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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Treatise on Wood Engraving, by 
+John Jackson and William Andrew Chatto and Henry G. Bohn
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Treatise on Wood Engraving
+       Historical and Practical
+
+Author: John Jackson
+        William Andrew Chatto
+        Henry G. Bohn
+
+Release Date: May 16, 2013 [EBook #42719]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A TREATISE ON WOOD ENGRAVING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Louise Hope, Charlene Taylor,
+Google Books and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian
+Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<div class = "mynote">
+<p><a name = "start" id = "start">This text</a> uses UTF-8 (Unicode)
+file encoding. If the apostrophes and quotation marks in this paragraph
+appear as garbage, you may have an incompatible browser or unavailable
+fonts. First, make sure that your browser’s “character set” or “file
+encoding” is set to Unicode (UTF-8). You may also need to change the
+default font.</p>
+
+<p>Footnotes have been numbered continuously within each chapter. Text
+printed in blackletter (“gothic”) type is shown in the e-text as
+<b>sans-serif</b>.</p>
+
+<p>There is no table of contents, but the List of Illustrations gives
+the
+same information. The nine chapters of the printed book are distributed
+among separate files: Chapters I-III, Chapters IV-V, and then a separate
+file for each of Chapters VI-IX. Note that pages 561*-600* (most of
+Chapter VIII) come <i>before</i> pages 561-600 (Chapter IX).</p>
+
+<p>In the printed book, lines were about this long:</p>
+
+<p class = "inset"><span class = "citation">
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Among the more remarkable single subjects engraved on wood
+from<br>
+Durer’s designs, the following are most frequently referred to: God
+the<br>
+Father bearing up into heaven the dead body of Christ, with the
+date</span></p>
+
+<p>If you are reading this text in a browser, you may like to adjust
+your window accordingly.</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "#notice">Notice to the Second Edition</a> (by Henry Bohn)<br>
+<a href = "#pref_chatto">Mr. Jackson’s Preface</a><br>
+<a href = "#pref_jackson">Mr. Chatto’s Preface</a></p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "#illus">List of Illustrations</a></p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html">Chapter I</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_II">Chapter II</a> (separate
+file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_III">Chapter III</a> (separate
+file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html">Chapter IV</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#chap_V">Chapter V</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html">Chapter VI</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html">Chapter VII</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html">Chapter VIII</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html">Chapter IX</a> (separate file)</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "#index">Index</a></p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "#errata">Errors and Inconsistencies</a></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<img src = "images/frontis.jpg" width = "342" height = "589"
+alt = "see caption">
+
+<p class = "leftname">William Blake.</p>
+<p class = "rightname">W. J. Linton.</p>
+<p class = "caption">DEATH’S DOOR.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pagei" id = "pagei">
+i</a></span>
+
+<div class = "titlepage">
+
+<h1><span class = "subhead">A TREATISE</span><br>
+<span class = "micro">ON</span><br>
+WOOD ENGRAVING</h1>
+
+<p class = "blackletter">Historical and Practical</p>
+
+<p class = "tiny">WITH UPWARDS OF THREE HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS<br>
+ENGRAVED ON WOOD</p>
+
+<p class = "larger">BY JOHN JACKSON.</p>
+
+<p>THE HISTORICAL PORTION BY W. A. CHATTO.</p>
+
+<p class = "divider">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class = "blackletter">Second Edition</p>
+
+<p class = "tiny">WITH A NEW CHAPTER ON THE ARTISTS OF THE PRESENT
+DAY</p>
+
+<p>BY HENRY G. BOHN</p>
+
+<p class = "tiny">AND 145 ADDITIONAL WOOD ENGRAVINGS.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr class = "small">
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>LONDON<br>
+<span class = "small">HENRY G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT
+GARDEN.</span><br>
+<span class = "tiny">M.DCCC.LXI.</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class = "titlepage">
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pageii" id = "pageii">
+ii</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/front_verso.png" width = "153" height = "117"
+alt = "Richard Clay / Breads Hill / Sola Lux Mihi Laus / London" title =
+"Richard Clay / Breads Hill / Sola Lux Mihi Laus / London"></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class = "intro">
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pageiii" id = "pageiii">
+iii</a></span>
+
+<h4><a name = "notice" id = "notice">NOTICE TO THE SECOND
+EDITION.</a></h4>
+
+<p class = "divider">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class = "first"><span class = "firstword">The</span> former edition
+of this History of Wood Engraving having become extremely scarce and
+commercially valuable, the publisher was glad to obtain the copyright
+and wood-blocks from Mr. Mason Jackson, son of the late Mr. Jackson,
+original proprietor of the work, with the view of reprinting it.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen by the two distinct prefaces which accompanied the
+former edition, and are here reprinted, that there was some existing
+schism between the joint producers at the time of first publication. Mr.
+Jackson, the engraver, paymaster, and proprietor, conceived that he had
+a right to do what he liked with his own; while Mr. Chatto, his literary
+coadjutor, very naturally felt that he was entitled to some recognition
+on the title-page of what he had so successfully performed. On the book
+making its appearance without Mr. Chatto’s name on the title-page, and
+with certain suppressions in his preface to which he had not given
+consent, a&nbsp;virulent controversy ensued, which was embodied in a
+pamphlet termed “a&nbsp;third preface,” and afterwards carried on in the
+<i>Athenæum</i> of August and September, 1839. As this preface has
+nothing in it but the outpourings of a quarrel which can now interest no
+one, I&nbsp;do not republish any part of it; and looking back on the
+controversy after the lapse of twenty years, I&nbsp;cannot help feeling
+that Mr. Chatto had reasonable ground for complaining that his name was
+omitted, although I think Mr. Jackson had full right to determine what
+the book should be called, seeing that it was his own exclusive
+speculation. It is not for me to change a title now so firmly
+established, but I will do Mr. Chatto the civility to introduce his name
+on it, without concerning myself with the question of what he did or did
+not do, or what Mr. Jackson contributed beyond his practical remarks and
+anxious superintendence.</p>
+
+<p>Although I have the pleasure of a personal acquaintance with Mr.
+Chatto, and communicated to him my intention of republishing
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pageiv" id = "pageiv">
+iv</a></span>
+the work, I&nbsp;declined letting him see it through the press;
+resolving to stand wholly responsible for any alterations or
+improvements I might choose to make. On the other hand, I&nbsp;have been
+quite as chary of letting even the shade of Mr. Jackson raise a new
+commotion&mdash;I say the shade, because, having his own copy full of
+manuscript remarks, it was at my option to use them; but I have adopted
+nothing from this source save a few palpable amendments. What additions
+have been made are entirely my own, and have arisen from a desire to
+increase the number of illustrations where I thought them previously
+deficient and had the means of supplying them. With the insertion of
+these additional illustrations, which it appears amount to seventy-five,
+it became necessary to describe them, and this has occasioned the
+introduction of perhaps a hundred or two lines, which are distributed in
+the form of notes or paragraphs throughout the volume. For the chief of
+these additions the critical examiner is referred to the following
+pages: 321, 322, 340, 352, 374, 428, 468, 477, 480, 493, 530, 531, 532,
+539, 540, 541, 542, 543, 545, 546, 547, 548, 617, 639. The chapter on
+the artists of the present day is entirely new, and was not
+contemplated, as may be gathered from the remarks at pages 549 and 597,
+until the book was on the eve of publication. It contains upwards of
+seventy high class wood engravings, and gives a fair specimen of the
+talents of some of our most distinguished artists. Getting that
+supplementary matter together and into shape, was not so light and
+sudden a task as I meant it to be; but now it is done I feel that it was
+right to do it, and I can only hope that my unpretending labours will be
+deemed a step in the right direction. Should I retain my health,
+strength, and means, I&nbsp;purpose, at no very distant period, to
+follow up the present volume with one perhaps as large, giving a more
+complete series of Examples of the artists of the day, as well those of
+France and Germany as of England.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, I think it due to Mr. Clay to acknowledge the
+attention and skill which he has exercised in “bringing up” the numerous
+and somewhat difficult cuts to the agreeable face they now present.
+A&nbsp;good engraving without good printing is like a diamond without
+its polish.</p>
+
+<p class = "right">HENRY G. BOHN.</p>
+
+<p class = "dateline">January 4th, 1861.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pagev" id = "pagev">
+v</a></span>
+
+<h4><a name = "pref_jackson" id = "pref_jackson">MR. JACKSON’S
+PREFACE.</a></h4>
+
+<p class = "divider">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class = "first"><span class = "firstword">I feel</span> it my duty to
+submit to the public a few remarks, introductory to the Preface, which
+bears the signature of Mr. Chatto.</p>
+
+<p>As my attention has been more readily directed to matters connected
+with my own profession than any other, it is not surprising that I
+should find almost a total absence of practical knowledge in all English
+authors who have written the early history of wood engraving. From the
+first occasion on which my attention was directed to the subject, to the
+present time, I&nbsp;have had frequent occasion to regret, that the
+early history and practice of the art were not to be found in any book
+in the English language. In the most expensive works of this description
+the process itself is not even correctly described, so that the
+reader&mdash;supposing him to be unacquainted with the subject&mdash;is
+obliged to follow the author in comparative darkness. It has not been
+without reason I have come to the conclusion, that, if the
+<i>practice</i>, as well as the <i>history</i> of wood engraving, were
+<i>better understood</i>, we should not have so many speculative
+opinions put forth by almost all writers on the subject, taking on trust
+what has been previously written, without giving themselves the trouble
+to examine and form an opinion of their own. Both with a view to amuse
+and improve myself as a wood engraver, I&nbsp;had long been in the habit
+of studying such productions of the old masters as came within my reach,
+and could not help noting the simple mistakes that many authors made in
+consequence of their knowing nothing of the practice. The farther I
+prosecuted the inquiry, the more interesting it became; every additional
+piece of information strengthening my first opinion, that, “if the
+<i>practice</i>, as well as the <i>history</i> of wood engraving, were
+<i>better understood</i>,” we should not have so many erroneous
+statements respecting both the history and capabilities of the art. At
+length, I&nbsp;determined upon engraving at my leisure hours a
+fac-simile of anything I thought worth preserving. For some time I
+continued to pursue this course, reading such English authors as have
+written on the origin and early history of wood engraving, and making
+memoranda, without proposing to myself any particular plan. It was not
+until I had proceeded thus far that I stopped to consider whether the
+information I had gleaned could not be applied to some specific purpose.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pagevi" id = "pagevi">
+vi</a></span>
+My plan, at this time, was to give a short introductory history to
+precede the practice of the art, which I proposed should form the
+principal feature in the Work. At this period, I&nbsp;was fortunate in
+procuring the able assistance of Mr. W.&nbsp;A. Chatto, with whom I have
+examined every work that called for the exercise of practical knowledge.
+This naturally anticipated much that had been reserved for the practice,
+and has, in some degree, extended the historical portion beyond what I
+had originally contemplated; although, I&nbsp;trust, the reader will
+have no occasion to regret such a deviation from the original plan, or
+that it has not been <i>written</i> by myself. The number and variety of
+the subjects it has been found necessary to introduce, rendered it a
+task of some difficulty to preserve the characteristics of each
+individual master, varying as they do in the style of execution. It only
+remains for me to add, that, although I had the hardihood to venture
+upon such an undertaking, it was not without a hope that the history of
+the art, with an account of the practice, illustrated with numerous wood
+engravings, would be looked upon with indulgence from one who only
+professed to give a fac-simile of whatever appeared worthy of notice,
+with opinions founded on a practical knowledge of the art.</p>
+
+<p class = "right">JOHN JACKSON.</p>
+
+<p class = "dateline"><span class = "smallcaps">London</span>,
+<i>December 15th, 1838</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class = "mid">
+
+<h4><a name = "pref_chatto" id = "pref_chatto">MR. CHATTO’S
+PREFACE.</a></h4>
+
+
+<p class = "first"><span class = "firstword">Though</span> several
+English authors have, in modern times, written on the origin and early
+history of wood engraving, yet no one has hitherto given, in a distinct
+work, a&nbsp;connected account of its progress from the earliest period
+to the present time; and no one, however confidently he may have
+expressed his opinion on the subject, appears to have thought it
+necessary to make himself acquainted with the practice of the art. The
+antiquity and early history of wood engraving appear to have been
+considered as themes which allowed of great scope for speculation, and
+required no practical knowledge of the art. It is from this cause that
+we find so many erroneous statements in almost every modern dissertation
+on wood engraving. Had the writers ever thought of appealing to a person
+practically acquainted with the art, whose early productions they
+professed to give some account of, their conjectures might, in many
+instances, have been spared; and had they,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pagevii" id = "pagevii">
+vii</a></span>
+in matters requiring research, taken the pains to examine and judge for
+themselves, instead of adopting the opinions of others, they would have
+discovered that a considerable portion of what they thus took on trust,
+was not in accordance with facts.</p>
+
+<p>As the antiquity and early history of wood engraving form a
+considerable portion of two expensive works which profess to give some
+account of the art, it has been thought that such a work as the present,
+combining the history with the practice of the art, and with numerous
+cuts illustrative of its progress, decline, and revival, might not be
+unfavourably received.</p>
+
+<p>In the first chapter an attempt is made to trace the principle of
+wood engraving from the earliest authentic period; and to prove, by a
+continuous series of facts, that the art, when first applied to the
+impression of pictorial subjects on paper, about the beginning of the
+fifteenth century, was not so much an original invention, as the
+extension of a principle which had long been known and practically
+applied.</p>
+
+<p>The second chapter contains an account of the progress of the art as
+exemplified in the earliest known single cuts, and in the block-books
+which preceded the invention of typography. In this chapter there is
+also an account of the Speculum Salvationis, which has been ascribed to
+Laurence Coster by Hadrian Junius, Scriverius, Meerman, and others, and
+which has frequently been described as an early block-book executed
+previous to 1440. A&nbsp;close examination of two Latin editions of the
+book has, however, convinced me, that in the earliest the text is
+entirely printed from movable types, and that in the
+other&mdash;supposed by Meerman to be the earliest, and to afford proofs
+of the progress of Coster’s invention&mdash;those portions of the text
+which are printed from wood-blocks have been copied from the
+corresponding portions of the earlier edition with the text printed
+entirely from movable types. Fournier was the first who discovered that
+one of the Latin editions was printed partly from types, and partly from
+wood-blocks; and the credit of showing, from certain imperfections in
+the cuts, that this edition was subsequent to the other with the text
+printed entirely from types, is due to the late Mr. Ottley.</p>
+
+<p>As typography, or printing from movable types, was unquestionably
+suggested by the earliest block-books with the text engraved on wood,
+the third chapter is devoted to an examination of the claims of
+Gutemberg and Coster to the honour of this invention. In the
+investigation of the evidence which has been produced in the behalf of
+each, the writer has endeavoured to divest his mind of all bias, and to
+decide according to facts, without reference to the opinions of either
+party. He has had no theory to support; and has neither a partiality for
+Mentz, nor a dislike to Harlem. It perhaps may not be unnecessary to
+mention here, that
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pageviii" id = "pageviii">
+viii</a></span>
+the cuts of arms from the History of the Virgin, given at pages 75, 76,
+and 77, were engraved before the writer had seen Koning’s work on the
+Invention of Printing, Harlem, 1816, where they are also copied, and
+several of them assigned to Hannau, Burgundy, Brabant, Utrecht, and
+Leyden, and to certain Flemish noblemen, whose names are not mentioned.
+It is not improbable that, like the two rash Knights in the fable, we
+may have seen the shields on opposite sides;&mdash;the bearings may be
+common to states and families, both of Germany and the Netherlands.</p>
+
+<p>The fourth chapter contains an account of wood engraving in connexion
+with the press, from the establishment of typography to the latter end
+of the fifteenth century. The fifth chapter comprehends the period in
+which Albert Durer flourished,&mdash;that is, from about 1498 to 1528.
+The sixth contains a notice of the principal wood-cuts designed by
+Holbein, with an account of the extension and improvement of the art in
+the sixteenth century, and of its subsequent decline. In the seventh
+chapter the history of the art is brought down from the commencement of
+the eighteenth century to the present time.</p>
+
+<p>The eighth chapter contains an account of the practice of the art,
+with remarks on metallic relief engraving, and the best mode of printing
+wood-cuts. As no detailed account of the practice of wood engraving has
+hitherto been published in England, it is presumed that the information
+afforded by this part of the Work will not only be interesting to
+amateurs of the art, but useful to those who are professionally
+connected with it.</p>
+
+<p>It is but justice to Mr. Jackson to add, that the Work was commenced
+by him at his sole risk; that most of the subjects are of his selection;
+and that nearly all of them were engraved, and that a great part of the
+Work was written, before he thought of applying to a publisher. The
+credit of commencing the Work, and of illustrating it so profusely,
+regardless of expense, is unquestionably due to him.</p>
+
+<p class = "right">W. A. CHATTO.</p>
+
+<p class = "dateline"><span class = "smallcaps">London</span>,
+<i>December 5th, 1838</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pageix" id = "pageix">
+ix</a></span>
+
+<h3><a name = "illus" id = "illus">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</a></h3>
+
+<p class = "divider">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class = "mynote">
+<p>Links in the List lead to the Chapter or Illustration named. The word
+“ditto”&mdash;written out&mdash;was printed as shown.</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "#list_chap_I">Chapter I</a> •
+<a href = "#list_chap_II">Chapter II</a> •
+<a href = "#list_chap_III">Chapter III</a> •
+<a href = "#list_chap_IV">Chapter&nbsp;IV</a> •
+<a href = "#list_chap_V">Chapter&nbsp;V</a><br>
+<a href = "#list_chap_VI">Chapter VI</a> •
+<a href = "#list_chap_VII">Chapter VII</a> •
+<a href = "#list_chap_VIII">Chapter VIII</a> •
+<a href = "#list_chap_IX">Chapter&nbsp;IX</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<table class = "toc">
+<tr>
+<td class = "chapter"><a name = "list_chap_I" id = "list_chap_I" href =
+"WoodEngraving1.html#chap_I">CHAPTER I</a><br>
+<span class = "smaller">ANTIQUITY OF ENGRAVING, 1-39.</span></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "right micro">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Initial letter A,&mdash;an ancient Greek <i>scriving</i> on a tablet
+of wood, drawn by W.&nbsp;Harvey</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_1">1</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>View of a rolling-press, on wood and on copper, showing the
+difference between a woodcut and a copper-plate engraving when both are
+printed in the same manner</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_4a">4</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Back and front view of an ancient Egyptian brick-stamp</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_6">6</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Copy of an impression on a Babylonian brick</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_7">7</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Roman stamp, in relief</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_8">8</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Roman stamps, in intaglio</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_10">10</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Monogram of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_13">13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Monogram of Charlemagne</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Gothic marks and monograms</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_15">15</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Characters on Gothic coins</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_16a">16</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Mark of an Italian notary, 1236</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_16b">16</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Marks of German notaries, 1345-1521</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_17">17</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>English Merchants’-marks of the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_18">18</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Tail-piece, illustrative of the antiquity of
+engraving,&mdash;Babylonian brick, Roman earthenware, Roman stamp, and a
+roll with the mark of the German Emperor Otho in the corner</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_39">39</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "chapter"><a name = "list_chap_II" id = "list_chap_II" href
+= "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_II">CHAPTER II</a><br>
+<span class = "smaller">PROGRESS OF WOOD ENGRAVING, 40-117.</span></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Initial letter F, from an old book containing an alphabet of similar
+letters, engraved on wood, formerly belonging to Sir George
+Beaumont</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_40">40</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>St. Christopher, with the date 1423, from a cut in the possession of
+Earl Spencer</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_46">46</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Annunciation, from a cut probably of the same period, in the
+possession of Earl Spencer</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_50">50</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>St. Bridget, from an old cut in the possession of Earl Spencer</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_52">52</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Shields from the Apocalypse, or History of St. John, an old
+block-book</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_65">65</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>St. John preaching to the infidels, and baptizing Drusiana, from the
+same book</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_66">66</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The death of the Two Witnesses, and the miracles of Antichrist, from
+the same book</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_67">67</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Group from the History of the Virgin, an old block-book</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_71">71</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Copy of a page of the same book</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_72">72</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Figures and a shield of arms, from the same book</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_75">75</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Shields of arms, from the same book</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_76">76</a>-<a
+href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_78">78</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Copy of the first page of the Poor Preachers’ Bible, an old
+block-book</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_86">86</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Heads from the same book</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_88">88</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Christ tempted, a fac-simile of one of the compartments in the first
+page of the same book</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_89">89</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Adam and Eve eating of the forbidden fruit, from the same book</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_90">90</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Esau selling his birthright, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_91">91</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Heads ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_92">92</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pagex" id = "pagex">
+x</a></span>First cut in the Speculum Salvationis, which has generally,
+but erroneously, been described as a block-book, as the text in the
+first edition is printed with types</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_96">96</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Fall of Lucifer, a fac-simile of one of the compartments of the
+preceding</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_97">97</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Creation of Eve, a fac-simile of the second compartment of the
+same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_98">98</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Paper-mark in the Alphabet of large letters composed of figures,
+formerly belonging to Sir George Beaumont</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving1.html#illus_107">107</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Letter K, from the same book</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving1.html#illus_109">109</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Letter L, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving1.html#illus_110">110</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Letter Z, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving1.html#illus_111">111</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Flowered ornament, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving1.html#illus_112">112</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cuts from the Ars Memorandi, an old block-book</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving1.html#illus_115">115</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "chapter"><a name = "list_chap_III" id = "list_chap_III"
+href = "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_III">CHAPTER III</a><br>
+<span class = "smaller">THE INVENTION OF TYPOGRAPHY,
+118-163.</span></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Initial letter B, from a manuscript life of St. Birinus, of the <ins
+class = "correction" title = "text reads ‘twelth’">twelfth</ins>
+century</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving1.html#illus_118">118</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Tail piece-portraits of Gutemberg, Faust, and Scheffer</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving1.html#illus_163">163</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "chapter"><a name = "list_chap_IV" id = "list_chap_IV" href
+= "WoodEngraving4.html#chap_IV">CHAPTER IV</a><br>
+<span class = "smaller">WOOD ENGRAVING IN CONNEXION WITH THE PRESS,
+164-229.</span></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Initial letter C, from Faust and Scheffer’s Psalter</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_164">164</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Apes, from a book of Fables printed at Bamberg by Albert Pfister,
+1461</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_171">171</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Heads, from an edition of the Poor Preachers’ Bible, printed by
+Pfister</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_177a">177</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Christ and his Disciples, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_177b">177</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Joseph making himself known to his Brethren, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_178a">178</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Prodigal Son’s return, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_178b">178</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Creation of Animals, from Meditationes Joannis de Turrecremata,
+printed at Rome, 1467</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_185">185</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>A bomb-shell and a man shooting from a kind of hand-gun, from
+Valturius de Re Militari, printed at Verona, 1472</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_188">188</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>A man shooting from a cross-bow, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_189">189</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Knight, from Caxton’s Book of Chess, about 1476</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_193">193</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Bishop’s pawn, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_194">194</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Two figures&mdash;Music, from Caxton’s Mirrour of the World,
+1480</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_196">196</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Frontispiece to Breydenbach’s Travels, printed at Mentz, 1486</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_207">207</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Syrian Christians, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_209">209</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Old Woman with a basket of eggs on her head, from the Hortus
+Sanitatis, printed at Mentz, 1491</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_211">211</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Head of Paris, from the book usually called the Nuremberg Chronicle,
+printed at Nuremberg, 1493</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_212">212</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Creation of Eve, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_215">215</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The same subject from the Poor Preachers’ Bible</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_216">216</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The difficult Labour of Alcmena, from an Italian translation of
+Ovid’s Metamorphoses, 1497</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_217">217</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Mars, Venus, and Mercury, from Poliphili Hypnerotomachia, printed at
+Venice, 1499</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_221">221</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cupid brought by Mercury before Jove, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_222a">222</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cupid and his Victims, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_222b">222</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Bacchus, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_223">223</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cupid, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_224a">224</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>A Vase, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_224b">224</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cat and Mouse, from a supposed old wood-cut printed in Derschau’s
+Collection, 1808-1816</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_226">226</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Man in armour on horseback, from a wood-cut, formerly used by Mr.
+George Angus of Newcastle</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_228">228</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Tail-piece&mdash;the press of Jodocus Badius Ascensianus, from the
+title-page of a book printed by him about 1498</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_229">229</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "chapter">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pagexi" id = "pagexi">
+xi</a></span>
+<a name = "list_chap_V" id = "list_chap_V" href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#chap_V">CHAPTER V</a><br>
+<span class = "smaller">WOOD ENGRAVING IN THE TIME OF ALBERT DURER,
+230-323.</span></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Initial letter M, from an edition of Ovid’s Tristia, printed at
+Venice by J.&nbsp;de Cireto, 1499</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_230">230</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Peasants dancing and regaling, from Heures a l’Usaige de Chartres,
+printed at Paris by Simon Vostre about 1502. The first of these cuts
+occurs in a similar work&mdash;Heures a l’Usaige de Rome&mdash;printed
+by Simon Vostre in 1497</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_233">233</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The woman clothed with the sun, from Albert Durer’s illustrations of
+the Apocalypse, 1498</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_240">240</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Virgin and Infant Christ, from Albert Durer’s illustrations of
+the History of the Virgin, 1511</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_243">243</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Birth of the Virgin, from the same work</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_244">244</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>St. Joseph at work as a carpenter, with the Virgin rocking the
+Infant Christ in a cradle, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_246">246</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Christ mocked, from Durer’s illustrations of Christ’s Passion, about
+1511</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_247">247</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Last Supper, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_248">248</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Christ bearing his Cross, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_249">249</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Descent to Hades, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_250">250</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Caricature, probably of Luther</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_268">268</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Albert Durer’s Coat-of-arms</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_271">271</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>His portrait, from a cut drawn by himself, 1527, the year preceding
+that of his death</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_272">272</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Holy Family, from a cut designed by Lucas Cranach</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_277">277</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Samson and Delilah, from a cut designed by Hans Burgmair</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_279">279</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Aristotle and his wife, from a cut designed by Hans Burgmair</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_280">280</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Sir Theurdank killing a bear, from the Adventures of Sir Theurdank,
+1517</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_284">284</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The punishment of Sir Theurdank’s enemies, from the same work</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_285">285</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>A figure on horseback, from the Triumphs of Maximilian</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_294">294</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Another, from the same work</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_295">295</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Ditto, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_296">296</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Ditto, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_297">297</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Ditto, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_298">298</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Ditto, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_299">299</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Three knights with banners, from the same work</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_301">301</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Elephant and Indians, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_302">302</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Camp followers, probably designed by Albert Durer, from the
+same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_303">303</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Horses and Car, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_305">305</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Jael and Sisera, from a cut designed by Lucas van Leyden</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_309">309</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cut printed at Antwerp by Willem de Figursnider, probably copied
+from a cut designed by Urse Graff</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_312">312</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Three small cuts from Sigismund Fanti’s Triompho di Fortuna, printed
+at Venice, 1527</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_316">316</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Fortuna di Africo, an emblem of the South wind, from the same
+work</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_316d">316</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Michael Angelo at work on a piece of sculpture, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_317">317</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Head of Nero, from a work on Medals, printed at Strasburg, 1525</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_320">320</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cut of Saint Bridget, about 1500, from Dr. Dibdin’s Bibliomania</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_321">321</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Ditto of her Revelations</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_322">322</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Tail-piece&mdash;a full length of Maximilian I. Emperor of Germany,
+from his Triumphs</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_323">323</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "chapter"><a name = "list_chap_VI" id = "list_chap_VI" href
+= "WoodEngraving6.html#chap_VI">CHAPTER VI</a><br>
+<span class = "smaller">FURTHER PROGRESS AND DECLINE OF WOOD ENGRAVING,
+324-445.</span></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Initial letter T, from a book printed at Paris by Robert Stephens,
+1537</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_324">324</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Adam and Eve eating the forbidden fruit, from a cut designed by Hans
+Holbein in the Dance of Death, first printed at Lyons in 1538</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_339">339</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Death’s Coat of Arms, from the same work</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_340">340</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Old Man, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_341">341</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Duchess, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_342">342</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Child, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_343">343</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pagexii" id = "pagexii">
+xii</a></span>
+The Waggoner, from Holbein’s Dance of Death</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_344">344</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Child with a shield and dart, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_345">345</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Children with the emblems of a triumph, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_346">346</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Holbein’s Alphabet of the Dance of Death</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_352">352</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Abraham about to sacrifice Isaac, from a cut designed by Holbein in
+his Bible-prints, Lyons, 1539</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_368">368</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Fool, from the same work</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_369">369</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The sheath of a dagger, intended as a design for a chaser</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_374">374</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Portrait of Sir Thomas Wyatt from a cut designed by Holbein in
+Leland’s Næniæ, 1542</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_379">379</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Prayer, from a cut designed by Holbein in Archbishop Cranmer’s
+Catechism, 1548</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_380">380</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Christ casting out Devils, from another cut by Holbein, in the same
+work</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_381">381</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Creation, from the same work</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_382a">382</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Crucifixion, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_382b">382</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Christ’s Agony, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_382c">382</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Genealogical Tree, from an edition of the New Testament, printed at
+Zurich by Froschover, 1554</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_383">383</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>St. Luke, from Tindale’s Translation of the New Testament, 1534</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_384a">384</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>St James, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_384b">384</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Death on the Pale Horse, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_384c">384</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cain killing Abel, from Coverdale’s Translation of the Old and New
+Testament, 1535</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_386">386</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Abraham about to sacrifice Isaac, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_387a">387</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Two Spies, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_387b">387</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>St. Matthew, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_388a">388</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>St. John the Baptist, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_388b">388</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>St. Paul writing, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_388c">388</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Frontispiece to Marcolini’s Sorti, Venice, 1540, by Joseph Porta
+Garfagninus, after a Study by Raffaele for the School of Athens</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_390">390</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Punitione, from the same work</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_392a">392</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Matrimony, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_392b">392</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cards, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_393a">393</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Truth saved by Time, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_393b">393</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Labour of Alcmena, from Dolce’s Transformationi, Venice,
+1553</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_394">394</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Monogram, from Palatino’s Treatise on Writing, Rome, 1561</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_396a">396</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Hieroglyphic Sonnet, from the same work</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_396b">396</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Portraits of Petrarch and Laura, from Petrarch’s Sonetti, Lyons,
+1547</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_400">400</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Adam and Eve driven out of Paradise, from Quadrins Historiques de la
+Bible, Lyons, 1550-1560</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_401">401</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Christ tempted by Satan, from Figures du Nouveau Testament, Lyons,
+1553-1570</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_402">402</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Briefmaler, from a book of Trades and Professions, Frankfort,
+1564-1574</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_410">410</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Formschneider, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_411">411</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Goose Tree, from Sebastian Munster’s Cosmography, Basle,
+1550-1554</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_414">414</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>William Tell about to shoot at the apple on his son’s head, from the
+same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_416">416</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Portrait of Dr. William Cuningham, from his Cosmographical Glass,
+London, 1559</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_424">424</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Four initial letters, from the same work</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#illus_425">425</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#illus_426a">426</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#illus_427">427</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Portrait of Queen Elizabeth, from the Books of Christian Prayers
+printed by John Daye, 1569</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_428">428</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Large initial letter, from Fox’s Acts and Monuments, 1576</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_429">429</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Initial letter, from a work printed by Giolito at Venice, about
+1550</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_430">430</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Two Cats, from an edition of Dante, printed at Venice, 1578</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_431">431</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Emblem of Water, from a chiaro-scuro by Henry Goltzius, about
+1590</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_433">433</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Caricature of the Laocoon, after a cut designed by Titian</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_435">435</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Good Householder, from a cut printed at London, 1607</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_437">437</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Virgin and Christ, from a cut designed by Rubens, and engraved by
+Christopher Jegher</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_438">438</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Infant Christ and John the Baptist, from a cut designed by
+Rubens, and engraved by Christopher Jegher</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_439">439</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pagexiii" id = "pagexiii">
+xiii</a></span>
+Jael and Sisera, from a cut designed by Henry Goltzius, and engraved by
+C.&nbsp;Van Sichem</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_440">440</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Tail-piece, from an old cut on the title-page of the first known
+edition of Robin Hood’s Garland, 1670</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_445">445</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "chapter"><a name = "list_chap_VII" id = "list_chap_VII"
+href = "WoodEngraving7.html#chap_VII">CHAPTER VII</a><br>
+<span class = "smaller">REVIVAL OF WOOD ENGRAVING, 446-548.</span></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Initial letter A, from a French book, 1698</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_446">446</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Fox and Goat, from a copper-plate by S. Le Clerc, about 1694</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_450a">450</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The same subject from Croxall’s Æsop’s Fables, 1722</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_450b">450</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The same subject from Bewick’s Fables, 1818-1823</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_451">451</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>English wood-cut with the mark F. H., London, 1724</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_453">453</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Adam naming the animals, copy of a cut by Papillon, 1734</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_460">460</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Pedagogue, from the Ship of Fools, Pynson, 1509</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_468">468</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Poet’s Fall, from Two Odes in ridicule of Gray and Mason,
+London, 1760</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_470">470</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Initial letters, T. and B., composed by J. Jackson from tail-pieces
+in Bewick’s History of British Birds</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_471">471</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The house in which Bewick was born, drawn by J. Jackson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_472">472</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Parsonage at Ovingham, drawn by George Balmer</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_473">473</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Fac-simile of a diagram engraved by Bewick in Hutton’s Mensuration,
+1768-1770</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_475">475</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Old Hound, a fac-simile of a cut by Bewick, 1775</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_476">476</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Original cut of the Old Hound</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_477">477</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cuts copied by Bewick from Der Weiss Kunig, and illustrations of
+Ovid’s Metamorphoses by Virgilium Solis</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_483">483</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Boys and Ass, after Bewick</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_485">485</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Old Man and Horse, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_486">486</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Child and young Horse, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_487">487</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Ewe and Lamb</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_488a">488</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Old Man and young Wife, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_488b">488</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Common Duck, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_493">493</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Partridge, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_495">495</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Woodcock, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_496">496</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The drunken Miller, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_499a">499</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Snow Man, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_499b">499</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Old Man and Cat, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_500">500</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Crow and Lamb, Bewick’s original cut to the Fable of the Eagle</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_503">503</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The World turned upside down, after Bewick</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_504">504</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cuts commemorative of the decease of Bewick’s father and mother,
+from his Fables, 1818-1823</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_506">506</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Bewick’s Workshop, drawn by George Balmer</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_508">508</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Portrait of Bewick</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_510">510</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>View of Bewick’s Burial-place</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_511">511</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Funeral, View of Ovingham Church, drawn by J. Jackson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_512">512</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The sad Historian, from a cut by John Bewick, in Poems by Goldsmith
+and Parnell, 1795</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_515">515</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Fac-simile of a cut by John Bewick, from Blossoms of Morality</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_516">516</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Copy of a cut engraved by C. Nesbit, from a drawing by R.
+Johnson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_518a">518</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>View of a monument erected to the memory of R. Johnson, against the
+south wall of Ovingham Church</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_518b">518</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Copy of a view of St. Nicholas Church, engraved by C. Nesbit, from a
+drawing by R.&nbsp;Johnson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_519">519</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Copy of the cut for the Diploma of the Highland Society, engraved by
+L.&nbsp;Clennell, from a drawing by Benjamin West</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_523">523</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Bird and Flowers, engraved by L. Clennell, when insane</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_526">526</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Seven Engravings by William Harvey, from Dr. Henderson’s History of
+Wines</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_530">530</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Milton, designed by W. Harvey, engraved by John Thompson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_531">531</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Three Illustrations by W. Harvey, engraved by S. Williams, Orrin
+Smith, and C.&nbsp;Gray</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_532a">532</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pagexiv" id = "pagexiv">
+xiv</a></span>
+Cut from the Children in the Wood, drawn by W. Harvey, and engraved by
+J.&nbsp;Thompson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_533">533</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cut from the Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green, drawn by W. Harvey, and
+engraved by C.&nbsp;Nesbit</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_534">534</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Copy of a part of the Cave of Despair, engraved by R. Branston, from
+a drawing by J.&nbsp;Thurston</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_535">535</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Three cuts engraved by Robert Branston, after designs by Thurston,
+for an edition of Select Fables, in rivalry of Bewick</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_537">537</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Bird, engraved by Robert Branston</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_538">538</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Pistill Cain, in North Wales, drawn and engraved by Hugh Hughes</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_539a">539</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Moel Famau, ditto, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_539b">539</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Wrexham Church, ditto, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_540a">540</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Pwll Carodoc, ditto, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_540b">540</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Salmon, Group of Fish, and Chub, engraved by John Thompson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_541">541</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Pike, by Robert Branston</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_542a">542</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Eel, by H. White</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_542b">542</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Illustration from Hudibras, engraved by John Thompson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_543">543</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Hogarth’s Rake’s Progress, engraved by John Thompson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_544">544</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Temptation, engraved by John Jackson, after John Martin</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_545a">545</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Judgment of Adam and Eve, engraved by F. W. Branston, after
+ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_545b">545</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Assuaging of the Waters, engraved by E. Landells, after
+ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_546a">546</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Deluge, engraved by W. H. Powis, after ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_546b">546</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Tower of Babel engraved by Thomas Williams, after ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_547a">547</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Angel announcing the Nativity, engraved by W. T. Green, after
+ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_547b">547</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Tail piece&mdash;Vignette, engraved by W. T. Green, after W.
+Harvey</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_548">548</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "chapter"><a name = "list_chap_VIII" id = "list_chap_VIII"
+href = "WoodEngraving8.html#chap_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a><br>
+<span class = "smaller">ARTISTS AND ENGRAVERS ON WOOD OF THE PRESENT
+DAY, 549-560.</span></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Sierra Morena, engraved by James Cooper, after Percival
+Skelton</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_550">550</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Banks the Nith, engraved by ditto, after Birket Foster</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_551a">551</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Twa Dogs, engraved by ditto, after Harrison Weir</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_551b">551</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>To Auld Mare Maggie, engraved by ditto, after ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_552">552</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Poetry of Nature, engraved by J. Greenaway, after Harrison
+Weir</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_553">553</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Bloomfield’s Farmer’s Boy, engraved by W. Wright, after
+ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_554a">554</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Campbell’s Pleasures of Hope, engraved by J. Greenaway, after
+ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_554b">554</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From the same, by the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_555">555</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Wild Flowers, engraved by E. Evans, after Birket Foster</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_556">556</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Lays of the Holy Land, engraved by W. J. Palmer, after Birket
+Foster</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_557">557</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Longfellow’s Evangeline, engraved by H. Vizetelly, after
+ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_558">558</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Moore’s Lalla Rookh, engraved by Dalziel, after John
+Tenniel</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_559">559</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Death of Sforza, from Barry Cornwall, engraved by Dalziel, after
+ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_560a">560</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Sforza, ditto, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_560b">560</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Antony and Cleopatra, engraved by Dalziel Brothers, after John
+Gilbert</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x561">561*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Florentine Party, from Barry Cornwall, engraved by Dalziel
+Brothers, after Thomas Dalziel</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x562">562*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Prince Arthur and Hubert de Bourg, engraved by Kirchner, after John
+Gilbert</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x563a">563*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Maxwell’s Life of the Duke of Wellington, designed by John
+Gilbert</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x563b">563*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Demon Lover, designed by John Gilbert, engraved by W. A.
+Folkard</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x564">564*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Longfellow’s Hiawatha, engraved by W. L. Thomas, after
+G.&nbsp;H. Thomas</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x565">565*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From the same, engraved by Horace Harral, after G. H. Thomas</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x566a">566*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From the same, engraved by Dalziel Brothers, after ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x566b">566*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>John Anderson my Jo, from Burns’ Poems, engraved by E. Evans, after
+ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x567a">567*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Vignette from Hiawatha, engraved by E. Evans, after ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x567b">567*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Tennyson’s Princess, engraved by W. Thomas, after D.
+Maclise</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x568">568*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Bürger’s Leonora, engraved by J. Thompson, after Maclise</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x569a">569*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Childe Harold, engraved by J. W. Whimper, after Percival
+Skelton</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x569b">569*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pagexv" id = "pagexv">
+xv</a></span>
+From Marryat’s Poor Jack, engraved by H. Vizetelly, after Clarkson
+Stanfield</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x570">570*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Christmas in the olden time, engraved by H. Vizetelly, after Birket
+Foster</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x571">571*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Two illustrations from Thomson’s Seasons, designed and engraved by
+Sam Williams.</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x572a">572*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Eagles, Stags, and Wolves, engraved by George Pearson, after John
+Wolf</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x573">573*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Hare Hawking, engraved by George Pearson, after John Wolf</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x574a">574*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Falls of Niagara, engraved by George Pearson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x574b">574*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Sandford and Merton, engraved by Measom, after H. Anelay</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x575">575*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Longfellow’s Miles Standish, engraved by Thomas Bolton, after
+John Absolon</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x576">576*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Flaxman’s ‘Deliver us from Evil,’ a specimen of Mr. Thomas Bolton’s
+new process of photographing on wood</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x577">577*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Montalva’s Fairy Tales, engraved by John Swain, after
+R.&nbsp;Doyle</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x578">578*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From ‘Brown, Jones, and Robinson,’ engraved by John Swain, after
+Doyle</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x579">579*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Uncle Tom’s Cabin, engraved by Orrin Smith, after John
+Leech</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x580">580*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Mr. Leech’s Tour in Ireland, engraved by John Swain, after John
+Leech</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x581">581*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From ‘Moral Emblems of all Ages,’ engraved by H. Leighton, after
+John Leighton</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x582">582*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Two subjects from the Illustrated Southey’s Life of Nelson, engraved
+by H.&nbsp;Harral, after E.&nbsp;Duncan</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x583">583*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>North porch of St. Maria Maggiore, drawn and engraved by Orlando
+Jewitt</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x584">584*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Shrine in Bayeux Cathedral, by Orlando Jewitt</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x585">585*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Hearse of Margaret Countess of Warwick and other specimens from
+Regius Glossary of Ecclesiastical Ornament, by Orlando Jewitt</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x586">586*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Brick Tracery, St. Stephen’s Church, Tangermunde, Prussia, by
+ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x587">587*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Nut Brown Maid, engraved by J. Williams, after T. Creswick</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x588">588*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Vignette from Bohn’s Illustrated Edition of Walton’s Angler, by
+M.&nbsp;Jackson, after T.&nbsp;Creswick</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x589">589*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Paul preaching at Athens, engraved by W. J. Linton, after John
+Martin</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x590a">590*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Vignette from the Book of British Ballads, engraved by ditto, after
+R.&nbsp;McIan</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x590b">590*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Milton’s L’Allegro, engraved by ditto, after Stonehouse</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x591a">591*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From the same, engraved by ditto, after J. C. Horsley</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x591b">591*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Ancient Gambols, drawn and engraved by F. W. Fairholt</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x592a">592*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Vignette from the Illustrated Edition of Robin Hood, by ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x592b">592*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Two illustrations from Dr. Mantell’s Works, engraved by James Lee,
+after Joseph Dinkel</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x593">593*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Coleridge’s Ancient Mariner, engraved by H. Harral, after
+E.&nbsp;H. Wehnert</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x594">594*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Three illustrations drawn and engraved by George Cruikshank, from
+‘Three Courses and a Dessert’</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x595">595*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Two illustrations by ditto from the Universal Songster</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x596">596*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Three illustrations from the Pictorial Grammar, by Crowquill</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x597a">597*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Vignette from the Book of British Ballads by Kenny Meadows</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x597b">597*</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "chapter"><a name = "list_chap_IX" id = "list_chap_IX" href
+= "WoodEngraving9.html#chap_IX">CHAPTER IX</a><br>
+<span class = "smaller">THE PRACTICE OF WOOD ENGRAVING,
+561-652.</span></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Initial letter P, showing a wood engraver at work, with his lamp and
+globe, drawn by R.&nbsp;W. Buss</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_561">561</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Diagram, showing a block warped</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_566">566</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cut showing the appearance of a plug-hole in the engraving, drawn by
+J.&nbsp;Jackson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_570a">570</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Diagrams illustrative of the mode of repairing a block by
+plugging</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_570b">570</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cut showing a plug re-engraved</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_571">571</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Diagram showing the mode of pulling the string over the corner of
+the block</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_572">572</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The shade for the eyes, and screen for the mouth and nose</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_574">574</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Engraver’s lamp, glass, globe, and sand-bag</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_575">575</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Graver</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_576a">576</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Diagram of gravers</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_576b">576</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Diagrams of tint-tools, &amp;c.</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_577">577</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Diagrams of gouges, chisels, &amp;c.</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_578">578</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pagexvi" id = "pagexvi">
+xvi</a></span>
+Gravers</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_579a">579</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cuts showing the manner of holding the graver</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#illus_579c">579</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#illus_580a">580</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Examples of tints</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#illus_581a">581</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#illus_582a">582</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#illus_583a">583</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#illus_584">584</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Examples of curved lines and tints</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#illus_585">585</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#illus_586">586</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cuts illustrative of the mode of cutting a white outline</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_588">588</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Outline engraving previous to its being blocked out&mdash;the
+monument to the memory of two children in Lichfield Cathedral by Sir
+F.&nbsp;Chantrey</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_589">589</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The same subject finished</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_590a">590</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Outline engraving, after a design by Flaxman for a snuff-box for
+George IV.</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_590b">590</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cut after a pen-and-ink sketch by Sir David Wilkie for his picture
+of the Rabbit on the Wall</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_591">591</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Figures from a sketch by George Morland</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_592">592</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Group from Sir David Wilkie’s Rent Day</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_593">593</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Figure of a boy from Hogarth’s Noon, one of the engravings of his
+Four Parts of the Day</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_594">594</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>A Hog, after an etching by Rembrandt</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_595">595</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Dray-horse, drawn by James Ward, R.A.</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_596">596</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Jacob blessing the Children of Joseph, after Rembrandt</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_597">597</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Two cuts&mdash;View of a Road-side Inn&mdash;showing the advantage
+of cutting the tint before the other parts of a subject are
+engraved</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_598">598</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Head, from an etching by Rembrandt</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_599">599</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Impression from a cast of part of the Death of Dentatus, engraved by
+W.&nbsp;Harvey</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_601">601</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Christ and the Woman at the Well, from an etching by Rembrandt</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_602">602</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Flight into Egypt, from an etching by Rembrandt</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_605">605</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Sea-piece, drawn by George Balmer</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_606a">606</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Sea-piece, moonlight, drawn by George Balmer</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_606b">606</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Landscape, evening, drawn by George Balmer</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_607">607</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Impression from a cast of part of the Death of Dentatus, engraved by
+W.&nbsp;Harvey</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_609">609</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>View of Rouen Cathedral, drawn by William Prior</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_611">611</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Map of England and Wales, with the part of the names engraved on
+wood, and part inserted in type</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_612">612</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Group from Sir David Wilkie’s Village Festival</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_614">614</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Natural <i>Vignette</i>, and an old ornamented capital from a
+manuscript of the thirteenth century</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_616">616</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Specimens of ornamental capitals, chiefly taken from Shaw’s
+Alphabets</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_617">617</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Impressions from a surface with the figures in relief&mdash;subject,
+the Crown-piece of George IV.</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_618">618</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Impressions from a surface with the figures in intaglio&mdash;same
+subject</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_619">619</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Shepherd’s Dog, drawn by W. Harvey</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_620">620</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Egret, drawn by W. Harvey</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_621">621</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Winter-piece, with an ass and her foal, drawn by J. Jackson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_622">622</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Salmon-Trout, with a view of Bywell-Lock, drawn by J. Jackson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_623">623</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Boy and Pony, drawn by J. Jackson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_624a">624</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Heifer, drawn by W. Harvey</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_624b">624</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Descent from the Cross, after an etching by
+Rembrandt&mdash;impression when the block is merely lowered previous to
+engraving the subject</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_626">626</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Descent from the Cross&mdash;impression from the finished cut</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_627">627</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Copies of an ancient bust in the British Museum&mdash;No. 1 printed
+from a wood-cut, and No.&nbsp;2 from a cast</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_637">637</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Block reduced from a Lithograph by the new Electro-printing Block
+process</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_639">639</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Horse and Ass, drawn by J. Jackson&mdash;improperly printed</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_641">641</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Same subject, properly printed</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_642">642</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Landscape, drawn by George Balmer&mdash;improperly printed</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_644a">644</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Same subject, properly printed</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_644b">644</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Tail-piece, drawn by C. Jacques</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_652">652</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class = "correction">
+<h5>Erratum</h5>
+
+<p><span class = "citation">
+life of St. Birinus, of the twelfth century</span><br>
+twelth</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class = "titlepage">
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page1" id = "page1">
+1</a></span>
+<h2><span class = "smallest">ON</span><br>
+WOOD ENGRAVING.</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page653" id = "page653">
+653</a></span>
+
+<h3><a name = "index" id = "index">INDEX.</a></h3>
+
+<p class = "divider">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class = "mynote">
+<p>Links in the Index lead to the top of the named page. All are in
+separate files.</p>
+
+<p class = "center screenstyle">
+<a href = "#index_A">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_B">&nbsp;B&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_C">&nbsp;C&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_D">&nbsp;D&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_E">&nbsp;E&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_F">&nbsp;F&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_G">&nbsp;G&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_H">&nbsp;H&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_I">&nbsp;I&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_J">&nbsp;J&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_K">&nbsp;K&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_L">&nbsp;L&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_M">&nbsp;M&nbsp;</a><br>
+<a href = "#index_N">&nbsp;N&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_O">&nbsp;O&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_P">&nbsp;P&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_Q">&nbsp;Q&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_R">&nbsp;R&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_S">&nbsp;S&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_T">&nbsp;T&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_U">&nbsp;U&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_V">&nbsp;V&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_W">&nbsp;W&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_Z">&nbsp;Z&nbsp;</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "index">
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_A" id = "index_A" href = "#index">A</a></p>
+
+<p>Absolon, John, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page576a">576*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Accursius, Mariangelus, note written by, in a Donatus,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page123">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Advertisements, wood-cuts prefixed to,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII1">446 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Allegory of Death, a tract printed at Bamberg, 1462,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page171">171</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Almanach de Paris, with wood-cuts, by Papillon,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page459">459</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Almanacks, sheet, 1470, 1500,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page225">225</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Alphabet of figures, engraved on wood, in the British Museum,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page106">106</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">cuts from,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page109">109</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page110">110</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page111">111</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page112">112</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">with figures, of a Dance of Death, preserved in the
+public library at Basle,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page352">352</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Altdorffer, A.
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page320">320</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Amman, Jost, cuts designed by, in a book of trades and professions,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page408">408</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page409">409</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">other cuts designed by him,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page411">411</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Amonoph, a name on an Egyptian brick-stamp,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteI6">6 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Andreani, Andrea, chiaro-scuros engraved by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page432">432</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Andrews, G. H. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Anelay, H. artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page575a">575*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Angus, George, of Newcastle-on-Tyne, printer, wood-cuts used by, in
+cheap works,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page180">180</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page228">228</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Annunciation, old cut of the,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page50">50</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ansdell, Richard, painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ansgarius, St., supposed to have been the compiler of the Biblia
+Pauperum,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page94">94</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Antichrist, cuts of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page61">61</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Antonianus, Silvius, a cardinal, claimed by Papillon as a wood
+engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page337">337</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Antonio, Marc, his copies of the Little Passion and the Life of the
+Virgin, designed by Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page251">251</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Antwerp, painters’ company of, entertain Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page261">261</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">procession in honour of the Virgin, <i>ib.</i></p>
+
+<p>Apelles, the image of the life of man as painted in a table by,
+<a class = "error" href = "WoodEngraving6.html#noteVI119" title = "text reads ‘432’">436 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Apocalypse, an ancient block-book,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page61">61</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page68">68</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">cuts in illustration of, from Durer’s designs,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page239">239</a>.</p>
+
+<p class = "inset">Appeal to Christendom, early specimen of typography,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page138">138</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Arch, triumphal, of Maximilian, designed by Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page255">255</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Archer, J. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Archer, J. W. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Aretin, J. C. von,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page114">114</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Armitage, Edward, painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Armstrong, T. engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page592a">592*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Armstrong, Wm. engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page600a">600*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ars Memorandi,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page113">113</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">cut from,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page115">115</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ars Moriendi, an old block-book,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page116">116</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Art, early German,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page3">3</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Assen, J. W. van,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page318">318</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Astle’s Origin and Progress of Writing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page20">20</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Atkinson, G. C., his Life of Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page477">477</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page478">478</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page480">480</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page482">482</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page492">492</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page501">501</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page503">503</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page505">505</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Austin, an English wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page538">538</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_B" id = "index_B" href = "#index">B</a></p>
+
+<p>Babylonian brick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page7">7</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Balls, leather, formerly used by pressmen, not so elastic as
+composition rollers,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page620">620</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bamberg, a book of fables printed at, in 1461,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page171">171</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bämler, John, a printer of Augsburg,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page180">180</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Baptism of Drusiana,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page66">66</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bartsch, Adam, of opinion that Albert Durer did not engrave on wood,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page237">237</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Battailes, La Fleur des, 1505,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page210">210</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Baxter, George, his improvements in printing in colours,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page406">406</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his chiaro-scuros and picture-prints,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page629">629</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Beating time with the foot mistaken for printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page120">120</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Beaumont, Sir George, curious alphabet of figures engraved on wood,
+formerly belonging to,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page106">106</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bechtermuntze, Henry and Nicholas, early printers, related to
+Gutemberg,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page142">142</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Beddoes, Dr. Thomas, his poem of Alexander’s expedition down the
+Hydaspes, with wood-cuts, by E.&nbsp;Dyas, 1792,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII17">463 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Behaim, Michael, letter to, from Albert Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page235">235</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Behaim, H. S.
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#noteV29">253 <i>n</i></a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page320">320</a>.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page654" id = "page654">
+654</a></span>
+<p>Beilby, Ralph, the partner of Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page479">479</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Beildeck, Lawrence, his evidence in the suit of the Drytzehns against
+Gutemberg, 1438,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page128">128</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bekker, R. Z. editor of a collection of wood-cuts, from old blocks in
+the possession of the Baron Von Derschau,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page226">226</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bellini, Giovanni, his praise of Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page242">242</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bells, inscriptions on,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page20">20</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bennett, C. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Benting, William, Lord of Rhoon and Pendraght, a fictitious
+character, mentioned by T.&nbsp;Nieuhoff Piccard,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page360">360</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#noteVI36">361 <i>n</i></a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page363">363</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bernacle or Barnacle Goose,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page414">414</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bernardin, St. account of an old wood-cut of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page56">56</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Beroaldus, Peter, editor of an edition of Ptolemy,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page201">201</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Best, Andrew, and Leloir, their metallic relief engraving,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page636">636</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bethemsted, a name in an old book of wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page111">111</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Beugnet, a French wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page547">547</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bewick, Thomas, his birth, 1753,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page472">472</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">apprenticed to Mr. R. Beilby,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page474">474</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">engraves the diagrams in Hutton’s Mensuration,
+1768-1770,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page475">475</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">receives a premium for his cut of the Old Hound,
+1775,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page476">476</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">visits London,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page477">477</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">cuts engraved by him in a Hieroglyphic Bible,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page478">478</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his love of the country,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page479">479</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his partnership with Beilby, <i>ib.</i>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his cuts in Gay’s Fables,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page480">480</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his cut of the Chillingham Bull,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page481">481</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his Quadrupeds, 1791,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page482">482-490</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his British Birds, 1797-1804,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page490">490-502</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his Select Fables, 1818,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page502">502-506</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his cut of the Old Horse waiting for Death,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page510">510</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his diligence,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page507">507</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his death, <i>ib.</i>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">tribute to his merits from Blackwood’s Magazine,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page512">512</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">list of portraits of him,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII70">509 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bewick, John, notice of his principal works,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page513">513</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bible, the Mazarine, printed prior to August, 1456,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page139">139</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bible supposed to have been printed by Pfister, at Bamberg,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page181">181</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bible cuts, Lyons, 1538, designed by Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page365">365-371</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">engravings from 86,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page88">88</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page89">89</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page90">90</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page91">91</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page92">92</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bible, Quadrins Historiques de la,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page402">402</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Biblia Pauperum,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page80">80-94</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Biblia Pauperum Predicatorum,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page83">83</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bildhauer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page2">2</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Binding, old,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page60">60</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Birds, engraved by Bewick’s pupils,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII55">492 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Birkman, Arnold, Dance of Death, copied from the Lyons edition,
+published by his heirs, Cologne, 1555-1572,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page336">336</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Blake, William, his mode of engraving in metallic relief,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page632">632</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his drawing of Death’s Door, engraved by Linton,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page591">591</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green, cut from,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page534">534</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Blocking out,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page589">589</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Block-books claimed for Lawrence Coster,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page58">58</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Blocks, original, of the Triumphs of Maximilian, preserved at Vienna,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page291">291</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bolton, Thomas, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page576a">576*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page577a">577*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bombo, the name of a dog, supposed by Papillon to be the name of a
+wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#noteVI19">337 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bomb shell, cut of a, from a book printed in 1472,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page187">187</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Borbonius, or Bourbon, Nicholas, verses by, in praise of Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page356">356</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page357">357</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page362">362</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page367">367</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Borders, flowered, earliest specimens of in books,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page209">209</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Böttiger, C. A.
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page21">21</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Box-wood, different qualities of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page563">563</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page566">566</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Brandling, H. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Brands for marking cattle,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page11">11</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Branston, Robert, notice of his principal wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page535">535-538</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Branston, R. the younger, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his method of engraving in metallic relief,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page634">634</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Branston, F. W. wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page545">545</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Brass stamps,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page10">10</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Brasses, monumental,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page21">21</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Braunche, Robert, his monument at Lynn,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page22">22</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Breitkopf, G. J. his attempt to print maps with separative pieces of
+type-metal, 1776,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page205">205</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Breydenbach’s Travels, 1486,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page206">206-209</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bricks, from Egypt and Babylon,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page6">6</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page7">7</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bridget, St., early cut of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page52">52</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Brief of Indulgence, 1454, an early specimen of typography,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page137">137</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Briefe, cards so called in Germany,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page42">42</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Briefmaler and Briefdrucker,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page43">43</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page410">410</a>.</p>
+
+<p>British Birds, History of, with cuts by Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page490">490-502</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Broughton, Hugh, his Concent of Scripture, with copper-plate
+engravings, 1591,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page423">423</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Büchel, Emanuel, a Dance of Death copied by, in water-colours,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page326">326</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bukinck, Arnold, printer, his edition of Ptolemy, 1478, with maps,
+engraved on copper,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page200">200</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bullet, J. B. his Researches on Playing Cards,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page40">40</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bulwer, Sir E. Lytton, quoted,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page398">398</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Burgmair, Hans, painter, and designer on wood,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page277">277</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Burleigh, Lord, his portrait in Archbishop Parker’s edition of the
+Bible, 1568,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page419">419</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Burnet, John, his engraving of Chelsea Pensioners, after Wilkie,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page213">213</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Burning in the hand,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page12">12</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bury, Richard de, makes no mention of wood engraving,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Businck, chiaro-scuros engraved by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page440">440</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Buttons, silver, engraved by Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page479">479</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bybel, Historische School en Huis, Amsterdam, 1743, with wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page459">459</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Byfield, John, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_C" id = "index_C" href = "#index">C</a></p>
+
+<p>Calcar, John, a Flemish painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page434">434</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Calderinus, D. editor of an edition of Ptolemy,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page208">208</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Camus, his account of a book printed at Bamberg, 1462,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page171">171</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Canticles, illustrations of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page71">71</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page72">72</a>.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page655" id = "page655">
+655</a></span>
+<p>Capitals, ornamented, in Faust and Scheffer’s Psalter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page426">426</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">in English and other books,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page616">616</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page617">617</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Car, triumphal, of Maximilian, designed by Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page255">255</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cards, known in 1340,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page40">40</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Caron, Nicholas, wood engraver, his portrait of Papillon,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII22">466 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Carpi, Ugo da, engraver of chiaro-scuros, on wood,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page230">230</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page307">307</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cartouch,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteI38">28 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Casts, stereotype, early,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page418">418</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">modern,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page636">636</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">clichage,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page637">637</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cat edition of Dante, Venice, 1578,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page431">431</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Catherine, St. patroness of learned men,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page207">207</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Catholicon Johannis Januensis,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteIII34">135 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cauteria,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page12">12</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Caxton, W. books printed by,&mdash;Game of Chess,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page191">191</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Mirror of the World,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page194">194</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Golden Legend, Fables of Esop, Canterbury Tales,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page195">195</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Caylus, Count, chiaro-scuros executed by, and N. Le Sueur,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII11">456 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cessolis, J. de, his work on Chess,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page197">197</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Champollion,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteI6">6 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chantrey, Sir F. monument by, in Lichfield Cathedral,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page589">589</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page590">590</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Characters in an old Dutch Dance of Death,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page318">318</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#noteVI6">329 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Charlemagne, his monogram,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page14">14</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chelidonius,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page243">243</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page251">251</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chelsea Pensioners, engraving of, after Sir D. Wilkie,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page213">213</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page48">48</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chess, the Game of, printed by Caxton,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page191">191</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chiaro-scuro, engraving on wood, known in Germany, in 1509,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page230">230</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chiaro-scuros,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page307">307</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page402">402</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page432">432</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page440">440</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page451">451</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page455">455</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page467">467</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page628">628</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Children in the Wood, cut from,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page533">533</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chillingham bull, cut of, by Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page481">481</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chinese engraving and printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page23">23</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chirotipografia, or hand-printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteII6">44 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chisels,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page578">578</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Christopher, St. wood-cut of, in the possession of Earl Spencer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page45">45</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page46">46</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chrysographus,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page121">121</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Circular wood engravings in the British Museum,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteII18">54 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Clayton, J. R. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cleaning wood cuts after printing, mode of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page649">649</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Clennell, Luke, a pupil of Bewick, biographical notice of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page521">521-527</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Clerc, Sebastian le, cuts in Croxall’s Æsop’s Fables, copied from his
+engravings,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page450">450</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Clichage, a mode of taking a cast from a wood engraving,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page637">637</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Coeck, Peter, of Alost, his Costumes and Manners of the Turks,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page402">402</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Coining, its antiquity,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page19">19</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cole, Humphrey, an English engraver, 1572,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page419">419</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Coleman, Wm. artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Collation of editions of the Speculum Salvationis,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page102">102</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cologne Chronicle, unfairly quoted by the advocates of Coster,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page122">122</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Colonna, Francis, author of the Hypnerotomachia,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page218">218</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Colour, the meaning of the word when applied to engravings,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page213">213</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Committee of the House of Commons on Arts and their Connexion with
+Manufactures,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page305">305</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Congreve’s, Sir Wm. mode of colour printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page630">630</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Concanen, M. wood cut in Miscellaneous Poems, published by, 1724,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page453">453</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cooper, James, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page550">550</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page552">552</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Coornhert, Theodore, claims the invention of printing for Harlem,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cope, C. W. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Copperplate engraving, its invention ascribed to Varro,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page21">21</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Copperplates, earliest books containing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page200">200</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">the earliest engraved in England,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page419">419</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Corbould, E. H. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Coriolano, Bartolomeo, chiaro-scuros engraved by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page440">440</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cornelius, a bookbinder, his account of Coster’s invention,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page150">150-152</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Coster, Lawrence, first mentioned by Hadrian Junius as the inventor
+of printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page147">147</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">account of his invention,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page149">149</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cotman’s Sepulchral Brasses,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteI30">22 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Coverdale, Miles, cuts in his translation of the Bible, 1535,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page385">385-389</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cowper, Edward, his invention for piercing wood blocks for map
+engraving,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page205">205</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cracherode, Rev. C. M. prints and books presented by him to the
+British Museum,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page72">72</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page231">231</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page355">355</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page385">385</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cranach, Lucas, painter and designer on wood,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page275">275</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">chiaro-scuros cut after,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page276">276</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">figure of Christ printed in colours, supposed to be
+by him,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page404">404</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cranmer, Archbishop, his Catechism, 1548, with wood cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page380">380-382</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Creswick, T. artist.
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page588a">588*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page589a">589*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cropsey, Jasper, painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Crown-piece of George IV., impressions of casts from,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page618">618</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Crowquill, Alfred, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page597a">597*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cross-hatching,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page224">224</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page234">234</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page562">562</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Croxall’s Æsop’s Fables, wood cuts in, 1722,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page448">448-451</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cruikshank, George, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page595a">595*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page596a">596*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cuningham’s, Dr. William, Cosmographical Glass, 1559,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page421">421</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page425">425</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his portrait,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page424">424</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">cuts from his book,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page425">425</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page426">426</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page427">427</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cunio, Alberic and Isabella, pretended wood engravers,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page26">26</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Curved lines, the effect of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page585">585</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cutting tools,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page576">576</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_D" id = "index_D" href = "#index">D</a></p>
+
+<p>Dalziel, Bros. wood engravers,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page559">559-562*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page566a">566*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dalziel, Thomas, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page562a">562*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dammetz, Lucas, called also Lucas Van Leyden,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page308">308</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dampth, its effect on box-wood,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page564">564</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dance of Death, in old churches,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page325">325</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">at Basle,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page326">326</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">in old French and other books,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page328">328</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">the Lyons Dance of Death, 1538, with cuts, designed
+by Hans Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page329">329-364</a>;</p>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page656" id = "page656">
+656</a></span>
+<p class = "inset">his Alphabet containing his Dance of Death,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page352">352</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dante, edition of, with <ins class = "correction" title = "text reads ‘copperplates’">copper-plates</ins>, 1482;</p>
+<p class = "inset">the cat edition of, Venice, 1578,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page431">431</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Darley, Felix, draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dates of block books and cuts, mistake about,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page58">58</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Day, John, an English printer, supposed to have also engraved on
+wood,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page425">425</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Denecker, Jobst, publisher of a Dance of Death at Augsburg, 1544,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page336">336</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dentatus, the large cut of the death of, engraved by W. Harvey,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page528">528</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">specimens of it,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page601">601</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page609">609</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Derschau, the Baron Von, his collection of old wood blocks,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page93">93</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page226">226</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his character,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#noteV9">236 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Desroches, M. ascribes the invention of printing to “Vedelare
+Lodewyc,” <a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page119">119</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Deutsch, N. E.
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page314">314</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dickes, W. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dinkel, Joseph, draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page593a">593*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Doctrinale gette en mole,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page122">122</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dodd, Daniel and John, wood engravers,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dodgson, G. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dolce, Ludovico, his Transformationi, a paraphrase of Ovid’s
+Metamorphoses,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page394">394</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dominicals, stamped on paper,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page120">120</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dominotiers,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page45">45</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Donatus, a grammatical treatise so called, printed from wood blocks,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page117">117</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">one supposed to have been <i>stamped</i>, 1340,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page121">121</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">idea of typography perhaps suggested by such a work,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page123">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Douce, Francis, his opinion about the name Machabre,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page325">325</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his list of books containing figures of a Dance of
+Death,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page328">328</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his edition of the Dance of Death, 1833,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page338">338</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">denies that the cuts in the Lyons edition were
+designed by Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page346">346</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">but believes, on the authority of an unknown writer,
+named Piccard, that Holbein painted a Dance of Death in the old palace
+at Whitehall,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page360">360</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dovaston’s account of Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII38">478 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Doyle, R. artist. <a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page578a">578*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page579a">579*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Drawings, of a Dance of Death, supposed to be originals, by Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page357">357</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">by Robert Johnson, purchased of Beilby and Bewick, by
+the Earl of Bute,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page517">517</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">on wood, mode of preparing the block for,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page570">570</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">for wood engraving, difficulty of obtaining good,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page592">592</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Drytzehn, Andrew, a partner of Gutemberg’s,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page126">126</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Duncan, Edward, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page583a">583*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dünne, Hans, work done by him for Gutemberg, on account of printing,
+previous to 1438,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page129">129</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Durer, Albert, placed as pupil under Michael Wolgemuth,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page239">238</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">earliest known copper-plate of his engraving, 1494,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page239">239</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his illustrations of the Apocalypse, <i>ib.</i>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his visit to Venice,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page241">241</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his illustrations of the History of the Virgin,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page243">243-246</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">of Christ’s Passion,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page246">246-250</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">triumphal car,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page255">255</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">triumphal arch, <i>ib.</i>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his earliest etchings,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page257">257</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">specimen of his carving in the British Museum,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page258">258</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his poetry,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#noteV37">260 <i>n</i></a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his visit to Flanders,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page260">260-270</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his portrait,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page272">272</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">lock of his hair preserved,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#noteV93">321 <i>n</i></a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his death, said to have been hastened through his
+wife’s bad temper,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page239">239</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page273">273</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dyas, E. a self-taught wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII17">463 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dyers of Ovingham,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page501">501</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_E" id = "index_E" href = "#index">E</a></p>
+
+<p>Edmonston, S. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Egyptian brick stamp,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page5">5</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page6">6</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Electro-printing block process, specimen of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page639">639</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Electrotyping,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page638">638</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Elizabeth, Queen, portrait of, in Archbishop Parker’s Bible, 1568,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page419">419</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">in her Prayer-Book,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page427">427</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page428">428</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Emblems of Mortality, with cuts, engraved by John Bewick, 1789,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page329">329</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page513">513</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Emblems, Religious, with wood-cuts, 1808,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page520">520</a>.</p>
+
+<p>English book, the earliest, that contains wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page191">191-194</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Engraving, the word explained,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page1">1</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">copper-plate,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page20">20</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page200">200</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page419">419</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Enschedius, J., specimen of typography discovered by him,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page161">161</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Entkrist, Der, an old block-book,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page1">1</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Erasmus, portrait of, painted by Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page263">263</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">invoked by Durer to exert himself in behalf of the
+Reformation,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page267">267</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his worldly wisdom displayed in his letter
+introducing Holbein to Aegidius,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page375">375</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his Ship of Fools, with cuts by Seb. Brandt,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page468">468</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Etching, the process of, explained,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#noteV35">258 <i>n</i></a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">in metallic relief,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page632">632</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Evans, Edmund, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page556">556</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page567a">567*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Eve, creation of, conventional mode of representing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page215">215</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page216">216</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Evelyn’s Sculptura,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page5">5</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page408">408</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Eyck, Hubert and J. van, paintings by them,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page265">265</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_F" id = "index_F" href = "#index">F</a></p>
+
+<p>Fables, book of, printed at Bamberg, 1461,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page171">171</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Æsop’s, 1722,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page448">448</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Select, with cuts, by Bewick, 1818,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page502">502-506</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fairholt, F. W. artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page592a">592*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Falconer’s Shipwreck, 1808, with cuts by Clennell,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page522">522</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fanti, Sigismond, his Triompho di Fortuna, Venice, 1527,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page315">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fantuzzi, Antonio, called also Antonio da Trente, engraver of
+chiaro-scuros,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page389">389</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fasciculus Temporum, with wood-cuts, 1474,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page190">190</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Faust, John, becomes a partner of Gutemberg,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page131">131</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">sues him for money advanced,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page133">133</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">gains the cause,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page134">134</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Faust and Scheffer’s Psalter of 1457,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page164">164</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fellowship, or Guild of St. Luke, at Antwerp,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page121">121</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Figures du Nouveau Testament,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page402">402</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Flaxman’s Lectures, print of the creation of Eve in,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page217">217</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">cut from his relief, “Deliver us from evil,” <a href
+= "WoodEngraving8.html#page577a">577*</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his opinion of expressionand sentiment in art,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page585">585</a>;</p>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page657" id = "page657">
+657</a></span>
+<p class = "inset">cut from a design by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page590">590</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Folkard, W. A. wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page564a">564*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Forma, a shape or mould,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page42">42</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Formschneider,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page19">19</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page43">43</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page44">44</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page410">410</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Foster, Birket, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page551">551</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page556">556-558</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page570a">570*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page571a">571*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fournier, P. S. his discoveries with respect to the Speculum
+Salvationis,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page101">101</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his opinion of wooden types,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page136">136</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his works,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page467">467-469</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fox’s, John, Acts and Monuments,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page428">428</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fracture,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#noteV66">283 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Franklin, John, draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Frellon, John and Francis, publishers of the second edition of the
+Lyons Dance of Death,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page366">366</a>.</p>
+
+<p>French wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page610">610</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Frey, Agnes, the wife of Durer, her avarice and ill-temper said to
+have hastened her husband’s death,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page273">273</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Frith, W. P. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page59">59</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_G" id = "index_G" href = "#index">G</a></p>
+
+<p>Gænsfleisch, a surname of the family of Gutemberg,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page124">124</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Galenus de Temperamentis, with a title-page, engraved on copper,
+printed at Cambridge, 1521,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page421">421</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Galius, Nicholas, tells the story of Coster’s invention to
+H.&nbsp;Junius,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page150">150</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gamperlin, Von, cuts ascribed to,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page314">314</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Garfagninus, Joseph Porta,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page390">390</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gebhard, L. A. his notice of the History of the Council of Constance,
+with cuts of arms,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page189">189</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gemini, Thomas, his Compendium of Anatomy, with copper-plate
+engravings, London, 1545,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page422">422</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gent, Thomas, wood-cuts in his History of Ripon,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page181">181</a>.</p>
+
+<p>George IV. his signature stamped,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page14">14</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his snuff-box, with designs by Flaxman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page590">590</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gesner, Conrad, expressly mentions the cuts in the Lyons Dance of
+Death, as having been designed by Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page364">364</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ghesquiere, M. his answer to M. Desroches,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page120">120</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gilbert, John, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page561a">561*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page563a">563*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page564a">564*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gilpin, Rev. William, his definition of tint,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page213">213</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Giolito, Gabriel, printer, of Venice,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page394">394</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Giraffe, wood-cut of a, in Breydenbach’s Travels, 1486,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page269">269</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Glasses, observations on the use of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page573">573</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Globe, glass, the engraver’s, to concentrate the light of the lamp,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page575">575</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Glockendon, George, an early German wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page227">227</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Glockenton, A. cuts ascribed to,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page317">317</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Goethe, allusion to Sir Theurdank, in his Götz Von Berlichingen,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#noteV62">281 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Golden Legend, printed by W. de Worde, 1493, large cut in,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page195">195</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Goldsmith and Parnell’s Poems, printed by Bulmer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page513">513</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Goltzius, Henry, chiaro-scuros by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page432">432</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Goltzius, Hubert, his portraits of the Roman Emperors in
+chiaro-scuro, from plates of metal, 1557,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page405">405</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Goodall, E. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Goodall, W. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Goose, Bernacle or Barnacle, said to be produced from a tree,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page414">414</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gorway, Charles, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page600a">600*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gospels of Ulphilas,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page44">44</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gothic monograms,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page15">15</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Graff, Rose,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page313">313</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page314">314</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Grand-duc de l’armée céleste,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page173">173</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Grant, W. J. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gratture, the French term for the process of thickening the lines in
+a wood-cut by scraping them down,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page464">464</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gravers,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page574">574</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page575">575</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gray, Charles, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Green, W. T. wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page547">547</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page548">548</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Greenaway, J. wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page553">553-555</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Greff, Jerome, publisher of a pirated edition of Durer’s
+Illustrations of the Apocalypse,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page241">241</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Greffier and Scrivener,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteI2">2 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gregson, Mr. C., letter to, from Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page474">474</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page479">479</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gringonneur, Jacquemin, cards painted by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page41">41</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gritner, a French wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page547">547</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Grotesque,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteI9">9 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Grün, H. B.
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page320">320</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gubitz, a modern German wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page546">546</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Guicciardini, L. mentions the report of printing having been invented
+at Harlem,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gutemberg, John, his birth,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page124">124</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">residing at Strasburg in 1434,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page125">125</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his partnership with Andrew Drytzehn, <i>ib.</i>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">evidences of his having a <i>press</i> in 1438, for
+the purpose of printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page127">127</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his return to Mentz and partnership with Faust,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page131">131</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">partnership dissolved,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page133">133</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">proofs of his having afterwards had a press of his
+own,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page140">140</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his death and epitaph,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page144">144</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_H" id = "index_H" href = "#index">H</a></p>
+
+<p>Hahn, Ulric, Meditationes J. de Turrecremata, printed by, in 1467,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page184">184</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hammond, &mdash;, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page600a">600*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hancock, Charles, his patent for engraving in metallic relief,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page635">635</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Handgun, figure of one seen in cut in Valturius, de Re Militari,
+1472,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page187">187</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hans, Young, Briefmaler,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page116">116</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page225">225</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Harral, Horace, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page566a">566*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page583a">583*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page594a">594*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Harrington, Sir John, his translation of Ariosto, with copper-plate
+engravings, 1591,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page423">423</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hartlieb, Dr. Cyromantia,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page116">116</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Harvey, William, a pupil of Bewick, notice of his works as an
+engraver and designer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page527">527-534</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hawkins, John Sidney, editor of Emblems of Mortality, 1789,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page329">329</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hawkins, Sir John, wood-cuts in his History of Music, 1776,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page471">471</a>.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page658" id = "page658">
+658</a></span>
+<p>Haydock, R. his translation of Lomazzo, with copper-plate engraving,
+1598,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page423">423</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Head of Paris, the lover of Helen, serves for that of Thales, Dante,
+and others,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page212">212</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hegner, Ulrich, author of Life of Holbein, his notice of the Dance of
+Death, at Basle,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page326">326</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">of the German names in proof impressions of the cuts
+in the Lyons Dance of Death,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page331">331</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">of Hans Lutzelburger,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page351">351</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his Life of Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page372">372</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Heilman, Anthony, his evidence in the suit of the Drytzehns against
+Gutemberg, 1438,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page128">128</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Heineken, Charles, Baron Von, his disbelief of Papillon’s story of
+the Cunio,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page27">27</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his opinion that cards were invented in Germany,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page40">40</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his notice of the old wood-cut of St. Christopher,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page46">46</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">of the History of the Virgin,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page68">68</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">of the Apocalypse,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page80">80</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">of the Poor Preacher’s Bible,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page82">82</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page94">94</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">of the Speculum Salvationis,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page100">100</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his erroneous account of a Dutch wood-cut, by
+<i>Phillery</i> [Willem] de figuersnider,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page309">309</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Helgen, or Helglein, figures of Saints,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page45">45</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Henderson, Dr. his History of Wines, with Illustrations, by
+W.&nbsp;Harvey,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page530">530</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Henry VIII. his signature stamped,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page14">14</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Heures a l’Usaige de Chartres, printed by S. Vostre, 1502,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page232">232</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hicks, G. E. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hieroglyphic sonnet,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page396">396</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Bible, <a class = "error" href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#page478" title = "page reference missing">478</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Highland Society, diploma of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page523">523</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Historiarum Veteris Testamenti Icones, or Bible-cuts, designed by
+Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page365">365-371</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Histories, the Four, dated 1462,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page172">172-175</a>.</p>
+
+<p>History of the Virgin, an ancient block-book,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page68">68-80</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hodgson, Solomon, printer of the first four editions of Bewick’s
+Quadrupeds,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page488">488</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hodgson, T. the engraver of a cut in Sir John Hawkins’s History of
+Music, 1776,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page471">471</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hogarth, cut from projected edition of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">sketch from,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page594">594</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hogenberg, R. portrait of Archbishop Parker engraved by, 1572,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page422">422</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Holbein, Hans, the designer of the cuts in the Dance of Death printed
+at Lyons,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page371">371</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his birth, <i>ib.</i>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his marriage,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page372">372</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">how employed at Basle,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page373">373</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">visits England, <i>ib.</i>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">revisits Basle,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page376">376</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his death,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page378">378</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his satirical drawings,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#noteVI60">378 <i>n</i></a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his Alphabet,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page352">352</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hole, Henry, a pupil of Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII55">492 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Holl, Leonard, printer of Ulm, his edition of Ptolemy, 1483,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page199">199</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hollar, W. his etchings of the Dance of Death,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page337">337</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Holzschneider,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page2">2</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Horace, his well-stored wine,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page9">9</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Horne, Rev. T. H. probably incorrect with respect to a date,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page60">60</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Horsley, J. C. artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page591a">591*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hortus Sanitatis, 1491,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page210">210</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Householder, the Good,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page438">438</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Howel’s Medulla Historiæ Anglicanæ, with wood-cuts, 1712,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page446">446</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hughes, Hugh, his Beauties of Cambria,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page538">538-548</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hughes, William, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page538">538</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hudibras, 1819, cut from,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page543">543</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hulme, F. W. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Humanæ Vitæ Imago,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#noteVI119">436 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Humphreys, Noel, draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hunt, W. Holman, painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hunting and Hawking, Book of, printed at St. Alban’s, 1486, and at
+Westminster in 1496,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page195">195</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hutton’s Mensuration, with diagrams engraved by Bewick, 1768-1770,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page475">475</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hypnerotomachia Poliphili,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page218">218</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page220">220</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page224">224</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_I" id = "index_I" href = "#index">I</a></p>
+
+<p>Images of the Old Testament, with cuts, designed by Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page365">365-370</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Impressions from wood and from copper, the difference in the mode of
+taking,&nbsp;4.</p>
+
+<p>Initial letters, flowered,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page191">191</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page429">429</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Insanity of engravers,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII14">458 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Inscriptions on bells,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page20">20</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Intaglio engraving on wood, so that the outlines appear white upon
+black,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page225">225</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page482">482</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page618">618</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page619">619</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_J" id = "index_J" href = "#index">J</a></p>
+
+<p>Jackson, John, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page545">545</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Jackson, John Baptist, an English wood engraver, perhaps a pupil of
+Kirkall,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page453">453</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Papillon’s notice of him,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page454">454</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">engraves several chiaro-scuros at Venice,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page455">455</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">establishes a manufactory for paper-hangings at
+Battersea, and publishes an essay on chiaro-scuro engraving,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page455">455-457</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Jackson, John,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page545">545</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Jackson, Mason, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page589a">589*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page600a">600*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Jacob blessing the children of Joseph,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page596">596</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page597">597</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Janszoon, Lawrence, supposed to be the same person as Lawrence
+Coster,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page162">162</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Javelin-headed characters,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page7">7</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Jean-le-Robert, his Journal,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page122">122</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Jegher, Christopher, wood engravings by, from drawings by Rubens,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page437">437</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Jettons, or counters,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page19">19</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Jewitt, Orlando, draughtsman and wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page584a">584*-587*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>John, St. old wood-cuts of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page60">60</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Johnson, John, a pupil of Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII74">517 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Johnson, Robert, a pupil of Bewick’s, list of tail-pieces in the
+British Birds designed by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page497">497</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">notice of his life,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page516">516</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Jones, Owen, draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Journal, Albert Durer’s, of his visit to Flanders,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page260">260</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Judith, with the head of Holofernes,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page440">440</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Junius, Hadrian, claims the invention of printing for Lawrence
+Coster,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page147">147-150</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_K" id = "index_K" href = "#index">K</a></p>
+
+<p>Kartenmachers in Germany, in the fifteenth century,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page43">43</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Keene, Charles, draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page659" id = "page659">
+659</a></span>
+<p>Killing the black, a technical term in wood engraving, explained,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page232">232</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Kirchner, &mdash;, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page563a">563*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Kirkall, E. copper-plate frontispiece to Howel’s Medulla Historiæ
+Anglicanæ, engraved by, 1712,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page447">447</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">chiaro-scuros engraved by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page451">451</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">copper-plates engraved by, in Rowe’s translation of
+Lucan’s Pharsalia, and other works,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page452">452</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Klauber, H. H., repainted the Dance of Death in the church-court of
+the Dominicans, at Basle,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page327">327</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Knight, R. Payne, his bequest of a piece of sculpture, by A. Durer,
+to the British Museum,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page258">258</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Knight, C. his patent illuminated prints and maps,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page630">630</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Koburger, Anthony, printer of the Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page212">212</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Koning, J. a modern advocate of Coster’s invention,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page154">154</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Krismer, librarian of the Convent of Buxheim,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteII14">49 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Kunig, der Weiss, the title of a work, with wood-cuts, chiefly
+written by the Emperor Maximilian,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page286">286</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page483">483</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">summary of its contents, <i>ib.</i></p>
+
+<p>Kupfer-stecher,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page2">2</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Küttner, K. G. his opinion of Sir Theurdank,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page282">282</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Kyloe Ox, by Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII49">485 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_L" id = "index_L" href = "#index">L</a></p>
+
+<p>Ladenspelder, Hans,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page355">355</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Laer, W. Rolewinck de, his Fasciculus Temporum, with wood-cuts, 1474,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page190">190</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lamp, the engraver’s,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page575">575</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Landells, Ebenezer, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Landseer, Mr. Edwin, on vignettes,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page615">615</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Landseer, Mr. John, his theory of vegetable putties,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page72">72</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his observations on the term colour, as applied to
+engravings,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page213">213</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Laocoon, burlesque of the, by Titian,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page435">435</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lapis, Dominico de, printer of Bologna, his edition of Ptolemy, with
+an erroneous date,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page201">201</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lar, the word on a Roman stamp,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page8">8</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lawless, M. J. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lee, James, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page593a">593*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lee, John, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page534">534</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Leech, John, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page580a">580*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page581a">581*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Leglenweiss, the word explained,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page44">44</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Legrand, J. G. his translation of the Hypnerotomachia,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page219">219</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lehne, F. his observations on a passage in the Cologne Chronicle,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteIII6">122 <i>n</i></a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his Chronology of the Harlem Fiction,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page155">155</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his remarks on Koning,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page157">157</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Leicester, Robert Earl of, his portrait in Archbishop Parker’s
+edition of the Bible, 1568,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page419">419</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Leighton, John, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page582a">582*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Leighton, Henry, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page582a">582*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Le Jeune, H. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Leland, John, his Næniæ, 1542, contains a portrait, engraved on wood,
+of Sir Thomas Wyatt,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page379">379</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Le Sueurs, French wood-engravers,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page443">443</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page467">467</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Letania Lauretana, with wood-cuts, Valencia, 1768,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page469">469</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lettere Cifrate,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page395">395</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Leyden, Lucas van, visited by Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page269">269</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his engravings,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page308">308</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lhuyd, Humphrey, erroneously described by Walpole as an engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page420">420</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Libripagus, a definition of the word, by Paul of Prague,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page182">182</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lignamine, P. de, in his Chronicle, 1474, mentions Gutemberg and
+Faust, as printers, at Mentz in 1458,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page140">140</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Linton, W. J. wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page590a">590*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page591a">591*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lobel and Pena’s Stirpium Adversaria, with copper-plate title-page,
+London, 1570,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page423">423</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lodewyc von Vaelbeke, a fidler, supposed to have been the inventor of
+printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page119">119</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Logography,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page417">417</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lorenzo, Nicolo, books containing copper-plates printed by him,
+1477-1481,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page202">202</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lorich, Melchior,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page408">408</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Loudon’s Arboretum, with cuts printed from casts of etchings, by
+Branston,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page634">634</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Loudon, J. wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page600a">600*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lowering, the practice of, no recent invention,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page465">465</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lowering, concave,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page618">618</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lowering, advantages of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page624">624</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lowering, complicated,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page625">625</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lowering, the difference between cylindrical rollers and the common
+press, so far as relates to,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#noteIX34">640 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lucas van Leyden,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page308">308</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lucchesini, an Italian wood-engraver, about 1770,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page469">469</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Luther, Martin, his cause espoused by Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page265">265</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">caricature portraits of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page267">267</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lutzelburger, Hans, a wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page351">351</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lydgate, John, mentions vignettes in his Troy Book,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page616">616</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lysons, Mr. Samuel, letter from, to Sir George Beaumont,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page108">108</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_M" id = "index_M" href = "#index">M</a></p>
+
+<p>Mabillon,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page14">14</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Machabre, The Dance of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page325">325-329</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Maclise, D. artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page568a">568*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page569a">569*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Macquoid, T. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mair, an engraver, a supposed chiaro-scuro by, 1499,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page231">231</a>.</p>
+
+<p>McIan, R. R. artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page588a">588*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page590a">590*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Maittaire’s Latin Classics, wood-cut ornaments in, 1713,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page448">448</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mallinkrot, his translation of a passage in the Cologne Chronicle,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page123">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mander, C. Van, ascribes the Lyons Dance of Death to Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page365">365</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mantegna, Andrea, wood-cuts of the Hypnerotomachia ascribed to,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page219">219</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Manung, widder die Durken, an early specimen of typography,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page138">138</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Map engraved on wood, specimen of a,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page612">612</a>.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page660" id = "page660">
+660</a></span>
+<p>Maps engraved on wood and on copper, the earliest,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page199">199</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">names of places in, printed in type, 1511,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page203">203</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">printed in colours, 1538,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page204">204</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">improvements in engraving, <i>ib.</i>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">printed in separate pieces, with types, 1776,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page205">205</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">improvements in printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page417">417</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">early, on copper, published in England,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page419">419</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Knight’s patent illuminated,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page630">630</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Marcolini, F. wood-cuts in his Sorti, 1540,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page389">389</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page391">391</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Marks, double, on wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page350">350</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Marshall, J. R. wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page596a">596*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Martin, John, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page545">545</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page546">546</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page547">547</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page590a">590*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Martin, J. wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mary de Medici, her portrait mistaken by Papillon and Fournier for a
+specimen of her own engraving on wood,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page461">461</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Masters, little,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#noteV92">320 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Matsys, Quintin, entertains Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page261">261</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Maude, Thomas, extract from his poem of the School Boy,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page473">473</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Maugerard, M. copy of an early edition of the Bible discovered by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page139">139</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Maximilian the First, Emperor of Germany, his triumphal car and arch,
+designed by Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page255">255</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">the Adventures of Sir Theurdank, the joint
+composition of himself and his secretary,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page282">282-285</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">works celebrating his actions,&mdash;The Wise King,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page286">286</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset2">the Triumphal Procession,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page288">288</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page289">289</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mazarine Bible,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteIII40">139 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Meadows, Kenny, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page597a">597*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Measom, Geo. wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page575a">575*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mechel, Christian von, of Basle, his engravings after Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page350">350</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Medals,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page320">320</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Meditationes Joannis de Turrecremata,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page184">184</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Meerman, G. his disbelief of the story of Coster’s invention,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page154">154</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">and his subsequent attempts to establish its
+credibility,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page155">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mentelin, John, printer, of Strasburg, formerly an illuminator,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page121">121</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mentonnière,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page465">465</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page574">574</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Merchants’-marks,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page17">17</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Metallic relief engraving, erroneous statements about,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page305">305</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Blake’s metallic relief engraving,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page632">632</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">portrait thus executed by Lizars,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page633">633</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Woone’s,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page634">634</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Schonberg’s, <i>ib.</i>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Branston’s, <i>ib.</i>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Hancock’s patent,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page635">635</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Sly’s experiments,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page636">636</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Messrs. Best, Andrew, and Leloir, <i>ib.</i></p>
+
+<p>Meydenbach, John, said to have been one of Gutemberg’s assistants,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page166">166</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Meydenbach, Jacobus, printer of the Hortus Sanitatis, 1491,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page210">210</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Millais, J. E. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mints, provincial, for coining money,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page19">19</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mirror of Human Salvation,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page95">95</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mirror of the World, printed by Caxton,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page194">194</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Missale Herbipolense, with a copper-plate engraving, 1481,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page201">201</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Moffet’s Theatre of Insects,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page442">442</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Monogram,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page13">13</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page15">15</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Montagna, Benedetto, wood-cuts of the Hypnerotomachia ascribed to
+him,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page220">220</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Monte Sancto di Dio, an early book, containing copper-plates, 1477,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page202">202</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Monumental brasses,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page21">21</a>.</p>
+
+<p>More, Sir Thomas,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page375">375</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Morgan, M. S. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Morland, sketch from,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page592">592</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mort, les Simulachres de la, Lyons, 1538,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page328">328</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mosses, Thomas, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mulready, W. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Munster, Sebastian, his Cosmography,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page413">413</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his letters to Joachim Vadianus about an improvement
+in the mode of printing maps,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page417">417</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Murr, C. G. Von, references to his Journal of Art, and other works,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page2">2</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page9">9</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page42">42</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page47">47</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page49">49</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page51">51</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page56">56</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page74">74</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page227">227</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page236">236</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page237">237</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page241">241</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page242">242</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page257">257</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page260">260</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page262">262</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page264">264</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page267">267</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page273">273</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page281">281</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page283">283</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page289">289</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page291">291</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_N" id = "index_N" href = "#index">N</a></p>
+
+<p>Names of wood engravers at the back of the original blocks of the
+Triumphs of Maximilian,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page292">292</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Naming of John the Baptist, a piece of sculpture by A. Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page259">259</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Nash, J. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Nesbit, Charlton, a pupil of Bewick, notice of some of his principal
+cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page519">519-521</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Neudörffer, his account of Jerome Resch, a wood engraver,
+contemporary with Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page236">236</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Nicholson, Isaac, a pupil of Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page527">527</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Northcote, James, his mode of composing the cuttings for his Fables,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII88">529 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Notarial stamps,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page17">17</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Nummi bracteati,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page16">16</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Nuremberg Chronicle,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page212">212</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_O" id = "index_O" href = "#index">O</a></p>
+
+<p>Oberlin, J. J. Essai d’Annales de la Vie de Gutenberg,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page125">125</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page130">130</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page136">136</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page138">138</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page140">140</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page143">143</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Odes, two, by Lloyd and Colman, with wood-cuts, 1760,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page470">470</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ortelius, Abraham, his collection of maps, engraved on copper, 1570,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page419">419</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ortus Sanitatis,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page211">211</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ottley, W. Y. adopts Papillon’s story of the Cunio,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page419">419</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his advocacy of Coster’s pretensions,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page160">160</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">ascribes the introduction of cross-hatching to M.
+Wolgemuth,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page239">239</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">and the designs of the cuts in the Hypnerotomachia to
+Benedetto Montagna,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page220">220</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Outline, in wood engraving, the difference between the white and the
+true,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page587">587</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">engravings in,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page590">590</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Overlaying wood-cuts, mode of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page613">613</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page645">645</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ovid’s Metamorphoses, printed at Venice, 1497,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page217">217</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ovingham, the parsonage at,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page473">473</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">the church,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page512">512</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Oxford Sausage, with wood-cuts, 1764,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page470">470</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_P" id = "index_P" href = "#index">P</a></p>
+
+<p>Packhouse’s machine for tints,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#noteIX15">584 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Palatino, G. B. his work on Penmanship,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page395">395</a>.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page661" id = "page661">
+661</a></span>
+<p>Palmer, W. J. wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page557">557</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Paper, proper for printing wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page646">646</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">India paper, injurious to wood-cuts, <i>ib.</i></p>
+
+<p>Paper-mark in an old book of wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page107">107</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Paper money, early,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteI35">25 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Papillon, John, the elder,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page443">443</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Papillon, John Michael, his story of the Cunio,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page26">26</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his character,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page35">35</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">notice of his works,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page457">457-467</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Parafe, or ruche,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page14">14</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Parker, Archbishop, his portrait, engraved by R. Hogenberg, 1572,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page422">422</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Parkinson’s Paradisus Terrestris,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page442">442</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Parmegiano, chiaro-scuros after his designs,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page403">403</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pasti, Matteo, supposed to have designed the cuts in Valturius de Re
+Militari, 1472,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page186">186</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Patin’s Life of Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page372">372</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Patroner, the word explained,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#noteVI9">330 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Paul of Prague, his definition of “libripagus,” <a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#page182">182</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pearson, G. wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page573a">573*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page574a">574*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pepyr, Edmund, his mark,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page18">18</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Peringskiold,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page14">14</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Petit-Jehan de Saintré, Chronicle of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page41">41</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Petrarch’s Sonnets, Lyons, 1545, cuts in,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page400">400</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Petronius,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page8">8</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page15">15</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pfintzing, Melchior, joint author of Sir Theurdank,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page282">282</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pfister, Albert, works printed by, at Bamberg in 1461 and 1462,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page170">170</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page181">181</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Phillery, properly Willem, de figursnider, mistakes about a cut of
+his engraving,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page310">310</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Phiz (H. K. Browne), draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Piccard, T. Nieuhoff, an unknown discoverer of a painting of the
+Dance of Death, by Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page360">360</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page363">363</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pickersgill, F. R. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pictura, a wood-cut sometimes called,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page357">357</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pilgrim, John Ulric, cuts ascribed to,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page317">317</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pinkerton, John, his statement that several of the cuts in Bewick’s
+Quadrupeds were drawn on the block by R.&nbsp;Johnson,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII54">491 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pinx. et Scalp. not to be found on early wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page35">35</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pirkheimer, Bilibald, letters written to him by Albert Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page242">242</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his letter to J. Tscherte, announcing Durer’s death,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page273">273</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pittacia, small labels,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteI8">8 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Playing cards,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page40">40</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Plebanus, a curate or vicar,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteII35">61 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pleydenwurff, William, with M. Wolgemuth, superintends the cuts of
+the Nuremberg Chronicle, 1491,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page212">212</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ploughman, Pierce, his Creed,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page18">18</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Plug, mode of inserting in an engraved wood-block,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page549">549</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Poetry, specimen of Durer’s,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page260">260</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">specimens of Clennell’s, when insane,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page526">526</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Poliphili Hypnerotomachia,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page218">218</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page220">220</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page224">224</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Polo, Marco,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page25">25</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Poor Preacher’s Bible,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page80">80-94</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page175">175-179</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Portraits of Bewick, list of the principal,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page509">509</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Powis, W. H. wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Prayer-book, Queen Elizabeth’s, 1569,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page427">427</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Prenters of Antwerp in 1442,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page121">121</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Press made for Gutemberg previous to 1438,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page127">127</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Press, rolling, for copper-plate printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page4">4</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Press, steam, wood-cuts printed by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page644">644</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Preusch, his attempt to print maps by a typometric process,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page205">205</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Printing, Gutemberg occupied with the invention of, in 1436,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page127">127</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Printing in colours, a figure of Christ, with the date 1543,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page403">403</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Savage’s decorative printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page629">629</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">G. Baxter’s improvements,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page629">629</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">C. Knight’s patent illuminated prints and maps,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page630">630</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Printing wood-cuts, best mode of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page640">640</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Priority of editions of the Speculum Salvationis,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page100">100</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Procession, triumphal, of Maximilian,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page288">288</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page289">289</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Procopius,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page13">13</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Proofs of wood engravings, mode of unfairly taking,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page466">466</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page603">603</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Prout, J. S. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Psalter, printed by Faust and Scheffer in 1457,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page164">164</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ptolemy’s Cosmography, with maps, engraved on wood, 1483,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page199">199</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">an edition printed by Dominico de Lapis, at Bologna,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page201">201</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">at Venice, by J. Pentius de Leucho, 1511,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page203">203</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_Q" id = "index_Q" href = "#index">Q</a></p>
+
+<p>Quadrin’s Historiques de la Bible,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page402">402</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Quadrupeds, History of, with cuts, by Bewick, 1791,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page482">482-490</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Queen Elizabeth’s Prayer-book,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page427">427</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Quintilian, his notice of the manner of boys learning to write by
+tracing the letters through a stencil,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page12">12</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_R" id = "index_R" href = "#index">R</a></p>
+
+<p>Raffaele, designs for the wood-cuts of the Hypnerotomachia ascribed
+to him,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page219">219</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">a wood-cut after a drawing by, in Marcolini’s Sorti,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page389">389</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rahmenschneiders, or border-cutters,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page190">190</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page319">319</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Raidel, his Dissertation on an edition of Ptolemy,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page201">201</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">dates, erroneous in books, <i>ib.</i></p>
+
+<p>Raimbach, Abraham, his engraving of the Rent-day, after Sir
+D.&nbsp;Wilkie,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page213">213</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Randell, a printer’s apprentice, wood-cuts by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page180">180</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Raynalde’s Birth of Mankind, with three copper-plate engravings,
+1540,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page421">421</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Read, S. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rebus, or “name devises,” <a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#page398">398</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Redgrave, R. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Relief, metallic, engraving in, erroneous statements about,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page305">305</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">practised by Blake and others,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page632">632-636</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rembrandt, cuts copied from etchings by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page595">595</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page599">599</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page602">602</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page605">605</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Renaudot, l’Abbé,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page24">24</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rent-day, engraving of a group from, after Sir D. Wilkie,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page593">593</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Repairing wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#noteIX8">569 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page662" id = "page662">
+662</a></span>
+<p>Reperdius, George, a painter praised by Nicholas Bourbon,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page356">356</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Requeno’s Chirotipografia,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteII6">44 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Revelationes Cœlestes sanctæ Brigittæ de Suecia,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page321">321</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Reynolds, Nicholas, an English engraver on copper, 1575,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page420">420</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Reyser, George, printer of the Missale Herbipolense, 1481,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page202">202</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Roberts, David, painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Robin Hood’s Garland, with wood-cut on the title-page, 1670,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page444">444</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page445">445</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rocca, Angelus, mentions a Donatus on parchment,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteIII9">123 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rogers, Harry, draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rogers, William, an English copper-plate engraver, about 1600,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page423">423</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rolling-press,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page4">4</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rollers, composition, not so good as composition balls for inking
+certain kinds of wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page650">650</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Roman stamps,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page8">8</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page10">10</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rotundity, how indicated by straight lines,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page584">584</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rouen Cathedral,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page611">611</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rubbing down,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page389">389</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rubens. P. P. his praise of the cuts in the Lyons Dance of Death,
+designed by Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page365">365</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">wood engravings from his designs,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page438">438</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page439">439</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ruche, or parafe,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page14">14</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Runic cyphers and monograms,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page15">15</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ryther, Augustine, an English engraver on copper, 1575,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page420">420</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_S" id = "index_S" href = "#index">S</a></p>
+
+<p>Sachs, Hans, his descriptions of cuts designed by Jost Amman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page408">408</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Salmincio, Andrea, wood-cuts ascribed to,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page441">441</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sandbag and block,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page575">575</a>.</p>
+
+<p><ins class = "correction" title = "text reads ‘Sandrant’">Sandrart</ins>, J. his notice of the Dance of Death, with
+cuts designed by Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page365">365</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Saspach, Conrad, his evidence in the Drytzehns’ suit against
+Gutemberg, 1438,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page128">128</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Savage, W. chiaro-scuros in his hints on Decorative Printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page629">629</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his opinion as to the best mode of working a form
+containing wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page647">647</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Saxton, Christopher, his collection of English County Maps, engraved
+on copper, 1573-1579,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page420">420</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schapf, George, an early wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page142">142</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page228">228</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schäufflein, Hans, painter, generally supposed to have engraved on
+wood,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page281">281</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page283">283</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page284">284</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page285">285</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page287">287</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schedel, Hartman, compiler of the Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page212">212</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Scheffer, Peter, a partner of Gutemberg and Faust,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page132">132</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">mentioned by Faust as his servant,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page133">133</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">a clerk, or copyist of books,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page167">167</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schelhorn’s Amœnitates,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page113">113</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schœpflin, Vindiciæ Typographicæ,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page125">125</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page132">132</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schön, Martin,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page74">74</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page238">238</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schön, Erhard,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page406">406</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schonberg, Mr. his attempts to engrave in metallic relief,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page634">634</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schönsperger, Hans, the printer of Sir Theurdank,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page282">282</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schopper, Hartman, verses by, in a book of trades and professions,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page409">409</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schoting of Nuremberg, a cut thus inscribed, the date 1584, mistaken
+for 1384,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page59">59</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schultheis, Hans, his evidence in the Drytzehns’ suit against
+Gutemberg, 1438,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page127">127</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schussler, John, a printer of Augsburg,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page180">180</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schwartz, J. G. Documenta de Origine Typographiæ,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page124">124</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page133">133</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page134">134</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page142">142</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Scopoli, mistakes Mr. B. White’s sign for the name of his partner,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page313">313</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Scott, T. D. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Scrive, a tool to mark timber with,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page2">2</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Scrivener and Greffier,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteI2">2 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Scriverius, his account of Coster’s invention,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteIII66">151 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Seals, engraved,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page20">20</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sebastian, St. account of an old wood-cut of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page55">55</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Selous, H. C. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Shade for the eyes,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page575">575</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Shaw, Henry, draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Shields of arms in the block-book called The Apocalypse,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page65">65</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">in the History of the Virgin,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page75">75</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page76">76</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page77">77</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page78">78</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sichem, Cornelius van, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page439">439</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Silberrad, Dr. old wood-cuts in the possession of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page227">227</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Simulachres et Historiées Faces de la Mort, Lyons, 1538,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page328">328</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Singer’s Researches on the History of Playing Cards,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page9">9</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his unacknowledged obligations to Breitkopf,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page10">10</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Skelton, Percival,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page550">550</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page569a">569*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Skippe, John, chiaro-scuros engraved by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page628">628</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Slader, Samuel, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sly, Stephen, his experiments in metallic relief,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page636">636</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Smith, John Orrin, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Smith, Orrin. wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page580a">580*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Smyth, F. G. wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page600a">600*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Snuff-box, George the Fourth’s, with designs, by Flaxman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page590">590</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Solis, Virgil,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page406">406</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Solomon, song of, illustrations,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page71">71</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page72">72</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Solomon, A. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Solomon, Bernard, of Lyons,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page398">398-401</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page407">407</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Somervile’s Chase, with cuts, designed by John Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page513">513</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sonetto figurato,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page395">395-397</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sorg, Anthony, of Augsburg, account of the Council of Constance, with
+wood-cuts, printed by him in 1483,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page189">189</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sorti, Marcolini’s, a work containing wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page389">389-393</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Southey, Robert, his notice of two odes by Lloyd and Colman, with
+wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page470">470</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Spanish marks,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page15">15</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Specklin, D. mentions wooden types,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page131">131</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Speculum Nostræ Salutis,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page149">149</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Speculum Salvationis, a misnamed block-book,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page95">95-106</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">cuts from,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page96">96</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page97">97</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page98">98</a>.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page663" id = "page663">
+663</a></span>
+<p>Speed’s History of Britain,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page442">442</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sporer, Hans, an old briefmaler,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page43">43</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Springinklee, Hans,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page287">287</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page320">320</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stabius, J. his description of the triumphal arch of Maximilian,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page256">256</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stamham, Melchior de, Abbot of St. Ulric and Afra, at Augsburg,
+printing-presses bought by him,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#noteIV1">165 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stampien, to stamp with the foot as a fiddler beats time, mistaken
+for printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page120">120</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stamping of letters in manuscripts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page44">44</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stampilla,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page14">14</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stamps, Roman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page8">8</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">notarial,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page17">17</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stanfield, Clarkson, R.A.
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page570a">570*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Steiner, J. M. his notice of a book printed at Bamberg in 1462,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page170">170</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stencilling,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page12">12</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteII1">40 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stephenson, James, draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stereotype, early,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page418">418</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">modern,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page636">636</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stigmata,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page12">12</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stimmer, Christopher, and Tobias,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page413">413</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stocks, Lumb, draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stoke-field, knights and bannerets created after the battle of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page191">191</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stonehouse, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page591a">591*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stothard, Thomas, R.A. his Illustrations of Rogers’s Poems, 1812,
+engraved on wood,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page524">524</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Strephon’s Revenge, 1724, copy of a tail-piece in,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page453">453</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sueur, le, Peter and Vincent,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page443">443</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Nicholas,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page467">467</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sulman, T. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Swain, John, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page579a">579*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page581a">581*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Swain, Joseph, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page600a">600*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Swedish coins,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page15">15</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sweynheim, Conrad, printer, the first that devised maps engraved on
+copper,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page200">200</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Switzer, cuts engraved by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page442">442</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sylvius, Æneas, his account of the Barnacle or Tree goose,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page415">415</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_T" id = "index_T" href = "#index">T</a></p>
+
+<p>Tail-pieces in Bewick’s Quadrupeds,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page486">486</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tell, William,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page416">416</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page417">417</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Temple, W. W. a pupil of Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page527">527</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tenniel, John, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page559">559</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page560">560</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Terms, abstract, derived from names expressive of tangible and
+visible things,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page214">214</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Terra-cottas, called Typi,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page7">7</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Testament, Figures du Nouveau,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page402">402</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Theodoric, his monogram,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page13">13</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ther-Hoernen, Arnold, prints at Cologne an edition of the Fasciculus
+Temporum, with wood-cuts, 1474,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page190">190</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Theurdank, the Adventures of, an allegorical poem, by the Emperor
+Maximilian and his Secretary,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page281">281</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">the text erroneously supposed to have been engraved
+on wood,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page283">283</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas, G. H. artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page565a">565*-567*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas, W. L. wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page565a">565*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page568a">568*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Thompson, Charles, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII89">541 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Thompson, Eliza, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII89">541 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Thompson, John, wood engraver, a pupil of R. Branston, notice of some
+of his principal cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page541">541</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page569a">569*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Thurston, John, designer on wood,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII76">519 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tindale, William, cuts in his translation of the New Testament, 1534,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page383">383-385</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tinsel money,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page16">16</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tints, mode of cutting,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page577">577-581</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tint-tools,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page577">577</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Titian, wood-cuts after,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page433">433</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page435">435</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tools, wood engravers’,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page576">576-530</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Topham, F. W. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Topsell’s History of Four-footed Beasts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page442">442</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tract printed by A. Pfister, at Bamberg, 1461, 1462,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page170">170</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page181">181</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Transferring old impressions of wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteII82">104 <i>n</i></a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">old wood-cuts and copper-plates,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page637">637</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Travelling printers,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page184">184</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tree goose,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page414">414</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Treitzsaurwein. M. Secretary to the Emperor Maximilian, nominal
+author of the Weiss Kunig,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page286">286</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Treschel, Melchior and Gaspar, printers of the Lyons Dance of Death,
+1538, with cuts, designed by Hans Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page330">330</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Trimming,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page606">606</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Triompho di Fortuna,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page315">315-317</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Trithemius, his account of the invention of printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page131">131</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Triumphal procession, usually called the Triumphs of Maximilian,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page288">288-304</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Trusler, Dr. his Progress of Man and Society, with cuts, by John
+Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page613">613</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Turner, Dr. William, his account of the Tree goose,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page414">414</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Turner, the Rev. William, his opinion of cross-hatching,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page562">562</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Turrecremata, J. de, his Meditationes,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page184">184</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Typi,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page7">7</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Typography, invention of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page118">118</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">not a chance discovery,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page145">145</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_U" id = "index_U" href = "#index">U</a></p>
+
+<p>Ulphilas, Gospels of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page44">44</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Underlaying wood-cuts, mode of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#noteIX37">645 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Unger, father and son, German wood engravers, 1779,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page403">403</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page483">483</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page545">545</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Urse Graff, a cut designed by, probably copied by Willem de
+Figuersnider,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page313">313</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">other cuts with his mark,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page314">314</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_V" id = "index_V" href = "#index">V</a></p>
+
+<p>Vagabonds and sturdy beggars,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page12">12</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Valcebro, Ferrer de, his notice of the Bernacle or Tree goose,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page416">416</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Valturius, R. de Re Militari,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page186">186</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vasari, George, claims the invention of chiaro-scuro engraving for
+Ugo da Cai,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page230">230</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vasey, George, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vaugris, V. printer of a piracy of the Lyons Dance of Death, at
+Venice, 1542,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page393">393</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vecellio, Cesare, his book of Costumes, Venice, 1589,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page433">433</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vegetable putties, a theory of Mr. J. Landseer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page72">72</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Veldener, John, printer of an edition of the Speculum Salvationis,
+1483,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page106">106</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">one of the earliest printers who introduced
+ornamental borders engraved on wood,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page191">191</a>.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page664" id = "page664">
+664</a></span>
+<p>Venice, foreign cards prohibited to be brought into the city of,
+1441,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page43">43</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Verona, Johannes de,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page186">186</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vesalius’s Anatomy, Basle, 1548, erroneously said to contain cuts
+designed by Titian,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page433">433</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vignettes,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page615">615</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vincentini, J. N. engraver of chiaro-scuros,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page389">389</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vizetelly, H. wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page558">558</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page570a">570*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page571a">571*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vostre, Simon, Heures printed by him,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page232">232</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_W" id = "index_W" href = "#index">W</a></p>
+
+<p>Waagen, Dr. G. F. extract from his evidence before the Committee on
+Arts and Manufactures,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page322">322</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Walsokne, Adam de, his mark,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page18">18</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Walton’s Angler, cuts of fish in Major’s edition of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page541">541</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page543">543</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wand-Kalendars, or sheet almanacks, 1470, 1500,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page225">225</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ward, James, R.A. cut of a dray-horse from a drawing by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page596">596</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Warren, H. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Watson. J. D. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Watts, S. his engravings, 1703,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page471">471</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Waved lines,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page583">583</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Webster, T. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wehnert, G. H. artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page594a">594*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Weir, Harrison, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page551">551</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page555">555</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Weiss-Kunig,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page286">286</a>.</p>
+
+<p>West, Benjamin, his design for the diploma of the Highland Society,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page523">523</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wethemstede, John, prior of St. Albans,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page111">111</a>.</p>
+
+<p>White, Henry, senior and junior, wood engravers,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>.</p>
+
+<p>White outline,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page587">587</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page598">598</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Whitehall, fictions about a Dance of Death painted by Holbein in the
+old palace at,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page360">360-363</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Whiting, Chas. his colour-printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page630">630</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Whymper, J. W. wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page569a">569*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wilkie, Sir David, R.A. his sketch for his picture of the Rabbit on
+the Wall,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page591">591</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">group from his Rent-day,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page593">593</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">from his Village Festival,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page614">614</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Willett, R. his opinion of wooden types,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page136">136</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Williams, J. wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page588a">588*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Williams, Samuel, artist and wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page572a">572*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Williams, Thomas, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page547">547</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Willis, Edward, a pupil of Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII78">522 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wimperis, E. wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page600a">600*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wimpheling, verses by him, celebrating Gutemberg as the inventor of
+printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page155">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wirtemberg, Counts of, their arms,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page78">78</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wolf, J. artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page573a">573*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page574a">574*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wolgemuth, Michael, not the first that introduced cross-hatching in
+wood engravings,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page239">239</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Women, engravers on wood,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page235">235</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wood for the purposes of engraving, several kinds mentioned by
+Papillou,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page464">464</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">mode of preparing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page562">562-568</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wood-cut, the earliest known with a date,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page45">45</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wood-cuts, largest modern; directions for cleaning,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page649">649</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wood engravers, early, unfriendly to the progress of typography,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page179">179</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wooden types,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page131">131</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page136">136</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page137">137</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Woods, H. N. wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page600a">600*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wootie, Mr. his patent for engraving in metallic relief,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page634">634</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Worde. W. de, cuts in books printed by him,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page196">196</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page198">198</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wordsworth, William, his high opinion of Bewick’s talents,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page512">512</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wright, John, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wright, W. wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page554">554</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wyatt, Sir Thomas, a wood-cut portrait of, from a drawing, by
+Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page379">379</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wyburd, F. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_Z" id = "index_Z" href = "#index">Z</a></p>
+
+<p>Zainner, Gunther, of Augsburg,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page179">179</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">the Legenda Aurea, with wood-cuts, printed by him, in
+1471,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page188">188</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Zainer, John, of Reutlingen, prints at Ulm in 1473, an edition of
+Boccacio de Claris Mulieribus, with wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page190">190</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Zani’s arguments in favour of Papillon’s story of the Cunio,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page36">36</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page37">37</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Zerlegen, a word used by German printers to denote the
+<i>distribution</i> of the types, occurs in connection with Gutemberg’s
+press in 1438,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page128">128</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Zuyren, J. Van, claims the invention of printing for Harlem,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Zwecker, John B. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+<!-- end div index -->
+
+<div class = "correction">
+<h5>Errors in Index</h5>
+
+<p><span class = "citation">
+Dante, edition of, with copper-plates, 1482</span><br>
+copperplates</p>
+
+<p><span class = "citation">
+Fracture</span><br>
+<i>printed as shown, but body text has “fractur”</i></p>
+
+<p><span class = "citation">
+Hieroglyphic ... Bible, 478.</span><br>
+<i>page reference missing</i></p>
+
+<p><span class = "citation">
+Packhouse’s machine for tints</span><br>
+<i>printed and alphabetized as shown, but body text has
+“Parkhouse”</i></p>
+
+<p><span class = "citation">
+Sandrart, J.</span><br>
+Sandrant</p>
+</div>
+
+<h5>THE END.</h5>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class = "center smaller">LONDON:<br>
+PRINTED BY R. CLAY, SON, AND TAYLOR,<br>
+BREAD STREET HILL.</p>
+
+<div class = "endnote">
+
+<h4><a name = "errata" id = "errata" href = "#start">Errors and
+Inconsistencies</a> (noted by transcriber)</h4>
+
+<p>Inconsistent spellings were only regularized when there was a strong
+preponderance; changes are individually noted. The various spellings of
+the name now written “Shakespeare” are unchanged, as are the forms
+“Albert Durer” and “Gutemberg”. German citations consistently omit the
+period (full stop) in references such as “2 Theil”. Other unchanged
+forms include:</p>
+
+<p class = "inset">
+cross line : cross-line<br>
+figuersnider : figursnider<br>
+fore-/back-ground : fore/background<br>
+type-founder : typefounder<br>
+wood-cut : woodcut<br>
+wood-engraver : wood engraver<br>
+Schaufflein : Schäufflein</p>
+
+<p>In the Index, missing or inconsistent punctuation was silently
+regularized. All other errors are noted in two ways: with <ins class =
+"correction" title = "like this">mouse-hover popups</ins> where the
+error occurs, and again at the end of each chapter or section, after any
+footnotes.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Treatise on Wood Engraving, by 
+John Jackson and William Andrew Chatto and Henry G. Bohn
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+</pre>
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+</body>
+</html>
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+</head>
+
+<body>
+<div class = "mynote">
+<p><a name = "start" id = "start">This text</a> uses UTF-8 (Unicode)
+file encoding. If the apostrophes and quotation marks in this paragraph
+appear as garbage, you may have an incompatible browser or unavailable
+fonts. First, make sure that your browser’s “character set” or “file
+encoding” is set to Unicode (UTF-8). You may also need to change the
+default font.</p>
+
+<p>Footnotes have been numbered continuously within each chapter. Text
+printed in blackletter (“gothic”) type is shown in the e-text as
+<b>sans-serif</b>.</p>
+
+<p>There is no table of contents, but the List of Illustrations gives
+the
+same information. The nine chapters of the printed book are distributed
+among separate files: Chapters I-III, Chapters IV-V, and then a separate
+file for each of Chapters VI-IX. Note that pages 561*-600* (most of
+Chapter VIII) come <i>before</i> pages 561-600 (Chapter IX).</p>
+
+<p>In the printed book, lines were about this long:</p>
+
+<p class = "inset"><span class = "citation">
+&nbsp; &nbsp; Among the more remarkable single subjects engraved on wood
+from<br>
+Durer’s designs, the following are most frequently referred to: God
+the<br>
+Father bearing up into heaven the dead body of Christ, with the
+date</span></p>
+
+<p>If you are reading this text in a browser, you may like to adjust
+your window accordingly.</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "#notice">Notice to the Second Edition</a> (by Henry Bohn)<br>
+<a href = "#pref_chatto">Mr. Jackson’s Preface</a><br>
+<a href = "#pref_jackson">Mr. Chatto’s Preface</a></p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "#illus">List of Illustrations</a></p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html">Chapter I</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_II">Chapter II</a> (separate
+file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_III">Chapter III</a> (separate
+file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html">Chapter IV</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#chap_V">Chapter V</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html">Chapter VI</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html">Chapter VII</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html">Chapter VIII</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html">Chapter IX</a> (separate file)</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "#index">Index</a></p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "#errata">Errors and Inconsistencies</a></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<img src = "images/frontis.jpg" width = "342" height = "589"
+alt = "see caption">
+
+<p class = "leftname">William Blake.</p>
+<p class = "rightname">W. J. Linton.</p>
+<p class = "caption">DEATH’S DOOR.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pagei" id = "pagei">
+i</a></span>
+
+<div class = "titlepage">
+
+<h1><span class = "subhead">A TREATISE</span><br>
+<span class = "micro">ON</span><br>
+WOOD ENGRAVING</h1>
+
+<p class = "blackletter">Historical and Practical</p>
+
+<p class = "tiny">WITH UPWARDS OF THREE HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS<br>
+ENGRAVED ON WOOD</p>
+
+<p class = "larger">BY JOHN JACKSON.</p>
+
+<p>THE HISTORICAL PORTION BY W. A. CHATTO.</p>
+
+<p class = "divider">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class = "blackletter">Second Edition</p>
+
+<p class = "tiny">WITH A NEW CHAPTER ON THE ARTISTS OF THE PRESENT
+DAY</p>
+
+<p>BY HENRY G. BOHN</p>
+
+<p class = "tiny">AND 145 ADDITIONAL WOOD ENGRAVINGS.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr class = "small">
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>LONDON<br>
+<span class = "small">HENRY G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT
+GARDEN.</span><br>
+<span class = "tiny">M.DCCC.LXI.</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class = "titlepage">
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pageii" id = "pageii">
+ii</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/front_verso.png" width = "153" height = "117"
+alt = "Richard Clay / Breads Hill / Sola Lux Mihi Laus / London" title =
+"Richard Clay / Breads Hill / Sola Lux Mihi Laus / London"></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class = "intro">
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pageiii" id = "pageiii">
+iii</a></span>
+
+<h4><a name = "notice" id = "notice">NOTICE TO THE SECOND
+EDITION.</a></h4>
+
+<p class = "divider">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class = "first"><span class = "firstword">The</span> former edition
+of this History of Wood Engraving having become extremely scarce and
+commercially valuable, the publisher was glad to obtain the copyright
+and wood-blocks from Mr. Mason Jackson, son of the late Mr. Jackson,
+original proprietor of the work, with the view of reprinting it.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen by the two distinct prefaces which accompanied the
+former edition, and are here reprinted, that there was some existing
+schism between the joint producers at the time of first publication. Mr.
+Jackson, the engraver, paymaster, and proprietor, conceived that he had
+a right to do what he liked with his own; while Mr. Chatto, his literary
+coadjutor, very naturally felt that he was entitled to some recognition
+on the title-page of what he had so successfully performed. On the book
+making its appearance without Mr. Chatto’s name on the title-page, and
+with certain suppressions in his preface to which he had not given
+consent, a&nbsp;virulent controversy ensued, which was embodied in a
+pamphlet termed “a&nbsp;third preface,” and afterwards carried on in the
+<i>Athenæum</i> of August and September, 1839. As this preface has
+nothing in it but the outpourings of a quarrel which can now interest no
+one, I&nbsp;do not republish any part of it; and looking back on the
+controversy after the lapse of twenty years, I&nbsp;cannot help feeling
+that Mr. Chatto had reasonable ground for complaining that his name was
+omitted, although I think Mr. Jackson had full right to determine what
+the book should be called, seeing that it was his own exclusive
+speculation. It is not for me to change a title now so firmly
+established, but I will do Mr. Chatto the civility to introduce his name
+on it, without concerning myself with the question of what he did or did
+not do, or what Mr. Jackson contributed beyond his practical remarks and
+anxious superintendence.</p>
+
+<p>Although I have the pleasure of a personal acquaintance with Mr.
+Chatto, and communicated to him my intention of republishing
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pageiv" id = "pageiv">
+iv</a></span>
+the work, I&nbsp;declined letting him see it through the press;
+resolving to stand wholly responsible for any alterations or
+improvements I might choose to make. On the other hand, I&nbsp;have been
+quite as chary of letting even the shade of Mr. Jackson raise a new
+commotion&mdash;I say the shade, because, having his own copy full of
+manuscript remarks, it was at my option to use them; but I have adopted
+nothing from this source save a few palpable amendments. What additions
+have been made are entirely my own, and have arisen from a desire to
+increase the number of illustrations where I thought them previously
+deficient and had the means of supplying them. With the insertion of
+these additional illustrations, which it appears amount to seventy-five,
+it became necessary to describe them, and this has occasioned the
+introduction of perhaps a hundred or two lines, which are distributed in
+the form of notes or paragraphs throughout the volume. For the chief of
+these additions the critical examiner is referred to the following
+pages: 321, 322, 340, 352, 374, 428, 468, 477, 480, 493, 530, 531, 532,
+539, 540, 541, 542, 543, 545, 546, 547, 548, 617, 639. The chapter on
+the artists of the present day is entirely new, and was not
+contemplated, as may be gathered from the remarks at pages 549 and 597,
+until the book was on the eve of publication. It contains upwards of
+seventy high class wood engravings, and gives a fair specimen of the
+talents of some of our most distinguished artists. Getting that
+supplementary matter together and into shape, was not so light and
+sudden a task as I meant it to be; but now it is done I feel that it was
+right to do it, and I can only hope that my unpretending labours will be
+deemed a step in the right direction. Should I retain my health,
+strength, and means, I&nbsp;purpose, at no very distant period, to
+follow up the present volume with one perhaps as large, giving a more
+complete series of Examples of the artists of the day, as well those of
+France and Germany as of England.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, I think it due to Mr. Clay to acknowledge the
+attention and skill which he has exercised in “bringing up” the numerous
+and somewhat difficult cuts to the agreeable face they now present.
+A&nbsp;good engraving without good printing is like a diamond without
+its polish.</p>
+
+<p class = "right">HENRY G. BOHN.</p>
+
+<p class = "dateline">January 4th, 1861.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pagev" id = "pagev">
+v</a></span>
+
+<h4><a name = "pref_jackson" id = "pref_jackson">MR. JACKSON’S
+PREFACE.</a></h4>
+
+<p class = "divider">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class = "first"><span class = "firstword">I feel</span> it my duty to
+submit to the public a few remarks, introductory to the Preface, which
+bears the signature of Mr. Chatto.</p>
+
+<p>As my attention has been more readily directed to matters connected
+with my own profession than any other, it is not surprising that I
+should find almost a total absence of practical knowledge in all English
+authors who have written the early history of wood engraving. From the
+first occasion on which my attention was directed to the subject, to the
+present time, I&nbsp;have had frequent occasion to regret, that the
+early history and practice of the art were not to be found in any book
+in the English language. In the most expensive works of this description
+the process itself is not even correctly described, so that the
+reader&mdash;supposing him to be unacquainted with the subject&mdash;is
+obliged to follow the author in comparative darkness. It has not been
+without reason I have come to the conclusion, that, if the
+<i>practice</i>, as well as the <i>history</i> of wood engraving, were
+<i>better understood</i>, we should not have so many speculative
+opinions put forth by almost all writers on the subject, taking on trust
+what has been previously written, without giving themselves the trouble
+to examine and form an opinion of their own. Both with a view to amuse
+and improve myself as a wood engraver, I&nbsp;had long been in the habit
+of studying such productions of the old masters as came within my reach,
+and could not help noting the simple mistakes that many authors made in
+consequence of their knowing nothing of the practice. The farther I
+prosecuted the inquiry, the more interesting it became; every additional
+piece of information strengthening my first opinion, that, “if the
+<i>practice</i>, as well as the <i>history</i> of wood engraving, were
+<i>better understood</i>,” we should not have so many erroneous
+statements respecting both the history and capabilities of the art. At
+length, I&nbsp;determined upon engraving at my leisure hours a
+fac-simile of anything I thought worth preserving. For some time I
+continued to pursue this course, reading such English authors as have
+written on the origin and early history of wood engraving, and making
+memoranda, without proposing to myself any particular plan. It was not
+until I had proceeded thus far that I stopped to consider whether the
+information I had gleaned could not be applied to some specific purpose.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pagevi" id = "pagevi">
+vi</a></span>
+My plan, at this time, was to give a short introductory history to
+precede the practice of the art, which I proposed should form the
+principal feature in the Work. At this period, I&nbsp;was fortunate in
+procuring the able assistance of Mr. W.&nbsp;A. Chatto, with whom I have
+examined every work that called for the exercise of practical knowledge.
+This naturally anticipated much that had been reserved for the practice,
+and has, in some degree, extended the historical portion beyond what I
+had originally contemplated; although, I&nbsp;trust, the reader will
+have no occasion to regret such a deviation from the original plan, or
+that it has not been <i>written</i> by myself. The number and variety of
+the subjects it has been found necessary to introduce, rendered it a
+task of some difficulty to preserve the characteristics of each
+individual master, varying as they do in the style of execution. It only
+remains for me to add, that, although I had the hardihood to venture
+upon such an undertaking, it was not without a hope that the history of
+the art, with an account of the practice, illustrated with numerous wood
+engravings, would be looked upon with indulgence from one who only
+professed to give a fac-simile of whatever appeared worthy of notice,
+with opinions founded on a practical knowledge of the art.</p>
+
+<p class = "right">JOHN JACKSON.</p>
+
+<p class = "dateline"><span class = "smallcaps">London</span>,
+<i>December 15th, 1838</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class = "mid">
+
+<h4><a name = "pref_chatto" id = "pref_chatto">MR. CHATTO’S
+PREFACE.</a></h4>
+
+
+<p class = "first"><span class = "firstword">Though</span> several
+English authors have, in modern times, written on the origin and early
+history of wood engraving, yet no one has hitherto given, in a distinct
+work, a&nbsp;connected account of its progress from the earliest period
+to the present time; and no one, however confidently he may have
+expressed his opinion on the subject, appears to have thought it
+necessary to make himself acquainted with the practice of the art. The
+antiquity and early history of wood engraving appear to have been
+considered as themes which allowed of great scope for speculation, and
+required no practical knowledge of the art. It is from this cause that
+we find so many erroneous statements in almost every modern dissertation
+on wood engraving. Had the writers ever thought of appealing to a person
+practically acquainted with the art, whose early productions they
+professed to give some account of, their conjectures might, in many
+instances, have been spared; and had they,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pagevii" id = "pagevii">
+vii</a></span>
+in matters requiring research, taken the pains to examine and judge for
+themselves, instead of adopting the opinions of others, they would have
+discovered that a considerable portion of what they thus took on trust,
+was not in accordance with facts.</p>
+
+<p>As the antiquity and early history of wood engraving form a
+considerable portion of two expensive works which profess to give some
+account of the art, it has been thought that such a work as the present,
+combining the history with the practice of the art, and with numerous
+cuts illustrative of its progress, decline, and revival, might not be
+unfavourably received.</p>
+
+<p>In the first chapter an attempt is made to trace the principle of
+wood engraving from the earliest authentic period; and to prove, by a
+continuous series of facts, that the art, when first applied to the
+impression of pictorial subjects on paper, about the beginning of the
+fifteenth century, was not so much an original invention, as the
+extension of a principle which had long been known and practically
+applied.</p>
+
+<p>The second chapter contains an account of the progress of the art as
+exemplified in the earliest known single cuts, and in the block-books
+which preceded the invention of typography. In this chapter there is
+also an account of the Speculum Salvationis, which has been ascribed to
+Laurence Coster by Hadrian Junius, Scriverius, Meerman, and others, and
+which has frequently been described as an early block-book executed
+previous to 1440. A&nbsp;close examination of two Latin editions of the
+book has, however, convinced me, that in the earliest the text is
+entirely printed from movable types, and that in the
+other&mdash;supposed by Meerman to be the earliest, and to afford proofs
+of the progress of Coster’s invention&mdash;those portions of the text
+which are printed from wood-blocks have been copied from the
+corresponding portions of the earlier edition with the text printed
+entirely from movable types. Fournier was the first who discovered that
+one of the Latin editions was printed partly from types, and partly from
+wood-blocks; and the credit of showing, from certain imperfections in
+the cuts, that this edition was subsequent to the other with the text
+printed entirely from types, is due to the late Mr. Ottley.</p>
+
+<p>As typography, or printing from movable types, was unquestionably
+suggested by the earliest block-books with the text engraved on wood,
+the third chapter is devoted to an examination of the claims of
+Gutemberg and Coster to the honour of this invention. In the
+investigation of the evidence which has been produced in the behalf of
+each, the writer has endeavoured to divest his mind of all bias, and to
+decide according to facts, without reference to the opinions of either
+party. He has had no theory to support; and has neither a partiality for
+Mentz, nor a dislike to Harlem. It perhaps may not be unnecessary to
+mention here, that
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pageviii" id = "pageviii">
+viii</a></span>
+the cuts of arms from the History of the Virgin, given at pages 75, 76,
+and 77, were engraved before the writer had seen Koning’s work on the
+Invention of Printing, Harlem, 1816, where they are also copied, and
+several of them assigned to Hannau, Burgundy, Brabant, Utrecht, and
+Leyden, and to certain Flemish noblemen, whose names are not mentioned.
