mappa_, cloth), the +Roman name for the vestment until the time of Innocent III. The +designation _manipulus_ did not come into general use until the 15th +century. Father Braun (_Liturg. Gewandung_, p. 517) gives other early +medieval names: _sudanum_, _fano_, _mantile_, all of them meaning +"cloth" or "handkerchief." He traces the vestment ultimately to a white +linen cloth of ceremony (_pallium linostinum_) worn in the 4th century +by the Roman clergy over the left arm, and peculiar at that time to +them. Its ultimate origin is obscure, but is probably traceable to some +ceremonial handkerchiefs commonly carried by Roman dignitaries, e.g. +those with which the magistrates were wont to signal the opening of the +games of the circus. As late as the 9th century, indeed, the maniple was +still a handkerchief, held folded in the left hand. By what process it +became changed into a narrow strip is not known; the earliest extant +specimen of the band-like maniple is that found in the grave of St +Cuthbert (9th century); by the 11th century (except in the case of +subdeacons, whose maniples would seem to have continued for a while to +be cloths in practical use) the maniple had universally assumed its +present general form and purely ceremonial character. + +The maniple was originally carried in the left hand. In pictures of the +9th, 10th and 11th centuries it is represented as either so carried or +as hung over the left fore-arm. By the 12th century the rule according +to which it is worn over the left arm had been universally accepted. +According to present usage the maniple is put on by priests after the +alb and girdle; by deacons and subdeacons after the dalmatic or tunicle; +by bishops at the altar after the _Confiteor_, except at masses for the +dead, when it is assumed before the stole.[2] + +In the East the maniple in its Western form is known only to the +Armenians, where it is peculiar to subdeacons. This vestment is not +derived from the Roman rite, but is properly a stole, which the +subdeacons used to carry in the left hand. It is now laid over the +subdeacon's left arm at ordination. The true equivalent of the maniple +(in the Greek and Armenian rites only) is not, as has been assumed, the +_epimanikion_, a sort of loose, embroidered cuff (see VESTMENTS), but +the _epigonation_. This is a square of silk, stiffened with cardboard, +surrounded by an embroidered border, and usually decorated in the +middle with a cross or a sword (the "sword of the Spirit," which it is +supposed to symbolize); sometimes, however, the space within the border +is embroidered with pictures. It is worn only by bishops and the higher +clergy, and derives its name from the fact that it hangs down over the +knee ([Greek: gony]). It is worn on the right side, under the +_phelonion_, but when the _sakkos_ is worn instead of the _phelonion_, +by metropolitans, &c., it is attached to this. The _epigonation_, like +the maniple, was originally a cloth held in the hand; a fact +sufficiently proved by the ancient name [Greek: egcheirion] ([Greek: +cheir], hand), which it retained until the 12th century. For +convenience' sake this cloth came to be suspended from the girdle on the +right side, and is thus represented in the earliest extant paintings +(see Braun, p. 552). The name _epigonation_, which appears in the latter +half of the 12th century, probably marks the date of the complete +conventionalizing of the original cloth into the present stiff +embroidered square; but the earliest representations of the vestment in +its actual form date from the 14th century, e.g. the mosaic of St +Athanasius in the chapel of St Zeno in St Mark's at Venice. + + See J. Braun, S. J., _Die liturgische Gewandung_ (Freiburg im + Breisgau, 1907), pp. 515-561. and the bibliography to VESTMENTS. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] According to Father Braun this custom cannot be traced earlier + than the 9th century. It forms no essential part of the ordination + ceremony (_Liturg. Gewandung_, p. 548). + + [2] For the evolution of these rules see Braun, _op. cit._ pp. 546 + seq. + + + + +MANIPUR, a native state on the north-east frontier of India, in +political subordination to the lieutenant-governor of Eastern Bengal and +Assam. Area, 8456 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 284,465. It is bounded on the N. +by the Naga country and the hills overlooking the Assam valley, on the +W. by Cachar district, on the E. by Upper Burma, and on the S. by the +Lushai hills. The state consists of a wide valley, estimated at about +650 sq. m., and a large surrounding tract of mountainous country. The +hill ranges generally run north and south, with occasional connecting +spurs and ridges of lower elevation between. Their greatest altitude is +in the north, where they reach to upwards of 8000 ft. above sea-level. +The principal geographical feature in the valley is the Logtak lake, an +irregular sheet of water of considerable size, but said to be yearly +growing smaller. The valley is watered by numerous rivers, the Barak +being the most important. The hills are densely clothed with tree jungle +and large forest timber. Some silk is produced and there are a few +primitive manufacturing industries, e.g. of pottery. Rice and forest +produce, however, are the principal exports. The road from Manipur to +the Assam-Bengal railway at Dimapur is the principal trade route. + +The kingdom of Manipur, or, as the Burmans call it, Kasse or Kathe, +first emerges from obscurity as a neighbour and ally of the Shan kingdom +of Pong, which had its capital at Mogaung. The valley appears to have +been originally occupied by several tribes which came from different +directions. Although their general facial characteristics are Mongolian, +there is a great diversity of feature among the Manipuris, some of them +showing a regularity approaching the Aryan type. In the valley the +people are chiefly Hindus, that religion being of recent introduction. +Their own name for themselves is Meithei, and their language is a branch +of the Kuki-Chin family, spoken by 273,000 persons in all India in 1901. +One of their peculiarities is the high position enjoyed by women, who +conduct most of the trade of the valley. They have a caste system of +their own, different from that of India, and chiefly founded on the +system of _lallup_, or forced labour, which has been abolished by the +British. Every male between the ages of seventeen and sixty was formerly +obliged to place his services at the disposal of the state for a certain +number of days each year, and to different classes of the people +different employments were assigned. About four hundred Mahommedan +families, descendants of settlers from Bengal, reside to the east of the +capital. The aboriginal hill-men belong to one of the two great +divisions of Nagas and Kukis, and are subdivided into innumerable clans +and sections with slight differences in language, customs or dress. The +state is noted for the excellence of its breed of ponies. The English +game of polo was introduced from Manipur, where it forms a great +national pastime. + +The first relations of the British with Manipur date from 1762, when the +raja solicited British aid to repel a Burmese invasion, and a treaty +was entered into. The force was recalled, and little communication +between the two countries took place until 1824, on the outbreak of the +first Burmese War. British assistance was again invoked by the raja, and +the Burmese were finally expelled from both the Assam and the Manipur +valleys. Disputed successions have always been a cause of trouble. The +raja, Chandra Kirtti Singh, died in 1886, and was succeeded by his +eldest son, Sur Chandra Singh, who appointed his next brother, Kula +Chandra Dhuya Singh, _jubraj_, or heir-apparent. In 1890 another +brother, the _senapati_, or commander-in-chief, Tikendrajit Singh, +dethroned the raja, and installed the _jubraj_ as regent, the ex-raja +retiring to Calcutta. In March 1891 the chief commissioner of Assam +(Quinton) marched to Manipur with 400 Gurkhas, in order to settle the +question of succession. His purpose was to recognize the new ruler, but +to remove the _senapati_. After some futile negotiations, Quinton sent +an ultimatum, requiring the surrender of the _senapati_, by the hands of +the political resident, F. Grimwood, but no result followed. An attempt +was then made to arrest the _senapati_, but after some sharp fighting, +in which Lieut. Brackenbury was killed, he escaped; and the Manipuris +then attacked the British residency with an overwhelming force. Quinton +was compelled to ask for a parley, and he, Colonel Skene, Grimwood, +Cossins and Lieut. Simpson, unarmed, went to the fort to negotiate. They +were all there treacherously murdered, and when the news arrived the +Gurkhas retreated to Cachar, Mrs Grimwood and the wounded being with +them. This led to a military expedition, which did not encounter much +resistance. The various columns, converging on Manipur, found it +deserted; and the regent, _senapati_, and others were captured during +May. After a formal trial the _senapati_ and one of the generals of the +rebellion were hanged and the regent was transported to the Andaman +Islands. But it was decided to preserve the existence of the state, and +a child of the ruling family, named Chura Chand, of the age of five, was +nominated raja. He was sent to be educated in the Mayo College at +Ajmere, and he afterwards served for two years in the imperial cadet +corps. Meanwhile the administration was conducted under British +supervision. The opportunity was seized for abolishing slavery and +unpaid forced labour, a land revenue of Rs. 2 per acre being substituted +in the valley and a house-tax in the hills. The boundaries of the state +were demarcated, disarmament was carried out, and the construction of +roads was pushed forward. In 1901 Manipur was visited by Lord Curzon, on +his way from Cachar to Burma. In May 1907 the government of the state +was handed over to Chura Chand, who was to be assisted by a council of +six Manipuris, with a member of the Indian civil service as +vice-president. At the same time it was announced that the government of +India would support the raja with all its powers and suppress summarily +all attempts to displace him. The revenue is £26,000. The capital is +Imphal, which is really an overgrown village; pop. (1901), 67,093. + + See Mrs Ethel St Clair Grimwood, _My Three Years in Manipur_ (1891); + _Manipur State Gazetteer_ (Calcutta, 1905); T. C. Hodson, _The + Meitheis_ (1908). + + + + +MANISA (anc. _Magnesia ad Sipylum_), the chief town of the Saru-khan +sanjak of the Aidin (Smyrna) vilayet of Asia Minor, situated in the +valley of the Gediz Chai (Hermus), at the foot of Mt Sipylus, and +connected by railway with Smyrna and Afium Kara-Hissar. Pop. about +35,000, half being Mussulman. Manisa is an important commercial centre, +and contains interesting buildings dating from the times of the Seljuk +and early Osmanli sultans, including mosques built by Murad II. and III. +and a Mevlevi _Tekke_ second only to that at Konia. It is the seat of a +flourishing American mission. In 1204 Manisa was occupied by John Ducas, +who when he became emperor made it the Byzantine seat of government. In +1305, after the inhabitants had massacred the Catalan garrison, Roger de +Flor besieged it unsuccessfully. In 1313 the town was taken by Saru Khan +and became the capital of the Turcoman emirate of that name. In 1398 it +submitted to the Osmanli sultan Bayezid I., and in 1402 was made a +treasure city by Timur. In 1419 it was the scene of the insurrection of +the liberal reformer, Bedr ed-Din, which was crushed by Prince Murad, +whose residence in the town as Murad II., after twice abdicating the +throne, is one of the most romantic stories in Turkish history. In the +17th century Manisa became the residence of the greatest of the Dere Bey +families, Kara Osman Oglu, Turcoman by origin, and possibly connected +with the former emirs of Sarukhan, which seems to have risen to power by +farming the taxes of a province which princes of the house of Othman had +often governed and regarded with especial affection. The _liva_ of +Sarukhan was one of the twenty-two in the Ottoman Empire leased on a +life tenure up to the time of Mahmud II. In the 18th century the family +of Kara Osman Oglu (or Karasman) ruled _de facto_ all west central +Anatolia, one member being lord of Bergama and another of Aidin, while +the head of the house held Manisa with all the Hermus valley and had +greater power in Smyrna than the representative of the capitan pasha in +whose province that city nominally lay. Outside their own fiefs the +family had so much property that it was commonly said they could sleep +in a house of their own at any stage from Smyrna to Baghdad. The last of +its great beys was Haji Hussein Zade, who was frequently called in to +Smyrna on the petition of his friends, the European merchants, to assure +tranquillity in the troublous times consequent on Napoleon's invasion of +Egypt, and the British and Russian attacks on the Porte early in the +19th century. He always acquitted himself well, but having refused to +bring his contingent to the grand vizier when on the march to Egypt in +1798, and awakened the jealousy of the capitan pasha, he was in +continual danger. Exiled in 1812, he was subsequently restored to +Manisa, and died there in 1821. His son succeeded after sanguinary +tumults; but Mahmud II., who had long marked the family for destruction, +was so hostile towards it, after he had got rid of the janissaries, that +it had lost all but the shadow of power by 1830. Descendants survived in +Manisa who retained a special right of granting title-deeds within the +district, independent of the local administration. (D. G. H.) + + + + +MANISTEE, a city and the county-seat of Manistee county, Michigan, +U.S.A., on the Manistee river (which here broadens into a small lake) +near its entrance into Lake Michigan, about 114 m. W.N.W. of Grand +Rapids. Pop. (1890), 12,812; (1900), 14,260 (4966 foreign-born); (1904, +state census), 12,708; (1910), 12,381. It is served by the Père +Marquette, the Manistee & Grand Rapids, the Manistee & North-Eastern, +and the Manistee & Luther railways, and by steamboat lines to Chicago, +Milwaukee and other lake ports. The channel between Lake Manistee and +Lake Michigan has been considerably improved since 1867 by the Federal +government. There is a United States life-saving station at the harbour +entrance. The city has a county normal school, a school for the deaf and +dumb, a domestic science and manual training school, a business college, +and a Carnegie library. Manistee is a summer resort, with good trout +streams and well-known brine-baths. One mile from the city limits, on +Lake Michigan, is Orchard Beach, a bathing resort, connected with the +city by electric railway; and about 9 m. north of Manistee is Portage +Lake (about 2 m. long and 1 m. wide), a fishing resort and harbour of +refuge (with a good channel from Lake Michigan), connected with the city +by steamboat and railway. Manistee has large lumber interests, is the +centre of an extensive fruit-growing region, and has various +manufactures, including lumber and salt.[1] The total value of the +factory product in 1904 was $3,256,601. The municipality owns and +operates its waterworks. Manistee (the name being taken from a former +Ottawa Indian village, probably on Little Traverse Bay, Mich.) was +settled about 1849, and was chartered as a city in 1869, the charter of +that year being revised in 1890. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] There is a very large salt block at Eastlake, 1 m. east of + Manistee, and Filer City, a few miles south-east, is another source + of supply. + + + + +MANITOBA, a lake of Manitoba province, Canada, situated between 50° 11´ +and 51° 48´ N. and 97° 56´ and 99° 35´ W. It has an area of 1711 sq. m., +a length of shore line of 535 m., and is at an altitude of 810 ft. above +the sea. It has a total length of 119 m., a maximum width of 29 m., +discharge of 14,833 cub. ft. per second, and has an average depth of 12 +ft. Its shores are low, and for the most part swampy. The Waterhen +river, which carries the discharge of Lake Winnipegosis, is the only +considerable stream entering the lake. It is drained by the Little +Saskatchewan river into Lake Winnipeg. It was discovered by De la +Verendrye in 1739. + + + + +MANITOBA, one of the western provinces of the Dominion of Canada, +situated midway between the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts of the +Dominion, about 1090 m. due west of Quebec. It is bounded S. by the +parallel 49° N., which divides it from the United States; W. by 101° 20´ +W.; N. by 52° 50´ N.; and E. by the western boundary of Ontario. +Manitoba formerly belonged to the Hudson's Bay Company, and after the +transfer of its territory to Canada was admitted in 1870 as the fifth +province of the Dominion. At that time the infant province had an area +of 13,500 sq. m., and some 12,000 people, chiefly Indian half-breeds. In +1881 the limits were increased as above, and the province now contains +upwards of 73,956 sq. m., extending 264 m. from north to south and +upwards of 300 from east to west. The old district of Assiniboia, the +result of the efforts in colonization by the earl of Selkirk in 1811 and +succeeding years, was the nucleus of the province. + +The name Manitoba sprang from the union of two Indian words, _Manito_ +(the Great Spirit), and _Waba_ (the "narrows" of the lake, which may +readily be seen on the map). This well-known strait was a sacred place +to the Crees and Saulteaux, who, impressed by the weird sound made by +the wind as it rushed through the narrows, as simple children of the +prairies called them _Manito-Waba_, or the "Great Spirit's narrows." The +name, arising from this unusual sound, has been by metonymy translated +into "God's Voice." The word was afterwards contracted into its present +form. As there is no accent in Indian words, the natural pronunciation +of this name would be Man-i-to-ba. On this account, the custom of both +the French and English people of the country was for years before and +for several years after 1870 to pronounce it Man-i-to-ba, and even in +some cases to spell it "Manitobah." After the formation of the province +and the familiar use of the provincial name in the Dominion parliament, +where it has occupied much attention for a generation, the pronunciation +has changed, so that the province is universally known from ocean to +ocean as Man-i-to-ba. + + _Physical Features._--The drainage of Manitoba is entirely + north-eastward to Hudson Bay. The three lakes--whose greatest lengths + are 260,122 and 119 m. respectively--are Winnipeg, Winnipegosis and + Manitoba. They are all of irregular shape, but average respectively + 30, 18 and 10 m. in width. They are fresh, shallow and tideless. + Winnipegosis and Manitoba at high water, in spring-time, discharge + their overflow through small streams into Winnipeg. The chief rivers + emptying into Lake Winnipeg are the Winnipeg, the Red and the + Saskatchewan. The Assiniboine river enters the Red river 45 m. from + Lake Winnipeg, and at the confluence of the rivers ("The Forks") is + situated the city of Winnipeg. The Winnipeg, which flows from the + territory lying south-east of Lake Winnipeg, is a noble river some 200 + m. long, which after leaving Lake of the Woods dashes with its clear + water over many cascades, and traverses very beautiful scenery. At its + falls from Lake of the Woods is one of the greatest and most easily + utilized water-powers in the world, and from falls lower down the + river electric power for the city of Winnipeg is obtained. The Red + river is at intervals subject to freshets. In a century's experience + of the Selkirk colonists there have been four "floods." The highest + level of the site of the city of Winnipeg is said to have been under 5 + ft. of water for several weeks in May and June in 1826, and 2½ ft. in + 1852, not covered in 1861; only the lowest levels were under water in + 1882. The extent of overflow has thus on each occasion been less. The + loose soil on the banks of the river is every year carried away in + great masses, and the channel has so widened as to render the + recurrence of an overflow unlikely. The Saskatchewan, though not in + the province, empties into Lake Winnipeg less than half a degree from + the northern boundary. It is a mighty river, rising in the Rocky + Mountains, and crossing eighteen degrees of longitude. Near its mouth + are the Grand Rapids. Above these steamers ply to Fort Edmonton, a + point upwards of 800 m. north-west of the city of Winnipeg. Steamers + run from Grand Rapids, through Lake Winnipeg, up Red river to the city + of Winnipeg, important locks having been constructed on the river at + St Andrews. + + The surface of Manitoba is somewhat level and monotonous. It is + chiefly a prairie region, with treeless plains of from 5 to 40 m. + extent, covered in summer with an exuberant vegetable growth, which + dies every year. The river banks, however, are fringed with trees, and + in the more undulating lands the timber belts vary from a few hundreds + of yards to 5 or 10 m. in width, forming at times forests of no + inconsiderable size. The chief trees of the country are the aspen + (_Populus tremuloides_), the ash-leaved maple (_Negundo aceroides_), + oak (_Quercus alba_), elm (_Ulmus Americana_), and many varieties of + willow. The strawberry, raspberry, currant, plum, cherry and grape are + indigenous. + + [Illustration: Map of Manitoba.] + + _Climate._--The climate of Manitoba, being that of a region of wide + extent and of similar conditions, is not subject to frequent + variations. Winter, with cold but clear and bracing weather, usually + sets in about the middle of November, and ends with March. In April + and May the rivers have opened, the snow has disappeared, and the + opportunity has been afforded the farmer of sowing his grain. June is + often wet, but most favourable for the springing crops; July and + August are warm, but, excepting two or three days at a time, not + uncomfortably so; while the autumn weeks of late August and September + are very pleasant. Harvest generally extends from the middle of August + to near the end of September. The chief crops of the farmer are wheat + (which from its flinty hardness and full kernel is the specialty of + the Canadian north-west), oats, barley and pease. Hay is made of the + native prairie grasses, which grow luxuriantly. From the richness and + mellowness of the soil potatoes and all taproots reach a great size. + Heavy dews in summer give the needed moisture after the rains of June + have ceased. The traveller and farmer are at times annoyed by the + mosquito. + +_Area and Population._--The area is 73,956 sq. m., of which 64,066 are +land and 9890 water. Pop. (1871), 18,995; (1881), 62,260; (1891), +152,506; (1901), 254,947 (138,332 males, 116,615 females); (1906), +365,688 (205,183 males and 160,505 females). The principal cities and +towns are: Winnipeg (90,153), Brandon (10,408), Portage la Prairie +(5106), St Boniface (5119), West Selkirk (2701), and Morden (1437). In +1901, 49,102 families inhabited 48,415 houses, and the proportion of the +urban population to the rural was 27.5 to 72.5. Classified according to +place of birth, the principal nationalities were as follows in 1901: +Canada, 180,853; England, 20,392; Scotland, 8099; Ireland, 4537; other +British possessions, 490; Germany, 2291; Iceland, 5403; Austria, 11,570; +Russia and Poland, 8854; Scandinavia, 1772; United States, 6922; other +countries, 4028. In 1901 the Indians numbered 5827; half-breeds, 10,372. +Of the Indian half-breeds, one half are of English-speaking parentage, +and chiefly of Orkney origin; the remainder are known as Metis or +Bois-brûlés, and are descended from French-Canadian voyageurs. In 1875 a +number of Russian Mennonites (descendants of the Anabaptists of the +Reformation) came to the country. They originally emigrated from +Germany to the plains of southern Russia, but came over to Manitoba to +escape the conscription. They number upwards of 15,000. About 4000 +French Canadians, who had emigrated from Quebec to the United States, +have also made the province their home, as well as Icelanders now +numbering 20,000. During the decade ending 1907 large reserves were +settled with Ruthenians often known as Galicians, Poles and other +peoples from central and northern Europe. Some 30,000 of these are found +in the province. The remainder of the population is chiefly made up of +English-speaking people from the other provinces of the Dominion, from +the United States, from England and Scotland and the north of Ireland. + +_Religion._--Classified according to religion, the various denominations +were, in 1901, as follows: Presbyterians, 65,310; Episcopalians, 44,874; +Methodists, 49,909; Roman Catholics, 35,622; Baptists, 9098; Lutherans, +16,473; Mennonites, 15,222; Greek Catholics, 7898; other denominations, +9903; not specified, 638. + +_Government._--The province is under a lieutenant-governor, appointed +for a term of five years, with an executive council of six members, +responsible to the local legislature, which consists of forty-two +members. It has four members in the Canadian Senate and ten in the House +of Commons. + +_Education._--The dual system of education, established in 1871, was +abolished in 1890, and the administrative machinery consolidated under a +minister of the Crown and an advisory board. This act was amended in +1897 to meet the wishes of the Roman Catholic minority, but separate +schools were not re-established; nor was the council divided into +denominational committees. There are collegiate institutes for more +advanced education at Winnipeg, Brandon and Portage la Prairie, with a +total of 1094 pupils enrolled. There is also a normal school at Winnipeg +for the training of teachers. Higher education is represented by the +provincial university, which teaches science and mathematics, holds +examinations, distributes scholarships, and grants degrees in all +subjects. It has affiliated to it colleges of the Roman Catholic, +Episcopalian, Presbyterian and Methodist denominations, with medical and +pharmaceutical colleges. The arts colleges of the churches carry on the +several courses required by the university, and send their students to +the examinations of the university. A well-equipped agricultural college +near Winnipeg is provided for sons and daughters of farmers. + +_Agriculture_ is the prevailing industry of Manitoba. Dairy-farming is +rapidly increasing in importance, and creameries for the manufacture of +butter and cheese are established in almost all parts of the province. +Large numbers of horses, cattle, swine and poultry are reared. The +growth of cereals is the largest department of agriculture followed. + + The following statistics are interesting:-- + + +-------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ + | | 1883. | 1890. | 1894. | 1901. | + +-------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ + | | Bushels. | Bushels. | Bushels. | Bushels. | + | Wheat | 5,686,355 | 14,665,769 | 17,172,883 | 50,502,085 | + | Oats | 9,478,965 | 9,513,443 | 11,907,854 | 27,796,588 | + | Barley | 1,898,430 | 2,069,415 | 2,981,716 | 6,536,155 | + | Flax | No statistics collected | 366,000 | 266,420 | + | Rye | " | " | 59,924 | 62,261 | + | Peas | " | " | 18,434 | 16,349 | + | Potatoes | " | " | 2,035,336 | 4,797,433 | + | Other roots | " | " | 1,841,942 | 2,925,362 | + +-------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ + + The enormous development of the wheat-growing industry is shown by + these and the following statistics:-- + + Wheat inspected in Winnipeg. + + 1902 51,833,000 bushels + 1903 40,396,650 " + 1904 39,784,900 " + 1905 55,849,840 " + 1906 66,636,390 " + + These figures do not include the wheat ground into flour and sent by + way of British Columbia to Asia and Australia, nor the wheat retained + by the farmers for seed. The Dominion government maintains an + experimental farm of 670 acres at Brandon. The fisheries are all + fresh-water, principally white-fish, pickerel and pike. Large + quantities of fresh fish caught in lakes Winnipeg and Manitoba are + exported to all parts of the United States. + + _Communications._--The region of the Red River and Assiniboine valleys + was opened up by the fur traders, who came by the waterways from Lake + Superior, and afterwards by the water communication with Hudson Bay. + While these early traders used the canoe and the York boat,[1] yet the + steamboat played an important part in the early history of the region + from 1868 till 1885, when access from the United States was gained by + steamers down the Red River. The completion of the St Andrew's Rapids + canal on Red River, and the Grand Rapids canal on the Saskatchewan + river will again give an impetus to inland navigation on the + tributaries of Lake Winnipeg. Lake Manitoba also affords opportunity + for inland shipping. + + The broad expanse of prairie-land in the western provinces of Canada + is well suited for the cheap and expeditious building of railways. The + first connexion with the United States was by two railways coming down + the Red River valley. But the desire for Canadian unity led the + Dominion to assist a transcontinental line connecting Manitoba with + eastern Canada. The building of the Canadian Pacific railway through + almost continuous rocks for 800 miles was one of the greatest + engineering feats of modern times. Immediately on the formation of the + Canadian Pacific railway company branch lines were begun at Winnipeg + and there are eight radial lines running from this centre to all parts + of the country. Winnipeg is thus connected with Montreal on the east, + and Vancouver on the west, and is the central point of the Canadian + Pacific system, having railway yards and equipment equalled by few + places in America. In opposition to the Canadian Pacific railway a + southern line was built from Winnipeg to the American boundary. This + fell into the hands of the Northern Pacific railway, but was purchased + by the promoters of the Canadian Northern railway. This railway has + six radiating lines leaving the city of Winnipeg, and its main line + connects Port Arthur on Lake Superior with Edmonton in the west. The + Canadian Northern railway has a remarkable network of railways + connecting Winnipeg with every corner of Manitoba. The Great Northern + railway has also three branch lines in Manitoba and one of these has + Winnipeg as its terminus. The grand Trunk Pacific railway, the great + transcontinental line promoted by the Laurier government, passes + through Manitoba north of the Canadian Pacific, coming from the east + deflects southward to pass through Winnipeg, and then strikes + northward in a direct line of easy gradients to find its way through + the Rocky Mountains to its terminus of Prince Rupert on the north + coast of British Columbia. + +_History._--The first white settlement in Manitoba was made by Pierre +Gaultier de Varennes, Sieur de la Verendrye (d. 1749), who, gradually +pushing westward from Lake Superior, reached Lake Winnipeg in 1733, and +in the following year built a fort not far from the present Fort +Alexander. In October 1738 he built another at Fort Rouge, at the +junction of the Red and Assiniboine rivers, where is now the city of +Winnipeg. After the British conquest of 1763 the west became the scene +of a rapidly increasing fur trade, and for many years there was keen +rivalry between the Hudson's Bay Company, with its headquarters in +England, and the North-West Company of Montreal. French and Scottish +farmers and fur-traders gradually settled along the Red River, and by +their frequent marriages with the Indians produced a race of metis or +half-breeds. From 1811 to 1818 Lord Selkirk's attempted colonization +greatly increased the population; from the time of his failure till 1869 +the settlers lived quietly under the mild rule of the Hudson's Bay +Company. In that year the newly formed Dominion of Canada bought from +the company its territorial and political rights. A too hasty occupation +by Canadian officials and settlers led to the rebellion of the Metis +under Louis Riel, a native leader. The rebellion was quieted and Sir +Garnet Wolseley (now Lord Wolseley) was sent from Canada by the lake +route, with several regiments of troops--regulars and volunteers. The +Manitoba Act constituting the province was passed by the Canadian +parliament in 1870. (See RED RIVER SETTLEMENT; and RIEL, LOUIS.) + +The admixture of races and religions, and its position as the key to the +great West, have ever since made Manitoba the storm centre of Canadian +politics. In the charter granted by the Canadian parliament to the +Canadian Pacific railway a clause giving it for twenty years control +over the railway construction of the province led to a fierce agitation, +till the clause was repealed in 1888. Till 1884 an equally fierce +agitation was carried on against Ontario with regard to the eastern +boundary of Manitoba. (See ONTARIO.) In both these disputes the +provincial leader was the Hon. John Norquay, in whose veins ran a large +admixture of Indian blood. In 1890 changes in the school system +unfavourable to the Roman Catholic Church led to a constitutional +struggle, to which was due the defeat of the Federal ministry in 1896. +Since 1896 its rapid material progress has produced numerous economic +problems and disputes, many of which are still unsolved. + (G. Br.; W. L. G.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] A round-bottomed, strongly built boat, 30 to 36 ft. long, + propelled by 8 men. It was devised by the Hudson's Bay Company for + carrying freight, as a substitute for the less serviceable canoe, and + was named after their York factory, the centre to which the traders + brought down the furs for shipment to England and from which they + took back merchandise and supplies to the interior of Rupert's Land. + + + + +MANITOU or MANITO (Algonquian Indian, "mystery," "supernatural"), among +certain American Indian tribes, a spirit or genius of good or evil. The +manitou is almost always an animal, each individual having one assigned +him, generally by dream-inspiration, at the greatest religious act of +his life--his first fast. This animal then becomes his fetish; its skin +is carried as a charm, and representations of it are tattooed and +painted on the body or engraved on the weapons. + + + + +MANITOWOC (Indian, "Spirit-land"), a city and the county-seat of +Manitowoc county, Wisconsin, on the W. shore of Lake Michigan, 75 m. N. +of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890), 7710; (1900), 11,786, of whom 2998 were +foreign-born; (1910 census), 13,027. It is served by the Chicago & +North-Western, and the Wisconsin Central railways; by ferry across the +lake to Frankfort, Mich., and Ludington, Mich.; by the Ann Arbor and the +Père Marquette railways; and by the Goodrich line of lake steamers. The +city is finely situated on high ground above the lake at the mouth of +the Manitowoc river. At Manitowoc are the county insane asylum and a +Polish orphan asylum. The city has a training school for county +teachers, a business college, two hospitals and a Carnegie library. +There are ship-yards for the construction of both steel and wooden +vessels, and several grain elevators. The value of the factory products +increased from $1,935,442 in 1900 to $4,427,816 in 1905, or 128.8 per +cent.--a greater increase than that of any other city in the state +during this period. There is a good harbour, and the city has a +considerable lake commerce in grain, flour, and dairy products. Jacques +Vieau established here a post for the North-west Company of fur traders +in 1795. The first permanent settlement was made about 1836, and +Manitowoc was chartered as a city in 1870. In Manitowoc county, 18 m. +south-west of the city of Manitowoc, is St Nazianz, an unorganized +village near which in 1854 a colony or community of German Roman +Catholics was established under the leadership of Father Ambrose Oswald, +the primary object being to enable poor people by combination and +co-operation to supply themselves with the comforts of life at minimum +expense and have as much time as possible left for religious thought and +worship. The title of the colony's land was vested in Father Oswald +after the panic of 1857 until his death in 1874, when he devised the +lands to "the colony founded by me." The colony had no legal existence +at the time, but was then incorporated as the "Roman Catholic Religious +Society of St Nazianz," and as such sued successfully for the bequest. +Financially the colony was successful, but as there were some desertions +and no new recruits after Father Oswald's death, there were few members +by 1909. There are no longer any traces of communism, and the colony's +property is actually held by an organization of the local Roman Catholic +church. + + + + +MANIZALES, a city of Colombia and capital of the department of Cáldas +(up to 1905 the northern part of Antioquia), 75 m. S. of Medellin, on +the old trade route across the Cordillera between Honda, on the +Magdalena, and the Cauca Valley. Pop. (1906, estimate), 20,000. The city +is situated on a plateau of the western slope of the Cordillera, 6988 +ft. above the sea. It is surrounded by rich mineral and agricultural +districts. + + + + +MANKATO, a city and the county-seat of Blue Earth county, Minnesota, +U.S.A., at the southern bend of the Minnesota river, where it is joined +by the Blue Earth about 86 m. S.W. of Minneapolis. Pop. (1890), 8838; +(1900), 10,599, of whom 2578 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 10,365. +Mankato is served by the Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha, the +Chicago & North-Western (both "North-Western Lines"), the Chicago, +Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Chicago Great-Western railways. The city +has two fine parks, a Carnegie library, a Federal building, the Immanuel +and St Joseph hospitals, two commercial colleges, and a state normal +school (1868). The numerous lakes in the neighbourhood, particularly +Lake Madison and Lake Washington, are widely known as summer resorts. +Four miles west of the city is Minneopa state park (area, 60 acres), in +which are Minneopa Falls (60 ft.) and a fine gorge; the park was +established by the state in 1905-1906. Mankato has an extensive trade in +dairy and agricultural products (especially grain), stone (a pinkish +buff limestone is quarried in the vicinity), and forest products. The +value of its factory products increased from $1,887,315 in 1900 to +$3,422,117 in 1905, or 81.3%. + +Mankato was settled about 1853, and was first chartered as a city in +1868. On or near the site of the city stood a village of the Mankato +("blue earth") band of the Mdewakanton Sioux, who derived their name +from one of their chiefs, "Old Mankato." In this region occurred the +Sioux uprising of 1862, and from this point operations were carried on +which eventually resulted in the subjugation of the Indians and the +hanging, at Mankato, in December 1862, of 38 leaders of the revolt. In +the uprising the Mankato band was led by another chief named Mankato, +who took part in the attack on Ft Ridgeley, Minn., in August, in the +engagement on the 3rd of September at Birch Coolie, Minn., and in that +on the 23rd of September at Wood Lake, where he was killed. + + + + +MANLEY, MARY DE LA RIVIERE (c. 1663-1724), English writer, daughter of +Sir Roger Manley, governor of the Channel Islands, was born on the 7th +of April 1663 in Jersey. She wrote her own biography under the title of +_The Adventures of Rivella, or the History of the Author of the +Atalantis_ by "Sir Charles Lovemore" (1714). According to her own +account she was left an orphan at the age of sixteen, and beguiled into +a mock marriage with a kinsman who deserted her basely three years +afterwards. She was patronized for a short time by the duchess of +Cleveland, and wrote an unsuccessful comedy, _The Lost Lover_ (1696); in +freedom of speech she equalled the most licentious writers of comedy in +that generation. Her tragedy, _The Royal Mischief_ (1696) was more +successful. From 1696 Mrs Manley was a favourite member of witty and +fashionable society. In 1705 appeared _The Secret History of Queen Zarah +and the Zarazians_, a satire on Sarah, duchess of Marlborough, in the +guise of romance. This was probably by Mrs Manley, who, four years +later, achieved her principal triumph as a writer by her _Secret Memoirs +... of Several Persons of Quality_ (1709), a scandalous chronicle "from +the New Atalantis, an island in the Mediterranean." She was arrested in +the autumn of 1709 as the author of a libellous publication, but was +discharged by the court of queen's bench on the 13th of February 1710. +Mrs Manley sought in this scandalous narrative to expose the private +vices of the ministers whom Swift, Bolingbroke and Harley combined to +drive from office. During the keen political campaign in 1711 she wrote +several pamphlets, and many numbers of the _Examiner_, criticizing +persons and policy with equal vivacity. Later were published her tragedy +_Lucius_ (1717); _The Power of Love, in Seven Novels_ (1720), and _A +Stage Coach Journey to Exeter_ (1725). + + + + +MANLIUS, the name of a Roman gens, chiefly patrician, but containing +plebeian families also. + +1. MARCUS MANLIUS CAPITOLINUS, a patrician, consul 392 B.C. According to +tradition, when in 390 B.C. the besieging Gauls were attempting to scale +the Capitol, he was roused by the cackling of the sacred geese, rushed +to the spot and threw down the foremost assailants (Livy v. 47; +Plutarch, _Camillus_, 27). Several years after, seeing a centurion led +to prison for debt, he freed him with his own money, and even sold his +estate to relieve other poor debtors, while he accused the senate of +embezzling public money. He was charged with aspiring to kingly power, +and condemned by the comitia, but not until the assembly had adjourned +to a place without the walls, where they could no longer see the Capitol +which he had saved. His house on the Capitol (the origin of his surname) +was razed, and the Manlii resolved that henceforth no patrician Manlius +should bear the name of Marcus. According to Mommsen, the story of the +saving of the Capitol was a later invention to explain his surname, and +his attempt to relieve the debtors a fiction of the times of Cinna. + + Livy vi. 14-20; Plutarch, _Camillus_, 36; Cicero, _De domo_, 38. + +2. TITUS MANLIUS IMPERIOSUS TORQUATUS, twice dictator (353, 349 B.C.) +and three times consul (347, 344, 340). When his father, L. Manlius +Imperiosus (dictator 363), was brought to trial by the tribune M. +Pomponius for abusing his office of dictator, he forced Pomponius to +drop the accusation by threatening his life (Livy vii. 3-5). In 360, +during a war with the Gauls, he slew one of the enemy, a man of gigantic +stature, in single combat, and took from him a torques (neck-ornament), +whence his surname. When the Latins demanded an equal share in the +government of the confederacy, Manlius vowed to kill with his own hand +the first Latin he saw in the senate-house. The Latins and Campanians +revolted, and Manlius, consul for the third time, marched into Campania +and gained two great victories, near Vesuvius, where P. Decius Mus +(q.v.), his colleague, "devoted" himself in order to gain the day, and +at Trifanum. In this campaign Manlius executed his own son, who had +killed an enemy in single combat, and thus disobeyed the express command +of the consuls. + + Livy vii. 4, 10, 27, viii. 3; Cicero, _De off._ iii. 31. + +3. TITUS MANLIUS TORQUATUS, consul 235 B.C. and 224, censor 231, +dictator 208. In his first consulship he subjugated Sardinia, recently +acquired from the Carthaginians, when the temple of Janus was shut for +the second time in Roman history (Livy i. 19). In 216 he opposed the +ransoming of the Romans taken prisoners at Cannae; and in 215 he was +sent to Sardinia and defeated a Carthaginian attempt to regain +possession of the island. + + Livy xxiii. 34; Polybius ii. 31. + +4. GNAEUS MANLIUS VULSO, praetor 195, consul 189. He was sent to Asia to +conclude peace with Antiochus III., king of Syria. He marched into +Pamphylia, defeated the Celts of Galatia on Mt Olympus and drove them +back across the Halys. In the winter, assisted by ten delegates sent +from Rome, he settled the terms of peace with Antiochus, and in 187 +received the honour of a triumph. + + Polybius xxii. 16-25; Livy xxxviii. 12-28, 37-50; xxxix. 6. + + + + +MANN, HORACE (1796-1859), American educationist, was born in Franklin, +Massachusetts, on the 4th of May 1796. His childhood and youth were +passed in poverty, and his health was early impaired by hard manual +labour. His only means for gratifying his eager desire for books was the +small library founded in his native town by Benjamin Franklin and +consisting principally of histories and treatises on theology. At the +age of twenty he was fitted, in six months, for college, and in 1819, +graduated with highest honours, from the Brown University at Providence, +Rhode Island, having devoted himself so unremittingly to his studies as +to weaken further his naturally feeble constitution. He then studied law +for a short time at Wrentham, Massachusetts; was tutor in Latin and +Greek (1820-1822) and librarian (1821-1823) at Brown University; studied +during 1821-1823 in the famous law school conducted by Judge James Gould +at Litchfield, Connecticut; and in 1823 was admitted to the Norfolk +(Mass.) bar. For fourteen years, first at Dedham, Massachusetts, and +after 1833 at Boston, he devoted himself, with great success, to his +profession. Meanwhile he served, with conspicuous ability, in the +Massachusetts House of Representatives from 1827 to 1833 and in the +Massachusetts Senate from 1833 to 1837, for the last two years as +president. It was not until he became secretary (1837) of the newly +created board of education of Massachusetts, that he began the work +which was soon to place him in the foremost rank of American +educationists. He held this position till 1848, and worked with a +remarkable intensity--holding teachers' conventions, delivering numerous +lectures and addresses, carrying on an extensive correspondence, +introducing numerous reforms, planning and inaugurating the +Massachusetts normal school system, founding and editing _The Common +School Journal_ (1838), and preparing a series of _Annual Reports_, +which had a wide circulation and are still considered as being "among +the best expositions, if, indeed, they are not the very best ones, of +the practical benefits of a common school education both to the +individual and to the state" (Hinsdale). The practical result of his +work was the virtual revolutionizing of the common school system of +Massachusetts, and indirectly of the common school systems of other +states. In carrying out his work he met with bitter opposition, being +attacked particularly by certain school-masters of Boston who strongly +disapproved of his pedagogical theories and innovations, and by various +religious sectaries, who contended against the exclusion of all +sectarian instruction from the schools. He answered these attacks in +kind, sometimes perhaps with unnecessary vehemence and rancour, but he +never faltered in his work, and, an optimist by nature, a disciple of +his friend George Combe (q.v.), and a believer in the indefinite +improvability of mankind, he was sustained throughout by his conviction +that nothing could so much benefit the race, morally, intellectually and +materially, as education. Resigning the secretaryship in 1848, he was +elected to the national House of Representatives, as an anti-slavery +Whig to succeed John Quincy Adams, and was re-elected in 1849, and, as +an independent candidate, in 1850, serving until March 1853. In 1852 he +was the candidate of the Free-soilers for the governorship of +Massachusetts, but was defeated. In Congress he was one of the ablest +opponents of slavery, contending particularly against the Compromise +Measures of 1850, but he was never technically an Abolitionist and he +disapproved of the Radicalism of Garrison and his followers. From 1853 +until his death, on the second of August 1859, he was president of the +newly established Antioch College at Yellow Springs, Ohio, where he +taught political economy, intellectual and moral philosophy, and natural +theology. The college received insufficient financial support and +suffered from the attacks of religious sectaries--he himself was charged +with insincerity because, previously a Unitarian, he joined the +Christian Connexion, by which the college was founded--but he earned the +love of his students, and by his many addresses exerted a beneficial +influence upon education in the Middle West. + + A collected edition of Mann's writings, together with a memoir (1 + vol.) by his second wife, Mary Peabody Mann, a sister of Miss E. P. + Peabody, was published (in 5 vols. at Boston in 1867-1891) as the + _Life and Works of Horace Mann_. Of subsequent biographies the best is + probably Burke A. Hinsdale's _Horace Mann and the Common School + Revival in the United Stales_ (New York, 1898), in "The Great + Educators" series. Among other biographies O. H. Lang's _Horace Mann, + his Life and Work_ (New York, 1893), Albert E. Winship's _Horace Mann, + the Educator_ (Boston, 1896), and George A. Hubbell's _Life of Horace + Mann, Educator, Patriot and Reformer_ (Philadelphia, 1910), may be + mentioned. In vol. I. of the _Report_ for 1895-1896 of the United + States commissioner of education there is a detailed "Bibliography of + Horace Mann," containing more than 700 titles. + + + + +MANNA, a concrete saccharine exudation obtained by making incisions on +the trunk of the flowering or manna ash tree, _Fraxinus Ornus_. The +manna ash is a small tree found in Italy, and extending to Switzerland, +South Tirol, Hungary, Greece, Turkey and Asia Minor. It also grows in +the islands of Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia. It blossoms early in +summer, producing numerous clusters of whitish flowers. At the present +day the manna of commerce is collected exclusively in Sicily from +cultivated trees, chiefly in the districts around Capaci, Carini, Cinisi +and Favarota, small towns 20 to 25 m. W. of Palermo, and in the +townships of Geraci, Castelbuono, and other places in the district of +Cefalù, 50 to 70 m. E. of Palermo. In the _frassinetti_ or plantations +the trees are placed about 7 ft. apart, and after they are eight years +old, and the trunk at least 3 in. in diameter, the collection of manna +is begun. This operation is performed in July or August during the dry +weather, by making transverse incisions 1½ to 2 in. long, and about 1 +in. apart, through the bark, one cut being made each day, the first at +the bottom of the tree, another directly above the first, and so on. In +succeeding years the process is repeated on the untouched sides of the +trunk, until the tree has been cut all round and exhausted. It is then +cut down, and a young plant arising from the same root takes its place. +The finest or flaky manna appears to have been allowed to harden on the +stem. A very superior kind, obtained by allowing the juice to encrust +pieces of wood or straws inserted in the cuts, is called _manna a +cannolo_. The fragments adhering to the stem, after the finest flakes +have been removed are scraped off, and form the small or Tolfa manna of +commerce. That which flows from the lower incisions is often collected +on tiles or on a concave piece of the prickly pear (_Opunlia_), but is +less crystalline and more glutinous, and is less esteemed. + +Manna of good quality dissolves at ordinary temperatures in about 6 +parts of water, forming a clear liquid. Its chief constituent is mannite +or manna sugar, a hexatomic alcohol, C6H8(OH)6, which likewise occurs, +in much smaller quantity, in certain species of the brown seaweed, +_Fucus_, and in plants of several widely separated natural orders. +Mannite is obtained by extracting manna with alcohol and crystallizing +the solution. The best manna contains 70 to 80%. It crystallizes in +shining rhombic prisms from its aqueous solution and as delicate needles +from alcohol. Manna possesses mildly laxative properties, and on account +of its sweet taste is employed as a mild aperient for children. It is +less used in England now than formerly, but is still largely consumed in +South America. In Italy mannite is prepared for sale in the shape of +small cones resembling loaf sugar in shape, and is frequently prescribed +in medicine instead of manna. + +The manna of the present day appears to have been unknown before the +15th century, although a mountain in Sicily with the Arabic name +Gibelman, i.e. "manna mountain," appears to point to its collection +there during the period that the island was held by the Saracens, +827-1070. In the 16th century it was collected in Calabria, and until +recently was produced in the Tuscan Maremma, but none is now brought +into commerce from Italy, although the name of Tolfa, a town near Civita +Vecchia, is still applied to an inferior variety of the drug. + + Various other kinds of manna are known, but none of these has been + found to contain mannite. Alhagi manna (Persian and Arabic + _tar-angubin_, also known as terendschabin) is the produce of _Alhagi + maurorum_, a small, spiny, leguminous plant, growing in Arabia, Asia + Minor, Persia, Afghanistan, Baluchistan and northern India. This manna + occurs in the form of small, roundish, hard, dry tears, varying from + the size of a mustard seed to that of a coriander, of a light-brown + colour, sweet taste, and senna-like odour. The spines and pods of the + plant are often mixed with it. It is collected near Kandahar and + Herat, and imported into India from Cabul and Kandahar. Tamarisk manna + (Persian _gaz-angubin_, tamarisk honey) exudes in June and July from + the slender branches of _Tamarix gallica_, var. _mannifera_, in the + form of honey-like drops, which, in the cold temperature of the early + morning, are found in the solid state. This secretion is caused by the + puncture of an insect, _Coccus manniparus_. In the valleys of the + peninsula of Sinai, especially in the Wady el-Sheikh, this manna + (Arabic _man_) is collected by the Arabs and sold to the monks of St + Catherine, who supply it to the pilgrims visiting the convent. It is + found also in Persia and the Punjab, but does not appear to be + collected in any quantity. This kind of manna seems to be alluded to + by Herodotus (vii. 31). Under the same name of _gaz-angubin_ there are + sold commonly in the Persian bazaars round cakes, of which a chief + ingredient is a manna obtained to the south-west of Ispahan, in the + month of August, by shaking the branches or scraping the stems of + _Astragalus florulentus_ and _A. adscendens_.[1] _Shir Khist_, a manna + known to writers on materia medica in the 16th century, is imported + into India from Afghanistan and Turkestan to a limited extent; it is + the produce of _Cotoneaster nummularia_ (_Rosaceae_), and to a less + extent of _Atraphaxis spinosa_ (_Polygonaceae_); it is brought chiefly + from Herat. + + Oak manna or _Gueze-elefi_, according to Haussknecht, is collected + from the twigs of _Quercus Vallonia_ and _Q. persica_, on which it is + produced by the puncture of an insect during the month of August. This + manna occurs in the state of agglutinated tears, and forms an object + of some industry among the wandering tribes of Kurdistan. It is + collected before sunrise, by shaking the grains of manna on to linen + cloths spread out beneath the trees, or by dipping the small branches + in hot water and evaporating the solution thus obtained. A substance + collected by the inhabitants of Laristan from _Pyrus glabra_ strongly + resembles oak manna in appearance. + + Australian or Eucalyptus manna is found on the leaves of _Eucalyptus + viminalis_, _E. Gunnii_, var. _rubida_, _E. pulverulenta_, &c. The + Lerp manna of Australia is of animal origin. + + Briançon manna is met with on the leaves of the common Larch (q.v.), + and _bide-khecht_ on those of the willow, _Salix fragilis_; and a kind + of manna was at one time obtained from the cedar. + + The manna of the Biblical narrative, notwithstanding the miraculous + circumstances which distinguish it from anything now known, answers in + its description very closely to the tamarisk manna. + + See Bentley and Trimen, _Medicinal Plants_ (1880); Watt, _Dictionary + of Economic Products of India_, under "Manna" (1891). For analyses see + A. Ebert, _Abst. J.C.S._, 1909, 96, p. 176. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See _Bombay Lit. Tr._, vol. i. art. 16, for details as to the + _gazangubin_. A common Persian sweetmeat consists of wheat-flour + kneaded with manna into a thick paste. + + + + +MANNERS, CHARLES (1857- ), English musician, whose real name was +Southcote Mansergh, was born in London, son of Colonel Mansergh, an +Irishman. He had a fine bass voice, and was educated for the musical +profession in Dublin and at the Royal Academy of Music in London. He +began singing in opera in 1881, and in 1882 had great success as the +sentry in _Iolanthe_ at the Savoy, following this with numerous +engagements in opera both in England and America. He married the singer +Fanny Moody, already a leading soprano on the operatic stage, in 1890; +and in 1897 they formed the Moody-Manners opera company, which had a +great success in the provinces and undertook seasons in London in 1902. +Manners and his wife were assisted by some other excellent artists, and +their enterprise had considerable influence on contemporary English +music. + + + + +MANNERS-SUTTON, CHARLES (1755-1828), archbishop of Canterbury, was +educated at Charterhouse and Cambridge. In 1785 he was appointed to the +family living at Averham-with-Kelham, in Nottinghamshire, and in 1791 +became dean of Peterborough. He was consecrated bishop of Norwich in +1792, and two years later received the appointment of dean of Windsor +_in commendam_. In 1805 he was chosen to succeed Archbishop Moore in the +see of Canterbury. During his primacy the old archiepiscopal palace at +Croydon was sold and the country palace of Addington bought with the +proceeds. He presided over the first meeting which issued in the +foundation of the National Society, and subsequently lent the scheme his +strong support. He also exerted himself to promote the establishment of +the Indian episcopate. His only published works are two sermons, one +preached before the Lords (London, 1794), the other before the Society +for the Propagation of the Gospel (London, 1797). His brother, THOMAS +MANNERS-SUTTON, 1st BARON MANNERS (1756-1842), was lord chancellor of +Ireland. For his son Charles see CANTERBURY, 1ST VISCOUNT. + + + + +MANNHEIM, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Baden, lying on the +right bank of the Rhine, at its confluence with the Neckar, 39 m. by +rail N. of Karlsruhe, 10 m. W. of Heidelberg and 55 m. S. of +Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. (1900), 141,131; (1905), 162,607 (of whom about +70,000 are Roman Catholics and 6000 Jews). It is perhaps the most +regularly built town in Germany, consisting of twelve parallel streets +intersected at right angles by others, which cut it up into 136 square +sections of equal size. These blocks are distinguished, after the +American fashion, by letters and numerals. Except on the south side all +the streets debouch on the promenade, which forms a circle round the +town on the site of the old ramparts. Outside this ring are the suburbs +Schwetzinger-Vorstadt to the south and Neckar-Vorstadt to the north, +others being Lindenhof, Mühlau, Neckarau and Käferthal. Mannheim is +connected by a handsome bridge with Ludwigshafen, a rapidly growing +commercial and manufacturing town on the left bank of the Rhine, in +Bavarian territory. The Neckar is spanned by two bridges. + +Nearly the whole of the south-west side of the town is occupied by the +palace (1720-1759), formerly the residence of the elector palatine of +the Rhine. It is one of the largest buildings of the kind in Germany, +covering an area of 15 acres, and having a frontage of about 600 yards. +It has 1500 windows. The left wing was totally destroyed by the +bombardment of 1795, but has since been restored. The palace contains a +picture gallery and collections of natural history and antiquities, and +in front of it are two monumental fountains and a monument to the +emperor William I. The large and beautiful gardens at the back form the +public park of the town. Among the other prominent buildings arc the +theatre, the arsenal, the synagogue, the "Kaufhaus," the town-hall +(_Rathaus_, 1771) and the observatory. A newer building is the fine +municipal Festhalle with magnificent rooms. The only noteworthy churches +are the Jesuit church (1737-1760), the interior of which is lavishly +decorated with marble and painting; the Koncordienkirche and the +Schlosskirche. In front of the theatre are statues of Schiller, August +Wilhelm Iffland the actor, and Wolfgang Heribert von Dalberg +(1750-1806), intendant of the theatre in the time of Schiller. Mannheim +is the chief commercial town on the upper Rhine, and yields in +importance to Cologne alone among the lower Rhenish towns. It stands at +the head of the effective navigation on the Rhine, and is not only the +largest port on the upper course of that stream, but is the principal +emporium for south Germany for such commodities as cereals, coal, +petroleum, timber, sugar and tobacco, with a large trade in hops, wine +and other south German produce. Owing to the rapid increase in the +traffic, a new harbour at the mouth of the Neckar was opened in 1898. +The industries are equal in importance to the transit trade, and embrace +metal-working, iron-founding and machine building, the manufacture of +electric plant, celluloid, automobiles, furniture, cables and chemicals, +sugar refining, cigar and tobacco making, and brewing. + +Mannheim is the seat of the central board for the navigation of the +Rhine, of a high court of justice, and of the grand ducal commissioner +for north Baden. + +_History._--The name of Mannheim was connected with its present site in +the 8th century, when a small village belonging to the abbey of Lorsch +lay in the marshy district between the Neckar and the Rhine. To the +south of this village, on the Rhine, was the castle of Eicholzheim, +which acquired some celebrity as the place of confinement assigned to +Pope John XXIII. by the council of Constance. The history of modern +Mannheim begins, however, with the opening of the 17th century, when the +elector palatine Frederick IV. founded a town here, which was peopled +chiefly with Protestant refugees from Holland. The strongly fortified +castle which he erected at the same time had the unfortunate result of +making the infant town an object of contention in the Thirty Years' War, +during which it was five times taken and retaken. In 1688 Mannheim, +which had in the meantime recovered from its former disasters, was +captured by the French, and in 1689 it was burned down. Ten years later +it was rebuilt on an extended scale, and provided with fortifications by +the elector John William. For its subsequent importance it was indebted +to the elector Charles Philip, who, owing to ecclesiastical disputes, +transferred his residence from Heidelberg to Mannheim in 1720. It +remained the capital of the Palatinate for nearly sixty years, being +especially flourishing under the elector Charles Theodore. In 1794 +Mannheim fell into the hands of the French, and in the following year it +was retaken by the Austrians after a severe bombardment, which left +scarcely a single building uninjured. In 1803 it was assigned to the +grand duke of Baden, who caused the fortifications to be razed. Towards +the end of the 18th century Mannheim attained great celebrity in the +literary world as the place where Schiller's early plays were performed +for the first time. It was at Mannheim that Kotzebue was assassinated in +1819. During the revolution in Baden in 1849 the town was for a time in +the hands of the insurgents, and was afterwards occupied by the +Prussians. + + See Feder, _Geschichte der Stadt Mannheim_ (1875-1877, 2 vols., new + ed. 1903); Pichler, _Chronik des Hof- und National Theaters in + Mannheim_ (Mannheim, 1879); Landgraf, _Mannheim und Ludwigshafen_ + (Zürich, 1890); _Die wirtschaftliche Bedeutung Mannheims_, published + by the Mannheim Chamber of Commerce (Mannheim, 1905); the _Forschungen + zur Geschichte Mannheims und der Pfalz_, published by the _Mannheimer + Altertumsverein_ (Leipzig, 1898); and the annual _Chronik der + Hauptstadt Mannheim_ (1901 seq.). + + + + +MANNING, HENRY EDWARD (1808-1892), English Roman Catholic cardinal, was +born at Totteridge, Hertfordshire, on the 15th of July 1808,[1] being +the third and youngest son of William Manning, a West India merchant, +who was a director of the Bank of England and governor, 1812-1813, and +who sat in Parliament for some thirty years, representing in the Tory +interest Plympton Earle, Lymington, Evesham, and Penryn consecutively. +His mother, Mary, daughter of Henry Leroy Hunter, of Beech Hill, +Reading, was of a family said to be of French extraction. Manning's +boyhood was mainly spent at Coombe Bank, Sundridge, Kent, where he had +for companions Charles and Christopher Wordsworth, afterwards bishops of +St Andrews and of Lincoln. He was educated at Harrow, 1822-1827, Dr G. +Butler being then the head master, but obtained no distinction beyond +being in the cricket eleven in 1825. He matriculated at Balliol College, +Oxford, in 1827, and soon made his mark as a debater at the Union, where +Gladstone succeeded him as president in 1830. At this date he was +ambitious of a political career, but his father had sustained severe +losses in business, and in these circumstances Manning, having graduated +with first-class honours in 1830, obtained the year following, through +Viscount Goderich, a post as supernumerary clerk in the colonial office. +This, however, he resigned in 1832, his thoughts having been turned +towards a clerical career under Evangelical influences, which affected +him deeply throughout life. Returning to Oxford, he was elected a fellow +of Merton College, and was ordained; and in 1833 he was presented to the +rectory of Lavington-with-Graffham in Sussex by Mrs Sargent, whose +granddaughter Caroline he married on the 7th of November 1833, the +ceremony being performed by the bride's brother-in-law, Samuel +Wilberforce, afterwards bishop of Oxford and of Winchester. Manning's +married life was of brief duration. His young and beautiful wife was of +a consumptive family, and died childless (July 24, 1837). The lasting +sadness that thus early overshadowed him tended to facilitate his +acceptance of the austere teaching of the Oxford Tracts; and though he +was never an acknowledged disciple of Newman, it was due to the latter's +influence that from this date his theology assumed an increasingly High +Church character, and his printed sermon on the "Rule of Faith" was +taken as a public profession of his alliance with the Tractarians. In +1838 he took a leading part in the Church education movement, by which +diocesan boards were established throughout the country; and he wrote an +open letter to his bishop in criticism of the recent appointment of the +ecclesiastical commission. In December of that year he paid his first +visit to Rome, and called on Dr Wiseman in company with W. E. Gladstone. +In January 1841 Shuttleworth, bishop of Chichester, appointed him +archdeacon, whereupon he began a personal visitation of each parish +within his district, completing the task in 1843. In 1842 he published a +treatise on _The Unity of the Church_, and his reputation as an eloquent +and earnest preacher being by this time considerable, he was in the same +year appointed select preacher by his university, thus being called upon +to fill from time to time the pulpit which Newman, as vicar of St +Mary's, was just ceasing to occupy. Four volumes of his sermons appeared +between the years 1842 and 1850, and these had reached the 7th, 4th, 3rd +and 2nd editions respectively in 1850, but were not afterwards +reprinted. In 1844 his portrait was painted by Richmond, and the same +year he published a volume of university sermons, in which, however, was +not included the one on the Gunpowder Plot. This sermon had much annoyed +Newman and his more advanced disciples, but it was a proof that at that +date Manning was loyal to the Church of England as Protestant. Newman's +secession in 1845 placed Manning in a position of greater +responsibility, as one of the High Church leaders, along with Pusey and +Keble and Marriott; but it was with Gladstone and James Hope (afterwards +Hope-Scott) that he was at this time most closely associated. In the +spring of 1847 he was seriously ill, and that autumn and the following +winter he spent abroad, chiefly in Rome, where he saw Newman "wearing +the Oratorian habit and dead to the world." He had public and private +audiences with the pope on the 9th of April and the 11th of May 1848, +but recorded next to nothing in his diary concerning them, though +numerous other entries show an eager interest in everything connected +with the Roman Church, and private papers also indicate that he +recognized at this time grave defects in the Church of England and a +mysterious attractiveness in Roman Catholicism, going so far as to +question whether he might not one day be a Roman Catholic himself. +Returning to England, he protested, but with moderation, against the +appointment of Hampden as bishop of Hereford, and continued to take an +active part in the religious education controversy. Through the +influence of Samuel Wilberforce, he was offered the post of sub-almoner +to Queen Victoria, always recognized as a stepping-stone to the +episcopal bench, and his refusal of it was honourably consonant with all +else in his career as an Anglican dignitary, in which he united pastoral +diligence with an asceticism that was then quite exceptional. In 1850 +the decision of the privy council, that the bishop of Exeter was bound +to institute the Rev. G. C. Gorham to the benefice of Brampford Speke in +spite of the latter's acknowledged disbelief in the doctrine of +baptismal regeneration, brought to a crisis the position within the +Church of England of those who believed in that Church as a legitimate +part of the infallible _Ecclesia docens_. Manning made it clear that he +regarded the matter as vital, though he did not act on this conviction +until no hope remained of the decision being set aside or practically +annulled by joint action of the bishops. In July he addressed to his +bishop an open letter on "The Appellate Jurisdiction of the Crown in +Matters Spiritual," and he also took part in a meeting in London which +protested against the decision. In the autumn of this year (1850) was +the great popular outcry against the "Papal aggression" (see WISEMAN), +and Manning, feeling himself unable to take part in this protest, +resigned, early in December his benefice and his archdeaconry; and +writing to Hope-Scott, who a little later became a Roman Catholic with +him, stated his conviction that the alternative was "either Rome or +licence of thought and will." He was received into the Roman Catholic +Church by Father Brownbill, S.J., at the church in Farm Street, on +Passion Sunday, the 6th of April 1851. On the following Sunday he was +confirmed and received to communion by Cardinal Wiseman, who also, +within ten weeks of his reception, ordained him priest. Manning +thereupon proceeded to Rome to pursue his theological studies, residing +at the college known as the "Academy for Noble Ecclesiastics," and +attending lectures by Perrone and Passaglia among others. The pope +frequently received him in private audience, and in 1854 conferred on +him the degree of D.D. During his visits to England he was at the +disposal of Cardinal Wiseman, who through him, at the time of the +Crimean War, was enabled to obtain from the government the concession +that for the future Roman Catholic army chaplains should not be regarded +as part of the staff of the Protestant chaplain-general. In 1857 the +pope, _proprio motu_, appointed him provost (or head of the chapter) of +Westminster, and the same year he took up his residence in Bayswater as +superior of a community known as the "Oblates of St Charles," an +association of secular priests on the same lines as the institute of the +Oratory, but with this difference, that they are by their constitution +at the beck and call of the bishop in whose diocese they live. The +community was thus of the greatest service to Cardinal Wiseman, whose +right-hand man Manning thenceforward became. During the eight years of +his life at Bayswater he was most active in all the duties of the +priesthood, preaching, hearing confessions, and receiving converts; and +he was notably zealous to promote in England all that was specially +Roman and papal, thus giving offence to old-fashioned Catholics, both +clerical and lay, many of whom were largely influenced by Gallican +ideas, and had with difficulty accepted the restoration of the hierarchy +in 1850. In 1860 he delivered a course of lectures on the pope's +temporal power, at that date seriously threatened, and shortly +afterwards he was appointed a papal domestic prelate, thus becoming a +"Monsignor," to be addressed as "Right Reverend." He was now generally +recognized as the able and effective leader of the Ultramontane party +among English Roman Catholics, acting always, however, in subordination +to Cardinal Wiseman; and on the latter's death (Feb. 15, 1865) it was +felt that, if Manning should succeed to the vacant archbishopric, the +triumph of Ultramontanism would be secured. Such a consummation not +being desired by the Westminster chapter, they submitted to the pope +three names, and Manning's was not one of them. Great efforts were made +to secure the succession for the titular archbishop Errington, who at +one time had been Wiseman's coadjutor with that right reserved to him, +but who had been ousted from that position by the pope acting under +Manning's influence. In such circumstances Pius IX. could hardly do +otherwise than ignore Errington's nomination, as he also ignored the +nomination of Clifford, bishop of Clifton, and of Grant, bishop of +Southwark; and, by what he humorously described as "the Lord's own _coup +d'état_," he appointed Manning to the archiepiscopal see. Consecrated at +the pro-cathedral at Moorfields (since destroyed) by Dr Ullathorne, +bishop of Birmingham (June 8, 1865), and enthroned there (Nov. 6), after +receiving the _pallium_ in Rome, Manning began his work as archbishop by +devoting himself especially to the religious education of the poor and +to the establishment of Catholic industrial and reformatory schools. He +steadily opposed whatever might encourage the admission of Catholics to +the national universities, and so put his foot down on Newman's project +to open a branch house of the Oratory at Oxford with himself as +superior. He made an unsuccessful and costly effort to establish a +Catholic university at Kensington, and he also made provision for a +diocesan seminary of strictly ecclesiastical type. Jealous of the +exclusive claims of the Roman Church, he procured a further condemnation +at Rome of the "Association for the Promotion of the Unity of +Christendom," which advocated prayers for the accomplishment of a kind +of federal union between the Roman, Greek and Anglican Churches, and in +a pastoral letter he insisted on the heretical assumption implied in +such an undertaking. He also worked for the due recognition of the +dignity of the secular or pastoral clergy, whose position seemed to be +threatened by the growing ascendancy of the regulars, and especially of +the Jesuits, whom, as a practically distinct organization within the +Church, he steadily opposed. In addition to his diocesan synods, he +presided in 1873 over the fourth provincial synod of Westminster, which +legislated on "acatholic" universities, church music, mixed marriages, +and the order of a priest's household, having previously taken part, as +theologian, in the provincial synods of 1853 and 1859, with a hand in +the preparation of their decrees. But it was chiefly through his +strenuous advocacy of the policy of defining papal infallibility at the +Vatican council (1869-1870) that Manning's name obtained world-wide +renown. In this he was instant in season and out of season. He brought +to Rome a petition in its favour from his chapter at Westminster, and +during the progress of the council he laboured incessantly to overcome +the opposition of the "inopportunists." And he never ceased to regard it +as one of the chief privileges of his life that he had been able to take +an active part in securing the definition, and in having heard with his +own ears that doctrine proclaimed as a part of divine revelation. In +1875 he published a reply to Gladstone's attack on the Vatican decrees; +and on the 15th of March in that year he was created cardinal, with the +title of SS. Andrew and Gregory on the Coelian. He was present at the +death of Pius IX. (Feb. 7, 1878); and in the subsequent conclave, while +some Italian cardinals were prepared to vote for his election to fill +the vacant chair, he himself supported Cardinal Pecci, afterwards known +as Leo XIII. With him, however, Manning found less sympathy than with +his predecessor, though Manning's advocacy of the claims of labour +attracted Leo's attention, and influenced the encyclical which he issued +on the subject. After the Vatican council, and more especially after the +death of Pius IX., Manning devoted his attention mainly to social +questions, and with these his name was popularly associated during the +last fifteen years of his life. From 1872 onwards he was a strict +teetotaller, not touching alcohol even as a medicine, and there was some +murmuring among his clergy that his teaching on this subject verged on +heresy. But his example and his zeal profoundly influenced for good the +Irish poor forming the majority of his flock; and the "League of the +Cross" which he founded, and which held annual demonstrations at the +Crystal Palace, numbered nearly 30,000 members in London alone in 1874. +He sat on two royal commissions, the one on the housing of the working +classes (1884), and the other on primary education (1886); and in each +case the report showed evident marks of his influence, which his +fellow-commissioners recognized as that of a wise and competent social +reformer. In the cause of labour he was active for many years, and in +1872 he set an example to the clergy of all the churches by taking a +prominent part in a meeting held in Exeter Hall on behalf of the newly +established Agricultural Labourers' Union, Joseph Arch and Charles +Bradlaugh being among those who sat with him on the platform. In later +years his strenuous advocacy of the claims of the working classes, and +his declaration that "every man has a right to work or to bread" led to +his being denounced as a Socialist. That he was such he denied more than +once (Lemire, _Le Cardinal Manning et son action sociale_, Paris, 1893, +p. 210), nor was he ever a Socialist in principle; but he favoured some +of the methods of Socialism, because they alone seemed to him +practically to meet the case of that pressing poverty which appealed to +his heart. He took a leading part in the settlement of the dockers' +strike in the autumn of 1889, and his patient and effectual action on +this and on similar occasions secured for him the esteem and affection +of great numbers of working men, so that his death on the 14th of +January 1892, and his funeral a week later, were the occasion for a +remarkable demonstration of popular veneration. The Roman Catholic +Cathedral at Westminster is his joint memorial with his predecessor, +Cardinal Wiseman. + +Whatever may have been the value of Manning's services to the Roman +Catholic Church in England in bringing it, as he did, up to a high level +of what in earlier years was commonly denounced as Ultramontanism, it is +certain that by his social action, as well as by the earnestness and +holiness of his life, he greatly advanced, in the minds of his +countrymen generally, their estimate of the character and value of +Catholicism. Pre-eminently he was a devout ecclesiastic, a "great +priest"; and his sermons, both Anglican and Catholic, are marked by +fervour and dignity, by a conviction of his own authoritative mission as +preacher, and by an eloquent insistence on considerations such as warm +the heart and bend the will rather than on such as force the intellect +to assent. But many of his instincts were those of a statesman, a +diplomatist, a man of the world, even of a business man; and herein lay, +at least in part, the secret of his influence and success. +Intellectually he did not stand in the front rank. He was neither a +philosopher nor a literary genius. Among his many publications, written, +it is only fair to admit, amidst the urgent pressure of practical work, +there is barely a page or even a sentence that bears the stamp of +immortality. But within a somewhat narrower field he worked with +patience, industry, and self-denying zeal; his ambition, which seemed to +many personal, was rather the outcome of his devotion to the cause of +the Church; and in the later years of his life especially he showed that +he loved righteousness and hated iniquity, and that he realized as +clearly as any one that the service of God was incomplete without the +service of man. + + The publication in 1896 of Manning's _Life_, by Purcell, was the + occasion for some controversy on the ethics of biography. Edward + Purcell was an obscure Catholic journalist, to whom Manning, late in + life, had entrusted, rather by way of charitable bequest, his private + diaries and other confidential papers. It thus came to pass that in + Purcell's voluminous biography much that was obviously never intended + for the public eye was, perhaps inadvertently, printed, together with + a good deal of ungenerous comment. The facts disclosed which mainly + attracted attention were: (1) that Manning, while yet formally an + Anglican, and while publicly and privately dissuading others from + joining the Roman Catholic Church, was yet within a little convinced + that it was his own duty and destiny to take that step himself; (2) + that he was continually intriguing at the back-stairs of the Vatican + for the furtherance of his own views as to what was desirable in + matters ecclesiastical; (3) that his relations with Newman were very + unfriendly; and (4) that, while for the most part he exhibited towards + his own clergy a frigid and masterful demeanour, he held privately + very cordial relations with men of diverse religions or of no + theological beliefs at all. And certainly Manning does betray in these + autobiographical fragments an unheroic sensitiveness to the verdict of + posterity on his career. But independent critics (among whom may + specially be named François de Pressensé) held that Manning came well + through the ordeal, and that Purcell's _Life_ had great value as an + unintentionally frank revelation of character. (A. W. Hu.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Purcell's assertion that the year of his birth was 1807 rests on + no trustworthy evidence. + + + + +MANNY, SIR WALTER DE MANNY, BARON DE (d. 1372), soldier of fortune and +founder of the Charterhouse, younger son of Jean de Mauny, known as Le +Borgne de Mauny, by his wife Jeanne de Jenlain, was a native of Hainaut, +from whose counts he claimed descent. Manny--the name is thus spelt by +most English writers--was a patron and friend of Froissart, in whose +chronicles his exploits have a conspicuous and probably an exaggerated +place. He appears to have first come to England as an esquire of Queen +Philippa in 1327, and he took a distinguished part in the Scottish wars +of Edward III. In 1337 he was placed in command of an English fleet, and +in the following year accompanied Edward to the continent, where in the +campaigns of the next few years he proved himself one of the boldest and +ablest of the English king's military commanders. He was summoned to +parliament as a baron by writ from the 12th of November 1347 to the 8th +of January 1371. In 1359 he was made a knight of the Garter; and at +various times he received extensive grants of land both in England and +in France. He was frequently employed by King Edward in the conduct of +diplomatic negotiations as well as in military commands. He was one of +those charged with the safe custody of the French king John when a +prisoner at Calais in 1360; in 1369 he was second in command under John +of Gaunt in his invasion of France. + +But Manny is chiefly remembered for his share in the foundation of the +Charterhouse in London. In 1349 he bought some acres of land near +Smithfield, which were consecrated as a burying-place where large +numbers of the victims of the Black Death were interred; and here he +built a chapel, from which the place obtained the name of +"Newchurchhaw." The chapel and ground were bought from Manny by the +bishop of London, Michael de Northburgh, who died in 1361 and by his +will bequeathed a large sum of money to found there a Carthusian +convent. It is not clear whether this direction was ever carried out; +for in 1371 Manny obtained letters patent from King Edward III. +permitting him to found, apparently on the same site, a Carthusian +monastery called "La Salutation Mère Dieu," where the monks were to pray +for the soul of Northburgh as well as for the soul of Manny himself. The +bishop's bequest may have contributed to the building and endowment of +the house; or possibly, as seems to be implied by a bull granted by +Urban VI. in 1378, there were originally two kindred establishments +owing their foundation to Northburgh and Manny respectively. At all +events Manny, who died early in 1372, left instructions that he was to +be buried in the church of the Carthusian monastery founded by himself. +About 1335 he married Margaret, daughter and heiress of Thomas +Plantagenet, earl of Norfolk, son of King Edward I., whose first husband +had been John, Lord Segrave. This lady, who outlived Manny by many +years, was countess of Norfolk in her own right, and she was created +duchess of Norfolk in 1397. Manny left no surviving son. His daughter +Anne, Baroness de Manny in her own right, married John Hastings, 2nd +earl of Pembroke; and on the death of her only son unmarried in 1389, +the barony of Manny became extinct. + + See _Oeuvres de Froissart, I. Chroniques_, edited by Baron Kervyn de + Lettenhove (Brussels, 1867-1877), and the Globe edition of + _Froissart's Chronicles_ (Eng. trans., London, 1895); G. F. Beltz, + _Memorials of the Most Noble Order of the Garter_ (London, 1841); + _Chronicon Angliae 1323-1388_, edited by E. Maunde Thompson (Rolls + series 64, London, 1874); Philip Bearcroft, _An Historical Account of + Thomas Sutton and of his Foundation in Charterhouse_ (London, 1737). + + + + +MANNYNG, ROBERT (ROBERT OF BRUNNE) (c. 1264-1340?), English poet, was a +native of Brunne, now Bourne, in Lincolnshire. About 6 m. from Bourne +was the Gilbertine monastery of Sempringham, founded by Sir Gilbert de +Sempringham in 1139. The foundation provided for seven to thirteen +canons, with a number of lay brothers and a community of nuns. No books +were allowed to the lay brothers and nothing could be written in the +monastery without the prior's consent. Mannyng entered this house in +1288, when, according to the rules, he must have been at least 24 years +of age, if, as is supposed, he was a lay brother. He says he was at +Cambridge with Robert de Bruce and his two brothers, Thomas and +Alexander, but this does not necessarily imply that he was a +fellow-student. There was a Gilbertine monastery at Cambridge, and +Mannyng may have been there on business connected with his order. When +he wrote _Handlyng Synne_ he had been (11. 63-76) fifteen years in the +priory, beginning to write in "englysch rime in 1303." Thirty-five years +later he began his _Story of Inglande_, and had removed (11. 139, &c.) +to the monastery of Sixille (now Sixhills), near Market Rasen, in north +Lincolnshire. + +_Handlyng Synne_, a poem of nearly 13,000 lines, is a free translation, +with many additions and amplifications, from William of Waddington's +_Manuel des Pechiez_. It is a series of metrical homilies on the Ten +Commandments, the Seven Deadly Sins and the Seven Sacraments, +illustrated by a number of amusing stories from various sources. The +_Cursor Mundi_ had turned religious history into something not very +different from a romance of chivalry, and in the stories of _Handlyng +Synne_ the influence of the _fabliaux_ is not far to seek. Mannyng wrote +in the English tongue not for learned but for "lewd" men, "that talys +and ryme wyl blethly here," to occupy the leisure hours during which +they might otherwise fall into "vylanye, dedly synne or other folye." +Each of his twenty-four topics has its complement of stories. He tells +of the English observance of Saturday afternoon as holy to the Virgin, +and has much to say of popular amusements, which become sins when they +keep people away from church. Tournaments in particular are fertile +occasions of all the deadly sins; and mystery plays, except those of the +birth and resurrection of Christ performed in the churches, also lead +men into transgression. He inveighs against the oppression of the poor +by the rich, reproves those who, weary of matins or mass, spend their +time in church "jangling," telling tales, and wondering where they will +get the best ale, and revives the legend of the dancers at the church +door during mass who were cursed by the priest and went on dancing for a +twelvemonth without cessation. He loved music himself, and justified +this profane pleasure by the example of Bishop Grosseteste, who lodged +his harper in the chamber next his own; but he holds up as a warning to +gleemen the fate of the minstrel who sang loud while the bishop said +grace, and was miserably killed by a falling stone in consequence. The +old monk's keen observation makes the book a far more valuable +contribution to history than his professed chronicle. It is a storehouse +of quaint stories and out-of-the-way information on manners and customs. + +His chronicle, _The Story of Inglande_, was also written for the solace +and amusement of the unlearned when they sit together in fellowship (11. +6-10). The earlier half is written in octosyllabic verse, and begins +with the story of the Deluge. The genealogy of Locrine, king of Britain, +is traced back to Noah, through Aeneas, and the chronicler relates the +incidents of the Trojan war as told by Dares the Phrygian. From this +point he follows closely the _Brut_ of Wace. He loved stories for their +own sake, and found fault with Wace for questioning the miraculous +elements in the legend of Arthur. In the second half of his chronicle, +which is less simple in style, he translates from the French of Pierre +de Langtoft. He writes in rhyming alexandrines, and in the latter part +of the work uses middle rhymes. Mannyng's _Chronicle_ marks a change in +national sentiment. Though he regards the Norman domination as a +"bondage," he is loud in his praises of Edward I., "Edward of Inglond." + +The linguistic importance of Mannyng's work is very great. He used very +few of those Teutonic words which, though still in use, were eventually +to drop out of the language, and he introduced a great number of French +words destined to be permanently adopted in English. Moreover, he +employed comparatively few obsolete inflexions, and his work no doubt +furthered the adoption of the Midland dialect as the acknowledged +literary instrument. T. L. Kington-Oliphant (_Old and Middle English_, +1878) regards his work as the definite starting point of the New English +which with slight changes was to form the language of the Book of Common +Prayer. + +A third work, usually ascribed to Mannyng, chiefly on the ground of its +existing side by side with the _Handlyng Synne_ in the Harleian and +Bodleian MSS., is the _Medytacyuns of the Soper of oure lorde Jhesu, And +also of hys passyun And eke of the peynes of hys swete modyr, Mayden +marye_, a free translation of St Bonaventura's _De coena et passione +Domini..._. + + Robert of Brunne's _Chronicle_ exists in two MSS.: Petyt MS. 511, + written in the Northern dialect, in the Inner Temple library; and + Lambeth MS. 131 in a Midland dialect. The first part was edited _The + Story of England ..._ (1887) for the Rolls Series, with an + introductory essay by F. J. Furnivall; the second part was published + by Thomas Hearne as _Peter Langtoft's Chronicle ..._ (1725). Peter + Langtoft's French version was edited by Thomas Wright for the "Rolls + Series" in 1866. Of _Handlyng Synne_ there are complete MSS. in the + Bodleian library (MS. 415) and in the British Museum (Harleian MS. + 1701), and a fragment in the library of Dulwich College (MS. 24). It + was edited, with Waddington's text in parallel columns, by F. J. + Furnivall for the Roxburghe Club (1862), and for the Early English + Text Society (1901-1903). The _Meditacyun_ was edited from the + Bodleian and Harleian MSS. by J. Meadow Cooper for the same society + (1875). See also Gerhard Hellmers, _Ueber die Sprache Robert Mannyngs + of Brunne und über die Autorschaft der ihm zugeschriebenen Meditations + ..._ (Göttingen, 1885), which contains an analysis of the dialectic + peculiarities of Mannyng's work; O. Boerner, "Die Sprache Robert + Mannyngs" ... in _Studien zur engl. Philologie_ (vol. xii., Halle, + 1904) and Oskar Preussner, _Robert Mannyng of Brunne's Übersetzung von + Pierre de Langtofts Chronicle_ (Breslau, 1891). All accounts of his + life are based on his own work. For the Sempringham priory see + Dugdale, _Monasticon_ vi. 947 seq., and Miss Rose Graham's _S. Gilbert + of Sempringham and the Gilbertines_ (1901). + + + + +MANOEUVRES, MILITARY. Manoeuvres may be defined as the higher training +for war of troops of all arms in large bodies, and have been carried out +in most countries ever since the first formation of standing armies. In +England no manoeuvres or camps of exercise appear to have been held till +the beginning of the 19th century, when Sir John Moore trained the +famous Light Brigade at Shorncliffe camp. In France, however, under +Louis XIV., large camps of instruction were frequently held, the +earliest recorded being that of 18,000 troops at Compiègne in 1666; and +these were continued at intervals under his successor. At these French +camps much time was devoted to ceremonial, and the manoeuvres performed +were of an elementary description. Still their effect upon the training +of the army for war was far-reaching, and bore fruit in the numerous +wars in the first half of the 18th century. Moreover, experiments were +made with proposed tactical systems and technical improvements, as in +the case of the contest between _l'ordre mince_ and _l'ordre profonde_ +(see INFANTRY) between 1785 and 1790. Other countries followed suit, but +it was reserved for Frederick the Great to inaugurate a system of real +manoeuvres and to develop on the training-ground the system of tactics +which bore such good fruit in his various campaigns. The numbers of +troops assembled were large; for example, at Spandau in 1753, when +36,000 men carried out manoeuvres for twelve days. The king laid the +greatest stress on these exercises, and took immense pains to turn to +account the experience gained in his campaigns. Great secrecy was +observed, and before the Seven Years' War no stranger was allowed to be +present. The result of all this careful training was shown in the Seven +Years' War, and after it the Prussian manoeuvres gained a reputation +which they have maintained to this day. But with the passing away of the +great king they became more and more pedantic, and the fatal results +were shown in 1806. After the Napoleonic wars yearly manoeuvres became +the custom in every large Continental army. Great Britain alone thought +she could dispense with them, perhaps because of the constant practical +training her troops and officers received in the various Indian and +colonial wars; and it was not till 1853 that, by the advice of the +Prince Consort, a body of troops were gathered together for a camp of +exercise on Chobham Common, and that eventually a standing camp of +exercise was evolved out of the temporary camp formed during the Crimean +War at Aldershot. + + Most continental armies have, since the great successes of the Germans + in 1870, copied more or less their system of military training; hence + it is appropriate to consider their methods first. The whole training + of the army is based on a yearly programme of gradual progression, + from the joining of the recruits in October to the training by squads, + companies, battalions and regiments, the latter finishing their field + training about the middle of August, when the manoeuvre period begins. + First of all, the brigades go through five working days of drills on + flat ground, to get them under the hand of their commanders and + prepare them for manoeuvres. Then follow ten working days of + manoeuvres in new and varied ground, of which four are "brigade," four + "divisional" and two "corps" manoeuvres, in each case the unit named + being divided into two portions of all arms, which manoeuvre against + one another. Each year two or more army corps carry out manoeuvres + before the emperor, working against one another. The chief feature of + the German manoeuvres is the free hand allowed to leaders of sides. Of + course, for reasons of supply and transport, it is necessary to keep + the troops within a certain area, but the general and special ideas[1] + are so framed that, while retaining their own initiative, the leaders + of sides have to give such orders as will suit the arrangements made + by the director of manoeuvres for supply. The faculty of quartering + troops on private individuals to any extent, and the fact of the + troops being provided with portable tent equipment, give great + latitude to the German leaders in their choice of quarters for troops, + and so increase the similitude of manoeuvres to war. The Austrian and + Italian manoeuvres are a close copy of the German, but those of the + French present the peculiarity of a certain amount of prearrangement, + especially at grand manoeuvres, when it is frequently laid down + beforehand which side is to be victorious. Thus a series of pictures + of war is presented, but the manoeuvres are hardly a test of the skill + of the rival leaders. But, just as in recent years in France this + practice has been modified, so also the entire liberty given to + commanders in the German manoeuvres in 1906-7 had to be curtailed in + the following years owing to the strain of forced marches which it + entailed on the troops. + + In Russia the climatic and social conditions, and the distribution of + the army, necessitate a quite peculiar system. The troops leave their + barracks and move into standing camps, generally in May, and in these + for about three months their training up to that in battalions is + carried out on the drill ground. Camps of mixed units are then formed + for a month, and from them, but always over the same ground, the + manoeuvres of regiments, brigades and divisions are performed. Then + follow the so-called mobile manoeuvres, which last for ten days or a + fortnight. Of all European manoeuvres these are perhaps the nearest + approach to war, for the sides start a great distance apart, and ample + time is allowed for cavalry reconnaissance. Besides, the Russian + soldier does not require elaborate arrangements for supply; hence the + director is not so tied down by consideration of this matter as in + other armies. A political colour is sometimes given to such large + assemblages of troops, especially when the manoeuvres take place in + frontier districts. + + In England the military authorities have long been hampered in the + organization of manoeuvres by the necessity of carrying them out on + very limited portions of government land or on areas lent as a favour + by, or hired from, private individuals. There has been no want of + recognition by the military authorities of the necessity for, and + value of, manoeuvres, and the training at the camps of instruction has + been supplemented as far as possible by small manoeuvres on such + portions of country as could be made available. But, with the + exception of spasmodic efforts in 1871 and 1872, it was not until 1897 + that the government allowed itself to be convinced by its military + advisers, and passed a Military Manoeuvres Act, by which certain + districts could be "proclaimed" for purposes of manoeuvres, and troops + in consequence could traverse all ground. In 1898 the first manoeuvres + under this Act were held in Wilts and Dorset, and were intended to be + repeated at fixed intervals in future years. In addition, every effort + was made to add to the existing permanent training grounds for troops, + and ground was acquired on Salisbury Plain with the intention of + developing it into a second Aldershot. But the training on those + well-known grounds, excellent as it is in itself as a preparation, is + not "manoeuvres," and never can do away with the necessity for them, + with a more or less free hand given to the leaders over fresh country. + + Much misconception prevails as to the nature and limitation of the + military instruction to be imparted at manoeuvres. Manoeuvres are a + school for the leaders, in a less degree for the led, and + consequently the minor details of instruction must be completed, and + the troops fully trained as units, before they can take part in them + with advantage. The time during which large bodies of troops can be + kept together for manoeuvres is too short, and the expense too great, + to justify time being spent on exercises which might as well be + carried out in the ordinary stations or at the great training camps. + Therefore it may be laid down as a principle that manoeuvres, properly + so-called, should be begun with units not smaller than a brigade of + infantry on each side, with a due proportion of the other arms + attached. It is useful if these can precede the manoeuvres of larger + bodies, as the training is then progressive and the result more + satisfactory.[2] + + The choice of ground is of great importance. Its extent should be + proportionate to the force to be employed and the nature of the + instruction to be imparted. It should not be too hilly nor yet too + flat, but both descriptions should be judiciously combined; and regard + must be had to the water supply and the road and railway net for the + convenience of the supply service. Once the ground has been selected, + the general and special ideas must be so framed that the troops are + thereby confined to the chosen ground without seeming to tie the hands + of the leaders of sides. It is of great advantage if the same idea can + be maintained throughout each series of operations, as thereby the + interest of all concerned and the likeness to actual warfare are + increased; and, if possible, the "state of war" should be continuous + also. Within the limits of the special idea, the utmost latitude + should be left to leaders; but if the orders of one or both sides seem + to render a collision unlikely, the director should so modify the + special idea as to compel one or other to re-cast his orders in such a + way that contact is brought about. Such interference will scarcely be + necessary after the first issues of orders in each series. In war the + number of marching days vastly outnumbers those of fighting, but in + manoeuvres this must not be allowed; tactical instruction is what is + desired, and a manoeuvre day in which none is imparted is not fully + utilized. It is not necessary that all the troops should be engaged, + but at least the advanced bodies must come into contact, and the rest + must carry out marches as on active service. Each action should be + fought to its end, "Cease firing" being sounded when the crisis has + been reached; and on a decision being given by the director, one side + should retire and the fight be broken off in a proper military manner. + The troops should place outposts each day, and act in all respects as + if on active service. + + The quartering and supply of troops are the chief difficulties in the + arrangement of manoeuvres, and afford ample opportunity for the + practising of the officers and departments responsible for these + matters. In England, where in peace it is not possible to billet + troops on private individuals, quartering must be replaced by + encampments or bivouacs, and the selection of ground for them affords + invaluable practice. If possible, their position should be selected to + conform to the military situation; but if it is found necessary, for + reasons of water or food supply, to withdraw troops to positions other + than such as they would occupy in real warfare, time should be allowed + them on the following day to regain the positions they would otherwise + have occupied. It is next to impossible, for various reasons, + financial and other, to organize the food supply in manoeuvres as it + would be in war. Sufficient transport cadres cannot be kept up in + peace, and consequently recourse must be had to hired transport, which + cannot be treated as a military body. Again, food cannot be + requisitioned, and local purchase at the time cannot be trusted to; so + dépôts of supplies must be formed beforehand in the manoeuvres area, + which more or less tie the hands of the supply service. Still, with a + judicious choice of the points at which these are formed, much may be + done to approximate to service conditions, and the more nearly these + are realized the more instructive for the supply will the manoeuvres + become. + + Finally, a word must be said as to the umpire staff, which represents + the bullets. The most careful selection of officers for this important + duty is necessary, and they must have sufficient authority and be in + sufficient number to make their influence everywhere felt. Their + principal object should be to come to a decision quickly, so as to + prevent the occurrence of unreal situations; and by constant + intercommunication they must ensure uniformity in their decisions, and + so maintain continuity of the action all over the manoeuvres + battlefield. (J. M. Gr.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The "general idea" is a document, communicated to both sides, + containing such general information of the war--the supposed + frontiers, previous battles, &c.--as would be matters of common + knowledge. The "special idea" of each side comprises the instructions + upon which it is acting. + + [2] Manoeuvres incidentally afford an excellent opportunity of + testing new patterns of equipment, transport or other matériel under + conditions approximating to those of active service. + + + + +MANOMETER (Gr. [Greek: manos], thin or loose; [Greek: metron], a +measure), an instrument for measuring the pressures exerted by gases or +vapours. An alternative name is pressure gauge, but this term may +conveniently be restricted to manometers used in connexion with +steam-boilers, &c. The principle of hydrostatics suggest the most common +forms. Suppose we have a U tube (fig. 1), containing a liquid: if the +pressures on the surfaces of the liquid be equal, then the surfaces will +be at the same height. If, on the other hand, the pressure in one limb +be greater than the pressure in the other, the surfaces will be at +different heights, the difference being directly proportional to the +difference of pressures and inversely as the specific gravity of the +liquid used. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.] + + Two forms are in use: (1) the "open-tube," in which the pressure in + one limb is equal to the atmospheric pressure, and (2) the + "closed-tube," in which the experimental pressure is balanced against + the liquid column and the air compressed into the upper part of a + closed limb of the tube. In the "open tube" form (fig. 1) the pressure + on the surface a is equal to the pressure on the surface at b (one + atmosphere) _plus_ the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the liquid + column of height a b. The liquid commonly used is mercury. If a scale + be placed behind the limbs of the tube, so that the difference a b can + be directly determined, then the pressure in a is at once expressible + as P + a b in millimetres or inches of mercury, where P is the + atmospheric pressure, known from an ordinary barometric observation. + In the "closed tube" form (fig. 2) the calculation is not so simple, + for the variation of pressure on the mercury surface in the closed + limb has to be taken into account. Suppose the length of the air + column in the closed limb be h when the mercury is at the same height + in both tubes. Applying the experimental pressure to the open end, if + this be greater than atmospheric pressure the mercury column will rise + and the air column diminish in the closed limb. Let the length of the + air column be h´, then its pressure is h/h´ atmospheres. The + difference in height of the mercury columns in the two limbs is 2(h - + h´), and the pressure in the open limb is obviously equal to that of a + column of mercury of length 2(h - h´), plus h/h´ atmospheres. These + instruments are equally serviceable for determining pressures less + than one atmosphere. In laboratory practice, e.g. when it is required + to determine the degree of exhaust of a water pump, a common form + consists of a vertical glass tube having its lower end immersed in a + basin of mercury, and its upper end connected by means of an + intermediate vessel to the exhaust. The mercury rises in the tube, and + the difference between the barometric height and the length of the + mercury column gives the pressure attained. + + + + +MANOR. Any definition of a manor, in land tenure, must take note of two +elements--economic and political. The manor has an estate for its basis, +although it need not coincide with an estate, but may be wider. It is +also a political unit, a district formed for purposes of government, +although the political functions made over to it may greatly vary. As a +lordship based on land tenure, the manor necessarily comprises a ruler +and a population dependent on him, and the characteristic trait of such +dependence consists not in ownership extending over persons, as in +slave-holding communities, nor in contractual arrangements, as in a +modern economic organization, but in various forms and degrees of +subjection, chiefly regulated by custom. In the sense mentioned the +manor is by no means a peculiarly English institution; it occurs in +every country where feudalism got a hold. Under other names we find it +not only in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, but also, to a certain +extent, in the Byzantine Empire, Russia, Japan, &c. It is especially +representative of an aristocratic stage in the development of European +nations. When tribal notions and arrangements ceased to be sufficient +for upholding their commonwealths, when social and political life had to +be built up on the basis of land-tenure, the type of manorial +organization came forward in natural course. It was closely connected +with natural economy, and was suited to a narrow horizon of economic +wants and political requirements. At the same time it provided links for +a kind of national federation of military estates. We shall only speak +of the course of manorial evolution in France and Germany, because this +presents the clearest expression of the fundamental principles of +manorial life and the best material for comparison with English facts. + +One problem common to the entire European world has to be considered +from the very beginning. Does the manor date from the Roman Empire, or +not? Can its chief features be traced in Roman institutions? There can +be no doubt that at the end of the Roman period certain traits are +noticeable which might, under favourable conditions, develop into a +manorial combination. Great estates with political functions, +populations subjected to the political lordship of landowners, appear in +the closing centuries of the empire, and have to be reckoned with as +precursors of medieval manorial life. The original organization of the +ancient world was built up on the self-government of cities and on the +sharp distinction between citizens and slaves. Both features were +gradually modified by the Roman Empire. Self-government was atrophied by +bureaucratic interference; the economy based on the exploitation of +slaves began to give way before relations in which the elements of +freedom and serfdom were oddly mixed. During the last centuries of its +existence the Western Empire became more and more a conglomerate of +barbaric and half-civilized populations, and it is not strange that the +characteristic germs of feudalism began to show themselves within its +territory as well as outside it. As far as political institutions are +concerned, we notice that the central power, after claiming an absolute +sway over its subjects, is obliged more and more to lean on private +forces in order to maintain itself. One of its favourite resources in +the 4th and 5th centuries consists in making great landowners +responsible for the good behaviour of their tenants and even of their +less important neighbours. The _saltus_, the great domain, is +occasionally recognized as a separate district exempt from the ordinary +administration of the city, subordinated to its owner in respect of +taxes and police. Even in ordinary estates (_fundi_) there is a tendency +to make the landowner responsible for military conscription, for the +presentation of criminals to justice. On the other hand the incumbents +of ecclesiastical offices are nominated in accordance with the wishes of +patrons among the landowners; in the administration of justice the +influence of this same class makes itself felt more and more. Nor are +signs of a convergent evolution wanting on the economic side. Slaves are +used more and more as small householders provided with rural tenements +and burdened with rents and services. Free peasant farmers holding by +free agreement get more and more reduced to a status of half-free +settlers occupying their tenancies on the strength of custom and +traditional ascription to the glebe. Eventually this status is +recognized as a distinct class by imperial legislation. Ominous symptoms +of growing political disruption and of an aristocratic transformation of +society were visible everywhere at the close of the empire. Yet there +could be no talk of a manorial system as long as the empire and the +commercial intercourse protected by it continued to exist. + +The fall of the empire hastened the course of evolution. It brought into +prominence barbaric tribes who were unable to uphold either the +political power or the economic system of the Romans. The Germans had +from old certain manorial features in the constitution of their +government and husbandry. The owner of a house had always been possessed +of a certain political power within its precincts, as well as within the +fenced area surrounding it: the peace of the dwelling and the peace of +the hedged-in yard were recognized by the legal customs of all the +German tribes. The aristocratic superiority of warriors over all classes +engaged in base peaceful work was also deeply engraved in the minds of +the fighting and conquering tribes. On the other hand the downfall of +complicated forms of civilization and civil intercourse rendered +necessary a kind of subjection in which tributary labourers were left to +a certain extent to manage their own affairs. The Germanic conqueror was +unable to move slaves about like draughts: he had no scope for a +complicated administration of capital and work. The natural outcome was +to have recourse to serfdom with its convenient system of tribute and +services. + +But, as in the case of the Roman Empire, the formation of regular manors +was held back for a time in the early Germanic monarchies by the +lingering influence of tribal organization. In the second period of +medieval development in continental Europe, in the Carolingian epoch, +the features of the estate as a political unit are more sharply marked. +Notwithstanding the immense efforts of Charles Martel, Pippin and +Charlemagne to strengthen the tottering edifice of the Frankish Empire, +public authority had to compromise with aristocratic forces in order to +ensure regular government. As regards military organization this is +expressed in the recognition of the power of _seniores_, called upon to +lead their vassals in the host; as regards jurisdiction, in the increase +of the numbers of commended freemen who seek to interpose the powerful +patronage of lay and secular magnates between themselves and the Crown. +Great estates arose not only on the lands belonging to the king, but on +that of churches and of lay potentates, and the constitution of these +estates, as described for instance in the Polyptique of St Germain des +Près or in the "Brevium exempla ad describendas res ecclesiasticas et +fiscales" (_Capitularia_, ed. Boretius, i. 250), reminds us forcibly of +that of later feudal estates. They contain a home-farm, with a court and +a _casa indominicata_, or manor-house, some holdings (_mansi_) of free +men (_ingenuiles_), of serfs (_serviles_), and perhaps of half-free +people (_lidiles_). The rents and services of this dependent population +are stated in detail, as in later custumals, and there is information +about the agricultural implements, the stores and stock on the +home-farm. Thus the economic basis of the manor exists in more or less +complete order, but it cannot be said as yet to form the prevailing type +of land tenure in the country. Holdings of independent free men and +village organizations of ancient type still surround the great estates, +and in the case of ecclesiastical possessions we are often in a position +to watch their gradual extension at the expense of the neighbouring free +settlers, by way of direct encroachment, and by that of surrender and +commendation on the part of the weaker citizens. Another factor which +plays a great part in the gradual process of infeudation is the rise of +private jurisdictions, which falls chiefly into the 10th and 11th +centuries. The struggle against Northmen, Magyars and Slavs gave a +crowning touch to the process of localization of political life and of +the aristocratic constitution of society. + +In order to describe the full-grown continental manor of the 11th +century it is better to take French examples than German, Italian or +Spanish. Feudalism in France attained the greatest extension and utmost +regularity, while in other European countries it was hampered and +intermixed with other institutional features. The expression best +corresponding to the English "manor," in the sense of an organized +district, was _seigneurie_. _Manoir_ is in use, and is, of course, a +French word corresponding to _manerium_, but it meant strictly "mansion" +or chief homestead in France. _Baronie_ is another term which might be +employed in some instances as an equivalent of the English manor, but, +in a sense, it designates only one species of a larger genus, the estate +of a full baron in contrast to a mere knight's fee, as well as to a +principality. Some of the attributes of a baron are, however, typical, +as the purest expression of manorial rights, and may be used in a +general characterization of the latter. + + The _seigneurie_ may be considered from three points of view--as a + unit of administration, as an economic unit, and as a union of social + classes. + + (a) In principle the disruption of political life brought about by + feudalism ought to have resulted in the complete administrative + independence of the manor. _Chaque baron est souverain dans sa + baronie_ is a proverb meant to express this radical view of manorial + separatism. As a matter of fact this separatism was never completely + realized, and even at the time of the greatest prevalence of feudalism + the little sovereigns of France were combined into a loose federation + of independent fiefs. Still, the proverb was not a mere play of words, + and it took a long time for the kings of France to break in + potentates, like the little Sire de Coucy in the immediate vicinity of + Paris, who sported in his crest the self-complacent motto: _Je ne suis + ni comte, ni marquis, je suis le sire de Coucy_. The institutional + expression of this aspect of feudalism in the life of the _seigneurie_ + was the jurisdiction combined with the latter. The principal origin of + this jurisdiction was the dismemberment of royal justice, the + acquisition by certain landowners of the right of holding royal pleas. + The assumption of authority over public tribunals of any kind was + naturally considered as equivalent to such a transmission of royal + right. But other sources may be noticed also. It was assumed by French + feudal law that in all cases when land was granted by a _seigneur_ in + subinfeudation the recipients would be bound to appear as members of a + court of tenants for the settlement of conflicts in regard to land. A + third source may be traced in the extension of the patrimonial justice + of a person over his serfs and personal dependents to the classes of + free and half-free population connected with the _seigneurie_ in one + way or another. There arose in consequence of these assumptions of + jurisdiction a most bewildering confusion of tribunals and judicial + rights. It happened sometimes that the question as to who should be + the judge in some particular contest was decided by matter-of-fact + seizure--the holder of pleas who was the first on the spot to proclaim + himself judge in a case was deemed entitled to jurisdiction. In other + cases one _seigneur_ held the pleas in a certain place for six days in + the week, while some competitor of his possessed jurisdiction during + the seventh. A certain order was brought into this feudal chaos by the + classification of judiciary functions according to the four categories + of high, middle, low and tenurial justice. The scope of the first + three subdivisions is sufficiently explained by their names; the + fourth concerned cases arising from subinfeudation. As a rule the + baron or _seigneur_ sat in justice with a court of assessors or peers, + but the constitution of such courts varied a great deal. They + represented partly the succession of the old popular courts with their + _scabini_, partly courts of vassals and tenants. In strict feudal law + an appeal was allowed from a lower to a higher court only in a case of + a denial of justice (_dénie de justice_), not in error or revision of + sentence. This rule was, however, very often infringed, and gave way + ultimately before the restoration of royal justice. + + (b) The economic fabric of the French _seigneurie_ varied greatly, + according to localities. In the north of France it was not unlike that + of the English manor. The capital messuage, or castle, and the + home-farm of the lord, were surrounded by dependent holdings, + _censives_, paying rent, and villein tenements burdened with services. + Between these tenancies there were various ties of neighbourhood and + economic solidarity recalling the open-field cultivation in England + and Germany. When the harvest was removed from the open strips they + returned to a state of undivided pasture in which the householders of + the village exercised rights of common with their cattle. Wild pasture + and woods were used more or less in the same fashion as in England + (_droit de pacage de vaine pâture_). The inhabitants often formed + courts and held meetings in order to settle the by-laws, and to + adjudicate as to trespasses and encroachments (_courts colongères_). + In the south, individual property was more prevalent and the villagers + were not so closely united by ties of neighbourhood. Yet even there + the dependent households were arranged into _mansi_ or _colonicae_, + subjected to approximately equal impositions in respect of rents and + services. In any case the characteristic dualism of manorial life, the + combined working of a central home-farm, and of its economic + satellites providing necessary help in the way of services, and + contributing towards the formation of manorial stores, is quite as + much a feature of French as of English medieval husbandry. + + (c) The social relations between the manorial lord and his subjects + are marked by various forms of the exploitation of the latter by the + former. Apart from jurisdictional profits, rents and agricultural + services, dues of all kinds are exacted from the rural population. + Some of these dues have to be traced to servile origins, although they + were evidently gradually extended to groups of people who were not + descended from downright serfs but had lapsed into a state of + considerable subjection. The _main morte_ of rustic tenants meant that + they had no goods of their own, but held movable property on + sufferance without the right of passing it on to their successors. As + a matter of fact, sons were admitted to inheritance after their + fathers, and sometimes succession was extended to other relatives, but + the person taking inheritance paid a heavy fine for entering into + possession, or gave up a horse, an ox, or some other especially + valuable piece of property. The _formariage_ corresponded to the + English _merchetum_, and was exacted from rustics on the marriage of + their daughters. Although this payment assumed very different shapes, + and sometimes only appeared in case consorts belonged to different + lords, it was considered a badge of serfdom. _Chevage_ (_capitagium_) + might be exacted as a poll-tax from all the unfree inhabitants of a + _seigneurie_, or, more especially, from those who left it to look for + sustenance abroad. The power of the lord as a landowner was more + particularly expressed in his right of pre-emption (_retrait + seigneurial_), and in taxes on alienation (_lods et ventes_). As a + person wielding political authority, a kind of sovereignty, the lord + enjoyed divers rights which are commonly attributed to the state--the + right of coining money, of levying direct taxes and toll (_tallagium, + tolneta_) and of instituting monopolies. These latter were of common + occurrence, and might take the shape, for instance, of forcing the + inhabitants to make use of the lord's mill (_moulin banal_), or of his + oven (_four banal_), or of his bull (_taureau banal_). + +In Germany the history of the manorial system is bound up with the +evolution of the _Grundherrschaft_ (landlordship) as opposed to +_Gutsherrschaft_ (estate-ownership). The latter need not include any +elements of public authority and aristocratic supremacy: the former is +necessarily connected with public functions and aristocratic standing. +The centre of the _Grundherrschaft_ was the _Hof_, the court or hall of +the lord, from which the political and economic rights of the lord +radiated. The struggle of the military aristocracy and of +ecclesiastical institutions with common freedom was more protracted than +in France or England; the lordships very often took the shape of +disparate rights over holdings and groups of population scattered over +wide tracts of country and intermixed with estates and inhabitants +subjected to entirely different authority. Therefore the aspect of +German manorialism is more confused and heterogeneous than that of the +French or English systems. One remarkable feature of it is the +consistent separation of criminal justice from other kinds of +jurisdiction on Church property. Episcopal sees and abbeys delegated +their share of criminal justice to lay magnates in the neighbourhood +(_Vogtei_), and this division of power became a source of various +conflicts and of many entangled relations. The main lines of German +manorialism are not radically different from those of France and +England. The communal element, the _Dorfverband_, is usually more +strongly developed than in France, and assumes a form more akin to the +English township. But there were regions, e.g. Westphalia, where the +population had settled in separate farms (_Hofsystem_), and where the +communal solidarity was reduced to a union for administrative purposes +and for the use of pasture. + +It need hardly be added that every step in the direction of more active +economic intercourse and more efficient public authority tended to +lessen the influence of the manorial system in so far as the latter was +based on the localization of government, natural husbandry and +aristocratic authority. + + See Fustel de Coulanges, _Histoire des institutions de la France_, + especially the volumes "L'Alleu et le domaine rural" and "L'Invasion + germanique"; Beaudouin, "Les Grands domaines dans l'empire romain" + (_Nouvelle revue de droit français et étranger_, 1898); T. Flach, _Les + Origines de l'ancienne France_, I., II., III. (1886); Paul Viollet, + _Histoire des institutions de la France_, I., II. (1890, 1898); A. + Luchaire, _Manuel des institutions françaises_ (1892); G. Waitz, + _Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte_, I.-VIII. (1865-1883); K. T. von + Inama-Sternegg, _Deutsche Wirtschaftsgeschichte_, I., II. (1879-1891); + K. Lamprecht, _Deutsches Wirtschaftsleben_, I.-IV. (1885); A. Meitzen, + _Ansiedelungen, Wanderungen und Agrarwesen der Völker Europas_, I.-IV. + (1895 ff.); W. Wittich, _Die Grundherrschaft in Nordwestdeutschland_ + (1896); G. F. von Maurer, _Geschichte der Mark-, Dorf- und + Hofverfassung in Deutschland_; and F. Seebohm, _The English Village + Community_ (1883). (P. Vi.) + + + Rights of Lord and Tenants. + + Rights of Villeins. + + Cotters. + +_The Manor in England._--It will be most convenient to describe a +typical English manor in its best known period, the 13th century, and to +indicate briefly the modifications of the type which varying conditions +may produce. Topographically such a manor consisted partly of the houses +of the inhabitants more or less closely clustered together, and +surrounded by arable land divided into large fields, two or three in +number. Each of these fields was divided again into shots or furlongs, +and each of the shots was broken up into cultivated strips a pole wide, +each containing an acre, separated by narrow balks of turf. There were +also certain meadows for supplying hay; and beyond the cultivated land +lay the wood and waste of the manor. Portions of arable or meadow land +might be found apart from the organization of the remainder; the lord of +the manor might have a park, and each householder a garden, but the land +of the manor was the open fields, the meadows and the wastes or common. +The condition of the inhabitants of such a manor is as complex as its +geography. At the head of the society came the lord of the manor, with +his hall, court, or manor-house, and the land immediately about it, and +his demesne both in the fields and in the meadow land. The arable +demesne consisted of certain of the acre strips lying scattered over the +various furlongs; his meadow was a portion assigned to him each year by +the custom of the manor. He had also rights over the surrounding waste +paramount to those enjoyed by the other inhabitants. Part of his demesne +land would be granted out to free tenants to hold at a rent or by +military or other service; part would be in the lord's own hands, and +cultivated by him. Each part so granted out will carry with it a share +in the meadow land and in the profits of the waste. These rights of the +free tenants over the waste limited the lord's power over it. He could +not by enclosure diminish their interest in it. The statute of Merton in +1236 and the second statute of Westminster in 1285 marked the utmost +limit of enclosure allowed in the 13th century. Below the lord and the +free tenants came the villeins, natives, bondmen, or holders of virgates +or yard-lands, each holding a house, a fixed number of acre strips, a +share of the meadow and of the profits of the waste. The number of +strips so held was usually about thirty; but virgates of fifteen acres +or even eighty are not unknown. In any one manor, however, the holdings +of all the villeins were equal. Normally the holder of a virgate was +unfree; he had no rights in the eye of the law against his lord, who was +protected from all suits by the _exceptio villenagii_; he could not +without leave quit the manor, and could be reclaimed by process of law +if he did; the strict contention of law deprived him of all right to +hold property; and in many cases he was subject to certain degrading +incidents, such as _merchet_ (_merchetum_), a payment due to the lord +upon the marriage of a daughter, which was regarded as a special mark of +unfree condition. But there are certain limitations to be made. Firstly, +all these incidents of tenure, even merchet, might not affect the +personal status of the tenant; he might still be free, though holding by +an unfree tenure; secondly, even if unfree, he was not exposed to the +arbitrary will of his lord but was protected by the custom of the manor +as interpreted by the manor court. Moreover, he was not a slave, he was +not bought and sold apart from his holding. The hardship of his +condition lay in the services due from him. As a rule a villein paid for +his holding in money, in labour and in kind. In money he paid, firstly, +a small fixed rent called rent of assize; and, secondly, dues under +various names, partly in lieu of services commuted into money payments, +and partly for the privileges and profits enjoyed by him on the waste of +the manor. In labour he paid more heavily. Week by week he had to come +with his own plough and oxen to plough the lord's demesne; when +ploughing was done he had to harrow, to reap the crops, to thresh and +carry them, or do whatever might be required of him, until his allotted +number of days labour in the year was done. Beyond this his lord might +request of him extra days in harvest or other seasons of emergency, and +these requests could not be denied. Further, all the carriage of the +manor was provided by the villeins, even to places as much as a hundred +miles away from the manor. The mending of the ploughs, hedging, +ditching, sheepshearing and other miscellaneous work also fell upon him, +and it is sometimes hard to see what time remained to him to work upon +his own holding. In kind he usually rendered honey, eggs, chickens and +perhaps a ploughshare, but these payments were almost always small in +value. Another class of inhabitants remains to be mentioned--the +cotters. These are the poor of the manor, who hold a cottage and garden, +or perhaps one acre or half an acre in the fields. They were unfree in +condition, and in most manors their services were modelled upon those of +the villeins. From their ranks were usually drawn the shepherd of the +manor, the bee-keeper and other minor officials of the manor. + + + Staff. + +A complicated organization necessarily involves administrators. Just as +the services of the tenants and even their names vary from manor to +manor, so does the nature of the staff. Highest in rank came the +steward; he was attached to no manor in particular, but controlled a +group, travelling from one to another to take accounts, to hold the +courts, and generally represent the lord. Under him are the officers of +the several manors. First came the bailiff or beadle, the representative +of the lord in the manor; his duty was to collect the rents and +services, to gather in the lord's crops and account for the receipts and +expenditure of the manor. Closely connected with him was the "messor" or +reaper; in many cases, indeed, "reaper" seems to have been only another +name for the bailiff. But the villeins were not without their own +officer, the provost or reeve. His duty was to arrange the distribution +of the services due from the tenants, and, as their representative, to +assist the bailiff in the management of the manor. Sometimes the same +man appears to have united both offices, and we find the reeve +accounting to the lord for the issues of the manor. To these important +officials may be added a number of smaller ones, the shepherd, the +swineherd, the bee-keeper, the cowherd, the ploughman and so on, mostly +selected from the cotters, and occupying their small holdings by the +services expressed in their titles. The number varies with the +constitution and needs of each estate, and they are often replaced by +hired labour. + + + Manor Court. + +The most complicated structure in the system is the manor court. The +complication is, indeed, partly the work of lawyers interpreting +institutions they did not understand by formulae not adapted to describe +them. But beyond this there remain the facts that the court was the +meeting-point of the lord and the tenants both free and unfree, that any +question touching on the power and constitution of the court was bound +to affect the interests of the lord and the tenants, and that there was +no external power capable of settling such questions as did arise. Amid +this maze a few clear lines can be laid down. In the first place, so far +as the 13th century goes, all the discussion that has collected about +the terms court leet, court baron and court customary may be put aside; +it relates to questions which in the 13th century were only just +emerging. The manor court at that date exercised its criminal, civil, or +manorial jurisdiction as one court; its names may differ, the parties +before it may be free or unfree, but the court is the same. Its +president was the lord's steward; the bailiff was the lord's +representative and the public prosecutor; and the tenants of the manor, +both free and unfree, attended at the court and gave judgment in the +cases brought before it. To modern ears the constitution sounds +unfamiliar. The president of the court settled the procedure of the +court, carried it out, and gave the final sentence, but over the law of +the court he had no power. All that is comprised in the word "judgment" +was settled by the body of tenants present at the court. This attendance +was, indeed, compulsory, and absence subjected to a fine any tenant +owing and refusing the service known as "suit of court." It may be asked +who in these courts settled questions of fact. The answer must be that +disputed questions of fact could only be settled in one way, by ordeal; +and that in most manorial courts the method employed was the wager of +law. The business of the court may be divided into criminal, manorial +and civil. Its powers under the first head depended on the franchises +enjoyed by the lord in the particular manor; for the most part only +petty offences were triable, such as small thefts, breaches of the +assize of bread and ale, assaults, and the like; except under special +conditions, the justice of great offences remained in the king. But +offences against the custom of the manor, such as bad ploughing, +improper taking of wood from the lord's woods, and the like, were of +course the staple criminal business of the court. Under the head of +manorial business the court dealt with the choice of the manorial +officers, and had some power of making regulations for the management of +the manor; but its most important function was the recording of the +surrenders and admittances of the villein tenants. Into the history and +meaning of this form of land transfer it is not necessary to enter here. +But it must be noted that the conveyance of a villein's holding was +effected by the vendor surrendering his land to the lord, who thereupon +admitted the purchaser to the holding. The same procedure was employed +in all cases of transfer of land, and the transaction was regularly +recorded upon the rolls of the court among the records of all the other +business transacted there. Finally, the court dealt with all suits as to +land within the manor, questions of dower and inheritance, and with +civil suits not connected with land. But it need hardly be said that in +an ordinary rural manor very few of these would occur. + +It will be clear on consideration that the manor court as here described +consisted of conflicting elements of very different origin and history. +Founded partly on express grants of franchises, partly on the inherent +right of a feudal lord to hold a court for his free tenants, partly on +the obscure community traceable among the unfree inhabitants of the +manor, it is incapable of strict legal definition. All these elements, +moreover, contain in themselves reasons for the decay which gradually +came over the system. The history of the decay of the manorial +jurisdictions in England has not yet been written. On the one hand were +the king's courts, with new and improved processes of law; on the other +hand the gradual disintegration which marks the history of the manor +during the 14th and 15th centuries. The criminal jurisdiction was the +first to disappear, and was closely followed by the civil jurisdiction +over the free tenants; and in modern times all that is left is the +jurisdiction over the customary tenants and their holdings, and that in +an attenuated form. + + A few words must be given to the legal theories of the 15th century on + the manor court. It would seem to have become the law that to the + existence of the manor two courts were necessary--a court customary + for customary tenants, and a court baron for free tenants. In the + court customary the lord's steward is the judge; in the court baron + the freeholders are the judges. If the freeholders in the manor + diminish to less than two in number the court baron cannot be held, + and the manor perishes. Nor can it be revived by the grant of new + freehold tenures, because under the statute of _Quia Emptores_ such + new freeholders would hold not of the lord of the manor, but of his + lord. The customary tenants and the court customary may survive, but + the manor is only a reputed manor. Of the 13th century all this is + untrue, but even at that date the existence of free tenants was in a + measure essential to the existence of the manor court. If there were + none the jurisdiction of the court over free tenants of course + collapsed; but in addition to this the lord also lost his power of + exercising the highest criminal franchises, even if he otherwise + possessed them; he could, for instance, no longer hang a murderer on + his own gallows. Perhaps it may be said that to the exercise of the + feudal power and of the royal franchises the presence of free tenants + was necessary. But it is clear that no such condition was necessary to + the existence of the manor. + + Apart from the change in the court of the manor, the most important + thread in its history is the process which converted the villein into + the copyholder. Here again the subject is imperfectly explored, and + part of it is still subject to controversy. In the strict view of + contemporary lawyers the holding of the villein tenant of the 13th + century was at the will of the lord, and the king's courts of law + would not protect him in his possession. If, however, the villein were + a tenant on the king's ancient demesne his condition was improved. The + writs of _monstraverunt_ and the little writ of right close protected + him from the improper exaction of services and from ejection by the + lord. But in ordinary manors there was no such immunity. That ejection + was common cannot be believed, but it was legally possible; and it was + not until the well-known decision of Danby, C. J., and Bryan, C. J., + in 7 Edw. IV., that the courts of law would entertain an action of + trespass brought against his lord by a customary tenant. From that + date the courts, both of law and equity, begin to intervene; and the + records of the Courts of Star Chamber and Requests show that in the + Tudor period equitable suits brought by tenants against their lords + are not infrequent. Side by side with the alteration in the legal + condition of the manor there went on an economic change. The labour + rents and other services slowly disappeared, and were replaced by + money payments. The field divisions gave way before inclosures, + effected sometimes by the lords and sometimes by the tenants. Change + in legal and agricultural practice went on side by side, and finally + the manor ceased to be an important social form, and became only a + peculiar form of land tenure and the abode of antiquarian curiosities. + + See G. L. von Maurer, _Einleitung in die Geschichte der Hof-, Mark-, + Dorf- und Stadtverfassung in Deutschland_ (Erlangen, 1856); G. Nasse, + _Zur Geschichte der mittelälterlichen Feldgemeinschaft in England_ + (Bonn, 1869); H. S. Maine, _Village Communities in the East and West_ + (Cambridge, 1872); F. Seebohm, _The English Village Community_ (1883); + W. J. Ashley, _English Economic History_, pts. i. ii. (1888-1893); F. + W. Maitland, _Select Pleas in Manorial Courts_ (London, Selden + Society, 1888); P. Vinogradoff, _Villainage in England_ (Cambridge, + 1892); _The Growth of the Manor_ (1905) and _English Society in the + 11th Century_ (1908); A. Meitzen, _Siedelung und Agrarwesen der + Westgermanen und Ostgermanen_ (Berlin, 1896); W. Cunningham, _Growth + of English Industry and Commerce_ (Cambridge, 1896); F. Pollock and F. + W. Maitland, _History of English Law_ (Cambridge, 1896); F. W. + Maitland, _Doomsday Book and Beyond_ (Cambridge, 1897); and C. M. + Andrews, _The Old English Manor_ (1892). (C. G. Cr.) + + + + +MANOR-HOUSE (Lat. _manerium_; Fr. _manoir_), in architecture, the name +given to the dwelling-house of the lord of the manor. The manor-house +was generally arranged for defence against robbers and thieves and was +often surrounded by a moat with drawbridge, but was not provided with a +keep or with towers or lofty curtain walls so as to stand a siege. The +early buildings were comparatively small, square in plan, comprising a +hall with one or two adjacent chambers; at a later period wings were +added, thus forming three sides of a quadrangle, like the house designed +by John Thorpe as his residence, the plan of which is among his drawings +in the Soane Museum. One of the most ancient examples is the +manor-house built by Richard Coeur de Lion at Southampton as a +rendezvous when he was about to cross into France. This consisted of a +hall and chapel on the first floor, with cellars on the ground floor; +the walls of this structure, with the chimney-piece, are still in +existence. The distinction between the "manor-house" and "castle" is not +always very clearly defined; in France such buildings as the castles of +Aydon (Northumberland) and of Stokesay (Shropshire) would be regarded as +manor-houses in that they were built as country houses and not as +fortresses, like Coucy and Pierrefonds; some of the smaller castles in +France were, in the 16th century, transformed into manor-houses by the +introduction of windows on the second floors of their towers and the +partial destruction of their curtain walls, as in the manor-houses of +Sedières (Corrèze), Nantouillet and Compiègne; and in the same century, +as at Chenonceaux, Blois and Chambord, though angle towers and +machicolated parapets still formed part of the design, they were +considered to be purely decorative features. The same is found in +England; thus in Thornbury and Hurstmonceaux castles, and in Cowdray +House, the fortifications were more for show than for use. There is an +interesting example of a French manor-house near Dieppe, known as the +Manoir-d'Ango, built in 1525, of which a great portion still exists, +where the proprietor Ango received François I., so that it must have +been of considerable size. + + In England the principal examples of which remains exist are the + manor-houses of Appleton, Berkshire, with a moat; King John's house at + Warnford (Hampshire); Boothby Ragnell, Lincolnshire, with traces of + moat; Godmersham, Kent; Little Wenham Hall, Suffolk, built partly in + brick and flint, and one of the earliest in which the bricks, probably + imported from Flanders, are found; Charney Hall, Berkshire (T-shaped + in plan in two storeys); Longthorpe House, near Peterborough; + Stokesay, Shropshire, already referred to; Cottesford, Oxfordshire; + Woodcraft, Northamptonshire; Acton Burnell, Shropshire; Old Soar, + Plaxtol, Kent, in two storeys, the ground storey vaulted and used as + cellar and storehouse, and the upper floor with hall, solar and + chapel. The foundation of all these dates from the 13th century. + Ightham Mote, Kent, portions of which, with the moat, date from the + 14th century, is one of the best preserved manor-houses; then follow + Norborough Hall, Northamptonshire; Creslow manor-house, Bucks, with + moat; Sutton Courtenay, Berkshire; the Court Lodge, Great Chart, Kent; + Stanton St Quentin, Great Chalfield, and South Wraxhall, all in Wilts; + Meare manor-house, Somerset; Ockwell, Berks; Kingfield manor-house, + Derbyshire; Kirby Muxloe, Leicestershire; Stoke Albany, + Northamptonshire; and, in the 16th century, Large Marney Hall, Essex + (1520); Sutton Place, Surrey (1530); the Vyne, Hampshire, already + influenced by the first Renaissance. In the 17th and 18th centuries + the manor-house is generally rectangular in plan, and, though well and + solidly built, would seem to have been erected more with a view to + internal comfort than to exterior embellishments. There is one other + type of manor-house, which partakes of the character of the castle in + its design, and takes the form of a tower, rectangular or square, with + angle turrets and in several storeys; in France it is represented by + the manor-houses of St Medard near Bordeaux and Camarsae (Dordogne), + and in England by Tattershall Castle, Lincolnshire and Middleton + Tower, Norfolk, both being in brick. (R. P. S.) + + + + +MANRESA, a town of north-eastern Spain, in the province of Barcelona, on +the river Cardoner and the Barcelona-Lérida railway. Pop. (1900), +23,252. Manresa is the chief town of the highlands watered by the +Cardoner and upper Llobregat, which meet below the town, and are also +connected by a canal 18 m. long. Two bridges, one built of stone and +dating from the Roman period, the other constructed of iron in 1804, +unite the older and larger part of Manresa with the modern suburbs on +the right bank of the river. The principal buildings are the collegiate +church of Santa Maria de la Séo, the Dominican monastery, and the church +of San Ignazio, built over the cavern (_cueva santa_) where Ignatius de +Loyola spent most of the year 1522 in penitentiary exercises and the +composition of his _Exercitia spiritualia_. Santa Maria is a fine +example of Spanish Gothic, and consists, like many Catalan churches, of +nave and chancel, aisles and ambulatory, without transepts. One of its +chief treasures is an exquisite 15th-century Florentine altar-frontal, +preserved in the sacristy. The Dominican monastery, adjoining the _cueva +santa_, commands a magnificent view of the Montserrat (q.v.), and is +used for the accommodation of the pilgrims who yearly visit the cavern +in thousands. Manresa has important iron-foundries and manufactures of +woollen, cotton and linen goods, ribbons, hats, paper, soap, chemicals, +spirits and flour. Building-stone is quarried near the town. + +Manresa is probably the _Munorisa_ of the Romans, which was the capital +of the Jacetani or Jaccetani, an important tribe of the south-eastern +Pyrenees. A large portion of the town was burned by the French in 1811. + + + + +MANRIQUE, GÓMEZ (1412?-1490?), Spanish poet, soldier, politician and +dramatist, was born at Amusco. The fifth son of Pedro Manrique, +_adelantado mayor_ of León, and nephew of Santillana (q.v.), Gómez +Manrique was introduced into public life at an early age, took a +prominent part against the constable Álvaro de Luna during the reign of +John II., went into opposition against Miguel Lucas de Iranzo in the +reign of Henry IV., and declared in favour of the infanta Isabel, whose +marriage with Ferdinand he promoted. Besides being a distinguished +soldier, he acted as a moderating political influence and, when +appointed _corregidor_ of Toledo, was active in protecting the converted +Jews from popular resentment. His will was signed on the 31st of May +1490, and he is known to have died before the 16th of February 1491. He +inherited the literary taste of his uncle Santillana, and was greatly +esteemed in his own age; but his reputation was afterwards eclipsed by +that of his nephew Jorge Manrique (q.v.), whose _Coplas_ were +continually reproduced. Gómez Manrique's poems were not printed till +1885, when they were edited by Antonio Paz y Melia. They at once +revealed him to be a poet of eminent merit, and it seems certain that +his _Consejos_, addressed to Diego Arias de Avila, inspired the more +famous _Coplas_ of his nephew. His didactic verses are modelled upon +those of Santillana, and his satires are somewhat coarse in thought and +expression; but his place in the history of Spanish literature is secure +as the earliest Spanish dramatist whose name has reached posterity. He +wrote the _Representación del nascimiento de Nuestro Señor_, a play on +the Passion, and two _momos_, or interludes, played at court. + + + + +MANRIQUE, JORGE (1440?-1478), Spanish poet and soldier, was born +probably at Paredes de Nava. The fourth son of Rodrigo Manrique, count +de Paredes, he became like the rest of his family a fervent partisan of +Queen Isabel, served with great distinction in many engagements, and was +made _comendador_ of Montizón in the order of Santiago. He was killed in +a skirmish near the fortress of Garci-Muñoz in 1478, and was buried in +the church attached to the convent of Uclés. His love-songs, satires, +and acrostic verses are merely ingenious compositions in the taste of +his age; he owes his imperishable renown to a single poem, the _Coplas +por la muerte de su padre_, an elegy of forty stanzas on the death of +his father, which was apparently first printed in the _Cancionero +llamado de Fray Inigo de Mendoza_ about the year 1482. There is no +foundation for the theory that Manrique drew his inspiration from an +Arabic poem by Abu 'l-Baka Salih ar-Rundi; the form of the _Coplas_ is +influenced by the _Consejos_ of his uncle, Gómez Manrique, and the +matter derives from the Bible, from Boethius and from other sources +readily accessible. The great sonorous commonplaces on death are +vitalized by the intensely personal grief of the poet, who lent a new +solemnity and significance to thoughts which had been for centuries the +common property of mankind. It was given to Jorge Manrique to have one +single moment of sublime expression, and this isolated achievement has +won him a fame undimmed by any change of taste during four centuries. + + The best edition of the _Coplas_ is that issued by R. Foulché-Delbosc + in the _Bibliotheca hispanica_; the poem has been admirably translated + by Longfellow. Manrique's other verses were mostly printed in Hernando + del Castillo's _Cancionero general_ (1511). + + + + +MANSE (Med. Lat. _mansa_, _mansus_ or _mansum_, from _manere_, to dwell, +remain), originally a dwelling-house together with a portion of land +sufficient for the support of a family. It is defined by Du Cange +(_Glossarium, s.v. Mansus_) as _... certam agri portionem quae coleretur +et in qua coloni aedes esset_. The term was particularly applied, in +ecclesiastical law, to the house and glebe to which every church was +entitled by common right, the rule of canon law being _sancitum est ut +unicuique ecclesiae unus mansus integer absque ullo servitio tribuatur_ +(Phillimore, _Eccles. Law_, 1895, ii. 1125). The word is now chiefly +used for the residence of a minister of the Established Church of +Scotland; to this every minister of a rural parish is entitled, and the +landed proprietors must build and keep it up. "Manse" is also loosely +used for the residence of a minister of various Free Church +denominations (see GLEBE). + + + + +MANSEL, HENRY LONGUEVILLE (1820-1871), English philosopher, was born at +Cosgrove, Northamptonshire (where his father, also Henry Longueville +Mansel, fourth son of General John Mansel, was rector), on the 6th of +October 1820. He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School and St John's +College, Oxford. He took a double first in 1843, and became tutor of his +college. He was appointed reader in moral and metaphysical philosophy at +Magdalen College in 1855, and Waynflete professor in 1859. He was a +great opponent of university reform and of the Hegelianism which was +then beginning to take root in Oxford. In 1867 he succeeded A. P. +Stanley as professor of ecclesiastical history, and in 1868 he was +appointed dean of St Paul's. He died on the 31st of July 1871. + +The philosophy of Mansel, like that of Sir William Hamilton, was mainly +due to Aristotle, Kant and Reid. Like Hamilton, Mansel maintained the +purely formal character of logic, the duality of consciousness as +testifying to both self and the external world, and the limitation of +knowledge to the finite and "conditioned." His doctrines were developed +in his edition of Aldrich's _Artis logicae rudimenta_ (1849)--his chief +contribution to the reviving study of Aristotle--and in his _Prolegomena +logica: an Inquiry into the Psychological Character of Logical +Processes_ (1851, 2nd ed. enlarged 1862), in which the limits of logic +as the "science of formal thinking" are rigorously determined. In his +Bampton lectures on _The Limits of Religious Thought_ (1858, 5th ed. +1867; Danish trans. 