+It is not improbable that, like the two rash Knights in the fable, we
+may have seen the shields on opposite sides;&mdash;the bearings may be
+common to states and families, both of Germany and the Netherlands.</p>
+
+<p>The fourth chapter contains an account of wood engraving in connexion
+with the press, from the establishment of typography to the latter end
+of the fifteenth century. The fifth chapter comprehends the period in
+which Albert Durer flourished,&mdash;that is, from about 1498 to 1528.
+The sixth contains a notice of the principal wood-cuts designed by
+Holbein, with an account of the extension and improvement of the art in
+the sixteenth century, and of its subsequent decline. In the seventh
+chapter the history of the art is brought down from the commencement of
+the eighteenth century to the present time.</p>
+
+<p>The eighth chapter contains an account of the practice of the art,
+with remarks on metallic relief engraving, and the best mode of printing
+wood-cuts. As no detailed account of the practice of wood engraving has
+hitherto been published in England, it is presumed that the information
+afforded by this part of the Work will not only be interesting to
+amateurs of the art, but useful to those who are professionally
+connected with it.</p>
+
+<p>It is but justice to Mr. Jackson to add, that the Work was commenced
+by him at his sole risk; that most of the subjects are of his selection;
+and that nearly all of them were engraved, and that a great part of the
+Work was written, before he thought of applying to a publisher. The
+credit of commencing the Work, and of illustrating it so profusely,
+regardless of expense, is unquestionably due to him.</p>
+
+<p class = "right">W. A. CHATTO.</p>
+
+<p class = "dateline"><span class = "smallcaps">London</span>,
+<i>December 5th, 1838</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pageix" id = "pageix">
+ix</a></span>
+
+<h3><a name = "illus" id = "illus">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</a></h3>
+
+<p class = "divider">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class = "mynote">
+<p>Links in the List lead to the Chapter or Illustration named. The word
+“ditto”&mdash;written out&mdash;was printed as shown.</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "#list_chap_I">Chapter I</a> •
+<a href = "#list_chap_II">Chapter II</a> •
+<a href = "#list_chap_III">Chapter III</a> •
+<a href = "#list_chap_IV">Chapter&nbsp;IV</a> •
+<a href = "#list_chap_V">Chapter&nbsp;V</a><br>
+<a href = "#list_chap_VI">Chapter VI</a> •
+<a href = "#list_chap_VII">Chapter VII</a> •
+<a href = "#list_chap_VIII">Chapter VIII</a> •
+<a href = "#list_chap_IX">Chapter&nbsp;IX</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<table class = "toc">
+<tr>
+<td class = "chapter"><a name = "list_chap_I" id = "list_chap_I" href =
+"WoodEngraving1.html#chap_I">CHAPTER I</a><br>
+<span class = "smaller">ANTIQUITY OF ENGRAVING, 1-39.</span></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "right micro">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Initial letter A,&mdash;an ancient Greek <i>scriving</i> on a tablet
+of wood, drawn by W.&nbsp;Harvey</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_1">1</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>View of a rolling-press, on wood and on copper, showing the
+difference between a woodcut and a copper-plate engraving when both are
+printed in the same manner</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_4a">4</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Back and front view of an ancient Egyptian brick-stamp</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_6">6</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Copy of an impression on a Babylonian brick</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_7">7</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Roman stamp, in relief</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_8">8</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Roman stamps, in intaglio</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_10">10</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Monogram of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_13">13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Monogram of Charlemagne</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Gothic marks and monograms</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_15">15</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Characters on Gothic coins</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_16a">16</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Mark of an Italian notary, 1236</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_16b">16</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Marks of German notaries, 1345-1521</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_17">17</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>English Merchants’-marks of the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_18">18</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Tail-piece, illustrative of the antiquity of
+engraving,&mdash;Babylonian brick, Roman earthenware, Roman stamp, and a
+roll with the mark of the German Emperor Otho in the corner</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_39">39</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "chapter"><a name = "list_chap_II" id = "list_chap_II" href
+= "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_II">CHAPTER II</a><br>
+<span class = "smaller">PROGRESS OF WOOD ENGRAVING, 40-117.</span></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Initial letter F, from an old book containing an alphabet of similar
+letters, engraved on wood, formerly belonging to Sir George
+Beaumont</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_40">40</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>St. Christopher, with the date 1423, from a cut in the possession of
+Earl Spencer</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_46">46</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Annunciation, from a cut probably of the same period, in the
+possession of Earl Spencer</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_50">50</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>St. Bridget, from an old cut in the possession of Earl Spencer</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_52">52</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Shields from the Apocalypse, or History of St. John, an old
+block-book</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_65">65</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>St. John preaching to the infidels, and baptizing Drusiana, from the
+same book</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_66">66</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The death of the Two Witnesses, and the miracles of Antichrist, from
+the same book</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_67">67</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Group from the History of the Virgin, an old block-book</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_71">71</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Copy of a page of the same book</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_72">72</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Figures and a shield of arms, from the same book</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_75">75</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Shields of arms, from the same book</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_76">76</a>-<a
+href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_78">78</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Copy of the first page of the Poor Preachers’ Bible, an old
+block-book</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_86">86</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Heads from the same book</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_88">88</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Christ tempted, a fac-simile of one of the compartments in the first
+page of the same book</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_89">89</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Adam and Eve eating of the forbidden fruit, from the same book</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_90">90</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Esau selling his birthright, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_91">91</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Heads ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_92">92</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pagex" id = "pagex">
+x</a></span>First cut in the Speculum Salvationis, which has generally,
+but erroneously, been described as a block-book, as the text in the
+first edition is printed with types</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_96">96</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Fall of Lucifer, a fac-simile of one of the compartments of the
+preceding</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_97">97</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Creation of Eve, a fac-simile of the second compartment of the
+same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#illus_98">98</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Paper-mark in the Alphabet of large letters composed of figures,
+formerly belonging to Sir George Beaumont</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving1.html#illus_107">107</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Letter K, from the same book</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving1.html#illus_109">109</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Letter L, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving1.html#illus_110">110</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Letter Z, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving1.html#illus_111">111</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Flowered ornament, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving1.html#illus_112">112</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cuts from the Ars Memorandi, an old block-book</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving1.html#illus_115">115</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "chapter"><a name = "list_chap_III" id = "list_chap_III"
+href = "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_III">CHAPTER III</a><br>
+<span class = "smaller">THE INVENTION OF TYPOGRAPHY,
+118-163.</span></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Initial letter B, from a manuscript life of St. Birinus, of the <ins
+class = "correction" title = "text reads ‘twelth’">twelfth</ins>
+century</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving1.html#illus_118">118</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Tail piece-portraits of Gutemberg, Faust, and Scheffer</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving1.html#illus_163">163</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "chapter"><a name = "list_chap_IV" id = "list_chap_IV" href
+= "WoodEngraving4.html#chap_IV">CHAPTER IV</a><br>
+<span class = "smaller">WOOD ENGRAVING IN CONNEXION WITH THE PRESS,
+164-229.</span></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Initial letter C, from Faust and Scheffer’s Psalter</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_164">164</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Apes, from a book of Fables printed at Bamberg by Albert Pfister,
+1461</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_171">171</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Heads, from an edition of the Poor Preachers’ Bible, printed by
+Pfister</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_177a">177</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Christ and his Disciples, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_177b">177</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Joseph making himself known to his Brethren, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_178a">178</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Prodigal Son’s return, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_178b">178</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Creation of Animals, from Meditationes Joannis de Turrecremata,
+printed at Rome, 1467</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_185">185</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>A bomb-shell and a man shooting from a kind of hand-gun, from
+Valturius de Re Militari, printed at Verona, 1472</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_188">188</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>A man shooting from a cross-bow, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_189">189</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Knight, from Caxton’s Book of Chess, about 1476</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_193">193</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Bishop’s pawn, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_194">194</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Two figures&mdash;Music, from Caxton’s Mirrour of the World,
+1480</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_196">196</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Frontispiece to Breydenbach’s Travels, printed at Mentz, 1486</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_207">207</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Syrian Christians, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_209">209</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Old Woman with a basket of eggs on her head, from the Hortus
+Sanitatis, printed at Mentz, 1491</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_211">211</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Head of Paris, from the book usually called the Nuremberg Chronicle,
+printed at Nuremberg, 1493</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_212">212</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Creation of Eve, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_215">215</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The same subject from the Poor Preachers’ Bible</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_216">216</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The difficult Labour of Alcmena, from an Italian translation of
+Ovid’s Metamorphoses, 1497</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_217">217</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Mars, Venus, and Mercury, from Poliphili Hypnerotomachia, printed at
+Venice, 1499</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_221">221</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cupid brought by Mercury before Jove, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_222a">222</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cupid and his Victims, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_222b">222</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Bacchus, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_223">223</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cupid, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_224a">224</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>A Vase, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_224b">224</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cat and Mouse, from a supposed old wood-cut printed in Derschau’s
+Collection, 1808-1816</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_226">226</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Man in armour on horseback, from a wood-cut, formerly used by Mr.
+George Angus of Newcastle</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_228">228</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Tail-piece&mdash;the press of Jodocus Badius Ascensianus, from the
+title-page of a book printed by him about 1498</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_229">229</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "chapter">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pagexi" id = "pagexi">
+xi</a></span>
+<a name = "list_chap_V" id = "list_chap_V" href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#chap_V">CHAPTER V</a><br>
+<span class = "smaller">WOOD ENGRAVING IN THE TIME OF ALBERT DURER,
+230-323.</span></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Initial letter M, from an edition of Ovid’s Tristia, printed at
+Venice by J.&nbsp;de Cireto, 1499</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_230">230</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Peasants dancing and regaling, from Heures a l’Usaige de Chartres,
+printed at Paris by Simon Vostre about 1502. The first of these cuts
+occurs in a similar work&mdash;Heures a l’Usaige de Rome&mdash;printed
+by Simon Vostre in 1497</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_233">233</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The woman clothed with the sun, from Albert Durer’s illustrations of
+the Apocalypse, 1498</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_240">240</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Virgin and Infant Christ, from Albert Durer’s illustrations of
+the History of the Virgin, 1511</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_243">243</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Birth of the Virgin, from the same work</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_244">244</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>St. Joseph at work as a carpenter, with the Virgin rocking the
+Infant Christ in a cradle, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_246">246</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Christ mocked, from Durer’s illustrations of Christ’s Passion, about
+1511</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_247">247</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Last Supper, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_248">248</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Christ bearing his Cross, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_249">249</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Descent to Hades, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_250">250</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Caricature, probably of Luther</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_268">268</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Albert Durer’s Coat-of-arms</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_271">271</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>His portrait, from a cut drawn by himself, 1527, the year preceding
+that of his death</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_272">272</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Holy Family, from a cut designed by Lucas Cranach</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_277">277</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Samson and Delilah, from a cut designed by Hans Burgmair</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_279">279</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Aristotle and his wife, from a cut designed by Hans Burgmair</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_280">280</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Sir Theurdank killing a bear, from the Adventures of Sir Theurdank,
+1517</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_284">284</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The punishment of Sir Theurdank’s enemies, from the same work</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_285">285</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>A figure on horseback, from the Triumphs of Maximilian</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_294">294</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Another, from the same work</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_295">295</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Ditto, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_296">296</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Ditto, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_297">297</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Ditto, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_298">298</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Ditto, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_299">299</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Three knights with banners, from the same work</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_301">301</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Elephant and Indians, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_302">302</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Camp followers, probably designed by Albert Durer, from the
+same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_303">303</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Horses and Car, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_305">305</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Jael and Sisera, from a cut designed by Lucas van Leyden</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_309">309</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cut printed at Antwerp by Willem de Figursnider, probably copied
+from a cut designed by Urse Graff</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_312">312</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Three small cuts from Sigismund Fanti’s Triompho di Fortuna, printed
+at Venice, 1527</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_316">316</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Fortuna di Africo, an emblem of the South wind, from the same
+work</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_316d">316</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Michael Angelo at work on a piece of sculpture, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_317">317</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Head of Nero, from a work on Medals, printed at Strasburg, 1525</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_320">320</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cut of Saint Bridget, about 1500, from Dr. Dibdin’s Bibliomania</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_321">321</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Ditto of her Revelations</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_322">322</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Tail-piece&mdash;a full length of Maximilian I. Emperor of Germany,
+from his Triumphs</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_323">323</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "chapter"><a name = "list_chap_VI" id = "list_chap_VI" href
+= "WoodEngraving6.html#chap_VI">CHAPTER VI</a><br>
+<span class = "smaller">FURTHER PROGRESS AND DECLINE OF WOOD ENGRAVING,
+324-445.</span></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Initial letter T, from a book printed at Paris by Robert Stephens,
+1537</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_324">324</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Adam and Eve eating the forbidden fruit, from a cut designed by Hans
+Holbein in the Dance of Death, first printed at Lyons in 1538</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_339">339</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Death’s Coat of Arms, from the same work</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_340">340</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Old Man, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_341">341</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Duchess, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_342">342</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Child, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_343">343</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pagexii" id = "pagexii">
+xii</a></span>
+The Waggoner, from Holbein’s Dance of Death</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_344">344</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Child with a shield and dart, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_345">345</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Children with the emblems of a triumph, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_346">346</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Holbein’s Alphabet of the Dance of Death</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_352">352</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Abraham about to sacrifice Isaac, from a cut designed by Holbein in
+his Bible-prints, Lyons, 1539</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_368">368</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Fool, from the same work</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_369">369</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The sheath of a dagger, intended as a design for a chaser</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_374">374</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Portrait of Sir Thomas Wyatt from a cut designed by Holbein in
+Leland’s Næniæ, 1542</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_379">379</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Prayer, from a cut designed by Holbein in Archbishop Cranmer’s
+Catechism, 1548</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_380">380</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Christ casting out Devils, from another cut by Holbein, in the same
+work</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_381">381</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Creation, from the same work</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_382a">382</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Crucifixion, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_382b">382</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Christ’s Agony, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_382c">382</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Genealogical Tree, from an edition of the New Testament, printed at
+Zurich by Froschover, 1554</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_383">383</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>St. Luke, from Tindale’s Translation of the New Testament, 1534</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_384a">384</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>St James, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_384b">384</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Death on the Pale Horse, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_384c">384</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cain killing Abel, from Coverdale’s Translation of the Old and New
+Testament, 1535</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_386">386</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Abraham about to sacrifice Isaac, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_387a">387</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Two Spies, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_387b">387</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>St. Matthew, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_388a">388</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>St. John the Baptist, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_388b">388</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>St. Paul writing, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_388c">388</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Frontispiece to Marcolini’s Sorti, Venice, 1540, by Joseph Porta
+Garfagninus, after a Study by Raffaele for the School of Athens</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_390">390</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Punitione, from the same work</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_392a">392</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Matrimony, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_392b">392</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cards, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_393a">393</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Truth saved by Time, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_393b">393</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Labour of Alcmena, from Dolce’s Transformationi, Venice,
+1553</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_394">394</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Monogram, from Palatino’s Treatise on Writing, Rome, 1561</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_396a">396</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Hieroglyphic Sonnet, from the same work</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_396b">396</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Portraits of Petrarch and Laura, from Petrarch’s Sonetti, Lyons,
+1547</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_400">400</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Adam and Eve driven out of Paradise, from Quadrins Historiques de la
+Bible, Lyons, 1550-1560</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_401">401</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Christ tempted by Satan, from Figures du Nouveau Testament, Lyons,
+1553-1570</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_402">402</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Briefmaler, from a book of Trades and Professions, Frankfort,
+1564-1574</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_410">410</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Formschneider, from the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_411">411</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Goose Tree, from Sebastian Munster’s Cosmography, Basle,
+1550-1554</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_414">414</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>William Tell about to shoot at the apple on his son’s head, from the
+same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_416">416</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Portrait of Dr. William Cuningham, from his Cosmographical Glass,
+London, 1559</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_424">424</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Four initial letters, from the same work</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#illus_425">425</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#illus_426a">426</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#illus_427">427</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Portrait of Queen Elizabeth, from the Books of Christian Prayers
+printed by John Daye, 1569</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_428">428</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Large initial letter, from Fox’s Acts and Monuments, 1576</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_429">429</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Initial letter, from a work printed by Giolito at Venice, about
+1550</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_430">430</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Two Cats, from an edition of Dante, printed at Venice, 1578</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_431">431</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Emblem of Water, from a chiaro-scuro by Henry Goltzius, about
+1590</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_433">433</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Caricature of the Laocoon, after a cut designed by Titian</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_435">435</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Good Householder, from a cut printed at London, 1607</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_437">437</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Virgin and Christ, from a cut designed by Rubens, and engraved by
+Christopher Jegher</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_438">438</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Infant Christ and John the Baptist, from a cut designed by
+Rubens, and engraved by Christopher Jegher</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_439">439</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pagexiii" id = "pagexiii">
+xiii</a></span>
+Jael and Sisera, from a cut designed by Henry Goltzius, and engraved by
+C.&nbsp;Van Sichem</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_440">440</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Tail-piece, from an old cut on the title-page of the first known
+edition of Robin Hood’s Garland, 1670</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#illus_445">445</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "chapter"><a name = "list_chap_VII" id = "list_chap_VII"
+href = "WoodEngraving7.html#chap_VII">CHAPTER VII</a><br>
+<span class = "smaller">REVIVAL OF WOOD ENGRAVING, 446-548.</span></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Initial letter A, from a French book, 1698</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_446">446</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Fox and Goat, from a copper-plate by S. Le Clerc, about 1694</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_450a">450</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The same subject from Croxall’s Æsop’s Fables, 1722</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_450b">450</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The same subject from Bewick’s Fables, 1818-1823</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_451">451</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>English wood-cut with the mark F. H., London, 1724</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_453">453</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Adam naming the animals, copy of a cut by Papillon, 1734</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_460">460</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Pedagogue, from the Ship of Fools, Pynson, 1509</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_468">468</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Poet’s Fall, from Two Odes in ridicule of Gray and Mason,
+London, 1760</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_470">470</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Initial letters, T. and B., composed by J. Jackson from tail-pieces
+in Bewick’s History of British Birds</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_471">471</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The house in which Bewick was born, drawn by J. Jackson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_472">472</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Parsonage at Ovingham, drawn by George Balmer</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_473">473</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Fac-simile of a diagram engraved by Bewick in Hutton’s Mensuration,
+1768-1770</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_475">475</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Old Hound, a fac-simile of a cut by Bewick, 1775</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_476">476</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Original cut of the Old Hound</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_477">477</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cuts copied by Bewick from Der Weiss Kunig, and illustrations of
+Ovid’s Metamorphoses by Virgilium Solis</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_483">483</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Boys and Ass, after Bewick</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_485">485</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Old Man and Horse, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_486">486</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Child and young Horse, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_487">487</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Ewe and Lamb</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_488a">488</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Old Man and young Wife, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_488b">488</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Common Duck, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_493">493</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Partridge, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_495">495</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Woodcock, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_496">496</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The drunken Miller, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_499a">499</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Snow Man, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_499b">499</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Old Man and Cat, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_500">500</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Crow and Lamb, Bewick’s original cut to the Fable of the Eagle</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_503">503</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The World turned upside down, after Bewick</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_504">504</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cuts commemorative of the decease of Bewick’s father and mother,
+from his Fables, 1818-1823</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_506">506</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Bewick’s Workshop, drawn by George Balmer</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_508">508</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Portrait of Bewick</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_510">510</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>View of Bewick’s Burial-place</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_511">511</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Funeral, View of Ovingham Church, drawn by J. Jackson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_512">512</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The sad Historian, from a cut by John Bewick, in Poems by Goldsmith
+and Parnell, 1795</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_515">515</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Fac-simile of a cut by John Bewick, from Blossoms of Morality</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_516">516</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Copy of a cut engraved by C. Nesbit, from a drawing by R.
+Johnson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_518a">518</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>View of a monument erected to the memory of R. Johnson, against the
+south wall of Ovingham Church</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_518b">518</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Copy of a view of St. Nicholas Church, engraved by C. Nesbit, from a
+drawing by R.&nbsp;Johnson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_519">519</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Copy of the cut for the Diploma of the Highland Society, engraved by
+L.&nbsp;Clennell, from a drawing by Benjamin West</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_523">523</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Bird and Flowers, engraved by L. Clennell, when insane</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_526">526</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Seven Engravings by William Harvey, from Dr. Henderson’s History of
+Wines</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_530">530</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Milton, designed by W. Harvey, engraved by John Thompson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_531">531</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Three Illustrations by W. Harvey, engraved by S. Williams, Orrin
+Smith, and C.&nbsp;Gray</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_532a">532</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pagexiv" id = "pagexiv">
+xiv</a></span>
+Cut from the Children in the Wood, drawn by W. Harvey, and engraved by
+J.&nbsp;Thompson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_533">533</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cut from the Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green, drawn by W. Harvey, and
+engraved by C.&nbsp;Nesbit</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_534">534</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Copy of a part of the Cave of Despair, engraved by R. Branston, from
+a drawing by J.&nbsp;Thurston</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_535">535</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Three cuts engraved by Robert Branston, after designs by Thurston,
+for an edition of Select Fables, in rivalry of Bewick</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_537">537</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Bird, engraved by Robert Branston</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_538">538</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Pistill Cain, in North Wales, drawn and engraved by Hugh Hughes</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_539a">539</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Moel Famau, ditto, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_539b">539</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Wrexham Church, ditto, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_540a">540</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Pwll Carodoc, ditto, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_540b">540</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Salmon, Group of Fish, and Chub, engraved by John Thompson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_541">541</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Pike, by Robert Branston</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_542a">542</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Eel, by H. White</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_542b">542</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Illustration from Hudibras, engraved by John Thompson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_543">543</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Hogarth’s Rake’s Progress, engraved by John Thompson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_544">544</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Temptation, engraved by John Jackson, after John Martin</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_545a">545</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Judgment of Adam and Eve, engraved by F. W. Branston, after
+ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_545b">545</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Assuaging of the Waters, engraved by E. Landells, after
+ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_546a">546</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Deluge, engraved by W. H. Powis, after ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_546b">546</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Tower of Babel engraved by Thomas Williams, after ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_547a">547</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Angel announcing the Nativity, engraved by W. T. Green, after
+ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_547b">547</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Tail piece&mdash;Vignette, engraved by W. T. Green, after W.
+Harvey</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#illus_548">548</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "chapter"><a name = "list_chap_VIII" id = "list_chap_VIII"
+href = "WoodEngraving8.html#chap_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a><br>
+<span class = "smaller">ARTISTS AND ENGRAVERS ON WOOD OF THE PRESENT
+DAY, 549-560.</span></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Sierra Morena, engraved by James Cooper, after Percival
+Skelton</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_550">550</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Banks the Nith, engraved by ditto, after Birket Foster</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_551a">551</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Twa Dogs, engraved by ditto, after Harrison Weir</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_551b">551</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>To Auld Mare Maggie, engraved by ditto, after ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_552">552</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Poetry of Nature, engraved by J. Greenaway, after Harrison
+Weir</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_553">553</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Bloomfield’s Farmer’s Boy, engraved by W. Wright, after
+ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_554a">554</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Campbell’s Pleasures of Hope, engraved by J. Greenaway, after
+ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_554b">554</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From the same, by the same</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_555">555</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Wild Flowers, engraved by E. Evans, after Birket Foster</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_556">556</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Lays of the Holy Land, engraved by W. J. Palmer, after Birket
+Foster</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_557">557</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Longfellow’s Evangeline, engraved by H. Vizetelly, after
+ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_558">558</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Moore’s Lalla Rookh, engraved by Dalziel, after John
+Tenniel</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_559">559</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Death of Sforza, from Barry Cornwall, engraved by Dalziel, after
+ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_560a">560</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Sforza, ditto, ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_560b">560</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Antony and Cleopatra, engraved by Dalziel Brothers, after John
+Gilbert</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x561">561*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Florentine Party, from Barry Cornwall, engraved by Dalziel
+Brothers, after Thomas Dalziel</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x562">562*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Prince Arthur and Hubert de Bourg, engraved by Kirchner, after John
+Gilbert</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x563a">563*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Maxwell’s Life of the Duke of Wellington, designed by John
+Gilbert</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x563b">563*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Demon Lover, designed by John Gilbert, engraved by W. A.
+Folkard</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x564">564*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Longfellow’s Hiawatha, engraved by W. L. Thomas, after
+G.&nbsp;H. Thomas</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x565">565*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From the same, engraved by Horace Harral, after G. H. Thomas</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x566a">566*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From the same, engraved by Dalziel Brothers, after ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x566b">566*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>John Anderson my Jo, from Burns’ Poems, engraved by E. Evans, after
+ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x567a">567*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Vignette from Hiawatha, engraved by E. Evans, after ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x567b">567*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Tennyson’s Princess, engraved by W. Thomas, after D.
+Maclise</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x568">568*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Bürger’s Leonora, engraved by J. Thompson, after Maclise</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x569a">569*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Childe Harold, engraved by J. W. Whimper, after Percival
+Skelton</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x569b">569*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pagexv" id = "pagexv">
+xv</a></span>
+From Marryat’s Poor Jack, engraved by H. Vizetelly, after Clarkson
+Stanfield</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x570">570*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Christmas in the olden time, engraved by H. Vizetelly, after Birket
+Foster</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x571">571*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Two illustrations from Thomson’s Seasons, designed and engraved by
+Sam Williams.</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x572a">572*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Eagles, Stags, and Wolves, engraved by George Pearson, after John
+Wolf</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x573">573*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Hare Hawking, engraved by George Pearson, after John Wolf</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x574a">574*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Falls of Niagara, engraved by George Pearson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x574b">574*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Sandford and Merton, engraved by Measom, after H. Anelay</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x575">575*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Longfellow’s Miles Standish, engraved by Thomas Bolton, after
+John Absolon</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x576">576*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Flaxman’s ‘Deliver us from Evil,’ a specimen of Mr. Thomas Bolton’s
+new process of photographing on wood</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x577">577*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Montalva’s Fairy Tales, engraved by John Swain, after
+R.&nbsp;Doyle</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x578">578*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From ‘Brown, Jones, and Robinson,’ engraved by John Swain, after
+Doyle</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x579">579*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Uncle Tom’s Cabin, engraved by Orrin Smith, after John
+Leech</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x580">580*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Mr. Leech’s Tour in Ireland, engraved by John Swain, after John
+Leech</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x581">581*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From ‘Moral Emblems of all Ages,’ engraved by H. Leighton, after
+John Leighton</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x582">582*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Two subjects from the Illustrated Southey’s Life of Nelson, engraved
+by H.&nbsp;Harral, after E.&nbsp;Duncan</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x583">583*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>North porch of St. Maria Maggiore, drawn and engraved by Orlando
+Jewitt</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x584">584*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Shrine in Bayeux Cathedral, by Orlando Jewitt</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x585">585*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Hearse of Margaret Countess of Warwick and other specimens from
+Regius Glossary of Ecclesiastical Ornament, by Orlando Jewitt</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x586">586*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Brick Tracery, St. Stephen’s Church, Tangermunde, Prussia, by
+ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x587">587*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Nut Brown Maid, engraved by J. Williams, after T. Creswick</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x588">588*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Vignette from Bohn’s Illustrated Edition of Walton’s Angler, by
+M.&nbsp;Jackson, after T.&nbsp;Creswick</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x589">589*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Paul preaching at Athens, engraved by W. J. Linton, after John
+Martin</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x590a">590*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Vignette from the Book of British Ballads, engraved by ditto, after
+R.&nbsp;McIan</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x590b">590*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Milton’s L’Allegro, engraved by ditto, after Stonehouse</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x591a">591*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From the same, engraved by ditto, after J. C. Horsley</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x591b">591*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Ancient Gambols, drawn and engraved by F. W. Fairholt</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x592a">592*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Vignette from the Illustrated Edition of Robin Hood, by ditto</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x592b">592*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Two illustrations from Dr. Mantell’s Works, engraved by James Lee,
+after Joseph Dinkel</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x593">593*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>From Coleridge’s Ancient Mariner, engraved by H. Harral, after
+E.&nbsp;H. Wehnert</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x594">594*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Three illustrations drawn and engraved by George Cruikshank, from
+‘Three Courses and a Dessert’</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x595">595*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Two illustrations by ditto from the Universal Songster</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x596">596*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Three illustrations from the Pictorial Grammar, by Crowquill</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x597a">597*</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Vignette from the Book of British Ballads by Kenny Meadows</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving8.html#illus_x597b">597*</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "chapter"><a name = "list_chap_IX" id = "list_chap_IX" href
+= "WoodEngraving9.html#chap_IX">CHAPTER IX</a><br>
+<span class = "smaller">THE PRACTICE OF WOOD ENGRAVING,
+561-652.</span></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Initial letter P, showing a wood engraver at work, with his lamp and
+globe, drawn by R.&nbsp;W. Buss</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_561">561</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Diagram, showing a block warped</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_566">566</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cut showing the appearance of a plug-hole in the engraving, drawn by
+J.&nbsp;Jackson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_570a">570</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Diagrams illustrative of the mode of repairing a block by
+plugging</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_570b">570</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cut showing a plug re-engraved</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_571">571</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Diagram showing the mode of pulling the string over the corner of
+the block</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_572">572</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The shade for the eyes, and screen for the mouth and nose</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_574">574</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Engraver’s lamp, glass, globe, and sand-bag</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_575">575</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Graver</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_576a">576</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Diagram of gravers</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_576b">576</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Diagrams of tint-tools, &amp;c.</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_577">577</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Diagrams of gouges, chisels, &amp;c.</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_578">578</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "pagexvi" id = "pagexvi">
+xvi</a></span>
+Gravers</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_579a">579</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cuts showing the manner of holding the graver</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#illus_579c">579</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#illus_580a">580</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Examples of tints</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#illus_581a">581</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#illus_582a">582</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#illus_583a">583</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#illus_584">584</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Examples of curved lines and tints</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#illus_585">585</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#illus_586">586</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cuts illustrative of the mode of cutting a white outline</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_588">588</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Outline engraving previous to its being blocked out&mdash;the
+monument to the memory of two children in Lichfield Cathedral by Sir
+F.&nbsp;Chantrey</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_589">589</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The same subject finished</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_590a">590</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Outline engraving, after a design by Flaxman for a snuff-box for
+George IV.</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_590b">590</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Cut after a pen-and-ink sketch by Sir David Wilkie for his picture
+of the Rabbit on the Wall</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_591">591</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Figures from a sketch by George Morland</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_592">592</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Group from Sir David Wilkie’s Rent Day</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_593">593</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Figure of a boy from Hogarth’s Noon, one of the engravings of his
+Four Parts of the Day</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_594">594</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>A Hog, after an etching by Rembrandt</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_595">595</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Dray-horse, drawn by James Ward, R.A.</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_596">596</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Jacob blessing the Children of Joseph, after Rembrandt</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_597">597</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Two cuts&mdash;View of a Road-side Inn&mdash;showing the advantage
+of cutting the tint before the other parts of a subject are
+engraved</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_598">598</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Head, from an etching by Rembrandt</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_599">599</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Impression from a cast of part of the Death of Dentatus, engraved by
+W.&nbsp;Harvey</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_601">601</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Christ and the Woman at the Well, from an etching by Rembrandt</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_602">602</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Flight into Egypt, from an etching by Rembrandt</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_605">605</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Sea-piece, drawn by George Balmer</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_606a">606</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Sea-piece, moonlight, drawn by George Balmer</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_606b">606</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Landscape, evening, drawn by George Balmer</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_607">607</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Impression from a cast of part of the Death of Dentatus, engraved by
+W.&nbsp;Harvey</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_609">609</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>View of Rouen Cathedral, drawn by William Prior</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_611">611</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Map of England and Wales, with the part of the names engraved on
+wood, and part inserted in type</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_612">612</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Group from Sir David Wilkie’s Village Festival</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_614">614</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Natural <i>Vignette</i>, and an old ornamented capital from a
+manuscript of the thirteenth century</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_616">616</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Specimens of ornamental capitals, chiefly taken from Shaw’s
+Alphabets</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_617">617</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Impressions from a surface with the figures in relief&mdash;subject,
+the Crown-piece of George IV.</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_618">618</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Impressions from a surface with the figures in intaglio&mdash;same
+subject</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_619">619</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Shepherd’s Dog, drawn by W. Harvey</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_620">620</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Egret, drawn by W. Harvey</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_621">621</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Winter-piece, with an ass and her foal, drawn by J. Jackson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_622">622</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Salmon-Trout, with a view of Bywell-Lock, drawn by J. Jackson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_623">623</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Boy and Pony, drawn by J. Jackson</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_624a">624</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Heifer, drawn by W. Harvey</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_624b">624</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Descent from the Cross, after an etching by
+Rembrandt&mdash;impression when the block is merely lowered previous to
+engraving the subject</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_626">626</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Descent from the Cross&mdash;impression from the finished cut</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_627">627</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Copies of an ancient bust in the British Museum&mdash;No. 1 printed
+from a wood-cut, and No.&nbsp;2 from a cast</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_637">637</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Block reduced from a Lithograph by the new Electro-printing Block
+process</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_639">639</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Horse and Ass, drawn by J. Jackson&mdash;improperly printed</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_641">641</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Same subject, properly printed</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_642">642</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Landscape, drawn by George Balmer&mdash;improperly printed</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_644a">644</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Same subject, properly printed</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_644b">644</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Tail-piece, drawn by C. Jacques</td>
+<td class = "page"><a href =
+"WoodEngraving9.html#illus_652">652</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class = "correction">
+<h5>Erratum</h5>
+
+<p><span class = "citation">
+life of St. Birinus, of the twelfth century</span><br>
+twelth</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class = "titlepage">
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page1" id = "page1">
+1</a></span>
+<h2><span class = "smallest">ON</span><br>
+WOOD ENGRAVING.</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page653" id = "page653">
+653</a></span>
+
+<h3><a name = "index" id = "index">INDEX.</a></h3>
+
+<p class = "divider">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class = "mynote">
+<p>Links in the Index lead to the top of the named page. All are in
+separate files.</p>
+
+<p class = "center screenstyle">
+<a href = "#index_A">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_B">&nbsp;B&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_C">&nbsp;C&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_D">&nbsp;D&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_E">&nbsp;E&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_F">&nbsp;F&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_G">&nbsp;G&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_H">&nbsp;H&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_I">&nbsp;I&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_J">&nbsp;J&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_K">&nbsp;K&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_L">&nbsp;L&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_M">&nbsp;M&nbsp;</a><br>
+<a href = "#index_N">&nbsp;N&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_O">&nbsp;O&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_P">&nbsp;P&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_Q">&nbsp;Q&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_R">&nbsp;R&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_S">&nbsp;S&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_T">&nbsp;T&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_U">&nbsp;U&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_V">&nbsp;V&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_W">&nbsp;W&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_Z">&nbsp;Z&nbsp;</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "index">
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_A" id = "index_A" href = "#index">A</a></p>
+
+<p>Absolon, John, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page576a">576*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Accursius, Mariangelus, note written by, in a Donatus,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page123">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Advertisements, wood-cuts prefixed to,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII1">446 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Allegory of Death, a tract printed at Bamberg, 1462,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page171">171</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Almanach de Paris, with wood-cuts, by Papillon,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page459">459</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Almanacks, sheet, 1470, 1500,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page225">225</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Alphabet of figures, engraved on wood, in the British Museum,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page106">106</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">cuts from,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page109">109</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page110">110</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page111">111</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page112">112</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">with figures, of a Dance of Death, preserved in the
+public library at Basle,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page352">352</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Altdorffer, A.
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page320">320</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Amman, Jost, cuts designed by, in a book of trades and professions,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page408">408</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page409">409</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">other cuts designed by him,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page411">411</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Amonoph, a name on an Egyptian brick-stamp,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteI6">6 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Andreani, Andrea, chiaro-scuros engraved by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page432">432</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Andrews, G. H. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Anelay, H. artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page575a">575*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Angus, George, of Newcastle-on-Tyne, printer, wood-cuts used by, in
+cheap works,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page180">180</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page228">228</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Annunciation, old cut of the,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page50">50</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ansdell, Richard, painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ansgarius, St., supposed to have been the compiler of the Biblia
+Pauperum,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page94">94</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Antichrist, cuts of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page61">61</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Antonianus, Silvius, a cardinal, claimed by Papillon as a wood
+engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page337">337</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Antonio, Marc, his copies of the Little Passion and the Life of the
+Virgin, designed by Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page251">251</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Antwerp, painters’ company of, entertain Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page261">261</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">procession in honour of the Virgin, <i>ib.</i></p>
+
+<p>Apelles, the image of the life of man as painted in a table by,
+<a class = "error" href = "WoodEngraving6.html#noteVI119" title = "text reads ‘432’">436 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Apocalypse, an ancient block-book,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page61">61</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page68">68</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">cuts in illustration of, from Durer’s designs,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page239">239</a>.</p>
+
+<p class = "inset">Appeal to Christendom, early specimen of typography,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page138">138</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Arch, triumphal, of Maximilian, designed by Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page255">255</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Archer, J. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Archer, J. W. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Aretin, J. C. von,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page114">114</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Armitage, Edward, painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Armstrong, T. engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page592a">592*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Armstrong, Wm. engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page600a">600*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ars Memorandi,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page113">113</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">cut from,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page115">115</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ars Moriendi, an old block-book,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page116">116</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Art, early German,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page3">3</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Assen, J. W. van,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page318">318</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Astle’s Origin and Progress of Writing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page20">20</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Atkinson, G. C., his Life of Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page477">477</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page478">478</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page480">480</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page482">482</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page492">492</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page501">501</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page503">503</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page505">505</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Austin, an English wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page538">538</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_B" id = "index_B" href = "#index">B</a></p>
+
+<p>Babylonian brick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page7">7</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Balls, leather, formerly used by pressmen, not so elastic as
+composition rollers,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page620">620</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bamberg, a book of fables printed at, in 1461,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page171">171</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bämler, John, a printer of Augsburg,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page180">180</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Baptism of Drusiana,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page66">66</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bartsch, Adam, of opinion that Albert Durer did not engrave on wood,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page237">237</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Battailes, La Fleur des, 1505,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page210">210</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Baxter, George, his improvements in printing in colours,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page406">406</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his chiaro-scuros and picture-prints,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page629">629</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Beating time with the foot mistaken for printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page120">120</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Beaumont, Sir George, curious alphabet of figures engraved on wood,
+formerly belonging to,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page106">106</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bechtermuntze, Henry and Nicholas, early printers, related to
+Gutemberg,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page142">142</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Beddoes, Dr. Thomas, his poem of Alexander’s expedition down the
+Hydaspes, with wood-cuts, by E.&nbsp;Dyas, 1792,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII17">463 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Behaim, Michael, letter to, from Albert Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page235">235</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Behaim, H. S.
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#noteV29">253 <i>n</i></a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page320">320</a>.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page654" id = "page654">
+654</a></span>
+<p>Beilby, Ralph, the partner of Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page479">479</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Beildeck, Lawrence, his evidence in the suit of the Drytzehns against
+Gutemberg, 1438,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page128">128</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bekker, R. Z. editor of a collection of wood-cuts, from old blocks in
+the possession of the Baron Von Derschau,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page226">226</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bellini, Giovanni, his praise of Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page242">242</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bells, inscriptions on,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page20">20</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bennett, C. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Benting, William, Lord of Rhoon and Pendraght, a fictitious
+character, mentioned by T.&nbsp;Nieuhoff Piccard,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page360">360</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#noteVI36">361 <i>n</i></a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page363">363</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bernacle or Barnacle Goose,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page414">414</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bernardin, St. account of an old wood-cut of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page56">56</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Beroaldus, Peter, editor of an edition of Ptolemy,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page201">201</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Best, Andrew, and Leloir, their metallic relief engraving,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page636">636</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bethemsted, a name in an old book of wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page111">111</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Beugnet, a French wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page547">547</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bewick, Thomas, his birth, 1753,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page472">472</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">apprenticed to Mr. R. Beilby,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page474">474</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">engraves the diagrams in Hutton’s Mensuration,
+1768-1770,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page475">475</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">receives a premium for his cut of the Old Hound,
+1775,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page476">476</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">visits London,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page477">477</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">cuts engraved by him in a Hieroglyphic Bible,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page478">478</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his love of the country,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page479">479</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his partnership with Beilby, <i>ib.</i>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his cuts in Gay’s Fables,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page480">480</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his cut of the Chillingham Bull,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page481">481</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his Quadrupeds, 1791,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page482">482-490</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his British Birds, 1797-1804,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page490">490-502</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his Select Fables, 1818,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page502">502-506</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his cut of the Old Horse waiting for Death,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page510">510</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his diligence,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page507">507</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his death, <i>ib.</i>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">tribute to his merits from Blackwood’s Magazine,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page512">512</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">list of portraits of him,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII70">509 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bewick, John, notice of his principal works,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page513">513</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bible, the Mazarine, printed prior to August, 1456,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page139">139</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bible supposed to have been printed by Pfister, at Bamberg,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page181">181</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bible cuts, Lyons, 1538, designed by Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page365">365-371</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">engravings from 86,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page88">88</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page89">89</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page90">90</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page91">91</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page92">92</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bible, Quadrins Historiques de la,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page402">402</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Biblia Pauperum,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page80">80-94</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Biblia Pauperum Predicatorum,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page83">83</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bildhauer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page2">2</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Binding, old,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page60">60</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Birds, engraved by Bewick’s pupils,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII55">492 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Birkman, Arnold, Dance of Death, copied from the Lyons edition,
+published by his heirs, Cologne, 1555-1572,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page336">336</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Blake, William, his mode of engraving in metallic relief,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page632">632</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his drawing of Death’s Door, engraved by Linton,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page591">591</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green, cut from,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page534">534</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Blocking out,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page589">589</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Block-books claimed for Lawrence Coster,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page58">58</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Blocks, original, of the Triumphs of Maximilian, preserved at Vienna,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page291">291</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bolton, Thomas, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page576a">576*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page577a">577*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bombo, the name of a dog, supposed by Papillon to be the name of a
+wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#noteVI19">337 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bomb shell, cut of a, from a book printed in 1472,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page187">187</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Borbonius, or Bourbon, Nicholas, verses by, in praise of Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page356">356</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page357">357</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page362">362</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page367">367</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Borders, flowered, earliest specimens of in books,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page209">209</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Böttiger, C. A.
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page21">21</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Box-wood, different qualities of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page563">563</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page566">566</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Brandling, H. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Brands for marking cattle,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page11">11</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Branston, Robert, notice of his principal wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page535">535-538</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Branston, R. the younger, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his method of engraving in metallic relief,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page634">634</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Branston, F. W. wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page545">545</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Brass stamps,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page10">10</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Brasses, monumental,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page21">21</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Braunche, Robert, his monument at Lynn,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page22">22</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Breitkopf, G. J. his attempt to print maps with separative pieces of
+type-metal, 1776,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page205">205</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Breydenbach’s Travels, 1486,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page206">206-209</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bricks, from Egypt and Babylon,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page6">6</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page7">7</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bridget, St., early cut of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page52">52</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Brief of Indulgence, 1454, an early specimen of typography,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page137">137</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Briefe, cards so called in Germany,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page42">42</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Briefmaler and Briefdrucker,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page43">43</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page410">410</a>.</p>
+
+<p>British Birds, History of, with cuts by Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page490">490-502</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Broughton, Hugh, his Concent of Scripture, with copper-plate
+engravings, 1591,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page423">423</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Büchel, Emanuel, a Dance of Death copied by, in water-colours,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page326">326</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bukinck, Arnold, printer, his edition of Ptolemy, 1478, with maps,
+engraved on copper,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page200">200</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bullet, J. B. his Researches on Playing Cards,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page40">40</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bulwer, Sir E. Lytton, quoted,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page398">398</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Burgmair, Hans, painter, and designer on wood,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page277">277</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Burleigh, Lord, his portrait in Archbishop Parker’s edition of the
+Bible, 1568,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page419">419</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Burnet, John, his engraving of Chelsea Pensioners, after Wilkie,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page213">213</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Burning in the hand,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page12">12</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bury, Richard de, makes no mention of wood engraving,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Businck, chiaro-scuros engraved by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page440">440</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Buttons, silver, engraved by Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page479">479</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bybel, Historische School en Huis, Amsterdam, 1743, with wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page459">459</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Byfield, John, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_C" id = "index_C" href = "#index">C</a></p>
+
+<p>Calcar, John, a Flemish painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page434">434</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Calderinus, D. editor of an edition of Ptolemy,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page208">208</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Camus, his account of a book printed at Bamberg, 1462,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page171">171</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Canticles, illustrations of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page71">71</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page72">72</a>.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page655" id = "page655">
+655</a></span>
+<p>Capitals, ornamented, in Faust and Scheffer’s Psalter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page426">426</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">in English and other books,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page616">616</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page617">617</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Car, triumphal, of Maximilian, designed by Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page255">255</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cards, known in 1340,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page40">40</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Caron, Nicholas, wood engraver, his portrait of Papillon,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII22">466 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Carpi, Ugo da, engraver of chiaro-scuros, on wood,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page230">230</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page307">307</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cartouch,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteI38">28 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Casts, stereotype, early,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page418">418</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">modern,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page636">636</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">clichage,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page637">637</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cat edition of Dante, Venice, 1578,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page431">431</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Catherine, St. patroness of learned men,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page207">207</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Catholicon Johannis Januensis,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteIII34">135 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cauteria,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page12">12</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Caxton, W. books printed by,&mdash;Game of Chess,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page191">191</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Mirror of the World,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page194">194</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Golden Legend, Fables of Esop, Canterbury Tales,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page195">195</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Caylus, Count, chiaro-scuros executed by, and N. Le Sueur,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII11">456 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cessolis, J. de, his work on Chess,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page197">197</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Champollion,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteI6">6 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chantrey, Sir F. monument by, in Lichfield Cathedral,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page589">589</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page590">590</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Characters in an old Dutch Dance of Death,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page318">318</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#noteVI6">329 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Charlemagne, his monogram,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page14">14</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chelidonius,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page243">243</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page251">251</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chelsea Pensioners, engraving of, after Sir D. Wilkie,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page213">213</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page48">48</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chess, the Game of, printed by Caxton,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page191">191</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chiaro-scuro, engraving on wood, known in Germany, in 1509,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page230">230</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chiaro-scuros,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page307">307</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page402">402</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page432">432</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page440">440</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page451">451</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page455">455</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page467">467</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page628">628</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Children in the Wood, cut from,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page533">533</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chillingham bull, cut of, by Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page481">481</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chinese engraving and printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page23">23</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chirotipografia, or hand-printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteII6">44 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chisels,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page578">578</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Christopher, St. wood-cut of, in the possession of Earl Spencer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page45">45</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page46">46</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chrysographus,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page121">121</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Circular wood engravings in the British Museum,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteII18">54 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Clayton, J. R. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cleaning wood cuts after printing, mode of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page649">649</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Clennell, Luke, a pupil of Bewick, biographical notice of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page521">521-527</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Clerc, Sebastian le, cuts in Croxall’s Æsop’s Fables, copied from his
+engravings,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page450">450</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Clichage, a mode of taking a cast from a wood engraving,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page637">637</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Coeck, Peter, of Alost, his Costumes and Manners of the Turks,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page402">402</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Coining, its antiquity,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page19">19</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cole, Humphrey, an English engraver, 1572,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page419">419</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Coleman, Wm. artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Collation of editions of the Speculum Salvationis,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page102">102</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cologne Chronicle, unfairly quoted by the advocates of Coster,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page122">122</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Colonna, Francis, author of the Hypnerotomachia,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page218">218</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Colour, the meaning of the word when applied to engravings,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page213">213</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Committee of the House of Commons on Arts and their Connexion with
+Manufactures,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page305">305</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Congreve’s, Sir Wm. mode of colour printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page630">630</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Concanen, M. wood cut in Miscellaneous Poems, published by, 1724,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page453">453</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cooper, James, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page550">550</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page552">552</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Coornhert, Theodore, claims the invention of printing for Harlem,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cope, C. W. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Copperplate engraving, its invention ascribed to Varro,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page21">21</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Copperplates, earliest books containing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page200">200</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">the earliest engraved in England,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page419">419</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Corbould, E. H. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Coriolano, Bartolomeo, chiaro-scuros engraved by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page440">440</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cornelius, a bookbinder, his account of Coster’s invention,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page150">150-152</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Coster, Lawrence, first mentioned by Hadrian Junius as the inventor
+of printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page147">147</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">account of his invention,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page149">149</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cotman’s Sepulchral Brasses,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteI30">22 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Coverdale, Miles, cuts in his translation of the Bible, 1535,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page385">385-389</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cowper, Edward, his invention for piercing wood blocks for map
+engraving,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page205">205</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cracherode, Rev. C. M. prints and books presented by him to the
+British Museum,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page72">72</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page231">231</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page355">355</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page385">385</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cranach, Lucas, painter and designer on wood,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page275">275</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">chiaro-scuros cut after,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page276">276</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">figure of Christ printed in colours, supposed to be
+by him,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page404">404</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cranmer, Archbishop, his Catechism, 1548, with wood cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page380">380-382</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Creswick, T. artist.
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page588a">588*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page589a">589*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cropsey, Jasper, painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Crown-piece of George IV., impressions of casts from,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page618">618</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Crowquill, Alfred, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page597a">597*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cross-hatching,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page224">224</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page234">234</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page562">562</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Croxall’s Æsop’s Fables, wood cuts in, 1722,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page448">448-451</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cruikshank, George, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page595a">595*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page596a">596*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cuningham’s, Dr. William, Cosmographical Glass, 1559,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page421">421</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page425">425</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his portrait,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page424">424</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">cuts from his book,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page425">425</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page426">426</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page427">427</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cunio, Alberic and Isabella, pretended wood engravers,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page26">26</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Curved lines, the effect of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page585">585</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cutting tools,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page576">576</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_D" id = "index_D" href = "#index">D</a></p>
+
+<p>Dalziel, Bros. wood engravers,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page559">559-562*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page566a">566*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dalziel, Thomas, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page562a">562*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dammetz, Lucas, called also Lucas Van Leyden,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page308">308</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dampth, its effect on box-wood,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page564">564</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dance of Death, in old churches,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page325">325</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">at Basle,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page326">326</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">in old French and other books,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page328">328</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">the Lyons Dance of Death, 1538, with cuts, designed
+by Hans Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page329">329-364</a>;</p>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page656" id = "page656">
+656</a></span>
+<p class = "inset">his Alphabet containing his Dance of Death,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page352">352</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dante, edition of, with <ins class = "correction" title = "text reads ‘copperplates’">copper-plates</ins>, 1482;</p>
+<p class = "inset">the cat edition of, Venice, 1578,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page431">431</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Darley, Felix, draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dates of block books and cuts, mistake about,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page58">58</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Day, John, an English printer, supposed to have also engraved on
+wood,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page425">425</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Denecker, Jobst, publisher of a Dance of Death at Augsburg, 1544,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page336">336</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dentatus, the large cut of the death of, engraved by W. Harvey,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page528">528</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">specimens of it,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page601">601</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page609">609</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Derschau, the Baron Von, his collection of old wood blocks,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page93">93</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page226">226</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his character,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#noteV9">236 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Desroches, M. ascribes the invention of printing to “Vedelare
+Lodewyc,” <a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page119">119</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Deutsch, N. E.
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page314">314</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dickes, W. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dinkel, Joseph, draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page593a">593*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Doctrinale gette en mole,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page122">122</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dodd, Daniel and John, wood engravers,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dodgson, G. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dolce, Ludovico, his Transformationi, a paraphrase of Ovid’s
+Metamorphoses,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page394">394</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dominicals, stamped on paper,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page120">120</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dominotiers,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page45">45</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Donatus, a grammatical treatise so called, printed from wood blocks,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page117">117</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">one supposed to have been <i>stamped</i>, 1340,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page121">121</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">idea of typography perhaps suggested by such a work,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page123">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Douce, Francis, his opinion about the name Machabre,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page325">325</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his list of books containing figures of a Dance of
+Death,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page328">328</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his edition of the Dance of Death, 1833,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page338">338</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">denies that the cuts in the Lyons edition were
+designed by Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page346">346</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">but believes, on the authority of an unknown writer,
+named Piccard, that Holbein painted a Dance of Death in the old palace
+at Whitehall,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page360">360</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dovaston’s account of Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII38">478 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Doyle, R. artist. <a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page578a">578*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page579a">579*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Drawings, of a Dance of Death, supposed to be originals, by Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page357">357</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">by Robert Johnson, purchased of Beilby and Bewick, by
+the Earl of Bute,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page517">517</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">on wood, mode of preparing the block for,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page570">570</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">for wood engraving, difficulty of obtaining good,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page592">592</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Drytzehn, Andrew, a partner of Gutemberg’s,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page126">126</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Duncan, Edward, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page583a">583*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dünne, Hans, work done by him for Gutemberg, on account of printing,
+previous to 1438,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page129">129</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Durer, Albert, placed as pupil under Michael Wolgemuth,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page239">238</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">earliest known copper-plate of his engraving, 1494,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page239">239</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his illustrations of the Apocalypse, <i>ib.</i>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his visit to Venice,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page241">241</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his illustrations of the History of the Virgin,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page243">243-246</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">of Christ’s Passion,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page246">246-250</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">triumphal car,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page255">255</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">triumphal arch, <i>ib.</i>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his earliest etchings,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page257">257</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">specimen of his carving in the British Museum,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page258">258</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his poetry,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#noteV37">260 <i>n</i></a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his visit to Flanders,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page260">260-270</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his portrait,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page272">272</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">lock of his hair preserved,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#noteV93">321 <i>n</i></a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his death, said to have been hastened through his
+wife’s bad temper,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page239">239</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page273">273</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dyas, E. a self-taught wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII17">463 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dyers of Ovingham,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page501">501</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_E" id = "index_E" href = "#index">E</a></p>
+
+<p>Edmonston, S. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Egyptian brick stamp,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page5">5</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page6">6</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Electro-printing block process, specimen of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page639">639</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Electrotyping,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page638">638</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Elizabeth, Queen, portrait of, in Archbishop Parker’s Bible, 1568,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page419">419</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">in her Prayer-Book,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page427">427</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page428">428</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Emblems of Mortality, with cuts, engraved by John Bewick, 1789,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page329">329</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page513">513</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Emblems, Religious, with wood-cuts, 1808,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page520">520</a>.</p>
+
+<p>English book, the earliest, that contains wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page191">191-194</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Engraving, the word explained,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page1">1</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">copper-plate,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page20">20</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page200">200</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page419">419</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Enschedius, J., specimen of typography discovered by him,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page161">161</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Entkrist, Der, an old block-book,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page1">1</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Erasmus, portrait of, painted by Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page263">263</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">invoked by Durer to exert himself in behalf of the
+Reformation,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page267">267</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his worldly wisdom displayed in his letter
+introducing Holbein to Aegidius,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page375">375</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his Ship of Fools, with cuts by Seb. Brandt,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page468">468</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Etching, the process of, explained,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#noteV35">258 <i>n</i></a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">in metallic relief,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page632">632</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Evans, Edmund, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page556">556</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page567a">567*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Eve, creation of, conventional mode of representing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page215">215</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page216">216</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Evelyn’s Sculptura,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page5">5</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page408">408</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Eyck, Hubert and J. van, paintings by them,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page265">265</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_F" id = "index_F" href = "#index">F</a></p>
+
+<p>Fables, book of, printed at Bamberg, 1461,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page171">171</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Æsop’s, 1722,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page448">448</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Select, with cuts, by Bewick, 1818,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page502">502-506</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fairholt, F. W. artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page592a">592*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Falconer’s Shipwreck, 1808, with cuts by Clennell,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page522">522</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fanti, Sigismond, his Triompho di Fortuna, Venice, 1527,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page315">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fantuzzi, Antonio, called also Antonio da Trente, engraver of
+chiaro-scuros,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page389">389</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fasciculus Temporum, with wood-cuts, 1474,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page190">190</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Faust, John, becomes a partner of Gutemberg,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page131">131</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">sues him for money advanced,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page133">133</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">gains the cause,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page134">134</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Faust and Scheffer’s Psalter of 1457,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page164">164</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fellowship, or Guild of St. Luke, at Antwerp,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page121">121</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Figures du Nouveau Testament,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page402">402</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Flaxman’s Lectures, print of the creation of Eve in,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page217">217</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">cut from his relief, “Deliver us from evil,” <a href
+= "WoodEngraving8.html#page577a">577*</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his opinion of expressionand sentiment in art,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page585">585</a>;</p>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page657" id = "page657">
+657</a></span>
+<p class = "inset">cut from a design by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page590">590</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Folkard, W. A. wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page564a">564*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Forma, a shape or mould,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page42">42</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Formschneider,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page19">19</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page43">43</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page44">44</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page410">410</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Foster, Birket, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page551">551</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page556">556-558</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page570a">570*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page571a">571*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fournier, P. S. his discoveries with respect to the Speculum
+Salvationis,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page101">101</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his opinion of wooden types,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page136">136</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his works,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page467">467-469</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fox’s, John, Acts and Monuments,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page428">428</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fracture,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#noteV66">283 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Franklin, John, draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Frellon, John and Francis, publishers of the second edition of the
+Lyons Dance of Death,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page366">366</a>.</p>
+
+<p>French wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page610">610</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Frey, Agnes, the wife of Durer, her avarice and ill-temper said to
+have hastened her husband’s death,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page273">273</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Frith, W. P. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page59">59</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_G" id = "index_G" href = "#index">G</a></p>
+
+<p>Gænsfleisch, a surname of the family of Gutemberg,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page124">124</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Galenus de Temperamentis, with a title-page, engraved on copper,
+printed at Cambridge, 1521,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page421">421</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Galius, Nicholas, tells the story of Coster’s invention to
+H.&nbsp;Junius,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page150">150</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gamperlin, Von, cuts ascribed to,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page314">314</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Garfagninus, Joseph Porta,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page390">390</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gebhard, L. A. his notice of the History of the Council of Constance,
+with cuts of arms,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page189">189</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gemini, Thomas, his Compendium of Anatomy, with copper-plate
+engravings, London, 1545,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page422">422</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gent, Thomas, wood-cuts in his History of Ripon,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page181">181</a>.</p>
+
+<p>George IV. his signature stamped,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page14">14</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his snuff-box, with designs by Flaxman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page590">590</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gesner, Conrad, expressly mentions the cuts in the Lyons Dance of
+Death, as having been designed by Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page364">364</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ghesquiere, M. his answer to M. Desroches,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page120">120</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gilbert, John, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page561a">561*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page563a">563*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page564a">564*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gilpin, Rev. William, his definition of tint,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page213">213</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Giolito, Gabriel, printer, of Venice,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page394">394</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Giraffe, wood-cut of a, in Breydenbach’s Travels, 1486,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page269">269</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Glasses, observations on the use of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page573">573</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Globe, glass, the engraver’s, to concentrate the light of the lamp,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page575">575</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Glockendon, George, an early German wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page227">227</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Glockenton, A. cuts ascribed to,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page317">317</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Goethe, allusion to Sir Theurdank, in his Götz Von Berlichingen,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#noteV62">281 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Golden Legend, printed by W. de Worde, 1493, large cut in,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page195">195</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Goldsmith and Parnell’s Poems, printed by Bulmer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page513">513</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Goltzius, Henry, chiaro-scuros by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page432">432</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Goltzius, Hubert, his portraits of the Roman Emperors in
+chiaro-scuro, from plates of metal, 1557,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page405">405</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Goodall, E. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Goodall, W. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Goose, Bernacle or Barnacle, said to be produced from a tree,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page414">414</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gorway, Charles, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page600a">600*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gospels of Ulphilas,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page44">44</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gothic monograms,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page15">15</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Graff, Rose,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page313">313</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page314">314</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Grand-duc de l’armée céleste,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page173">173</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Grant, W. J. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gratture, the French term for the process of thickening the lines in
+a wood-cut by scraping them down,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page464">464</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gravers,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page574">574</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page575">575</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gray, Charles, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Green, W. T. wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page547">547</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page548">548</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Greenaway, J. wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page553">553-555</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Greff, Jerome, publisher of a pirated edition of Durer’s
+Illustrations of the Apocalypse,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page241">241</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Greffier and Scrivener,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteI2">2 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gregson, Mr. C., letter to, from Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page474">474</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page479">479</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gringonneur, Jacquemin, cards painted by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page41">41</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gritner, a French wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page547">547</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Grotesque,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteI9">9 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Grün, H. B.
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page320">320</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gubitz, a modern German wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page546">546</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Guicciardini, L. mentions the report of printing having been invented
+at Harlem,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gutemberg, John, his birth,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page124">124</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">residing at Strasburg in 1434,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page125">125</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his partnership with Andrew Drytzehn, <i>ib.</i>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">evidences of his having a <i>press</i> in 1438, for
+the purpose of printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page127">127</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his return to Mentz and partnership with Faust,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page131">131</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">partnership dissolved,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page133">133</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">proofs of his having afterwards had a press of his
+own,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page140">140</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his death and epitaph,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page144">144</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_H" id = "index_H" href = "#index">H</a></p>
+
+<p>Hahn, Ulric, Meditationes J. de Turrecremata, printed by, in 1467,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page184">184</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hammond, &mdash;, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page600a">600*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hancock, Charles, his patent for engraving in metallic relief,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page635">635</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Handgun, figure of one seen in cut in Valturius, de Re Militari,
+1472,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page187">187</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hans, Young, Briefmaler,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page116">116</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page225">225</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Harral, Horace, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page566a">566*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page583a">583*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page594a">594*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Harrington, Sir John, his translation of Ariosto, with copper-plate
+engravings, 1591,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page423">423</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hartlieb, Dr. Cyromantia,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page116">116</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Harvey, William, a pupil of Bewick, notice of his works as an
+engraver and designer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page527">527-534</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hawkins, John Sidney, editor of Emblems of Mortality, 1789,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page329">329</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hawkins, Sir John, wood-cuts in his History of Music, 1776,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page471">471</a>.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page658" id = "page658">
+658</a></span>
+<p>Haydock, R. his translation of Lomazzo, with copper-plate engraving,
+1598,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page423">423</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Head of Paris, the lover of Helen, serves for that of Thales, Dante,
+and others,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page212">212</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hegner, Ulrich, author of Life of Holbein, his notice of the Dance of
+Death, at Basle,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page326">326</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">of the German names in proof impressions of the cuts
+in the Lyons Dance of Death,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page331">331</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">of Hans Lutzelburger,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page351">351</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his Life of Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page372">372</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Heilman, Anthony, his evidence in the suit of the Drytzehns against
+Gutemberg, 1438,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page128">128</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Heineken, Charles, Baron Von, his disbelief of Papillon’s story of
+the Cunio,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page27">27</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his opinion that cards were invented in Germany,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page40">40</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his notice of the old wood-cut of St. Christopher,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page46">46</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">of the History of the Virgin,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page68">68</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">of the Apocalypse,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page80">80</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">of the Poor Preacher’s Bible,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page82">82</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page94">94</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">of the Speculum Salvationis,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page100">100</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his erroneous account of a Dutch wood-cut, by
+<i>Phillery</i> [Willem] de figuersnider,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page309">309</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Helgen, or Helglein, figures of Saints,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page45">45</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Henderson, Dr. his History of Wines, with Illustrations, by
+W.&nbsp;Harvey,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page530">530</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Henry VIII. his signature stamped,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page14">14</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Heures a l’Usaige de Chartres, printed by S. Vostre, 1502,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page232">232</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hicks, G. E. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hieroglyphic sonnet,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page396">396</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Bible, <a class = "error" href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#page478" title = "page reference missing">478</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Highland Society, diploma of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page523">523</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Historiarum Veteris Testamenti Icones, or Bible-cuts, designed by
+Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page365">365-371</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Histories, the Four, dated 1462,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page172">172-175</a>.</p>
+
+<p>History of the Virgin, an ancient block-book,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page68">68-80</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hodgson, Solomon, printer of the first four editions of Bewick’s
+Quadrupeds,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page488">488</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hodgson, T. the engraver of a cut in Sir John Hawkins’s History of
+Music, 1776,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page471">471</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hogarth, cut from projected edition of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">sketch from,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page594">594</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hogenberg, R. portrait of Archbishop Parker engraved by, 1572,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page422">422</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Holbein, Hans, the designer of the cuts in the Dance of Death printed
+at Lyons,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page371">371</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his birth, <i>ib.</i>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his marriage,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page372">372</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">how employed at Basle,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page373">373</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">visits England, <i>ib.</i>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">revisits Basle,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page376">376</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his death,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page378">378</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his satirical drawings,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#noteVI60">378 <i>n</i></a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his Alphabet,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page352">352</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hole, Henry, a pupil of Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII55">492 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Holl, Leonard, printer of Ulm, his edition of Ptolemy, 1483,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page199">199</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hollar, W. his etchings of the Dance of Death,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page337">337</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Holzschneider,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page2">2</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Horace, his well-stored wine,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page9">9</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Horne, Rev. T. H. probably incorrect with respect to a date,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page60">60</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Horsley, J. C. artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page591a">591*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hortus Sanitatis, 1491,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page210">210</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Householder, the Good,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page438">438</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Howel’s Medulla Historiæ Anglicanæ, with wood-cuts, 1712,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page446">446</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hughes, Hugh, his Beauties of Cambria,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page538">538-548</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hughes, William, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page538">538</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hudibras, 1819, cut from,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page543">543</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hulme, F. W. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Humanæ Vitæ Imago,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#noteVI119">436 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Humphreys, Noel, draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hunt, W. Holman, painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hunting and Hawking, Book of, printed at St. Alban’s, 1486, and at
+Westminster in 1496,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page195">195</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hutton’s Mensuration, with diagrams engraved by Bewick, 1768-1770,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page475">475</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hypnerotomachia Poliphili,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page218">218</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page220">220</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page224">224</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_I" id = "index_I" href = "#index">I</a></p>
+
+<p>Images of the Old Testament, with cuts, designed by Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page365">365-370</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Impressions from wood and from copper, the difference in the mode of
+taking,&nbsp;4.</p>
+
+<p>Initial letters, flowered,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page191">191</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page429">429</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Insanity of engravers,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII14">458 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Inscriptions on bells,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page20">20</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Intaglio engraving on wood, so that the outlines appear white upon
+black,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page225">225</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page482">482</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page618">618</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page619">619</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_J" id = "index_J" href = "#index">J</a></p>
+
+<p>Jackson, John, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page545">545</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Jackson, John Baptist, an English wood engraver, perhaps a pupil of
+Kirkall,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page453">453</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Papillon’s notice of him,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page454">454</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">engraves several chiaro-scuros at Venice,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page455">455</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">establishes a manufactory for paper-hangings at
+Battersea, and publishes an essay on chiaro-scuro engraving,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page455">455-457</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Jackson, John,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page545">545</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Jackson, Mason, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page589a">589*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page600a">600*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Jacob blessing the children of Joseph,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page596">596</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page597">597</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Janszoon, Lawrence, supposed to be the same person as Lawrence
+Coster,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page162">162</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Javelin-headed characters,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page7">7</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Jean-le-Robert, his Journal,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page122">122</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Jegher, Christopher, wood engravings by, from drawings by Rubens,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page437">437</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Jettons, or counters,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page19">19</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Jewitt, Orlando, draughtsman and wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page584a">584*-587*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>John, St. old wood-cuts of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page60">60</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Johnson, John, a pupil of Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII74">517 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Johnson, Robert, a pupil of Bewick’s, list of tail-pieces in the
+British Birds designed by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page497">497</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">notice of his life,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page516">516</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Jones, Owen, draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Journal, Albert Durer’s, of his visit to Flanders,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page260">260</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Judith, with the head of Holofernes,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page440">440</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Junius, Hadrian, claims the invention of printing for Lawrence
+Coster,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page147">147-150</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_K" id = "index_K" href = "#index">K</a></p>
+
+<p>Kartenmachers in Germany, in the fifteenth century,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page43">43</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Keene, Charles, draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page659" id = "page659">
+659</a></span>
+<p>Killing the black, a technical term in wood engraving, explained,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page232">232</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Kirchner, &mdash;, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page563a">563*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Kirkall, E. copper-plate frontispiece to Howel’s Medulla Historiæ
+Anglicanæ, engraved by, 1712,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page447">447</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">chiaro-scuros engraved by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page451">451</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">copper-plates engraved by, in Rowe’s translation of
+Lucan’s Pharsalia, and other works,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page452">452</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Klauber, H. H., repainted the Dance of Death in the church-court of
+the Dominicans, at Basle,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page327">327</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Knight, R. Payne, his bequest of a piece of sculpture, by A. Durer,
+to the British Museum,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page258">258</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Knight, C. his patent illuminated prints and maps,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page630">630</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Koburger, Anthony, printer of the Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page212">212</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Koning, J. a modern advocate of Coster’s invention,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page154">154</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Krismer, librarian of the Convent of Buxheim,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteII14">49 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Kunig, der Weiss, the title of a work, with wood-cuts, chiefly
+written by the Emperor Maximilian,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page286">286</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page483">483</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">summary of its contents, <i>ib.</i></p>
+
+<p>Kupfer-stecher,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page2">2</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Küttner, K. G. his opinion of Sir Theurdank,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page282">282</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Kyloe Ox, by Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII49">485 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_L" id = "index_L" href = "#index">L</a></p>
+
+<p>Ladenspelder, Hans,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page355">355</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Laer, W. Rolewinck de, his Fasciculus Temporum, with wood-cuts, 1474,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page190">190</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lamp, the engraver’s,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page575">575</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Landells, Ebenezer, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Landseer, Mr. Edwin, on vignettes,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page615">615</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Landseer, Mr. John, his theory of vegetable putties,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page72">72</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his observations on the term colour, as applied to
+engravings,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page213">213</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Laocoon, burlesque of the, by Titian,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page435">435</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lapis, Dominico de, printer of Bologna, his edition of Ptolemy, with
+an erroneous date,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page201">201</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lar, the word on a Roman stamp,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page8">8</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lawless, M. J. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lee, James, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page593a">593*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lee, John, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page534">534</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Leech, John, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page580a">580*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page581a">581*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Leglenweiss, the word explained,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page44">44</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Legrand, J. G. his translation of the Hypnerotomachia,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page219">219</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lehne, F. his observations on a passage in the Cologne Chronicle,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteIII6">122 <i>n</i></a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his Chronology of the Harlem Fiction,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page155">155</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his remarks on Koning,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page157">157</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Leicester, Robert Earl of, his portrait in Archbishop Parker’s
+edition of the Bible, 1568,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page419">419</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Leighton, John, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page582a">582*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Leighton, Henry, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page582a">582*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Le Jeune, H. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Leland, John, his Næniæ, 1542, contains a portrait, engraved on wood,
+of Sir Thomas Wyatt,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page379">379</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Le Sueurs, French wood-engravers,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page443">443</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page467">467</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Letania Lauretana, with wood-cuts, Valencia, 1768,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page469">469</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lettere Cifrate,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page395">395</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Leyden, Lucas van, visited by Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page269">269</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his engravings,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page308">308</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lhuyd, Humphrey, erroneously described by Walpole as an engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page420">420</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Libripagus, a definition of the word, by Paul of Prague,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page182">182</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lignamine, P. de, in his Chronicle, 1474, mentions Gutemberg and
+Faust, as printers, at Mentz in 1458,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page140">140</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Linton, W. J. wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page590a">590*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page591a">591*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lobel and Pena’s Stirpium Adversaria, with copper-plate title-page,
+London, 1570,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page423">423</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lodewyc von Vaelbeke, a fidler, supposed to have been the inventor of
+printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page119">119</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Logography,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page417">417</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lorenzo, Nicolo, books containing copper-plates printed by him,
+1477-1481,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page202">202</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lorich, Melchior,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page408">408</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Loudon’s Arboretum, with cuts printed from casts of etchings, by
+Branston,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page634">634</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Loudon, J. wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page600a">600*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lowering, the practice of, no recent invention,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page465">465</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lowering, concave,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page618">618</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lowering, advantages of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page624">624</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lowering, complicated,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page625">625</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lowering, the difference between cylindrical rollers and the common
+press, so far as relates to,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#noteIX34">640 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lucas van Leyden,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page308">308</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lucchesini, an Italian wood-engraver, about 1770,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page469">469</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Luther, Martin, his cause espoused by Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page265">265</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">caricature portraits of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page267">267</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lutzelburger, Hans, a wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page351">351</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lydgate, John, mentions vignettes in his Troy Book,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page616">616</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lysons, Mr. Samuel, letter from, to Sir George Beaumont,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page108">108</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_M" id = "index_M" href = "#index">M</a></p>
+
+<p>Mabillon,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page14">14</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Machabre, The Dance of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page325">325-329</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Maclise, D. artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page568a">568*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page569a">569*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Macquoid, T. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mair, an engraver, a supposed chiaro-scuro by, 1499,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page231">231</a>.</p>
+
+<p>McIan, R. R. artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page588a">588*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page590a">590*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Maittaire’s Latin Classics, wood-cut ornaments in, 1713,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page448">448</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mallinkrot, his translation of a passage in the Cologne Chronicle,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page123">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mander, C. Van, ascribes the Lyons Dance of Death to Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page365">365</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mantegna, Andrea, wood-cuts of the Hypnerotomachia ascribed to,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page219">219</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Manung, widder die Durken, an early specimen of typography,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page138">138</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Map engraved on wood, specimen of a,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page612">612</a>.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page660" id = "page660">
+660</a></span>
+<p>Maps engraved on wood and on copper, the earliest,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page199">199</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">names of places in, printed in type, 1511,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page203">203</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">printed in colours, 1538,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page204">204</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">improvements in engraving, <i>ib.</i>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">printed in separate pieces, with types, 1776,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page205">205</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">improvements in printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page417">417</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">early, on copper, published in England,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page419">419</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Knight’s patent illuminated,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page630">630</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Marcolini, F. wood-cuts in his Sorti, 1540,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page389">389</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page391">391</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Marks, double, on wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page350">350</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Marshall, J. R. wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page596a">596*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Martin, John, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page545">545</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page546">546</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page547">547</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page590a">590*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Martin, J. wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mary de Medici, her portrait mistaken by Papillon and Fournier for a
+specimen of her own engraving on wood,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page461">461</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Masters, little,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#noteV92">320 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Matsys, Quintin, entertains Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page261">261</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Maude, Thomas, extract from his poem of the School Boy,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page473">473</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Maugerard, M. copy of an early edition of the Bible discovered by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page139">139</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Maximilian the First, Emperor of Germany, his triumphal car and arch,
+designed by Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page255">255</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">the Adventures of Sir Theurdank, the joint
+composition of himself and his secretary,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page282">282-285</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">works celebrating his actions,&mdash;The Wise King,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page286">286</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset2">the Triumphal Procession,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page288">288</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page289">289</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mazarine Bible,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteIII40">139 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Meadows, Kenny, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page597a">597*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Measom, Geo. wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page575a">575*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mechel, Christian von, of Basle, his engravings after Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page350">350</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Medals,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page320">320</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Meditationes Joannis de Turrecremata,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page184">184</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Meerman, G. his disbelief of the story of Coster’s invention,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page154">154</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">and his subsequent attempts to establish its
+credibility,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page155">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mentelin, John, printer, of Strasburg, formerly an illuminator,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page121">121</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mentonnière,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page465">465</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page574">574</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Merchants’-marks,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page17">17</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Metallic relief engraving, erroneous statements about,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page305">305</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Blake’s metallic relief engraving,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page632">632</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">portrait thus executed by Lizars,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page633">633</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Woone’s,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page634">634</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Schonberg’s, <i>ib.</i>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Branston’s, <i>ib.</i>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Hancock’s patent,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page635">635</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Sly’s experiments,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page636">636</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Messrs. Best, Andrew, and Leloir, <i>ib.</i></p>
+
+<p>Meydenbach, John, said to have been one of Gutemberg’s assistants,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page166">166</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Meydenbach, Jacobus, printer of the Hortus Sanitatis, 1491,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page210">210</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Millais, J. E. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mints, provincial, for coining money,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page19">19</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mirror of Human Salvation,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page95">95</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mirror of the World, printed by Caxton,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page194">194</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Missale Herbipolense, with a copper-plate engraving, 1481,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page201">201</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Moffet’s Theatre of Insects,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page442">442</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Monogram,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page13">13</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page15">15</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Montagna, Benedetto, wood-cuts of the Hypnerotomachia ascribed to
+him,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page220">220</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Monte Sancto di Dio, an early book, containing copper-plates, 1477,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page202">202</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Monumental brasses,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page21">21</a>.</p>
+
+<p>More, Sir Thomas,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page375">375</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Morgan, M. S. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Morland, sketch from,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page592">592</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mort, les Simulachres de la, Lyons, 1538,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page328">328</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mosses, Thomas, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mulready, W. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page598a">598*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Munster, Sebastian, his Cosmography,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page413">413</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his letters to Joachim Vadianus about an improvement
+in the mode of printing maps,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page417">417</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Murr, C. G. Von, references to his Journal of Art, and other works,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page2">2</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page9">9</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page42">42</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page47">47</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page49">49</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page51">51</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page56">56</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page74">74</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page227">227</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page236">236</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page237">237</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page241">241</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page242">242</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page257">257</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page260">260</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page262">262</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page264">264</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page267">267</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page273">273</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page281">281</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page283">283</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page289">289</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page291">291</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_N" id = "index_N" href = "#index">N</a></p>
+
+<p>Names of wood engravers at the back of the original blocks of the
+Triumphs of Maximilian,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page292">292</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Naming of John the Baptist, a piece of sculpture by A. Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page259">259</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Nash, J. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Nesbit, Charlton, a pupil of Bewick, notice of some of his principal
+cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page519">519-521</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Neudörffer, his account of Jerome Resch, a wood engraver,
+contemporary with Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page236">236</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Nicholson, Isaac, a pupil of Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page527">527</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Northcote, James, his mode of composing the cuttings for his Fables,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII88">529 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Notarial stamps,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page17">17</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Nummi bracteati,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page16">16</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Nuremberg Chronicle,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page212">212</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_O" id = "index_O" href = "#index">O</a></p>
+
+<p>Oberlin, J. J. Essai d’Annales de la Vie de Gutenberg,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page125">125</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page130">130</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page136">136</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page138">138</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page140">140</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page143">143</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Odes, two, by Lloyd and Colman, with wood-cuts, 1760,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page470">470</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ortelius, Abraham, his collection of maps, engraved on copper, 1570,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page419">419</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ortus Sanitatis,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page211">211</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ottley, W. Y. adopts Papillon’s story of the Cunio,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page419">419</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his advocacy of Coster’s pretensions,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page160">160</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">ascribes the introduction of cross-hatching to M.
+Wolgemuth,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page239">239</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">and the designs of the cuts in the Hypnerotomachia to
+Benedetto Montagna,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page220">220</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Outline, in wood engraving, the difference between the white and the
+true,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page587">587</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">engravings in,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page590">590</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Overlaying wood-cuts, mode of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page613">613</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page645">645</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ovid’s Metamorphoses, printed at Venice, 1497,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page217">217</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ovingham, the parsonage at,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page473">473</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">the church,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page512">512</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Oxford Sausage, with wood-cuts, 1764,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page470">470</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_P" id = "index_P" href = "#index">P</a></p>
+
+<p>Packhouse’s machine for tints,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#noteIX15">584 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Palatino, G. B. his work on Penmanship,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page395">395</a>.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page661" id = "page661">
+661</a></span>
+<p>Palmer, W. J. wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page557">557</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Paper, proper for printing wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page646">646</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">India paper, injurious to wood-cuts, <i>ib.</i></p>
+
+<p>Paper-mark in an old book of wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page107">107</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Paper money, early,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteI35">25 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Papillon, John, the elder,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page443">443</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Papillon, John Michael, his story of the Cunio,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page26">26</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his character,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page35">35</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">notice of his works,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page457">457-467</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Parafe, or ruche,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page14">14</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Parker, Archbishop, his portrait, engraved by R. Hogenberg, 1572,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page422">422</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Parkinson’s Paradisus Terrestris,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page442">442</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Parmegiano, chiaro-scuros after his designs,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page403">403</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pasti, Matteo, supposed to have designed the cuts in Valturius de Re
+Militari, 1472,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page186">186</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Patin’s Life of Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page372">372</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Patroner, the word explained,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#noteVI9">330 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Paul of Prague, his definition of “libripagus,” <a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#page182">182</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pearson, G. wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page573a">573*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page574a">574*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pepyr, Edmund, his mark,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page18">18</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Peringskiold,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page14">14</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Petit-Jehan de Saintré, Chronicle of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page41">41</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Petrarch’s Sonnets, Lyons, 1545, cuts in,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page400">400</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Petronius,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page8">8</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page15">15</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pfintzing, Melchior, joint author of Sir Theurdank,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page282">282</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pfister, Albert, works printed by, at Bamberg in 1461 and 1462,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page170">170</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page181">181</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Phillery, properly Willem, de figursnider, mistakes about a cut of
+his engraving,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page310">310</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Phiz (H. K. Browne), draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Piccard, T. Nieuhoff, an unknown discoverer of a painting of the
+Dance of Death, by Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page360">360</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page363">363</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pickersgill, F. R. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pictura, a wood-cut sometimes called,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page357">357</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pilgrim, John Ulric, cuts ascribed to,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page317">317</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pinkerton, John, his statement that several of the cuts in Bewick’s
+Quadrupeds were drawn on the block by R.&nbsp;Johnson,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII54">491 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pinx. et Scalp. not to be found on early wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page35">35</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pirkheimer, Bilibald, letters written to him by Albert Durer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page242">242</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his letter to J. Tscherte, announcing Durer’s death,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page273">273</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pittacia, small labels,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteI8">8 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Playing cards,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page40">40</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Plebanus, a curate or vicar,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteII35">61 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pleydenwurff, William, with M. Wolgemuth, superintends the cuts of
+the Nuremberg Chronicle, 1491,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page212">212</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ploughman, Pierce, his Creed,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page18">18</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Plug, mode of inserting in an engraved wood-block,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page549">549</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Poetry, specimen of Durer’s,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page260">260</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">specimens of Clennell’s, when insane,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page526">526</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Poliphili Hypnerotomachia,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page218">218</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page220">220</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page224">224</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Polo, Marco,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page25">25</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Poor Preacher’s Bible,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page80">80-94</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page175">175-179</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Portraits of Bewick, list of the principal,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page509">509</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Powis, W. H. wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Prayer-book, Queen Elizabeth’s, 1569,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page427">427</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Prenters of Antwerp in 1442,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page121">121</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Press made for Gutemberg previous to 1438,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page127">127</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Press, rolling, for copper-plate printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page4">4</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Press, steam, wood-cuts printed by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page644">644</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Preusch, his attempt to print maps by a typometric process,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page205">205</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Printing, Gutemberg occupied with the invention of, in 1436,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page127">127</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Printing in colours, a figure of Christ, with the date 1543,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page403">403</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Savage’s decorative printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page629">629</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">G. Baxter’s improvements,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page629">629</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">C. Knight’s patent illuminated prints and maps,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page630">630</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Printing wood-cuts, best mode of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page640">640</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Priority of editions of the Speculum Salvationis,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page100">100</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Procession, triumphal, of Maximilian,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page288">288</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page289">289</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Procopius,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page13">13</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Proofs of wood engravings, mode of unfairly taking,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page466">466</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page603">603</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Prout, J. S. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Psalter, printed by Faust and Scheffer in 1457,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page164">164</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ptolemy’s Cosmography, with maps, engraved on wood, 1483,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page199">199</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">an edition printed by Dominico de Lapis, at Bologna,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page201">201</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">at Venice, by J. Pentius de Leucho, 1511,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page203">203</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_Q" id = "index_Q" href = "#index">Q</a></p>
+
+<p>Quadrin’s Historiques de la Bible,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page402">402</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Quadrupeds, History of, with cuts, by Bewick, 1791,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page482">482-490</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Queen Elizabeth’s Prayer-book,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page427">427</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Quintilian, his notice of the manner of boys learning to write by
+tracing the letters through a stencil,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page12">12</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_R" id = "index_R" href = "#index">R</a></p>
+
+<p>Raffaele, designs for the wood-cuts of the Hypnerotomachia ascribed
+to him,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page219">219</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">a wood-cut after a drawing by, in Marcolini’s Sorti,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page389">389</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rahmenschneiders, or border-cutters,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page190">190</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page319">319</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Raidel, his Dissertation on an edition of Ptolemy,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page201">201</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">dates, erroneous in books, <i>ib.</i></p>
+
+<p>Raimbach, Abraham, his engraving of the Rent-day, after Sir
+D.&nbsp;Wilkie,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page213">213</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Randell, a printer’s apprentice, wood-cuts by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page180">180</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Raynalde’s Birth of Mankind, with three copper-plate engravings,
+1540,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page421">421</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Read, S. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rebus, or “name devises,” <a href =
+"WoodEngraving6.html#page398">398</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Redgrave, R. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Relief, metallic, engraving in, erroneous statements about,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page305">305</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">practised by Blake and others,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page632">632-636</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rembrandt, cuts copied from etchings by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page595">595</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page599">599</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page602">602</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page605">605</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Renaudot, l’Abbé,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page24">24</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rent-day, engraving of a group from, after Sir D. Wilkie,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page593">593</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Repairing wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#noteIX8">569 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page662" id = "page662">
+662</a></span>
+<p>Reperdius, George, a painter praised by Nicholas Bourbon,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page356">356</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Requeno’s Chirotipografia,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteII6">44 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Revelationes Cœlestes sanctæ Brigittæ de Suecia,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page321">321</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Reynolds, Nicholas, an English engraver on copper, 1575,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page420">420</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Reyser, George, printer of the Missale Herbipolense, 1481,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page202">202</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Roberts, David, painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Robin Hood’s Garland, with wood-cut on the title-page, 1670,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page444">444</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page445">445</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rocca, Angelus, mentions a Donatus on parchment,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteIII9">123 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rogers, Harry, draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rogers, William, an English copper-plate engraver, about 1600,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page423">423</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rolling-press,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page4">4</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rollers, composition, not so good as composition balls for inking
+certain kinds of wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page650">650</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Roman stamps,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page8">8</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page10">10</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rotundity, how indicated by straight lines,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page584">584</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rouen Cathedral,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page611">611</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rubbing down,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page389">389</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rubens. P. P. his praise of the cuts in the Lyons Dance of Death,
+designed by Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page365">365</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">wood engravings from his designs,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page438">438</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page439">439</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ruche, or parafe,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page14">14</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Runic cyphers and monograms,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page15">15</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ryther, Augustine, an English engraver on copper, 1575,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page420">420</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_S" id = "index_S" href = "#index">S</a></p>
+
+<p>Sachs, Hans, his descriptions of cuts designed by Jost Amman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page408">408</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Salmincio, Andrea, wood-cuts ascribed to,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page441">441</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sandbag and block,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page575">575</a>.</p>
+
+<p><ins class = "correction" title = "text reads ‘Sandrant’">Sandrart</ins>, J. his notice of the Dance of Death, with
+cuts designed by Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page365">365</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Saspach, Conrad, his evidence in the Drytzehns’ suit against
+Gutemberg, 1438,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page128">128</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Savage, W. chiaro-scuros in his hints on Decorative Printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page629">629</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his opinion as to the best mode of working a form
+containing wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page647">647</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Saxton, Christopher, his collection of English County Maps, engraved
+on copper, 1573-1579,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page420">420</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schapf, George, an early wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page142">142</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page228">228</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schäufflein, Hans, painter, generally supposed to have engraved on
+wood,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page281">281</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page283">283</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page284">284</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page285">285</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page287">287</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schedel, Hartman, compiler of the Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page212">212</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Scheffer, Peter, a partner of Gutemberg and Faust,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page132">132</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">mentioned by Faust as his servant,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page133">133</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">a clerk, or copyist of books,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page167">167</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schelhorn’s Amœnitates,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page113">113</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schœpflin, Vindiciæ Typographicæ,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page125">125</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page132">132</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schön, Martin,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page74">74</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page238">238</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schön, Erhard,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page406">406</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schonberg, Mr. his attempts to engrave in metallic relief,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page634">634</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schönsperger, Hans, the printer of Sir Theurdank,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page282">282</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schopper, Hartman, verses by, in a book of trades and professions,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page409">409</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schoting of Nuremberg, a cut thus inscribed, the date 1584, mistaken
+for 1384,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page59">59</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schultheis, Hans, his evidence in the Drytzehns’ suit against
+Gutemberg, 1438,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page127">127</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schussler, John, a printer of Augsburg,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page180">180</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schwartz, J. G. Documenta de Origine Typographiæ,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page124">124</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page133">133</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page134">134</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page142">142</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Scopoli, mistakes Mr. B. White’s sign for the name of his partner,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page313">313</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Scott, T. D. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Scrive, a tool to mark timber with,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page2">2</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Scrivener and Greffier,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteI2">2 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Scriverius, his account of Coster’s invention,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteIII66">151 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Seals, engraved,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page20">20</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sebastian, St. account of an old wood-cut of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page55">55</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Selous, H. C. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Shade for the eyes,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page575">575</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Shaw, Henry, draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Shields of arms in the block-book called The Apocalypse,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page65">65</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">in the History of the Virgin,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page75">75</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page76">76</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page77">77</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page78">78</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sichem, Cornelius van, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page439">439</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Silberrad, Dr. old wood-cuts in the possession of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page227">227</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Simulachres et Historiées Faces de la Mort, Lyons, 1538,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page328">328</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Singer’s Researches on the History of Playing Cards,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page9">9</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">his unacknowledged obligations to Breitkopf,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page10">10</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Skelton, Percival,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page550">550</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page569a">569*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Skippe, John, chiaro-scuros engraved by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page628">628</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Slader, Samuel, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sly, Stephen, his experiments in metallic relief,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page636">636</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Smith, John Orrin, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Smith, Orrin. wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page580a">580*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Smyth, F. G. wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page600a">600*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Snuff-box, George the Fourth’s, with designs, by Flaxman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page590">590</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Solis, Virgil,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page406">406</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Solomon, song of, illustrations,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page71">71</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page72">72</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Solomon, A. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Solomon, Bernard, of Lyons,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page398">398-401</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page407">407</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Somervile’s Chase, with cuts, designed by John Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page513">513</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sonetto figurato,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page395">395-397</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sorg, Anthony, of Augsburg, account of the Council of Constance, with
+wood-cuts, printed by him in 1483,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page189">189</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sorti, Marcolini’s, a work containing wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page389">389-393</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Southey, Robert, his notice of two odes by Lloyd and Colman, with
+wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page470">470</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Spanish marks,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page15">15</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Specklin, D. mentions wooden types,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page131">131</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Speculum Nostræ Salutis,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page149">149</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Speculum Salvationis, a misnamed block-book,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page95">95-106</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">cuts from,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page96">96</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page97">97</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page98">98</a>.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page663" id = "page663">
+663</a></span>
+<p>Speed’s History of Britain,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page442">442</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sporer, Hans, an old briefmaler,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page43">43</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Springinklee, Hans,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page287">287</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page320">320</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stabius, J. his description of the triumphal arch of Maximilian,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page256">256</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stamham, Melchior de, Abbot of St. Ulric and Afra, at Augsburg,
+printing-presses bought by him,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#noteIV1">165 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stampien, to stamp with the foot as a fiddler beats time, mistaken
+for printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page120">120</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stamping of letters in manuscripts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page44">44</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stampilla,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page14">14</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stamps, Roman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page8">8</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">notarial,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page17">17</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stanfield, Clarkson, R.A.
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page570a">570*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Steiner, J. M. his notice of a book printed at Bamberg in 1462,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page170">170</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stencilling,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page12">12</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteII1">40 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stephenson, James, draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stereotype, early,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page418">418</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">modern,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page636">636</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stigmata,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page12">12</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stimmer, Christopher, and Tobias,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page413">413</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stocks, Lumb, draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stoke-field, knights and bannerets created after the battle of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page191">191</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stonehouse, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page591a">591*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stothard, Thomas, R.A. his Illustrations of Rogers’s Poems, 1812,
+engraved on wood,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page524">524</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Strephon’s Revenge, 1724, copy of a tail-piece in,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page453">453</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sueur, le, Peter and Vincent,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page443">443</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">Nicholas,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page467">467</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sulman, T. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Swain, John, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page579a">579*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page581a">581*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Swain, Joseph, wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page600a">600*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Swedish coins,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page15">15</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sweynheim, Conrad, printer, the first that devised maps engraved on
+copper,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page200">200</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Switzer, cuts engraved by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page442">442</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sylvius, Æneas, his account of the Barnacle or Tree goose,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page415">415</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_T" id = "index_T" href = "#index">T</a></p>
+
+<p>Tail-pieces in Bewick’s Quadrupeds,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page486">486</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tell, William,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page416">416</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page417">417</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Temple, W. W. a pupil of Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page527">527</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tenniel, John, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page559">559</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page560">560</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Terms, abstract, derived from names expressive of tangible and
+visible things,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page214">214</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Terra-cottas, called Typi,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page7">7</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Testament, Figures du Nouveau,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page402">402</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Theodoric, his monogram,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page13">13</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ther-Hoernen, Arnold, prints at Cologne an edition of the Fasciculus
+Temporum, with wood-cuts, 1474,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page190">190</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Theurdank, the Adventures of, an allegorical poem, by the Emperor
+Maximilian and his Secretary,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page281">281</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">the text erroneously supposed to have been engraved
+on wood,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page283">283</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas, G. H. artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page565a">565*-567*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas, W. L. wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page565a">565*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page568a">568*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Thompson, Charles, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII89">541 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Thompson, Eliza, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII89">541 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Thompson, John, wood engraver, a pupil of R. Branston, notice of some
+of his principal cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page541">541</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page569a">569*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Thurston, John, designer on wood,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII76">519 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tindale, William, cuts in his translation of the New Testament, 1534,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page383">383-385</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tinsel money,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page16">16</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tints, mode of cutting,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page577">577-581</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tint-tools,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page577">577</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Titian, wood-cuts after,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page433">433</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page435">435</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tools, wood engravers’,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page576">576-530</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Topham, F. W. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Topsell’s History of Four-footed Beasts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page442">442</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tract printed by A. Pfister, at Bamberg, 1461, 1462,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page170">170</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page181">181</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Transferring old impressions of wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#noteII82">104 <i>n</i></a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">old wood-cuts and copper-plates,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page637">637</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Travelling printers,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page184">184</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tree goose,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page414">414</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Treitzsaurwein. M. Secretary to the Emperor Maximilian, nominal
+author of the Weiss Kunig,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page286">286</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Treschel, Melchior and Gaspar, printers of the Lyons Dance of Death,
+1538, with cuts, designed by Hans Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page330">330</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Trimming,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page606">606</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Triompho di Fortuna,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page315">315-317</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Trithemius, his account of the invention of printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page131">131</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Triumphal procession, usually called the Triumphs of Maximilian,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page288">288-304</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Trusler, Dr. his Progress of Man and Society, with cuts, by John
+Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page613">613</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Turner, Dr. William, his account of the Tree goose,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page414">414</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Turner, the Rev. William, his opinion of cross-hatching,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page562">562</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Turrecremata, J. de, his Meditationes,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page184">184</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Typi,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page7">7</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Typography, invention of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page118">118</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">not a chance discovery,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page145">145</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_U" id = "index_U" href = "#index">U</a></p>
+
+<p>Ulphilas, Gospels of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page44">44</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Underlaying wood-cuts, mode of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#noteIX37">645 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Unger, father and son, German wood engravers, 1779,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page403">403</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page483">483</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page545">545</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Urse Graff, a cut designed by, probably copied by Willem de
+Figuersnider,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page313">313</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">other cuts with his mark,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page314">314</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_V" id = "index_V" href = "#index">V</a></p>
+
+<p>Vagabonds and sturdy beggars,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page12">12</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Valcebro, Ferrer de, his notice of the Bernacle or Tree goose,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page416">416</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Valturius, R. de Re Militari,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page186">186</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vasari, George, claims the invention of chiaro-scuro engraving for
+Ugo da Cai,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page230">230</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vasey, George, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vaugris, V. printer of a piracy of the Lyons Dance of Death, at
+Venice, 1542,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page393">393</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vecellio, Cesare, his book of Costumes, Venice, 1589,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page433">433</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vegetable putties, a theory of Mr. J. Landseer,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page72">72</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Veldener, John, printer of an edition of the Speculum Salvationis,
+1483,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page106">106</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">one of the earliest printers who introduced
+ornamental borders engraved on wood,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page191">191</a>.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page664" id = "page664">
+664</a></span>
+<p>Venice, foreign cards prohibited to be brought into the city of,
+1441,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page43">43</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Verona, Johannes de,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page186">186</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vesalius’s Anatomy, Basle, 1548, erroneously said to contain cuts
+designed by Titian,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page433">433</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vignettes,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page615">615</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vincentini, J. N. engraver of chiaro-scuros,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page389">389</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vizetelly, H. wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page558">558</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page570a">570*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page571a">571*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vostre, Simon, Heures printed by him,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page232">232</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_W" id = "index_W" href = "#index">W</a></p>
+
+<p>Waagen, Dr. G. F. extract from his evidence before the Committee on
+Arts and Manufactures,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page322">322</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Walsokne, Adam de, his mark,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page18">18</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Walton’s Angler, cuts of fish in Major’s edition of,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page541">541</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page543">543</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wand-Kalendars, or sheet almanacks, 1470, 1500,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page225">225</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ward, James, R.A. cut of a dray-horse from a drawing by,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page596">596</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Warren, H. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Watson. J. D. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Watts, S. his engravings, 1703,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page471">471</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Waved lines,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page583">583</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Webster, T. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wehnert, G. H. artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page594a">594*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Weir, Harrison, artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page551">551</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page555">555</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Weiss-Kunig,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page286">286</a>.</p>
+
+<p>West, Benjamin, his design for the diploma of the Highland Society,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page523">523</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wethemstede, John, prior of St. Albans,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page111">111</a>.</p>
+
+<p>White, Henry, senior and junior, wood engravers,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>.</p>
+
+<p>White outline,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page587">587</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page598">598</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Whitehall, fictions about a Dance of Death painted by Holbein in the
+old palace at,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page360">360-363</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Whiting, Chas. his colour-printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page630">630</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Whymper, J. W. wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page569a">569*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wilkie, Sir David, R.A. his sketch for his picture of the Rabbit on
+the Wall,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page591">591</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">group from his Rent-day,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page593">593</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">from his Village Festival,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page614">614</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Willett, R. his opinion of wooden types,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page136">136</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Williams, J. wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page588a">588*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Williams, Samuel, artist and wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page572a">572*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Williams, Thomas, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page547">547</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Willis, Edward, a pupil of Bewick,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#noteVII78">522 <i>n</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wimperis, E. wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page600a">600*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wimpheling, verses by him, celebrating Gutemberg as the inventor of
+printing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page155">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wirtemberg, Counts of, their arms,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page78">78</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wolf, J. artist,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page573a">573*</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page574a">574*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wolgemuth, Michael, not the first that introduced cross-hatching in
+wood engravings,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page239">239</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Women, engravers on wood,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page235">235</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wood for the purposes of engraving, several kinds mentioned by
+Papillou,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page464">464</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">mode of preparing,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page562">562-568</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wood-cut, the earliest known with a date,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page45">45</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wood-cuts, largest modern; directions for cleaning,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page649">649</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wood engravers, early, unfriendly to the progress of typography,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page179">179</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wooden types,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page131">131</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page136">136</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page137">137</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Woods, H. N. wood-engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page600a">600*</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wootie, Mr. his patent for engraving in metallic relief,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html#page634">634</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Worde. W. de, cuts in books printed by him,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page196">196</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page198">198</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wordsworth, William, his high opinion of Bewick’s talents,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page512">512</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wright, John, wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html#page544">544</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wright, W. wood engraver,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page554">554</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wyatt, Sir Thomas, a wood-cut portrait of, from a drawing, by
+Holbein,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html#page379">379</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wyburd, F. painter,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letterhead">
+<a name = "index_Z" id = "index_Z" href = "#index">Z</a></p>
+
+<p>Zainner, Gunther, of Augsburg,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page179">179</a>;</p>
+<p class = "inset">the Legenda Aurea, with wood-cuts, printed by him, in
+1471,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page188">188</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Zainer, John, of Reutlingen, prints at Ulm in 1473, an edition of
+Boccacio de Claris Mulieribus, with wood-cuts,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#page190">190</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Zani’s arguments in favour of Papillon’s story of the Cunio,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page36">36</a>,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page37">37</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Zerlegen, a word used by German printers to denote the
+<i>distribution</i> of the types, occurs in connection with Gutemberg’s
+press in 1438,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page128">128</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Zuyren, J. Van, claims the invention of printing for Harlem,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#page146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Zwecker, John B. draughtsman,
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html#page599a">599*</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+<!-- end div index -->
+
+<div class = "correction">
+<h5>Errors in Index</h5>
+
+<p><span class = "citation">
+Dante, edition of, with copper-plates, 1482</span><br>
+copperplates</p>
+
+<p><span class = "citation">
+Fracture</span><br>
+<i>printed as shown, but body text has “fractur”</i></p>
+
+<p><span class = "citation">
+Hieroglyphic ... Bible, 478.</span><br>
+<i>page reference missing</i></p>
+
+<p><span class = "citation">
+Packhouse’s machine for tints</span><br>
+<i>printed and alphabetized as shown, but body text has
+“Parkhouse”</i></p>
+
+<p><span class = "citation">
+Sandrart, J.</span><br>
+Sandrant</p>
+</div>
+
+<h5>THE END.</h5>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class = "center smaller">LONDON:<br>
+PRINTED BY R. CLAY, SON, AND TAYLOR,<br>
+BREAD STREET HILL.</p>
+
+<div class = "endnote">
+
+<h4><a name = "errata" id = "errata" href = "#start">Errors and
+Inconsistencies</a> (noted by transcriber)</h4>
+
+<p>Inconsistent spellings were only regularized when there was a strong
+preponderance; changes are individually noted. The various spellings of
+the name now written “Shakespeare” are unchanged, as are the forms
+“Albert Durer” and “Gutemberg”. German citations consistently omit the
+period (full stop) in references such as “2 Theil”. Other unchanged
+forms include:</p>
+
+<p class = "inset">
+cross line : cross-line<br>
+figuersnider : figursnider<br>
+fore-/back-ground : fore/background<br>
+type-founder : typefounder<br>
+wood-cut : woodcut<br>
+wood-engraver : wood engraver<br>
+Schaufflein : Schäufflein</p>
+
+<p>In the Index, missing or inconsistent punctuation was silently
+regularized. All other errors are noted in two ways: with <ins class =
+"correction" title = "like this">mouse-hover popups</ins> where the
+error occurs, and again at the end of each chapter or section, after any
+footnotes.</p>
+</div>
+
+</body>
+</html>
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+
+/* greek translit */
+
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+
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+</head>
+
+<body>
+<div class = "mynote">
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html">Introduction</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html#illus">List of Illustrations</a> (separate
+file)</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+Chapter I<br>
+<a href = "#chap_II">Chapter II</a><br>
+<a href = "#chap_III">Chapter III</a><br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html">Chapter IV</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#chap_V">Chapter V</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html">Chapter VI</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html">Chapter VII</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html">Chapter VIII</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html">Chapter IX</a> (separate file)</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html#index">Index</a> (separate file)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "titlepage">
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page1" id = "page1">
+1</a></span>
+<h2><span class = "smallest">ON</span><br>
+WOOD ENGRAVING.</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<h3><a name = "chap_I" id = "chap_I">CHAPTER I.</a><br>
+<span class = "subhead">ANTIQUITY OF ENGRAVING.</span></h3>
+
+<p class = "synopsis">
+Engraving&mdash;the word explained&mdash;the art
+defined&mdash;distinction between engraving on copper and on
+wood&mdash;early practice of the art of impressing characters by means
+of stamps instanced in babylonian bricks; fragments of egyptian and
+etruscan earthenware; roman lamps, tiles, and amphoræ&mdash;the
+cauterium or brand&mdash;principle of stencilling known to the
+romans&mdash;royal signatures thus affixed&mdash;practice of stamping
+monograms on documents in the middle ages&mdash;notarial stamps&mdash;
+merchants’-marks&mdash;coins, seals, and sepulchral
+brasses&mdash;examination of mr. ottley’s opinions concerning the origin
+of the art of wood engraving in europe, and its early practice by two
+wonderful children, the cunio.</p>
+
+<div class = "maintext">
+
+<p class = "first">
+<span class = "firstword"><span class = "dropcap">
+<a name = "illus_1" id = "illus_1"><img src = "images/illus_1.png" width
+= "148" height = "165" alt = "A"></a></span>s</span>
+few persons know, even amongst those who profess to be admirers of the
+art of Wood Engraving, by what means its effects, as seen in books and
+single impressions, are produced, and as a yet smaller number understand
+in what manner it specifically differs in its procedure from the art of
+engraving on copper or steel, it appears necessary, before entering into
+any historic detail of its progress, to premise a few observations
+explanatory of the word <span class = "smallcaps">Engraving</span> in
+its general acceptation, and more particularly descriptive of that
+branch of the art which several persons call Xylography; but which is as
+clearly expressed, and much more generally understood, by the term <span
+class = "smallcaps">Wood Engraving</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The primary meaning of the verb “to engrave” is defined by Dr.
+Johnson, “to picture by incisions in any matter;” and he derives it from
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page2" id = "page2">
+2</a></span>
+the French “<i>engraver</i>.” The great lexicographer is not, however,
+quite correct in his derivation; for the French do not use the verb
+“engraver” in the sense of “to engrave,” but to signify a ship or a boat
+being embedded in sand or mud so that she cannot float. The French
+synonym of the English verb “to engrave,” is “graver;” and its root is
+to be found in the Greek <span class = "greek" lang = "el" title =
+"(Greek) graphô">γράφω</span> (<i>grapho</i>, I cut), which, with its
+compound <span class = "greek" lang = "el" title = "(Greek) epigraphô">ἐπιγράφω</span>, according to Martorelli, as cited by Von
+Murr,<a class = "tag" name = "tagI1" id = "tagI1" href =
+"#noteI1">I.1</a> is always used by Homer to express cutting, incision,
+or wounding; but never to express writing by the superficial tracing of
+characters with a reed or pen. From the circumstance of laws, in the
+early ages of Grecian history, being cut or engraved on wood, the word
+<span class = "greek" lang = "el" title = "(Greek) graphô">γράφω</span>
+came to be used in the sense of, “I&nbsp;sanction, or I pass a law;” and
+when, in the progress of society and the improvement of art, letters,
+instead of being cut on wood, were indented by means of a skewer-shaped
+instrument (stylus) on wax spread on tablets of wood or ivory, or
+written by means of a pen or reed on papyrus or on parchment, the word
+<span class = "greek" lang = "el" title = "(Greek) graphô">γράφω</span>,
+which in its primitive meaning signified “to cut,” became expressive of
+writing generally.</p>
+
+<p>From <span class = "greek" lang = "el" title = "(Greek) graphô">γράφω</span> is derived the Latin <i>scribo</i>,<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagI2" id = "tagI2" href = "#noteI2">I.2</a> “I&nbsp;write;” and
+it is worthy of observation, that “<i>to scrive</i>,”&mdash;most
+probably from <i>scribo</i>,&mdash;signifies, in our own language, to
+cut numerals or other characters on timber with a tool called a
+<i>scrive</i>: the word thus passing, as it were, through a circle of
+various meanings and in different languages, and at last returning to
+its original signification.</p>
+
+<p>Under the general term <span class =
+"smallcaps">Sculpture</span>&mdash;the root of which is to be found in
+the Latin verb <i>sculpo</i>, “I cut”&mdash;have been classed
+copper-plate engraving, wood engraving, gem engraving, and carving, as
+well as the art of the statuary or figure-cutter in marble, to which art
+the word <i>sculpture</i> is now more strictly applied, each of those
+arts requiring in its process the act of <i>cutting</i> of one kind or
+other. In the German language, which seldom borrows its terms of art
+from other languages, the various modes of cutting in sculpture, in
+copper-plate engraving, and in engraving on wood, are indicated in the
+name expressive of the operator or artist. The sculptor is named a
+<i>Bildhauer</i>, from <i>Bild</i>, a statue, and <i>hauen</i>, to hew,
+indicating the operation of cutting with a mallet and chisel; the
+copper-plate engraver is called a <i>Kupfer-stecher</i>, from
+<i>Kupfer</i>, copper, and <i>stechen</i>, to dig or cut with the point;
+and the wood engraver is a <i>Holzschneider</i>, from <i>Holz</i>, wood,
+and <i>schneiden</i>, to cut with the edge.</p>
+
+<p>It is to be observed, that though both the copper-plate engraver and
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page3" id = "page3">
+3</a></span>
+the wood engraver may be said to <i>cut</i> in a certain sense, as well
+as the sculptor and the carver, they have to execute their work
+<i>reversed</i>,&mdash;that is, contrary to the manner in which
+impressions from their plates or blocks are seen; and that in copying a
+painting or a drawing, it requires to be reversely transferred,&mdash;a
+disadvantage under which the sculptor and the carver do not labour, as
+they copy their models or subjects <i>direct</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Engraving</span>, as the word is at the
+present time popularly used, and considered in its relation to the
+pictorial art, may be defined to be&mdash;“The art of representing
+objects on metallic substances, or on wood, expressed by lines and
+points produced by means of corrosion, incision, or excision, for the
+purpose of their being impressed on paper by means of ink or other
+colouring matter.”</p>
+
+<p>The impressions obtained from engraved <i>plates</i> of metal or from
+<i>blocks</i> of wood are commonly called engravings, and sometimes
+prints. Formerly the word <i>cuts</i><a class = "tag" name = "tagI3" id
+= "tagI3" href = "#noteI3">I.3</a> was applied indiscriminately to
+impressions, either from metal or wood; but at present it is more
+strictly confined to the productions of the wood engraver. Impressions
+from copper-plates only are properly called <i>plates</i>; though it is
+not unusual for persons who profess to review productions of art, to
+speak of a book containing, perhaps, a&nbsp;number of indifferent
+woodcuts, as “a&nbsp;work embellished with a profusion of the <i>most
+charming plates</i> on wood;” thus affording to every one who is in the
+least acquainted with the art at once a specimen of their taste and
+their knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>Independent of the difference of the material on which copper-plate
+engraving and wood engraving are executed, the grand distinction between
+the two arts is, that the engraver on copper corrodes by means of
+aqua-fortis, or cuts out with the burin or dry-point, the lines,
+stipplings, and hatchings from which his impression is to be produced;
+while, on the contrary, the wood engraver effects his purpose by cutting
+away those parts which are to appear white or colourless, thus leaving
+the lines which produce the impression prominent.</p>
+
+<p>In printing from a copper or steel plate, which is previously warmed
+by being placed above a charcoal fire, the ink or colouring matter is
+rubbed into the lines or incisions by means of a kind of ball formed of
+woollen cloth; and when the lines are thus sufficiently charged with
+ink, the surface of the plate is first wiped with a piece of rag, and is
+then further cleaned and smoothed by the fleshy part of the palm of the
+hand, slightly touched with whitening, being once or twice passed rather
+quickly and lightly over it. The plate thus prepared is covered with the
+paper intended to receive the engraving, and is subjected to the action
+of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page4" id = "page4">
+4</a></span>
+the rolling or copper-plate printer’s press; and the impression is
+obtained by the paper being pressed <i>into</i> the inked incisions.</p>
+
+<p>As the lines of an engraved block of wood are prominent or in relief,
+while those of a copper-plate are, as has been previously explained,
+<i>intagliate</i> or hollowed, the mode of taking an impression from the
+former is precisely the reverse of that which has just been described.
+The usual mode of taking impressions from an engraved block of wood is
+by means of the printing-press, either from the block separately, or
+wedged up in a <i>chase</i> with types. The block is inked by being beat
+with a roller on the surface, in the same manner as type; and the paper
+being turned over upon it from the <i>tympan</i>, it is then run in
+under the <i>platen</i>; which being acted on by the lever, presses the
+paper <i>on to</i> the raised lines of the block, and thus produces the
+impression. Impressions from wood are thus obtained by the
+<i>on-pression</i> of the paper against the raised or prominent lines;
+while impressions from copper-plates are obtained by the
+<i>in-pression</i> of the paper into hollowed ones. In consequence of
+this difference in the process, the inked lines impressed on paper from
+a copper-plate appear prominent when viewed direct; while the lines
+communicated from an engraved wood-block are indented in the front of
+the impression, and appear raised at the back.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<div class = "picblock w200">
+<p><a name = "illus_4a" id = "illus_4a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_4a.png" width = "187" height = "160"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+PRINTED FROM A WOOD-BLOCK.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picblock w200">
+<p><a name = "illus_4b" id = "illus_4b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_4b.png" width = "198" height = "179"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+PRINTED FROM A COPPER-PLATE.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The above impressions&mdash;the one from a wood-block, and the other
+from an etched copper-plate&mdash;will perhaps render what has been
+already said, explanatory of the difference between copper-plate
+printing from hollowed lines, and <i>surface printing</i> by means of
+the common press from prominent lines, still more intelligible. The
+subject is a representation of the copper-plate or rolling press.</p>
+
+<p>Both the preceding impressions are produced in the same manner by
+means of the common printing-press. One is from wood; the other, where
+the white lines are seen on a black ground, is from copper;&mdash;the
+hollowed lines, which in copper-plate printing yield the impression,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page5" id = "page5">
+5</a></span>
+receiving no ink from the printer’s balls or rollers; while the surface,
+which in copper-plate printing is wiped clean after the lines are filled
+with ink, is perfectly covered with it. It is, therefore, evident, that
+if this etching were printed in the same manner as other copper-plates,
+the impression would be a fac-simile of the one from wood. It has been
+judged necessary to be thus minute in explaining the difference between
+copper-plate and wood engraving, as the difference in the mode of
+obtaining impressions does not appear to have been previously pointed
+out with sufficient precision.</p>
+
+<p>As it does not come within the scope of the present work to inquire
+into the origin of sculpture generally, I&nbsp;shall not here venture to
+give an opinion whether the art was invented by <span class =
+"smallcaps">Adam</span> or his good angel <span class =
+"smallcaps">Raziel</span>, or whether it was introduced at a subsequent
+period by <span class = "smallcaps">Tubal-Cain</span>, <span class =
+"smallcaps">Noah</span>, <span class = "smallcaps">Trismegistus</span>,
+<span class = "smallcaps">Zoroaster</span>, or <span class =
+"smallcaps">Moses</span>. Those who feel interested in such remote
+speculations will find the “authorities” in the second chapter of
+Evelyn’s “Sculptura.”</p>
+
+<p>Without, therefore, inquiring when or by whom the art of engraving
+for the purpose of producing impressions was invented, I&nbsp;shall
+endeavour to show that such an art, however rude, was known at a very
+early period; and that it continued to be practised in Europe, though to
+a very limited extent, from an age anterior to the birth of Christ, to
+the year 1400. In the fifteenth century, its principles appear to have
+been more generally applied;&mdash;first, to the simple cutting of
+figures on wood for the purpose of being impressed on paper; next, to
+cutting figures and explanatory text on the same block, and then entire
+pages of text without figures, till the “<span class = "smallroman">ARS
+GRAPHICA ET IMPRESSORIA</span>” attained its perfection in the discovery
+of <span class = "smallroman">PRINTING</span> by means of movable fusile
+types.<a class = "tag" name = "tagI4" id = "tagI4" href =
+"#noteI4">I.4</a></p>
+
+<p>At a very early period stamps of wood, having hieroglyphic characters
+engraved on them, were used in Egypt for the purpose of producing
+impressions on bricks, and on other articles made of clay. This fact,
+which might have been inferred from the ancient bricks and fragments of
+earthenware containing characters evidently communicated by means of a
+stamp, has been established by the discovery of several of those wooden
+stamps, of undoubted antiquity, in the tombs at Thebes, Meroe, and other
+places. The following cuts represent the face and the back of one of the
+most perfect of those stamps, which was found in a tomb at Thebes, and
+has recently been brought to this country by Edward William Lane, Esq.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagI5" id = "tagI5" href = "#noteI5">I.5</a></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_6" id = "illus_6">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_6.png" width = "402" height = "314"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The original stamp is made of the same kind of wood as the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page6" id = "page6">
+6</a></span>
+mummy chests, and has an arched handle at the back, cut out of the same
+piece of wood as the face. It is of an oblong figure, with the ends
+rounded off; five inches long, two inches and a quarter broad, and half
+an inch thick. The hieroglyphic characters on its face are rudely cut in
+<i>intaglio</i>, so that their impression on clay would be in relief;
+and if printed in the same manner as the preceding copy, would present
+the same appearance,&mdash;that is, the characters which are cut into
+the wood, would appear white on a black ground. The phonetic power of
+the hieroglyphics on the face of the stamp may be represented
+respectively by the letters,&nbsp;A, M,&nbsp;N, F,&nbsp;T,
+P,&nbsp;T,&nbsp;H, M; and the vowels being supplied, as in reading
+Hebrew without points, we have the words, “Amonophtep,
+Thmei-mai,”&mdash;“Amonoph, beloved of truth.”<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagI6" id = "tagI6" href = "#noteI6">I.6</a> The name is supposed to be
+that of Amonoph or Amenoph the First, the second king of the eighteenth
+dynasty, who, according to the best authorities, was contemporary with
+Moses, and reigned in Egypt previous to the departure of the Israelites.
+There are two ancient Egyptian bricks in the British Museum on which the
+impression of a similar stamp is quite distinct; and there are also
+several articles of burnt clay, of an elongated conical figure, and
+about nine inches long, which have their broader extremities impressed
+with hieroglyphics in a similar manner. There is also in the same
+collection a wooden
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page7" id = "page7">
+7</a></span>
+stamp, of a larger size than that belonging to Mr. Lane, but not in so
+perfect a condition. Several ancient Etruscan terra-cottas and fragments
+of earthenware have been discovered, on which there are alphabetic
+characters, evidently impressed from a stamp, which was probably of
+wood. In the time of Pliny terra-cottas thus impressed were called
+Typi.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_7" id = "illus_7">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_7.png" width = "224" height = "330"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>In the British Museum are several bricks which have been found on the
+site of ancient Babylon. They are larger than our bricks, and somewhat
+different in form, being about twelve inches square and three inches
+thick. They appear to have been made of a kind of muddy clay with which
+portions of chopped straw have been mixed to cause it to bind; and their
+general appearance and colour, which is like that of a common brick
+before it is burnt, plainly enough indicate that they have not been
+hardened by fire, but by exposure to the sun. About the middle of their
+broadest surface, they are impressed with certain characters which have
+evidently been indented when the brick was in a soft state. The
+characters are indented,&mdash;that is, they are such as would be
+produced by pressing a wood-block with raised lines upon a mass of soft
+clay; and were such a block printed on paper in the usual manner of
+wood-cuts, the impression
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page8" id = "page8">
+8</a></span>
+would be similar to the preceding one, which has been copied, on a
+reduced scale, from one of the bricks above noticed. The characters have
+been variously described as cuneiform or wedge-shaped, arrow-headed,
+javelin-headed, or nail-headed; but their meaning has not hitherto been
+deciphered.</p>
+
+<p>Amphoræ, lamps, tiles, and various domestic utensils, formed of clay,
+and of Roman workmanship, are found impressed with letters, which in
+some cases are supposed to denote the potter’s name, and in others the
+contents of the vessel, or the name of the owner. On the tiles,&mdash;of
+which there are specimens in the British Museum,&mdash;the letters are
+commonly inscribed in a circle, and appear raised; thus showing that the
+stamp had been hollowed, or engraved in intaglio, in a manner similar to
+a wooden butter-print. In a book entitled “Ælia Lælia Crispis non nata
+resurgens,” by C.&nbsp;C. Malvasia, 4to. Bologna, 1683, are several
+engravings on wood of such tiles, found in the neighbourhood of Rome,
+and communicated to the author by Fabretti, who, in the seventh chapter
+of his own work,<a class = "tag" name = "tagI7" id = "tagI7" href =
+"#noteI7">I.7</a> has given some account of the “figlinarum
+signa,”&mdash;the stamps of the ancient potters and tile-makers.</p>
+
+<p class = "figfloat">
+<a name = "illus_8" id = "illus_8">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_8.png" width = "142" height = "74"
+alt = "LAR" title = "LAR"></p>
+
+<p>The stamp from which the following cut has been copied is preserved
+in the British Museum. It is of brass, and the letters are in relief and
+reversed; so that if it were inked from a printer’s ball and stamped on
+paper, an impression would be produced precisely the same as that which
+is here given.</p>
+
+<p>It would be difficult now to ascertain why this stamp should be
+marked with the word <span class = "smallcaps">Lar</span>, which
+signifies a household god, or the image of the supposed tutelary genius
+of a house; but, without much stretch of imagination, we may easily
+conceive how appropriate such an inscription would be impressed on an
+amphora or large wine-vessel, sealed and set apart on the birth of an
+heir, and to be kept sacred&mdash;inviolate as the household
+gods&mdash;till the young Roman assumed the “toga virilis,” or arrived
+at years of maturity. That vessels containing wine were kept for many
+years, we learn from Horace and Petronius;<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagI8" id = "tagI8" href = "#noteI8">I.8</a></p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page9" id = "page9">
+9</a></span>
+
+<div class = "verse w20">
+<p class = "indent">&mdash;&mdash;Prome reconditum,</p>
+<p>Lyde, strenua, Cæcubum,</p>
+<p class = "indent">Munitæque adhibe vim sapientiæ.</p>
+<p>Inclinare meridiem</p>
+<p class = "indent">Sentis: ac veluti stet volucris dies,</p>
+<p>Parcis deripere horreo</p>
+<p class = "indent">Cessantem Bibuli Consulis amphoram.</p>
+
+<p class = "author">
+<i>Carmin.</i> lib. <span class = "smallroman">III.</span> xxviii.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+“Quickly produce, Lyde, the hoarded Cæcuban, and make an attack upon
+wisdom, ever on her guard. You perceive the noontide is on its decline;
+and yet, as if the fleeting day stood still, you delay to bring out of
+the store-house the loitering cask, (that bears its <ins class =
+"correction" title = "text has , for )">date)</ins> from the Consul
+Bibulus.”&mdash;<i>Smart’s Translation.</i></p>
+
+<p>Mr. Ottley, in his “Inquiry into the Origin and Early History of
+Engraving,” pages 57 and 58, makes a distinction between
+<i>impression</i> where the characters impressed are produced by
+“<i>a&nbsp;change of form</i>”&mdash;meaning where they are either
+indented in the substance impressed, or raised upon it in
+relief&mdash;and <i>impression</i> where the characters are produced by
+<i>colour</i>; and requires evidence that the ancients ever used stamps
+“charged with ink or some other tint, for the purpose of stamping paper,
+parchment, or other substances, little or not at all capable of
+indentation.”</p>
+
+<p>It certainly would be very difficult, if not impossible, to produce a
+piece of paper, parchment, or cloth of the age of the Romans impressed
+with letters in ink or other colouring matter; but the existence of such
+stamps as the preceding,&mdash;and there are others in the British
+Museum of the same kind, containing more letters and of a smaller
+size,&mdash;renders it very probable that they were used for the purpose
+of marking cloth, paper, and similar substances, with ink, as well as
+for being impressed in wax or clay.</p>
+
+<p>Von Murr, in an article in his Journal, on the Art of Wood Engraving,
+gives a copy from a similar bronze stamp, in Praun’s Museum, with the
+inscription “<span class = "smallcaps">Galliani</span>,” which he
+considers as most distinctly proving that the Romans had nearly arrived
+at the arts of wood engraving and book printing. He adds: “Letters cut
+on wood they certainly had, and very likely grotesques and figures also,
+the hint of which their artists might readily obtain from the coloured
+stuffs which were frequently presented by Indian ambassadors to the
+emperors.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagI9" id = "tagI9" href =
+"#noteI9">I.9</a></p>
+
+<p>At page 90 of Singer’s “Researches into the History of Playing-Cards”
+are impressions copied from stamps similar to the preceding;
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page10" id = "page10">
+10</a></span>
+which stamps the author considers as affording “examples of such a near
+approach to the art of printing as first practised, that it is truly
+extraordinary there is no remaining evidence of its having been
+exercised by them;&mdash;unless we suppose that they were acquainted
+with it, and did not choose to adopt it from reasons of state policy.”
+It is just as extraordinary that the Greek who employed the expansive
+force of steam in the Ælopile to blow the fire did not invent Newcomen’s
+engine;&mdash;unless, indeed, we suppose that the construction of such
+an engine was perfectly known at Syracuse, but that the government there
+did not choose to adopt it from motives of “state policy.” It was not,
+however, a&nbsp;reason of “state policy” which caused the Roman cavalry
+to ride without stirrups, or the windows of the palace of Augustus to
+remain unglazed.</p>
+
+<p>The following impressions are also copied from two other brass
+stamps, preserved in the collection of Roman antiquities in the British
+Museum.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_10" id = "illus_10">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_10.png" width = "233" height = "245"
+alt = "OVIRILLIO, FLSCLADIOU" title = "OVIRILLIO, FLSCLADIOU"></p>
+
+<p>As the letters in the originals are hollowed or cut into the metal,
+they would, if impressed on clay or soft wax, appear raised or in
+relief; and if inked and impressed on paper or on white cloth, they
+would present the same appearance that they do here&mdash;white on a
+black ground. Not being able to explain the letters on these stamps,
+further than that the first may be the dative case of a proper name
+Ovirillius, and indicate that property so marked belonged to such a
+person, I&nbsp;leave them, as Francis Moore, physician, leaves the
+hieroglyphic in his Almanack,&mdash;“to time and the curious to
+construe.”</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page11" id = "page11">
+11</a></span>
+<p>Lambinet, in his “Recherches sur l’Origine de l’Imprimerie,” gives an
+account of two stone stamps of the form of small tablets, the letters of
+which were cut in <i>intaglio</i> and reverse, similar to the two of
+which impressions are above given. They were found in 1808, near the
+village of Nais, in the department of the Meuse; and as the letters,
+being in reverse, could not be made out, the owner of the tablets sent
+them to the Celtic Society of Paris, where M.&nbsp;Dulaure, to whose
+examination they were submitted, was of opinion that they were a kind of
+matrices or hollow stamps, intended to be applied to soft substances or
+such as were in a state of fusion. He thought they were stamps for
+vessels containing medical compositions; and if his reading of one of
+the inscriptions be correct, the practice of stamping the name of a
+quack and the nature of his remedy, in relief on the side of an
+ointment-pot or a bottle, is of high antiquity. The letters</p>
+
+<div class = "verse smallroman">
+<p>Q. JUN. TAURI. ANODY.</p>
+<p>NUM. AD OMN. LIPP.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>M. Dulaure explains thus: <i>Quinti Junii Tauridi anodynum ad omnes
+lippas</i>;<a class = "tag" name = "tagI10" id = "tagI10" href =
+"#noteI10">I.10</a> an inscription which is almost literally rendered by
+the title of a specific still known in the neighbourhood of
+Newcastle-on-Tyne, “<i>Dr. Dud’s lotion, good for sore eyes</i>.”</p>
+
+<p>Besides such stamps as have already been described, the ancients used
+brands, both figured and lettered, with which, when heated, they marked
+their horses, sheep, and cattle, as well as criminals, captives, and
+refractory or runaway slaves.</p>
+
+<p>The Athenians, according to Suidas, marked their Samian captives with
+the figure of an owl; while Athenians captured by the Samians were
+marked with the figure of a galley, and by the Syracusans with the
+figure of a horse. The husbandman at his leisure time, as we are
+informed by Virgil, in the first book of the Georgics,</p>
+
+<p class = "verse">
+“Aut pecori signa, aut numeros impressit acervis;”</p>
+
+<p class = "continue">
+and from the third book we learn that the operation was performed by
+branding:</p>
+
+<p class = "verse">
+“Continuoque notas et nomina gentis <i>inurunt</i>.”<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagI11" id = "tagI11" href = "#noteI11">I.11</a></p>
+
+<hr class = "mid">
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page12" id = "page12">
+12</a></span>
+<p>Such brands as those above noticed, commonly known by the name of
+<i>cauteria</i> or <i>stigmata</i>, were also used for similar purposes
+during the middle ages; and the practice, which has not been very long
+obsolete, of burning homicides in the hand, and vagabonds and “sturdy
+beggars” on the breast, face, or shoulder, affords an example of the
+employment of the brand in the criminal jurisprudence of our own
+country. By the 1st Edward VI. cap. 3, it was enacted, that whosoever,
+man or woman, not being lame or impotent, nor so aged or diseased that
+he or she could not work, should be convicted of loitering or idle
+wandering by the highway-side, or in the streets, like a servant wanting
+a master, or a beggar, he or she was to be marked with a hot iron on the
+breast with the letter V [for Vagabond], and adjudged to the person
+bringing him or her before a justice to be his slave for two years; and
+if such adjudged slave should run away, he or she, upon being taken and
+convicted, was to be marked on the forehead, or on the ball of the
+cheek, with the letter S [for Slave], and adjudged to be the said
+master’s slave for ever. By the 1st of James&nbsp;I. cap. 7, it was also
+enacted, that such as were to be deemed “rogues, vagabonds, and sturdy
+beggars” by the 39th of Elizabeth, cap. 4, being convicted at the
+sessions and found to be incorrigible, were to be branded in the left
+shoulder with a hot iron, of the breadth of an English shilling, marked
+with a great Roman R [for Rogue]; such branding upon the shoulder to be
+so thoroughly burned and set upon the skin and flesh, that the said
+letter R should be seen and remain for a perpetual mark upon such rogue
+during the remainder of his life.<a class = "tag" name = "tagI12" id =
+"tagI12" href = "#noteI12">I.12</a></p>
+
+<p>From a passage in Quintilian we learn that the Romans were acquainted
+with the method of <i>tracing</i> letters, by means of a piece of thin
+wood in which the characters were pierced or cut through, on a principle
+similar to that on which the present art of <i>stencilling</i> is
+founded. He is speaking of teaching boys to write, and the passage
+referred to may be thus translated: “When the boy shall have entered
+upon <i>joining-hand</i>, it will be useful for him to have a
+<i>copy-head</i> of wood in which the letters are well cut, that through
+its furrows, as it were, he may trace the characters with his
+<i>style</i>. He will not thus be liable to make slips as on the wax
+[alone], for he will be confined by the boundary of the letters, and
+neither will he be able to deviate from his text. By thus more rapidly
+and frequently following a definite outline, his hand will become
+<i>set</i>, without his requiring any assistance from the master to
+guide it.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagI13" id = "tagI13" href =
+"#noteI13">I.13</a></p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page13" id = "page13">
+13</a></span>
+<p>A thin stencil-plate of copper, having the following letters <i>cut
+out</i> of it,</p>
+
+<div class = "verse smallroman">
+<p>DN CONSTAN</p>
+<p>TIO AVG SEM</p>
+<p>PER VICTORI</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "continue">
+was received, together with some rare coins, from Italy by Tristan,
+author of “Commentaires Historiques, Paris, 1657,” who gave a copy of it
+at page 68 of the third volume of that work. The letters thus formed,
+“ex nulla materia,”<a class = "tag" name = "tagI14" id = "tagI14" href =
+"#noteI14">I.14</a> might be traced on paper by means of a pen, or with
+a small brush, charged with body-colour, as stencillers <i>slap-dash</i>
+rooms through their pasteboard patterns, or dipped in ink in the same
+manner as many shopkeepers now, through similar thin copper-plates, mark
+the prices of their wares, or their own name and address on the paper in
+which such wares are wrapped.</p>
+
+<p class = "figfloat">
+<a name = "illus_13" id = "illus_13">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_13.png" width = "166" height = "151"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>In the sixth century it appears, from Procopius, that the Emperor
+Justin&nbsp;I. made use of a tablet of wood pierced or cut in a similar
+manner, through which he traced in red ink, the imperial colour, his
+signature, consisting of the first four letters of his name. It is also
+stated that Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths, the contemporary of
+Justin, used after the same manner to sign the first four letters of his
+name through a plate of gold;<a class = "tag" name = "tagI15" id =
+"tagI15" href = "#noteI15">I.15</a> and in Peringskiold’s edition of the
+Life of Theodoric, the annexed is given as the monogram<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagI16" id = "tagI16" href = "#noteI16">I.16</a> of that
+monarch. The authenticity of this account has, however, been questioned,
+as Cochlæus, who died in 1552, cites no ancient authority for the
+fact.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page14" id = "page14">
+14</a></span>
+
+<p class = "figfloat">
+<a name = "illus_14" id = "illus_14">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_14.png" width = "106" height = "111"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>It has been asserted by Mabillon, (Diplom. lib. ii. cap. 10,) that
+Charlemagne first introduced the practice of signing documents with a
+monogram, either traced with a pen by means of a thin tablet of gold,
+ivory, or wood, or impressed with an inked stamp, having the characters
+in relief, in a manner similar to that in which letters are stamped at
+the Post-office.<a class = "tag" name = "tagI17" id = "tagI17" href =
+"#noteI17">I.17</a> Ducange, however, states that this mode of signing
+documents is of greater antiquity, and he gives a copy of the monogram
+of the Pope Adrian&nbsp;I. who was elected to the see of Rome in 774,
+and died in 795. The annexed monogram of Charlemagne has been copied
+from Peringskiold, “Annotationes in Vitam Theodorici,” p.&nbsp;584; it
+is also given in Ducange’s Glossary, and in the “Nouveau Traité de
+Diplomatique.”</p>
+
+<p>The monogram, either stencilled or stamped, consisted of a
+combination of the letters of the person’s name, a&nbsp;fanciful
+character, or the figure of a cross,<a class = "tag" name = "tagI18" id
+= "tagI18" href = "#noteI18">I.18</a> accompanied with a peculiar kind
+of flourish, called by French writers on diplomatics <i>parafe</i> or
+<i>ruche</i>. This mode of signing appears to have been common in most
+nations of Europe during the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries; and
+it was practised by nobles and the higher orders of the clergy, as well
+as by kings. It continued to be used by the kings of France to the time
+of Philip III. and by the Spanish monarchs to a much later period. It
+also appears to have been adopted by some of the Saxon kings of England;
+and the authors of the “Nouveau Traité de Diplomatique” say that they
+had seen similar marks produced by a stamp of William the Conqueror,
+when Duke of Normandy. We have had a recent instance of the use of the
+<i>stampilla</i>, as it is called by diplomatists, in affixing the royal
+signature. During the illness of George IV. in 1830, a&nbsp;silver
+stamp, containing a fac-simile of the king’s sign-manual, was executed
+by Wyon, which was stamped on documents requiring the royal signature,
+by commissioners, in his Majesty’s presence. A&nbsp;similar stamp was
+used during the last illness of Henry VIII. for the purpose of affixing
+the royal signature. The king’s warrant empowering commissioners to use
+the stamp may be seen in Rymer’s Fœdera, vol. xv. p.&nbsp;101, anno
+1546. It is believed that the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page15" id = "page15">
+15</a></span>
+warrant which sent the poet Surrey to the scaffold was signed with this
+stamp, and not with Henry’s own hand.</p>
+
+<p>In Sempère’s “History of the Cortes of Spain,” several examples are
+given of the use of fanciful monograms in that country at an early
+period, and which were probably introduced by its Gothic invaders. That
+such marks were stamped is almost certain; for the first, which is that
+of Gundisalvo Tellez, affixed to a charter of the date of 840, is the
+same as the “sign” which was affixed by his widow, Flamula, when she
+granted certain property to the abbot and monks of Cardeña for the good
+of her deceased husband’s soul. The second, which is of the date of 886,
+was used both by the abbot Ovecus, and Peter his nephew; and the third
+was used by all the four children of one Ordoño, as their “sign” to a
+charter of donation executed in 1018. The fourth mark is a Runic cypher,
+copied from an ancient Icelandic manuscript, and given by Peringskiold
+in his “Annotations on the Life of Theodoric:” it is not given here as
+being from a stencil or a stamp, but that it may be compared with the
+apparently Gothic monograms used in Spain.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_15" id = "illus_15">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_15.png" width = "328" height = "71"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>“In their inscriptions, and in the rubrics of their books,” says a
+writer in the Edinburgh Review<a class = "tag" name = "tagI19" id =
+"tagI19" href = "#noteI19">I.19</a> “the Spanish Goths, like the Romans
+of the Lower Empire, were fond of using combined capitals&mdash;of
+<i>monogrammatising</i>. This mode of writing is now common in Spain, on
+the sign-boards and on the shop-fronts, where it has retained its place
+in defiance of the canons of the council [of Leon], The Goths, however,
+retained a truly <i>Gothic</i> custom in their writings. The Spanish
+Goth sometimes subscribed his name; or he drew a <i>monogram</i> like
+the Roman emperors, or the sign of the <i>cross</i> like the Saxon; but
+not unfrequently he affixed strange and fanciful marks to the deed or
+charter, bearing a close resemblance to the Runic or magical knots of
+which so many have been engraved by Peringskiold, and other northern
+antiquaries.”</p>
+
+<p>To the tenth or the eleventh century are also to be referred certain
+small silver coins&mdash;“something between counters and money,” as is
+observed by Pinkerton&mdash;which are impressed, on one side only, with
+a kind of Runic monogram. They are formed of very thin pieces of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page16" id = "page16">
+16</a></span>
+silver; and it has been supposed that the impression was produced from
+wooden dies. They are known to collectors as “<i>nummi
+bracteati</i>”&mdash;tinsel money; and Pinkerton, mistaking the Runic
+character for the Christian cross, says that “most of them are
+ecclesiastic.” He is perhaps nearer the truth when he adds that they
+“belong to the tenth century, and are commonly found in Germany, and the
+northern kingdoms of Sweden and Denmark.”<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagI20" id = "tagI20" href = "#noteI20">I.20</a> The four following
+copies from the original coins in the Brennerian collection are given by
+Peringskiold, in his “Annotations on the Life of Theodoric,” previously
+referred to. The characters on the three first he reads as the letters
+<span class = "smallroman">EIR</span>, <span class =
+"smallroman">OIR</span>, and <span class = "smallroman">AIR</span>,
+respectively, and considers them to be intended to represent the name of
+Eric the Victorious. The characters on the fourth he reads as <span
+class = "smallroman">EIM</span>, and applies them to Emund Annosus, the
+nephew of Eric the Victorious, who succeeded to the Sueo-Gothic throne
+in 1051; about which time, through the influence of the monks, the
+ancient Runic characters were exchanged for Roman.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_16a" id = "illus_16a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_16a.png" width = "290" height = "56"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<div class = "figfloat w150">
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_16b" id = "illus_16b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_16b.png" width = "82" height = "79"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+NICOLAUS FERENTERIUS, 1236</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The notaries of succeeding times, who on their admission were
+required to use a distinctive sign or notarial mark in witnessing an
+instrument, continued occasionally to employ the stencil in affixing
+their “sign;” although their use of the stamp for that purpose appears
+to have been more general. In some of those marks or stamps the name of
+the notary does not appear, and in others a small space is left in order
+that it might afterwards be inserted with a pen. The annexed monogram
+was the official mark of an Italian notary, Nicolaus Ferenterius, who
+lived in 1236.<a class = "tag" name = "tagI21" id = "tagI21" href =
+"#noteI21">I.21</a></p>
+
+<p>The three following cuts represent impressions of German notarial
+stamps. The first is that of Jacobus Arnaldus, 1345; the second that of
+Johannes Meynersen, 1435; and the third that of Johannes Calvis, 1521.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagI22" id = "tagI22" href =
+"#noteI22">I.22</a></p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page17" id = "page17">
+17</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<div class = "picblock w250">
+<p><a name = "illus_17" id = "illus_17">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_17a.png" width = "227" height = "262"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+JACOBUS ARNALDUS, 1345.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picblock">
+<p><img src = "images/illus_17b.png" width = "173" height = "285"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+JOHANNES MEYNERSEN, 1435.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picblock">
+<p><img src = "images/illus_17c.png" width = "144" height = "221"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+JOHANNES CALVIS, 1521.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many of the merchants’-marks of our own country, which so frequently
+appear on stained glass windows, monumental brasses, and tombstones in
+the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, bear a considerable
+likeness to the ancient Runic monograms, from which it is not unlikely
+that they were originally derived. The English trader was accustomed to
+place his mark as his “sign” in his shop-front in the same manner as the
+Spaniard did his monogram: if he was a wool-stapler, he stamped it on
+his packs; or if a fish-curer, it was branded on the end of his casks.