1888) he applied to Christian theology the +metaphysical agnosticism which seemed to result from Kant's criticism, +and which had been developed in Hamilton's _Philosophy of the +Unconditioned_. While denying all knowledge of the supersensuous, Mansel +deviated from Kant in contending that cognition of the ego as it really +is is itself a fact of experience. Consciousness, he held--agreeing thus +with the doctrine of "natural realism" which Hamilton developed from +Reid--implies knowledge both of self and of the external world. The +latter Mansel's psychology reduces to consciousness of our organism as +extended; with the former is given consciousness of free will and moral +obligation. A summary of his philosophy is contained in his article +"Metaphysics" in the 8th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ +(separately published, 1860). Mansel wrote also _The Philosophy of the +Conditioned_ (1866) in reply to Mill's criticism of Hamilton; _Letters, +Lectures, and Reviews_ (ed. Chandler, 1873), and _The Gnostic Heresies_ +(ed. J. B. Lightfoot, 1875, with a biographical sketch by Lord +Carnarvon). He wrote a commentary on the first two gospels in the +_Speaker's Commentary_. + + See J. W. Burgon, _Lives of Twelve Good Men_ (1888-1889); James + Martineau, _Essays, Reviews and Addresses_ (London, 1891), iii. 117 + seq.; A. W. Benn, _History of Rationalism_ (1906), ii. 100-112; + Masson, _Recent British Philosophy_ (3rd ed., London, 1877), pp. 252 + seq.; Sir Leslie Stephen in _Dict. Nat. Biog._ + + + + +MANSFELD, the name of an old and illustrious German family which took +its name from Mansfeld in Saxony, where it was seated from the 11th to +the 18th century. One of its earliest members was Hoyer von Mansfeld (d. +1115), a partisan of the emperor Henry V. during his struggles with the +Saxons; he fought for Henry at Warnstädt and was killed in his service +at Welfesholz. Still more famous was Albert, count of Mansfeld +(1480-1560), an intimate friend of Luther and one of the earliest and +staunchest supporters of the Reformation. He helped to crush the rising +of the peasants under Thomas Munzer in Thuringia in 1525; he was a +member of the league of Schmalkalden, and took part in all the movements +of the Protestants against Charles V. With Albert was associated his +brother Gebhard, and another member of the family was Johann Gebhard, +elector of Cologne from 1558 to 1562. A scion of another branch of the +Mansfelds was Peter Ernst, Fürst von Mansfeld (1517-1604), governor of +Luxemburg, who unlike his kinsmen was loyal to Charles V. He went with +the emperor to Tunis and fought for him in France. He was equally loyal +to his son, Philip II. of Spain, whom he served at St Quentin and in the +Netherlands. He distinguished himself in the field and found time to +lead a body of troops to aid the king of France against the Huguenots. +In this capacity he was present in 1569 at the battle of Moncontour, +where another member of his family, Count Wolrad of Mansfeld (d. 1578) +was among the Huguenot leaders. The Mansfeld family became extinct in +1780 on the death of Josef Wenzel Nepomuk, prince of Fondi, the lands +being divided between Saxony and Prussia. + + See L. F. Niemann, _Geschichte der Grafen von Mansfeld_ (Aschersleben, + 1834). + + + + +MANSFELD, ERNST, GRAF VON (c. 1580-1626), German soldier, was an +illegitimate son of Peter Ernst, Fürst von Mansfeld, and passed his +early years in his father's palace at Luxemburg. He gained his earliest +military experiences in Hungary, where his half-brother Charles +(1543-1595,) also a soldier of renown, held a high command in the +imperial army. Later he served under the Archduke Leopold, until that +prince's ingratitude, real or fancied, drove him into the arms of the +enemies of the house of Habsburg. Although remaining a Roman Catholic he +allied himself with the Protestant princes, and during the earlier part +of the Thirty Years' War he was one of their foremost champions. He was +despatched by Charles Emmanuel, duke of Savoy, at the head of about 2000 +men to aid the revolting Bohemians when war broke out in 1618. He took +Pilsen, but in the summer of 1619 he was defeated at Zablat; after this +he offered his services to the emperor Ferdinand II. and remained +inactive while the titular king of Bohemia, Frederick V., elector +palatine of the Rhine, was driven in headlong rout from Prague. +Mansfeld, however, was soon appointed by Frederick to command his army +in Bohemia, and in 1621 he took up his position in the Upper Palatinate, +successfully resisting the efforts made by Tilly to dislodge him. From +the Upper he passed into the Rhenish Palatinate. Here he relieved +Frankenthal and took Hagenau; then, joined by his master, the elector +Frederick, he defeated Tilly at Wiesloch in April 1622 and plundered +Alsace and Hesse. But Mansfeld's ravages were not confined to the lands +of his enemies; they were ruinous to the districts he was commissioned +to defend. At length Frederick was obliged to dismiss Mansfeld's troops +from his service. Then joining Christian of Brunswick the count led his +army through Lorraine, devastating the country as he went, and in August +1622 defeating the Spaniards at Fleurus. He next entered the service of +the United Provinces and took up his quarters in East Friesland, +capturing fortresses and inflicting great hardships upon the +inhabitants. A mercenary and a leader of mercenaries, Mansfeld often +interrupted his campaigns by journeys made for the purpose of raising +money, or in other words of selling his services to the highest bidder, +and in these diplomatic matters he showed considerable skill. About 1624 +he paid three visits to London, where he was hailed as a hero by the +populace, and at least one to Paris. James I. was anxious to furnish him +with men and money for the recovery of the palatinate, but it was not +until January 1625 that Mansfeld and his army of "raw and poor rascals" +sailed from Dover to the Netherlands. Later in the year, the Thirty +Years' War having been renewed under the leadership of Christian IV., +king of Denmark, he re-entered Germany to take part therein. But on the +25th of April 1626 Wallenstein inflicted a severe defeat upon him at the +bridge of Dessau. Mansfeld, however, quickly raised another army, with +which he intended to attack the hereditary lands of the house of +Austria, and pursued by Wallenstein he pressed forward towards Hungary, +where he hoped to accomplish his purpose by the aid of Bethlem Gabor, +prince of Transylvania. But when Gabor changed his policy and made peace +with the emperor, Mansfeld was compelled to disband his troops. He set +out for Venice, but when he reached Rakowitza he was taken ill, and +here he died on the 29th of November 1626. He was buried at Spalato. + + See F. Stieve, _Ernst von Mansfeld_ (Munich, 1890); R. Reuss, _Graf + Ernst von Mansfeld im böhmischen Kriege_ (Brunswick, 1865); A. C. de + Villermont, _Ernest de Mansfeldt_ (Brussels, 1866); L. Graf Uetterodt + zu Schaffenberg, _Ernst Graf zu Mansfeld_ (Gotha, 1867); J. Grossmann, + _Des Grafen Ernst von Mansfeld letzte Pläne und Thaten_ (Breslau, + 1870); E. Fischer, _Des Mansfelders Tod_ (Berlin, 1873); S. R. + Gardiner, _History of England_, vols. iv. and v. (1901); J. L. Motley, + _Life and Death of John of Barneveld_ (ed. 1904; vol. ii.). + + + + +MANSFIELD, RICHARD (1857-1907), American actor, was born on the 24th of +May 1857, in Berlin, his mother being Madame [Erminia] Rudersdorff +(1822-1882), the singer, and his father, Maurice Mansfield (d. 1861), a +London wine merchant. He first appeared on the stage at St George's +Hall, London, and then drifted into light opera, playing the +Major-General in _The Pirates of Penzance_, and the Lord High +Executioner in _The Mikado_, both in the English provinces and in +America. In 1883 he joined A. M. Palmer's Union Square theatre company +in New York, and made a great hit as Baron Chevrial in _A Parisian +Romance_. He appeared successfully in several plays adapted from +well-known stories, and his rendering (1887) of the doubled title-parts +in R. L. Stevenson's _Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde_ created a +profound impression. It was with this play that he made his London +reputation during a season (1888) at the Lyceum theatre, by invitation +of Henry Irving. He produced Richard III. the next year at the Globe. +Among his other chief successes were _Prince Karl_, _Cyrano de Bergerac_ +and _Monsieur Beaucaire_. He was one of the earliest to produce G. +Bernard Shaw's plays in America, appearing in 1894 as Bluntschli in +_Arms and the Man_, and as Dick Dudgeon in _The Devil's Disciple_ in +1897. As a manager and producer of plays Mansfield was remarkable for +his lavish staging. He died in New London, Connecticut, on the 30th of +August 1907. + + See the lives by Paul Wilstach (1908) and William Winter (1910). + + + + +MANSFIELD, WILLIAM MURRAY, 1ST EARL OF (1705-1793), English judge, was +born at Scone in Perthshire, on the 2nd of March 1705. He was a younger +son of David Murray, 5th Viscount Stormont (c. 1665-1731), the dignity +having been granted in 1621 by James I. to his friend and helper, Sir +David Murray (d. 1631), a Scottish politician of some note. Lord +Stormont's family was Jacobite in its politics, and his second son James +(c. 1690-1728), being apparently mixed up in some of the plots of the +time, joined the court of the exiled Stuarts and in 1721 was created +earl of Dunbar by James Edward, the Old Pretender. + +William Murray was educated at Perth grammar school and Westminster +School, of which he was a king's scholar. Entering Christ Church, +Oxford, he graduated in 1727. A friend of the family, Lord Foley, +provided the funds for his legal training, and he became a member of +Lincoln's Inn on his departure from Oxford, being called to the bar in +1730. He was a good scholar and mixed with the best literary society, +being an intimate friend of Alexander Pope. His appearance in some +important Scottish appeal cases brought him into notice, and in Scotland +at least he acquired an immense reputation by his appearance for the +city of Edinburgh when it was threatened with disfranchisement for the +affair of the Porteous mob. His English practice had as yet been scanty, +but in 1737 a single speech in a jury trial of note placed him at the +head of the bar, and from this time he had all he could attend to. In +1738 he married Lady Elizabeth Finch, daughter of the earl of +Winchelsea. His political career began in 1742 with his appointment as +solicitor-general. During the next fourteen years he was one of the most +conspicuous figures in the parliamentary history of the time. By birth a +Jacobite, by association a Tory, he was nevertheless a Moderate, and his +politics were really dominated by his legal interests. Although holding +an office of subordinate rank, he was the chief defender of the +government in the House of Commons, and during the time that Pitt was in +opposition had to bear the brunt of his attacks. In 1754 he became +attorney-general, and for the next two years acted as leader of the +House of Commons under the administration of the duke of Newcastle. But +in 1756, when the government was evidently approaching its fall, an +unexpected vacancy occurred in the chief justiceship of the king's +bench, and he claimed the office, being at the same time raised to the +peerage as Baron Mansfield. + +From this time the chief interest of his career lies in his judicial +work, but he did not wholly dissever himself from politics. He became by +a singular arrangement, only repeated in the case of Lord Ellenborough, +a member of the cabinet, and remained in that position through various +changes of administration for nearly fifteen years, and, although he +persistently refused the chancellorship, he acted as Speaker of the +House of Lords while the Great Seal was in commission. During the time +of Pitt's ascendancy he took but little part in politics, but while Lord +Bute was in power his influence was very considerable, and seems mostly +to have been exerted in favour of a more moderate line of policy. He was +on the whole a supporter of the prerogative, but within definite limits. +Macaulay terms him, justly enough, "the father of modern Toryism, of +Toryism modified to suit an order of things in which the House of +Commons is the most powerful body in the state." During the stormy +session of 1770 he came into violent collision with Chatham and Camden +in the questions that arose out of the Middlesex election and the trials +for political libel; and in the subsequent years he was made the subject +of the bitter attacks of Junius, in which his early Jacobite connexions, +and his apparent leanings to arbitrary power, were used against him with +extraordinary ability and virulence. In 1776 he was created earl of +Mansfield. In 1783, although he declined to re-enter the cabinet, he +acted as Speaker of the House of Lords during the coalition ministry, +and with this his political career may be said to have closed. He +continued to act as chief justice until his resignation in June 1788, +and after five years spent in retirement died on the 20th of March 1793. +He left no family, but his title had been re-granted in 1792 with a +direct remainder to his nephew David Murray, 7th Viscount Stormont +(1727-1796). The 2nd earl was ambassador to Vienna and then to Paris; he +was secretary of state for the southern department from 1779 to 1782, +and lord president of the council in 1783, and again from 1794 until his +death. In 1906 his descendant Alan David Murray (b. 1864) became 6th +earl of Mansfield. + +Lord Mansfield's great reputation rests chiefly on his judicial career. +The political trials over which he presided, although they gave rise to +numerous accusations against him, were conducted with singular fairness +and propriety. He was accused with especial bitterness of favouring +arbitrary power by the law which he laid down in the trials for libel +which arose out of the publications of Junius and Horne Tooke, and which +at a later time he reaffirmed in the case of the dean of St Asaph (see +LIBEL). But we must remember that his view of the law was concurred in +by the great majority of the judges and lawyers of that time, and was +supported by undoubted precedents. In other instances, when the +government was equally concerned, he was wholly free from suspicion. He +supported Lord Camden's decision against general warrants, and reversed +the outlawry of Wilkes. He was always ready to protect the rights of +conscience, whether they were claimed by Dissenters or Catholics, and +the popular fury which led to the destruction of his house during the +Gordon riots was mainly due to the fact that a Catholic priest, who was +accused of saying Mass, had escaped the penal laws by his charge to the +jury. His chief celebrity, however, is founded upon the consummate +ability with which he discharged the civil duties of his office. He has +always been recognized as the founder of English mercantile law. The +common law as it existed before his time was wholly inadequate to cope +with the new cases and customs which arose with the increasing +development of commerce. The facts were left to the jury to decide as +best they might, and no principle was ever extracted from them which +might serve as a guide in subsequent cases. Mansfield found the law in +this chaotic state, and left it in a form that was almost equivalent to +a code. He defined almost every principle that governed commercial +transactions in such a manner that his successors had only to apply the +rules he had laid down. His knowledge of Roman and foreign law, and the +general width of his education, freed him from the danger of relying too +exclusively upon narrow precedents, and afforded him a storehouse of +principles and illustrations, while the grasp and acuteness of his +intellect enabled him to put his judgments in a form which almost always +commanded assent. A similar influence was exerted by him in other +branches of the common law; and although, after his retirement, a +reaction took place, and he was regarded for a while as one who had +corrupted the ancient principles of English law, these prejudices passed +rapidly away, and the value of his work in bringing the older law into +harmony with the needs of modern society has long been fully recognized. + + See Holliday's _Life_ (1797); Campbell's _Chief Justices_; Foss's + _Judges_; Greville's _Memoirs, passim_; Horace Walpole's _Letters_; + and other memoirs and works on the period. + + + + +MANSFIELD, a market town and municipal borough in the Mansfield +parliamentary division of Nottinghamshire, England, on the small river +Mann or Maun; the junction of several branches of the Midland railway, +by which it is 142 m. N.N.W. from London. Pop. (1891), 13,094; (1901), +15,250. Area, 7068 acres. The church of St Peter is partly Early Norman, +and partly Perpendicular. There is a grammar school founded by Queen +Elizabeth in 1561, occupying modern buildings. Twelve almshouses were +founded by Elizabeth Heath in 1693, and to these six were afterwards +added. There are a number of other charities. The industries are the +manufacture of lace, thread, boots and machinery, iron-founding and +brewing. In the neighbourhood, as at Mansfield Woodhouse to the north, +there are quarries of limestone, sandstone and freestone. The town is +governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. During the heptarchy +Mansfield was occasionally the residence of the Mercian kings, and it +was afterwards a favourite resort of Norman sovereigns, lying as it does +on the western outskirts of Sherwood Forest. By Henry VIII. the manor +was granted to the earl of Surrey. Afterwards it went by exchange to the +duke of Newcastle, and thence to the Portland family. The town obtained +a fair from Richard II. in 1377. It became a municipal borough in 1891. + + + + +MANSFIELD, a city and the county-seat of Richland county, Ohio, U.S.A., +about 65 m. S.W. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890), 13,473; (1900), 17,640, of +whom 1781 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 20,768. It is served by the +Pennsylvania (Pittsburg, Ft Wayne & Chicago division), the Erie, and the +Baltimore & Ohio railways. It is built on an eminence (1150 ft.), and +has two public parks, a substantial court-house, a soldiers' and +sailors' memorial building, a public library, a hospital and many fine +residences. It is the seat of the Ohio state reformatory. Mansfield has +an extensive trade with the surrounding agricultural country, but its +largest interests are in manufactures. The total factory product in 1905 +was valued at $7,353,578. There are natural gas wells in the vicinity. +The waterworks and the sewage disposal plant are owned and operated by +the municipality. Mansfield was laid out in 1808, and was named in +honour of Lieut.-Colonel Jared Mansfield (1759-1830), United States +surveyor of Ohio and the North-west Territory in 1803-1812, and +professor of natural and experimental philosophy at West Point from 1812 +to 1828. Mansfield was incorporated as a village in 1828 and was first +chartered as a city in 1857. It was the home of John Sherman from 1840 +until his death. + + + + +MANSION (through O. Fr. _mansion_, mod. _maison_, from Lat. _mansio_, +dwelling-place, stage on a journey; _manere_, to remain), a term applied +in early English use to the principal house of the lord of a manor. By +the Settled Land Act 1890, § 10, subsec. 2, repealing § 15 of the act of +1882, "the principal mansion house ... on any settled land shall not be +sold or exchanged or leased by the tenant for life without the consent +of the trustees of the settlement or an order of the court." The +principles guiding an English court of law for making or refusing such +an order are laid down in _In re the Marquess of Ailesbury's Settled +Estate_ (1892), 1 Ch. 506, 546; A.C. 356. In general usage, the term +"mansion" is given to any large and important house in town or country; +and "mansion house" to the official residence, when provided, of the +mayor of a borough, particularly to that of the lord mayors of London +and Dublin. From the general meaning of a conspicuously large +dwelling-place comes the modern employment of the term "mansions," in +London and elsewhere, for large buildings composed of "flats." + + + + +MANSLAUGHTER (O. Eng., _mannslaeht_, from _mann_, man, and _slaeht_, act +of slaying, _sleán_, to slay, properly to smite; cf. Ger. _schlagen_, +_Schlacht_, battle), a term in English law signifying "unlawful homicide +without malice aforethought" (Stephen, _Digest of the Criminal Law_, +Art. 223). The distinction between manslaughter and murder and other +forms of homicide is treated under HOMICIDE. + + + + +MANSON, GEORGE (1850-1876), Scottish water-colour painter, was born in +Edinburgh on the 3rd of December 1850. When about fifteen he was +apprenticed as a woodcutter with W. & R. Chambers, with whom he remained +for over five years, diligently employing all his spare time in the +study and practice of art, and producing in his morning and evening +hours water-colours of much delicacy and beauty. In 1871 he devoted +himself exclusively to painting. His subjects were derived from humble +Scottish life--especially child-life, varied occasionally by +portraiture, by landscape, and by views of picturesque architecture. In +1873 he visited Normandy, Belgium and Holland; in the following year he +spent several months in Sark; and in 1875 he resided at St Lô, and in +Paris, where he mastered the processes of etching. Meanwhile in his +water-colour work he had been adding more of breadth and power to the +tenderness and richness of colour which distinguished his early +pictures, and he was planning more complex and important subjects. But +his health had been gradually failing, and he was ordered to Lympstone +in Devonshire, where he died on the 27th of February 1876. + + A volume of photographs from his water-colours and sketches, with a + memoir by J. M. Gray, was published in 1880. For an account of + Manson's technical method as a wood engraver see P. G. Hamerton's + _Graphic Arts_, p. 311. + + + + +MANSUR (Arab. "victorious"), a surname (_laqab_) assumed by a large +number of Mahommedan princes. The best known are: (1) ABU JA'FAR IBN +MAHOMMED, second caliph of the Abbasid house, who reigned A.D. 754-775 +(see CALIPHATE: § C, §2); (2) ABU TAHIR ISMA'IL IBN AL-QAIM, the third +Fatimite caliph of Africa (946-953) (see FATIMITES); (3) ABU YUSUF YA +'QUB IBN YUSUF, often described as Jacob Almanzor, of the Moorish +dynasty of the Almohades, conqueror of Alfonso III. in the battle of +Alarcos (1195); (4) IBN ABI 'AMIR MAHOMMED, commonly called Almanzor by +European writers, of an ancient but not illustrious Arab family, which +had its seat at Torrox near Algeciras. The last-named was born A.D. 939, +and began life as a lawyer at Cordova. In 967 he obtained a place at the +court of Hakam II., the Andalusian caliph, and by an unusual combination +of the talents of a courtier with administrative ability rapidly rose to +distinction, enjoying the powerful support of Subh, the favourite of the +caliph and mother of his heir Hisham. The death of Hakam (976) and the +accession of a minor gave fresh scope to his genius, and in 978 he +became chief minister. The weak young caliph was absorbed in exercises +of piety, but at first Mansur had to share the power with his +father-in-law Ghalib, the best general of Andalusia, and with the mother +of Hisham. At last a rupture took place between the two ministers. +Ghalib professed himself the champion of the caliph and called in the +aid of the Christians of Leon; but Mansur, anticipating the struggle, +had long before remodelled the army and secured its support. Ghalib fell +in battle (981); a victorious campaign chastised the Leonese; and on his +return to Cordova the victor assumed his regal surname of _al-Mansur +billah_, and became practically sovereign of Andalusia. The caliph was a +mere prisoner of state, and Mansur ultimately assumed the title as well +as the prerogatives of king (996). Unscrupulous in the means by which he +rose to power, he wielded the sovereignty nobly. His strict justice and +enlightened administration were not less notable than the military +prowess by which he is best known. His arms were the terror of the +Christians, and raised the Moslem power in Spain to a pitch it had never +before attained. In Africa his armies were for a time hard pressed by +the revolt of Ziri, viceroy of Mauretania, but before his death this +enemy had also fallen. Mansur died at Medinaceli on the 10th of August +1002, and was succeeded by his son Mozaffar. + + + + +MANSURA, the capital of the province of Dakahlia, Lower Egypt, near the +west side of Lake Menzala, and on the Cairo-Damietta railway. Pop. +(1907), 40,279. It dates from 1221, and is famous as the scene of the +battle of Mansura, fought on the 8th of February 1250, between the +crusaders commanded by the king of France, St Louis, and the Egyptians. +The battle was drawn, but it led to the retreat of the crusaders on +Damietta, and to the surrender of St Louis. Mansura has several +cotton-ginning, cotton, linen and sail-cloth factories. + + + + +MANT, RICHARD (1776-1848), English divine, was born at Southampton on +the 12th of February 1776, and was educated at Winchester and Trinity +College, Oxford. He was elected fellow of Oriel in 1798, and after +taking orders held a curacy at Southampton (1802), and then the vicarage +of Coggeshall, Essex (1810). In 1811 he was Bampton lecturer, in 1816 +was made rector of St Botolph's, and in 1820 bishop of Killaloe and +Kilfenoragh (Ireland). In 1823 he was translated to Down and Connor, to +which Dromore was added in 1842. In connexion with the Rev. George +D'Oyly he wrote a commentary on the whole Bible. Other works by him were +the _Psalms in an English Metrical Version_ (1842) and a _History of the +Church of Ireland_ (1839-1841; 2 vols.). + + + + +MANTEGAZZA, PAOLO (1831-1910), Italian physiologist and anthropologist, +was born at Monza on the 31st of October 1831. After spending his +student-days at the universities of Pisa and Milan, he gained his M.D. +degree at Pavia in 1854. After travelling in Europe, India and America, +he practised as a doctor in the Argentine Republic and Paraguay. +Returning to Italy in 1858 he was appointed surgeon at Milan Hospital +and professor of general pathology at Pavia. In 1870 he was nominated +professor of anthropology at the Instituto di Studii Superiori, +Florence. Here he founded the first Museum of Anthropology and Ethnology +in Italy, and later the Italian Anthropological Society. From 1865 to +1876 he was deputy for Monza in the Italian parliament, subsequently +being elected to the senate. He became the object of bitter attacks on +the ground of the extent to which he carried the practice of +vivisection. His published works include _Fisiologia del dolore_ (1880); +_Fisiologia dell' amore_ (1896); _Elementi d' igiene_ (1875); _Fisonomia +e mimica_ (1883); _Le Estasi umane_ (1887). + + + + +MANTEGNA, ANDREA (1431-1506), one of the chief heroes in the advance of +painting in Italy, was born in Vicenza, of very humble parentage. It is +said that in his earliest boyhood Andrea was, like Giotto, put to +shepherding or cattle-herding; this is not likely, and can at any rate +have lasted only a very short while, as his natural genius for art +developed with singular precocity, and excited the attention of +Francesco Squarcione, who entered him in the gild of painters before he +had completed his eleventh year. + +Squarcione, whose original vocation was tailoring, appears to have had a +remarkable enthusiasm for ancient art, and a proportionate faculty for +acting, with profit to himself and others, as a sort of artistic +middleman; his own performances as a painter were merely mediocre. He +travelled in Italy, and perhaps in Greece also, collecting antique +statues, reliefs, vases, &c., forming the largest collection then extant +of such works, making drawings from them himself, and throwing open his +stores for others to study from, and then undertaking works on +commission for which his pupils no less than himself were made +available. As many as one hundred and thirty-seven painters and +pictorial students passed through his school, established towards 1440, +which became famous all over Italy. Mantegna was, as he deserved to be, +Squarcione's favourite pupil. Squarcione adopted him as his son, and +purposed making him the heir of his fortune. Andrea was only seventeen +when he painted, in the church of S. Sofia in Padua, a Madonna picture +of exceptional and recognized excellence. He was no doubt fully aware of +having achieved no common feat, as he marked the work with his name and +the date, and the years of his age. This painting was destroyed in the +17th century. + +As the youth progressed in his studies, he came under the influence of +Jacopo Bellini, a painter considerably superior to Squarcione, father of +the celebrated painters Giovanni and Gentile, and of a daughter +Nicolosia; and in 1454 Jacopo gave Nicolosia to Andrea in marriage. This +connexion of Andrea with the pictorial rival of Squarcione is generally +assigned as the reason why the latter became alienated from the son of +his adoption, and always afterwards hostile to him. Another suggestion, +which rests, however, merely on its own internal probability, is that +Squarcione had at the outset used his pupil Andrea as the unavowed +executant of certain commissions, but that after a while Andrea began +painting on his own account, thus injuring the professional interests of +his chief. The remarkably definite and original style formed by Mantegna +may be traced out as founded on the study of the antique in Squarcione's +atelier, followed by a diligent application of principles of work +exemplified by Paolo Uccello and Donatello, with the practical guidance +and example of Jacopo Bellini in the sequel. + +Among the other early works of Mantegna are the fresco of two saints +over the entrance porch of the church of S. Antonio in Padua, 1452, and +an altar-piece of St Luke and other saints for the church of S. +Giustina, now in the Brera Gallery in Milan, 1453. It's probable, +however, that before this time some of the pupils of Squarcione, +including Mantegna, had already begun that series of frescoes in the +chapel of S. Cristoforo, in the church of S. Agostino degli Eremitani, +by which the great painter's reputation was fully confirmed, and which +remain to this day conspicuous among his finest achievements.[1] The now +censorious Squarcione found much to carp at in the earlier works of this +series, illustrating the life of St James; he said the figures were like +men of stone, and had better have been coloured stone-colour at once. +Andrea, conscious as he was of his own great faculty and mastery, seems +nevertheless to have felt that there was something in his old +preceptor's strictures; and the later subjects, from the legend of St +Christopher, combine with his other excellences more of natural +character and vivacity. Trained as he had been to the study of marbles +and the severity of the antique, and openly avowing that he considered +the antique superior to nature as being more eclectic in form, he now +and always affected precision of outline, dignity of idea and of figure, +and he thus tended towards rigidity, and to an austere wholeness rather +than gracious sensitiveness of expression. His draperies are tight and +closely folded, being studied (as it is said) from models draped in +paper and woven fabrics gummed. Figures slim, muscular and bony, action +impetuous but of arrested energy, tawny landscape, gritty with littering +pebbles, mark the athletic hauteur of his style. He never changed, +though he developed and perfected, the manner which he had adopted in +Padua; his colouring, at first rather neutral and undecided, +strengthened and matured. There is throughout his works more balancing +of colour than fineness of tone. One of his great aims was optical +illusion, carried out by a mastery of perspective which, though not +always impeccably correct, nor absolutely superior in principle to the +highest contemporary point of attainment, was worked out by himself with +strenuous labour, and an effect of actuality astonishing in those times. + +Successful and admired though he was in Padua, Mantegna left his native +city at an early age, and never afterwards resettled there; the +hostility of Squarcione has been assigned as the cause. The rest of his +life was passed in Verona, Mantua and Rome--chiefly Mantua; Venice and +Florence have also been named, but without confirmation. + +It may have been in 1459 that he went to Verona; and he painted, though +not on the spot, a grand altar-piece for the church of S. Zeno, a +Madonna and angels, with four saints on each side. The Marquis Lodovico +Gonzaga of Mantua had for some time been pressing Mantegna to enter his +service; and the following year, 1460, was perhaps the one in which he +actually established himself at the Mantuan court, residing at first +from time to time at Goito, but, from December 1466 onwards, with his +family in Mantua itself. His engagement was for a salary of 75 lire +(about £30) a month, a sum so large for that period as to mark +conspicuously the high regard in which his art was held. He was in fact +the first painter of any eminence ever domiciled in Mantua. He built a +stately house in the city, and adorned it with a multitude of paintings. +The house remains, but the pictures have perished. Some of his early +Mantuan works are in that apartment of the Castello which is termed the +Camera degli Sposi--full compositions in fresco, including various +portraits of the Gonzaga family, and some figures of genii, &c. In 1488 +he went to Rome at the request of Pope Innocent VIII., to paint the +frescoes in the chapel of the Belvedere in the Vatican; the marquis of +Mantua (Federigo) created him a cavaliere before his departure. This +series of frescoes, including a noted "Baptism of Christ," was +ruthlessly destroyed by Pius VI. in laying out the Museo Pio-Clementino. +The pope treated Mantegna with less liberality than he had been used to +at the Mantuan court; but on the whole their connexion, which ceased in +1490, was not unsatisfactory to either party. Mantegna then returned to +Mantua, and went on with a series of works--the nine tempera-pictures, +each of them 9 ft. square, of the "Triumph of Caesar"--which he had +probably begun before his leaving for Rome, and which are now in Hampton +Court. These superbly invented and designed compositions, gorgeous with +all splendour of subject-matter and accessory, and with the classical +learning and enthusiasm of one of the master-spirits of the age, have +always been accounted of the first rank among Mantegna's works. They +were sold in 1628 along with the bulk of the Mantuan art treasures, and +were not, as is commonly said, plundered in the sack of Mantua in 1630. +They are now greatly damaged by patchy repaintings. Another work of +Mantegna's later years was the so-called "Madonna della Vittoria," now +in the Louvre. It was painted in tempera about 1495, in commemoration of +the battle of Fornovo, which Gianfrancesco Gonzaga found it convenient +to represent to his lieges as an Italian victory, though in fact it had +been a French victory; the church which originally housed the picture +was built from Mantegna's own design. The Madonna is here depicted with +various saints, the archangel Michael and St Maurice holding her mantle, +which is extended over the kneeling Gianfrancesco Gonzaga, amid a +profusion of rich festooning and other accessory. Though not in all +respects of his highest order of execution, this counts among the most +obviously beautiful and attractive of Mantegna's works--from which the +qualities of beauty and attraction are often excluded, in the stringent +pursuit of those other excellences more germane to his severe genius, +tense energy passing into haggard passion. + +Vasari eulogizes Mantegna for his courteous, distinguished and +praiseworthy deportment, although there are indications of his having +been not a little litigious in disposition. With his fellow-pupils at +Padua he had been affectionate; and for two of them, Dario da Trevigi +and Marco Zoppo, he retained a steady friendship. That he had a high +opinion of himself was natural, for no artist of his epoch could produce +more manifest vouchers of marked and progressive attainment. He became +very expensive in his habits, fell at times into difficulties, and had +to urge his valid claims upon the marquis's attention. After his return +to Mantua from Rome his prosperity was at its height, until the death of +his wife. He then formed some other connexion, and became at an advanced +age the father of a natural son, Giovanni Andrea; and at the last, +although he continued launching out into various expenses and schemes, +he had serious tribulations, such as the banishment from Mantua of his +son Francesco, who had incurred the marquis's displeasure. Perhaps the +aged master and connoisseur regarded as barely less trying the hard +necessity of parting with a beloved antique bust of Faustina. Very soon +after this transaction he died in Mantua, on the 13th of September 1506. +In 1517 a handsome monument was set up to him by his sons in the church +of S. Andrea, where he had painted the altar-piece of the mortuary +chapel. + + Mantegna was no less eminent as an engraver, though his history in + that respect is somewhat obscure, partly because he never signed or + dated any of his plates, unless in one single disputed instance, 1472. + The account which has come down to us is that Mantegna began engraving + in Rome, prompted by the engravings produced by Baccio Baldini of + Florence after Sandro Botticelli; nor is there anything positive to + invalidate this account, except the consideration that it would + consign all the numerous and elaborate engravings made by Mantegna to + the last sixteen or seventeen years of his life, which seems a scanty + space for them, and besides the earlier engravings indicate an earlier + period of his artistic style. It has been suggested that he began + engraving while still in Padua, under the tuition of a distinguished + goldsmith, Niccolò. He engraved about fifty plates, according to the + usual reckoning; some thirty of them are mostly accounted + indisputable--often large, full of figures, and highly studied. Some + recent connoisseurs, however, ask us to restrict to seven the number + of his genuine extant engravings--which appears unreasonable. Among + the principal examples are "Roman Triumphs" (not the same compositions + as the Hampton Court pictures), "A Bacchanal Festival," "Hercules and + Antaeus," "Marine Gods," "Judith with the Head of Holophernes," the + "Deposition from the Cross," the "Entombment," the "Resurrection," the + "Man of Sorrows," the "Virgin in a Grotto." Mantegna has sometimes + been credited with the important invention of engraving with the burin + on copper. This claim cannot be sustained on a comparison of dates, + but at any rate he introduced the art into upper Italy. Several of his + engravings are supposed to be executed on some metal less hard than + copper. The technique of himself and his followers is characterized by + the strongly marked forms of the design, and by the oblique formal + hatchings of the shadows. The prints are frequently to be found in two + states, or editions. In the first state the prints have been taken off + with the roller, or even by hand-pressing, and they are weak in tint; + in the second state the printing press has been used, and the ink is + stronger. + + The influence of Mantegna on the style and tendency of his age was + very marked, and extended not only to his own flourishing Mantuan + school, but over Italian art generally. His vigorous perspectives and + trenchant foreshortenings pioneered the way to other artists: in solid + antique taste, and the power of reviving the aspect of a remote age + with some approach to system and consistency, he distanced all + contemporary competition. He did not, however, leave behind him many + scholars of superior faculty. His two legitimate sons were painters of + only ordinary ability. His favourite pupil was known as Carlo del + Mantegna; Caroto of Verona was another pupil, Bonsignori an imitator. + Giovanni Bellini, in his earlier works, obviously followed the lead of + his brother-in-law Andrea. + + The works painted by Mantegna, apart from his frescoes, are not + numerous; some thirty-five to forty are regarded as fully + authenticated. We may name, besides those already specified--in the + Naples Museum, "St Euphemia," a fine early work; in Casa Melzi, Milan, + the "Madonna and Child with Chanting Angels" (1461); in the Tribune of + the Uffizi, Florence, three pictures remarkable for scrupulous finish; + in the Berlin Museum, the "Dead Christ with two Angels"; in the + Louvre, the two celebrated pictures of mythic allegory--"Parnassus" + and "Minerva Triumphing over the Vices"; in the National Gallery, + London, the "Agony in the Garden," the "Virgin and Child Enthroned, + with the Baptist and the Magdalen," a late example; the monochrome of + "Vestals," brought from Hamilton Palace; the "Triumph of Scipio" (or + Phrygian Mother of the Gods received by the Roman Commonwealth), a + tempera in chiaroscuro, painted only a few months before the master's + death; in the Brera, Milan, the "Dead Christ, with the two Maries + weeping," a remarkable _tour de force_ in the way of foreshortening, + which, though it has a stunted appearance, is in correct technical + perspective as seen from all points of view. With all its exceptional + merit, this is an eminently ugly picture. It remained in Mantegna's + studio unsold at his death, and was disposed of to liquidate debts. + + Not to speak of earlier periods, a great deal has been written + concerning Mantegna of late years. See the works by Maud Crutwell + (1901), Paul Kristeller (1901), H. Thode (1897), Paul Yriarte (1901), + Julia Cartwright, _Mantegna and Francia_ (1881). (W. M. R.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] His fellow-workers were Bono of Ferrara, Ansuino of Forlì, and + Niccolò Pizzolo, to whom considerable sections of the + fresco-paintings are to be assigned. The acts of St James and St + Christopher are the leading subjects of the series. St James + Exorcizing may have been commenced by Pizzolo, and completed by + Mantegna. The Calling of St James to the Apostleship appears to be + Mantegna's design, partially carried out by Pizzolo; the subjects of + St James baptizing, his appearing before the judge, and going to + execution, and most of the legend of St Christopher, are entirely by + Mantegna. + + + + +MANTELL, GIDEON ALGERNON (1790-1852), English geologist and +palaeontologist, was born in 1790 at Lewes, Sussex. Educated for the +medical profession, he first practised in his native town, afterwards in +1835 in Brighton, and finally at Clapham, near London. He found time to +prosecute researches on the palaeontology of the Secondary rocks, +particularly in Sussex--a region which he made classical in the history +of discovery. While he was still a country doctor at Lewes his eminence +as a geological investigator was fully recognized on the publication of +his work on _The Fossils of the South Downs_ (1822). His most remarkable +discoveries were made in the Wealden formations. He demonstrated the +fresh-water origin of the strata, and from them he brought to light and +described the remarkable Dinosaurian reptiles known as _Iguanodon_, +_Hylaeosaurus_, _Pelorosaurus_ and _Regnosaurus_. For these researches +he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society and a Royal +medal by the Royal Society. He was elected F.R.S. in 1825. Among his +other contributions to the literature of palaeontology was his +description of the Triassic reptile _Telerpelon elginense_. Towards the +end of his life Dr Mantell retired to London, where he died on the 10th +of November 1852. His eldest son, WALTER BALDOCK DURRANT MANTELL +(1820-1895), settled in New Zealand, and there attained high public +positions, eventually being secretary for Crown-lands. He obtained +remains of the _Notornis_, a recently extinct bird, and also brought +forward evidence to show that the moas were contemporaries of man. + + In addition to the works above mentioned Dr Mantell was author of + _Illustrations of the Geology of Sussex_ (4to, 1827); _Geology of the + South-east of England_ (1833); _The Wonders of Geology_, 2 vols. + (1838; ed. 7, 1857); _Geological Excursions round the Isle of Wight, + and along the Adjacent Coast of Dorsetshire_ (1847; ed. 3, 1854); + _Petrifactions and their Teachings_ (1851); _The Medals of Creation_ + (2 vols., 1854). + + + + +MANTES-SUR-SEINE, a town of northern France, capital of an +arrondissement in the department of Seine-et-Oise on the left bank of +the Seine, 34 m. W.N.W. of Paris by rail. Pop. (1906), 8113. The chief +building in Mantes is the celebrated church of Notre-Dame which dates in +the main from the end of the 12th century. A previous edifice was burnt +down by William the Conqueror together with the rest of the town, at the +capture of which he lost his life in 1087; he is said to have bequeathed +a large sum for the rebuilding of the church. The plan, which bears a +marked resemblance to that of Notre-Dame at Paris, includes a nave, +aisles and choir, but no transepts. Three portals open into the church +on the west, the two northernmost, which date from the 12th century, +being decorated with fine carving; that to the south is of the 14th +century and still more ornate. A fine rose-window and an open gallery, +above which rise the summits of the western towers, occupy the upper +part of the façade. In the interior, chapels dating from the 13th and +14th centuries are of interest. The tower of St Maclou (14th century), +relic of an old church and the hôtel de ville (15th to 17th centuries), +are among the older buildings of the town, and there is a fountain of +the Renaissance period. Modern bridges and a medieval bridge unite +Mantes with the opposite bank of the Seine on which the town of Limay is +built. The town has a sub-prefecture and a tribunal of first instance. +Mantes was occupied by the English from 1346 to 1364, and from 1416 to +1449. + + + + +MANTEUFFEL, EDWIN, FREIHERR VON (1809-1885), Prussian general field +marshal, son of the president of the superior court of Magdeburg, was +born at Dresden on the 24th of February 1809. He was brought up with his +cousin, Otto von Manteuffel (1805-1882), the Prussian statesman, entered +the guard cavalry at Berlin in 1827, and became an officer in 1828. +After attending the War Academy for two years, and serving successively +as aide-de-camp to General von Müffling and to Prince Albert of Prussia, +he was promoted captain in 1843 and major in 1848, when he became +aide-de-camp to Frederick William IV., whose confidence he had gained +during the revolutionary movement in Berlin. Promoted lieutenant-colonel +in 1852, and colonel to command the 5th Uhlans in 1853, he was sent on +important diplomatic missions to Vienna and St Petersburg. In 1857 he +became major-general and chief of the military cabinet. He gave hearty +support to the prince regent's plans for the reorganization of the army. +In 1861 he was violently attacked in a pamphlet by Karl Twesten +(1820-1870), a Liberal leader, whom he wounded in a duel. He served as +lieutenant-general (to which rank he was promoted on the coronation of +William I., Oct. 18, 1861) in the Danish war of 1864, and at its +conclusion was appointed civil and military governor of Schleswig. In +the Austrian War of 1866 he first occupied Holstein and afterwards +commanded a division under Vogel von Falkenstein in the Hanoverian +campaign, and succeeded him, in July, in command of the Army of the Main +(see SEVEN WEEKS' WAR). His successful operations ended with the +occupation of Würzburg, and he received the order _pour le mérite_. He +was, however, on account of his monarchist political views and almost +bigoted Roman Catholicism, regarded by the parliament as a reactionary, +and, unlike the other army commanders, he was not granted a money reward +for his services. He then went on a diplomatic mission to St Petersburg, +where he was _persona grata_, and succeeded in gaining Russia's assent +to the new position in north Germany. On returning he was gazetted to +the colonelcy of the 5th Dragoons. He was appointed to the command of +the IX. (Schleswig-Holstein) army corps in 1866. But having formerly +exercised both civil and military control in the Elbe duchies he was +unwilling to be a purely military commander under one of his late civil +subordinates, and retired from the army for a year. In 1868, however, he +returned to active service. In the Franco-German War of 1870-71 he +commanded the I. corps under Steinmetz, distinguishing himself in the +battle of Colombey-Neuilly, and in the repulse of Bazaine at Noisseville +(see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR; and METZ). He succeeded Steinmetz in October in +the command of the I. army, won the battle of Amiens against General +Farre, and occupied Rouen, but was less fortunate against Faidherbe at +Pont Noyelles and Bapaume. In January 1871 he commanded the newly formed +Army of the South, which he led, in spite of hard frost, through the +Côte d'Or and over the plateau of Langres, cut off Bourbaki's army of +the east (80,000 men), and, after the action of Pontarlier, compelled it +to cross the Swiss frontier, where it was disarmed. His immediate reward +was the Grand Cross of the order of the Iron Cross, and at the +conclusion of peace he received the Black Eagle. When the Southern Army +was disbanded Manteuffel commanded first the II. army, and, from June +1871 until 1873, the army of occupation left in France, showing great +tact in a difficult position. On leaving France at the close of the +occupation, the emperor promoted Manteuffel to the rank of general field +marshal and awarded him a large grant in money, and about the same time +Alexander II. of Russia gave him the order of St Andrew. After this he +was employed on several diplomatic missions, was for a time governor of +Berlin, and in 1879, perhaps, as was commonly reported, because he was +considered by Bismarck as a formidable rival, he was appointed +governor-general of Alsace-Lorraine; and this office he exercised--more +in the spirit, some said, of a Prussian than of a German official--until +his death at Carlsbad, Bohemia, on the 17th of June 1885. + + See lives by v. Collas (Berlin, 1874), and K. H. Keck (Bielefeld and + Leipzig, 1890). + + + + +MANTINEIA, or MANTINEA, an ancient city of Arcadia, Greece, situated in +the long narrow plain running north and south, which is now called after +the chief town Tripolitsa. Tegea was in the same valley, about 10 m. S. +of Mantineia, and the two cities continually disputed the supremacy of +the district. In every great war we find them ranged on opposite sides, +except when superior force constrained both. The worship and mysteries +of Cora at Mantineia were famous. The valley in which the city lies has +no opening to the coast, and the water finds its way, often only with +much care and artificial aid, through underground passages +(_katavothra_) to the sea. It is bounded on the west by Mount Maenalus, +on the east by Mount Artemision. + +Mantineia is mentioned in the Homeric catalogue of ships, but in early +Greek times existed only as a cluster of villages inhabited by a purely +agricultural community. In the 6th century it was still insignificant as +compared with the neighbouring city of Tegea, and submitted more readily +to Spartan overlordship. The political history of Mantineia begins soon +after the Persian wars, when its five constituent villages, at the +suggestion of Argos, were merged into one city, whose military strength +forthwith secured it a leading position in the Peloponnesus. Its policy +was henceforth guided by three main considerations. Its democratic +constitution, which seems to have been entirely congenial to the +population of small freeholders, and its ambition to gain control over +the Alpheus watershed and both the Arcadian high roads to the isthmus, +frequently estranged Mantineia from Sparta and threw it into the arms of +Argos. But the chronic frontier disputes with Tegea, which turned the +two cities into bitter enemies, contributed most of all to determine +their several policies. About 469 B.C. Mantineia alone of Arcadian +townships refused to join the league of Tegea and Argos against Sparta. +Though formally enrolled on the same side during the Peloponnesian War +the two cities used the truce of 423 to wage a fierce but indecisive war +with each other. In the time following the peace of Nicias the +Mantineians, whose attempts at expansion beyond Mount Maenalus were +being foiled by Sparta, formed a powerful alliance with Argos, Elis and +Athens (420), which the Spartans, assisted by Tegea, broke up after a +pitched battle in the city's territory (418). In the subsequent years +Mantineia still found opportunity to give the Athenians covert help, and +during the Corinthian War (394-387) scarcely disguised its sympathy with +the anti-Spartan league. In 385 the Spartans seized a pretext to besiege +and dismantle Mantineia and to scatter its inhabitants among four +villages. The city was reconstituted after the battle of Leuctra and +under its statesman Lycomedes played a prominent part in organizing the +Arcadian League (370). But the long-standing jealousy against Tegea, and +a recent one against the new foundation of Megalopolis, created +dissensions which resulted in Mantineia passing over to the Spartan +side. In the following campaign of 362 Mantineia, after narrowly +escaping capture by the Theban general Epaminondas, became the scene of +a decisive conflict in which the latter achieved a notable victory but +lost his own life. After the withdrawal of the Thebans from Arcadia +Mantineia failed to recover its pre-eminence from Megalopolis, with +which city it had frequent disputes. In contrast with the Macedonian +sympathies of Megalopolis Mantineia joined the leagues against Antipater +(322) and Antigonus Gonatas (266). A change of constitution, imposed +perhaps by the Macedonians, was nullified (about 250) by a revolution +through which democracy was restored. About 235 B.C. Mantineia entered +the Achaean League, from which it had obtained protection against +Spartan encroachments, but soon passed in turn to the Aetolians and to +Cleomenes III. of Sparta. A renewed defection, inspired apparently by +aversion to the aristocratic government of the Achaeans and jealousy of +Megalopolis, was punished in 222 by a thorough devastation of the city, +which was now reconstituted as a dependency of Argos and renamed +Antigoneia in honour of the Achaeans' ally Antigonus Doson. Mantineia +regained its autonomous position in the Achaean League in 192, and its +original name during a visit of the emperor Hadrian in A.D. 133. Under +the later Roman Empire the city dwindled into a mere village, which +since the 6th century bore the Slavonic name of Goritza. It finally +became a prey to the malaria which arose when the plain fell out of +cultivation, and under Turkish rule disappeared altogether. + (M. O. B. C.) + +[Illustration: Plan of Agora of Mantineia.] + +The site was excavated by M. Fougères, of the French School at Athens, +in 1888. The plan of the agora and adjacent buildings has been +recovered, and the walls have been completely investigated. The town was +situated in an unusual position for a Greek city, on a flat marshy +plain, and its walls form a regular ellipse about 2½ m. in +circumference. When the town was first formed in 470 B.C. by the +"synoecism" of the neighbouring villages, the river Ophis flowed through +the midst of it, and the Spartan king Agesipolis dammed it up below the +town and so flooded out the Mantineians and sapped their walls, which +were of unbaked brick. Accordingly, when the city was rebuilt in 370 +B.C., the river Ophis was divided into two branches, which between them +encircled the walls; and the walls themselves were constructed to a +height of about 3 to 6 feet of stone, the rest being of unbaked brick. +These are the walls of which the remains are still extant. There are +towers about every 80 ft.; and the gates are so arranged that the +passage inwards usually runs from right to left, and so an attacking +force would have to expose its right or shieldless side. Within the +walls the most conspicuous landmark is the theatre, which, unlike the +majority of Greek theatres, consists entirely of an artificial mound +standing up from the level plain. Only about a quarter of its original +height remains. Its _scena_ is of rather irregular shape, and borders +one of the narrow ends of the agora. Close to it are the foundations of +several temples, one of them sacred to the hero Podaros. The agora is of +unsymmetrical form; its sides are bordered by porticoes, interrupted by +streets, like the primitive agora of Elis as described by Pausanias, and +unlike the regular agoras of Ionic type. Most of these porticoes were of +Roman period--the finest of them were erected, as we learn from +inscriptions, by a lady named Epigone: one, which faced south, had a +double colonnade, and was called the [Greek: Baitê]: close to it was a +large exedra. The foundations of a square market-hall of earlier date +were found beneath this. On the opposite side of the agora was an +extensive Bouleuterion or senate-house. Traces remain of paved roads +both within the agora and leading out of it; but the whole site is now a +deserted and feverish swamp. The site is interesting for comparison with +Megalopolis; the nature of its plan seems to imply that its main +features must survive from the earlier "synoecism" a century before the +time of Epaminondas. + + See Strabo viii. 337; Pausanias viii. 8; Thucyd. iv. 134, v.; + Xenophon, _Hellenica_, iv.-vii.; Diodorus xv. 85-87; Polybius ii. 57 + sqq., vi. 43; D. Worenka, _Mantineia_ (1905); B. V. Head, _Historia + numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), pp. 376-377; G. Fougères in _Bulletin de + correspondance hellénique_ (1890), id. _Mantinée et l'Arcadie + orientale_ (Paris, 1898). Consult also TEGEA; ARCADIA. + + Five battles are recorded to have been fought near Mantineia; 418, 362 + (see above), 295 (Demetrius Poliorcetes defeats Archidamus of Sparta), + 242 (Aratus beats Agis of Sparta), 207 (Philopoemen beats Machanidas + of Sparta). The battles of 362 and 207 are discussed at length by J. + Kromayer, _Antike Schtachtfelder in Griechenland_ (Berlin, 1903), + 27-123, 281-314; _Wiener Studien_ (1905), pp. 1-16. (E. Gr.) + + + + +MANTIS, an insect belonging to the order _Orthoptera_. Probably no other +insect has been the subject of so many and widespread legends and +superstitions as the common "praying mantis," _Mantis religiosa_, L. The +ancient Greeks endowed it with supernatural powers ([Greek: mantis], a +diviner); the Turks and Arabs hold that it prays constantly with its +face turned towards Mecca; the Provençals call it _Prega-Diou_ +(_Prie-Dieu_); and numerous more or less similar names--preacher, saint, +nun, mendicant, soothsayer, &c.