+If he built himself a new house, his mark
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page18" id = "page18">
+18</a></span>
+was frequently placed between his initials over the principal door-way,
+or over the fireplace of the hall; if he made a gift to a church or a
+chapel, his mark was emblazoned on the windows beside the knight’s or
+the nobleman’s shield of arms; and when he died, his mark was cut upon
+his tomb. Of the following merchants’-marks, the first is that of Adam
+de Walsokne, who died in 1349; the second that of Edmund Pepyr, who died
+in 1483; those two marks are from their tombs in St. Margaret’s, Lynn;
+and the third is from a window in the same church.<a class = "tag" name
+= "tagI23" id = "tagI23" href = "#noteI23">I.23</a></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_18" id = "illus_18">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_18.png" width = "247" height = "82"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>In Pierce Ploughman’s Creed, written after the death of Wickliffe,
+which happened in 1384, and consequently more modern than many of
+Chaucer’s poems, merchants’-marks are thus mentioned in the description
+of a window of a Dominican convent:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p class = "open">“Wide windows y-wrought, y-written full thick,</p>
+<p>Shining with shapen shields, to shewen about,</p>
+<p>With <i>marks of merchants</i>, y-meddled between,</p>
+<p>Mo than twenty and two, twice y-numbered.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagI24" id = "tagI24" href = "#noteI24">I.24</a>”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Having thus endeavoured to prove by a continuous chain of evidence
+that the principle of producing impressions from raised lines was known,
+and practised, at a very early period; and that it was applied for the
+purpose of impressing letters and other characters on paper, though
+perhaps confined to signatures only, long previous to 1423,&mdash;which
+is the earliest date that has been discovered on a wood-cut, in the
+modern sense of the word, impressed on paper, and accompanied with
+explanatory words cut on the same block;<a class = "tag" name = "tagI25"
+id = "tagI25" href = "#noteI25">I.25</a> and having shown that the
+principle of stencilling&mdash;the manner in which the above-named cut
+is
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page19" id = "page19">
+19</a></span>
+coloured<a class = "tag" name = "tagI26" id = "tagI26" href =
+"#noteI26">I.26</a>&mdash;was also known in the middle ages; it appears
+requisite, next to briefly notice the contemporary existence of the
+cognate arts of die-sinking, seal-cutting, and engraving on brass, and
+afterwards to examine the grounds of certain speculations on the
+introduction and early practice of wood-engraving and block-printing in
+Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Concerning the first invention of stamping letters and figures upon
+coins, and the name of the inventor, it is fruitless to inquire, as the
+origin of the art is lost in the remoteness of antiquity. “Leaving these
+uncertainties,” says Pinkerton, in his Essay on Medals, “we know from
+respectable authorities that the first money coined in Greece was that
+struck in the island of Ægina, by Phidon king of Argos. His reign is
+fixed by the Arundelian marbles to an era correspondent to the 885th
+year before Christ; but whether he derived this art from Lydia or any
+other source we are not told.” About three hundred years before the
+birth of Christ, the art of coining, so far as relates to the beauty of
+the heads impressed, appears to have attained its perfection in
+Greece;&mdash;we may indeed say its perfection generally, for the
+specimens which were then produced in that country remain unsurpassed by
+modern art. Under the Roman emperors the art never seems to have
+attained so high a degree of perfection as it did in Greece; though
+several of the coins of Hadrian, probably executed by Greek artists,
+display great beauty of design and execution. The art of coining, with
+the rest of the ornamental arts, declined with the empire; and, on its
+final subversion in Italy, the coins of its rulers were scarcely
+superior to those which were subsequently minted in England, Germany,
+and France, during the darkest period of the middle ages.</p>
+
+<p>The art of coining money, however rude in design and imperfect in its
+mode of stamping the impression, which was by repeated blows with a
+hammer, was practised from the twelfth to the sixteenth century in a
+greater number of places than at present; for many of the more powerful
+bishops and nobles assumed or extorted the right of coining money as
+well as the king; and in our own country the archbishops of Canterbury
+and York, and the bishop of Durham, exercised the right of coinage till
+the Reformation; and local mints for coining the king’s money were
+occasionally fixed at Norwich, Chester, York, St. Edmundsbury,
+Newcastle-on-Tyne, and other places. Independent of those establishments
+for the coining of <i>money</i>, almost every abbey struck its own
+<i>jettons</i> or
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page20" id = "page20">
+20</a></span>
+counters; which were thin pieces of copper, commonly impressed with a
+pious legend, and used in <i>casting up accounts</i>, but which the
+general introduction of the numerals now in use, and an improved system
+of arithmetic, have rendered unnecessary. As such mints were at least as
+numerous in France and Germany as in our own country, Scheffer, the
+partner of Faust, when he conceived the idea of casting letters from
+matrices formed by punches, would have little difficulty in finding a
+workman to assist him in carrying his plans into execution. “The art of
+impressing legends on coins,” says Astle in his Account of the Origin
+and Progress of writing, “is nothing more than the art of printing on
+medals.” That the art of casting letters in relief, though not
+separately, and most likely from a mould of sand, was known to the
+Romans, is evident from the names of the emperors Domitian and Hadrian
+on some pigs of lead in the British Museum; and that it was practised
+during the middle and succeeding ages, we have ample testimony from the
+inscriptions on our ancient bells.<a class = "tag" name = "tagI27" id =
+"tagI27" href = "#noteI27">I.27</a></p>
+
+<p>In the century immediately preceding 1423, the date of the wood-cut
+of St. Christopher, the use of seals, for the purpose of authenticating
+documents by their impression on wax, was general throughout Europe;
+kings, nobles, bishops, abbots, and all who “came of <i>gentle</i>
+blood,” with corporations, lay and clerical, all had seals. They were
+mostly of brass, for the art of engraving on precious stones does not
+appear to have been at that time revived, with the letters and device
+cut or cast in hollow&mdash;<i>en creux</i>&mdash;on the face of the
+seal, in order that the impression might appear raised. The workmanship
+of many of those seals, and more especially of some of the conventional
+ones, where figures of saints and a view of the abbey are introduced,
+displays no mean degree of skill. Looking on such specimens of the
+graver’s art, and bearing in mind the character of many of the drawings
+which are to be seen in the missals and other manuscripts of the
+fourteenth century and of the early part of the fifteenth, we need no
+longer be surprised that the cuts of the earliest block-books should be
+so well executed.</p>
+
+<p>The art of engraving on copper and other metals, though not with the
+intention of taking impressions on paper, is of great antiquity. In the
+late Mr. Salt’s collection of Egyptian antiquities there was a small
+axe, probably a model, the head of which was formed of sheet-copper, and
+was tied, or rather bandaged, to the helve with slips of cloth. There
+were certain characters engraved upon the head in such a manner that if
+it were inked and submitted to the action of the rolling-press,
+impressions would be obtained as from a modern copper-plate. The axe,
+with other
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page21" id = "page21">
+21</a></span>
+models of a carpenter’s tools, also of copper, was found in a tomb in
+Egypt, where it must have been deposited at a very early period. That
+the ancient Greeks and Romans were accustomed to engrave on copper and
+other metals in a similar manner, is evident from engraved pateræ and
+other ornamental works executed by people of those nations. Though no
+ancient writer makes mention of the art of engraving being employed for
+the purpose of producing impressions on paper, yet it has been
+conjectured by De Pauw, from a passage in Pliny,<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagI28" id = "tagI28" href = "#noteI28">I.28</a> that such an art was
+invented by Varro for the purpose of multiplying the portraits of
+eminent men. “No Greek,” says De Pauw, speaking of engraving, “has the
+least right to claim this invention, which belongs exclusively to Varro,
+as is expressed by Pliny in no equivocal terms, when he calls this
+method <i>inventum Varronis</i>. Engraved plates were employed which
+gave the profile and the principal traits of the figures, to which the
+appropriate colours and the shadows were afterwards added with the
+pencil. A&nbsp;woman, originally of Cyzica, but then settled in Italy,
+excelled all others in the talent of illumining such kind of prints,
+which were inserted by Varro in a large work of his entitled
+‘<i>Imagines</i>’ or ‘<i>Hebdomades</i>,’ which was enriched with seven
+hundred portraits of distinguished men, copied from their statues and
+busts. The necessity of exactly repeating each portrait or figure in
+every copy of the work suggested the idea of multiplying them without
+much cost, and thus gave birth to an art till then unknown.”<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagI29" id = "tagI29" href = "#noteI29">I.29</a> The
+grounds, however, of this conjecture are extremely slight, and will not
+without additional support sustain the superstructure which De
+Pauw&mdash;an “ingenious” guesser, but a superficial inquirer&mdash;has
+so plausibly raised. A&nbsp;prop for this theory has been sought for by
+men of greater research than the original propounder, but hitherto
+without success.</p>
+
+<p>About the year 1300 we have evidence of monumental brasses, with
+large figures engraved on them, being fixed on tombs in this country;
+and it is not unlikely that they were known both here and on the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page22" id = "page22">
+22</a></span>
+Continent at an earlier period. The best specimens known in this country
+are such as were in all probability executed previous to 1400. In the
+succeeding century the figures and ornamental work generally appear to
+be designed in a worse taste and more carelessly executed; and in the
+age of Queen Elizabeth the art, such as it was, appears to have reached
+the lowest point of degradation, the monumental brasses of that reign
+being generally the worst which are to be met with.</p>
+
+<p>The figures on several of the more ancient brasses are well drawn,
+and the folds of the drapery in the dresses of the females are, as a
+painter would say, “well cast;” and the faces occasionally display a
+considerable degree of correct and elevated expression. Many of the
+figures are of the size of life, marked with a hold outline well
+ploughed into the brass, and having the features, armour, and drapery
+indicated by single lines of greater or less strength as might be
+required. Attempts at shading are also occasionally to be met with; the
+effect being produced by means of lines obliquely crossing each other in
+the manner of cross-hatchings. Whether impressions were ever taken or
+not from such early brasses by the artists who executed them, it is
+perhaps now impossible to ascertain; but that they might do so is beyond
+a doubt, for it is now a common practice, and two immense volumes of
+impressions taken from monumental brasses, for the late Craven Ord,
+Esq., are preserved in the print-room of the British Museum.</p>
+
+<p>One of the finest monumental brasses known in this country is that of
+Robert Braunche and his two wives, in St. Margaret’s Church, Lynn, where
+it appears to have been placed about the year 1364. Braunche, and his
+two wives, one on each side of him, are represented standing, of the
+size of life. Above the figures are representations of five small niches
+surmounted by canopies in the florid Gothic style. In the centre niche
+is the figure of the Deity holding apparently the infant Christ in his
+arms. In each of the niches adjoining the centre one is an angel
+swinging a censer; and in the exterior niches are angels playing on
+musical instruments. At the sides are figures of saints, and at the foot
+there is a representation of a feast, where persons are seen seated at
+table, others playing on musical instruments, while a figure kneeling
+presents a peacock. The length of this brass is eight feet eleven
+inches, and its breadth five feet two inches. It is supposed to have
+been executed in Flanders, with which country at that period the town of
+Lynn was closely connected in the way of trade.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagI30" id = "tagI30" href = "#noteI30">I.30</a></p>
+
+<p>It has frequently been asserted that the art of wood engraving in
+Europe was derived from the Chinese; by whom, it is also said, that the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page23" id = "page23">
+23</a></span>
+art was practised in the reign of the renowned emperor Wu-Wang, who
+flourished 1120 years before the birth of Christ. As both these
+statements seem to rest on equal authorities, I&nbsp;attach to each an
+equal degree of credibility; that is, by believing neither. As Mr.
+Ottley has expressed an opinion in favour of the Chinese origin of the
+art,&mdash;though without adopting the tale of its being practised in
+the reign of Wu-Wang, which he shows has been taken by the wrong
+end,&mdash;I shall here take the liberty of examining the tenability of
+his arguments.</p>
+
+<p>At page 8, in the first chapter of his work, Mr. Ottley cautiously
+says that the “art of printing from engraved blocks of wood appears to
+be of very high antiquity amongst the Chinese;” and at page&nbsp;9,
+after citing Du Halde, as informing us that the art of printing was not
+discovered until about fifty years before the Christian era, he rather
+inconsistently observes: “So says Father Du Halde, whose authority I
+give without any comment, as the defence of Chinese chronology makes no
+part of the present undertaking.” Unless Mr. Ottley is satisfied of the
+correctness of the chronology, he can by no means cite Du Halde’s
+account as evidence of the very high antiquity of printing in China;
+which in every other part of his book he speaks of as a well-established
+fact, and yet refers to no other authority than Du Halde, who relies on
+the correctness of that Chinese chronology with the defence of which Mr.
+Ottley will have nothing to do.</p>
+
+<p>It is also worthy of remark, that in the same chapter he corrects two
+writers, Papillon and Jansen, for erroneously applying a passage in Du
+Halde as proving that the art of printing was known in the reign of
+Wu-Wang,&mdash;he who flourished Ante Christum 1120; whereas the said
+passage was not alleged “by Du Halde to prove the antiquity of printing
+amongst the Chinese, but solely in reference to their ink.” The passage,
+as translated by Mr. Ottley, is as follows: “As the stone Me”
+(a&nbsp;word signifying ink in the Chinese language), “which is used to
+blacken the <i>engraved</i> characters, can never become white; so a
+heart blackened by vices will always retain its blackness.” The engraved
+characters were not inked, it appears, for the purpose of taking
+impressions, as Messrs. Papillon and Jansen have erroneously inferred.
+“It is possible,” according to Mr. Ottley, “that the ink might be used
+by the Chinese at a very early period to blacken, and thereby render
+more easily legible, the characters of engraved inscriptions.”<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagI31" id = "tagI31" href = "#noteI31">I.31</a> The
+<i>possibility</i> of this may be granted certainly; but at the same
+time we must admit that it is equally <i>possible</i> that the engraved
+characters were blackened with ink for the purpose of being printed, if
+they were of wood; or that, if
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page24" id = "page24">
+24</a></span>
+cut in copper or other metal, they were filled with a black composition
+which would harden or <i>set</i> in the lines,&mdash;as an ingenious
+inquirer might infer from ink being represented by the
+<i>stone</i>&nbsp;<span class = "smallroman">ME</span>; and thus it is
+<i>possible</i> that something very like “niello,” or the filling of
+letters on brass doorplates with black wax, was known to the Chinese in
+the reign of Wu-Wang, who flourished in the year before our Lord, 1120.
+The one conjecture is as good as the other, and both good for nothing,
+until we have better assurance than is afforded by Du Halde, that
+engraved characters blackened with ink&mdash;for whatever
+purpose&mdash;were known by the Chinese in the reign of Wu-Wang.<a class
+= "tag" name = "tagI32" id = "tagI32" href = "#noteI32">I.32</a></p>
+
+<p>Although so little is positively known of the ancient history of “the
+great out-lying empire of China,” as it is called by Sir William Jones,
+yet it has been most confidently referred to as affording authentic
+evidence of the high degree of the civilization and knowledge of the
+Chinese at a period when Europe was dark with the gloom of barbarism and
+ignorance. Their early history has been generally found, when
+opportunity has been afforded of impartially examining it, to be a mere
+tissue of absurd legends; compared to which, the history of the
+settlement of King Brute in Britain is authentic. With astronomy as a
+science they are scarcely acquainted; and their specimens of the fine
+arts display little more than representations of objects executed not
+unfrequently with minute accuracy, but without a knowledge of the most
+simple elements of correct design, and without the slightest pretensions
+to art, according to our standard.</p>
+
+<p>One of the two Mahometan travellers who visited China in the ninth
+century, expressly states that the Chinese were unacquainted with the
+sciences; and as neither of them takes any notice of printing, the
+mariner’s compass, or gunpowder, it seems but reasonable to conclude
+that the Chinese were unacquainted with those inventions at that
+period.<a class = "tag" name = "tagI33" id = "tagI33" href =
+"#noteI33">I.33</a></p>
+
+<p>Mr. Ottley, at pages 51 and 52 of his work, gives a brief account of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page25" id = "page25">
+25</a></span>
+the early commerce of Venice with the East, for the purpose of showing
+in what manner a knowledge of the art of printing in China might be
+obtained by the Venetians. He says: “They succeeded, likewise, in
+establishing a direct traffic with Persia, Tartary, China, and Japan;
+sending, for that purpose, several of their most respectable citizens,
+and largely providing them with every requisite.” He cites an Italian
+author for this account, but he observes a prudent silence as to the
+period when the Venetians first established a <i>direct traffic</i> with
+China and Japan; though there is little doubt that Bettinelli, the
+authority referred to, alludes to the expedition of the two brothers
+Niccolo and Maffeo Polo, and of Marco Polo, the son of Niccolo, who in
+1271 or 1272 left Venice on an expedition to the court of the Tartar
+emperor Kublai-Khan, which had been previously visited by the two
+brothers at some period between 1254 and 1269.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagI34" id = "tagI34" href = "#noteI34">I.34</a> After having visited
+Tartary and China, the two brothers and Marco returned to Venice in
+1295. Mr. Ottley, however, does not refer to the travels of the Polos
+for the purpose of showing that Marco, who at a subsequent period wrote
+an account of his travels, might introduce a knowledge of the Chinese
+art of printing into Europe: he cites them that his readers may suppose
+that a direct intercourse between Venice and China had been established
+long before; and that the art of engraving wood-blocks, and taking
+impressions from them, had been thus derived from the latter country,
+and had been practised in Venice long before the return of the
+travellers in 1295.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary here to observe that the invention of the mariner’s
+compass, and of gunpowder and cannon, have been ascribed to the Chinese
+as well as the invention of wood engraving and block-printing; and it
+has been conjectured that <i>very probably</i> Marco Polo communicated
+to his countrymen, and through them to the rest of Europe,
+a&nbsp;knowledge of those arts. Marco Polo, however, does not in the
+account which he wrote of his travels once allude to gunpowder, cannon,
+or to the art of printing as being known in China;<a class = "tag" name
+= "tagI35" id = "tagI35" href = "#noteI35">I.35</a> nor does he once
+mention the compass as being used on board of the Chinese vessel in
+which he sailed from the coast of China to the Persian Gulf. “Nothing is
+more common,”
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page26" id = "page26">
+26</a></span>
+says a writer in the Quarterly Review, “than to find it repeated from
+book to book, that gunpowder and the mariner’s compass were first
+brought from China by Marco Polo, though there can be very little doubt
+that both were known in Europe some time before his return.”&mdash;“That
+Marco Polo,” says the same writer, “would have mentioned the mariner’s
+compass, if it had been in use in China, we think highly probable; and
+his silence respecting gunpowder may be considered as at least a
+negative proof that this also was unknown to the Chinese in the time of
+Kublai-Khan.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagI36" id = "tagI36" href =
+"#noteI36">I.36</a> In a manner widely different from this does Mr.
+Ottley reason, respecting the cause of Marco Polo not having mentioned
+printing as an art practised by the Chinese. He accounts for the
+traveller’s silence as follows: “Marco Polo, it may be said, did not
+notice this art [of engraving on wood and block-printing] in the account
+which he left us of the marvels he had witnessed in China. The answer to
+this objection is obvious: it was no marvel; it had no novelty to
+recommend it; it was practised, as we have seen, at Ravenna, in 1285,
+and had perhaps been practised a century earlier in Venice. His mention
+of it, therefore, was not called for, and he preferred instructing his
+countrymen in matters with which they were not hitherto acquainted.”
+This “obvious” answer, rather unfortunately, will equally apply to the
+question, “Why did not Marco Polo mention cannon as being used by the
+Chinese, who, as we are informed, had discovered such formidable engines
+of war long before the period of his visit?”</p>
+
+<p>That the art of engraving wood-blocks and of taking impressions from
+them was introduced into Europe from China, I&nbsp;can see no sufficient
+reason to believe. Looking at the frequent practice in Europe, from the
+twelfth to the fifteenth century, of impressing inked stamps on paper,
+I&nbsp;can perceive nothing in the earliest specimens of wood engraving
+but the same principles applied on a larger scale. When I am once
+satisfied that a man had built a small boat, I&nbsp;feel no surprise on
+learning that his grandson had built a larger; and made in it a longer
+voyage than his ancestor ever ventured on, who merely used his slight
+skiff to ferry himself across a river.</p>
+
+<p>In the first volume of Papillon’s “Traité de la Gravure en Bois,”
+there is an account of certain old wood engravings which he professes to
+have seen, and which, according to their engraved explanatory title,
+were executed by two notable young people, Alexander Alberic Cunio,
+<i>knight</i>, and Isabella Cunio, his twin sister, and finished by them
+when they were only sixteen years old, at the time when Honorius IV. was
+pope; that is, at some period between the years 1285 and 1287. This
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page27" id = "page27">
+27</a></span>
+story has been adopted by Mr. Ottley, and by Zani, an Italian, who give
+it the benefit of their support. Mr. Singer, in his “Researches into the
+History of Playing Cards,” grants the truth-like appearance of
+Papillon’s tale; and the writer of the article “Wood-engraving” in the
+Encyclopedia Metropolitana considers it as authentic. It is, however,
+treated with contempt by Heineken, Huber, and Bartsch, whose knowledge
+of the origin and progress of engraving is at least equal to that of the
+four writers previously named.</p>
+
+<p>The manner in which Papillon recovered his memoranda of the works of
+the Cunio is remarkable. In consequence of those curious notes being
+mislaid for upwards of thirty-five years, the sole record of the
+productions of those “ingenious and amiable twins” was very nearly lost
+to the world. The <i>three sheets of letter-paper</i> on which he had
+written an account of certain old volumes of wood engravings,&mdash;that
+containing the cuts executed by the Cunio being one of the
+number,&mdash;he had lost for upwards of thirty-five years. For long he
+had only a confused idea of those sheets, though he had often searched
+for them in vain, when he was writing his first essay on wood engraving,
+which was printed about 1737, but never published. At length he
+accidentally found them, on All-Saints’ Day, 1758, rolled up in a bundle
+of specimens of paper-hangings which had been executed by his father.
+The finding of those three sheets afforded him the greater pleasure, as
+from them he discovered, by means of a pope’s name, an epoch of
+engraving figures and letters on wood for the purpose of being printed,
+which was certainly much earlier than <i>any</i> at that period known in
+Europe, and at the same time a history relative to this subject equally
+curious and interesting. He says that he had so completely forgotten all
+this,&mdash;though he had so often recollected to search for his
+memoranda,&mdash;that he did not deign to take the least notice of it in
+his previously printed history of the art. The following is a faithful
+abstract of Papillon’s account of his discovery of those early specimens
+of wood engraving. The title-page, as given by him in French from
+Monsieur De Greder’s <i>vivâ voce</i> translation of the
+original,&mdash;which was “en mauvais Latin ou ancien Italien Gothique,
+avec beaucoup d’abréviations,”&mdash;is translated without abridgment,
+as are also his own descriptions of the cuts.</p>
+
+<p>“When young, being engaged with my father in going almost every day
+to hang rooms with our papers, I&nbsp;was, some time in 1719 or 1720, at
+the village of Bagneux, near Mont Rouge, at a Monsieur De Greder’s,
+a&nbsp;Swiss captain, who had a pretty house there. After I had papered
+a small room for him, he ordered me to cover the shelves of his library
+with paper in imitation of mosaic. One day after dinner he surprised me
+reading a book, which occasioned him to show me some very old ones which
+he had borrowed of one of his friends, a&nbsp;Swiss officer,<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagI37" id = "tagI37" href = "#noteI37">I.37</a> that
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page28" id = "page28">
+28</a></span>
+he might examine them at his leisure. We talked about the figures which
+they contained, and of the antiquity of wood engraving; and what follows
+is a description of those ancient books as I wrote it before him, and as
+he was so kind as to explain and dictate to me<ins class = "correction"
+title = "text has superfluous close quote">.&nbsp;</ins></p>
+
+<p>“In a <i>cartouch</i><a class = "tag" name = "tagI38" id = "tagI38"
+href = "#noteI38">I.38</a> or frontispiece,&mdash;of fanciful and Gothic
+ornaments, though pleasing enough,&mdash;nine inches wide, and six
+inches high, having at the top the arms, doubtless, of Cunio, the
+following words are coarsely engraved on the same block, in bad Latin,
+or ancient Gothic Italian with many abbreviations.</p>
+
+<p>“‘<span class = "smallcaps">The chivalrous deeds</span>, in figures,
+of the great and magnanimous Macedonian king, the courageous and valiant
+Alexander, dedicated, presented, and humbly offered to the most holy
+father, Pope Honorius IV. the glory and stay of the Church, and to our
+illustrious and generous father and mother, by us Alexander Alberic
+Cunio, knight, and Isabella Cunio, twin brother and sister; first
+reduced, imagined, and attempted to be executed in relief with a little
+knife, on blocks of wood, joined and smoothed by this learned and
+beloved sister, continued and finished together at Ravenna, after eight
+pictures of our designing, painted six times the size here represented;
+cut, explained in verse, and thus marked on paper to multiply the
+number, and to enable us to present them as a token of friendship and
+affection to our relations and friends. This was done and finished, the
+age of each being only sixteen years complete.’”</p>
+
+<p>After having given the translation of the title-page, Papillon thus
+continues the narrative in his own person: “This <i>cartouch</i> [or
+ornamented title-page] is surrounded by a coarse line, the tenth of an
+inch broad, forming a square. A&nbsp;few slight lines, which are
+irregularly executed and without precision, form the shading of the
+ornaments. The impression, in the same manner as the rest of the cuts,
+has been taken in Indian blue, rather pale, and in distemper, apparently
+by the hand being passed frequently over the paper laid upon the block,
+as card-makers are accustomed to impress their addresses and the
+envelopes of their cards. The hollow parts of the block, not being
+sufficiently cut away in several places, and having received the ink,
+have smeared the paper, which is rather brown; a&nbsp;circumstance which
+has caused the following words to be written in the margin underneath,
+that the fault might be remedied.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page29" id = "page29">
+29</a></span>
+They are in Gothic Italian, which M.&nbsp;de Greder had considerable
+difficulty in making out, and certainly written by the hand either of
+the Chevalier Cunio or his sister, on this first proof&mdash;evidently
+from a block&mdash;such as are here translated.”</p>
+
+<p>“‘<i>It is necessary to cut away the ground of the blocks more, that
+the paper may not touch it in taking impressions.</i>’”</p>
+
+<p>“Following this frontispiece, and of the same size, are the subjects
+of the eight pictures, engraved on wood, surrounded by a similar line
+forming a square, and also with the shadows formed of slight lines. At
+the foot of each of those engravings, between the border-line and
+another, about a finger’s breadth distant, are four Latin verses
+engraved on the block, poetically explaining the subject, the title of
+which is placed at the head. In all, the impression is similar to that
+of the frontispiece, and rather grey or cloudy, as if the paper had not
+been moistened. The figures, tolerably designed, though in a semi-gothic
+taste, are well enough characterized and draped; and we may perceive
+from them that the arts of design were then beginning gradually to
+resume their vigour in Italy. At the feet of the principal figures their
+names are engraved, such as Alexander, Philip, <i>Darius</i>, Campaspe,
+and others.”</p>
+
+<p>“<span class = "smallcaps">Subject 1.</span>&mdash;Alexander mounted
+on Bucephalus, which he has tamed. On a stone are these words:
+<i>Isabel. Cunio pinx. &amp; scalp.</i>”</p>
+
+<p>“<span class = "smallcaps">Subject 2.</span>&mdash;Passage of the
+Granicus. Near the trunk of a tree these words are engraved: <i>Alex.
+Alb. Cunio Equ. pinx. Isabel Cunio scalp.</i>”</p>
+
+<p>“<span class = "smallcaps">Subject 3.</span>&mdash;Alexander cutting
+the Gordian knot. On the pedestal of a column are these words:
+<i>Alexan. Albe. Cunio Equ. pinx. &amp; scalp.</i> This block is not so
+well engraved as the two preceding.”</p>
+
+<p>“<span class = "smallcaps">Subject 4.</span>&mdash;Alexander in the
+tent of Darius. This subject is one of the best composed and engraved of
+the whole set. Upon the end of a piece of cloth are these words:
+<i>Isabel. Cunio pinxit &amp; scalp.</i>”</p>
+
+<p>“<span class = "smallcaps">Subject 5.</span>&mdash;Alexander
+generously presents his mistress Campaspe to Apelles who was painting
+her. The figure of this beauty is very agreeable. The painter seems
+transported with joy at his good fortune. On the floor, on a kind of
+antique tablet, are these words: <i>Alex. Alb. Cunio Eques, pinx. &amp;
+scalp.</i>”</p>
+
+<p>“<span class = "smallcaps">Subject 6.</span>&mdash;The famous battle
+of Arbela. Upon a small hillock are these words: <i>Alex. Alb. Equ.
+&amp; Isabel. pictor. and scalp.</i> For composition, design, and
+engraving, this subject is also one of the best.”</p>
+
+<p>“<span class = "smallcaps">Subject 7.</span>&mdash;Porus, vanquished,
+is brought before Alexander. This subject is so much the more beautiful
+and remarkable, as it is composed nearly in the same manner as that of
+the famous Le Brun; it would seem that he had copied this print. Both
+Alexander and Porus have a grand
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page30" id = "page30">
+30</a></span>
+and magnanimous air. On a stone near a bush are engraved these words:
+<i>Isabel. Cunio pinx. &amp; scalp.</i>”</p>
+
+<p>“<span class = "smallcaps">Subject 8 and last.</span>&mdash;The glory
+and grand triumph of Alexander on entering Babylon. This piece, which is
+well enough composed, has been executed, as well as the sixth, by the
+brother and sister conjointly, as is testified by these characters
+engraved at the bottom of a wall: <i>Alex. Alb. Equ. et Isabel. Cunio,
+pictor. &amp; scalp.</i> At the top of this impression, a&nbsp;piece
+about three inches long and one inch broad has been torn off.”</p>
+
+<p>However singular the above account of the works of those “amiable
+twins” may seem, no less surprising is the history of their birth,
+parentage, and education; which, taken in conjunction with the early
+development of their talents as displayed in such an art, in the choice
+of such a subject, and at such a period, is scarcely to be surpassed in
+interest by any narrative which gives piquancy to the pages of the
+Wonderful Magazine.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the blank leaf adjoining the last engraving were the following
+words, badly written in old Swiss characters, and scarcely legible in
+consequence of their having been written with pale ink. “Of course
+Papillon could not read Swiss,” says Mr. Ottley, “M.&nbsp;de Greder,
+therefore, translated them for him into French.”&mdash;“This precious
+volume was given to my grandfather Jan. Jacq. Turine, a&nbsp;native of
+Berne, by the illustrious Count Cunio, chief magistrate of Imola, who
+honoured him with his generous friendship. Above all my books I prize
+this the highest on account of the quarter from whence it came into our
+family, and on account of the knowledge, the valour, the beauty, and the
+noble and generous desire which those amiable twins Cunio had to gratify
+their relations and friends. Here ensues their singular and curious
+history as I have heard it many a time from my venerable father, and
+which I have caused to be more correctly written than I could do it
+myself.”</p>
+
+<p>Though Papillon’s long-lost manuscript, containing the whole account
+of the works of the Cunio and notices of other old books of engravings,
+consisted of only three sheets of letter-paper, yet the history alone of
+the learned, beautiful, and amiable twins, which Turine the grandson
+caused to be written out as he had heard it from his father, occupies in
+Papillon’s book four long octavo pages of thirty-eight lines each. To
+assume that his long-lost manuscript consisted of brief notes which he
+afterwards wrote out at length from memory, would at once destroy any
+validity that his account might be supposed to possess; for he states
+that he had lost those papers for upwards of thirty five years, and had
+entirely forgotten their contents.</p>
+
+<p>Without troubling myself to transcribe the whole of this choice
+morsel of French Romance concerning the history of the “amiable
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page31" id = "page31">
+31</a></span>
+twins” Cunio,&mdash;the surprising beauty, talents, and accomplishments
+of the maiden,&mdash;the early death of herself and her lover,&mdash;the
+heroism of the youthful knight, Alexander Alberic Cunio, displayed when
+only fourteen years old,&mdash;I shall give a brief abstract of some of
+the passages which seem most important to the present inquiry.<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagI39" id = "tagI39" href = "#noteI39">I.39</a></p>
+
+<p>From this narrative,&mdash;which Papillon informs us was written in a
+much better hand, though also in Swiss characters, and with much blacker
+ink than Turine the grandson’s own memorandum,&mdash;we obtain the
+following particulars: The Count de Cunio, father of the twins, was
+married to their mother, a&nbsp;noble maiden of Verona and a relation of
+Pope Honorius IV. without the knowledge of their parents, who, on
+discovering what had happened, caused the marriage to be annulled, and
+the priest by whom it was celebrated to be banished. The divorced wife,
+dreading the anger of her own father, sought an asylum with one of her
+aunts, under whose roof she was brought to bed of twins. Though the
+elder Cunio had compelled his son to espouse another wife, he yet
+allowed him to educate the twins, who were most affectionately received
+and cherished by their father’s new wife. The children made astonishing
+progress in the sciences, more especially the girl Isabella, who at
+thirteen years of age was regarded as a prodigy; for she understood, and
+wrote with correctness, the Latin language; she composed excellent
+verses, understood geometry, was acquainted with music, could play on
+several instruments, and had begun to design and to paint with
+correctness, taste, and delicacy. Her brother Alberic, of a beauty as
+ravishing as his sister’s, and one of the most charming youths in Italy,
+at the age of fourteen could manage the great horse, and understood the
+practice of arms and all other exercises befitting a young man of
+quality. He also understood Latin, and could paint well.</p>
+
+<p>The troubles in Italy having caused the Count Cunio to take up arms,
+his son, young Alexander Alberic, accompanied him to the field to make
+his first campaign. Though not more than fourteen years old, he was
+entrusted with the command of a squadron of twenty-five horse, with
+which, as his first essay in war, he attacked and put to flight near two
+hundred of the enemy. His courage having carried him too far, he was
+surrounded by the fugitives, from whom, however, he fought himself clear
+without any further injury than a wound in his left arm. His father, who
+had hastened to his succour, found him returning with the enemy’s
+banner, which he had wrapped about his wound. Delighted at the valour
+displayed by his son, the Count Cunio knighted him on the spot. The
+young man then asked permission to visit his mother, which
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page32" id = "page32">
+32</a></span>
+was readily granted by the count, who was pleased to have this
+opportunity of testifying the love and esteem he still retained towards
+that noble and afflicted lady, who continued to reside with her aunt; of
+which he certainly would have given her more convincing proofs, now that
+his father was dead, by re-establishing their marriage and publicly
+espousing her, if he had not been in duty bound to cherish the wife whom
+he had been compelled to marry, and who had now borne him a large
+family.</p>
+
+<p>After Alexander Alberic had visited his mother, he returned home, and
+shortly after began, together with his sister Isabella, to design and
+work upon the pictures of the achievements of Alexander. He then made a
+second campaign with his father, after which he continued to employ
+himself on the pictures in conjunction with Isabella, who attempted in
+reduce them and engrave them on wood. After the engravings were
+finished, and copies had been printed and given to Pope Honorius, and
+their relations and friends, Alexander Alberic proceeded again to join
+the army, accompanied by Pandulphio, a&nbsp;young nobleman, who was in
+love with the charming Isabella. This was his last campaign, for he was
+killed in the presence of his friend, who was dangerously wounded in
+defending him. He was slain when not more than nineteen; and his sister
+was so affected by his death that she resolved never to marry, and died
+when she was scarcely twenty. The death of this lovely and learned young
+lady was followed by that of her lover, who had fondly hoped that she
+would make him happy. The mother of those amiable twins was not long in
+following them to the grave, being unable to survive the loss of her
+children. The Countess de Cunio took seriously ill at the loss of
+Isabella, but fortunately recovered; and it was only the count’s
+grandeur of soul that saved him from falling sick also.</p>
+
+<p>Some years after this, Count Cunio gave the copy of the achievements
+of Alexander, in its present binding, to the grandfather of the person
+who caused this account to be written. The binding, according to
+Papillon’s description of it, was, for the period, little less
+remarkable than the contents. “This ancient and Gothic binding,” as
+Papillon’s note is translated by Mr. Ottley. “is made of thin tablets of
+wood, covered with leather, and <i>ornamented with flowered
+compartments, which appear simply stamped and marked with an iron a
+little warmed, without any gilding</i>.” It is remarkable that this
+singular volume should afford not only specimens of wood engraving,
+earlier by upwards of a hundred and thirty years than any which are
+hitherto known, but that the binding, of the same period as the
+engravings, should also be such as is rarely, if ever, to be met with
+till upwards of one hundred and fifty years after the wonderful twins
+were dead.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page33" id = "page33">
+33</a></span>
+<p>As this volume is no longer to be found, as no mention is made of
+such a work by any old writer, and as another copy has not been
+discovered in any of the libraries of Italy, nor the least trace of one
+ever having been there, the evidence of its ever having existed rests
+solely on the account given of it by Papillon. Before saying a word
+respecting the credit to be attached to this witness, or the props with
+which Zani and Ottley endeavour to support his testimony, I&nbsp;shall
+attempt to show that the account affords internal evidence of its own
+falsehood.</p>
+
+<p>Before noticing the description of the subjects, I shall state a few
+objections to the account of the twins as written out by order of the
+youngest Turine, the grandson of Jan. Jacq. Turine, who received the
+volume from Count Cunio himself, the father of the twins, a&nbsp;few
+years after their death, which could not well happen later than 1291; as
+Pope Honorius, to whom their work was dedicated when they were sixteen
+years old, died in 1287, and Isabella Cunio, who survived her brother,
+died when she was not more than twenty. Supposing that Count Cunio gave
+the volume to his friend, J.&nbsp;J. Turine, a&nbsp;native of Berne, in
+1300, and that the grandson of the latter caused the history of the
+twins to be written out eighty years afterwards,&mdash;and we cannot
+fairly assume that it was written later, if indeed so late,&mdash;we
+have thus 1380 as the date of the account written “in old Swiss
+characters, in a better hand, and with much blacker ink,” than the
+owner’s own memorandum of the manner in which the volume came into his
+family, and his reasons for prizing it so highly. The probable date of
+the pretended Swiss history of the Cunio, Papillon’s advocates carefully
+keep out of sight; for what impartial person could believe that a Swiss
+of the fourteenth century could give utterance to the sentimental
+fustian which forms so considerable a portion of the account? Of the
+young knight Cunio he knows every movement; he is acquainted with his
+visit to his repudiated mother; he knows in which arm he was wounded;
+the number of men that he lost, when with only five-and-twenty he routed
+two hundred; the name of Isabella’s lover; the illness and happy
+recovery of Count Cunio’s wife, and can tell the cause why the count
+himself did not fall sick.</p>
+
+<p>To any person who reflects on the doctrine of the church of Rome in
+the article of marriage, it certainly must appear strange that the
+parents of the Count Cunio and his first wife, the mother of the twins,
+should have had the power of dissolving the marriage and of banishing
+the priest by whom it was solemnized; and still more singular it is that
+the Count Cunio, whom we must suppose to have been a good Catholic,
+should speak, after his father’s death, of re-establishing his marriage
+with his first wife and of publicly espousing her; and that he should
+make such a communication to her through the medium of her son, who,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page34" id = "page34">
+34</a></span>
+as well as his sister, must have been declared illegitimate by the very
+fact of their mother’s divorce. It is also strange that this piece of
+family history should come to the knowledge of the grandson of Jan.
+Jacq. Turine. The Count Cunio’s second marriage surely must have been
+canonically legal, if the first were not; and if so, it would not be a
+sense of duty alone to his second wife that would prevent him divorcing
+her and re-marrying the first. On such subjects the church was to be
+consulted; and to such playing fast-and-loose with the sacrament of
+marriage the church said “<span class = "smallroman">NO</span>.” Taking
+these circumstances into consideration, I&nbsp;can come to no other
+conclusion than that, on this point, the writer of the history of the
+Cunio did not speak truth; and that the paper containing such history,
+even if it could be produced, is not genuine, as every other part of it
+which has the slightest bearing on the point at issue, is equally, if
+not more, improbable.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the cuts pretended to be executed by the twins
+themselves, I&nbsp;shall waive any objections which might be urged on
+the ground of it being unlikely that they should be executed by a boy
+and a girl so young. Supposing that the twins were as learned and
+accomplished as they are represented, still it would be a very
+surprising circumstance that, in the thirteenth century, they should
+have executed a series of wood engravings of the actions of Alexander
+the Great as an appropriate present to the pope; and that the
+composition of one of those subjects, No.&nbsp;7, should so closely
+resemble one of Le Brun’s&mdash;an artist remarkable for the
+complication of his designs&mdash;that it would seem he had copied this
+very print. Something like the reverse of this is more probable; that
+the description of the pretended work of the Cunio was suggested by the
+designs of Le Brun.<a class = "tag" name = "tagI40" id = "tagI40" href =
+"#noteI40">I.40</a> The execution of a set of designs, in the thirteenth
+century, illustrating the actions of Alexander in the manner described
+by Papillon, would be a rarity indeed even if not engraved on wood; but
+that a series of wood engravings, and not a saint in one of them, should
+be executed by a boy and a girl, and presented to a <i>pope</i>, in
+1286, is scarcely short of miraculous. The twins must have been well
+read in Quintus Curtius. Though we are informed that both were skilled
+in the Latin language, yet it plainly appears on two occasions, when we
+might suppose that they would be least liable to trip, that their
+Latinity is questionable. The sixth and the eighth subjects, which were
+accomplished by their joint efforts, are
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page35" id = "page35">
+35</a></span>
+described as being marked: <i>Alex. Alb. Equ. et Isabel, Cunio pictor.
+et scalp.</i></p>
+
+<p class = "verse">
+“Thus painters <i>did not</i> write their names at Co.”</p>
+
+<p>Why do not the advocates of those early specimens of wood engraving
+in Italy point out to their readers that these two children were the
+first who ever affixed the words <i>pinx. et scalp.</i> to a woodcut?
+I&nbsp;challenge any believer in Papillon to point out a wood engraving
+on which the words <i>pinxit</i> and <i>scalpsit</i>, the first after
+the painter’s name, and the second after the engraver’s, appear previous
+to 1580. This apparent copying&mdash;and by a person ignorant of Latin
+too&mdash;of the formula of a later period, is of itself sufficient to
+excite a suspicion of forgery; and, coupled with the improbable
+circumstances above related, it irresistibly compels me to conclude that
+the whole account is a mere fiction.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the credibility of Papillon, the sole evidence upon
+which the history of the wonderful twins rests, I&nbsp;shall have
+occasion to say very few words. That he was credulous, and excessively
+vain of what he considered his discoveries in the history of wood
+engraving, is admitted by those who profess to believe him. He appears
+also from an early age to have been subject to mental hallucination; and
+in 1759, the year after he found his papers containing the account of
+the Cunio, he had a fit of decided insanity which rendered it necessary
+to convey him to a mad-house, where by copious bleeding he soon
+recovered his senses.<a class = "tag" name = "tagI41" id = "tagI41" href
+= "#noteI41">I.41</a> To those interested in the controversy I leave to
+decide how far the unsupported testimony of such a person, and in such a
+case, ought to be relied on. How easily he might be deceived on a
+subject relating to the early history of his art, it is not difficult to
+comprehend; and <ins class = "correction" title = "text reads ‘eve nallowing’">even allowing</ins> him to be sincere in the belief of what
+he related, he was a person very likely to occasionally deceive both
+himself and others.<a class = "tag" name = "tagI42" id = "tagI42" href =
+"#noteI42">I.42</a></p>
+
+<p>Papillon’s insanity had been previously adverted to by Heineken; and
+this writer’s remarks have produced the following correction from Mr.
+Ottley: “Heineken takes some pains to show that poor Papillon was not in
+his right mind; and, amongst his other arguments, quotes a passage
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page36" id = "page36">
+36</a></span>
+from his book, t.&nbsp;i. p.&nbsp;335, in which he says, ‘<i>Par un
+accident et une fatalité commune à plusieurs graveurs, aussi bien qu’à
+moi, Le Fevre est devenu aliéné d’esprit</i>:’ as if a little pleasantry
+of expression, such as the French writers, especially, have ever felt
+themselves at full liberty to indulge in, could really constitute fit
+grounds for a statute of lunacy.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagI43" id =
+"tagI43" href = "#noteI43">I.43</a> Had Mr. Ottley, instead of
+confidently correcting Heineken when the latter had stated nothing but
+the fact, turned to the cited page of Papillon’s volume, he would there
+have found that Papillon was indulging in no “little pleasantry of
+expression,” but was seriously relating a melancholy fact of two brother
+artists losing their senses about the same time as himself; and had he
+ever read the supplement, or third volume, of Papillon’s work, he would
+have seen, at p.&nbsp;39, the account which Papillon himself gives of
+his own insanity.</p>
+
+<p>Having disposed of the story as told by Papillon, it remains now to
+notice “the learning and deep research” with which it has been supported
+by Zani, and some of the arguments which have been alleged in its favour
+by <ins class = "correction" title = ". missing">Mr.</ins> Ottley.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, Zani has discovered that a family of the name of
+Cunio, in which the name of Alberico more than once occurs, actually
+resided in the neighbourhood of Ravenna at the very period mentioned in
+the title-page to the cuts by the Cunio, and in the history written in
+old Swiss characters. Upon this, and other similar pieces of evidence,
+Mr. Ottley remarks as follows: “Now both these cities [Ravenna and
+Imola] are in the vicinity of Faenza, where the family, or a branch of
+it, is spoken of by writers of undoubted credit in the twelfth, the
+thirteenth, and the fourteenth centuries. These circumstances,
+therefore, far from furnishing any just motive of additional doubt, form
+together such a phalanx of corroborative evidence in support of the
+story, as, in my opinion, those who would impeach the truth of
+Papillon’s statement can never break through.” “<i>Argal</i>,” Rowley’s
+poems are genuine, because such a person as “Maistre William Canynge”
+lived at Bristol at the period when he is mentioned by the pseudo
+Rowley. Zani, however, unfortunately for his own argument, let us know
+that the names and residence of the family of the Cunio might be
+obtained from “Tonduzzi’s History of Faenza,” printed in 1675. Whether
+this book appeared in French, or not, previous to the publication of
+Papillon’s works, I&nbsp;have not been able to learn; but a Swiss
+captain, who could read “old Gothic Italian,” would certainly find
+little difficulty in picking a couple of names out of a modern Italian
+volume.</p>
+
+<p>The reasoning faculties of Signor Zani appear to have been very
+imperfectly developed, for he cites the following as a case in point;
+and
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page37" id = "page37">
+37</a></span>
+Mr. Ottley, who gives it in his text, seems to concur in its
+applicability. He is noticing the objections which have been made to
+Papillon’s account, on the ground of no previous author mentioning the
+existence of such a work, and that no person subsequently had ever seen
+a copy. Zani’s argument, as given by Mr. Ottley,<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagI44" id = "tagI44" href = "#noteI44">I.44</a> is as follows: “He,
+however, who should reason in this manner, might, upon the same grounds,
+deny the loss of many manuscripts, and even of printed books, which,
+according to the testimony of credible authors, have become a prey to
+the flames, or have perished during the anarchy of revolutions, or the
+distresses occasioned by wars. The learned part of my readers will not
+require examples. Nevertheless, let him who wants such conviction search
+throughout all the libraries of Europe for the work entitled
+‘Meditationes Reverendissimi patris Domini Johannis de Turre-cremata,’
+printed at Rome by Ulrich Hahn, in 1467, and he will presently be
+informed by the learned librarians, that of that edition there exists
+but one copy, which is preserved in the library of Nuremberg. This book
+is, therefore, unique.<a class = "tag" name = "tagI45" id = "tagI45"
+href = "#noteI45">I.45</a> Now let us suppose that, by some accident,
+this book should perish; could our descendants on that account deny that
+it ever had existed?” And this is a corroborative argument in support of
+the truth of Papillon’s tale! The comment, however, is worthy of the
+text. It is to be observed that Ulrich Hahn’s edition of Turre-cremata
+appeared ten years after Faust and Scheffer’s Psalter, of the date 1457,
+was printed; and that the existence of several hundred volumes printed
+before 1467 proves that the art of printing was then practised to a
+considerable extent. That Ulrich Hahn was a printer at Rome in 1468 and
+subsequent years is proved by many copies of works which proceeded from
+his press; and the existence of the identical “unique” copy, referred to
+by Zani, is vouched for by upwards of fifty learned men who have seen
+it; and, what is more, mentioned the place where it was preserved, so
+that, if a person were sceptical, he might satisfy himself by the
+evidence of his own senses. But who, except Papillon, has ever seen the
+engravings of the Cunio, executed upwards of a hundred and thirty years
+prior to the earliest authentic specimen of the art, and who has ever
+mentioned the place where they were to be seen? Had any person of equal
+credibility with Papillon described a volume printed at Rome in 1285,
+the date of the pretended wood-cuts of the Cunio, the case would then
+have been in point, and the decision of every person in the slightest
+degree acquainted with the subject, and not rendered blind to simple
+truth by the vivid brightness of his own speculations, would be
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page38" id = "page38">
+38</a></span>
+inevitably the same; that is, the evidence in both cases would not be
+relied on.</p>
+
+<p>“It is possible,” <ins class = "correction" title = "text reads ‘say’">says</ins> Zani, “that at this moment I may be blinded by
+partiality to my own nation; but I would almost assert, that <i>to deny
+the testimony of the French writer, would be like denying the existence
+of light on a fine sun-shiny day</i>.” His mental optics must have been
+of a peculiar character, and it can be no longer doubtful that he</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p class = "open">“Had lights where better eyes are blind,</p>
+<p>As pigs are said to see the wind.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mr. Ottley’s own arguments in support of Papillon’s story are
+scarcely of a higher character than those which he has adopted from
+Zani. At page 40, in answer to an objection founded on the silence of
+all authorities, not merely respecting the particular work of the Cunio,
+but of the frequent practice of such an art, and the fact of no
+contemporary specimens being known, he writes as follows: “We cannot
+safely argue from the silence of contemporaneous authorities, that the
+art of engraving on wood was not practised in Europe in those early
+times; however, such silence may be an argument that it was not an art
+in high repute. Nor is our ignorance of such records a sufficient proof
+of their non-existence.” The proof of such a negative would be certainly
+difficult; but, according to this mode of argument, there is no modern
+invention which might not also be mentioned in “certain ancient
+undiscovered records.” In the general business of life, that rule of
+evidence is a good one which declares “<i>de non-apparentibus et
+non-existentibus eadem est ratio</i>;” and until it shall be a maxim in
+logic that “we ought readily to believe that to be true which we cannot
+prove to have been impossible,” Mr. Ottley’s solution of the difficulty
+does not seem likely to obtain general credence.</p>
+
+<p>At page 41, speaking of the probability of wood-engraving, for the
+purpose of taking impressions, being practised at an earlier period than
+has been generally supposed, Mr. Ottley expresses himself as follows:
+“Nor is it any proof or strong argument against the antiquity of such a
+practice, that authentic specimens of wood-engraving of those early
+times are not now to be found. They were, it may be supposed, for the
+most part, detached pieces, whose merits, as works of art, were not such
+as to render their preservation at all probable. They were the toys of
+the day; and, after having served the temporary purpose for which they
+were manufactured, were, no doubt, swept away to make room for others of
+newer fashion.” He thus requires those who entertain an opinion contrary
+to his own to prove a negative; while he assumes the point in dispute as
+most clearly established in his own favour.</p>
+
+<p>If such wood engravings&mdash;“the toys of the day”&mdash;had been
+known
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page39" id = "page39">
+39</a></span>
+in the thirteenth, or even the fourteenth century, is it not likely that
+some mention would be made of them in the writings of some one of the
+minstrels of the period to whom we are indebted for so many minute
+particulars illustrative of the state of society at the period referred
+to? Not the slightest allusion to anything of the kind has hitherto been
+noticed in their writings. Respecting such “toys” Boccaccio is silent,
+and our countryman Chaucer says not a word. Of wood-cuts not the least
+mention is made in Petrarch; and Richard de Bury, bishop of Durham, who
+lived in the reign of Edward III., in his curious Essay on the Love of
+Books, says not a syllable of wood-cuts, either as toys, or as
+illustrations of devotional or historical subjects. Upon this question,
+affirmed by Papillon, and maintained as true by Zani and Ottley,
+contemporary authorities are silent; and not one solitary fact bearing
+distinctly upon the point has been alleged in support of Papillon’s
+narrative.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_39" id = "illus_39">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_39.png" width = "212" height = "183"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<div class = "footnote">
+
+<p><a name = "noteI1" id = "noteI1" href = "#tagI1">I.1</a>
+C. G. Von Murr, in his Journal zur Kunstgeschichte, 2&nbsp;Theil,
+S.&nbsp;253, referring to Martorelli, De Regia Theca Calamaria.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI2" id = "noteI2" href = "#tagI2">I.2</a>
+If this etymology be correct, the English Scrivener and French
+<i>Greffier</i> may be related by descent as well as professionally;
+both words being thus referable to the same origin, the Greek <span
+class = "greek" lang = "el" title = "(Greek) graphô">γράφω</span>. The
+modern <i>Writer</i> in the Scottish courts of law performs the duties
+both of Scrivener and Greffier, with whose name his own is
+synonymous.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI3" id = "noteI3" href = "#tagI3">I.3</a>
+Towards the close of the seventeenth century we find books “adorned with
+<i>sculptures</i> by a curious hand;” about 1730 we find them
+“ornamented with <i>cuts</i>;” at present they are “illustrated with
+<i>engravings</i>.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI4" id = "noteI4" href = "#tagI4">I.4</a>
+Astle on the Origin and Progress of Writing, p.&nbsp;215, 2nd edit.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI5" id = "noteI5" href = "#tagI5">I.5</a>
+Author of “An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern
+Egyptians, written in Egypt during the years 1833, ’34, and ’35.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI6" id = "noteI6" href = "#tagI6">I.6</a>
+On a mummy in the royal collection at Paris, the six first characters of
+this stamp occur. Champollion reads them, “Amenoftep,” or “Amonaftep.”
+He supposes the name to be that of Amonoph the First; and says that it
+signifies “approuvé par Ammon.”&mdash;Précis du Système Hiéroglyphique.
+Planches et Explication, p.&nbsp;20, No.&nbsp;161.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI7" id = "noteI7" href = "#tagI7">I.7</a>
+Inscriptionum Explicatio, fol. Romæ, 1699.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI8" id = "noteI8" href = "#tagI8">I.8</a>
+“O nata mecum consule Manlio!” says Horace, addressing an amphora of
+wine as old as himself; and Petronius mentions some choice Falernian
+which had attained the ripe age of a hundred: “Statim allatæ sunt
+amphoræ vitreæ diligenter gypsatæ, quarum in cervicibus pittacia erant
+affixa, cum hoc titulo: <i>Falernum Opimianum annorum centum</i>.”
+<i>Pittacia</i> were small labels&mdash;schedulæ breves&mdash;attached
+to the necks of wine-vessels, and on which were marked the name and age
+of the wine.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI9" id = "noteI9" href = "#tagI9">I.9</a>
+Journal zur Kunstgeschichte, 2 Theil, S. 81. By
+grotesque&mdash;“Laubwerk”&mdash;ornamental foliage is here
+meant;&mdash;<i>grot</i>-esque, bower-work,&mdash;not caricatures.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI10" id = "noteI10" href = "#tagI10">I.10</a>
+M. Dulaure’s latinity is bad. “<i>Lippas</i>” certainly is not the word.
+His translation is, “Remède anodin de Quintus Junius Tauridus, pour
+<i>tous les maux</i> d’yeux.” Other stone stamps, supposed to have been
+used by oculists to mark the vessels containing their medicaments, were
+discovered and explained long before M.&nbsp;Dulaure published his
+interpretation. See “<span class = "smallcaps">Walchii</span>
+Antiquitates Medicæ Selectæ, Jenæ, 1772,” Num. 1&nbsp;and 2, referred to
+by Von Murr.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI11" id = "noteI11" href = "#tagI11">I.11</a>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Hermannus Hugo</span>, De prima Origine
+Scribendi, cap. xix. De Notis Servilibus, et cap. xx. De Notis pecudum.
+A&nbsp;further account of the ancient <i>stigmata</i>, and of the manner
+in which slaves were marked, is to be found in <span class =
+"smallcaps">Pignorius</span>, De Servis.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI12" id = "noteI12" href = "#tagI12">I.12</a>
+History of the Poor Laws, 8vo. 1764, by Richard Burn, LL.D., who in his
+observations on such punishments says: “It is affecting to humanity to
+observe the various methods that have been invented for the
+<i>punishment</i> of vagrants; none of all which wrought the desired
+effect .&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. This part of our history
+looks like the history of the savages in America. Almost all severities
+have been exercised against vagrants, except scalping.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI13" id = "noteI13" href = "#tagI13">I.13</a>
+“Quum puer jam ductus sequi cœperit, non inutile erit, litteras tabellæ
+quam optime insculpi, ut per illos, velut sulcos, ducatur stylus. Nam
+neque errabit, quemadmodum in ceris, continebitur enim utrimque
+marginibus, neque extra præscriptum poterit egredi; et celerius ac
+sæpius sequendo certa vestigia firmabit articulos, neque egebit
+adjutorio manum suam, manu superimposita, regentis.” Quintiliani Instit.
+Orator., lib. i.&nbsp;cap.&nbsp;I.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI14" id = "noteI14" href = "#tagI14">I.14</a>
+Prosper Marchand, at page 9 of his “Histoire de l’Imprimerie,” gives the
+following title of a book in 8vo. which was wholly, both text and
+figures, executed in this manner, <i>percé au jour</i>, in vellum:
+“Liber Passionis Domini Nostri Jesu Christi, cum figuris et
+characteribus <i>ex nulla materia</i> compositis.” He states that in
+1640 it was in the collection of Albert Henry, Prince de Ligne, and
+quotes a description of it from Anton. Sanderi Bibliotheca Belgica
+Manuscripta, parte ii. p.&nbsp;1.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI15" id = "noteI15" href = "#tagI15">I.15</a>
+“Rex Theodoricus inliteratus erat, et sic obruto sensu ut in decem annos
+regni sui quatuor literas subscriptionis edicti sui discere nullatenus
+potuisset. De qua re laminam auream jussit interrasilem tieri quatuor
+literas regis habentem, unde ut si subscribere voluisset, posita lamina
+super chartam, per eam pennam duceret et subscriptio ejus tantum
+videretur.”&mdash;Vita Theodorici Regis Ostrogothorum et Italiæ, autore
+Joanne Cochlæo; cum additamentis Joannis Peringskiold, 4to. Stockholmiæ,
+1699, p.&nbsp;199.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI16" id = "noteI16" href = "#tagI16">I.16</a>
+A monogram, properly, consists of all, or the principal letters of a
+name, combined in such a manner that the whole appear but as one
+<i>character</i>; a portion of one letter being understood to represent
+another, two being united to form a third, and so on.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI17" id = "noteI17" href = "#tagI17">I.17</a>
+Mabillon’s opinion is founded on the following passage in the Life of
+Charlemagne, by his secretary Eginhard: “<i>Ut scilicet imperitiam
+hanc</i> [<i>scribendi</i>] <i>honesto ritu suppleret, monogrammatis
+usum loco proprii signi invexit</i>.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI18" id = "noteI18" href = "#tagI18">I.18</a>
+“Triplex cruces exarandi modus: 1. penna sive calamo; 2.&nbsp;lamina
+interrasili; 3.&nbsp;stampilla sive typo anaglyptico. Laminæ
+interrasiles ex auro aliove metallo, vel ex ebore etiam confectæ sunt,
+atque ita perforatæ, ut hiatus, pro re nata, crucium cet. speciem præ se
+ferrent, per quos velut sulcos, calamus sive penna ducebatur. Stampillæ
+vero ita sculptæ sunt, ut figuræ superficiem eminerent, quæ deinde
+atramento tinctæ sunt, chartæque impressæ.”&mdash;Gatterer, Elementa
+Artis Diplomaticæ, § 264, De Staurologia.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI19" id = "noteI19" href = "#tagI19">I.19</a>
+No. lxi. p. 108, where the preceding Gothic marks, with the explanation
+of them, are given.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI20" id = "noteI20" href = "#tagI20">I.20</a>
+Essay on Medals, pp. 144, 145. Edit. 1784.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI21" id = "noteI21" href = "#tagI21">I.21</a>
+It it given by Gatterer in his “Elementa Artis Diplomaticæ,”
+p.&nbsp;166; [4to. Gottingæ, 1765;] who refers to Muratori, Antiquit.
+Italiæ Medii Ævi, t.&nbsp;vi. p.&nbsp;9.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI22" id = "noteI22" href = "#tagI22">I.22</a>
+These stamps are copied from “D. E. Baringii Clavis Diplomatica,” 4to.
+Hanoveræ, 1754. There is a work expressly treating of the use of the
+Diplomatic Stamp&mdash;J.&nbsp;C. C.&nbsp;Oelrichs de Stampilla
+Diplomatica, folio, Wismariæ, 1762, which I have not been able to obtain
+a sight of.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI23" id = "noteI23" href = "#tagI23">I.23</a>
+The marks here given are copied from Mackarel’s History of King’s Lynn,
+8vo. 1737. In the same book there are upwards of thirty more of a
+similar kind, from the middle of the fourteenth century to the latter
+end of the seventeenth. Perhaps no two counties in the kingdom afford so
+many examples of merchants’-marks and monumental brasses as Norfolk and
+Suffolk.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI24" id = "noteI24" href = "#tagI24">I.24</a>
+“<i>Y-meddled</i> is mixed; the marks of merchants are put in opposition
+to the ‘shapen shields,’ because merchants had no coats of
+arms.”&mdash;Specimens of the Early English Poets, by George Ellis, Esq.
+vol. i.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;163. Edit. 1811.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI25" id = "noteI25" href = "#tagI25">I.25</a>
+“Till lately this was the earliest dated evidence of block printing
+known; but there has just been discovered at Malines, and now deposited
+at Brussels, a&nbsp;woodcut of similar character, but assumed to be
+Dutch or Flemish, dated <span class = "smallroman">MCCCCXVIII.</span>;
+and though there seems no reason to doubt the genuineness of the cut, it
+is currently asserted that the date bears evidence of having been
+tampered with.”&mdash;Extract from Bohn’s Lecture on Printing.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI26" id = "noteI26" href = "#tagI26">I.26</a>
+The woodcut referred to is that of St. Christopher, discovered by
+Heineken, pasted within the cover of a book in the Monastery of Buxheim,
+near Memmingen, in Suabia. It is of a folio size, and is coloured by
+means of stencils; a&nbsp;practice which appears to have been adopted at
+an early part of the fifteenth century by the German Formschneiders and
+Briefmalers, literally, figure-cutters and cardpainters, to colour their
+cuts and their cards. The St. Christopher is now in Earl Spencer’s
+library. (See a reduced copy of it at p.&nbsp;46).</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI27" id = "noteI27" href = "#tagI27">I.27</a>
+The small and thick brass coins, struck by Grecian cities under the
+Roman emperors, and known to collectors as “colonial Greek,” appear to
+have been cast, and moulds for such a purpose have been discovered in
+our own country.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI28" id = "noteI28" href = "#tagI28">I.28</a>
+“That a strong passion for portraits formerly existed, is attested both
+by Atticus, the friend of Cicero, who wrote a work on this subject, and
+by M.&nbsp;Varro, who conceived the very liberal idea of inserting by
+some means or other, in his numerous volumes, the portraits of seven
+hundred individuals; as he could not bear the idea that all traces of
+their features should be lost, or that the lapse of centuries should get
+the better of mankind.”&mdash;Pliny’s Natural History, Book <span class
+= "smallroman">XXXV.</span> chap. 2.&mdash;(Bohn’s Ed. vol. vi.
+p.&nbsp;226. M.&nbsp;Deville is of opinion that these portraits were
+made in relief upon plates of metal, perhaps bronze, and coloured with
+minium, a&nbsp;red tint much esteemed by the Romans).</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI29" id = "noteI29" href = "#tagI29">I.29</a>
+See De Pauw, Recherches Philosophiques sur les Grecs, t.&nbsp;ii.
+p.&nbsp;100. The subject is discussed in Meusel’s “Neue Miscellaneen von
+artistischen Inhalts,” part xii. p.&nbsp;380-387, in an article, “Sind
+wirklich die Römer die Erfinder der Kupferstecherkunst?&mdash;Were the
+Romans truly the inventors of copper-plate engraving?”&mdash;by
+A.&nbsp;Rode. Böttiger, one of the most learned and intelligent of all
+German writers on the fine arts, and Fea, the editor of Winkleman’s
+History of Art, do not admit De Pauw’s conjecture, but decide the
+question in the negative.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI30" id = "noteI30" href = "#tagI30">I.30</a>
+An excellent representation of this celebrated monument is given in
+Cotman’s “Engravings from the most remarkable Sepulchral Brasses in
+Norfolk,” folio, 1819 (republished with considerable additions in 2
+vols. folio, 1839).</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI31" id = "noteI31" href = "#tagI31">I.31</a>
+At page 7, Mr. Ottley, borrowing from Du Halde, has erroneously stated
+that the delicate nature of their paper would not permit the use of a
+press. He must have forgot, for he cannot but have known, that
+impressions on the finest India paper had been frequently taken from
+wood-blocks by means of the common printing-press many years previous to
+1816, the date of the publication of his book. I&nbsp;have never seen
+Chinese paper that would bear printing by hand, which would not also
+bear the action of the press, if printed without being wet in the same
+manner as common paper.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI32" id = "noteI32" href = "#tagI32">I.32</a>
+It would appear that Chinese annalists themselves were not agreed as to
+the period when printing by the hand from wood-blocks was first
+practised in that country. “Nicholas Trigaltius, a&nbsp;member of our
+order,” writes Herman Hugo, “who has recently returned from China, gives
+the following information respecting printing, which he professes to
+have carefully extracted from the annals of the Chinese themselves.
+‘<i>Typography is of somewhat earlier date in China than in Europe, for
+it is certain that it was practised in that country about five centuries
+ago. Others assert that it was practised in China at a period prior to
+the Christian era.</i>’”&mdash;Hermannus Hugo, De Prima Origine
+Scribendi, p.&nbsp;211. Antwerpiæ, 1617.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI33" id = "noteI33" href = "#tagI33">I.33</a>
+The pretensions of the Chinese to excellence in science are ably exposed
+by the learned Abbé Renaudot in a disquisition “Sur les sciences des
+Chinois,” appended to his translation, from the Arabic, entitled
+“Anciennes Relations des Indes et de la Chine, de deux Voyageurs
+Mahométans, qui y allèrent dans le neuvième siècle.”&mdash;8vo. Paris,
+1718.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI34" id = "noteI34" href = "#tagI34">I.34</a>
+See the Travels of Marco Polo. (In Bohn’s Antiq. Library).</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI35" id = "noteI35" href = "#tagI35">I.35</a>
+It has been conjectured that the following passages in the travels of
+Marco Polo might suggest the idea of block-printing, and consequently
+wood engraving: “Gradatim reliquos belli duces in digniorem ponit
+statum, donatque illis aurea et argentea vasa, tabulas, privilegia atque
+immunitatem. Et hæc quidem privilegia tabulis vel bracteis per
+sculpturas imprimuntur.” “Moneta magni Cham non fit de auro vel argento,
+aut alio metallo, sed corticem accipiunt medium ab arbore mori, et hunc
+consolidant, atque in particular varias et rotundas, magnas et parvas,
+scindunt, atque regale imprimunt signum.”&mdash;M.&nbsp;Pauli Veneti
+Itiner. lib. ii. capp. vii. &amp; xxi. The mention of paper money
+impressed with the royal stamp also occurs in the Eastern History of
+Haython, an Armenian, whose work was written in 1307, in Latin, and has
+been printed several times, of which the last edition is by And. Müller,
+Colon. 1671, 4to.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI36" id = "noteI36" href = "#tagI36">I.36</a>
+An article on Marsden’s “Translation of the Travels of Marco Polo,” in
+the Quarterly Review, No. xli. May, 1819, from p.&nbsp;191 to 195,
+contains some curious particulars respecting the early use of the
+mariner’s compass, and of gunpowder and cannon in Europe.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI37" id = "noteI37" href = "#tagI37">I.37</a>
+A Monsieur Spirchtvel, as Papillon informs us. Tom.
+i.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;92.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI38" id = "noteI38" href = "#tagI38">I.38</a>
+<i>Cartouch.</i> “This word is used to denote those fantastic ornaments
+which were formerly introduced in decorating the wainscots of rooms; and
+frequently served the purpose of frames, surrounding inscriptions, small
+paintings, or other devices. These <i>cartouches</i> were much in vogue
+in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries for the frontispieces of
+books of prints; and indeed <i>Callot</i> and <i>Della Bella</i> etched
+many entire sets of small subjects surrounded by similar ornaments. From
+the irregularity of their forms, the terms tablet shield, or panel,
+would be but ill expressive of their character.”&mdash;Ottley’s Inquiry,
+vol. i.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;12.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI39" id = "noteI39" href = "#tagI39">I.39</a>
+Readers of French romances will find the tale of the Cunio at
+p.&nbsp;89, <ins class = "correction" title = ". missing">tom.</ins>
+i.&nbsp;of Papillon’s “Traité de la Gravure en Bois,” or at p.&nbsp;17,
+vol. i.&nbsp;of Mr. Ottley’s “History of Engraving.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI40" id = "noteI40" href = "#tagI40">I.40</a>
+Of Le Brun’s five subjects illustrative of the actions of Alexander the
+Great, four of them are precisely the same as four of those said to be
+executed by the Cunio: 1.&nbsp;Alexander passing the Granicus;
+2.&nbsp;the battle of Arbela; 3.&nbsp;the reception of Porus by
+Alexander; 4.&nbsp;Alexander’s triumphant entry into Babylon. There
+certainly has been some copying here; but it is more likely that
+Papillon or his informant had seen Le Brun’s paintings, than that Le
+Brun had seen the original wood engravings executed by the Cunio.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI41" id = "noteI41" href = "#tagI41">I.41</a>
+From the age of sixteen, cruel and secret annoyances interrupted his
+studies; shortly after his marriage, in 1723, his absent manner was a
+source of uneasiness to his wife; and in 1759 he fairly lost his senses.
+See Papillon, Traité de la Gravure en Bois, 8vo. 1766, Preface,
+p.&nbsp;xi.; &amp; p.&nbsp;335, tom. i.&nbsp;et Supplement,
+p.&nbsp;39.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI42" id = "noteI42" href = "#tagI42">I.42</a>
+It is worthy of remark that Papillon, when questioned by Heineken, who
+called on him in Paris after the publication of his work, respecting the
+account of the Cunio, did not produce his three sheets of original
+memoranda. He might thus have afforded a proof of his own good faith, by
+producing the manuscript written by him in 1720 from the dictation of
+Captain de Greder.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI43" id = "noteI43" href = "#tagI43">I.43</a>
+Inquiry into the Early History of Engraving, vol.
+i.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;23.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI44" id = "noteI44" href = "#tagI44">I.44</a>
+History of Engraving, vol. i. p. 28.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteI45" id = "noteI45" href = "#tagI45">I.45</a>
+Three copies of this supposed unique book have long been known to
+bibliographers; one in the public library of Nuremberg, another in the
+Imperial library of Vienna, and the third in Lord Spenser’s library.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+</div>
+<!-- end div maintext -->
+
+<div class = "correction">
+<h5>Errors in Chapter I</h5>
+
+<p><span class = "citation">
+the loitering cask, (that bears its date) from</span><br>
+date, from<br>
+<i>in the same passage, “Lyde” for expected “Lydus” is in Smart</i></p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+and even allowing him to be sincere</span><br>
+eve nallowing</p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+which have been alleged in its favour by Mr. Ottley.</span><br>
+Mr Ottley.</p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+“It is possible,” says Zani,</span><br>
+say</p>
+<p>Footnote I.39</p>
+<p class = "continue">
+<span class = "citation">the tale of the Cunio at p. 89, tom.
+i.</span><br>
+tom i.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page40" id = "page40">
+40</a></span>
+<h3><a name = "chap_II" id = "chap_II">CHAPTER II.</a><br>
+<span class = "subhead">PROGRESS OF WOOD ENGRAVING.</span></h3>
+
+<p class = "synopsis">
+Playing-cards printed from wood-blocks&mdash;early german wood-engravers
+at augsburg, nuremberg, and ulm&mdash;card-makers and wood-engravers in
+venice in 1441&mdash;figures of saints engraved on wood&mdash;the st.
+christopher, the annunciation, and the st. bridget in the collection of
+earl spencer, with other old wood-cuts
+described&mdash;block-books&mdash;the apocalypse, the history of the
+virgin, and the work called biblia pauperum&mdash;speculum
+salvationis&mdash;figured alphabet formerly belonging to sir george
+beaumont&mdash;ars memorandi, and other smaller block-books.</p>
+
+<div class = "maintext">
+
+<p class = "first">
+<span class = "firstword"><span class = "dropcap">
+<a name = "illus_40" id = "illus_40">
+<img src = "images/illus_40.png" width = "139" height = "178"
+alt = "F"></a></span>rom</span>
+the facts which have been produced in the preceding chapter, there
+cannot be a doubt that the principle on which wood engraving is
+founded,&mdash;that of taking impressions on paper or parchment, with
+ink, from prominent lines,&mdash;was known and practised in attesting
+documents in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Towards the end of
+the fourteenth, or about the beginning of the fifteenth century, there
+is reason to believe that this principle was adopted by the German
+card-makers for the purpose of marking the outlines of the figures on
+their cards, which they afterwards coloured by means of a stencil.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagII1" id = "tagII1" href =
+"#noteII1">II.1</a></p>
+
+<p>The period at which the game of cards was first known in Europe, as
+well as the people by whom they were invented, has been very learnedly,
+though not very satisfactorily discussed. Bullet has claimed the
+invention for the French, and Heineken for the Germans; while other
+writers have maintained that the game was known in Italy earlier than in
+any other part of Europe, and that it was introduced from the East.</p>
+
+<p>From a passage discovered by M. Van Praet, in an old manuscript copy
+of the romance of <i>Renard le Contrefait</i>, it appears that cards
+were known in France about 1340, although Bullet was of opinion that
+they
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page41" id = "page41">
+41</a></span>
+were invented in that country about 1376. At whatever period the game
+was introduced, it appears to have been commonly known in France and
+Spain towards the latter part of the fourteenth century. John&nbsp;I.,
+King of Castile, by an edict issued in 1387, prohibited the game of
+cards; and in 1397, the Provost of Paris, by an ordonnance, forbid all
+working people to play at tennis, bowls, dice, <i>cards</i>, or
+nine-pins, on working days. From a passage in the Chronicle of
+Petit-Jehan de Saintré, written previous to 1380, it would appear that
+the game of cards at that period was in disrepute. Saintré had been one
+of the pages of Charles&nbsp;V. of France; and on his being appointed,
+on account of his good conduct, to the situation of carver to the king,
+the squire who had charge of the pages, lectured some of them on the
+impropriety of their behaviour; such as playing at dice and cards,
+keeping bad company, and haunting taverns and cabarets, those not being
+the courses by which they might hope to arrive at the honourable post of
+“ecuyer tranchant,” to which their companion, Saintré, had been
+raised.</p>
+
+<p>In an account-book of Charles Poupart, treasurer to Charles VI. of
+France, there is an entry, made about 1393, of “fifty-six sols of Paris,
+given to Jacquemin Gringonneur, painter, for three packs of cards, gilt
+and coloured, and of different sorts, for the diversion of his majesty.”
+From this passage the learned Jesuit Menestrier, who was not aware of
+cards being mentioned by any earlier writer, concluded that they were
+then invented by Gringonneur to amuse the king, who, in consequence of a
+<i>coup de soleil</i>, had been attacked with delirium, which had
+subsided into an almost continual depression of spirits. There, however,
+can be no doubt that cards were known in France at least fifty years
+before; though, from their being so seldom noticed previous to 1380, it
+appears likely that the game was but little played until after that
+period. Whether the figures on the cards supplied for the king’s
+amusement were drawn and coloured by the hand, or whether the outlines
+were impressed from wood-blocks, and coloured by means of a stencil, it
+is impossible to ascertain; though it has been conjectured that, from
+the smallness of the sum paid for them, they were of the latter
+description. That cards were cheap in 1397, however they might be
+manufactured, may be presumed from the fact of their being then in the
+hands of the working people.</p>
+
+<p>To whatever nation the invention of cards is owing, it appears that
+the Germans were the first who practised card-making as a trade. In 1418
+the name of a “Kartenmacher”&mdash;card-maker&mdash;occurs in the
+burgess-book of the city of Augsburg; and in an old rate-book of the
+city of Nuremburg, under the year 1433, we find “<i>Ell.
+Kartenmacherin</i>;” that is, Ell.&mdash;probably for
+Elizabeth&mdash;the card-maker. In the same book, under the year 1435,
+the name of “<i>Eliz. Kartenmacherin</i>,” probably
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page42" id = "page42">
+42</a></span>
+the same person, is to be found; and in 1438 there occurs the name
+“Margret Kartenmalerin”&mdash;Margaret the card-painter. It thus appears
+that the earliest card-makers who are mentioned as living at Nuremberg
+were females; and it is worthy of note that the Germans seem to have
+called cards “<i>Karten</i>” before they gave them the name of
+“<i>Briefe</i>.” Heineken, however, considers that they were first known
+in Germany by the latter name; for, as he claimed the invention for his
+countrymen, he was unwilling to admit that the name should be borrowed
+either from Italy or France. He has not, however, produced anything like
+proof in support of his opinion, which is contradicted by the negative
+evidence of history.<a class = "tag" name = "tagII2" id = "tagII2" href
+= "#noteII2">II.2</a></p>
+
+<p>The name <i>Briefe</i>, which the Germans give to cards, also
+signifies letters [epistolæ]. The meaning of the word, however, is
+rather more general than the French term <i>lettres</i>, or the Latin
+<i>epistolæ</i> which he gives as its synonyms, for it is also applied
+in the sense in which we sometimes use the word “paper.” For instance,
+“<i>ein Brief Stecknadeln, ein Brief Tabak</i>,” are literally
+translated by the words “a&nbsp;<i>paper</i> of pins,
+a&nbsp;<i>paper</i> of tobacco;” in which sense the word “<i>Brief</i>”
+would, in Latin, be more correctly rendered by the term <i>charta</i>
+than <i>epistola</i>. As it is in a similar sense&mdash;cognate with
+“paper,” as used in the two preceding examples&mdash;that “Briefe” is
+applied to cards, I&nbsp;am inclined to consider it as a translation of
+the Latin <i>chartaæ</i>, the Italian <i>carte</i>, or the French
+<i>cartes</i>, and hence to conclude that the invention of cards does
+not belong to the people of Germany, who appear to have received cards,
+both “name and thing,” from another nation, and after some time to have
+given them a name in their own language.</p>
+
+<p>In the town-books of Nuremberg, the term
+<i>Formschneider</i>&mdash;figure-cutter,&mdash;the name appropriated to
+engravers on wood, first occurs in 1449;<a class = "tag" name = "tagII3"
+id = "tagII3" href = "#noteII3">II.3</a> and as it is found in
+subsequent years mentioned in the same page with “Kartenmaler,” it seems
+reasonable to conclude that in 1449, and probably earlier, the business
+of the wood-engraver proper, and that of the card-maker, were distinct.
+The primary meaning of the word <i>form</i> or <i>forma</i> is almost
+precisely the same in most of the European languages.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page43" id = "page43">
+43</a></span>
+It has erroneously been explained, in its relation to wood engraving, as
+signifying a <i>mould</i>, whereas it simply means a shape or figure.
+The model of wood which the carpenter makes for the metal-founder is
+properly a <i>form</i>, and from it the latter prepares his mould in the
+sand. The word <i>form</i>, however, in course of time declined from its
+primary signification, and came to be used as expressive both of a model
+and a mould. The term <ins class = "correction" title = "text reads ‘Fornschneider’"><i>Formschneider</i></ins>, which was originally used
+to distinguish the professed engraver of figures from the mere engraver
+and colourer of cards, is still used in Germany to denote what we term a
+wood-engraver.</p>
+
+<p>About the time that the term <i>Formschneider</i> first occurs we
+find <i>Briefmalers</i> mentioned, and at a later period
+<i>Briefdruckers</i>&mdash;card-printers; and, though there evidently
+was a distinction between the two professions, yet we find that between
+1470 and 1500 the <i>Briefmalers</i> not only engraved figures
+occasionally, but also printed books. The <i>Formschneiders</i> and the
+<i>Briefmalers</i>, however, continued to form but one guild or
+fellowship till long after the art of wood-engraving had made rapid
+strides towards perfection, under the superintendence of such masters as
+Durer, Burgmair, and Holbein, in the same manner as the barbers and
+surgeons in our own country continued to form but one company, though
+the “chirurgeon had long ceased to trim beards and cut hair, and the
+barber had given up bleeding and purging to devote himself more
+exclusively to the ornamental branch of his original profession.”
+“<i>Kartenmacher</i> and <i>Kartenmaler</i>” says Von Murr, “or
+<i>Briefmaler</i>, as they were afterwards called [1473], were known in
+Germany eighty years previous to the invention of book-printing. The
+Kartenmacher was originally a Formschneider, though, after the practice
+of cutting figures of saints and of sacred subjects was introduced,
+a&nbsp;distinction began to be established between the two
+professions.”</p>
+
+<p>The German card-makers of Augsburg, Nuremberg, and Ulm, it is stated,
+sent large quantities of cards into Italy; and it was probably against
+those foreign manufacturers that the fellowship of painters at Venice
+obtained an order in 1441 from the magistracy, declaring that no foreign
+manufactured cards, or printed coloured figures, should be brought into
+the city, under the penalty of forfeiting such articles, and of being
+fined xxx liv. xii soldi. This order was made in consequence of a
+petition presented by the Venetian painters, wherein they set forth that
+“the art and mystery of card-making and of printing figures, which were
+practised in Venice, had fallen into total decay through the great
+quantity of foreign playing-cards and coloured printed figures, which
+were brought into the city.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagII4" id =
+"tagII4" href = "#noteII4">II.4</a> It is hence evident that the art
+both of the German
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page44" id = "page44">
+44</a></span>
+<i>Kartenmacher</i> and of the <i>Formschneider</i> was practised in
+Venice in 1441; and, as it is then mentioned as being in decay, it no
+doubt was practised there some time previously.</p>
+
+<p>Heineken, in his “Neue Nachrichten,” gives an extract from a MS.
+chronicle of the city of Ulm, completed in 1474, to the following
+effect: “Playing-cards were sent <i>barrelwise</i> [that is, in small
+casks] into Italy, Sicily, and also over sea, and exchanged for spices
+and other wares. From this we may judge of the number of card-makers who
+resided here.” The preceding passage occurs in the index, under the
+head, “Business of card-making.” Heineken also gives the passage in his
+“Idée Générale,” p.&nbsp;245; but from the French translation, which he
+there gives, it appears that he had misunderstood the word
+“<i>leglenweiss</i>”&mdash;barrelwise&mdash;which he renders “en
+ballots.” In his “Neue Nachrichten,” however, he inserts the explanation
+between parentheses, (“das ist, in kleinen Fässern”)&mdash;i.&nbsp;e. in
+small casks; which Mr. Singer renders “hogsheads,” and Mr. Ottley,
+though he gives the original in a note, “large bales.” The word “lägel,”
+a&nbsp;barrel, is obsolete in Germany, but its diminutive,
+“leglin,”&mdash;as if “lägelen”&mdash;is still used in Scotland for the
+name of the ewe-milker’s <i>kit</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Some writers have been of opinion that the art of wood-engraving was
+derived from the practice of the ancient caligraphists and illuminators
+of manuscripts, who sometimes formed their large capital letters by
+means of a stencil or of a wooden stamp. That large capitals were formed
+in such a manner previous to the year 1400 there can be little doubt;
+and it has been thought that stencils and stamps were used not only for
+the formation of capital letters, but also for the impression of a whole
+volume. Ihre, in a dissertation on the Gospels of Ulphilas,<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagII5" id = "tagII5" href = "#noteII5">II.5</a> which are
+supposed to be as old as the fifth century, has asserted that the silver
+letters of the text on a purple ground were impressed by means of heated
+iron stamps. This, however, is denied by the learned compilers of the
+“Nouveau Traité de Diplomatique,” who had seen other volumes of a
+similar kind, the silver letters of which were evidently formed with a
+pen. A&nbsp;modern Italian author, D.&nbsp;Vincenzo Requeno, has
+published a tract<a class = "tag" name = "tagII6" id = "tagII6" href =
+"#noteII6">II.6</a> to prove that many supposed manuscripts from the
+tenth to the fourteenth century, instead of being written with a pen,
+were actually impressed by means of stamps. It is, however, extremely
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page45" id = "page45">
+45</a></span>
+probable that he is mistaken; for if his pretended discoveries were
+true, this art of stamping must have been very generally practised; and
+if so, it surely would have been mentioned by some contemporary writers.
+Signor Requeno’s examination, I&nbsp;am inclined to suspect, has not
+been sufficiently precise; for he seems to have been too willing to find
+what he sought. In almost every collection that he examined, a&nbsp;pair
+of fine compasses being the test which he employed, he discovered
+voluminous works on vellum, hitherto supposed to be manuscript, but
+which according to his measurement were certainly executed by means of a
+stamp.</p>
+
+<p>It has been conjectured that the art of wood-engraving was employed
+on sacred subjects, such as the figures of saints and holy persons,
+before it was applied to the multiplication of those “books of Satan,”
+playing-cards. It however is not unlikely that it was first employed in
+the manufacture of cards; and that the monks, availing themselves of the
+same principle, shortly afterwards employed the art of wood-engraving
+for the purpose of circulating the figures of saints; thus endeavouring
+to supply a remedy for the evil, and extracting from the serpent a cure
+for his bite.</p>
+
+<p>Wood-cuts of sacred subjects were known to the common people of
+Suabia, and the adjacent districts, by the name of <i>Helgen</i> or
+<i>Helglein</i>, a corruption of Heiligen, saints;&mdash;a word which in
+course of time they used to signify
+prints&mdash;<i>estampes</i>&mdash;generally.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagII7" id = "tagII7" href = "#noteII7">II.7</a> In France the same
+kind of cuts, probably stencil-coloured, were called
+“dominos,”&mdash;the affinity of which name with the German Helgen is
+obvious. The word “domino” was subsequently used as a name for coloured
+or marbled paper generally, and the makers of such paper, as well as the
+engravers and colourers of wood-cuts, were called “dominotiers.”<a class
+= "tag" name = "tagII8" id = "tagII8" href = "#noteII8">II.8</a></p>
+
+<p>As might, <i>à priori</i>, be concluded, supposing the Germans to
+have been the first who applied wood-engraving to card-making, the
+earliest wood-cuts have been discovered, and in the greatest abundance,
+in that district where we first hear of the business of a card-maker and
+a wood-engraver. From a convent, situated within fifty miles of the city
+of Augsberg, where, in 1418, the first mention of a Kartenmacher occurs,
+has been obtained the earliest wood-cut known,&mdash;the St.
+Christopher, now in the possession of Earl Spencer, with the date 1423.
+That this was the first cut of the kind we have no reason to suppose;
+but though others executed in a similar manner are known, to not one of
+them, upon anything like probable grounds, can a higher degree of
+antiquity be
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page46" id = "page46">
+46</a></span>
+assigned. From 1423, therefore, as from a known epoch, the practice of
+wood engraving, as applied to pictorial representations, may be
+dated.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_46" id = "illus_46">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_46.png" width = "332" height = "458"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The first person who published an account of this most interesting
+wood-cut was Heineken, who had inspected a greater number of old
+wood-cuts and block-books than any other person, and whose unwearied
+perseverance in searching after, and general accuracy in describing such
+early specimens of the art of wood-engraving, are beyond all praise. He
+found it pasted on the inside of the right-hand cover of a manuscript
+volume in the library of the convent of Buxheim, near Memmingen in
+Suabia. The manuscript, entitled <span class = "smallcaps">Laus
+Virginis</span><a class = "tag" name = "tagII9" id = "tagII9" href =
+"#noteII9">II.9</a> and finished in 1417,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page47" id = "page47">
+47</a></span>
+was left to the convent by Anna, canoness of Buchaw, who was living in
+1427; but who probably died previous to 1435. The above reduced copy
+conveys a pretty good idea of the composition and style of engraving of
+the original cut, which is of a folio size, being eleven and a quarter
+inches high, and eight inches and one-eighth wide.<a class = "tag" name
+= "tagII10" id = "tagII10" href = "#noteII10">II.10</a></p>
+
+<p>The original affords a specimen of the combined talents of the
+Formschneider or wood-engraver, and the Briefmaler or card-colourer. The
+engraved portions, such as are here represented, have been taken off in
+dark colouring matter similar to printers’ ink, after which the
+impression appears to have been coloured by means of a stencil. As the
+back of the cut cannot be seen, in consequence of its being pasted on
+the cover of the volume, it cannot be ascertained with any degree of
+certainty whether the impression has been taken by means of a press, or
+<i>rubbed off</i> from the block by means of a burnisher or rubber, in a
+manner similar to that in which wood-engravers of the present day take
+their proofs.</p>
+
+<p>This cut is much better designed than the generality of those which
+we find in books typographically executed from 1462, the date of the
+Bamberg Fables, to 1493, when the often-cited Nuremberg Chronicle was
+printed. Amongst the many coarse cuts which “illustrate” the latter, and
+which are announced in the book itself<a class = "tag" name = "tagII11"
+id = "tagII11" href = "#noteII11">II.11</a> as having been “got up”
+under the superintendence of Michael Wolgemuth, Albert Durer’s master,
+and William Pleydenwurff, both “most skilful in the art of painting,”
+I&nbsp;cannot find a single subject which either for spirit or feeling
+can be compared to the St. Christopher. In fact, the figure of the
+saint, and that of the youthful Christ whom he bears on his shoulders,
+are, with the exception of the extremities, designed in such a style,
+that they would scarcely discredit Albert Durer himself.</p>
+
+<p>To the left of the engraving the artist has introduced, with a noble
+disregard of perspective,<a class = "tag" name = "tagII12" id =
+"tagII12" href = "#noteII12">II.12</a> what Bewick would have called a
+“bit of Nature.” In the foreground a figure is seen driving an ass
+loaded with
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page48" id = "page48">
+48</a></span>
+a sack towards a water-mill; while by a steep path a figure, perhaps
+intended for the miller, is seen carrying a full sack from the back-door
+of the mill towards a cottage. To the right is seen a hermit&mdash;known
+by the bell over the entrance of his dwelling&mdash;holding a large
+lantern to direct St. Christopher as he crosses the stream. The two
+verses at the foot of the cut,</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p>Cristofori faciem die quacunque tueris,</p>
+<p>Illa nempe die morte mala non morieris,</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "continue">
+may be translated as follows:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p>Each day that thou the likeness of St. Christopher shalt see,</p>
+<p>That day no frightful form of death shall make an end of thee.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>They allude to a popular superstition, common at that period in all
+Catholic countries, which induced people to believe that the day on
+which they should see a figure or image of St. Christopher, they should
+not meet with a violent death, nor die without confession.<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagII13" id = "tagII13" href = "#noteII13">II.13</a> To
+this popular superstition Erasmus alludes in his “Praise of Folly;” and
+it is not unlikely, that to his faith in this article of belief, the
+squire, in Chaucer’s “Canterbury Tales,” wore</p>
+
+<p class = "verse">
+“A Christofre on his brest, of silver shene.”</p>
+
+<p>The date “<i>Millesimo cccc<sup>o</sup> xx<sup>o</sup>
+tercio</i>”&mdash;1423&mdash;which is seen at the right-hand corner, at
+the foot of the impression, most undoubtedly designates the year in
+which the engraving was made.</p>
+
+<p>The engraving, though coarse, is executed in a bold and free manner;
+and the folds of the drapery are marked in a style which would do credit
+to a proficient. The whole subject, though expressed by means of few
+lines, is not executed in the very simplest style of art. In the
+draperies a diminution and a thickening of the lines, where necessary to
+the effect, may be observed; and the shades are indicated by means of
+parallel lines both perpendicular, oblique, and curved, as may be seen
+in the saint’s robe and mantle. In many of the wood-cuts executed
+between 1462 and 1500, the figures are expressed, and the drapery
+indicated, by simple lines of one undeviating degree of thickness,
+without the slightest attempt at shading by means of parallel lines
+running in a direction different to those marking the folds of the
+drapery or the outlines of the figure. If mere rudeness of design, and
+simplicity in the mode of execution, were to be considered as the sole
+tests of antiquity in wood-engravings, upwards of a hundred, positively
+known to have been executed between 1470 and 1500, might be produced as
+affording intrinsic evidence of their having been executed at a period
+antecedent to the date of the St. Christopher.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page49" id = "page49">
+49</a></span>
+<p>In the Royal Library at Paris there is an impression of St.
+Christopher with the youthful Christ, which was supposed to be a
+duplicate of that in the possession of Earl Spencer. On comparing them,
+however, “it was quite evident,” says Dr. Dibdin, “at the first glance,
+as M.&nbsp;Du Chesne admitted, that they were impressions taken from
+<i>different blocks</i>. The question therefore was, after a good deal
+of pertinacious argument on both sides&mdash;which of the two
+impressions was the more ancient? Undoubtedly it was that of Lord
+Spencer.” At first Dr. Dibdin thought that the French impression was a
+copy of Earl Spencer’s, and that it might be as old as the year 1460;
+but, from a note added in the second edition of his tour, he seems to
+have received a new light. He there says: “The reasons upon which this
+conclusion [that the French cut was a copy of a later date] was founded,
+are stated at length in the preceding edition of this work: since which,
+I&nbsp;very strongly incline to the supposition that the Paris
+impression is a <i>proof</i>&mdash;of one of the <i>cheats</i> of <span
+class = "smallcaps">De Murr</span>.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagII14" id
+= "tagII14" href = "#noteII14">II.14</a></p>
+
+<p>On the inside of the first cover or “board” of the Laus Virginis, the
+volume which contains the St. Christopher, there is also pasted a wood
+engraving of the Annunciation, of a similar size to the above-named cut,
+and impressed on the same kind of paper. As they are both worked off in
+the same kind of dark-coloured ink, and as they evidently have been
+coloured in the same manner, by means of a stencil, there can be little
+doubt of their being executed about the same time. From the left-hand
+corner of the Annunciation the figure of the Almighty has been torn out.
+The Holy Ghost, who appears descending from the Father upon the Virgin
+in the material form of a dove, could not well be torn out without
+greatly disfiguring the cut. An idea may be formed of the original from
+the following reduced copy.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_50" id = "illus_50">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_50.png" width = "335" height = "460"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Respecting these cuts, which in all probability were engraved by some
+one of the Formschneiders of Augsburg, Ulm, or Nuremberg,<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagII15" id = "tagII15" href = "#noteII15">II.15</a>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page50" id = "page50">
+50</a></span>
+P.&nbsp;Krismer, who was librarian of the convent of Buxheim, and who
+showed the volume in which they are pasted to Heineken, writes to Von
+Murr to the following effect: “It will not be superfluous if I here
+point out a mark, by which, in my opinion, old wood engravings may with
+certainty be distinguished from those of a later period. It is this: In
+the oldest wood-cuts only do we perceive that the engraver
+[Formschneider] has frequently omitted certain parts, leaving them to be
+afterwards filled up by the card-colourer [Briefmaler]. In the St.
+Christopher there is no such deficiency, although there is in the other
+cut which is pasted on the inside of the fore covering of the same
+volume, and which, I&nbsp;doubt not, was executed at the same time as
+the former. It represents the salutation of the Virgin by the angel
+Gabriel, or, as it is also called, the Annunciation; and, from the
+omission of the colours, the upper part
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page51" id = "page51">
+51</a></span>
+of the body of the kneeling Virgin appears naked, except where it is
+covered with her mantle. Her inner dress had been left to be added by
+the pencil of the card-colourer. In another wood-cut of the same kind,
+representing St. Jerome doing penance before a small crucifix placed on
+a hill, we see with surprise that the saint, together with the
+instruments of penance, which are lying near him, and a whole forest
+beside, are suspended in the air without anything to support them, as
+the whole of the ground had been left to be inserted with the pencil.
+Nothing of this kind is to be seen in more recent wood-cuts, when the
+art had made greater progress. What the early wood-engravers could not
+readily effect with the graver, they performed with the
+pencil,&mdash;for the most part in a very coarse and careless
+manner,&mdash;as they were at the same time both wood-engravers and
+card-colourers.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagII16" id = "tagII16" href =
+"#noteII16">II.16</a></p>
+
+<p>Besides the St. Christopher and the Annunciation, there is another
+old wood-cut in the collection of Earl Spencer which appears to belong
+to the same period, and which has in all probability been engraved by a
+German artist, as all who can read the German inscription above the
+figure would reasonably infer. Before making any remarks on this
+engraving, I&nbsp;shall first lay before the reader a reduced copy.</p>
+
+<p>The figure writing is that of St. Bridget of Sweden, who was born in
+1302 and died in 1373. From the representation of the Virgin with the
+infant Christ in her arms we may suppose that the artist intended to
+show the pious widow writing an account of her visions or revelations,
+in which she was often favoured with the blessed Virgin’s appearance.
+The pilgrim’s hat, staff, and scrip may allude to her pilgrimage to
+Jerusalem, which she was induced to make in consequence of a vision. The
+letters S.&nbsp;P. Q.&nbsp;R. in a shield, are no doubt intended to
+denote the place, Rome, where she saw the vision, and where she died.
+The lion, the arms of Sweden, and the crown at her feet, are most likely
+intended to denote that she was a princess of the blood royal of that
+kingdom. The words above the figure of the saint are a brief invocation
+in the German language, “<i>O&nbsp;Brigita bit Got für uns!</i>” “O
+Bridget, pray to God for us!” At the foot of the desk at which St.
+Bridget is writing are the letters <span class = "smallcaps">M.&nbsp;I.
+Chrs.</span>, an abbreviation probably of Mater Jesu Christi, or if
+German, Mutter Iesus Christus.<a class = "tag" name = "tagII17" id =
+"tagII17" href = "#noteII17">II.17</a></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_52" id = "illus_52">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_52.png" width = "328" height = "490"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>From the appearance of the back of this cut, as if it had been rubbed
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page52" id = "page52">
+52</a></span>
+smooth with a burnisher or rubber, there can be little doubt of the
+impression having been taken by means of friction. The colouring matter
+of the engraving is much lighter than in the St. Christopher and the
+Annunciation, and is like distemper or water-colour; while that of the
+latter cuts appears, as has been already observed, more like printer’s
+ink. It is coarsely coloured, and apparently by the hand, unassisted
+with the stencil. The face and hands are of a flesh colour. Her gown, as
+well as the pilgrim’s hat and scrip, are of a dark grey; her veil, which
+she wears hoodwise, is partly black and partly white; and the wimple
+which she wears round her neck is also white. The bench and desk, the
+pilgrim’s staff, the letters S.&nbsp;P. Q.&nbsp;R., the lion, the crown,
+and the nimbus
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page53" id = "page53">
+53</a></span>
+surrounding the head of St. Bridget and that of the Virgin, are yellow.
+The ground is green, and the whole cut is surrounded with a border of a
+shining mulberry or lake colour.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Ottley, having at the very outset of his Inquiry adopted
+Papillon’s story of the Cunio, is compelled, for consistency’s sake, in
+the subsequent portion of his work, when speaking of early wood
+engravings such as the above, to consider them, not as the earliest
+known specimens of the art, but merely as wood engravings such as were
+produced upwards of a hundred and thirty years after the amiable and
+accomplished Cunio, a&nbsp;mere boy and a girl, had in Italy produced a
+set of wood engravings, one of which was so well composed that Le Brun
+might be suspected of having borrowed from it the design of one of his
+most complicated pictures. In his desire, in support of his theory, to
+refer the oldest wood-cuts to Italy, Mr. Ottley asks: “What if these two
+prints [the St. Christopher and the Annunciation] should prove to be,
+not the productions of Germany, but rather of Venice, or of some
+district of the territory then under the dominion of that republic?”</p>
+
+<p>His principal reasons for the preceding conjecture, are the ancient
+use of the word <i>stampide</i>&mdash;“printed”&mdash;in the Venetian
+decree against the introduction of foreign playing-cards in 1441; and
+the resemblance which the Annunciation bears to the style of the early
+Italian schools. Now, with respect to the first of these reasons, it is
+founded on the assumption that both those impressions have been obtained
+by means of a press of some kind or other,&mdash;a fact which remains
+yet to be proved; for until the backs of both shall have been examined,
+and the mark of the burnisher or rubber found wanting, no person’s mere
+opinion, however confidently declared, can be decisive of the question.
+It also remains to be proved that the word <i>stampide</i>, which occurs
+in the Venetian decree, was employed there to signify “<i>printed with a
+press</i>.” For it is certain that the low Latin word <i>stampare</i>,
+with its cognates in the different languages of Europe, was used at that
+period to denote <i>impression</i> generally. But even supposing that
+“<i>stampide</i>” signifies “printed” in the modern acceptation of the
+word, and that the two impressions in question were obtained by means of
+a press; the argument in favour of their being Italian would gain
+nothing, unless we assume that the <i>foreign</i> printed cards and
+figures, which were forbid to be imported into Venice, were produced
+either within the territory of that state or in Italy; for the word
+<i>stampide</i>&mdash;“<i>printed</i>,” is applied to them as well as
+those manufactured within the city. Now we know that the German
+card-makers used to send great quantities of cards to Venice about the
+period when the decree was made, while we have no evidence of any
+Italian cities manufacturing cards for exportation in 1441; it is
+therefore most likely that if the Venetians were acquainted with the use
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page54" id = "page54">
+54</a></span>
+of the press in taking impressions from wood-blocks, the Germans were so
+too, and for these more probable reasons, admitting the cuts in question
+to have been printed by means of a press:&mdash;First, the fact of those
+wood-cuts being discovered in Germany in the very district where we
+first hear of wood-engravers; and secondly, that if the Venetian
+wood-engravers were acquainted with the use of the press in taking
+impressions while the Germans were not, it is very unlikely that the
+latter would be able to undersell the Venetians in their own city. Until
+something like a probable reason shall be given for supposing the cuts
+in question to be productions “of Venice, or some other district of the
+territory then under the dominion of that republic,” I&nbsp;shall
+continue to believe that they were executed in the district in which
+they were discovered, and which has supplied to the collections of
+amateurs so many old wood engravings of a similar kind. No wood
+engravings executed in Italy, are known of a date earlier than those
+contained in the “Meditationes Johannis de Turre-cremata,” printed at
+Rome 1467,&mdash;and printed, be it observed, by a German, Ulrick Hahn.
+The circular wood engravings in the British Museum,<a class = "tag" name
+= "tagII18" id = "tagII18" href = "#noteII18">II.18</a> which Mr. Ottley
+says are indisputably Italian, and of the old dry taste of the fifteenth
+century, can scarcely be referred to an earlier period than 1500, and my
+own opinion is that they are not older than 1510. The manner in which
+they are engraved is that which we find prevalent in Italian wood-cuts
+executed between 1500 and 1520.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the resemblance which the Annunciation bears to the
+style of the early Italian school,&mdash;I beg to observe that it
+equally resembles many of the productions of contemporary “schools” of
+England and France, as displayed in many of the drawings contained in
+old illuminated manuscripts. It would be no difficult matter to point
+out in many old German engravings attitudes at least as graceful as the
+Virgin’s; and as to her drapery, which is said to be “wholly unlike the
+angular sharpness, the stiffness and the flutter of the ancient German
+school,” I&nbsp;beg to observe that those peculiarities are not of so
+frequent occurrence in the works of German artists, whether sculptors,
+painters, or wood-engravers, who lived before 1450, as in the works of
+those who lived after that period. Angular sharpness and flutter in the
+draperies are not so characteristic of early German art generally, as of
+German art towards the end of the fifteenth, and in the early part of
+the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page55" id = "page55">
+55</a></span>
+<p>Even the St. Bridget, which he considers to be of a date not later
+than the close of the fourteenth century,<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagII19" id = "tagII19" href = "#noteII19">II.19</a> Mr. Ottley, with a
+German inscription before his eyes, is inclined to give to an artist of
+the Low Countries; and he kindly directs the attention of Coster’s
+partisans to the shield of arms&mdash;probably intended for those of
+Sweden&mdash;at the right-hand corner of the cut. Meerman had discovered
+a seal, having in the centre a shield charged with a lion
+rampant&mdash;the bearing of the noble family of Brederode&mdash;a label
+of three points, and the mark of illegitimacy&mdash;a bend sinister, and
+surrounded by the inscription, “S[igillum] Lowrens Janssoen,” which with
+him was sufficient evidence of its being the identical seal of Laurence,
+the Coster or churchwarden of Harlem.<a class = "tag" name = "tagII20"
+id = "tagII20" href = "#noteII20">II.20</a></p>
+
+<p>We thus perceive on what grounds the right of Germany to three of the
+oldest wood-cuts known is questioned; and upon what traits of
+resemblance they are ascribed to Italy and the Low Countries. By
+adopting Mr. Ottley’s mode of reasoning, it might be shown with equal
+probability that a very considerable number of early wood
+engravings&mdash;whether printed in books or separately&mdash;hitherto
+believed to be German, were really executed in Italy.</p>
+
+<p>An old wood engraving of the martyrdom of St. Sebastian, of a quarto
+size, with a short prayer underneath, and the date 1437, apparently from
+the same block, was preserved in the monastery of St. Blaze, in the
+Black Forest on the confines of Suabia;<a class = "tag" name = "tagII21"
+id = "tagII21" href = "#noteII21">II.21</a> and another, with the date
+1443 inserted in manuscript, was pasted in a volume belonging to the
+library of the monastery of Buxheim. The latter is thus described by Von
+Murr: “Through the kindness of the celebrated librarian, Krismer, whom I
+have so often mentioned, I&nbsp;am enabled to give an account of an
+illuminated wood-cut, which at the latest must have been engraved in
+1443. It is pasted on the inside of the cover of a volume which contains
+‘<i>Nicolai Dunkelspül</i><a class = "tag" name = "tagII22" id =
+"tagII22" href = "#noteII22">II.22</a> Sermonum Partem Hyemalem.’ It is
+of quarto
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page56" id = "page56">
+56</a></span>
+size, being seven and a half inches high, and five and a quarter wide,
+and is inclosed within a border of a single line. It is much soiled, as
+we perceive in the figures on cards which have been impressed by means
+of a rubber. The style in which it is executed is like that of no other
+wood-cut which I have ever seen. The cut itself represents three
+different subjects, the upper part of it being divided into two
+compartments, each three inches square, and separated from each other by
+means of a broad perpendicular line. In that to the right is seen St.
+Dorothy sitting in a garden, with the youthful Christ presenting flowers
+to her, of which she has her lap full. Before her stands a small
+hand-basket,&mdash;also full of flowers,&mdash;such as the ladies of
+Franconia and Suabia were accustomed to carry in former times. In the
+left compartment is seen St. Alexius, lying at the foot of a flight of
+steps, upon which a man is standing and emptying the contents of a pot
+upon the saint.<a class = "tag" name = "tagII23" id = "tagII23" href =
+"#noteII23">II.23</a> Between these compartments there appears in
+manuscript the date ‘<i>anno d’ni 1443</i>.’ Both the ink and the
+characters correspond with those of the volume. This date indicates the
+time when the writer had finished the book and got it bound, as is more
+clearly proved by a memorandum at the conclusion. In the year 1483,
+before it came into the possession of the monastery of Buxheim, it
+belonged to Brother Jacobus Matzenberger, of the order of the Holy
+Ghost, and curate of the church of the Virgin Mary in Memmingen. The
+whole of the lower part of the cut is occupied with Christ bearing his
+cross, at the moment that he meets with his mother, whom one of the
+executioners appears to be driving away. Simon of Cyrene is seen
+assisting Christ to carry the cross. The engraving is executed in a very
+coarse manner.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagII24" id = "tagII24" href =
+"#noteII24">II.24</a></p>
+
+<p>In the Royal Library at Paris there is an ancient wood-cut of St.
+Bernardin, who is represented on a terrace, the pavement of which
+consists of alternate squares of yellow, red, and green. In his right
+hand the saint holds something resembling the consecrated wafer or host,
+in the midst of which is inscribed the name of Christ; and in his left a
+kind of oblong casket, on which are the words “<i>Vide, lege, dulce
+nomen</i>.” Upon a scroll above the head of the saint is engraved the
+sentence, “<i>Ihesus semper sit in ore meo</i>,” and behind him, on a
+black label, is his name in yellow letters, “<i>Sanct’ Bernard’</i>.”
+The cut is surrounded by a border of foliage, with the emblems of the
+four Evangelists at the four corners, and
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page57" id = "page57">
+57</a></span>
+at the foot are the five following lines, with the date, impressed from
+prominent lines:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class = "verse ital">
+<p>O . splendor . pudicitie . zelator . paupertatis . a</p>
+<p>mator. innocentie . cultor . virginitatis . <ins class = "correction"
+title = "printed as shown: apparent error for ‘lustra / tor sapientie’">lustra</ins></p>
+<p><ins class = "correction" title = "printed as shown: apparent error for ‘lustra / tor sapientie’">cors . apientie</ins> . protector .
+veritatis . thro</p>
+<p>num . fulgidum . eterne . majestatis . para</p>
+<p>nobis . additum . divine . pietatis . amen. (1454)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This rare cut was communicated to Jansen by M. Vanpraet, the
+well-known bibliographer and keeper of the Royal Library.<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagII25" id = "tagII25" href = "#noteII25">II.25</a></p>
+
+<p>“Having visited in my last tour,” says Heineken, after describing the
+St. Christopher, “a&nbsp;great many convents in Franconia, Suabia,
+Bavaria, and in the Austrian states, I&nbsp;everywhere discovered in
+their libraries many of those kinds of figures, engraved on wood, and
+pasted either at the beginning or the end of old volumes of the
+fifteenth century. I&nbsp;have indeed obtained several of them. These
+facts, taken altogether, have confirmed me in my opinion that the next
+step of the engraver in wood, after playing-cards, was to engrave
+figures of saints, which, being distributed and lost among the laity,
+were in part preserved by the monks, who pasted them in the earliest
+printed books with which they furnished their libraries.”<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagII26" id = "tagII26" href = "#noteII26">II.26</a></p>
+
+<p>A great many wood-cuts of devotional subjects, of a period probably
+anterior to the invention of book-printing by Gutenberg, have been
+discovered in Germany. They are all executed in a rude style, and many
+of them are coloured. It is not unlikely that the most of these woodcuts
+were executed at the instance of the monks for distribution among the
+common people as helps to devotion; and that each monastery, which might
+thus avail itself of the aid of wood engraving in the work of piety,
+would cause to be engraved the figure of its patron saint. The practice,
+in fact, of distributing such figures at monasteries and shrines to
+those who visit them, is not yet extinct on the Continent. In Belgium it
+is still continued, and, I&nbsp;believe, also in Germany, France, and
+Italy. The figures, however, are not generally impressions from
+wood-blocks, but are for the most part wholly executed by means of
+stencils. One of the latter class, representing the shrine of “Notre
+Dame de Hal,”&mdash;coloured in the most wretched taste with brick-dust
+red and shining green,&mdash;is
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page58" id = "page58">
+58</a></span>
+now lying before me. It was given to a gentleman who visited Halle, near
+Brussels, in 1829. It is nearly of the same size as many of the old
+devotional wood-cuts of Germany, being about four inches high, by two
+and three-quarters wide.<a class = "tag" name = "tagII27" id = "tagII27"
+href = "#noteII27">II.27</a></p>
+
+<p>The next step in the progress of wood engraving, subsequent to the
+production of single cuts, such as the St. Christopher, the
+Annunciation, and the St. Bridget, in each of which letters are
+sparingly introduced, was the application of the art to the production
+of those works which are known to bibliographers by the name of <span
+class = "smallroman">BLOCK-BOOKS</span>: the most celebrated of which
+are the Apocalypsis, seu Historia Sancti Johannis; the Historia Virginis
+ex Cantico Canticorum; and the Biblia Pauperum. The first is a history,
+pictorial and literal, of the life and revelations of St. John the
+Evangelist, derived in part from the traditions of the church, but
+chiefly from the book of Revelations. The second is a similar history of
+the Virgin, as it is supposed to be typified in the Songs of Solomon;
+and the third consists of subjects representing some of the most
+important passages in the Old and New Testament, with texts either
+explaining the subject, or enforcing the example of duty which it may
+afford. With the above, the Speculum Humanæ Salvationis is usually,
+though improperly, classed, as the whole of the text, in that which is
+most certainly the first edition, is printed from movable metal types.
+In the others the explanatory matter is engraved on wood, on the same
+block with the subject to which it refers.</p>
+
+<p>All the above books have been claimed by Meerman and other Dutch
+writers for their countryman, Laurence Coster: and although no date,
+either impressed or manuscript, has been discovered in any one copy from
+which the period of its execution might be ascertained,<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagII28" id = "tagII28" href = "#noteII28">II.28</a> yet such
+appears to have been the clearness of the intuitive light which guided
+those authors, that they have assigned to each work the precise year in
+which it appeared. According to Seiz, the History of the Old and New
+Testament, otherwise called the Biblia Pauperum, appeared in 1432; the
+History of the Virgin in 1433; the Apocalypse in 1434; and the Speculum
+in 1439. For such assertions, however, he has not the slightest ground.
+That the three first might appear at some period between 1430 and 1450,
+is not unlikely;<a class = "tag" name = "tagII29" id = "tagII29" href =
+"#noteII29">II.29</a> but that the Speculum&mdash;<i>the text of which
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page59" id = "page59">
+59</a></span>
+in the first edition was printed from metal types</i>&mdash;should be
+printed before 1460, is in the highest degree improbable.</p>
+
+<p>Upon extremely slight grounds it has been conjectured that the Biblia
+Pauperum, the Apocalypse, and the Ars Moriendi,&mdash;another
+block-book,&mdash;were engraved before the year 1430. The Rev.
+T.&nbsp;H. Horne, “a&nbsp;gentleman long and well known for his familiar
+acquaintance with books printed abroad,” says Dr. Dibdin, “had a copy of
+each of the three books above mentioned, bound in one volume, upon the
+cover of which the following words were stamped: Hic liber relegatus
+fuit per Plebanum. ecclesie”&mdash;with the date, according to the best
+of the Rev. Mr. Horne’s recollection, 142(8). As he had broken up the
+volume, and had parted with the contents, he gave the above information
+on the strength of his memory alone. He was, however, confident that
+“the binding was the ancient legitimate one, and that the treatises had
+not been subsequently introduced into it, and that the date was 142 odd;
+but positively anterior to 1430.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagII30" id =
+"tagII30" href = "#noteII30">II.30</a></p>
+
+<p>In such a case as this, however, mere recollection cannot be admitted
+as decisive of the fact, more especially when we know the many instances
+in which mistakes have been committed in reading the numerals in ancient
+dates. At page 88 of his Inquiry, Mr. Ottley, catching at every straw
+that may help to support his theory of wood engraving having been
+practised by the Cunio and others in the fourteenth century, refers to a
+print which a Monsieur Thierry professed to have seen at Lyons,
+inscribed “<span class = "smallcaps">Schoting of Nuremberg</span>,” with
+the date 1384; and at p.&nbsp;256 he alludes to it again in the
+following words: “The date 1384 on the wood-cut preserved at Lyons, said
+to have been executed at Nuremberg, appears, I&nbsp;know not why, to
+have been suspected.” It has been more than suspected; for, on
+examination, it has been found to be 1584. Paul Von Stettin published an
+account of a Biblia Pauperum, the date of which he supposed to be 1414;
+but which, when closely examined, was found to be 1474: and Baron Von
+Hupsch, of Cologne, published in 1787 an account of some wood-cuts which
+he supposed to have been executed in 1420; but which, in the opinion of
+Breitkopf, were part of the cuts of a Biblia Pauperum, in which it was
+probably intended to give the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page60" id = "page60">
+60</a></span>
+explanations in moveable types underneath the cuts, and probably of a
+later date than 1470.<a class = "tag" name = "tagII31" id = "tagII31"
+href = "#noteII31">II.31</a></p>
+
+<p>It is surprising that the Rev. Mr. Horne, who is no incurious
+observer of books, but an author who has written largely on
+Bibliography, should not have carefully copied so remarkable a date, or
+communicated it to a friend, when it might have been confirmed by a
+careful examination of the binding; and still more surprising is it that
+such binding should have been destroyed. From the very fact of his not
+having paid more particular attention to this most important date, and
+from his having permitted the evidence of it to be destroyed, the Rev.
+Mr. Horne seems to be an incompetent witness. Who would think of calling
+a person to prove from recollection the date of an old and important
+deed, who, when he had it in his possession, was so little aware of its
+value as to throw it away? The three books in question, when covered by
+such a binding, would surely be much greater than when bound in any
+other manner. Such a volume must have been unique; and, if the date on
+the binding were correct, it must have been admitted as decisive of a
+fact interesting to every bibliographer in Europe. It is not even
+mentioned in what kind of numerals the date was expressed, whether in
+Roman or Arabic. If the numerals had been Arabic, we might very
+reasonably suppose that the Rev. Mr. Horne had mistaken a seven for a
+two, and that, instead of “142 odd,” the correct date was “147 odd.” In
+Arabic numerals, such as were used about the middle of the fifteenth
+century, the seven may very easily be mistaken for a two.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest ancient binding known, on which a date is impressed, is,
+I&nbsp;believe, that described by Laire.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagII32" id = "tagII32" href = "#noteII32">II.32</a> It is that of a
+copy of “Sancti Hieronymi Epistolæ;” and the words, in the same manner
+as that of the binding of which the Rev. Mr. Horne had so accurate a
+recollection, were “stamped at the extremity of the binding, towards the
+edge of the squares.” It is only necessary to cite the words impressed
+on one of the boards, which were as follows:</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+“Illigatus est Anno Domini 1469<br>
+Per me Johannem<br>
+Richenbach Capellanum<br>
+In Gyslingen.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagII33" id = "tagII33" href =
+"#noteII33">II.33</a></p>
+
+<p>The numerals of the date it is to be observed were Arabic. In the
+library of Dr. Kloss of Frankfort, sold in London by Sotheby and Son in
+1835, were two volumes, “St. Augustini de Civitat. Dei, Libri xxii.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page61" id = "page61">
+61</a></span>
+1469,” and “St. Augustini Confessiones” of the same date; both of which
+were bound by “Johannes Capellanus in Gyslingen,” and who in the same
+manner had impressed his name on the covers with the date 1470. Both
+volumes had belonged to “Dominus Georgius Ruch de Gamundia.”<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagII34" id = "tagII34" href = "#noteII34">II.34</a> That
+the volume formerly in the Rev. Mr. Horne’s possession was bound by the
+curate of Geisslingen I by no means pretend to say, though I am firmly
+of opinion that it was bound subsequent to 1470, and that the character
+which he supposed to be a two was in reality a different figure. It is
+worthy of remark that it appears to have been bound by the “Plebanus” of
+some church, a&nbsp;word which is nearly synonymous with “Capellanus.”<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagII35" id = "tagII35" href =
+"#noteII35">II.35</a></p>
+
+<p>As it does not come within the plan of the present volume to give a
+catalogue of all the subjects contained in the block-books to which it
+may be necessary to refer as illustrating the progress of wood
+engraving, I&nbsp;shall confine myself to a general notice of the manner
+in which the cuts are executed, with occasional observations on the
+designs, and such remarks as may be likely to explain any peculiarity of
+appearance, or to enable the reader to form a distinct idea of the
+subject referred to.</p>
+
+<p>At whatever period the Apocalypse, the History of the Virgin, and the
+Biblia Pauperum may have been executed, the former has the appearance of
+being the earliest; and in the absence of everything like proof upon the
+point, and as the style in which it is engraved is certainly more simple
+than that of the other two, it seems entitled to be first noticed in
+tracing the progress of the art.</p>
+
+<p>Of the Apocalypse,&mdash;or “Historia Sancti Johannis Evangelistæ
+ejusque Visiones Apocalypticæ,” as it is mostly termed by
+bibliographers, for the book itself has no title,&mdash;Heineken
+mentions no less than six editions, the earliest of which he considers
+to be that described by him at page 367 of his “Idée Générale d’une
+Collection complète d’Estampes.” He, however, declares that the marks by
+which he has assigned to each edition its comparative antiquity are not
+infallible. It is indeed very evident that the marks which he assumed as
+characteristic of the relative order of the different editions were
+merely arbitrary, and could by no means be admitted as of the slightest
+consequence in enabling any
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page62" id = "page62">
+62</a></span>
+person to form a correct opinion on the subject. He notices two editions
+as the first and second, and immediately after he mentions a
+circumstance which might almost entitle the third to take precedence of
+them both; and that which he saw last he thinks the oldest of all. The
+designs of the second edition described by him, he says, are by another
+master than those of the first, although the artist has adhered to the
+same subjects and the same ideas. The third, according to his
+observations, differs from the first and second, both in the subjects
+and the descriptive text. The fourth edition is from the same blocks as
+the third; the only difference between them being, that the fourth is
+without the letters in alphabetical order which indicate the succession
+of the cuts. The fifth differed from the third or fourth only in the
+text and the directing letters, as the designs were the same; the only
+variations that could be observed being extremely trifling. After having
+described five editions of the book, he decides that a sixth, which he
+saw after the others, ought to be considered the earliest of all.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagII36" id = "tagII36" href =
+"#noteII36">II.36</a> In all the copies which he had seen, the
+impressions had been taken by means of a rubber, in such a manner that
+each leaf contained only one engraving; the other side, which commonly
+bore the marks of the rubber, being without a cut. The impressions when
+collected into a volume faced each other, so that the first and last
+pages were blank.</p>
+
+<p>The edition of the Apocalypse to which I shall now refer is that
+described by Heineken, at page 364, as the fifth; and the copy is that
+mentioned by him, at page 367, as then being in the collection of
+M.&nbsp;de Gaignat, and as wanting two cuts, Nos. 36 and 37. It is at
+present in the King’s Library at the British Museum.</p>
+
+<p>It is a thin folio in modern red morocco binding, and has, when
+perfect, consisted of fifty wood engravings, with their explanatory text
+also cut in wood, generally within an oblong border of a single line,
+within the <i>field</i> of the engraving, and not added underneath, as
+in the Speculum Salvationis, nor in detached compartments, both above
+and below, as in the Biblia Pauperum. The paper, which is somewhat of a
+cream colour, is stout, with rather a coarse surface, and such as we
+find the most ancient books printed on. As each leaf has been pasted
+down on another of modern paper, in order to preserve it, the marks of
+the rubber at the back of each impression, as described by Heineken,
+cannot be seen.
+<span class = "figfloat">
+<a name = "illus_62" id = "illus_62">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_62.png" width = "31" height = "72"
+alt = "see text"></span>
+The annexed outline is a reduced copy of a paper-mark, which may be
+perceived on some of the leaves. It is very like that numbered “vii.” at
+p.&nbsp;224, vol. i.&nbsp;of Mr. Ottley’s Inquiry, and which he says
+occurs in the edition called the first Latin of the Speculum
+Salvationis. It is nearly the same as that which is to be seen in Earl
+Spencer’s “Historia Virginis;” and Santander
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page63" id = "page63">
+63</a></span>
+states that he has noticed a similar mark in books printed at Cologne by
+Ulric Zell, and Bart. de Unkel; at Louvain by John Veldener and Conrad
+Braen; and in books printed at Utrecht by Nic. Ketelaer and Gerard de
+Leempt.</p>
+
+<p>The size of the largest cuts, as defined by the plain lines which
+form the border, is about ten and five-eighths inches high, by seven and
+six-eighths inches wide; of the smallest, ten and two-eighths inches
+high, by seven and three-eighths wide.<a class = "tag" name = "tagII37"
+id = "tagII37" href = "#noteII37">II.37</a> The order in which they are
+to be placed in binding is indicated by a letter of the alphabet, which
+serves the same purpose as our modern signatures,&mdash;engraved in a
+conspicuous part of the cut. For instance, the first two, which, as well
+as the others, might either face each other or be pasted back to back,
+are each marked with the letter <span class = "blackletter">a</span>;
+the two next with the letter <span class = "blackletter">b</span>, and
+so on through the alphabet. As the alphabet&mdash;which has the i the
+same as the j, the v the same as the u, and has not the w&mdash;became
+exhausted at the forty-sixth cut, the forty-seventh and forty-eighth are
+marked with a character which was used to represent the words “et
+cetera;” and the forty-ninth and fiftieth with the terminal abbreviation
+of the letters “us.” In the copy described by Heineken, he observed that
+the directing letters <span class = "blackletter">m</span> and <span
+class = "blackletter">n</span> were wanting in the twenty-fourth and
+twenty-sixth cuts, and in the copy under consideration they are also
+omitted. The m, however, appears to have been engraved, though for some
+reason or other not to have been inked in taking an impression; for on a
+careful examination of this cut,&mdash;without being aware at the time
+of Heineken having noticed the omission,&mdash;I thought that I could
+very plainly discern the indention of the letter above one of the angels
+in the upper compartment of the print.</p>
+
+<p>Of the forty-eight cuts<a class = "tag" name = "tagII38" id =
+"tagII38" href = "#noteII38">II.38</a> contained in the Museum copy, the
+greater number are divided by a horizontal line, nearly in the middle,
+and thus each consists of two compartments; of the remainder, each is
+occupied by a single subject, which fills the whole page. In some, the
+explanatory text consists only of two or three lines; and in others it
+occupies so
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page64" id = "page64">
+64</a></span>
+large a space, that if it were set up in moderately sized type, it would
+be sufficient to fill a duodecimo page. The characters are different
+from those in the History of the Virgin and the Biblia Pauperum, and are
+smaller than those of the former, and generally larger and more
+distinctly cut than those of the latter; and although, as well as in the
+two last-named books, the words are much abbreviated, yet they are more
+easy to be made out than the text of either of the others. The
+impressions on the whole are better taken than those of the Biblia
+Pauperum, though in lighter-coloured ink, something like a greyish
+sepia, and apparently of a thinner body. It does not appear to have
+contained any oil, and is more like distemper or water-colour than
+printer’s ink. From the manner in which the lines are indented in the
+paper, in several of the cuts, it is evident that they must either have
+been subjected to a considerable degree of pressure or have been very
+hard rubbed.</p>
+
+<p>Although some of the figures bear a considerable degree of likeness
+to others of the same kind in the Biblia Pauperum, I&nbsp;cannot think
+that the designs for both books were made by the same person. The
+figures in the different works which most resemble each other are those
+of saints and angels, whose form and expression have been represented
+according to a conventional standard, to which most of the artists of
+the period conformed, in the same manner as in representing the Almighty
+and Christ, whether they were painters, glass-stainers, carvers, or
+wood-engravers. In many of the figures the drapery is broken into easy
+and natural folds by means of single lines; and if this were admitted as
+a ground for assigning the cut of the Annunciation to Italy, with much
+greater reason might the Apocalypse be ascribed to the same country.</p>
+
+<p>Without venturing to give an opinion whether the cuts were engraved
+in Germany, Holland, or in the Low Countries, the drawing of many of the
+figures appears to correspond with the idea that I have formed of the
+style of Greek art, such as it was in the early part of the fifteenth
+century. St. John was the favourite apostle of the Greeks, as St. Peter
+was of the church of Rome; and as the Revelations were more especially
+addressed to the churches of Greece, they were more generally read in
+that country than in Western Europe. Artists mostly copy, in the heads
+which they draw, the general expression of the country<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagII39" id = "tagII39" href = "#noteII39">II.39</a> to which
+they belong, and where they have received their first impressions; and
+in the Apocalypse the character of several of the heads appears to be
+decidedly Grecian. The general representation, too, of several visions
+would seem to have been suggested by a Greek who was familiar with that
+portion of the New Testament which was so generally perused in his
+native land, and whose annunciations and figurative prophecies were, in
+the early
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page65" id = "page65">
+65</a></span>
+part of the fifteenth century, commonly supposed by his countrymen to
+relate to the Turks, who at that time were triumphing over the cross.
+With them Mahomet was the Antichrist of the Revelations, and his
+followers the people bearing the mark of the beast, who were to
+persecute, and for a time to hold in bondage, the members of the church
+of Christ. As many Greeks, both artists and scholars, were driven from
+their country by the oppression of the Turks several years before the
+taking of Constantinople in 1453, I&nbsp;am induced to think that to a
+Greek we owe the designs of this edition of the Apocalypse. In the lower
+division of the twenty-third cut, <big>m</big>, representing the fight
+of Michael and his angels with the dragon, the following shields are
+borne by two of the heavenly host.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_65" id = "illus_65">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_65.png" width = "296" height = "100"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The <!-- no indent --> crescent, as is well known, was one of the
+badges of Constantinople long previous to its capture by the Turks. The
+sort of cross in the other shield is very like that in the arms of the
+knights of St. Constantine, a&nbsp;military order which is said to have
+been founded at Constantinople by the Emperor Isaac Angelus Comnenus, in
+1190. The above coincidences, though trifling, tend to support the
+opinion that the designs were made by a Greek artist. It is, however,
+possible, that the badges on the shields may have been suggested by the
+mere fancy of the designer, and that they may equally resemble the
+heraldic bearings of some order or of some individuals of Western
+Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Though some of the designs are very indifferent, yet there are others
+which display considerable ability, and several of the single figures
+are decidedly superior to any that are contained in the other
+block-books. They are drawn with greater vigour and feeling; and though
+the designs of the Biblia Pauperum show a greater knowledge of the
+mechanism of art, yet the best of them, in point of expression and
+emphatic marking of character, are inferior to the best in the
+Apocalypse.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the engraving, the cuts are executed in the simplest
+manner, as there is not the least attempt at shading, by means of cross
+lines or hatchings, to be perceived in any one of the designs. The most
+difficult part of the engraver’s task, supposing the drawings to have
+been made by another person, would be the cutting of the letters, which
+in several of the subjects must have occupied a considerable portion of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page66" id = "page66">
+66</a></span>
+time, and have required no small degree of care. The following is a
+reduced copy of the first cut.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_66" id = "illus_66">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_66.png" width = "319" height = "423"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>In the upper portion of the subject, St. John is seen addressing four
+persons, three men and a woman; and the text at the top informs us of
+the success of his ministry: “<i>Conversi ab idolis, per predicationem
+beati Johannis, Drusiana et ceteri.</i>”&mdash;“By the preaching of St.
+John, Drusiana and others are withdrawn from their idols.” The letter
+<span class = "blackletter">a</span>, a little above the saint’s
+outstretched hand, indicates that the cut is the first of the series. In
+the lower compartment St. John is seen baptizing Drusiana, who, as she
+stands naked in the font, is of very small size compared with the saint.
+The situation in which Drusiana is placed might be alleged in support of
+their peculiar tenets, either by the Baptists, who advocate immersion as
+the proper mode of administering the rite, or by those who consider
+sprinkling as sufficient; but in each case with a difficulty which it
+would not be easy to explain: for if Drusiana were to be baptized by
+immersion, the font is too small to allow her to be dipped overhead; and
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page67" id = "page67">
+67</a></span>
+if the rite were to be administered by mere sprinkling, why is she
+standing naked in the font? To the right of the cut are several figures,
+two of whom are provided with axes, who seem wishful to break open the
+door of the chapel in which St. John and his proselyte are seen. The
+inscription above their heads lets us know that they
+are&mdash;“<i>Cultores ydolorum explorantes facta
+ejus</i>;”&mdash;“Worshippers of idols watching the saint’s
+proceedings.”</p>
+
+<p>The following cut is a copy of the eighteenth of the Apocalypse,
+which is illustrative of the <span class = "smallroman">XI</span>th and
+<span class = "smallroman">XIII</span>th chapters of Revelations. The
+upper portion represents the execution of the two witnesses of the Lord,
+who are in the tablet named Enoch and Helyas, by the command of the
+beast which ascendeth out of the bottomless pit, and which is
+Antichrist. He is seen issuing his commands for the execution of the
+witnesses; and the face of the executioner who has just used his sword,
+and who is looking towards him with an expression of brutal exultation,
+might have served Albert Durer for that of the mocker in his cut of
+Christ crowned with thorns.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_67" id = "illus_67">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_67.png" width = "317" height = "428"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page68" id = "page68">
+68</a></span>
+<p>The inscription to the right, is the 7th verse of the <span class =
+"smallroman">XI</span>th chapter, with the names of Enoch and Helyas
+inserted as those of the two witnesses: “<i>Cum finierunt Enoch et
+Helyas testimonium suum, bestia quæ ascendit de abisso faciet contra eos
+bellum, et vincet eos et occidet illos</i>.” In our translation the
+verse is rendered thus: “And when they shall have finished their
+testimony, the beast that ascendeth out of the bottomless pit shall make
+war against them, and shall overcome them and kill them.”</p>
+
+<p>The tablet to the left contains the following inscription: “<i>Et
+jacebunt corpora eorum in plateis, et non sinent poni in
+monumentis</i>.” It is formed of two passages, in the 8th and 9th verses
+of the <span class = "smallroman">XI</span>th chapter of Revelations,
+which are thus rendered in our version of the Bible: “And their dead
+bodies shall lie in the street, .&nbsp;.&nbsp;. and they of the people
+.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. shall not suffer their dead bodies to be put in
+graves.”</p>
+
+<p>In the lower compartment Antichrist is seen working his miracles,
+uprooting the two olive trees, typical of the two witnesses whom he had
+caused to be slain.<a class = "tag" name = "tagII40" id = "tagII40" href
+= "#noteII40">II.40</a> Two of his followers are seen kneeling as if
+worshipping him, while more to the left are the supporters of the true
+faith delivered into the hands of executioners. The design is
+illustrative of the XIIIth chapter of Revelations. The following is the
+inscription above the figure of Antichrist:&mdash;“<i>Hic facit
+Antichristus miracula sua, et credentes in ipsum honorat, et incredentes
+variis interficit pœnis</i>.”&mdash;“Here Antichrist is performing his
+miracles, honouring those who believe in him, and putting the
+incredulous to death by various punishments.” The leaves of the trees
+which Antichrist has miraculously uprooted are extremely like those of
+the tree of life engraved in one of the cuts of the Biblia Pauperum, and
+of which a copy will be found in a subsequent page.</p>
+
+<p>In several of the cuts, the typical expressions which occur in the
+texts are explained. Thus, in cut eighth, we are informed that “<i>Stolæ
+albæ animarum gloriam designant</i>.”&mdash;“The white vestments denote
+the glory of departed souls.” In the lower compartment of the same cut,
+the “<i>cæli recessio</i>”&mdash;“the opening of the heavens”&mdash;is
+explained to be the communication of the Bible to the Gentiles. In the
+lower compartment of the ninth cut, “much incense” is said to signify
+the precepts of the Gospel; the “censers,” the hearts of the Apostles;
+and the “golden altar,” the Church.</p>
+
+<p>The next block-book which demands notice is that named “Historia seu
+Providentia Virginis Mariæ, ex Cantico Canticorum:” that is, “The
+History or Prefiguration of the Virgin Mary, from the Song of Songs.” It
+is of small-folio size, and consists of sixteen leaves, printed on one
+side only by means of friction; and the ink is of a dark brown,
+approaching nearly to black. Each impressed page contains two subjects,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page69" id = "page69">
+69</a></span>
+one above the other; the total number of subjects in the book is,
+consequently, thirty-two.</p>
+
+<p>Of this book, according to the observations of Heineken, there are
+two editions; which, from variations noticed by him in the explanatory
+text, are evidently from different blocks; but, as the designs are
+precisely the same, it is certain that the one has been copied from the
+other.<a class = "tag" name = "tagII41" id = "tagII41" href =
+"#noteII41">II.41</a> That which he considers to be the first edition,
+has, in his opinion, been engraved in Germany; the other, he thinks, was
+a copy of the original, executed by some engraver in Holland. The
+principal ground on which he determines the priority of the editions is,
+that in the one the text is much more correctly given than in the other;
+and he thence concludes that the most correct would be the second. In
+this opinion I concur; not that his rule will universally hold good, but
+that in this case the conclusion which he has drawn seems the most
+probable. The designs, it is admitted, are precisely the same; and as
+the cuts of the one would in all probability be engraved from tracings
+or transfers of the other, it is not likely that we should find such a
+difference in the text of the two editions if that of the first were
+correct. A&nbsp;wood-engraver&mdash;on this point I speak from
+experience&mdash;would be much more likely to commit literal errors in
+copying manuscript, than to deviate in cutting a fac-simile from a
+correct impression. Had the text of the first edition been
+correct,&mdash;considering that the designs of the one edition are exact
+copies of those of the other,&mdash;it is probable that the text of both
+would have been more nearly alike. But as there are several errors in
+the text of the first edition, it is most likely that many of them would
+be discovered and corrected by the person at whose instance the designs
+were copied for the second. Diametrically opposite to this conclusion is
+that of Mr. Ottley, who argues as follows:<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagII42" id = "tagII42" href = "#noteII42">II.42</a> “Heineken
+endeavours to draw another argument in favour of the originality of the
+edition possessed by Pertusati, Verdussen, and the Bodleian library,
+from the various errors, in that edition, in the Latin inscriptions on
+the scrolls; which, he says, are corrected in the other edition. But it
+is evident that this circumstance makes in favour of an opposite
+conclusion. The artist who originally invented the work must have been
+well acquainted with Latin, since it is, in fact, no other than an union
+of many of the most beautiful verses of the Book of Canticles, with a
+series of designs illustrative of the divine mysteries supposed to be
+revealed in that sacred poem; and, consequently, we have reason to
+consider that edition the original in which the inscriptions are given
+with the most correctness; and to ascribe the gross blunders in the
+other to the ignorance of some ordinary wood-engraver by whom the work
+was copied.” Even granting the assumption that the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page70" id = "page70">
+70</a></span>
+engraver of the edition, supposed by Mr. Ottley to be the first, was
+well acquainted with Latin, and that he who engraved the presumed second
+did not understand a word of that language, yet it by no means follows
+that the latter could not make a correct tracing of the engraved text
+lying before him. Because a draughtsman is unacquainted with a language,
+it would certainly be most erroneous to infer that he would be incapable
+of copying the characters correctly. Besides, though it does not benefit
+his argument a whit, it is surely assuming too much to assert that the
+artist who made the designs also selected the texts, and that he
+<i>must</i> have been well acquainted with Latin; and that he who
+executed Mr. Ottley’s presumed second edition was some ignorant ordinary
+wood-engraver. Did the artists who executed the fac-similes in Mr.
+Ottley’s work, or in Dr. Dibdin’s “Bibliotheca Spenceriana,” understand
+the abbreviated Latin which in many instances they had to engrave; and
+did they in consequence of their ignorance of that language copy
+incorrectly the original texts and sentences which were before them?</p>
+
+<p>In a copy which Heineken considers to be of the second edition,
+belonging to the city of Harlem, that writer observed the following
+inscription, from a wood block, impressed, as I understand him, at the
+top of the first cut. “<span class = "blackletter">Dit is die
+voersinicheit va Marie der mod . godes . en is gehete in lath</span> .
+<i>Cāti.</i>” This inscription&mdash;which Heineken says is “en langue
+Flamande, ou plûtôt en Plât-Alemand”&mdash;may be expressed in English
+as follows: “This is the prefiguration of Mary the mother of God, and is
+in Latin named the Canticles.” Heineken expresses no doubt of this
+inscription being genuine, though he makes use of it as an argument in
+support of his opinion, that the copy in which it occurs was one of
+later edition; “for it is well known,” he observes, “that the earliest
+editions of printed books are without titles, and more especially those
+of block-books.” As this inscription, however, has been found in the
+Harlem copy only, I&nbsp;am inclined to agree with Mr. Ottley in
+considering it as a silly fraud devised by some of the compatriots of
+Coster for the purpose of establishing a fact which it is, in reality,
+much better calculated to <ins class = "correction" title = "text has superfluous close quote">overthrow.</ins><a class = "tag" name =
+"tagII43" id = "tagII43" href = "#noteII43">II.43</a></p>
+
+<p>Heineken, who appears to have had more knowledge than taste on the
+subject of art, declares the History of the Virgin to be “the most
+Gothic of all the block-books; that it is different from them both in
+the style of the designs and of the engraving; and that the figures are
+very like the ancient sculptures in the churches of Germany.” If by the
+term “Gothic” he means rude and tasteless, I&nbsp;differ with him
+entirely; for, though there be great sameness in the subjects, yet the
+figures, generally, are more gracefully designed than those of any other
+block-book
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page71" id = "page71">
+71</a></span>
+that I have seen. Compared with them, those of the Biblia Pauperum and
+the Speculum might be termed “Gothic” indeed.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_71" id = "illus_71">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_71.png" width = "336" height = "487"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The above group,&mdash;from that which Heineken considers the first
+edition,&mdash;in which the figures are of the size of the originals, is
+taken from the seventh subject in Mr. Ottley’s enumeration;<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagII44" id = "tagII44" href = "#noteII44">II.44</a> that
+is, from the upper portion of the fourth cut.</p>
+
+<p>The text is the 14th verse of the 1st chapter of the Song of Solomon:
+“<i>Botrus cipri dilectus meus inter vineas enngadi</i>;” which in our
+Bible is translated: “My beloved is unto me as a cluster of camphire in
+the vineyards of En-gedi.” In every cut the female figures are almost
+precisely the same, and the drapery and the expression scarcely vary.
+From the easy and graceful attitudes of his female figures, as well as
+from the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page72" id = "page72">
+72</a></span>
+manner in which they are clothed, the artist may be considered as the
+Stothard of his day.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_72" id = "illus_72">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_72.png" width = "323" height = "473"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The two preceding subjects are impressed on the second leaf, in the
+order in which they are here represented, forming Nos. 3&nbsp;and 4 in
+Mr. Ottley’s enumeration. They are reduced copies from the originals in
+the first edition, and afford a correct idea of a complete page.<a class
+= "tag" name = "tagII45" id = "tagII45" href = "#noteII45">II.45</a></p>
+
+<p>On the scroll to the left, in the upper subject, the words are
+intended for&mdash;“<i>Trahe me, post te curremus in odore unguentorum
+tuorum</i>.” They are to be found in the 4th and 3rd verses of the 1st
+chapter of the Song of Solomon. In our Bible the phrases are translated
+as follows: “Draw me, we will run after thee, .&nbsp;.&nbsp;. [in] the
+savour of thy good ointments.”
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page73" id = "page73">
+73</a></span>
+In the scroll to the right, the inscription is from the 14th verse of
+the <span class = "smallroman">II</span>nd chapter: “<i>Sonet vox tua in
+auribus meis, vox enim tua dulcis et facies tua decora</i>:” which is
+thus rendered in our Bible: “Let me hear thy voice, for sweet is thy
+voice, and thy countenance is comely.”</p>
+
+<p>On the scroll to the left, in the lower compartment, is the following
+inscription, from verse 10th, chapter <span class =
+"smallroman">II</span>nd: “<i>En dilectus meus loquitur mihi, Surge,
+propera, amica mea</i>:” in our Bible translated thus: “My beloved
+spake, and said unto me, Rise up, my love, my fair one, and come away.”
+The inscription on the scroll to the right is from 1st verse of chapter
+<span class = "smallroman">IV</span>th: “<i>Quam pulchra es amica mea,
+quam pulchra es! Oculi tui columbarum, absque eo quod intrinsecus
+latet.</i>” The translation of this passage in our Bible does not
+correspond with that of the Vulgate in the last clause: “Behold thou art
+fair, my love; behold thou art fair; thou hast doves’ eyes <i>within thy
+locks</i>.”</p>
+
+<p>The style in which the cuts of the History of the Virgin are engraved
+indicates a more advanced state of art than those in the Apocalypse. The
+field of each cut is altogether better filled, and the subjects contain
+more of what an engraver would term “work;” and shadowing, which is
+represented by courses of single lines, is also introduced. The
+back-grounds are better put in, and throughout the whole book may be
+observed several indications of a perception of natural beauty; such as
+the occasional introduction of trees, flowers, and animals.
+A&nbsp;vine-stock, with its trellis, is happily and tastefully
+introduced at folio 4 and folio 10; and at folio 12 a goat and two
+sheep, drawn and engraved with considerable ability, are perceived in
+the background. Several other instances of a similar kind might be
+pointed out as proofs that the artist, whoever he might be, was no
+unworthy precursor of Albert Durer.</p>
+
+<p>From a fancied delicacy in the engraving of the cuts of the History
+of the Virgin, Dr. Dibdin was led to conjecture that they were the
+“production of some metallic substance, and not struck off from wooden
+blocks.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagII46" id = "tagII46" href =
+"#noteII46">II.46</a> This speculation is the result of a total
+ignorance of the practical part of wood engraving, and of the
+capabilities of the art; and the very process which is suggested
+involves a greater difficulty than that which is sought to be removed.
+But, in fact, so far from the engravings being executed with a delicacy
+unattainable on wood, there is nothing in them&mdash;so far as the mere
+cutting of fancied delicate lines is concerned&mdash;which a mere
+apprentice of the present day, using very ordinary tools, would not
+execute as well, either on pear-tree, apple-tree, or beech, the kinds of
+wood on which the earliest engravings are supposed to have been made.
+Working on box, there is scarcely a line in all the series which a
+skilful wood-engraver could not split. In a similar manner Mr. John
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page74" id = "page74">
+74</a></span>
+Landseer conjectured from the frequent occurrence of cross-hatching in
+the wood engravings of the sixteenth century, that they, instead of
+being cut on wood, had in reality been executed on type-metal; although,
+as is known to every wood-engraver, the execution of such hatchings on
+type-metal would be more difficult than on wood. When, in refutation of
+his opinion, he was shown impressions from such presumed blocks or
+plates of type-metal, which from certain marks in the impressions had
+been evidently worm-eaten, he&mdash;in the genuine style of an
+“ingenious disputant” who could</p>
+
+<p class = "verse">
+“Confute the exciseman and puzzle the <ins class = "correction" title =
+"close quote missing">vicar,&mdash;”</ins></p>
+
+<p>abandoned type-metal, and fortified his “<i>stubborn</i> opinion
+behind <i>vegetable putties</i> or pastes that are capable of being
+hardened&mdash;or any substance that is capable of being
+<i>worm-eaten</i>.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagII47" id = "tagII47" href
+= "#noteII47">II.47</a> Such “commenta opinionum”&mdash;the mere
+figments of conjecture&mdash;only deserve notice in consequence of their
+extravagance.</p>
+
+<p>The History of the Virgin, in the same manner as every other ancient
+block-book, has been claimed for Coster by those who ascribe to him the
+invention both of wood engraving and printing with moveable types; but
+if even the churchwarden of St. Bavon’s in Harlem ever had handled a
+graver, or made a design, or if he was even the cause of wood-cuts being
+engraved by others,&mdash;every one of which assertions I very much
+doubt,&mdash;I should yet feel strongly inclined to believe that the
+work in question was the production of an artist residing either in
+Suabia or Alsace.</p>
+
+<p>Scarcely any person who has had an opportunity of examining the works
+of Martin Schön, or Schöngauer,&mdash;one of the earliest German
+copper-plate engravers,&mdash;who is said to have died in 1486, can
+fail, on looking over the designs in the History of the Virgin, to
+notice the resemblance which many of his female figures bear to those in
+the above-named work. The similarity is too striking to have been
+accidental. I&nbsp;am inclined to believe that Martin Schön must have
+studied&mdash;and diligently too&mdash;the subjects contained in the
+History, or that he had received his professional education in a school
+which might possibly be founded by the artist who designed and engraved
+the wood-cuts in question, or under a master who had thoroughly adopted
+their style.</p>
+
+<p>Martin Schön was a native of Colmar in Alsace, where he was born
+about 1453, but was a descendant of a family, probably of artists, which
+originally belonged to Augsburg. Heineken and Von Murr both bear
+testimony,<a class = "tag" name = "tagII48" id = "tagII48" href =
+"#noteII48">II.48</a> though indirectly, to the resemblance which his
+works bear to the designs in the History of the Virgin. The former
+states that the figures in the History are very like the ancient
+sculptures in the churches
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page75" id = "page75">
+75</a></span>
+of Germany, and Von Murr asserts that such sculptures were probably
+Martin Schön’s models.</p>
+
+<p>In two or three of the designs in the History of the Virgin several
+shields of arms are introduced, either borne by figures, or suspended
+from a wall. As the heraldic emblems on such shields were not likely to
+be entirely suggested by the mere fancy of the artist, I&nbsp;think that
+most of them will be found to belong to Germany rather than to Holland;
+and the charge on one of them,&mdash;two fish back to back, which is
+rather remarkable, and by no means common, is one of the quarterings of
+the former Counts of Wirtemberg, the very district in which I am
+inclined to think the work was executed. I&nbsp;moreover fancy that in
+one of the cuts I can perceive an allusion to the Council of Basle,
+which in 1439 elected Amadeus of Savoy as Pope, under the title of
+Felix&nbsp;V, in opposition to Eugene IV. In order to afford those who
+are better acquainted with the subject an opportunity of judging for
+themselves, and of making further discoveries which may support my
+opinions if well-founded, or which may correct them if erroneous,
+I&nbsp;shall give copies of all the shields of arms which occur in the
+book. The following cut of four figures&mdash;a pope, two cardinals, and
+a bishop&mdash;occurs in the upper compartment of the nineteenth folio.
+The shield charged with a black eagle also occurs in the same
+compartment.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_75" id = "illus_75">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_75.png" width = "210" height = "193"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The preceding figures are seen looking over the battlements of a
+house in which the Virgin, typical of the Church, is seen in bed. On a
+scroll is inscribed the following sentence, from the Song of Solomon,
+chap. iii. v.&nbsp;2: “<i>Surgam et circumibo civitatem; per vicos et
+plateas queram quem diligit anima mea</i>:” which is thus translated in
+our Bible: “I&nbsp;will rise now, and go about the city in the streets,
+and in the broad ways I will seek him whom my soul loveth.” In the same
+design, the Virgin, with her three attendants, are seen in a street,
+where two men on horseback
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page76" id = "page76">
+76</a></span>
+appear taking away her mantle. One of the men bears upon his shield the
+figure of a black eagle, the same as that which appears underneath the
+wood-cut above given. Upon a scroll is this inscription, from Solomon’s
+Song, chapter&nbsp;<span class = "smallroman">V.</span> verse&nbsp;7:
+“<i>Percusserunt et vulneraverunt me, tulerunt pallium meum custodes
+murorum</i>.” In our Bible the entire verse is thus translated: “The
+watchmen that went about the city found me; they smote me, they wounded
+me: the keepers of the walls took away my veil from me.”</p>
+
+<p>As the incidents in the life of the Virgin, described in the
+Canticles, were assumed by commentators to be typical of the history of
+the Church, I&nbsp;am inclined to think that the above cut may contain
+an allusion to the disputes between Pope Eugene IV. and the Council
+assembled at Basle in 1439. The passage in the first inscription,
+“I&nbsp;will seek him whom my soul loveth,” might be very appropriately
+applied to a council which professed to represent the Church, and which
+had chosen for itself a new head. The second inscription would be
+equally descriptive of the treatment which, in the opinion of the same
+council, the Church had received from Eugene IV, whom they declared to
+be deposed, because “he was a disturber of the peace and union of the
+Church; a&nbsp;schismatic and a heretic; guilty of simony; perjured and
+incorrigible.” On the shield borne by the figure of a pope wearing a
+triple crown, is a fleur-de-lis; but whether or no this flower formed
+part of the armorial distinctions of Amadeus Duke of Savoy, whom the
+council chose for their new pope, I&nbsp;have not been able to
+ascertain. The lion borne by the second figure, a&nbsp;cardinal, is too
+general a cognizance to be assigned to any particular state or city. The
+charge on the shield borne by the third figure, also a cardinal,
+I&nbsp;cannot make out. The cross-keys on the bishop’s shield are the
+arms of the city of Ratisbon.</p>
+
+<p>The following shields are borne by angels, who appear above the
+battlements of a wall in the lower compartment of folio&nbsp;4, forming
+the eighth subject in Mr. Ottley’s enumeration.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_76" id = "illus_76">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_76.png" width = "346" height = "38"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>On these I have nothing to remark <ins class = "correction" title =
+"text reads ‘futher’">further</ins> than that the double-headed eagle is
+the arms of the German empire. The other three I leave to be deciphered
+by others. The second, with an indented chief, and something like a rose
+in the field, will be found, I&nbsp;am inclined to think, to be the arms
+of some town or city in Wirtemberg or Alsace. I&nbsp;give the three
+inscriptions here, not that they are likely to throw any light on the
+subject, but because the third has not hitherto been deciphered. They
+are
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page77" id = "page77">
+77</a></span>
+all from the IVth chapter of the Song of Solomon. The first is from
+verse 12: “<i>Ortus conclusus est soror, mea sposa; ortus conclusus,
+fons signatus</i>:” in our translation of the Bible: “A&nbsp;garden
+enclosed is my sister, my spouse; a&nbsp;spring shut up, a&nbsp;fountain
+sealed.” The second is from verse 15: “<i>Fons ortorum, puteus aquarum
+vivencium quæ fluunt impetu de Lybano</i>:” in our Bible:
+“A&nbsp;fountain of gardens, a&nbsp;well of living waters, and streams
+from Lebanon.” The third is from verse 16: “<i>Surge Aquilo; veni
+Auster, perfla ortum et fluant aromata illius</i>:” in our Bible:
+“Awake, O&nbsp;north wind; and come, thou south; blow upon my garden,
+that the spices thereof may flow out.”</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_77" id = "illus_77">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_77.png" width = "362" height = "152"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>In the upper division of folio 15, which is the twenty-ninth subject
+in Mr. Ottley’s enumeration, the above shields occur. They are suspended
+on the walls of a tower, which is represented by an inscription as “the
+armoury whereon hang a thousand bucklers, all shields of mighty men.”<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagII49" id = "tagII49" href =
+"#noteII49">II.49</a></p>
+
+<p>On the first four I shall make no remark beyond calling the attention
+of those skilled in German heraldry to the remarkable charge in the
+first shield, which appears something like a cray-fish. The sixth, “two
+trouts hauriant and addorsed,” is one of the quarterings of the house of
+Wirtemberg as lords of Mompelgard. The seventh is charged with three
+crowns, the arms of the city of Cologne. The charge of the eighth I take
+to be three cinquefoils, which are one of the quarterings of the family
+of Aremberg. The cross-keys in the ninth are the arms of the city of
+Ratisbon.</p>
+
+<p>The four following shields occur in the lower division of folio 15.
+They are borne by men in armour standing by the side of a bed. On a
+scroll is the following inscription, from the 7th and 8th verses of the
+third chapter of Solomon’s Song. “<i>En lectulum Salomonis sexaginta
+fortes ambiunt, omnes tenentes gladios</i>:” in our Bible: “Behold his
+bed, which is Solomon’s; three score valiant men are about it
+.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. they all hold swords.”</p>
+
+<p>The first three of the shields on the following page I shall leave to
+be
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page78" id = "page78">
+78</a></span>
+assigned by others. The fourth, which is charged with a rose, was the
+arms of Hagenau, a&nbsp;town in Alsace.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_78" id = "illus_78">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_78.png" width = "363" height = "63"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>As so little is known respecting the country where, and the precise
+time when, the principal block-books appeared,&mdash;of which the
+History of the Virgin is one,&mdash;I think every particular, however
+trifling, which may be likely to afford even a gleam of light, deserving
+of notice. It is for this reason that I have given the different shields
+contained in this and the preceding pages; not in the belief that I have
+made any <ins class = "correction" title = "final ‘t’ invisible">important</ins> discovery, or established any considerable
+facts; but with the desire of directing to this subject the attention of
+others, whose further inquiries and comparisons may perhaps establish
+such a perfect identity between the arms of a particular district, and
+those contained in the volume, as may determine the probable locality of
+the place where it was executed. The coincidences which I have noticed
+were not sought for. Happening to be turning over Sebastian Munster’s
+Cosmography when a copy of the History of the Virgin was before me,
+I&nbsp;observed that the two fish in the arms of the Counts of
+Wirtemberg,<a class = "tag" name = "tagII50" id = "tagII50" href =
+"#noteII50">II.50</a> and those in the 15th folio of the History, were
+the same. The other instances of correspondence were also discovered
+without search, from having occasionally, in tracing the progress of
+wood engraving, to refer to Merian’s Topographia.</p>
+
+<p>Considering the thickness of the paper on which the block-books are
+printed,&mdash;if I may apply this term to them,&mdash;and the
+thin-bodied ink which has been used. I&nbsp;am at a loss to conceive how
+the early wood-engravers have contrived to take off their impressions so
+correctly; for in all the block-books which I have seen, where friction
+has evidently been the means employed to obtain the impression,
+I&nbsp;have only noticed two subjects in which the lines appeared double
+in consequence of the shifting of the paper. From the want of body in
+the ink, which appears in the Apocalypse to have been little more than
+water-colour, it is not likely the paper could be used in a damp state,
+otherwise the ink would run or spread; and, even if this difficulty did
+not exist, the paper in a damp state could not have borne the excessive
+rubbing which it appears to have received in order to obtain the
+impression.<a class = "tag" name = "tagII51" id = "tagII51" href =
+"#noteII51">II.51</a> Even with
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page79" id = "page79">
+79</a></span>
+such printer’s ink as is used in the present day,&mdash;which being
+tenacious, renders the paper in taking an impression by means of
+friction much less liable to slip or shift,&mdash;it would be difficult
+to obtain clear impressions on thick paper from blocks the size of those
+which form each page of the Apocalypse, or the History of the
+Virgin.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Ottley, however, states that no less than two pages of the
+History of the Virgin have been engraved on the same block. His
+observations on this subject are as follows: “Upon first viewing this
+work, I&nbsp;was of opinion that each of the designs contained in it was
+engraved upon a separate block of wood: but, upon a more careful
+examination, I&nbsp;have discovered that the contents of each two
+pages&mdash;that is, four subjects&mdash;were engraved on the same
+block. The number of wooden blocks, therefore, from which the whole was
+printed, was only eight. This is proved in the first two pages of the
+copy before me;<a class = "tag" name = "tagII52" id = "tagII52" href =
+"#noteII52">II.52</a> where, near the bottom of the two upper subjects,
+the block appears to have been broken in two, in a horizontal
+direction,&mdash;after it was engraved,&mdash;and joined together again;
+although not with such exactness but that the traces of the operation
+clearly show themselves. The traces of a similar accident are still more
+apparent in the last block, containing the Nos. 29, 30, 31, 32. The
+whole work was, therefore, printed on eight sheets of paper from the
+same number of engraved blocks, the first four subjects being printed
+from the same block upon the same sheet,&mdash;and so on with the rest;
+and, indeed, in Lord Spencer’s copy, each sheet, being mounted upon a
+guard, distinctly shows itself entire.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagII53"
+id = "tagII53" href = "#noteII53">II.53</a></p>
+
+<p>The appearance of a corresponding fracture in two adjacent pages
+would certainly render it likely that both were engraved on the same
+block; though I should like to have an opportunity of satisfying myself
+by inspection whether such appearances are really occasioned by a
+fracture or not; for it is rather singular that such appearances should
+be observable on the <i>first</i> and the <i>last</i> blocks only.
+I&nbsp;always reluctantly speculate, except on something like sufficient
+grounds; but as I have not seen a copy of the edition to which Mr.
+Ottley refers, I&nbsp;beg to ask if the traces of supposed fracture in
+the last two pages do not correspond with those in the first two? and if
+so, would it not be equally reasonable to infer that eight subjects
+instead of four were engraved on the same block? A&nbsp;block containing
+only two pages would be about seventeen inches by ten, allowing for
+inner margins; and to obtain clear impressions from it by means of
+friction, on dry thick paper, and with mere water-colour
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page80" id = "page80">
+80</a></span>
+ink, would be a task of such difficulty that I cannot conceive how it
+could be performed. No traces of points by which the paper might be kept
+steady on the block are perceptible; and I unhesitatingly assert that no
+wood-engraver of the present day could by means of friction take clear
+impressions from such a block on equally thick paper, and using mere
+distemper instead of printer’s ink. As the impressions in the History of
+the Virgin have unquestionably been taken by means of friction, it is
+evident to me that if the blocks were of the size that Mr. Ottley
+supposes, the old wood-engravers, who did not use a press, must have
+resorted to some contrivance to keep the paper steady, with which we are
+now unacquainted.</p>
+
+<p>Heineken describes an edition of the Apocalypse consisting of
+forty-eight leaves, with cuts on one side only, which, when bound, form
+a volume of three “<i>gatherings</i>,” or collections, each containing
+sixteen leaves. Each of these gatherings is formed by eight folio sheets
+folded in the middle, and placed one within the other, so that the cuts
+are worked off in the following manner: On the outer sheet of the
+gathering, forming the first and the sixteenth leaf, the first and the
+sixteenth cuts are impressed, so that when the sheet is folded they face
+each other, and the first and the last pages are left blank. In a
+similar manner the 2nd and 15th; the 3d and 14th; the 4th and 13th; the
+5th and 12th; the 6th and 11th; the 7th and 10th, and the 8th and 9th,
+are, each pair respectively, impressed on the same side of the same
+sheet. These sheets when folded for binding are then placed in such a
+manner that the first is opposite the second; the third opposite the
+fourth, and so on throughout the whole sixteen. Being arranged in this
+manner, two cuts and two blank pages occur alternately. The reason for
+this mode of arrangement was, that the blank pages might be pasted
+together, and the cuts thus appear as if one were impressed on the back
+of another. A&nbsp;familiar illustration of this mode of folding,
+adopted by the early wood-engravers before they were accustomed to
+impress their cuts on both sides of a leaf, is afforded by forming a
+sheet of paper into a little book of sixteen leaves, and numbering the
+second and third pages 1 and 2, leaving two pages blank; then numbering
+the fifth and sixth 3 and 4, and so to No.&nbsp;16, which will stand
+opposite to No.&nbsp;15, and have its back, forming the outer page of
+the gathering, unimpressed.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the block-books, that which is now commonly called “<span
+class = "smallcaps">Biblia Pauperum</span>,”&mdash;the Bible of the
+Poor,&mdash;is most frequently referred to as a specimen of that kind of
+printing from wood-blocks which preceded typography, or printing by
+means of moveable characters or types. This title, however, has given
+rise to an error which certain learned bibliographers have without the
+least examination adopted, and have afterwards given to the public
+considerably enlarged, at least, if not
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page81" id = "page81">
+81</a></span>
+corrected.<a class = "tag" name = "tagII54" id = "tagII54" href =
+"#noteII54">II.54</a> It has been gravely stated that this book, whose
+text is in abbreviated Latin, was printed for the use of the <i>poor</i>
+in an age when even the <i>rich</i> could scarcely read their own
+language. Manuscripts of the Bible were certainly at that period both
+scarce and costly, and not many individuals even of high rank were
+possessed of a copy; but to conclude that the first editions of the
+so-called “Biblia Pauperum” were engraved and printed for the use of the
+poor, appears to be about as legitimate an inference as to conclude
+that, in the present day, the reprints of the Roxburghe club were
+published for the benefit of the poor who could not afford to purchase
+the original editions. That a merchant or a wealthy trader might
+occasionally become the purchaser of “Biblia Pauperum,” I&nbsp;am
+willing to admit,&mdash;though I am of opinion that the book was never
+expressly intended for the laity;&mdash;but that it should be printed
+for the use of the poor, I&nbsp;cannot bring myself to believe. If the
+poor of Germany in the fifteenth century had the means of purchasing
+such books, and were capable of reading them, I&nbsp;can only say that
+they must have had more money to spare than their descendants, and have
+been more learned than most of the rich people throughout Europe in the
+present day. If the accounts which we have of the state of knowledge
+about 1450 be correct, the monk or friar who could read and expound such
+a work must have been esteemed as a person of considerable literary
+attainments.</p>
+
+<p>The name “Biblia Pauperum” was unknown to Schelhorn and Schœpflin,
+and was not adopted by Meerman. Schelhorn, who was the first that
+published a fac-simile of one of the pages engraved on wood, gives it no
+distinctive name; but merely describes it as “a&nbsp;book which
+contained in text and figures certain histories and prophecies of the
+Old Testament, which, in the author’s judgment, were figurative of
+Christ, and of the works performed by him for the salvation of
+mankind.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagII55" id = "tagII55" href =
+"#noteII55">II.55</a> Schœpflin calls it, “Vaticinia Veteris Testamenti
+de Christo;”<a class = "tag" name = "tagII56" id = "tagII56" href =
+"#noteII56">II.56</a>&mdash;“Prophecies of the Old Testament concerning
+Christ;” but neither this title, nor the description of Schelhorn, is
+sufficiently comprehensive; for the book contains not only prophecies
+and typical figures from the Old Testament, but also passages and
+subjects selected from the New.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page82" id = "page82">
+82</a></span>
+The title which Meerman gives to it is more accurately descriptive of
+the contents: “Figuræ typicæ Veteris atque antitypicæ Novi Testamenti,
+seu Historia Jesu Christi in figuris;” that is, “Typical figures of the
+Old Testament and antitypical of the New, or the History of Jesus Christ
+pictorially represented.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagII57" id =
+"tagII57" href = "#noteII57">II.57</a></p>
+
+<p>Heineken appears to have been the first who gave to this book the
+name “Biblia Pauperum,” as it was in his opinion the most appropriate;
+“the figures being executed for the purpose of giving a knowledge of the
+Bible to those who could not afford to purchase a manuscript copy of the
+Scriptures.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagII58" id = "tagII58" href =
+"#noteII58">II.58</a> This reason for the name is not, however,
+a&nbsp;good one: for, according to his own statement, the only copy
+which he ever saw with the title or inscription “Biblia Pauperum,” was a
+manuscript on vellum of the fourteenth century, in which the figures
+were drawn and coloured by hand.<a class = "tag" name = "tagII59" id =
+"tagII59" href = "#noteII59">II.59</a> Meerman, however, though without
+adopting the title, had previously noticed the same manuscript, which in
+his opinion was as old as the twelfth or thirteenth century. As the word
+“Pauperum” formed part of the title of the book long before presumed
+cheap copies were printed from wood-blocks for the use of the poor, it
+could not be peculiarly appropriate as the title of an illumined
+manuscript on vellum, which the poor could as little afford to purchase
+as they could a manuscript copy of the Bible. In whatever manner the
+term “poor” became connected with the book, it is clear that the name
+“Biblia Pauperum” was not given to it in consequence of its being
+printed at a cheap rate for circulation among poor people. It is not
+indeed likely that its ancient title ever was “Biblia Pauperum;” while,
+on the contrary, there seems every reason to believe that Heineken had
+copied an abridged title and thus given currency to an error.</p>
+
+<p>Heineken says that he observed the inscription, “Incipit Biblia
+Pauperum,” in a manuscript in the library at Wolfenbuttel, written on
+vellum in a Gothic character, which appeared to be of the fourteenth
+century. The figures, which were badly designed, were coloured in
+distemper, and the explanatory text was in Latin rhyme. It is surprising
+that neither Heineken nor any other bibliographer should have suspected
+that a word was wanting in the above supposed title, more especially as
+the word wanting might have been so readily suggested by another work so
+much resembling the pretended “Biblia Pauperum” that the one has
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page83" id = "page83">
+83</a></span>
+frequently been confounded with the other.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagII60" id = "tagII60" href = "#noteII60">II.60</a> In the proemium of
+this other work, which is no other than the “Speculum Salvationis,” the
+writer expressly states that he has compiled it “propter pauperes
+predicatores,”&mdash;for <i>poor</i> preachers.</p>
+
+<div class = "verse blackletter">
+<p>Predictu’ p’hemiu’ hujus libri de conte’tis compilavi,</p>
+<p>Et p’pter paup’es p’dicatores hoc apponere curavi;</p>
+<p>Qui si forte nequieru’t totum librum sibi co’p’are,</p>
+<p>Possu’t ex ipso p’hemio, si sciu’t p’dicare.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p>This preface of contents, stating what this book’s about,</p>
+<p>For the sake of all <i>poor preachers</i> I have fairly written
+out;</p>
+<p>If the purchase of the book entire should be above their reach,</p>
+<p>This preface yet may serve them, if they know but how to preach.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>That the other book might be called “Biblia Pauperum
+<i>Predicatorum</i>,” in consequence of its general use by mendicant
+preachers, I&nbsp;can readily believe; and no doubt the omission of the
+word “predicatorum” in the inscription copied by Heineken has given rise
+to the popular error, that the pretended “Biblia Pauperum” was a kind of
+cheap pictorial Bible, especially intended for the use of the poor. It
+is, in fact, a&nbsp;series of “skeleton sermons” ornamented with
+wood-cuts to warm the preacher’s imagination, and stored with texts to
+assist his memory. In speaking of this book in future, I&nbsp;shall
+always refer to it as the “Biblia Pauperum Predicatorum,”&mdash;“the
+Poor Preachers’ Bible;” for the continuance of its former title only
+tends, in my opinion, to disseminate an error.</p>
+
+<p>Nyerup, who in 1784 published an “Account of such books as were read
+in schools in Denmark prior to the Reformation,”<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagII61" id = "tagII61" href = "#noteII61">II.61</a> objected to the
+title “Biblia Pauperum,” as he had seen portions of a manuscript copy in
+which the drawings were richly coloured. The title which he preferred
+was <span class = "smallcaps">Biblia Typico-Harmonica</span>. In this
+objection, however, Camus does not concur: “It is not from the
+embellishments of a single copy,” he observes, “that we ought to judge
+of the current price of a book; and, besides, we must not forget to take
+into consideration the other motives which might suggest the title,
+‘Bible of the Poor,’ for we have proofs that other abridgments of
+greater extent were called ‘Poor men’s books.’ Such is the ‘Biblia
+Pauperum’ of St. Bonaventure, consisting of extracts for the use of
+<i>preachers</i>, and the ‘Dictionarius Pauperum.’ Of the last the title
+is explained in the book itself: ‘Incipit summula omnibus <i>verbi
+divini seminatoribus pernecessaria</i>.’” It is surprising that Camus
+did
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page84" id = "page84">
+84</a></span>
+not perceive that the very titles which he cites militate against the
+opinion of the “Biblia” being intended for the use of poor <i>men</i>.
+St. Bonaventure’s work, and the Dictionary, which he refers to as
+instances of “Poor men’s books,” both bear on the very face of them a
+refutation of his opinion, for in the works themselves it is distinctly
+stated that they were compiled, not “ad usum pauperum <i>hominum</i>;”
+but “ad usum pauperum <i>predicatorum</i>, et <i>verbi divini
+seminatorum</i>:” not for the use of “poor <i>men</i>,” but for “poor
+<i>preachers</i> and <i>teachers of the divine word</i>.” Camus has
+unwittingly supplied a club to batter his own argument to pieces.</p>
+
+<p>Of the “Biblia Pauperum Predicatorum,” there are, according to
+Heineken, five different editions with the text in Latin. Four of them
+contain each forty leaves, printed on one side only from wood-blocks by
+means of friction, and which differ from each other in so trifling a
+degree, that it is not unlikely that three of them are from the same set
+of blocks. The other edition,&mdash;the fifth described by
+Heineken&mdash;contains fifty leaves, printed in a similar manner, but
+apparently with the figures designed by a different artist. Besides the
+above, there are two different editions, also from wood-blocks, with the
+text in German: one with the date 1470; and the other, 1471 or 1475, for
+the last numeral appears as like a 1 as a&nbsp;5. There are also two
+editions, one Latin, and the other German, with the text printed from
+moveable types by Albert Pfister, at Bamberg, about 1462.</p>
+
+<p>Without pretending to decide on the priority of the first five
+editions,&mdash;as I have not been able to perceive any sufficient marks
+from which the order in which they were published might be
+ascertained,&mdash;I shall here give a brief account of a copy of that
+edition which Heineken ranks as the third. It is in the King’s Library
+at the British Museum, and was formerly in the collection of Monsieur
+Gaignat, at whose sale it was bought for George III.</p>
+
+<p>It is a small folio of forty leaves, impressed on one side only, in
+order that the blank pages might be pasted together, so that two of the
+printed sides would thus form only one leaf. The order of the first
+twenty pages is indicated by the letters of the alphabet, from <span
+class = "blackletter">a</span> to <span class = "blackletter">v</span>,
+and of the second twenty by the same letters, having as a distinguishing
+mark a point both before and after them, thus: <span class =
+"blackletter">. a .</span> In that which Heineken considers the first
+edition, the letters <span class = "blackletter">n</span>, <span class =
+"blackletter">o</span>, <span class = "blackletter">r</span>, <span
+class = "blackletter">s</span>, <!--printed with blackletter commas -->
+of the second alphabet, making pages 33, 34, 37, and 38, want those two
+distinguishing points, which, according to him, are to be found in each
+of the other three Latin editions of forty pages each. Mr. Ottley has,
+however, observed that Earl Spencer’s copy wants the points,&mdash;on
+each side of the letters <span class = "blackletter">n</span>, <span
+class = "blackletter">o</span>, <span class = "blackletter">r</span>,
+<span class = "blackletter">s</span>,<!-- ditto --> of the second
+alphabet,&mdash;thus agreeing with that which Heineken calls the first
+edition, while in all other respects it answers the description which
+that writer
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page85" id = "page85">
+85</a></span>
+gives of the presumed second. Mr. Ottley says, that Heineken errs in
+asserting that the want of those points on each side of the said letters
+is a distinction exclusively belonging to the first edition, since the
+edition called by him the second is likewise without them.<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagII62" id = "tagII62" href = "#noteII62">II.62</a> In
+fact, the variations noticed by Heineken are not only insufficient to
+enable a person to judge of the priority of the editions, but they are
+such as might with the greatest ease be introduced into a block after a
+certain number of copies had been taken off. Those which he considers as
+distinguishing marks might easily be broken away by the burnisher or
+rubber, and replaced by the insertion of other pieces, differing in a
+slight degree. From the trifling variations noticed by Heineken<a class
+= "tag" name = "tagII63" id = "tagII63" href = "#noteII63">II.63</a> in
+the first three editions, it is not unlikely that they were all taken
+from the same blocks. Each of the triangular ornaments in which he has
+observed a difference, might easily be re-inserted in the event of its
+being injured in taking an impression. The tiara of Moses, in page 35,
+letter <span class = "blackletter">.&nbsp;p&nbsp;.</span> would be
+peculiarly liable to accident in taking an impression by friction, and I
+am disposed to think that a part of it has been broken off, and that in
+repairing it a trifling alteration has been made in the ornament on its
+top. Heineken, noticing the alteration, has considered it as a criterion
+of two different editions, while in all probability it only marks a
+trifling variety in copies taken from the same blocks.</p>
+
+<p>On each page are four portraits,&mdash;two at the top, and two at the
+bottom,&mdash;intended for the prophets, and other holy men, whose
+writings are cited in the text. The middle part of the page between each
+pair of portraits consists of three compartments, each of which is
+occupied with a subject from the Old or the New Testament. In the 14th
+page, however, letter <span class = "blackletter">o</span>, two of the
+compartments&mdash;that in the centre, and the adjoining one to the
+right&mdash;are both occupied by the same subject, Christ’s entry into
+Jerusalem. The greatest portion of the explanatory text is at the top on
+each side of the uppermost portraits; and on each side of those below
+there is a Leonine, or rhyming Latin, verse. A&nbsp;similar verse
+underneath those portraits forms the concluding line of each page. Texts
+of Scripture, and moral or explanatory sentences, having reference to
+the subjects in the three compartments, also appear on scrolls. The
+following cut, which is a reduced copy of the 14th page, letter <span
+class = "blackletter">k</span>, will afford a better idea of the
+arrangement of the subjects, and of the explanatory texts, than any
+lengthened description.</p>
+
+<p>The whole of this subject&mdash;both text and figures&mdash;appears
+intended to inculcate the necessity of restraining appetite. The
+inscription to the right, at the top, contains a reference to the 3rd
+chapter of Genesis, wherein there is to be found an account of the
+temptation and fall of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page86" id = "page86">
+86</a></span>
+Adam and Eve, who were induced by the Serpent to taste the forbidden
+fruit. This temptation of our first parents through the medium of the
+palate, was, as may be gathered from the same inscription, figurative of
+the temptation of Christ after his fasting forty days in the wilderness,
+when the Devil came to him and said, “If thou be the Son of God, command
+that these stones be made bread.”</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_86" id = "illus_86">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_86.png" width = "330" height = "435"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>In the inscription to the left, reference is made to the 25th chapter
+of Genesis, as containing an account of Esau, who, in consequence of his
+unrestrained appetite, sold his birth-right for a mess of pottage.</p>
+
+<p>In the compartments in the middle of the page, are three
+illustrations of the preceding text. In the centre is seen the pattern
+to imitate,&mdash;Christ resisting the temptation of the Devil; and on
+each side the examples to deter,&mdash;Adam and Eve with the forbidden
+fruit; and hungry Esau receiving the mess of pottage from Jacob.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page87" id = "page87">
+87</a></span>
+<p>Underneath the two half-length figures at the top, is inscribed
+“David 34,” and “Ysaie xxix.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagII64" id =
+"tagII64" href = "#noteII64">II.64</a> The numerals are probably
+intended to indicate the chapters in the Psalms, and in the Prophecies
+of Isaiah, where the inscriptions on the adjacent scrolls are to be
+found. On similar scrolls, towards the bottom of the page, are
+references to the 7th chapter of the 2nd book of Kings, and to the 16th
+chapter of Job. The two half-length figures are most likely intended for
+the writers of those sacred books. The likenesses of the prophets and
+holy persons, thus introduced at the top and bottom of each page, are,
+as Schelhorn has observed,<a class = "tag" name = "tagII65" id =
+"tagII65" href = "#noteII65">II.65</a> purely imaginary; for the same
+character is seldom seen twice with the same face. As most of the
+supposed figurative descriptions of Christ and his ministry are to be
+found in the Psalms, and in the Prophecies of Isaiah, the portraits of
+David and the last-named prophet are those which most frequently occur;
+and the designer seems to have been determined that neither the king nor
+the prophet should ever appear twice with the same likeness.</p>
+
+<p>The rhyming verses are as follows. That to the right, underneath the
+subject of Adam and Eve:</p>
+
+<p class = "verse">
+Serpens vicit, Adam vetitam sibi sugerat escam.</p>
+
+<p>The other, on the opposite side, underneath Jacob and Esau:</p>
+
+<p class = "verse">
+Lentis ob ardorem proprium male perdit honorem.</p>
+
+<p>And the third, at the bottom of the page, underneath the two
+portraits:</p>
+
+<p class = "verse">
+Christum temptavit Sathanas ut eum superaret.</p>
+
+<p>The following cuts are fac-similes, the size of the originals, of
+each of the compartments of the page referred to, and of which a reduced
+copy has been already given.</p>
+
+<p>The first contains the representation of David and Isaiah, and the
+characters which follow the name of the former I consider to be intended
+for 34. They are the only instances in the volume of the use of Arabic,
+or rather Spanish numerals. The letter <span class =
+"blackletter">k</span>, at the foot, is the “signature,” as a printer
+would term it, indicating the order of the page. On each side of it are
+portions of scrolls containing inscriptions, of which some of the
+letters are seen.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_88" id = "illus_88">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_88.png" width = "294" height = "313"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The next cut represents Satan tempting Christ by offering him stones
+to be converted into bread.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page88" id = "page88">
+88</a></span>
+<p>In the distance are seen the high mountain, to the top of which
+Christ was taken up by the Devil, and the temple from whose pinnacle
+Christ was tempted to cast himself down. The figure of Christ in this
+compartment is not devoid of sober dignity; nor is Satan deficient in
+diabolical ugliness; but, though clawed and horned proper, he wants the
+usual appendage of a tail. The deficiency is, however, in some degree
+compensated by giving to his hip the likeness of a fiendish face. In two
+or three other old wood engravings I have noticed a repulsive face
+indicated in a similar manner on the hip of the Devil. A&nbsp;person
+well acquainted with the superstitions of the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries may perhaps be able to give a reason for this. It may be
+intended to show that Satan, who is ever going about seeking whom he may
+devour, can see both before and behind.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_89" id = "illus_89">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_89.png" width = "294" height = "464"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The cut on the following page (90), which forms the compartment to
+the right, represents Adam and Eve, each with an apple: and the state in
+which Eve appears to be, is in accordance with an opinion maintained by
+several of the schoolmen of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The
+tree of knowledge is without fruit, and the serpent, with a human face,
+is seen twined round its stem. The form of the tree and the shape of the
+leaves are almost precisely the same as those of the olive-trees in the
+Apocalypse, uprooted by Antichrist. The character of the designs,
+however, in the two books is almost as different as the manner of the
+engraving. In the Apocalypse there is no attempt at shading, while in
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page89" id = "page89">
+89</a></span>
+the book under consideration it is introduced in every page, though
+merely by courses of single lines, as may be perceived in the drapery of
+Christ in the preceding cut, and in the trunk of the tree and in the
+serpent in the cut subjoined. In this cut the figure of Adam cannot be
+considered as a specimen of manly beauty; his face is that of a man who
+is past his prime, and his attitude is very like that of one of the
+splay-footed boors of Teniers. In point of personal beauty Eve appears
+to be a partner worthy of her husband; and though from her action she
+seems conscious that she is naked, yet her expression and figure are
+extremely unlike the graceful timidity and beautiful proportions of the
+Medicean Venus. The face of the serpent displays neither malignity nor
+fiendish cunning; but, on the contrary, is marked with an expression not
+unlike that of a Bavarian broom-girl. This manner of representing the
+temptation of our first parents appears to have been conventional
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page90" id = "page90">
+90</a></span>
+among the early German Formschneiders; for I have seen several old
+wood-cuts of this subject, in which the figures were almost precisely
+the same. Notwithstanding the bad drawing and the coarse engraving of
+the following cut, many of the same subject, executed in Germany between
+1470 and 1510, are yet worse.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_90" id = "illus_90">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_90.png" width = "279" height = "500"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>In the opposite cut, which forms the compartment to the left, Esau,
+who is distinguished by his bow and quiver, is seen receiving a bowl of
+pottage from his brother Jacob. At the far side of the apartment is seen
+a “kail-pot,” suspended from a “crook,” with something like a ham and a
+gammon of bacon hanging against the wall. This subject is treated in a
+style which is thoroughly Dutch. Isaac’s family appear to
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page91" id = "page91">
+91</a></span>
+have been lodged in a tolerably comfortable house, with a stock of
+provisions near the chimney nook; and his two sons are very like some of
+the figures in the pictures of Teniers, more especially about the
+legs.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_91" id = "illus_91">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_91.png" width = "287" height = "508"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The following cut, a copy of that which is the lowest in the page,
+represents the two prophets or inspired penmen, to whom reference is
+made on the two scrolls whose ends may be perceived towards the lower
+corners of each arch. The words underneath the figures are a portion of
+the last rhyming verse quoted at page 87. It is from a difference in the
+triangular ornament, above the pillar separating the two figures, though
+not in this identical page, that Heineken chiefly decides on three of
+the editions of this book; though nothing could be more easy than to
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page92" id = "page92">
+92</a></span>
+introduce another ornament of a similar kind, in the event of the
+original either being damaged in printing or intentionally effaced. In
+some of the earliest wood-blocks which remain undestroyed by the rough
+handling of time there are evident traces of several letters having been
+broken away, and of the injury being afterwards remedied by the
+introduction of a new piece of wood, on which the letters wanting were
+re-engraved.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_92" id = "illus_92">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_92.png" width = "299" height = "262"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The ink with which the cuts in the “Poor Preachers’ Bible” have been
+printed, is evidently a kind of distemper of the colour of bistre,
+lighter than in the History of the Virgin, and darker than in the
+Apocalypse. In many of the cuts certain portions of the lines appear
+surcharged with ink,&mdash;sometimes giving to the whole page rather a
+blotched appearance,&mdash;while other portions seem scarcely to have
+received any.<a class = "tag" name = "tagII66" id = "tagII66" href =
+"#noteII66">II.66</a> This appearance is undoubtedly in consequence of
+the light-bodied ink having, from its want of tenacity, accumulated on
+the block where the line was thickest, or where two lines met, leaving
+the thinner portions adjacent with scarce any colouring at all. The
+block must, in my opinion, have been charged with such ink by means of
+something like a brush, and not by means of a ball. In some parts of the
+cuts&mdash;more especially where there is the greatest portion of
+text&mdash;small
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page93" id = "page93">
+93</a></span>
+white spaces may be perceived, as if a graver had been run through the
+lines. On first noticing this appearance, I&nbsp;was inclined to think
+that it was owing to the spreading of the hairs of the brush in inking,
+whereby certain parts might have been left untouched. The same kind of
+break in the lines may be observed, however, in some of the impressions
+of the old wood-cuts published by Becker and Derschau,<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagII67" id = "tagII67" href = "#noteII67">II.67</a> and which
+are worked off by means of a press, and with common printer’s ink. In
+these it is certainly owing to minute furrows in the grain of the wood;
+and I am now of opinion that the same cause has occasioned a similar
+appearance in the cuts of the “Biblia Pauperum Predicatorum.” Mr.
+Ottley, speaking of the impressions in Earl Spencer’s copy, makes the
+following remarks: “In many instances they have a sort of horizontally
+striped and confused appearance, which leads me to suppose that they
+were taken from engravings executed on some kind of wood of a coarse
+grain.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagII68" id = "tagII68" href =
+"#noteII68">II.68</a> This correspondence between Earl Spencer’s copy
+and that in the King’s Library at the British Museum tends to confirm my
+opinion that there are not so many editions of the book as
+Heineken,&mdash;from certain accidental variations,&mdash;has been
+induced to suppose.</p>
+
+<p>The manner in which the cuts are engraved, and the attempts at
+something like effect in the shading and composition, induce me to think
+that this book is not so old as either the <ins class = "correction"
+title = "text reads ‘Apocalpyse’">Apocalypse</ins> or the History of the
+Virgin. That it appeared before 1428, as has been inferred from the date
+which the Rev. Mr. Horne fancied that he had seen on the ancient
+binding, I&nbsp;cannot induce myself to believe. It is more likely to
+have been executed at some time between 1440 and 1460; and I am inclined
+to think that it is the production of a Dutch or Flemish, rather than a
+German artist.</p>
+
+<p>A work, from which the engraved “Biblia Pauperum Predicatorum” is
+little more than an abstract, appears to have been known in France and
+Germany long before block-printing was introduced. Of such a work there
+were two manuscript copies in the National Library at Paris; the one
+complete, and the other&mdash;which, with a few exceptions, had been
+copied from the first&mdash;imperfect. The work consisted of a brief
+summary of the Bible, arranged in the following manner. One or two
+phrases in Latin and in French formed, as it were, the text; and each
+text was followed by a moral reflection, also in Latin and in French.
+Each
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page94" id = "page94">
+94</a></span>
+article, which thus consisted of two parts, was illustrated by two
+drawings, one of which related to the historical fact, and the other to
+the moral deduced from it. The perfect copy consisted of four hundred
+and twenty-two pages, on each of which there were eight drawings, so
+that the number contained in the whole volume was upwards of five
+thousand. In some of the single drawings, which were about two and
+one-third inches wide, by three and one-third inches high, Camus counted
+not less than thirty heads.<a class = "tag" name = "tagII69" id =
+"tagII69" href = "#noteII69">II.69</a></p>
+
+<p>In a copy of the “Biblia Pauperum Predicatorum” from wood-blocks,
+Heineken observed written: “<span class =
+"smallcaps">S.&nbsp;Ansgarius</span> est autor hujus libri,”&mdash;St.
+Ansgarius is the author of this book. St. Ansgarius, who was a native of
+France, and a monk of the celebrated Abbey of Corbey, was sent into
+Lower Saxony, and other places in the north, for the purpose of
+reclaiming the people from paganism. He was appointed the first bishop
+of Hamburg in 831, and in 844 Bishop of Bremen, where he died in 864.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagII70" id = "tagII70" href =
+"#noteII70">II.70</a> From a passage cited by Heineken from Ornhielm’s
+Ecclesiastical History of Sweden and Gothland, it appears that Ansgarius
+was reputed to have compiled a similar book;<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagII71" id = "tagII71" href = "#noteII71">II.71</a> and Heineken
+observes that it might be from this passage that the “Biblia Pauperum
+Predicatorum” was ascribed to the Bishop of Hamburg.</p>
+
+<p>In the cloisters of the cathedral at Bremen, Heineken saw two
+bas-reliefs sculptured on stone, of which the figures, of a moderate
+size, were precisely the same as those in two of the pages&mdash;the
+first and eighth&mdash;of the German “Biblia Pauperum Predicatorum.” The
+inscriptions, which were in Latin, were the same as in block-book. He
+thinks it very probable that the other arches of the cloisters were
+formerly ornamented in the same manner with the remainder of the
+subjects, but that the sculptures had been destroyed in the disturbances
+which had occurred in Bremen. Though he by no means pretends that the
+cuts were engraved in the time of Ansgarius, he thinks it not impossible
+that the sculptures might be executed at that period according to the
+bishop’s directions. This last passage is one of the most silly that
+occurs in Heineken’s book.<a class = "tag" name = "tagII72" id =
+"tagII72" href = "#noteII72">II.72</a> It is just about as likely that
+the cuts in the “Biblia Pauperum Predicatorum” were engraved in the time
+of Ansgarius, as that the bas-reliefs in the cloisters of the cathedral
+of Bremen should have been sculptured under his direction.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page95" id = "page95">
+95</a></span>
+<p>The book usually called the “Speculum Humanæ Salvationis,”<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagII73" id = "tagII73" href =
+"#noteII73">II.73</a>&mdash;the Mirror of Human Salvation,&mdash;which
+is ascribed by Hadrian Junius to Lawrence Coster, has been more
+frequently the subject of discussion among bibliographers and writers
+who have treated of the origin of printing, than any other work.
+A&nbsp;great proportion, however, of what has been written on the
+subject consists of groundless speculation; and the facts elicited,
+compared with the conjectures propounded, are as “two grains of wheat to
+a bushel of chaff.” It would be a waste of time to recite at length the
+various opinions that have been entertained with respect to the date of
+this book, the manner in which the text was printed, and the printer’s
+name. The statements and the theories put forth by Junius and Meerman in
+Coster’s favour, so far as the execution of the Speculum is concerned,
+are decidedly contradicted by the book itself. Without, therefore,
+recapitulating arguments which are contradicted by established facts,
+I&nbsp;shall endeavour to give a correct account of the work, leaving
+those who choose to compare it, and reconcile it if they can, with the
+following assertions made by Coster’s advocates: 1. that the Speculum
+was first printed by him in Dutch with wooden types; 2. that while
+engraving a Latin edition on blocks of wood he discovered the art of
+printing with moveable letters; 3. that the Latin edition, in which the
+text is partly from moveable types and partly from wood-blocks, was
+printed by Coster’s heirs and successors, their moveable types having
+been stolen by John Gutemberg before the whole of the text was set
+up.</p>
+
+<p>The Speculum which has been the subject of so much discussion is of a
+small folio size, and without date or printer’s name. There are four
+editions of it known to bibliographers, all containing the same cuts;
+two of those editions are in Latin, and two in Dutch. In the Latin
+editions the work consists of sixty-three leaves, five of which are
+occupied by an introduction or prologue, and on the other fifty-eight
+are printed the cuts and explanatory text. The Dutch editions, though
+containing the same number of cuts as the Latin, consist of only
+sixty-two leaves each, as the preface occupies only four. In all those
+editions the leaves are printed on one side only. Besides the four
+editions above noticed, which have been ascribed to Coster and have
+excited so much controversy, there are two or three others in which the
+cuts are more coarsely engraved, and probably executed, at a later
+period, in Germany. There is also a quarto edition of the Speculum,
+printed in 1483, at Culemburg, by John Veldener, and ornamented with the
+identical cuts of the folio editions ascribed to Coster and his
+heirs.</p>
+
+<p>The four controverted editions of the Speculum may be considered as
+holding a middle place between block-books,&mdash;which are wholly
+executed,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page96" id = "page96">
+96</a></span>
+both text and cuts, by the wood-engraver,&mdash;and books printed with
+moveable types: for in three of the editions the cuts are printed by
+means of friction with a rubber or burnisher, in the manner of the
+History of the Virgin, and other block-books, while the text, set in
+moveable type, has been worked off by means of a press; and in a fourth
+edition, in which the cuts are taken in the same manner as in the
+former, twenty pages of the text are printed from wood-blocks by means
+of friction, while the remainder are printed in the same manner as the
+whole of the text in the three other editions; that is, from moveable
+metal types, and by means of a press.</p>
+
+<p>There are fifty-eight cuts in the Speculum, each of which is divided
+into two compartments by a slender column in the middle. In all the
+editions the cuts are placed as head-pieces at the top of each page,
+having underneath them, in two columns, the explanatory text. Under each
+compartment the title of the subject, in Latin, is engraved on the
+block.</p>
+
+<p>The following reduced copy of the first cut will give an idea of
+their form, as every subject has pillars at the side, and is surmounted
+by an arch in the same style.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_96" id = "illus_96">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_96.png" width = "375" height = "202"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The style of engraving in those cuts is similar to those of the Poor
+Preachers’ Bible. The former are, however, on the whole executed with
+greater delicacy, and contain more work. The shadows and folds of the
+drapery in the first forty-eight cuts are indicated by short parallel
+lines, which are mostly horizontal. In the forty-ninth and subsequent
+cuts, as has been noticed by Mr. Ottley, a&nbsp;change in the mode of
+indicating the shades and the folds in the draperies is perceptible; for
+the short parallel lines, instead of being horizontal as in the former,
+are mostly slanting. Heineken observes, that to the forty-eighth cut
+inclusive, the chapters in the printed work are conformable with the old
+Latin manuscripts; and
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page97" id = "page97">
+97</a></span>
+as a perceptible change in the execution commences with the forty-ninth,
+it is not unlikely that the cuts were engraved by two different persons.
+The two following cuts are fac-similes of the compartments of the first,
+of which a reduced copy has been previously given.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_97" id = "illus_97">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_97.png" width = "372" height = "399"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>In the above cut, its title, “Casus Luciferi,”&mdash;the Fall of
+Lucifer,&mdash;is engraved at the bottom; and the subject represented is
+Satan and the rebellious angels driven out of heaven, as typical of
+man’s disobedience and fall. The following are the first two lines of
+the column of text underneath the cut in the Latin editions:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p class = "blackletter">Inchoatur speculum humanae salvacionis</p>
+<p class = "blackletter">In quo patet casus hominis et modus
+repactionis.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Which may be translated into English thus:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p>In the Mirror of Salvation here is represented plain</p>
+<p>The fall of man, and by what means he made his peace again.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The following is the right-hand compartment of the same cut. The
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page98" id = "page98">
+98</a></span>
+title of this subject, as in all the others, is engraved at the bottom;
+the contracted words when written in full are, “Deus creavit hominem ad
+ymaginem et similitudinem suam,”&mdash;God created man after his own
+image and likeness.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_98" id = "illus_98">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_98.png" width = "372" height = "402"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p><!-- no indent -->The first two lines of the text in the column
+underneath this cut are,</p>
+
+<div class = "verse blackletter">
+<p>Mulier autem in paradiso est <ins class = "correction" title = "text reads ‘formato’">formata</ins></p>
+<p>De costis viri dormienti est parata.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><!-- no indent -->That is, in English rhyme of similar measure,</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p>The woman was in Paradise for man an help meet made,</p>
+<p>From Adam’s rib created as he asleep was laid.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The cuts in all the editions are printed in light brown or sepia
+colour which has been mixed with water, and readily yields to moisture.
+The impressions have evidently been taken by means of friction, as the
+back of the paper immediately behind is smooth and shining from the
+action of the rubber or burnisher, while on the lower part of the page
+at the back
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page99" id = "page99">
+99</a></span>
+of the text, which has been printed with moveable types, there is no
+such appearance. In the second Latin edition, in which the explanatory
+text to twenty of the cuts<a class = "tag" name = "tagII74" id =
+"tagII74" href = "#noteII74">II.74</a> has been printed from engraved
+wood-blocks by means of friction, the reverse of those twenty pages
+presents the same smooth appearance as the reverse of the cuts. In those
+twenty pages of text from engraved wood-blocks the ink is
+lighter-coloured than in the remainder of the book which is printed from
+moveable types, though much darker than that of the cuts. It is,
+therefore, evident that the two impressions,&mdash;the one from the
+block containing the cut, and the other from the block containing the
+text,&mdash;have been taken separately. In the pages printed from
+moveable types, the ink, which has evidently been compounded with oil,
+is full-bodied, and of a dark brown colour, approaching nearly to black.
+In the other three editions, one Latin and two Dutch, in which the text
+is entirely from moveable types, the ink is also full-bodied and nearly
+jet black, forming a strong contrast with the faint colour of the
+cuts.</p>
+
+<p>The plan of the Speculum is almost the same as that of the Poor
+Preachers’ Bible, and is equally as well entitled as the latter to be
+called “A&nbsp;History typical and anti-typical of the Old and New
+Testament.” Several of the subjects in the two books are treated nearly
+in the same manner, though in no single instance, so far as my
+observation goes, is the design precisely the same in both. In several
+of the cuts of the Speculum, in the same manner as in the Poor
+Preachers’ Bible, one compartment contains the supposed type or
+prefiguration, and the other its fulfilment; for instance: at
+No.&nbsp;17 the appearance of the Lord to Moses in the burning bush is
+typical of the Annunciation; at No.&nbsp;23 the brazen bath in the
+temple of Solomon is typical of baptism; at No.&nbsp;31 the manna
+provided for the children of Israel in the Desert is typical of the
+Lord’s Supper; at No.&nbsp;45 the Crucifixion is represented in one
+compartment, and in the other is Tubal-Cain, the inventor of iron-work,
+and consequently of the nails with which Christ was fixed to the cross;
+and at No.&nbsp;53 the descent of Christ to Hades, and the liberation of
+the patriarchs and fathers, is typified by the escape of the children of
+Israel from Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Though most of the subjects are from the Bible or the Apocrypha, yet
+there are two or three which the designer has borrowed from profane
+history: such as Semiramis contemplating the hanging gardens of Babylon;
+the Sibyl and Augustus; and Codrus king of Athens incurring death in
+order to secure victory to his people.</p>
+
+<p>The Speculum Salvationis, as printed in the editions previously
+noticed, is only a portion of a larger work with the same title, and
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page100" id = "page100">
+100</a></span>
+ornamented with similar designs, which had been known long before in
+manuscript. Heineken says, at page 478 of his Idée Générale, that the
+oldest copy he ever saw was in the Imperial Library at Vienna; and, at
+page 468, he observes that it appeared to belong to the twelfth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>The manuscript work, when complete, consisted of forty-five chapters
+in rhyming Latin, to which was prefixed an introduction containing a
+list of them. Each of the first forty-two chapters contained four
+subjects, the first of which was the principal, and the other three
+illustrative of it. To each of these chapters were two drawings, every
+one of which, as in the printed copies of the work, consisted of two
+compartments. The last three chapters contained each eight subjects, and
+each subject was ornamented with a design.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagII75" id = "tagII75" href = "#noteII75">II.75</a> The whole number
+of separate illustrations in the work was thus one hundred and
+ninety-two. The printed folio editions contain only fifty-eight cuts, or
+one hundred and sixteen separate illustrations.</p>
+
+<p>Though the Speculum from the time of the publication of Junius’s
+work<a class = "tag" name = "tagII76" id = "tagII76" href =
+"#noteII76">II.76</a> had been confidently claimed for Coster, yet no
+writer, either for or against him, appears to have particularly directed
+his attention to the manner in which the work was executed before
+Fournier, who in 1758, in a dissertation on the Origin and Progress of
+the Art of Wood-engraving,<a class = "tag" name = "tagII77" id =
+"tagII77" href = "#noteII77">II.77</a> first published some particulars
+respecting the work in question, which induced Meerman and Heineken to
+speculate on the priority of the different editions. Mr. Ottley,
+however, has proved, in a manner which carries with it the certainty of
+mathematical demonstration, that the conjectures of both the latter
+writers respecting the priority of the editions of the Speculum are
+absolutely erroneous. To elicit the truth does not, with respect to this
+work, seem to have been the object of those two writers. Both had
+espoused theories on its origin without much inquiry with respect to
+facts, and each presumed that edition to be the first which seemed most
+likely to support his own speculations.</p>
+
+<p>Heineken, who assumed that the work was of German origin, insisted
+that the <i>first</i> edition was that in which the text is printed
+partly from moveable types and partly from letters engraved on
+wood-blocks, and that the Dutch editions were executed subsequently in
+the Low Countries. The Latin edition with the text entirely printed from
+moveable types he is pleased to denominate the second, and to assert,
+contrary to the evidence which the work itself affords, that the type
+resembles that of Faust and
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page101" id = "page101">
+101</a></span>
+Scheffer, and that the cuts in this <i>second</i> Latin edition, as he
+erroneously calls it, are coarser and not so sharp as those in the Latin
+edition which he supposes to be the first.</p>
+
+<p>Fournier’s discoveries with respect to the execution of the Speculum
+seem to have produced a complete change as to its origin in the opinions
+of Meerman; who, in 1757, the year before Fournier’s dissertation was
+printed, had expressed his belief, in a letter to his friend Wagenaar,
+that what was alleged in favour of Coster being the inventor of printing
+was mere gratuitous assertion; that the text of the Speculum was
+probably printed after the cuts, and subsequent to 1470; that there was
+not a single document, nor an iota of evidence, to show that Coster ever
+used moveable types; and lastly, that the Latin was prior to the Dutch
+edition of the Speculum, as was apparent from the Latin names engraved
+at the foot of the cuts, which certainly would have been in Dutch had
+the cuts been originally destined for a Dutch edition.<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagII78" id = "tagII78" href = "#noteII78">II.78</a> In the
+teeth of his own previous opinions, having apparently gained a new light
+from Fournier’s discoveries, Meerman, in his Origines Typographicæ,
+printed in 1765, endeavours to prove that the Dutch edition was the
+first, and that it was printed with moveable wooden types by Coster. The
+Latin edition in which the text is printed partly from moveable types
+and partly from wood-blocks he supposes to have been printed by Coster’s
+heirs after his decease, thus endeavouring to give credibility to the
+story of Coster having died of grief on account of his types being
+stolen, and to encourage the supposition that his heirs in this edition
+supplied the loss by having engraved on blocks of wood those pages which
+were not already printed.</p>
+
+<p>Fournier’s discoveries relative to the manner in which the Speculum
+was executed were: 1st, that the cuts and the text had been printed at
+separate times, and that the former had been printed by means of
+friction; 2d, that a portion of the text in one of the Latin editions
+had been printed from engraved wood-blocks.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagII79" id = "tagII79" href = "#noteII79">II.79</a> Fournier, who was
+a type-founder and wood-engraver, imagined that the moveable types with
+which the Speculum was printed were of wood. He also asserted that Faust
+and Scheffer’s Psalter and an early edition of the Bible were printed
+with moveable wooden types. Such assertions are best
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page102" id = "page102">
+102</a></span>
+answered by a simple negative, leaving the person who puts them forth to
+make out a probable case.</p>
+
+<p>The fact having been established that in one of the editions of the
+Speculum a part of the text was printed from wood-blocks, while the
+whole of the text in the other three was printed from moveable types,
+Heineken, without diligently comparing the editions with each other in
+order to obtain further evidence, decides in favour of that edition
+being the first in which part of the text is printed from wood-blocks.
+His reasons for supposing this to be the first edition, though specious
+in appearance, are at variance with the facts which have since been
+incontrovertibly established by Mr. Ottley, whose scrutinizing
+examination of the different editions has clearly shown the futility of
+all former speculations respecting their priority. The argument of
+Heineken is to this effect: “It is improbable that a printer who had
+printed an edition wholly with moveable types should afterwards have
+recourse to an engraver to cut for him on blocks of wood a portion of
+the text for a second edition; and it is equally improbable that a
+wood-engraver who had discovered the art of printing with moveable
+types, and had used them to print the entire text of the first edition,
+should, to a certain extent, abandon his invention in a second by
+printing a portion of the text from engraved blocks of wood.” The
+following is the order in which he arranges the different editions:</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1. The Latin edition in which part of the text is printed from
+wood-blocks.</p>
+
+<p>2. The Latin edition in which the text is entirely printed from
+moveable types.</p>
+
+<p>3. The Dutch edition with the text printed wholly from moveable
+types, supposed by Meerman to be the <i>first edition</i> of all.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagII80" id = "tagII80" href =
+"#noteII80">II.80</a></p>
+
+<p>4. The Dutch edition with the text printed wholly from moveable
+types, and which differs only from the preceding one in having the two
+pages of text under cuts No.&nbsp;45 and 56 printed in a type different
+from the rest of the book.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The preceding arrangement&mdash;including Meerman’s opinion
+respecting the priority of the Dutch edition&mdash;rests entirely on
+conjecture, and is almost diametrically contradicted in every instance
+by the evidence afforded by the books themselves; for through the
+comparisons and investigations of Mr. Ottley it is proved, to an
+absolute certainty, that the Latin edition supposed by Heineken to be
+the second is the <i>earliest of all</i>; that the edition No.&nbsp;4,
+called the second Dutch, is the next in order to the actual first Latin;
+and that the two editions, No.&nbsp;1 and No.&nbsp;3, respectively
+proclaimed by Heineken and Meerman as the earliest,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page103" id = "page103">
+103</a></span>
+have been printed subsequently to the other two.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagII81" id = "tagII81" href = "#noteII81">II.81</a> Which of the
+pretended <i>first</i> editions was in reality the <i>last</i>, has not
+been satisfactorily determined; though there seems reason to believe
+that it was the Latin one which has part of the text printed from
+wood-blocks.</p>
+
+<p>It is well known to every person acquainted with the practice of
+wood-engraving, that portions of single lines in such cuts as those of
+the Speculum are often broken out of the block in the process of
+printing. If two books, therefore, containing the same wood-cuts, but
+evidently printed at different times, though without a date, should be
+submitted to the examination of a person acquainted with the above fact
+and bearing it in mind, he would doubtless declare that the copy in
+which the cuts were most perfect was first printed, and that the other
+in which parts of the cuts appeared broken away was of a later date. If,
+on comparing other copies of the same editions he should find the same
+variations, the impression on his mind as to the priority of the
+editions would amount to absolute certainty. The identity of the cuts in
+all the four editions of the Speculum being unquestionable, and as
+certain minute fractures in the lines of some of them, as if small
+portions of the block had been broken out in printing, had been
+previously noticed by Fournier and Heineken, Mr. Ottley conceived the
+idea of comparing the respective cuts in the different editions, with a
+view of ascertaining the order in which they were printed. He first
+compared two copies of the edition called the <i>first Latin</i> with a
+copy of that called the <i>second Dutch</i>, and finding, that, in
+several of the cuts of the former, parts of lines were wanting which in
+the latter were perfect, he concluded that the miscalled <i>second
+Dutch</i> edition was in fact of an earlier date than the pretended
+<i>first Latin</i> edition of Heineken. In further comparing the above
+editions with the supposed <i>second Latin</i> edition of Heineken and
+the supposed <i>first Dutch</i> edition of Meerman, he found that the
+cuts in the miscalled second Latin edition were the most perfect of all;
+and that the cuts in Heineken’s first Latin and Meerman’s first Dutch
+editions contained more broken lines than the edition named by those
+authors the <i>second Dutch</i>. The conclusion which he arrived at from
+those facts was irresistible, namely, that the earliest edition of all
+was that called by Heineken the second Latin; and that the edition
+called the second Dutch was the next in order. As the cuts in the copies
+examined of the pretended <i>first</i> Latin and Dutch editions
+contained similar fractures, it could not be determined with certainty
+which was actually the <i>last</i>.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page104" id = "page104">
+104</a></span>
+<p>As it is undoubted that the cuts of all the editions have been
+printed separately from the text, it has been objected that Mr. Ottley’s
+examination has only ascertained the order in which the cuts have been
+printed, but by no means decided the priority of the editions of the
+entire book. All the cuts, it has been objected, might have been taken
+by the engraver before the text was printed in a single edition, and it
+might thus happen that the book first printed with text might contain
+the last, and consequently the most imperfect cuts. This exception,
+which is founded on a very improbable presumption, will be best answered
+by the following facts established on a comparison of the two Latin, and
+which, I&nbsp;believe, have not been previously noticed:&mdash;On
+closely comparing those pages which are printed with moveable types in
+the true second edition with the corresponding pages in that edition
+which is properly the first, it was evident from the different spelling
+of many of the words, and the different length of the lines, that they
+had been printed at different times: but on comparing, however, those
+pages which are printed in the second edition from engraved wood-blocks
+with the corresponding pages, from moveable type, in the first edition,
+I&nbsp;found the spelling and the length of the lines to be the same.
+The page printed from the wood-block was, in short, a&nbsp;fac-simile of
+the corresponding page printed from moveable types. So completely did
+they correspond, that I have no doubt that an impression of the page
+printed from moveable types had been “transferred,”<a class = "tag" name
+= "tagII82" id = "tagII82" href = "#noteII82">II.82</a> as engravers
+say, to the block. In the last cut<a class = "tag" name = "tagII83" id =
+"tagII83" href = "#noteII83">II.83</a> of the first edition I noticed a
+scroll which was quite black, as if meant to contain an inscription
+which the artist had neglected to engrave; and in the second edition I
+perceived that the black was cut away, thus having the part intended for
+the inscription white. Another proof, in addition to those adduced by
+Mr. Ottley of that Latin edition being truly the first in which the
+whole of the text is printed from moveable types.</p>
+
+<p>Though there can no longer be a doubt in the mind of any impartial
+person of that Latin edition, in which part of the text is printed from
+engraved wood-blocks, and the rest from moveable types, being later than
+the other; yet the establishment of this fact suggests a question, as to
+the cause of part of the text of this second Latin edition being printed
+from wood-blocks, which cannot perhaps be very satisfactorily answered.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page105" id = "page105">
+105</a></span>
+All writers previous to Mr. Ottley, who had noticed that the text was
+printed partly from moveable types and partly from wood-blocks, decided,
+without hesitation, that this edition was the first; and each,
+accordingly as he espoused the cause of Gutemberg or Coster, proceeded
+to theorise on this assumed fact. As their arguments were founded in
+error, it cannot be a matter of surprise that their conclusions should
+be inconsistent with truth. The fact of this edition being subsequent to
+that in which the text is printed wholly from moveable types has been
+questioned on two grounds: 1st. The improbability that the person who
+had printed the text of a former edition entirely from moveable types
+should in a later edition have recourse to the more tedious operation of
+engraving part of the text on wood-blocks. 2d. Supposing that the owner
+of the cuts had determined in a later edition to engrave the text on
+blocks of wood, it is difficult to conceive what could be his reason for
+abandoning his plan, after twenty pages of the text were engraved, and
+printing the remainder with moveable types.</p>
+
+<p>Before attempting to answer those objections, I think it necessary to
+observe that the existence of a positive fact can never be affected by
+any arguments which are grounded on the difficulty of accounting for it.
+Objections, however specious, can never alter the immutable character of
+truth, though they may affect opinions, and excite doubts in the minds
+of persons who have not an opportunity of examining and judging for
+themselves.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the first objection, it is to be remembered that in
+all the editions, the text, whether from wood-blocks or moveable types,
+has been printed separately from the cuts; consequently the cuts of the
+first edition might be printed by a wood-engraver, and the text set up
+and printed by another person who possessed moveable types. The engraver
+of the cuts might not be possessed of any moveable types when the text
+of the first edition was printed; and, as it is a well-known fact that
+wood-engravers continued to execute entire pages of text for upwards of
+thirty years after the establishment of printing with moveable types, it
+is not unlikely that he might attempt to engrave the text of a second
+edition and print the book solely for his own advantage. This
+supposition is to a certain extent corroborated by the fact of the
+twenty pages of engraved text in the second Latin edition being
+fac-similes of the twenty corresponding pages of text from moveable
+types in the first.</p>
+
+<p>To the second objection every day’s experience suggests a ready
+answer; for scarcely anything is more common than for a person to
+attempt a work which he finds it difficult to complete, and, after
+making some progress in it, to require the aid of a kindred art, and
+abandon his original plan.</p>
+
+<p>As the first edition of the Speculum was printed subsequent to the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page106" id = "page106">
+106</a></span>
+discovery of the art of printing with moveable types, and as it was
+probably printed in the Low Countries, where the typographic art was
+first introduced about 1472, I&nbsp;can discover no reason for believing
+that the work was executed before that period. Santander, who was so
+well acquainted with the progress of typography in Belgium and Holland,
+is of opinion that the Speculum is not of an earlier date than 1480. In
+1483 John Veldener printed at Culemburg a quarto edition of the
+Speculum, in which the cuts are the same as in the earlier folios. In
+order to adapt the cuts to this smaller edition Veldener had sawn each
+block in two, through the centre pillar which forms a separation between
+the two compartments in each of the original engravings. Veldener’s
+quarto edition, which has the text printed on both sides of the paper
+from moveable types, contains twelve more cuts than the older editions,
+but designed and executed in the same style.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagII84" id = "tagII84" href = "#noteII84">II.84</a> If Lawrence Coster
+had been the inventor of printing with moveable types, and if any one
+folio edition of the Speculum had been executed by him, we cannot
+suppose that Veldener, who was himself a wood-engraver, as well as a
+printer, would have been ignorant of those facts. He, however, printed
+two editions of the Fasciculus Temporum,&mdash;one at Louvain in 1476,
+and the other at Utrecht in 1480,&mdash;a work which contains a short
+notice of the art of printing being discovered at Mentz, but not a
+syllable concerning its discovery at Harlem by Lawrence Coster. The
+researches of Coster’s advocates have clearly established one important
+fact, though an unfortunate one for their argument; namely, that the
+Custos or Warden of St. Bavon’s was not known as a printer to one of his
+contemporaries. The citizens of Harlem, however, have still something to
+console themselves with: though Coster may not be the inventor of
+printing, there can be little doubt of Junius, or his editor, being the
+discoverer of Coster,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class = "verse">
+“Est quoddam prodire tenus, si non datur ultra.”</p>
+
+<p>There is in the Print Room of the British Museum a small volume of
+wood-cuts, which has not hitherto been described by any bibliographer,
+nor by any writer who has treated on the origin and progress of wood
+engraving. It appears to have been unknown to Heineken, Breitkopf, Von
+Murr, and Meerman; and it is not mentioned, that I am aware of, either
+by Dr. Dibdin or Mr. Douce, although it certainly was submitted to the
+inspection of the latter. It formerly belonged to the late Sir George
+Beaumont, by whom it was bequeathed to the Museum; but where he obtained
+it I have not been able to learn. It consists of an
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page107" id = "page107">
+107</a></span>
+alphabet of large capital letters, formed of figures arranged in various
+attitudes; and from the general character of the designs, the style of
+the engraving, and the kind of paper on which the impressions have been
+taken, it evidently belongs to the same period as the Poor Preachers’
+Bible. There is only one cut on each leaf, the back being left blank as
+in most of the block-books, and the impressions have been taken by means
+of friction. The paper at the back of each cut has a shining appearance
+when held towards the light, in consequence of the rubbing which it has
+received; and in some it appears as if it had been blacked with
+charcoal, in the same manner that some parts of the cartoons were
+blacked which have been pricked through by the tapestry worker. The ink
+is merely a distemper or water-colour, which will partly wash out by the
+application of hot water, and its colour is a kind of sepia. Each leaf,
+which is about six inches high, by three and six-eighths wide, consists
+of a separate piece of paper, and is pasted, at the inner margin, on to
+a slip either of paper or parchment, through which the stitching of the
+cover passes. Whether the paper has been cut in this manner before or
+after that the impressions were taken, I&nbsp;am unable to determine.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagII85" id = "tagII85" href =
+"#noteII85">II.85</a></p>
+
+<p>The greater part of the letter A is torn out, and in that which
+remains there are pin-marks, as if it had been traced by being pricked
+through. The letters S, T, and V are also wanting. The following is a
+brief description of the letters which remain. The letter B is composed
+of five figures, one with a pipe and tabor, another who supports him,
+a&nbsp;dwarf, an old man kneeling, and an old woman with a staff.
+C,&nbsp;a&nbsp;youthful figure rending open the jaws of a lion, with two
+grotesque heads like those of satyrs. D,&nbsp;a&nbsp;man on horseback,
+and a monk astride on a fiendish-looking monster. E,&nbsp;two grotesque
+heads, a&nbsp;figure holding the horn of one of them, and another figure
+stretching out a piece of cloth. F,&nbsp;a&nbsp;tall figure blowing a
+trumpet, and a youth beating a tabor, with an animal like a dog at their
+feet.<a class = "tag" name = "tagII86" id = "tagII86" href =
+"#noteII86">II.86</a>&nbsp;G,&nbsp;David with <ins class = "correction"
+title = "text reads ‘Goliah’s’">Goliath’s</ins> head, and a figure
+stooping, who appears to kiss a flagellum. H,&nbsp;a&nbsp;figure opening
+the jaws of a dragon. I,&nbsp;a&nbsp;tall man embracing a woman.
+K,&nbsp;a&nbsp;female with a wreath, a&nbsp;youth kneeling, an old man
+on his knees, and a young man with his heels uppermost. [Engraved as a
+specimen at <a href = "#illus_109">page 109</a>.] L,&nbsp;a&nbsp;man
+with a long sword, as if about to pierce a figure reclining. [Engraved
+as
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page108" id = "page108">
+108</a></span>
+a specimen at <a href = "#illus_110">page 110</a>.] M,&nbsp;two figures,
+each mounted on a kind of monster; between them, an old man.
+N,&nbsp;a&nbsp;man with a sword, another mounted on the tail of a fish.
+O,&nbsp;formed of four grotesque heads. P,&nbsp;two figures with clubs.
+Q,&nbsp;formed of three grotesque heads, similar to those in&nbsp;O.
+R,&nbsp;a&nbsp;tall, upright figure, another with something like a club
+in his hand; a&nbsp;third, with his heels up, blowing a horn.
+X,&nbsp;composed of four figures, one of which has two bells, and
+another has one; on the shoulder of the upper figure to the right a
+squirrel may be perceived. Y,&nbsp;a&nbsp;figure with something like a
+hairy skin on his shoulder; another thrusting a sword through the head
+of an animal. Z,&nbsp;three figures; an old man about to draw a dagger,
+a&nbsp;youth lying down, and another who appears as if flying. [Engraved
+as a specimen at <a href = "#illus_111">page 111</a>.] The last cut is
+the ornamental flower, of which a copy is given at <a class = "error"
+href = "#illus_112" title = "text reads ‘page 113’">page 112</a>.</p>
+
+<p>In the same case with those interesting, and probably unique
+specimens of early wood engraving, there is a letter relating to them,
+dated 27th May, 1819, from Mr. Samuel Lysons to Sir George Beaumont,
+from which the following is an extract: “I&nbsp;return herewith your
+curious volume of ancient cuts. I&nbsp;showed it yesterday to Mr. Douce,
+who agrees with me that it is a great curiosity. He thinks that the
+blocks were executed at Harlem, and are some of the earliest productions
+of that place. He has in his possession most of the letters executed in
+copper, but very inferior to the original cuts. Before you return from
+the Continent I shall probably be able to ascertain something further
+respecting them.” What might be Mr. Douce’s reasons for supposing that
+those cuts were executed at Harlem I cannot tell; though I am inclined
+to think that he had no better foundation for his opinion than his faith
+in Junius, Meerman, and other advocates of Lawrence Coster, who
+unhesitatingly ascribe every early block-book to the spurious “Officina
+Laurentiana.”</p>
+
+<p>In the manuscript catalogue in the Print Room of the British Museum
+the volume is thus described by Mr. Ottley: “Alphabet of initial letters
+composed of grotesque figures, wood engravings of the middle of the
+fifteenth century, apparently the work of a Dutch or Flemish artist; the
+impressions taken off by friction in the manner of the early
+block-books.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. I perceive the word ‘<i>London</i>’ in
+small characters written upon the blade of a sword in one of the cuts,
+[the letter L,] and I suspect they were engraved in England.”</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_109" id = "illus_109">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_109.png" width = "332" height = "464"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>As to whether these cuts were engraved in England or no I shall not
+venture to give an opinion. I&nbsp;am, however, satisfied that they were
+neither designed nor engraved by the artists who designed and engraved
+the cuts in the Apocalypse, the History of the Virgin, and the Poor
+Preachers’ Bible. With respect to drawing, expression, and engraving,
+the cuts of the Alphabet are decidedly superior to those of every
+block-book,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page109" id = "page109">
+109</a></span>
+and generally to all wood engravings executed previous to 1500, with the
+exception of such as are by Albert Durer, and those contained in the
+Hypnerotomachia, an Italian rhapsody, with wood-cuts supposed to have
+been designed by Raffaele or Andrea Mantegna, and printed by Aldus at
+Venice, 1499. Although the cuts of the Alphabet may not have been
+engraved in England, it is, however, certain that the volume had been at
+rather an early period in the possession of an Englishman. The cover
+consists of a double fold of thick parchment, on the inside of which,
+between the folds, there is written in large old English characters what
+I take to be the name “Edwardus Lowes.” On the blank side of the last
+leaf there is a sketch of a letter commencing “Right reverent and
+wershipfull masters and frynds; In the moste loweliste maner that I
+canne or may, I&nbsp;here recomende me, duely glade to her of yor good
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page110" id = "page110">
+110</a></span>
+prosperitye and welth.” The writing, as I have been informed, is of the
+period of Henry VIII; and on the slips of paper and parchment to which
+the inner margins of the leaves are pasted are portions of English
+manuscripts, which are probably of the same date. There can, however, be
+little doubt that the leaves have been mounted, and the volume covered,
+about a hundred years subsequent to the engraving of the cuts.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_110" id = "illus_110">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_110.png" width = "325" height = "460"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>I agree with Mr. Ottley in thinking that those cuts were engraved
+about the middle of the fifteenth century, but I can perceive nothing in
+them to induce me to suppose they were the work of a Dutch artist; and I
+am as little inclined to ascribe them to a German. The style of the
+drawing is not unlike what we see in illuminated French manuscripts of
+the middle of the fifteenth century; and as the only two engraved words
+which occur in the volume are French, I&nbsp;am rather inclined to
+suppose that the artist who made the drawings was a native of France.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page111" id = "page111">
+111</a></span>
+The costume of the female to whom the words are addressed appears to be
+French; and the action of the lover kneeling seems almost characteristic
+of that nation. No Dutchman certainly ever addressed his mistress with
+such an air. He holds what appears to be a ring as gracefully as a
+modern Frenchman holds a snuff-box, and upon the scroll before him are
+engraved a heart, and the words which he may be supposed to utter,
+“<i>Mon Ame</i>.” At <a href = "#illus_109">page 109</a>, is a
+fac-simile of the cut referred to, the letter K, of the size of the
+original, and printed in the same kind of colour.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_111" id = "illus_111">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_111.png" width = "330" height = "457"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Upon the sword-blade in the original cut of the following letter, L,
+there is written in small characters, as Mr. Ottley has observed, the
+word “<i>London</i>;” and in the white space on the right, or upper
+side, of the figure lying down, there appears written in the same hand
+the name “<i>Bethemsted</i>.” In this name the letter B is not unlike a
+W; and I have heard it conjectured that the name might be that of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page112" id = "page112">
+112</a></span>
+John Wethamstede, abbot of St. Alban’s, who was a great lover of books,
+and who died in 1440. This conjecture, however, will not hold good, for
+the letter is certainly intended for a B; and in the cut of the letter B
+there is written “<i>R.&nbsp;Beths.</i>,” which is in all probability
+intended for an abbreviation of the name, “<i>Bethemsted</i>,” which
+occurs in another part of the book. The ink with which these names are
+written is nearly of the same colour as that of the cuts. The characters
+appear to be of an earlier date than those on the reverse of the last
+leaf.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_112" id = "illus_112">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_112.png" width = "333" height = "440"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The cut at page 111, is that of the letter Z, which stands the wrong
+way in consequence of its not having been drawn reversed upon the block.
+The subject might at first sight be supposed to represent the angel
+staying Abraham when about to sacrifice Isaac; but on examining the cut
+more closely it will be perceived that the figure which might be
+mistaken for an angel is without wings, and appears to be in the act of
+supplicating the old man, who with his left hand holds him by the
+hair.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page113" id = "page113">
+113</a></span>
+<p>The opposite cut, which is the last in the book, is an ornamental
+flower designed with great freedom and spirit, and surpassing everything
+of the kind executed on wood in the fifteenth century. I&nbsp;speak not
+of the style of engraving, which, though effective, is coarse; but of
+the taste displayed in the drawing. The colour of the cuts on pages 109,
+110, 111, from the late Sir George Beaumont’s book, will give the
+reader, who has not had an opportunity of examining the originals, some
+idea of the colour in which the cuts of the Apocalypse, the History of
+the Virgin, the Poor Preachers’ Bible, and the Speculum, are printed;
+which in all of them is a kind of sepia, in some inclining more to a
+yellow, and in others more to a brown.</p>
+
+<p>In the volume under consideration we may clearly perceive that the
+art of wood engraving had made considerable progress at the time the
+cuts were executed. Although there are no attempts at cross-hatching,
+which was introduced about 1486, yet the shadows are generally well
+indicated, either by thickening the line, or by courses of short
+parallel lines, marking the folds of the drapery, or giving the
+appearance of rotundity to the figures. The expression of the heads
+displays considerable talent, and the wood-engraver who at the present
+time could design and execute such a series of figures, would be
+entitled to no small degree of commendation. Comparing those cuts with
+such as are to be seen in books typographically executed between 1461<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagII87" id = "tagII87" href =
+"#noteII87">II.87</a> and 1490, it is surprising that the art of wood
+engraving should have so materially declined when employed by printers
+for the illustration of their books. The best of the cuts printed with
+letter-press in the period referred to are decidedly inferior to the
+best of the early block-books.</p>
+
+<p>As it would occupy too much space, and would be beyond the scope of
+the present treatise to enter into a detail of the contents of all the
+block-books noticed by Heineken, I&nbsp;shall give a brief description
+of that named “Ars Memorandi,” and conclude the chapter with a list of
+such others as are chiefly referred to by bibliographers.</p>
+
+<p>The “<span class = "smallcaps">Ars Memorandi</span>” is considered by
+Schelhorn<a class = "tag" name = "tagII88" id = "tagII88" href =
+"#noteII88">II.88</a> and by Dr. Dibdin as one of the earliest
+block-books, and in their opinion I concur. Heineken, however,&mdash;who
+states that the style is almost the same as in the figures of the
+Apocalypse,&mdash;thinks that it is of later date than the Poor
+Preachers’ Bible and the History of the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page114" id = "page114">
+114</a></span>
+Virgin. It is of a quarto size, and consists of fifteen cuts, with the
+same number of separate pages of text also cut on wood, and printed on
+one side of each leaf only by means of friction.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagII89" id = "tagII89" href = "#noteII89">II.89</a> At the foot of
+each page of text is a letter of the alphabet, commencing with <span
+class = "blackletter">a</span>, indicating the order in which they are
+to follow each other. In every cut an animal is represented,&mdash;an
+eagle, an angel, an ox, or a lion,&mdash;emblematic of the Evangelist
+whose Gospel is to be impressed on the memory. Each of the animals is
+represented standing upright, and marked with various signs expressive
+of the contents of the different chapters. To the Gospel of St. John,
+with which the book commences, three cuts with as many pages of text are
+allotted. St. Matthew has five cuts, and five pages of text. St. Mark
+three cuts and three pages of text; and St. Luke four cuts and four
+pages of text.<a class = "tag" name = "tagII90" id = "tagII90" href =
+"#noteII90">II.90</a></p>
+
+<p>“It is worthy of observation,” says J. C. Von Aretin, in his Essay on
+the earliest Results of the Invention of Printing, “that this book,
+which the most intelligent bibliographers consider to be one of the
+earliest of its kind, should be devoted to the improvement of the
+memory, which, though divested of much of its former importance by the
+invention of writing, was to be rendered of still less consequence by
+the introduction of printing.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagII91" id =
+"tagII91" href = "#noteII91">II.91</a></p>
+
+<p>The first cut is intended to express figuratively the first six
+chapters of St. John’s Gospel. The upright eagle is the emblem of the
+saint, and the numerals are the references to the chapters. The contents
+of the first chapter are represented by the dove perched on the eagle’s
+head, and the two faces,&mdash;one of an old, the other of a young
+man,&mdash;probably intended for those of Moses and Christ.<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagII92" id = "tagII92" href = "#noteII92">II.92</a> The
+lute on the breast of the eagle, with something like three bells<a class
+= "tag" name = "tagII93" id = "tagII93" href = "#noteII93">II.93</a>
+suspended from it, indicate the contents of the second chapter, and are
+supposed by Schelhorn to refer to the marriage of Cana. The numeral 3,
+in Schelhorn’s opinion, relates to “nonnihil apertum et prosectum circa
+ventrem,” which he thinks may be intended as a reference to the words of
+Nicodemus: “Nunquid homo senex potest in ventrem matris suæ
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page115" id = "page115">
+115</a></span>
+iterum introire et renasci?” Between the feet of the eagle is a
+water-bucket surmounted by a sort of coronet or crown, intended to
+represent the principal events narrated in the 4th chapter, which are
+Christ’s talking with the woman of Samaria at the well, and his healing
+the son of a nobleman at Capernaum. The 5th chapter is indicated by a
+fish above the eagle’s right wing, which is intended to bring to mind
+the pool of Bethesda. The principal event related in the 6th chapter,
+Christ feeding the multitude, is indicated by the two fishes and five
+small loaves above the eagle’s left wing. The cross within a circle,
+above the fishes, is emblematic of the consecrated wafer in the Lord’s
+supper, as celebrated by the church of Rome.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagII94" id = "tagII94" href = "#noteII94">II.94</a></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_115" id = "illus_115">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_115.png" width = "210" height = "289"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The above reduced copy of the cut will afford some idea of the manner
+in which the memory is to be assisted in recollecting the first six
+chapters of St. John. Those who wish to know more respecting this
+curious book are referred to Schelhorn’s Amœnitates Literariæ,
+tom.&nbsp;i.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page116" id = "page116">
+116</a></span>
+pp. 1-17; Heineken, Idée Générale, pp. 394, 395; and to Dr. Dibdin’s
+Bibliotheca Spenceriana, vol. i.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;4, where a copy is given
+of the first cut relating to the Gospel of St. Matthew.</p>
+
+<p>Block-books containing both text and figures were executed long after
+the introduction of typography, or printing by means of moveable types;
+but the cuts in such works are decidedly inferior to those executed at
+an earlier period. The book entitled “Die Kunst Cyromantia,”<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagII95" id = "tagII95" href = "#noteII95">II.95</a> which
+consists chiefly of text, is printed from wood-blocks on both sides of
+each leaf by means of a press. At the conclusion of the title is the
+date 1448; but this is generally considered to refer to the period when
+the book was written, and not the time when it was engraved. On the last
+page is the name: “<span class = "blackletter">jorg schapff zu
+augspurg</span>.” If this George Schapff was a wood-engraver of
+Augsburg, the style of the cuts in the book sufficiently declares that
+he must have been one of the very lowest class. More wretched cuts were
+never chiselled out by a printer’s apprentice as a head-piece to a
+half-penny ballad.</p>
+
+<p>Of the block-book entitled “Ars Moriendi,” Heineken enumerates no
+less than seven editions, of which one is printed on both sides of the
+leaves, and by means of a press. Besides these he mentions another
+edition, impressed on one side of the paper only, in which appear the
+following name and date: “<span class = "blackletter">Hans eporer, 1473,
+hat diss puch pruffmo er</span>.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagII96" id =
+"tagII96" href = "#noteII96">II.96</a></p>
+
+<p>Of the book named in German “<span class = "blackletter">Der
+Entkrist</span>”&mdash;Antichrist&mdash;printed from wood-blocks,
+Heineken mentions two editions. In that which he considers the first,
+containing thirty-nine cuts, each leaf is printed on one side only by
+means of friction; in the other, which contains thirty-eight cuts, is
+the “brief-maler’s” or wood-engraver’s name: “<span class =
+"blackletter">Der jung hanss priffmaler hat das puch zu nurenberg,
+1472</span>.”</p>
+
+<p>At Nuremberg, in the collection of a physician of the name of Treu,
+Heineken noticed a small volume in quarto, consisting of thirty-two
+wood-cuts of Bible subjects, underneath each of which were fifteen
+verses in German, engraved on the same block. Each leaf was printed on
+one side only, and the impressions, which were in pale ink, had been
+taken by means of friction.</p>
+
+<p>The early wood-engravers, besides books of cuts, executed others
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page117" id = "page117">
+117</a></span>
+consisting of text only, of which several portions are preserved in
+public libraries in Germany,<a class = "tag" name = "tagII97" id =
+"tagII97" href = "#noteII97">II.97</a> France, and Holland; and although
+it is certain that block-books continued to be engraved and printed
+several years after the invention of typography, there can be little
+doubt that editions of the grammatical primer called the “Donatus,” from
+the name of its supposed compiler, were printed from wood-blocks
+previous to the earliest essays of Gutemberg to print with moveable
+types. It is indeed asserted that Gutemberg himself engraved, or caused
+to be engraved on wood, a&nbsp;“Donatus” before his grand invention was
+perfected.</p>
+
+<p>In the Royal Library at Paris are preserved the two old blocks of a
+“Donatus” which are mentioned by Heineken at page 257 of his Idée
+Générale. They are both of a quarto form; but as the one contains twenty
+lines and the other only sixteen, and as there is a perceptible
+difference in the size of the letters, it is probable that they were
+engraved for different editions.<a class = "tag" name = "tagII98" id =
+"tagII98" href = "#noteII98">II.98</a> Those blocks were purchased in
+Germany by a Monsieur Faucault, and after passing through the hands of
+three other book-collectors they came into the possession of the Duke de
+la Vallière, at whose sale they were sold for two hundred and thirty
+livres. In De Bure’s catalogue of the La Vallière library, impressions
+are given from the original blocks. The letters in both those blocks,
+though differing in size, are of the same proportions and form; and
+Heineken and Fischer consider that they bear a great resemblance to the
+characters of Faust and Scheffer’s Psalter, printed with moveable types
+in 1457, although the latter are considerably larger.</p>
+
+<p>The art of wood engraving, having advanced from a single figure with
+merely a name cut underneath it, to the impression of entire pages of
+text, was now to undergo a change. Moveable letters formed of metal, and
+wedged together within an iron frame, were to supersede the engraved
+page; and impressions, instead of being taken by the slow and tedious
+process of friction, were now to be obtained by the speedy and powerful
+action of the press. If the art of wood engraving suffered a temporary
+decline for a few years after the general introduction of typography, it
+was only to revive again under the protecting influence of the <span
+class = "smallroman">PRESS</span>; by means of which its productions
+were to be multiplied a hundred fold, and, instead of being confined to
+a few towns, were to be disseminated throughout every part of
+Europe.</p>
+
+<div class = "footnote">
+
+
+<p><a name = "noteII1" id = "noteII1" href = "#tagII1">II.1</a>
+A stencil is a piece of pasteboard, or a thin plate of metal, pierced
+with lines and figures, which are communicated to paper, parchment, or
+linen, by passing a brush charged with ink or colour over the
+stencil.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII2" id = "noteII2" href = "#tagII2">II.2</a>
+Cards&mdash;<i>Carten</i>&mdash;are mentioned in a book of bye-laws of
+Nuremberg, between 1380 and 1384. They are included in a list of games
+at which the burghers might indulge themselves, provided they ventured
+only small sums. “Awzgenommen rennen mit Pferder, Schiessen mit
+Armbrusten, <i>Carten</i>, Schofzagel, Pretspil, und Kugeln, umb einen
+pfenink zwen zu vier poten.” That is: <ins class = "correction" title =
+"“ missing">“always</ins> excepting horse-racing, shooting with
+cross-bows, <i>cards</i>, shovel-board, tric-trac, and bowls, at which a
+man may bet from twopence to a groat.”&mdash;C.&nbsp;G. Von Murr,
+Journal zur Kunstsgesch. 2&nbsp;Theil, S.&nbsp;99.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII3" id = "noteII3" href = "#tagII3">II.3</a>
+In the town-books of Nuremberg a Hans <i>Formansneider</i> occurs so
+early as 1397, which De Murr says is not meant for “wood engraver,” but
+is to be read thus: <i>Hans Forman, Schneider</i>; that is, “Ihon
+Forman, maister-fashionere,” or, in modern phrase, “tailor.” The word
+“<i>Karter</i>” also occurs in the same year, but it is meant for a
+carder, or wool-comber, and not for a card-maker.&mdash;C.&nbsp;G. Von
+Murr, Journal, 2&nbsp;Theil, S.&nbsp;99.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII4" id = "noteII4" href = "#tagII4">II.4</a>
+“Conscioscia che l’arte e mestier delle carte &amp; figure stampide, che
+se fano in Venesia è vegnudo a total deffaction, e&nbsp;questo sia per
+la gran quantità de carte a zugar, e&nbsp;fegure depente stampide, le
+qual vien fate de fuora de Venezia.” The curious document in which the
+above passage occurs was discovered by Temanza, an Italian architect, in
+an old book of rules and orders belonging to the company of Venetian
+painters. His discovery, communicated in a letter to Count Algarotti,
+appeared in the Lettere Pittoriche, tom. v.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;320, et
+sequent. and has since been quoted by every writer who has written upon
+the subject.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII5" id = "noteII5" href = "#tagII5">II.5</a>
+This celebrated version, in the Mœso-Gothic language, is preserved in
+the library of Upsal in Sweden.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII6" id = "noteII6" href = "#tagII6">II.6</a>
+Osservazioni sulla Chirotipografia, ossia Antica Arte di Stampare a
+mano. Opera di D.&nbsp;Vincenzo Requeno. Roma 1810, 8vo.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII7" id = "noteII7" href = "#tagII7">II.7</a>
+Fuseli, at p. 85 of Ottley’s Inquiry; and Breitkopf, Versuch
+d.&nbsp;Ursprungs der Spielkarten <ins class = "correction" title =
+"text reads ‘Zuerforschen’">Zu erforschen</ins>, 2&nbsp;Theil,
+S.&nbsp;175.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII8" id = "noteII8" href = "#tagII8">II.8</a>
+Fournier, Dissertation sur l’Origine et les Progrès de l’Art de Graver
+en Bois, p.&nbsp;79; and Papillon, Traité de la Gravure en Bois, tom.
+i.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;20, and Supplement, p.&nbsp;80.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII9" id = "noteII9" href = "#tagII9">II.9</a>
+“Liber iste, <i>Laus Virginis</i> intitulatus, continet Lectiones
+Matutinales accommodatas Officio B.&nbsp;V. Mariæ per singulos anni
+dies,” &amp;c.&nbsp;At the beginning of the volume is the following
+memorandum: “Istum librum legavit domna Anna filia domni Stephani
+baronis de Gundelfingen, canonica in Büchow Aule bte. Marie v’ginis in
+Buchshaim ord’is Cartusieñ prope Memingen Augusten. dyoc.”&mdash;Von
+Murr, Journal, 2&nbsp;Theil, S.&nbsp;104-105.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII10" id = "noteII10" href = "#tagII10">II.10</a>
+A fac-simile, of the size of the original, is given in Von Murr’s
+Journal, vol. ii. p.&nbsp;104, and in Ottley’s Inquiry, vol.
+i.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;90, both engraved on wood. There is an imitation
+engraved on copper, in Jansen’s Essai sur l’Origine de la Gravure,
+tom.&nbsp;i.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII11" id = "noteII11" href = "#tagII11">II.11</a>
+The following announcement appears in the colophon of the Nuremberg
+Chronicle. “Ad intuitum autem et preces providorum civium Sebaldi
+Schreyer et Sebastiani Romermaister hunc librum Anthonius Koberger
+Nurembergiæ impressit. Adhibitis tamen viris mathematicis pingendique
+arte peritissimis, Michaele Wolgemut et Wilhelmo Pleydenwurff, quorum
+solerti accuratissimaque animadversione tum civitatum tum illustrium
+virorum figuræ insertæ sunt. Consummatum autem duodecima mensis Julii.
+Anno Salutis ñre 1493.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII12" id = "noteII12" href = "#tagII12">II.12</a>
+As great a neglect of the rules of perspective may be seen in several of
+the cuts in the famed edition of Theurdanck, Nuremberg, 1517, which are
+supposed to have been designed by Hans Burgmair, and engraved by Hans
+Schaufflein.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII13" id = "noteII13" href = "#tagII13">II.13</a>
+See Brand’s Popular Antiquities, vol. i. pp. 359-364.&mdash;Bohn’s
+edition.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII14" id = "noteII14" href = "#tagII14">II.14</a>
+Bibliographical and Picturesque Tour, by the Rev. T.&nbsp;F. Dibdin,
+D.D.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;58, vol. ii. second edition, 1829. The De Murr to whom
+Dr. Dibdin alludes, is C.&nbsp;G. Von Murr, editor of the Journal of
+Arts and General Literature, published at Nuremberg in 1775 and
+subsequent years. Von Murr was the first who published, in the second
+volume of his journal, a&nbsp;<i>fac-simile</i>, engraved on wood by
+Sebast. Roland, of the Buxheim St. Christopher, from a tracing sent to
+him by P.&nbsp;Krismer, the librarian of the convent. Von Murr, in his
+Memorabilia of the City of Nuremberg, mentions that Breitkopf had seen a
+duplicate impression of the Buxheim St. Christopher in the possession of
+M.&nbsp;De Birkenstock at Vienna.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII15" id = "noteII15" href = "#tagII15">II.15</a>
+There is every reason in the world to suppose that this wood-cut was
+executed either in Nuremberg or Augsburg. Buxheim is situated almost in
+the very heart of Suabia, the circle in which we find the earliest wood
+engravers established. Buxheim is about thirty English miles from Ulm,
+forty-four from Augsburg, and one hundred and fifteen from Nuremberg.
+Von Murr does not notice the pretensions of Ulm, which on his own
+grounds are stronger than those of his native city, Nuremberg.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII16" id = "noteII16" href = "#tagII16">II.16</a>
+Von Murr, Journal, 2 Theil, S. 105, 106.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII17" id = "noteII17" href = "#tagII17">II.17</a>
+St. Bridget was a favourite saint in Germany, where many religious
+establishments of the rule of St. Saviour, introduced by her, were
+founded. A&nbsp;folio volume, containing the life, revelations, and
+legends of St. Bridget, was published by A.&nbsp;Koberger, Nuremberg,
+1502, with the following title: “Das puch der Himlischen offenbarung der
+Heiligen wittiben Birgitte von dem Kunigreich Schweden.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII18" id = "noteII18" href = "#tagII18">II.18</a>
+Those cuts consist of illustrations of the New Testament. There are ten
+of them, apparently a portion of a larger series, in the British Museum;
+and they are marked in small letters, a.&nbsp;b. c.&nbsp;d. e.&nbsp;f.
+g.&nbsp;h. i.&nbsp;k. n.&nbsp;That which is marked g.&nbsp;also contains
+the words “Opus Jacobi.” In this cut a specimen of cross-hatching may be
+observed, which was certainly very little practised&mdash;if at
+all&mdash;in Italy, before 1500.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII19" id = "noteII19" href = "#tagII19">II.19</a>
+Mr. Ottley’s reason for considering this cut to be so old is, that
+“after that period [1400] an artist, who was capable of designing so
+good a figure, could scarcely have been so grossly ignorant of every
+effect of linear perspective, as was evidently the case with the author
+of the performance before us.”&mdash;Inquiry, p.&nbsp;87. Offences,
+however, scarcely less gross against the rules of linear perspective,
+are to be found in the wood-cuts in the Adventures of Sir Theurdank,
+1517, many of which contain figures superior to that of St. Bridget.
+Errors in perspective are indeed frequent in the designs of many of the
+most eminent of Albert Durer’s contemporaries, although in other
+respects the figures may be correctly drawn, and the general composition
+good.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII20" id = "noteII20" href = "#tagII20">II.20</a>
+An engraving of this seal is given in the first volume of Meerman’s
+Origines Typographicæ.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII21" id = "noteII21" href = "#tagII21">II.21</a>
+Heineken, Neue Nachrichten von Künstlern und Kunstsachen. Dresden und
+Leipzig, 1786, S.&nbsp;143.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII22" id = "noteII22" href = "#tagII22">II.22</a>
+In the Table des Matières to Jansen’s Essai sur l’Origine de la Gravure,
+Paris, 1808, we find “Dünkelspül (Nicolas) graveur Allemand en 1443.”
+After this specimen of accuracy, it is rather surprising that we do not
+find St. Alexius referred to also as “un graveur Allemand.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII23" id = "noteII23" href = "#tagII23">II.23</a>
+St. Alexius returning unknown to his father’s house, as a poor pilgrim,
+was treated with great indignity by the servants.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII24" id = "noteII24" href = "#tagII24">II.24</a>
+Von Murr, Journal, 2 Theil, S. 113-115.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII25" id = "noteII25" href = "#tagII25">II.25</a>
+Jansen, Essai sur l’Origine de la Gravure, tom. i.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;237.
+Jansen’s own authority on subjects connected with wood engraving is
+undeserving of attention. He is a mere compiler, who scarcely appears to
+have been able to distinguish a wood-cut from a copper-plate
+engraving.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII26" id = "noteII26" href = "#tagII26">II.26</a>
+Idée Générale, p. 251. Hartman Schedel, the compiler of the Nuremberg
+Chronicle, was accustomed to paste both old wood-cuts and copper-plate
+engravings within the covers of his books, many of which were preserved
+in the Library of the Elector of Bavaria at Munich.&mdash;Idée Gén.
+p.&nbsp;287; and Von Murr, Journal, 2&nbsp;Theil, S.&nbsp;115.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII27" id = "noteII27" href = "#tagII27">II.27</a>
+Heineken thus speaks of those old devotional cuts: “On trouve dans la
+Bibliothèque de Wolfenbüttel de ces sortes d’estampes, qui représentent
+différens sujets de l’histoire sainte et de dévotion, avec du texte vis
+à vis de la figure, tout gravé en bois. Ces pièces sont de la même
+grandeur que nos cartes à jouer: elles portent 3 pouces de hauteur sur 2
+pouces 6 lignes de largeur.”&mdash;Idée Générale, p.&nbsp;249.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII28" id = "noteII28" href = "#tagII28">II.28</a>
+A copy of the Speculum belonging to the city of Harlem had at the
+commencement, “<i>Ex Officina Laurentii Joannis Costeri. Anno 1440</i>.”
+But this inscription had been inserted by a modern hand&mdash;Idée
+Générale, p.&nbsp;449.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII29" id = "noteII29" href = "#tagII29">II.29</a>
+In the catalogue of Dr. Kloss’s Library, No.&nbsp;2024, is a “Historia
+et Apocalypsis Johannis Evangelistæ,” imperfect, printed from wooden
+blocks. The following are the observations of the editor or compiler of
+the catalogue: “At the end of the volume is a short note, written by
+Pope Martin&nbsp;V., who occupied the papal chair from 1417 to 1431.
+This appears to accord with the edition described by Heineken at page
+360, excepting in the double <i>a</i>, No.&nbsp;3 and&nbsp;4.” If the
+note referred to were genuine, and actually written in the book,
+a&nbsp;certain date would be at once established. The information,
+however, comes in a questionable shape, as the English
+<i>rédacteur’s</i> power of ascertaining who were the writers of ancient
+MS. notes appears little short of miraculous.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII30" id = "noteII30" href = "#tagII30">II.30</a>
+Bibliotheca Spenceriana, vol. i. p. 4, cited in Ottley’s Inquiry, vol.
+i.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;99.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII31" id = "noteII31" href = "#tagII31">II.31</a>
+Singer’s Researches into the History of Playing-cards, p.&nbsp;107.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII32" id = "noteII32" href = "#tagII32">II.32</a>
+Index Librorum ab inventa Typographia ad annum 1500, No.&nbsp;37.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII33" id = "noteII33" href = "#tagII33">II.33</a>
+Mr. Bohn is in possession of a similarly bound volume, namely, “Astexani
+de Ast, Scrutinium Scripturarum,” printed by Mentelin, without date, but
+about 1468, on the pig-skin covers of which is printed in bold black
+letter, <i>Per me Rich-en-bach illigatus in Gysslingen 1470</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII34" id = "noteII34" href = "#tagII34">II.34</a>
+“Catalogue of the Library of Dr. Kloss of Frankfort,” Nos. 460 and 468.
+Geisslingen is about fifteen miles north-west of Ulm in Suabia, and
+Gemund about twelve miles northward of Geisslingen.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII35" id = "noteII35" href = "#tagII35">II.35</a>
+Mr. Singer, at page 101 of his Researches into the History of
+Playing-cards, speaks of “<i>one</i> Plebanus of Augsburg,” as if
+Plebanus were a proper name. It has nearly the same meaning as our own
+word “Curate.” “<span class = "smallcaps">Plebanus</span>, Parœcus,
+Curio, Sacerdos, qui <i>plebi</i> præest; Italis, <i>Piovano</i>;
+Gallo-Belgis, <i>Pleban</i>. Balbus in Catholico: ‘Plebanus, dominus
+plebis, Presbyter, qui plebem regit.’&mdash;Plebanum vero maxime vocant
+in ecclesiis cathedralibus seu collegiatis canonicum, cui plebis earum
+jurisdictioni subditæ cura committitur.”&mdash;Du Cange, Glossarium, in
+verbo “Plebanus.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII36" id = "noteII36" href = "#tagII36">II.36</a>
+Idée Générale, pp. 334-370.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII37" id = "noteII37" href = "#tagII37">II.37</a>
+In the copy of the Biblia Pauperum in the British Museum,</p>
+
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>Inches.</td>
+<td>Inches.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The largest cut is</td>
+<td>10-4/8 high, and</td>
+<td>7-5/8 wide.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The smallest&nbsp; &mdash;</td>
+<td>10-1/8 &nbsp; &mdash; &emsp;&mdash;</td>
+<td>7-5/8 &nbsp; &mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class = "continue">
+In the Historia Virginis, also in the British Museum,</p>
+
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td>The largest cut is</td>
+<td>10-3/8 high, and</td>
+<td>7-2/8 wide.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The smallest&nbsp; &mdash;</td>
+<td>9-7/8 &nbsp; &mdash; &emsp; &mdash;</td>
+<td>6-7/8 &nbsp; &mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII38" id = "noteII38" href = "#tagII38">II.38</a>
+The two which are wanting are those numbered 36 and 37&mdash;that is,
+the second <span class = "blackletter">s</span>, and the first <span
+class = "blackletter">t</span>&mdash;in Heineken’s collation. Although
+there is a memorandum at the commencement of the book that those cuts
+are wanting, yet the person who has put in the numbers, in manuscript,
+at the foot of each, has not noticed the omission, but has continued the
+numbers consecutively, marking that 36 which in a perfect copy is 38,
+and so on to the rest. A&nbsp;reference to Heineken from those
+manuscript numbers subsequent to the thirty-fifth cut would lead to
+error.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII39" id = "noteII39" href = "#tagII39">II.39</a>
+Witness Rembrandt, who never gets rid of the Dutch character, no matter
+how elevated his subject may be.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII40" id = "noteII40" href = "#tagII40">II.40</a>
+Revelations, chap. xi. verses 3d and 4th.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII41" id = "noteII41" href = "#tagII41">II.41</a>
+Idée Générale, p. 376.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII42" id = "noteII42" href = "#tagII42">II.42</a>
+Inquiry, vol. i. p. 140.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII43" id = "noteII43" href = "#tagII43">II.43</a>
+Inquiry, p. 140.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII44" id = "noteII44" href = "#tagII44">II.44</a>
+Inquiry, p. 144, vol. i.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII45" id = "noteII45" href = "#tagII45">II.45</a>
+The copy from which the preceding specimens are given was formerly the
+property of the Rev. C.&nbsp;M. Cracherode, by whom it was left, with
+the rest of his valuable collection of books, to the British Museum.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII46" id = "noteII46" href = "#tagII46">II.46</a>
+Bibliotheca Spenceriana, vol. i. p. 36. Mr. Ottley cites the passage at
+p.&nbsp;139, vol i.&nbsp;of his Inquiry, for the purpose of expressing
+his dissent from the theory.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII47" id = "noteII47" href = "#tagII47">II.47</a>
+Landseer’s Lectures on the Art of Engraving, pp. 201-205, 8vo. London,
+1807.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII48" id = "noteII48" href = "#tagII48">II.48</a>
+Heineken, Idée Générale, p. 374. Von Murr, Journal, 2&nbsp;Theil,
+S.&nbsp;43.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII49" id = "noteII49" href = "#tagII49">II.49</a>
+Song of Solomon, chap. iv. verse 4.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII50" id = "noteII50" href = "#tagII50">II.50</a>
+Those arms are to be seen in Sebastiana Munsteri Cosmographia, cap. De
+Regione Wirtenbergensi, p.&nbsp;592. Folio, Basiliæ, apud Henrichum
+Petri, 1554.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII51" id = "noteII51" href = "#tagII51">II.51</a>
+The backs of many of the old wood-cuts which have been taken by means of
+friction, still appear bright in consequence of the rubbing which the
+paper has sustained in order to obtain the impression. They would not
+have this appearance if the paper had been used in a damp state.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII52" id = "noteII52" href = "#tagII52">II.52</a>
+This must have been a copy of that which Heineken calls the second
+edition; no such appearances of a fracture or joining are to be seen in
+the first.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII53" id = "noteII53" href = "#tagII53">II.53</a>
+Inquiry, p. 142.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII54" id = "noteII54" href = "#tagII54">II.54</a>
+“It is a manual or kind of Catechism of the Bible,” says the Rev.
+T.&nbsp;H. Horne, “for the use of young persons and of the common
+people, whence it derives its name <i>Biblia Pauperum</i>,&mdash;<i>the
+Bible of the Poor</i>,&mdash;who were thus enabled to acquire, at a
+comparatively low price, an imperfect knowledge of some of the events
+recorded in the Scripture.”&mdash;Introduction to the Critical Study of
+the Scriptures, vol. ii. p.&nbsp;224-5. The young and the poor must have
+been comparatively learned at that period to be able to read cramped
+Latin, when many a priest could scarcely spell his breviary.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII55" id = "noteII55" href = "#tagII55">II.55</a>
+J. G. Schelhorn, Amœnitates Literariæ, tom. iv. p.&nbsp;297. 8vo.
+Francofurt. &amp; Lips. 1730. Lichtenberger, Initia Typographica,
+p.&nbsp;4, says erroneously, that Schelhorn’s fac-simile was engraved on
+copper. It is on wood, as Schelhorn himself states at p.&nbsp;296.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII56" id = "noteII56" href = "#tagII56">II.56</a>
+J. D. Schœpflin, Vindiciæ Typographicæ, p. 7, 4to. Argentorati,
+1760.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII57" id = "noteII57" href = "#tagII57">II.57</a>
+Ger. Meerman, Origines Typographicæ, P. 1, p.&nbsp;241. 4to. Hagæ Comit.
+1765.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII58" id = "noteII58" href = "#tagII58">II.58</a>
+Idée Générale, p. 292, note.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII59" id = "noteII59" href = "#tagII59">II.59</a>
+Camus, speaking of one of those manuscripts compared with the
+block-book, observes: “Ce dernier abrégé méritoit bien le nom de <span
+class = "smallcaps">Biblia Pauperum</span>, par comparison aux tableaux
+complets de la Bible que je viens d’indiquer. Des ouvrages tels que les
+tableaux complets ne pouvoient être que <span class = "smallcaps">Biblia
+Divitum</span>.”&mdash;Notice d’un Livre imprimé à Bamberg en 1462,
+p.&nbsp;12, note. 4to. Paris, 1800.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII60" id = "noteII60" href = "#tagII60">II.60</a>
+“Entre ces abrégés [de la Bible] on remarque le <span class =
+"smallcaps">Speculum Humanæ Salvationis</span> et le <span class =
+"smallcaps">Biblia Pauperum</span>. Ces deux ouvrages ont beaucoup
+d’affinité entre eux pour le volume, le choix des histoires, les
+moralités, la composition des tableaux. Ils existent en manuscrits dans
+plusieurs bibliothèques.”&mdash;Camus, Notice d’un Livre,
+&amp;c.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;12.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII61" id = "noteII61" href = "#tagII61">II.61</a>
+“Librorum qui ante Reformationem in scholis Daniæ legebantur, Notitia.