--are widely diffused throughout southern +Europe. In Nubia it is held in great esteem, and the Hottentots, if not +indeed worshipping the local species (_M. fausta_), as one traveller has +alleged, at least appear to regard its alighting upon any person both as +a token of saintliness and an omen of good fortune. + +Yet these are "not the saints but the tigers of the insect world." The +front pair of limbs are very peculiarly modified--the coxa being greatly +elongated, while the strong third joint or femur bears on its curved +underside a channel armed on each edge by strong movable spines. Into +this groove the stout tibia is capable of closing like the blade of a +pen-knife, its sharp, serrated edge being adapted to cut and hold. Thus +armed, with head raised upon the much-elongated and semi-erect +prothorax, and with the half-opened fore-limbs held outwards in the +characteristic devotional attitude, it rests motionless upon the four +posterior limbs waiting for prey, or occasionally stalks it with slow +and silent movements, finally seizing it with its knife-blades and +devouring it. Although apparently not daring to attack ants, these +insects destroy great numbers of flies, grasshoppers and caterpillars, +and the larger South-American species even attack small frogs, lizards +and birds. They are very pugnacious, fencing with their sword-like limbs +"like hussars with sabres," the larger frequently devouring the smaller, +and the females the males. The Chinese keep them in bamboo cages, and +match them like fighting-cocks. + +The common species fixes its somewhat nut-like egg capsules on the stems +of plants in September. The young are hatched in early summer, and +resemble the adults, but are without wings. + +[Illustration: Praying Mantis (_Mantis religiosa_).] + +The green coloration and shape of the typical mantis are procryptic, +serving to conceal the insect alike from its enemies and prey. The +passage from leaf to flower simulation is but a step which, without +interfering with the protective value of the coloration so far as +insectivorous foes are concerned, carries with it the additional +advantage of attracting flower-feeding insects within reach of the +raptorial limbs. This method of allurement has been perfected in certain +tropical species of _Mantidae_ by the development on the prothorax and +raptorial limbs of laminate expansions so coloured on the under side as +to resemble papilionaceous or other blossoms, to which the likeness is +enhanced by a gentle swaying kept up by the insect in imitation of the +effect of a lightly blowing breeze. As instances of this may be cited +_Idalum diabolicum_, an African insect, and _Gongylus gongyloides_, +which comes from India. Examples of another species (_Empusa eugena_) +when standing upon the ground deceptively imitate in shape and hue a +greenish white anemone tinted at the edges with rose; and Bates records +what appears to be a true case of aggressive mimicry practised by a +Brazilian species which exactly resembles the white ants it preys upon. + + + + +MANTIS-FLY, the name given to neuropterous insects of the family +_Mantispidae_, related to the ant-lions, lace-wing flies, &c., and named +from their superficial resemblance to a _Mantis_ owing to the length of +the prothorax and the shape and prehensorial nature of the anterior +legs. The larva, at first campodeiform, makes its way into the egg-case +of a spider or the nest of a wasp to feed upon the eggs or young. +Subsequently it changes into a fat grub with short legs. When full grown +it spins a silken cocoon in which the transformation into the pupa is +effected. The latter escapes from its double case before moulting into +the mature insect. + + + + +MANTLE, a long flowing cloak without sleeves, worn by either sex. +Particularly applied to the long robe worn over the armour by the +men-at-arms of the middle ages, the name is still given to the robes of +state of kings, peers, and the members of an order of knights. Thus the +"electoral mantle" was a robe of office worn by the imperial electors, +and the Teutonic knights were known as the _orde alborum mantellorum_ +from their white mantles. As an article of women's dress a mantle now +means a loose cloak or cape, of any length, and made of silk, velvet, or +other rich material. The word is derived from the Latin _mantellum_ or +_mantelum_, a cloak, and is probably the same as, or another form of, +_mantelium_ or _mantele_, a table-napkin or table-cloth, from _manus_, +hand, and _tela_, a cloth. A late Latin _mantum_, from which several +Romance languages have taken words (cf. Ital. _manto_, and Fr. _mante_), +must, as the _New English Dictionary_ points out, be a "back-formation," +and this will explain the diminutive form of the Spanish _mantilla_. +From the old French _mantel_ came the English compounds "mantel-piece," +"mantel-shelf," for the stone or wood beam which serves as a support for +the structure above a fire-place, together with the whole framework, +whether of wood, stone, &c., that acts as an ornament of the same (see +CHIMNEYPIECE). The modern French form _manteau_ is used in English +chiefly as a dressmaker's term for a woman's mantle. "Mantua," much used +in the 18th century for a similar garment, is probably a corruption of +_manteau_, due to silk or other materials coming from the Italian town +of that name, and known by the trade name of "mantuas." The Spanish +_mantilla_ is a covering for the head and shoulders of white or black +lace or other material, the characteristic head-dress of women in +southern and central Spain. It is occasionally seen in the other parts +of Spain and Spanish countries, and also in Portugal. + +"Mantle" is used in many transferred senses, all with the meaning of +"covering," as in zoology, for an enclosing sac or integument; thus it +is applied to the "tunic" or layer of connective-tissue forming the +body-wall of ascidians enclosing muscle-fibres, blood-sinuses and nerves +(see TUNICATA). The term is also used for a meshed cap of refractory +oxides employed in systems of incandescent lighting (see LIGHTING). The +verb is used for the creaming or frothing of liquids and of the +suffusing of the skin with blood. In heraldry "mantling," also known as +"panache," "lambrequin" or "contoise," is an ornamental appendage to an +escutcheon, of flowing drapery, forming a background (see HERALDRY). + + + + +MANTON, THOMAS (1620-1677), English Nonconformist divine, was born at +Laurence Lydiard, Somerset, in 1620, and was educated at Hart Hall, +Oxford. Joseph Hall, bishop of Norwich, ordained him deacon: he never +took priest's orders, holding that "he was properly ordained to the +ministerial office." He was one of the clerks at the Westminster +Assembly, one of Cromwell's chaplains and a "trier," and held livings at +Stoke Newington (1645) and St Paul's, Covent Garden (1656). He +disapproved of the execution of Charles I. In 1658 he assisted Baxter to +draw up the "Fundamentals of Religion." He helped to restore Charles II. +and became one of his chaplains, refusing the deanery of Rochester. In +1662 he lost his living under the Act of Uniformity and preached in his +own rooms and in other parts of London. For this he was arrested in +1670. + + His works are best known in the collected edition by J. C. Ryle (22 + vols. 1870-1875). + + + + +MAN-TRAPS, mechanical devices for catching poachers and trespassers. +They have taken many forms, the most usual being like a large rat-trap, +the steel springs being armed with teeth which met in the victim's leg. +Since 1827 they have been illegal in England, except in houses between +sunset and sunrise as a defence against burglars. + + + + +MANTUA (Ital. _Mantova_), a fortified city of Lombardy, Italy, the +capital of the province of Mantua, the see of a bishop, and the centre +of a military district, 25 m. S.S.W. of Verona and 100 m. E.S.E. of +Milan by rail. Pop. (1906), 31,783. It is situated 88 ft. above the +level of the Adriatic on an almost insular site in the midst of the +swampy lagoons of the Mincio. As the belt of marshy ground along the +south side can be laid under water at pleasure, the site of the city +proper, exclusive of the considerable suburbs of Borgo di Fortezza to +the north and Borgo di San Giorgio to the east, may still be said to +consist, as it formerly did more distinctly, of two islands separated by +a narrow channel and united by a number of bridges. On the west side +lies Lago Superiore, on the east side Lago Inferiore--the boundary +between the two being marked by the _Argine del Mulino_, a long mole +stretching northward from the north-west angle of the city to the +citadel. + +On the highest ground in the city rises the cathedral, the interior of +which was built after his death according to the plans of Giulio Romano; +it has double aisles, a fine fretted ceiling, a dome-covered transept, a +bad baroque façade, and a large unfinished Romanesque tower. Much more +important architecturally is the church of St Andrea, built towards the +close of the 15th century, after plans by Leon Battista Alberti, and +consisting of a single, barrel-vaulted nave 350 ft. long by 62 ft. wide. +It has a noble façade with a deeply recessed portico, and a brick +campanile of 1414. The interior is decorated with 18th-century frescoes, +to which period the dome also belongs. Mantegna is buried in one of the +side chapels. S. Sebastiano is another work of Alberti's. The old ducal +palace--one of the largest buildings of its kind in Europe--was begun in +1302 for Guido Bonaccolsi, and probably completed in 1328 for Ludovico +Gonzaga; but many of the accessory apartments are of much later date, +and the internal decorations are for the most part the work of Giulio +Romano and his pupils. There are also some fine rooms of the early 19th +century. Close by are the Piazza dell' Erbe and the Piazza Sordello, +with Gothic palaces. The Castello di Corte here, the old castle of the +Gonzagas (1395-1406), erected by Bartolino da Novara, the architect of +the castle of Ferrara, now contains the archives, and has some fine +frescoes by Mantegna with scenes from the life of Ludovico Gonzaga. +Outside of the city, to the south of Porta Pusterla, stands the Palazzo +del Te, Giulio's architectural masterpiece, erected for Frederick +Gonzaga in 1523-1535; of the numerous fresco-covered chambers which it +contains, perhaps the most celebrated is the Sala dei Giganti, where, by +a combination of mechanical with artistic devices, the rout of the +Titans still contending with artillery of uptorn rocks against the +pursuit and thunderbolts of Jove appears to rush downwards on the +spectator. The architecture of Giulio's own house in the town is also +good. + +Mantua has an academy of arts and sciences (_Accademia Vergiliana_), +occupying a fine building erected by Piermarini, a public library +founded in 1780 by Maria Theresa, a museum of antiquities dating from +1779, many of which have been brought from Sabbioneta, a small residence +town of the Gonzagas in the late 16th century, a mineralogical museum, a +good botanical garden, and an observatory. There are ironworks, +tanneries, breweries, oil-mills and flour-mills in the town, which also +has printing, furriery, doll-making and playing-card industries. As a +fortress Mantua was long one of the most formidable in Europe, a force +of thirty to forty thousand men finding accommodation within its walls; +but it had two serious defects--the marshy climate told heavily on the +health of the garrison, and effective sorties were almost impossible. It +lies on the main line of railway between Verona and Modena; and is also +connected by rail with Cremona and with Monselice, on the line from +Padua to Bologna, and by steam tramway with Brescia and other places. + +S. Maria delle Grazie, standing some 5 m. outside the town, was +consecrated in 1399 as an act of thanksgiving for the cessation of the +plague, and has a curious collection of _ex voto_ pictures (wax +figures), and also the tombs of the Gonzaga family. + +Mantua had still a strong Etruscan element in its population during the +Roman period. It became a Roman municipium, with the rest of Gallia +Transpadana; but Martial calls it little Mantua, and had it not been for +Virgil's interest in his native place, and in the expulsion of a number +of the Mantuans (and among them the poet himself) from their lands in +favour of Octavian's soldiers, we should probably have heard almost +nothing of its existence. In 568 the Lombards found Mantua a walled town +of some strength; recovered from their grasp in 590 by the exarch of +Ravenna, it was again captured by Agilulf in 601. The 9th century was +the period of episcopal supremacy, and in the 11th the city formed part +of the vast possessions of Bonifacio, marquis of Canossa. From him it +passed to Geoffrey, duke of Lorraine, and afterwards to the countess +Matilda, whose support of the pope led to the conquest of Mantua by the +emperor Henry IV. in 1090. Reduced to obedience by Matilda in 1113, the +city obtained its liberty on her death, and instituted a communal +government of its own, _salva imperiali justitia_. It afterwards joined +the Lombard League; and the unsuccessful attack made by Frederick II. in +1236 brought it a confirmation of its privileges. But after a period of +internal discord Ludovico Gonzaga attained to power (1328), and was +recognized as imperial vicar (1329); and from that time till the death +of Ferdinando Carbo in 1708 the Gonzagas were masters of Mantua (see +GONZAGA). Under Gian Francesco II., the first marquis, Ludovico III., +Gian Francesco III. (whose wife was Isabella d'Este), and Federico II., +the first duke of Mantua, the city rose rapidly into importance as a +seat of industry and culture. It was stormed and sacked by the Austrians +in 1630, and never quite recovered. Claimed in 1708 as a fief of the +empire by Joseph I., it was governed for the greater part of the century +by the Austrians. In June 1796 it was besieged by Napoleon; but in spite +of terrific bombardments it held out till February 1797. A three days' +bombardment in 1799 again placed Mantua in the hands of the Austrians; +and, though restored to the French by the peace of Lunéville (1801), it +became Austrian once more from 1814 till 1866. Between 1849 and 1859, +when the whole of Lombardy except Mantua was, by the peace of +Villafranca, ceded to Italy, the city was the scene of violent political +persecution. + + See Gaet. Susani, _Nuovo prospetto delle pitture, &c., di Mantova_ + (Mantua, 1830); Carlo d'Arco, _Delle arti e degli artefici di Mantova_ + (Mantua, 1857); and _Storia di Mantova_ (Mantua, 1874). + + + + +MANU (Sanskrit, "man"), in Hindu mythology, the first man, ancestor of +the world. In the Satapatha-Brahmana he is represented as a holy man, +the chief figure in a flood-myth. Warned by a fish of the impending +disaster he built a ship, and when the waters rose was dragged by the +fish, which he harnessed to his craft, beyond the northern mountains. +When the deluge ceased, a daughter was miraculously born to him and this +pair became the ancestors of the human race. In the later scriptures the +fish is declared an incarnation of Brahma. See SANSKRIT LITERATURE; +INDIAN LAW (_Hindu_). + + + + +MANUAL, i.e. belonging to the hand (Lat. _manus_), a word chiefly used +to describe an occupation which employs the hands, as opposed to that +which chiefly or entirely employs the mind. Particular uses of the word +are: "sign-manual," a signature or autograph, especially one affixed to +a state document; "manual-exercise," in military usage, drill in the +handling of the rifle; "manual alphabet," the formation of the letters +of the alphabet by the fingers of one or both hands for communication +with the deaf and dumb; and "manual acts," the breaking of the bread, +and the taking of the cup in the hands by the officiating priest in +consecrating the elements during the celebration of the Eucharist. The +use of the word for tools and implements to be used by the hand, as +distinct from machinery, only survives in the "manual fire-engine." From +the late Latin use of _manuale_ as a substantive, meaning "handbook," +comes the use of the word for a book treating a subject in a concise +way, but more particularly of a book of offices, containing the forms to +be used in the administration of the sacraments other than the Mass, but +including communion out of the Mass, also the forms for churching, +burials, &c. In the Roman Church such a book is usually called a +_rituale_, "manual" being the name given to it in the English Church +before the Reformation. The keyboard of an organ, as played by the +hands, is called the "manual," in distinction from the "pedal" keys +played by the feet. + + + + +MANUCODE, from the French, an abbreviation of _Manucodiata_, and the +Latinized form of the Malay _Manukdewata_, meaning, says Crawfurd +(_Malay and Engl. Dictionary_, p. 97), the "bird of the gods," and a +name applied for more than two hundred years apparently to +birds-of-paradise in general. In the original sense of its inventor, +Montbeillard (_Hist. nat. oiseaux_, iii. 163), _Manucode_ was restricted +to the king bird-of-paradise and three allied species; but in English it +has curiously been transferred[1] to a small group of species whose +relationship to the _Paradiseidae_ has been frequently doubted, and must +be considered uncertain. These manucodes have a glossy steel-blue +plumage of much beauty, but are distinguished from other birds of +similar coloration by the outer and middle toes being united for some +distance, and by the extraordinary convolution of the trachea, in the +males at least, with which is correlated the loud and clear voice of the +birds. The convoluted portion of the trachea lies on the breast, between +the skin and the muscles, much as is found in the females of the painted +snipes (_Rostratula_), in the males of the curassows (_Cracidae_), and +in a few other birds, but wholly unknown elsewhere among the _Passeres_. +The manucodes are peculiar to the Papuan sub-region (including therein +the peninsula of Cape York), and comprehend, according to R. B. Sharpe +(_Cat. B. Brit. Museum_, iii. 164), two genera, for the first of which, +distinguished by the elongated tufts on the head, he adopts R. P. +Lesson's name _Phonygama_, and for the second, having no tufts, but the +feathers of the head crisped, that of _Manucodia_; and W. A. Forbes +(_Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1882, p. 349) observed that the validity of the +separation was confirmed by their tracheal formation. Of _Phonygama_ +Sharpe recognizes three species, _P. keraudreni_ (the type) and _P. +jamesi_, both from New Guinea, and _P. gouldi_, the Australian +representative species; but the first two are considered by D. G. Elliot +(_Ibis._ 1878, p. 56) and Count Salvadori (_Ornitol. della Papuasia_, +ii. 510) to be inseparable. There is a greater unanimity in regard to +the species of the so-called genus _Manucodia_ proper, of which four are +admitted--_M. chalybeata_ or _chalybea_ from north-western New Guinea, +_M. comriei_ from the south-eastern part of the same country, _M. atra_ +of wide distribution within the Papuan area, and _M. jobiensis_ peculiar +to the island which gives it a name. Little is known of the habits of +these birds, except that they are, as already mentioned, remarkable for +their vocal powers, which, in _P. keraudreni_, Lesson describes (_Voy. +de la Coquille_, "Zoologie," i. 638) as enabling them to pass through +every note of the gamut. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] _Manucodiata_ was used by M. J. Brisson (_Ornithologie_, ii. 130) + as a generic term equivalent to the Linnaean _Paradisea_. In 1783 + Boddaert, when assigning scientific names to the birds figured by + Daubenton, called the subject of one of them (_Pl. enlum._ 634) + _Manucodia chalybea_, the first word being apparently an accidental + curtailment of the name of Brisson's genus to which he referred it. + Nevertheless some writers have taken it as evidence of an intention + to found a new genus by that name, and hence the importation of + _Manucodia_ into scientific nomenclature, and the English form to + correspond. + + + + +MANUEL I., COMNENUS (c. 1120-1180), Byzantine emperor (1143-1180), the +fourth son of John II., was born about 1120. Having distinguished +himself in his father's Turkish war, he was nominated emperor in +preference to his elder surviving brother. Endowed with a fine physique +and great personal courage, he devoted himself whole-heartedly to a +military career. He endeavoured to restore by force of arms the +predominance of the Byzantine empire in the Mediterranean countries, and +so was involved in conflict with his neighbours on all sides. In 1144 he +brought back Raymond of Antioch to his allegiance, and in the following +year drove the Turks out of Isauria. In 1147 he granted a passage +through his dominions to two armies of crusaders under Conrad III. of +Germany and Louis VII. of France; but the numerous outbreaks of overt or +secret hostility between the Franks and the Greeks on their line of +march, for which both sides were to blame, nearly precipitated a +conflict between Manuel and his guests. In the same year the emperor +made war upon Roger of Sicily, whose fleet captured Corfu and plundered +the Greek towns, but in 1148 was defeated with the help of the +Venetians. In 1149 Manuel recovered Corfu and prepared to take the +offensive against the Normans. With an army mainly composed of mercenary +Italians he invaded Sicily and Apulia, and although the progress of both +these expeditions was arrested by defeats on land and sea, Manuel +maintained a foothold in southern Italy, which was secured to him by a +peace in 1155, and continued to interfere in Italian politics. In his +endeavour to weaken the control of Venice over the trade of his empire +he made treaties with Pisa and Genoa; to check the aspirations of +Frederic I. of Germany he supported the free Italian cities with his +gold and negotiated with pope Alexander III. In spite of his +friendliness towards the Roman church Manuel was refused the title of +"Augustus" by Alexander, and he nowhere succeeded in attaching the +Italians permanently to his interests. None the less in a war with the +Venetians (1172-74), he not only held his ground in Italy but drove his +enemies out of the Aegean Sea. On his northern frontier Manuel reduced +the rebellious Serbs to vassalage (1150-52) and made repeated attacks +upon the Hungarians with a view to annexing their territory along the +Save. In the wars of 1151-53 and 1163-68 he led his troops into Hungary +but failed to maintain himself there; in 1168, however, a decisive +victory near Semlin enabled him to conclude a peace by which Dalmatia +and other frontier strips were ceded to him. In 1169 he sent a joint +expedition with King Amalric of Jerusalem to Egypt, which retired after +an ineffectual attempt to capture Damietta. In 1158-59 he fought with +success against Raymond of Antioch and the Turks of Iconium, but in +later wars against the latter he made no headway. In 1176 he was +decisively beaten by them in the pass of Myriokephalon, where he allowed +himself to be surprised in line of march. This disaster, though partly +retrieved in the campaign of the following year, had a serious effect +upon his vitality; henceforth he declined in health and in 1180 +succumbed to a slow fever. + +In spite of his military prowess Manuel achieved but in a slight degree +his object of restoring the East Roman empire. His victories were +counterbalanced by numerous defeats, sustained by his subordinates, and +his lack of statesmanlike talent prevented his securing the loyalty of +his subjects. The expense of keeping up his mercenary establishment and +the sumptuous magnificence of his court put a severe strain upon the +financial resources of the state. The subsequent rapid collapse of the +Byzantine empire was largely due to his brilliant but unproductive +reign. Manuel married, firstly, a sister-in-law of Conrad III. of +Germany; and secondly, a daughter of Raymond of Antioch. His successor, +Alexis II., was a son of the latter. + + See John Cinnamus, _History of John and Manuel_ (ed. 1836, Bonn); E. + Gibbon, _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ (ed. Bury, London, + 1896), v. 229 sqq., vi. 214 sqq.; G. Finlay, _History of Greece_ (ed. + 1877, Oxford), iii. 143-197; H. v. Kap-Herr, _Die abendländische + Politik Kaiser Manuels_ (Strassburg, 1881). (M. O. B. C.) + + + + +MANUEL II. PALAEOLOGUS (1350-1425), Byzantine emperor from 1391 to 1425, +was born in 1350. At the time of his father's death he was a hostage at +the court of Bayezid at Brusa, but succeeded in making his escape; he +was forthwith besieged in Constantinople by the sultan, whose victory +over the Christians at Nicopolis, however (Sept. 28, 1396), did not +secure for him the capital. Manuel subsequently set out in person to +seek help from the West, and for this purpose visited Italy, France, +Germany and England, but without material success; the victory of Timur +in 1402, and the death of Bayezid in the following year were the first +events to give him a genuine respite from Ottoman oppression. He stood +on friendly terms with Mahommed I., but was again besieged in his +capital by Murad II. in 1422. Shortly before his death he was forced to +sign an agreement whereby the Byzantine empire undertook to pay tribute +to the sultan. + + Manuel was the author of numerous works of varied + character--theological, rhetorical, poetical and letters. Most of + these are printed in Migne, _Patrologia graeca_, clvi.; the letters + have been edited by E. Legrand (1893). There is a special monograph, + by B. de Xivrey (in _Mémoires de l'Institut de France_, xix. (1853), + highly commended by C. Krumbacher, whose _Geschichte der + byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897) should also be consulted. + + + + +MANUEL I. (d. 1263), emperor of Trebizond, surnamed the Great Captain +([Greek: ho stratêgikôtatos]), was the second son of Alexius I., first +emperor of Trebizond, and ruled from 1228 to 1263. He was unable to +deliver his empire from vassalage, first to the Seljuks and afterwards +to the Mongols. He vainly negotiated for a dynastic alliance with the +Franks, by which he hoped to secure the help of Crusaders. + +MANUEL II., the descendant of Manuel I., reigned only a few months in +1332-1333. Manuel III. reigned from 1390 to 1417, but the only interest +attaching to his name arises from his connexion with Timur, whose vassal +he became without resistance. + + See G. Finlay, _History of Greece_ (ed. 1877, Oxford), iv. 338-340, + 340-341, 386; Ph. Fallmerayer, _Geschichte des Kaisertums Trapezunt_ + (Munich, 1827), i. chs. 8, 14, ii. chs. 4, 5; T. E. Evangelides, + [Greek: Historia tês Trapezountos] (Odessa, 1898), 71-73, 87-88, + 126-132. + + + + +MANUEL, EUGENE (1823-1901), French poet and man of letters, was born in +Paris, the son of a Jewish doctor, on the 13th of July 1823. He was +educated at the École Normale, and taught rhetoric for some years in +provincial schools and then in Paris. In 1870 he entered the department +of public instruction, and in 1878 became inspector-general. His works +include: _Pages intimes_ (1866), which received a prize from the +Academy; _Poèmes populaires_ (1874); _Pendant la guerre_ (1871), +patriotic poems, which were forbidden in Alsace-Lorraine by the German +authorities; _En voyage_ (1881), poems; _La France_ (4 vols., +1854-1858); a school-book written in collaboration with his +brother-in-law, Lévi Alavarès; _Les Ouvriers_ (1870), a drama dealing +with social questions, which was crowned by the Academy; _L'Absent_ +(1873), a comedy; _Poésies du foyer et de l'école_ (1889), and editions +of the works of J. B. Rousseau (1852) and André Chénier (1884). He died +in Paris in 1901. + + His _Poésies complètes_ (2 vols., 1899) contained some fresh poems; to + his _Mélanges en prose_ (Paris, 1905) is prefixed an introductory note + by A. Cahen. + + + + +MANUEL, JACQUES ANTOINE (1775-1827), French politician and orator, was +born on the 10th of December 1775. When seventeen years old he entered +the army, which he left in 1797 to become a lawyer. In 1814 he was +chosen a member of the chamber of representatives, and in 1815 he urged +the claim of Napoleon's son to the French throne and protested against +the restoration of the Bourbons. After this event be actively opposed +the government, his eloquence making him the foremost orator among the +members of the Left. In February 1823 his opposition to the proposed +expedition into Spain to help Ferdinand VII. against his rebellious +subjects produced a tumult in the Assembly. Manuel was expelled, but he +refused to accept this sentence, and force was employed to remove him. +He died on the 20th of August 1827. + + + + +MANUEL, LOUIS PIERRE (1751-1793), French writer and Revolutionist, was +born at Montargis (Loiret). He entered the Congregation of the Christian +Doctrine, and became tutor to the son of a Paris banker. In 1783 he +published a pamphlet, called _Essais historiques, critiques, +littéraires, et philosophiques_, for which he was imprisoned in the +Bastille. He embraced the revolutionary ideas, and after the taking of +the Bastille became a member of the provisional municipality of Paris. +He was one of the leaders of the _émeutes_ of the 20th of June and the +10th of August 1792, played an important part in the formation of the +revolutionary commune which assured the success of the latter _coup_, +and was made _procureur_ of the commune. He was present at the September +massacres and saved several prisoners, and on the 7th of September 1792 +was elected one of the deputies from Paris to the convention, where he +was one of the promoters of the proclamation of the republic. He +suppressed the decoration of the Cross of St Louis, which he called a +stain on a man's coat, and demanded the sale of the palace of +Versailles. His missions to the king, however, changed his sentiments; +he became reconciled to Louis, courageously refused to vote for the +death of the sovereign, and had to tender his resignation as deputy. He +retired to Montargis, where he was arrested, and was guillotined in +Paris on the 17th of November 1793. Besides the work cited above and his +political pamphlets, he was the author of _Coup d'oeil philosophique sur +le règne de St Louis_ (1786); _L'Année française_ (1788); _La Bastille +dévoilée_ (1789); _La Police de Paris dévoilée_ (1791); and _Lettres sur +la Révolution_ (1792). In 1792 he was prosecuted for publishing an +edition of the _Lettres de Mirabeau à Sophie_, but was acquitted. + + + + +MANUEL DE MELLO, DOM FRANCISCO (? 1611-1666), Portuguese writer, a +connexion on his father's side of the royal house of Braganza, was a +native of Lisbon. He studied the Humanities at the Jesuit College of S. +Antão, where he showed a precocious talent, and tradition says that at +the age of fourteen he composed a poem in _ottava rima_ to celebrate the +recovery of Bahia from the Dutch, while at seventeen he wrote a +scientific work, _Concordancias mathematicas_. The death of his father, +Dom Luiz de Mello, drove him early to soldiering, and having joined a +contingent for the Flanders war, he found himself in the historic storm +of January 1627, when the pick of the Portuguese fleet suffered +shipwreck in the Bay of Biscay. He spent much of the next ten years of +his life in military routine work in the Peninsula, varied by visits to +the court of Madrid, where he contracted a friendship with the Spanish +poet Quevedo and earned the favour of the powerful minister Olivares. In +1637 the latter despatched him in company with the conde de Linhares on +a mission to pacify the revolted city of Evora, and on the same occasion +the duke of Braganza, afterwards King John IV. (for whom he acted as +confidential agent at Madrid), employed him to satisfy King Philip of +his loyalty to the Spanish crown. In the following year he suffered a +short imprisonment in Lisbon. In 1639 he was appointed colonel of one of +the regiments raised for service in Flanders, and in June that year he +took a leading part in defending Corunna against a French fleet +commanded by the archbishop of Bordeaux, while in the following August +he directed the embarcation of an expeditionary force of 10,000 men when +Admiral Oquendo sailed with seventy ships to meet the French and Dutch. +He came safely through the naval defeat in the channel suffered by the +Spaniards at the hands of Van Tromp, and on the outbreak of the +Catalonian rebellion became chief of the staff to the commander-in-chief +of the royal forces, and was selected to write an account of the +campaign, the _Historia de la guerra de Cataluña,_ which became a +Spanish classic. On the proclamation of Portuguese independence in 1640 +he was imprisoned by order of Olivares, and when released hastened to +offer his sword to John IV. He travelled to England, where he spent some +time at the court of Charles I., and thence passing over to Holland +assisted the Portuguese ambassador to equip a fleet in aid of Portugal, +and himself brought it safely to Lisbon in October 1641. For the next +three years he was employed in various important military commissions +and further busied himself in defending by his pen the king's title to +his newly acquired throne. An intrigue with the beautiful countess of +Villa Nova, and her husband's jealousy, led to his arrest on the 19th of +November 1644 on a false charge of assassination, and he lay in prison +about nine years. Though his innocence was clear, the court of his +Order, that of Christ, influenced by his enemies, deprived him of his +_commenda_ and sentenced him to perpetual banishment in India with a +heavy money fine, and the king would not intervene to save him. Owing +perhaps to the intercession of the queen regent of France and other +powerful friends, his sentence was finally commuted into one of exile to +Brazil. During his long imprisonment he finished and printed his history +of the Catalonian War, and also wrote and published a volume of Spanish +verses and some religious treatises, and composed in Portuguese a volume +of homely philosophy, the _Carta de Guia de Casados_ and a _Memorial_ in +his own defence to the king, which Herculano considered "perhaps the +most eloquent piece of reasoning in the language." During his exile in +Brazil, whither he sailed on the 17th of April 1655, he lived at Bahia, +where he wrote one of his _Epanaphoras de varia historia_ and two parts +of his masterpiece, the _Apologos dialogaes_. He returned home in 1659, +and from then until 1663 we find him on and off in Lisbon, frequenting +the celebrated _Academia dos Generosos_, of which he was five times +elected president. In the last year he proceeded to Parma and Rome, by +way of England, and France, and Alphonso VI. charged him to negotiate +with the Curia about the provision of bishops for Portuguese sees and to +report on suitable marriages for the king and his brother. During his +stay in Rome he published his _Obras morales_, dedicated to Queen +Catherine, wife of Charles II. of England, and his _Cartas familiares_. +On his way back to Portugal he printed his _Obras metricas_ at Lyons in +May 1665, and he died in Lisbon the following year. + +Manuel de Mello's early Spanish verses are tainted with Gongorism, but +his Portuguese sonnets and _cartas_ on moral subjects are notable for +their power, sincerity and perfection of form. He strove successfully to +emancipate himself from foreign faults of style, and by virtue of his +native genius, and his knowledge of the traditional poetry of the +people, and the best Quinhentista models, he became Portugal's leading +lyric poet and prose writer of the 17th century. As with Camoens, +imprisonments and exile contributed to make Manuel de Mello a great +writer. His _Letters_, addressed to the leading nobles, ecclesiastics, +diplomats and literati of the time, are written in a conversational +style, lighted up by flashes of wit and enriched with apposite +illustrations and quotations. His commerce with the best authors appears +in the _Hospital das lettras_, a brilliant chapter of criticism forming +part of the _Apologos dialogaes_. His comedy in _redondilhas_, the _Auto +do Fidalgo Aprendiz_, is one of the last and quite the worthiest +production of the school of Gil Vicente, and may be considered an +anticipation of Molière's _Le Bourgeois gentilhomme_. + + There is no uniform edition of his works, but a list of them will be + found in his _Obras morales_, and the various editions are set out in + Innocencio da Silva's _Diccionario bibliographico portugues_. See _Dom + Francisco Manuel de Mello, his Life and Writings_, by Edgar Prestage + (Manchester, 1905), "D. Francisco Manuel de Mello, documentos + biographicos" and "D. Francisco Manuel de Mello, obras autographas e + ineditas," by the same writer, in the _Archivo historico portuguez_ + for 1909. Manuel de Mello's prose style is considered at length by G. + Cirot in _Mariana historien_ (Bordeaux, 1905). pp. 378 seq. + (E. Pr.) + + + + +MANUL (_Felis manul_), a long-haired small wild cat from the deserts of +Central Asia, ranging from Tibet to Siberia. The coat is long and soft, +pale silvery grey or light buff in hue, marked with black on the chest +and upper parts of the limbs, with transverse stripes on the loins and +rings on the tail of the same hue. The Manul preys upon small mammals +and birds. A separate generic name, _Trichaelurus_, has been proposed +for this species by Dr K. Satunin. + + + + +MANURES AND MANURING. The term "manure" originally meant that which was +"worked by hand" (Fr. _manoeuvre_), but gradually came to apply to any +process by which the soil could be improved. Prominent among such +processes was that of directly applying "manure" to the land, manure in +this sense being what we now call "farmyard manure" or "dung," the +excreta of farm animals mixed with straw or other litter. Gradually, +however, the use of the term spread to other materials, some of home +origin, some imported, some manufactured by artificial processes, but +all useful as a means of improving the fertility of the soil. Hence we +have two main classes of manures: (a) what may be termed "natural +manures," and (b) "artificial manures." Manures, again, may be divided +according to the materials from which they are made--e.g. "bone manure," +"fish manure," "wool manure," &c.; or according to the constituents +which they mainly supply--e.g. "phosphatic manures," "potash manures," +"nitrogenous manures," or there may be numerous combinations of these to +form mixed or "compound" manures. Whatever it be, the word "manure" is +now generally applied to anything which is used for fertilizing the +soil. In America the term "fertilizers" is more generally adopted, and +in Great Britain the introduction of the "Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs +Act" has effected a certain amount of change in the same direction. The +modern tendency to turn attention less to the consideration of manurial +applications given to land and more to the physical and mechanical +changes introduced thereby in the soil itself, would seem to be carrying +the word "manure" back more to its original meaning. + +The subject of manures and their application involves a prior +consideration of plant life and its requirements. The plant, growing in +the soil, and surrounded by the atmosphere, derives from these two +sources its nourishment and means of growth through the various stages +of its development. + + Chemical analysis has shown that plants are composed of water, organic + or combustible matters, and inorganic or mineral matters. Water + constitutes by far the greater part of a living plant; a grass crop + will contain about 75% of water, a turnip crop 89 or 90%. The organic + or combustible matters are those which are lost, along with the water, + when the plant is burnt; the inorganic or mineral matters are those + which are left behind as an "ash" after the burning. The combustible + matter is composed of six elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, + nitrogen, sulphur and a little phosphorus. About one-half of the + combustible matter of plants is carbon. Along with hydrogen and oxygen + the carbon forms the cellulose, starch, sugar, &c., which plants + contain, and with these same elements and sulphur the carbon forms the + albuminoids of plants. The inorganic or mineral matters comprise a + comparatively small part of the plant, but they contain, as essential + constituents of plant life, the following elements: potassium, + calcium, magnesium, iron, phosphorus and sulphur. In addition, other, + but not essential, elements are found in the ash e.g. sodium, silicon + and chlorine, together with small quantities of manganese and other + rarer elements. + + The above constituents that have been classed as "essential," are + necessary for the growth of the plant, and absence of any one will + involve failure. This has been shown by growing plants in water + dissolved in which are salts of the elements present in plants. By + omitting in turn one or other of the elements aforesaid it is found + that the plants will not grow after they have used up the materials + contained in the seed itself. These elements are accordingly termed + "essential," and it therefore becomes necessary to inquire how they + are to be supplied. + + The atmosphere is the great storehouse of organic plant food. The + leaves take up, through their stomata, the carbonic acid and other + gases of the atmosphere. The carbonic acid, under the influence of + light, is decomposed in the chlorophyll cells, oxygen is given off and + carbon is assimilated, being subsequently built up into the various + organic bodies forming the plant's structure. It would seem, too, that + plants can take up a small quantity of ammonia by their leaves, and + also water to some extent, but the free or uncombined nitrogen of the + air cannot be directly assimilated by the leaves of plants. + + From the soil, on the other hand, the plant obtains, by means of its + roots, its mineral requirements, also sulphur and phosphorus, and + nearly all its nitrogen and water. Carbon, too, in the case of fungi, + is obtained from the decayed vegetable matter in the soil. The roots + are able not only to take up soluble salts that are presented to them, + but they can attack and render soluble the solid constituents of the + soil, thus transforming them into available plant food. In this way + important substances, such as phosphoric acid and potash, are supplied + to the plant, as also lime. Roots can further supply themselves with + nitrogen in the form of nitrates, the ammonia and other nitrogenous + bodies undergoing ready conversion into nitrates in the soil. These + various mineral constituents, being now transferred to the plant, go + to form new tissue, and ultimately seed, or else accumulate in the sap + and are deposited on the older tissue. + + Whether the nitrogen of the air can be utilized by plants or not has + been long and strenuously discussed, Boussingault first, and then + Lawes, Gilbert and Pugh, maintaining that there was no evidence of + this utilization. But it was always recognized that certain plants, + clover for example, enriched the land with nitrogen to an extent + greater than could be accounted for by the mere supply to them of + nitrates in the soil. Ultimately Hellriegel supplied the explanation + by showing that, at all events, certain of the Leguminosae, by the + medium of swellings or "nodules" on their roots, were able to fix the + atmospheric nitrogen in the soil, and to convert it into nitrates for + the use of the plant. This was found to be the result of the action of + certain organisms within the nodules themselves, which in turn fed + upon the carbohydrates of the plant and were thus living in a state of + "symbiosis" with it. So far, however, this has not been shown to be + the case with any other plants than the Leguminosae, and, though it is + asserted by some that many other plants can take up the nitrogen of + the air directly through their leaves, there is no clear evidence as + yet of this. + +We must now consider how the different requirements of the plant in +regard to the elements necessary to maintain its life and to build up +its structure affect the question of manuring. + +Under conditions of natural growth and decay, when no crops are gathered +in, or consumed on the land by live stock, the herbage, on dying down +and decaying, returns to the atmosphere and the soil the elements taken +from them during life; but, under cultivation, a succession of crops +deprives the land of the constituents which are essential to healthy and +luxuriant growth. Without an adequate return to the land of the matters +removed in the produce, its fertility cannot be maintained for many +years. In newly opened countries, where old forests have been cleared +and the land brought under cultivation, the virgin soil often possesses +at first a high degree of fertility, but gradually its productive power +decreases from year to year. Where land is plentiful and easy to be +obtained it is more convenient to clear fresh forest land than to +improve more or less exhausted land by the application of manure, labour +and skill. But in all densely peopled countries, and where the former +mode of cultivation cannot be followed, it is necessary to resort to +artificial means to restore the natural fertility of the land and to +maintain and increase its productiveness. That continuous cropping +without return of manure ends in deterioration of the soil is well seen +in the case of the wheat-growing areas in America. Crops of wheat were +taken one after another, the straw was burned and nothing was returned +to the land; the produce began to fall off and the cultivators moved on +to fresh lands, there to meet, in time, with the same experience; and +now that the available land has been more or less intensely occupied, or +that new land is too far removed for ready transport of the produce, it +has been found necessary to introduce the system of manuring, and +America now manufactures and uses for herself large quantities of +artificial and other manures. + +That the same exhaustion of soil would go on in Great Britain, if +unchecked by manuring, is known to every practical farmer, and, if +evidence were needed, it is supplied by the renowned Rothamsted +experiments of Lawes and Gilbert, on a heavy land, and also by the more +recent Woburn experiments of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, +conducted on a light sandy soil. The following table will illustrate +this point, and show also how under a system of manuring the fertility +is maintained:-- + +TABLE 1.--Showing Exhaustion of Land by continuous Cropping without +Manure, and the maintenance of fertility through manuring. (Rothamsted +50 years; Woburn 30 years.) + + +-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | 1. Rothamsted (heavy land). | + +------+-----+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | | | | Average yield of corn per acre. | + | | | +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+-------------+ + |Crop. |Plot.| Treatment. | 8 years, | 10 years,| 10 years,| 10 years,| 10 years,| 10 years,| Average | + | | | |1844-1851.|1852-1861.|1862-1871.|1872-1881.|1882-1891.|1892-1901.| of 50 years,| + | | | | | | | | | | 1852-1901. | + +------+-----+--------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+-------------+ + | | | | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | + |Wheat | 3 |Unmanured | | | | | | | | + | | | continuously | 17.2 | 15.9 | 14.5 | 10.4 | 12.6 | 12.3 | 43.1 | + | | 2 |Farm-yard | | | | | | | | + | | | manure yearly| 28.0 | 34.2 | 37.5 | 28.7 | 38.2 | 39.2 | 35.6 | + |Barley| 7-2 |Unmanured | | | | | | | | + | | | continuously | -- | 22.4 | 17.5 | 13.7 | 12.7 | 10.0 | 15.3 | + | | 1-0 |Farm-yard | | | | | | | | + | | | manure yearly| -- | 45.0 | 51.5 | 50.2 | 47.6 | 44.3 | 47.7 | + +------+-----+--------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+-------------+ + | 2. Woburn (light land). | + +------+-----+--------------+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | | | | Average yield of corn per acre. | + | | | +-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+ + |Crop. |Plot.| Treatment. | 10 years, | 10 years, | 10 years, | Average | + | | | | 1877-1886. | 1887-1896. | 1897-1906. | of 30 years, | + | | | | | | | 1877-1906. | + +------+-----+--------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+ + | | | | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | + |Wheat | 7 |Unmanured | | | | | + | | | continuously | 17.4 | 14.5 | 10.8 | 14.2 | + | | 11b |Farm-yard | | | | | + | | | manure yearly| 26.7 | 27.8 | 24.0 | 26.2 | + |Barley| 7 |Unmanured | | | | | + | | | continuously | 23.0 | 18.1 | 13.3 | 18.1 | + | | 11b |Farm-yard | | | | | + | | | manure yearly| 40.0 | 39.9 | 36.6 | 38.8 | + +------+-----+--------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+ + +Whereas on the heavier and richer land of Rothamsted the produce of +unmanured wheat has fallen in 58 years from 17.2 bushels to 12.3 +bushels, on the lighter and poorer soil of Woburn it has fallen in 30 +years from 17.4 bushels to 10.8 bushels; barley has in 50 years at +Rothamsted gone from 22.4 bushels to 10 bushels, whilst at Woburn (which +is better suited for barley) it has fallen in 30 years from 23 bushels +to 13.3 bushels. At both Rothamsted and Woburn the application of +farm-yard manure has kept the produce of wheat and barley practically up +to what it was at the beginning, or even increased it. Similar +conclusions can be drawn from the use of artificial manures at each of +the experimental stations named, exemplifying the fact that with +suitable manuring crops of wheat or barley can be grown years after year +without the land undergoing deterioration, whereas if left unmanured it +gradually declines in fertility. Practical proof has further been given +of this in the well-known "continuous corn-growing" system pursued, in +his regular farming, by Mr John Prout of Sawbridgeworth, Herts, and +subsequently by his son, Mr W. A. Prout, since the year 1862. By +supplying, in the form of artificial manures, the necessary constituents +for his crops, Mr Prout was enabled to grow year after year, with only +an occasional interval for a clover crop and to allow of cleaning the +land, excellent crops of wheat, barley and oats, and without, it may be +added, the use of farm-yard manure at all. + +In considering the economical use of manures on the land regard must be +had to the following points: (1) the requirements of the crops intended +to be cultivated; (2) the physical condition of the soil; (3) the +chemical composition of the soil; and (4) the composition of the manure. +Briefly stated, the guiding principle of manuring economically and +profitably is to meet the requirements of the crops intended to be +cultivated, by incorporating with the soil, in the most efficacious +states of combination, the materials in which it is deficient, or which +the various crops usually grown on the farm do not find in the land in a +sufficiently available condition to ensure an abundant harvest. Soils +vary greatly in composition, and hence it will be readily understood +that in one locality or on one particular field a certain manure may be +used with great benefit, while in another field the same manure has +little or no effect upon the produce. + +For plant life to thrive certain elements are necessary, viz. carbon, +hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, among the organic or +combustible matters, and among the inorganic or mineral matters, +potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, phosphorus and sulphur. We must now +examine the extent to which these necessary elements occur in either of +the two great storehouses, the atmosphere and the soil, and how their +removal in the form of crops may be made up for by the use of manures, +so that the soil may be maintained in a state of fertility. Further, we +must consider what functions these elements perform in regard to plant +life, and, lastly, the forms in which they can best be applied for the +use of crops. + +Of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen there is no lack, the atmosphere +providing carbonic acid in abundance, and rain giving the elements +hydrogen and oxygen, so that these are supplied from natural sources. +Iron, magnesium and sulphur also are seldom or never deficient in soils, +and do not require to be supplemented by manuring. Accordingly, the +elements for which there is the greatest demand by plants, and which the +soil does not provide in sufficiency, are nitrogen, phosphorus, +potassium, and, possibly, calcium. Manuring, apart from the physical and +mechanical advantages which it confers upon soils, practically resolves +itself, therefore, into the supply of nitrogen, phosphorus and +potassium, and it is with the supply of these that we shall accordingly +deal in particular. + + 1. _Nitrogen._--Though we are still far from knowing what are the + exact functions which nitrogen fulfils in plant life, there is no + doubt as to the important part which it plays in the vegetable growth + of the plant and in the formation of stem and leaf. Without a + sufficiency of nitrogen the plant would be stunted in growth. Its + growth, indeed, may be said to be measured by the supply of nitrogen, + for while mineral constituents like phosphoric acid and potash are + only taken up to the extent that the plant can use them i.e. according + to its rate of growth, this actual growth itself would seem to be + determined by the extent of the nitrogen supply. This it is which + causes the ready response given to a crop by the application of some + quickly-acting nitrogenous material like nitrate of soda, and which is + marked by the dark-green colour produced and the pushing-on of the + growth. Similarly, this use of nitrogen, by prolonging growth, defers + maturity, while over-use of nitrogen tends to produce increase of leaf + and lateness of ripening. Along with this growth of the vegetative + portions, and seen, in the case of corn crops, mainly in the straw, + there is a corresponding decrease, from the use of nitrogen in excess, + in the quality of the grain. In corn a smaller grain and lesser weight + per bushel are the result of over-nitrogen manuring. The composition + of the grain is likewise affected, becoming more nitrogenous. With + crops, however, where rapid green growth is required, nitrogen effects + the purpose well, though here, too, over-manuring with nitrogen will + tend to produce rankness and coarseness of growth. Experiments at + Rothamsted and elsewhere, as well as everyday practice of the farm, + bear testimony to the paramount importance of nitrogen-supply, and to + the crops it is capable of raising. This applies not only to corn + crops of all kinds, but to root crops, grass, potatoes, &c. Leguminous + crops alone seem to have no need of it. In view of this practical + experience, Liebig's "mineral theory"--according to which he laid down + that plants only needed to have mineral constituents, such as + phosphoric acid, potash and lime, supplied to them--reads strangely + nowadays. The use of mineral manures without nitrogen other than that + already present in the soil or supplied in rain has been shown, alike + at Rothamsted and Woburn, to produce crops of wheat and barley little + better than those from unmanured land. The lack of nitrogen in + ordinary cultivated soils is much more marked than is that of mineral + constituents, and consequently even with the application of nitrogen + alone (as by the use of nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia), good + crops have been grown for a large number of years. This has been shown + both at Rothamsted and at Woburn. On the other hand, experiments at + these stations have demonstrated that better and more lasting results + are obtained by the judicious use of nitrogenous materials in + conjunction with phosphates and potash. + + The form in which nitrogen is taken up by plants is mainly, if not + wholly, that of nitrates, which are readily-soluble salts. Ammonia and + other nitrogenous bodies undergo in the soil, through the agency of + nitrifying organisms present in it (_Bacterium nitrificans_, &c.), + rapid conversion into nitrates, and as such are easily assimilable by + the plant. Similarly, they are the constituents which are most readily + removed in drainage, and hence the adequate supply of nitrogen for the + plant's use is a constant problem in agriculture. Experiments on the + rate of removal of nitrates from the soil by drainage showed that + every inch of rain passing through the drains caused a loss of 2½ lb. + of nitrogen per acre (Voelcker and Frankland). At the same time, + soils, as Way showed, have the power of absorbing, in different + degrees, ammonia from its solution in water, and when salts of ammonia + are passed through soils the ammonia alone is absorbed, the acids + passing, generally in combination with lime, into the drainage. + + Other experiments at Rothamsted on drainage showed that, though large + quantities of ammonia salts were applied to the land, the drainage + water contained merely traces of ammonia, but, on the other hand, + nitrates in quantity, thus proving that it is as nitrates, and not as + ammonia, that plants mainly, if not entirely, take up their + nitrogenous food. + + From these investigations it follows that much more nitrogen must be + added to the land than would be needed to produce a given increase in + the crop. Nitrogen, then, being so all-important, the question is, + where is it to come from? We have seen that the leaves take up only + minute quantities of ammonia, comparatively small amounts are supplied + in the rain, dew, snow, &c.,[1] and in the case of Leguminosae alone + have we any evidence of plants being able to provide themselves with + nitrogen from atmospheric sources. Some few organisms present in + fertile soils, e.g. _Azotobacter chroococcum_, have also the power, + under certain conditions, of fixing the free nitrogen of the + atmosphere without the intervention of a "host," but all these sources + would be very inadequate to meet the demands of an intensive + cultivation. An ordinary fertile arable soil will not show, on + analysis, much more than .15% of nitrogen, and it is evident that the + great source of supply of the needed nitrogen must be the direct + manuring of the soil with materials containing nitrogen. These + materials will be considered in detail later. + + 2. _Phosphorus._--This is the most important mineral element which has + to be supplied to the soil by the agency of manuring. It occurs in + ordinary fertile soils to the extent of only about .15%, reckoned as + phosphoric acid, and though its absence in sufficiency is not so + marked or so soon shown under prolonged cultivation as is that of + nitrogen, yet the fact that it is needed by all classes of crops, and + that its application in manurial form is attended with great benefits, + makes its supply one of great importance. From the time that Liebig, + in 1840, suggested the treatment of bones with sulphuric acid in order + to make them more readily available for the use of crops, and that the + late Sir John Lawes (in 1843) began the dissolving of mineral + phosphates for the purpose of manufacturing superphosphate, the + "artificial manure" trade took its rise, and ever since then the whole + globe has been exploited for the purpose of obtaining the raw + phosphatic materials which form the base of the artificial manures of + the past and of the present day. The functions which phosphoric acid + fulfils in plant life would appear to be connected rather with the + maturing of the plant than with the actual growth of the structure. + Phosphates are found concentrated in those parts of the plant where + cell growth and reproduction are most active. More especially is this + the case with the seed in which phosphates are present in greatest + quantity. While nitrogen delays maturity, phosphoric acid has just the + opposite effect, and cereal crops not sufficiently supplied with it + ripen much more tardily than do others. Moreover, the grain is formed + more early when phosphatic manures have been given than when they are + withheld. Phosphates increase the proportion of corn to straw, and, as + regards the grain itself, they render it less nitrogenous, richer in + phosphates, and altogether improve its quality. + + While these are the principal functions of phosphates, they also + exercise an influence on the young plant in its early stages. This is + well seen in the almost universal practice of applying superphosphate + to the young turnip or swede crop in order to push it beyond the + attack of "fly." Undoubtedly phosphates in readily available form + stimulate the young seedling, enabling it to develop root growth, and, + later on, causing the plant to "tiller out" well. Phosphoric acid + occurs in the soil bound up with the oxides of iron and alumina, or, + it may be, with lime, and the extent to which it may become useful to + plants will depend largely upon the readiness with which it becomes + available. For the purpose of ascertaining this different analytical + methods have been suggested, the best known one being that of B. Dyer, + in which a 1% solution of citric acid is used as a solvent. As a + result of experimenting with Rothamsted soils of known capability it + has been put forward that if a soil shows, by this treatment, less + than .01% of phosphoric acid it is in need of phosphatic manuring. + + Experiments carried on for many years at Rothamsted and Woburn have + clearly established the beneficial effects of phosphatic manuring on + corn crops, for though no material increase marks the application of + mineral manures in the absence of nitrogen, yet the results when + phosphates and nitrogen are used together are very much greater than + when nitrogen alone has been applied; and this is true as regards not + only the better ripening and quality of the grain, but also as regards + the actual crop increase. + + With root crops phosphates are almost indispensable; and, owing to the + limited power which these crops have of utilizing the phosphoric acid + in the soil, the supply of a readily available phosphatic manure like + superphosphate is of the highest importance. + + The assimilation of phosphoric acid goes on in a cereal crop after the + time of flowering and to a later date than does that of nitrogen and + potash, and it is ultimately stored in the seed. Soils possess a + retentive power for phosphoric acid which enables the latter to be + conserved and not removed to any extent by drainage. This function is + exercised mainly by the presence of oxide of iron. Alumina acts in a + similar way. In the case of soils that contain clay only traces of + phosphoric acid are found in the drainage water. + + 3. _Potassium._--The element third in importance, which requires to be + supplied by manuring, is potassium, or, as it is generally expressed, + potash. This in its functions resembles phosphoric acid somewhat, + being concerned rather with the mature development of the plant than + with its actual increase of growth. Like phosphoric acid, potash is + found concentrated throughout the plant in the early stages of its + growth, but, unlike it, is in the case of a cereal crop all taken up + by the time of full bloom, whereas with phosphoric acid the + assimilation continues later. Potash would appear to have an intimate + connexion with the quality of crops, and to be favourable to the + production of seed and fruit rather than to stem and leaf development. + Certain crops, such as vegetables, fruit, hops, as well as root crops + generally, make special demands upon potash supply, and, as checking + the tendency to over-development of leaf, &c., induced by nitrogenous + manures when used alone, potash has great practical importance. Potash + appears to be bound up in a special way with the process of + assimilation, for it has been clearly shown that whenever potash is + deficient the formation of the carbohydrates, such as sugar, starch + and cellulose, does not go on properly. Hellriegel and Wilfarth showed + by experiment the dependence of starch formation on an adequate supply + of potash. Cereal grains remained small and undeveloped when potash + was withheld, because the formation of starch did not go on. The same + effect has been strikingly shown in the Rothamsted experiments with + mangels, a plot receiving potash salts as manure giving a crop of + roots nearly 2½ times as heavy as that grown on a plot which has + received no potash. In this case the increase is due almost entirely + to the sugar and other carbohydrates elaborated in the leaves, and not + to any increase of mineral constituents. + + The effect of potash on maturity is somewhat uncertain, inasmuch as in + the case of grain crops it would appear to delay maturity and to + hasten it in that of root crops. + + The influence of potash on particular crops is very marked. On clovers + and other leguminous crops it is highly beneficial, while on grass + land it is of particular importance as inducing the spread of clovers + and other leguminous herbage. This is well seen in the Rothamsted + grass experiments, where with a mineral manure containing potash + one-half of the herbage is leguminous in nature, whereas the same + manure without potash gives only 15% of leguminous plants. Similarly, + where nitrogen is used by itself and no potash given there are no + leguminous plants at all to be found. Potash occurs in an ordinary + fertile soil to the extent of about .20%; a sandy soil will have less, + a clay soil may have considerably more. Potash, however, is mostly + bound up in the soil in the form of insoluble silicates, and these are + often in a far from available form, but require cultivation, the use + of lime and other means for getting them acted on by the air and + moisture, and so liberating the potash. According to B. Dyer's method + of ascertaining the availability of potash in soils, the amount of + potash soluble in a 1% citric acid solution should be about .005%, + otherwise the addition of potash manures will be a requisite. In the + case of soils containing much lime a larger quantity would, no doubt, + be needed. + + Potash, like phosphoric acid, is readily retained by soils, and so is + not subject to any considerable losses by drainage. This retention is + exercised by the ferric-oxide and alumina in soils, but still more so + by the double silicates, and to some extent also by the humus of the + soil. Potash will be liberated from its salts by the action of lime in + the soil, the lime taking the place of the potash. Lime is, therefore, + of much importance in setting free fresh stores of potash. Soda salts + also, when in considerable excess, are able to liberate potash from + its compounds, and to this is probably due, in many cases, the + beneficial action attending the use of common salt. + + 4. _Calcium._--Though calcium, or lime, is found in sufficiency in + most cultivated soils, there are, nevertheless, soils in which lime is + clearly deficient and where that deficiency has shown itself in + practice. Moreover, so comparatively easy is the removal of lime from + the soil by drainage, and so important is the part which lime plays in + liberating potash from its compounds, and in helping to retain bases + in the soil so that they are not lost in drainage, that the + significance of lime cannot be ignored. Further, the availability of + both potash and phosphoric acid in the soil has been found to be much + increased by the presence of lime. Lime, as carbonate of calcium, is + also necessary for the process of nitrification to go on in the soil. + Some sandy soils, and even some clays, contain so little lime as to + call for the direct supply of lime as an addition to the soil. When + this is the case nothing can adequately take the place of lime, and in + this sense lime may be called a "manure." In the majority of cases, + however, the practice of liming or chalking, which was a common one in + former times, was resorted to mainly because of the ameliorating + effects it produced on the land, both in a mechanical and in a + physical direction. Thus, on clay soil it flocculates the particles, + rendering the soil less tenacious of moisture, improving the drainage + and making the soil warmer. Nor must the directly chemical results be + overlooked, for in addition to those already mentioned, of liberating + plant food (chiefly potash and phosphoric acid), retaining bases, and + aiding nitrification, lime acts in a special way as regards the + sourness or "acidity" which is sometimes produced in land when lime is + deficient. In soils that are acid through the accumulation of humic + acid nitrification does not go on, and bacterial life is repressed. + The addition of lime has the effect of "sweetening" the land, and of + restoring its bacterial activity. This acidity is also seen in the + occurrence of the disease known as "finger and toe" in turnips, the + fungus producing this being one that thrives in an acid soil. It is + only found in soils poor in lime, and the only remedy for it is + liming. The growth of weeds like spurry, marigold, sorrel, &c., is + also a sign of land being wanting in lime. The most striking instance + of this "soil acidity" is that afforded by the Woburn experiments, + where, on a soil originally poor in lime, the soil has, through the + continuous use of ammonia salts, been impoverished of its lime to such + an extent that it has become quite sterile and is distinctly acid in + character. The application of lime, however, to such a soil has had + the effect of quite restoring its fertility. + + The amount of lime which soils contain is a very variable one, chalk + soils being very rich in lime, whereas sandy and peaty soils are + generally very poor in it. If the amount of lime in a soil falls below + 1% of carbonate of lime on the dried soil, the soil will sooner or + later require liming. + + 5. _Magnesium._--This is not known to be deficient in soils, although + an essential element in them, and it is seldom directly applied as a + manurial ingredient. Some natural potash salts, such as kainit, + contain magnesia salts in considerable quantity; but their influence + is not known to be of beneficial nature, though, like common salt, + magnesia salts will, doubtless, render some of the potash in the soil + available. At the same time magnesia salts are not without their + influence on crops, and experiments have been undertaken at the Woburn + experimental farm and elsewhere to determine the nature of this + influence. Carbonate of magnesia has been tried in connexion with + potato-growing, and, it is said, with good results. + + 6. _Iron._--Iron is another essential ingredient of soil that is found + in abundance and does not call for special application in manurial + form. Iron is essential for the formation of chlorophyll in the + leaves, and its presence is believed also to be beneficial for the + development of colour in flowers, and for producing flavour in fruits + and in vines especially. Ferrous sulphate has, partly with this view, + and partly for its fungus-resisting properties, been suggested as a + desirable constituent of manures. The function performed by ferric + oxide in the soil of retaining phosphoric acid, potash and ammonia has + been already alluded to. + + 7. _Sulphur._--This, the last of the "essential" elements, is seldom + specially employed in manurial form. There would appear to be no lack + of it for the plant's supply, and it is little required except for the + building-up, with carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, of the + albuminoids. There are few artificial manures which do not contain + considerable amounts of sulphur, notably superphosphate. Sulphate of + lime (gypsum) is sometimes applied to the land direct as a way of + giving lime; this is employed in the case of clover and hops + principally. + +Having thus dealt with the essential ingredients which plants must have, +and which may require to be supplied to them in the form of additional +manures, we may briefly pass over the other constituents found in +plants, which may, or may not, be given as manures. + + 8. _Sodium._--This is a widely distributed element. The influence of + common salt (chloride of sodium) in liberating, when used in large + excess, potash from the silicates in which it is combined in the soil + has been already referred to, and in this way common salt and also + nitrate of soda (the two forms in which soda salts are used as + manures) may have some benefit. The principal purpose for which common + salt, however, is used, is that of retaining moisture in the land. It + is specially useful in a dry season, or for succulent crops such as + cabbage, kale, &c., or again for plants of maritime origin (such as + mangels), which thrive near the sea shore. + + 9. _Silicon._--All soils contain silica in abundance. Though silica + forms so large a part of the ash of plants and is especially abundant + in the straw of cereals, there is no evidence that it is required in + plant life. Popularly, it is believed to "stiffen" the stems of + cereals and grasses, but plants grown without it will do perfectly + well. It would, however, appear that soluble silica does play some + part in enabling phosphoric acid to be better assimilated by the + plant. Silicates, however, have not justified their use as direct + fertilizers. + + 10. _Chlorine._--A certain amount of chlorine is brought down in the + rain, and chlorides are also used in the form of common salt, with the + effect, as aforesaid, of liberating potash from silicates, when given + in excess, but there is no evidence as to any particular part which + the chlorine itself plays. + + 11. _Manganese_, &c.--Manganese occurs in minute quantities in most + plants, and it, along with lithium (found largely in the + tobacco-plant), caesium, titanium, uranium and other rare elements, + may be found in soils. Experiments at the Woburn pot-culture station + and elsewhere, point to stimulating effects on vegetation produced by + the action of minute doses of salts of these elements, but, so far, + their use as manurial ingredients need not be considered in practice. + + 12. _Humus._--Though not an element, or itself essential, this body, + which may be described as decayed vegetable matter, is not without + importance in plant life. Of it, farm-yard manure is to a large extent + composed, and many "organic manures," as they are termed, contain it + in quantity. Dead leaves, decayed vegetation, the stubble of cereal + crops and many waste materials add humus to the land, and this humus, + by exposure to the air, is always undergoing further changes in the + soil, opening it out, distributing carbonic acid through it, and + supplying it, in its further decomposition, with nitrogen. The + principal effects of humus on the soil are of a physical character, + and it exercises particular benefit through its power of retaining + moisture. Humus, however, has a distinct chemical action, in that it + forms combinations with iron, calcium and ammonia. It thus becomes one + of the principal sources of supply of the nitrogenous food of plants, + and a soil rich in humus is one rich in nitrogen. The nitrogen in + humus is not directly available as a food for plants, but many kinds + of fungi and bacteria are capable of converting it into ammonia, from + which, by the agency of nitrifying organisms, it is turned into + nitrates and made available for the use of plants. Humus is able to + retain phosphoric acid, potash, ammonia and other bases. So important + were the functions of humus considered at one time that on this Thaer + built his "humus theory," which was, in effect, that, if humus was + supplied to the soil, plants required nothing more. This was based, + however, on the erroneous belief that the carbon, of which the bulk of + the plant consists, was derived from the humus of the soil, and not, + as we now know it to be, from the carbonic acid of the atmosphere. + This theory was in turn replaced by the "mineral theory" of Liebig, + and then both of them by the "nitrogen theory" of Lawes and Gilbert. + +We pass next to review, in the light of the foregoing, the manures in +common use at the present day. + +Manures, as already stated, may be variously classified according to the +materials they are made from, the constituents which they chiefly +supply, or the uses to which they are put. But, except with certain few +manures, such as nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia and potash salts, +which are used purely for one particular purpose, it is impossible to +make any definite classification of manures, owing to the fact that the +majority of them serve more than one purpose, and contain more than one +fertilizing constituent of value. It is only on broad lines, therefore, +that any division can be framed. Between so-called "natural" manures +like farm-yard manure, seaweed, wool waste, shoddy, bones, &c., which +undergo no particular artificial preparation, and manufactured manures +like superphosphate, dissolved bones, and other artificially prepared +materials, there may, however, be a distinction drawn, as also between +these and such materials as are imported and used without further +preparation, e.g. nitrate of soda, kainit, &c. On the whole, the best +classification to attempt is that according to the fertilizing +constituents which each principally supplies, and this will be adopted +here, with the necessary qualifications. + + +I.--NITROGENOUS (WHOLLY OR MAINLY) MANURES + +These divided themselves into: (a) Natural nitrogenous manures; (b) +imported or manufactured manures. + + + a. NATURAL NITROGENOUS MANURES + + Under this heading come--farm-yard manure; seaweed; refuse cakes and + meals; wool dust and shoddy; hoofs and horns; blood; soot; sewage + sludge. + + _Farm-yard Manure._--This is the most important, as well as the most + generally used, of all natural manures. It consists of the solid and + liquid excreta of animals that are fed at the homestead, together with + the material used as litter. The composition of farm-yard manure will + vary greatly according to the conditions under which it is produced. + The principal determining factors are (1) the nature and age of the + animals producing it, (2) the food that is given them, (3) the kind + and quantity of litter used, (4) whether it be made in feeding-boxes, + covered yards or open yards, (5) the length of time and the way in + which it has been stored. The following analysis represents the + general composition of well-made farm-yard manure, in which the litter + used is straw:-- + + Water 75.42 + *Organic matter 16.52 + Oxide of iron and alumina .36 + Lime 2.28 + Magnesia .14 + Potash .48 + Soda .08 + **Phosphoric acid .44 + Sulphuric acid .12 + Chlorine .02 + Carbonic acid, &c. 1.38 + Silica 2.76 + ------ + 100.00 + ------ + + * Containing nitrogen = .59%, + which is equal to ammonia .72% + + ** Equal to phosphate of lime .96 + + Put broadly, farm-yard manure will contain from 65 to 80% of water, + from .45 to .65% of nitrogen, from .4 to .8% of potash, and from .2 to + .5% of phosphoric acid. + + This analysis shows that farm-yard manure contains all the + constituents, without exception, which are required by cultivated + crops in order to bring them to perfection, and hence it may be called + a "perfect" manure. Dung, it may be observed, contains a great variety + of organic and inorganic compounds of various degrees of solubility, + and this complexity of composition--difficult, if not impossible, to + imitate by art--is one of the circumstances which render farm-yard + manure a perfect as well as a universal manure. + + The excrements of different kinds of animals vary in composition, and + those of the same animal will vary according to the nature and + quantity of the food given, the age of the animal, and the way it is + generally treated. Thus, a young animal which is growing, needs food + to produce bone and muscle, and voids poorer dung than one which is + fully grown and only has to keep up its condition. Similarly, a + milking-cow will produce poorer dung than a fattening bullock. Again, + cake-feeding will produce a richer manure than feeding without cake. + Straw is the most general litter used, but peat-moss litter, sawdust, + &c., may be used, and they will affect the quality of the manure to + some extent. Peat-moss is the best absorbent and has a higher manurial + value than straw. Box-fed manure, and that made in covered yards will + suffer much less loss than that made in an open yard. Lastly, manure + kept in a heap covered with earth will be much richer than that left + in an uncovered heap. The solid and liquid excrements differ much in + composition, for, while the former contain principally phosphoric + acid, lime, magnesia, and silica and comparatively little nitrogen, + the urine is almost destitute of phosphoric acid, and abounds in + alkaline salts (including salts of potash) and in nitrogenous organic + matters, among which are urea and uric acid, and which on + decomposition yield ammonia. Unless, therefore, the two kinds of + excrements are mixed, a perfect manure supplying all the needs of the + plant is not obtained; care must accordingly be taken to absorb all + the urine by the litter. Farm-yard manure, it is well known, is much + affected by the length of time and the way in which it has been kept. + Fresh dung is soluble in water only to a limited extent, and, in + consequence, it acts more slowly on vegetation, and the action lasts + longer than when dung is used which has been kept some time; fresh + dung is therefore generally used in autumn or winter, and thoroughly + rotten dung in spring, when an immediate forcing effect is required. + + The changes which farm-yard manure undergoes on keeping, have been + made the subject of much inquiry. In Germany, Maercker and + Schneidewind; in France, Muntz and Girard; and in England, Voelcker, + Wood, Russell and others, have investigated these losses, coming to + very similar conclusions concerning them. Perhaps the most complete + set of experiments is one conducted at the Woburn experimental station + and extending over three years (1899-1901). The dung was cake-fed + manure made in feeding-boxes from which no drainage issued, and, after + removal, it was kept in a heap, covered with earth. Hence it was made + under as good conditions as possible; but, even then, the + losses--after deduction for live-weight increase of the animals--were + found to be 15% of the total nitrogen of the food, during the making, + and 34% (or a further 19%) during storing and by the time the manure + came to be put on the land. Accordingly, under ordinary farm + conditions it is quite clear that only about 50% of the nitrogen of + the food given is recovered in the dung that goes on the land. This is + the figure which Lawes and Gilbert suggested in the practical + application of their Tables of Compensation for Unexhausted Manure + Value. + + During the fermentation of dung a large proportion of the + non-nitrogenous organic matters disappear in the forms of carbonic + acid and water, while another portion is converted into humic acids + which fix the ammonia gradually produced from the nitrogenous + constituents of the solid and liquid excreta. The mineral matters + remain behind entirely in the rotten dung, if care be taken to prevent + loss by drainage. For proper decomposition, both air and moisture are + requisite, while extreme dryness or too much water will arrest the due + fermentation of the mass. + + Well-fermented dung is more concentrated and consequently more + efficacious than fresh farm-yard manure. Neither fresh nor rotten dung + contains any appreciable quantity of volatile ammonia, and there is no + advantage from applying gypsum, dilute acid, superphosphate, kainit, + or other substances recommended as fixers of ammonia. If dung is + carted into the field and spread out at once in thin layers it will + suffer comparatively little loss. But if dung be kept for a length of + time in shallow heaps, or in open straw-yards and exposed to rain, it + loses by drainage a considerable proportion of its most valuable + soluble fertilizing constituents. Experiments with farm-yard manure + kept in an open yard showed that, after twelve months' exposure to the + weather, nearly all the soluble nitrogen and 78.2% of the soluble + mineral matters were lost by drainage (A. Voelcker). To prevent this + loss, farm-yard manure, as had been pointed out, should, whenever + possible, be carted into the field, spread out at once, and ploughed + in at the convenience of the farmer. It is, however, not always + practicable to apply farm-yard manure just at the time it is made, + and, as the manure heap cannot be altogether dispensed with, it is + necessary to see how the manure may best be kept. The best dung is + that made in regular pits or feeding-boxes. In them the urine is + thoroughly absorbed, and, the manure being more compact through the + constant treading, air enters less freely and the decomposition goes + on less rapidly, the volatile matters, in consequence, not being so + readily lost. External agents, such as rain, wind, sun, &c., do not + affect the manure as they would in the case of open yards. Next best + to box-fed manure is that made in covered yards, then that in sheds, + and lastly that in open yards. When removed from the box or yard, the + manure should be put in a heap upon a floor of clay or + well-beaten-down earth, and then be covered with earth. When kept in + an open yard, care should be taken not to let spoutings of buildings + lead on to it, and if there be a liquid-manure tank, this might be + pumped out over the manure again when the latter is too dry. + + The advantages of farm-yard manure consist, not only in its supplying + all the constituents of plant food, but also in the improved physical + condition of the soil which results from its application, inasmuch as + the land is thereby kept porous, and air is allowed free access. + While, however, farm-yard manure has these advantages, experience has + shown that artificial manures, properly selected so as to meet the + requirements of the crops intended to be grown on the particular land, + may be employed to greater advantage. In farm-yard manure about + two-thirds of the weight is water and one-third dry matter; a large + bulk thus contains only a small proportion of fertilizing substances, + and expense is incurred for carriage of much useless matter when dung + has to be carted to distant fields. When a plentiful supply of good + farm-yard manure can be produced on the farm or bought at a moderate + price in the immediate neighbourhood, it is economy to use it either + alone or in conjunction with artificial manures; but when food is dear + and fattening does not pay, or farm-yard manure is expensive to buy, + it will be found more economical to use artificial manures. This has + obtained confirmation from the experience of Mr Prout, at + Sawbridgeworth, Herts, where since 1866, successive crops of corn have + been grown, and entirely with the use of artificial manures. + + The real difficulty with farm-yard manure is to get enough of it, and, + if it were available in sufficiency, it would be safe to say that + farmers generally would not require to go farther in regard to the + manuring of any of the crops of the farm. Moreover, experiments at + Rothamsted and Woburn have shown of how "lasting" a character + farm-yard manure is, its influence having told for some 15 to 20 years + after its application had ceased. + + Light land is benefited by farm-yard manure through its supplying to + the soil organic matter, and imparting to it "substance" whereby it + becomes more consolidated and is better able to retain the manurial + ingredients given to it. By improving the soil's moisture-holding + capacity, moreover, "burning" of the land is prevented. + + With heavy clay soils the advantages are that these are kept more open + in texture, drainage is improved, and the soil rendered easier of + working. On light land, well-rotted manure is best to apply; and in + spring, whereas on heavy land freshly-made, "long," manure is best, + and should be put on in autumn or winter. + + Farm-yard manure, where the supply is limited, is mostly saved for the + root-crop, which, however, generally needs a little superphosphate to + start it, as farm-yard manure is not sufficiently rich in this + constituent. It serves a great purpose in retaining the needed + moisture in the soil for the root crop. + + For potato-growing, for vegetables, and in market-gardening, farm-yard + manure is almost indispensable. On grass-land and on clover-ley it is + also very useful, and in the neighbourhood of large towns is employed + greatly for the production of hay. + + For corn crops also, and especially for wheat on heavy land, farm-yard + manure is much used, and, in a dry season in particular, shows + excellent results, though experiments at Rothamsted and Woburn have + shown that, on heavy and light land alike, heavier crops of wheat and + barley can be produced in average seasons by artificial manures. + + _Seaweed._--Along the sea-coast seaweed is collected, put in heaps and + allowed to rot, being subsequently used on the land, just as farm-yard + manure is. According to the nature of the weed and its water-contents, + it may have from .3 to 1% of nitrogen, or more, with potash in some + quantity. + + _Green-manuring._--Though properly belonging to cultivation rather + than to manuring, and acting chiefly as a means of improving the + condition of the soil, the practice of green-manuring carries with it + manurial benefits also, in that it supplies humus and nitrogen to the + soil, and provides a substitute for farm-yard manure. The ploughing-in + of a leguminous green-crop which has collected nitrogen from the + atmosphere should result in a greater accumulation of nitrogen for a + succeeding corn-crop, and thus supply the cheapest form of manuring. + Green-manuring is most beneficial on light land, poor in vegetable + matter. + + _Manure Cakes, Malt Dust, Spent Hops, &c._--Many waste materials of + this kind are used because of their supplying, in the form of + nitrogenous organic matter, nitrogen for crop uses. The nitrogen in + these is of somewhat slow-acting, but lasting, nature. In addition to + nitrogen, some of these materials, e.g. rape cake, cotton cake and + castor cake, contain appreciable amounts of phosphoric acid and + potash. Rape cake, or "land cake," as it is called in Norfolk, is used + considerably for wheat. It is also believed to be a preventive of + wireworm, and so is often employed for potatoes and root-crops. + Rape-seed from which the oil has been extracted by chemical means, and + which is called "rape refuse," is made use of in hop-gardens as a + slowly acting supplier of nitrogen. It will contain 4 to 5% of + nitrogen with 3 to 4% of phosphates. Damaged cotton and other + feeding-cakes, no longer fit for feeding, are ground into meal and put + on the land. Castor cake is directly imported for manurial purposes, + and will have up to 5% of nitrogen with 4 to 5% of phosphates. Spent + hops, malt dust and other waste materials are similarly used. The + principal use of these materials is on light land, and to give bulk to + the soil while supplying nitrogen in suitable form. + + _Wool-dust, Shoddy, &c._--The clippings from wool, the refuse from + cloth factories, silk, fur and hair waste, carpet clippings and + similar waste materials are comprised in this category. They are + valuable purely for their nitrogen, and should be purchased according + to their nitrogen-contents. They are favourite materials with + hop-growers and fruit-farmers, whose experience leads them to prefer a + manure which supplies its nitrogen in organic form, and which acts + continuously, if not too readily. It is the custom in hop-lands to + manure the soil annually with large quantities of these waste + materials till it has much fertility stored up in it for succeeding + crops. According to its nature, wool-dust or shoddy may contain + anything from 3% of nitrogen up to 14%. + + Leather is another waste material of the same class, but the process + of tanning it has undergone makes its nitrogen but very slowly + available and it is avoided, in consequence, as a manure. There have + been several processes started with the object of rendering leather + more useful as a manure. + + _Hoofs and Horns._--The clippings and shavings from horn factories are + largely used by some hop-growers, and, though very slow in their + action, they will contain 14 to 15% of nitrogen. They are sometimes + very finely ground and sold as "keronikon," chiefly for use in + compound artificial manures. + + _Dried Blood_ is another purely nitrogenous material, which however + seldom finds its way to the farmer, being used up eagerly by the + artificial manure maker. It will contain from 12 to 14% of nitrogen. + It is obtained by simply evaporating down the blood obtained from + slaughter-houses. It is the most rapidly acting of the organic + nitrogenous materials enumerated, and, when obtainable, is a favourite + manure with fruit-growers, being also used for root and vegetable + growing. + + _Soot_ is an article of very variable nature. It owes its manurial + value mainly to the ammonia salts it contains, and a good sample will + have about 4% of ammonia. It is frequently adulterated, being mixed + with ashes, earth, &c. Flue sweepings of factory chimneys are + sometimes sold as soot, but possess little value. Besides the ammonia + that soot contains, there would undoubtedly seem to be a value + attaching to the carbonaceous matter. Soot is a favourite top-dressing + for wheat on heavy land, and is efficacious in keeping off slugs, &c. + Speaking generally, the lighter a sample of soot is the more likely is + it to be genuine. + + _Sewage Manure._--Where methods of dealing with the solid matters of + sewage are in operation, it frequently happens that these matters are + dried, generally with the aid of lime, and sold locally. Occasionally + they are prepared with the addition of other fertilizing materials and + made up as special manures. It may be taken for granted that sewage + refuse by itself is not worth transporting to any distance. When made + up with lime, the "sludge," as it is generally termed, is often useful + because of the lime it contains. But, on the whole, the value of such + preparations has been greatly exaggerated. Where land is in need of + organic matter, or where it is desirable to consolidate light land by + the addition of material of this class, sludge may, however, have + decided value on mechanical and physical grounds, but such land + requires to be near at hand. + + + b. _Imported or Manufactured Nitrogenous Manures._ + + These are nitrate of soda; sulphate of ammonia; calcium cyanamide; + calcium nitrate. + + _Nitrate of Soda._--This is the best known and most generally used of + purely nitrogenous manures. It comes from the rainless districts of + Chile and Peru, from which it was first shipped about the year 1830. + By 1899 the export had reached to 1,344,550 tons. It is uncertain what + its origin is, but it is generally believed to be the deposit from an + ancient sea which was raised by volcanic eruption and its waters + evaporated. Another theory puts it as the deposit from the saline + residues of fresh-water streams. The crude deposit is termed + _caliche_, and from this (which contains common salt and sulphates of + soda, potash and lime) the nitrate is crystallized out and obtained as + a salt containing 95 to 96% pure nitrate of soda. It is sold on a + basis of 95% pure, and is but little subject to adulteration. + + As a quickly acting nitrogenous manure nitrate of soda has no equal, + and it is in great demand as a top-dressing for corn crops, also for + roots. On grass-land, if used alone, it tends to produce grass but to + exterminate leguminous herbage. Its tendency with corn crops is to + produce, if used in quantity, inferiority of quality in grain. It can + be employed in conjunction with superphosphate and other artificial + manures, though it should not be mixed with them long before the + mixture is to be put on. It is a very soluble salt, and the nitrogen + being in the form of nitrates, it can be readily taken up by plants. + On the other hand, it is readily removed from the soil by drainage, + and its effects last only for a single season. Owing to its + solubility, it requires to be used in much larger amount than the crop + actually will take up. On a heavy soil it has a bad influence if used + repeatedly and in quantity, causing the land to "run," and making the + tilth bad. Though, doubtless, exhaustive to the soil, when used alone, + there is no evidence yet of nitrate of soda causing land to "run out," + as has been shown to be the case with sulphate of ammonia. One cwt. to + the acre is a common dressing for corn crops, but for mangels it has + been used to advantage up to 4 cwt. per acre. As a top-dressing for + corn crops it differs little in its crop-results from its rival + sulphate of ammonia, but in a dry season it answers better, owing to + its more ready solubility and quicker action, whereas in a wet season + sulphate of ammonia does better. + + _Sulphate of Ammonia._--This is the great competitor with nitrate of + soda, and, like the latter, is useful purely as a nitrogenous manure. + It is obtained in the manufacture of gas and as a by-product in the + distillation of shale, &c., as also from coke ovens. By adding + sulphuric acid to the ammoniacal liquor distilled over from the coal, + &c., the salt is crystallized out. It is seldom adulterated, and, as + sold in commerce, generally contains 24 to 25% of ammonia. It is not + quite so readily soluble as nitrate of soda; it does not act quite so + quickly on crops, but is less easily removed from the soil by + drainage, leaving also a slight amount of residue for a second crop. + It is nearly as efficacious as a top-dressing for corn crops as is + nitrate of soda, and for some crops, e.g. potatoes, it is considered + superior. It may also be used like nitrate of soda for root crops. On + grass-land its effect in increasing gramineous but reducing leguminous + herbage is similar to that of nitrate of soda, but with corn crops it + has not the same deteriorating influence on the quality of grain. It + can be mixed quite well with superphosphate and other artificial + manures, and is therefore a common form in which nitrogen is supplied + in compound manures. It does not produce the bad effect on the tilth + of certain soils that nitrate of soda does, but it is open to the + objection that, if used continually on soil poor in lime, it will + gradually exhaust the soil and leave it in an acid condition, so that + the soil is unable to bear crops again until fertility is restored by + the addition of lime. A usual dressing of sulphate of ammonia is 1 + cwt. per acre. + + _Calcium Cyanamide._--This is a new product which represents the + earliest result of the utilization, in a commercial form, of + atmospheric nitrogen as a manurial substance. It is obtained by + passing nitrogen gas over the heated calcium carbide obtained in the + electric furnace, the nitrogen then uniting with the carbide to form + calcium cyanamide. The product contains from 19 to 20% of nitrogen, + and, though still under trial as a nitrogenous manure, it bids fair to + form a valuable source of supply, especially should the natural + deposits of nitrate of soda become exhausted. The cost of production + limits its manufacture to places where electrical power can be cheaply + generated. In its action it would seem to resemble most closely + sulphate of ammonia. + + _Calcium Nitrate._--This is another product of the utilization of + atmospheric nitrogen as a manurial agent. Nitrogen and oxygen are made + to combine within the electric arc and the nitric acid produced is + then combined with lime, forming nitrate of lime. Nitrate of lime + contains, as put on the market, about 13% of nitrogen. In its action + it should be very similar to nitrate of soda, with, possibly, some + added benefit to certain soils by reason of the lime it contains. Like + cyanamide, it is still in the experimental stage as regards its + agricultural use, and can only be produced where electric power is + cheaply obtainable. + + Neither material is altogether free from objection, the cyanamide + heating when mixed with other manures and even with soil, and being + liable to give off acetylene gas owing to the presence of calcium + carbide, whereas the calcium nitrate is a salt which on exposure to a + moist atmosphere readily deliquesces. + + +II.--PHOSPHATIC MANURES + +Under the heading of manures that are used purely for their phosphatic +benefit to the soil are superphosphate and basic slag. + + _Superphosphate._--This is the typical phosphatic manure, and is the + base of the numerous artificial manures used on the farm. + Superphosphate is made by dissolving raw phosphatic minerals in + sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), the tribasic phosphate of lime which + these contain being converted into the so-called "soluble phosphate," + sulphate of lime being formed at the same time. The first impetus to + the manufacture of superphosphate was given by Liebig, when he + suggested, in 1840, the treatment of bones with oil of vitriol in + order to make them act more quickly in the soil. Lawes subsequently, + in 1843, applied this to mineral phosphates, using phosphorite, first + of all, and the great manufacture of mineral superphosphate then + began. Coprolites, as found in Cambridgeshire, Suffolk, Bedfordshire + and elsewhere were the raw materials at first employed in the United + Kingdom. But gradually the demand for the new manure became so great + that distant parts of the world were searched to bring in the raw + material for conversion into superphosphate. Many new sources of + supply have been worked, and many worked out or abandoned in favour of + better and richer phosphates. Among these were the crystalline + apatites of Canada and Norway, French, Spanish and German (Lahn) + phosphates, and, at a later period, Carolina (land and river), + Florida, Tennessee, Somme, Belgian, Algerian and Tunisian phosphates. + In addition to these came other materials which, in their origin, were + really of the nature of guano, being bird deposits the ammoniacal + matters of which were gradually washed out. The mineral matters + remained and altered the composition of the original rock on which the + guano was deposited, thus forming rich deposits of phosphate of lime. + Such were the phosphates obtained from many of the islands of the West + Indies and South Pacific, and known under such various names as + Sombrero, Curaçao, Aruba, Maiden Island, Megillones, Baker Island, + Fanning Islands, Lacepedes Islands, &c. guanos. Few of these are now + worked, but their place has been largely taken by the rich deposits of + Ocean Island and Christmas Island, which are of similar origin. The + principal supplies of phosphatic minerals at the present time come + from Florida, Algeria, Tunis, Ocean Island and Christmas Island. Other + phosphates imported are Redonda and Alta Vela phosphates, but these + consist mainly of phosphate of alumina, and are not used for + superphosphate manufacture but for phosphorus production. + + Coprolites, as formerly used, contained from 50 to 60% of phosphate of + lime, but they are not worked now, the richer sources, which are also + better adapted for superphosphate manufacture, having taken their + place. The amount of oxide of iron and alumina in raw phosphates is of + great importance, as phosphates containing these bodies are liable to + cause superphosphate to "go back" or form what is called "reverted" + phosphate, the percentage of "soluble phosphate" being reduced + thereby. For this reason many of the older supplies have been replaced + by newer and better ones. Florida rock phosphate of high grade + contains 75 to 78% of phosphate of lime, and Florida land pebble + phosphate about 70%. Algerian and Tunisian phosphates have from 55 to + 65% of phosphate of lime, and are very free from iron and alumina, + this fitting them especially for superphosphate making. Tennessee + phosphate has about 70% of phosphate, Somme and Belgian phosphates 40 + to 50%, while Ocean Island and Christmas Island phosphates are of very + high grade and yield over 80 and up to 86% of phosphate of lime. + Superphosphate is made by finely grinding the raw phosphate and mixing + it with oil of vitriol (chamber acid); what actual product is formed + is a matter of some uncertainty, but it is a phosphate soluble in + water, and believed to be mono-calcic phosphate. This is the true + "soluble phosphate," but in commercial transactions it is universal to + express the amount in terms of the original tribasic phosphate which + has been rendered soluble. Ordinary grades of mineral superphosphate + give from 25 to 27% of soluble phosphate and higher grades 30 to 35%. + On reaching the soil, the soluble phosphate becomes precipitated by + the calcium and iron compounds in the soil. But it is precipitated in + a very fine form of division, in which it is readily attacked by the + plant roots. Superphosphate is used practically for all crops, + including cereals, clover and other leguminous crops. Its use tends to + early maturity in a crop. Its value for giving a start to root crops + is particularly recognized, and root crops generally are dependent on + it, as they have little power of utilizing the phosphoric acid in the + soil itself. On land poor in lime superphosphate must be used with + caution owing to its acid nature, and in such cases an undissolved + phosphate is preferable. The quantity in which it is applied ranges + from 2 and 3 cwt. per acre to 5 cwt. It suffers but little loss + through drainage, and will exercise an influence on crops beyond the + year of application. + + _Basic Slag._--This other principal phosphatic manure is of more + recent origin, and is an undissolved phosphate. It is the waste + product of steel-making where the Thomas-Gilchrist or "basic" process + of manufacture has been employed. This process is used with ores + containing much phosphorus, the removal of which is necessary in + steel-manufacture. The "converters" which hold the molten iron are + lined with lime and magnesia, and the impurities of the iron form a + "slag" with these materials. For a long time the slag was regarded as + a waste product, but ultimately it was found that, by grinding it very + finely, it had distinct agricultural value, and now its use is + universal. Basic slag is of various grades, containing 12 to 20% of + phosphoric acid, which is believed to exist in the form of a + tetracalcic phosphate. This phosphate is found to be readily attacked + by a weak solution of citric acid, and this probably accounts for the + comparative ease with which plants can utilize the phosphate. With it + is also a good deal of lime, and the presence of this undoubtedly, in + many cases, accounts partly for the benefits that follow the use of + basic slag. It should be very finely ground; a common standard is that + 80 to 90% should pass through a sieve having 10,000 meshes to the + square inch. + + The principal use of basic slag is on grass-land, especially where the + soil is heavy or clayey. Its effect on such land in causing white + clover to appear is in many cases most remarkable, and without doubt, + much poor, cold grass-land has been immensely benefited by its use. It + is also employed for root crops; but its effect on these, as on + cereals, is not so marked as on grass-land. On light land its benefit + is not nearly so great or universal as on heavier land. + + +III.--MANURES CONTAINING NITROGEN AND PHOSPHATES + +These may be classified as follows: (a) Natural manures--bones, fish and +meat guanos, Peruvian guano, bats' guano; (b) Manufactured +manures--dissolved bones, compound manures. + + + a. _Natural Manures_ + + _Bones.._--The value and use of these in agriculture has long been + known, as also the comparative slowness of their action, which latter + induced Liebig to suggest their treatment with sulphuric acid. Natural + bones will contain from 45 to 50% of phosphate of lime with 4 to 4½% + of nitrogen. It is usual to boil bones lightly after collection, in + order to remove the adhering particles of flesh and the fat. If + steamed under pressure the nitrogenous matter is to a great extent + extracted, yielding glue, size, gelatine, &c., and the bones--known + then in agriculture as "steamed bones"--will contain from 55 to 60% of + phosphate of lime with 1 to 1½% of nitrogen. Bones are also imported + from India, and these are of a very hard and dry nature. Bones are + principally used for root crops, and to some extent on grass-land. The + more finely they are ground the quicker is their action, but they are + a slow-acting manure, which remains some years in the land. Mixed with + superphosphate, bone meal forms an excellent manure for roots, and + obviates the difficulty of using superphosphate on land poor in lime. + Steamed bones, sometimes ground into flour, are much used in dairy + pastures. + + _Fish and Meat Guanos._--The term "guano," though generally applied to + these manures, is wrongly so used, for they are in no sense guano + (meaning thereby the droppings of sea birds). They are really fish or + meat refuse, being generally the dried fish-offal or the residue from + meat-extract manufacture. They vary much in composition, according to + their origin, some being highly nitrogenous (11 to 12% nitrogen) and + comparatively low in phosphate of lime, and others being more highly + phosphatic (30 to 40% phosphate of lime) with lower nitrogen. These + materials are to some extent used for root and vegetable crops, and + chiefly for hop-growing, but they go largely also to the artificial + manure maker. + + _Peruvian Guano._--This material, though once a name to conjure with, + has now not much more than an academic interest, owing to the rapid + exhaustion of the supplies. It is true guano, i.e. the deposit of sea + birds, and was originally found on islands off the coast of Peru. + Peruvian guano was first discovered in 1804 by A. von Humboldt, and + the wonderful results attending its use gave an enormous impulse to + its exportation. The Chincha Islands yielded the finest qualities of + guano, this giving up to 14 and 15% of nitrogen. Gradually the Chincha + Islands deposits became worked out, and other sources, such as the + Pabellon de Pica, Lobos, Guanape and Huanillos deposits were worked in + turn. In many instances the guano had suffered from washing by rain or + by decomposition, or in other cases the bare rock was reached and the + shipments contained some considerable quantity of this rocky matter, + so that the highly nitrogenous guanos were no longer forthcoming and + deposits more phosphatic in character took their place. Gradually the + shipments fell off, and with them the great reputation of the guano as + a manure. On some of the islands the birds, after having been driven + off, have returned and fresh deposits are being formed. On the west + coast of Africa also some new deposits have been found, and a certain + amount of guano comes from Ichaboe Island; but the trade will never be + what it once was. Occasional shipments come from the Ballista Islands, + giving from 10 to 11% of nitrogen with 11 to 12% of phosphoric acid, + and lower-grade guanos (7% of nitrogen and 16% of phosphoric acid) are + arriving from Guanape, while from Lobos de Tierra comes a still lower + grade. + + The particular feature that marked guano was that it contained both + its nitrogenous and phosphatic ingredients in forms in which they + could be very readily assimilated by plants. Moreover, the occurrence + of the nitrogenous and phosphatic matters in different forms of + combination gave to them a special value, and one that could not be + exactly imitated in artificial manures. The nitrogenous matters, e.g., + exist as urates, carbonates, oxalates and phosphates of ammonia, and a + particular nitrogenous body termed "guanine" is also found. Guano + contains much alkaline salts, and is, from its containing alike + phosphates, nitrogen and potash in suitable forms and quantity, an + exceedingly well balanced manure. In agriculture it is used for corn + crops, and also for root crops, potatoes and hops. It is esteemed for + barley, as tending to produce good quality. For vegetable and + market-garden crops that require forcing guano is also still in + demand. The more phosphatic kinds are sometimes treated with sulphuric + acid, and constitute "Dissolved Peruvian Guano." + + _Bats' Guano._--In caves in New Zealand, parts of America, South + Africa and elsewhere, are found deposits formed by bats, and these are + used to some extent as a manure, though they have no great commercial + value. + + + b. _Manufactured Manures_ + + _Dissolved Bones._--These are bones treated with oil of vitriol, as in + superphosphate manufacture. By this treatment bones become much more + readily available, and are used to a considerable extent, more + especially for root crops. Their composition varies with the method of + manufacture and the extent to which they are dissolved. Speaking + generally, they will have from 11 to 19% of soluble phosphate, with 20 + to 24% of insoluble phosphates, and if pure should contain 3% of + nitrogen. When mixed with superphosphate in varying amount, or if made + with steamed and not raw bone, they are generally known under the + indefinite name of "bone manure." + + _Compound Manures._--To this class belong the manures of every + description which it is the aim of the artificial manure manufacturer + to compound for particular purposes or to suit particular soils or + crops. The base of all these is, as a rule, mineral superphosphate or + else dissolved bones, or the two together, and with these are mixed + numerous different manurial substances calculated to supply definite + amounts of nitrogen, potash, &c. Such manures, the trade in which is a + very large one, are variously known as "corn manure," "turnip manure," + "grass manure" and the like, and much care is bestowed on their + compounding and on their preparation in good condition to allow of + their ready distribution over the land. + + +IV.