+Hafniæ, 1784;” referred to by Camus, Notice d’un Livre,
+&amp;c.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;10.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII62" id = "noteII62" href = "#tagII62">II.62</a>
+Inquiry, vol. i. p. 129.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII63" id = "noteII63" href = "#tagII63">II.63</a>
+Idée Générale, p. 307, 308.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII64" id = "noteII64" href = "#tagII64">II.64</a>
+The passages referred to are probably the 8th, 9th, and 10th verses of
+the xxxivth Psalm; and the 8th verse of the xxixth chapter of
+Isaiah.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII65" id = "noteII65" href = "#tagII65">II.65</a>
+“Has autem icones ex sola sculptoris imaginatione et arbitrio fluxisse
+vel inde liquet, quod idem scriptor sacer in diversis foliis diversa
+plerumque et alia facie delineatus sistatur, sicuti, v.&nbsp;g. Esaias
+ac David, sæpius obvii, Protei instar, varias induerunt in hoc opere
+formas.”&mdash;Amœnitates Literariæ, tom. iv. p.&nbsp;297.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII66" id = "noteII66" href = "#tagII66">II.66</a>
+Schelhorn has noticed a similar appearance in the old block-book
+entitled “Ars Memorandi:” “Videas hic nonnunquam literas atramento
+confluenti deformatas, ventremque illarum, alias album et vacuum,
+atramentaria macula repletum.” Amœnitat. Liter. tom.
+i.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;7.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII67" id = "noteII67" href = "#tagII67">II.67</a>
+This collection of wood engravings from old blocks was published in
+three parts, large folio, at Gotha in 1808, 1810, and 1816, under the
+following title: “Holzschnitte alter Deutscher Meister in den
+Original-Platten gesammelt von Hans Albrecht Von Derschau: Als ein
+Beytrag zur Kunstgeschichte herausgegeben, und mit einer Abhandlung über
+die Holzschneidekunst und deren Schicksale begleitet von Rudolph
+Zacharias Becker.” The collector has frequently mistaken rudeness of
+design, and coarseness of execution, for proofs of antiquity.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII68" id = "noteII68" href = "#tagII68">II.68</a>
+Inquiry, vol. i. p. 130.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII69" id = "noteII69" href = "#tagII69">II.69</a>
+Notice d’un Livre, &amp;c. p. 11.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII70" id = "noteII70" href = "#tagII70">II.70</a>
+Heineken, Idée Générale, p. 319.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII71" id = "noteII71" href = "#tagII71">II.71</a>
+Ornhielm’s book was printed in 4to. at Stockholm, 1689. The passage
+referred to is as follows: “Quos <i>per numeros et signa</i>
+conscripsisse cum [Ansgarium] libros Rembertus memorat indigitatos
+<i>pigmentorum</i> vocabulo, eos continuisse, palam est, quasdam aut e
+divinarum literarum, aut pie doctorum patrum scriptis, pericopas et
+sententias.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII72" id = "noteII72" href = "#tagII72">II.72</a>
+“Ces conjectures sont foibles; elles ont été attaquées par Erasme Nyerup
+dans un écrit publié à Copenhague en 1784.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.
+Nyerup donne à penser que Heinecke a reconnu lui-même, dans la suite, la
+foiblesse de ses conjectures.”&mdash;Camus, Notice d’un Livre,
+&amp;c.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;9.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII73" id = "noteII73" href = "#tagII73">II.73</a>
+It is sometimes named “Speculum Figuratum;” and Junius in his account of
+Coster’s invention calls it “Speculum Nostræ Salutis.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII74" id = "noteII74" href = "#tagII74">II.74</a>
+The cuts which have the text printed from wood-blocks are Nos. 1, 2, 4,
+5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 21, 22, 26, 27, 46, and
+55.&mdash;Heineken, Idée Générale, p.&nbsp;444.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII75" id = "noteII75" href = "#tagII75">II.75</a>
+Heineken, Idée Générale, p. 474.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII76" id = "noteII76" href = "#tagII76">II.76</a>
+The “Batavia” or Junius, in which the name of Lawrence Coster first
+appears as a printer, was published in 1588.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII77" id = "noteII77" href = "#tagII77">II.77</a>
+Dissertation sur l’Origine et les Progrès de l’Art de Graver en Bois.
+Par M.&nbsp;Fournier le Jeune, 8vo. Paris, 1758.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII78" id = "noteII78" href = "#tagII78">II.78</a>
+A French translation of Meerman’s letter, which was originally written
+in Dutch, is given by Santander in his Dictionnaire Bibliographique,
+tom. i.&nbsp;pp. 14-18, 8vo. Bruxelles, 1805.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII79" id = "noteII79" href = "#tagII79">II.79</a>
+Dissertation, pp. 29-32. The many mistakes which Fournier commits in his
+Dissertation, excite a suspicion that he was either superficially
+acquainted with his subject, or extremely careless. He published two or
+three other small works on the subject of engraving and
+printing,&mdash;after the manner of “Supplements to an
+Appendix,”&mdash;the principal of which is entitled “De l’Origine et des
+Productions de l’Imprimerie primitive en taille de bois; avec une
+refutation des préjugés plus ou moins accredités sur cet art; pour
+servir de suite à la Dissertation sur l’Origine de l’Art de graver en
+bois. Paris, 1759.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII80" id = "noteII80" href = "#tagII80">II.80</a>
+Heineken seems inclined to consider this as the second Dutch edition;
+and he only mentions it as the first Dutch edition because it is called
+so by Meerman.&mdash;Idée Gén. pp. 453, 454.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII81" id = "noteII81" href = "#tagII81">II.81</a>
+Inquiry into the Origin and Early History of Engraving, pp. 205-217.
+Though differing from Mr. Ottley in the conclusions which he draws from
+the facts elicited by him respecting the priority of the editions of the
+Speculum, I&nbsp;bear a willing testimony to the value of his
+discoveries on this subject, which may rank among the most interesting
+that have resulted from bibliographical research.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII82" id = "noteII82" href = "#tagII82">II.82</a>
+Wood-engravers of the present day are accustomed to transfer an old
+impression from a cut or a page of letter-press to a block in the
+following manner. They first moisten the back of the paper on which the
+cut or letter-press is printed with a mixture of concentrated potash and
+essence of lavender in equal quantities, which causes the ink to
+separate readily from the paper; next, when the paper is nearly dry, the
+cut or page is placed above a prepared block, and by moderate pressure
+the ink comes off from the paper, and leaves an impression upon the
+wood.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII83" id = "noteII83" href = "#tagII83">II.83</a>
+The subject is Daniel explaining to Belshazzar the writing on the
+wall.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII84" id = "noteII84" href = "#tagII84">II.84</a>
+Heineken gives an account of those twelve additional cuts at page 463 of
+his Idée Générale. It appears that Veldener also published in the same
+year another edition of the Speculum, also in quarto, containing the
+same cuts as the older folios, but without the twelve above
+mentioned.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII85" id = "noteII85" href = "#tagII85">II.85</a>
+<span class = "figfloat">
+<a name = "illus_107" id = "illus_107">
+<img src = "images/illus_107.png" width = "35" height = "74"
+alt = "see text"></a></span>
+The following is a reduced copy of the paper-mark, which appears to be a
+kind of anchor with a small cross springing from a ball or knob at the
+junction of the arms with the shank. It bears a considerable degree of
+resemblance to the mark given at <a href = "#illus_62">page 62</a>, from
+an edition of the Apocalypse. An anchor is to be found as a paper-mark
+in editions of the Apocalypse, and of the Poor Preachers’ Bible.
+According to Santander, a&nbsp;similar paper-mark is to be found in
+books printed at Cologne, Louvain, and Utrecht, from about 1470 to
+1480.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII86" id = "noteII86" href = "#tagII86">II.86</a>
+The initial F, at the commencement of this chapter, is a reduced copy of
+the letter here described.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII87" id = "noteII87" href = "#tagII87">II.87</a>
+The first book with moveable types and wood-cuts both printed by means
+of the press is the Fables printed at Bamberg, by Albert Pfister, “Am
+Sant Valentinus tag,” 1461.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII88" id = "noteII88" href = "#tagII88">II.88</a>
+“Nostrum vero libellum, cujus gratia hæc præfati sumus, intrepide, si
+non primum artis inventæ fœtum, certe inter primos fuisse
+asseveramus.”&mdash;Amœnitates Literariæ, tom. i.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;4.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII89" id = "noteII89" href = "#tagII89">II.89</a>
+Heineken had seen two editions of this book, and he gives fac-similes of
+their titles, which are evidently from different blocks. The title at
+full length is as follows: <ins class = "correction" title = "open quote missing">“<i>Ars</i></ins> <i>memorandi notabilis per figuras
+Ewangelistarum hic ex post descriptam quam diligens lector diligenter
+legat et practiset per signa localia ut in practica
+experitur</i>.”&mdash;“En horridum et incomtum dicendi genus,
+Priscianumque misere vapulantem!” exclaims Schelhorn.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII90" id = "noteII90" href = "#tagII90">II.90</a>
+Heineken, Idée Générale, p. 394.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII91" id = "noteII91" href = "#tagII91">II.91</a>
+Über die frühesten universal historischen Folgen der Erfindung der
+Buchdruckerkunst, von J.&nbsp;Christ. Freyherrn Von Aretin, S.&nbsp;18.
+4to. Munich, 1808.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII92" id = "noteII92" href = "#tagII92">II.92</a>
+“For the law was given by Moses, but grace and truth came by Jesus
+Christ.”&mdash;St. John’s Gospel, chap. i.&nbsp;v.&nbsp;17.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII93" id = "noteII93" href = "#tagII93">II.93</a>
+“Forte tamen ea, quæ tintinnabulis haud videntur dissimilia,
+nummulariorum loculos et pecuniæ receptacula referunt.”&mdash;Schelhorn,
+Amœnit. Liter. tom. i.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;10.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII94" id = "noteII94" href = "#tagII94">II.94</a>
+The following are the contents of the first page, descriptive of the
+cut: “Evangelium Johannis habet viginti unum capittula. Primum. In
+principio erat verbum de eternitate verbi et de trinitate. Secundum
+capittulum. Nupcie facte sunt in Chana Galilee et qualiter Christus
+subvertit mensas nummulariorum. Tertium capittulum. Erat antem homo ex
+Phariseis Nycodemus nomine. Quartum capittulum. Qualiter Ihesus peciit a
+muliere Samaritana bibere circum puteum Jacob et de regulo. Quintum
+capittulum. De probatica piscina ubi dixit Ihesus infirmo Tolle grabatum
+tuum &amp; vade. Sextum capittulum. De refectione ex quinque panibus
+&amp; duobus piscibus Et de ewkaristia.”&mdash;Schelhorn, Amœnit. Lit.
+tom. i.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;9.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII95" id = "noteII95" href = "#tagII95">II.95</a>
+This work on Palmistry was composed in German by a Doctor Hartlieb, as
+is expressed at the beginning: “Das nachgeschriben buch von der hand
+hätt zu teutsch gemacht Doctor Hartlieb.” Specimens of the first and the
+last pages, and of one of the cuts, are given in Heineken’s Idée
+Générale, plates 27 and 28.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII96" id = "noteII96" href = "#tagII96">II.96</a>
+I am of opinion that this is the same person who executed the cuts for a
+German edition of the Poor Preachers’ Bible in 1475. His name does not
+appear; but on a shield of arms there is a spur, which may be intended
+as a rebus of the name; in the same manner as Albert Durer’s surname
+appears in his coat of arms, a&nbsp;pair of doors,&mdash;<i>Durer</i>,
+or, as his father’s name was sometimes spelled, <i>Thurer</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII97" id = "noteII97" href = "#tagII97">II.97</a>
+Aretin says that in the Royal Library at Munich there are about forty
+books and about a hundred single leaves printed from engraved
+wood-blocks.&mdash;Über die Folgen, &amp;c.&nbsp;S.&nbsp;6.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteII98" id = "noteII98" href = "#tagII98">II.98</a>
+Meerman had an old block of a Donatus, which was obtained from the
+collection of a M.&nbsp;Hubert of Basle, and which appeared to belong to
+the same edition as that containing sixteen lines in the Royal Library
+at Paris.&mdash;Heineken, Idée Générale, p.&nbsp;258.</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+<!-- end div maintext -->
+
+<div class = "correction">
+<h5>Errors in Chapter II</h5>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+The term <i>Formschneider</i>, which was originally used</span><br>
+Fornschneider</p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+lustra / cors . apientie</span><br>
+<i>printed as shown: probably error for “lustra / tor .
+sapientie”</i></p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+much better calculated to overthrow.<sup>II.43</sup></span><br>
+overthrow.”</p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+“Confute the exciseman and puzzle the vicar,&mdash;”</span><br>
+<i>close quote missing</i></p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+On these I have nothing to remark further</span><br>
+futher</p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+not in the belief that I have made any important discovery</span><br>
+<i>final t in “important” invisible</i></p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+not so old as either the Apocalypse or the History of the
+Virgin</span><br>
+Apocalpyse</p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+Mulier autem in paradiso est formata</span><br>
+formato</p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+David with Goliath’s head</span><br>
+Goliah’s</p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+The title at full length is as follows: “<i>Ars memorandi</i></span><br>
+<i>open quote missing</i></p>
+
+<p>Footnote II.2</p>
+<p class = "continue">
+<span class = "citation">That is: “always excepting</span><br>
+<i>open quote missing</i></p>
+<p>Footnote II-7</p>
+<p class = "continue">
+<span class = "citation">der Spielkarten Zu erforschen,</span><br>
+Zuerforschen</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page118" id = "page118">
+118</a></span>
+<h3><a name = "chap_III" id = "chap_III">CHAPTER III.</a><br>
+<span class = "subhead">INVENTION OF TYPOGRAPHY.</span></h3>
+
+<p class = "synopsis">
+The discovery of desroches.&mdash;the stamping of lodewyc van
+vaelbeke.&mdash;early “prenters” of antwerp and bruges not
+typographers.&mdash;cologne chronicle.&mdash;donatuses printed in
+holland.&mdash;gutemberg’s birth and family&mdash;progress of his
+invention&mdash;his law-suit with the drytzehns at strasburg&mdash;his
+return to mentz, and partnership with faust&mdash;partnership
+dissolved.&mdash;possibility of printing with wooden types
+examined.&mdash;supposed early productions of gutemberg and faust’s
+press.&mdash;proofs of gutemberg having a press of his own.&mdash;the
+vocabulary printed at elfeld.&mdash;gutemberg’s death and
+epitaphs.&mdash;invention of printing claimed for lawrence
+coster.&mdash;the account given by junius&mdash;contradicted, altered,
+and amended at will by meerman, koning, and others.&mdash;works
+pretended to be printed with coster’s types.&mdash;the horarium
+discovered by enschedius.</p>
+
+<div class = "maintext">
+
+<p class = "first">
+<span class = "firstword"><span class = "dropcap">
+<a name = "illus_118" id = "illus_118">
+<img src = "images/illus_118.png" width = "138" height = "185"
+alt = "B"></a></span>efore</span> proceeding to trace the progress of
+wood engraving in connexion with typography, it appears necessary to
+give some account of the invention of the latter art. In the following
+brief narrative of Gutemberg’s life, I&nbsp;shall adhere to positive
+facts; and until evidence equally good shall be produced in support of
+another’s claim to the invention, I&nbsp;shall consider him as the
+father of typography. I&nbsp;shall also give Hadrian Junius’s account of
+the invention of wood engraving, block-printing, and typography by
+Lawrence Coster, with a few remarks on its credibility. Some of the
+conjectures and assertions of Meerman, Koning, and other advocates of
+Coster, will be briefly noticed, and their inconsistency pointed out. To
+attempt to refute at length the gratuitous assumptions of Coster’s
+advocates, and to enter into a detail of all their groundless arguments,
+would be like proving a medal to be a forgery by a long dissertation,
+when the modern fabricator has plainly put his name in the legend. The
+best proof of the fallacy of Coster’s claims to the honour of having
+discovered the art of printing with moveable types is to be found in the
+arguments of those by whom they have been supported.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page119" id = "page119">
+119</a></span>
+<p>Meerman, with all his research, has not been able to produce a single
+fact to prove that Lawrence Coster, or Lawrence Janszoon as he calls
+him, ever printed a single book; and it is by no means certain that his
+hero is the identical Lawrence Coster mentioned by Junius. In order to
+suit his own theory he has questioned the accuracy of the statements of
+Junius, and has thus weakened the very foundation of Coster’s claims.
+The title of the custos of St. Bavon’s to the honour of being the
+inventor of typography must rest upon the authenticity of the account
+given by Junius; and how far this corresponds with established facts in
+the history of wood engraving and typography I leave others to decide
+for themselves.</p>
+
+<p>Among the many fancied discoveries of the real inventor of the art of
+printing, that of Monsieur Desroches, a&nbsp;member of the Imperial
+Academy of Sciences and Belles Lettres at Brussels, seems to require an
+especial notice. In a paper printed in the transactions of that
+society,<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII1" id = "tagIII1" href =
+"#noteIII1">III.1</a> he endeavoured to prove, that the art of printing
+books was practised in Flanders about the beginning of the fourteenth
+century; and one of the principal grounds of his opinion was contained
+in an old chronicle of Brabant, written, as is supposed, by one Nicholas
+le Clerk, [Clericus,] secretary to the city of Antwerp. The chronicler,
+after having described several remarkable events which happened during
+the government of John II. Duke of Brabant, who died in 1312, adds the
+following lines:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p>In dieser tyt sterf menschelyc</p>
+<p>Die goede vedelare Lodewyc;</p>
+<p>Die de beste was die voor dien</p>
+<p>In de werelt ye was ghesien</p>
+<p>Van makene ende metter hant;</p>
+<p>Van Vaelbeke in Brabant</p>
+<p>Alsoe was hy ghenant.</p>
+<p>Hy was d’erste die vant</p>
+<p>Van Stampien die manieren</p>
+<p>Diemen noch hoert antieren.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This curious record, which Monsieur Desroches considered as so plain
+a proof of “die goede vedelare Lodewyc” being the inventor of printing,
+may be translated in English as follows:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p>This year the way of all flesh went</p>
+<p>Ludwig, the fidler most excellent;</p>
+<p>For handy-work a man of name;</p>
+<p>From Vaelbeke in Brabant he came.</p>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page120" id = "page120">
+120</a></span>
+<p>He was the first who did find out</p>
+<p>The art of beating time, no doubt,</p>
+<p>(Displaying thus his meikle <ins class = "correction" title =
+"closing parenthesis missing">skill,)</ins></p>
+<p>And fidlers all practise it still.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII2"
+id = "tagIII2" href = "#noteIII2">III.2</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The laughable mistake of Monsieur Desroches in supposing that fidler
+Ludwig’s invention, of beating time by stamping with the foot, related
+to the discovery of printing by means of the press, was pointed out in
+1779 by Monsieur Ghesquiere in a letter printed in the Esprit des
+Journaux.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII3" id = "tagIII3" href =
+"#noteIII3">III.3</a> In this letter Monsieur Ghesquiere shows that the
+Flemish word “Stampien,” used by the chronicler in his account of the
+invention of the “good fidler Ludwig,” had not a meaning similar to that
+of the word “stampus” explained by Ducange, but that it properly
+signified “met de voet kleppen,”&mdash;to stamp or beat with the
+feet.</p>
+
+<p>In support of his opinion of the antiquity of printing, Monsieur
+Desroches refers to a manuscript in his possession, consisting of lives
+of the saints and a chronicle written in the fourteenth century. At the
+end of this manuscript was a catalogue of the books belonging to the
+monastery of Wiblingen, the writing of which was much abbreviated, and
+which appeared to him to be of the following century. Among other
+entries in the catalogue was this: “(It.) dōicali īpv̄o līb<sup>o</sup>
+ſtmp̄<sup>to</sup> ī&nbsp;bappiro nō s͞crpō.” On supplying the letters
+wanting Monsieur Desroches says that we shall have the following words:
+“Item. Dominicalia in parvo libro stampato in bappiro [papyro,] non
+scripto;” that is, “Item. Dominicals [a&nbsp;form of prayer or portion
+of church service] in a small book printed [or stamped] on paper, not
+written.” In the abbreviated word ſtm̄p̄<sup>to</sup>, he says that the
+letter m could not very well be distinguished; but the doubt which might
+thus arise he considers to be completely resolved by the words “<i>non
+scripto</i>,” and by the following memorandum which occurs, in the same
+hand-writing, at the foot of the page: “Anno Dñi 1340 viguit q̄ fēt
+stāpā Dñatos,”&mdash;
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page121" id = "page121">
+121</a></span>
+“In 1340 he flourished who caused Donatuses to be printed.” If the
+catalogue were really of the period supposed by Monsieur Desroches, the
+preceding extracts would certainly prove that the art of printing or
+stamping books, though not from moveable types, was practised in the
+fourteenth century; but, as the date has not been ascertained, its
+contents cannot be admitted as evidence on the point in dispute.
+Monsieur Ghesquiere is inclined to think that the catalogue was not
+written before 1470; and, as the compiler was evidently an ignorant
+person, he thinks that in the note, “Anno Domini 1340 viguit qui fecit
+stampare Donatos,” he might have written 1340 instead of 1440.</p>
+
+<p>Although it has been asserted that the wood-cut of St. Christopher
+with the date 1423, and the wood-cut of the Annunciation&mdash;probably
+of the same period&mdash;were printed by means of a press, yet I
+consider it exceedingly doubtful if the press were employed to take
+impressions from wood-blocks before Gutemberg used it in his earliest
+recorded attempts to print with moveable types. I&nbsp;believe that in
+every one of the early block-books, where opportunity has been afforded
+of examining the back of each cut, unquestionable evidence has been
+discovered of their having been <i>printed</i>, if I may here use the
+term, by means of friction. Although there is no mention of a
+<i>press</i> which might be used to take impressions before the process
+between Gutemberg and the heirs of one of his partners, in 1439, yet
+“Prenters” were certainly known in Antwerp before his invention of
+printing with moveable types was brought to perfection. Desroches in his
+Essay on the Invention of Printing gives an extract from an order of the
+magistracy of Antwerp, in the year 1442, in favour of the fellowship or
+guild of St. Luke, called also the Company of Painters, which consisted
+of Painters, Statuaries, Stone-cutters, Glass-makers, Illuminators, and
+“<i>Prenters</i>”. This fellowship was doubtless similar to that of
+Venice, in whose favour a decree was made by the magistracy of that city
+in 1441, and of which some account has been given, at page 43, in the
+preceding chapter. There is evidence of a similar fellowship existing at
+Bruges in 1454; and John Mentelin, who afterwards established himself at
+Strasburg as a typographer or printer proper, was admitted a member of
+the Painters’ Company of that city as a “Chrysographus” or illuminator
+in 1447.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII4" id = "tagIII4" href =
+"#noteIII4">III.4</a></p>
+
+<p>Whether the “Prenters” of Antwerp in 1442 were acquainted with the
+use of the press, or not, is uncertain; but there can be little doubt of
+their not being <i>Printers</i>, as the word is now generally
+understood; that is, persons who printed books with moveable types. They
+were most likely block-printers, and such as engraved and printed cards
+and
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page122" id = "page122">
+122</a></span>
+images of saints; and it would seem that typographers were not admitted
+members of the society; for of all the early typographers of Antwerp the
+name of one only, Mathias Van der Goes, appears in the books of the
+fellowship of St. Luke; and he perhaps may have been admitted as a
+wood-engraver, on account of the cuts in an herbal printed with his
+types, without date, but probably between 1485 and 1490.</p>
+
+<p>Ghesquiere, who successfully refuted the opinion of Desroches that
+typography was known at Antwerp in 1442, was himself induced to suppose
+that it was practised at Bruges in 1445, and that printed books were
+then neither very scarce nor very dear in that city.<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagIII5" id = "tagIII5" href = "#noteIII5">III.5</a> In an old
+manuscript journal or memorandum book of Jean-le-Robèrt, abbot of St.
+Aubert in the diocese of Cambray, he observed an entry stating that the
+said abbot had purchased at Bruges, in January 1446,
+a&nbsp;“<i>Doctrinale gette en mole</i>” for the use of his nephew. The
+words “gette en mole” he conceives to mean, “printed in type;” and he
+thinks that the Doctrinale mentioned was the work which was subsequently
+printed at Geneva, in 1478, under the title of Le Doctrinal de Sapience,
+and at Westminster by Caxton, in 1489, under the title of The Doctrinal
+of Sapyence. The Abbé Mercier de St. Leger, who wrote a reply to the
+observations of Ghesquiere, with greater probability supposes that the
+book was printed from engraved wood-blocks, and that it was the
+“Doctrinale Alexandri Galli,” a&nbsp;short grammatical treatise in
+monkish rhyme, which at that period was almost as popular as the
+“Donatus,” and of which odd leaves, printed on both sides, are still to
+be seen in libraries which are rich in early specimens of printing.</p>
+
+<p>Although there is every reason to believe that the early Printers of
+Antwerp and Bruges were not acquainted with the use of moveable types,
+yet the mention of such persons at so early a period, and the notice of
+the makers “of cards and printed figures” at Venice in 1441,
+sufficiently declare that, though wood engraving might be first
+established as a profession in Suabia, it was known, and practised to a
+considerable extent, in other countries previous to 1450.</p>
+
+<p>The Cologne Chronicle, which was printed in 1499, has been most
+unfairly quoted by the advocates of Coster in support of their
+assertions; and the passage which appeared most to favour their argument
+they have ascribed to Ulric Zell, the first person who established a
+press at Cologne. A&nbsp;shrewd German,<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII6"
+id = "tagIII6" href = "#noteIII6">III.6</a> however, has most clearly
+shown, from the same chronicle, that the actual testimony of Ulric Zell
+is directly in opposition
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page123" id = "page123">
+123</a></span>
+to the claims advanced by the advocates of Coster. The passage on which
+they rely is to the following effect: “Item: although the art [of
+printing] as it is now commonly practised, was discovered at Mentz, yet
+the first conception of it was discovered in Holland from the Donatuses,
+which before that time were printed there.” This we are given to
+understand by Meerman and Koning is the statement of Ulric Zell.
+A&nbsp;little further on, however, the Chronicler, who in the above
+passage appears to have been speaking in his own person from popular
+report, thus proceeds: “But the first inventor of printing was a citizen
+of Mentz, though born at Strasburg,<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII7" id
+= "tagIII7" href = "#noteIII7">III.7</a> named John Gutemberg: Item:
+from Mentz the above-named art first came to Cologne, afterwards to
+Strasburg, and then to Venice. This account of the commencement and
+progress of the said art was communicated to me by word of mouth by that
+worthy person Master Ulric Zell of Hanau, at the present time [1499]
+a&nbsp;printer in Cologne, through whom the said art was brought to
+Cologne.” At this point the advocates of Coster stop, as the very next
+sentence deprives them of any advantage which they might hope to gain
+from the “impartial testimony of the Cologne Chronicle,” the compiler of
+which proceeds as follows: “Item: there are certain <i>fanciful
+people</i> who say that books were printed before; but <i>this is not
+true</i>; <ins class = "correction" title = "text reads ‘foe’">for</ins>
+in no country are books to be found printed before that time.”<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagIII8" id = "tagIII8" href = "#noteIII8">III.8</a></p>
+
+<p>That “Donatuses” and other small elementary books for the use of
+schools were printed from wood-blocks previous to the invention of
+typography there can be little doubt; and it is by no means unlikely
+that they might be first printed in Holland or in Flanders. At any rate
+an opinion seems to have been prevalent at an early period that the idea
+of printing with moveable types was first derived from a “Donatus,”<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagIII9" id = "tagIII9" href =
+"#noteIII9">III.9</a> printed from wood-blocks. In the petition of
+Conrad Sweinheim and Arnold Pannartz, two Germans, who first established
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page124" id = "page124">
+124</a></span>
+a press at Rome, addressed to Pope Sixtus IV. in 1472, stating the
+expense which they had incurred in printing books, and praying for
+assistance, they mention amongst other works printed by them, “<span
+class = "smallcaps">Donati</span> pro puerulis, unde <span class =
+"smallroman">IMPRIMENDI INITIUM</span> sumpsimus;” that is: “Donatuses
+for boys, whence we have taken the beginning of printing.” If this
+passage is to be understood as referring to the origin of typography,
+and not to the first proofs of their own press, it is the earliest and
+the best evidence on the point which has been adduced; for it is very
+likely that both these printers had acquired a knowledge of their art at
+Mentz in the very office where it was first brought to perfection.</p>
+
+<p>About the year 1400, Henne, or John Gænsfleisch de Sulgeloch, called
+also John Gutemberg zum Jungen, appears to have been born at Mentz. He
+had two brothers; Conrad who died in 1424, and Friele who was living in
+1459. He had also two sisters, Bertha and Hebele, who were both nuns of
+St. Claire at Mentz. Gutemberg had an uncle by his father’s side, named
+Friele, who had three sons, named John, Friele, and Pederman, who were
+all living in 1459.</p>
+
+<p>Gutemberg was descended of an honourable family, and he himself is
+said to have been by birth a knight.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII10"
+id = "tagIII10" href = "#noteIII10">III.10</a> It would appear that the
+family had been possessed of considerable property. They had one house
+in Mentz called zum Gænsfleisch, and another called zum Gudenberg, or
+Gutenberg, which Wimpheling translates, “Domum boni montis.” The local
+name of Sulgeloch, or Sorgenloch, was derived from the name of a village
+where the family of Gænsfleisch had resided previous to their removing
+to Mentz. It seems probable that the house zum Jungen at Mentz came into
+the Gutembergs’ possession by inheritance. It was in this house,
+according to the account of Trithemius, that the printing business was
+carried on during his partnership with Faust.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIII11" id = "tagIII11" href = "#noteIII11">III.11</a></p>
+
+<p>When Gutemberg called himself der Junge, or junior, it was doubtless
+to distinguish himself from Gænsfleisch <i>der Elter</i>, or senior,
+a&nbsp;name which frequently occurs in the documents printed by Koehler.
+Meerman has fixed upon the latter name for the purpose of giving to
+Gutemberg a brother of the same christian name, and of making him the
+thief who stole Coster’s types. He also avails himself of an error
+committed by Wimpheling and others, who had supposed John Gutemberg and
+John Gænsfleisch to be two different persons. In two deeds of sale,
+however, of the date 1441 and 1442, entered in the Salic book of the
+church of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page125" id = "page125">
+125</a></span>
+St. Thomas at Strasburg, he is thus expressly named: “<i>Joannes dictus
+Gensfleisch alias nuncupatus Gutenberg de Moguncia, Argentinæ
+commorans</i>;” that is, “John Gænsfleisch, otherwise named Gutemberg,
+of Mentz, residing at Strasburg.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII12" id =
+"tagIII12" href = "#noteIII12">III.12</a> Anthony à Wood, in his History
+of the University of Oxford, calls him Tossanus; and Chevillier, in his
+Origine de l’Imprimerie de Paris, Toussaints. Seiz<a class = "tag" name
+= "tagIII13" id = "tagIII13" href = "#noteIII13">III.13</a> is within an
+ace of making him a knight of the Golden Fleece. That he was a man of
+property is proved by various documents; and those writers who have
+described him as a person of mean origin, or as so poor as to be obliged
+to labour as a common workman, are certainly wrong.</p>
+
+<p>From a letter written by Gutemberg in 1424 to his sister Bertha it
+appears that he was then residing at Strasburg; and it is also certain
+that in 1430 he was not living at Mentz; for in an act of accommodation
+between the nobility and burghers of that city, passed in that year with
+the authority of the archbishop Conrad III., Gutemberg is mentioned
+among the nobles “<i>die ytzund nit inlendig sint</i>”&mdash;“who are
+not at present in the country.” In 1434 there is positive evidence of
+his residing at Strasburg; for in that year he caused the town-clerk of
+Mentz to be arrested for a sum of three hundred florins due to him from
+the latter city, and he agreed to his release at the instance of the
+magistrates of Strasburg within whose jurisdiction the arrest took
+place.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII14" id = "tagIII14" href =
+"#noteIII14">III.14</a> In 1436 he entered into partnership with Andrew
+Drytzehn and others; and there is every reason to believe that at this
+period he was engaged in making experiments on the practicability of
+printing with moveable types, and that the chief object of his engaging
+with those persons was to obtain funds to enable him to perfect his
+invention.</p>
+
+<p>From 1436 to 1444 the name of Gutemberg appears among the
+“<i>Constaflers</i>” or civic nobility of Strasburg. In 1437 he was
+summoned before the ecclesiastical judge of that city at the suit of
+Anne of Iron-Door,<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII15" id = "tagIII15"
+href = "#noteIII15">III.15</a> for breach of promise of marriage. It
+would seem that he afterwards fulfilled his promise, for in a tax-book
+of the city of Strasburg, Anne Gutemberg is mentioned, after Gutemberg
+had returned to Mentz, as paying the toll levied on wine.</p>
+
+<p>Andrew Drytzehn, one of Gutemberg’s partners, having died in 1438,
+his brothers George and Nicholas instituted a process against Gutemberg
+to compel him either to refund the money advanced by their brother, or
+to admit them to take his place in the partnership. From the depositions
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page126" id = "page126">
+126</a></span>
+of the witnesses in this cause, which, together with the decision of the
+judges, are given at length by Schœpflin, there can be little doubt that
+one of the inventions which Gutemberg agreed to communicate to his
+partners was an improvement in the art of printing, such as it was at
+that period.</p>
+
+<p>The following particulars concerning the partnership of Gutemberg
+with Andrew Drytzehn and others are derived from the recital of the case
+contained in the decision of the judges. Some years before his death,
+Andrew Drytzehn expressed a desire to learn one of Gutemberg’s arts, for
+he appears to have been fond of trying new experiments, and the latter
+acceding to his request taught him a method of polishing stones, by
+which he gained considerable profit. Some time afterwards, Gutemberg, in
+company with a person named John Riff, began to exercise a certain art
+whose productions were in demand at the fair of Aix-la-Chapelle. Andrew
+Drytzehn, hearing of this, begged that the new art might be explained to
+him, promising at the same time to give whatever premium should be
+required. Anthony Heilman also made a similar request for his brother
+Andrew Heilman.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII16" id = "tagIII16" href =
+"#noteIII16">III.16</a> To both these applications Gutemberg assented,
+agreeing to teach them the art; it being stipulated that the two new
+partners were to receive a fourth part of the profits between them; that
+Riff was to have another fourth; and that the remaining half should be
+received by the inventor. It was also agreed that Gutemberg should
+receive from each of the new partners the sum of eighty florins of gold
+payable by a certain day, as a premium for communicating to them his
+art. The great fair of Aix-la-Chapelle being deferred to another year,
+Gutemberg’s two new partners requested that he would communicate to them
+without reserve all his wonderful and rare inventions; to which he
+assented on condition that to the former sum of one hundred and sixty
+florins they should jointly advance two hundred and fifty more, of which
+one hundred were to be paid immediately, and the then remaining
+seventy-five florins due by each were to be paid at three instalments.
+Of the hundred florins stipulated to be paid in ready money, Andrew
+Heilman paid fifty, according to his engagement, while Andrew Drytzehn
+only paid forty, leaving ten due. The term of the partnership for
+carrying on the “wonderful art” was fixed at five years; and it was also
+agreed that if any of the partners should die within that period, his
+interest in the utensils and stock should become vested in the surviving
+partners, who at the completion of the term were to pay to the heirs of
+the deceased the sum of one
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page127" id = "page127">
+127</a></span>
+hundred florins. Andrew Drytzehn having died within the period, and when
+there remained a sum of eighty-five florins unpaid by him, Gutemberg met
+the claim of his brothers by referring to the articles of partnership,
+and insisted that from the sum of one hundred florins which the
+surviving partners were bound to pay, the eighty-five remaining unpaid
+by the deceased should be deducted. The balance of fifteen florins thus
+remaining due from the partnership he expressed his willingness to pay,
+although according to the terms of the agreement it was not payable
+until the five years were expired, and would thus not be strictly due
+for some years to come. The claim of George Drytzehn to be admitted a
+partner, as the heir of his brother, he opposed, on the ground of his
+being unacquainted with the obligations of the partnership; and he also
+denied that Andrew Drytzehn had ever become security for the payment of
+any sum for lead or other things purchased on account of the business,
+except to Fridelin von Seckingen, and that this sum (which was owing for
+lead) Gutemberg himself paid. The judges having heard the allegations of
+both parties, and having examined the agreement between Gutemberg and
+Andrew Drytzehn, decided that the eighty-five florins which remained
+unpaid by the latter should be deducted from the hundred which were to
+be repaid in the event of any one of the partners dying; and that
+Gutemberg should pay the balance of fifteen florins to George and
+Nicholas Drytzehn, and that when this sum should be paid they should
+have no further claim on the partnership.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIII17" id = "tagIII17" href = "#noteIII17">III.17</a></p>
+
+<p>From the depositions of some of the witnesses in this process, there
+can scarcely be a doubt that the “wonderful art” which Gutemberg was
+attempting to perfect was typography or printing with moveable types.
+Fournier<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII18" id = "tagIII18" href =
+"#noteIII18">III.18</a> thinks that Gutemberg’s attempts at printing, as
+may be gathered from the evidence in this cause, were confined to
+printing from wood-blocks; but such expressions of the witnesses as
+appear to relate to printing do not favour this opinion. As Gutemberg
+lived near the monastery of St. Arbogast, which was without the walls of
+the city, it appears that the attempts to perfect his invention were
+carried on in the house of his partner Andrew Drytzehn. Upon the death
+of the latter, Gutemberg appears to have been particularly anxious that
+“four <i>pieces</i>” which were in a “press” should be
+“distributed,”&mdash;making use of the very word which is yet used in
+Germany to express the distribution or separation of a form of
+types&mdash;-so that no person should know what they were.</p>
+
+<p>Hans Schultheis, a dealer in wood, and Ann his wife, depose to the
+following effect: After the death of Andrew Drytzehn, Gutemberg’s
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page128" id = "page128">
+128</a></span>
+servant, Lawrence Beildeck, came to their house, and thus addressed
+their relation Nicholas Drytzehn: “Your deceased brother Andrew had four
+“pieces” placed under a press, and John Gutemberg requests that you will
+take them out and lay them separately [or apart from each other] upon
+the press so that no one may see what it is.”<a class = "tag error" name
+= "tagIII19" id = "tagIII19" href = "#noteIII19" title = "footnote tag missing">III.19</a></p>
+
+<p>Conrad Saspach states that one day Andrew Heilman, a partner of
+Gutemberg’s, came to him in the Merchants’ Walk and said to him,
+“Conrad, as Andrew Drytzehn is dead, and <i>as you made the press</i>
+and know all about it, go and take the <i>pieces</i><a class = "tag"
+name = "tagIII20" id = "tagIII20" href = "#noteIII20">III.20</a> out of
+the press and separate [zerlege] them so that no person may know what
+they are.” This witness intended to do as he was requested, but on
+making inquiry the day after St. Stephen’s Day<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIII21" id = "tagIII21" href = "#noteIII21">III.21</a> he found that
+the work was removed.</p>
+
+<p>Lawrence Beildeck, Gutemberg’s servant, deposes that after Andrew
+Drytzehn’s death he was sent by his master to Nicholas Drytzehn to tell
+him not to show the press which he had in his house to any person.
+Beildeck also adds that he was desired by Gutemberg to go to the
+presses, and to open [or undo] the press which was fastened with two
+screws, so that the “pieces” [which were in it] should fall asunder. The
+said “pieces” he was then to place in or upon the press, so that no
+person might see or understand them.</p>
+
+<p>Anthony Heilman, the brother of one of Gutemberg’s partners, states
+that he knew of Gutemberg having sent his servant shortly before
+Christmas both to Andrew Heilman and Andrew Drytzehn to bring away all
+the “forms” [formen] that they might be separated in his presence, as he
+found several things in them of which he disapproved.<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagIII22" id = "tagIII22" href = "#noteIII22">III.22</a> The
+same witness also states that he was well aware of many people being
+wishful
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page129" id = "page129">
+129</a></span>
+to see the press, and that Gutemberg had desired that they should send
+some person to prevent its being seen.</p>
+
+<p>Hans Dünne, a goldsmith, deposed that about three years before, he
+had done work for Gutemberg on account of printing alone to the amount
+of a hundred florins.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII23" id = "tagIII23"
+href = "#noteIII23">III.23</a></p>
+
+<p>As Gutemberg evidently had kept his art as secret as possible, it is
+not surprising that the notice of it by the preceding witnesses should
+not be more explicit. Though it may be a matter of doubt whether his
+invention was merely an improvement on block-printing, or an attempt to
+print with moveable types, yet, bearing in mind that express mention is
+made of a <i>press</i> and of <i>printing</i>, and taking into
+consideration his subsequent partnership with Faust, it is morally
+certain that Gutemberg’s attention had been occupied with some new
+discovery relative to printing at least three years previous to December
+1439.</p>
+
+<p>If Gutemberg’s attempts when in partnership with Andrew Drytzehn and
+others did not extend beyond block-printing, and if the four “pieces”
+which were in the press are assumed to have been four engraved blocks,
+it is evident that the mere unscrewing them from the “<i>chase</i>” or
+frame in which they might be enclosed, would not in the least prevent
+persons from knowing what they were; and it is difficult to conceive how
+the undoing of the two screws would cause “the pieces” to fall asunder.
+If, however, we suppose the four “pieces” to have been so many pages of
+moveable types screwed together in a frame, it is easy to conceive the
+effect of undoing the two screws which held it together. On this
+hypothesis, Gutemberg’s instructions to his servant, and Anthony
+Heilman’s request to Conrad Saspach, the maker of the press, that he
+would take out the “pieces” and distribute them, are at once
+intelligible. If Gutemberg’s attempts were confined to block-printing,
+he could certainly have no claim to the discovery of a new art, unless
+indeed we are to suppose that his invention consisted in the
+introduction of the press for the purpose of taking impressions; but it
+is apparent that his anxiety was not so much to prevent people seeing
+the press as to keep them ignorant of the purpose for which it was
+employed, and to conceal what was in it.</p>
+
+<p>The evidence of Hans Dünne the goldsmith, though very brief, is in
+favour of the opinion that Gutemberg’s essays in printing were made with
+moveable types of metal; and it also is corroborated by the fact of
+<i>lead</i> being one of the articles purchased on account of the
+partnership. It is certain that goldsmiths were accustomed to engrave
+letters and figures upon silver and other metals long before the art of
+copper-plate printing was introduced; and Fournier not attending to the
+distinction
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page130" id = "page130">
+130</a></span>
+between simple engraving on metal and engraving on a plate for the
+purpose of taking impressions on paper, has made a futile objection to
+the argument of Bär,<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII24" id = "tagIII24"
+href = "#noteIII24">III.24</a> who very naturally supposes that the
+hundred florins which Hans Dünne received from Gutemberg for work done
+on account of printing alone, might be on account of his having cut the
+types, the formation of which by means of punches and matrices was a
+subsequent improvement of Peter Scheffer. It is indeed difficult to
+conceive in what manner a goldsmith could earn a hundred florins for
+work done on account of printing, except in his capacity as an engraver;
+and as I can see no reason to suppose that Hans Dünne was an engraver on
+wood, I&nbsp;am inclined to think that he was employed by Gutemberg to
+cut the letters on separate pieces of metal.</p>
+
+<p>There is no evidence to show that Gutemberg succeeded in printing any
+books at Strasburg with moveable types: and the most likely conclusion
+seems to be that he did not. As the process between him and the
+Drytzehns must have given a certain degree of publicity to his
+invention, it might be expected that some notice would have been taken
+of its first-fruits had he succeeded in making it available in
+Strasburg. On the contrary, all the early writers in the least entitled
+to credit, who have spoken of the invention of printing with moveable
+types, agree in ascribing the honour to Mentz, after Gutemberg had
+returned to that city and entered into partnership with Faust. Two
+writers, however, whose learning and research are entitled to the
+highest respect, are of a different opinion. “It has been doubted,” says
+Professor Oberlin, “that Gutemberg ever printed books at Strasburg. It
+is, nevertheless, probable that he did; for he had a press there in
+1439, and continued to reside in that city for five years afterwards. He
+might print several of those small tracts without date, in which the
+inequality of the letters and rudeness of the workmanship indicate the
+infancy of the art. Schœpflin thinks that he can identify some of them;
+and the passages cited by him clearly show that printing had been
+carried on there.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII25" id = "tagIII25"
+href = "#noteIII25">III.25</a> It is, however, to be remarked that the
+passages cited by Schœpflin, and referred to by Oberlin,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page131" id = "page131">
+131</a></span>
+by no means show that the art of printing had been practised at
+Strasburg by Gutemberg; nor do they clearly prove that it had been
+continuously carried on there by his partners or others to the time of
+Mentelin, who probably established himself there as a printer in
+1466.</p>
+
+<p>It has been stated that Gutemberg’s first essays in typography were
+made with wooden types; and Daniel Specklin, an architect of Strasburg,
+who died in 1589, professed to have seen some of them. According to his
+account there was a hole pierced in each letter, and they were arranged
+in lines by a string being passed through them. The lines thus formed
+like a string of beads were afterwards collected into pages, and
+submitted to the press. Particles and syllables of frequent occurrence
+were not formed of separate letters, but were cut on single pieces of
+wood. We are left to conjecture the size of those letters; but if they
+were sufficiently large to allow of a hole being bored through them, and
+to afterwards sustain the action of the press, they could not well be
+less than the missal types with which Faust and Scheffer’s Psalter is
+printed. It is however likely that Specklin had been mistaken; and that
+he had supposed some old initial letters, large enough to admit of a
+hole being bored through them without injury, to have been such as were
+generally used in the infancy of the art.</p>
+
+<p>In 1441 and 1442, Gutemberg, who appears to have been always in want
+of money, executed deeds of sale to the dean and chapter of the
+collegiate church of St. Thomas at Strasburg, whereby he assigned to
+them certain rents and profits in Mentz which he inherited from his
+uncle John Leheymer, who had been a judge in that city. In 1443 and 1444
+Gutemberg’s name still appears in the rate or tax book of Strasburg; but
+after the latter year it is no longer to be found. About 1445, it is
+probable that he returned to Mentz, his native city, having apparently
+been unsuccessful in his speculations at Strasburg. From this period to
+1450 it is likely that he continued to employ himself in attempts to
+perfect his invention of typography. In 1450 he entered into partnership
+with John Faust, a&nbsp;goldsmith and native of Mentz, and it is from
+this year that Trithemius dates the invention. In his Annales
+Hirsaugienses, under the year 1450, he gives the following account of
+the first establishment and early progress of the art. “About this time
+[1450], in the city of Mentz upon the Rhine, in Germany, and not in
+Italy as some have falsely stated, this wonderful and hitherto unheard
+of art of printing was conceived and invented by John Gutemberg,
+a&nbsp;citizen of Mentz. He had expended nearly all his substance on the
+invention; and being greatly pressed for want of means, was about to
+abandon it in despair, when, through the advice and with the money
+furnished by John Faust, also a citizen of Mentz, he completed his
+undertaking. At first they printed the vocabulary called the
+<i>Catholicon</i>, from letters cut on blocks of wood.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page132" id = "page132">
+132</a></span>
+These letters however could not be used to print anything else, as they
+were not separately moveable, but were cut on the blocks as above
+stated. To this invention succeeded others more subtle, and they
+afterwards invented a method of casting the shapes, named by them
+<i>matrices</i>, of all the letters of the Roman alphabet, from which
+they again cast letters of copper or tin, sufficient to bear any
+pressure to which they might be subjected, and which they had formerly
+cut by hand. As I have heard, nearly thirty years ago, from Peter
+Scheffer, of Gernsheim, citizen of Mentz, who was son-in-law of the
+first inventor, great difficulties attended the first establishment of
+this art; for when they had commenced printing a Bible they found that
+upwards of four thousand florins had been expended before they had
+finished the third <i>quaternion</i> [or quire of four sheets]. Peter
+Scheffer, an ingenious and prudent man, at first the servant, and
+afterwards, as has been already said, the son-in-law of John Faust, the
+first inventor, discovered the more ready mode of casting the types, and
+perfected the art as it is at present exercised. These three for some
+time kept their method of printing a secret, till at length it was
+divulged by some workmen whose assistance they could not do without. It
+first passed to Strasburg, and gradually to other nations.”<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagIII26" id = "tagIII26" href =
+"#noteIII26">III.26</a></p>
+
+<p>As Trithemius finished the work which contains the preceding account
+in 1514, Marchand concludes that he must have received his information
+from Scheffer about 1484, which would be within thirty-five years of
+Gutemberg’s entering into a partnership with Faust. Although Trithemius
+had his information from so excellent an authority, yet the account
+which he has thus left is far from satisfactory. Schœpflin, amongst
+other objections to its accuracy, remarks that Trithemius is wrong in
+stating that the invention of moveable types was subsequent to
+Gutemberg’s connexion with Faust, seeing that the former had previously
+employed them at Strasburg; and he also observes that in the learned
+abbot’s account there is no distinct mention made of moveable letters
+cut by hand, but that we are led to infer that the improvement of
+casting types from matrices immediately followed the printing of the
+Catholicon from wood-blocks. The words of Trithemius on this point are
+as follows: “Post hæc, inventis successerunt subtiliora, inveneruntque
+modum fundendi formas omnium Latini alphabeti litterarum, quas ipsi
+<i>matrices</i> nominabant, ex quibus rursum æneos sive stanneos
+characteres fundebant ad omnem pressuram sufficientes quos prius manibus
+sculpebant.” From this passage it might be objected in opposition to the
+opinion of Schœpflin:<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII27" id = "tagIII27"
+href = "#noteIII27">III.27</a> 1.&nbsp;That the “subtiliora,”&mdash;more
+subtle contrivances, mentioned <i>before</i> the invention of casting
+moveable letters, may relate to the cutting
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page133" id = "page133">
+133</a></span>
+of such letters by hand. 2.&nbsp;That the word “quos” is to be referred
+to the antecedent “æneos sive stanneos characteres,”&mdash;letters of
+copper or tin,&mdash;and not to the “characteres in tabulis ligneis
+scripti,”&mdash;letters engraved on wood-blocks,&mdash;which are
+mentioned in a preceding sentence. The inconsistency of Trithemius in
+ascribing the origin of the art to Gutemberg, and twice immediately
+afterwards calling Scheffer the son-in-law of “the first inventor,”
+Faust, is noticed by Schœpflin, and has been pointed out by several
+other writers.</p>
+
+<p>In 1455 the partnership between Gutemberg and Faust was dissolved at
+the instance of the latter, who preferred a suit against his partner for
+the recovery, with interest, of certain sums of money which he had
+advanced. There is no mention of the time when the partnership commenced
+in the sentence or award of the judge; but Schwartz infers, from the sum
+claimed on account of interest, that it must have been in August 1449.
+It is probable that his conclusion is very near the truth; for most of
+the early writers who have mentioned the invention of printing at Mentz
+by Gutemberg and Faust, agree in assigning the year 1450 as that in
+which they began to practise the new art. It is conjectured by Santander
+that Faust, who seems to have been a selfish character,<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagIII28" id = "tagIII28" href = "#noteIII28">III.28</a> sought
+an opportunity of quarrelling with Gutemberg as soon as Scheffer had
+communicated to him his great improvement of forming the letters by
+means of punches and matrices.</p>
+
+<p>The document containing the decision of the judges was drawn up by
+Ulric Helmasperger, a&nbsp;notary, on 6th November, 1455, in the
+presence of Peter Gernsheim [Scheffer], James Faust, the brother of
+John, Henry Keffer, and others.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII29" id =
+"tagIII29" href = "#noteIII29">III.29</a> From the statement of Faust,
+as recited in this instrument, it appears that he had first advanced to
+Gutemberg eight hundred florins at the annual interest of six per cent.,
+and afterwards eight hundred florins more. Gutemberg having neglected to
+pay the interest, there was owing by him a sum of two hundred and fifty
+florins on account of the first eight hundred; and a further sum of one
+hundred and forty on account of the second. In consequence of
+Gutemberg’s
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page134" id = "page134">
+134</a></span>
+neglecting to pay the interest, Faust states that he had incurred a
+further expense of thirty-six florins from having to borrow money both
+of Christians and Jews. For the capital advanced by him, and arrears of
+interest, he claimed on the whole two thousand and twenty florins.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagIII30" id = "tagIII30" href =
+"#noteIII30">III.30</a></p>
+
+<p>In answer to these allegations Gutemberg replied: that the first
+eight hundred florins which he received of Faust were advanced in order
+to purchase utensils for printing, which were assigned to Faust as a
+security for his money. It was agreed between them that Faust should
+contribute three hundred florins annually for workmen’s wages and
+house-rent, and for the purchase of parchment, paper, ink, and other
+things.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII31" id = "tagIII31" href =
+"#noteIII31">III.31</a> It was also stipulated that in the event of any
+disagreement arising between them, the printing materials assigned to
+Faust as a security should become the property of Gutemberg on his
+repaying the sum of eight hundred florins. This sum, however, which was
+advanced for the completion of the work, Gutemberg did not think himself
+bound to expend on book-work alone; and although it was expressed in
+their agreement that he should pay six florins in the hundred for an
+annual interest, yet Faust assured him that he would not accept of it,
+as the eight hundred florins were not paid down at once, as by their
+agreement they ought to have been. For the second sum of eight hundred
+florins he was ready to render Faust an account. For interest or usury
+he considered that he was not liable.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII32"
+id = "tagIII32" href = "#noteIII32">III.32</a></p>
+
+<p>The judges, having heard the statements of both parties, decided that
+Gutemberg should repay Faust so much of the capital as had not been
+expended in the business; and that on Faust’s producing witnesses, or
+swearing that he had borrowed upon interest the sums advanced, Gutemberg
+should pay him interest also, according to their agreement. Faust having
+made oath that he had borrowed 1550 florins, which he paid over to
+Gutemberg, to be employed by him for their common benefit, and that he
+had paid yearly interest, and was still liable on account of the same,
+the notary, Ulric Helmasperger, signed his attestation of the award on
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page135" id = "page135">
+135</a></span>
+6th November, 1455.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII33" id = "tagIII33"
+href = "#noteIII33">III.33</a> It would appear that Gutemberg not being
+able to repay the money was obliged to relinquish the printing materials
+to Faust.</p>
+
+<p>Salmuth, who alludes to the above document in his annotations upon
+Pancirollus, has most singularly perverted its meaning, by representing
+Gutemberg as the person who advanced the money, and Faust as the
+ingenious inventor who was sued by his rich partner. “From this it
+evidently appears,” says he, after making Gutemberg and Faust exchange
+characters, “that Gutemberg was not the first who invented and practised
+typography; but that some years after its invention he was admitted a
+partner by John Faust, to whom he advanced money.” If for “Gutemberg” we
+read “Faust,” and <i>vice versâ</i>, the account is correct.</p>
+
+<p>Whether Faust, who might be an engraver as well as a goldsmith,
+assisted Gutemberg or not by engraving the types, does not appear. It is
+stated that Gutemberg’s earliest productions at Mentz were an alphabet
+cut on wood, and a Donatus executed in the same manner. Trithemius
+mentions a “<i>Catholicon</i>” engraved on blocks of wood as one of the
+first books printed by Gutemberg and Faust, and this Heineken thinks was
+the same as the Donatus.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII34" id =
+"tagIII34" href = "#noteIII34">III.34</a> Whatever may have been the
+book which Trithemius describes as a “Catholicon,” it certainly was not
+the “<i>Catholicon Joannis Januensis</i>,” a large folio which appeared
+in 1460 without the name or residence of the printer, but which is
+supposed to have been printed by Gutemberg after the dissolution of his
+partnership with Faust.</p>
+
+<p>It has been stated that previous to the introduction of metal types
+Gutemberg and Faust used moveable types of wood; and Schœpflin speaks
+confidently of such being used at Strasburg by Mentelin long after
+Scheffer had introduced the improved method of forming metal types by
+means of punches and matrices. On this subject, however, Schœpflin’s
+opinion is of very little weight, for on whatever relates to the
+practice of typography or wood engraving he was very slightly informed.
+He fancies that all the books printed at Strasburg previous to the
+appearance of <i>Vincentii Bellovacensis Speculum Historiale</i> in
+1473, were printed with moveable types of wood. It is, however, doubtful
+if ever a single book was printed in this manner.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page136" id = "page136">
+136</a></span>
+<p>Willett in his Essay on Printing, published in the eleventh volume of
+the Archæologia, not only says that no entire book was ever printed with
+wooden types, but adds, “I&nbsp;venture to pronounce it impossible.” He
+has pronounced rashly. Although it certainly would be a work of
+considerable labour to cut a set of moveable letters of the size of what
+is called Donatus type, and sufficient to print such a book, yet it is
+by no means impossible. That such books as “<i>Eyn Manung der
+Cristenheit widder die durken</i>,” of which a fac-simile is given by
+Aretin, and the first and second Donatuses, of which specimens are given
+by Fischer, might be printed from wooden types I am perfectly satisfied,
+though I am decidedly of opinion that they were not. Marchand has
+doubted the possibility of printing with wooden types, which he observes
+would be apt to warp when wet for the purpose of cleaning; but it is to
+be observed that they would not require to be cleaned before they were
+used.</p>
+
+<p>Fournier, who was a letter-founder, and who occasionally practised
+wood engraving, speaks positively of the Psalter first printed by Faust
+and Scheffer in 1457, and again in 1459, being printed with wooden
+types; and he expresses his conviction of the practicability of cutting
+and printing with such types, provided that they were not of a smaller
+size than Great Primer Roman. Meerman shows the possibility of using
+such types; and Camus caused two lines of the Bible, supposed to have
+been printed by Gutemberg, to be cut in separate letters on wood, and
+which sustained the action of the press.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIII35" id = "tagIII35" href = "#noteIII35">III.35</a> Lambinet says,
+it is certain that Gutemberg cut moveable letters of wood, but he gives
+no authority for the assertion; and I am of opinion that no
+unexceptionable testimony on this point can be produced. The statements
+of Serarius and Paulus Pater,<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII36" id =
+"tagIII36" href = "#noteIII36">III.36</a> who profess to have seen such
+ancient wooden types at Mentz, are entitled to as little credit as
+Daniel Specklin, who asserted that he had seen such at Strasburg. They
+may have seen large initial letters of wood with holes bored through,
+but scarcely any lower-case letters which were ever used in printing any
+book.</p>
+
+<p>That experiments might be made by Gutemberg with wooden types I can
+believe, though I have not been able to find any sufficient authority
+for the fact. Of the possibility of cutting moveable types of a certain
+size in wood, and of printing a book with them, I&nbsp;am convinced from
+experiment; and could convince others, were it worth the expense, by
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page137" id = "page137">
+137</a></span>
+printing a fac-simile, from wooden types, of any page of any book which
+is of an earlier date than 1462. But, though convinced of the
+possibility of printing small works in letters of a certain size, with
+wooden types, I&nbsp;have never seen any early specimens of typography
+which contained positive and indisputable indications of having been
+printed in that manner. It was, until of late, confidently asserted by
+persons who pretended to have a competent knowledge of the subject, that
+the text of the celebrated Adventures of Theurdank, printed in 1517, had
+been engraved on wood-blocks, and their statement was generally
+believed. There cannot, however, now be a doubt in the mind of any
+person who examines the book, and who has the slightest knowledge of
+wood engraving and printing, of the text being printed with metal
+types.</p>
+
+<p>During the partnership of Gutemberg and Faust it is likely that they
+printed some works, though there is scarcely one which can be assigned
+to them with any degree of certainty. One of the supposed earliest
+productions of typography is a letter of indulgence conceded on the 12th
+of August, 1451, by Pope Nicholas V, to Paulin Zappe, counsellor and
+ambassador of John, King of Cyprus. It was to be in force for three
+years from the 1st of May, 1452, and it granted indulgence to all
+persons who within that period should contribute towards the defence of
+Cyprus against the Turks. Four copies of this indulgence are known,
+printed on vellum in the manner of a patent or brief. The characters are
+of a larger size than those of the “Durandi Rationale,” 1459, or of the
+Latin Bible printed by Faust and Scheffer in 1462. The following date
+appears at the conclusion of one of the copies: “Datum <i>Erffurdie</i>
+sub anno Domini m cccc liiij, die vero <i>quinta decima</i> mensis
+<i>novembris</i>.” The words which are here printed in Italic, are in
+the original written with a pen. A&nbsp;copy of the same indulgence
+discovered by Professor Gebhardi is more complete. It has at the end,
+a&nbsp;“<i>Forma plenissimæ absolutionis et remissionis in vita et in
+mortis articulo</i>,”&mdash;a form of plenary absolution and remission
+in life and at the point of death. At the conclusion is the following
+date, the words in Italics being inserted with a pen: “Datum in
+<i>Luneborch</i> anno Domini m cccc l <i>quinto</i>, die vero
+<i>vicesima sexta</i> mensis <i>Januarii</i>.” Heineken, who saw this
+copy in the possession of Breitkopf, has observed that in the original
+date, m&nbsp;cccc liiij, the last four characters had been effaced and
+the word <i>quinto</i> written with a pen; but yet in such a manner that
+the numerals iiij might still be perceived. In two copies of this
+indulgence in the possession of Earl Spencer, described by Dr. Dibdin in
+the Bibliotheca Spenceriana, vol. i.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;44, the final units
+(iiij) have not had the word “quinto” overwritten, but have been formed
+with a pen into the numeral V.&nbsp;In the catalogue of Dr. Kloss’s
+library, No.&nbsp;1287, it is stated that a fragment of a “Donatus”
+there described, consisting of two leaves of parchment, is printed
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page138" id = "page138">
+138</a></span>
+with the same type as the Mazarine Bible; and it is added, on the
+authority of George Appleyard, Esq., Earl Spencer’s librarian, that the
+“Littera Indulgentiæ” of Pope Nicholas V, in his lordship’s possession,
+contains two lines printed with the same type. Breitkopf had some doubts
+respecting this instrument; but a writer in the Jena Literary Gazette is
+certainly wrong in supposing that it had been ante-dated ten years. It
+was only to be in force for three years; and Pope Nicholas V, by whom it
+was granted, died on the 24th March, 1455.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIII37" id = "tagIII37" href = "#noteIII37">III.37</a> Two words,
+<span class = "smallroman">UNIVERSIS</span> and <span class =
+"smallroman">PAULINUS</span>, which are printed in capitals in the first
+two lines, are said to be of the same type as those of a Bible of which
+Schelhorn has given a specimen in his “Dissertation on an early Edition
+of the Bible,” Ulm, 1760.</p>
+
+<p>The next earliest specimen of typography with a date is the tract
+entitled “<i>Eyn Manung der Cristenkeit widder die durken</i>,”&mdash;An
+Appeal to Christendom against the Turks,&mdash;which has been alluded to
+at page 136. A&nbsp;lithographic fac-simile of the whole of this tract,
+which consists of nine printed pages of a quarto size, is given by
+Aretin at the end of his “Essay on the earliest historical results of
+the invention of Printing,” published at Munich in 1808. This “Appeal”
+is in German rhyme, and it consists of exhortations, arranged under
+every month in the manner of a calendar, addressed to the pope, the
+emperor, to kings, princes, bishops, and free states, encouraging them
+to take up arms and resist the Turks. The exhortation for January is
+addressed to Pope Nicholas V, who died, as has been observed, in March
+1455. Towards the conclusion of the prologue is the date “<i>Als man
+zelet noch din’ geburt offenbar m.cccc.lv. iar sieben wochen und iiii do
+by von nativitatis bis esto michi</i>.” At the conclusion of the
+exhortation for December are the following words: “Eyn gut selig nuwe
+Jar:” A&nbsp;happy new year! From these circumstances Aretin is of
+opinion that the tract was printed towards the end of 1454.
+M.&nbsp;Bernhart, however, one of the superintendents of the Royal
+Library at Munich, of which Aretin was the principal director, has
+questioned the accuracy of this date; and from certain allusions in the
+exhortation for December, has endeavoured to show that the correct date
+ought to be 1472.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII38" id = "tagIII38" href
+= "#noteIII38">III.38</a></p>
+
+<p>Fischer in looking over some old papers discovered a calendar of a
+folio size, and printed on one side only, for 1457. The letters,
+according to his description, resemble those of a Donatus, of which he
+has given a specimen in the third part of his Typographic Rarities, and
+he supposes that both the Donatus and the Calendar were printed by
+Gutemberg.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII39" id = "tagIII39" href =
+"#noteIII39">III.39</a>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page139" id = "page139">
+139</a></span>
+It is, however, certain that the Donatus which he ascribed to Gutemberg
+was printed by Peter Scheffer, and in all probability after Faust’s
+death; and from the similarity of the type it is likely that the
+Calendar was printed at the same office. Fischer, having observed that
+the large ornamental capitals of this Donatus were the same as those in
+the Psalter printed by Faust and Scheffer in 1457, was led most
+erroneously to conclude that the large ornamental letters of the
+Psalter, which were most likely of wood, had been cut by Gutemberg. The
+discovery of a Donatus with Peter Scheffer’s imprint has completely
+destroyed his conjectures, and invalidated the arguments advanced by him
+in favour of the Mazarine Bible being printed by Gutemberg alone.</p>
+
+<p>As Trithemius and the compiler of the Cologne Chronicle have
+mentioned a Bible as one of the first books printed by Gutemberg and
+Faust, it has been a fertile subject of discussion among bibliographers
+to ascertain the identical edition to which the honour was to be
+awarded. It seems, however, to be now generally admitted that the
+edition called the Mazarine<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII40" id =
+"tagIII40" href = "#noteIII40">III.40</a> is the best entitled to that
+distinction. In 1789 Maugerard produced a copy of this edition to the
+Academy of Metz, containing memoranda which seem clearly to prove that
+it was printed at least as early as August 1456. As the partnership
+between Gutemberg and Faust was only dissolved in November 1455, it is
+almost impossible that such could have been printed by either of them
+separately in the space of eight months; and as there seems no reason to
+believe that any other typographical establishment existed at that
+period, it is most likely that this was the identical edition alluded to
+by Trithemius as having cost 4,000 florins before the partners,
+Gutemberg and Faust, had finished the third quaternion, or quire of four
+sheets.</p>
+
+<p>The copy produced by Maugerard is printed on paper, and is now in the
+Royal Library at Paris. It is bound in two volumes; and every complete
+page consists of two columns, each containing forty-two lines. At the
+conclusion of the first volume the person by whom it was rubricated<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagIII41" id = "tagIII41" href =
+"#noteIII41">III.41</a> and bound has written the following memorandum:
+“<i>Et sic est finis prime partis biblie. Scr. Veteris testamenti.
+Illuminata seu rubricata et illuminata p’ henricum Albeh alius Cremer
+anno dn’i m.cccc.lvi festo Bartholomei apli&mdash;Deo
+gratias&mdash;alleluja.</i>” At the end of the second
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page140" id = "page140">
+140</a></span>
+volume the same person has written the date in words at length: “<i>Iste
+liber illuminatus, ligatus &amp; completus est p’ henricum Cremer
+vicariū ecclesie <ins class = "correction" title = "printed with ‘ur’ ligature">collegat<i>ur</i></ins> Sancti Stephani maguntini sub anno
+D’ni millesimo quadringentesimo quinquagesimo sexto festo assumptionis
+gloriose virginis Marie. Deo gracias alleluja.</i>”<a class = "tag" name
+= "tagIII42" id = "tagIII42" href = "#noteIII42">III.42</a> Fischer<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagIII43" id = "tagIII43" href =
+"#noteIII43">III.43</a> says that this last memorandum assigns “einen
+<ins class = "correction" title = "text reads ‘spatern’">spätern</ins>
+tag”&mdash;a later day&mdash;to the end of the rubricator’s work. In
+this he is mistaken; for the feast of the Assumption of the Virgin, when
+the <i>second</i> volume was finished, is on the 15th of August: while
+the feast of St. Bartholomew, the day on which he finished the
+<i>first</i>, falls on August 24th. Lambinet,<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIII44" id = "tagIII44" href = "#noteIII44">III.44</a> who doubts the
+genuineness of those inscriptions, makes the circumstance of the second
+volume being finished nine days before the first, a&nbsp;ground of
+objection. This seeming inconsistency however can by no means be
+admitted as a proof of the inscriptions being spurious. It is indeed
+more likely that the rubricator might actually finish the second volume
+before the first, than that a modern forger, intent to deceive, should
+not have been aware of the objection.</p>
+
+<p>The genuineness of the inscriptions is, however, confirmed by other
+evidence which no mere conjecture can invalidate. On the last leaf of
+this Bible there is a memorandum written by Berthold de Steyna, vicar of
+the parochial church of “Ville-Ostein,”<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIII45" id = "tagIII45" href = "#noteIII45">III.45</a> to the sacrist
+of which the Bible belonged. The sum of this memorandum is that on St.
+George’s day [23d April] 1457 there was chaunted, for the first time by
+the said Berthold, the mass of the holy sacrament. In the Carthusian
+monastery without the walls of Mentz, Schwartz<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIII46" id = "tagIII46" href = "#noteIII46">III.46</a> says that he
+saw a copy of this edition, the last leaves of which were torn out; but
+that in an old catalogue he perceived an entry stating that this Bible
+was presented to the monastery by Gutemberg and Faust. If the memorandum
+in the catalogue could be relied on as genuine, it would appear that
+this Bible had been completed before the dissolution of Gutemberg and
+Faust’s partnership in November 1455.</p>
+
+<p>Although not a single work has been discovered with Gutemberg’s
+imprint, yet there cannot be a doubt of his having established a press
+of his own, and printed books at Mentz after the partnership between him
+and Faust had been dissolved. In the chronicle printed by Philip de
+Lignamine at Rome in 1474, it is expressly stated, under the year 1458,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page141" id = "page141">
+141</a></span>
+that there were then two printers at Mentz skilful in printing on
+parchment with metal types. The name of one was <i>Cutemberg</i>, and
+the other Faust; and it was known that each of them could print three
+hundred sheets in a day.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII47" id =
+"tagIII47" href = "#noteIII47">III.47</a> On St. Margaret’s day, 20th
+July, 1459, Gutemberg, in conjunction with his brother Friele and his
+cousins John, Friele, and Pederman, executed a deed in favour of the
+convent of St. Clara at Mentz, in which his sister Hebele was a nun. In
+this document, which is preserved among the archives of the university
+of Mentz, there occurs a passage, “which makes it as clear,” says
+Fischer, who gives the deed entire, “as the finest May-day noon, that
+Gutemberg had not only printed books at that time, but that he intended
+to print more.” The passage alluded to is to the following effect: “And
+with respect to the books which I, the above-named John, have given the
+library of the said convent, they shall remain for ever in the said
+library; and I, the above-named John, will furthermore give to the
+library of the said convent all such books required for pious uses and
+the service of God,&mdash;whether for reading or singing, or for use
+according to the rules of the order,&mdash;as I, the above-named John,
+have printed or shall hereafter print.”<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIII48" id = "tagIII48" href = "#noteIII48">III.48</a></p>
+
+<p>That Gutemberg had a press of his own is further confirmed by a bond
+or deed of obligation executed by Dr. Conrad Homery on the Friday after
+St. Matthias’ day, 1468, wherein he acknowledges having received
+“certain forms, letters, utensils, materials, and other things belonging
+to printing,” left by John Gutemberg deceased; and he binds himself to
+the archbishop Adolphus not to use them beyond the territory of Mentz,
+and in the event of his selling them to give a preference to a person
+belonging to that city.</p>
+
+<p>The words translated “certain forms, letters, utensils, materials,
+and other things belonging to printing,” in the preceding paragraph, are
+in the original enumerated as: “<i>etliche formen</i>,
+<i>buchstaben</i>, <i>instrument</i>, <i>gezuge und anders zu truckwerck
+gehoerende</i>.” As there is a distinction made between “formen” and
+“buchstaben,”&mdash;literally, “forms” and “letters,”&mdash;Schwartz is
+inclined to think that by “formen” engraved wood-blocks might be meant,
+and he adduces in favour of his opinion the word “formen-schneider,” the
+old German name for a wood-engraver. One or more pages of type when
+wedged into a rectangular iron frame called a “chase,” and ready for the
+press, is termed a “form” both by English and German printers; but
+Schwartz thinks that such were not the “forms”
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page142" id = "page142">
+142</a></span>
+mentioned in the document. As there appears to be a distinction also
+between “<i>instrument</i>” and “<i>gezuge</i>,”&mdash;translated
+utensils and materials,&mdash;he supposes that the latter word may be
+used to signify the metal of which the types were formed. He observes
+that German printers call their old worn-out types “<i>der
+Zeug</i>”&mdash;literally, “stuff,” and that the mixed metal of which
+types are composed is also known as “der Zeug, oder Metall.”<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagIII49" id = "tagIII49" href = "#noteIII49">III.49</a>
+It is to be remembered that the earliest printers were also their own
+letter-founders.</p>
+
+<p>The work called the Catholicon, compiled by Johannes de Balbis,
+Januensis, a&nbsp;Dominican, which appeared in 1460 without the
+printer’s name, has been ascribed to Gutemberg’s press by some of the
+most eminent German bibliographers. It is a Latin dictionary and
+introduction to grammar, and consists of three hundred and seventy-three
+leaves of large folio size. Fischer and others are of opinion that a
+Vocabulary, printed at Elfeld,&mdash;in Latin, Altavilla,&mdash;near
+Mentz, on 6th November, 1467, was executed with the same types. At the
+end of this work, which is a quarto of one hundred and sixty-five
+leaves, it is stated to have been begun by Henry Bechtermuntze, and
+finished by his brother Nicholas, and Wigand Spyess de Orthenberg.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagIII50" id = "tagIII50" href =
+"#noteIII50">III.50</a> A&nbsp;second edition of the same work, printed
+by Nicholas Bechtermuntze, appeared in 1469. The following extract from
+a letter written by Fischer to Professor Zapf in 1803, contains an
+account of his researches respecting the Catholicon and Vocabulary: “The
+frankness with which you retracted your former opinions respecting the
+printer of the Catholicon of 1460, and agreed with me in assigning it to
+Gutemberg, demands the respect of every unbiassed inquirer. I&nbsp;beg
+now merely to mention to you a discovery that I have made which no
+longer leaves it difficult to conceive how the Catholicon types should
+have come into the hands of Bechtermuntze. From a monument which stands
+before the high altar of the church of Elfeld it is evident that the
+family of Sorgenloch, of which that of Gutemberg or Gænsfleisch was a
+branch, was connected with the family of Bechtermuntze by marriage. The
+types used by Bechtermuntze were not only similar to those formerly
+belonging to Gutemberg, but were the very same, as I always maintained,
+appealing to the principles of the type-founder’s art. They had come
+into the possession of Bechtermuntze by inheritance, on the death of
+Gutemberg, and hence Dr. Homery’s reclamation.”<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIII51" id = "tagIII51" href = "#noteIII51">III.51</a></p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page143" id = "page143">
+143</a></span>
+<p>Zapf, to whom Fischer’s letter is addressed, had previously
+communicated to Oberlin his opinion that the types of the Catholicon
+were the same as those of an <i>Augustinus de Vita Christiana</i>, 4to,
+without date or printer’s name, but having at the end the arms of Faust
+and Scheffer. In his account, printed at Nuremberg, 1803, of an early
+edition of “Joannis de Turre-cremata explanatio in Psalterium,” he
+acknowledged that he was mistaken; thus agreeing with Schwartz, Meerman,
+Panzer, and Fischer, that no book known to be printed by Faust and
+Scheffer is printed with the same types as the Catholicon and the
+Vocabulary.</p>
+
+<p>Although there can be little doubt of the Catholicon and the Elfeld
+Vocabulary being printed with the same types, and of the former being
+printed by Gutemberg, yet it is far from certain that Bechtermuntze
+inherited Gutemberg’s printing materials, even though he might be a
+relation. It is as likely that Gutemberg might sell to the brothers a
+portion of his materials and still retain enough for himself. If they
+came into their possession by inheritance, which is not likely,
+Gutemberg must have died some months previous to 4th November, 1467, the
+day on which Nicholas Bechtermuntze and Wygand Spyess finished the
+printing of the Vocabulary. If the materials had been purchased by
+Bechtermuntze in Gutemberg’s lifetime, which seems to be the most
+reasonable supposition, Conrad Homery could have no claim upon them on
+account of money advanced to Gutemberg, and consequently the types and
+printing materials which after his death came into Homery’s possession,
+could not be those employed by the brothers Bechtermuntze in their
+establishment at Elfeld.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII52" id =
+"tagIII52" href = "#noteIII52">III.52</a></p>
+
+<p>By letters patent, dated at Elfeld on St. Anthony’s day, 1465,
+Adolphus, archbishop and elector of Mentz, appointed Gutemberg one of
+his courtiers, with the same allowance of clothing as the rest of the
+nobles attending his court, with other privileges and exemptions. From
+this period Fischer thinks that Gutemberg no longer occupied himself
+with business as a printer, and that he transferred his printing
+materials to Henry Bechtermuntze. “If Wimpheling’s account be true,”
+says Fischer, “that Gutemberg became blind in his old age, we need no
+longer be surprised that during his lifetime his types and utensils
+should come into
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page144" id = "page144">
+144</a></span>
+the possession of Bechtermuntze.” The exact period of Gutemberg’s
+decease has not been ascertained, but in the bond or deed of obligation
+executed by Doctor Conrad Homery the Friday after St. Matthias’s day,<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagIII53" id = "tagIII53" href =
+"#noteIII53">III.53</a> 1468, he is mentioned as being then dead. He was
+interred at Mentz in the church of the Recollets, and the following
+epitaph was composed by his relation, Adam Gelthaus:<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagIII54" id = "tagIII54" href = "#noteIII54">III.54</a></p>
+
+<p class = "center smallroman">
+“D. O. M. S.</p>
+
+<p>“Joanni Genszfleisch, artis impressoriæ repertori, de omni natione et
+lingua optime merito, in nominis sui memoriam immortalem Adam Gelthaus
+posuit. Ossa ejus in ecclesia D.&nbsp;Francisci Moguntina feliciter
+cubant.”</p>
+
+<p>From the last sentence it is probable that this epitaph was not
+placed in the church wherein Gutemberg was interred. The following
+inscription was composed by Ivo Wittich, professor of law and member of
+the imperial chamber at Mentz:</p>
+
+<p>“Jo. Guttenbergensi, Moguntino, qui primus omnium literas ære
+imprimendas invenit, hac arte de orbe toto bene merenti Ivo Witigisis
+hoc saxum pro monimento posuit <span class =
+"smallroman">M.D.VII.</span>”</p>
+
+<p>This inscription, according to Serarius, who professes to have seen
+it, and who died in 1609, was placed in front of the school of law at
+Mentz. This house had formerly belonged to Gutemberg, and was supposed
+to be the same in which he first commenced printing at Mentz in
+conjunction with Faust.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII55" id =
+"tagIII55" href = "#noteIII55">III.55</a></p>
+
+<p>From the documentary evidence cited in the preceding account of the
+life of Gutemberg, it will be perceived that the art of printing with
+moveable types was not perfected as soon as conceived, but that it was a
+work of time. It is highly probable that Gutemberg was occupied with his
+invention in 1436; and from the obscure manner in which his “admirable
+discovery” is alluded to in the process between him and the Drytzehns in
+1439, it does not seem likely that he had then proceeded beyond making
+experiments. In 1449 or 1450, when the sum of 800 florins was advanced
+by Faust, it appears not unreasonable to suppose that he had so far
+improved his invention, as to render it practically available without
+reference to Scheffer’s great improvement in casting the types from
+matrices formed by punches, which was most likely discovered between
+1452 and 1455.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII56" id = "tagIII56" href =
+"#noteIII56">III.56</a> About fourteen years must have
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page145" id = "page145">
+145</a></span>
+elapsed before Gutemberg was enabled to bring his invention into
+practice. The difficulties which must have attended the first
+establishment of typography could only have been surmounted by great
+ingenuity and mechanical knowledge combined with unwearied perseverance.
+After the mind had conceived the idea of using moveable types, those
+types, whatever might be the material employed, were yet to be formed,
+and when completed they were to be arranged in pages, divided by proper
+spaces, and bound together in some manner which the ingenuity of the
+inventor was to devise. Nor was his invention complete until he had
+contrived a <span class = "smallcaps">Press</span>, by means of which
+numerous impressions from his types might be perfectly and rapidly
+obtained.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Ottley, at page 285 of the first volume of his Researches,
+informs us that “almost all great discoveries have been made by
+accident;” and at page 196 of the same volume, when speaking of printing
+as the invention of Lawrence Coster, he mentions it as an “art which had
+been at first taken up as the amusement of a leisure hour, became
+improved, and was practised by him as a profitable trade.” Let any
+unbiassed person enter a printing-office; let him look at the single
+letters, let him observe them formed into pages, and the pages wedged up
+in forms; let him see a sheet printed from one of those forms by means
+of the press; and when he has seen and considered all this, let him ask
+himself if ever, since the world began, the amusement of an old man
+practised in his hours of leisure was attended with such a result? “Very
+few great discoveries,” says Lord Brougham, “have been made by chance
+and by ignorant persons, much fewer than is generally
+supposed.&mdash;They are generally made by persons of competent
+knowledge, and who are in search of them.”<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIII57" id = "tagIII57" href = "#noteIII57">III.57</a></p>
+
+<p>Having now given some account of the grounds on which Gutemberg’s
+claims to the invention of typography are founded, it appears necessary
+to give a brief summary, from the earliest authorities, of the
+pretensions of Lawrence Coster not only to the same honour, but to
+something more; for if the earliest account which we have of him be
+true, he was not only the inventor of typography, but of block-printing
+also.</p>
+
+<p>The first mention of Holland in connexion with the invention of
+typography occurs in the Cologne Chronicle, printed by John Kœlhoff in
+1499, wherein it is said that the first idea of the art was suggested by
+the Donatuses printed in Holland; it being however expressly stated in
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page146" id = "page146">
+146</a></span>
+the same work that the art of printing as then practised was invented at
+Mentz. In a memorandum, which has been referred to at page 123, written
+by Mariangelus Accursius, who flourished about 1530, the invention of
+printing with metal types is erroneously ascribed to Faust; and it is
+further added, that he derived the idea from a Donatus printed in
+Holland from a wood-block. That a Donatus might be printed there from a
+wood-block previous to the invention of typography is neither impossible
+nor improbable; although I esteem the testimony of Accursius of very
+little value. He was born and resided in Italy, and it is not unlikely,
+as has been previously observed, that he might derive his information
+from the Cologne Chronicle.</p>
+
+<p>John Van Zuyren, who died in 1594, is said to have written a book to
+prove that typography was invented at Harlem; but it never was printed,
+and the knowledge that we have of it is from certain fragments of it
+preserved by Scriverius, a&nbsp;writer whose own uncorroborated
+testimony on this subject is not entitled to the slightest credit. The
+substance of Zuyren’s account is almost the same as that of Junius,
+except that he does not mention the inventor’s name. The art according
+to him was invented at Harlem, but that while yet in a rude and
+imperfect state it was carried by a stranger to Mentz, and there brought
+to perfection.</p>
+
+<p>Theodore Coornhert, in the dedication of his Dutch translation of
+Tully’s Offices to the magistrates of Harlem, printed in 1561, says that
+he had frequently heard from respectable people that the art of printing
+was invented at Harlem, and that the house where the inventor lived was
+pointed out to him. He proceeds to relate that by the dishonesty of a
+workman the art was carried to Mentz and there perfected. Though he says
+that he was informed by certain respectable old men both of the
+inventor’s name and family, yet, for some reason or other, he is careful
+not to mention them. When he was informing the magistrates of Harlem of
+their city being the nurse of so famous a discovery, it is rather
+strange that he should not mention the parent’s name. From the
+conclusion of his dedication we may guess why he should be led to
+mention Harlem as the place where typography was invented. It appears
+that he and certain friends of his, being inflamed with a patriotic
+spirit, designed to establish a new printing-office at Harlem, “in
+honour of their native city, to the profit of others, and for their own
+accommodation, and yet without detriment to any person.” His claiming
+the invention of printing for Harlem was a good advertisement for the
+speculation.</p>
+
+<p>The next writer who mentions Harlem as the place where printing was
+invented is Guicciardini, who in his Description of the Low Countries,
+first printed at Antwerp in 1567, gives the report, without vouching for
+its truth, as follows: “In this place, it appears, not only from the
+general opinion of the inhabitants and other Hollanders, but from the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page147" id = "page147">
+147</a></span>
+testimony of several writers and from other memoirs, that the art of
+printing and impressing letters on paper such as is now practised, was
+invented. The inventor dying before the art was perfected or had come
+into repute, his servant, as they say, went to live at Mentz, where
+making this new art known, he was joyfully received; and applying
+himself diligently to so important a business, he brought it to
+perfection and into general repute. Hence the report has spread abroad
+and gained credit that the art of printing was first practised at Mentz.
+What truth there may be in this relation, I&nbsp;am not able, nor do I
+wish, to decide; contenting myself with mentioning the subject in a few
+words, that I might not prejudice [by my silence the claims of] this
+district.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII58" id = "tagIII58" href =
+"#noteIII58">III.58</a></p>
+
+<p>It is evident that the above account is given from mere report. What
+other writers had previously noticed the claims of Harlem, except
+Coornhert and Zuyren, remain yet to be discovered. They appear to have
+been unknown to Guicciardini’s contemporary, Junius, who was the first
+to give a name to the Harlem inventor; a&nbsp;“local habitation” had
+already been provided for him by Coornhert.</p>
+
+<p>The sole authority for one Lawrence Coster having invented
+wood-engraving, block-printing, and typography, is Hadrian Junius, who
+was born at Horn in North Holland, in 1511. He took up his abode at
+Harlem in 1560. During his residence in that city he commenced his
+Batavia,&mdash;the work in which the account of Coster first
+appeared,&mdash;which, from the preface, would seem to have been
+finished in January, 1575. He died the 16th June in the same year, and
+his book was not published until 1588, twelve years after his decease.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagIII59" id = "tagIII59" href =
+"#noteIII59">III.59</a> In this work, which is a topographical and
+historical account of Holland, or more properly of the country included
+within the limits of ancient Batavia, we find the first account of
+Lawrence Coster as the inventor of typography. Almost every succeeding
+advocate of Coster’s pretensions has taken the liberty of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page148" id = "page148">
+148</a></span>
+altering, amplifying, or contradicting the account of Junius according
+as it might suit his own line of argument; but not one of them has been
+able to produce a single solitary fact in confirmation of it.
+Scriverius, Seiz, Meerman, and Koning are fertile in their conjectures
+about the thief that stole Coster’s types, but they are miserably barren
+in their proofs of his having had types to be stolen. “If the variety of
+opinions,” observes Naude, speaking of Coster’s invention, “may be taken
+as an indication of the falsehood of any theory, it is impossible that
+this should be true”. Since Naude’s time the number of Coster’s
+advocates has been increased by Seiz, Meerman, and Koning;<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagIII60" id = "tagIII60" href = "#noteIII60">III.60</a>
+who, if they have not been able to produce any evidence of the existence
+of Lawrence Coster as a printer, have at least been fertile in
+conjectures respecting the thief. They have not strengthened but
+weakened the Costerian triumphal arch raised by Junius, for they have
+all more or less knocked a piece of it away; and even where they have
+pretended to make repairs, it has merely been “one nail driving another
+out.”</p>
+
+<p>Junius’s account of Coster is supposed to have been written about
+1568; and in order to do justice to the claims of Harlem I shall here
+give a faithful translation of the “document,”&mdash;according to Mr.
+Ottley,&mdash;upon which they are founded. After alluding, in a
+preliminary rhetorical flourish, to Truth being the daughter of Time,
+and to her being concealed in a well, Junius thus proceeds to draw her
+out.</p>
+
+<p>“If he is the best witness, as Plutarch says, who, bound by no favour
+and led by no partiality, freely and fearlessly speaks what he thinks,
+my testimony may deservedly claim attention. I&nbsp;have no connexion
+through kindred with the deceased, his heirs, or his posterity, and I
+expect on this account neither favour nor reward. What I have done is
+performed through a regard to the memory of the dead. I&nbsp;shall
+therefore relate what I have heard from old and respectable persons who
+have held offices in the city, and who seriously affirmed that they had
+heard what they told from their elders, whose authority ought justly to
+entitle them to credit.”</p>
+
+<p><ins class = "correction" title = "text has superfluous open quote">About</ins> a hundred and twenty-eight years ago,<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagIII61" id = "tagIII61" href = "#noteIII61">III.61</a>
+Lawrence John, called the churchwarden or keeper,<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIII62" id = "tagIII62" href = "#noteIII62">III.62</a> from the
+profitable and honourable office which his family held by hereditary
+right, dwelt in a large house, which is yet standing entire, opposite
+the Royal Palace. This is
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page149" id = "page149">
+149</a></span>
+the person who now on the most sacred ground of right puts forth his
+claims to the honour of having invented typography, an honour so
+nefariously obtained and possessed by others. Walking in a neighbouring
+wood, as citizens are accustomed to do after dinner and on holidays, he
+began to cut letters of beech-bark, with which for amusement, the
+letters being inverted as on a seal, he impressed short sentences on
+paper for the children of his son-in-law. Having succeeded so well in
+this, he began to think of more important undertakings, for he was a
+shrewd and ingenious man; and, in conjunction with his son-in-law Thomas
+Peter, he discovered a more glutinous and tenacious kind of ink, as he
+found from experience that the ink in common use occasioned blots. This
+Thomas Peter left four sons, all of whom were magistrates; and I mention
+this that all may know that the art derived its origin from a
+respectable and not from a mean family. He then printed whole figured
+pages with the text added. Of this kind I have seen specimens executed
+in the infancy of the art, being printed only on one side. This was a
+book composed in our native language by an anonymous author, and
+entitled <i>Speculum Nostræ Salutis</i>. In this we may observe that in
+the first productions of the art&mdash;for no invention is immediately
+perfected&mdash;the blank pages were pasted together, so that they might
+not appear as a defect. He afterwards exchanged his beech types for
+leaden ones, and subsequently he formed his types of tin, as being less
+flexible and of greater durability. Of the remains of these types
+certain old wine-vessels were cast, which are still preserved in the
+house formerly the residence of Lawrence, which, as I have said, looks
+into the market-place, and which was afterwards inhabited by his
+great-grandson Gerard Thomas, a&nbsp;citizen of repute, who died an old
+man a few years ago.</p>
+
+<p>“The new invention being well received, and a new and unheard-of
+commodity finding on all sides purchasers, to the great profit of the
+inventor, he became more devoted to the art, his business was increased,
+and new workmen&mdash;the first cause of his misfortune&mdash;were
+employed. Among them was one called John; but whether, as is suspected,
+he bore the ominous surname of Faust,&mdash;<i>infaustus</i><a class =
+"tag" name = "tagIII63" id = "tagIII63" href = "#noteIII63">III.63</a>
+and unfaithful to his master&mdash;or whether it were some other John,
+I&nbsp;shall not labour to prove, as I do not wish to disturb the dead
+already enduring the pangs of conscience for what they had done when
+living.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII64" id = "tagIII64" href =
+"#noteIII64">III.64</a> This person, who was admitted under an oath to
+assist in printing, as soon as he thought he had attained
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page150" id = "page150">
+150</a></span>
+the art of joining the letters, a&nbsp;knowledge of the fusile types,
+and other matters connected with the business, embracing the convenient
+opportunity of Christmas Eve, when all persons are accustomed to attend
+to their devotions, stole all the types and conveyed away all the
+utensils which his master had contrived by his own skill; and then
+leaving home with the thief, first went to Amsterdam, then to Cologne,
+and lastly to Mentz, as his altar of refuge, where being safely settled,
+beyond bowshot as they say, he might commence business, and thence
+derive a rich profit from the things which he had stolen. Within the
+space of a year from Christmas, 1442, it is certain that there appeared
+printed with the types which Lawrence had used at Harlem ‘<i>Alexandri
+Galli Doctrinale</i>,’ a grammar then in frequent use, with ‘<i>Petri
+Hispani Tractatus</i>.’</p>
+
+<p>“The above is nearly what I have heard from old men worthy of credit
+who had received the tradition as a shining torch transferred from hand
+to hand, and I have heard the same related and affirmed by others.
+I&nbsp;remember being told by Nicholas Galius, the instructor of my
+youth,&mdash;a man of iron memory, and venerable from his long white
+hair,&mdash;that when a boy he had often heard one Cornelius,
+a&nbsp;bookbinder, not less than eighty years old (who had been an
+assistant in the same office), relate with such excited feelings the
+whole transaction,&mdash;the occasion of the invention, its progress,
+and perfection, as he had heard of them from his master,&mdash;that as
+often as he came to the story of the robbery he would burst into tears;
+and then the old man’s anger would be so roused on account of the honour
+that had been lost through the theft, that he appeared as if he could
+have hanged the thief had he been alive; and then again he would vow
+perdition on his sacrilegious head, and curse the nights that he had
+slept in the same bed with him, for the old man had been his bedfellow
+for some months. This does not differ from the words of Quirinus
+Talesius, who admitted to me that he had formerly received nearly the
+same account from the mouth of the same bookseller.”<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagIII65" id = "tagIII65" href = "#noteIII65">III.65</a></p>
+
+<p>As Junius died upwards of twelve years before his book was published,
+it is doubtful whether the above account was actually written by him or
+not. It may have been an interpolation of an editor or a bookseller
+anxious for the honour of Harlem, and who might thus expect to gain
+currency for the story by giving it to the world under the sanction of
+Junius’s name. There was also another advantage attending this mode of
+publication; for as the reputed writer was dead, he could not be called
+on to answer the many objections which remain yet unexplained.</p>
+
+<p>The manner in which Coster, according to the preceding account, first
+discovered the principle of obtaining impressions from separate
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page151" id = "page151">
+151</a></span>
+letters formed of the bark of the beech-tree requires no remark.<a class
+= "tag" name = "tagIII66" id = "tagIII66" href = "#noteIII66">III.66</a>
+There are, however, other parts of this narrative which more especially
+force themselves on the attention as being at variance with reason as
+well as fact.</p>
+
+<p>Coster, we are informed, lived in a large house, and, at the time of
+his engaging the workman who robbed him, he had brought the art to such
+perfection that he derived from it a great profit; and in consequence of
+the demand for the new commodity, which was eagerly sought after by
+purchasers, he was obliged to increase his establishment and engage
+assistants. It is therefore evident that the existence of such an art
+must have been well known, although its details might be kept secret.
+Coster, we are also informed, was of a respectable family; his
+grand-children were men of authority in the city, and a great-grandson
+of his died only a few years before Junius wrote, and yet not one of his
+friends or descendants made any complaint of the loss which Coster had
+sustained both in property and fame. Their apathy, however, was
+compensated by the ardour of old Cornelius, who used to shed involuntary
+tears whenever the theft was mentioned; and used to heap bitter curses
+on the head of the thief as often as he thought of the glory of which
+Coster and Harlem had been so villanously deprived. It is certainly very
+singular that a person of respectability and authority should be robbed
+of his materials and deprived of the honour of the invention, and yet
+neither himself nor any one of his kindred publicly denounce the thief;
+more especially as the place where he had established himself was known,
+and where in conjunction with others he had the frontless audacity to
+claim the honour of the invention.</p>
+
+<p>Of Lawrence Coster, his invention, and his loss, the world knew
+nothing until he had been nearly a hundred and fifty years in his grave.
+The presumed writer of the account which had to do justice to his memory
+had been also twelve years dead when his book was published. His
+information, which he received when he was a boy, was derived from an
+old man who when a boy had heard it from another old man who lived with
+Coster at the time of the robbery, and who had heard the account of the
+invention from his master. Such is the list of the Harlem witnesses. If
+Junius had produced any evidence on the authority
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page152" id = "page152">
+152</a></span>
+of Coster’s great-grandson that any of his predecessors&mdash;his father
+or his grandfather&mdash;had carried on the business of a printer at
+Harlem, this might in part have corroborated the narrative of Cornelius;
+but, though subsequent advocates of the claims of Harlem have asserted
+that Coster’s grand-children continued the printing business, no book or
+document has been discovered to establish the fact.</p>
+
+<p>The account of Cornelius involves a contradiction which cannot be
+easily explained away. If the thief stole the whole or greater part of
+Coster’s printing materials,&mdash;types and press and all, as the
+narrative seems to imply,&mdash;it is difficult to conceive how he could
+do so without being discovered, even though the time chosen were
+Christmas Eve; for on an occasion when all or most people were engaged
+at their devotions, the fact of two persons being employed would in
+itself be a suspicious circumstance: a&nbsp;tenant with a small stock of
+furniture who wished to make a “moonlight flitting” would most likely be
+stopped if he attempted to remove his goods on a Sunday night. As the
+dishonest workman had an assistant, who is rather unaccountably called
+“<i>the</i> thief,” it is evident from this circumstance, as well as
+from the express words of the narrative,<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIII67" id = "tagIII67" href = "#noteIII67">III.67</a> that the
+quantity of materials stolen must have been considerable. If, on the
+contrary, the thief only carried away a portion of the types and
+matrices, with a few other instruments,&mdash;“all that could be moved
+without manifest danger of immediate detection,” to use the words of Mr.
+Ottley,&mdash;what was there to prevent Coster from continuing the
+business of printing? Did he give up the lucrative trade which he had
+established, and disappoint his numerous customers, because a dishonest
+workman had stolen a few of his types? But even if every letter and
+matrice had been stolen,&mdash;though how likely this is to be true I
+shall leave every one conversant with typography to decide,&mdash;was
+the loss irreparable, and could this “shrewd and ingenious man” not
+reconstruct the types and other printing materials which he had
+originally contrived?</p>
+
+<p>If the business of Coster was continued uninterruptedly, and after
+his death carried on by his grand-children, we might naturally expect
+that some of the works which they printed could be produced, and that
+some record of their having practised such an art at Harlem would be in
+existence. The records of Harlem are however silent on the subject; no
+mention is made by any contemporary author, nor in any contemporary
+document, of Coster or his descendants as printers in that city; and no
+book printed by them has been discovered except by persons who decide
+upon the subject as if they were endowed with the faculty of intuitive
+discrimination. If Coster’s business had been
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page153" id = "page153">
+153</a></span>
+suspended in consequence of the robbery, his customers, from all parts,
+who eagerly purchased the “new commodity,” must have been aware of the
+circumstance; and to suppose that it should not have been mentioned by
+some old writer, and that the claims of Coster should have lain dormant
+for a century and a half, exceeds my powers of belief. Where pretended
+truth can only be perceived by closing the eyes of reason I am content
+to remain ignorant; nor do I wish to trust myself to the unsafe bridge
+of conjecture&mdash;a rotten plank without a hand-rail,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class = "verse">
+“O’er which lame faith leads understanding blind.”</p>
+
+<p>If all Coster’s types had been stolen and he had not supplied himself
+with new ones, it would be difficult to account for the wine vessels
+which were cast from the old types; and if he or his heirs continued to
+print subsequent to the robbery, all that his advocates had to complain
+of was the theft. For since it must have been well known that he had
+discovered and practised the art, at least ten years previous to its
+known establishment at Mentz, and seventeen years before a book appeared
+with the name of the printers claiming the honour of the invention, the
+greatest injury which he received must have been from his fellow
+citizens; who perversely and wilfully would not recollect his previous
+discovery and do justice to his claims. Even supposing that a thief had
+stolen the whole of Coster’s printing-materials, types, chases, and
+presses, it by no means follows that he deprived of their memory not
+only all the citizens of Harlem, but all Coster’s customers who came
+from other places<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII68" id = "tagIII68" href
+= "#noteIII68">III.68</a> to purchase the “new commodity” which his
+press supplied. Such however must have been the consequences of the
+robbery, if the narrative of Cornelius were true; for except himself no
+person seems to have remembered Coster’s invention, or that either he or
+his immediate descendants had ever printed a single book.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the internal evidence of the improbability of
+Cornelius’s account of Coster and his invention, its claims to
+credibility are still further weakened by those persons who have shown
+themselves most wishful to establish its truth. Lawrence Janszoon, whom
+Meerman and others suppose to have been the person described by
+Cornelius as the inventor of printing, appears to have been custos of
+the church of St. Bavon at Harlem in the years 1423, 1426, 1432 and
+1433. His death is placed by Meerman in 1440; and as, according to the
+narrative of Cornelius, the types and other printing materials were
+stolen on Christmas eve 1441, the inventor of typography must have been
+in his grave at the time the robbery was committed. Cornelius must have
+known of his master’s death, and yet in his account of the robbery he
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page154" id = "page154">
+154</a></span>
+makes no mention of Coster being dead at the time, nor of the business
+being carried on by his descendants after his decease. It was at one
+time supposed that Coster died of grief on the loss of his types, and on
+account of the thief claiming the honour of the invention. But this it
+seems is a mistake; he was dead according to Meerman at the time of the
+robbery, and the business was carried on by his grandchildren.</p>
+
+<p>Koning has discovered that Cornelius the bookbinder died in 1522,
+aged at least ninety years. Allowing him to have been ninety-two, this
+assistant in Coster’s printing establishment, and who learnt the account
+of the invention and improvement of the art from Coster himself, must
+have been just ten years old when his master died; and yet upon the
+improbable and uncorroborated testimony of this person are the claims of
+Coster founded.</p>
+
+<p>Lehne, in his “Chronology of the Harlem fiction,”<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagIII69" id = "tagIII69" href = "#noteIII69">III.69</a> thus
+remarks on the authorities, Galius, and Talesius, referred to by Junius
+as evidences of its truth. As Cornelius was upwards of eighty when he
+related the story to Nicholas Galius, who was then a boy, this must have
+happened about 1510. The boy Galius we will suppose to have been at that
+time about fifteen years old: Junius was born in 1511, and we will
+suppose that he was under the care of Nicholas Galius, the instructor of
+his youth, until he was fifteen; that is, until 1526. In this year
+Galius, the man venerable from his grey hairs, would be only thirty-six
+years old, an age at which grey hairs are premature. Grey hairs are only
+venerable in old age, and it is not usual to praise a young man’s
+faculty of recollection in the style in which Junius lauds the “iron
+memory” of his teacher. Talesius, as Koning states, was born in 1505,
+and consequently six years older than Junius; and on the death of
+Cornelius, in 1522, he would be seventeen, and Junius eleven years old.
+Junius might in his eleventh year have heard the whole account from
+Cornelius himself in the same manner as the latter when only ten must
+have heard it from Coster; and it is remarkable that Galius who was so
+well acquainted with Cornelius did not afford his pupil the opportunity.
+We thus perceive that in the whole of this affair children and old men
+play the principal parts, and both ages are proverbially addicted to
+narratives which savour of the marvellous.</p>
+
+<p>Meerman, writing to his correspondent Wagenaar in 1757, expresses his
+utter disbelief in the story of Coster being the inventor of typography,
+which, he observes, was daily losing credit: whatever historical
+evidence Seiz had brought forward in favour of Coster was gratuitously
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page155" id = "page155">
+155</a></span>
+assumed; in short, the whole story of the invention was a fiction.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagIII70" id = "tagIII70" href =
+"#noteIII70">III.70</a> After the publication of Schœpflin’s Vindiciæ
+Typographicæ in 1760, giving proofs of Gutemberg having been engaged in
+1438 with some invention relating to <i>printing</i>, and in which a
+<i>press</i> was employed, Meerman appears to have received a new light;
+for in 1765 he published his own work in support of the very story which
+he had previously declared to be undeserving of credit. The mere change,
+however, of a writer’s opinions cannot alter the immutable character of
+truth; and the guesses and assumptions with which he may endeavour to
+gloss a fiction can never give to it the solidity of fact. What he has
+said of the work of Seiz in support of Coster’s claims may with equal
+truth be applied to his own arguments in the same cause: “Whatever
+historical evidence he has brought forward in favour of Coster has been
+gratuitously assumed.” Meerman’s work, like the story which it was
+written to support, “is daily losing credit.” It is a dangerous book for
+an advocate of Coster to quote; for he has scarcely advanced an argument
+in favour of Coster, and in proof of his stolen types being the
+foundation of typography at Mentz, but what is contradicted by a
+positive fact.</p>
+
+<p>In order to make the documentary evidence produced by Schœpflin in
+favour of Gutemberg in some degree correspond with the story of
+Cornelius, Junius’s authority, he has assumed that Gutemberg had an
+elder brother also called John; and that he was known as Gænsfleisch the
+elder, while his younger brother was called by way of distinction
+Gutemberg. In support of this assumption he refers to Wimpheling,<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagIII71" id = "tagIII71" href =
+"#noteIII71">III.71</a>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page156" id = "page156">
+156</a></span>
+who in one place has called the inventor Gænsfleisch, and in another
+Gutemberg; and he also supposes that the two epitaphs which have been
+given at page 144, relate to two different persons. The first, inscribed
+by Adam Gelthaus to the memory of John <i>Gænsfleisch</i>, he concludes
+to have been intended for the elder brother. The second, inscribed by
+Ivo Wittich to the memory of John <i>Gutemberg</i>, he supposes to
+relate to the younger brother, and to have been erected from a feeling
+of envy. The fact of Gutemberg being also named Gænsfleisch in several
+contemporary documents, is not allowed to stand in the way of Meerman’s
+hypothesis of the two “brother Johns,” which has been supposed to be
+corroborated by the fact of a John Gænsfleisch the Elder being actually
+the contemporary of John Gænsfleisch called also Gutemberg.</p>
+
+<p>Having thus provided Gutemberg with an elder brother also named John,
+Meerman proceeds to find him employment; for at the period of his
+writing much light had been thrown on the early history of printing, and
+no person in the least acquainted with the subject could believe that
+Faust was the thief who stole Coster’s types, as had been insinuated by
+Junius and affirmed by Boxhorn and Scriverius. Gænsfleisch the Elder is
+accordingly sent by Meerman to Harlem, and there engaged as a workman in
+Lawrence Coster’s printing office. It is needless to ask if there be any
+proof of this: Meerman having introduced a new character into the Harlem
+farce may claim the right of employing him as he pleases. As there is
+evidence of Gutemberg, or Gænsfleisch the Younger, being engaged at
+Strasburg about 1436 in some experiments connected with printing, and
+mention being made in the same documents of the fair of Aix-la-Chapelle,
+Meerman sends him there in 1435. From Aix-la-Chapelle, as the distance
+is not very great, Meerman makes him pay a visit to his elder brother,
+then working as a printer in Coster’s office at Harlem. He thus has an
+opportunity of seeing Coster’s printing establishment, and of gaining
+some information respecting the art, and hence his attempts at printing
+at Strasburg in 1436. In 1441 he supposes that John Gænsfleisch the
+Elder stole his master’s types, and printed with them, at Mentz, in
+1442, “Alexandri Galli Doctrinale,” and “Petri Hispani Tractatus,” as
+related by Junius. As this trumpery story rests solely on the conjecture
+of the writer, it might be briefly dismissed for reconsideration when
+the proofs should be produced; but as Heineken<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIII72" id = "tagIII72" href = "#noteIII72">III.72</a> has afforded
+the means of showing its utter falsity, it may perhaps be worth while to
+notice some of the facts produced by him respecting the family and
+proceedings of Gutemberg.</p>
+
+<p>John Gænsfleisch the Elder, whom Meerman makes Gutemberg’s elder
+brother, was descended from a branch of the numerous family of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page157" id = "page157">
+157</a></span>
+Gænsfleisch, which was also known by the local names of zum Jungen,
+Gutenberg or Gutemberg, and Sorgenloch. This person, whom Meerman
+engages as a workman with Coster, was a man of property; and at the time
+that we are given to understand he was residing at Harlem, we have
+evidence of his being married and having children born to him at Mentz.
+This objection, however, could easily be answered by the ingenuity of a
+Dutch commentator, who, as he has made the husband a thief, would find
+no difficulty in providing him with a suitable wife. He would also be
+very likely to bring forward the presumed misconduct of the wife in
+support of his hypothesis of the husband being a thief. John Gænsfleisch
+the Elder was married to Ketgin, daughter of Nicholas Jostenhofer of
+Schenkenberg, on the Thursday after St. Agnes’s day, 1437. In 1439 his
+wife bore him a son named Michael; and in 1442 another son, who died in
+infancy. In 1441 we have evidence of his residing at Mentz; for in that
+year his relation Rudiger zum Landeck appeared before a judge to give
+Gænsfleisch an acknowledgment of his having properly discharged his
+duties as trustee, and of his having delivered up to the said Rudiger
+the property left to him by his father and mother.</p>
+
+<p>That John Gænsfleisch the Elder printed “Alexandri Galli Doctrinale,”
+and “Petri Hispani Tractatus,” at Mentz in 1442 with the types which he
+had stolen from Coster, is as improbable as every other part of the
+story. There is, in fact, not the slightest reason to believe that the
+works in question were printed at Mentz in 1442, or that any book was
+printed there with types until nearly eight years after that period. In
+opposition, however, to a host of historical evidence we have the
+assertion of Cornelius, who told the tale to Galius, who told it to
+Junius, who told it to the world.</p>
+
+<p>Meerman’s web of sophistry and fiction having been brushed away by
+Heineken, a&nbsp;modern advocate of Coster’s undertook to spin another,
+which has also been swept down by a German critic. Jacobus Koning,<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagIII73" id = "tagIII73" href =
+"#noteIII73">III.73</a> town-clerk of Amsterdam, having learnt from a
+document printed by Fischer, that Gutemberg had a brother named Friele,
+sends him to Harlem to work with Coster, and makes him the thief who
+stole the types; thus copying Meerman’s plot, and merely substituting
+Gutemberg’s known brother for John Gænsfleisch the Elder. On this
+attempt of Koning’s to make the old sieve hold water by plastering it
+with his own mud, Lehne<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII74" id =
+"tagIII74" href = "#noteIII74">III.74</a> makes the following
+remarks:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>“He gives up the name of John,&mdash;although it might be supposed
+that old Cornelius would have known the name of his bedfellow better
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page158" id = "page158">
+158</a></span>
+than Koning,&mdash;and without hesitation charges Gutemberg’s brother
+with the theft. In order to flatter the vain-glory of the Harlemers,
+poor Friele, after he had been nearly four hundred years in his grave,
+is publicly accused of robbery on no other ground than that Mynheer
+Koning had occasion for a thief. It is, however, rather unfortunate for
+the credit of the story that this Friele should have been the founder of
+one of the first families in Mentz, of the order of knighthood, and
+possessed of great property both in the city and the neighbourhood. Is
+it likely that this person should have been engaged as a workman in the
+employment of the Harlem churchwarden, and that he should have robbed
+him of his types in order to convey them to his brother, who then lived
+at Strasburg, and who had been engaged in his own invention at least
+three years before, as is proved by the process between him and the
+Drytzehns published by Schœpflin? From this specimen of insulting and
+unjust accusation on a subject of literary inquiry, we may congratulate
+the city of Amsterdam that Mynheer Koning is but a law-writer and not a
+judge, should he be not more just as a man than as an author.”</p>
+
+<p>In a book of old accounts belonging to the city of Harlem, and
+extending from April 1439 to April 1440, Koning having discovered at
+least nine entries of expenses incurred on account of messengers
+despatched to the Justice-Court of Amsterdam, he concludes that there
+must have been some conference between the judges of Harlem and
+Amsterdam on the subject of Coster’s robbery. There is not a word
+mentioned in the entries on what account the messengers were despatched,
+but he decides that it must have been on some business connected with
+this robbery, for the first messenger was despatched on the last day of
+the Christmas holidays; and the thief, according to the account of
+Junius, made choice of Christmas-eve as the most likely opportunity for
+effecting his purpose. To this most logical conclusion there happens to
+be an objection, which however Mynheer Koning readily disposes of. The
+first messenger was despatched on the last day of the Christmas holidays
+1439, and the accounts terminate in April 1440; but according to the
+narrative of Cornelius the robbery was committed on Christmas-eve 1441.
+This trifling discrepancy is however easily accounted for by the fact of
+the Dutch at that period reckoning the commencement of the year from
+Easter, and by supposing,&mdash;as the date is printed in
+numerals,&mdash;that Junius might have written 1442, instead of 1441, as
+the time when the two books appeared at Mentz printed with the stolen
+types, and within a year after the robbery. Notwithstanding this
+<i>satisfactory</i> explanation there still remains a trifling error to
+be rectified, and it will doubtless give the clear-headed advocate of
+Coster very little trouble. Admitting that the accounts are for the year
+commencing at Easter 1440
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page159" id = "page159">
+159</a></span>
+and ending at Easter 1441, it is rather difficult to comprehend how they
+should contain any notice of an event which happened at the Christmas
+following. The Harlem scribe possibly might have the gift of seeing into
+futurity as clearly as Mynheer Koning has the gift of seeing into the
+past. The arguments derived from paper-marks which Koning has advanced
+in favour of Coster are not worthy of serious notice.</p>
+
+<p>He has found, as Meerman did before him, that one Lawrence Janszoon
+was living in Harlem between 1420 and 1436, and that his name occurs
+within that period as custos or warden of St. Bavon’s church. As he is
+never called “Coster,” a&nbsp;name acquired by the family, according to
+Junius, in consequence of the office which they enjoyed by hereditary
+right, the identity of Lawrence Janszoon and Lawrence Coster is by no
+means clearly established; and even if it were, the sole evidence of his
+having been a printer rests on the testimony of Cornelius, who was
+scarcely ten years old when Lawrence Janszoon died. The correctness of
+Cornelius’s narrative is questioned both by Meerman and Koning whenever
+his statements do not accord with their theory, and yet they require
+others to believe the most incredible of his assertions. They themselves
+throw doubts on the evidence of their own witness, and yet require their
+opponents to receive as true his deposition on the most important point
+in dispute&mdash;-that Coster invented typography previous to
+1441,&mdash;a point on which he is positively contradicted by more than
+twenty authors who wrote previous to 1500; and negatively by the silence
+of Coster’s contemporaries. Supposing that the account of Cornelius had
+been published in 1488 instead of 1588, it would be of very little
+weight unless corroborated by the testimony of others who must have been
+as well aware of Coster’s invention as himself; for the silence of
+contemporary writers on the subject of an important invention or
+memorable event, will always be of greater negative authority than the
+unsupported assertion of an individual who when an old man professes to
+relate what he had heard and seen when a boy. If therefore the
+uncorroborated testimony of Cornelius would be so little worth, even if
+published in 1488, of what value can it be printed in 1588, in the name
+of a person who was then dead, and who could not be called on to explain
+the discrepancies of his part of the narrative? Whatever might be the
+original value of Cornelius’s testimony, it is deteriorated by the
+channel through which it descends to us. He told it to a boy, who, when
+an old man, told it to another boy, who when nearly sixty years old
+inserts it in a book which he is writing, but which is not printed until
+twelve years after his death.</p>
+
+<p>It is singular how Mr. Ottley, who contends for the truth of
+Papillon’s story of the Cunio, and who maintains that the art of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page160" id = "page160">
+160</a></span>
+engraving figures and text upon wood was well known and practised
+previous to 1285, should believe the account given by Cornelius of the
+origin of Coster’s invention. If he does not believe this part of the
+account, with what consistency can he require other people to give
+credit to the rest? With respect to the origin and progress of the
+invention, Cornelius was as likely to be correctly informed as he was
+with regard to the theft and the establishment of printing at Mentz; if
+therefore Coster’s advocates themselves establish the incorrectness of
+his testimony in the first part of the story, they destroy the general
+credibility of his evidence.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the fragments of “Alexandri Galli Doctrinale” and
+“Catonis Disticha” which have been discovered, printed with the same, or
+similar types as the Speculum Salvationis, no good argument can be
+founded on them in support of Coster’s claims, although the facts which
+they establish are decisive of the fallacy of Meerman’s assumptions. In
+order to suit his own theory, he was pleased to assert that the first
+edition of the Speculum was the only one of that book printed by Coster,
+and that it was printed with wooden types. Mr. Ottley has, however,
+shown that the edition which Meerman and others supposed to be the first
+was in reality the second; and that the presumed second was
+unquestionably the first, and that the text was throughout printed with
+metal types by means of a press. It is thus the fate of all Coster’s
+advocates that the last should always produce some fact directly
+contradicting his predecessors’ speculations, but not one confirmatory
+of the truth of the story on which all their arguments are based.
+Meerman questions the accuracy of Cornelius as reported by Junius;
+Meerman’s arguments are rejected by Koning; and Mr. Ottley, who espouses
+the same cause, has from his diligent collation of two different
+editions of the Speculum afforded a convincing proof that on a most
+material point all his predecessors are wrong. His inquiries have
+established beyond a doubt, that the text of the first edition of the
+Speculum was printed wholly with metal types; and that in the second the
+text was printed partly from metal types by means of a press, and partly
+from wood-blocks by means of friction. The assertion that Coster printed
+the first edition with wooden types, and that his grandsons and
+successors printed the second edition with types of metal, is thus most
+clearly refuted. As no printer’s name has been discovered in any of the
+fragments referred to, it is uncertain where or when they were printed.
+It however seems more likely that they were printed in Holland or the
+Low Countries than in Germany. The presumption of their antiquity in
+consequence of their rarity is not a good ground of argument. Of an
+edition of a “Donatus,” printed by Sweinheim
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page161" id = "page161">
+161</a></span>
+and Pannartz, between 1465 and 1470, and consisting of three hundred
+copies, not one is known to exist. From sundry fragments of a “Donatus,”
+embellished with the same ornamented small capitals as are used in Faust
+and Scheffer’s Psalter, Fischer was pleased to conjecture that the book
+had been printed by Gutemberg and Faust previous to 1455. A&nbsp;copy,
+however, has been discovered bearing the imprint of Scheffer, and
+printed, in all probability, subsequent to 1467, as it is in this year
+that Scheffer’s name first appears alone. The “Historia Alexandri
+Magni,” pretendedly printed with wooden types, and ascribed by Meerman
+to Coster, was printed by <ins class = "correction" title = "spelling unchanged">Ketelar</ins> and Leempt, who first established a
+printing-office at Utrecht in 1473.</p>
+
+<p>John Enschedius, a letter-founder and printer of Harlem, and a
+strenuous assertor of Coster’s pretensions, discovered a very curious
+specimen of typography which he and others have supposed to be the
+identical “short sentences” mentioned by Junius as having been printed
+by Coster for the instruction of his grand-children. This unique
+specimen of typography consists of eight small pages, each being about
+one inch and six-eighths high, by one and five-eighths wide, printed on
+parchment and on both sides. The contents are an alphabet; the Lord’s
+Prayer; the Creed; the Ave Mary; and two short prayers, all in Latin.
+Meerman has given a fac-simile of all the eight pages in the second
+volume of his “Origines Typographicæ;”<a class = "tag" name = "tagIII75"
+id = "tagIII75" href = "#noteIII75">III.75</a> and if this be correct,
+I&nbsp;am strongly inclined to suspect that this singular “Horarium” is
+a modern forgery. The letters are rudely formed, and the shape of some
+of the pages is irregular; but the whole appears to me rather as an
+imitation of rudeness and a studied irregularity, than as the first
+essay of an inventor. There are very few contractions in the words; and
+though the letters are rudely formed, and there are no points, yet I
+have seen no early specimen of typography which is so easy to read. It
+is apparent that the printer, whoever he might be, did not forget that
+the little manual was intended for children. The letters I am positive
+could not be thus printed with types formed of beech-bark; and I am
+further of opinion that they were not, and could not be, printed with
+moveable types of wood. I&nbsp;am also certain that, whatever might be
+the material of which the types were formed, those letters could only be
+printed on
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page162" id = "page162">
+162</a></span>
+parchment on both sides by means of a press. The most strenuous of
+Coster’s advocates have not ventured to assert that he was acquainted
+with the use of metal types in 1423, the pretended date of his first
+printing short sentences for the use of his grand-children, nor have any
+of them suggested that he used a press for the purpose of obtaining
+impressions from his letters of beech-bark; how then can it be pretended
+with any degree of consistency that this “Horarium” agrees exactly with
+the description of Cornelius? It is said that Enschedius discovered this
+singular specimen of typography pasted in the cover of an old book. It
+is certainly such a one as he was most wishful to find, and which he in
+his capacity of typefounder and printer would find little difficulty in
+producing. I&nbsp;am firmly convinced that it is neither printed with
+wooden types nor a specimen of early typography; on the contrary,
+I&nbsp;suspect it to be a Dutch typographic essay on popular
+credulity.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the works which have been claimed for Coster, his advocates
+have not succeeded in making out his title to a single one; and the best
+evidence of the fallacy of his claims is to be found in the writings of
+those persons by whom they have been most confidently asserted. Having
+no theory of my own to support, and having no predilection in favour of
+Gutemberg, I&nbsp;was long inclined to think that there might be some
+rational foundation for the claims which have been so confidently
+advanced in favour of Harlem. An examination, however, of the presumed
+proofs and arguments adduced by Coster’s advocates has convinced me that
+the claims put forward on his behalf, as the inventor of typography, are
+untenable. They have certainly discovered that a person of the name of
+Lawrence Janszoon was living at Harlem between the years 1420 and 1440,
+but they have not been able to show anything in proof of this person
+ever having printed any book either from wood-blocks or with moveable
+types. There is indeed reason to believe that at the period referred to
+there were three persons of the name of Lawrence Janszoon,&mdash;or
+Fitz-John, as the surname may be rendered;&mdash;but to which of them
+the pretended invention is to be ascribed is a matter of doubt. At one
+time we find the inventor described as an illegitimate scion of the
+noble family of Brederode, which was descended from the ancient
+sovereigns of Holland; at another he is said to have been called Coster
+in consequence of the office of custos or warden of St. Bavon’s church
+being hereditary in his family; and in a third account we find Lawrence
+Janszoon figuring as a promoter of sedition and one of the leaders of a
+body of rioters. The advocates for the claims of Harlem have brought
+forward every Lawrence that they could find at that period whose
+father’s name was John; as if the more they could produce the more
+conclusive would be
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page163" id = "page163">
+163</a></span>
+the <i>proof</i> of one of them at least being the inventor of printing.
+As the books which are ascribed to Coster furnish positive evidence of
+the incorrectness of the story of Cornelius and of the comments of
+Meerman; and as records, which are now matters of history, prove that
+neither Gutemberg nor Faust stole any types from Coster or his
+descendants, the next supporter of the claims of Harlem will have to
+begin <i>de novo</i>; and lest the palm should be awarded to the wrong
+Lawrence Janszoon, he ought first to ascertain which of them is really
+the hero of the old bookbinder’s tale.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_163" id = "illus_163">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_163.png" width = "147" height = "165"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<div class = "footnote">
+
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII1" id = "noteIII1" href = "#tagIII1">III.1</a>
+Nouvelles Recherches sur l’origine de l’Imprimerie, dans lesquelles on
+fait voir que la première idée est due aux Brabançons. Par
+M.&nbsp;Desroches. Lu à la séance du 8 Janvier, 1777.&mdash;Mémoires de
+l’Academie Impériale des Sciences et Belles Lettres, tom. i.&nbsp;pp.
+523-547. Edit 1780.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII2" id = "noteIII2" href = "#tagIII2">III.2</a>
+The following is the French translation of Monsieur Desroches: “En ces
+temps mourut de la mort commune à tous les hommes, Louis <i>cet
+excellent faiseur d’instrumens de musique</i>, le meilleur artist qu’on
+eut vû jusques-là dans l’univers, en fait d’ouvrages mechaniques. Il
+étoit de Vaelbeke en Brabant, et il en porta le nom. Il fut le premier
+qui inventa la manière d’imprimer, qui est presentement en usage.” The
+reason of Monsieur Desroches for his periphrasis of the simple word
+“vedelare”&mdash;fidler&mdash;is as follows: “J’ai <ins class =
+"correction" title = "text reads ‘rendn’">rendu</ins> <i>Vedelare</i>
+par ‘faiseur d’instrumens de musique.’ Le mot radical <i>est vedel</i>,
+violin: par consequent, <i>Vedelare</i> doit signifier celui qui en
+joue, ou qui en fait. Je me suis determiné pour le dernier à cause des
+vers suivans, où il n’est point question de jouer mais de faire. Si l’on
+préfère le premier, je ne m’y opposerai pas; rien empêche que ce habile
+homme n’ait été musicien.”&mdash;Mem. de l’Acad. de Brux. tom.
+i.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;536.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII3" id = "noteIII3" href = "#tagIII3">III.3</a>
+Lettre de M. J. G[hesquiere] à M. l’Abbé Turberville Needham, directeur
+de l’Academie Impériale et Royale de Bruxelles.&mdash;Printed in
+l’Esprit des Journaux for June 1779, pp. 232-260.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII4" id = "noteIII4" href = "#tagIII4">III.4</a>
+Lichtenberger, Initia Typographica, § De Prenteris ante inventam
+Typographiam, p.&nbsp;140.&mdash;Lambinet, Recherches sur l’Origine de
+l’Imprimerie, p.&nbsp;115.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII5" id = "noteIII5" href = "#tagIII5">III.5</a>
+Reflexions sur deux pièces relatives à l’Hist. de l’Imprimerie.
+Nivelles, 1780.&mdash;Lambinet, Recherches, p.&nbsp;394.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII6" id = "noteIII6" href = "#tagIII6">III.6</a>
+Friedrich Lehne, Einige Bemerkungen über das Unternehmen der gelehrten
+Gesellschaft zu Harlem, ihrer Stadt die Ehre der Erfindung der
+Buchdruckerkunst zu ertrotzen, S.&nbsp;24-26. Zweite Ausgabe, Mainz.
+1825.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII7" id = "noteIII7" href = "#tagIII7">III.7</a>
+This is a mistake into which the compiler of the chronicle printed at
+Rome, 1474, by Philippus de Lignamine, has also fallen. Gutemberg was
+not a native of Strasburg, but of Mentz.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII8" id = "noteIII8" href = "#tagIII8">III.8</a>
+Mallinkrot appears to have been the first who gave a translation of the
+entire passage in the Cologne Chronicle which relates to the invention
+of printing. His version of the last sentence is as follows:
+“Reperiuntur Scioli aliquot qui dicant, dudum ante hæc tempora typorum
+ope libros excusos esse, qui tamen et se et alios decipiunt; nullibi
+enim terrarum libri eo tempore impressi reperiuntur.”&mdash;De Ortu et
+Progressu Artis Typographicæ, p.&nbsp;38. Colon. Agrippinæ, 1640.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII9" id = "noteIII9" href = "#tagIII9">III.9</a>
+Angelus Rocca mentions having seen a “Donatus” on parchment, at the
+commencement of which was written in the hand of Mariangelus Accursius,
+who flourished about 1530: “Impressus est autem hic <i>Donatus</i> et
+<i>Confessionalia</i> primùm omnium anno <span class =
+"smallroman">MCCCCL</span>. Admonitus certè fuit ex <i>Donato</i>
+Hollandiæ, prius impresso in tabula incisa.”&mdash;Bibliotheca Vaticana
+commentario illustrata, 1591, cited by Prosper Marchand in his Hist. de
+l’Imprimerie, 2nde Partie, p.&nbsp;35. It is likely that Accursius
+derived his information about a Donatus being printed in Holland from
+the Cologne Chronicle.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII10" id = "noteIII10" href = "#tagIII10">III.10</a>
+Schwartz observes that in the instrument drawn up by the notary Ulric
+Helmasperger, Gutemberg is styled “<i>Juncker</i>,” an honourable
+addition which was at that period expressive of nobility.&mdash;Primaria
+quædam Documenta de Origine Typographiæ, p.&nbsp;20, 4to. Altorfii,
+1740.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII11" id = "noteIII11" href = "#tagIII11">III.11</a>
+“Morabatur autem prædictus Joannes Gutenberg Moguntiæ in domo <i>zum
+Jungen</i>, quæ domus usque in præsentem diem [1513] illius novæ Artis
+nomine noscitur insignita.”&mdash;Trithemii Chronicum Spanhemiense, ad
+annum 1450.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII12" id = "noteIII12" href = "#tagIII12">III.12</a>
+In the release which he grants to the town-clerk of Mentz, in 1434, he
+describes himself as, “Johann Gensefleisch der Junge, genant
+Gutemberg.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII13" id = "noteIII13" href = "#tagIII13">III.13</a>
+In “Het derde Jubeljaer der uitgevondene Boekdrukkonst door Laurens
+Jansz Koster,” p.&nbsp;71. Harlem, 1740.&mdash;Oberlin, Essai
+d’Annales.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII14" id = "noteIII14" href = "#tagIII14">III.14</a>
+The release is given in Schœpflin’s Vindiciæ Typographicæ,
+Documentum&nbsp;I.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII15" id = "noteIII15" href = "#tagIII15">III.15</a>
+“<i>Ennelin zu der Iserin Thure.</i>” She was then living at Strasburg,
+and was of an honourable family, originally of Alsace.&mdash;Schœpflin.
+Vind. Typ. p.&nbsp;17.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII16" id = "noteIII16" href = "#tagIII16">III.16</a>
+When Andrew Heilman was proposed as a partner, Gutemberg observed that
+his friends would perhaps treat the business into which he was about to
+embark as mere jugglery [göckel werck], and object to his having
+anything to do with it.&mdash;Schœpflin, Vind. Typ. Document.
+p.&nbsp;10.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII17" id = "noteIII17" href = "#tagIII17">III.17</a>
+This decision is dated “On the Eve of St. Lucia and St. Otilia, [12th
+December,] 1439.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII18" id = "noteIII18" href = "#tagIII18">III.18</a>
+Traité de l’origine et des productions de l’Imprimerie primitive en
+taille de bois, Paris, 1758; et Remarques sur un Ouvrage,
+&amp;c.&nbsp;pour servir de suite au Traité, Paris, 1762.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII19" id = "noteIII19" href = "#tagIII19">III.19</a>
+“Andres Dritzehn uwer bruder selige hat iiij stücke undenan inn einer
+<i>pressen</i> ligen, da hat uch Hanns Gutemberg gebetten das ir die
+darusz nement ünd uff die presse legent von einander so kan man nit
+gesehen was das ist.”&mdash;Schœpflin, Vind. Typ. Document.
+p.&nbsp;6.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII20" id = "noteIII20" href = "#tagIII20">III.20</a>
+“Nym die stücke usz der <i>pressen</i> und <i>zerlege</i> sü von
+einander so weis nyemand was es ist:” literally: “Take the pieces out of
+the press and distribute [or separate] them, so that no man may know
+what it is.”&mdash;Schœpflin, Vind. Typ. Document. p.&nbsp;6. “The word
+<i>zerlegen</i>,” says Lichtenberger, Initia Typograph. p.&nbsp;11, “is
+used at the present day by printers to denote the distribution of the
+types which the compositor has set up.” The original word
+“stücke”&mdash;pieces&mdash;is always translated
+“paginæ”&mdash;pages&mdash;by Schelhorn. Dr. Dibdin calls them
+“<i>forms</i> kept together by <i>two screws</i> or
+press-<i>spindles</i>.”&mdash;Life of Caxton, in his edition of Ames’s
+and Herbert’s Typ. Antiq. p.&nbsp;lxxxvii. note.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII21" id = "noteIII21" href = "#tagIII21">III.21</a>
+St. Stephen’s Day is on 26th December. Andrew Drytzehn, being very ill,
+confessed himself to Peter Eckhart on Christmas-day, 1438, and it would
+seem that he died on the 27th.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII22" id = "noteIII22" href = "#tagIII22">III.22</a>
+“Dirre gezuge hat ouch geseit das er wol wisse das Gutenberg unlange vor
+Wihnahten sinen kneht sante zu den beden Andresen, alle <i>formen</i> zu
+holen, und würdent zur lossen das er ess sehe, un jn joch ettliche
+formen ruwete.”&mdash;Schœpflin, Vind. Typ. Document. p.&nbsp;12. The
+separate letters, which are now called “types,” were frequently called
+“formæ” by the early printers and writers of the fifteenth century. They
+are thus named by Joh. and Vindelin de Spire in 1469; by Franciscus
+Philelphus in 1470; by Ludovicus Carbo in 1471; and by Phil. de
+Lignamine in 1474.&mdash;Lichtenberger, Init. Typ. p.&nbsp;11.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII23" id = "noteIII23" href = "#tagIII23">III.23</a>
+“Hanns Dünne der goltsmyt hat gesait, das er vor dryen jaren oder daby
+Gutemberg by den hundert guldin verdienet habe, alleine das zu dem
+<i>trucken</i> gehöret”&mdash;Schœpflin, Vind. Typ. Document.