--POTASH MANURES + +These, with few exceptions, are natural products from the potash mines +of Stassfurt (Prussia). Until the discovery of these deposits, in 1861, +the use of potash as a fertilizing constituent was very limited, being +confined practically to the employment of wood ashes. At the present +time a small quantity of potash salts--principally carbonate of +potash--is obtained from sugar refinery and other manufacturing +processes, but the great bulk of the potash supply comes from the German +mines. In these the different natural salts occur in different layers +and in conjunction with layers of rock-salt, carbonate of lime and other +minerals, from which they have to be separated out and undergo +subsequently a partial purification by re-crystallization. + + The principal potash salts used in agriculture are--(1) sulphate of + potash, which is about 90% pure; (2) kainit, an impure form of + sulphate of potash, and containing much common salt and magnesia + salts, and giving about 12% of potash (K2O); (3) muriate of potash, + which is used to a great extent in agriculture, and contains 75 to 90% + of muriate of potash; and (4) potash manure salts, a mixture of + different salts and containing from 20 to 30% of potash. + + Potash is much esteemed in agriculture, more especially on light land + (which is frequently deficient in it) and on peaty soils, and for use + with root crops and potatoes in particular. For fruit and vegetable + growing and for flowers potash manures are in constant request. Clay + land, as a rule, is not benefited by their use, these soils containing + generally an abundance of potash. Along with basic slag, potash salts + have been frequently used for grass on light land with advantage. + + +V.--MISCELLANEOUS MANURES + +There are, in addition to the foregoing, certain materials which in a +limited sense only can be called "manures," but the influences of which +are mostly seen in the mechanical and physical improvements which they +effect in soil. Such are salt, and also lime in its different forms. + + _Salt._--The action of salt in liberating potash from the soil has + been explained. As a manure it is sometimes used along with nitrate of + soda as a top-dressing for corn crops, in the belief that it stiffens + the straw. For root crops also, and mangels in particular, it is + employed; also for cabbage and other vegetables. + + _Lime._--The use of this is almost solely to be considered as a soil + improvement, and not as that of a manure. Sulphate of lime (gypsum) + is, however, occasionally used as a dressing for clover, and also for + hops. The fact that superphosphate itself contains a considerable + amount of sulphate of lime renders the special application of gypsum + unnecessary, as a rule. + + As compared with "natural" manures, like farm-yard manure, artificial + manures have the disadvantage that they, unlike it, do not improve the + physical condition of the soil. Artificial manures have, however, the + advantage over farm-yard manure that they can supply in a small + compass, and even if used in small quantity, the needed nitrogen, + phosphoric acid and potash, &c., which crops require, and which + farm-yard manure has but in small proportion. They, further, present + the expensive fertilizing matters in a concentrated form, and by their + application save expense in labour. (J. A. V.*) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The amount of nitrogen thus deposited annually was found at + Rothamsted to be 7.21 lb. per acre. + + + + +MANUSCRIPT, a term applied to any document written by the human hand +(Lat. _manû scriptum_) with the aid of pen, pencil or other instrument +which can be used with cursive facility, as distinguished from an +inscription engraved with chisel or graver, worked laboriously. By usage +the word has come to be employed in a special sense to indicate a +written work of the ancient world or of the middle ages; collections of +such "ancient manuscripts" being highly prized and being stored for +preservation in public libraries. Down to the time of the invention of +printing, and until the printed book had driven it out of the field, the +manuscript was the vehicle for the conservation and dissemination of +literature, and discharged all the functions of the modern book. In the +present article a description is given of the development of the ancient +manuscript, particularly among the Greeks and Romans, leading on to the +medieval manuscripts of Europe, and bringing down the history of the +latter to the invention of printing; the history of the printed volume +is dealt with in the article BOOK (q.v.). + + _Materials._--The handbooks on palaeography describe in full the + different materials which have been employed from remote time to + receive writing, and may be referred to for minuter details. To + dispose, in the first place, of the harder materials that have been + put under requisition, we find metals both referred to by writers and + actually represented by surviving examples. Thin leaves of gold or + silver were recommended for the inscription of charms in particular. + Leaden plates were in common use for incantations; the material was + cheap and was supposed to be durable. On such plates were scratched + the _dirae_ or solemn devotions of obnoxious persons to the infernal + deities; many examples have survived. As an instance of the use of + soft substance afterwards hardened may be cited the practice by the + Babylonians and Assyrians of writing, or rather of puncturing, their + cuneiform characters on clay tablets while moist, which were + afterwards dried in the heat of the sun or baked in the oven. + Potsherds, or _ostraka_, were employed for all kinds of temporary + purposes. Thousands of them have been found in Egypt inscribed with + tax receipts and ephemeral drafts and memoranda, children's dictation + lessons, &c. Analogous to the clay documents of western Asia are the + tablets coated with wax in vogue among the Greeks and Romans, offering + a surface not to be inscribed with the pen but to be scratched with + the sharp pointed _stilus_. These will be described more fully below. + With them we class the wooden boards, generally whitened with a + coating of paint or composition and adapted for the pen, which were + common in Egypt, and were specially used for educational purposes. + Such boards were also employed for official notices in Athens in the + 4th century B.C. + + Of the more pliant, and therefore generally more convenient, + substances there were many, such as animal skins and vegetable + growths. Practically we might confine our attention to three of them: + papyrus, parchment or vellum, and paper, the employment of which, each + in turn, as a writing material became almost universal. But there are + also others which must be mentioned. + + In a primitive state of society leaves of plants and trees strong + enough for the purpose might be taken as a ready-made material to + receive writing. Palm leaves are used for this purpose to the present + day in parts of India; and the references in classical authors to + leaves as early writing material among the Greeks and Romans cannot be + dismissed as entirely fanciful. + + The bark of trees, and particularly the inner bark of the lime-tree, + [Greek: philyra,] _tilia_, was employed. The fact that the Latin word + _liber_, bark, eventually meant also a book, would be sufficient proof + that that material was once in common literary use, even if it were + not referred to by writers. + + Linen, too, was a writing material among the early Romans, as it was + also among the Etruscans, and as it had been to some extent among the + Egyptians. + + Skins of animals, tanned, have doubtless served as a writing material + from the very earliest period of the use of letters. The Egyptians + occasionally employed this material. Instances of the use of leather + in western Asia are recorded by ancient authors, and from Herodotus we + learn that the Ionian Greeks applied to the rolls of the + later-imported papyrus the title [Greek: diphtherai], skins, by which + they had designated their writing material of leather. The Jews, also, + to the present day hold to the ancient Eastern custom and inscribe the + law upon skin rolls. + + But generally these materials were superseded in the old world by the + famous Egyptian writing material manufactured from the papyrus plant, + which gradually passed beyond the boundaries of its native land and + was imported at a remote period into other countries. Into Greece and + into Rome it was introduced at so early a time that practically it was + the vehicle for classical literature throughout its course. A + description of the manufacture and use of this material will be found + under PAPYRUS. Here it need only be noted that papyrus is associated + in Greek and Roman literature with the roll form of the ancient + manuscript, as will be more fully explained below, and that it was the + supersession of this material by parchment or vellum which led to the + change of shape to the book form. + + The introduction of the new material, parchment or vellum, was not a + revival of the use of animal skins as followed by the old world. The + skins were now not tanned into leather, but were prepared by a new + process to provide a material, thin, strong, flexible, and smooth of + surface on both faces. This improved process was the secret of the + success of the new material in ousting the time-honoured papyrus from + its high position. The common story, as told by Pliny, that Eumenes + II. of Pergamum (197-158 B.C.), seeking to extend the library of his + capital, was opposed by the jealousy of the Ptolemies, who forbade the + export of papyrus, hoping thus to check the growth of a rival library, + and that he was thus compelled to have recourse to skins as a writing + material, at all events points to Pergamum as the chief centre of + trade in the material, [Greek: pergamênê,] _charta pergamena_. The old + terms [Greek: diphtherai], _membranae_, applied originally to the + older leather, were transferred to the newly improved substance. In + describing MSS. written on, this material, by common consent the term + parchment has in modern times given place to that of vellum, properly + applicable only to calfskin, but now generally used in reference to a + medieval skin-book of any kind. Parchment is a title now usually + reserved for the hard sheepskin or other skin material on which law + deeds are engrossed. (See PARCHMENT.) + + Vellum had a long career as a writing material for the literature of + the early centuries of our era and of the middle ages. But in its turn + it eventually gave place to paper (q.v.). As early as the 13th century + paper, an Asiatic invention, was making its way into Europe and was + adopted in the Eastern Empire as a material for Greek literature side + by side with vellum. It soon afterwards began to appear in the + countries of southern Europe. In the course of the 14th century the + use of it became fairly established, and in the middle of the century + a number of paper manuscripts were produced along with those on + vellum, particularly in Italy. Finally, in the 15th century paper + became the common material for the manuscript book. The new paper, + however, made no further change in the form of the manuscript. It + possessed exactly the same qualities, as a writing material, as + vellum: it could be inscribed on both sides; it could be made up into + quires and bound in the codex form; and it had the further advantage + of being easily manufactured in large quantities, and therefore of + being comparatively cheap. + +_The Forms of the Manuscript Book._--In describing the development of +the manuscript book in the ancient world, and subsequently in the middle +ages, we have to deal with it in two forms. The common form of the book +of the ancient world was the _roll_, composed of one continuous sheet of +material and inscribed only on one side. This form had a long career. In +Egyptian literature it can be traced back for thousands of years. In +Greek literature it may he assumed to have been in vogue from the +earliest times; actual examples have survived of the latter part of the +4th and beginning of the 3rd centuries B.C. As to its early use in Latin +literature we cannot speak so definitely; but Rome followed the example +of Greece in letters, and therefore no doubt also in the material shape +of literary productions. Both in Greek and Latin literature the roll +lasted down to the early centuries of the Christian era. It was +superseded by the _codex_, the manuscript in book form (in the modern +sense of the word book), composed of separate leaves stitched together +into quires and made available to receive writing on both sides of the +material. This form is still in vogue as the modern printed book, and +probably will never be superseded. But the codex in this developed shape +was only an evolution from the early waxen tablets of the Greeks and +Romans, two or more of which, hinged together, formed the primitive +codex which suggested the later form. Therefore it will be necessary to +include the description of the tablets with that of the later codex. + + + The Roll. + +The ordinary terms in use among the Greeks for a book (that is, a roll) +were [Greek: biblos] (another form of [Greek: bublos], papyrus) and its +diminutive [Greek: biblion], which included the idea of a written book. +The corresponding Latin terms were _liber_ and _libellus_; _volumen_ was +a rolled-up roll. A roll of material uninscribed was [Greek: chàrtês], +_charta_, or [Greek: tomos] (originally a _cutting_ of papyrus), +applicable also to a roll containing a portion or division of a large +work which extended to more than one roll. A work contained within the +compass of a single roll was a [Greek: monobiblos], or [Greek: +monobiblon]. The term [Greek: teuchos] seems also to have meant a single +roll, but it was also applied at a later time to indicate a work +contained in several rolls. + +In writing the text of a work, the scribe might choose to make use of +separate sheets of papyrus, [Greek: kollêmata], _schedae_, and then join +them to one another consecutively so as to make up the roll; or he might +purchase from the stationers a _scapus_, or ready-made roll of twenty +sheets at most; and if this length were not sufficient, he might add +other sheets or _scapi_, and thus make a roll of indefinite length. But +proverbially a great book was a great evil, and, considering the +inconvenience of unrolling a long roll, not only for perusal, but, still +more so, for occasional reference, the practice of subdividing lengthy +works into divisions of convenient size, adapted to the capacity of +moderate-sized rolls, must have come into vogue at a very early period. + +It was the practice to write on one side only of the papyrus; to write +on both front and back of a roll would obviously be a clumsy and +irritating method. Works intended for the market were never +_opisthograph_. Of course the blank backs of written rolls which had +become obsolete might be turned to account for personal or temporary +purposes, as we learn not only from references in classical authors but +also from actual examples. The most interesting extant case of an +opisthograph papyrus is the copy of Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_ +in the British Museum, which is written on the back of a farmer's +accounts, of the end of the 1st century--but only for private use. It +being the rule, then, to confine the writing to one side of the +material, that is, to the inner surface of the made-up roll, that +surface was more carefully prepared and smoothed than the other; and, +further, the joints of the several sheets were so well made that they +offered no obstacle to the action of the pen. Still further, care was +taken that this, the _recto_ surface of the material, should be that in +which the shreds of papyrus of which it was composed lay horizontally, +so that the pen might move freely along the fibres; the shreds of the +_verso_ side, on the other hand, being in vertical position. This point +is of some importance, as, in cases where two different handwritings are +found on the two sides of a papyrus, it may be usually assumed that the +one on the _recto_ surface is the earlier. + +The text was written in columns, [Greek: selides], _paginae_, the width +of which seems not to have been prescribed, but which for calligraphic +effect were by preference made narrow, sufficient margins being left at +head and foot. The average width of the columns in the best extant +papyri ranges from two to three-and-a-half inches. The written lines +were parallel with the length of the roll, so that the columns stood, so +to say, with the height of the rolled-up roll, and were disclosed +consecutively as the roll was unwound. Ruling with lead to guide the +writing is mentioned by writers, but it does not appear that the +practice was generally followed. The number of lines in the several +columns of extant papyri is not constant, nor is the marginal boundary +of the beginnings of the lines, for the accuracy of which a ruled +vertical line would have proved useful, ordinarily kept even. No doubt +in practice the horizontal fibres of the material were found to afford a +sufficient guide for the lines of writing. + +If the title of the work was to be given, the scribe appears to have +written it ordinarily at the end of the text. But something more was +needed. To be obliged to unroll a text to the end, in order to ascertain +the name of the author, would be the height of inconvenience. Its title +was therefore sometimes written at the head of the text. It appears also +that at an early period it was inscribed on the outside of the roll, so +as to be visible as the roll lay in a chest or on the shelf. But a more +general practice was to attach to the top edge of the roll a label or +ticket, [Greek: sillubos], or [Greek: sittubos], _titulus_, _index_, +which hung down if the roll lay on the shelf, or was conveniently read +if the roll stood along with others in the ordinary cylindrical +roll-box, [Greek: kistê], [Greek: kibotos], _cista_, _capsa_. One such +label made of papyrus has survived and is in the British Museum. + +The scribe would not commence his text at the very beginning, nor would +he carry it quite down to the end, of the roll. He would leave blank a +sufficient length of material at either extremity, where the roll would +naturally be most exposed to wear and tear by handling in unrolling and +re-rolling; and, further, the extreme vertical edges might each be +strengthened by the addition of a strip of papyrus so as to form a +double thickness of material. + +According to the particulars given by classical authors, the roll would +be finished off somewhat elaborately; but the details described by them +must be taken to apply to the more expensive productions of the book +trade, corresponding with the full-bound volumes of our days. In +practice, a large proportion of working copies and ordinary editions +must have been dealt with more simply. Firstly, the roll should be +rolled up round a central stick, of wood or bone, called the [Greek: +omphalos], _umbilicus_, to which the last sheet of the papyrus may or +may not have been attached. But as a matter of fact no rolling-sticks +have been found in company with extant papyri, and it has therefore been +suggested that they were not attached to the material but were rolled in +loose, and were therefore liable to drop out. In some instances, as in +the rolls found at Herculaneum, a central core of papyrus instead of a +stick was thought sufficient. The edges, _frontes_, of the roll, after +it had been rolled up, were shorn and were rubbed smooth with pumice, +and they were sometimes coloured. A valuable roll might be protected +with a vellum wrapper, [Greek: phainolês], _paenula_, stained with +colour; and, further, it might be secured with ornamental thongs. The +central stick might also be adorned with knobs or "horns," plain or +coloured. This seems to be the natural explanation of the [Greek: +kerata], or _cornua_, mentioned by the ancient writers. Finally, the +title-label described above was attached to the completed roll, now +ready for the book-market. + +In the perusal of a work the reader held the roll upright and unrolled +it gradually with the right hand; with the left hand he rolled up in the +reverse direction what he had read. Thus, when he had finished, the roll +had become reversed, the beginning of the text being now in the centre +of the roll and the end of it being outside. The roll was "explicitus ad +umbilicum," or "ad sua cornua." It had therefore now to be unrolled +afresh and to be re-rolled into its normal shape--a troublesome process +which the lazy man shirked, and which the careful man accomplished by +making the revolutions with his two hands while he held the revolving +material steady under his chin. + +Although the codex or manuscript in book-form began to make its way in +Greek and Roman literature as early as the 1st century of our era, the +roll maintained its position as the recognized type of literary document +down to the 3rd, and even into the 4th, century, when it was altogether +superseded. We shall proceed to describe the codex after giving some +account of the waxen, or, to speak more correctly, the waxed, tablet, +its precursor in the book-form. + + + The Waxen Tablet. + +The ordinary waxen tablet in use among the Greeks and Romans was a small +oblong slab of wood, beech, fir, and especially box, the surface of +which on one or both sides, with the exception of the surrounding +margins which were left intact in order to form a frame, was sunk to a +slight depth and was therein coated with a thin layer of wax, usually +black. The tablet thus presented the appearance of a child's +school-slate of the present day. Such tablets were single, double, +triple, or of several pieces or leaves. In Greek they were called +[Greek: pinax], [Greek: pinakis], [Greek: déltos], [Greek: deltion].: in +Latin _cera_, _tabula_, _tabella_, &c. Two or more put together and held +together by rings or thongs acting as hinges formed a _caudex_ or +_codex_, literally a stock of wood, which a set of tablets might +resemble, and from which they might actually be made by cleaving the +wood. A codex of two leaves was called [Greek: dithuroi], [Greek: +diptucha], _diptycha_; of three, [Greek: triptucha], _triptycha_: and so +on. The triptych appears to have been most generally used. A general +term was also _libellus_. + +Tablets served for the ordinary minor affairs of life: for memoranda, +literary and other notes and drafts, school exercises, accounts, &c. The +writing incised with the stilus could be easily obliterated by smoothing +the wax, and the _tabula rasa_ was thus rendered available for a fresh +inscription. But tablets were also employed for official purposes, when +documents had to be protected from unauthorized scrutiny or from injury. +Thus they were the receptacles for wills, conveyances, and other legal +transactions; and in such cases they were closed against inspection by +being bound round with threads which were covered by the witnesses' +seals. + +Small tablets, _codicilli_, _pugillares_, often of more valuable +material, such as ivory, served for correspondence among other purposes; +very small specimens are mentioned as _vitelliani_, for the exchange of +love-letters. + +A certain number of Greek waxen tablets have been recovered, chiefly +from Egypt, but none of them is very early. They are generally of the +3rd century, and are mostly inscribed with school exercises. The largest +and most perfect extant codex is one in the British Museum (Add. MS. +33,270), perhaps of the 3rd century, being made up of nine leaves, +measuring nearly 9 by 7 in., and inscribed with documents in shorthand. + +Of Latin tablets we are fortunate in having a fairly large number of +examples. Exclusive of a few isolated specimens, they are the result of +two important finds. Twenty-four tablets containing the records of a +burial club, A.D. 131-167, were recovered between 1786 and 1855 from +some ancient mining works in Dacia. In 1875 as many as 127 tablets, +containing deeds connected with sales by auction and payment of taxes, +A.D. 15-62, were found in the ruins of Pompeii. These specimens have +afforded the means of ascertaining the mechanical arrangement of waxen +tablets when adopted for legal instruments among the Romans. Most of +them are triptychs, severally cloven from single blocks of wood. Subject +to some variations, the triptych was usually arranged as follows. Of the +six sides or pages of the codex, pages 1 and 6 (the outside pages) were +of plain wood; pages 2, 3, 5 were waxed; and page 4, which had a groove +cut across the middle was sometimes of plain wood, sometimes waxed. The +authentic deed was inscribed with the stilus on the waxed pages 2 and 3; +and the first two leaves were then bound round with three twisted +threads which passed down the groove so as to close the deed from +inspection. On page 4 the witnesses' names were then inscribed (in ink +if the page was plain; with the stilus if waxed), and their seals were +impressed in the groove, thus securing the threads. In addition to the +protection afforded to the seals from casual injury by their position in +the groove, the third leaf acted as a cover to them. On page 5 an +abstract or duplicate of the deed, as required by law, was inscribed. +The arrangement of the Dacian tablets differed in this respect, that +page 4 was waxed, and that the duplicate copy was begun on that page in +the space on the left of the groove, that on the right being reserved +for the names of the witnesses. In the case of one of the Pompeian +tablets the threads and seals still remain. + +The survival of the use of tablets to a late time should be noted. St +Augustine refers to his tablets, and St Hilary of Arles also mentions +their employment for the purpose of correspondence; there is a record of +a letter written _in tabellâ_ as late as A.D. 1148. They were very +commonly used throughout the middle ages in all the west of Europe. +Specimens inscribed with money accounts of the 13th and 14th centuries +have survived in France, and similar documents of the 14th and 15th +centuries are to be found in several of the municipal archives of +Germany. Reference to their use in England occurs in literature, and +specimens of the 14th or 15th century are said to have been dug up in +Ireland. In Italy their employment is both recorded and proved by actual +examples of the 13th and 14th centuries. With the beginning of the 16th +century they seem to have practically come to an end, although a few +survivals of the custom of writing on wax have lingered to modern times. + + + The Codex. + +As already stated, the _codex_, or MS. in book-form, owed its existence +to the substitution of vellum for papyrus as the common writing material +for Greek and Roman literature. The fact that vellum was a tough +material capable of being inscribed on both sides, that writing, +particularly if freshly written, could be easily washed off or erased +from it, and that the material could thus be made available for second +use, no doubt contributed largely to its ready adoption. In Rome in the +1st century B.C. it was used, like the waxen tablets for notes, drafts, +memoranda, &c.; and vellum tablets began to take the place of the +_cerae_. References are not wanting in the classical writers to its +employment for such temporary purposes. To what extent it was at first +pressed into the service of literature and used in the preparation of +books for the market must remain uncertain. But in the first three +centuries of our era it may be assumed that vellum codices were not +numerous. The papyrus roll still held its position as the _liber_ or +book of literature. Yet we learn from the poems of Martial that in his +day the works of some of the best classical authors were to be had on +vellum. From the way in which, in his _Apophoreta_, he has contrasted as +exchangeable gifts certain works written respectively on papyrus and on +vellum, it has been argued that vellum at that time was a cheap +material, inferior to papyrus, and only used for roughly written copies. +Up to a certain point this may be true, but the fact that the earliest +great vellum Greek codices of the Bible and of Latin classical authors, +dating back to the 4th century, are composed of very finely prepared +material would indicate a perfection of manufacture of long standing. + +But, apart from the references of writers, we have the results of recent +excavations in Egypt to enable us to form a more correct judgment on the +early history of the vellum codex. There have been found a certain +number of inscribed leaves and fragments of vellum of early date which +without doubt originally formed part of codices or MSS. in book-form. It +is true that they are not numerous, but from the character of the +writing certain of them can be individually assigned to the 3rd, to the +2nd, and even to the 1st century. We may then take it for an established +fact that the codex form of MS. was gradually thrusting its way into use +in the first centuries of our era. + +The convenience of the codex form for easy reference was also a special +recommendation in its favour. There can be little doubt that such +compilations as public registers must at once have been drawn up in the +new form. The jurists also were quick to adopt it, and the very title +"codex" has been attached to great legal compilations, such as those of +Theodosius and Justinian. Again, the book-form was favoured by the early +Christians. The Bible, the book which before all others became the great +work of reference in their hands, could only be consulted with +convenience and despatch in the new form. A single codex could hold the +contents of a work which formerly must have been distributed through +many volumes in roll-form. The term [Greek: sômation], which was one of +the names given to a codex, was expressive of its capacity. Turning +again to discoveries in Egypt, it appears that in the early centuries +the codex-form had become so usual among the Christians in that land +that even the native material, papyrus, the recognized material for the +roll, was now also made up by them into leaved books. The greater number +of papyri of the 3rd century containing Christian writings, fragments of +the Scriptures, the "Sayings of Our Lord," and the like, are in +book-form. On the other hand, the large majority of the non-Christian +papyri of the same period keep to the old roll-form. Thus the codex +becomes at once identified with the new religion, while the papyrus roll +to the last is the chosen vehicle of pagan literature. + +In the 4th century the struggle between the roll and the codex for +supremacy in the literary field was finished, and the victory of the +codex was achieved. Henceforward the roll-form remained in use for +records and legal documents, and in certain instances for liturgies; and +for such purposes it survives to the present day. But so completely was +it superseded in literature by the codex that even when papyrus, the +material once identified with the roll-form, was used as it sometimes +was down to the 6th and 7th centuries and later, it was made up into the +leaved codex, not only in Egypt but also in western Europe. + + + Quires. + +The shape which the codex usually assumed in the early centuries of the +middle ages was the broad quarto. The quires or gatherings of which the +book was formed generally consisted, in the earliest examples, of four +sheets folded to make eight leaves ([Greek: tetrás] or [Greek: +tetrádion], _quaternio_), although occasionally quinterns, or quires of +five sheets (ten leaves), were adopted. Sexterns, or quires of six +sheets (twelve leaves), came into use at a later period. In making up +the quires, care was generally taken to lay the sheets of vellum in such +a way that hair-side faced hair-side, and flesh-side faced flesh-side; +so that, when the book was opened, the two pages before the reader had +the same appearance, either the yellow tinge of the hair-side, or the +fresh whiteness of the flesh-side. In Greek MSS. the arrangement of the +sheets was afterwards reduced to a system; the first sheet was laid with +the flesh-side downwards, so that that side began the quire; yet in so +early an example as the Codex Alexandrinus the first page of a quire is +the hair-side. In Latin MSS. also the hair-side appears generally to +have formed the first page. When paper came into general use for codices +in the 15th century, it was not an uncommon practice to give the paper +quires additional strength by an admixture of vellum, a sheet of the +latter material forming the outer leaves, and sometimes the middle +leaves also, of the quire. The quire mark, or "signature," was usually +written at the foot of the last page, but in some early instances (e.g. +the Codex Alexandrinus) it appears at the head of the first page of each +quire. The numbering of the separate leaves in a quire, in the fashion +followed by early printers, came in in the 14th century. Catch-words to +connect the quires appear first in the 11th century and are not uncommon +in the 12th century. + + + Ruling. + +No exact system was followed in ruling the guiding lines on the pages of +the codex. In the case of papyri it was enough to mark with the pencil +the vertical marginal lines to bound the text, if indeed even this was +considered needful (see above); the fibres of the papyrus were a +sufficient guide for the lines of writing. On vellum it became necessary +to rule lines to keep the writing even. These lines were at first drawn +with a blunt point, almost invariably on the hair (or outer) side of the +skin, and strongly enough to be in relief on the flesh (or inner) side. +Marginal lines were drawn to bound the text laterally; but the ruled +lines which guided the writing were not infrequently drawn right across +the sheet. Each sheet should be ruled separately; but two or more sheets +were often laid and ruled together, the lines being drawn with so much +force that the lower sheets also received the impressions. In rare +instances lines are found ruled on both sides of the leaf, as in some +parts of the Codex Alexandrinus. In this same MS. and in other early +codices the ruling was not always drawn for every line of writing, but +was occasionally spaced so that the writing ran between the ruled lines +as well as on them. The lines were evenly spaced by means of guiding +pricks made at measured intervals with a compass or rotary instrument +down the margins; in some early MSS. these pricks run down the middle of +the page. Ruling with the plummet or lead-point is found in the 11th +century and came into ordinary use in the 12th century; coloured inks, +e.g. red and violet, were used for ornamental ruling in the 15th +century. + + + Columns. + +_Mechanical Arrangement of Writing in MSS._--It has already been stated +above that in the papyrus rolls the text was written in columns. They +stood with convenient intervals between them and with fair margins at +top and bottom. The length of the lines was to some extent governed by +the nature of the text. If it was a poetical work, the metrical line was +naturally the line of the column, unless, as sometimes was the case, the +verse was written continuously as prose. For prose works a narrow column +was preferred. It is noticeable that the columns in papyri have a +tendency to lean to the right instead of being perpendicular--an +indication that it was not the practice to rule marginal lines. In +codices the columnar arrangement was also largely followed, and the +number of columns in a page was commonly two. There are instances, +however, of a larger number. The Codex Sinaiticus of the Bible has four +columns to the page; and the Codex Vaticanus, three columns. And the +tricolumnar arrangement occurs every now and then in later MSS. + + + Text without separation of Words. + +In both Greek and Latin literary MSS. of early date the writing runs on +continuously without separation of words. This practice however, may be +regarded as rather artificial, as in papyri written in non-literary +hands and in Latin deeds also, contemporary with these early literary +MSS., there is a tendency to separation. In a text thus continuously +written occasional ambiguities necessarily occurred, and then a dot or +apostrophe might be inserted between words to aid the reader. Following +the system of separation of words which appears in ancient inscriptions, +wherein the several words are marked off by single, double, or treble +dots or points, the words of the fragmentary poem on the battle of +Actium found at Herculaneum are separated by single points, probably to +facilitate reading aloud; monosyllables or short prepositions and +conjunctions, however, being left unseparated from the words immediately +following them--a system which is found in practice at a later time. But +such marks of separation are not to be confounded with similar marks of +punctuation whereby sentences are marked off and the sense of the text +is made clear. Throughout the career of the uncial codices down to the +6th century, continuity of text was maintained. In the 7th century there +is some evidence of separation of words, but without system. In early +Latin minuscule codices partial separation in an uncertain and +hesitating manner went on to the time of the Carolingian reform. In +early Irish and English MSS., however, separation is more consistently +practised. In the 9th and 10th centuries long words tend to separation, +but short words, prepositions and conjunctions, still cling to the +following word. It was not till the 11th century that the smaller words +at length stood apart, and systematic separation of words was +established. In Greek minuscule codices of the 10th century a certain +degree of separation takes place; yet a large proportion of words remain +linked together, and they are even incorrectly divided. Indeed a correct +system of distinct separation of words in Greek texts was never +thoroughly established even as late as the 15th century. + + + Paragraphs. + +But while distinction of words was disregarded in early literary texts, +distinction of important pauses in the sense was recognized from the +first. The papyrus of the _Persae_ of Timotheus of Miletus, the oldest +MS. of a Greek classic in existence, of the end of the 4th century B.C., +is written in independent paragraphs. This is a natural system, the +simplicity of which has caused it to be the system of modern times. But, +in addition, the Greek scribe also separated paragraphs by inserting a +short horizontal stroke, [Greek: parágraphos], between them at the +commencement of the lines of writing. It should be noted that this +stroke indicated the close of a passage, and therefore belonged to the +paragraph just concluded, and did not stand for an initial sign for the +new paragraph which followed. The dividing stroke was also used to mark +off the different speeches of a play. Besides the stroke, a wedge-shaped +sign or tick might be used. But to make every paragraph stand distinctly +by itself would have entailed a certain loss of space. If the concluding +line were short, there would remain a long space unfilled. Therefore, +when this occurred, it became customary to leave only a short space +blank to mark the termination of the paragraph, and then to proceed with +the new paragraph in the same line, the [Greek: parágraphos] at the same +time preventing possible ambiguity. The next step was to project the +first letter of the first full line of the new paragraph slightly into +the margin, as a still further distinction; and lastly to enlarge it. +The enlargement of the letter gave it so much prominence that the +dividing stroke could then be dispensed with, and in this form the new +paragraph was henceforward indicated in Greek MSS., it being immaterial +whether the enlarged letter was the initial or a medial letter of a +word. As early as the 5th century there is evidence that the [Greek: +parágraphos] was losing its meaning with the scribes, for in the Codex +Alexandrinus of the Bible it is not infrequently found in anomalous +positions, particularly above the initial letters of different books, as +if it were a mere ornament. + +In Latin MSS. there was no such fixed system of marking off paragraphs +as that just described. A new paragraph began with a new line, or a +brief space in a line separated the conclusion of a paragraph from the +beginning of the next one. It was only by the ultimate introduction of +large letters, as the initial letters of the several sentences and +paragraphs, and by the establishment of a system of punctuation, in the +modern sense of the word, that a complete arrangement of the text was +possible into sentences and paragraphs in accordance with its sense. + + + Punctuation. + +From the earliest times an elementary system of punctuation by points is +found in papyri. Thus the papyrus of the _Curse of Artemisia_, at +Vienna, which is at least as early as the 3rd century B.C., and in one +or two other ancient examples, a double point, resembling the modern +colon, separates sentences. But more commonly a single point, placed +high in the line of writing, is employed. This single punctuation was +reduced to a system by the Alexandrian grammarians, its invention being +ascribed to Aristophanes of Byzantium, 260 B.C. The point placed high on +a level with the top of the letters had the value of a full-stop; in the +middle of the line of writing, of a comma; and low down on the line, of +a semicolon. But these distinctions were not observed in the MSS. In the +early vellum codices both the high and the middle point are found. In +medieval MSS. other signs, coming nearer to our modern system, make +their appearance. In Latin MSS. by the 7th century the high point has +the value of the modern comma, the semicolon appears with its present +value, and a point emphasized with additional signs, such as a second +point or point and dash, marks a full-stop. In the Carolingian period +the comma appears, as well as the inverted semicolon holding a position +between our comma and semicolon. + + + Division of Words at the End of a Line. + +Another detail which required the scribe's attention in writing his text +was the division of the last word in a line, when for want of room a +portion of it had to be carried over into the next line. It was +preferable, indeed, to avoid such division, and in the papyri as well as +in the codices letters might be reduced in size and huddled together at +the end of the line with this view. In the early codices too it was a +common practice to link letters together in monogrammatic form, such as +the common verbal terminations _ur_, _unt_, and thus save space. But +when the division of a word was necessary, it was subject to certain +rules. According to the Greek practice the division was ordinarily made +after a vowel, as [Greek: etu|chon] (even monosyllables might be so +treated, as [Greek: ou|k]). But in the case of double consonants the +division fell after the first of them, as [Greek: ip|pos]: and, when the +first of two or more consonants was a liquid or nasal the division +followed it, as [Greek: ophthal|mos], [Greek: man|thanô]. When a word +was compounded with a preposition, the division usually followed the +preposition, as [Greek: pros|eipon], but not infrequently the normal +practice of dividing after a vowel prevailed, as [Greek: pro|seipon]. In +Latin the true syllabic division was followed, but occasionally the +scribes adopted the Greek system and divided after a vowel. + + + Colometry. + +A modification of the practice of writing the text continuously was +allowed in the case of certain works. Rhetorical texts, such as the +orations of Demosthenes and Cicero, and the text of the Bible, might be +broken up into short clauses or sense-lines, apparently with the view of +assisting reading aloud. Instances of MSS. so written are still extant. +This system, to which the name of "colometry" has been given, is the +arrangement by _cola_ and _commata_ referred to by St Jerome in his +preface to Isaiah. It will be found more fully explained under the +heading of STICHOMETRY; where also is described the mechanical +computation of the length of a text by measured lines, for the purpose +of calculating the pay of the scribe. + + + Titles and Colophons. + + Quotations. + +The title of a MS., both in roll-form and in codex-form, was frequently +written at the end of the text, but even at an early date it stood in +some instances at the beginning; and the latter practice in course of +time prevailed, although even in the 15th century the title was +sometimes reserved for the close of the MS. In this latter position it +might stand alone or be accompanied by other particulars concerning the +MS., such as the length of the work, the date of writing, the name of +the scribe, &c., all combined in a final paragraph called the colophon. +For distinction, title and colophon might be written in red, as might +also the first few lines of the text. This method of rubrication was a +very early practice, appearing even in ancient Egyptian papyri. Such +rubrics and titles and colophons were at first written in the same +character as the text; afterwards, when the admixture of different kinds +of writing was allowed, capitals and uncials were used at discretion. +Running titles or head-lines are found in some of the earliest Latin +MSS. in the same characters as the text, but of a small size. Quotations +were usually indicated by ticks or arrow-heads in the margin, serving +the purpose of the modern inverted commas. Sometimes the quoted words +were arranged as a sub-paragraph or indented passage. In commentaries of +later date, the quotations from the work commented upon were often +written in a different style from the text of the commentary itself. + + _Accentuation, &c._--Accentuation was not systematically applied to + Greek MSS. before the 7th century, but even in the literary papyri it + appears occasionally. In the latter instances accents were applied + specially to assist the reader, and they seem to have been used more + frequently in texts which may have presented greater difficulties than + usual. For example, they are found fairly plentifully in the papyrus + of Bacchylides of the 1st century B.C. In the less well-written papyri + they are fewer in number; and papyri written in non-literary hands are + practically devoid of them. Accents have been frequently added to the + ancient texts of Homer, as in the Harris and Bankes papyri, but + apparently long after the date of the writing. They were not used in + the early uncial MSS. Breathings also appear occasionally in the + papyri. The rough and the smooth breathings are found in the form of + the two halves of the H (|- -|) in the Bacchylides papyrus; in other + papyri they are in rectangular form, never rounded like an apostrophe; + in fact rounded breathings do not come into general use until the 12th + century. Other signs resembling accents are used occasionally in Greek + MSS. For example, a short accent or horizontal stroke was employed to + indicate a single-letter word, and an apostrophe was sometimes used to + separate words in order to prevent ambiguity and was placed after + words ending in [kappa], [chi], [xi], [rho], and after proper names + not having a Greek termination. + + Accents were seldom employed by Latin scribes. In early Irish and + English MSS., in particular, an acute accent is occasionally found + over a monosyllabic word or one consisting of a single letter. In the + 9th and 10th centuries a curious occasional practice obtained among + the correctors of the texts of expressing the aspirate by the Greek + half-eta symbol |-, instead of writing the letter _h_ in the ordinary + way--perhaps only an affectation. + + _Corrections._--For obliteration or removing pen strokes from the + surface of the material the sponge was used in ancient times. While + the writing was still fresh, the scribe could easily wash off the ink + by this means; and for a fragile material, such as papyrus, he could + well use no other. On vellum he might use sponge or knife. But after a + MS. had left his hands it would undergo revision at the hands of a + corrector, who had to deal with the text in a different manner. He + could no longer conveniently apply the sponge. On hard material he + might still use the knife to erase letters or words or sentences. But + he could also use his pen for such purposes. Thus we find that a very + early system of indicating erasure was the placing of dots or minute + strokes above the letters to be thus "expunged." The same marks were + also (and generally at later periods) placed under the letters; in + rare instances they stood inside them. It need scarcely be said that + letters were also struck out with strokes of the pen or altered into + others, and that letters and words were interlined. A long sentence, + however, which could not be admitted between the lines, was entered in + the margin, and its place in the text indicated by corresponding + reference marks, such as _hd._, _hs._ = _hic deest_, _hoc supra_ or + _hic scribas_, &c. + + _Abbreviations and Contractions._--The practice of shortening words in + writing has played an important part in the history of the ancient and + the medieval manuscript. Two reasons have disposed men to follow this + practice: firstly, the desire to avoid the labour of writing over and + over again words or portions of words of common occurrence which can + be readily understood in a shortened form as when written in full; + and, secondly, the necessity of saving space at a time when it was an + object to make the most of the writing material to hand. To meet the + former requirement, a simple and limited method alone was needed; to + satisfy the second, a more elaborate system was necessary. The most + natural method of reducing the length of a word is to suppress as much + as possible of its termination, consistently with intelligibility, + that is, by simple _abbreviation_. But if space of any appreciable + value is to be saved in a page of writing, a system is necessary for + eliminating letters from the body of the word as well as curtailing + the termination, that is, a system of _contraction_ as well as + abbreviation; and, in addition, the employment of arbitrary signs, + analogous to shorthand, will serve still further to condense the text. + An elaborate system of contraction of this nature was naturally only + fully developed after very long practice. Both in Greek and in Latin + MSS. from the 9th to the 15th century such a system was in full force. + + Different kinds of literature were, according to their nature, more or + less abbreviated and contracted. From early times such curtailment was + more freely employed in works written in technical language, such as + works on law or grammar or mathematics, wherein particular words are + more liable to repetition, than in MSS. of general literature. The + oldest system of abbreviation is that in which a single letter (nearly + always the initial letter) or at most two or three letters represent + the whole word. This system we know was in common use among both Greek + and Latin writers, and ancient inscriptions afford plentiful examples. + It is well adapted for the brief expression of the common words and + phrases in works of a technical nature (as for example such a phrase + as C D E R N E = _cujus de ea re notio est_); but for general + literature it is of little use, and practically has been restricted to + express proper names and numerals. + + + Abbreviation in Greek MSS. + + When abbreviations were employed only with the view of speed in + writing, it is obvious that they would occur more frequently in the + ephemeral documents of daily life than in carefully written literary + works intended for the book-market. Hence they are not to be found in + Greek papyri of the latter class. On the other hand in literary papyri + written in non-literary script they naturally occur just as they would + in contemporary common documents. As early as the 3rd and 2nd + centuries B.C. the ordinary method of abbreviation was to omit the + termination or latter portion of the word and to mark the omission by + a short horizontal stroke or dash; or the letter which immediately + preceded the omission was written above the line as a key to the + reading, as [Greek: te^l] for [Greek: télos]. Such a system obviously + might be extended indefinitely at the discretion of the writer. But in + addition, at quite an early period, symbols and monogrammatic forms + for particular words must have been developed, for they are found in + common use in cursive papyri. A notable instance of their employment + in a full degree occurs in the papyrus of Aristotle's _Constitution of + Athens_, of the 1st century. + + Like the well-written literary papyri, the early vellum