+p.&nbsp;13.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII24" id = "noteIII24" href = "#tagIII24">III.24</a>
+The words of Bär, who was almoner of the Swedish chapel at Paris in
+1761, are these: “Tout le monde sait que dans ce temps les orfèvres
+exerçoient aussi l’art de la gravûre; et nous concluons de-là que
+Guttemberg a commencé par des caractères de bois, que de-là il a passé
+aux caractères de plomb.” On this passage Fournier makes the following
+observations: “Tout le monde sait au contraire que dans ce temps il n’y
+avoit pas un seul graveur dans le genre dont vous parlez, et cela par
+une raison bien simple: c’est que cet art de la gravûre n’a été inventé
+que vingt-trois ans après ce que vous citez, c’est-à-dire en 1460, par
+<i>Masso Piniguera</i>.”&mdash;Remarques, &amp;c.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;20. Bär
+mentioned no particular kind of engraving; and the name of the Italian
+goldsmith who is supposed to have been the first who discovered the art
+of taking impressions from a plate on paper, was Finiguerra, not
+Piniguera, as Fournier, with his usual inaccuracy, spells it.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII25" id = "noteIII25" href = "#tagIII25">III.25</a>
+Essai d’Annales de la Vie de Jean Gutenberg, par Jer. J.&nbsp;Oberlin.
+8vo. Strasbourg, An ix. [1802.]</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII26" id = "noteIII26" href = "#tagIII26">III.26</a>
+Trithemii Annales Hirsaugienses, tom. ii. ad annum 1450. The original
+passage is printed in Prosper Marchand’s Histoire de l’Imprimerie, 2nde
+Partie, p.&nbsp;7.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII27" id = "noteIII27" href = "#tagIII27">III.27</a>
+Vindiciæ Typographicæ, pp. 77, 78.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII28" id = "noteIII28" href = "#tagIII28">III.28</a>
+In the first work which issued from Faust and Scheffer’s press, with a
+date and the printer’s names,&mdash;the Psalter of 1457,&mdash;and in
+several others, Scheffer appears on an equal footing with Faust. In the
+colophon of an edition of Cicero de Officiis, 1465, Faust has inserted
+the following degrading words: “Presens opus Joh. Fust Moguntinus civis
+.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. arte quadam perpulcra Petri manu <i>pueri mei</i>
+feliciter effeci.” His partner, to whose ingenuity he is chiefly
+indebted for his fame, is here represented in the character of a menial.
+Peter Scheffer, of Gernsheim, clerk, who perfected the art of printing,
+is now degraded to “Peter, my <i>boy</i>” by whose hand&mdash;not by his
+ingenuity&mdash;John Faust exercises a certain beautiful art.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII29" id = "noteIII29" href = "#tagIII29">III.29</a>
+Henry Keffer was employed in Gutemberg and Faust’s printing-office. He
+afterwards went to Nuremberg, where his name appears as a printer, in
+1473, in conjunction with John Sensenschmid.&mdash;Primaria quædam
+Documenta de origine Typographiæ, edente C.&nbsp;G. Schwartzio. 8vo.
+Altorfii, 1740.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII30" id = "noteIII30" href = "#tagIII30">III.30</a>
+“Er [Johan Fust] denselben solt fürter under Christen und Iudden hab
+müssen ussnemen, und davor sess und dreyssig Gulden ungevärlich zu guter
+Rechnung zu Gesuch geben, das sich also zusamen mit dem Hauptgeld
+ungevärlich trifft an zvvytusend und zvvanzig Gulden.” Schwartz in an
+observation upon this passage conceives the sum of 2,020 florins to be
+thus made up: capital advanced, in two sums of 800 each, 1,600 florins:
+interest 390; on account of compound interest, incurred by Faust, 36;
+making in all 2,026. He thinks that 2,020 florins only were claimed as a
+round sum; and that the second sum of 800 florins was advanced in
+October 1452.&mdash;Primaria quædam Documenta, pp. 9-14.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII31" id = "noteIII31" href = "#tagIII31">III.31</a>
+“. . . . und das <span class = "smallcaps">Johannes</span> [<span class
+= "smallcaps">Fust</span>] ym ierlichen 300 Gulden vor Kosten geben, und
+auch Gesinde Lone, Huss Zinss, Vermet, Papier, Tinte,
+&amp;c.&nbsp;verlegen solte.” Primaria qæedam Doc. p.&nbsp;10.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII32" id = "noteIII32" href = "#tagIII32">III.32</a>
+“. . . . von den ubrigen 800 Gulden vvegen begert er ym ein rechnung zu
+thun, so gestett er auch ym keins Soldes noch Wuchers, und hofft ym im
+rechten darum nit pflichtigk sin.” Primaria quædam Doc. p.&nbsp;11.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII33" id = "noteIII33" href = "#tagIII33">III.33</a>
+Mercier, who is frequently referred to as an authority on subjects
+connected with Bibliography, has, in his supplement to Prosper
+Marchand’s Histoire de l’Imprimerie, confounded this document with that
+containing an account of the process between the Drytzehns and Gutemberg
+at Strasburg in 1439; and Heineken, at p.&nbsp;255 of his Idée Générale,
+has committed the same mistake.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII34" id = "noteIII34" href = "#tagIII34">III.34</a>
+“Je crois, que ces tables [deux planches de bois autrefois chez le Duc
+de la Valliere] sont du livre que le Chroniqueur de Cologne appelle un
+<i>Donat</i> et que <i>Trithem</i> nomme un <i>Catholicon</i>, (livre
+universel,) ce qu’on a confondu ensuite avec le grand ouvrage intitulé
+<i>Catholicon Januensis</i>.”&mdash;Idée Générale, p.&nbsp;258.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII35" id = "noteIII35" href = "#tagIII35">III.35</a>
+Oberlin, Essai d’Annales de la Vie de Gutenberg.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII36" id = "noteIII36" href = "#tagIII36">III.36</a>
+“. . . . ligneos typos, ex buxi frutice, perforatos in medio, ut zona
+colligari una jungique commode possint, ex Fausti officina reliquos,
+Moguntiæ aliquando me conspexisse memini.”&mdash;Paulus Pater, in
+Dissertatione de Typis Literarum, &amp;c.&nbsp;p, 10. 4to. Lipsiæ, 1710.
+Heineken, at p.&nbsp;254 of his Idée Gén., declares himself to be
+convinced that Gutemberg had cut separate letters on wood, but he thinks
+that no person would be able to cut a quantity sufficient to print whole
+sheets, and, still less, large volumes as many pretend.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII37" id = "noteIII37" href = "#tagIII37">III.37</a>
+Oberlin, Essai d’Annales de la Vie de Gutenberg.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII38" id = "noteIII38" href = "#tagIII38">III.38</a>
+Dr. Dibdin, Bibliog. Tour, vol iii. p. 135, second edition.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII39" id = "noteIII39" href = "#tagIII39">III.39</a>
+Gotthelf Fischer, Notice du premier livre imprimé avec date. 4to.
+Mayence, An xi. Typographisch. Seltenheit. 6te. Lieferung, S.&nbsp;25.
+8vo. Nürnberg, 1804. When Fischer published his account of the Calendar,
+Aretin had not discovered the tract entitled “<i>Eyn Manung der
+Cristenheit widder die durken</i>.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII40" id = "noteIII40" href = "#tagIII40">III.40</a>
+It is called the Mazarine Bible in consequence of the first known copy
+being discovered in the library formed by Cardinal Mazarine. Dr. Dibdin,
+in his Bibliographical Tour, vol. ii. p.&nbsp;191, mentions having seen
+not fewer than ten or twelve copies of this edition, which he says must
+not be designated as “of the very first degree of rarity.” An edition of
+the Bible, supposed to have been printed at Bamberg by Albert Pfister
+about 1461, is much more scarce.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII41" id = "noteIII41" href = "#tagIII41">III.41</a>
+In most of the early printed books the capitals were left to be inserted
+in red ink by the pen or pencil of the “rubricator.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII42" id = "noteIII42" href = "#tagIII42">III.42</a>
+There are fac-simile tracings of those memorandums, on separate slips of
+paper, in the copy of the Mazarine Bible in the King’s Library at the
+British Museum; and fac-simile engravings of them are given in the
+M’Carthy Catalogue.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII43" id = "noteIII43" href = "#tagIII43">III.43</a>
+Typograph. Seltenheit. S. 20, 3te. Lieferung.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII44" id = "noteIII44" href = "#tagIII44">III.44</a>
+Recherches sur l’Origine de l’Imprimerie, p.&nbsp;135.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII45" id = "noteIII45" href = "#tagIII45">III.45</a>
+Oberlin says that “Ville-Ostein” lies near Erfurth, and is in the
+diocese of Mentz.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII46" id = "noteIII46" href = "#tagIII46">III.46</a>
+Index librorum sub incunabula typograph. impressorum. 1739; cited by
+Fischer, Typograph. Seltenheit. S.&nbsp;21, 3te. Lieferung.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII47" id = "noteIII47" href = "#tagIII47">III.47</a>
+Philippi de Lignamine Chronica Summorum Pontificum Imperatorumque, anno
+1474, Romæ impressa. A&nbsp;second edition of this chronicle was printed
+at Rome in 1476 by “Schurener de Bopardia.” In both editions Gutemberg
+is called “Jacobus,”&mdash;James, and is said to be a native of
+Strasburg. Under the same year John Mentelin is mentioned as a printer
+at Strasburg.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII48" id = "noteIII48" href = "#tagIII48">III.48</a>
+Fischer, Typograph. Seltenheit. S. 44, 1ste. Lieferung. In this
+instrument Gutemberg describes himself as “Henne Genssfleisch von
+Sulgeloch, genennt Gudinberg.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII49" id = "noteIII49" href = "#tagIII49">III.49</a>
+Primaria quædam Document. pp. 26-34.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII50" id = "noteIII50" href = "#tagIII50">III.50</a>
+“. . . . per henricum bechtermuncze pie memorie in altavilla est
+inchoatum. et demū sub anno dñi <span class =
+"smallroman">M.CCCCLXII.</span> ipō die Leonardi confessoris qui fuit
+quarta die mensis novembris p.&nbsp;nycolaum bechtermūcze fratrem dicti
+Henrici et Wygandū Spyess de orthenberg ē consummatū.” There is a copy
+of this edition in the Royal Library at Paris.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII51" id = "noteIII51" href = "#tagIII51">III.51</a>
+Typographisch. Seltenheit. S. 101, 5te. Lieferung.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII52" id = "noteIII52" href = "#tagIII52">III.52</a>
+The two following works, without date or printer’s name, are printed
+with the same types as the Catholicon, and it is doubtful whether they
+were printed by Gutemberg, or by other persons with his types.</p>
+
+<p class = "continue">
+1. Matthei de Cracovia tractatus, seu dialogus racionis et consciencie
+de sumpcione pabuli salutiferi corporis domini nostri ihesu christi.
+4to. foliis 22.</p>
+
+<p class = "continue">
+2. Thome de Aquino summa de articulis fidei et ecclesie sacramentis.
+4to. foliis 13.</p>
+
+<p class = "continue">
+A declaration of Thierry von Isenburg, archbishop of Mayence, offering
+to resign in favour of his opponent, Adolphus of Nassau, printed in
+German and Latin in 1462, is ascribed to Gutemberg: it is of quarto size
+and consists of four leaves.&mdash;Oberlin, Annales de la Vie de
+Gutenberg.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII53" id = "noteIII53" href = "#tagIII53">III.53</a>
+St. Matthias’s Day is on 24th February.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII54" id = "noteIII54" href = "#tagIII54">III.54</a>
+In the instrument dated 1434, wherein Gutemberg agrees to release the
+town-clerk of Mentz, whom he had arrested, mention is made of a relation
+of his, Ort Gelthus, living at Oppenheim. Schœpflin, mistaking the word,
+has printed in his Documenta, p.&nbsp;4, “Artgeld huss,” which he
+translates “Artgeld domo,” the house of Artgeld.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII55" id = "noteIII55" href = "#tagIII55">III.55</a>
+Serarii Historia Mogunt. lib. 1. cap. xxxvii. p.&nbsp;159. Heineken,
+Nachrichten von Kunstlern und Kunst-Sachen, 2te. Theil, S.&nbsp;299.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII56" id = "noteIII56" href = "#tagIII56">III.56</a>
+In the colophon to “Trithemii Breviarium historiarum de origine Regum et
+Gentis Francorum,” printed at Mentz in 1515 by John Scheffer, son of
+Peter Scheffer and Christina, the daughter of Faust, it is stated that
+the art of printing was perfected in 1452, through the labour and
+ingenious contrivances of Peter Scheffer of Gernsheim, and that Faust
+gave him his daughter Christina in marriage as a reward.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII57" id = "noteIII57" href = "#tagIII57">III.57</a>
+On the Pleasures and Advantages of Science, p.&nbsp;160. Edit. 1831.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII58" id = "noteIII58" href = "#tagIII58">III.58</a>
+Ludovico Guicciardini, Descrittione di tutti i Paesi Bassi: folio,
+Anversa, 1581. The original passage is given by Meerman. The original
+words <i>altre memorie</i>&mdash;translated in the above extract “other
+memoirs”&mdash;are rendered by Mr. Ottley “other records.” This may
+pass; but it scarcely can be believed that Guicciardini consulted or
+personally knew of the existence of any such records. Mr. Ottley also,
+to match his “records,” refers to the relations of Coornhert, Zuyren,
+Guicciardini, and Junius as “documents.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII59" id = "noteIII59" href = "#tagIII59">III.59</a>
+Junius was a physician, and unquestionably a learned man. He is the
+author of a nomenclator in Latin, Greek, Dutch, and French. An edition,
+with the English synonyms, by John Higins and Abraham Fleming, was
+printed at London in 1585. The following passage concerning Junius
+occurs in Southey’s Biographical Sketch of the Earl of Surrey in the
+“Select Works of the British Poets from Chaucer to Jonson:” “Surrey is
+next found distinguishing himself at the siege of Landrecy. At that
+siege Bonner, who was afterwards so eminently infamous, invited Hadrian
+Junius to England. When that distinguished scholar arrived, Bonner
+wanted either the means, or more probably the heart, to assist him; but
+Surrey took him into his family in the capacity of physician, and gave
+him a pension of fifty angels.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII60" id = "noteIII60" href = "#tagIII60">III.60</a>
+Koning’s Dissertation on the Invention of Printing, which was crowned by
+the Society of Sciences of Harlem, was first printed at Harlem in the
+Dutch language in 1816. It was afterwards abridged and translated into
+French with the approbation, and under the revision, of the author. In
+1817 he published a first supplement; and a second appeared in 1820.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII61" id = "noteIII61" href = "#tagIII61">III.61</a>
+Reckoning from 1568, the period referred to would be 1440.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII62" id = "noteIII62" href = "#tagIII62">III.62</a>
+“Ædituus Custosve.” The word “Koster” in modern Dutch is synonymous with
+the English “Sexton.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII63" id = "noteIII63" href = "#tagIII63">III.63</a>
+“Sive is (ut fert suspicio) Faustus fuerit ominoso cognomine, hero suo
+infidus et infaustus.” The author here indulges in an ominous pun. The
+Latinised name “<i>Faustus</i>,” signifies lucky; the word
+“<i>infaustus</i>,” unlucky. The German name Füst may be literally
+translated “Fist.” A&nbsp;clenched hand is the crest of the family of
+Faust.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII64" id = "noteIII64" href = "#tagIII64">III.64</a>
+This is an admirable instance of candour. A&nbsp;charge is insinuated,
+and presumed to be a fact, and yet the writer kindly forbears to bring
+forward proof, that he may not disturb the dead. History has long since
+given the lie to the insinuation of the thief having been Faust.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII65" id = "noteIII65" href = "#tagIII65">III.65</a>
+Hadriani Junii Batavia, p. 253, et sequent. Edit. Ludg. Batavor.
+1588.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII66" id = "noteIII66" href = "#tagIII66">III.66</a>
+Scriverius&mdash;whose book was printed in 1628&mdash;thinking that
+there might be some objection raised to the letters of beech-bark, thus,
+according to his own fancy, amends the account of Cornelius as given by
+Junius: “Coster walking in the wood picked up a small bough of a beech,
+or rather of an oak-tree blown off by the wind; and after amusing
+himself with cutting some letters on it, wrapped it up in paper, and
+afterwards laid himself down to sleep. When he awoke, he perceived that
+the paper, by a shower of rain or some accident having got moist, had
+received an impression from these letters; which induced him to pursue
+the accidental discovery.” This is more imaginative than the account of
+Cornelius, but scarcely more probable.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII67" id = "noteIII67" href = "#tagIII67">III.67</a>
+“Choragium omne typorum involat, instrumentorum herilium ei artificio
+comparatorum suppelectilem convasat, deinde <i>cum fure</i> domo se
+proripit.”&mdash;H.&nbsp;Junii Batavia, p.&nbsp;255.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII68" id = "noteIII68" href = "#tagIII68">III.68</a>
+“. . . . . quum nova merx, nunquam antea visa, emptores undique exciret
+cum huberrimo questu.”&mdash;Junii Batavia.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII69" id = "noteIII69" href = "#tagIII69">III.69</a>
+In “Einige Bemerkungen über das Unternehmen der gelehrten Gesellschaft
+zu Harlem,” &amp;c.&nbsp;S.&nbsp;31.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII70" id = "noteIII70" href = "#tagIII70">III.70</a>
+Santander has published a French translation of this letter in his
+Dictionnaire Bibliographique, tom. i.&nbsp;pp. 14-18.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII71" id = "noteIII71" href = "#tagIII71">III.71</a>
+Wimpheling, who was born at Sletstadt in 1451, thus addresses the
+inventor of printing,&mdash;whose name, Gænsfleisch, he Latinises
+“Ansicarus,”&mdash;in an epigram printed at the end of “Memoriæ Marsilii
+ab Inghen,” 4to. 1499.</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p class = "open">“Felix <i>Ansicare</i>, per te Germania felix</p>
+<p class = "indent">Omnibus in terris præmia laudis habet.</p>
+<p>Urbe Moguntina, divino fulte Joannes</p>
+<p class = "indent">Ingenio, primus imprimis ære notas.</p>
+<p>Multum Relligio, multum tibi Græca sophia,</p>
+<p class = "indent">Et multum debet lingua Latina.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In his “Epitome Rerum Germanicarum,” 1502, he says that the art of
+printing was discovered at Strasburg in 1440 by a native of that city,
+who afterwards removing to Mentz there perfected the art. In his
+“Episcoporum Argentinensium Catalogus,” 1508, he says that printing was
+invented by a native of Strasburg, and that when the inventor had joined
+some other persons engaged on the same invention at Mentz, the art was
+there perfected by one John Gænsfleisch, who was blind through age, in
+the house called Gutemberg, in which, in 1508, the College of Justice
+held its sittings. Wimpheling does not seem to have known that
+Gænsfleisch was also called Gutemberg, and that his first attempts at
+printing were made in Strasburg.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII72" id = "noteIII72" href = "#tagIII72">III.72</a>
+Nachrichten von Kunstlern und Kunst-Sachen, 1te. Theil,
+S.&nbsp;286-293.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII73" id = "noteIII73" href = "#tagIII73">III.73</a>
+In a Memoir on the Invention of Printing, which was crowned by the
+Academy of Sciences at Harlem in 1816.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII74" id = "noteIII74" href = "#tagIII74">III.74</a>
+Einige Bemerkungen, &amp;c. S. 18, 19.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIII75" id = "noteIII75" href = "#tagIII75">III.75</a>
+Enschedius published a fac-simile himself, with the following title:
+“Afbeelding van ’t&nbsp;A.&nbsp;B. C. ’t&nbsp;Pater Noster, Ave Maria,
+’t&nbsp;Credo, en Ave Salus Mundi, door Laurens Janszoon, te Haarlem,
+ten behoeven van zyne dochters Kinderen, met beweegbaare Letteren
+gedrukt, en teffens aangeweesen de groote der Stukjes pergament,
+zekerlyk ’t&nbsp;oudste overblyfsel der eerste Boekdrukkery,
+’t&nbsp;welk als zulk een eersteling der Konst bewaard word en berust in
+de Boekery van <i>Joannes Enschedé</i>, Lettergieter en Boekdrukker te
+Haarlem, 1768.&mdash;<i>A.&nbsp;J. Polak sculps. ex originali.</i>”</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "correction">
+<h5>Errors in Chapter III</h5>
+
+<p><span class = "citation">
+(Displaying thus his meikle skill,)</span><br>
+<i>closing parenthesis missing</i></p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+for in no country are books to be found printed</span><br>
+foe in</p>
+<p>[III.19]<br>
+<i>footnote tag missing: best guess</i></p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+einen spätern tag</span><br>
+spatern</p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+was printed by Ketelar and Leempt</span><br>
+<i>spelling unchanged</i></p>
+
+<p>Footnote III.2</p>
+<p class = "continue">
+<span class = "citation">“J’ai rendu <i>Vedelare</i></span><br>
+rendn</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "mynote">
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html">Introduction</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html#illus">List of Illustrations</a> (separate
+file)</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "#chap_I">Chapter I</a><br>
+<a href = "#chap_II">Chapter II</a><br>
+<a href = "#chap_III">Chapter III</a><br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html">Chapter IV</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#chap_V">Chapter V</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html">Chapter VI</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html">Chapter VII</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html">Chapter VIII</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html">Chapter IX</a> (separate file)</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html#index">Index</a> (separate file)</p>
+</div>
+
+</body>
+</html>
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+</head>
+
+<body>
+<div class = "mynote">
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html">Introduction</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html#illus">List of Illustrations</a> (separate
+file)</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html">Chapter I</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_II">Chapter II</a> (separate
+file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_III">Chapter III</a> (separate
+file)<br>
+Chapter IV<br>
+<a href = "#chap_V">Chapter V</a><br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html">Chapter VI</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html">Chapter VII</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html">Chapter VIII</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html">Chapter IX</a> (separate file)</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html#index">Index</a> (separate file)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "titlepage">
+
+<h2><span class = "smallest">ON</span><br>
+WOOD ENGRAVING.</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page164" id = "page164">
+164</a></span>
+<h3><a name = "chap_IV" id = "chap_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a><br>
+<span class = "subhead">WOOD ENGRAVING IN CONNEXION WITH THE
+PRESS.</span></h3>
+
+<p class = "synopsis">
+Faust and scheffer’s psalter of 1457&mdash;printing at bamberg in
+1461&mdash;books containing wood-cuts printed there by albert
+pfister&mdash;opposition of the wood engravers of augsburg to the
+earliest printers established in that city&mdash;travelling
+printers&mdash;wood-cuts in “meditationes johannis de turre-cremata,”
+rome, 1467; and in “valturius de re militari,” verona,
+1472&mdash;wood-cuts frequent in books printed at augsburg between 1474
+and 1480&mdash;wood-cuts in books printed by caxton&mdash;maps engraved
+on wood, 1482&mdash;progress of map
+engraving&mdash;cross-hatching&mdash;flowered borders&mdash;hortus
+sanitatis&mdash;nuremberg chronicle&mdash;wood engraving in
+italy&mdash;poliphili hypnerotomachia&mdash;decline of
+block-printing&mdash;old wood-cuts in derschau’s collection.</p>
+
+<div class = "maintext">
+
+<div class = "chapfour">
+<p class = "consider" title = "C"><a name = "illus_164" id =
+"illus_164">&nbsp;</a></p>
+
+<p class = "first"><span class = "firstword">
+onsidering</span>
+Gutemberg as the inventor of printing with moveable types; that his
+first attempts were made at Strasburg about 1436; and that with Faust’s
+money and Scheffer’s ingenuity the art was perfected at Mentz about
+1452, I&nbsp;shall now proceed to trace the progress of wood engraving
+in its connexion with the press.</p>
+
+<p>In the first book which appeared with a date and the printers’
+names&mdash;the Psalter printed by Faust and Scheffer, at Mentz, in
+1457&mdash;the large initial letters, engraved on wood and printed in
+red and blue ink, are the must beautiful specimens of this kind of
+ornament which the united efforts of the wood-engraver and the pressman
+have produced. They have been imitated in modern times, but not
+excelled. As they are the first letters, in point of time, printed with
+two colours, so are they likely to continue the first in point of
+excellence.</p>
+
+<div class = "third">
+<p>Only seven copies of the Psalter of 1457 are known, and they are all
+printed on vellum. Although they have all the same colophon, containing
+the printers’ names and the date, yet no two copies exactly correspond.
+A&nbsp;similar want of agreement is said to have been observed in
+different copies of the Mazarine Bible, but which are, notwithstanding,
+of one and the same edition. As such works would in the infancy of the
+art be a long time in printing&mdash;more especially the Psalter, as,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page165" id = "page165">
+165</a></span>
+in consequence of the large capitals being printed in two colours, each
+side of many of the sheets would have to be printed thrice&mdash;it can
+be a matter of no surprise that alterations and amendments should be
+made in the text while the work was going through the press. In the
+Mazarine Bible, the entire Book of Psalms, which contains a considerable
+number of red letters, would have to pass four times through the press,
+including what printers call the “reiteration.”<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIV1" id = "tagIV1" href = "#noteIV1">IV.1</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "second">
+<p>The largest of the ornamented capitals in the Psalter of 1457 is the
+letter B, which stands at the commencement of the first psalm, “Beatus
+vir.” The letters which are next in size are an A, a&nbsp;C, a D, an E,
+and a P; and there are also others of a smaller size, similarly
+ornamented, and printed in two colours in the same manner as the larger
+ones. Although only two colours are used to each letter, yet when the
+same letter is repeated a variety is introduced by alternating the
+colours: for instance, the shape of the letter is in one page printed
+red, with the ornamental portions blue; and in another the shape of the
+letter is blue, and the ornamental portions red. It has been erroneously
+stated by Papillon that the large letters at the beginning of each psalm
+are printed in three colours, red, blue, and purple; and Lambinet has
+copied the mistake. A&nbsp;second edition of this Psalter appeared in
+1459; a&nbsp;third in 1490; and a fourth in 1502, all in folio, like the
+first, and with the same ornamented capitals. Heineken observes that in
+the edition of 1490 the large letters are printed in red and green
+instead of red and blue.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "mynote">
+<p><a href = "#page_image">Page image</a> showing original layout.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In consequence of those large letters being printed in two colours,
+two blocks would necessarily be required for each; one for that portion
+of the letter which is red, and another for that which is blue. In the
+body, or shape, of the largest letter, the B at the beginning of the
+first psalm, the mass of colour is relieved by certain figures being cut
+out in the block, which appear white in the impression. On the stem of
+the letter a dog like a greyhound is seen chasing a bird; and flowers
+and ears of corn are represented on the curved portions. These figures
+being white, or the colour of the vellum, give additional brightness to
+the full-bodied red by which they are surrounded, and materially add to
+the beauty and effect of the whole letter.</p>
+
+<p>In consequence of two blocks being required for each letter, the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page166" id = "page166">
+166</a></span>
+means were afforded of printing any of them twice in the same sheet or
+the same page with alternate colours; for while the body of the first
+was printed in red from one block, the ornamental portion of the second
+might be printed red at the same time from the other block. In the
+second printing, with the blue colour, it would only be necessary to
+transpose the blocks, and thus the two letters would be completed,
+identical in shape and ornament, and differing only from the
+corresponding portions being in the one letter printed red and in the
+other blue. In the edition of 1459 the same ornamented letter is to be
+found repeated on the same page; but of this I have only noticed one
+instance; though there are several examples of the same letter being
+printed twice in the same sheet.</p>
+
+<p>Although the engraving of the most highly ornamented and largest of
+those letters cannot be considered as an extraordinary instance of
+skill, even at that period, for many wood-cuts of an earlier date afford
+proof of greater excellence, yet the artist by whom the blocks were
+engraved must have had considerable practice. The whole of the
+ornamental part, which would be the most difficult to execute, is
+clearly and evenly cut, and in some places with great neatness and
+delicacy. “This letter,” says Heineken, “is an authentic testimony that
+the artists employed on such a work were persons trained up and
+exercised in their profession. The art of wood engraving was no longer
+in its cradle.”</p>
+
+<p>The name of the artist by whom those letters were engraved is
+unknown. In Sebastian Munster’s Cosmography, book iii. chapter 159, John
+Meydenbach is mentioned as being one of Gutemberg’s assistants; and an
+anonymous writer in Serarius states the same fact. Heineken in noticing
+these two passages writes to the following effect. “This Meydenbach is
+doubtless the same person who proceeded with Gutemberg from Strasburg to
+Mentz in 1444.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV2" id = "tagIV2" href =
+"#noteIV2">IV.2</a> It is probable that he was a wood engraver or an
+illuminator, but this is not certain; and it is still more uncertain
+that this person engraved the cuts in a book entitled <i>Apocalipsis cum
+figuris</i>, printed at Strasburg in 1502, because these are copied from
+the cuts in the Apocalypse engraved and printed by Albert Durer at
+Nuremberg. Whether this copyist was the <i>Jacobus Meydenbach</i> who
+printed books at Mentz in 1491,<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV3" id =
+"tagIV3" href = "#noteIV3">IV.3</a> or he was some other engraver,
+I&nbsp;have not been able to determine.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV4"
+id = "tagIV4" href = "#noteIV4">IV.4</a></p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page167" id = "page167">
+167</a></span>
+<p>Although so little is positively known respecting John Meydenbach,
+Gutemberg’s assistant, yet Von Murr thinks that there is reason to
+suppose that he was the artist who engraved the large initial letters
+for the Psalter of 1457. Fischer, who declares that there is no
+sufficient grounds for this conjecture, confidently assumes, from false
+premises, that those letters were engraved by Gutemberg, “a&nbsp;person
+experienced in such work,” adds he, “as we are taught by his residence
+at Strasburg.” From the account that we have of his residence and
+pursuits at Strasburg, however, we are taught no such thing. We only
+learn from it he was engaged in some invention which related to
+printing. We learn that Conrad Saspach made him a press, and it is
+conjectured that the goldsmith Hanns Dunne was employed to engrave his
+letters; but there is not a word of his being an experienced wood
+engraver, nor is there a well authenticated passage in any account of
+his life from which it might be concluded that he ever engraved a single
+letter. Fischer’s reasons for supposing that Gutemberg engraved the
+large letters in Faust and Scheffer’s Psalter are, however, contradicted
+by facts. Having seen a few leaves of a Donatus ornamented with the same
+initial letters as the Psalter, he directly concluded that the former
+was printed by Gutemberg and Faust prior to the dissolution of their
+partnership; and not satisfied with this leap he takes another, and
+arrives at the conclusion that they were engraved by Gutemberg, as
+“<i>his</i> modesty only could allow such works to appear without his
+name.”</p>
+
+<p>Although we have no information respecting the artist by whom those
+letters were engraved, yet it is not unlikely that they were suggested,
+if not actually drawn by Scheffer, who, from his profession of a scribe
+or writer<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV5" id = "tagIV5" href =
+"#noteIV5">IV.5</a> previous to his connexion with Faust, may be
+supposed to have been well acquainted with the various kinds of flowered
+and ornamented capitals with which manuscripts of that and preceding
+centuries were embellished. It is not unusual to find manuscripts of the
+early part of the fifteenth century embellished with capitals of two
+colours, red and blue, in the same taste as in the Psalter; and there is
+now lying before me a capital P, drawn on vellum in red and blue ink, in
+a manuscript apparently of the date of 1430, which is so like the same
+letter in the Psalter that the one might be supposed to have suggested
+the other.</p>
+
+<p>It was an object with Faust and Scheffer to recommend their
+Psalter&mdash;probably
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page168" id = "page168">
+168</a></span>
+the first work printed by them after Gutemberg had been obliged to
+withdraw from the partnership&mdash;by the beauty of its capitals and
+the sufficiency and distinctness of its “rubrications;”<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagIV6" id = "tagIV6" href = "#noteIV6">IV.6</a> and it is
+evident that they did not fail in the attempt. The Psalter of 1457 is,
+with respect to ornamental printing, their greatest work; for in no
+subsequent production of their press does the typographic art appear to
+have reached a higher degree of excellence. It may with truth be said
+that the art of printing&mdash;be the inventor who he may&mdash;was
+perfected by Faust and Scheffer; for the earliest known production of
+their press remains to the present day unsurpassed as a specimen of
+skill in ornamental printing.</p>
+
+<p>A fac-simile of the large B at the commencement of the Psalter,
+printed in colours the same as the original, is given in the first
+volume of Dibdin’s Bibliotheca Spenceriana, and in Savage’s Hints on
+Decorative Printing; but in neither of those works has the excellence of
+the original letter been attained. In the Bibliotheca Spenceriana,
+although the volume has been printed little more than twenty years, the
+red colour in which the body of the letter is printed has assumed a
+coppery hue, while in the original, executed nearly four hundred years
+ago, the freshness and purity of the colours remain unimpaired. In
+Savage’s work, though the letter and its ornaments are faithfully
+copied<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV7" id = "tagIV7" href =
+"#noteIV7">IV.7</a> and tolerably well printed, yet the colours are not
+equal to those of the original. In the modern copy the blue is too
+faint; and the red, which in the original is like well impasted paint,
+has not sufficient body, but appears like a wash, through which in many
+places the white paper may be seen. The whole letter compared with the
+original seems like a water-colour copy compared with a painting in
+oil.</p>
+
+<p>Although it has been generally supposed that the art of printing was
+first carried from Mentz in 1462 when Faust and Scheffer’s sworn workmen
+were dispersed<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV8" id = "tagIV8" href =
+"#noteIV8">IV.8</a> on the capture of that city by the archbishop
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page169" id = "page169">
+169</a></span>
+Adolphus of Nassau, yet there can be no doubt that it was practised at
+Bamberg before that period; for a book of fables printed at the latter
+place by Albert Pfister is expressly dated on St. Valentine’s day, 1461;
+and a history of Joseph, Daniel, Judith, and Esther was also printed by
+Pfister at Bamberg in 1462, “<span class = "blackletter">Nit lang nach
+sand walpurgen tag</span>,”&mdash;not long after St. Walburg’s day.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagIV9" id = "tagIV9" href = "#noteIV9">IV.9</a>
+It is therefore certain that the art was practised beyond Mentz previous
+to the capture of that city, which was not taken until the eve of St.
+Simon and St. Jude; that is, on the 28th of October in 1462. As it is
+very probable that Pfister would have to superintend the formation of
+his own types and the construction of his own presses,&mdash;for none of
+his types are of the same fount as those used by Gutemberg or by Faust
+and Scheffer,&mdash;we may presume that he would be occupied for some
+considerable time in preparing his materials and utensils before he
+could begin to print. As his first known work with a date, containing a
+hundred and one wood-cuts, was finished on the 14th of February 1461, it
+is not unlikely that he might have begun to make preparations three or
+four years before. Upon these grounds it seems but reasonable to
+conclude with Aretin, that the art was carried from Mentz by some of
+Gutemberg and Faust’s workmen on the dissolution of their partnership in
+1455; and that the date of the capture of Mentz&mdash;when for a time
+all the male inhabitants capable of bearing arms were compelled to leave
+the city by the captors&mdash;marks the period of its more general
+diffusion. The occasion of the disaster to which Mentz was exposed for
+nearly three years was a contest for the succession to the
+archbishopric. Theodoric von Erpach having died in May 1459,
+a&nbsp;majority of the chapter chose Thierry von Isenburg to succeed
+him, while another party supported the pretensions of Adolphus of
+Nassau. An appeal having been made to Rome, the election of Thierry was
+annulled, and Adolphus was declared by the Pope to be the lawful
+archbishop of Mentz. Thierry, being in possession and supported by the
+citizens, refused to resign, until his rival, assisted by the forces of
+his adherents and relations, succeeded in obtaining possession of the
+city.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV10" id = "tagIV10" href =
+"#noteIV10">IV.10</a></p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page170" id = "page170">
+170</a></span>
+<p>Until the discovery of Pfister’s book containing the four histories,
+most bibliographers supposed that the date 1461, in the fables, related
+to the composition of the work or the completion of the manuscript, and
+not to the printing of the book. Saubert, who was the first to notice
+it, in 1643, describes it as being printed, both text and figures, from
+wood-blocks; and Meerman has adopted the same erroneous opinion.
+Heineken was the first to describe it truly, as having the text printed
+with moveable types, though he expresses himself doubtfully as to the
+date, 1461, being that of the impression.</p>
+
+<p>As the discovery of Pfister’s tracts has thrown considerable light on
+the progress of typography and wood engraving, I&nbsp;shall give an
+account of the most important of them, as connected with those subjects;
+with a brief notice of a few circumstances relative to the early
+connexion of wood engraving with the press, and to the dispersion of the
+printers on the capture of Mentz in 1462.</p>
+
+<p>The discovery of the history of Joseph, Daniel, Judith, and Esther,
+with the date 1462, printed at Bamberg by Pfister, has established the
+fact that the dates refer to the years in which the books were printed,
+and not to the period when the works were composed or transcribed. An
+account of the history above named, written by M.&nbsp;J. Steiner,
+pastor of the church of St. Ulric at Augsburg, was first printed in
+Meusel’s Historical and Literary Magazine in 1792; and a more ample
+description of this and other tracts printed by Pfister was published by
+Camus in 1800,<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV11" id = "tagIV11" href =
+"#noteIV11">IV.11</a> when the volume containing them, which was the
+identical one that had been previously seen by Steiner, was deposited in
+the National Library at Paris.</p>
+
+<p>The book of fables<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV12" id = "tagIV12"
+href = "#noteIV12">IV.12</a> printed by Pfister at Bamberg in 1461 is a
+small folio consisting of twenty-eight leaves, and containing
+eighty-five fables in rhyme in the old German language. As those fables,
+which are ascribed to one “Boner, dictus der Edelstein,” are known to
+have been written previous to 1330, the words at the end of the
+volume,&mdash;“Zu Bamberg dies Büchlein geendet ist,”&mdash;At Bamberg
+this book is finished,&mdash;most certainly relate to the time when it
+was printed, and not when it was written. It is therefore the earliest
+book printed with moveable types which is illustrated with wood-cuts
+containing figures. Not having an opportunity of seeing this extremely
+rare book,&mdash;of which only one perfect copy is known,&mdash;I am
+unable to speak from personal examination of the style in which its
+hundred and one cuts are engraved. Heineken,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page171" id = "page171">
+171</a></span>
+however, has given a fac-simile of the first, and he says that the
+others are of a similar kind. The following is a reduced copy of the
+fac-simile given by Heineken, and which forms the head-piece to the
+first fable. On the manner in which it is engraved I shall make no
+remark, until I shall have produced some specimens of the cuts contained
+in a “Biblia Pauperum Predicatorum,” also printed by Pfister, and having
+the text in the German language.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_171" id = "illus_171">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_171.png" width = "334" height = "202"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The volume described by Camus contains three different works; and
+although Pfister’s name, with the date 1462, appears in only one of
+them, the “Four Histories,” yet, as the type is the same in all, there
+can be no doubt of the other two being printed by the same person and
+about the same period. The following particulars respecting its contents
+are derived from the “Notice” of Camus. It is a small folio consisting
+altogether of a hundred and one leaves of paper of good quality,
+moderately thick and white, and in which the water-mark is an ox’s head.
+The text is printed in a large type, called missal-type; and though the
+characters are larger, and there is a trifling variation in three or
+four of the capitals, yet they evidently appear to have been copied from
+those of the Mazarine Bible.</p>
+
+<p>The first work is that which Heineken calls “une Allégorie sur la
+Mort;”<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV13" id = "tagIV13" href =
+"#noteIV13">IV.13</a> but this title does not give a just idea of its
+contents. It is in fact a collection of accusations preferred against
+Death, with his answers to them. The object is to show that such
+complaints are unavailing, and that, instead of making them, people
+ought rather to employ themselves in endeavouring to live well. In this
+tract, which
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page172" id = "page172">
+172</a></span>
+consists of twenty-four leaves, there are five wood-cuts, each occupying
+an entire page. The first represents Death seated on a throne. Before
+him there is a man with a child, who appears to accuse Death of having
+deprived him of his wife, who is seen on a tomb wrapped in a
+winding-sheet.&mdash;In the second cut, Death is also seen seated on a
+throne, with the same person apparently complaining against him, while a
+number of persons appear approaching sad and slow, to lay down the
+ensigns of their dignity at his feet.&mdash;In the third cut there are
+two figures of Death; one on foot mows down youths and maidens with a
+scythe, while another, mounted, is seen chasing a number of figures on
+horseback, at whom he at the same time discharges his arrows.&mdash;The
+fourth cut consists of two parts, the one above the other. In the upper
+part, Death appears seated on a throne, with a person before him in the
+act of complaining, as in the first and second cuts. In the lower part,
+to the left of the cut, is seen a convent, at the gate of which there
+are two persons in religious habits; to the right a garden is
+represented, in which are perceived a tree laden with fruit,
+a&nbsp;woman crowning an infant, and another woman conversing with a
+young man. In the space between the convent and the garden certain signs
+are engraved, which Camus thinks are intended to represent various
+branches of learning and science,&mdash;none of which can afford
+protection against death,&mdash;as they are treated of in the chapter
+which precedes the cut. In the fifth cut, Death and the Complainant are
+seen before Christ, who is seated on a throne with an angel on each side
+of him, under a canopy ornamented with stars. Although neither Heineken
+nor Camus give specimens of those cuts, nor speak of the style in which
+they are executed, it may be presumed that they are not superior either
+in design or engraving to those contained in the other tracts.</p>
+
+<p>The text of the work is divided into thirty-four chapters, each of
+which, except the first, is preceded by a summary; and their numbers are
+printed in Roman characters. The initial letter of each chapter is red,
+and appears to have been formed by means of a stencil. The first
+chapter, which has neither title nor numeral, commences with the
+Complainant’s recital of his injuries; in the second, Death defends
+himself; in the third the Complainant resumes, in the fourth Death
+replies; and in this manner the work proceeds, the Complainant and Death
+speaking alternately through thirty-two chapters. In the thirty-third,
+God decides between the parties; and after a few common-place
+reflections and observations on the readiness of people to complain on
+all occasions, sentence is pronounced in these words: “The Complainant
+is condemned, and Death has gained the cause. Of right, the Life of
+every man is due to Death; to Earth his Body, and to Us his Soul.” In
+the thirty-fourth chapter, the Complainant, perceiving that he has lost
+his
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page173" id = "page173">
+173</a></span>
+suit, proceeds to pray to God on behalf of his deceased wife. In the
+summary prefixed to the chapter the reader is informed that he is now
+about to peruse a model of a prayer; and that the name of the
+Complainant is expressed by the large red letters which are to be found
+in the chapter. Accordingly, in the course of the chapter, six red
+letters, besides the initial at the beginning, occur at the commencement
+of so many different sentences. They are formed by means of a stencil,
+while the letters at the commencement of other similar sentences are
+printed black. Those red letters, including the initial at the beginning
+of the chapter, occur in the following order, IHESANW. Whether the name
+is expressed by them as they stand, or whether they are to be combined
+in some other manner, Camus will not venture to decide.<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagIV14" id = "tagIV14" href = "#noteIV14">IV.14</a> From the
+prayer it appears that the name of the Complainant’s deceased wife was
+Margaret. In this singular composition, which in the summary is declared
+to be a model, the author, not forgetting the court language of his
+native country, calls the Almighty “the Elector who determines the
+choice of all Electors,” “Hoffmeister” of the court of Heaven, and
+“Herzog” of the Heavenly host. The text is in the German language, such
+as was spoken and written in the fifteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>The German words “<i>Hoffmeister</i>” and “<i>Herzog</i>” appear
+extremely ridiculous in Camus’s French translation,&mdash;“le
+Maître-d’hôtel de la cour céleste,” and “le Grand-duc de l’armée
+céleste.” But this is clothing ancient and dignified German in modern
+French frippery. The word “Hoffmeister”&mdash;literally, “court-master
+or governor”&mdash;is used in modern German in nearly the same sense as
+the English word “steward;” and the governor or tutor of a young prince
+or nobleman is called by the same name. The word “Herzog”&mdash;the
+“Grand-duc” of Camus&mdash;in its original signification means the
+leader of a host or army. It is a German title of honour which defines
+its original meaning, and is in modern language synonymous with the
+English title “Duke.” The ancient German “Herzog” was a leader of hosts;
+the modern French “Grand-duc” is a clean-shaved gentleman in a
+court-dress, redolent of eau-de-Cologne, and bedizened with stars and
+strings. The two words are characteristic of the two languages.</p>
+
+<p>The second work in the volume is the Histories of Joseph, Daniel,
+Judith, and Esther. It has no general frontispiece nor title; but each
+separate history commences with the words: “Here begins the history
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page174" id = "page174">
+174</a></span>
+of .&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.” in German. Each history forms a separate
+gathering, and the whole four are contained in sixty leaves, of which
+two, about the middle, are blank, although there is no appearance of any
+deficiency in the history. The text is accompanied with wood-cuts which
+are much less than those in the “Complaints against Death,” each
+occupying only the space of eleven lines in a page, which when full
+contains twenty-eight. The number of the cuts is sixty-one; but there
+are only fifty-five different subjects, four of them having been printed
+twice, and one thrice. Camus gives a specimen of one of the cuts, which
+represents the Jews of Bethuliah rejoicing and offering sacrifice on the
+return of Judith after she had cut off the head of Holofernes. It is
+certainly a very indifferent performance, both with respect to design
+and engraving; and from Camus’s remarks on the artist’s ignorance and
+want of taste it would appear that the others are no better. In one of
+them Haman is decorated with the collar of an order from which a cross
+is suspended; and in another Jacob is seen travelling to Egypt in a
+carriage<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV15" id = "tagIV15" href =
+"#noteIV15">IV.15</a> drawn by two horses, which are harnessed according
+to the manner of the fifteenth century, and driven by a postilion seated
+on a saddle, and with his feet in stirrups. All the cuts in the “Four
+Histories” are coarsely coloured.</p>
+
+<p>It is this work which Camus, in his title-page, professes to give an
+account of, although in his tract he describes the other two contained
+in the same volume with no less minuteness. He especially announced a
+notice of this work as “a&nbsp;book printed at Bamberg in 1462,” in
+consequence of its being the most important in the volume; for it
+contains not only the date and place, but also the printer’s name. In
+the book of Fables, printed with the same types at Bamberg in 1461,
+Pfister’s name does not appear.</p>
+
+<p>The text of the “Four Histories” ends at the fourth line on the recto
+of the sixtieth leaf; and after a blank space equal to that of a line,
+thirteen lines succeed, forming the colophon, and containing the place,
+date, and printer’s name. Although those lines run continuously on,
+occupying the full width of the page as in prose, yet they consist of
+couplets in German rhyme. The end of each verse is marked with a point,
+and the first word of the succeeding one begins with a capital.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page175" id = "page175">
+175</a></span>
+Camus has given a fac-simile of those lines, that he might at once
+present his readers with a specimen of the type and a copy of this
+colophon, so interesting to bibliographers as establishing the important
+fact in the history of printing, namely, that the art was practised
+beyond Mentz prior to 1462. The following copy, though not a fac-simile,
+is printed line for line from Camus.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation blackletter">
+Ein ittlich mensch von herzen gert . Das er wer weiss<br>
+und wol gelert . An meister un’ schrift das nit mag<br>
+sein . So kun’ wir all auch nit latein . Darauff han<br>
+ich ein teil gedacht . Und vier historii zu samen pra-<br>
+cht . Joseph daniel un’ auch judith . Und hester auch<br>
+mit gutem sith. die vier het got in seiner hut . Als er<br>
+noch ye de’ guten thut . Dar durch wir pessern unser<br>
+lebe’ . De’ puchlein ist sein ende gebe’ . Tʒu bambergh<br>
+in der selbe’ stat . Das albrecht pfister gedrucket hat<br>
+Do ma’ zalt tausent un’ vierhu’dert iar . Im zwei und<br>
+sechzigste’ das ist war . Nit lang nach sand walpur-<br>
+gen tag . Die uns wol gnad erberben mag . Frid un’<br>
+das ewig lebe’ . Das wolle uns got alle’ gebe’ . Ame’.</p>
+
+<p>The following is a translation of the above, in English couplets of
+similar rhythm and measure as the original:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p>With heart’s desire each man doth seek</p>
+<p>That he were wise and learned eke:</p>
+<p>But books and teacher he doth need,</p>
+<p>And all men cannot Latin read.</p>
+<p>As on this subject oft I thought,</p>
+<p>These hist’ries four I therefore wrote;</p>
+<p>Of Joseph, Daniel, Judith too,</p>
+<p>And Esther eke, with purpose true:</p>
+<p>These four did God with bliss requite,</p>
+<p>As he doth all who act upright.</p>
+<p>That men may learn their lives to mend</p>
+<p>This book at Bamberg here I end.</p>
+<p>In the same city, as I’ve hinted,</p>
+<p>It was by Albert Pfister printed,</p>
+<p>In th’ year of grace, I tell you true,</p>
+<p>A thousand four hundred and sixty-two;</p>
+<p>Soon after good St. Walburg’s day,</p>
+<p>Who well may aid us on our way,</p>
+<p>And help us to eternal bliss:</p>
+<p>God, of his mercy, grant us this. Amen.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The third work contained in the volume described by Camus is an
+edition of the “Poor Preachers’ Bible,” with the text in German, and
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page176" id = "page176">
+176</a></span>
+printed on both sides. The number of the leaves is eighteen, of which
+only seventeen are printed; and as there is a “history” on each page,
+the total number in the work is thirty-four, each of which is
+illustrated with five cuts. The subjects of those cuts and their
+arrangement on the page is not precisely the same as in the earlier
+Latin editions; and as in the latter there are forty “histories,” six
+are wanting in the Bamberg edition, namely: 1.&nbsp;Christ in the
+garden; 2.&nbsp;The soldiers alarmed at the sepulchre; 3.&nbsp;The Last
+Judgment; 4.&nbsp;Hell; 5.&nbsp;The eternal Father receiving the
+righteous into his bosom; and 6.&nbsp;The crowning of the Saints. As the
+cuts illustrative of these subjects are the last in the Latin editions,
+it is possible that the Bamberg copy described by Camus might be
+defective; he, however, observes that there is no appearance of any
+leaves being wanting.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV16" id = "tagIV16"
+href = "#noteIV16">IV.16</a> In each page of the Bamberg edition the
+text is in two columns below the cuts, which are arranged in the
+following manner in the upper part of the page:</p>
+
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td colspan = "2" rowspan = "2">3<br>
+Christ appearing to the Apostles.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>1<br>Busts.</td>
+<!-- <td></td>
+<td></td> -->
+<td>2<br>Busts.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan = "2">4<br>
+Joseph making himself known to his brethern.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">5<br>
+The Prodigal Son’s return to his father.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The following cuts are fac-similes of those given by Camus; and the
+numbers underneath each relate to their position in the preceding
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page177" id = "page177">
+177</a></span>
+example of their arrangement. In No.&nbsp;1 the heads are intended for
+David and the author of the Book of Wisdom; in No.&nbsp;2, for Isaiah
+and Ezekiel.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<div class = "picblock w200">
+<p><a name = "illus_177a" id = "illus_177a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_177a.png" width = "166" height = "99"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class = "picblock w200">
+<p><a name = "illus_177b" id = "illus_177b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_177b.png" width = "163" height = "99"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 2.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The subject represented in the following cut, No. 3, forming the
+centre piece at the top in the arrangement of the original page, is
+Christ appearing to his disciples after his resurrection. The figure on
+the right of Christ is intended for St. Peter, and that on his left for
+St. John. I&nbsp;believe that in no wood-cut, ancient or modern, is
+Christ represented with so uncomely an aspect and so clumsy a
+figure.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_177c" id = "illus_177c">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_177c.png" width = "249" height = "253"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 3.</p>
+
+<p>The subject of No. 4 is Joseph making himself known to his brethren;
+from Genesis, chapter <span class = "smallroman">XLV.</span></p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page178" id = "page178">
+178</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_178a" id = "illus_178a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_178a.png" width = "275" height = "249"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 4.</p>
+
+<p>In No. 5 the subject represented is the Prodigal Son received by his
+father; from St. Luke, chapter <span class = "smallroman">XV.</span>
+Camus says that the cuts given by him were engraved on wood by Duplaa
+with the greatest exactitude from tracings of the originals by
+Dubrena.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_178b" id = "illus_178b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_178b.png" width = "273" height = "250"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 5.</p>
+
+<p>Supposing that all the cuts in the four works, printed by Pfister and
+described in the preceding pages, were designed in a similar taste and
+executed in a similar manner to those of which specimens are given, the
+persons by whom they were engraved&mdash;for it is not likely that they
+were
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page179" id = "page179">
+179</a></span>
+all engraved by one man&mdash;must have had very little knowledge of the
+art. Looking merely at the manner in which they are engraved, without
+reference to the wretched drawing of the figures and want of “feeling”
+displayed in the general treatment of the subjects, a&nbsp;moderately
+apt lad, at the present day, generally will cut as well by the time that
+he has had a month or two’s practice. If those cuts were to be
+considered as fair specimens of wood engraving in Germany in 1462, it
+would be evident that the art was then declining; for none of the
+specimens that I have seen of the cuts printed by Pfister can bear a
+comparison with those contained in the early block-books, such as the
+Apocalypse, the History of the Virgin, or the early editions of the Poor
+Preachers’ Bible. To the cuts contained in the latter works they are
+decidedly inferior, both with respect to design and engraving. Even the
+earliest wood-cuts which are known,&mdash;for instance, the St.
+Christopher, the St. Bridget, and the Annunciation, in Earl Spencer’s
+collection,&mdash;are executed in a superior manner.</p>
+
+<p>It would, however, be unfair to conclude that the cuts which appear
+in Pfister’s works were the best that were executed at that period. On
+the contrary, it is probable that they are the productions of persons
+who in their own age would be esteemed only as inferior artists. As the
+progress of typography was regarded with jealousy by the early wood
+engravers and block printers, who were apprehensive that it would ruin
+their trade, and as previous to the establishment of printing they were
+already formed into companies or fellowships, which were extremely
+sensitive on the subject of their exclusive rights, it is not unlikely
+that the earliest type-printers who adorned their books with wood-cuts
+would be obliged to have them executed by a person who was not
+professionally a wood engraver. It is only upon this supposition that we
+can account for the fact of the wood-cuts in the earliest books printed
+with type being so very inferior to those in the earliest block-books.
+This supposition is corroborated by the account which we have of the
+proceedings of the wood engravers of Augsburg shortly after
+type-printing was first established in that city. In 1471 they opposed
+Gunther Zainer’s<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV17" id = "tagIV17" href =
+"#noteIV17">IV.17</a> admission to the privileges of a burgess, and
+endeavoured to prevent him printing wood engravings in his books.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page180" id = "page180">
+180</a></span>
+Melchior Stamham, however, abbot of St. Ulric and Afra, a&nbsp;warm
+promoter of typography, interested himself on behalf of Zainer, and
+obtained an order from the magistracy that he and John
+Schussler&mdash;another printer whom the wood engravers had also
+objected to&mdash;should be allowed to follow without interruption their
+art of printing. They were, however, forbid to print initial letters
+from wood-blocks or to insert wood-cuts in their books, as this would be
+an infringement on the privileges of the fellowship of wood engravers.
+Subsequently the wood engravers came to an understanding with Zainer,
+and agreed that he should print as many initial letters and wood-cuts as
+he pleased, provided that they engraved them.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIV18" id = "tagIV18" href = "#noteIV18">IV.18</a> Whether Schussler
+came to the same agreement or not is uncertain, as there is no book
+known to be printed by him of a later date than 1472. It is probable
+that he is the person,&mdash;named John <i>Schüssler</i> in the
+memorandum printed by Zapf,&mdash;of whom Melchior de Stamham in that
+year bought five presses for the printing-office which he established in
+his convent of St. Ulric and St. Afra. To John Bämler, who at the same
+time carried on the business of a printer at Augsburg, no objection
+appears to have been made. As he was originally a “calligraphus” or
+ornamental writer, it is probable that he was a member of the wood
+engravers’ guild, and thus entitled to engrave and print his own works
+without interruption.</p>
+
+<p>As it is probable that the wood-cuts which appear in books printed
+within the first thirty years from the establishment of typography at
+Mentz were intended to be coloured, this may in some degree account for
+the coarseness with which they are engraved; but as the wood-cuts in the
+earlier block-books were also intended to be coloured in a similar
+manner, the inferiority of the former can only be accounted for by
+supposing that the best wood engravers declined to assist in promoting
+what they would consider to be a rival art, and that the earlier
+printers would generally be obliged to have their cuts engraved by
+persons connected with their own establishments, and who had not by a
+regular course of apprenticeship acquired a knowledge of the art. About
+seventy or eighty years ago, and until a more recent period, many
+country printers in England used themselves to engrave such rude
+wood-cuts as they might occasionally want. A&nbsp;most extensive
+assortment of such wood-cuts belonged to the printing-office of the late
+Mr. George Angus of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, who used them as head-pieces
+and general illustrations to ballads and chap-books. A&nbsp;considerable
+number of them were cut with a penknife, on pear-tree wood, by an
+apprentice named Randell, who died about forty years ago.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page181" id = "page181">
+181</a></span>
+Persons who are fond of a “rough harvest” of such modern-antiques are
+referred to the “Historical Delights,” the “History of Ripon,” and other
+works published by Thomas Gent at York about 1733.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the rudeness with which the cuts are engraved in the
+four works printed by Pfister, yet from their number a considerable
+portion of time must have been occupied in their execution. In the “Four
+Histories” there are sixty-one cuts, which have been printed from
+fifty-five blocks. In the “Fables” there are one hundred and one cuts;
+in the “Complaints against Death,” five; and in the “Poor Preachers’
+Bible,” one hundred and seventy, reckoning each subject separately.
+Supposing each cut in the <i>three</i> last works was printed from a
+separate block, the total number of blocks required for the <i>four</i>
+would be three hundred and thirty-one.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV19"
+id = "tagIV19" href = "#noteIV19">IV.19</a> Supposing that each cut on
+an average contained as much work as that which is numbered 4 in the
+preceding specimens&mdash;Joseph making himself known to his
+brethren&mdash;and supposing that the artist drew the subjects himself,
+the execution of those three hundred and thirty-one cuts would occupy
+one person for about two years and a half, allowing him to work three
+hundred days in each year. It is true that a modern wood engraver might
+finish more than three of such cuts in a week, yet I question if any one
+of the profession would complete the whole number, with his own hands,
+in less time than I have specified.</p>
+
+<p>From the similarity between Pfister’s types and those with which a
+Bible without place or date is printed, several bibliographers have
+ascribed the latter work to his press. This Bible, which in the Royal
+Library at Paris is bound in three volumes folio, is the rarest of all
+editions of the Scriptures printed in Latin. Schelhorn, who wrote a
+dissertation on this edition, endeavoured to show that it was the first
+of the Bibles printed at Mentz, and that it was partly printed by
+Gutemberg and Faust previous to their separation, and finished by Faust
+and Scheffer in 1456.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV20" id = "tagIV20"
+href = "#noteIV20">IV.20</a> Lichtenberger, without expressly assenting
+to Schelhorn’s opinion, is inclined to think that it was printed at
+Mentz, and by Gutemberg. The reasons which he assigns, however, are not
+such as are likely to gain assent without a previous willingness to
+believe. He admits that Pfister’s types are similar to those of the
+Bible, though he says that the former are somewhat ruder.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page182" id = "page182">
+182</a></span>
+<p>Camus considers that the tracts unquestionably printed by Pfister
+throw considerable light on the question as to whom this Bible is to be
+ascribed. There are two specimens of this Bible, the one given by Masch
+in his Bibliotheca Sacra, and the other by Schelhorn, in a dissertation
+prefixed to Quirini’s account of the principal works printed at Rome.
+Camus, on comparing these specimens with the text of Pfister’s tracts,
+immediately perceived the most perfect resemblance between the
+characters; and on applying a tracing of the last thirteen lines of the
+“Four Histories” to the corresponding letters in Schelhorn’s specimen,
+he found that the characters exactly corresponded. This perfect identity
+induced him to believe that the Bible described by Schelhorn was printed
+with Pfister’s types. A&nbsp;correspondent in Meusel’s Magazine, No.
+VII. 1794, had previously advanced the same opinion; and he moreover
+thought that the Bible had been printed previous to the Fables dated
+1461, because the characters of the Bible are cleaner, and appear as if
+they had been impressed from newer types than those of the Fables.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagIV21" id = "tagIV21" href =
+"#noteIV21">IV.21</a> In support of this opinion an extract is given, in
+the same magazine, from a curious manuscript of the date of 1459, and
+preserved in the library of Cracow. This manuscript is a kind of
+dictionary of arts and sciences, composed by Paul of Prague, doctor of
+medicine and philosophy, who, in his definition of the word
+“Libripagus,” gives a curious piece of information to the following
+effect. The barbarous Latin of the original passage, to which I shall
+have occasion to refer, will be found in the subjoined note.<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagIV22" id = "tagIV22" href = "#noteIV22">IV.22</a> “He
+is an artist who dexterously cuts figures, letters, and whatever he
+pleases on plates of copper, of iron, of solid blocks of wood, and other
+materials, that he may print upon paper, on a wall, or on a clean board.
+He cuts whatever he pleases; and he proceeds in this manner with respect
+to pictures. In my time somebody of Bamberg cut the entire Bible upon
+plates; in four weeks he impressed the whole Bible, thus sculptured,
+upon thin parchment.”</p>
+
+<p>Although I am of opinion that the weight of evidence is in favour of
+Pfister being the printer of the Bible in question, yet I cannot think
+that the arguments which have been adduced in his favour derive any
+additional support from this passage. The writer, like many other
+dictionary makers, both in ancient and modern times, has found it a more
+difficult matter to give a clear account of a <i>thing</i> than to find
+the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page183" id = "page183">
+183</a></span>
+synonym of a <i>word</i>. But, notwithstanding his confused account,
+I&nbsp;think that I can perceive in it the “disjecta membra” of an
+ancient Formschneider and a Briefmaler, but no indication of a
+typographer.</p>
+
+<p>In a jargon worthy of the “Epistolæ obscurorum virorum” he describes
+an artist, or rather an artizan, “sculpens subtiliter in laminibus<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagIV23" id = "tagIV23" href =
+"#noteIV23">IV.23</a> [laminis] æreis, ferreis, ac ligneis solidi ligni,
+atque aliis, imagines, scripturam et omne quodlibet.” In this passage
+the business of the “Formschneider” may be clearly enough distinguished:
+he cuts figures and animals in plates of copper and iron;&mdash;but not
+in the manner of a modern copper-plate engraver; but in the manner in
+which a stenciller pierces his patterns. That this is the true meaning
+of the writer is evident from the context, wherein he informs us of the
+artist’s object in cutting such letters and figures, namely, “ut prius
+imprimat papyro aut parieti aut asseri mundo,”&mdash;that he may print
+upon paper, on a wall, or on a clean board. This is evidently
+descriptive of the practice of stencilling, and proves, if the
+manuscript be authentic, that the old “Briefmalers” were accustomed to
+“slapdash” walls as well as to engrave and colour cards. In the
+distinction which is made of the “laminibus ligneis <i>ligni
+solidi</i>,” it is probable that the writer meant to specify the
+difference between cutting out letters and figures on thin plates of
+metal, and cutting <i>upon</i> blocks of solid wood. When he speaks of a
+Bible being cut, at Bamberg, “super lamellas,” he most likely means a
+“Poor Preachers’ Bible,” engraved on blocks of wood. An impression of a
+hundred or more copies of such a work might easily enough be taken in a
+month when the blocks were all ready engraved; but we cannot suppose
+that the Bible ascribed to Pfister could be worked off in so short a
+time. This Bible consists of eight hundred and seventy leaves; and to
+print an edition of three hundred copies at the rate of three hundred
+sheets a day would require four hundred and fifty days. About three
+hundred copies of each work appears to have been the usual number which
+Sweinheim and Pannartz and Ulric Hahn printed, on the establishment of
+the art in Italy; and Philip de Lignamine in his chronicle mentions,
+under the year 1458, that Gutemberg and Faust, at Mentz, and Mentelin at
+Strasburg, printed three hundred sheets in a day.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIV24" id = "tagIV24" href = "#noteIV24">IV.24</a></p>
+
+<p>Of Pfister nothing more is positively known than what the tracts
+printed by him afford; namely, that he dwelt at Bamberg, and exercised
+the business of a printer there in 1461 and 1462. He might indeed print
+there both before and after those years, but of this we have no direct
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page184" id = "page184">
+184</a></span>
+evidence. From 1462 to 1481 no book is known to have been printed at
+Bamberg. In the latter year, a&nbsp;press was established there by John
+Sensenschmidt of Egra, who had previously, that is from 1470, printed
+several works at Nuremberg.</p>
+
+<p>Panzer, alluding to Pfister as the printer only of the Fables and of
+the tracts contained in the volume described by Camus, says that he can
+scarcely believe that he had a fixed residence at Bamberg; and that
+those tracts most likely proceeded from the press of a travelling
+printer.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV25" id = "tagIV25" href =
+"#noteIV25">IV.25</a> Several of the early printers, who commenced on
+their own account, on the dispersion of Faust and Scheffer’s workmen in
+1462, were accustomed to travel with their small stock of materials from
+one place to another; sometimes finding employment in a monastery, and
+sometimes taking up their temporary abode in a small town; removing to
+another as soon as public curiosity was satisfied, and the demand for
+the productions of their press began to decline. As they seldom put
+their names, or that of the place, to the works which they printed, it
+is extremely difficult to decide on the locality or the date of many old
+books printed in Germany. It is very likely that they were their own
+letter-founders, and that they themselves engraved such wood-cuts as
+they might require. As their object was to gain money, it is not
+unlikely that they might occasionally sell a portion of their types to
+each other;<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV26" id = "tagIV26" href =
+"#noteIV26">IV.26</a> or to a novice who wished to begin the business,
+or to a learned abbot who might be desirous of establishing an amateur
+press within the precinct of his monastery, where copies of the Facetiæ
+of Poggius might be multiplied as well as the works of St. Augustine.
+Although it has been asserted the monks regarded with jealousy the
+progress of printing, as if it were likely to make knowledge too cheap,
+and to interfere with a part of their business as transcribers of books,
+such does not appear to have been the fact. In every country in Europe
+we find them to have been the first to encourage and promote the new
+art; and the annals of typography most clearly show that the greater
+part of the books printed within the first thirty years from the time of
+Gutemberg and Faust’s partnership were chiefly for the use of the monks
+and the secular clergy.</p>
+
+<p>From 1462 to 1467 there appears to have been no book printed
+containing wood-cuts. In the latter year Ulric Hahn, a&nbsp;German,
+printed at Rome a book entitled “Meditationes Johannis de
+Turrecremata,”<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV27" id = "tagIV27" href =
+"#noteIV27">IV.27</a> which
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page185" id = "page185">
+185</a></span>
+contains wood-cuts engraved in simple outline in a coarse manner. The
+work is in folio, and consists of thirty-four leaves of stout paper, on
+which the water-mark is a hunter’s horn. The number of cuts is also
+thirty-four; and the following&mdash;the creation of animals&mdash;is a
+reduced copy of the first.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_185" id = "illus_185">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_185.png" width = "327" height = "242"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The remainder of the cuts are executed in a similar style; and though
+designed with more spirit than those contained in Pfister’s tracts, yet
+it can scarcely be said that they are better engraved. The following is
+an enumeration of the subjects. 1.&nbsp;The Creation, as above
+represented. 2.&nbsp;The Almighty speaking to Adam. 3.&nbsp;Eve taking
+the apple. (From No.&nbsp;3 the rest of the cuts are illustrative of the
+New Testament or of Ecclesiastical History.) 4.&nbsp;The Annunciation.
+5.&nbsp;The Nativity. 6.&nbsp;Circumcision of Christ. 7.&nbsp;Adoration
+of the Magi. 8.&nbsp;Simeon’s Benediction. 9.&nbsp;The Flight into
+Egypt. 10.&nbsp;Christ disputing with the Doctors in the Temple.
+11.&nbsp;Christ baptized. 12.&nbsp;The Temptation in the Wilderness.
+13.&nbsp;The keys given to Peter. 14.&nbsp;The Transfiguration.
+15.&nbsp;Christ washing the Apostles’ feet. 16.&nbsp;The Last Supper.
+17.&nbsp;Christ betrayed by Judas. 18.&nbsp;Christ led before the High
+Priest. 19.&nbsp;The Crucifixion. 20.&nbsp;Mater Dolorosa. 21.&nbsp;The
+Descent into Hell. 22.&nbsp;The Resurrection. 23.&nbsp;Christ appearing
+to his Disciples. 24.&nbsp;The Ascension. 25.&nbsp;The feast of
+Pentecost 26.&nbsp;The Host borne by a bishop. 27.&nbsp;The mystery of
+the Trinity; Abraham sees three and adores one. 28.&nbsp;St. Dominic
+extended like the “<i>Stam-Herr</i>” or first ancestor in a pedigree,
+and sending forth
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page186" id = "page186">
+186</a></span>
+numerous branches as Popes, Cardinals, and Saints. 29.&nbsp;Christ
+appearing to St. Sixtus. 30.&nbsp;The Assumption of the Virgin.
+31.&nbsp;Christ seated amidst a choir of Angels. 32.&nbsp;Christ seated
+at the Virgin’s right hand in the assembly of Saints. 33.&nbsp;The
+Office of Mass for the Dead. 34.&nbsp;The Last Judgment.</p>
+
+<p>Zani says that those cuts were engraved by an Italian artist, but
+beyond his assertion there is no authority for the fact. It is most
+likely that they were cut by one of Hahn’s workmen, who could
+occasionally “turn his hand” to wood-engraving and type-founding, as
+well as compose and work at press; and it is most probable that Hahn’s
+workmen when he first established a press in Rome were Germans, and not
+Italians.</p>
+
+<p>The second book printed in Italy with wood-cuts is the “Editio
+Princeps” of the treatise of R.&nbsp;Valturius de Re Militari, which
+appeared at Verona from the press of “Johannes de Verona,” son of
+Nicholas the surgeon, and master of the art of printing.<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagIV28" id = "tagIV28" href = "#noteIV28">IV.28</a> This work
+is dedicated by the author to Sigismund Malatesta, lord of Rimini, who
+is styled in pompous phrase, “Splendidissimum Arminensium Regem ac
+Imperatorem semper invictum.” The work, however, must have been written
+several years before it was printed, for Baluze transcribed from a MS.
+dated 1463 a letter written in the name of Malatesta, and sent by the
+author with a copy of his work to the Sultan Mahomet II. The bearer of
+this letter was the painter Matteo Pasti, a&nbsp;friend of the author,
+who visited Constantinople at the Sultan’s request in order that he
+might paint his portrait. It is said that the cuts in this work were
+designed by Pasti; and it is very probable that he might make the
+drawings in Malatesta’s own copy, from which it is likely that the book
+was printed. As Valturius has mentioned Pasti as being eminently skilful
+in the arts of Painting, Sculpture, and <i>Engraving</i>,<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagIV29" id = "tagIV29" href = "#noteIV29">IV.29</a>
+Maffei has conjectured,&mdash;and Mr. Ottley adds, “with some appearance
+of probability,”&mdash;that the cuts in question were executed by his
+hand. If such were the fact, it only could be regretted that an artist
+so eminent should have mis-spent his time in a manner so unworthy of his
+reputation; for, allowing that a considerable degree of talent is
+displayed in many of the designs, there is nothing in the engraving, as
+they are mere outlines, but what might be cut by a novice. There is not,
+however, the slightest reasonable ground to suppose that those
+engravings were cut by Matteo Pasti, for I believe that he died before
+printing was introduced into Italy; and it surely would be
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page187" id = "page187">
+187</a></span>
+presuming beyond the verge of probability to assert that they might be
+engraved in anticipation of the art being introduced, and of the book
+being printed at some time or other, when the blocks would be all ready
+engraved, in a simple style of art indeed, but with a master’s hand.
+A&nbsp;master-sculptor’s hand, however, is not very easily distinguished
+in the mere rough-dressing of a block of sandstone, which any country
+mason’s apprentice might do as well. It is very questionable if Matteo
+Pasti was an engraver in the present sense of the word; the engraving
+meant by Valturius was probably that of gold and silver vessels and
+ornaments; but not the engraving of plates of copper or other metal for
+the purpose of being printed.</p>
+
+<p>Several of those cuts occupy an entire folio page, though the greater
+number are of smaller size. They chiefly represent warlike engines,
+which display considerable mechanical skill on the part of the
+contriver; modes of attack and defence both by land and water, with
+various contrivances for passing a river which is not fordable, by means
+of rafts, inflated bladders, and floating bridges. In some of them
+inventions may be noticed which are generally ascribed to a later
+period: such as a boat with paddle-wheels, which are put in motion by a
+kind of crank; a&nbsp;gun with a stock, fired from the shoulder; and a
+bomb-shell. It has frequently been asserted that hand-guns were first
+introduced about the beginning of the sixteenth century, yet the figure
+of one in the work of Valturius makes it evident that they were known
+some time before. It is also likely that the drawing was made and the
+description written at least ten years before the book was printed. It
+has also been generally asserted that bomb-shells were first used by
+Charles VIII. of France when besieging Naples in 1495. Valturius,
+however, in treating of cannon, ascribes the invention to Malatesta.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagIV30" id = "tagIV30" href =
+"#noteIV30">IV.30</a> Gibbon, in chapter lxviii. of his History of the
+Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, notices this cut of a bomb-shell.
+His reference is to the second edition of the work, in Italian, printed
+also at Verona by Bonin de Bononis in 1483, with the same cuts as the
+first edition in Latin.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV31" id = "tagIV31"
+href = "#noteIV31">IV.31</a> The two following cuts are fac-similes of
+the bomb-shell and the hand-gun, as represented in the edition of 1472.
+The figure armed with the gun,&mdash;a portion of a
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page188" id = "page188">
+188</a></span>
+large cut,&mdash;is firing from a kind of floating battery; and in the
+original two figures armed with similar weapons are stationed
+immediately above him.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_188" id = "illus_188">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_188.png" width = "375" height = "273"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The following fac-simile of a cut representing a man shooting with a
+cross-bow is the best in the book. The drawing of the figure is good,
+and the attitude graceful and natural. The figure, indeed, is not only
+the best in the work of Valturius, but is one of the best, so far as
+respects the drawing, that is to be met with in any book printed in the
+fifteenth century.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_189" id = "illus_189">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_189.png" width = "264" height = "382"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The practice of introducing wood-cuts into printed books seems to
+have been first generally adopted at Augsburg, where Gunther Zainer, in
+1471, printed a German translation of the “Legenda Sanctorum” with
+figures of the saints coarsely engraved on wood. This, I&nbsp;believe,
+is the first book, after Pfister’s tracts, printed in Germany with
+wood-cuts and containing a date. In 1472 he printed a second volume of
+the same work, and an edition of the book entitled “Belial,”<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagIV32" id = "tagIV32" href = "#noteIV32">IV.32</a> both
+containing wood-cuts. Several other works printed by him between 1471
+and 1475 are illustrated in a similar manner. Zainer’s example was
+followed at Augsburg by his contemporaries John Bämler and John
+Schussler;
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page189" id = "page189">
+189</a></span>
+and by them, and Anthony Sorg, who first began to print there about
+1475, more books with wood-cuts were printed in that city previous to
+1480 than at any other place within the same period. In 1477 the first
+German Bible with wood-cuts was printed by Sorg, who printed another
+edition with the same cuts and initial letters in 1480. In 1483 he
+printed an account of the Council of Constance held in 1431, with
+upwards of a thousand wood-cuts of figures and of the arms of the
+principal persons both lay and spiritual who attended the council. Upon
+this work Gebhard, in his Genealogical History of the Heritable States
+of the German Empire, makes the following observations:&mdash;“The first
+printed collection of arms is that of 1483 in the History of the Council
+of Constance written by Ulrich Reichenthal. To this council we are
+indebted accidentally for the collection. From the thirteenth century it
+was customary to hang up the shields of noble and honourable persons
+deceased in churches; and subsequently the practice was introduced of
+painting them upon the walls, or of placing them in the windows in
+stained glass. A&nbsp;similar custom prevailed at the Council of
+Constance; for every person of consideration who attended
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page190" id = "page190">
+190</a></span>
+had his arms painted on the wall in front of his chamber; and thus
+Reichenthal, who caused those arms to be copied and engraved on wood,
+was enabled to give in his history the first general collection of
+coat-armour which had appeared; as eminent persons from all the Catholic
+states of Europe attended this council.”<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIV33" id = "tagIV33" href = "#noteIV33">IV.33</a></p>
+
+<p>The practice of introducing wood-cuts became in a few years general
+throughout Germany. In 1473, John Zainer of Reutlingen, who is said to
+have been the brother of Gunther, printed an edition of Boccacio’s work
+“De mulieribus claris,” with wood-cuts, at Ulm. In 1474 the first
+edition of Werner Rolewinck de Laer’s chronicle, entitled “Fasciculus
+Temporum,” was printed with wood-cuts by Arnold Ther-Hoernen at Cologne;
+and in 1476 an edition of the same work, also with wood-cuts, was
+printed at Louvain by John Veldener, who previously had been a printer
+at Cologne. In another edition of the same work printed by Veldener at
+Utrecht in 1480, the first page is surrounded with a border of foliage
+and flowers cut on wood; and another page, about the middle of the
+volume, is ornamented in a similar manner. These are the earliest
+instances of ornamental borders from wood-blocks which I have observed.
+About the beginning of the sixteenth century title-pages surrounded with
+ornamental borders are frequent. From the name of those borders,
+<i>Rahmen</i>, the German wood engravers of that period are sometimes
+called <i>Rahmenschneiders</i>. Prosper Marchand, in his “Dictionnaire
+Historique,” tom. ii. p.&nbsp;156, has stated that Erhard Ratdolt,
+a&nbsp;native of Augsburg, who began to print at Venice about 1475, was
+the first printer who introduced flowered initial letters, and
+vignettes&mdash;meaning by the latter term wood-cuts; but his
+information is scarcely correct. Wood-cuts&mdash;without reference to
+Pfister’s tracts, which were not known when Marchand wrote&mdash;were
+introduced at Augsburg six years before Ratdolt and his partners<a class
+= "tag" name = "tagIV34" id = "tagIV34" href = "#noteIV34">IV.34</a>
+printed at Venice in 1476 the “Calendarium Joannis Regiomontani,” the
+work to which Marchand alludes. It may be true that he introduced a new
+kind of initial letters ornamented with flowers in this work, but much
+more beautiful initial letters had appeared long before in the Psalter,
+in the “Durandi Rationale,” and the “Donatus” printed by Faust and
+Scheffer. The first person who mentions Ratdolt as the inventor of
+“florentes litteræ,” so named from the flowers with which they are
+intermixed, is Maittaire, in his Annales Typographici, tom. i.&nbsp;part
+i.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;53.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page191" id = "page191">
+191</a></span>
+<p>In 1483 Veldener,<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV35" id = "tagIV35"
+href = "#noteIV35">IV.35</a> as has been previously observed at page
+106, printed at Culemburg an edition in small quarto of the Speculum
+Salvationis, with the same blocks as had been used in the earlier folio
+editions, which are so confidently ascribed to Lawrence Coster. In
+Veldener’s edition each of the large blocks, consisting of two
+compartments, is sawn in two in order to adapt them to a smaller page.
+A&nbsp;German translation of the Speculum, with wood-cuts, was printed
+at Basle, in folio, in 1476; and Jansen says that the first book printed
+in France with wood-cuts was an edition of the Speculum, at Lyons, in
+1478; and that the second was a translation of the book named “Belial,”
+printed at the same place in 1482.</p>
+
+<p>The first printed book in the English language that contains
+wood-cuts is the second edition of Caxton’s “Game and Playe of the
+Chesse,” a&nbsp;small folio, without date or place, but generally
+supposed to have been printed about 1476.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIV36" id = "tagIV36" href = "#noteIV36">IV.36</a> The first edition
+of the same work, without cuts, was printed in 1474. On the blank leaves
+at the end of a copy of the first edition in the King’s Library, at the
+British Museum, there is written in a contemporary hand a list of the
+bannerets and knights<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV37" id = "tagIV37"
+href = "#noteIV37">IV.37</a> made at the battle of “Stooke by syde
+newerke apon trent the xvi day of june the ii<sup>de</sup> yer of harry
+the vii.” that is, in 1487. In this battle Martin Swart was killed. He
+commanded the Flemings, who were sent by the Duchess of Burgundy to
+assist Lambert Simnel. It was at the request of the duchess, who was
+Edward the Fourth’s sister, that Caxton translated the “Recuyell of the
+Historyes of Troye,” the first book printed in the English language, and
+which appeared at Cologne in 1471 or 1472.</p>
+
+<p>In Dr. Dibdin’s edition of Ames’s Typographical Antiquities there is
+a “Description of the Pieces and Pawns” in the second edition of
+Caxton’s Chess; which description is said to be illustrated with
+facsimile
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page192" id = "page192">
+192</a></span>
+wood-cuts. There are indeed fac-similes of some of the figures given,
+but not of the wood-cuts generally; for in almost every cut given by Dr.
+Dibdin the back-ground of the original is omitted. In the description of
+the first fac-simile there is also an error: it is said to be “the
+<i>first</i> cut in the work,” while in fact it is the <i>second</i>.
+The following I believe to be a correct list of these first fruits of
+English wood-engraving.</p>
+
+<p>1. An executioner with an axe cutting to pieces, on a block, the
+limbs of a man. On the head, which is lying on the ground, there is a
+crown. Birds are seen seizing and flying away with portions of the
+limbs. There are buildings in the distance, and three figures, one of
+whom is a king with a crown and sceptre, appear looking on. 2.&nbsp;A
+figure sitting at a table, with a chess-board before him, and holding
+one of the chess-men in his hand. This is the cut which Dr. Dibdin says
+is the first in the book. 3.&nbsp;A king and another person playing at
+chess. 4.&nbsp;The king at chess, seated on a throne. 5.&nbsp;The king
+and queen. 6.&nbsp;The “alphyns,” now called “bishops” in the game of
+chess, “in the maner of judges sittyng.” 7.&nbsp;The knight. 8.&nbsp;The
+“rook,” or castle, a&nbsp;figure on horseback wearing a hood and holding
+a staff in his hand. From No.&nbsp;9 to No.&nbsp;15 inclusive, the pawns
+are thus represented. 9.&nbsp;Labourers and workmen, the principal
+figure representing the first pawn, with a spade in his right hand and a
+cart-whip in his left. 10.&nbsp;The second pawn, a&nbsp;smith with his
+buttriss in the string of his apron, and a hammer in his right hand.
+11.&nbsp;The third pawn, represented as a <i>clerk</i>, that is a writer
+or transcriber, in the same sense as Peter Scheffer and Ulric Zell are
+styled <i>clerici</i>, with his case of writing materials at his girdle,
+a&nbsp;pair of shears in one hand, and a large knife in the other. The
+knife, which has a large curved blade, appears more fit for a butcher’s
+chopper than to make or mend pens. 12.&nbsp;The fourth pawn, a&nbsp;man
+with a pair of scales, and having a purse at his girdle, representing
+“marchauntes or chaungers.” 13.&nbsp;The fifth pawn, a&nbsp;figure
+seated on a chair, having in his right hand a book, and in his left a
+sort of casket or box of ointments, representing a physician, spicer, or
+apothecary. 14.&nbsp;The sixth pawn, an innkeeper, receiving a guest.
+15.&nbsp;The seventh pawn, a&nbsp;figure with a yard measure in his
+right hand, a&nbsp;bunch of keys in his left, and an open purse at his
+girdle, representing “customers and tolle gaderers.” 16.&nbsp;The eighth
+pawn, a&nbsp;figure with a sort of badge on his breast near to his right
+shoulder, after the manner of a nobleman’s retainer, and holding a pair
+of dice in his left hand, representing dice-players, messengers, and
+“currours,” that is “couriers.” In old authors the numerous idle
+retainers of the nobility are frequently represented as gamblers,
+swash-bucklers, and tavern-haunters.</p>
+
+<p>Although there are twenty-four impressions in the volume, yet there
+are only sixteen subjects, as described above; the remaining eight being
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page193" id = "page193">
+193</a></span>
+repetitions of the cuts numbered 4, 5, 6, 7, 8&nbsp;and 10, with two
+impressions of the cut No.&nbsp;2, besides that towards the
+commencement.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_193" id = "illus_193">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_193.png" width = "324" height = "284"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The above cut is a reduced copy of the knight, No. 7; and his
+character is thus described: “The knyght ought to be maad al armed upon
+an hors in suche wise that he have an helme on his heed and a spere in
+his right hond, and coverid with his shelde, a&nbsp;swerde and a mace on
+his left syde . clad with an halberke and plates tofore his breste .
+legge harnoys on his legges . spores on his heelis, on hys handes hys
+gauntelettes . hys hors wel broken and taught and apte to bataylle and
+coveryd with hys armes. When the Knyghtes been maad they ben bayned or
+bathed . That is the signe that they sholde lede a newe lyf and newe
+maners . also they wake alle the nyght in prayers and orisons unto god
+that he wil geve hem grace that they may gete that thyng that they may
+not gete by nature. The kyng or prynce gyrdeth a boute them a swerde in
+signe that they shold abyde and kepen hym of whom they taken their
+dispences and dignyte.”</p>
+
+<p>The following cut of the sixth or bishop’s pawn, No. 14, “whiche is
+lykened to taverners and vytayllers,” is thus described in Caxton’s own
+words: “The sixte pawn whiche stondeth before the alphyn on the lyfte
+syde is made in this forme . ffor hit is a man that hath the right hond
+stretched out for to calle men, and holdeth in his left honde a loof of
+breed and a cuppe of wyn . and on his gurdel hangyng a bondel of keyes,
+and this resemblith the taverners hostelers and sellars of vytayl . and
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page194" id = "page194">
+194</a></span>
+these ought properly to be sette to fore the alphyn as to fore a juge,
+for there sourdeth oft tymes amonge hem contencion noyse and stryf,
+which behoveth to be determyned and trayted by the alphyn which is juge
+of the kynge.”</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_194" id = "illus_194">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_194.png" width = "332" height = "274"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The next book containing wood-cuts printed by Caxton is the “Mirrour
+of the World, or thymage of the same,” as he entitles it at the head of
+the table of contents. It is a thin folio consisting of one hundred
+leaves; and, in the Prologue, Caxton informs the reader that it
+“conteyneth in all lxvii chapitres and xxvii figures, without which it
+may not lightly be understāde.” He also says that he translated it from
+the French at the “request, desire, coste, and dispense of the
+honourable and worshipful man Hugh Bryce, alderman cytezeyn of London,”
+who intended to present the same to William, Lord Hastings, chamberlain
+to Edward IV, and lieutenant of the same for the town of Calais and the
+marches there. On the last page he again mentions Hugh Bryce and Lord
+Hastings, and says of his translation: “Whiche book I begun first to
+trāslate the second day of Janyuer the yere of our lord <span class =
+"smallroman">M.</span>cccc.lxxx. And fynysshed the viii day of Marche
+the same yere, and the xxi yere of the reign of the most crysten kynge,
+Kynge Edward the fourthe.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV38" id =
+"tagIV38" href = "#noteIV38">IV.38</a></p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page195" id = "page195">
+195</a></span>
+<p>The “xxvii figures” mentioned by Caxton, without which the work might
+not be easily understood, are chiefly diagrams explanatory of the
+principles of astronomy and dialling; but besides those twenty-seven
+cuts the book contains eleven more, which may be considered as
+illustrative rather than explanatory. The following is a list of those
+eleven cuts in the order in which they occur. They are less than the
+cuts in the “Game of Chess;” the most of them not exceeding three inches
+and a half by three.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV39" id = "tagIV39"
+href = "#noteIV39">IV.39</a></p>
+
+<p>1. A school-master or “doctor,” gowned, and seated on a high-backed
+chair, teaching four youths who are on their knees. 2.&nbsp;A person
+seated on a low-backed chair, holding in his hand a kind of globe;
+astronomical instruments on a table before him. 3.&nbsp;Christ, or the
+Godhead, holding in his hand a ball and cross. 4.&nbsp;The creation of
+Eve, who appears coming out of Adam’s side.&mdash;The next cuts are
+figurative of the “seven arts liberal.” 5.&nbsp;Grammar. A&nbsp;teacher
+with a large birch-rod seated on a chair, his four pupils before him on
+their knees. 6.&nbsp;Logic. Figure bare-headed seated on a chair, and
+having before him a book on a kind of reading-stand, which he appears
+expounding to his pupils who are kneeling. 7.&nbsp;Rhetoric. An upright
+figure in a gown, to whom another, kneeling, presents a paper, from
+which a seal is seen depending. 8.&nbsp;Arithmetic. A&nbsp;figure
+seated, and having before him a tablet inscribed with numerical
+characters. 9.&nbsp;Geometry. A&nbsp;figure standing, with a pair of
+compasses in his hand, with which he seems to be drawing diagrams on a
+table. 10.&nbsp;Music. A&nbsp;female figure with a sheet of music in her
+hand, singing, and a man playing on the English flute.
+11.&nbsp;Astronomy. Figure with a kind of quadrant in his hand, who
+seems to be taking an observation.&mdash;An idea may be formed of the
+manner in which those cuts are engraved from the fac-simile on the next
+page of No.&nbsp;10, “Music.”</p>
+
+<p>There are wood-cuts in the Golden Legend, 1483; the Fables of Esop,
+1484; Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, and other books printed by Caxton; but
+it is unnecessary either to enumerate them or to give specimens, as they
+are all executed in the same rude manner as the cuts in the Book of
+Chess and the Mirror of the World. In the Book of Hunting and Hawking
+printed at St. Albans, 1486, there are rude wood-cuts; as also in a
+second and enlarged edition of the same book printed by Wynkyn de Worde,
+Caxton’s successor, at Westminster in 1496. The most considerable
+wood-cut printed in England previous to 1500 is, so far as regards the
+design, a&nbsp;representation of the Crucifixion at the end of the
+Golden Legend printed by Wynkyn de Worde in
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page196" id = "page196">
+196</a></span>
+1493.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV40" id = "tagIV40" href =
+"#noteIV40">IV.40</a> In this cut, neither of the thieves on each side
+of Christ appears to be nailed to the cross. The arms of the thief on
+the right of Christ hang behind, and are bound to the transverse piece
+of the cross, which passes underneath his shoulders. His feet are
+neither bound nor nailed to the cross. The feet of the thief to the left
+of Christ are tied to the upright piece of the cross, to which his hands
+are also bound, his shoulders resting upon the top, and his face turned
+upward towards the sky. To the left is seen the Virgin,&mdash;who has
+fallen down,&mdash;supported by St. John. In the back-ground to the
+right, the artist, like several others of that period, has represented
+Christ bearing his cross.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_196" id = "illus_196">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_196.png" width = "336" height = "279"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Dr. Dibdin, at page 8 of the “Disquisition on the Early State of
+Engraving and Ornamental Printing in Great Britain,” prefixed to Ames’s
+and Herbert’s Typographical Antiquities, makes the following
+observations on this cut: “The ‘Crucifixion’ at the end of the ‘Golden
+Legend’ of 1493, which Wynkyn de Worde has so frequently subjoined to
+his religious pieces, is, unquestionably, the effort of some ingenious
+foreign artist. It is not very improbable that Rubens had a recollection
+of one of the thieves, twisted, from convulsive agony, round the top of
+the cross, when he executed his celebrated picture of the same
+subject.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV41" id = "tagIV41" href =
+"#noteIV41">IV.41</a>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page197" id = "page197">
+197</a></span>
+In De Worde’s cut, however, it is to be remarked that the contorted
+attitude of both the thieves results rather from the manner in which
+they are bound to the cross, than from the convulsions of agony.</p>
+
+<p>At page 7 of the same Disquisition it is said that the figures in the
+Game of Chess, the Mirror of the World, and other works printed by
+Caxton “are, in all probability, not the genuine productions of this
+country; and may be traced to books of an earlier date printed abroad,
+from which they were often borrowed without acknowledgment or the least
+regard to the work in which they again appeared. Caxton, however, has
+judiciously taken one of the prints from the ‘Biblia Pauperum’ to
+introduce in his ‘Life of Christ.’ The cuts for his second edition of
+‘Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales’ may perhaps safely be considered as the
+genuine invention and execution of a British artist.”</p>
+
+<p>Although I am well aware that the printers of the fifteenth century
+were accustomed to copy without acknowledgment the cuts which appeared
+in each other’s books, and though I think it likely that Caxton might
+occasionally resort to the same practice, yet I am decidedly of opinion
+that the cuts in the “Game of Chess” and the “Mirror of the World” were
+designed and engraved in this country. Caxton’s Game of Chess is
+certainly the first book of the kind which appeared with wood-cuts in
+any country; and I am further of opinion that in no book printed
+previous to 1481 will the presumed originals of the eleven principal
+cuts in the Mirror of the World be found. Before we are required to
+believe that the cuts in those two books were copied from similar
+designs by some foreign artist, we ought to be informed in what work
+such originals are to be found. If there be any merit in a first design,
+however rude, it is but just to assign it to him who first employs the
+unknown artist and makes his productions known. Caxton’s claims to the
+merit of “illustrating” the Game of Chess and the Mirror of the World
+with wood-cuts from original designs, I&nbsp;conceive to be
+indisputable.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Dibdin, in a long note at pages 33, 34, and 35 of the
+Typographical Antiquities, gives a confused account of the earliest
+editions of books on chess. He mentions as the first, a&nbsp;Latin
+edition&mdash;supposed by Santander to be the work of Jacobus de
+Cessolis&mdash;in folio, printed about the year 1473, by Ketelaer and
+Leempt. In this edition, however, there are no cuts, and the date is
+only conjectural. He says that two editions of the work of Jacobus de
+Cessolis on the Morality of Chess, in German and Italian, with
+wood-cuts, were printed, without date, in the fifteenth century, and he
+adds: “Whether Caxton borrowed the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page198" id = "page198">
+198</a></span>
+cuts in his second edition from those in the 8vo. German edition without
+date, or from this latter Italian one, I&nbsp;am not able to ascertain,
+having seen neither.” He seems satisfied that Caxton had <i>borrowed</i>
+the cuts in his book of chess, though he is at a loss to discover the
+party who might have them to <i>lend</i>. Had he even seen the two
+editions which he mentions, he could not have known whether Caxton had
+borrowed his cuts from them or not until he had ascertained that they
+were printed previously to the English edition. There is a German
+edition of Jacobus de Cessolis, in folio, with wood-cuts supposed to be
+printed in 1477, at Augsburg, by Gunther Zainer, but both date and
+printer’s name are conjectural. The first German edition of this work
+with wood-cuts, and having a positive date, I&nbsp;believe to be that
+printed at Strasburg by Henry Knoblochzer in 1483. Until a work on chess
+shall be produced of an earlier date than that ascribed to Caxton’s, and
+containing similar wood-cuts, I&nbsp;shall continue to believe that the
+wood-cuts in the second English edition of the “Game and Playe of the
+Chesse” were both designed and executed by an English artist; and I
+protest against bibliographers going a-begging with wood-cuts found in
+old English books, and ascribing them to foreign artists, before they
+have taken the slightest pains to ascertain whether such cuts were
+executed in England or not.</p>
+
+<p>The wood-cuts in the Game of Chess and the Mirror of the World are
+equally as good as the wood-cuts which are to be found in books printed
+abroad about the same period. They are even decidedly better than those
+in Anthony Sorg’s German Bible, Augsburg, 1480, or those in Veldener’s
+edition of the Fasciculus Temporum, printed at Utrecht in the same
+year.</p>
+
+<p>It has been supposed that most of the wood-cuts which appear in books
+printed by Caxton and De Worde were executed abroad; on the presumption
+that there were at that period no professed wood engravers in England.
+Although I am inclined to believe that within the fifteenth century
+there were no persons in this country who practised wood engraving as a
+distinct profession, yet it by no means follows from such an admission
+that Caxton’s and De Worde’s cuts must have been engraved by foreign
+artists. The manner in which they are executed is so coarse that they
+might be cut by any person who could handle a graver. Looking at them
+merely as specimens of wood engraving, they are not generally superior
+to the practice-blocks cut by a modern wood-engraver’s apprentice within
+the first month of his noviciate. I&nbsp;conceive that there would be no
+greater difficulty in finding a person capable of engraving them than
+there would be in finding the pieces of wood on which they were to be
+executed. Persons who have noticed the embellishments in manuscripts,
+the carving, the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page199" id = "page199">
+199</a></span>
+monuments, and the stained glass in churches, executed in England about
+the time of Caxton, will scarcely suppose that there were no artists in
+this country capable of making the designs for those cuts. There is in
+fact reason to believe that in England in the fifteenth and sixteenth
+centuries the walls of apartments, more especially in taverns and
+hostelries, frequently contained paintings, most probably in distemper,
+of subjects both from sacred and general history. That paintings of
+sacred subjects were not unusual in churches at those periods is well
+known.</p>
+
+<p>In most of the cuts which are to be found in books printed by Caxton,
+the effect is produced by the simplest means. The outline of the figures
+is coarse and hard, and the shades and folds of the draperies are
+indicated by short parallel lines. Cross-hatchings occur in none of
+them, though in one or two I have noticed a few angular dots picked out
+of the black part of a cut in order that it might not appear like a mere
+blot. The foliage of the trees is generally represented in a manner
+similar to those in the background of the cut of the knight, of which a
+copy is given at page 193. The oak leaves in a wood-cut<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagIV42" id = "tagIV42" href = "#noteIV42">IV.42</a> at the
+commencement of the preface to the Golden Legend, 1483, are an exception
+to the general style of Caxton’s foliage; and represent what they are
+intended for with tolerable accuracy. Having thus noticed some of the
+earliest books with wood-engravings printed in England, I&nbsp;shall now
+resume my account of the progress of the art on the Continent.</p>
+
+<p>In an edition of Ptolemy’s Cosmography, printed at Ulm in 1482 by
+Leonard Holl, we have the first instance of maps engraved on wood. The
+work is in folio, and the number of the maps is twenty-seven. In a
+general map of the world the engraver has thus inserted his name at the
+top: “Insculptum est per Johannē Schnitzer de Armssheim.”<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagIV43" id = "tagIV43" href = "#noteIV43">IV.43</a> At
+the corners of this map the winds are represented by heads with
+puffed-out cheeks, very indifferently engraved. The work also contains
+ornamental initial letters engraved on wood. In a large one, the letter
+at the beginning of the volume, the translator is represented offering
+his book to Pope Paul II. who occupied the see of Rome from 1464 to
+1471.</p>
+
+<p>Each map occupies two folio pages, and is printed on the verso of one
+page and the recto of the next, in such a manner that when the book is
+open the adjacent pages seem as if printed from one block. What may be
+considered as the skeleton of each map,&mdash;such as
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page200" id = "page200">
+200</a></span>
+indications of rivers and mountains,&mdash;is coarsely cut; but as the
+names of the places are also engraved on wood, the execution of those
+thirty-seven maps must have been a work of considerable labour. In 1486
+another edition with the same cuts was printed at Ulm by John Regen at
+the cost of Justus de Albano of Venice.</p>
+
+<p>The idea of Leonard Holl’s Ptolemy was most likely suggested by an
+edition of the same work printed at Rome in 1478 by Arnold Bukinck, the
+successor of Conrad Sweinheim. In this edition the maps are printed from
+plates of copper; and from the perfect similarity of the letters, as may
+be observed in the names of places, there can be no doubt of their
+having been stamped upon the plate by means of a punch in a manner
+similar to that in which a bookbinder impresses the titles at the back
+of a volume. It is absolutely impossible that such perfect uniformity in
+the form of the letters could have been obtained, had they been
+separately engraved on the plate by hand. Each single letter is as
+perfectly like another of the same character,&mdash;the capital M for
+instance,&mdash;as types cast by a letter-founder from the same mould.
+The names of the places are all in capitals, but different sizes are
+used for the names of countries and cities. The capitals at the margins
+referring to the degrees of latitude are of very beautiful shape, and as
+delicate as the capitals in modern hair-type.</p>
+
+<p>At the back of some of the maps in the copy in the King’s Library at
+the British Museum, the paper appears as if it had received, when in a
+damp state, an impression from linen cloth. As this appearance of
+threads crossing each other does not proceed from the texture of the
+paper, but is evidently the result of pressure, I&nbsp;am inclined to
+think that it has been occasioned by a piece of linen being placed
+between the paper and the roller when the impressions were taken.</p>
+
+<p>In the dedication of the work to the Pope it is stated that this
+edition was prepared by Domitius Calderinus of Verona, who promised to
+collate the Latin version with an ancient Greek manuscript; and that
+Conrad Sweinheim, who was one of the first who introduced the art of
+printing at Rome, undertook, with the assistance of “certain
+mathematical men,” whom he taught, to “impress” the maps upon plates of
+copper. Sweinheim, after having spent three years in preparing these
+plates, died before they were finished; and Arnold Bukinck,
+a&nbsp;learned German printer, completed the work, “that the emendations
+of Calderinus,&mdash;who also died before the book was
+printed,&mdash;and the results of Sweinheim’s most ingenious mechanical
+contrivances might not be lost to the learned world.”<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagIV44" id = "tagIV44" href = "#noteIV44">IV.44</a></p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page201" id = "page201">
+201</a></span>
+<p>An edition of Ptolemy in folio, with the maps engraved on copper, was
+printed at Bologna by Dominico de Lapis with the erroneous date <span
+class = "smallroman">M.CCCC.LXII.</span> This date is certainly wrong,
+for no work from the press of this printer is known of an earlier date
+than 1477; and the editor of this edition, Philip Beroaldus the elder,
+was only born in 1450, if not in 1453. Supposing him to have been born
+in the former year, he would only be twelve years old in 1462. Raidel,
+who in 1737 published a dissertation on this edition, thinks that two
+numerals&mdash;<span class = "smallroman">XX</span>&mdash;had
+accidentally been omitted, and that the date ought to be 1482. Breitkopf
+thinks that one <span class = "smallroman">X</span> might be
+accidentally omitted in a date and pass uncorrected, but not two. He
+rather thinks that the compositor had placed an <span class =
+"smallroman">I</span> instead of an&nbsp;<span class =
+"smallroman">L</span>, and that the correct date ought to stand thus:
+<span class =
+"smallroman">M&nbsp;CCCC&nbsp;L&nbsp;XLI</span>&mdash;1491. I&nbsp;am
+however of opinion that no instance of the Roman numerals, <span class =
+"smallroman">L&nbsp;XLI</span>, being thus combined to express 91, can
+be produced. It seems most probable that the date 1482 assigned by
+Raidel is correct; although his opinion respecting the
+numerals&mdash;<span class = "smallroman">XX</span>&mdash;being
+accidentally omitted may be wrong. It is extremely difficult to account
+for the erroneous dates of many books printed previous to 1500. Several
+of those dates may have been accidentally wrong set by the compositor,
+and overlooked by the corrector; but others are so obvious that it is
+likely they were designedly introduced. The bibliographer who should
+undertake to enquire what the printers’ reasons might be for falsifying
+the dates of their books, would be as likely to arrive at the truth, as
+he would be in an enquiry into the reason of their sometimes adding
+their name, and sometimes omitting it. The execution of the maps in the
+edition of De Lapis is much inferior to that of the maps begun by
+Sweinheim, and finished by Bukinck in 1478.</p>
+
+<p>Bukinck’s edition of Ptolemy, 1478, is the second book which contains
+impressions from copper-plates. Heineken, at page 233, refers to the
+“Missale Herbipolense,” folio, 1481, as the first book printed in
+Germany containing a specimen of copper-plate engraving. Dr. Dibdin,
+however, in the 3rd volume of his Tour, page 306, mentions the same work
+as having the date of 1479 in the prefatory admonition, and says that
+the plate of a shield of arms&mdash;the only one in the volume&mdash;is
+noticed by Bartsch in his “Peintre-Graveur,” vol. x.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;57.
+The printer
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page202" id = "page202">
+202</a></span>
+of the edition of 1481 appears from Heineken to have been George Reyser.
+In the “Modus Orandi secundum chorum Herbipolensem,” folio, printed by
+George Reyser, “Herbipoli,” [at Wurtzburg,] 1485, there is on folio
+<span class = "smallroman">II.</span> a copper-plate engraving of the
+arms of Rudolph de Scherenberg, bishop of that see. This plate is also
+described by Bartsch in his “Peintre-Graveur,” vol. x.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;156.
+The first book which appeared with copper-plate engravings is intitled
+“Il Monte Sancto di Dio,” written by Antonio Bettini, and printed at
+Florence in 1477 by Nicolo di Lorenzo della Magna. As this book is of
+extreme rarity, I&nbsp;shall here give an account of the plates from
+Mercier, who first called the attention of bibliographers to it as being
+of an earlier date than the folio edition of Dante, with copper-plate
+engravings, printed also by Nicolo Lorenzo in 1481. This edition of
+Dante was generally supposed to be the first book containing
+copper-plate engravings until Bettini’s work was described by
+Mercier.</p>
+
+<p>The work called “Il Monte Sancto di Dio” is in quarto, and according
+to Mercier there ought to be a quire or gathering of four leaves at the
+commencement, containing a summary of the work, which is divided into
+three parts, with a table of the chapters. On the reverse of the last of
+those four leaves is the first plate, which occupies the whole page, and
+“measures nine inches and seven-eighths in height, by seven inches in
+width.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV45" id = "tagIV45" href =
+"#noteIV45">IV.45</a> This plate represents the Holy Mountain, on the
+top of which Christ is seen standing in the midst of adoring angels.
+A&nbsp;ladder is placed against this mountain, to which it is fastened
+with iron chains, and on each step is engraved the name of a virtue, for
+instance, Prudence, Temperance, Fortitude, and others. A&nbsp;figure
+clothed in a long robe, and who appears to be a monk, is seen mounting
+the ladder. His eyes are directed towards a huge crucifix placed half
+way up the hill to the right of the ladder, and from his mouth there
+proceeds a label inscribed with these words: “<i>Tirami doppo
+ti</i>,”&mdash;“Draw me up after thee.” Another figure is seen standing
+at the foot of the mountain, looking towards the top, and uttering these
+words: “<i>Levavi oculos meos in montes</i>,” &amp;c.&nbsp;The second
+plate occurs at signature Iv<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV46" id =
+"tagIV46" href = "#noteIV46">IV.46</a> after the 115th chapter. It also
+represents Christ in his glory, surrounded by angels. It is only four
+inches and five lines high, by six inches wide, French measure. The
+third plate, which is the same size as the second, occurs at signature
+Pvij, and represents a view of Hell according to the description of
+Dante. Those plates, which for the period are well enough designed and
+executed, especially the second, were most likely engraved
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page203" id = "page203">
+203</a></span>
+on copper; and they seem to be by the same hand as those in the edition
+of Dante of 1481, from the press of Nicolo di Lorenzo, who also printed
+the work of Bettini.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV47" id = "tagIV47"
+href = "#noteIV47">IV.47</a> A&nbsp;copy of “Il Monte Sancto di Dio” is
+in Earl Spencer’s Library; and a description and specimens of the cuts
+are given by Dr. Dibdin in the Bibliotheca Spenceriana, vol. iv.
+p.&nbsp;30; and by Mr. Ottley in the Inquiry into the Origin and Early
+History of Engraving, vol. i.&nbsp;pp. 375-377.</p>
+
+<p>In the execution of the maps, the copper-plate engraver possesses a
+decided advantage over the engraver on wood, owing to the greater
+facility and clearness with which letters can be cut <i>in</i> copper
+than <i>on</i> wood. In the engraving of letters on copper, the artist
+cuts the form of the letter <i>into</i> the plate, the character being
+thus in <i>intaglio</i>; while in engraving on a block, the wood
+surrounding has to be cut away, and the letter left in <i>relief</i>. On
+copper, using only the graver,&mdash;for etching was not known in the
+fifteenth century,&mdash;as many letters might be cut in one day as
+could be cut on wood in three. Notwithstanding the disadvantage under
+which the ancient wood engravers laboured in the execution of maps, they
+for many years contended with the copper-plate printers for a share of
+this branch of business; and the printers, at whose presses maps
+engraved on wood only could be printed, were well inclined to support
+the wood engravers. In a folio edition of Ptolemy, printed at Venice in
+1511, by Jacobus Pentius de Leucho, the outlines of the maps, with the
+indications of the mountains and rivers, are cut on wood, and the names
+of the places are printed in type, of different sizes, and with red and
+black ink. For instance, in the map of Britain, which is more correct
+than any which had previously appeared, the word “ALBION” is printed in
+large capitals, and the word “<span class = "smallroman">GADINI</span>”
+in small capitals, and both with red ink. The words “Curia” and
+“Bremenium” are printed in small Roman characters, and with black ink.
+The names of the rivers are also in small Roman, and in black ink. Such
+of those maps as contain many names, are almost full of type. The double
+borders surrounding them, within which the degrees of latitude are
+marked, appear to have been formed of separate pieces of metal, in the
+manner of wide double rules. At the head of several of the maps there
+are figures of animals emblematic of the country. In the first map of
+Africa there are two parrots; in the second an animal like a jackal, and
+a non-descript; in the third, containing Egypt, a&nbsp;crocodile, and a
+monstrous kind of fish like a dragon; and in the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page204" id = "page204">
+204</a></span>
+fourth, two parrots. In the last, the “curious observer” will note a
+specimen of decorative printing from two blocks of wood; for the beak,
+wing, and tail of one of the parrots is printed in red.</p>
+
+<p>In the last map,&mdash;of Loraine,&mdash;in an edition of Ptolemy, in
+folio, printed at Strasburg in 1513, by John Schott, the attempt to
+print in colours, in the manner of chiaro-scuro wood engravings, is
+carried yet further. The hills and woods are printed green; the
+indications of towns and cities, and the names of the most considerable
+places, are red; while the names of the smaller places are black. For
+this map, executed in three colours, green, red, and black, there would
+be required two wood engravings and two forms of type, each of which
+would have to be separately printed. The arms which form a border to the
+map are printed in their proper heraldic colours.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIV48" id = "tagIV48" href = "#noteIV48">IV.48</a> The only other
+specimen of armorial bearings printed in colours from wood-blocks, that
+I am aware of, is Earl Spencer’s arms in the first part of Savage’s
+Hints on Decorative Printing, which was published in 1818, upwards of
+three hundred years after the first essay.</p>
+
+<p>At a later period a new method was adopted by which the wood engraver
+was spared the trouble of cutting the letters, while the printer was
+enabled to obtain a perfect copy of each map by a single impression. The
+mode in which this was effected was as follows. The indications of
+mountains, rivers, cities, and villages were engraved on the wood as
+before, and blank spaces were left for the names. Those spaces were
+afterwards cut out by means of a chisel or drill, piercing quite through
+the block: and the names of the places being inserted in type, the whole
+constituted only one “form,” from which an impression both of the cut
+and the letters could be obtained by its being passed once through the
+press. Sebastian Munster’s Cosmography, folio, printed at Basle in 1554,
+by Henry Petri, affords several examples of maps executed in this
+manner. This may be considered as one of the last efforts of the old
+wood engravers and printers to secure to themselves a share of the
+business of map-engraving. Their endeavours, however, were unavailing;
+for within twenty years of that date, this branch of art was almost
+exclusively in the hands of the copper-plate engravers. From the date of
+the maps of Ortelius, Antwerp, 1570, engraved on copper by Ægidius
+Diest, maps engraved on wood are rarely to be seen. The practice of
+engraving the outlines and rivers on wood, and then piercing the block
+and inserting the names of the places in type has, however, lately been
+revived; and where publishers are obliged either to print maps with the
+type or to
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page205" id = "page205">
+205</a></span>
+give none at all, this mode may answer very well, more especially when
+the object is to give the relative position of a few of the principal
+places, rather than a crowded list of names. Most of the larger maps in
+the Penny Cyclopædia are executed in this manner. The holes in the
+blocks are pierced with the greatest rapidity by gouges of different
+sizes acting vertically, and put in motion by machinery contrived by Mr.
+Edward Cowper, to whose great mechanical skill the art of steam-printing
+chiefly owes its perfection.</p>
+
+<p>Having thus noticed consecutively the progress of map engraving, it
+may not here be out of place to give a brief account of Breitkopf’s
+experiment to print a map with separate pieces of metal in the manner of
+type.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV49" id = "tagIV49" href =
+"#noteIV49">IV.49</a> Previous to 1776 some attempts had been made by a
+person named Preusch, of Carlsruhe, to print maps by a process which he
+named typometric, and who published an account of his plan, printed at
+the press of Haass the Younger, of <ins class = "correction" title =
+"spelling unchanged">Basil</ins>. In 1776 Breitkopf sent a communication
+to Busching’s Journal, containing some remarks on the invention of
+Preusch, and stating that he had conceived a similar plan upwards of
+twenty years previously, and that he had actually set up a specimen and
+printed off a few copies, which he had given to his friends. The
+veracity of this account having been questioned by an illiberal critic,
+Breitkopf, in 1777, prefixed to his Essay on the Printing of Maps a
+specimen composed of moveable pieces of metal in the manner of types. He
+expressly declares that he considered his experiment a failure; and that
+he only produced his specimen&mdash;a quarto map of the country round
+Leipsic&mdash;in testimony of the truth of what he had previously
+asserted, and to show that two persons might, independently of each
+other, conceive an idea of the same invention, although they might
+differ considerably in their mode of carrying it into effect.</p>
+
+<p>He was first led to think on the practicability of printing maps with
+moveable pieces of metal by considering that when the letters are
+omitted there remain but hills, rivers, and the indications of places;
+and for these he was convinced that representations consisting of
+moveable pieces of metal might be contrived. Having, however, made the
+experiment, he felt satisfied that the appearance of such a map was
+unpleasing to the eye, and that the invention was not likely to be
+practically useful. Had it not been for the publication of Preusch, he
+says that he never would have thought of mentioning his invention,
+except as a mechanical experiment; and to show that the execution of
+maps in such a manner was within the compass of the printer’s art.</p>
+
+<p>In the specimen which he gives, rivers are represented by minute
+parallel lines, which are shorter or longer as the river contracts or
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page206" id = "page206">
+206</a></span>
+expands; and the junction of the separate pieces may be distinctly
+perceived. For hills and trees there are distinct characters
+representing those objects. Towns and large villages are distinguished
+by a small church, and small villages by a small circle. Roads are
+indicated by dotted parallel lines. For the title of the map large
+capitals are used. The name of the city of <span class =
+"smallroman">LEIPSIC</span> is in small capitals. The names of towns and
+villages are in <i>Italic</i>; and of woods, rivers, and hills, in Roman
+type. The general appearance of the map is unpleasing to the eye.
+Breitkopf has displayed his ingenuity by producing such a typographic
+curiosity, and his good sense in abandoning his invention when he found
+that he could not render it useful.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Ottley, at page 755 of the second volume of his Inquiry, makes
+the following remarks on the subject of cross-hatching in wood
+engravings:&mdash;“It appears anciently to have been the practice of
+those masters who furnished designs for the wood engravers to work from,
+carefully to avoid all cross-hatchings, which, it is probable, were
+considered beyond the power of the Xylographist to represent. Wolgemuth
+perceived that, though difficult, this was not impossible; and in the
+cuts of the Nuremberg Chronicle, the execution of which, (besides
+furnishing the designs,) he doubtless superintended, a&nbsp;successful
+attempt was first made to imitate the bold hatchings of a pen-drawing,
+crossing each other, as occasion prompted the designer, in various
+directions: to him belongs the praise of having been the first who duly
+appreciated the powers of this art.”</p>
+
+<p>Although it is true that cross-hatchings are not to be found in the
+earliest wood engravings, yet Mr. Ottley is wrong in assigning this
+material improvement in the art to Michael Wolgemuth; for cross-hatching
+is introduced in the beautiful cut forming the frontispiece to the Latin
+edition of Breydenbach’s Travels, folio, first printed at Mentz, by
+Erhard Reuwich, in 1486,<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV50" id = "tagIV50"
+href = "#noteIV50">IV.50</a> seven years before the Nuremberg Chronicle
+appeared. The cut in the following page is a reduced but accurate copy
+of Breydenbach’s frontispiece, which is not only the finest wood
+engraving which had appeared up to that date, 1486, but is in point of
+design and execution as superior to the best cuts in the Nuremberg
+Chronicle, as the designs of Albert Durer are to the cuts in the oldest
+editions of the “Poor Preachers’ Bible.”</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_207" id = "illus_207">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_207.png" width = "336" height = "452"
+alt = "see text" title = "Philippus de bicken miles"></p>
+
+<p>In this cut, cross-hatching may be observed in the drapery of the
+female figure, in the upper part of the two shields on each side of her,
+in the border at the top of the cut, and in other places. Whether the
+female figure be intended as a personification of the city of Mentz, as
+is
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page207" id = "page207">
+207</a></span>
+sometimes seen in old books of the sixteenth century, or for St.
+Catherine, whose shrine on Mount Sinai was visited by Breydenbach in his
+travels, I&nbsp;shall not pretend to determine. The arms on her right
+are Breydenbach’s own; on her left are the arms of John, Count of Solms
+and Lord of Mintzenberg, and at the bottom of the cut those of Philip de
+Bicken, knight, who were Breydenbach’s companions to the holy sepulchre
+at Jerusalem and the shrine of St. Catherine on Mount Sinai. St.
+Catherine, it may be observed, was esteemed the patroness of learned
+men, and her figure was frequently placed in libraries in Catholic
+countries, in the same manner as the bust of Minerva in the libraries of
+ancient Greece and Rome. The name of the artist by whom the frontispiece
+to Breydenbach’s travels was executed is unknown; but I have no
+hesitation in declaring him to be one of the best wood engravers of the
+period. As this is the earliest wood-cut in which I have noticed
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page208" id = "page208">
+208</a></span>
+cross-hatching, I&nbsp;shall venture to ascribe the merit of the
+invention to the unknown artist, whoever he may have been; and shall
+consider the date 1486 as marking the period when a new style of wood
+engraving was introduced. Wolgemuth, as associated with wood engraving,
+has too long been decked out with borrowed plumes; and persons who knew
+little or nothing either of the history or practice of the art, and who
+are misled by writers on whose authority they rely, believe that Michael
+Wolgemuth was not only one of the best wood engravers of his day, but
+that he was the first who introduced a material improvement into the
+practice of the art. This error becomes more firmly rooted when such
+persons come to be informed that he was the master of Albert Durer, who
+is generally, but erroneously, supposed to have been the best wood
+engraver of his day. Albert Durer studied under Michael Wolgemuth as a
+painter, and not as a wood engraver; and I consider it as extremely
+questionable if either of them ever engraved a single block. There are
+many evidences in Germany of Wolgemuth having been a tolerably good
+painter for the age and country in which he lived; but there is not one
+of his having engraved on wood. In the Nuremberg Chronicle he is
+represented as having, in conjunction with William Pleydenwurf,
+superintended the execution of the wood-cuts contained in that book.
+Those cuts, which are frequently referred to as excellent specimens of
+old wood engraving, are in fact the most tasteless and worthless things
+that are to be found in any book, ancient or modern. It is a book,
+however, that is easy to be obtained; and it serves as a land-mark to
+superficial enquirers who are perpetually referring to it as containing
+wood-cuts designed, if not engraved, by Albert Durer’s master,&mdash;and
+such, they conclude, must necessarily possess a very high degree of
+excellence.</p>
+
+<p>Breydenbach was a canon of the cathedral church of Mentz, and he
+dedicates the account of his pilgrimage to the Holy Land and visit to
+Mount Sinai to Berthold, archbishop of that see. The frontispiece,
+although most deserving of attention as a specimen of wood engraving, is
+not the only cut in the book which is worthy of notice. Views are given,
+engraved on wood, of the most remarkable places which he
+visited;&mdash;and those of Venice, Corfu, Modon, and the country round
+Jerusalem, which are of great length, are inserted in the book as
+“folding plates.” Each of the above views is too large to have been
+engraved on one block. For that of Venice, which is about five feet
+long, and ten inches high, several blocks must have been required, from
+each of which impressions would have to be taken singly, and afterwards
+pasted together, as is at present done in such views as are too wide to
+be contained on one sheet. Those views, with respect to the manner in
+which they are executed, are superior to everything of the same kind
+which had previously appeared. The work also contains smaller cuts
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page209" id = "page209">
+209</a></span>
+printed with the type, which are not generally remarkable for their
+execution, although some of them are drawn and engraved in a free and
+spirited manner. The following cut is a reduced copy of that which is
+prefixed to a chapter intitled “De Surianis qui Ierosolimis et locis
+illis manentes etiam se asserunt esse Christianos:”&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_209" id = "illus_209">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_209.png" width = "337" height = "246"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>In a cut of animals there is a figure of a giraffe,<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagIV51" id = "tagIV51" href = "#noteIV51">IV.51</a> named by
+Breydenbach “seraffa,” of a unicorn, a&nbsp;salamander, a&nbsp;camel,
+and an animal something like an oran-outang, except that it has a tail.
+Of the last the traveller observes, “non constat de nomine.” Some
+account of this book, with fac-similes of the cuts, will be found in
+Dibdin’s Bibliotheca Spenceriana, vol iii. pp. 216-228. In the copy
+there described, belonging to Earl Spencer, the beautiful frontispiece
+was wanting.</p>
+
+<p>Although a flowered border surrounding a whole page may be observed
+as occurring twice in Veldener’s edition of the Fasciculus Temporum,
+printed at Utrecht in 1480, yet I am inclined to think that the practice
+of surrounding every page with an ornamental flowered border cut in
+wood, was first introduced by the Parisian printers at a period somewhat
+later. In 1488, an edition of the “Horæ in Laudem beatissimæ virginis
+Mariæ,” in octavo, was printed at Paris by Anthony Verard, the text of
+which is surrounded with ornamental borders. The practice thus
+introduced was subsequently adopted by the printers of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page210" id = "page210">
+210</a></span>
+Germany and Holland, more especially in the decoration of devotional
+works, such as Horæ, Breviaries, and Psalters. Verard appears to have
+chiefly printed works of devotion and love, for a greater number of Horæ
+and Romances proceeded from his press than that of any other printer of
+his age. Most of them contain wood-cuts, some of which, in books printed
+by him about the beginning of the sixteenth century, are designed with
+considerable taste and well engraved; while others, those for instance
+in “La Fleur des Battailes,” 4to, 1505, are not superior to those in
+Caxton’s Chess: it is, however, not unlikely that the cuts in “La Fleur
+des Battailes” of this date had been used for an earlier edition.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagIV52" id = "tagIV52" href =
+"#noteIV52">IV.52</a></p>
+
+<p>The “Hortus Sanitatis,” folio, printed at Mentz in 1491 by Jacobus
+Meydenbach, is frequently referred to by bibliographers; not so much on
+account of the many wood-cuts which it contains, but as being supposed
+in some degree to confirm a statement in Sebastian Munster’s
+Cosmography, and in Serrarius, De Rebus Moguntinis, where a <i>John</i>
+Meydenbach is mentioned as being a partner with Gutemberg and Faust. Von
+Murr, as has been previously noticed, supposed that this person was a
+wood engraver; and Prosper Marchand,<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV53" id
+= "tagIV53" href = "#noteIV53">IV.53</a> though without any authority,
+calls <i>Jacobus</i> Meydenbach his son or his relation.</p>
+
+<p>This work, which is a kind of Natural History, explaining the uses
+and virtues of herbs, fowls, fish, quadrupeds, minerals, drugs, and
+spices, contains a number of wood-cuts, many of which are curious, as
+containing representations of natural objects, but none of which are
+remarkable for their execution as wood engravings. On the opposite page
+is a fac-simile of the cut which forms the head-piece to the chapter “De
+Ovis.” The figure, which possesses considerable merit, represents an old
+woman going to market with her basket of eggs.</p>
+
+<p>This is a fair specimen of the manner in which the cuts in the Hortus
+Sanitatis are designed and executed. Among the most curious and best
+designed are: the interior of an apothecary’s shop, on the reverse of
+the first leaf; a&nbsp;monkey seated on the top of a fountain, in the
+chapter on water; a&nbsp;butcher cutting up meat; a&nbsp;man selling
+cheese at a stall; a&nbsp;woman milking a cow; and figures of the male
+and female mandrake. At chapter 119, “De Pediculo,” a&nbsp;woman is
+represented brushing the head of a boy with a peculiar kind of brush,
+which answers the purpose of a small-toothed comb; and she appears
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page211" id = "page211">
+211</a></span>
+to bestow her labour on no infertile field, for each of her “sweepings,”
+which are seen lying on the floor, would scarcely slip through the teeth
+of a garden rake. Meydenbach’s edition has been supposed to be the
+first; and Linnæus, in the Bibliotheca Botanica, has ascribed the work
+to one John Cuba, a&nbsp;physician of Mentz; but other writers have
+doubted if this person were really the author. The first edition of this
+work, under the title of “Herbarus,” with a hundred and fifty wood-cuts,
+was printed at Mentz by Peter Scheffer in 1484; and in 1485 he printed
+an enlarged edition in German, containing three hundred and eighty cuts,
+under the title of “Ortus Sanitatis oder Garten der Gesundheit.” Of the
+work printed by Scheffer, Breydenbach is said to have been one of the
+compilers. Several editions of the Hortus Sanitatis were subsequently
+printed, not only in Germany, but in <ins class = "correction" title =
+", missing">France,</ins> Holland, and Switzerland.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_211" id = "illus_211">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_211.png" width = "247" height = "311"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Having previously expressed my opinion respecting the wood-cuts in
+the Nuremberg Chronicle, there will be less occasion to give a detailed
+account of the book and the rubbish it contains here: in speaking thus
+it may perhaps be necessary to say that this character is meant to apply
+to the wood-cuts and not to the literary portion of the work, which
+Thomas Hearne, of black-letter memory, pronounces to be extremely
+“pleasant, useful, and curious.” With the wood-cuts the Rev. Dr. Dibdin
+appears to have been equally charmed.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page212" id = "page212">
+212</a></span>
+<p>The work called the “Nuremberg Chronicle” is a folio, compiled by
+Hartman Schedel, a&nbsp;physician of Nuremberg, and printed in that city
+by Anthony Koburger in 1493. In the colophon it is stated that the views
+of cities, and figures of eminent characters, were executed under the
+superintendence of Michael Wolgemuth and William Pleydenwurff,
+“mathematical men”<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV54" id = "tagIV54" href
+= "#noteIV54">IV.54</a> and skilled in the art of painting. The total
+number of impressions contained in the work exceeds two thousand, but
+several of the cuts are repeated eight or ten times. The following
+fac-simile will afford an idea of the style in which the portraits of
+illustrious men contained in this often-cited chronicle are
+executed.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_212" id = "illus_212">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_212.png" width = "209" height = "262"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The above head, which the owner appears to be scratching with so much
+earnestness, first occurs as that of Paris the lover of Helen; and it is
+afterwards repeated as that of Thales, Anastasius, Odofredus, and the
+poet Dante. In a like manner the economical printer has a stock-head for
+kings and emperors; another for popes; a&nbsp;third for bishops;
+a&nbsp;fourth for saints, and so on. Several cuts representing what
+might be supposed to be particular events are in the same manner pressed
+into the general service of the chronicler.</p>
+
+<p>The peculiarity of the cuts in the Nuremberg Chronicle is that they
+generally contain more of what engravers term “colour” than any which
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page213" id = "page213">
+213</a></span>
+had previously appeared. Before proceeding, however, to make any further
+observations on these cuts, I&nbsp;shall endeavour to explain what
+engravers mean by the term “colour,” as applied to an impression taken
+with black ink from a copper-plate or a wood-block.</p>
+
+<p>Though there is no “colour,” strictly speaking, in an engraving
+consisting merely of black and white lines, yet the term is often
+conventionally applied to an engraving which is supposed, from the
+varied character of its lines and the contrast of light and shade, to
+convey the idea of varied local colour as seen in a painting or a
+water-colour drawing. For instance, an engraving is said to contain much
+“colour” which appears clearly to indicate not only a variety of colour,
+but also its different degrees of intensity in the several objects, and
+which at the same time presents an effective combination of light and
+shade. An engraver cannot certainly express the difference between green
+and yellow, or red and orange, yet in engraving a figure, say that of a
+cavalier by Vandyke, with brown leather boots, buff-coloured woollen
+hose, doublet of red silk, and blue velvet cloak, a&nbsp;master of his
+art will not only express a difference in the texture, but will also
+convey an idea of the different parts of the dress being of different
+colours. The Rent Day, engraved by Raimbach from a painting by Wilkie,
+and Chelsea Pensioners hearing the Gazette of the Battle of Waterloo
+read, engraved by Burnet from a picture by the same artist, may be
+instanced as copper-plate engravings which contain much “colour.”</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Landseer, at pages 175, 176, of his Lectures on Engraving, makes
+the following remarks on the term “colour,” as conventionally applied by
+engravers in speaking of impressions from plates or from
+wood-blocks:&mdash;“It is not uncommon among print-publishers, nor even
+amongst engravers themselves, to hear the word <span class =
+"smallroman">COLOUR</span> mistakenly employed to signify <i>shade</i>;
+so that if they think an engraving too dark, they say it has too much
+<i>colour</i>, too little colour if too light&mdash;and so forth. The
+same ignorance which has hitherto reigned over the pursuits of this Art,
+has here imposed its authority, and with the same unfortunate success:
+I&nbsp;cannot however yield to it the same submission, since it is not
+only a palpable misuse of a word, but would lead to endless confusion
+when I come to explain to you my ideas of the means the Art of engraving
+possesses of rendering local colour in the abstract. Wherefore, whenever
+I may use the term <i>colour</i>, I mean it in no other than its
+ordinary acceptation.”</p>
+
+<p>“By <span class = "smallroman">MIDDLE TINT</span>, I understand and
+mean, ‘the medium between strong light and strong shade.’&mdash;These
+are Mr. Gilpin’s words; and he adds, with a propriety that confers value
+on the definition&mdash;‘the phrase is <i>not at all</i> expressive of
+colour.’”</p>
+
+<p>Whether we owe the term “colour,” as applied to engravings, to the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page214" id = "page214">
+214</a></span>
+ignorance of printsellers or not, I&nbsp;shall not inquire; I&nbsp;only
+know that a number of terms equally objectionable, if their primitive
+meaning be considered, are used in speaking of the arts of painting and
+engraving by persons who are certainly not ignorant. We have the words
+<i>high</i> and <i>deep</i>, which strictly relate to objects of lineal
+altitude or profundity, applied to denote intensity of colour; and the
+very word <i>intensity</i>, when thus applied, is only relative; the
+speaker being unable to find a word directly expressive of his meaning,
+explains himself by referring to some object or thing previously known,
+as, in this instance, by reference to the <i>tension</i> of a string or
+cord. The word <i>tone</i>, which is so frequently used in speaking of
+pictures, is derived from the sister art of music. I&nbsp;presume that
+none of these terms were introduced into the nomenclature of painting
+and engraving by ignorant persons, but that they were adopted from a
+necessity originating from the very constitution of the human mind. It
+is well known to every person who has paid any attention to the
+construction of languages, that almost every abstract term is referable
+to, and derived from, the name of some material object. The very word to
+“think,” implying the exercise of our mental faculties, is probably an
+offset from the substantive “thing.”</p>
+
+<p>It is also to be observed, that Mr. Landseer speaks as if the term
+<i>colour</i> was used by ignorant printsellers, and of course ignorant
+engravers, to signify <i>shade</i> only. It is, however, used by them to
+signify that there is a considerable proportion of dark lines and
+hatchings in an engraving, although such lines and hatchings are not
+expressive of shade, but merely indicative of deep colours. Dark brown,
+red, and purple, for instance, even when receiving direct rays of light,
+would naturally contain much conventional “colour” in an engraving; and
+so would a bay horse, a&nbsp;coal barge, or the trunk of an old oak
+tree, when receiving the light in a similar manner; all would be
+represented as comparatively dark, when contrasted with lighter coloured
+objects,&mdash;for instance, with a blue sky, grass, or light green
+foliage,&mdash;although not in shade. An engraving that appears too
+light, compared with the painting from which it is copied, is said to
+want “colour,” and the copper-plate engraver remedies the defect by
+thickening the dark lines, or by adding cross lines and hatchings. As a
+copper-plate engraver can always obtain more “colour,” he generally
+keeps his work light in the first stage of a plate; on the contrary,
+a&nbsp;wood engraver keeps his first proof dark, as he cannot afterwards
+introduce more “colour,” or give to an object a greater depth of shade.