uncial codices + of the Bible, being inscribed with calligraphic formality, avoided in + principle the use of abbreviations. But by the 4th to the 6th century, + the period when they were chiefly produced, the contraction or + abbreviation of certain words and terminations had, it seems, become + so fixed by usage that the contracted forms were adopted in the texts. + They are [Greek: ThS] = [Greek: theos], [Greek: IS] = [Greek: iêsous], + [Greek: ChS] = [Greek: christos], [Greek: PNA] = [Greek: pneuma], + [Greek: SÊR] = [Greek: sôtêr], [Greek: KS] = [Greek: kurios], [Greek: + STROS] = [Greek: stauros], [Greek: PÊR] = [Greek: pater], [Greek: MÊR] + = [Greek: mêtêr], [Greek: US] = [Greek: huios], [Greek: ANOS] = + [Greek: anthrôpos], [Greek: OUNOS] = [Greek: ouranos], [Greek: K] = + [Greek: kai], [Greek: T] = [Greek: tai], [Greek: M] = [Greek: mou], + [Greek: moi], &c. Final N, especially at the end of a line, was + dropped, and its place occupied by the horizontal stroke, as [Greek: + TO ]. + + But while this limited system was used in biblical, and also in + liturgical MSS., in profane literature a greater licence was + recognized. For example, in a fragment of a mathematical work at + Milan, of the 7th century, we find instances of abbreviation by + dropping terminations, just as in the earlier papyri, and, in + addition, contracted particles and prepositions are numerous. + Technical works, in fact, inherited the system instituted in the early + papyri written in non-literary or cursive hands; and this system, + undergoing continual development, had a larger scope when the cursive + writing was cast into a literary form and became the literary + minuscule script of the middle ages. From the 9th century onwards a + fully developed system of abbreviation and contraction was practised + in Greek MSS., comprising the early system of the papyri, the special + contractions of the early biblical MSS., and also a large number of + special symbols, derived in great measure from tachygraphical signs. + + In the early Greek minuscule MSS. contractions are not very frequent + in the texts; but in the marginal glosses, where it was an object to + save space, they are found in great numbers as early as the 10th + century. The MS. of Nonnus, of A.D. 972, in the British Museum + (Wattenb. and Von Vels., _Exempla_, 7) is an instance of a text + contracted to a degree that almost amounts to tachygraphy. In the + 12th, 13th and 14th centuries texts were fully contracted; and as the + writing became more cursive contraction-marks were more carelessly + applied, until, in the 15th century, they degenerated into mere + flourishes. + + + Abbreviations in Latin MSS. + + As far back as material is available for comparison, it appears that + abbreviations and contractions in Latin MSS. followed the same lines + as those in Greek MSS. We have no very early papyri written in Latin + as we have in Greek to show us what the practice of Roman writers was + in the 3rd and 2nd and early 1st centuries B.C.; but there can be + little doubt that in that remote time there was followed in Latin + writing a system of abbreviation similar to that in Greek, that is, by + curtailment of terminations, and that in ephemeral documents written + in cursive characters such abbreviation was allowed more freely than + in carefully written literary works. The early system of representing + words by their initial letters has already been referred to. It was in + common use, as we know, in the inscriptions on coins and monuments, + and to some extent in the texts of Roman writers. But the ambiguity + which must have always accompanied such a system of single-letter + abbreviations, or _sigla_, naturally induced an improvement by + expressing a word by two or more of its letters. Hence was developed + the more regular syllabic system of the Romans, by which the leading + letters of the several syllables were written, as EG = _ergo_, HR = + _heres_, ST = _satis_. At a later time Christian writers secured + greater exactness by expressing the final letter of a contracted word, + as _ds_ = _deus_, _do_ = _deo_, _scs_ = _sanctus_. Further, certain + marks and signs, many derived from shorthand symbols, came into use to + indicate inflections and terminations; or the terminating letter or a + leading letter to indicate the termination might be written above the + line, as Q^o = _quo_, V^m = _verum_, N^o = _noster_, S^i = _sint_. + This practice became capable of greater development later on. Among + the special signs are c = _est_, [symbol] = _vel_, _n_ = _non_, p´ = + _pre_, [symbol] = _per_, [symbol] = _pro_, [symbol] = termination + _us_. The letter _q_ with distinctive strokes applied in different + positions represented the often recurring relative and other short + words, as _quod_, _quia_. + + In Latin Biblical uncial MSS. the same restrictions on abbreviations + were exercised as in the Greek. The sacred names and titles DS = + _deus_, DMS, DNS = _dominus_, SCS = _sanctus_, SPS = _spiritus_, and + others appear in the oldest codices. The contracted terminations Q· = + _que_, B· = _bus_, and the omission of final _m_, or (more rarely) + final _n_, are common to all Latin MSS. of the earliest period. There + is a peculiarity about the contracted form of our Saviour's name that + it is always written by the Latin scribes in letters imitating the + Greek IHC, XPC, _ihc_, _xpc_, and _ihs_, _xps_. + + The full development of the medieval system of abbreviation and + contraction was effected at the time when the Carolingian schools were + compelling the reform of the handwriting of western Europe. Then came + a freer practice of abbreviation by suppression of terminations and + the latter portions of words, the omission of which was indicated by + the ordinary signs, the horizontal or oblique stroke or the + apostrophe; then came also a freer practice of contraction by omitting + letters and syllables from the middle as well as the end of words, as + oio, _omnino_, prb, _presbyter_; and then from the practice of writing + above the line a leading letter of an omitted syllable, as int^a = + _intra_, t^r = _tur_, conventional signs, with special significations, + were also gradually developed. Such growths are well illustrated in + the change undergone by the semicolon, which was attached to the end + of a word to indicate the omission of the termination, as b; = _bus_, + q; = _que_, deb; = _debet_, and which in course of time became + converted into a z, a form which survives in our ordinary + abbreviation, viz. (i.e. vi; = _videlicet_). The different forms of + contraction were common to all the nations of western Europe. The + Spanish scribes, however, attached different values to certain of + them. For example, in Visigothic MSS., _qm_, which elsewhere + represented _quoniam_, may be read as _quum_; and [symbol], which + elsewhere = _pro_, is here = _per_. Nor must the use of arbitrary + symbols for special words be forgotten. These are generally + adaptations of the shorthand signs known as Tironian notes. Such are + [symbol] = _autem_, [symbol] = _est_, [symbol] = _ejus_, [symbol] = + _enim_, [symbol] = _et_, v and u = _ut_, which were employed + particularly in early MSS. of English and Irish origin. + + By the 11th century the system of Latin contractions had been reduced + to exact rules; and from this time onwards it was universally + practised. It reached its culminating point in the 13th century, the + period of increasing demand for MSS., when it became more than ever + necessary to economize space. After this date the exact formation of + the signs of contractions was less strictly observed, and the system + deteriorated together with the decline of handwriting. In conclusion, + it may be noticed that in MSS. written in the vernacular tongues + contractions are more rarely used than in Latin texts. A system suited + to the inflexions and terminations of this language could not be + readily adapted to other languages so different in grammatical + structure. + + _Palimpsests, &c._--Palimpsest MSS., that is, MSS. written upon + material from which older writing has been previously removed by + washing or scraping, are described in a separate article (PALIMPSEST). + The ornamentation of MSS. is fully dealt with under the headings + ILLUMINATED MSS., and MINIATURES. + + _Writing Implements._--In conclusion, a few words may be added + respecting the writing implements employed in the production of MSS. + The reed, [Greek: kalamos], _calamus_, was adapted for tracing + characters either on papyrus or vellum. By the ancient Egyptians, and + also probably by the early Greek scribes in Egypt, it was used with a + soft brush-like point, rather as a paint-brush than as a pen. The + Greek and Roman scribes used the reed cut to a point and slit like the + quill-pen; and it survived as a writing implement into the middle + ages. For scratching letters on the waxen tablet the sharp pointed + bodkin, [Greek: stylos], [Greek: grapheion], _stilus_, _graphium_, was + necessary, made of iron, bronze, ivory, or other suitable material, + with a knobbed or flattened butt-end wherewith corrections could be + made by smoothening the wax surface (hence _vertere stilum_, to + correct). Although there is no very early record of the use of quills + as pens, it is obvious that, well adapted as they are for the purpose + and to be had everywhere, they must have been in request even in + ancient times as they afterwards were in the middle ages. Bronze pens, + fashioned exactly on the model of the quill-pen, that is in form of a + tube ending in a slit nib (sometimes even with a nib at each end), of + late Roman manufacture, are still in existence. A score of them are to + be found scattered among public and private museums. The ruler for + guiding ruled lines was the [Greek: kanôn], _canon_, _regula_; the + pencil was the [Greek: molubdos], _plumbum_, the plummet; the pricker + for marking the spacing out of the ruled lines was the [Greek: + diabatês], _circinus_, _punctorium_; the pen-knife, [Greek: + glyphanon], [Greek: smilê], _scalprum_; the erasing-knife, _rasorium_, + _novacula_. + + _Inks._--Inks of various colours were employed from early times. The + ink of the early papyri is a deep glossy black; in the Byzantine + period it deteriorates. In the middle ages black ink is generally of + excellent quality; it tends to deteriorate from the 14th century. But + its quality varies in different countries at different periods. Red + ink, besides being used for titles and colophons, also served for + contrast, as, for example, in glosses. In the Carolingian period + entire MSS. were occasionally written in red ink. Other coloured + inks--green, violet and yellow--are also found, at an early date. Gold + and silver writing fluids were used in the texts of the ancient purple + vellum MSS., and writing in gold was reintroduced under Charlemagne + for codices of ordinary white vellum. It was introduced into English + MSS. in the 10th century. + + AUTHORITIES.--H. Geraud, _Essai sur les livres dans l'antiquité_ + (1840); E. Egger, _Histoire du livre depuis ses origines jusqu'à nos + jours_ (1880); T. Birt, _Das antike Buchwesen_ (1882) and _Die + Buchrolle in der Kunst_ (1907); W. Wattenbach, _Das Schriftwesen im + Mittelalter_ (1896); K. Dziatzko, _Untersuchungen über ausgewählte + Kapitel des antiken Buchwesens_ (1900); J. W. Clark, _The Care of + Books_ (1901); W. Schubart, _Das Buch bei den Griechen und Römern_ + (1907); and generally the authorities quoted in the article + PALAEOGRAPHY. See also TEXTUAL CRITICISM. (E. M. T.) + + + + +MANUTIUS, the Latin name of an Italian family (Mannucci, Manuzio), +famous in the history of printing as organizers of the Aldine press. + +1. ALDUS MANUTIUS (1450-1515). Teobaldo Mannucci, better known as Aldo +Manuzio, the founder of the Aldine press, was born in 1450 at Sermoneta +in the Papal States. He received a scholar's training, studying Latin at +Rome under Gasparino da Verona, and Greek at Ferrara under Guarino da +Verona. In 1482 he went to reside at Mirandola with his old friend and +fellow-student, the illustrious Giovanni Pico. There he stayed two +years, prosecuting his studies in Greek literature. Before Pico removed +to Florence, he procured for Aldo the post of tutor to his nephews +Alberto and Lionello Pio, princes of Carpi. Alberto Pio supplied Aldo +with funds for starting his printing press, and gave him lands at Carpi. +It was Aldo's ambition to secure the literature of Greece from further +accident by committing its chief masterpieces to type. Before his time +four Italian towns had won the honours of Greek publications: Milan, +with the grammar of Lascaris, Aesop, Theocritus, a Greek Psalter, and +Isocrates, between 1476 and 1493; Venice, with the _Erotemala_ of +Chrysoloras in 1484; Vicenza, with reprints of Lascaris's grammar and +the _Erolemata_, in 1488 and 1490; Florence, with Alopa's Homer, in +1488. Of these works, only three, the Milanese Theocritus and Isocrates +and the Florentine Homer, were classics. Aldo selected Venice as the +most appropriate station for his labours. He settled there in 1490, and +soon afterwards gave to the world editions of the _Hero and Leander_ of +Musaeus, the _Galeomyomachia_, and the Greek Psalter. These have no +date; but they are the earliest tracts issued from his press, and are +called by him "Precursors of the Greek Library." + +At Venice Aldo gathered an army of Greek scholars and compositors around +him. His trade was carried on by Greeks, and Greek was the language of +his household. Instructions to type-setters and binders were given in +Greek. The prefaces to his editions were written in Greek. Greeks from +Crete collated MSS., read proofs, and gave models of calligraphy for +casts of Greek type. Not counting the craftsmen employed in merely +manual labour, Aldo entertained as many as thirty of these Greek +assistants in his family. His own industry and energy were unremitting. +In 1495 he issued the first volume of his Aristotle. Four more volumes +completed the work in 1497-1498. Nine comedies of Aristophanes appeared +in 1498. Thucydides, Sophocles and Herodotus followed in 1502; +Xenophon's _Hellenics_ and Euripides in 1503; Demosthenes in 1504. The +troubles of Italy, which pressed heavily on Venice at this epoch, +suspended Aldo's labours for a while. But in 1508 he resumed his series +with an edition of the minor Greek orators; and in 1509 appeared the +lesser works of Plutarch. Then came another stoppage. The league of +Cambray had driven Venice back to her lagoons, and all the forces of the +republic were concentrated on a struggle to the death with the allied +powers of Europe. In 1513 Aldo reappeared with Plato, which he dedicated +to Leo X. in a preface eloquently and earnestly comparing the miseries +of warfare and the woes of Italy with the sublime and tranquil objects +of the student's life. Pindar, Hesychius, and Athenaeus followed in +1514. + +These complete the list of Aldo's prime services to Greek literature. +But it may be well in this place to observe that his successors +continued his work by giving Pausanias, Strabo, Aeschylus, Galen, +Hippocrates and Longinus to the world in first editions. Omission has +been made of Aldo's reprints, in order that the attention of the reader +might be concentrated on his labours in editing Greek classics from MSS. +Other presses were at work in Italy; and, as the classics issued from +Florence, Rome or Milan, Aldo took them up, bestowing in each case fresh +industry upon the collation of codices and the correction of texts. Nor +was the Aldine press idle in regard to Latin and Italian classics. The +_Asolani_ of Bembo, the collected writings of Poliziano, the +_Hypnerotomachia Poliphili_, Dante's _Divine Comedy_, Petrarch's poems, +a collection of early Latin poets of the Christian era, the letters of +the younger Pliny, the poems of Pontanus, Sannazzaro's _Arcadia_, +Quintilian, Valerius Maximus, and the _Adagia_ of Erasmus were printed, +either in first editions, or with a beauty of type and paper never +reached before, between the years 1495 and 1514. For these Italian and +Latin editions Aldo had the elegant type struck which bears his name. It +is said to have been copied from Petrarch's handwriting, and was cast +under the direction of Francesco da Bologna, who has been identified by +Panizzi with Francia the painter. + +Aldo's enthusiasm for Greek literature was not confined to the +printing-room. Whatever the students of this century may think of his +scholarship, they must allow that only vast erudition and thorough +familiarity with the Greek language could have enabled him to accomplish +what he did. In his own days Aldo's learning won the hearty +acknowledgment of ripe scholars. To his fellow workers he was uniformly +generous, free from jealousy, and prodigal of praise. While aiming at +that excellence of typography which renders his editions the treasures +of the book-collector, he strove at the same time to make them cheap. We +may perhaps roughly estimate the current price of his pocket series of +Greek, Latin and Italian classics, begun in 1501, at 2s. per volume of +our present money. The five volumes of the Aristotle cost about £8. His +great undertaking was carried on under continual difficulties, arising +from strikes among his workmen, the piracies of rivals, and the +interruptions of war. When he died, bequeathing Greek literature as an +inalienable possession to the world, he was a poor man. In order to +promote Greek studies, Aldo founded an academy of Hellenists in 1500 +under the title of the New Academy. Its rules were written in Greek. Its +members were obliged to speak Greek. Their names were Hellenized, and +their official titles were Greek. The biographies of all the famous men +who were enrolled in this academy must be sought in the pages of Didot's +_Alde Manuce_. It is enough here to mention that they included Erasmus +and the English Linacre. + +In 1499 Aldo married Maria, daughter of Andrea Torresano of Asola. +Andrea had already bought the press established by Nicholas Jenson at +Venice. Therefore Aldo's marriage combined two important publishing +firms. Henceforth the names Aldus and Asolanus were associated on the +title pages of the Aldine publications; and after Aldo's death in 1515, +Andrea and his two sons carried on the business during the minority of +Aldo's children. The device of the dolphin and the anchor, and the motto +_festina lente_, which indicated quickness combined with firmness in the +execution of a great scheme, were never wholly abandoned by the Aldines +until the expiration of their firm in the third generation. + +2. PAULUS MANUTIUS (1512-1574). By his marriage with Maria Torresano, +Aldo had three sons, the youngest of whom, Paolo, was born in 1512. He +had the misfortune to lose his father at the age of two. After this +event his grandfather and two uncles, the three Asolani, carried on the +Aldine press, while Paolo prosecuted his early studies at Venice. +Excessive application hurt his health, which remained weak during the +rest of his life. At the age of twenty-one he had acquired a solid +reputation for scholarship and learning. In 1533 Paolo undertook the +conduct of his father's business, which had latterly been much neglected +by his uncles. In the interregnum between Aldo's death and Paolo's +succession (1514-1533) the Asolani continued to issue books, the best of +which were Latin classics. But, though their publications count a large +number of first editions, and some are works of considerable magnitude, +they were not brought out with the scholarly perfection at which Aldo +aimed. The Asolani attempted to perform the whole duties of editing, and +to reserve all its honours for themselves, dispensing with the service +of competent collaborators. The result was that some of their editions, +especially their Aeschylus of 1518, are singularly bad. Paolo determined +to restore the glories of the house, and in 1540 he separated from his +uncles. The field of Greek literature having been well-nigh exhausted, +he devoted himself principally to the Latin classics. He was a +passionate Ciceronian, and perhaps his chief contributions to +scholarship are the corrected editions of Cicero's letters and orations, +his own epistles in a Ciceronian style, and his Latin version of +Demosthenes. Throughout his life he combined the occupations of a +student and a printer, winning an even higher celebrity in the former +field than his father had done. Four treatises from his pen on Roman +antiquities deserve to be commemorated for their erudition no less than +for the elegance of their Latinity. Several Italian cities contended for +the possession of so rare a man; and he received tempting offers from +the Spanish court. Yet his life was a long struggle with pecuniary +difficulties. To prepare correct editions of the classics, and to print +them in a splendid style, has always been a costly undertaking. And, +though Paolo's publications were highly esteemed, their sale was slow. +In 1556 he received for a time external support from the Venetian +Academy, founded by Federigo Badoaro. But Badoaro failed disgracefully +in 1559, and the academy was extinct in 1562. Meanwhile Paolo had +established his brother, Antonio, a man of good parts but indifferent +conduct, in a printing office and book shop at Bologna. Antonio died in +1559, having been a source of trouble and expense to Paolo during the +last four years of his life. Other pecuniary embarrassments arose from a +contract for supplying fish to Venice, into which Paolo had somewhat +strangely entered with the government. In 1561 pope Pius IV. invited him +to Rome, offering him a yearly stipend of 500 ducats, and undertaking to +establish and maintain his press there. The profits on publications were +to be divided between Paolo Manuzio and the Apostolic camera. Paolo +accepted the invitation, and spent the larger portion of his life, under +three papacies, with varying fortunes, in the city of Rome. Ill-health, +the commercial interests he had left behind at Venice, and the coldness +shown him by pope Pius V., induced him at various times and for several +reasons to leave Rome. As was natural, his editions after his removal to +Rome were mostly Latin works of theology and Biblical or patristic +literature. + +Paolo married Caterina Odoni in 1546. She brought him three sons and one +daughter. His eldest son, the younger Aldus, succeeded him in the +management of the Venetian printing house when his father settled at +Rome in 1561. Paolo had never been a strong man, and his health was +overtaxed with studies and commercial worries. Yet he lived into his +sixty-second year, and died at Rome in 1574. + +3. ALDUS MANUTIUS, JUNIOR (1547-1597). The younger Aldo born in the year +after his father Paolo's marriage, proved what is called an infant +prodigy. When he was nine years old his name was placed upon the title +page of the famous _Eleganze della lingua Toscana e Latina_. The +_Eleganze_ was probably a book made for his instruction and in his +company by his father. In 1561, at the age of fourteen, he produced a +work upon Latin spelling, called _Orthographiae ratio_. During a visit +to his father at Rome in the next year he was able to improve this +treatise by the study of inscriptions, and in 1575 he completed his +labours in the same field by the publication of an _Epitome +orthographiae_. Whether Aldo was the sole composer of the work on +spelling, in its first edition, may be doubted; but he appropriated the +subject and made it his own. Probably his greatest service to +scholarship is this analysis of the principles of orthography in Latin. + +Aldo remained at Venice, studying literature and superintending the +Aldine press. In 1572 he married Francesca Lucrezia daughter of +Bartolommeo Giunta, and great-grandchild of the first Giunta, who +founded the famous printing house in Venice. This was an alliance which +augured well of the Giunta for the future of the Aldines, especially as +Aldo had recently found time to publish a new revised edition of +Velleius Paterculus. Two years later the death of his father at Rome +placed Aldo at the head of the firm. In concert with the Giunta, he now +edited an extensive collection of Italian letters, and in 1576 he +published his commentary upon the _Ars poetica_ of Horace. About the +same time, that is to say, about the year 1576, he was appointed +professor of literature to the Cancelleria at Venice. The Aldine press +continued through this period to issue books, but none of signal merit; +and in 1585 Aldo determined to quit his native city for Bologna, where +he occupied the chair of eloquence for a few months. In 1587 he left +Bologna for Pisa, and there, in his quality of professor, he made the +curious mistake of printing Alberti's comedy _Philodoxius_ as a work of +the classic Lepidus. Sixtus V. drew him in 1588 from Tuscany to Rome; +and at Rome he hoped to make a permanent settlement as lecturer. But his +public lessons were ill attended, and he soon fell back upon his old +vocation of publisher under the patronage of a new pope, Clement VIII. +In 1597 he died, leaving children, but none who cared or had capacity to +carry on the Aldine press. Aldo himself, though a precocious student, a +scholar of no mean ability, and a publisher of some distinction, was the +least remarkable of the three men who gave books to the public under the +old Aldine ensign. This does not of necessity mean that we should adopt +Scaliger's critique of the younger Aldo without reservation. Scaliger +called him "a poverty-stricken talent, slow in operation; his work is +very commonplace; he aped his father." What is true in this remark lies +partly in the fact that scholarship in Aldo's days had flown beyond the +Alps, where a new growth of erudition, on a basis different from that of +the Italian Renaissance, had begun. + + See Renouard's _Annales de l'imprimerie des Aldes_ (Paris, 1834); + Didot's _Alde Manuce_ (Paris, 1873); Omont's _Catalogue_ of Aldine + publications (Paris, 1892). (J. A. S.) + + + + +MANWARING, ROBERT, English 18th-century furniture designer and cabinet +maker. The dates of his birth and death are unknown. He was a +contemporary and imitator of Chippendale, and not the least considerable +of his rivals. He prided himself upon work which he described as +"genteel," and his speciality was chairs. He manifests the same +surprising variations of quality that are noticed in the work of nearly +all the English cabinet-makers of the second half of the 18th century, +and while his best had an undeniable elegance his worst was exceedingly +bad--squat, ill-proportioned and confused. Some of his chairbacks are so +nearly identical with Chippendale's that it is difficult to suppose that +the one did not copy from the other, and most of the designs of the +greater man enjoyed priority of date. During a portion of his career +Manwaring was a devotee of the Chinese taste; he likewise practised in +the Gothic manner. He appears to have introduced the small bracket +between the front rail of the seat and the top of the chair leg, or at +all events to have made such constant use of it that it has come to be +regarded as characteristic of his work. Manwaring described certain of +his own work as "elegant and superb," and as possessing "grandeur and +magnificence." He did not confine himself to furniture but produced many +designs for rustic gates and railings, often very extravagant. One of +his most absurd rural chairs has rock-work with a waterfall in the back. + + Among Manwaring's writings were _The Cabinet and Chair Makers' Real + Friend and Companion, or the Whole System of Chairmaking Made Plain + and Easy_ (1765); _The Carpenters' Compleat Guide to Gothic Railing_ + (1765); and _The Chair-makers' Guide_ (1766). + + + + +MANYCH, a river and depression in S. Russia, stretching between the +lower river Don and the Caspian Sea, through the Don Cossacks territory +and between the government of Astrakhan on the N. and that of Stavropol +on the S. During the greater part of the year it is either dry or +occupied in part by a string of saline lakes (_limans_ or _ilmens_); but +in spring when the streams swell which empty into it, the water flows in +two opposite directions from the highest point (near Shara-Khulusun). +The western stream flows westwards, with an inclination northwards, +until it reaches the Don, though when the latter river is running high, +its water penetrates some 60 miles up the Manych. The eastern stream +dies away in the sandy steppe about 25 miles from the Caspian, though it +is said sometimes to reach the Kuma through the Huiduk, a tributary of +the Kuma. Total length of the depression, 330 m. For its significance as +a former (geologic) connexion between the Sea of Azov and the Caspian +Sea, see CASPIAN SEA. By some authorities the Manych depression is taken +as part of the boundary between Europe and Asia. + + + + +MANYEMA (_Una-Ma-Nyema_, eaters of flesh), a powerful and warlike +Bantu-Negroid people in the south-east of the Congo basin. Physically +they are of a light colour, with well formed noses and not over-full +lips, the women being described as singularly pretty and graceful. +Manyemaland was for the greater part of the 19th century an Eldorado of +the Arab slave raiders. + + + + +MANZANARES, a town of Spain, in the province of Ciudad Real, on the +river Azuer, a large sub-tributary of the Záncara, and on the railways +from Madrid to Ciudad Real and Lináres. Pop. (1900), 11,229. Manzanares +is one of the chief towns of La Mancha, and thus in the centre of the +district described by Cervantes in _Don Quixote_. Its citadel was +founded as a Christian fortress after the defeat of the Moors at Las +Navas de Tolosa (1212). Bull-fights were formerly held in the main +_plaza_, where galleries to accommodate spectators were built between +the buttresses of an ancient parish church. Manzanares has manufactures +of soap, bricks and pottery, and an active trade in wheat, wine, +spirits, aniseed and saffron. + + + + +MANZANILLO, a town and port on the Pacific coast of Mexico, in the state +of Colima, 52 m. by rail W.S.W. of the city of that name. It is situated +on a large harbour partly formed and sheltered by a long island +extending southwards parallel with the coast. Southward also, and in the +vicinity of the town, is the large stagnant, shallow lagoon of Cayutlán +which renders the town unhealthy. Manzanillo is a commercial town of +comparatively recent creation. Its new harbour works, the construction +of which was begun in 1899, and its railway connexion with central +Mexico, promise to make it one of the chief Pacific ports of the +republic. These works include a breakwater 1300 ft. long, with a depth +of 12 to 70 ft. and a maximum breadth of 320 ft. at the base and 25 ft. +on top, and all the necessary berthing and mechanical facilities for the +handling of cargoes. A narrow-gauge railway was built between Colima and +Manzanillo toward the end of the nineteenth century, but the traffic was +only sufficient for a tri-weekly service up to 1908, when the gauge was +widened and the railway became part of the Mexican Central branch, +completed in that year from Irapuato through Guadalajara to Colima. The +exports include hides and skins, palm leaf hats, Indian corn, coffee, +palm oil, fruit, lumber and minerals. + + + + +MANZANILLO, an important commercial city of Cuba, in Santiago province, +on the gulf of Guacanabo, about 17 m. S. of the mouth of the Rio Cauto, +on the shore of Manzanillo Bay. Pop. (1907), 15,819. It is shut off to +the east and south by the Sierra Maestra. Besides the Cauto, the rivers +Yara and Buey are near the city. Manzanillo is the only coast town of +importance between Trinidad and Santiago. It exports large quantities of +sugar, hides, tobacco, and bees-wax; also some cedar and mahogany. The +history of the settlement begins in 1784, but the port was already +important at that time for a trade in woods and fruits; French and +English corsairs resorted thither for shipbuilding woods. The settlement +was sacked by the French in 1792, and in the following year a fort was +built for its protection. In 1833 it received an _ayuntamiento_ +(council) and in 1837, for its "loyalty" in not following the lead of +Santiago in proclaiming the Spanish Constitution, received from the +crown the title of _Fiel_. In 1827 the port was opened to commerce, +national and foreign. + + + + +MANZOLLI, PIER ANGELO, Italian author, was born about the end of the +fifteenth century at La Stellata, near Ferrara. He wrote a poem entitled +_Zodiacus vitae_, published at Basel in 1543, and dedicated to Hercules +II. of Ferrara. The poem is full of didactic writing on the subject of +human happiness in connexion with scientific knowledge, and combines +metaphysical speculation with satirical attacks on ecclesiastical +hypocrisy, and especially on the Pope and on Luther. It was translated +into several languages, but fell under the ban of the Inquisition on the +ground of its rationalizing tendencies. + + + + +MANZONI, ALESSANDRO FRANCESCO TOMMASO ANTONIO (1785-1873), Italian poet +and novelist, was born at Milan on the 7th of March 1785. Don Pietro, +his father, then about fifty, represented an old family settled near +Lecco, but originally feudal lords of Barzio, in the Valsassina, where +the memory of their violence is still perpetuated in a local proverb, +comparing it to that of the mountain torrent. The poet's maternal +grandfather, Cesare Beccaria, was a well-known author, and his mother +Giulia a woman of some literary ability. Manzoni's intellect was slow in +maturing, and at the various colleges where his school days were passed +he ranked among the dunces. At fifteen, however, he developed a passion +for poetry, and wrote two sonnets of considerable merit. On the death of +his father in 1805, he joined his mother at Auteuil, and spent two years +there, mixing in the literary set of the so-called "ideologues," +philosophers of the 18th century school, among whom he made many +friends, notably Claude Fauriel. There too he imbibed the negative creed +of Voltairianism, and only after his marriage, and under the influence +of his wife, did he exchange it for that fervent Catholicism which +coloured his later life. In 1806-1807, while at Auteuil, he first +appeared before the public as a poet, with two pieces, one entitled +_Urania_, in the classical style, of which he became later the most +conspicuous adversary, the other an elegy in blank verse, on the death +of Count Carlo Imbonati, from whom, through his mother, he inherited +considerable property, including the villa of Brusuglio, thenceforward +his principal residence. + +Manzoni's marriage in 1808 to Henriette Blondel, daughter of a Genevese +banker, proved a most happy one, and he led for many years a retired +domestic life, divided between literature and the picturesque husbandry +of Lombardy. His intellectual energy at this period was devoted to the +composition of the _Inni sacri_, a series of sacred lyrics, and a +treatise on Catholic morality, forming a task undertaken under religious +guidance, in reparation for his early lapse from faith. In 1818 he had +to sell his paternal inheritance, as his affairs had gone to ruin in the +hands of a dishonest agent. His characteristic generosity was shown on +this occasion in his dealings with his peasants, who were heavily +indebted to him. He not only cancelled on the spot the record of all +sums owing to him, but bade them keep for themselves the whole of the +coming maize harvest. + +In 1819 Manzoni published his first tragedy, _Il Conte di Carmagnola_, +which, boldly violating all classical conventionalisms, excited a lively +controversy. It was severely criticized in the _Quarterly Review_, in an +article to which Goethe replied in its defence, "one genius," as Count +de Gubernatis remarks, "having divined the other." The death of Napoleon +in 1821 inspired Manzoni's powerful stanzas _Il Cinque maggio_, the most +popular lyric in the Italian language. The political events of that +year, and the imprisonment of many of his friends, weighed much on +Manzoni's mind, and the historical studies in which he sought +distraction during his subsequent retirement at Brusuglio suggested his +great work. Round the episode of the _Innominato_, historically +identified with Bernardino Visconti, the novel _I Promessi sposi_ began +to grow into shape, and was completed in September 1822. The work when +published, after revision by friends in 1825-1827, at the rate of a +volume a year, at once raised its author to the first rank of literary +fame. In 1822, Manzoni published his second tragedy _Adelchi_, turning +on the overthrow by Charlemagne of the Lombard domination in Italy, and +containing many veiled allusions to the existing Austrian rule. With +these works Manzoni's literary career was practically closed. But he +laboriously revised _I Promessi sposi_ in the Tuscan idiom, and in 1840 +republished it in that form, with a sort of sequel, _La Storia della +Colonna infame_, of very inferior interest. He also wrote a small +treatise on the Italian language. + +The end of the poet's long life was saddened by domestic sorrows. The +loss of his wife in 1833 was followed by that of several of his +children, and of his mother. In 1837 he married his second wife, Teresa +Borri, widow of Count Stampa, whom he also survived, while of nine +children born to him in his two marriages all but two preceded him to +the grave. The death of his eldest son, Pier Luigi, on the 28th of April +1873, was the final blow which hastened his end; he fell ill +immediately, and died of cerebral meningitis, on the 22nd of May. His +country mourned him with almost royal pomp, and his remains, after lying +in state for some days, were followed to the cemetery of Milan by a vast +cortège, including the royal princes and all the great officers of +state. But his noblest monument was Verdi's _Requiem_, specially written +to honour his memory. + + Biographical sketches of Manzoni have been published by Cesare Cantù + (1885), Angelo de Gubernatis (1879), Arturo Graf (1898). Some of his + letters have been published by Giovanni Sforza (1882). + + + + +MAORI (pronounced "Mowri"; a Polynesian word meaning "native," +"indigenous"; the word occurs in distinction from _pakeha_, "stranger," +in other parts of Polynesia in the forms _Maoi_ and _Maoli_), the name +of the race inhabiting New Zealand when first visited by Tasman in 1642. + +That they were not indigenous, but had displaced an earlier Melanesian +or Papuan race, the true aborigines, is certain. The Maoris are +Polynesians, and, in common with the majority of their kinsfolk +throughout the Pacific, they have traditions which point to Savaii, +originally Savaiki, the largest island of the Samoan group, as their +cradleland. They say they came to New Zealand from "Hawaiki," and they +appear to distinguish between a large and small, or a nearer and +farther, "Hawaiki." "The seed of our coming is from Hawaiki; the seed of +our nourishing, the seed of mankind." Their great chief, Te Kupe, first +landed, they say, on Aotearoa, as they called the north island, and, +pleased with his discovery, returned to Hawaiki to tell his +fellow-countrymen. Thereafter he returned with seven war canoes, each +holding a hundred warriors, priests, stone idols and sacred weapons, as +well as native plants and animals. Hawaiki, the name of Te Kupe's +traditional home, is identical with several other Polynesian +place-names, e.g. Hawaii, Apai in the Tonga Islands, Evava in the +Marquesas, all of which are held to be derived from Savii or Savaiki. Dr +Thomson, in his _Story of New Zealand_, quotes a Maori tradition, +published by Sir George Grey, that certain islands, among which it names +Rarotonga, Parima and Manono, are islands near Hawaiki. The Rarotongas +call themselves Maori, and state that their ancestors came from Hawaiki, +and Parima and Manono are the native names of two islands in the Samoan +group. The almost identical languages of the Rarotongas and the Maoris +strengthen the theory that the two peoples are descended from +Polynesians migrating, possibly at widely different dates, from Samoa. +The distance from Rarotonga to New Zealand is about 2000 m., and, with +the aid of the trade wind, large canoes could traverse the distance +within a month. Moreover the fauna and flora of New Zealand in many ways +resemble those of Samoa. Thus it would seem certain that the Maoris, +starting from "further Hawaiki," or Samoa, first touched at Rarotonga, +"nearer Hawaiki," whence, after forming a settlement, they journeyed on +to New Zealand. Maori tradition is explicit as to the cause of the +exodus from Samoa, gives the names of the canoes in which the journey +was made and the time of year at which the coast of New Zealand was +sighted. On the question of the date a comparison of genealogies of +Maori chiefs shows that, up to the beginning of the 20th century, about +eighteen generations or probably not much more than five centuries had +passed since the first Maori arrivals. There is some evidence that the +"tradition of the six canoes" does not represent the first contact of +the Polynesian race with New Zealand. If earlier immigrants from Samoa +or other eastern Pacific islands arrived they must have become absorbed +into the native Papuan population--arguing from the absence of any +distinct tradition earlier than that "of the six canoes." Some have +sought to find in the Morioris of Chatham Island the remnants of this +Papuan-Polynesian population, expelled by Te Kupe and his followers. The +extraordinary ruined fortifications found, and the knowledge of the +higher art of war displayed by the Maoris, suggest (what is no doubt the +fact) that there was a hard fight for them when they first arrived, but +the greatest resistance must have been from the purer Papuan +inhabitants, and not from the half-castes who were probably easily +overwhelmed. The shell heaps found on the coasts and elsewhere dispose +of the theory that New Zealand was uninhabited or practically so six +centuries back. + +Any description of the Maoris, who in recent years have come more and +more under the influence of white civilization, must necessarily refer +rather to what they have been than what they are. Physically the Maoris +are true Polynesians, tall, well-built, with straight or slightly curved +noses, high foreheads and oval faces. Their colour is usually a darker +brown than that of their kinsfolk of the eastern Pacific, but +light-complexioned Maoris, almost European in features, are met with. +Their hair is black and straight or wavy, scarcely ever curly. They have +long been celebrated for their tattooing, the designs being most +elaborate. + +Among the most industrious of Polynesian races, they have always been +famed for wood-carving; and in building, weaving and dyeing they had +made great advances before the whites arrived. They are also good +farmers and bold seamen. In the Maori wars they showed much strategic +skill, and their knowledge of fortification was very remarkable. +Politically the Maoris have always been democratic. No approach to a +monarchy ever existed. Each tribe under its chief was autonomous. Tribal +lands were held in common and each man was entitled to a share in the +products. They had slaves, but so few as not to alter the social +conditions. Every Maori was a soldier, and war was the chief business +and joy of his life. Tribal wars were incessant. The weapons were wooden +spears, clubs and stone tomahawks. Cannibalism, which earned them in +earlier years a terrible name, was generally restricted to the +bloodthirsty banquets which always followed a victory. The Maoris ate +their enemies' hearts to gain their courage, but to whatever degree +animistic beliefs may have once contributed to their cannibalism, it is +certain that long before Captain Cook's visit religious sanction for the +custom had long given place to mere gluttonous enjoyment. + +The Maoris had no regular marriage ceremony. Polygamy was universal, and +even to-day they are not strictly monogamous. The power of the husband +over the wife was absolute, but women took their meals with the men, +were allowed a voice in the tribe's affairs, and sometimes accompanied +the men into battle. Some tribes were endogamic, and there matriarchy +was the rule, descent being traced through the female line. Ferocious as +they were in war, the Maoris are generally hospitable and affectionate +in their home-life, and a pleasant characteristic, noticed by Captain +Cook, is their respect and care of the old. The Maoris buried their +dead, the cemeteries being ornamented with carved posts. Their religion +was a nature-worship intimately connected with the veneration of +ancestors. There was a belief in the soul, which was supposed to dwell +in the left eye. They had no doubt as to a future state, but no definite +idea of a supreme being. They had no places of worship, nor, though they +had sacred wooden figures, is there any reason to consider that they +were idolaters in the strict sense of the word. The custom of taboo was +very fully developed. Nowadays they are all nominally Christians. While +they had no written language, a considerable oral literature of songs, +legends and traditions existed. Their priesthood was a highly trained +profession, and they had schools which taught a knowledge of the stars +and constellations, for many of which they had names. All Maoris are +natural orators and poets, and a chief was expected to add these +accomplishments to his prowess as a warrior or his skill as a seaman. +The Maoris of to-day are law-abiding, peaceable and indolent. They have +been called the Britons of the south, and their courage in defending +their country and their intelligence amply justify the compliment. By +the New Zealanders they are cordially liked. At the census of 1906 they +numbered 47,731, as against 45,470 in 1874; and there were 6516 +half-castes. See also POLYNESIA and SAMOA. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Sir G. Grey, _Polynesian Mythology and Maori Legends_ + (Wellington, 1885); A. de Quatrefages, _Les Polynésiens et leurs + migrations_ (Paris, 1866); Abraham Fornander, _An Account of the + Polynesian Race_ (1877-1885); Henri Mager, _Le Monde polynésien_ + (Paris, 1902); Pierre Adolphe Lesson, _Les Polynésiens, leur origine, + &c._ (Paris, 1880-1884); W. Pember Reeves, _New Zealand_; A. R. + Wallace, _Australasia_ (Stanford's Compendium, 1894); G. W. Rusden, + _History of New Zealand_ (1895); Alfred Saunders, _History of New + Zealand_ (1896); James Cowan, _The Maoris of New Zealand_ (1909). + + + + +MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9), medieval ecclesiastic, author and +wit, to whose authority the main body of prose Arthurian literature has, +at one time or another, been assigned, flourished in the latter part of +the 12th and early years of the 13th centuries. Concerning the date of +his birth and his parentage nothing definite is known, but as he +ascribes his position at court to the merits of his parents they were +probably people of some importance. He studied at Paris under Girard la +Pucelle, who began to teach in or about 1160, but as he states in his +book _De nugis curialium_ that he was at the court of Henry II. before +1162, his residence at Paris must have been practically comprised in the +decade 1150-1160. + +Map's career was an active and varied one; he was clerk of the royal +household and justice itinerant; in 1179 he was present at the Lateran +council at Rome, on his way thither being entertained by the count of +Champagne; at this time he apparently held a plurality of ecclesiastical +benefices, being a prebend of St Paul's, canon and precentor of Lincoln +and parson of Westbury, Gloucestershire. There seems to be no record of +his ordination, but as he was a candidate for the see of Hereford in +1199 it is most probable that he was in priest's orders. The last +reference to him, as living, is in 1208, when an order for payment to +him is on record, but Giraldus Cambrensis, in the second edition of his +_Hibernica_, redacted in 1210, utters a prayer for his soul, "cujus +animae propitietur Deus," a proof that he was no longer alive. + +The special interest of Map lies in the perplexing question of his +relation to the Arthurian legend and literature. He is invariably cited +as the author of the _Lancelot_ proper (consisting of two parts), the +_Queste_ and the _Mort Artus_, all three of which are now generally +found in one manuscript under the title of _Lancelot_. The _Mort Artus_, +however, we know to be the prose working over of an earlier and +independent poem. Sundry manuscripts of the yet more extensive +compilation which begins with the _Grand Saint Graal_ also refer to Map +as having composed the cycle in conjunction with Robert de Borron, to +whom, as a rule, the _Grand Saint Graal_ and _Merlin_ are exclusively +assigned. The curious _Merlin_ text, Bibl. Nat. 337 (fonds Français), +refers throughout to Map as authority; and the enormous _Lancelot_ +codex, B. N. 112, a combination of the _Lancelot_ and the _Tristan_, +also couples his name with that of Robert de Borron. In fact it may +safely be said that, with the exception of the prose _Tristan_, always +attributed either to Luces de Gast, or Hélie de Borron, the authority of +Map has been invoked for the entire vast mass of Arthurian prose +romantic literature. Now it is practically impossible that one man, and +that one an occupier of court and public offices, constantly employed in +royal and public business, very frequently travelling abroad (e.g. we +know he was at Limoges in 1173; at Rome in 1179; in Anjou in 1183; and +at Angers in 1199), could have found the necessary leisure. On this +point we have the testimony of his one undoubted work, _De nugis +curialium_, which he tells us he composed "by snatches" during his +residence at court. _De nugis_ is a comparatively small book; if it were +difficult to find leisure for that, much more would it have been +difficult to find the time requisite for the composition of one only of +the many long-winded romances which have been fathered on Map. Giraldus +Cambrensis, with whom he was on most friendly terms, and who frequently +refers to and quotes him, records a speech in which Map contrasted +Giraldus' labours with his own, apparently to the disadvantage of the +latter, "vos scripta dedistis, et nos verba"--a phrase which has been +interpreted as meaning that Map himself had produced no literary work. +But inasmuch as the _De nugis_ is undoubtedly, and certain satirical +poems directed against the loose life of the clergy of the day most +probably, his work, the speech must not be taken too literally. It seems +difficult also to believe that Map's name should be so constantly +connected with our Arthurian tradition without any ground whatever; +though it must be admitted that he himself never makes any such +claim--the references in the romances are all couched in the third +person, and bear no sign of being other than the record by the copyist +of a traditional attribution. + +A different and very interesting piece of evidence is afforded by the +_Ipomedon_ of Hue de Rotelande; in relating how his hero appeared at a +tournament three days running, in three different suits of armour, red, +black and white, the author remarks, + + _Sul ne sai pas de mentir l'art_ + _Walter Map reset ben sa part._ + +This apparently indicated that Map, also, had made himself responsible +for a similar story. Now this incident of the "Three Days' Tournament" +is found alike in the prose _Lancelot_ and in the German _Lanzelet_, +this latter translated from a French poem which, in 1194, was in the +possession of Hugo de Morville. The _Ipomedon_ was written somewhere in +the decade 1180-1190, and there is no evidence of the prose romance +having then been in existence. We have no manuscript of any prose +Arthurian romance earlier than the 13th century, to which period Gaston +Paris assigned them; they are certainly posterior to the verse romances. +Chrétien de Troyes, in his _Cligés_ (the date of which falls somewhere +in the decade 1160-1170), knew and utilized the story of the "Three +Days' Tournament," and moreover makes Lancelot take part in it. Map was, +as we have seen, frequently in France; Chrétien had for patroness Marie, +countess of Champagne, step-daughter to Henry II., Map's patron; Map's +position was distinctly superior to that of Chrétien. Taking all the +evidence into consideration it seems more probable that Map had, at a +comparatively early date, before he became so important an official, +composed a poem on the subject of Lancelot, which was the direct source +of the German version, and which Chrétien also knew and followed. + + The form in which certain of the references to him are couched favours + the above view; the compiler of _Guiron le Cortois_ says in his + prologue that "_maistre Gautier Map qui fu clers au roi Henry--devisa + cil l'estoire de monseigneur Lancelot du Lac, que d'autre chose ne + parla il mie gramment en son livre_"; and in another place he refers + to Map, "_qui fit lou propre livre de monsoingnour Lancelot dou Lac_." + Now only during the early part of his career could Map fairly be + referred to as simple "_clers au roi Henry_," and both extracts + emphasize the fact that his work dealt, almost exclusively, with + Lancelot. Neither of these passages would fit the prose romance, as we + know it, but both might well suit the lost French source of the + _Lanzelet_; where we are in a position to compare the German versions + of French romances with their originals we find, as a rule, that the + translators have followed their source faithfully. + + One of the references to Map's works in the _Merlin_ manuscript above + referred to (B.N. 337) has an interesting touch not found elsewhere. + After saying how Map translated the romance from the Latin at the + bidding of King Henry, the usual statement, the scribe adds "_qui + riche loier l'en dona_." It is of course possible that Map's rise at + court may have been due to his having hit the literary taste of the + monarch, who, we know, was interested in the Arthurian tradition, but + it must be admitted that direct evidence on the subject is practically + nil, and that in the present condition of our knowledge we can only + advance possible hypotheses. + + See art. "Map" in _Dict. Nat. Biog. De nugis curialium_ and the + _Latin Poems attributed to Map_ have been edited for the Camden + Society by T. Wright (1841). For discussion of his authorship of the + _Lancelot_ cf. _The Three Days' Tournament_, Grimm Library XV. See + also under LANCELOT. The passages relating to Map cited above have + been frequently quoted by scholars, e.g. Hucher, _Le Grand Saint + Graal_; Paulin Paris, _Romans de la Table Ronde_; Alfred Nutt, + _Studies in the Legend of the Holy Grail_. (J. L. W.) + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 17, Slice 5, by Various + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42736 *** |