+A&nbsp;wood engraver can make his lines thinner if they be too thick,
+and thus cause his subject to appear lighter; but if he has made them
+too fine at first, and more colour be wanted, it is not in his power to
+remedy the defect.</p>
+
+<p>What Mr. Landseer’s ideas may be of the “means [which] the art
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page215" id = "page215">
+215</a></span>
+of engraving possesses of rendering local colour in the abstract,”
+I&nbsp;cannot very well comprehend. I&nbsp;am aware of the lines used
+conventionally by engravers to indicate heraldic colours in coat-armour;
+but I can see no natural relation between perpendicular lines in an
+engraving and the red colour of a soldier’s coat. I&nbsp;believe that no
+person could tell the colour of the draperies in Leonardo da Vinci’s
+Last Supper from an inspection of Raphael Morghen’s engraving of it.
+When Mr. Landseer says that he will use the term “colour” in its
+“ordinary acceptation,” he ought to have explained what the ordinary
+acceptation of the word meant when applied to impressions from
+copper-plates which consist of nothing but lines and interstices of
+black and white.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_215" id = "illus_215">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_215.png" width = "303" height = "342"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>In the second paragraph Mr. Landseer displays great inconsistency in
+praising Mr. Gilpin for his definition of the word “tint,” which, when
+applied to engravings, is as objectionable as the term “colour.” It
+appears that Mr. Gilpin may employ a conventional term with “singular
+propriety,” while printsellers and engravers who should use the same
+liberty would be charged with ignorance. Is there such a thing as a
+<i>tint</i> in nature which is of no colour? Mr. Gilpin’s lauded
+definition involves a contradiction even when the word is applied to
+engravings, in which every “tint” is indicative of positive colour. That
+“medium
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page216" id = "page216">
+216</a></span>
+between strong light and strong shade,” and which is yet of no colour,
+remains to be discovered. Mr. Gilpin has supplied us with the “word,”
+but it appears that no definite idea is necessary to be attached to it.
+Having thus endeavoured to give a little brightness to the “colour” of
+“ignorant printsellers and engravers,” I&nbsp;shall resume my
+observations on the cuts in the Nuremberg Chronicle, to the “colour” of
+which the preceding digression is to be ascribed.</p>
+
+<p>The preceding cut, representing the Creation of Eve, is copied from
+one of the best in the Nuremberg Chronicle, both with respect to design
+and engraving. In this, compared with most other cuts previously
+executed, much more colour will be perceived, which results from the
+closeness of the single lines, as in the dark parts of the rock
+immediately behind the figure of Eve; from the introduction of dark
+lines crossing each other,&mdash;called “cross-hatching,”&mdash;as may
+be seen in the drapery of the Divinity; and from the contrast of the
+shade thus produced with the lighter parts of the cut.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_216" id = "illus_216">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_216.png" width = "145" height = "265"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The subjoined cut, of the same subject, copied from the Poor
+Preachers’ Bible,<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV55" id = "tagIV55" href =
+"#noteIV55">IV.55</a> will, by comparison with the preceding, illustrate
+more clearly than any verbal explanation the difference with respect to
+colour between the wood-cuts in the old block-books and in most others
+printed between 1462 and 1493, and those contained in the Nuremberg
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page217" id = "page217">
+217</a></span>
+Chronicle. In this cut there is no indication of colour; the shades in
+the drapery which are expressed by hard parallel lines are all of equal
+strength, or rather weakness; and the hair of Adam’s head and the
+foliage of the tree are expressed nearly in the same manner.</p>
+
+<p>This manner of representing the creation of Eve appears to have been
+general amongst the wood engravers of the fifteenth century, for the
+same subject frequently occurs in old cuts executed previous to 1500. It
+is frequently represented in the same manner in illuminated missals; and
+in Flaxman’s Lectures on Sculpture a lithographic print is given, copied
+from an ancient piece of sculpture in Wells Cathedral, where Eve is seen
+thus proceeding from the side of Adam. In a picture by Raffaele the
+creation of Eve is also represented in the same manner.</p>
+
+<p>In the wood-cuts which occur in Italian books printed previous to
+1500 the engravers have seldom attempted anything beyond a simple
+outline with occasionally an indication of shade, or of colour, by means
+of short parallel lines. The following is a fac-simile of a cut in
+Bonsignore’s Italian prose translation of Ovid’s Metamorphoses, folio,
+printed at Venice by the brothers De Lignano in 1497. It may serve at
+once as a specimen of the other cuts contained in the work and of the
+general style of engraving on wood in Italy for about ten years
+preceding that period.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_217" id = "illus_217">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_217.png" width = "330" height = "213"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The subject illustrated is the difficult labour of Alcmena through
+the malign influence of Lucina, as related by Ovid in the <span class =
+"smallroman">IX</span>th book of the Metamorphoses, from verse 295 to
+314. This would appear to have been rather a favourite subject with
+designers, for it is again selected for illustration in Ludovico Dolce’s
+Transformationi, a&nbsp;kind of paraphrase of the Metamorphoses, 4to,
+printed at Venice by Gabriel Giolito in 1557; and it is also represented
+in the illustrations to the Metamorphoses
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page218" id = "page218">
+218</a></span>
+designed by Virgil Solis, and printed at Frankfort, in oblong 4to, by
+George Corvinus and Sigismund Feyrabent, in 1569.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIV56" id = "tagIV56" href = "#noteIV56">IV.56</a></p>
+
+<p>Of all the wood-cuts executed in Italy within the fifteenth century
+there are none that can bear a comparison for elegance of design with
+those contained in an Italian work entitled “Hypnerotomachia Poliphili,”
+a&nbsp;folio without printer’s name or place, but certainly printed at
+Venice by Aldus in 1499. This “Contest between Imagination and Love, by
+a general Lover,”&mdash;for such seems to be the import of the
+title,&mdash;is an obscure medley of fable, history, antiquities,
+mathematics, and various other matters, highly seasoned with erotic
+sketches<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV57" id = "tagIV57" href =
+"#noteIV57">IV.57</a> suggested by the prurient imagination of a
+monk,&mdash;for such the author was,&mdash;who, like many others of his
+fraternity, in all ages, appears to have had “a&nbsp;<i>law</i> not to
+marry, and a <i>custom</i> not to live chaste.” The language in which
+this chaos of absurdities is composed is almost as varied as the
+subjects. The ground-work is Italian, on which the author engrafts at
+will whole phrases of Latin, with a number of words borrowed from the
+Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, and Chaldee. “Certain persons,” says Tiraboschi,
+“who admire a work the more the less they understand it, have fancied
+that they could perceive in the Hypnerotomachia a complete summary of
+human knowledge.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV58" id = "tagIV58" href =
+"#noteIV58">IV.58</a></p>
+
+<p>The name of the author was Francis Colonna, who was born at Venice,
+and at an early age became a monk of the order of St. Dominic. In 1467
+he professed Grammar and Classical Literature in the convent of his
+order at Trevisa; and he afterwards became Professor of Theology at
+Padua, where he commenced Doctor in 1473, a&nbsp;degree which, according
+to the rule of his order, he could not assume until he was forty. At the
+time of his death, which happened in 1527, he could not thus be less
+than ninety-four years old. The true name of this amorous dreaming monk,
+and the fictitious one of the woman with whom he was in love, are thus
+expressed by combining, in the order in which they follow each other,
+the initial letters of the several chapters: “<span class =
+"smallcaps">Poliam Frater Fransiscus Columna peramavit.</span>”<a class
+= "tag" name = "tagIV59" id = "tagIV59" href = "#noteIV59">IV.59</a> If
+any reliance can be placed on
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page219" id = "page219">
+219</a></span>
+the text and the cuts as narrating and representing real incidents, we
+may gather that the stream of love had not run smooth with father
+Francis any more than with simple laymen. With respect to the true name
+of the mistress of father Francis, biographers are not agreed. One says
+that her name was Lucretia Maura; and another that her name was
+Ippolita, and that she belonged to the noble family of Poli, of Trevisa,
+and that she was a nun in that city. From the name Ippolita some authors
+thus derive the fictitious name Polia: Ippolita; Polita; Polia.</p>
+
+<p>A second edition, also from the Aldine press, appeared in 1545; and
+in the following year a French translation was printed at Paris under
+the following title: “Le Tableau des riches inventions couvertes du
+voile des feintes amourouses qui sont representées dans le Songe de
+Poliphile, devoilées des ombres du Songe, et subtilment exposées.” Of
+this translation several editions were published; and in 1804 J.&nbsp;G.
+Legrand, an architect of some repute in Paris, printed a kind of
+paraphrase of the work, in two volumes 12mo, which, however, was not
+published until after his death in 1807. In 1811 Bodoni reprinted the
+original work at Parma in an elegant quarto volume.</p>
+
+<p>In the original work the wood-cuts with respect to design may rank
+among the best that have appeared in Italy. The whole number in the
+volume is one hundred and ninety-two; of which eighty-six relate to
+mythology and ancient history; fifty-four represent processions and
+emblematic figures: there are thirty-six architectural and ornamental
+subjects; and sixteen vases and statues. Several writers have asserted
+that those cuts were designed by Raffaele,<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIV60" id = "tagIV60" href = "#noteIV60">IV.60</a> while others with
+equal confidence, though on no better grounds, have ascribed them to
+Andrea Mantegna. Except from the resemblance which they are supposed to
+bear to the acknowledged works of those artists, I&nbsp;am not aware
+that there is any reason to suppose that they were designed by either of
+them. As Raffaele, who was born in 1483, was only sixteen when the
+Hypnerotomachia was printed, it is not likely that all, or even any of
+<ins class = "correction" title = "text reads ‘hose’">those</ins> cuts
+were designed by him; as it is highly probable that all the drawings
+would be finished at least twelve months before, and many of them
+contain internal evidence of their not being the productions of a youth
+of fifteen. That Andrea Mantegna might design them is possible; but this
+certainly cannot be a sufficient reason for positively asserting that he
+actually did. Mr. Ottley, at page 576, vol. ii, of his Inquiry, asserts
+that they were designed by Benedetto Montagna, an
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page220" id = "page220">
+220</a></span>
+artist who flourished about the year 1500, and who is chiefly known as
+an engraver on copper. The grounds on which Mr. Ottley forms his opinion
+are not very clear, but if I understand him correctly they are as
+follows:</p>
+
+<p>In the collection of the late Mr. Douce there were sixteen wood
+engravings which had been cut out of a folio edition of Ovid’s
+Metamorphoses, printed at Venice in 1509. All those engravings, except
+two, were marked with the letters <span class = "blackletter">ía</span>,
+which according to Mr. Ottley are the initials of the engraver, Ioanne
+Andrea di Vavassori. Between some of the cuts from the Ovid, and certain
+engravings executed by Montagna, it seems that Mr. Ottley discovered a
+resemblance; and as he thought that he perceived a perfect similarity
+between the sixteen cuts from the Ovid and those contained in the
+Hypnerotomachia, he considers that Benedetto Montagna is thus proved to
+have been the designer of the cuts in the latter work.</p>
+
+<p>Not having seen the cuts in the edition of the Metamorphoses of 1509,
+I&nbsp;cannot speak, from my own examination, of the resemblance between
+them and those in the Hypnerotomachia; it, however, seems that Mr. Douce
+had noticed the similarity as well as Mr. Ottley: but even admitting
+that there is a perfect identity of style in the cuts of the above two
+works, yet it by no means follows that, because a few of the cuts in the
+Ovid resemble some copper-plate engravings executed by Benedetto
+Montagna, he must have designed the cuts in the Hypnerotomachia. As the
+cuts in the Ovid may, as Mr. Ottley himself remarks, have been used in
+an earlier edition than that of 1509, it is not unlikely that they might
+appear before Montagna’s copper-plates; and that the latter might copy
+the designs of a greater artist than himself, and thus by his very
+plagiarism acquire, according to Mr. Ottley’s train of reasoning, the
+merit which may be justly due to another. If Benedetto Montagna be
+really the designer of the cuts in the Hypnerotomachia, he has certainly
+excelled himself, for they certainly display talent of a much higher
+order than is to be perceived in his copper-plate engravings. Besides
+the striking difference with respect to drawing between the wood-cuts in
+Poliphilo<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV61" id = "tagIV61" href =
+"#noteIV61">IV.61</a> and the engravings of Benedetto Montagna, two of
+the cuts in the former work have a mark which never appears in any of
+that artist’s known productions, which generally have either his name at
+length or the letters B.&nbsp;M. In the third cut of Poliphilo, the
+designer’s or engraver’s mark, a&nbsp;small b, may be perceived at the
+foot, to the right; and the same mark is repeated in a cut at
+signature&nbsp;C.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page221" id = "page221">
+221</a></span>
+<p>A London bookseller in his catalogue published in 1834, probably
+speaking on Mr. Ottley’s hint that the cuts in the Ovid of 1509 might
+have appeared in an earlier edition, thus describes Bonsignore’s Ovid,
+a&nbsp;work in which the wood-cuts are of a very inferior description,
+and of which a specimen is given in a preceding page: “Ovidii
+Metamorphoseos Vulgare, con le Allegorie, [Venezia, 1497,] with numerous
+beautiful wood-cuts, apparently by the artist who executed the
+Poliphilo, printed by Aldus in 1499.” The wood-cuts in the Ovid of 1497
+are as inferior to those in Poliphilo as the commonest cuts in
+children’s school-books are inferior to the beautiful wood-cuts in
+Rogers’s Pleasures of Memory, printed in 1812, which were designed by
+Stothard and engraved by Clennell. It is but fair to add, that the cuts
+used in the Ovid of 1497, printed by the brothers De Lignano, cannot be
+the same as those in the Ovid of 1509 referred to by Mr. Ottley; for
+though the subjects may be nearly the same, the cuts in the latter
+edition are larger than those in the former, and have besides an
+engraver’s mark which is not to be seen in any of the cuts in the
+edition of 1497.</p>
+
+<p>The five following cuts are fac-similes traced line for line from the
+originals in Poliphilo. In the first, Mercury is seen interfering to
+save Cupid from the anger of Venus, who has been punishing him and
+plucking the feathers from his wings. The cause of her anger is
+explained by the figure of Mars behind the net in which he and Venus had
+been inclosed by Vulcan. Love had been the cause of his mother’s
+misfortune.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page222" id = "page222">
+222</a></span>
+<p>In the following cut Cupid is represented as brought by Mercury
+before Jove, who in the text, “in Athica lingua,” addresses the God of
+Love, as “<span class = "greek" lang = "el" title = "(Greek) SUMOIGLUKUS KAI PIKROS">ΣΥΜΟΙΓΛΥΚΥΣ ΚΑΙ ΠΙΚΡΟΣ</span>”&mdash;“at once sweet and
+bitter.” In the inscription in the cut, “<span class = "greek" lang =
+"el" title = "(Greek) ALLA">ΑΛΛΑ</span>” is substituted for “<span class
+= "greek" lang = "el" title = "(Greek) KAI">ΚΑΙ</span>.”</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<div class = "picblock w200">
+<p><a name = "illus_221" id = "illus_221">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_221.png" width = "168" height = "279"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picblock w200">
+<p><a name = "illus_222a" id = "illus_222a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_222a.png" width = "160" height = "279"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picblock w200">
+<p><a name = "illus_222b" id = "illus_222b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_222b.png" width = "164" height = "279"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the next cut Cupid appears piercing the sky with a dart, and thus
+causing a shower of gold to fall. The figures represent persons of all
+conditions whom he has wounded, looking on with amazement.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page223" id = "page223">
+223</a></span>
+<p>The three preceding cuts, in the original work, appear as
+compartments from left to right on one block. They are here given
+separate for the convenience of printing, as the page is not wide enough
+to allow of their being placed as in the original folio.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_223" id = "illus_223">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_223.png" width = "209" height = "389"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The subjoined cut is intended to represent Autumn, according to a
+description of the figure in the text, where the author is speaking of
+an altar to be erected to the four seasons. On one of the sides he
+proposes that the following figure should be represented “with a jolly
+countenance, crowned with vine leaves, holding in one hand a bunch of
+grapes, and in the other a cornucopia, with an inscription: ‘<span class
+= "smallcaps">Mustulento Autumno S.</span>’”<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIV62" id = "tagIV62" href = "#noteIV62">IV.62</a> The face of jolly
+Autumn is indeed like that of one who loved new wine, and his body seems
+like an ample skin to keep the liquor in;&mdash;Sir John Falstaff
+playing Bacchus ere he had grown old and inordinately fat.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page224" id = "page224">
+224</a></span>
+
+<p class = "figfloat">
+<a name = "illus_224a" id = "illus_224a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_224a.png" width = "82" height = "151"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The following figure of Cupid is copied from the top of a fanciful
+military standard described by the author; and on a kind of banner
+beneath the figure is inscribed the word “<span class = "greek" lang =
+"el" title = "(Greek) DORIKTÊTOI">ΔΟΡΙΚΤΗΤΟΙ</span>”&mdash;“Gained in
+war.”</p>
+
+<p>The following is a specimen of one of the ornamental vases contained
+in the work. It is not, like the five preceding cuts, of the same size
+as the original, but is copied on a reduced scale.</p>
+
+<p class = "figfloat">
+<a name = "illus_224b" id = "illus_224b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_224b.png" width = "97" height = "199"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The simple style in which the cuts in the Hypnerotomachia are
+engraved, continued to prevail, with certain modifications, in Italy for
+many years after the method of cross-hatching became general in Germany;
+and from 1500 to about 1530 the characteristic of most Italian wood-cuts
+is the simple manner in which they are executed compared with the more
+laboured productions of the German wood engravers. While the German
+proceeds with considerable labour to obtain “colour,” or shade, by means
+of cross-hatching, the Italian in the early part of the sixteenth
+century endeavours to attain his object by easier means, such as leaving
+his lines thicker in certain parts, and in others, indicating shade by
+means of short slanting parallel lines. In the execution of flowered or
+ornamented initial letters a decided difference may frequently be
+noticed between the work of an Italian and a German artist. The German
+mostly, with considerable trouble, cuts his flourishes, figures, and
+flowers in relief, according to the general practice of wood engravers;
+the Italian, on the contrary, often cuts them, with much greater ease,
+in <i>intaglio</i>; and thus the form of the letter, and its ornaments,
+appear, when printed, white upon a black ground.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIV63" id = "tagIV63" href = "#noteIV63">IV.63</a> The letter C at
+the commencement of the present chapter is an example of the German
+style, with the ornamental parts in <i>relief</i>; the letter M at the
+commencement of chapter&nbsp;<span class = "smallroman">V.</span> is a
+specimen of the manner frequently adopted by old Italian wood engravers,
+the form of the letter and the ornamental foliage being cut in
+<i>intaglio</i>. At a subsequent period a more elaborate manner of
+engraving began to prevail in Italy, and cross-hatching was almost as
+generally employed to obtain depth of colour and shade as in Germany.
+The wood-cuts which appear in works printed at Venice between 1550 and
+1570 are generally as good as most German wood-cuts of the same period;
+and
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page225" id = "page225">
+225</a></span>
+many of them, more especially those in books printed by the Giolitos,
+are executed with a clearness and delicacy which have seldom been
+surpassed.</p>
+
+<p>Before concluding the present chapter, which is more especially
+devoted to the consideration of wood engraving in the first period of
+its connexion with typography, it may not be improper to take a brief
+glance at the state of the art as practised by the Briefmalers and
+Formschneiders of Germany, who were the first to introduce the practice
+of block-printing, and who continued to exercise this branch of their
+art for many years after typography had been generally established
+throughout Europe. That the ancient wood engravers continued to practise
+the art of block-printing till towards the close of the fifteenth
+century, there can be little doubt. There is an edition of the Poor
+Preachers’ Bible, with the date 1470, printed from wood-blocks, without
+place or engraver’s name, but having at the end, as a mark, two shields,
+on one of which is a squirrel, and on the other something like two
+pilgrim’s staves crossed. Another edition of the same work, though not
+from the same blocks, appeared in 1471. In this the engraver’s mark is
+two shields, on one of which is a spur, probably a rebus for the name of
+“Sporer;” in the same manner that a pair of folding-doors represented
+the name “Thurer,” or “Durer.” An engraver of the name of Hans Sporer
+printed an edition of the Ars Moriendi from wood-blocks in 1473; and in
+the preceding year Young Hans, Briefmaler, of Nuremberg, printed an
+edition of the Antichrist in the same manner.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIV64" id = "tagIV64" href = "#noteIV64">IV.64</a></p>
+
+<p>It is probable that most of the single sheets and short tracts,
+printed from wood-blocks, preserved in the libraries of Germany, were
+printed between 1440 and 1480. Books consisting of two or more sheets
+printed from wood-blocks are of rare occurrence with a date subsequent
+to 1480. Although about that period the wood engravers appear to have
+resigned the printing of books entirely to typographers, yet for several
+years afterwards they continued to print broadsides from blocks of wood;
+and until about 1500 they continued to compete with the press for the
+printing of “Wand-Kalendars,” or sheet Almanacks to be hung up against a
+wall. Several copies of such Almanacks, engraved between 1470 and 1500,
+are preserved in libraries on the Continent that are rich in specimens
+of early block-printing. But even this branch of their business the wood
+engravers were at length obliged to abandon; and at the end of the
+fifteenth century the practice of printing pages of text from engraved
+wood-blocks may be considered as almost extinct in Germany. It probably
+began with a single sheet, and with a
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page226" id = "page226">
+226</a></span>
+single sheet it ended; and its origin, perfection, decline, and
+extinction are comprised within a century. 1430 may mark its origin;
+1450 its perfection; 1460 the commencement of its decline; and 1500 its
+fall.</p>
+
+<p>In an assemblage of wood engravings printed at Gotha between 1808 and
+1816,<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV65" id = "tagIV65" href =
+"#noteIV65">IV.65</a> from old blocks collected by the Baron Von
+Derschau, there are several to which the editor, Zacharias Becker,
+assigns an earlier date than the year 1500. It is not unlikely that two
+or three of those in his oldest class, A, may have been executed
+previous to that period; but there are others in which bad drawing and
+rude engraving have been mistaken for indubitable proofs of antiquity.
+There are also two or three in the same class which I strongly suspect
+to be modern forgeries. It would appear from a circumstance mentioned in
+Dr. Dibdin’s Bibliographical Tour,<a class = "tag" name = "tagIV66" id =
+"tagIV66" href = "#noteIV66">IV.66</a> and referred to at page 236 of
+the present work, that the Baron was a person from whose collection
+copper-plate engravings of questionable date had proceeded as well as
+wood-blocks. The following is a reduced copy of one of those suspicious
+blocks, but which the editor considers to be of an earlier date than the
+St. Christopher in the collection of Earl Spencer. I&nbsp;am however of
+opinion that it is of comparatively modern manufacture.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_226" id = "illus_226">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_226.png" width = "331" height = "232"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The inscription, intended for old German, at the bottom of the cut,
+is literally as follows: “<i>Hiet uch, vor den Katczen dy vorn lecken
+unde
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page227" id = "page227">
+227</a></span>
+hinden kraiczen</i>”&mdash;that is: “Beware of the cats that lick before
+and scratch behind.” It is rather singular that the editor&mdash;who
+describes the subject as a cat which appears to teach her kitten “le Jeu
+de Souris”&mdash;should not have informed his readers that more was
+meant by this inscription than met the eye, and that it was in fact part
+of a German proverb descriptive of a class of females who are
+particularly dangerous to simple young men.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIV67" id = "tagIV67" href = "#noteIV67">IV.67</a> Among the cuts
+supposed to have been engraved previous to the year 1500, another is
+given which I suspect also of being a forgery, and by the same person
+that engraved the cat. The cut alluded to represents a woman sitting
+beside a young man, whose purse she is seen picking while she appears to
+fondle him. A&nbsp;hawk is seen behind the woman, and an ape behind the
+man. At one side is a lily, above which are the words “<span class =
+"blackletter">Ich wart</span>.” At the top of the cut is an
+inscription,&mdash;which seems, like that in the cut of the cat, to be
+in affectedly old German,&mdash;describing the young man as a prey for
+hawks and a fool, and the woman as a flatterer, who will fawn upon him
+until she has emptied his pouch. The subjects of those two cuts, though
+not apparently, are, in reality, connected. In the first we are
+presented with the warning, and in the latter with the example. Von
+Murr&mdash;whom Dr. Dibdin suspects to have forged the French St.
+Christopher&mdash;describes in his Journal impressions from those blocks
+as old wood-cuts in the collection of Dr. Silberrad;<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagIV68" id = "tagIV68" href = "#noteIV68">IV.68</a> and it is
+certainly very singular that the identical blocks from which Dr.
+Silberrad’s scarce old wood engravings were taken should afterwards
+happen to be discovered and come into the possession of the Baron Von
+Derschau.</p>
+
+<p>In the same work there is a rude wood-cut of St. Catharine and three
+other saints; and at the back of the block there is also engraved the
+figure of a soldier. At the bottom of the cut of St. Catharine, the name
+of the engraver, “<span class = "blackletter">Jorg Glockendon</span>,”
+appears in old German characters. As “Glockendon” or “Glockenton” was
+the name of a family of artists who appear to have been settled at
+Nuremberg early in the fifteenth century, Becker concludes that the cut
+in question was engraved prior to 1482, and that this “Jorg Glockendon”
+was “the first wood engraver known by name, and not John Schnitzer of
+Arnsheim,&mdash;who engraved the maps in Leonard Holl’s Ptolemy, printed
+in the above year,&mdash;as Heineken and others pretend.” That the cut
+was engraved previous to 1482 rests merely on Becker’s conjecture; and a
+person who would assert that it was engraved ten or fifteen years later,
+would perhaps be nearer the truth. John Schnitzer, however, is not the
+first wood engraver known by name. The name of Hans Sporer appears in
+the Ars Moriendi of 1473; and it is not probable that Hartlieb’s
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page228" id = "page228">
+228</a></span>
+Chiromantia, in which we find the name “<span class = "blackletter">Jorg
+Schapff zu Augspurg</span>,” was engraved subsequent to 1480. It would
+appear that Becker did not consider “Hans Briefmaler,” who occurs as a
+wood engraver between 1470 and 1480, as a person “known by name,” though
+it is probable that he had no other surname than that which was derived
+from his profession.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_228" id = "illus_228">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_228.png" width = "214" height = "258"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Although Derschau’s collection contains a number of old cuts which
+are well worth preserving, more especially among those executed in the
+sixteenth century; yet it also contains a large portion of worthless
+cuts, which are neither interesting from their subjects nor their
+antiquity, and which throw no light on the progress of the art. There
+are also not a few modern antiques which are only illustrative of the
+credulity of the collector, who mistakes rudeness of execution for a
+certain test of antiquity. According to this test the following cut
+ought to be ascribed to the age of Caxton, and published with a long
+commentary as an undoubted specimen of early English wood engraving. It
+is however nothing more than an impression from a block engraved with a
+pen-knife by a printer’s apprentice between 1770 and 1780. It was one of
+the numerous cuts of a similar kind belonging to the late Mr. George
+Angus of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, who used them as head-pieces to chap-books
+and broadside histories and ballads.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the smaller block-books, almanacks, and broadsides of text,
+executed by wood engravers between 1460 and 1500, they also executed a
+number of single cuts, some accompanied with a few sentences of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page229" id = "page229">
+229</a></span>
+text also cut in wood, and others containing only figures. Many of the
+sacred subjects were probably executed for convents in honour of a
+favourite saint; while others were engraved by them on their own account
+for sale among the poorer classes of the people, who had neither the
+means to purchase, nor the ability to read, a&nbsp;large “picture-book”
+which contained a considerable portion of explanatory text. In almost
+every one of the works executed by the Briefmalers and Formschneiders
+subsequent to the invention of typography, there is scarcely a single
+cut to be found that possesses the least merit either in design or
+execution. They appear generally to have been mere workmen, who could
+draw and engrave figures on wood in a rude style, but who had not the
+slightest pretensions to a knowledge of art.</p>
+
+<p>Having now brought the history of wood engraving to the end of the
+fifteenth century, I&nbsp;shall here conclude the present chapter,
+without expressly noticing such works of Albert Durer as were certainly
+engraved on wood previous to the year 1500. The designs of this great
+promoter of wood engraving mark an epoch in the progress of the art; and
+will, with others of the same school, more appropriately form the
+subject of the next chapter.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_229" id = "illus_229">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_229.png" width = "249" height = "317"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<div class = "footnote">
+
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV1" id = "noteIV1" href = "#tagIV1">IV.1</a>
+By the common press only one side of a sheet can be printed at once. The
+reiteration is the second printing of the same sheet on the blank side.
+Thus in the Psalter of 1457 every sheet containing letters of two
+colours on each side would have to pass six times through the press. It
+was probably in consequence of printing so much in red and black that
+the early printers used to employ so many presses. Melchior de Stamham,
+abbot of St. Ulric and St. Afra at Augsburg, and who established a
+printing-office within that monastery, about 1472, bought five presses
+of John Schüssler; a&nbsp;considerable number for what may be considered
+an amateur establishment. He also had two others made by Sixtus
+Saurloch.&mdash;Zapf, Annales Typographicæ Augustanæ, p.&nbsp;xxiv.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV2" id = "noteIV2" href = "#tagIV2">IV.2</a>
+Heineken in his Nachrichten, T. I. S. 108, also states that Meydenbach
+came from Strasburg with Gutemberg. Oberlin however observes, “Je ne
+sais où de Heinecke a trouvè que ce Meydenbach est venu en 1444 avec
+Gutenberg à Mayence.” Heineken says, “In der Nachricht von Strassburg
+findet man dass ein gewisser Meydenbach 1444 nach Maynz gezogen,” and
+refers to Fournier, p.&nbsp;40. Dissert sur l’Orig. de l’Imprimerie
+primitive.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV3" id = "noteIV3" href = "#tagIV3">IV.3</a>
+An edition of the Hortus Sanitatis with wood-cuts was printed at Mentz,
+by <i>Jacobus Meydenbach</i>, in 1491.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV4" id = "noteIV4" href = "#tagIV4">IV.4</a>
+Idée Générale, p. 286.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV5" id = "noteIV5" href = "#tagIV5">IV.5</a>
+Scheffer previous to his connexion with Faust was a
+“clericus,”&mdash;not a <i>clerk</i> as distinguished from a layman, but
+a writer or scribe. A&nbsp;specimen of his “set-hand,” written <ins
+class = "correction" title = "‘a’ invisible">at</ins> Paris in 1449, is
+given by Schœpflin in his Vindiciæ Typographicæ. Several of the earliest
+printers were writers or illuminators; among whom may be mentioned John
+Mentelin of Strasburg, John Baemler of Augsburg, Ulric Zell of Cologne,
+and Colard Mansion of Bruges.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV6" id = "noteIV6" href = "#tagIV6">IV.6</a>
+This is intimated in the colophon, which, with the contracted words
+written at length, is as follows: “Presens Spalmorum codex venustate
+capitalium decoratus Rubricationibusque sufficienter distinctus.
+Adinventione artificiosa imprimendi ac caracterizandi absque calami ulla
+exaracione sic effigiatus. Et ad eusebiam dei industrie est consummatus.
+Per Johannem Fust, Civem maguntinum. Et Petrum Schoffer de Gernzheim,
+Anno domini Millesimo. cccc. lvii. In vigilia Assumpcionis.” In the
+second edition the mis-spelling, “Spalmorum” for “Psalmorum,” is
+corrected.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV7" id = "noteIV7" href = "#tagIV7">IV.7</a>
+It is to be observed that in Savage’s copy the perpendicular flourishes
+are given horizontally, above and below the letter, in order to save
+room. In a copy of the edition of 1459, in the King’s Library, part of
+the lower flourish has not been inked, as it would have interfered with
+the letter Q at the commencement of the second psalm “<i>Quare
+fremuerunt gentes</i>.” Traces of the flourish where not coloured may be
+observed impressed in the vellum.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV8" id = "noteIV8" href = "#tagIV8">IV.8</a>
+The following passage occurs in the colophon of two works printed by
+John Scheffer at Mentz in 1515 and 1516; the one being the “Trithemii
+Breviarium Historiæ Francorum,” and the other “Breviarium Ecclesiæ
+Mindensis:” “Retinuerunt autem hi duo jam prænominati, <i>Johannes Fust
+et Petrus Scheffer</i>, hanc artem in secreto, (omnibus ministris et
+familiaribus eorum, ne illam quoquo modo manifestarent, jure jurando
+adstrictis :) quæ tandem anno Domini <span class =
+"smallroman">M.CCCC.LXII.</span> per eosdem familiares in diversas
+terrarum provincias divulgata, haud parvum sumpsit incrementum.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV9" id = "noteIV9" href = "#tagIV9">IV.9</a>
+St. Walburg’s day is on the 25th of February; though her feast is also
+held both on the 1st of May and on the 12th of October. The eve of her
+feast on the 1st of May is more particularly celebrated; and it is then
+that the witches and warlocks of Germany hold their annual meeting on
+the Brocken. St. Walburg, though born of royal parents in Saxony, was
+yet educated in England, at the convent of Wimborn in Dorsetshire, of
+which she became afterwards abbess, and where she died in 779.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV10" id = "noteIV10" href = "#tagIV10">IV.10</a>
+A mournful account of the expulsion of the inhabitants and the
+plundering of the city is given by Trithemius at page 30 of his “Res
+Gestæ Frederici Palatini,” published with notes by Marquard Freher, at
+Heidelberg, 4to. 1603.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV11" id = "noteIV11" href = "#tagIV11">IV.11</a>
+Under the title of “Notice d’un Livre imprimé à Bamberg en <span class =
+"smallroman">CIↃCCCCLXII.</span> lue à l’Institut National, par Camus.”
+4to. Paris, An <span class = "smallroman">VII.</span> [1800.]</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV12" id = "noteIV12" href = "#tagIV12">IV.12</a>
+The copy of those fables belonging to the Wolfenbuttel Library, and
+which is the only one known, was taken away by the French and placed in
+the National Library at Paris, but was restored on the surrender of
+Paris in 1815.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV13" id = "noteIV13" href = "#tagIV13">IV.13</a>
+Idée Générale, p. 276. Dr. Dibdin in his Bibliographical Tour says that
+this work “is entitled by Camus the <span class = "smallcaps">Allegory
+of Death</span>.” This is a mistake; for Camus, who objects to this
+title,&mdash;which was given to it by Heineken,&mdash;always refers to
+the book under the title of “Les Plaintes contre la Mort.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV14" id = "noteIV14" href = "#tagIV14">IV.14</a>
+“Outre la lettre initiale, on remarque, dans le cours du chapitre, six
+lettres rouges non imprimées, mais peintes à la plaque, qui commencent
+six phrases diverses. Les lettres initiales des autres phrases du même
+chapitre sont imprimées en noir. Les lettres rouges sont IHESANW.
+Doit-on les assembler dans l’ordre où elles sont placées, ou bien
+doivent-elles recevoir un autre arrangement? Je ne prends pas sur moi de
+le décider.”&mdash;Camus, Notice, p.&nbsp;6.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV15" id = "noteIV15" href = "#tagIV15">IV.15</a>
+Camus calls it a “voiture,” but I question if such a carriage was known
+in 1462; and am inclined to think that he has converted a kind of light
+waggon into a modern “voiture.” A&nbsp;light sort of waggon, called by
+Stow a “Wherlicote,” was used in England by the mother of Richard the
+Second in the manner of a modern coach. I&nbsp;have noticed in an old
+wood-cut a light travelling waggon, drawn by what is called a “unicorn
+team” of three horses; that is, one as a “leader,” and two “wheelers,”
+with the driver riding on the “near side” wheeler. This cut is in the
+Bagford collection in the British Museum, and is one of a series of
+ninety subjects from the Old and New Testament which have been cut out
+of a book. A&nbsp;manuscript note in German states that they are by
+Michael Wolgemuth, and printed in 1491. In no wood-cut executed previous
+to 1500 have I seen a vehicle like a modern French voiture.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV16" id = "noteIV16" href = "#tagIV16">IV.16</a>
+The copy of the Bamberg edition in the Wolfenbuttel Library, seen and
+described by Heineken, Idée Générale, pp. 327-329, contained only
+twenty-six “histories,” or general subjects.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV17" id = "noteIV17" href = "#tagIV17">IV.17</a>
+Gunther Zainer was a native of Reutlingen, in Wirtemberg, and was the
+first printer in Germany who used Roman characters,&mdash;in an edition
+of “Isidori Episcopi Hispalensis Etymologia,” printed by him in 1472. He
+first began to print at Augsburg in 1468. In 1472 he printed a German
+translation of the book entitled “Belial,” with wood-cuts. A&nbsp;Latin
+edition of this book was printed by Schussler in the same year. Von Murr
+says that Schussler printed another edition of “Belial” in 1477; but
+this would seem to be a mistake, for Veith asserts in his “Diatribe de
+Origine et Incrementis Artis Typographicæ in urbe Augusta Vindelica,”
+prefixed to Zapf’s “Annales,” that Schussler only printed in the years
+1470, 1471, and 1472.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV18" id = "noteIV18" href = "#tagIV18">IV.18</a>
+Von Murr, Journal, 2 Theil, S. 144.&mdash;Zapf, Buchdruckergeschichte
+von Augsburg, 1&nbsp;Band.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV19" id = "noteIV19" href = "#tagIV19">IV.19</a>
+Lichtenberger, in his Initia Typographica, referring to Sprenger’s
+History of Printing at Bamberg, says that, besides those four, five
+other tracts are printed with Pfister’s types, of which three contain
+wood-cuts. One of those three, however, a&nbsp;“Poor Preachers’ Bible,”
+with the text in Latin, has the same cuts as the “Poor Preachers’ Bible”
+with the text in German. Only one of those other five works contains the
+place and date.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV20" id = "noteIV20" href = "#tagIV20">IV.20</a>
+De Antiquissima Latinorum Bibliorum editione . . . . Jo. Georgii
+Schelhorn Diatribe. Ulmæ, 4to. 1760.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV21" id = "noteIV21" href = "#tagIV21">IV.21</a>
+Dr. Dibdin says that a copy of this Bible, which formerly belonged to
+the Earl of Oxford, and is now in the Royal Library at Paris, contains
+“an undoubted coeval MS. date, in red ink, of 1461.”&mdash;Bibliog.
+Tour, vol. ii p.&nbsp;108. Second edition.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV22" id = "noteIV22" href = "#tagIV22">IV.22</a>
+“Libripagus est artifex sculpens subtiliter in laminibus æreis, ferreis,
+ac ligneis solidi ligni, atque aliis, imagines, scripturam et omne
+quodlibet, ut prius imprimat papyro aut parieti aut asseri mundo.
+Scindit omne quod cupit, et est homo faciens talia cum picturis; et
+tempore mei Bambergæ quidam sculpsit integram bibliam super lamellas, et
+in quatuor septimanis totam bibliam in pergameno subtili præsignavit
+sculpturam.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV23" id = "noteIV23" href = "#tagIV23">IV.23</a>
+In 1793, a learned doctor of divinity of Cambridge is said in a like
+manner to have broken Priscian’s head with “<i>paginibus</i>.” An
+epigram on this “blunder<i>bus</i>” is to be found in the “Gradus ad
+Cantabrigiam.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV24" id = "noteIV24" href = "#tagIV24">IV.24</a>
+Lichtenberger, Initia Typographica, p. 51.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV25" id = "noteIV25" href = "#tagIV25">IV.25</a>
+“Opuscula quæ typis mandavit typographus hic, hactenus ignotus, ad
+litteraturam Teutonicam pertinent. Imprimis Pfisterum hunc Bambergæ
+fixam habuisse sedem vix crediderim. Videntur potius hi libri Teutonici
+monumenta transeuntis typographi.”&mdash;Annal. Typogr. tom.
+i.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;142, cited by Camus.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV26" id = "noteIV26" href = "#tagIV26">IV.26</a>
+Breitkopf, Ueber Bibliographie, S. 25. 4to. Leipzig, 1793.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV27" id = "noteIV27" href = "#tagIV27">IV.27</a>
+The following is the title at length as it is printed, in red letters,
+underneath the first cut: “Meditationes Reverē dissimi patris dñi
+Johannis de turre cremata sacros͞ce Romane eccl’ie cardinalis posite
+&amp; depicte de ipsius mādato ī eccl’ie ambitu Marie de Minerva. Rome.”
+The book is described in Von Murr’s Memorabilia Bibliothecar. Publicar.
+Norimbergensium and in Dibdin’s Ædes Althorpianæ, vol. ii. p.&nbsp;273,
+with specimens of the cuts.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV28" id = "noteIV28" href = "#tagIV28">IV.28</a>
+The following is a copy of the colophon: “Johannes ex verona oriundus:
+Nicolai cyrurgie medici filius: Artis impressorie magister: hunc de re
+militari librum elegantissimum: litteris et figuratis signis sua in
+patria primus impressit. An. <span class =
+"smallroman">MCCCCLXXII.</span>”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV29" id = "noteIV29" href = "#tagIV29">IV.29</a>
+“Valturius speaks of Pasti in one of his letters as being eminently
+skilful in the arts of Painting, Sculpture, and
+Engraving.”&mdash;Ottley, Inquiry, p.&nbsp;257.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV30" id = "noteIV30" href = "#tagIV30">IV.30</a>
+“Inventum est quoque alterum machinæ hujusce tuum Sigismonde Panpulfe
+[Malatesta]: qua pilæ æneæ tormentarii pulveris plenæ cum fungi aridi
+fomite urientis emittuntur.”&mdash;We hence learn that the first
+bomb-shells were made of copper, and that the fuzee was a piece of a
+dried fungus. As the first edition has neither numerals nor signatures,
+I&nbsp;cannot refer to the page in which the above passage is to be
+found. It is, however, opposite to the cut in which the bomb-shell
+appears, and that is about the middle of the volume.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV31" id = "noteIV31" href = "#tagIV31">IV.31</a>
+“Robert Valturio published at Verona, in 1483, his twelve books de Re
+Militari, in which he first mentions the use of bombs. By his patron
+Sigismond Malatesti, Prince of Rimini, it had been addressed with a
+Latin epistle to Mahomet II.”&mdash;Decline and Fall of the Roman
+Empire, chap. lxviii., note.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV32" id = "noteIV32" href = "#tagIV32">IV.32</a>
+Von Murr says that the person who engraved the cuts for this book also
+engraved the cuts in a German edition of the Speculum without date, but
+printed at Augsburg, and dedicated to John [von Giltingen] abbot of the
+monastery of St. Ulric and St. Afra, who was chosen to that office in
+1482. Heineken supposed that the person to whom the book was dedicated
+was John von Hohenstein, but he resigned the office of abbot in 1459;
+and the book was certainly not printed at that period.&mdash;See
+Heineken, Idée Gén. p.&nbsp;466; and Von Murr, Journal, 2&nbsp;Theil,
+S.&nbsp;145.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV33" id = "noteIV33" href = "#tagIV33">IV.33</a>
+L. A. Gebhard, Genealogische Geschichte, 1 Theil, Vorrede, S.&nbsp;11.
+Cited by Veith in his “Diatribe,” prefixed to Zapf’s “Annales
+Typographiæ Augustanæ.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV34" id = "noteIV34" href = "#tagIV34">IV.34</a>
+The following colophon to an edition of Appian informs us that his
+partners were Bernard the painter and Peter Loslein, who also acted as
+corrector of the press: “Impressum est hoc opus Venetiis per Bernardū
+pictorem &amp; Erhardum ratdolt de Augusta una cum Petro Loslein de
+Langenzen correctore ac socio. Laus Deo. <span class =
+"smallroman">MCCCCLXXVII.</span>”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV35" id = "noteIV35" href = "#tagIV35">IV.35</a>
+Veldener at the conclusion of a book printed by him in 1476, containing
+“<i>Epistolares quasdam formulas</i>,” thus informs the reader of his
+name and qualifications: “Accipito huic artifici nomen esse magistro
+Johanni Veldener, cui quidem certa manu insculpendi, celandi,
+intorculandi, caracterandi adsit industria; adde et figurandi et
+effigiendi.” That is, his name was John Veldener; he could engrave,
+could work both at press and case, and moreover he knew something of
+sculpture, and could paint a little.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV36" id = "noteIV36" href = "#tagIV36">IV.36</a>
+Heineken, Idée Gén. p. 207, erroneously states that the first book with
+wood-cuts printed in England was the Golden Legend, by Caxton, in 1483.
+It is probable that the second edition of the Game of Chess preceded it
+by seven years, and it certainly was printed after the Mirror of the
+World.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV37" id = "noteIV37" href = "#tagIV37">IV.37</a>
+The following are some of the names as they are written: “S&nbsp;gilbert
+talbott . S John cheiny . S williā stoner . Theis iij wer made byfore
+the bataile, and after the bataile were made the same day :
+S<sup>r.</sup> John of Arundell . Thomas Cooksey . John forteskew .
+Edmond benyngfeld . james blount . ric . of Croffte . Geofrey Stanley .
+ric . delaber . John mortymer . williā troutbeke.” The above appear to
+have been created <i>Bannerets</i>, for after them follows a list of
+“<i>Knyghtes</i> made at the same bataile.” It is likely that the owner
+of the volume was at the battle, and that the names were written
+immediately after.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV38" id = "noteIV38" href = "#tagIV38">IV.38</a>
+Edward IV. began to reign 4th March 1461; the twenty-first year of his
+reign would consequently commence on 4th March 1481; Caxton’s dates
+therefore do not agree, unless we suppose that he reckoned the
+commencement of the year from 21st March. If so, his date viii March
+1480, and the xxi year of the reign of Edward IV. would agree; and the
+year of Christ, according to our present mode of reckoning, would be
+1481. Dr. Dibdin assigns to the Mirror the date 1481.&mdash;Typ. Ant.
+i.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;100.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV39" id = "noteIV39" href = "#tagIV39">IV.39</a>
+Fac-similes of six of those cuts are given in Dr. Dibdin’s edition of
+Ames’s Typographical Antiquities, vol. i.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;110-112.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV40" id = "noteIV40" href = "#tagIV40">IV.40</a>
+A large flowered letter, a T, cut on wood, occurs on the same page as
+the Crucifixion.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV41" id = "noteIV41" href = "#tagIV41">IV.41</a>
+In a note upon this passage Dr. Dibdin gives the following extract from
+Sir Joshua Reynolds. “To give animation to this subject, Rubens has
+chosen the point of time when an executioner is piercing the side of
+Christ, while another with a bar of iron is breaking the limbs of one of
+the malefactors, who in his convulsive agony, which his body admirably
+expresses, has torn one of his feet from the tree to which it was
+nailed. The expression in the action of the figure is wonderful.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV42" id = "noteIV42" href = "#tagIV42">IV.42</a>
+A copy of this cut is given at p. 186, vol. i.&nbsp;of Dr. Dibdin’s
+edition of the Typographical Antiquities.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV43" id = "noteIV43" href = "#tagIV43">IV.43</a>
+Arnsheim, which is probably the place intended, is about twenty miles to
+the south-west of Mentz.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV44" id = "noteIV44" href = "#tagIV44">IV.44</a>
+“Magister vero Conradus Suueynheyn, Germanus, a&nbsp;quo formandorum
+Romæ librorum ars primum profecta est, occasione hinc sumpta posteritati
+consulens animum ad hanc doctrinam capessendam applicuit. Subinde
+mathematicis adhibitis viris quemadmodum tabulis eneis imprimerentur
+edocuit, triennioque in hac cura consumpto diem obiit. In cujus
+vigilarum laborumque partem non inferiori ingenio ac studio Arnoldus
+Buckinck e Germania vir apprime eruditus ad imperfectum opus succedens,
+ne Domitii Conradique obitu eorum vigiliæ emendationesque sine
+testimonio perirent neve virorum eruditorum censuram fugerent immensæ
+subtilitatis machinimenta, examussim ad unum perfecit.”&mdash;Dedication
+to the Pope, of Ptolemy’s Cosmography, Rome, 1478.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV45" id = "noteIV45" href = "#tagIV45">IV.45</a>
+This is Mr. Ottley’s measurement, taken within the black line which
+bounds the subject. The width as given by Mercier does not accord with
+the above. He says that the plate “a&nbsp;neuf pouces et demi de haut
+sur six de large.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV46" id = "noteIV46" href = "#tagIV46">IV.46</a>
+Mr. Ottley says, “on the reverse of signature N viij.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV47" id = "noteIV47" href = "#tagIV47">IV.47</a>
+“Lettres de M. l’Abbé de St. L***, [St. Léger, autrefois le pere Le
+Mercier, ancien Bibliothecaire de St. Genevieve] à&nbsp;M.&nbsp;le Baron
+de H*** sur différentes Editions rares du XV<sup>e</sup>. Siécle,”
+p.&nbsp;4-5. 8vo. Paris, 1783. A&nbsp;short biographic sketch of the
+Abbé Mercier St. Léger, one of the most eminent French Bibliographers of
+the last century, will be found in Dr. Dibdin’s Tour, vol. ii.
+p.&nbsp;180.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV48" id = "noteIV48" href = "#tagIV48">IV.48</a>
+I regret that I have not had an opportunity of personally examining this
+map. There is a copy of Schott’s edition in the British Museum; but all
+the maps, except one of the sphere, are taken out. The above account of
+the map of Loraine is from Breitkopf’s interesting essay “Ueber den
+Druck der Geographischen Charten,” S.&nbsp;7. 4to. Leipzig, 1777.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV49" id = "noteIV49" href = "#tagIV49">IV.49</a>
+The following particulars respecting Breitkopf’s invention are derived
+from his essay “Ueber den Druck der Geographischen Charten,” previously
+referred to.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV50" id = "noteIV50" href = "#tagIV50">IV.50</a>
+An edition of this work in German, with the same cuts, was printed by
+Reuwich in 1488. Within ten years, at least six different editions of
+this work were printed in Germany. It was also translated into Low
+Dutch, and printed in Holland.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV51" id = "noteIV51" href = "#tagIV51">IV.51</a>
+This is probably the first figure of the giraffe that was communicated
+to the “reading public” of Europe. Its existence was afterwards denied
+by several naturalists; and it is only within a comparatively recent
+period that the existence of such an animal was clearly established.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV52" id = "noteIV52" href = "#tagIV52">IV.52</a>
+A good specimen of early French wood engraving may be seen in the large
+cut forming a kind of frontispiece to the “Roman du Roy Artus,” folio,
+printed at Rouen in 1488 by Jehan de Bourgeois. This cut, which occupies
+the whole page, represents King Arthur and his knights dining off the
+round table. A&nbsp;smaller one occurs at the beginning of the second
+part, and both are surrounded by ornamental borders.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV53" id = "noteIV53" href = "#tagIV53">IV.53</a>
+Hist. de l’Imprimerie, p. 49.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV54" id = "noteIV54" href = "#tagIV54">IV.54</a>
+The expression “adhibitis tamen viris mathematicis” in the Nuremberg
+Chronicle, is evidently borrowed from that,&mdash;“subinde mathematicis
+adhibitis viris,”&mdash;in the dedication of Bukinck’s Ptolemy, 1478, to
+the Pope. “Mathematical men,” in the present sense of the term, might be
+required to construct the maps in the edition of Ptolemy, but scarcely
+to design or engrave the vulgar figures and worthless views in the
+Nuremberg Chronicle.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV55" id = "noteIV55" href = "#tagIV55">IV.55</a>
+In the original, this cut, with one of Christ’s side pierced by a
+soldier, and another of Moses striking the rock, are intended to
+illustrate the mystery of the Sacrament of the Lord’s Supper.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV56" id = "noteIV56" href = "#tagIV56">IV.56</a>
+Mr. Ottley in speaking of an edition of the Metamorphoses printed at
+Venice in 1509, with wood-cuts, mentions one of them as representing the
+“Birth of Hercules,” which is probably treated in a manner similar to
+those above noticed. Mr. Ottley also states that he had discovered the
+artist to be Benedetto Montagna, who also engraved on
+copper.&mdash;Inquiry, vol. ii p.&nbsp;576.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV57" id = "noteIV57" href = "#tagIV57">IV.57</a>
+Bibliographers and booksellers in their catalogues specify with delight
+such copies as contain “la figura rappresentante il Sacrifizio à Priapo
+bene conservata,” for in some copies this choice subject is wanting, and
+in others partially defaced.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV58" id = "noteIV58" href = "#tagIV58">IV.58</a>
+Some account of the Hypnerotomachia and its author is to be found in
+Prosper Marchand’s Dictionnaire Historique.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV59" id = "noteIV59" href = "#tagIV59">IV.59</a>
+In the life of Colonna in the Biographie Universelle, the last word is
+said to be “<i>adamavit</i>,” which is a mistake. The word formed by the
+initial letters of the nine last chapters is “<i>peramavit</i>,” as
+above.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV60" id = "noteIV60" href = "#tagIV60">IV.60</a>
+Heineken, in his catalogue of Raffaele’s works, mentions the cuts in the
+Hypnerotomachia, but he says that it is questionable whether he designed
+them all or only the eighty-six mythological and historical
+subjects.&mdash;Nachrichten von Künstlern und Kunst-Sachen, 2er Theil,
+S.&nbsp;360. 8vo. Leipzig, 1769.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV61" id = "noteIV61" href = "#tagIV61">IV.61</a>
+The author thus names his hero in his Italian title: “<i>Poliphilo</i>
+incomincia la sua hypnerotomachia ad descrivere et l’hora et il tempo
+quando gli appar ve in somno, &amp;c.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV62" id = "noteIV62" href = "#tagIV62">IV.62</a>
+The epithets applied to the different seasons as represented on this
+votive altar are singularly beautiful and appropriate: “Florido Veri;
+Flavæ Messi; Mustulento Autumno; Hyemi Æoliæ, Sacrum.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV63" id = "noteIV63" href = "#tagIV63">IV.63</a>
+The letter M at the commencement of the next chapter affords an example
+of this style of engraving.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV64" id = "noteIV64" href = "#tagIV64">IV.64</a>
+Von Murr says that “Young Hans” was unquestionably the son of “Hans
+Formschneider,” whose name appears in the town-books of Nuremberg from
+1449 to 1490. He also thinks that he might be the same person as Hans
+Sporer.&mdash;Journal, 2&nbsp;Theil, S.&nbsp;140, 141.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV65" id = "noteIV65" href = "#tagIV65">IV.65</a>
+The title of this work is: “Holzschnitte alter Deutscher Meister in den
+Original-Platten gesammelt von Hans Albrecht Von Derschau. Als ein
+Beytrag zur Kunstgeschichte herausgegeben, und mit einer Abhandlung über
+die Holzschneidekunst begleitet, von Rudolph Zacharias Becker.” It is in
+large folio, with the text in German and French. The first part was
+published at Gotha in 1808; the second in 1810; and the third in
+1816.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV66" id = "noteIV66" href = "#tagIV66">IV.66</a>
+Vol. iii. p. 445, edit. 1829.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV67" id = "noteIV67" href = "#tagIV67">IV.67</a>
+“<span class = "blackletter">Huren sind böse katzen die vornen lecken
+und hinten kratzen.</span>”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIV68" id = "noteIV68" href = "#tagIV68">IV.68</a>
+Journal zur Kunstgeschichte, 2er Theil, S. 125, 126.</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "correction">
+<h5>Errors in Chapter IV</h5>
+
+<p><span class = "citation">
+printed at the press of Haass the Younger, of Basil</span><br>
+<i>spelling unchanged</i></p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+not only in Germany, but in France, Holland, and Switzerland</span><br>
+France Holland,</p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+or even any of those cuts were designed by him</span><br>
+hose cuts</p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+“ΣΥΜΟΙΓΛΥΚΥΣ ΚΑΙ ΠΙΚΡΟΣ”&mdash;“at once sweet and bitter.”</span><br>
+<i>printed as shown, matching the illustration; the quotation is usually
+given as</i> ΣΥΜΟΙ ΓΛΥΚΥΣ ΤΕ ΚΑΙ ΠΙΚΡΟΣ</p>
+
+<p>Footnote IV.5</p>
+<p class = "continue">
+<span class = "citation">written at Paris in 1449</span><br>
+<i>a in “at” invisible</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page230" id = "page230">
+230</a></span>
+
+<h3><a name = "chap_V" id = "chap_V">CHAPTER V.</a><br>
+<span class = "subhead">WOOD ENGRAVING IN THE TIME OF ALBERT
+DURER.</span></h3>
+
+<p class = "synopsis">
+Chiaro-scuro engraving on wood&mdash;a copper-plate by mair mistaken for
+the first chiaro-scuro&mdash;dotted backgrounds in old
+wood-cuts&mdash;albert durer probably not a wood-engraver&mdash;his
+birth&mdash;a pupil of michael wolgemuth&mdash;his travels&mdash;cuts of
+the apocalypse designed by him&mdash;his visit to venice in
+1506&mdash;the history of the virgin and christ’s passion engraved on
+wood from his designs&mdash;his triumphal car and triumphal arch of the
+emperor maximilian&mdash;his invention of etching&mdash;his
+carving&mdash;visit to the netherlands&mdash;his death&mdash;wood-cuts
+designed by l.&nbsp;cranach, h.&nbsp;burgmair, and
+h.&nbsp;schæfflein&mdash;the adventures of sir theurdank&mdash;the wise
+king&mdash;the triumphs of maximilian&mdash;ugo da carpi&mdash;lucas van
+leyden&mdash;william de figuersnider&mdash;ursgraff&mdash;cuts designed
+by unknown artists between 1500 and 1528.</p>
+
+<div class = "maintext">
+
+<p class = "first"><span class = "firstword"><span class = "dropcap">
+<a name = "illus_230" id = "illus_230">
+<img src = "images/illus_230.png" width = "181" height = "192"
+alt = "M"></a></span>ost</span>
+authors who have written on the history of engraving have incidentally
+noticed the art of chiaro-scuro engraving on wood, which began to be
+practised early in the sixteenth century.<a class = "tag" name = "tagV1"
+id = "tagV1" href = "#noteV1">V.1</a> The honour of the invention has
+been claimed for Italy by Vasari and other Italian writers, who seem to
+think that no improvement in the arts of design and engraving can
+originate on this side of the Alps. According to their account,
+chiaro-scuro engraving on wood was first introduced by Ugo da Carpi, who
+executed several pieces in that manner from the designs of Raffaele.
+But, though confident in their assertions, they are weak in their
+proofs; for they can produce no chiaro-scuros by Ugo da Carpi, or by any
+other Italian engraver, of an earlier date than 1518. The engravings of
+Italian artists in this style
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page231" id = "page231">
+231</a></span>
+are not numerous, previous to 1530, and we can scarcely suppose that the
+earliest of them was executed before 1515. That the art was known and
+practised in Germany several years before this period there can be no
+doubt; for a chiaro-scuro wood engraving, a&nbsp;Repose in Egypt, by
+Lucas Cranach, is dated 1509; two others by Hans Baldung Grün are dated
+1509 and 1510; and a portrait, in the same style, by Hans Burgmair, is
+dated 1512.</p>
+
+<p>Some German writers, not satisfied with these proofs of the art being
+practised in Germany before it was known in Italy, refer to an
+engraving, dated 1499, by a German artist of the name of Mair, as one of
+the earliest executed in this manner. This engraving, which is from a
+copper-plate, cannot fairly be produced as evidence on the point in
+dispute; for though it bears the appearance of a chiaro-scuro engraving,
+yet it is not so in reality; for on a narrow inspection we may perceive
+that the light touches have neither been preserved, nor afterwards
+communicated by means of a block or a plate, but have been added with a
+fine pencil after the impression was taken. It is, in fact, nothing more
+than a copper-plate printed on dark-coloured paper, and afterwards
+heightened with a kind of white and yellow body-colour. It is very
+likely, however, that the subject was engraved and printed on a dark
+ground with the express intention of the lights being subsequently added
+by means of a pencil. The artist had questionless wished to produce an
+imitation of a chiaro-scuro drawing; but he certainly did not effect his
+purpose in the same manner as L.&nbsp;Cranach, H.&nbsp;Burgmair, or Ugo
+da Carpi, whose chiaro-scuro engravings had the lights preserved, and
+required no subsequent touching with the pencil to give to them that
+character.</p>
+
+<p>The subject of this engraving is the Nativity, and there is an
+impression of it in the Print Room of the British Museum.<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagV2" id = "tagV2" href = "#noteV2">V.2</a> In the
+foreground, about the middle of the print, is the Virgin seated with the
+infant Jesus in her lap. At her feet is a cradle of wicker-work, and to
+the left is an angel kneeling in adoration. On the same side, but
+further distant, is Joseph leaning over a half door, holding a candle in
+one hand and shading it with the other. In the background is the stable,
+in which an ox and an ass are seen; and the directing star appears
+shining in the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page232" id = "page232">
+232</a></span>
+sky. The print is eight inches high, and five inches and three-eighths
+wide; at the top is the date 1499, and at the bottom the engraver’s
+name, <span class = "smallcaps">Mair</span>. It is printed in black ink
+on paper which previous to receiving the impression had been tinted or
+stained a brownish-green colour. The lights have neither been preserved
+in the plate nor communicated by means of a second impression, but have
+been laid on by the hand with a fine pencil. The rays of the star, and
+the circles of light surrounding the head of the Virgin, and also that
+of the infant, are of a pale yellow, and the colour from its chalky
+appearance seems very like the touches of a crayon. The lights in the
+draperies and in the architectural parts of the subject have been laid
+on with a fine pencil guided by a steady hand. That the engraver
+intended his work to be finished in this manner there can be little
+doubt; and the impression referred to affords a proof of it; for
+Joseph’s candle, though he shades it with his left hand, in reality
+gives no light. The engraver had evidently intended that the light
+should be added in positive body colour; but the person&mdash;perhaps
+the engraver himself&mdash;whose business it was to add the finishing
+touches to the impression, has neglected to light Joseph’s candle.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagV3" id = "tagV3" href = "#noteV3">V.3</a></p>
+
+<p>Towards the latter end of the fifteenth century,<a class = "tag" name
+= "tagV4" id = "tagV4" href = "#noteV4">V.4</a> a practice was
+introduced by the German wood engravers of dotting the dark parts of
+their subjects with white, more especially in cuts where the figures
+were intended to appear light upon a dark ground; and about the
+beginning of the sixteenth, this mode of “killing the black,” as it is
+technically termed, was very generally prevalent among the French wood
+engravers, who, as well as the Germans and Dutch, continued to practise
+it till about 1520, when it was almost wholly superseded by
+cross-hatching; a&nbsp;mode of producing shade which had been much
+practised by the German engravers who worked from the drawings of Durer,
+Cranach, and Burgmair, and which about that time seems to have been
+generally adopted in all countries where the art had made any progress.
+The two following cuts, which are from an edition of “Heures à l’Usaige
+de Chartres,” printed at Paris by Simon Vostre, about 1502, are examples
+of this mode of diminishing the effects of a ground which would
+otherwise be entirely black. Books printed in France between 1500 and
+1520 afford the most numerous instances of dark backgrounds dotted with
+white. In many cuts executed about the latter period the dots are of
+larger size and more numerous in proportion to the black, and they
+evidently have been
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page233" id = "page233">
+233</a></span>
+produced by means of a lozenge-pointed tool, in imitation of
+cross-hatching.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest promoter of the art of wood engraving, towards the close
+of the fifteenth and in the early part of the sixteenth century, was
+unquestionably Albert Durer; not however, as is generally supposed, from
+having himself engraved the numerous wood-cuts which bear his mark, but
+from his having thought so well of the art as to have most of his
+greatest works engraved on wood from drawings made on the block by
+himself. Until within the last thirty years, most writers who have
+written on the subject of art, have spoken of Albert Durer as a wood
+engraver; and before proceeding to give any account of his life, or
+specimens of some of the principal wood engravings which bear his mark,
+it appears necessary to examine the <ins class = "correction" title =
+"text reads ‘gronnds’">grounds</ins> of this opinion.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<div class = "picblock w250">
+<p><a name = "illus_233" id = "illus_233">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_233a.png" width = "233" height = "94"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picblock">
+<p><img src = "images/illus_233b.png" width = "232" height = "93"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are about two hundred subjects engraved on wood which are
+marked with the initials of Albert Durer’s name; and the greater part of
+them, though evidently designed by the hand of a master, are engraved in
+a manner which certainly denotes no very great excellence. Of the
+remainder, which are better engraved, it would be difficult to point out
+one which displays execution so decidedly superior as to enable any
+person to say positively that it must have been cut by Albert Durer
+himself. The earliest engravings on wood with Durer’s mark are sixteen
+cuts illustrative of the Apocalypse, first published in 1498; and
+between that period and 1528, the year of his death, it is likely that
+nearly all the others were executed. The cuts of the Apocalypse
+generally are much superior to all wood engravings that had previously
+appeared, both in design and execution; but if they be carefully
+examined by any person conversant with the practice of the art, it will
+be perceived that their
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page234" id = "page234">
+234</a></span>
+superiority is not owing to any delicacy in the lines which would render
+them difficult to engrave, but from the ability of the person by whom
+they were drawn, and from his knowledge of the capabilities of the art.
+Looking at the state of wood engraving at the period when those cuts
+were published, I&nbsp;cannot think that the artist who made the
+drawings would experience any difficulty in finding persons capable of
+engraving them. In most of the wood-cuts supposed to have been engraved
+by Albert Durer we find cross-hatching freely introduced; the readiest
+mode of producing effect to an artist drawing on wood with a pen or a
+black-lead pencil, but which to the wood engraver is attended with
+considerable labour. Had Albert Durer engraved his own designs,
+I&nbsp;am inclined to think that he would not have introduced
+cross-hatching so frequently, but would have endeavoured to attain his
+object by means which were easier of execution. What is termed
+“cross-hatching” in wood engraving is nothing more than black lines
+crossing each other, for the most part diagonally; and in <i>drawing</i>
+on wood it is easier to produce a shade by this means, than by
+thickening the lines; but in <i>engraving</i> on wood it is precisely
+the reverse; for it is easier to leave a thick line than to cut out the
+interstices of lines crossing each other. Nothing is more common than
+for persons who know little of the history of wood engraving, and still
+less of the practice, to refer to the frequent cross-hatching in the
+cuts supposed to have been engraved by Albert Durer as a proof of their
+excellence: as if the talent of the artist were chiefly displayed in
+such parts of the cuts as are in reality least worthy of him, and which
+a mere workman might execute as well. In opposition to this vulgar error
+I venture to assert, that there is not a wood engraver in London of the
+least repute who cannot produce <i>apprentices</i> to cut fac-similes of
+any cross-hatching that is to be found, not only in the wood engravings
+supposed to have been <ins class = "correction" title = "text reads ‘excuted’">executed</ins> by Albert Durer, but in those of any other
+master. The execution of cross-hatching requires time, but very little
+talent; and a moderately clever lad, with a steady hand and a
+lozenge-pointed tool, will cut in a year a <i>square yard</i> of such
+cross-hatching as is generally found in the largest of the cuts supposed
+to have been engraved by Albert Durer. In the works of Bewick, scarcely
+more than one trifling instance of cross-hatching is to be found; and in
+the productions of all other modern wood engravers who have made their
+own drawings, we find cross-hatching sparingly introduced; while in
+almost every one of the cuts designed by Durer, Cranach, Burgmair, and
+others who are known to have been painters of eminence in their day, it
+is of frequent occurrence. Had these masters engraved their own designs
+on wood, as has been very generally supposed, they probably would have
+introduced much less cross-hatching into their subjects; but as there is
+every reason to believe that they only made the drawing on the wood, the
+engravings
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page235" id = "page235">
+235</a></span>
+which are ascribed to them abound in lines which are readily made with a
+pen or a pencil, but which require considerable time to cut with a
+graver.</p>
+
+<p>At the period that Durer published his illustrations of the
+Apocalypse, few wood-cuts of much merit either in design or execution
+had appeared in printed books; and the wood engravers of that age seem
+generally to have been mere workmen, who only understood the mechanical
+branch of their art, but who were utterly devoid of all knowledge of
+composition or correct drawing; and there is also reason to believe that
+wood-cuts at that period, and even for some time after, were not
+unfrequently engraved by women.<a class = "tag" name = "tagV5" id =
+"tagV5" href = "#noteV5">V.5</a> As the names of those persons were
+probably not known beyond the town in which they resided, it cannot be a
+matter of surprise that neither their marks nor initials should be found
+on the cuts which they engraved from the drawings of such artists as
+Albert Durer.</p>
+
+<p>It perhaps may be objected, that as Albert Durer’s copper-plate
+engravings contain only his mark, in the same manner as the wood
+engravings, it might with equal reason be questioned if they were really
+executed by himself. Notwithstanding the identity of the marks, there
+is, however, a&nbsp;wide difference between the two cases. In the age of
+Albert Durer most of the artists who engraved on copper were also
+painters; and most of the copper-plate engravings which bear his mark
+are such as none but an artist of great talent could execute. It would
+require the abilities of a first-rate copper-plate engraver of the
+present day to produce a fac-simile of his best copper-plates; while a
+wood engraver of but moderate skill would be able to cut a fac-simile of
+one of his best wood engravings after the subject was drawn for him on
+the block. The best of Albert Durer’s copper-plates could only have been
+engraved by a master; while the best of his wood-cuts might be engraved
+by a working Formschneider who had acquired a practical knowledge of his
+art by engraving, under the superintendence of Michael Wolgemuth and
+William Pleydenwurff, the wood-cuts for the Nuremberg Chronicle.</p>
+
+<p>Von Murr, who was of opinion that Albert Durer engraved his own
+designs on wood, gives a letter of Durer’s in the ninth volume of his
+Journal which he thinks is decisive of the fact. The letter, which
+relates to a wood engraving of a shield of arms, was written in 1511,
+and is to the following effect: “Dear Michael Beheim, I&nbsp;return you
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page236" id = "page236">
+236</a></span>
+the arms, and beg that you will let it remain as it is. No one will make
+it better, as I have done it according to art and with great care, as
+those who see it and understand the matter will tell you. If the labels
+were thrown back above the helmet, the volet would be covered.”<a class
+= "tag" name = "tagV6" id = "tagV6" href = "#noteV6">V.6</a> This
+letter, however, is by no means decisive, for it is impossible to
+determine whether the “arms” which the artist returned were a finished
+engraving or merely a drawing on wood.<a class = "tag" name = "tagV7" id
+= "tagV7" href = "#noteV7">V.7</a> From one or two expressions it seems
+most likely to have been a drawing only; for in a finished cut
+alterations cannot very well be introduced; and it seems most probable
+that Michael Beheim’s objections would be made to the drawing of the
+arms before they were engraved, and not to the finished cut. But even
+supposing it to have been the engraved block which Durer returned, this
+is by no means a proof of his having engraved it himself, for he might
+have engravers employed in his house in order that the designs which he
+drew on the blocks might be executed under his own superintendence. The
+Baron Derschau indeed told Dr. Dibdin that he was once in possession of
+the <i>journal</i> or day-book of Albert Durer, from which “it appeared
+that he was in the habit of drawing upon the blocks, and that his men
+performed the remaining operation of cutting away the wood.”<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagV8" id = "tagV8" href = "#noteV8">V.8</a> This
+information, had it been communicated by a person whose veracity might
+be depended on, would be decisive of the question; but the book
+unfortunately “perished in the flames of a house in the neighbourhood of
+one of the battles fought between Bonaparte and the Prussians;” and from
+a little anecdote recorded by Dr. Dibdin the Baron appears to have been
+a person whose word was not to be implicitly relied on.<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagV9" id = "tagV9" href = "#noteV9">V.9</a></p>
+
+<p>Neudörffer, who in 1546 collected some particulars relative to the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page237" id = "page237">
+237</a></span>
+history of the artists of Nuremberg, says that Jerome Resch, or Rösch,
+engraved most of the cuts designed by Albert Durer. He also says that
+Resch was one of the most skilful wood engravers of his day, and that he
+particularly excelled in engraving letters on wood. This artist also
+used to engrave dies for coining money, and had a printing establishment
+of his own. He dwelt in the Broad Way at Nuremberg, with a back entrance
+in Petticoat Lane;<a class = "tag" name = "tagV10" id = "tagV10" href =
+"#noteV10">V.10</a> and when he was employed in engraving the Triumphal
+Car drawn by Albert Durer for the Emperor Maximilian, the Emperor used
+to call almost every day to see the progress of the work; and as he
+entered at Petticoat Lane, it became a by-word with the common people:
+“The Emperor still often drives to Petticoat Lane.”<a class = "tag" name
+= "tagV11" id = "tagV11" href = "#noteV11">V.11</a></p>
+
+<p>Although it is by no means unlikely that Albert Durer might engrave
+two or three wood-cuts of his own designing, yet, after a careful
+examination of most of those that bear his mark, I&nbsp;cannot find one
+which is so decidedly superior to the rest as to induce an opinion of
+its being engraved by himself; and I cannot for a moment believe that an
+artist of his great talents, and who painted so many pictures, engraved
+so many copper-plates, and made so many designs, could find time to
+engrave even a small part of the many wood-cuts which have been supposed
+to be executed by him, and which a common wood engraver might execute as
+well. “If Durer himself had engraved on wood,” says Bartsch in the
+seventh volume of his Peintre-Graveur, “it is most likely that among the
+many particular accounts which we have of his different pursuits, and of
+the various kind of works which he has left, the fact of his having
+applied himself to wood engraving would certainly have been transmitted
+in a manner no less explicit; but, far from finding the least trace of
+it, everything that relates to this subject proves that he had never
+employed himself in this kind of work. He is always described as a
+painter, a&nbsp;designer, or an editor of works engraved on wood, but
+never as a wood engraver.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagV12" id = "tagV12"
+href = "#noteV12">V.12</a> I&nbsp;also further agree with Bartsch, who
+thinks that the wood-cuts which contain the marks of Lucas Cranach, Hans
+Burgmair, and others who are known to
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page238" id = "page238">
+238</a></span>
+have been painters of considerable reputation in their day, were not
+engraved by those artists, but only designed or drawn by them on the
+block.</p>
+
+<p>Albert Durer was born at Nuremberg, on 20th May 1471. His father,
+whose name was also Albert, was a goldsmith, and a native of Cola in
+Hungary. His mother was a daughter of Jerome Haller, who was also a
+goldsmith, and the master under whom the elder Durer had acquired a
+knowledge of his art. Albert continued with his father till his
+sixteenth year, and had, as he himself says, learned to execute
+beautiful works in the goldsmith’s art, when he felt a great desire to
+become a painter. His father on hearing of his wish to change his
+profession was much displeased, as he considered that the time he had
+already spent in endeavouring to acquire a knowledge of the art of a
+goldsmith was entirely lost. He, however, assented to his son’s earnest
+request, and placed him, on St. Andrew’s day, 1486, as a pupil under
+Michael Wolgemuth for the term of three years, to learn the art of
+painting. On the expiration of his “lehr-jahre,” or apprenticeship, in
+1490, he left his master, and, according to the custom of German artists
+of that period, proceeded to travel for the purpose of gaining a further
+knowledge of his profession. In what manner or in what places he was
+chiefly employed during his “wander-jahre”<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagV13" id = "tagV13" href = "#noteV13">V.13</a> is not very well
+known; but it is probable that his travels did not extend beyond
+Germany. In the course of his peregrinations he visited Colmar, in 1492,
+where he was kindly received by Caspar, Paul, and Louis, the brothers of
+Martin Schongauer; but he did not see, either then or at any other
+period, that celebrated engraver himself.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagV14" id = "tagV14" href = "#noteV14">V.14</a> He returned to
+Nuremberg in the spring of 1494; and shortly afterwards married Agnes,
+the daughter of John Frey, a&nbsp;mechanist of considerable reputation
+of that city. This match, which is said to have been made for him by his
+parents, proved to be an unhappy one; for, though his wife possessed
+considerable personal charms, she was a woman of a most wretched temper;
+and her incessant urging him to continued exertion
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page239" id = "page239">
+239</a></span>
+in order that she might obtain money, is said to have embittered the
+life of the artist and eventually to have hastened his death.<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagV15" id = "tagV15" href = "#noteV15">V.15</a></p>
+
+<p>It has not been ascertained from whom Albert Durer learnt the art of
+engraving on copper; for there seems but little reason to believe that
+his master Michael Wolgemuth ever practised that branch of art, though
+several copper-plates, marked with a W, have been ascribed to him by
+some authors.<a class = "tag" name = "tagV16" id = "tagV16" href =
+"#noteV16">V.16</a> As most of the early copper-plate engravers were
+also goldsmiths, it is probable that Durer might acquire some knowledge
+of the former art during the time that he continued with his father;
+and, as he was endowed with a versatile genius, it is not unlikely that
+he owed his future improvement entirely to himself. The earliest date
+that is to be found on his copper-plates is 1494. The subject in which
+this date occurs represents a group of four naked women with a globe
+suspended above them, in the manner of a lamp, on which are inscribed
+the letters O.&nbsp;G. H.&nbsp;which have been supposed to signify the
+words “O&nbsp;Gott helf!”&mdash;Help, O&nbsp;Lord!&mdash;as if the
+spectator on beholding the naked beauties were exceedingly liable to
+fall into temptation.<a class = "tag" name = "tagV17" id = "tagV17" href
+= "#noteV17">V.17</a></p>
+
+<p>The earliest wood engravings that contain Albert Durer’s mark are
+sixteen subjects, of folio size, illustrative of the Apocalypse, which
+were printed at Nuremberg, 1498. On the first leaf is the title in
+German: “Die heimliche Offenbarung Johannes”&mdash;“The Revelation of
+John;”&mdash;and on the back of the last cut but one is the imprint:
+“Gedrücket zu Nurnbergk durch Albrecht Durer, maler, nach Christi geburt
+<span class = "smallroman">M.&nbsp;CCCC.</span> und darnach im xcviij.
+iar”&mdash;“Printed at Nuremberg by Albert Durer, painter, in the year
+after the birth of Christ 1498.” The date of those cuts marks an
+important epoch in the history of wood engraving. From this time the
+boundaries of the art became enlarged; and wood engravers, instead of
+being almost wholly occupied in executing designs of the very lowest
+character, drawn without feeling, taste, or knowledge, were now to be
+engaged in engraving subjects of general interest, drawn, expressly for
+the purpose of being thus executed, by some of the most celebrated
+artists of the age. Though several cuts of the Apocalypse are faulty in
+drawing and extravagant in design, they are on the whole
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page240" id = "page240">
+240</a></span>
+much superior to any series of wood engravings that preceded them; and
+their execution, though coarse, is free and bold. They are not equal, in
+point of well-contrasted light and shade, to some of Durer’s later
+designs on wood; but considering them as his first essays in drawing on
+wood, they are not unworthy of his reputation. They appear as if they
+had been drawn on the block with a pen and ink; and though
+cross-hatching is to be found in all of them, this mode of indicating a
+shade, or obtaining “colour,” is much less frequently employed than in
+some of his later productions. The following is a reduced copy of one of
+the cuts, No.&nbsp;11, which is illustrative of the twelfth chapter of
+Revelations, verses 1-4: “And there appeared a great wonder in heaven;
+a&nbsp;woman clothed with the sun, and the moon under her feet, and upon
+her head a crown of twelve stars.&mdash;&mdash;And there appeared
+another wonder in heaven; and behold a great red dragon, having seven
+heads and ten horns, and seven crowns upon his heads. And his tail drew
+the third part of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page241" id = "page241">
+241</a></span>
+the stars of heaven, and did cast them to the earth; and the dragon
+stood before the woman.”</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_240" id = "illus_240">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_240.png" width = "326" height = "439"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>In 1502 a pirated edition of those cuts was published at Strasburg by
+Jerome Greff, who describes himself as a painter of Frankfort. In 1511
+Durer published a second edition of the originals; and on the back of
+the last cut but one is a caution addressed to the plagiary, informing
+him of the Emperor’s order, prohibiting any one to copy the cuts or to
+sell the spurious impressions within the limits of the German empire,
+under the penalty of the confiscation of goods, and at the peril of
+further punishment.<a class = "tag" name = "tagV18" id = "tagV18" href =
+"#noteV18">V.18</a></p>
+
+<p>Though no other wood engravings with Durer’s mark are found with a
+date till 1504, yet it is highly probable that several subjects of his
+designing were engraved between 1498, the date of the Apocalypse, and
+the above year; and it is also likely that he engraved several
+copper-plates within this period; although, with the exception of that
+of the four naked women, there are only four known which contain a date
+earlier than 1505. About the commencement of 1506 Durer visited Venice,
+where he remained till October in the same year. Eight letters which he
+addressed to Bilibald Pirkheimer from Venice, are printed in the tenth
+volume of Von Murr’s Journal. In the first letter, which is dated on the
+day of the Three Kings of Cologne, 1506, he informs his friend that he
+was employed to paint a picture for the German church at Venice, for
+which he was to receive a hundred and ten Rhenish guilders,<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagV19" id = "tagV19" href = "#noteV19">V.19</a> and that
+he expects to have it ready to place above the altar a month after
+Easter. He expresses a hope that he will be enabled to repay out of this
+money what he had borrowed of Pirkheimer. From this letter it seems
+evident that Durer’s circumstances were not then in a very flourishing
+state, and that he had to depend on his exertions for the means of
+living. The comparatively trifling sums which he mentions as having sent
+to his mother and his wife sufficiently declare that he had not left a
+considerable sum at home. He also says, that should his wife want more
+money, her father must assist her, and that he will honourably repay him
+on his return.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page242" id = "page242">
+242</a></span>
+<p>In the second letter, after telling Pirkheimer that he has no other
+friend but him on earth, he expresses a wish that he were in Venice to
+enjoy the pleasant company that he has met with there. The following
+passage, which occurs in this letter, is, perhaps, the most interesting
+in the collection: “I&nbsp;have many good friends among the Italians,
+who warn me not to eat or drink with their painters, of whom several are
+my enemies, and copy my picture in the church and others of mine,
+wherever they can find them; and yet they blame them, and say they are
+not according to ancient art, and therefore not good. Giovanni Bellini<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagV20" id = "tagV20" href = "#noteV20">V.20</a>
+however has praised me highly to several gentlemen, and wishes to have
+something of my doing. He called on me himself, and requested that I
+would paint a picture for him, for which he said he would pay me well.
+People are all surprised that I should be so much thought of by a person
+of his reputation. He is very old, but is still the best painter of them
+all. The things which pleased me eleven years ago, please me no longer.
+If I had not seen it myself I could not have believed it. You must also
+know that there are many better painters within this city than Master
+Jacob is without, although Anthony Kolb swears that there is not on
+earth a better painter than Jacob.<a class = "tag" name = "tagV21" id =
+"tagV21" href = "#noteV21">V.21</a> The others laugh, and say if he were
+good for anything he would live in Venice.”</p>
+
+<p>The greater part of the other six letters are chiefly occupied with
+accounts of his success in executing sundry little commissions with
+which he had been entrusted by his friends, such as the purchase of a
+finger-ring and two pieces of tapestry; to enquire after such Greek
+books as had been recently published; and to get him some crane
+feathers. The sixth and seventh letters are written in a vein of humour
+which at the present time would be called gross. Von Murr illustrates
+one passage by a quotation from Swift which is not remarkable for its
+delicacy; and he also says that Durer’s eighth letter is written in the
+humorous style of that writer. Those letters show that chastity was not
+one of Bilibald Pirkheimer’s virtues; and that the learned counsellor of
+the imperial city of Nuremberg was devoted “tam Veneri quam Mercurio.”<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagV22" id = "tagV22" href =
+"#noteV22">V.22</a></p>
+
+<p>In the fourth letter Durer says that the painters were much opposed
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page243" id = "page243">
+243</a></span>
+to him; that they had thrice compelled him to go before the magistracy;
+and that they had obliged him to give four florins to their society. In
+the seventh letter, he writes as follows about the picture which he had
+painted for the German church: “I&nbsp;have through it received great
+praise, but little profit. I&nbsp;might well have gained two hundred
+ducats in the same time, and all the while I laboured most diligently in
+order that I might get home again. I&nbsp;have given all the painters a
+rubbing down who said that I could engrave<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagV23" id = "tagV23" href = "#noteV23">V.23</a> well, but that in
+painting I knew not how to manage my colours. Everybody here says they
+never saw colours more beautiful.” In his last letter, which is dated,
+“at Venice, I&nbsp;know not what day of the month, but about the
+fourteenth day after Michaelmas, 1506,” he says that he will be ready to
+leave that city in about ten days; that he intends to proceed to
+Bologna, and after staying there about eight or ten days for the sake of
+learning some secrets in perspective, to return home by way of Venice.
+He visited Bologna as he intended; and was treated with great respect by
+the painters of that city. After a brief stay at Bologna, he returned to
+Nuremberg; and there is no evidence of his ever having visited Italy
+again.</p>
+
+<p class = "figfloat">
+<a name = "illus_243" id = "illus_243">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_243.png" width = "227" height = "220"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>In 1511, the second of Durer’s large works engraved on wood appeared
+at Nuremberg. It is generally entitled the History of the Virgin, and
+consists of nineteen large cuts, each about eleven inches and three
+quarters high, by eight inches and a quarter wide, with a vignette of
+smaller size which ornaments the title-page.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagV24" id = "tagV24" href = "#noteV24">V.24</a> Impressions are to be
+found without any accompanying text, but the greater number have
+explanatory verses printed from type at the back. The cut here
+represented is a reduced copy of the vignette on the title-page. The
+Virgin
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page244" id = "page244">
+244</a></span>
+is seen seated on a crescent, giving suck to the infant Christ; and her
+figure and that of the child are drawn with great feeling. Of all
+Durer’s Madonnas, whether engraved on wood or copper, this, perhaps, is
+one of the best. Her attitude is easy and natural, and happily
+expressive of the character in which she is represented&mdash;that of a
+nursing mother. The light and shade are well contrasted; and the folds
+of her ample drapery, which Durer was fond of introducing whenever he
+could, are arranged in a manner which materially contributes to the
+effect of the engraving.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_244" id = "illus_244">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_244.png" width = "332" height = "462"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The following cuts are reduced copies of two of the larger subjects
+of the same work. That which is here given represents the birth of the
+Virgin; and were it not for the angel who is seen swinging a censer at
+the top of the room, it might be taken for the accouchement of a German
+burgomaster’s wife in the year 1510. The interior is apparently that of
+a house in Nuremberg of Durer’s own time, and the figures introduced
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page245" id = "page245">
+245</a></span>
+are doubtless faithful copies, both in costume and character, of such
+females as were generally to be found in the house of a German tradesman
+on such an occasion. From the number of cups and flagons that are seen,
+we may be certain that the gossips did not want liquor; and that in
+Durer’s age the female friends and attendants on a groaning woman were
+accustomed to enjoy themselves on the birth of a child over a cheerful
+cup. In the fore-ground an elderly female is perceived taking a draught,
+without measure, from a flagon; while another, more in the distance and
+farther to the right, appears to be drinking, from a cup, health to the
+infant which a woman like a nurse holds in her arms. An elderly female,
+sitting by the side of the bed, has dropped into a doze; but whether
+from the effects of the liquor or long watching it would not be easy to
+divine. On the opposite side of the bed a female figure presents a
+caudle, with a spoon in it, to St. Anne, the mother of the Virgin, while
+another is seen filling a goblet of wine. At the bottom of the cut is
+Durer’s mark on a tablet. The original cut is not remarkable for the
+excellence of its engraving, but it affords a striking example of the
+little attention which Durer, in common with most other German painters
+of that period, paid to propriety of costume in the treatment of such
+subjects. The piece is Hebrew, of the age of Herod the Great; but the
+scenery, dresses, and decorations are German, of the time of
+Maximilian&nbsp;I.</p>
+
+<p>The second specimen of the large cuts of Durer’s Life of the Virgin,
+given on the next page, represents the Sojourn of the Holy Family in
+Egypt. In the fore-ground St. Joseph is seen working at his business as
+a carpenter; while a number of little figures, like so many Cupids, are
+busily employed in collecting the chips which he makes and in putting
+them into a basket. Two little winged figures, of the same family as the
+chip-collectors, are seen running hand-in-hand, a&nbsp;little more in
+the distance to the left, and one of them holds in his hand a plaything
+like those which are called “windmills” in England, and are cried about
+as “toys for girls and boys,” and sold for a halfpenny each, or
+exchanged for old pewter spoons, doctors’ bottles, or broken
+flint-glass. To the right the Virgin, a&nbsp;matronly-looking figure, is
+seen sitting spinning, and at the same time rocking with her foot the
+cradle in which the infant Christ is asleep. Near the Virgin are St.
+Elizabeth and her young son, the future Baptist. At the head of the
+cradle is an angel bending as if in the act of adoration; while another,
+immediately behind St. Elizabeth, holds a pot containing flowers. In the
+sky there is a representation of the Deity, with the Holy Ghost in the
+shape of a dove. The artist has not thought it necessary to mark the
+locality of the scene by the introduction of pyramids and temples in the
+back-ground, for the architectural parts of his subject, as well
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page246" id = "page246">
+246</a></span>
+as the human figures, have evidently been supplied by his own <ins class
+= "correction" title = ". invisible">country.</ins> Durer’s mark is at
+the bottom of the cut on the right.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_246" id = "illus_246">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_246.png" width = "334" height = "466"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Christ’s Passion, consisting of a series of eleven large wood-cuts
+and a vignette, designed by Albert Durer, appeared about the same time
+as his History of the Virgin.<a class = "tag" name = "tagV25" id =
+"tagV25" href = "#noteV25">V.25</a> The descriptive matter was compiled
+by Chelidonius; and, in the same manner as in the History of the Virgin,
+a&nbsp;certain number of impressions were printed without any
+explanatory text.<a class = "tag" name = "tagV26" id = "tagV26" href =
+"#noteV26">V.26</a> The large subjects are about fifteen inches and a
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page247" id = "page247">
+247</a></span>
+half high, by eleven inches and an eighth wide. The following cut is a
+reduced copy of the vignette on the title-page.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_247" id = "illus_247">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_247.png" width = "223" height = "219"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The subject is Christ mocked; but the artist has at the same time
+wished to express in the figure of Christ the variety of his sufferings:
+the Saviour prays as if in his agony on the mount; near him lies the
+instrument of his flagellation; his hands and feet bear the marks of the
+nails, and he appears seated on the covering of his sepulchre. The
+soldier is kneeling and offering a reed as a sceptre to Christ, whom he
+hails in derision as King of the Jews.</p>
+
+<p>The three following cuts are reduced copies of the same number in the
+Passion of Christ. In the cut of the Last Supper, in the next page,
+cross-hatching is freely introduced, though without contributing much to
+the improvement of the engraving; and the same effect in the wall to the
+right, in the groins of the roof, and in the floor under the table,
+might be produced by much simpler means. No artist, I&nbsp;am persuaded,
+would introduce such work in a design if he had to engrave it himself.
+The same “colour” might be produced by single lines which could be
+executed in a third of the time required to cut out the interstices of
+the cross-hatchings. Durer’s mark is at the bottom of the cut, and the
+date 1510 is perceived above it, on the frame of the table.</p>
+
+<p>The cut on page 249, from the Passion, Christ bearing his Cross, is
+highly characteristic of Durer’s style; and the original is one of the
+best of all the wood engravings which bear his mark. The characters
+introduced are such as he was fondest of drawing; and most of the heads
+and figures may be recognised in several other engravings either
+executed by himself on copper or by others on wood from his designs.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_248" id = "illus_248">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_248.png" width = "335" height = "445"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The figure which is seen holding a kind of halbert in his right hand
+is a favourite with Durer, and is introduced, with trifling variations,
+in at
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page248" id = "page248">
+248</a></span>
+least half a dozen of his subjects; and the horseman with a kind of
+turban on his head and a lance in his left hand occurs no less
+frequently. St. Veronica, who is seen holding the “sudarium,” or holy
+handkerchief, in the fore-ground to the left, is a type of his female
+figures; the head of the executioner, who is seen urging Christ forward,
+is nearly the same as that of the mocker in the preceding vignette; and
+Simon the Cyrenian, who assists to bear the cross, appears to be the
+twin-brother of St. Joseph in the Sojourn in Egypt. The figure of
+Christ, bowed down with the weight of the cross, is well drawn, and his
+face is strongly expressive of sorrow. Behind Simon the Cyrenian are the
+Virgin and St. John; and under the gateway a man with a haggard visage
+is perceived carrying a ladder with his head between the steps. The
+artist’s mark is at the bottom of the cut.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page249" id = "page249">
+249</a></span>
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_249" id = "illus_249">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_249.png" width = "328" height = "444"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The subject of the cut on page 250, from Christ’s Passion, represents
+the descent into hell and the liberation of the ancestors. The massive
+gates of the abode of sin and death have been burst open, and the banner
+of the cross waves triumphant. Among those who have already been
+liberated from the pit of darkness are Eve, who has her back turned
+towards the spectator, and Adam, who in his right hand holds an apple,
+the symbol of his fall, and with his left supports a cross, the emblem
+of his redemption. In the front is Christ aiding others of the ancestors
+to ascend from the pit, to the great dismay of the demons whose realm is
+invaded. A&nbsp;horrid monster, with a head like that of a boar
+surmounted with a horn, aims a blow at the Redeemer with a kind of rude
+lance; while another, a&nbsp;hideous compound of things that swim, and
+walk, and fly, sounds a note of alarm to arouse his kindred fiends. On a
+stone,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page250" id = "page250">
+250</a></span>
+above the entrance to the pit, is the date 1510; and Durer’s mark is
+perceived on another stone immediately before the figure of Christ. This
+cut, with the exception of the frequent cross-hatching, is designed more
+in the style and spirit of the artist’s illustrations of the Apocalypse
+than in the manner of the rest of the series to which it belongs.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_250" id = "illus_250">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_250.png" width = "329" height = "446"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The preceding specimens of wood-cuts from Durer’s three great works,
+the Apocalypse, the History of the Virgin, and Christ’s Passion, afford
+not only an idea of the style of his drawing on wood, but also of the
+progress made by the art of wood engraving from the time of his first
+availing himself of its capabilities. In Durer’s designs on wood we
+perceive not only more correct drawing and a greater knowledge of
+composition, but also a much more effective combination of light and
+shade, than are to be found in any wood-cuts executed before the date of
+his earliest work, the Apocalypse, which appeared in 1498. One of the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page251" id = "page251">
+251</a></span>
+peculiar advantages of wood engraving is the effect with which strong
+shades can be represented; and of this Durer has generally availed
+himself with the greatest skill. On comparing his works engraved on wood
+with all those previously executed in the same manner, we shall find
+that his figures are not only much better drawn and more skilfully
+grouped, but that instead of sticking, in hard outline, against the
+back-ground, they stand out with the natural appearance of rotundity.
+The rules of perspective are more attentively observed; the back-grounds
+better filled; and a number of subordinate objects introduced&mdash;such
+as trees, herbage, flowers, animals, and children&mdash;which at once
+give a pleasing variety to the subject and impart to it the stamp of
+truth. Though the figures in many of his designs may not indeed be
+correct in point of costume,&mdash;for though he diligently studied
+Nature, it was only in her German dress,&mdash;yet their character and
+expression are generally appropriate and natural. Though incapable of
+imparting to sacred subjects the elevated character which is given to
+them by Raffaele, his representations are perhaps no less like the
+originals than those of the great Italian master. It is indeed highly
+probable that Albert Durer’s German representatives of saints and
+apostles are more like the originals than the more dignified ideal
+portraits of Raffaele. The latter, from his knowledge of the antique,
+has frequently given to his Jews a character and a costume borrowed from
+Grecian art of the age of Phidias; while Albert Durer has given to them
+the features and invested them in the costume of Germans of his own
+age.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly after the appearance of the large cuts illustrative of
+Christ’s Passion, Durer published a series of thirty-seven of a smaller
+size, also engraved on wood, which Mr. Ottley calls “The Fall of Man and
+his Redemption through Christ,” but which Durer himself refers to under
+the title of “The Little Passion.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagV27" id =
+"tagV27" href = "#noteV27">V.27</a> All the cuts of the Little Passion,
+as well as seventeen of those of the Life of the Virgin and several
+other pieces of Durer’s, were imitated on copper by Marc Antonio
+Raimondi, the celebrated Italian engraver, who is said to have sold his
+copies as the originals. Vasari, in his Life of Marc Antonio, says that
+when Durer was informed of this imitation of his works, he was highly
+incensed and
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page252" id = "page252">
+252</a></span>
+he set out directly for Venice, and that on his arrival there he
+complained of Marc Antonio’s proceedings to the government; but could
+obtain no further redress than that in future Marc Antonio should not
+put Durer’s mark to his engravings.</p>
+
+<p>Though it is by no means unlikely that Durer might apply to the
+Venetian government to prevent the sale of spurious copies of his works
+within the bounds of their jurisdiction, yet Vasari’s account of his
+personally visiting that city for the purpose of making a complaint
+against Marc Antonio, and of the government having forbid the latter to
+affix Durer’s mark to his engravings in future, is certainly incorrect.
+The History of the Virgin, the earliest of the two works which were
+almost entirely copied by Marc Antonio, was not published before 1510,
+and there is not the slightest evidence of Durer having re-visited
+Venice after his return to Nuremberg about the latter end of 1506.
+Bartsch thinks that Vasari’s account of Durer’s complaining to the
+Venetian government against Marc Antonio is wholly unfounded; not only
+from the fact of Durer not having visited Venice subsequent to 1506, but
+from the improbability of his applying to a foreign state to prohibit a
+stranger from copying his works. Mr. Ottley, however,&mdash;after
+observing that Marc Antonio had affixed Durer’s mark to his copies of
+the seventeen cuts of the Life of the Virgin and of some other single
+subjects, but had omitted it in his copies of the cuts of the Little
+Passion,&mdash;thus expresses his opinion with respect to the
+correctness of this part of Vasari’s account: “That Durer, who enjoyed
+the especial protection of the Emperor Maximilian, might be enabled
+through the imperial ambassador at Venice to lay his complaints before
+the government, and to obtain the prohibition before stated, may I think
+readily be imagined; and it cannot be denied, that the circumstance of
+Marc Antonio’s having omitted to affix the mark of Albert to the copies
+which he afterwards made of the series of the ‘Life of Christ’ is
+strongly corroborative of the general truth of the story.”<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagV28" id = "tagV28" href = "#noteV28">V.28</a> As two of
+the cuts in the Little Passion, which Mr. Ottley here calls the “Life of
+Christ,” are dated 1510, and as, according to Mr. Ottley, Marc Antonio
+arrived at Rome in the course of that year, it is difficult to conceive
+how the government of Venice could have the power to prohibit a native
+of Bologna, living in a state beyond their jurisdiction, from affixing
+Albert Durer’s mark to such engravings as he might please to copy from
+the works of that master.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page253" id = "page253">
+253</a></span>
+<p>Among the more remarkable single subjects engraved on wood from
+Durer’s designs, the following are most frequently referred to: God the
+Father bearing up into heaven the dead body of Christ, with the date
+1511; a&nbsp;Rhinoceros, with the date 1515; a&nbsp;portrait of Ulrich
+Varnbuler, with the date 1522; a&nbsp;large head of Christ crowned with
+thorns, without date; and the Siege of a fortified town, with the date
+1527. In the first of the above-named cuts, God the Father wears a kind
+of tiara like that of the Pope, and above the principal figure the Holy
+Ghost is seen hovering in the form of a dove. On each side of the Deity
+and the dead Christ are angels holding the cross, the pillar to which
+Christ was bound when he was scourged, the crown of thorns, the sponge
+dipped in vinegar, and other emblems of the Passion. At the foot are
+heads with puffed-out cheeks intended to represent the winds. This cut
+is engraved in a clearer and more delicate style than most of the other
+subjects designed by Durer on wood. There are impressions of the
+Rhinoceros, and the portrait of Varnbuler, printed in chiaro-scuro from
+three blocks; and there are also other wood-cuts designed by Durer
+executed in the same manner. The large head of Christ, which is engraved
+in a coarse though spirited and effective manner, is placed by Bartsch
+among the doubtful pieces ascribed to Durer; but Mr. Ottley says,
+“I&nbsp;am unwilling to deny to Durer the credit of this admirable and
+boldly executed production.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagV29" id =
+"tagV29" href = "#noteV29">V.29</a> The cut representing the siege of a
+fortified town is twenty-eight inches and three-eighths wide, by eight
+inches and seven eighths high. It has been engraved on two blocks, and
+afterwards pasted together. A&nbsp;number of small figures are
+introduced, and a great extent of country is shown in this cut, which
+is, however, deficient in effect; and the little figures, though drawn
+with great spirit, want relief, which causes many of them to appear as
+if they were riding or walking in the air. The most solid-like part of
+the subject is the sky; there is no ground for most of the figures to
+stand on; and those which are in the distance are of the same size as
+those which are apparently a mile or two nearer the spectator. There is
+nothing remarkable in the execution, and the design adds nothing to
+Durer’s reputation.</p>
+
+<p>The great patron of wood engraving in the earlier part of the
+sixteenth century was the Emperor Maximilian I, who,&mdash;besides
+originating the three works, known by the titles of Sir Theurdank, the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page254" id = "page254">
+254</a></span>
+Wise King, and the Triumphs of Maximilian, which he caused to be
+illustrated with numerous wood engravings, chiefly from the designs of
+Hans Burgmair and Hans Schaufflein,&mdash;employed Albert Durer to make
+the designs for two other series of wood engravings, a&nbsp;Triumphal
+Car and a Triumphal Arch.</p>
+
+<p>The Triumphal <i>Car</i>, engraved by Jerome Resch from Durer’s
+drawings on wood, is frequently confounded with the larger work called
+the Triumphs of Maximilian, most of the designs of which were made by
+Hans Burgmair. It is indeed generally asserted that all the designs for
+the latter work were made by Hans Burgmair; but I think I shall be able
+to show, in a subsequent notice of that work, that some of the cuts
+contained in the edition published at Vienna and London in 1796 were, in
+all probability, designed by Albert Durer. The Triumphal Car consists of
+eight separate pieces, which, when joined together, form a continuous
+subject seven feet four inches long; the height of the highest
+cut&mdash;that containing the car&mdash;is eighteen inches from the base
+line to the upper part of the canopy above the Emperor’s head. The
+Emperor is seen seated in a highly ornamented car, attended by female
+figures, representing Justice, Truth, Clemency, and other virtues, who
+hold towards him triumphal wreaths. One of the two wheels which are seen
+is inscribed “Magnificentia,” and the other “Dignitas;” the driver of
+the car is Reason,&mdash;“Ratio,”&mdash;and one of the reins is marked
+“Nobilitas,” and the other “Potentia.” The car is drawn by six pair of
+horses splendidly harnessed, and each horse is attended by a female
+figure. The names of the females at the head of the first pair from the
+car are “Providentia” and “Moderatio;” of the second, “Alacritas” and
+“Opportunitas;” of the third, “Velocitas” and “Firmitudo;” of the
+fourth, “Acrimonia” and “Virilitas;” of the fifth, “Audacia” and
+“Magnanimitas;” and the attendants on the leaders are “Experientia” and
+“Solertia.” Above each pair of horses there is a portion of explanatory
+matter printed in letter-press; and in that above the leading pair is a
+mandate from the Emperor Maximilian, dated Inspruck, 1518, addressed to
+Bilibald Pirkheimer, who appears to have suggested the subject; and in
+the same place is the name of the inventor and designer, Albert Durer.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagV30" id = "tagV30" href = "#noteV30">V.30</a>
+The first edition of those cuts appeared at Nuremberg in 1522; and in
+some copies the text is in German, and in others in Latin. A&nbsp;second
+edition, with the text in Latin only, was printed at the same place in
+the following year. A&nbsp;third edition, from the same blocks, was
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page255" id = "page255">
+255</a></span>
+printed at Venice in 1588; and a fourth at Amsterdam in 1609. The
+execution of this subject is not particularly good, but the action of
+the horses is generally well represented, and the drawing of some of the
+female figures attending them is extremely spirited. Guido seems to have
+availed himself of some of the figures in Durer’s Triumphal Car in his
+celebrated fresco of the Car of Apollo, preceded by Aurora, and
+accompanied by the Hours.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that the same subject painted by Durer himself is still to
+be seen on the walls of the Town-hall of Nuremberg; but how far this is
+correct I am unable to positively say; for I know of no account of the
+painting written by a person who appears to have been acquainted with
+the subject engraved on wood. Dr. Dibdin, who visited the Town-hall of
+Nuremberg in 1818, speaks of what he saw there in a most vague and
+unsatisfactory manner, as if he did not know the Triumphal Car designed
+by Durer from the larger work entitled the Triumphs of Maximilian. The
+notice of the learned bibliographer, who professes to be a great admirer
+of the works of Albert Durer, is as follows: “The great boast of the
+collection [in the Town-hall of Nuremberg] are the Triumphs of
+Maximilian executed by <i>Albert Durer</i>,&mdash;which, however, have
+by no means escaped injury.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagV31" id =
+"tagV31" href = "#noteV31">V.31</a> It is from such careless
+observations as the preceding that erroneous opinions respecting the
+Triumphal Car and the Triumphs of Maximilian are continued and
+propagated, and that most persons confound the two works; which is
+indeed not surprising, seeing that Dr. Dibdin himself, who is considered
+to be an authority on such matters, has afforded proof that he does not
+know one from the other. In the same volume that contains the notice of
+the “Triumphs of Maximilian” in the Town-hall of Nuremberg, Dr. Dibdin
+says that he saw the “<span class = "smallroman">ORIGINAL
+PAINTINGS</span>” from which the large wood blocks were taken for the
+well-known work entitled the “<i>Triumphs of the Emperor
+Maximilian</i>,” in large folio, in the Imperial Library at Vienna.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagV32" id = "tagV32" href = "#noteV32">V.32</a>
+Such observations are very much in the style of the countryman’s, who
+had seen <i>two</i> genuine skulls of Oliver Cromwell,&mdash;one at
+Oxford, and another in the British Museum. Though I have not been able
+to ascertain satisfactorily the subject of Durer’s painting in the
+Town-hall of Nuremberg, I&nbsp;am inclined to think that it is the
+Triumphal <i>Car</i> of Maximilian. In a memorandum in the hand-writing
+of Nollekins, preserved with his copies of Durer’s Triumphal Car and
+Triumphal Arch of Maximilian, in the Print Room of the British Museum,
+it is said, though erroneously, that the former is painted in the
+Town-hall of <i>Augsburg</i> with the figures as large as life.</p>
+
+<p>The Triumphal <i>Arch</i> of the Emperor Maximilian, engraved on wood
+from Durer’s designs, consists of ninety-two separate pieces, which,
+when
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page256" id = "page256">
+256</a></span>
+joined together, form one large composition about ten feet and a half
+high by nine and a half wide, exclusive of the margins and five folio
+sheets of explanatory matter by the projector of the design, John
+Stabius, who styles himself the historiographer and poet of the Emperor,
+and who says, at the commencement of his description, that this arch was
+drawn “after the manner of those erected in honour of the Roman emperors
+at Rome, some of which are destroyed and others still to be seen.” In
+the arch of Maximilian are three gates or entrances; that in the centre
+is named the Gate of Honour and Power; that to the left the Gate of
+Fame; and that to the right the Gate of Nobility.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagV33" id = "tagV33" href = "#noteV33">V.33</a> Above the middle
+entrance is what Stabius calls the “grand tower,” surmounted with the
+imperial crown, and containing an inscription in German to the memory of
+Maximilian. Above and on each side of the gates or entrances, which are
+of very small dimensions, are portraits of the Roman emperors from the
+time of Julius Cæsar to that of Maximilian himself; there are also
+portraits of his ancestors, and of kings and princes with whom he was
+allied either by friendship or marriage; shields of arms illustrative of
+his descent or of the extent of his sovereignty; with representations of
+his most memorable actions, among which his adventures in the Tyrolean
+Alps, when hunting the chamois, are not forgotten. Underneath each
+subject illustrative of his own history are explanatory verses, in the
+German language, engraved on wood; and the names of the kings and
+emperors, as well as the inscriptions explanatory of other parts of the
+subject, are also executed in the same manner. The whole subject is, in
+fact, a&nbsp;kind of pictorial epitome of the history of the German
+empire; representing the succession of the Roman emperors, and the more
+remarkable events of Maximilian’s own reign; with illustrations of his
+descent, possessions, and alliances.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of Maximilian’s death, which happened in 1519, this great
+work was not finished; and it is said that Durer himself did not live to
+see it completed, as one small block remained to be engraved at the
+period of his death, in 1528. At whatever time the work might be
+finished, it certainly was commenced at least four years before the
+Emperor’s death, for the date 1515 occurs in two places at the foot of
+the subject. Though Durer’s mark is not to be found on any one of the
+cuts, there can be little doubt of his having furnished the designs for
+the whole. In the ninth volume of Von Murr’s Journal it is stated that
+Durer received a hundred guilders a year from the
+Emperor,&mdash;probably on account of this large work; and in the same
+volume there is a letter
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page257" id = "page257">
+257</a></span>
+of Durer’s addressed to a friend, requesting him to apply to the emperor
+on account of arrears due to him. In this letter he says that he has
+made many drawings besides the “<i>Tryumps</i>”<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagV34" id = "tagV34" href = "#noteV34">V.34</a> for the emperor; and
+as he also thrice mentions Stabius, the inventor of the Triumphal Arch,
+there can be little doubt but that this was the work to which he
+alludes.</p>
+
+<p>As a work of art the best single subjects of the Triumphal Arch will
+not bear a comparison with the best cuts in Durer’s Apocalypse, the
+History of the Virgin, or Christ’s Passion; and there are several in
+which no trace of his effective style of drawing on wood is to be found.
+Most of the subjects illustrative of the emperor’s battles and
+adventures are in particular meagre in point of drawing, and deficient
+in effect. The whole composition indeed appears like the result of
+continued application without much display of talent. The powers of
+Durer had been evidently constrained to work out the conceptions of the
+historiographer and poet, Stabius; and as the subjects were not the
+suggestions of the artist’s own feelings, it cannot be a matter of
+surprise that we should find in them so few traces of his genius. The
+engraving of the cuts is clear, but not generally effective; and the
+execution of the whole, both figures and letters, would occupy a single
+wood engraver not less than four years; even allowing him to engrave
+more rapidly on pear-tree than a modern wood engraver does on box; and
+supposing him to be a master of his profession.</p>
+
+<p>From his varied talents and the excellence which he displayed in
+every branch of art that he attempted, Albert Durer is entitled to rank
+with the most extraordinary men of his age. As a painter he may be
+considered as the father of the German school; while for his fidelity in
+copying nature and the beauty of his colours he may bear a comparison
+with most of the Italian artists of his own age. As an engraver on
+copper he greatly excelled all who preceded him; and it is highly
+questionable if any artist since his time, except Rembrandt, has painted
+so many good pictures and engraved so many good copper-plates. But
+besides excelling as an engraver on copper after the manner in which the
+art had been previously practised, giving to his subjects a breadth of
+light and a depth of shade which is not to be found in the productions
+of the earlier masters, he further improved the art by the invention of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page258" id = "page258">
+258</a></span>
+etching,<a class = "tag" name = "tagV35" id = "tagV35" href =
+"#noteV35">V.35</a> which enables the artist to work with greater
+freedom and to give a variety and an effect to his subjects, more
+especially landscapes, which are utterly unattainable by means of the
+graver alone.</p>
+
+<p>There are two subjects by Albert Durer, dated 1512, which Bartsch
+thinks were etched upon plates of iron, but which Mr. Ottley considers
+to have been executed upon plates of a softer metal than copper, with
+the dry-point. There are, however, two undoubted etchings by Durer with
+the date 1515; two others executed in the same manner are dated 1516;
+and a fifth, a&nbsp;landscape with a large cannon in the fore-ground to
+the left, is dated 1518. There is another undoubted etching by Durer,
+representing naked figures in a bath; but it contains neither his mark
+nor a date. The three pieces which Mr. Ottley thinks were not etched,
+but executed on some soft kind of metal with the dry-point, are:
+1.&nbsp;The figure of Christ, seen in front, standing, clothed with a
+mantle, having his hands tied together, and on his head a crown of
+thorns; date 1512. 2.&nbsp;St. Jerome seated amongst rocks, praying to a
+crucifix, with a book open before him, and a lion below to the left;
+date 1512. 3.&nbsp;The Virgin, seated with the infant Christ in her lap,
+and seen in front, with St. Joseph behind her on the left, and on the
+right three other figures; without mark or date.&mdash;One of the more
+common of Durer’s undoubted etchings is that of a man mounted on a
+unicorn, and carrying off a naked woman, with the date 1516.</p>
+
+<p>Albert Durer not only excelled as a painter, an engraver on copper,
+and a designer on wood, but he also executed several pieces of sculpture
+with surprising delicacy and natural expression of character. An
+admirable specimen of his skill in this department of art is preserved
+in the British Museum, to which institution it was bequeathed by the
+late
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page259" id = "page259">
+259</a></span>
+R.&nbsp;Payne Knight, Esq., by whom it was purchased at Brussels for
+five hundred guineas upwards of forty years ago. This most exquisite
+piece of sculpture is of small dimensions, being only seven and three
+quarter inches high, by five and a half wide. It is executed in
+hone-stone, of a cream colour, and is all of one piece, with the
+exception of a dog and one or two books in front. The subject is the
+naming of John the Baptist.<a class = "tag" name = "tagV36" id =
+"tagV36" href = "#noteV36">V.36</a> In front, to the right, is an old
+man with a tablet inscribed with Hebrew characters; another old man is
+seen immediately behind him, further to the right; and a younger
+man,&mdash;said to be intended by the artist for a portrait of
+himself,&mdash;appears entering the door of the apartment. An old woman
+with the child in her arms is seated near the figure with the tablet;
+St. Elizabeth is perceived lying in bed, on the more distant side of
+which a female attendant is standing, and on the other, nearer to the
+spectator, an elderly man is seen kneeling. It is supposed that the
+latter figure is intended for Zacharias, and that the artist had
+represented him in the act of making signs to Elizabeth with his hands.
+The figures in the fore-ground are executed in high relief, and the
+character and expression of the heads have perhaps never been surpassed
+in any work of sculpture executed on the same scale. Durer’s mark is
+perceived on a tablet at the foot of the bed, with the date 1510. This
+curious specimen of Durer’s talents as a sculptor is carefully preserved
+in a frame with a glass before it, and is in most perfect condition,
+with the exception of the hands of Zacharias and of Elizabeth, some of
+the fingers of which are broken off.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly after Whitsuntide, 1520, Durer set out from Nuremberg,
+accompanied by his wife and her servant Susanna, on a visit to the
+Netherlands; and as he took with him several copies of his principal
+works, engravings on copper as well as on wood, and painted and drew a
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page260" id = "page260">
+260</a></span>
+number of portraits during his residence there, the journey appears to
+have been taken as much with a view to business as pleasure. He kept a
+journal from the time of his leaving Nuremberg till the period of his
+reaching Cologne on his return, and from this curious record of the
+artist’s travels the following particulars of his visit to the
+Netherlands have been obtained.<a class = "tag" name = "tagV37" id =
+"tagV37" href = "#noteV37">V.37</a></p>
+
+<p>Durer proceeded <ins class = "correction" title = "text reads ‘foom’">from</ins> Nuremberg direct to Bamberg, where he presented to
+the bishop a painting of the Virgin, with a copy of the Apocalypse and
+the Life of the Virgin engraved on wood. The bishop invited Durer to his
+table, and gave him a letter exempting his goods from toll, with three
+others which were, most likely, letters of recommendation to persons of
+influence in the Netherlands.<a class = "tag" name = "tagV38" id =
+"tagV38" href = "#noteV38">V.38</a> From Bamberg, Durer proceeded by way
+of Eltman, Sweinfurth, and Frankfort to Mentz, and from the latter city
+down the Rhine to Cologne. In this part of his journey he seems to have
+met with little which he deemed worthy of remark: at Sweinfurth Dr.
+Rebart made him a present of some wine; at Mentz, Peter Goldsmith’s
+landlady presented him with two flasks of the same liquor; and when Veit
+Varnbuler invited him to dinner there, the tavern-keeper would not
+receive any payment, but insisted on being Durer’s host himself. At
+Lohnstein, on the Rhine, between Boppart and Coblentz, the
+toll-collector, who was well acquainted with Durer’s wife, presented him
+with a can of wine, and expressed himself extremely glad to see him.</p>
+
+<p>From Cologne, Durer proceeded direct to Antwerp, where he took up his
+abode in the house of “Jobst Planckfelt;” and on the evening of his
+arrival<a class = "tag" name = "tagV39" id = "tagV39" href =
+"#noteV39">V.39</a> he was invited to a splendid supper by Bernard
+Stecher, an
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page261" id = "page261">
+261</a></span>
+agent of the Fuggers, the celebrated family of merchants of Nuremberg,
+and the most wealthy in Germany. On St. Oswald’s day, Sunday, 5th
+August, the Painters’ Company of Antwerp invited Durer, with his wife
+and her maid,<a class = "tag" name = "tagV40" id = "tagV40" href =
+"#noteV40">V.40</a> to a grand entertainment in their hall, which was
+ornamented in a splendid manner, and all the vessels on the table were
+of silver. The wives of the painters were also present; and when Durer
+was conducted to his seat at the table “all the company stood up on each
+side, as if some great lord had been making his entrance.” Several
+honourable persons, who had also been invited, bowed to him; and all
+expressed their respect and their wishes to afford him pleasure. While
+he was at table the messenger of the magistrates of Antwerp made his
+appearance, and presented him in their name with four flaggons of wine,
+saying, that the magistrates thus testified their respect and their
+good-will towards him. Durer, as in duty bound, returned thanks, and
+tendered to the magisterial body his humble service. After this little
+affair was despatched, entered Peter the city carpenter <i>in propria
+persona</i>, and presented Durer with two more flaggons of wine, and
+complimented him with the offer of his services. After the party had
+enjoyed themselves cheerfully till late in the night, they attended
+Durer to his lodgings with torches in a most honourable manner,
+expressing their good-will towards him, and their readiness to assist
+him in whatever manner he might choose.&mdash;Shortly after this grand
+Fellowship-feast, Durer was entertained by Quintin
+Matsys,&mdash;frequently called the Blacksmith of Antwerp,&mdash;whose
+celebrated picture of the Misers is now in the Royal Collection at
+Windsor.</p>
+
+<p>On the Sunday after the Assumption,<a class = "tag" name = "tagV41"
+id = "tagV41" href = "#noteV41">V.41</a> Durer witnessed a grand
+procession in honour of the Virgin, and the account which he has given
+of it presents so curious a picture of the old religious pageantries
+that it appears worthy of being translated without abridgement. “On the
+Sunday after the Assumption of our Lady,” says the artist, “I&nbsp;saw
+the grand procession from our Lady’s church at Antwerp, where all the
+inhabitants of the city assembled, gentry as well as trades-people,
+each, according to his rank, gayly dressed. Every class and fellowship
+was distinguished by its proper badge; and large and valuable crosses
+were borne before several of the crafts. There were also silver trumpets
+of the old Frankish fashion; with German drums and fifes playing loudly.
+I&nbsp;also saw in the street, marching after each other in rank, at a
+certain
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page262" id = "page262">
+262</a></span>
+distance, the Goldsmiths, the Painters, the Masons, the Embroiderers,
+the Statuaries, the Cabinet-makers, the Carpenters, the Sailors, the
+Fishermen, the Butchers, the Curriers, the Weavers, the Bakers, the
+Tailors, the Shoemakers, and all kinds of craftsmen with labourers
+engaged in producing the necessaries of life. In the same manner came
+the Shopkeepers and Merchants with their assistants. After these came
+the Shooters, with firelocks, bows, and cross-bows, some on horseback
+and some on foot; and after them came the City Guard. These were
+followed by persons of the higher classes and the magistrates, all
+dressed in their proper habits; and after them came a gallant troop
+arrayed in a noble and splendid manner. In this procession were a number
+of females of a religious order who subsist by means of their labour,
+all clothed in white from head to foot, and forming a very pleasing
+sight. After them came a number of gallant persons and the canons of our
+Lady’s church, with all the clergy and scholars, followed by a grand
+display of characters. Twenty men carried the Virgin and Christ, most
+richly adorned, to the honour of God. In this part of the procession
+were a number of delightful things, represented in a splendid manner.
+There were several waggons in which were representations of ships and
+fortifications. Then came a troop of characters from the Prophets in
+regular order, followed by others from the New Testament, such as the
+Annunciation, the Wise Men of the East, riding on great camels and other
+wonderful animals, and the Flight into Egypt, all very skilfully
+appointed. Then came a great dragon, and St. Margaret, with the image of
+the Virgin at her girdle, exceedingly beautiful; and last St. George and
+his squire. In this troop rode a number of boys and girls very
+handsomely arrayed in various costumes, representing so many saints.
+This procession, from beginning to end, was upwards of two hours in
+passing our house; and there were so many things to be seen, that I
+could never describe them all even in a book.”<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagV42" id = "tagV42" href = "#noteV42">V.42</a></p>
+
+<p>Though Durer chiefly resided at Antwerp during his stay in the
+Netherlands, he did not entirely confine himself to that city, but
+occasionally visited other places. On the 2nd of September 1520, he left
+Antwerp for Brussels, proceeding by way of Malines and Vilvorde. When at
+Brussels, he saw a number of valuable curiosities which had been sent to
+the Emperor from Mexico, among which he enumerates a golden sun,
+a&nbsp;fathom broad, and a silver moon of the same size, with weapons,
+armour, and dresses, and various other admirable things of great beauty
+and cost. He says that their value was estimated at a hundred thousand
+guilders; and that he never saw any thing that pleased him so much in
+his life. Durer was evidently fond of seeing sights; he speaks with
+delight of the fountains, the labyrinths, and the parks in the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page263" id = "page263">
+263</a></span>
+neighbourhood of the Royal Palace, which he says were like Paradise; and
+among the wonders which he saw at Brussels, he notices a large fish-bone
+which was almost a fathom in circumference and weighed fifteen
+“centner;”<a class = "tag" name = "tagV43" id = "tagV43" href =
+"#noteV43">V.43</a> a&nbsp;great bed that would hold fifty men; and a
+stone which fell from the sky in a thunder-storm in presence of the
+Count of Nassau. He also mentions having seen at Antwerp the bones of a
+giant who had been eighteen feet high. Durer and his wife seem to have
+had a taste for zoology: Herr Lazarus Von Ravenspurg complimented him
+with a monkey; and “Signor Roderigo,” a&nbsp;Portuguese, presented his
+ill-tempered spouse with a green parrot.</p>
+
+<p>When at Brussels, Durer painted the portrait of the celebrated
+Erasmus, from whom, previous to leaving Antwerp, he had received as a
+present a Spanish mantle and three portraits. He remained about a week
+at Brussels, during which time he drew or painted seven portraits; and
+in his Journal he makes the following memorandum: “Item, six persons
+whose likenesses I have taken at Brussels, have not given me anything.”
+Among those portraits was that of Bernard Van Orley, an eminent Flemish
+painter who had studied under Raffaele, and who at that time held the
+office of painter to the Archduchess Margaret, regent of the
+Netherlands, and aunt of the Emperor Charles&nbsp;V. When at Brussels,
+Durer bought for a stiver<a class = "tag" name = "tagV44" id = "tagV44"
+href = "#noteV44">V.44</a> two copies of the “Eulenspiegel,”
+a&nbsp;celebrated engraving by Lucas Van Leyden, now of very great
+rarity.</p>
+
+<p>After remaining at Antwerp till the latter end of September, Durer
+proceeded to Aix-la-Chapelle, where, on the 23rd of October, he
+witnessed the coronation of the Emperor Charles&nbsp;V. He afterwards
+proceeded to Cologne, where, on the Sunday after All Saints’ day, he saw
+a grand banquet and dance given by the emperor, from whom, on the Monday
+after Martinmas day, he received the appointment of court-painter to his
+Imperial Majesty. When at Cologne, Durer bought a copy of the
+“Condemnation of that good man, Martin Luther, for a white-penny.” This
+Condemnation was probably a copy of the bull of excommunication issued
+against Luther by Pope Leo&nbsp;X. on 20th June
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page264" id = "page264">
+264</a></span>
+1520. In a day or two after receiving his appointment, Durer left
+Cologne and proceeded down the Rhine, and visited Nimeguen. He then went
+to Bois-le-duc, where he was entertained by Arnold de Beer,
+a&nbsp;painter of considerable reputation in his day, and treated with
+great respect by the goldsmiths of the place. On the Thursday after the
+Presentation of the Virgin,<a class = "tag" name = "tagV45" id =
+"tagV45" href = "#noteV45">V.45</a>&mdash;21st November,&mdash;Durer
+again arrived at Antwerp. “In the seven weeks and upwards that I was
+absent,” he writes in his Journal, “my wife and her maid spent seven
+gold crowns. The first had her pocket cut off in St. Mary’s church on
+St. Mary’s day; there were two guilders in it.”</p>
+
+<p>On the 3rd of December, Durer left Antwerp on a short journey through
+Zealand, proceeding by way of Bergen-op-Zoom. In the Abbey at Middleburg
+he saw the great picture of the Descent from the Cross by Mabeuse; of
+which he remarks that “it is better painted than drawn.” When he was
+about to land at Armuyden, a&nbsp;small town on the island of Walcheren,
+the rope broke, and a violent wind arising, the boat which he was in was
+driven out to sea. Some persons, however, at length came to their
+assistance, and brought all the passengers safely ashore. On the Friday
+after St. Lucia’s day he again returned to Antwerp, after having been
+absent about twelve days.</p>
+
+<p>On Shrove Tuesday, 1521, the company of goldsmiths invited Durer and
+his wife to a dinner, at which he was treated with great honour; and as
+this was an early meal, he was enabled at night to attend a grand
+banquet to which he was invited by one of the chief magistrates of
+Antwerp. On the Monday after his entertainment by the goldsmiths he was
+invited to another grand banquet which lasted two hours, and where he
+won, at some kind of game, two guilders of Bernard of Castile. Both at
+this and at the magistrates’ banquet there was masquerading. At another
+entertainment given by Master Peter the Secretary, Durer and Erasmus
+were present. He was not idle at this period of festivity, but drew
+several portraits in pencil. He also made a drawing for “Tomasin,” and a
+painting of St. Jerome for Roderigo of Portugal, who appears to have
+been one of the most liberal of all Durer’s Antwerp friends. Besides the
+little green parrot which he gave his wife, he also presented Durer with
+one for himself; he also gave him a small cask of comfits, with various
+other sweetmeats, and specimens of the sugar-cane. He also made him a
+present of cocoa-nuts and of several other things; and shortly before
+the painting was finished, Signor Roderigo
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page265" id = "page265">
+265</a></span>
+gave him two large pieces of Portuguese gold coin, each of which was
+worth ten ducats.</p>
+
+<p>On the Saturday after Easter, Durer visited Bruges, where he saw in
+St. James’s church some beautiful paintings by Hubert Van Eyck and Hugo
+Vander Goes; and in the Painters’ chapel, and in other churches, he saw
+several by John Van Eyck; he also mentions having seen, in St. Mary’s
+church, an image of the Virgin in alabaster by Michael Angelo. The guild
+of painters invited him to a grand banquet in their hall. Two of the
+magistrates, Jacob and Peter Mostaert, presented him with twelve
+flaggons of wine; and on the conclusion of the entertainment, all the
+company, amounting to sixty persons, accompanied him with torches to his
+lodgings. He next visited Ghent, where the company of painters also
+treated him with great respect. He there saw, in St. John’s church, the
+celebrated picture of the Elders worshipping the Lamb, from the
+Revelations, painted by John Van Eyck for Philip the Good, Duke of
+Burgundy. Durer thus expresses his opinion of it: “This is a well
+conceived and capital picture; the figures of Eve, the Virgin, and God
+the Father, are, in particular, extremely good.” After being about a
+week absent, he again returned to Antwerp, where he was shortly after
+seized with an intermitting fever, which was accompanied with a violent
+head-ache and great sense of weariness. This illness, however, does not
+seem to have lasted very long; his fever commenced in the third week
+after Easter, and on Rogation Sunday he attended the marriage feast of
+“Meister Joachim,”&mdash;probably Joachim Patenier, a&nbsp;landscape
+painter whom Durer mentions in an earlier part of his Journal.</p>
+
+<p>Durer was a man of strong religious feelings; and when Luther began
+to preach in opposition to the church of Rome, he warmly espoused his
+cause. The following passages from his Journal sufficiently demonstrate
+the interest which he felt in the success of the great champion of the
+Reformation. Luther on his return from Worms, where he had attended the
+Diet under a safe-conduct granted by the Emperor Charles V, was waylaid,
+on 4th May 1521, by a party of armed men, who caused him to descend from
+the light waggon in which he was travelling, and to follow them into an
+adjacent wood. His brother James, who was in the waggon with him, made
+his escape on the first appearance of the horsemen. Luther having been
+secured, the driver and others who were in the waggon were allowed to
+pursue their journey without further hindrance. This secret apprehension
+of Luther was, in reality, contrived by his friend and supporter,
+Frederick, Elector of Saxony,<a class = "tag" name = "tagV46" id =
+"tagV46" href = "#noteV46">V.46</a> in order to withdraw him
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page266" id = "page266">
+266</a></span>
+for a time from the apprehended violence of his enemies, whose hatred
+towards him had been more than ever inflamed by the bold and undisguised
+statement of his opinions at Worms. Luther’s friends, being totally
+ignorant of the elector’s design, generally supposed that the
+safe-conduct had been disregarded by those whose duty it was to respect
+it, and that he had been betrayed and delivered into the hands of his
+enemies. Durer, on hearing of Luther’s apprehension, writes in his
+Journal as follows.</p>
+
+<p>“On the Friday after Whitsuntide, 1521, I heard a report at Antwerp,
+that Martin Luther had been treacherously seized; for the herald of the
+Emperor Charles, who attended him with a safe-conduct, and to whose
+protection he was committed, on arriving at a lonely place near
+Eisenach, said he durst proceed no further, and rode away. Immediately
+ten horsemen made their appearance, and carried off the godly man thus
+betrayed into their hands. He was indeed a man enlightened by the Holy
+Ghost, and a follower of the true Christian faith. Whether he be yet
+living, or whether his enemies have put him to death, I&nbsp;know not;
+yet certainly what he has suffered has been for the sake of truth, and
+because he has reprehended the abuses of unchristian papacy, which
+strives to fetter Christian liberty with the incumbrance of human
+ordinances, that we may be robbed of the price of our blood and sweat,
+and shamefully plundered by idlers, while the sick and needy perish
+through hunger. Above all, it is especially distressing to me to think
+that God may yet allow us to remain under the blind doctrine which those
+men called ‘the fathers’ have imagined and set forth, whereby the
+precious word is either in many places falsely expounded or not at all
+observed.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagV47" id = "tagV47" href =
+"#noteV47">V.47</a></p>
+
+<p>After indulging in sundry pious invocations and reflections to the
+extent of two or three pages, Durer thus proceeds to lament the supposed
+death of Luther, and to invoke Erasmus to put his hand to the work from
+which he believed that Luther had been removed. “And is Luther dead? Who
+henceforth will so clearly explain to us the Gospel? Alas! what might he
+not have written for us in ten or twenty years? Aid me,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page267" id = "page267">
+267</a></span>
+all pious Christians, to bewail this man of heavenly mind, and to pray
+that God may send us another as divinely enlightened. Where,
+O&nbsp;Erasmus, wilt thou remain? Behold, now, how the tyranny of might
+and the power of darkness prevail. Hear, thou champion of Christ! Ride
+forward, defend the truth, and deserve the martyr’s crown, for thou art
+already an old man.<a class = "tag" name = "tagV48" id = "tagV48" href =
+"#noteV48">V.48</a> I&nbsp;have heard from thy own mouth that thou hast
+allotted to thyself two years yet of labour in which thou mightst still
+be able to produce something good; employ these well for the benefit of
+the Gospel and the true Christian faith: let then thy voice be heard,
+and so shall not the see of Rome, the gates of Hell, as Christ saith,
+prevail against thee. And though, like thy master, thou shouldst bear
+the scorn of the liars, and even die a short time earlier than thou
+otherwise mightst, yet wilt thou therefore pass earlier from death unto
+eternal life and be glorified through Christ. If thou drinkest of the
+cup of which he drank, so wilt thou reign with him and pronounce
+judgment on those who have acted unrighteously.”<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagV49" id = "tagV49" href = "#noteV49">V.49</a></p>
+
+<p>About this time a large wood-cut, of which the following is a reduced
+copy, was published; and though the satire which it contains will apply
+equally to any monk who may be supposed to be an instrument of the
+devil, it was probably directed against Luther in particular, as a
+teacher of false doctrine through the inspiration of the father of lies.
+In the cut the arch-enemy, as a bag-piper, is seen blowing into the ear
+of a monk, whose head forms the “bag,” and by skilful fingering causing
+the nose, elongated in the form of a “chanter,” to discourse sweet
+music. The preaching friars of former times were no less celebrated for
+their nasal melody than the “saints” in the days of Cromwell.
+A&nbsp;serious
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page268" id = "page268">
+268</a></span>
+portrait of Luther, probably engraved or drawn on wood by Hans Baldung
+Grün, a&nbsp;pupil of Durer, was also published in 1521. It is printed
+in a quarto tract, entitled, “Acta et Res gestæ D.&nbsp;Martini Lutheri
+in Comitiis Principum Vuormaciæ, Anno <span class =
+"smallroman">MDXXI</span>,” and also in a tract, written by Luther
+himself in answer to Jerome Emser, without date, but probably printed at
+Wittenberg about 1523. In this portrait, which bears considerable
+resemblance to the head forming the bag of Satan’s pipe, Luther appears
+as if meditating on a passage that he has just read in a volume which he
+holds open; his head is surrounded with rays of glory; and the Holy
+Ghost, in the form of a dove, appears as if about to settle on his
+shaven crown. In an impression now before me, some one, apparently a
+contemporary, who thought that Luther’s inspiration was derived from
+another source, has with pen and ink transformed the dove into one of
+those unclean things between bat and serpent, which are
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page269" id = "page269">
+269</a></span>
+supposed to be appropriate to the regions of darkness, and which are
+generally to be seen in paintings and engravings of the temptation of
+St. Anthony.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_268" id = "illus_268">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_268.png" width = "322" height = "416"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>A week after Corpus Christi day<a class = "tag" name = "tagV50" id =
+"tagV50" href = "#noteV50">V.50</a> Durer left Antwerp for Malines,
+where the Archduchess Margaret, the aunt of the emperor Charles V, was
+then residing. He took up his lodgings with Henry de Bles,
+a&nbsp;painter of considerable reputation, called Civetta by the
+Italians, from the owl which he painted as a mark in most of his
+pictures; and the painters and statuaries, as at Antwerp and other
+places, invited him to an entertainment and treated him with great
+respect. He waited on the archduchess and showed her his portrait of the
+emperor, and would have presented it to her, but she would by no means
+accept of it;&mdash;probably because she could not well receive such a
+gift without making the artist a suitable return, for it appears, from a
+subsequent passage in Durer’s Journal, that she had no particular
+objection to receive other works of art when they cost her nothing.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of a few days Durer returned to Antwerp, where he
+shortly afterwards saw Lucas Van Leyden, the celebrated painter and
+engraver, whose plates at that time were by many considered nearly equal
+to his own. Durer’s brief notice of his talented contemporary is as
+follows: “Received an invitation from Master Lucas, who engraves on
+copper. He is a little man, and a native of Leyden in Holland.”
+Subsequently he mentions having drawn Lucas’s portrait in crayons; and
+having exchanged some of his own works to the value of eight florins for
+a complete set of Lucas’s engravings. Durer in this part of his Journal,
+after enumerating the portraits he had taken and the exchanges he had
+made since his return from Malines to Antwerp, thus speaks of the manner
+in which he was rewarded: “In all my transactions in the
+Netherlands&mdash;for my paintings, drawings, and in disposing of my
+works&mdash;both with high and low I have had the disadvantage. The Lady
+Margaret, especially, for all that I have given her and done for her,
+has not made me the least recompense.”</p>
+
+<p>Durer now began to make preparations for his return home. He engaged
+a waggoner to take him and his wife to Cologne; he exchanged a portrait
+of the emperor for some white English cloth; and, on 1st July, he
+borrowed of Alexander Imhoff a hundred gold guilders to be repaid at
+Nuremberg; another proof that Durer, though treated with great
+distinction in the Low Countries, had not derived much pecuniary
+advantage during the period of his residence there. On the 2nd July,
+when he was about to leave Antwerp, the King of Denmark, Christian II,
+who had recently arrived in Flanders, sent for him to take his
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page270" id = "page270">
+270</a></span>
+portrait. He first drew his majesty with black chalk&mdash;mit der
+Kohlen&mdash;and afterwards went with him to Brussels, where he appears
+to have painted his portrait in oil colours, and for which he received
+thirty florins. At Brussels, on the Sunday before St. Margaret’s Day,<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagV51" id = "tagV51" href = "#noteV51">V.51</a>
+the King of Denmark gave a grand banquet to the Emperor and the
+Archduchess Margaret, to which Durer had the honour of being invited,
+and failed not to attend. On the following Friday he left Brussels to
+return to Nuremberg, proceeding by way of Aix-la-Chapelle to
+Cologne.</p>
+
+<p>Out of a variety of other matters which Durer has mentioned in his
+Journal, the following&mdash;which could not be conveniently given in
+chronological order in the preceding abstract&mdash;may not, perhaps, be
+wholly uninteresting. He painted a portrait of one Nicholas, an
+astronomer, who was in the service of the King of England, and who was
+of great service to Durer on several occasions.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagV52" id = "tagV52" href = "#noteV52">V.52</a> He gave one florin and
+eight stivers for wood, but whether for drawing on, or for fuel, is
+uncertain. He only mentions having made two drawings on wood during his
+residence in the Low Countries, and both were of the arms of Von
+Rogendorff, noticed at page 236. In one of those instances, he
+distinctly says that he made the drawing, “<i>das man’s schneiden
+mag</i>”&mdash;that it may be engraved. The word “<i>man’s</i>” clearly
+shows that it was to be engraved by another person.&mdash;He mentions
+that since Raffaele’s death his works are
+dispersed&mdash;“<i>verzogen</i>,”&mdash;and that one of that master’s
+pupils, by name “Thomas Polonier,” had called on him and made him a
+present of an antique ring. In a subsequent passage he calls this person
+“Thomas Polonius,” and says that he had given him a set of his works to
+be sent to Rome and exchanged for “<i>Raphaelische
+Sache</i>”&mdash;things by Raffaele.</p>
+
+<p>It has been said, though without sufficient authority, that Durer,
+weary of a home where he was made miserable by his bad-tempered,
+avaricious wife, left Nuremberg, and visited the Low Countries alone for
+the purpose of avoiding her constant annoyance. There is, however, no
+evidence of Durer’s visiting the Low Countries previous to 1520, when he
+was accompanied by his wife; nor is there any authentic record of his
+ever again visiting Flanders subsequent to the latter end of August
+1521, when he left Brussels to return to Nuremberg. In 1522, Durer
+published the first edition of the Triumphal Car of the Emperor
+Maximilian, the designs for which had probably been made five or six
+years before. One of the best portraits drawn by Durer on wood also
+bears the date 1522. It is that of his friend Ulrich Varnbuler,<a class
+= "tag" name = "tagV53" id = "tagV53" href =
+"#noteV53">V.53</a>&mdash;mentioned at page 253,&mdash;and is of large
+size, being about
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page271" id = "page271">
+271</a></span>
+seventeen inches high by twelve and three-fourths wide. The head is full
+of character, and the engraving is admirably executed. From 1522 to
+1528, the year of Durer’s death, he seems to have almost entirely given
+up the practice of drawing on wood, as there are only three cuts with
+his mark which contain a date between those years; they are his own arms
+dated 1523; his own portrait dated 1527; and the siege of a fortified
+city previously noticed at page 253, also dated 1527. The following is a
+reduced copy of the cut of Durer’s arms. The pair of <i>doors</i> on the
+shield&mdash;in German <i>Durer</i> or <i>Thurer</i>&mdash;is a rebus of
+the artist’s name; after the manner of the Lucys of our own country, who
+bore three <i>luces</i>,<a class = "tag" name = "tagV54" id = "tagV54"
+href = "#noteV54">V.54</a> or pikes&mdash;fish, not
+weapons&mdash;argent, in their coat of arms.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_271" id = "illus_271">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_271.png" width = "252" height = "339"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page272" id = "page272">
+272</a></span>
+<p>The last of Durer’s engravings on copper is a portrait of Melancthon,
+dated 1526, the year in which the meek and learned reformer visited
+Nuremberg. The following is a reduced copy of his own portrait, perhaps
+the last drawing that he made on wood. It is probably a good likeness of
+the artist; at any rate it bears a great resemblance to the portrait
+said to be intended for Durer’s own in his carving of the naming of St.
+John, of which some account is given at page 259. The size of the
+original is eleven inches and three-eighths high by ten inches wide.
+According to Bartsch, the earliest impressions have not the arms and
+mark, and are inscribed above the border at the top: “<i>Albrecht
+Durer’s Conterfeyt</i>”&mdash;Albert Durer’s portrait. It would seem
+that the block had been preserved for many years subsequent to the date,
+for I have now before me an impression, on comparatively modern paper,
+from which it is evident that at the time of its being taken, the block
+had been much corroded by worms.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_272" id = "illus_272">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_272.png" width = "315" height = "373"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>It is probable that between 1522 and 1528 the treatises of which
+Durer is the author were chiefly composed. Their Titles are An Essay on
+the Fortification of Towns and Villages; Instructions for Measuring
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page273" id = "page273">
+273</a></span>
+with the Rule and Compass; and On the Proportions of the Human Body.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagV55" id = "tagV55" href = "#noteV55">V.55</a>
+They were all published at Nuremberg with illustrative wood-cuts; the
+first in 1527, and the other two in 1528. It is to the latter work that
+Hogarth alludes, in his Analysis of Beauty, when he speaks of Albert
+Durer, Lamozzo, and others, having “puzzled mankind with a heap of
+minute unnecessary divisions” in their rules for correctly drawing the
+human figure.</p>
+
+<p>After a life of unremitted application,&mdash;as is sufficiently
+proved by the number of his works as a painter, an engraver, and a
+designer on wood,&mdash;Albert Durer died at Nuremberg on 6th April
+1528, in the fifty-seventh year of his age. His wife’s wretched temper
+had unquestionably rendered the latter years of his life very unhappy,
+and in her eagerness to obtain money she appears to have urged her
+husband to what seems more like the heartless toil of a slave than an
+artist’s exercise of his profession. It is said that her sitting-room
+was under her husband’s studio, and that she was accustomed to give an
+admonitory knock against the ceiling whenever she suspected that he was
+“not getting forward with his work.” The following extracts from a
+letter, written by Bilibald Pirkheimer shortly after Durer’s death, will
+show that common fame has not greatly belied this heartless, selfish
+woman, in ascribing, in a great measure, her husband’s death to the
+daily vexation which she caused him, and to her urging him to continual
+application in order that a greater sum might be secured to her on his
+decease. The passages relating to Durer in Pirkheimer’s letter are to
+the following effect.<a class = "tag" name = "tagV56" id = "tagV56" href
+= "#noteV56">V.56</a></p>
+
+<p>“I have indeed lost in Albert one of the best friends I had on earth;
+and nothing pains me more than the thought of his death having been so
+melancholy, which, next to the will of Providence, I&nbsp;can ascribe to
+no one but his wife, for she fretted him so much and tasked him so hard
+that he departed sooner than he otherwise would. He was dried up like a
+bundle of straw; durst never enjoy himself nor enter into company. This
+bad woman, moreover, was anxious about that for which she had no
+occasion to take heed,&mdash;she urged him to labour day and night
+solely that he might earn money, even at the cost of his life, and leave
+it to her; she was content to live despised, as she does still, provided
+Albert might leave her six thousand guilders. But she cannot
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page274" id = "page274">
+274</a></span>
+enjoy them: the sum of the matter is, she alone has been the cause of
+his death. I&nbsp;have often expostulated with her about her fretful,
+jealous conduct, and warned her what the consequences would be, but have
+only met with reproach. To the friends and sincere well-wishers of
+Albert she was sure to be the enemy; while such conduct was to him a
+cause of exceeding grief, and contributed to bring him to the grave.
+I&nbsp;have not seen her since his death; she will have nothing to say
+to me, although I have on many occasions rendered her great service.
+Whoever contradicts her, or gives not way to her in all things, is sure
+to incur her enmity; I&nbsp;am, therefore, better pleased that she
+should keep herself away. She and her sister are not indeed women of
+loose character; but, on the contrary, are, as I believe, of honest
+reputation and religious; one would, however, rather have one of the
+other kind who otherwise conducts herself in a pleasant manner, than a
+fretful, jealous, scolding wife&mdash;however devout she may
+be&mdash;with whom a man can have no peace either day or night. We must,
+however, leave the matter to the will of God, who will be gracious and
+merciful to Albert, for his life was that of a pious and righteous man.
+As he died like a good Christian, we may have little doubt of his
+salvation. God grant us grace, and that in his own good time we may
+happily follow Albert.”</p>
+
+<p>The popular error,&mdash;as I believe it to be,&mdash;that Albert
+Durer was an engraver on wood, has not tended, in England, where his
+works as a painter are but little known, to increase his reputation.
+Many persons on looking over the wood engravings which bear his mark
+have thought but meanly of their execution; and have concluded that his
+abilities as an artist were much over-rated, on the supposition that his
+fame chiefly rested on the presumed fact of his being the engraver of
+those works. Certain writers, too, speaking of him as a painter and an
+engraver on copper, have formed rather an unfavourable estimate of his
+talents, by comparing his pictures with those of his great Italian
+contemporaries,&mdash;Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Angelo, and
+Raffaele,&mdash;and by judging of his engravings with reference to the
+productions of modern art, in which the freedom and effect of etching
+are combined with the precision and clearness of lines produced by the
+burin. This, however, is judging the artist by an unfair standard.
+Though he has not attained, nor indeed attempted, that sublimity which
+seems to have been principally the aim of the three great Italian
+masters above mentioned, he has produced much that is beautiful,
+natural, and interesting; and which, though it may not stand so high in
+the scale of art as the grand compositions of his three great
+contemporaries, is no less necessary to its completion. The field which
+he cultivated, though not yielding productions so noble or splendid as
+theirs, was of greater extent and afforded greater variety. If they have
+left us more sublime conceptions of past and future events,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page275" id = "page275">
+275</a></span>
+Durer has transmitted to us more faithful pictures of the characters,
+manners, and customs of his own times. Let those who are inclined to
+depreciate his engravings on copper, as dry and meagre when compared
+with the productions of modern engravers, consider the state in which he
+found the art; and let them also recollect that he was not a mere
+translator of another person’s ideas, but that he engraved his own
+designs. Setting aside his merits as a painter, I&nbsp;am of opinion
+that no artist of the present day has produced, from his own designs,
+three such engravings as Durer’s Adam and Eve, St. Jerome seated in his
+chamber writing, and the subject entitled Melancolia.<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagV57" id = "tagV57" href = "#noteV57">V.57</a> Let it also not
+be forgotten that to Albert Durer we owe the discovery of etching;
+a&nbsp;branch of the art which gives to modern engravers, more
+especially in landscape, so great an advantage over the original
+inventor. Looking impartially at the various works of Durer, and
+considering the period and the country in which he lived, few,
+I&nbsp;think, will venture to deny that he was one of the greatest
+artists of his age. The best proof indeed of the solidity of his fame is
+afforded by the esteem in which his works have been held for three
+centuries by nearly all persons who have had opportunities of seeing
+them, except such as have, upon narrow principles, formed an exclusive
+theory with respect to excellence in art. With such authorities nothing
+can be beautiful or interesting that is not <i>grand</i>; every country
+parish church should be built in the style of a Grecian temple; our
+woods should grow nothing but oaks; a&nbsp;country gentleman’s dove-cot
+should be a fac-simile of the lantern of Demosthenes; the sign of the
+Angel at a country inn should be painted by a Guido; and a picture
+representing the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement
+of Science should be in the style of Raffaele’s School of Athens.</p>
+
+<p>Lucas Cranach, a painter of great repute in his day, like his
+contemporary Durer has also been supposed to be the engraver of the
+wood-cuts which bear his mark, but which, in all probability, were only
+drawn by him on the block and executed by professional wood engravers.
+The family name of this artist was Sunder, and he is also sometimes
+called Muller or Maler&mdash;Painter&mdash;from his profession. He
+acquired the name Cranach, or Von Cranach, from Cranach, a&nbsp;town in
+the territory of Bamberg, where he was born in 1470. He enjoyed the
+patronage of the electoral princes of Saxony, and one of the most
+frequent of his marks is a shield of the arms of that family. Another of
+his marks is a shield with two swords crossed; a&nbsp;third is a kind of
+dragon; and a fourth is
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page276" id = "page276">
+276</a></span>
+the initial letters of his name, L.&nbsp;C. Sometimes two or three of
+those marks are to be found in one cut. There are four engravings on
+copper with the mark <img class = "middle" src = "images/illus_276.png"
+width = "35" height = "43" alt = "LCZ"> which are generally ascribed to
+this artist. That they are from his designs is very likely, but whether
+they were engraved by himself or not is uncertain. One of them bears the
+date 1492, and it is probable that they were all executed about the same
+period. Two of those pieces were in the possession of Mr. Ottley, who
+says, “Perhaps the two last characters of the mark may be intended for
+<i>Cr</i>.” It seems, however, more likely that the last character is
+intended for the letter which it most resembles&mdash;a Z, and that it
+denotes the German word <i>zeichnet</i>&mdash;that is “<i>drew</i>;” in
+the same manner as later artists occasionally subjoined the letter P or
+F to their names for <i>Pinxit</i> or <i>Fecit</i>, respectively as they
+might have painted the picture or engraved the plate.</p>
+
+<p>One of the earliest chiaro-scuros, as has before been observed,
+printed from three blocks, is from a design of Lucas Cranach. It is
+dated 1509, nine years before the earliest chiaro-scuro with a date
+executed by Ugo da Carpi, to whom Vasari and others have erroneously
+ascribed the invention of this mode of imitating a drawing by
+impressions from two or more wood-blocks. The subject, like that of the
+following specimen, is a Repose in Egypt, but is treated in a different
+manner,&mdash;the Virgin being represented giving suck to the infant
+Christ.</p>
+
+<p>The wood engravings that contain Cranach’s mark are not so numerous
+as those which contain the mark of Albert Durer, and they are also
+generally inferior to the latter both in effect and design. The
+following reduced copy of a cut which contains three of Cranach’s four
+marks will afford some idea of the style of his designs on wood. As a
+specimen of his ability in this branch of art it is perhaps superior to
+the greater part of his designs executed in the same manner. The subject
+is described by Bartsch as a Repose in Egypt. The action of the youthful
+angels who are dancing round the Virgin and the infant Christ is
+certainly truly juvenile if not graceful. The two children seen up the
+tree robbing an eagle’s nest are perhaps emblematic of the promised
+peace of Christ’s kingdom and of the destruction of the power of Satan:
+“No lion shall be there nor any ravenous beast shall go up thereon, it
+shall not be found there; but the redeemed shall walk there.”<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagV58" id = "tagV58" href = "#noteV58">V.58</a> In the
+right-hand corner at the top is the shield of the arms of Saxony; and to
+the left, also at the top, is another of Cranach’s marks&mdash;a shield
+with two swords crossed; in the right-hand corner at the bottom is a
+third mark,&mdash;the figure of a kind of dragon with a ring in its
+mouth. The size of the original cut is thirteen inches and one-fourth
+high by nine inches and one-fourth wide.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_277" id = "illus_277">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_277.png" width = "333" height = "463"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page277" id = "page277">
+277</a></span>
+<p>Cranach was much esteemed in his own country as a painter, and
+several of his pictures are still regarded with admiration. He was in
+great favour with John Frederick, Elector of Saxony,<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagV59" id = "tagV59" href = "#noteV59">V.59</a> and at one
+period of his life was one of the magistrates of Wittenberg. He died at
+Weimar, on 16th October 1553, aged eighty-three.</p>
+
+<p>Another eminent painter who has been classed with Durer and Cranach
+as a wood engraver is Hans Burgmair, who was born at Augsburg about
+1473. The mark of this artist is to be found on a
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page278" id = "page278">
+278</a></span>
+great number of wood engravings, but beyond this fact there is not the
+least reason to suppose that he ever engraved a single block. To those
+who have described Burgmair as a wood engraver from this circumstance
+only, a&nbsp;most satisfactory answer is afforded by the fact that
+several of the original blocks of the Triumphs of Maximilian, which
+contain Burgmair’s mark, have at the back the names of the different
+engravers by whom they were executed. As we have here positive evidence
+of cuts with Burgmair’s mark being engraved by other persons, we cannot
+certainly conclude that any cut, from the mere fact of its containing
+his mark, was actually engraved by himself. Next to Albert Durer he was
+one of the best designers on wood of his age; and as one of the early
+masters of the German school of painting he is generally considered as
+entitled to rank next to the great painter of Nuremberg. It has indeed
+been supposed that Burgmair was a pupil of Durer; but for this opinion
+there seems to be no sufficient ground. It is certain that he made many
+of the designs for the wood-cuts published under the title of The
+Triumphs of Maximilian; and it is also probable that he drew nearly all
+the cuts in the book entitled Der Weiss Kunig&mdash;The Wise King,
+another work illustrative of the learning, wisdom, and adventures of the
+Emperor Maximilian.<a class = "tag" name = "tagV60" id = "tagV60" href =
+"#noteV60">V.60</a> Before proceeding, however, to give any account of
+those works, it seems advisable to give two specimens from a different
+series of wood-cuts of his designing, and to briefly notice two or three
+of the more remarkable single cuts that bear his mark.</p>
+
+<p>The cut on the opposite page is a reduced copy from a series designed
+by Burgmair. The subject is Samson and Delilah, and is treated according
+to the old German fashion, without the least regard to propriety of
+costume. Samson is represented like a grisly old German baron of
+Burgmair’s own time, with limbs certainly not indicating extraordinary
+strength; and Delilah seems very deliberately engaged in cutting off his
+hair. The wine flagon and fowl, to the left, would seem to indicate the
+danger of yielding to sensual indulgence. The original cut is surrounded
+by an ornamental border, and is four inches and five-eighths high by
+three inches and five-eighths wide. Burgmair’s mark H.&nbsp;B. is at the
+bottom of the cut, to the right.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_279" id = "illus_279">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_279.png" width = "325" height = "398"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The cut on page 280 is also a reduced copy from one of the same
+series, and is a proof that those who call the whole by the general
+title of “Bible Prints” are not exactly correct in their nomenclature.
+The somewhat humorous-looking personage, whom a lady is using as her
+pad, is thus described in an inscription underneath the cut: “Aristotle,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page279" id = "page279">
+279</a></span>
+a Greek, the son of Nicomachus. A&nbsp;disciple of Plato, and the master
+of Alexander the Great.” Though Aristotle is said to have been extremely
+fond of his wife Pythaïs, and to have paid her divine honours after her
+death, there is no record, I&nbsp;believe, of her having amused herself
+with riding on her husband’s back. The subject is probably intended to
+illustrate the power of the fair sex over even the wisest of mortals,
+and to show that philosophers themselves when under such influence
+occasionally forget their character as teachers of men, and exhibit
+themselves in situations which scarcely an ass might envy. The original
+is surrounded by a border, and is four inches and five-eighths high by
+three inches and five-eighths wide.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_280" id = "illus_280">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_280.png" width = "324" height = "402"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>There are several chiaro-scuros from wood-blocks with Burgmair’s
+mark. One of the earliest is a portrait of “Joannes Paungartner,” from
+two blocks, with the date 1512; another of St. George on horseback, from
+two blocks, engraved by Jost or Josse de Negher, without date;
+a&nbsp;third representing a young woman flying from Death, who is seen
+killing
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page280" id = "page280">
+280</a></span>
+a young man,&mdash;from three blocks, without date; and a fourth of the
+Emperor Maximilian on horseback, from two blocks, with the date
+1518.</p>
+
+<p>The best cuts of Burgmair’s designing, though drawn with great spirit
+and freedom, are decidedly inferior to the best of the wood-cuts
+designed by Albert Durer. Errors in perspective are frequent in the cuts
+which bear his mark; his figures are not so varied nor their characters
+so well indicated as Durer’s; and in their arrangement, or grouping, he
+is also inferior to Durer, as well as in the art of giving effect to his
+subjects by the skilful distribution of light and shade. The cuts in the
+Wise King, nearly all of which are said to have been designed by him,
+are, for the most part, very inferior productions both with respect to
+engraving and design. His merits as a designer on wood are perhaps shown
+to greater advantage in the Triumphs of Maximilian than in any other of
+his works executed in this manner.&mdash;Some writers have asserted that
+Burgmair died in 1517, but this is certainly incorrect; for there is a
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page281" id = "page281">
+281</a></span>
+portrait of him, with that of his wife on the same pannel, painted by
+himself in 1529, when he was fifty-six years old. Underneath this
+painting was a couplet to the following effect:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p>Our likeness such as here you view;&mdash;</p>
+<p>The glass itself was not more true.<a class = "tag" name = "tagV61"
+id = "tagV61" href = "#noteV61">V.61</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Burgmair, like Cranach, lived till he was upwards of eighty; but it
+would seem that he had given up drawing on wood for many years previous
+to his death, for I am not aware of there being any wood-cuts designed
+by him with a date subsequent to 1530. He died in 1559, aged
+eighty-six.</p>
+
+<p>Hans Schäufflein is another of those old German painters who are
+generally supposed to have been also engravers on wood. Bartsch,
+however, thinks that, like Durer, Cranach, and Burgmair, he only made
+the designs for the wood-cuts which are ascribed to him, and that they
+were engraved by other persons. Schäufflein was born at Nuremberg in
+1483; and it is said that he was a pupil of Albert Durer. Subsequently
+he removed to Nordlingen, a&nbsp;town in Suabia, about sixty miles to
+the south-westward of Nuremberg, where he died in 1550.</p>
+
+<p>The wood-cuts in connexion with which Schäufllein’s name is most
+frequently mentioned are the illustrations of the work usually called
+the Adventures of Sir Theurdank,<a class = "tag" name = "tagV62" id =
+"tagV62" href = "#noteV62">V.62</a> an allegorical poem, in folio, which
+is
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page282" id = "page282">
+282</a></span>
+said to have been the joint composition of the Emperor Maximilian and
+his private secretary Melchior Pfintzing, provost of the church of St.
+Sebald at Nuremberg. Though Köhler, a&nbsp;German author, in an Essay on
+Sir Theurdank,&mdash;De inclyto libro poetico Theurdank,&mdash;has
+highly praised the poetical beauties of the work, they are certainly not
+such as are likely to interest an English reader. “The versified
+allegory of Sir Theurdank,” says Küttner,<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagV63" id = "tagV63" href = "#noteV63">V.63</a> “is deficient in true
+Epic beauty; it has also nothing, as a poem, of the romantic
+descriptions of the thirteenth century,&mdash;nothing of the delicate
+gallantry of the age of chivalry and the troubadours. The machinery
+which sets all in action are certain personifications of Envy, restless
+Curiosity, and Daring; these induce the hero to undertake many perilous
+adventures, from which he always escapes through Understanding and
+Virtue. Such is the groundwork of the fable which Pfintzing constructs
+in order to extol, under allegorical representations, the perils,
+adventures, and heroic deeds of the emperor. Everything is described so
+figuratively as to amount to a riddle; and the story proceeds with
+little connexion and without animation. There are no striking
+descriptive passages, no Homeric similes, and no episodes to allow the
+reader occasionally to rest; in fact, nothing admirable,
+spirit-stirring, or great. The poem is indeed rather moral than epic;
+Lucan’s Pharsalia partakes more of the epic character than Pfintzing’s
+Theurdank. Pfintzing, however, surpasses the Cyclic poets alluded to by
+Horace.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagV64" id = "tagV64" href =
+"#noteV64">V.64</a></p>
+
+<p>The first edition of Sir Theurdank was printed by Hans Schönsperger
+the elder, at Nuremberg in 1517; and in 1519 two editions appeared at
+Augsburg from the press of the same printer. As Schönsperger’s
+established printing-office was at the latter city and not at Nuremberg,
+Panzer has supposed that the imprint of Nuremberg in the first edition
+might have been introduced as a compliment to the nominal author,
+Melchior Pfintzing, who then resided in that city. Two or three other
+editions of Sir Theurdank, with the same cuts, appeared between 1519 and
+1602; but Küttner, in his Characters of German poets and prose-writers,
+says that in all those editions alterations have been made in the
+text.</p>
+
+<p>The character in which Sir Theurdank is printed is of great beauty
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page283" id = "page283">
+283</a></span>
+and much ornamented with flourishes. Several writers, and among others
+Fournier, who was a type-founder and wood-engraver, have erroneously
+described the text as having been engraved on blocks of wood. This very
+superficial and incorrect writer also states that the cuts contained in
+the volume are “chefs-d’œuvres de la gravure en bois.”<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagV65" id = "tagV65" href = "#noteV65">V.65</a> His opinion
+with respect to the cuts is about as correct as his judgment respecting
+the type; the most of them are in fact very ordinary productions, and
+are neither remarkable for execution nor design. He also informs his
+readers that he has discovered on some of those cuts an H and an S,
+accompanied with a little shovel, and that they are the monogram of
+<i>Hans Sebalde</i>, or Hans Schäufflein. By <i>Hans Sebalde</i> he
+perhaps means Hans Sebald Behaim, an artist born at Nuremberg in 1500,
+and who never used the letters H and S, accompanied with a little
+shovel, as a monogram. Fournier did not know that this mark is used
+exclusively by Hans Schäufflein; and that the little shovel, or baker’s
+peel,&mdash;called in old German, Schäufflein, or Scheuffleine,&mdash;is
+a rebus of his surname. The careful examination of writers more
+deserving of credit has completely proved that the text of the three
+earliest editions&mdash;those only in which it was asserted to be from
+engraved wood-blocks&mdash;is printed from moveable types of metal.
+Breitkopf<a class = "tag" name = "tagV66" id = "tagV66" href =
+"#noteV66">V.66</a> has observed, that in the edition of 1517 the letter
+i, in the word <i>shickhet</i>, in the second line following the
+eighty-fourth cut, is inverted; and Panzer and Brunner have noticed
+several variations in the orthography of the second and third editions
+when compared with the first.</p>
+
+<p>There are a hundred and eighteen wood-cuts in the Adventures of Sir
+Theurdank, which are all supposed to have been designed, if not
+engraved, by Hans Schäufflein, though his mark, <img class = "middle"
+src = "images/illus_283.png" width = "59" height = "16" alt = "symbol">,
+occurs on not more than five or six. From the general similarity of
+style I have, however, no doubt that the designs were all made by the
+same person, and I think it more likely that Schaufflein was the
+designer than the engraver. The cut on page 284 is a reduced copy of
+that numbered 14 in the first edition. The original is six inches and
+one-fourth high by five inches and a half wide. In this cut, Sir
+Theurdank is seen, in the dress of a hunter, encountering a huge bear;
+while to the right is perceived one of his tempters,
+<i>Fürwittig</i>&mdash;restless Curiosity,&mdash;and to the left, on
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page284" id = "page284">
+284</a></span>
+horseback, Theurdank’s squire, Ernhold. The title of the chapter, or
+fytte, to which this cut is prefixed is to the following effect: “How
+Fürwittig led Sir Theurdank into a perilous encounter with a she-bear.”
+The subject of the thirteenth chapter is his perilous encounter with a
+stag, and in the fifteenth we are entertained with the narration of one
+of his adventures when hunting the chamois.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_284" id = "illus_284">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_284.png" width = "323" height = "369"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The opposite cut is a reduced copy of No. 111 in the Adventures of
+Sir Theurdank. The title of the chapter to which this cut is prefixed
+is: “How Unfalo [one of Theurdank’s tempters] was hung.” A&nbsp;monk at
+the foot of the gallows appears to pray for the culprit just turned off;
+while Ernold seems to be explaining to a group of spectators to the left
+the reason of the execution. The cut illustrative of the 110th chapter
+represents the beheading of “Fürwittig;” and in the 112th, “Neydelhart,”
+the basest of Theurdank’s enemies, is seen receiving the reward of his
+perfidy by being thrown into a moat. The two original cuts which have
+been selected as specimens of the wood engravings in the Adventures of
+Sir Theurdank, though not the best, are perhaps, in point of design and
+execution, rather superior to two-thirds of those contained in the work.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page285" id = "page285">
+285</a></span>
+The copies, though less in size, afford a tolerably correct idea of the
+style of the originals, which no one who is acquainted with the best
+wood-cuts engraved after the designs of Durer and Burgmair will assert
+to be “chefs-d’œuvres” of the art of wood engraving.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_285" id = "illus_285">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_285.png" width = "322" height = "364"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>There are a number of wood-cuts which contain Hans Schäufflein’s
+mark, though somewhat different from that which occurs in the Adventures
+of Sir Theurdank; the S being linked with one of the upright lines of
+the H, instead of being placed between them. When the letters are
+combined in this manner, there are frequently two little shovels
+crossed, “in saltire,” as a herald would say, instead of a single one as
+in Sir Theurdank. The following mark, <img class = "middle" src =
+"images/illus_285b.png" width = "58" height = "17" alt = "symbol">,
+occurs on a series of wood-cuts illustrative of Christ’s Passion,
+printed at Frankfort by C.&nbsp;Egenolf, 1542; on the cuts in a German
+almanack, Mentz, 1545, and 1547; and on several single subjects executed
+about that period. This mark, it is said, distinguishes the designs of
+Hans Schaufflein the younger. Bartsch, however, observes, that “what
+Strutt has said about there being two persons of this name, an elder and
+a younger, seems to be a mere conjecture.”</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page286" id = "page286">
+286</a></span>
+<p>The book entitled Der Weiss Kunig&mdash;the Wise King&mdash;is
+another of the works projected by the Emperor Maximilian in order to
+inform the world of sundry matters concerning his father Frederick III,
+his own education, warlike and perilous deeds, government, wooing, and
+wedding. This work is in prose; and though Marx Treitzsaurwein, the
+emperor’s secretary, is put forth as the author, there is little doubt
+of its having been chiefly composed by Maximilian himself. About 1512 it
+appears that the materials for this work were prepared by the emperor,
+and that about 1514 they were entrusted to his secretary,
+Treitzsaurwein, to be put in order. It would appear that before the work
+was ready for the press Maximilian had died; and Charles&nbsp;V. was too
+much occupied with other matters to pay much attention to the
+publication of an enigmatical work, whose chief object was to celebrate
+the accomplishments, knowledge, and adventures of his grandfather. The
+obscurity of many passages in the emperor’s manuscript seems to have, in
+a great measure, retarded the completion of the work. There is now in
+the Imperial Library at Vienna a manuscript volume of queries respecting
+the doubtful passages in the Weiss Kunig; and as each had ultimately to
+be referred to the emperor, it would seem that, from the pressure of
+more important business and his increased age, he had wanted leisure and
+spirits to give the necessary explanations. In the sixteenth century,
+Richard Strein, an eminent philologer, began a sort of commentary or
+exposition of the more difficult passages in the Wise King; and
+subsequently his remarks came into the hands of George Christopher von
+Schallenberg, who, in 1631, had the good fortune to obtain at Vienna
+impressions of most of the cuts which were intended by the emperor to
+illustrate the work, together with several of the original drawings.
+Treitzsaurwein’s manuscript, which for many years had been preserved at
+Ambras in the Tyrol, having been transferred to the Imperial Library at
+Vienna, and the original blocks having been discovered in the Jesuits’
+College at Gratz in Stiria, the text and cuts were printed together, for
+the first time, in a folio volume, at Vienna in 1775.<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagV67" id = "tagV67" href = "#noteV67">V.67</a></p>
+
+<p>It is probable that the greater part, if not all the cuts, were
+finished previous to the emperor’s death; and impressions of them, very
+likely taken shortly after the blocks were finished, were known to
+collectors long before the publication of the book. The late Mr. Ottley
+had seventy-seven of the series, apparently taken as proofs by means of
+a
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page287" id = "page287">
+287</a></span>
+press. The paper on which these cuts are impressed appears to have
+consisted of fragments, on one side of which there had previously been
+printed certain state papers of the Emperor Maximilian, dated 1514. They
+were sold at the sale of the late Mr. Ottley’s engravings in 1838, and
+are now in the Print Room of the British Museum. In the volume printed
+at Vienna in 1775, there are two hundred and thirty-seven<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagV68" id = "tagV68" href = "#noteV68">V.68</a> large
+cuts, of which number ninety-two contain Burgmair’s mark, H.&nbsp;B; one
+contains Schaufflein’s mark; another the mark of Hans Springinklee; and
+a third, a&nbsp;modern cut, is marked “F.&nbsp;F. S.&nbsp;V. 1775.”
+Besides the large cuts, all of which are old except the last noticed,
+there are a few worthless tail-pieces of modern execution, one of which,
+a&nbsp;nondescript bird, has been copied by Bewick, and is to be found
+at page 144 of the first edition of his Quadrupeds, 1790.</p>
+
+<p>The cuts in the Weiss Kunig, with respect to the style in which they
+are designed, bear considerable resemblance to those in Sir Theurdank;
+and from their execution it is evident that they have been cut by
+different engravers; some of them being executed in a very superior
+manner, and others affording proofs of their either being cut by a
+novice or a very indifferent workman. It has been said that all those
+which contain the mark of Hans Burgmair show a decided superiority in
+point of engraving; but this assertion is not correct, for several of
+them may be classed with the worst executed in the volume. The unequal
+manner in which the cuts with Burgmair’s mark are executed is with me an
+additional reason for believing that he only furnished the designs for
+professional wood engravers to execute, and never engraved on wood
+himself.</p>
+
+<p>It seems unnecessary to give any specimens of the cuts in the Weiss
+Kunig, as an idea of their style may be formed from those given at pages
+284 and 285 from Sir Theurdank; and as other specimens of Burgmair’s
+talents as a designer on wood will be given subsequently from the
+Triumphs of Maximilian. The following abstract of the titles of a few of
+the chapters may perhaps afford some idea of the work, while they prove
+that the education of the emperor embraced a wide circle, forming almost
+a perfect Cyclopædia. The first fifteen chapters give an account of the
+marriage of the Old Wise King, Frederick III, the father of Maximilian,
+with Elenora, daughter of Alphonso&nbsp;V, King of Portugal; his journey
+to Rome and his coronation
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page288" id = "page288">
+288</a></span>
+there by the pope; with the birth, and christening of Maximilian, the
+Young Wise King. About thirty-five chapters, from <span class =
+"smallroman">XV.</span> to <span class = "smallroman"><ins class =
+"correction" title = ". missing">L.</ins></span>, are chiefly occupied
+with an account of Maximilian’s education. After learning to write, he
+is instructed in the liberal arts; and after some time devoted to
+“Politik,” or King-craft, he proceeds to the study of the
+<i>black-art</i>, a branch of knowledge which the emperor subsequently
+held to be vain and ungodly. He then commences the study of history,
+devotes some attention to medicine and law, and learns the Italian and
+Bohemian languages. He then learns to paint; studies the principles of
+architecture, and tries his hand at carpentry. He next takes lessons in
+music; and about the same time acquires a practical knowledge of the art
+of cookery:&mdash;the Wise King, we are informed, was a person of nice
+taste in kitchen affairs, and had a proper relish for savoury and
+well-cooked viands. To the accomplishment of dancing he adds a knowledge
+of numismatics; and, after making himself acquainted with the mode of
+working mines, he learns to shoot with the hand-gun and the cross-bow.
+The chase, falconry, angling, and fowling next occupy his attention; and
+about the same time he learns to fence, to tilt, and to manage the great
+horse. His course of education appears to have been wound up with
+practical lessons in the art of making armour, in gunnery, and in
+fortification. From the fiftieth chapter to the conclusion, the book is
+chiefly filled with accounts of the wars and adventures of Maximilian,
+which are for the most part allegorically detailed, and require the
+reader to be well versed in the true history of the emperor to be able
+to unriddle them. Küttner says that, notwithstanding its allegories and
+enigmatical allusions, the Weiss Kunig is a work which displays much
+mind in the conception and execution, and considerable force and
+elegance of language; and that it chiefly wants a more orderly
+arrangement of the events. “Throughout the whole,” he adds, “there are
+evidences of a searching genius, improved by science and a knowledge of
+the affairs of the world.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagV69" id = "tagV69"
+href = "#noteV69">V.69</a></p>
+
+<p>The series of wood-cuts called the Triumphs of Maximilian are, both
+with respect to design and engraving, the best of all the works thus
+executed by command of the emperor to convey to posterity a pictorial
+representation of the splendour of his court, his victories, and the
+extent of his possessions. This work appears to have been commenced
+about the same time as the Weiss Kunig; and from the subject,
+a&nbsp;triumphal procession, it was probably intended to be the last of
+the series of wood-cuts by which he was desirous of disseminating an
+opinion of his power and his fame. Of those works he only lived to see
+one published,&mdash;the Adventures of Sir Theurdank; the Wise King, the
+Triumphal Car, the Triumphal Arch, and the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page289" id = "page289">
+289</a></span>
+Triumphal Procession, appear to have been all unfinished at the time of
+his decease in 1519. The total number of cuts contained in the latter
+work, published under the title of the Triumphs of Maximilian, in 1796,
+is one hundred and thirty-five; but had the series been finished
+according to the original drawings, now preserved in the Imperial
+Library at Vienna, the whole number of the cuts would have been about
+two hundred and eighteen. Of the hundred and thirty-five published there
+are about sixteen designed in a style so different from the rest, that
+it is doubtful if they belong to the same series; and this suspicion
+receives further confirmation from the fact that the subjects of those
+sixteen doubtful cuts are not to be found among the original designs. It
+would therefore seem, that, unless some of the blocks have been lost or
+destroyed, little more than one-half of the cuts intended for the
+Triumphal Procession were finished when the emperor’s death put a stop
+to the further progress of the work. It is almost certain, that none of
+the cuts were engraved after the emperor’s death; for the date,
+commencing with 1516, is written at the back of several of the original
+blocks, and on no one is it later than 1519.</p>
+
+<p>The plan of the Triumphal Procession,&mdash;consisting of a
+description of the characters to be introduced, the order in which they
+are to follow each other, their arms, dress, and
+appointments,&mdash;appears to have been dictated by the emperor to his
+secretary Treitzsaurwein, the nominal author of the Weiss Kunig, in
+1512. In this manuscript the subjects for the rhyming inscriptions
+intended for the different banners and tablets are also noted in prose.
+Another manuscript, in the handwriting of Treitzsaurwein, and interlined
+by the emperor himself, contains the inscriptions for the banners and
+tablets in verse; and a third manuscript, written after the drawings
+were finished, contains a description of the subjects,&mdash;though not
+so much in detail as the first, and in some particulars slightly
+differing,&mdash;with all the inscriptions in verse except eight. From
+those manuscripts, which are preserved in the Imperial Library at
+Vienna, the descriptions in the edition of 1796 have been transcribed.
+Most of the descriptions and verses were previously given by Von Murr,
+in 1775, in the ninth volume of his Journal. The edition of the
+Triumphal Procession published in 1796 also contains a French
+translation of the descriptions, with numbers referring to those printed
+at the right-hand corner of the cuts. The numbers, however, of the
+description and the cut in very many instances do not agree; and it
+would almost seem, from the manner in which the text is printed, that
+the publishers did not wish to facilitate a comparison between the
+description and the cut which they have numbered as corresponding with
+it. The gross negligence of the publishers, or their editor, in this
+respect materially detracts from the interest of the work. To compare
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page290" id = "page290">
+290</a></span>
+the descriptions with the cuts is not only a work of some trouble, but
+it is also labour thrown away. Von Murr’s volume, from its convenient
+size, is of much greater use in comparing the cuts with the description
+than the text printed in the edition of 1796; and though it contains no
+numbers for reference,&mdash;as no complete collection of the cuts had
+then been printed,&mdash;it contains no misdirections: and it is better
+to have no guide-posts than such as only lead the traveller wrong.</p>
+
+<p>The original drawings for the Triumphal Procession,&mdash;or as the
+work is usually called, the Triumphs of Maximilian,&mdash;are preserved
+in the Imperial Library at Vienna. They are painted in water colours, on
+a hundred and nine sheets of vellum, each thirty-four inches long by
+twenty inches high, and containing two of the engraved subjects. Dr.
+Dibdin, who saw the drawings in 1818, says that they are rather gaudily
+executed, and that he prefers the engravings to the original
+paintings.<a class = "tag" name = "tagV70" id = "tagV70" href =
+"#noteV70">V.70</a> Whether those paintings are the work of Hans
+Burgmair, or not, appears to be uncertain. From the following extract
+from the preface to the Triumphs of Maximilian, published in 1796, it is
+evident that the writer did not think that the original drawings were
+executed by that artist. “The engravings of this Triumph, far from being
+servile copies of the paintings in miniature, differ from them entirely,
+so far as regards the manner in which they are designed. Most all the
+groups have a different form, and almost every figure a different
+attitude; <i>consequently Hans Burgmair appears in his work in the
+character of author</i> [<i>original designer</i>]<i>, and so much the
+more, as he has in many points surpassed his model</i>. But whatever may
+be the difference between the engravings and the drawings on vellum, the
+subjects still so far correspond that they may be recognised without the
+least difficulty. It is, however, necessary to except eighteen of the
+engravings, in which this correspondence would be sought for in vain.
+Those engravings are, the twelve from No.&nbsp;89 to 100, and the six
+from 130 to 135.” As the cuts appear to have been intentionally wrong
+numbered, it is not easy to determine from this reference which are
+actually the first twelve alluded to, for in most of the copies which I
+have seen, the numerals 91, 92, and 93 occur twice,&mdash;though the
+subjects of the cuts are different. In the copy now before me,
+I&nbsp;have to observe that there are <i>sixteen</i><a class = "tag"
+name = "tagV71" id = "tagV71" href = "#noteV71">V.71</a> cuts designed
+in a style so different from those which contain Burgmair’s mark, that I
+am convinced they have not been drawn by that artist.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page291" id = "page291">
+291</a></span>
+Without enquiring whether the subjects are to be found in the paintings
+or not, I&nbsp;am satisfied that a considerable number of the
+engravings, besides those sixteen, were not drawn on the wood by Hans
+Burgmair. Both Breitkopf and Von Murr<a class = "tag" name = "tagV72" id
+= "tagV72" href = "#noteV72">V.72</a> have asserted that the drawings
+for the Triumphs of Maximilian were made by Albert Durer, but they do
+not say whether they mean the drawings on vellum, or the drawings on the
+blocks. This assertion is, however, made without any authority; and,
+whether they meant the drawings on vellum or the drawings on the block,
+it is unquestionably incorrect. The drawings on vellum are not by Durer,
+and of the whole hundred and thirty-five cuts there are not more than
+five or six that can be supposed with any degree of probability to have
+been of his designing.</p>
+
+<p>Forty of the blocks from which the Triumphs of Maximilian are printed
+were obtained from Ambras in the Tyrol, where they had probably been
+preserved since the time of the emperor’s death; and the other
+ninety-five were discovered in the Jesuits’ College at Gratz in Stiria.
+The whole were brought to Vienna and deposited in the Imperial Library
+in 1779. A&nbsp;few proofs had probably been taken when the blocks were
+engraved; there are ninety of those old impressions in the Imperial
+Library; Monsieur Mariette had ninety-seven; and Sandrart had seen a
+hundred. The latter, in speaking of those impressions, expresses a
+suspicion of the original blocks having been destroyed in a fire at
+Augsburg; their subsequent discovery, however, at Ambras and Gratz,
+shows that his suspicion was not well founded. On the discovery of those
+blocks it was supposed that the remainder of the series, as described in
+the manuscript, might also be still in existence; but after a diligent
+search no more have been found. It is indeed highly probable that the
+further progress of the work had been interrupted by Maximilian’s death,
+and that if any more of the series were finished, the number must have
+been few. About 1775, a&nbsp;few impressions were taken from the blocks
+preserved at Ambras, and also from those at Gratz; but no collection of
+the whole accompanied with text was ever printed until 1796, when an
+edition in large folio was printed at Vienna by permission of the
+Austrian government, and with the name of J.&nbsp;Edwards, then a
+bookseller in Pall-Mall, on the title-page, as the London publisher. It
+is much to be regretted that greater pains were not taken to afford the
+reader every information that could be obtained with respect to the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page292" id = "page292">
+292</a></span>
+cuts; and it says very little for the English publisher’s patriotism
+that the translation of the original German descriptions should be in
+French;&mdash;but perhaps there might be a reason for this, for, where
+no precise meaning is to be conveyed, French is certainly much better
+than English. From the fact of several of the subjects not being
+contained in the original drawings, and from the great difference in the
+style of many of the cuts, it is by no means certain that they were all
+intended for the same work. There can, however, be little doubt of their
+all having been designed for a triumphal procession intended to
+celebrate the fame of Maximilian.</p>
+
+<p>The original blocks, now preserved in the Imperial Library at Vienna,
+are all of pear-tree, and several of them are partially worm-eaten. At
+the back of those blocks are written or engraved seventeen names and
+initials, which are supposed, with great probability, to be those of the
+engravers by whom they were executed. At the back of No.&nbsp;18, which
+represents five musicians in a car, there is written, “Der kert an die
+Elland,&mdash;hat <i>Wilhelm geschnitten</i>:” that is, “This follows
+the Elks.&mdash;Engraved by William.” In the preceding cut, No.&nbsp;17,
+are the two elks which draw the car, and on one of the traces is Hans
+Burgmair’s mark. At the back of No.&nbsp;20 is written, “<i>Jobst
+putavit, 14 Aprilis 1517. Die gehert an die bifel, und die bifel halt
+Jos geschnitten.</i>”<a class = "tag" name = "tagV73" id = "tagV73" href
+= "#noteV73">V.73</a> This inscription Mr. Ottley, at page 756, volume
+ii. of his Inquiry, expounds as follows: “Josse putavit (perhaps for
+<i>punctavit</i>), the 14th of April, 1517. This block joins to that
+which represents the Buffaloes.” This translation is substantially
+correct; but it is exceedingly doubtful if <i>putavit</i> was written in
+mistake for <i>punctavit</i>. The proposed substitution indeed seems
+very like explaining an <i>ignotum per ignotius</i>. The verb
+<i>punctare</i> is never, that I am aware of, used by any writer, either
+classical or modern, to express the idea of engraving on wood.
+A&nbsp;German, however, who was but imperfectly acquainted with Latin,
+would not be unlikely to translate the German verb <i>schneiden</i>,
+which signifies <i>to cut</i> generally, by the Latin <i>putare</i>,
+which is specially applied to the lopping or pruning of trees.
+I&nbsp;have heard it conjectured that <i>putavit</i> might have been
+used in the sense of <i>imaginavit</i>, as if Jobst were the designer;
+but there can be little doubt of its being here intended to express the
+cutting of the wood-engraver; for Burgmair’s mark is to be found both on
+this cut and on the preceding one of the two buffaloes, No.&nbsp;19; and
+it cannot for a moment be supposed that he was a mere workman employed
+to execute the designs of another person. Were such
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page293" id = "page293">
+293</a></span>
+a supposition granted, it would follow that the wood-engraver of that
+period&mdash;at least so far as regards the work in question&mdash;was
+considered as a much superior person to him who drew the designs; that
+the <i>workman</i>, in fact, was to be commemorated, but the
+<i>artist</i> forgotten; a&nbsp;conclusion which is diametrically
+opposed to fact, for so little were the mere wood-engravers of that
+period esteemed, that we only incidentally become acquainted with their
+names; and from their not putting their marks or initials to the cuts
+which they engraved has arisen the popular error that Durer, Cranach,
+Burgmair, and others, who are known to have been painters of great
+repute in their day, were wood-engravers and executed themselves the
+wood-cuts which bear their marks.</p>
+
+<p>The following are the names and initial letters at the back of the
+blocks. 1.&nbsp;Jerome André, called also Jerome Resch, or Rösch, the
+engraver of the Triumphal Arch designed by Albert Durer. 2.&nbsp;Jan de
+Bonn. 3.&nbsp;Cornelius. 4.&nbsp;Hans Frank. 5.&nbsp;Saint German.
+6.&nbsp;Wilhelm. 7.&nbsp;Corneille Liefrink. 8.&nbsp;Wilhelm Liefrink.
+9.&nbsp;Alexis Lindt. 10.&nbsp;Josse de Negker. On several of the blocks
+Negker is styled, “engraver on wood, at Augsburg.” 11.&nbsp;Vincent
+Pfarkecher. 12.&nbsp;Jaques Rupp. 13.&nbsp;Hans Schaufflein.
+14.&nbsp;Jan Taberith. 15.&nbsp;F. P. 16.&nbsp;H. F. 17.&nbsp;W.
+R.&nbsp;It is not unlikely that “Cornelius,” No.&nbsp;3, may be the same
+as Corneille Liefrink, No.&nbsp;7; and that “Wilhelm,” No.&nbsp;6, and
+Wilhelm Liefrink, No.&nbsp;8, may also be the same person. At the back
+of the block which corresponds with the description numbered 120, Hans
+Schaufflein’s name is found coupled with that of Cornelius Liefrink; and
+at the back of the cut which corresponds with the description numbered
+121 Schaufflein’s name occurs alone.<a class = "tag" name = "tagV74" id
+= "tagV74" href = "#noteV74">V.74</a> The occurrence of Schaufflein’s
+name at the back of the cuts would certainly seem to indicate that he
+was one of the engravers; but his name also appearing at the back of
+that described under No.&nbsp;120, in conjunction with the name of
+Cornelius Liefrink, who was certainly a wood-engraver,<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagV75" id = "tagV75" href = "#noteV75">V.75</a> makes me
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page294" id = "page294">
+294</a></span>
+inclined to suppose that he might only have made the drawing on the
+block and not have engraved the cut; and this supposition seems to be
+partly confirmed by the fact that the cuts which are numbered 104, 105,
+and 106, corresponding with the descriptions Nos. 119, 120, and 121,
+have not Hans Burgmair’s mark, and are much more like the undoubted
+designs of Hans Schaufflein than those of that artist. That the cuts
+published under the title of the Triumphs of Maximilian were not all
+drawn on the block by the same person will, I&nbsp;think, appear
+probable to any one who even cursorily examines them; and whoever
+carefully compares them can scarcely have a doubt on the subject.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_294" id = "illus_294">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_294.png" width = "264" height = "276"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+From No. 15. With Burgmair’s mark.</p>
+
+<p>Almost every one of the cuts that contains Burgmair’s mark, in the
+Triumphal Procession, is designed with great spirit, and has evidently
+been drawn by an artist who had a thorough command of his pencil. His
+horses are generally strong and heavy, and the men on their backs of a
+stout and muscular form. The action of the horses seems natural; and the
+indications of the joints and the drawing of the hoofs&mdash;which are
+mostly low and broad&mdash;evidently show that the artist had paid some
+attention to the structure of the animal. There are, however,
+a&nbsp;considerable number of cuts where both men and horses appear
+remarkable for their leanness; and in which the hoofs of the horses are
+most incorrectly drawn, and the action of the animals represented in a
+manner which is by no means natural. Though it is not unlikely
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page295" id = "page295">
+295</a></span>
+that Hans Burgmair was capable of drawing both a stout, heavy horse, and
+a long-backed, thin-quartered, lean one, I&nbsp;cannot persuade myself
+that he would, in almost every instance, draw the hoofs and legs of the
+one correctly, and those of the other with great inaccuracy. The cut on
+the opposite page and the five next following, of single figures, copied
+on a reduced scale from the Triumphs, will exemplify the preceding
+observations. The numbers are those printed on the cuts, and they all,
+except one, appear to correspond with the French descriptions in the
+text. The preceding cut is from that marked No.&nbsp;15.&nbsp;The mark
+of Hans Burgmair is on the ornamental breast-plate, as an English
+saddler would call it, that passes across the horse’s chest. This
+figure, in the original cut, carries a tablet suspended from a staff, of
+which the lower part only is perceived in the copy, as it has not been
+thought necessary to give the tablet and a large scroll which were
+intended to contain inscriptions.<a class = "tag" name = "tagV76" id =
+"tagV76" href = "#noteV76">V.76</a> The description of the subject is to
+the following effect: “After the chase, comes a figure on horseback,
+bearing a tablet, on which shall be written the five charges of the
+court,&mdash;that
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page296" id = "page296">
+296</a></span>
+is, of the butler, the cook, the barber, the tailor, and the shoemaker;
+and Eberbach shall be the under-marshal of the household, and carry the
+tablet.”</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_295" id = "illus_295">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_295.png" width = "263" height = "314"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+From No. 65. Apparently not drawn by Burgmair.</p>
+
+<p>The cut on page 295 is a reduced copy of a figure, the last, in
+No.&nbsp;65, which is without Burgmair’s mark. In the original the
+horseman bears a banner, having on it the arms of the state or city
+which he represents; and at the top of the banner a black space whereon
+a name or motto ought to have been engraved. The original cut contains
+three figures; and, if the description can be relied on, the banners
+which they bear are those of Fribourg, Bregentz, and Saulgau. The other
+two horsemen and their steeds in No.&nbsp;65 are still more unlike those
+in the cuts which contain Burgmair’s mark.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_296" id = "illus_296">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_296.png" width = "262" height = "353"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+From No. 33. With Burgmair’s mark.</p>
+
+<p>The above cut is a reduced copy of a figure on horseback in
+No.&nbsp;33. Burgmair’s mark, an H and a B, may be perceived on the
+trappings of the horse. This figure, in the original, bears a large
+tablet, and he is followed by five men on foot carrying flails, the
+<i>swingels</i><a class = "tag" name = "tagV77" id = "tagV77" href =
+"#noteV77">V.77</a> of which are of leather. The description of the
+cut,&mdash;which
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page297" id = "page297">
+297</a></span>
+forms the first of seven representing the dresses and arms of combatants
+on foot,&mdash;is as follows: “Then shall come a person mounted and
+properly habited like a master of arms, and he shall carry the tablet
+containing the rhyme. Item, Hans Hollywars shall be the master of arms,
+and his rhyme shall be this effect: that he has professed the noble
+practice of arms at the court, according to the method devised by the
+emperor.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagV78" id = "tagV78" href =
+"#noteV78">V.78</a></p>
+
+<p>The following is a reduced copy of a figure in the cut erroneously
+numbered 83, but which corresponds with the description that refers to
+84. This figure is the last of the three, who, in the original, are
+represented bearing banners containing the arms of Malines, Salins and
+Antwerp.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_297" id = "illus_297">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_297.png" width = "263" height = "358"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+From No. 83. Apparently not drawn by Burgmair.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page298" id = "page298">
+298</a></span>
+<p>The following figure, who is given with his rhyme-tablet in full, is
+copied from the cut numbered 27. This jovial-looking personage, as we
+learn from the description, is the Will Somers of Maximilian’s court,
+and he figures as the leader of the professed jesters and the natural
+fools, who
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page299" id = "page299">
+299</a></span>
+appear in all ages to have been the subjects of “pleasant mirth.” The
+instructions to the painter are as follows: “Then shall come one on
+horseback habited like a jester, and carrying a rhyme-tablet for the
+jesters and natural fools; and he shall be Conrad von der Rosen.” The
+fool’s cap with the bell at the peak, denoting his profession, is
+perceived hanging on his left shoulder; and on the breast-plate,
+crossing the chest of the horse, is Burgmair’s mark.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_298" id = "illus_298">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_298.png" width = "314" height = "622"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+From No. 27. With Burgmair’s mark.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page300" id = "page300">
+300</a></span>
+<p>The figure on page 299 of a horseman, bearing the banner of Burgundy,
+is from the cut numbered 74. The drawing both of rider and horse is
+extremely unlike the style of Burgmair as displayed in those cuts which
+contain his mark. Burgmair’s men are generally stout, and their
+attitudes free; and they all appear to sit well on horseback. The
+present lean, lanky figure, who rides a horse that seems admirably
+suited to him, cannot have been designed by Burgmair, unless he was
+accustomed to design in two styles which were the very opposites of each
+other; the one distinguished by the freedom and the boldness of the
+drawing, the stoutness of the men, and the bulky form of the horses
+introduced; and the other remarkable for laboured and stiff drawing,
+gaunt and meagre men, and leggy, starved-like cattle. The whole of the
+cuts from No.&nbsp;57 to No.&nbsp;88, inclusive,&mdash;representing,
+except three,<a class = "tag" name = "tagV79" id = "tagV79" href =
+"#noteV79">V.79</a> men on horseback bearing the banners of the kingdoms
+and states either possessed or claimed by the emperor,&mdash;are
+designed in the latter style. Not only are the men and horses
+represented according to a different standard, but even the very ground
+is indicated in a different manner; it seems to abound in fragments of
+stones almost like a Macadamized road after a shower of rain. There is
+indeed no lack of stones on Burgmair’s ground, but they appear more like
+rounded pebbles, and are not scattered about with so liberal a hand as
+in the cuts alluded to. In not one of those cuts which are so unlike
+Burgmair’s is the mark of that artist to be found; and their general
+appearance is so unlike that of the cuts undoubtedly designed by him,
+that any person in the least acquainted with works of art will, even on
+a cursory examination, perceive the strongly marked difference.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_299" id = "illus_299">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_299.png" width = "331" height = "584"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 74. Apparently not drawn by Burgmair.</p>
+
+<p>The following cut is a reduced copy of that numbered 57; and which is
+the first of those representing horsemen bearing the banners of the
+several kingdoms, states, and cities subject to the house of Austria or
+to which Maximilian laid claim. It is one of the most gorgeous of the
+series; but, from the manner in which the horses and their riders are
+represented, I&nbsp;feel convinced that it has not been drawn by
+Burgmair. The subject is thus described in the emperor’s directions
+prefixed to the volume: “One on horseback bearing the banner of the arms
+of Austria; another on horseback bearing the old Austrian arms; another
+also on horseback bearing the arms of Stiria.” On the parts which are
+left black in the banners it had been intended to insert inscriptions.
+The instructions to the painter for this part of the procession are to
+the following effect: “One on horseback bearing on a lance a
+rhyme-tablet. Then the arms of the hereditary dominions of the house of
+Austria on banners, with their shields, helms, and crests, borne by
+horsemen; and the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page301" id = "page301">
+301</a></span>
+banners of those countries in which the emperor has carried on war shall
+be borne by riders in armour; and the painter shall vary the armour
+according to the old manner. The banners of those countries in which the
+emperor has not carried on war shall be borne by horsemen without
+armour, but all splendidly clothed, each according to the costume of the
+country he represents. Every one shall wear a laurel wreath.”</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_301" id = "illus_301">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_301.png" width = "328" height = "339"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 57. Apparently not drawn by Burgmair.</p>
+
+<p>The cut on the next page is copied from that numbered 107, but which
+accords with the description of No.&nbsp;122. The subject is described
+by the emperor as follows: “Then shall come riding a man of Calicut,
+naked, except his loins covered with a girdle, bearing a rhyme-tablet,
+on which shall be inscribed these words, ‘These people are the subjects
+of the famous crowns and houses heretofore named.’” In this cut the mark
+of Burgmair is perceived on the harness on the breast of the elephant.
+There are two other cuts of Indians belonging to the same part of the
+procession, each of which also contains Burgmair’s mark.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_302" id = "illus_302">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_302.png" width = "340" height = "343"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 107. With Burgmair’s mark.</p>
+
+<p>The cuts which were to follow the Indians and close the procession
+were the baggage-waggons and camp-followers of the army. Of those there
+are five cuts in the work published in 1796, and it is evident that some
+are wanting, for the two which may be considered as the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page302" id = "page302">
+302</a></span>
+first and last of those five, respectively require a preceding and a
+following cut to render them complete; and there are also one or two
+cuts wanting to complete the intermediate subjects. Those cuts are
+referred to in the French description under Nos. 125 to 129, but they
+are numbered 129, 128, 110, 111, 125. The last three, as parts of a
+large subject, follow each other as the numbers are here placed; and
+though the right side of No.&nbsp;110 accords with the left of
+No.&nbsp;128, inasmuch as they each contain the half of a tree which
+appears complete when they are joined together, yet there are no horses
+in No.&nbsp;128 to draw the waggon which is seen in No.&nbsp;110. The
+order of Nos. 110, 111, and 125, is easily ascertained; a&nbsp;horse at
+the left of No.&nbsp;110 wants a tail which is to be found in
+No.&nbsp;111; and the outline of a mountain in the left of No.&nbsp;111
+is continued in the right of No.&nbsp;125. From the back-grounds, trees,
+and figures in those cuts I am very much inclined to think that they
+have been engraved from designs by Albert Durer, if he did not actually
+draw them on the block himself. There is no mark to be found on any of
+them; and they are extremely unlike any cuts which are undoubtedly of
+Burgmair’s designing, and they are
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page303" id = "page303">
+303</a></span>
+decidedly superior to any that are usually ascribed to Hans Schaufflein.
+The following, which is a reduced copy of that numbered 110, will
+perhaps afford some idea of those cuts, and enable persons who are
+acquainted with Durer’s works to judge for themselves with respect to
+the probability of their having been engraved from his designs. One or
+two of the other four contain still more striking resemblances of
+Durer’s style.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_303" id = "illus_303">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_303.png" width = "331" height = "329"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 110. Probably drawn by Albert Durer.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the twelve cuts which, in the French preface to the Triumphal
+Procession of Maximilian, are said not to correspond with the original
+drawings, there are also six others which the editor says are not to be
+found in the original designs, and which he considers to have been
+additions made to the work while it was in the course of engraving.
+Those six cuts are described in an appendix, where their numbers are
+said to be from 130 to 135. In No.&nbsp;130 the principal figures are a
+king and queen, on horseback, supposed to be intended for Philip the
+Fair, son of the Emperor Maximilian, and his wife Joanna of Castile.
+This cut is very indifferently executed, and has evidently been designed
+by the artist who made the drawings for the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page304" id = "page304">
+304</a></span>
+questionable cuts containing the complicated locomotive carriages,
+mentioned at page 290. No.&nbsp;131, a&nbsp;princess on horseback,
+accompanied by two female attendants also on horseback, and guards on
+foot, has evidently been designed by the same artist as No.&nbsp;130.
+These two, I&nbsp;am inclined to think, belong to some other work. Nos.
+132, 133, and 134, are from the designs of Hans Burgmair, whose mark is
+to be found on each; and there can be little doubt of their having been
+intended for Maximilian’s Triumphal Procession. They form one continuous
+subject, which represents twelve men, habited in various costume,
+leading the same number of horses splendidly caparisoned. A&nbsp;figure
+on horseback bearing a rhyme-tablet leads this part of the procession;
+and above the horses are large scrolls probably intended to contain
+their names, with those of the countries to which they belong. The cut
+on the opposite page is a reduced copy of the last, numbered 135, which
+is thus described in the appendix: “The fore part of a triumphal car,
+drawn by four horses yoked abreast, and managed by a winged female
+figure who holds in her left hand a wreath of laurel.” There is no mark
+on the original cut; but from the manner in which the horses are drawn
+it seems like one of Burgmair’s designing.</p>
+
+<p>That the cuts of the Triumphal Procession of Maximilian were engraved
+by different persons is certain from the names at their backs; and I
+think the difference that is to be perceived in the style of drawing
+renders it in the highest degree probable that the subjects were
+designed, or at least drawn on the wood, by different artists. I&nbsp;am
+inclined to think that Burgmair drew very few besides those that contain
+his mark; the cuts of the banner-bearers I am persuaded are not of his
+drawing; a&nbsp;third artist, of inferior talent, seems to have made the
+drawings of the fanciful cars containing the emperor and his family; and
+the five cuts of the baggage-waggons and camp followers, appear, as I
+have already said, extremely like the designs of Albert Durer. The best
+engraved cuts are to be found among those which contain Burgmair’s mark.
+Some of the banner-bearers are also very ably executed, though not in so
+free or bold a manner; which I conceive to be owing to the more laboured
+style in which the subject has been drawn on the block. The mechanical
+subjects, with their accompanying figures, are the worst engraved as
+well as the worst drawn of the whole. The five cuts which I suppose to
+have been designed by Albert Durer are engraved with great spirit, but
+not so well as the best of those which contain the mark of Burgmair.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_305" id = "illus_305">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_305.png" width = "328" height = "216"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 135. Apparently designed by Burgmair.</p>
+
+<p>Though there are still in existence upwards of a hundred of the
+original blocks designed by Albert Durer, and upwards of three hundred
+designed by the most eminent of his contemporaries, yet a person who
+professes to be an instructor of the public on subjects of art made the
+following statement before the Select Committee of the House of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page305" id = "page305">
+305</a></span>
+Commons on Arts and their Connexion with Manufactures, appointed in
+1835. He is asked, “Do you consider that the progress of the arts in
+this country is impeded by the want of protection for new inventions of
+importance?” and he proceeds to enlighten the committee as follows.
+“Very much impeded. Inventions connected with the arts of design, of new
+instruments, or new processes, for example, are, from the ease with
+which they can be pirated, more difficult of protection than any other
+inventions whatever. Such protection as the existing laws afford is
+quite inadequate. I&nbsp;cannot better illustrate my meaning, than by
+mentioning the case of <i>engraving in metallic relief</i>, an art which
+is supposed to have existed three or four centuries ago; and the
+re-discovery of which has long been a desideratum among artists. Albert
+Durer, who was both a painter and engraver, <i>certainly possessed this
+art</i>, that is to say, the art of transferring his designs, after they
+had been sketched on paper, <i>immediately into metallic relief</i>, so
+that they might be printed along with letter-press. At present, the only
+sort of engravings you can print along with letter-press are wood
+engravings, or stereotype casts from wood engravings; and then those
+engravings are but copies, and often very rude copies, of their
+originals; while, in the case of Albert Durer, it is <span class =
+"smallroman">QUITE CLEAR</span> <i>that it was his own identical designs
+that were transferred into the metallic relief</i>. Wood engravings,
+too, are limited in point of size, <i>because they can only be executed
+on box-wood</i>, the width of which is very small; in fact, we have no
+wood engravings on a single block of a larger size than octavo: when the
+engraving is larger, two or three blocks are joined together; but this
+is attended with so much difficulty and inconvenience, that it is seldom
+done. From the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page306" id = "page306">
+306</a></span>
+specimens of <i>metallic relief engraving</i>, left us by Albert Durer,
+there is every reason to infer that he was under no such limitation;
+that he could produce plates of any size.”<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagV80" id = "tagV80" href = "#noteV80">V.80</a> This statement abounds
+in errors, and may justify a suspicion that the person who made it had
+never seen the cuts designed by Albert Durer which he pretends were
+executed in “metallic relief.” At the commencement he says that the art
+of engraving in metallic relief is <i>supposed</i> to have existed three
+or four centuries ago; and immediately afterwards he asserts that Albert
+Durer “certainly possessed this art;” as if by his mere word he could
+convert a groundless fiction into a positive fact. When he made this
+confident assertion he seems not to have been aware that many of the
+original pear-tree blocks of the cuts pretendedly executed in metallic
+relief are still in existence; and when, speaking of the difficulty of
+getting blocks of a larger size than an octavo, he says, “From the
+specimens of metallic relief engraving, left us by Albert Durer, there
+is every reason to infer that he was under no such
+limitation,&mdash;that he could produce plates of any size,” he affords
+a positive proof that he knows nothing of the subject on which he has
+spoken so confidently. Had he ever examined the large cuts engraved from
+Durer’s designs, he would have seen, in several, undeniable marks of the
+junction of the blocks, proving directly the reverse of what he asserts
+on this point. What he says with respect to the modern practice of the
+art is as incorrect as his assertions about Albert Durer’s engraving in
+metallic relief. Though it is true that there are few modern engravings
+on box-wood of a larger size than octavo, it is not true that the
+forming of a large block of two or more pieces is attended with much
+difficulty, and is seldom done. The making of such blocks is now a
+regular trade; they are formed without the least difficulty, and
+hundreds of cuts on such blocks are engraved in London every year.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagV81" id = "tagV81" href = "#noteV81">V.81</a>
+When he says that wood engravings “can only be made on box-wood,” he
+gives another proof of his ignorance of the subject. Most of the earlier
+wood engravings were executed on blocks of pear-tree or crab; and even
+at the present time box-wood is seldom used for the large cuts on
+posting-bills. In short, every statement that this person has made on
+the subject of wood and pretended metallic relief engraving is
+incorrect; and it is rather surprising that none of the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page307" id = "page307">
+307</a></span>
+members of the committee should have exposed his ignorance. When such
+persons put themselves forward as the instructors of mechanics on the
+subject of art, it cannot be a matter of surprise that in the arts as
+applied to manufactures we should be inferior to our continental
+neighbours.</p>
+
+<p>The art of imitating drawings&mdash;called chiaro-scuro&mdash;by
+means of impressions from two or more blocks, was cultivated with great
+success in Italy by Ugo da Carpi about 1518. The invention of this art,
+as has been previously remarked, is ascribed to him by some writers, but
+without any sufficient grounds; for not even the slightest evidence has
+been produced by them to show that he, or any other Italian artist, had
+executed a single cut in this manner previous to 1509, the date of a
+chiaro-scuro wood engraving from a design by Lucas Cranach. Though it is
+highly probable that Ugo da Carpi was not the inventor of this art, it
+is certain that he greatly improved it. The chiaro-scuros executed by
+him are not only superior to those of the German artists, who most
+likely preceded him in this department of wood engraving, but to the
+present time they remain unsurpassed. In the present day Mr. George
+Baxter has attempted to extend the boundaries of this art by calling in
+the aid of aquatint for his outlines and first ground, and by copying
+the positive colours of an oil or water-colour painting. Most of Ugo da
+Carpi’s chiaro-scuros are from Raffaele’s designs, and it is said that
+the great painter himself drew some of the subjects on the blocks.
+Independent of the excellence of the designs, the characteristics of Da
+Carpi’s chiaro-scuros are their effect and the simplicity of their
+execution; for all of them, except one or two, appear to have been
+produced from not more than three blocks. The following may be mentioned
+as the principal of Da Carpi’s works in this style. A&nbsp;Sibyl reading
+with a boy holding a torch, from two blocks, said by Vasari to be the
+artist’s first attempt in this style; Jacob’s Dream; David cutting off
+the head of Goliah; the Death of Ananias; Giving the Keys to Peter; the
+miraculous Draught of Fishes; the Descent from the Cross; the
+Resurrection; and Æneas carrying away his father Anchises on his
+shoulders from the fire of Troy;<a class = "tag" name = "tagV82" id =
+"tagV82" href = "#noteV82">V.82</a> all the preceding from the designs
+of Raffaele. Among the subjects designed by other masters are St. Peter
+preaching, after Polidoro; and Diogenes showing the plucked cock in
+ridicule of Plato’s definition of man, “a&nbsp;two-legged animal without
+feathers,” after Parmegiano.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page308" id = "page308">
+308</a></span>
+The latter, which is remarkably bold and spirited, is from four blocks;
+and Vasari says that it is the best of all Da Carpi’s chiaro-scuros.
+Many of Da Carpi’s productions in this style were copied by Andrea
+Andreani of Milan, about 1580. That of Æneas carrying his father on his
+shoulders was copied by Edward Kirkall, an English engraver in 1722.
+Kirkall’s copy is not entirely from wood-blocks, like the original; the
+outlines and the greater part of the shadows are from a copper-plate
+engraved in mezzotint, in a manner similar to that which has more
+recently been adopted by Mr. Baxter in his picture-printing.</p>
+
+<p>Lucas Dammetz, generally called Lucas van Leyden, from the place of
+his birth, was an excellent engraver on copper, and in this branch of
+art more nearly approached Durer than any other of his German or Flemish
+contemporaries. He is said to have been born at Leyden in 1496; and, if
+this date be correct, he at a very early age gave decided proofs of his
+talents as an engraver on copper. One of his earliest prints, the monk
+Sergius killed by Mahomet, is dated 1508, when he was only fourteen
+years of age; and at the age of twelve he is said to have painted, in
+distemper, a&nbsp;picture of St. Hubert which excited the admiration of
+all the artists of the time. Of his numerous copper-plate engravings
+there are no less than twenty-one which, though they contain no date,
+are supposed to have been executed previously to 1508. As several of
+those plates are of very considerable merit, it would appear that Lucas
+while yet a boy excelled, as a copper-plate engraver, most of his German
+and Dutch contemporaries. From 1508 to 1533, the year of his death, he
+appears to have engraved not less than two hundred copper-plates; and,
+as if these were not sufficient to occupy his time, he in the same
+period painted several pictures, some of which were of large size. He is
+also said to have excelled as a painter on glass; and like Durer,
+Cranach, and Burgmair, he is ranked among the wood engravers of that
+period.</p>
+
+<p>The wood-cuts which contain the mark of Lucas van Leyden, or which
+are usually ascribed to him, are not numerous; and, even admitting them
+to have been engraved by himself, the fact would contribute but little
+to his fame, for I have not seen one which might not have been executed
+by a professional “formschneider” of very moderate abilities. The total
+of the wood-cuts supposed to have been engraved by him does not exceed
+twenty. The following is a reduced copy of a wood-cut ascribed to Lucas
+van Leyden, in the Print Room of the British Museum, but which is not in
+Bartsch’s Catalogue, nor in the list of Lucas van Leyden’s engravings in
+Meusel’s Neue Miscellaneen. Though I very much question if the original
+cut were engraved by Lucas himself, I&nbsp;have no doubt of its being
+from his design. It represents the death of Sisera; and, with a noble
+contempt of the unity of time, Jael is seen giving Sisera a drink of
+milk, driving the nail into his head, and
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page309" id = "page309">
+309</a></span>
+then showing the body,&mdash;with herself in the act of driving the
+nail,&mdash;to Barak and his followers: the absurdity of this threefold
+action has perhaps never been surpassed in any cut ancient or modern.
+Sir Boyle Roach said that it was impossible for any <i>person</i>,
+except a <i>bird</i> or a <i>fish</i>, to be in two places at once; but
+here we have a pictorial representation of a female being in no less
+than three; and in one of the localities actually pointing out to
+certain persons how she was then employed in another.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_309" id = "illus_309">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_309.png" width = "326" height = "454"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Heineken, in his account of engravers of the Flemish school, has
+either committed an egregious mistake, or expressed himself with
+intentional ambiguity with respect to a wood-cut printed at Antwerp, and
+which he saw in the collections of the Abbé de Marolles. His notice of
+this cut is as follows: “I&nbsp;found in the collections of the Abbé de
+Marolles, in the cabinet of the King of France, a&nbsp;detached
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page310" id = "page310">
+310</a></span>
+piece, which, in my opinion, is the most ancient of the wood engravings
+executed in the Low Countries which bear the name of the artist. This
+cut is marked, <i>Gheprint&nbsp;t’ Antwerpen by my Phillery de
+figursnider</i>&mdash;Printed at Antwerp, by me Phillery, the engraver
+of figures. It serves as a proof that the engravers of moulds were, at
+Antwerp, in that ancient time, also printers.”<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagV83" id = "tagV83" href = "#noteV83">V.83</a></p>
+
+<p>In this vague and ambiguous account, the writer gives us no idea of
+the period to which he refers in the words “cet ancien tems.” If he
+means the time between the pretended invention of Coster, and the period
+when typography was probably first practised in the Low
+Countries,&mdash;that is, from about 1430 to 1472,&mdash;he is wrong,
+and his statement would afford ground for a presumption that he had
+either examined the cut very carelessly, or that he was so superficially
+acquainted with the progressive improvement of the art of wood engraving
+as to mistake a cut abounding in cross-hatching, and certainly executed
+subsequent to 1524, for one that had been executed about seventy years
+previously, when cross-hatching was never attempted, and when the
+costume was as different from that of the figures represented in the cut
+as the costume of Vandyke’s portraits is dissimilar to Hogarth’s. The
+words “<i>graveurs de moules</i>,” I have translated literally
+“engravers of moulds,” for I cannot conceive what else Heineken can
+mean; but this expression is scarcely warranted by the word
+“<i>figuersnider</i>” on the cut, which is almost the same as the German
+“formschneider;” and whatever might be the original meaning of the word,
+it was certainly used to express merely a wood engraver. Compilers of
+Histories of Art, and Dictionaries of Painters and Engravers, who
+usually follow their leader, even in his slips, as regularly as a flock
+of sheep follow the bell-wether through a gap, have disseminated
+Heineken’s mistake, and the antiquity of “<i>Phillery’s</i>”
+wood-engraving is about as firmly established as Lawrence Coster’s
+invention of typography. One of those “straightforward” people has
+indeed gone rather beyond his authority; for in a “Dictionary of the
+Fine Arts,” published in 1826, we are expressly informed that
+“<i>Phillery, who lived near the end of the fourteenth century, was the
+first engraver on wood who practised in the Netherlands</i>.”<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagV84" id = "tagV84" href = "#noteV84">V.84</a> It is
+thus that
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page311" id = "page311">
+311</a></span>
+error on the subject of art, and indeed on every other subject, is
+propagated: a&nbsp;writer of reputation makes an incorrect or an
+ambiguous statement; other writers adopt it without examination, and not
+unfrequently one of that class whose confidence in deciding on a
+question is in the inverse ratio of their knowledge of the subject,
+proceeds beyond his original authority, and declares that to be certain
+which previously had only been doubtfully or obscurely expressed. In
+Heineken’s notice of this cut there is an implied qualification under
+which he might screen himself from a charge of incorrectness with
+respect to the time of its execution, though not from a charge of
+ambiguity. He says that, in his opinion, it is “the most ancient of the
+wood engravings executed in the Low Countries <i>which bear the name of
+the artist</i>;” and with this limitation his opinion may be correct,
+although the cut were only engraved in 1525 or 1526; for I am not aware
+of any wood engraving of an earlier date, executed in the Low Countries,
+that contains the <i>name</i> of the artist, though there are several
+which contain the artist’s mark. It also may be argued that the words
+“<i>cet ancien tems</i>” might be about as correctly applied to
+designate the year 1525 as 1470: if, however, he meant the first of
+those dates, he has expressed himself in an equivocal manner, for he is
+generally understood to refer the cut to a considerably earlier period.
+It has been indeed conjectured that Heineken, in speaking of this cut,
+might intentionally express himself obscurely, in order that he might
+not give offence to his friend Monsieur Mariette, who is said to have
+considered it to be one of the earliest specimens of wood engravings
+executed in the Low Countries. This is, however, without any sufficient
+reason, merely shifting the charge of ignorance, with respect to the
+difference of style in wood engravings of different periods, from
+Heineken to Monsieur Mariette. As there is no evidence to show that the
+latter ever expressed any such opinion as that ascribed to him
+respecting the antiquity of the cut in question, Heineken alone is
+answerable for the account contained in his book. Impressions of the cut
+by “<i>Phillery</i>” are not of very great rarity; there are two in the
+Print Room at the British Museum, and from one of them the reduced copy
+in the following page has been carefully made.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_312" id = "illus_312">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_312.png" width = "297" height = "493"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Any person, however, slightly acquainted with the progress of wood
+engraving could scarcely fail to pronounce that the original of this cut
+must have been executed subsequent to 1500, and in all probability
+subsequent to the cuts of the Triumphal Procession of Maximilian, to the
+general style of which, so far as relates to the manner of engraving, it
+bears considerable resemblance. The costume of the figures, too, also
+proves that it does not belong to the fifteenth century;
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page312" id = "page312">
+312</a></span>
+and on carefully examining the inscription, a&nbsp;person accustomed to
+the old German or Dutch characters would be more likely to read
+“<i>Willem</i>” than “<i>Phillery</i>” as the name of the artist. To one
+of the impressions in the British Museum a former owner, after
+extracting Heineken’s account, has appended the following remark: “This
+is the print above described. There seems to be an inconsiderable
+mistake in the name, which I take to be D’villery.” It is to be observed
+that in the original, as in the preceding copy, the inscription is
+engraved on wood, and not set up in type; and that consequently the
+first character of the doubtful name is rather indistinct. It is however
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page313" id = "page313">
+313</a></span>
+most probably a <i>W</i>; and the last is certainly an <i>m</i>, with a
+flourish at its tail. The intermediate letters <i>ille</i> are plain
+enough, and if the first be supposed to be a <i>W</i>, and the last an
+<i>m</i>, we have the name <i>Willem</i>,&mdash;a very probable prenomen
+for a Dutch wood engraver of the sixteenth century. The inscription when
+carefully examined is literally as follows: “<i>Gheprint Tantwerpen Bij
+mij Willem de Figuersnider</i>.” Heineken’s mistake of <i>Phillery</i>
+for <i>Willem</i>, or William, and thus giving a heretofore unheard-of
+name to the list of artists, is not unlike that of Scopoli the
+naturalist, who, in one of his works, has commemorated “Horace Head” as
+a London bookseller.<a class = "tag" name = "tagV85" id = "tagV85" href
+= "#noteV85">V.85</a></p>
+
+<p class = "figfloat">
+<a name = "illus_313" id = "illus_313">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_313.png" width = "44" height = "80"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Though the cut which bears the name of the supposed “Phillery”
+contains internal evidence of its not having been engraved in the
+fifteenth century, there is yet further reason to believe that it is
+merely a copy of part of a cut of the same size by a Swiss artist of the
+name of Urse Graff, which is dated 1524. There is an impression of Urse
+Graff’s cut <a class = "tag" name = "tagV86" id = "tagV86" href =
+"#noteV86">V.86</a> in the Print Room of the British Museum; in the
+fore-ground are the figures which have obviously been copied by
+<i>Willem de Figuersnider</i>, alias <i>Phillery</i>, and immediately
+behind the middle figure, who holds in his right hand a large Swiss
+espadon, is a leafless tree with a figure of Death clinging to the upper
+part of the trunk, and pointing to a hour-glass which he holds in his
+left hand. A&nbsp;bird, probably intended for a raven, is perched above
+the hour-glass; and on the trunk of the tree, near to the figure of
+Death, is Urse Graff’s mark with the date as is here given. The
+back-ground presents a view of a lake, with buildings and mountains on
+the left. The general character of Urse Graff’s subject is Swiss, both
+in the scenery and figures; and the perfect identity of the latter with
+those in the cut “printed at Antwerp by William the figure-cutter”
+proves, beyond the possibility of a doubt, that one of those two artists
+has copied the work of the other. Urse Graff’s subject, however, is
+complete, and corresponds both in the landscape and in the costume of
+the figures with the country of the artist; while the cut of William of
+Antwerp represents merely an unrelieved group of figures in the costume
+of Switzerland. Urse Graff was an artist of reputation in his time; of
+“Willem,” who was probably only an engraver of the designs of others,
+nothing more is known beyond what is afforded by the single cut in
+question. From these circumstances,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page314" id = "page314">
+314</a></span>
+though it cannot be positively decided which of those cuts is the
+original, it is almost morally certain that the Flemish figure-cutter
+has copied the work of the Swiss artist.&mdash;Urse Graff resided at
+Basle, of which city he was probably a native. In one of his engravings
+with the date 1523, he describes himself as a goldsmith and die-sinker.
+Wood-cuts containing his mark are not very common, and the most of them
+appear to have been executed between 1515 and 1528. A&nbsp;series of
+wood-cuts of the Passion of Christ, designed in a very inferior manner,
+and printed at Strasburg in 1509, are sometimes ascribed to him on
+account of their being marked with the letters V.&nbsp;G., which some
+writers have supposed to be the mark of an artist named Von Gamperlin.
+Professor Christ, in his Dictionary of Monograms, says that he can find
+nothing to determine him in favour of the name Gamperlin; and that he is
+rather inclined to think that those letters are intended for the name
+Von Goar, which he believes that he has deciphered on an engraving
+containing this mark. The mark of Urse Graff, a&nbsp;V and a G
+interlaced, occurs in the ornamented border of the title-page of several
+books printed at Basle, and amongst others on the title of a quarto
+edition of Ulrich Hutten’s Nemo, printed there by Frobenius in 1519. At
+the end of this edition there is a beautifully-designed cut of the
+printer’s device, which is probably the work of the same artist.<a class
+= "tag" name = "tagV87" id = "tagV87" href = "#noteV87">V.87</a></p>
+
+<p>A painter, named Nicholas Emanuel Deutsch, a contemporary of Urse
+Graff, and who resided at Bern, is said, by Sandrart, to have been of a
+noble English family, and the same writer adds that he left his own
+country on account of his religion. The latter statement, however, is
+not likely to be correct, for there are wood-cuts, with this artist’s
+mark, dated “Bern, 1518;” which was before the persecution in England on
+account of the doctrines of Luther had commenced. In J.&nbsp;R. Füssli’s
+Dictionary of Artists it is stated that he was of a French family, of
+the name of Cholard, but that he was born at Bern in 1484, and died
+there in 1530. He was a poet as well as a painter, and held one of the
+highest offices in the magistracy of Bern.</p>
+
+<p>Within the first thirty years of the sixteenth century the practice
+of illustrating books with wood-cuts seems to have been more general
+than at any other period, scarcely excepting the present; for though
+within the last eight or ten years an immense number of wood-cuts have
+been executed in England and France, yet wood engravings at the time
+referred to were introduced into a greater variety of books, and the art
+was more generally practised throughout Europe. In
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page315" id = "page315">
+315</a></span>
+modern German and Dutch works wood engravings are sparingly introduced;
+and in works printed in Switzerland and Italy they are still more rarely
+to be found. In the former period the art seems to have been very
+generally practised throughout Europe, though to a greater extent, and
+with greater skill, in Germany than in any other country. The wood-cuts
+which are to be found in Italian books printed between 1500 and 1530 are
+mostly meagre in design and very indifferently engraved; and for many
+years after the German wood engravers had begun to give variety of
+colour and richness of effect to their cuts by means of cross-hatchings,
+their Italian contemporaries continued to adhere to the old method of
+engraving their figures, chiefly in outline, with the shadows and the
+folds of the draperies indicated by parallel lines. These observations
+relate only to the ordinary wood engravings of the period, printed in
+the same page with type, or printed separately in the usual manner of
+surface printing at one impression. The admirable chiaro-scuros of Ugo
+da Carpi, printed from two or more blocks, are for effect and general
+excellence the most admirable specimens of this branch of the art that
+ever have been executed; they are as superior to the chiaro-scuros of
+German artists as the usual wood engravings of the latter excel those
+executed in Italy during the same period.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<div class = "picblock w100">
+<p><a name = "illus_316" id = "illus_316">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_316a.png" width = "72" height = "74"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+<div class = "picblock">
+<p><img src = "images/illus_316b.png" width = "73" height = "72"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+<div class = "picblock">
+<p><img src = "images/illus_316c.png" width = "73" height = "73"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In point of drawing, some of the best wood-cuts executed in Italy in
+the time of Albert Durer are to be found in a folio work entitled
+Triompho di Fortuna, written by Sigismond Fanti, and printed at Venice
+in 1527.<a class = "tag" name = "tagV88" id = "tagV88" href =
+"#noteV88">V.88</a> The subject of this work, which was licensed by Pope
+Clement VII, is the art of fortune-telling, or of answering all kinds of
+questions relative to future events. The volume contains a considerable
+number of wood-cuts; some designed and executed in the very humblest
+style of wood engraving, and others, which appear to have been drawn on
+the block with pen-and-ink, designed with great
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page316" id = "page316">
+316</a></span>
+spirit. The smallest and most inferior cuts serve as illustrations to
+the questions, and an idea may be formed of them from the three here
+given, which occur under the question: “Qual fede o legge sia di queste
+tre la buona, o&nbsp;la Christiana, l’Hebrea, o&nbsp;quello di
+Mahumeto?”<a class = "tag" name = "tagV89" id = "tagV89" href =
+"#noteV89">V.89</a> In English: “Which of these three religions is the
+best, the Christian, the Jewish, or the Mahometan?” Several larger cuts
+are executed in a dry hard style, and evidently drawn by a person very
+inferior to the artist who designed the cuts executed in the manner of
+pen-and-ink drawings. The following is a fac-simile of one of the
+latter. It is entitled “Fortuna de Africo,” in a series of twelve,
+intended for representations of the winds.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_316d" id = "illus_316d">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_316d.png" width = "260" height = "278"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The following cut, which appears in folio 38, is intitled “Michael
+Fiorentino,”&mdash;Michael Angelo; and it certainly conveys no bad idea
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page317" id = "page317">
+317</a></span>
+of the energetic manner in which that great artist is said to have used
+his mallet and chisel when engaged on works of sculpture. This cut,
+however, is made to represent several other sculptors besides the great
+Florentine; it is repeated seven times in the subsequent pages, and on
+each occasion we find underneath it a different name. The late
+T.&nbsp;Stothard, R.A.&nbsp;was of opinion that wood engraving was best
+adapted to express pen-and-ink drawing, and that the wood engraver
+generally failed when he attempted more. His illustrations of Rogers’s
+poems, engraved on wood by Clennell and Thompson, are executed in a
+similar style to that of the following specimen, though with greater
+delicacy.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_317" id = "illus_317">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_317.png" width = "311" height = "317"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Certain wood-cuts with the mark A. G., executed towards the
+conclusion of the fifteenth century, have been ascribed to an artist
+named Albert Glockenton. Bartsch, however, says that the name of the
+artist is unknown; and he seems to consider that Sandrart had merely
+conjectured that those letters might represent the name Albert
+Glockenton. For no better reason the letters I.&nbsp;V. on a tablet,
+with two pilgrim’s-staffs crossed between them, which are to be found on
+several old chiaro-scuro wood engravings, have been supposed to
+represent the name, John Ulric Pilgrim. This name appears to be a pure
+invention of some ingenious expounder of monograms, for there is not the
+slightest evidence, that I am aware of, to show that any artist of this
+name ever
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page318" id = "page318">
+318</a></span>
+lived. The chiaro-scuros with this mark were probably executed in the
+time of Durer, but none of them contains a date to establish the fact.
+Heineken considers them to have been the productions of a German artist;
+and he refers to them in proof of the art of chiaro-scuro having been
+practised in Germany long before the time of Ugo da Carpi. It is,
+however, highly questionable if they are of an earlier date than 1518;
+and it is by no means certain that the artist was a German. By some
+persons he has been supposed to have been the inventor of chiaro-scuro
+engraving, on no better grounds, it would seem, than that his pieces are
+without a date.</p>
+
+<p>Next to the Germans, in the time of Albert Durer, the Dutch and
+Flemings seem to have excelled in the art of wood engraving; but the
+cuts executed in Holland and Flanders are generally much inferior to
+those designed and engraved by German artists. In a considerable number
+of Dutch wood engravings, of the period under review, I&nbsp;have
+observed an attempt to combine something like the effect of
+cross-hatching and of the dotted manner mentioned at page 232 as having
+been frequently practised by French wood engravers in the early part of
+the sixteenth century. In a series of cuts from a Dutch prayer-book,
+apparently printed between 1520 and 1530, this style of engraving is
+frequently introduced. Where a German artist would have introduced lines
+crossing each other with great regularity, the Dutch wood engraver has
+endeavoured to attain his object by irregularly picking out portions of
+the wood with the point of his graver; the effect, however, is not good.
+In the border surrounding those cuts, a&nbsp;Dance of Death is
+represented, consisting of several more characters than are to be found
+in the celebrated work ascribed to Holbein, but far inferior in point of
+design and execution.</p>
+
+<p>An artist, named John Walter van Assen, is usually mentioned as one
+of the best Dutch wood engravers or designers of this period. Nothing
+further is known of him than that he lived at Amsterdam about 1517. The
+mark supposed to be Van Assen’s is often ascribed by expounders of
+monograms to another artist whom they call Werner or Waer van
+Assanen.</p>
+
+<p>A considerable number of French works, printed in the time of Albert
+Durer, contain wood engravings, but few of them possess much merit when
+compared with the more highly finished and correctly drawn productions
+of the German school of the same period. The ornamental borders,
+however, of many missals and prayer-books, which then issued in great
+numbers from the Parisian press, frequently display great beauty. The
+taste for surrounding each page with an ornamental border engraved on
+wood was very generally prevalent in Germany, France, and Flanders at
+that period, more especially in devotional works; and in the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page319" id = "page319">
+319</a></span>
+former country, and in Switzerland, scarcely a tract was
+printed&mdash;and the Lutheran controversy gave rise to many
+hundreds&mdash;without an ornamental border surrounding the title. In
+Germany such wood engravers as were chiefly employed in executing cuts
+of this kind were called
+<i>Rahmen-schneiders</i>&mdash;border-cutters,&mdash;as has been
+previously observed at page 190. In England during the same period wood
+engraving made but little progress; and there seems to have been a lack
+of good designers and competent engravers in this country. The best cuts
+printed in England in the time of Durer are contained in a manual of
+prayers, of a small duodecimo size. On a tablet in the border of one of
+the cuts&mdash;the Flight into Egypt<a class = "tag" name = "tagV90" id
+= "tagV90" href = "#noteV90">V.90</a>&mdash;I perceive the date 1523.
+The total number of cuts in the volume is about a hundred; and under
+each of the largest are four verses in English. Several of the smaller
+cuts, representing figures of saints, and preceding the prayers for
+their respective days, have evidently been designed by an artist of
+considerable talent. As most of the wood-cuts which constitute the
+ornaments or the illustrations of books printed at this period are
+without any name or mark, it is impossible to ascertain the names of the
+persons by whom they were designed or engraved.</p>
+
+<p>The manner of wood engraving in <i>intaglio</i> so that the figures
+appear white on a black ground, so frequently adopted by early Italian
+wood engravers, was sometimes practised in Germany; and in one of the
+earliest works containing portraits of the Roman emperors,<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagV91" id = "tagV91" href = "#noteV91">V.91</a> copied
+from ancient medals, printed in the latter country, the cuts are
+executed in this style. The subject of the work is the lives of the
+Roman emperors, written by Joannes Huttichius, and the portraits with
+which it is illustrated are copied from medals in a collection which had
+been formed by the Emperor Maximilian, the great promoter of wood
+engraving in Germany. The first edition, in Latin, was printed by Wolff
+Köpffel, at Strasburg, in 1525; and a second edition, in German, was
+published at the same place in the succeeding year. The cut on the next
+page, of the head of Nero, will afford an idea of the style in which the
+portraits are
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page320" id = "page320">
+320</a></span>
+executed, and of the fidelity with which the artist has in general
+represented the likeness impressed on the original medals.</p>
+
+<p>Besides Durer, Burgmair, Cranach, and Schaufflein, there are several
+other German painters of the same period who are also said to have
+engraved on wood, and among the most celebrated of this secondary class
+the following may be mentioned: Hans Sebald Behaim, previously noticed
+at page 253; Albert Altdorffer; Hans Springinklee; and Hans Baldung
+Grün. The marks of all those artists are to be found on wood-cuts
+executed in the time of Durer; but I am extremely doubtful if those cuts
+were actually engraved by themselves. If they were, I&nbsp;can only say
+that, though they might be good painters and designers, they were very
+indifferent wood engravers; and that their time in executing the
+subjects ascribed to them must have been very badly employed. The common
+working <i>formschneider</i> who could not execute them as well, must
+have been a very ordinary wood-<i>cutter</i>, not to say
+wood-<i>engraver</i>,&mdash;by the latter term meaning one who excels in
+his profession, and not a mere cutter of lines, without skill or taste,
+on box or pear-tree.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_320" id = "illus_320">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_320.png" width = "163" height = "166"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Albert Altdorffer was born at Ratisbon in 1480, and afterwards became
+a magistrate of his native city. The engravings on wood and copper
+containing his mark are mostly of a small size, and he is generally
+known as one of the <i>little masters</i> of the German school of
+engraving.<a class = "tag" name = "tagV92" id = "tagV92" href =
+"#noteV92">V.92</a> Hans Springinklee was a painter of some eminence,
+and according to Doppelmayer, as referred to by Bartsch, was a pupil of
+Durer’s. His mark is to be found on several wood-cuts; and it occurs in
+one of the illustrations in the Wise King. Hans Baldung Grün was born at
+Gemund in Suabia, and studied at Nuremberg under Albert Durer. He
+excelled as a painter; and the wood-cuts which contain his
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page321" id = "page321">
+321</a></span>
+mark are mostly designed with great spirit. The earliest wood engraving
+that contains his mark is a frontispiece to a volume of sermons with the
+date 1508; and the latest is a group of horses, engraved in a hard,
+stiff manner, with the name “<span class = "smallcaps">Baldung</span>”
+and the date 1534.<a class = "tag" name = "tagV93" id = "tagV93" href =
+"#noteV93">V.93</a> He chiefly resided at Strasburg, where he died in
+1545. He is mentioned by Durer, in his Journal, by the name of “Grün
+Hannsen.”</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_321" id = "illus_321">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_321.png" width = "339" height = "325"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>We may here conveniently introduce fac-similes on a reduced scale of
+two rather interesting wood engravings given by Dr. Dibdin in his
+Bibliomania, and copied from an early folio volume, entitled
+<i>Revelationes cœlestes sanctæ Brigittæ de Suecia</i>, printed at
+Nuremberg by Anthony Köberger, <span class = "smallroman">M&nbsp;CCC
+XXI.</span> <i>mensis Septembris</i>, which some read 1500, on the 21st
+of September, others 1521, in the month of September. The first of these
+cuts is curious as representing the simplicity of an ancient reading
+room, with its three-legged joint stool, such as is so prettily
+described by Cowper, Task, I.&nbsp;v.&nbsp;19; the other cut describes a
+punishment
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page322" id = "page322">
+322</a></span>
+which is said to have been revealed to St. Bridget against those ladies
+who have “ornamenta indecentia capitibus et pedibus, et reliquis
+membris, ad provocandam luxuriam, et irritandum Deum, in strictis
+vestibus, ostensione mamillarum, unctionibus, &amp;c.” The artist is
+unknown, but seems to be among the best of the Nuremberg school.</p>
+
+<p class = "figfloat">
+<a name = "illus_322" id = "illus_322">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_322.png" width = "179" height = "322"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>It cannot be reasonably doubted that Durer and several other German
+painters of his time were accustomed to engrave their own designs on
+copper; for in many instances we have the express testimony of their
+contemporaries, and not unfrequently their own, to the fact.
+Copper-plate engraving for about sixty years from the time of its
+invention was generally practised by persons who were also painters, and
+who usually engraved their own designs. Wood engraving, on the contrary,
+from an early period was practised as a distinct profession by persons
+who are never heard of as painters. That some of the early German
+painters&mdash;of a period when “artists were more of workmen, and
+workmen more of artists”<a class = "tag" name = "tagV94" id = "tagV94"
+href = "#noteV94">V.94</a> than in the present day&mdash;<i>might</i>
+engrave some of the wood-cuts which bear their marks, is certainly not
+impossible; but it is highly improbable that all the wood-cuts which are
+ascribed to them should have been executed by themselves. If any
+wood-cuts were actually engraved by Durer, Cranach, Burgmair, and other
+painters of reputation, I&nbsp;conceive that such cuts are not to be
+distinguished by their superior execution from those engraved by the
+professional <i>formschneider</i> and <i>brief-maler</i> of the day. The
+best copper-plates engraved by Albert Durer can scarcely be surpassed by
+the best copper-plate engraver of the present day,&mdash;that is,
+supposing him to execute his work by the same means; while the best of
+the wood-cuts which he is supposed to have engraved himself might be
+readily executed by a score of modern
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page323" id = "page323">
+323</a></span>
+wood engravers if the subject were drawn for them on the block. In the
+age of Durer the best wood-cuts are of comparatively large size, and are
+distinguished more from the boldness and freedom of their design than
+from any peculiar excellence of engraving: they display, in fact, rather
+the talent of the <i>artist</i> than the skill of the <i>workman</i>.
+Though wood engraving had very greatly improved from about the end of
+the fifteenth century to the time of Durer’s decease, yet it certainly
+did not attain its perfection within that period. In later years,
+indeed, the workman has displayed greater excellence; but at no time
+does the art appear to have been more flourishing or more highly
+esteemed than in the reign of its great patron, the Emperor
+Maximilian.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_323" id = "illus_323">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_323.png" width = "263" height = "340"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<div class = "footnote">
+
+
+<p><a name = "noteV1" id = "noteV1" href = "#tagV1">V.1</a>
+Chiaro-scuros are executed by means of two or more blocks, in imitation
+of a drawing in sepia, India ink, or any other colour of two or more
+shades. The older chiaro-scuros are seldom executed with more than three
+blocks; on the first of which the general outline of the subject and the
+stronger shades were engraved and printed in the usual manner; from the
+second the lighter shades were communicated; and from the third a
+general tint was printed over the impressions of the other two.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV2" id = "noteV2" href = "#tagV2">V.2</a>
+This print is one of the valuable collection left to the Museum by the
+Rev. C.&nbsp;M. Cracherode, and the following remark in that gentleman’s
+writing is inserted on the opposite page of the folio in which it is
+preserved: “The Presepe is a plain proof that printing in chiaro-scuro
+was known before the time of Ugo da Carpi, who is erroneously reputed
+the inventor of this art at the beginning of the sixteenth century.” The
+print in question is certainly not a proof of the art of engraving in
+chiaro-scuro; and Mr. Ottley has added the following correction in
+pencil: “But the white here is put on with a pencil, and not left in
+printing, as it would have been if the tint had been added by a wooden
+block after the copper-plate had been printed.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV3" id = "noteV3" href = "#tagV3">V.3</a>
+Bartsch describes this print in his Peintre-Graveur, tom. vi.
+p.&nbsp;364, No.&nbsp;4; but he takes no notice of Joseph holding a
+candle, nor of its wanting a light.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV4" id = "noteV4" href = "#tagV4">V.4</a>
+Some single cuts executed in this manner are supposed to be at least as
+old as the year 1450. The earliest that I have noticed in a book occur
+in a Life of Christ printed at Cologne about 1485.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV5" id = "noteV5" href = "#tagV5">V.5</a>
+In a folio of Albert Durer’s drawings in the Print Room at the British
+Museum there is a portrait of “<i>Fronica, Formschneiderin</i>,” with
+the date 1525. In 1433 we find a woman at Nuremberg described as a
+card-maker: “<i>Eli. Kartenmacherin</i>.” It is scarcely necessary to
+remind the reader that the earliest German wood engravers were
+card-makers.&mdash;See chapter <span class = "smallroman">II.</span>
+p.&nbsp;41.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV6" id = "noteV6" href = "#tagV6">V.6</a>
+The following is Bartsch’s French version of this letter, which is given
+in the original German in Von Murr’s Journal, 9<sup>er.</sup> Theil,
+S.&nbsp;53. “Cher Michel Beheim. Je vous envoie les armoiries, en vous
+priant de les laisser comme elles sont. Personne d’ailleurs ne les
+corrigeroit en mieux, car je les ai faites exprès et avec art; c’est
+pourquoi ceux qui s’y connoissent et qui les verront vous en rendront
+bonne raison. Si l’on haussoit les lambrequins du heaume, ils
+couvriroient le volet.”&mdash;Bartsch, Peintre-Graveur, tom. vii.
+p.&nbsp;27.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV7" id = "noteV7" href = "#tagV7">V.7</a>
+In Durer’s Journal of his visit to the Netherlands in 1520 there is the
+following passage: “Item hab dem von Rogendorff sein Wappen auf Holz
+gerissen, dafür hat er mir geschenckt vii. Ein Sammet.”&mdash;“Also I
+have drawn for Von Rogendorff his arms on wood, for which he has
+presented me with seven yards of velvet.”&mdash;Von Murr, Journal zur
+Kunstgeschichte, 7<sup>er.</sup> Theil, S.&nbsp;76.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV8" id = "noteV8" href = "#tagV8">V.8</a>
+Bibliographical Tour, vol. iii. p. 442, second edition.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV9" id = "noteV9" href = "#tagV9">V.9</a>
+The Baron was the collector of the wood-cuts published with Becker’s
+explanations, referred to at page 226, chapter <span class =
+"smallroman">IV.</span> The anecdote alluded to will be found in Dr.
+Dibdin’s Bibliographical Tour, vol. iii. pp. 445, 446. The Baron sold a
+rare specimen of copper-plate engraving with the date <span class =
+"smallroman">M.&nbsp;CCCC. XXX.</span> to the Doctor, and it seems that
+he also sold <i>another</i> impression from the same plate to Mr. John
+Payne. There is no doubt of their being gross forgeries; and it is not
+unlikely that the plate was in the Baron’s possession.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV10" id = "noteV10" href = "#tagV10">V.10</a>
+“Dieser Hieronymus hat allhier im breiten Gassen gewohnt, dessen Wohnung
+hinten ins Frauengässlein ging.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV11" id = "noteV11" href = "#tagV11">V.11</a>
+Neudörffer, quoted in Von Murr’s Journal, 2ter Theil, S.&nbsp;158,
+159.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV12" id = "noteV12" href = "#tagV12">V.12</a>
+At the end of the first edition of the cuts illustrative of the
+Apocalypse, 1498, we find the words: <ins class = "correction" title =
+"open quote missing">“<i>Gedrukt</i></ins> <i>durch Albrecht Durer,
+Maler</i>,”&mdash;Printed by Albert Durer, painter; and the same in
+Latin in the second edition, printed about 1510. The passion of Christ
+and the History of the Virgin are respectively said to have been
+“<i>effigiata</i>” and “<i>per figuras digesta</i>”&mdash;“drawn” and
+“pictorially represented” by Albert Durer; and the cuts of the Triumphal
+Car of the Emperor Maximilian are described as being “<i>erfunden und
+geordnet</i>”&mdash;“invented and arranged” by him.&mdash;Bartsch,
+Peintre-Graveur, tom. vii. p.&nbsp;28.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV13" id = "noteV13" href = "#tagV13">V.13</a>
+The time that a German artist spends in travel from the expiration of
+his apprenticeship to the period of his settling as a master is called
+his <ins class = "correction" title = "“ missing">“wander</ins>-jahre,”&mdash;his travelling years. It is
+customary with many trades in Germany for the young men to travel for a
+certain time on the termination of their apprenticeship before they are
+admitted to the full privileges of the company or fellowship.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV14" id = "noteV14" href = "#tagV14">V.14</a>
+It has been stated, though erroneously, that Albert Durer was a pupil of
+Martin Schongauer, or Schön, as the surname was spelled by some writers,
+one of the most eminent painters and copper-plate engravers of his day.
+It has been generally supposed that he died in 1486; but, if an old
+memorandum at the back of his portrait in the collection of Count de
+Fries can be depended on, his death did not take place till the 2d of
+February 1499. An account of this memorandum will be found in Ottley’s
+Inquiry into the Origin and Early History of Engraving, vol. ii.
+p.&nbsp;640.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV15" id = "noteV15" href = "#tagV15">V.15</a>
+On a passage, in which Durer alludes to his wife, in one of his letters
+from Venice, 1506, to his friend Bilibald Pirkheimer, Von Murr makes the
+following remark: “This Xantippe must even at that time have vexed him
+much; and he was obliged to drag on his life with her for twenty-two
+years longer, till she fairly plagued him to death.”&mdash;Journal, 10er
+Theil, S.&nbsp;32.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV16" id = "noteV16" href = "#tagV16">V.16</a>
+Bartsch is decidedly of opinion that Michael Wolgemuth was not an
+engraver; and he ascribes all the plates marked with a W, which others
+have supposed to be Wolgemuth’s, to Wenceslaus of Olmutz, an artist of
+whom nothing is positively known.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV17" id = "noteV17" href = "#tagV17">V.17</a>
+This subject has also been engraved by Israel Von Mecken, and by an
+artist supposed to be Wenceslaus of Olmutz. It is probable that those
+artists have copied Durer’s engraving. On the globe in Israel Von
+Mecken’s plate the letters are O.&nbsp;G.&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV18" id = "noteV18" href = "#tagV18">V.18</a>
+This caution is in the original expressed in the following indignant
+terms: “Heus, tu insidiator, ac alieni laboris et ingenii surreptor, ne
+manus temerarias his nostris operibus inicias cave. Scias enim a
+gloriosissimo Romanorum imperatore Maximiliano nobis concessum esse ne
+quis suppositiciis formis has imagines imprimere seu impressas per
+imperii limites vendere audeat: q’ per contemptum seu avariciæ crimen
+secus feceris, post bonorum confiscationem tibi maximum periculum
+subeundum esse certissime scias.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV19" id = "noteV19" href = "#tagV19">V.19</a>
+Von Murr says that the subject of this picture was the martyrdom of St.
+Bartholomew, the saint to whom the church was dedicated; and that the
+painting afterwards came into the possession of the Emperor Rudolf II.
+and was placed in his gallery at Prague. It seems that Durer had taken
+some pictures with him to Venice; for in his fifth letter he says that
+he has sold two for twenty-four ducats, and exchanged three others for
+three rings, valued also at twenty-four ducats.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV20" id = "noteV20" href = "#tagV20">V.20</a>
+In the Venetian dialect of that period Giovanni Bellini was called Zan
+Belin; and Durer spells the name “Sambellinus.” He was the master of
+Titian, and died in 1514, at the age of ninety.&mdash;Von Murr, Journal,
+10er Theil, S.&nbsp;8.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV21" id = "noteV21" href = "#tagV21">V.21</a>
+Von Murr says that he cannot discover what Jacob is here meant. It would
+not be Jacob Walsch, as he died in 1500. The person alluded to was
+certainly not an Italian.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV22" id = "noteV22" href = "#tagV22">V.22</a>
+Bilibald Pirkheimer was a learned man, and a person of great authority
+in the city of Nuremberg. He was also a member of the Imperial Council,
+and was frequently employed in negociations with neighbouring states. He
+published several works; and among others a humorous essay entitled
+“Laus Podagræ”&mdash;The Praise of the Gout. His memory is still held in
+great respect in Germany as the friend of Albert Durer and Ulrich
+Hutten, two of the most extraordinary men that Germany has produced. He
+died in 1530, aged 60.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV23" id = "noteV23" href = "#tagV23">V.23</a>
+The kind of engraving meant was copper-plate engraving. Durer’s words
+are: “Ich hab awch dy Moler all gesthrilt dy do sagten, Im
+<i>Stechen</i> wer ich gut, aber im molen west ich nit mit farben um zu
+gen.” The word “<i>Stechen</i>” applies to engraving on copper;
+“Schneiden” to engraving on wood.&mdash;Von Murr, Journal, 10er Theil,
+S.&nbsp;28.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV24" id = "noteV24" href = "#tagV24">V.24</a>
+The title at length is as follows: “Epitome in Divæ Parthenices Marie
+Historiam ab Alberto Durero Norico per figuras digestam, cum versibus
+annexis Chelidonii.” Chelidonius, who was a Benedictine monk of
+Nuremberg, also furnished the descriptive text to the series of twelve
+cuts illustrative of Christ’s Passion, of which specimens will be found
+between page 246 and page 250.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV25" id = "noteV25" href = "#tagV25">V.25</a>
+The cuts of these two works appear to have been in the hands of the
+engraver at the same time. Of those in the History of the Virgin one is
+dated 1509; and two bear the date 1510; and in the Passion of Christ
+four are dated 1510.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV26" id = "noteV26" href = "#tagV26">V.26</a>
+The Latin title of the work is as follows: “Passio Domini nostri Jesu,
+ex Hieronymo Paduano, Dominico Mancino, Sedulio, et Baptista Mantuana,
+per fratrem Chelidonium collecta, cum figuris Alberti Dureri Norici
+Pictoris.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV27" id = "noteV27" href = "#tagV27">V.27</a>
+The Latin title of this work is “Passio Christi,” and the explanatory
+verses are from the pen of Chelidonius. Durer, in the Journal of his
+Visit to the Netherlands, twice mentions it as “die Kleine Passion,” and
+each time with a distinction which proves that he did not mean the
+Passion engraved by him on copper and probably published in 1512. “Item
+Sebaldt Fischer hat mir zu Antorff [Antwerp] abkaufft 16 <i>kleiner
+Passion</i>, pro 4 fl. Mehr 32 grosser Bücher pro 8 fl. Mehr 6 gestochne
+Passion pro 3 fl.”&mdash;“Darnach die drey Bücher unser Frauen Leben,
+Apocalypsin, und den grossen Passion, darnach <i>den klein Passion</i>,
+und den Passion in Kupffer.”&mdash;Albrecht Dürers Reisejournal, in Von
+Murr, 7er Theil, S.&nbsp;60 and 67. The size of the cuts of the Little
+Passion is five inches high by three and seven-eighths wide. Four
+impressions from the original blocks are given in Ottley’s Inquiry, vol.
+ii. between page 730 and page <ins class = "correction" title = ". missing">731.</ins></p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV28" id = "noteV28" href = "#tagV28">V.28</a>
+Inquiry into the Origin and Early History of Engraving, vol. ii.
+p.&nbsp;782. The objections to the general truth of Vasari’s story
+appear to be much stronger than the presumptions in its favour.
+1.&nbsp;The improbability of Albert Durer having visited Venice
+subsequent to 1506; 2.&nbsp;The fact of Marc Antonio’s copies of the
+cuts of the Little Passion <i>not</i> containing Albert Durer’s mark;
+and 3.&nbsp;The probability of Mark Antonio residing beyond the
+jurisdiction of the Venetian government at the time of his engraving
+them.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV29" id = "noteV29" href = "#tagV29">V.29</a>
+There is a copy of this head, also engraved on wood, of the size of the
+original, but without Durer’s, or any other mark. Underneath an
+impression of the copy, in the Print Room of the British Museum, there
+is written in a hand which appears to be at least as old as the year
+1550, “Dieser hat <img src = "images/illus_253.png" width = "16" height
+= "16" alt = "HSB" class = "middle">ehaim gerissen”&mdash;“H.&nbsp;S.
+Behaim drew this.” Hans Sebald Behaim, a&nbsp;painter and designer on
+wood, was born at Nuremberg in 1500, and was the pupil of his uncle,
+also named Behaim, a&nbsp;painter and engraver of that city. The younger
+Behaim abandoned the arts to become a tavern-keeper at Frankfort, where
+he died in 1550.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV30" id = "noteV30" href = "#tagV30">V.30</a>
+In the edition with Latin inscriptions, 1523, are the words,
+“Excogitatus et depictus est currus iste Nurembergæ, impressus vero per
+Albertum Durer. Anno <ins class = "correction" title = "close quote missing"><span class = "smallroman">MDXXIII.</span>”</ins> The Latin
+words “excogitatus et depictus” are expressed by “gefunden und geordnet”
+in the German inscriptions in the edition of 1522. A&nbsp;sketch by
+Durer, for the Triumphal Car, is preserved in the Print Room in the
+British Museum.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV31" id = "noteV31" href = "#tagV31">V.31</a>
+Bibliographical Tour, vol. iii. p. 438. Edit. 1829.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV32" id = "noteV32" href = "#tagV32">V.32</a>
+Ibid. p. 330.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV33" id = "noteV33" href = "#tagV33">V.33</a>
+The two last names are, in the first edition, pasted over others which
+appear to have been “The Gate of Honour” and “The Gate of Relationship,
+Friendship, and Alliance.” The last name alludes to the emperor’s
+possessions as acquired by descent or marriage, and to his power as
+strengthened by his friendly alliances with neighbouring states.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV34" id = "noteV34" href = "#tagV34">V.34</a>
+“Item wist auch das Ich K. Mt. ausserhalb des Tryumps sonst viel
+mancherley Fisyrung gemacht hab.”&mdash;“You must also know that I have
+made many other drawings for the emperor besides those of the Triumph.”
+The date of this letter is not given, but Durer informs his friend that
+he had been already three years employed for the emperor, and that if he
+had not exerted himself the beautiful “work” would not have been so soon
+completed. If this is to be understood of the Triumphal Arch, it would
+seem that the designs at least were all finished before the emperor’s
+death.&mdash;Von Murr, Journal, 9er Theil, S.&nbsp;4.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV35" id = "noteV35" href = "#tagV35">V.35</a>
+In the process of etching the plate is first covered with a resinous
+composition&mdash;called etching ground&mdash;on which the lines
+intended to be <i>etched</i>, or bit into the plate, are drawn through
+to the surface of the metal by means of a small pointed tool called an
+etching needle, or an etching point. When the drawing of the subject
+upon the etching ground is finished, the plate is surrounded with a
+slightly raised border, or “wall,” as it is technically termed, formed
+of rosin, bee’s-wax, and lard; and, a&nbsp;corrosive liquid being poured
+upon the plate, the lines are “bit” into the copper or steel. When the
+engraver thinks that the lines are corroded to a sufficient depth, he
+pours off the liquid, cleans the plate by means of turpentine, and
+proceeds to finish his work with the graver and dry-point. According to
+the practice of modern engravers, where several <i>tints</i> are
+required, as is most frequently the case, the process of “biting-in” is
+repeated; the corrosive liquid being again poured on the plate to
+corrode deeper the stronger lines, while the more delicate are “stopped
+out,”&mdash;that is, covered with a kind of varnish that soon hardens,
+to preserve them from further corrosion. Most of our best engravers now
+use a diamond point in etching. <i>Nitrous</i> acid is used for
+“biting-in” on copper in the proportion of one part acid to four parts
+water, and the mixture is considered to be better after it has been once
+or twice used. Before using the acid it is advisable to take the stopper
+out of the bottle for twenty-four hours in order to allow a portion of
+the strength to evaporate. During the process of biting-in a large
+copper-plate the fumes which arise are so powerful as frequently to
+cause an unpleasant stricture in the throat, and sometimes to bring on a
+spitting of blood when they have been incautiously inhaled by the
+engraver. At such times it is usual for the engraver to have near him
+some powerful essence, generally hartshorn, in order to counteract the
+effects of the noxious vapour. For biting-in on <ins class =
+"correction" title = "comma invisible">steel,</ins> <i>nitric</i> acid
+is used in the proportion of thirty drops to half a pint of distilled
+water; and the mixture is never used for more than one plate.&mdash;When
+a <i>copper</i>-plate is sufficiently bit-in, it is only necessary to
+wash it with a little water previous to removing the etching ground with
+turpentine; but, besides this, with a <i>steel</i> plate it is further
+necessary to set it on one of its edges against a wall or other support,
+and to blow it with a pair of small bellows till every particle of
+moisture in the lines is perfectly evaporated. The plate is then rubbed
+with oil, otherwise the lines would rust from the action of the
+atmosphere and the plate be consequently spoiled. Previous to a steel
+plate being laid aside for any length of time it ought to be warmed, and
+the engraved surface rubbed carefully over with virgin wax so that it
+may be completely covered, and every line filled. A&nbsp;piece of thick
+paper the size of the plate, laid over the wax while it is yet adhesive,
+will prove an additional safeguard. For this information respecting the
+process of biting-in, the writer is indebted to an eminent engraver, Mr.
+J.&nbsp;T. Wilmore.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV36" id = "noteV36" href = "#tagV36">V.36</a>
+The account of the naming of John the Baptist will be found in St.
+Luke’s Gospel, chap. i.&nbsp;verse 59-64.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV37" id = "noteV37" href = "#tagV37">V.37</a>
+Durer’s Journal of his Travels is given by Von Murr, 7er Theil,
+S.&nbsp;55-98. The title which the Editor has prefixed to it is,
+“Reisejournal Albrecht Dürer’s von seiner Niederländischen Reise, 1520
+und 1521. E.&nbsp;Bibliotheca Ebneriana.” In the same volume, Von Murr
+gives some specimens of Durer’s poetry. The first couplet which he made
+in 1509 is as follows:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p class = "open">“Du aller Engel Spiegel und Erlöser der Welt,</p>
+<p>Deine grosse Marter sey für mein Sünd ein Widergelt.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p>Thou mirror of all Angels and Redeemer of mankind,</p>
+<p>Through thy martyrdom, for all my sins may I a ransom find.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This couplet being ridiculed by Bilibald Pirkheimer, who said that
+rhyming verses ought not to consist of more than eight syllables, Durer
+wrote several others in a shorter measure, but with no better success;
+for he says at the conclusion, that they did not please the learned
+counsellor. With Durer’s rhymes there is an epistle in verse from his
+friend Lazarus Sprengel, written to dissuade him from attempting to
+become a poet. Durer’s verses want “the right butter-woman’s trot to
+market,” and are sadly deficient in rhythm when compared with the more
+regular clink of his friend’s.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV38" id = "noteV38" href = "#tagV38">V.38</a>
+Subsequently, Durer mentions having delivered to the Margrave John, at
+Brussels, a&nbsp;letter of recommendation [Fürderbrief] from the Bishop
+of Bamberg.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV39" id = "noteV39" href = "#tagV39">V.39</a>
+As Durer was at Cologne about the 26th July, it is probable that he
+would arrive at Antwerp about the last day of that month.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV40" id = "noteV40" href = "#tagV40">V.40</a>
+The maid, Susanna, seems to have been rather a “humble friend” than a
+<ins class = "correction" title = "‘l’ invisible">menial</ins> servant;
+for she is mentioned in another part of the Journal as being entertained
+with Durer’s wife at the house of “Tomasin Florianus,” whom Durer
+describes as “<i>Romanus</i>, von Luca bürtig.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV41" id = "noteV41" href = "#tagV41">V.41</a>
+The Assumption of the Virgin is celebrated in the Roman Catholic Church
+on the 15th August.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV42" id = "noteV42" href = "#tagV42">V.42</a>
+Albrecht Dürer’s Reisejournal, in Von Murr, 7er Theil,
+S.&nbsp;63-65.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV43" id = "noteV43" href = "#tagV43">V.43</a>
+This “gross Fischpein” was probably part of the back-bone of a
+whale.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV44" id = "noteV44" href = "#tagV44">V.44</a>
+The stiver was the twenty-fourth part of a guilder or florin of gold,
+which was equal to about nine shillings English money of the present
+time; the stiver would therefore be equal to about four pence
+half-penny. About the same time, Durer sold a copy of his Christ’s
+Passion, probably the large one, for twelve stivers, and an impression
+of his copper-plate of Adam and Eve for four stivers. Shortly after his
+first arrival at Antwerp, he sold sixteen copies of the Little Passion
+for four guilders or florins; and thirty-two copies of his larger
+works,&mdash;probably the Apocalypse, the History of the Virgin, and the
+Great Passion,&mdash;for eight florins, being at the rate of sixteen
+stivers for each copy. He also sold six copies of the Passion engraved
+on copper at the same price. He gave to his host a painting of the
+Virgin on canvass to sell for two Rhenish florins. The sum that he
+received for each portrait in pencil [the German is mit Kohlen, which is
+literally charcoal], when the parties <i>did</i> pay, appears to have
+been a florin.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV45" id = "noteV45" href = "#tagV45">V.45</a>
+In Von Murr the words are “Am <ins class = "correction" title = "text reads ‘Donnnerstage’">Donnerstage</ins> nach Marien
+Himmelfahrt,”&mdash;On the Thursday after the <i>Assumption</i> of the
+Virgin. But this is evidently incorrect, the feast of the Assumption
+being kept on 15th August. The “Marien Opferung”&mdash;the Presentation
+of the Virgin&mdash;which is commemorated on 21st November, is evidently
+meant.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV46" id = "noteV46" href = "#tagV46">V.46</a>
+Luther’s safe-conduct from Worms to Wittenberg was limited to twenty-one
+days, at the expiration of which he was declared to be under the ban of
+the empire, or, in other words, an outlaw, to whom no prince or free
+city of Germany was to afford a refuge. Luther, previous to leaving
+Worms, was informed of the elector’s intention of secretly apprehending
+him on the road and conveying him to a place of safety. After getting
+into the wood, Luther was mounted on horseback, and conveyed to
+Wartburg, a&nbsp;castle belonging to the elector, where he continued to
+live disguised as a knight&mdash;Junker Jörge&mdash;till March 1522.
+Luther was accustomed to call the castle of Wartburg his Patmos.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV47" id = "noteV47" href = "#tagV47">V.47</a>
+Durer, though an advocate of Luther, does not seem to have withdrawn
+himself from the communion of the Church of Rome. In his Journal, in
+1521, he enters a sum of ten stivers given to his confessor, and,
+subsequently, eight stivers given to a monk who visited his wife when
+she was sick. The passage in which the last item occurs is curious, and
+seems to prove that female practitioners were then accustomed both to
+dispense and administer medical preparations at Antwerp. “Meine Frau
+ward krank,&mdash;der Apothekerinn für Klystiren gegeben 14 Stüber; dem
+Mönch, der sie besuchte, 8&nbsp;Stüber.”&mdash;Von Murr, Journal, 7er
+Theil, S.&nbsp;93.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV48" id = "noteV48" href = "#tagV48">V.48</a>
+This inducement for Erasmus to stand forth as a candidate for the honour
+of martyrdom is, in the original, as simple in expression as it is novel
+in conception: “Du bist doch sonst ein altes Menniken.” Literally: For
+thou art already an old <i>mannikin</i>. Erasmus, however, was not a
+spirit to be charmed to enter such a circle by such an invocation. As he
+said of himself, “his gift did not lie that way,” and he had as little
+taste for martyrdom as he had for fish.&mdash;In one or two other
+passages in Durer’s Journal there is an allusion to the diminutive
+stature of Erasmus.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV49" id = "noteV49" href = "#tagV49">V.49</a>
+Von Murr, Journal, 7er Theil, S. 88-93. In volume X, p.&nbsp;41, Von
+Murr gives from Peucer, the son-in-law of Melancthon, the following
+anecdote: “Melancthon, when at Nuremberg, on church and university
+affairs, was much in the society of Pirkheimer; and Albert Durer, the
+painter, an intelligent man, whose least merit, as Melancthon used to
+say, was his art, was frequently one of the party. Between Pirkheimer
+and Durer there were frequent disputes respecting the recent [religious]
+contest, in which Durer, as he was a man of strong mind, vigorously
+opposed Pirkheimer, and refuted his arguments as if he had come prepared
+for the discussion. Pirkheimer growing warm, for he was very irritable
+and much plagued with the gout, would sometimes exclaim “Not
+so:&mdash;these things cannot be <i>painted</i>.”&mdash;“And the
+arguments which you allege,” Durer would reply, “can neither be
+correctly expressed nor comprehended.”&mdash;Whatever might have been
+the particular points in dispute between the two friends, Pirkheimer, as
+well as Durer, was a supporter of the doctrines of <ins class =
+"correction" title = "close quote missing">Luther.”</ins></p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV50" id = "noteV50" href = "#tagV50">V.50</a>
+Corpus Christi day is a moveable festival, and is celebrated on the
+first Thursday after Trinity Sunday.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV51" id = "noteV51" href = "#tagV51">V.51</a>
+St. Margaret’s day is the 20th July.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV52" id = "noteV52" href = "#tagV52">V.52</a>
+Durer says that this astronomer was a German, and a native of
+Munich.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV53" id = "noteV53" href = "#tagV53">V.53</a>
+Ulrich Varnbuler was subsequently the chancellor of the Emperor
+Ferdinand&nbsp;I. Durer mentions him in a letter addressed to “<ins
+class = "correction" title = "text unchanged">Hernn</ins> Frey in
+Zurich,” and dated from Nuremberg on the Sunday <i>after St. Andrew’s
+day</i>, 1523. With this letter Durer sent to his correspondent a
+humorous sketch, in pen and ink, of apes dancing, which in 1776 was
+still preserved in the Public Library of Basle. The date of this letter
+proves the incorrectness of Mr. Ottley’s statement, in page 723 of his
+Inquiry, where he says that Durer did not return to Nuremberg from the
+Low Countries “until <i>the middle of the year</i> 1524.” Mr. Ottley is
+not more correct when he says, at page 735, that the portrait of
+Varnbuler is the “size of nature.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV54" id = "noteV54" href = "#tagV54">V.54</a>
+It is supposed that Shakspeare, in alluding to the “dozen white luces”
+in Master Shallow’s coat of arms,&mdash;Merry Wives of Windsor, Act
+I,&mdash;intended to ridicule Sir Thomas Lucy of Charlecotte, Wiltshire,
+before whom he is said to have been brought in his youth on a charge of
+deer-stealing.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV55" id = "noteV55" href = "#tagV55">V.55</a>
+Etliche Underricht zu Befestigung der Stett, Schloss, und Flecken;
+Underweysung der Messung mit der Zirckel und Richtscheyt; Bucher von
+Menschlicher Proportion. All in folio. Those treatises were subsequently
+translated into Latin and several times reprinted. The treatise on the
+Proportions of the Human Body was also translated into French and
+printed at Paris in 1557. A&nbsp;collection of Durer’s writings was
+published by J.&nbsp;Jansen, 1604.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV56" id = "noteV56" href = "#tagV56">V.56</a>
+This letter is addressed to “Johann Tscherte,” an architect residing at
+Vienna, the mutual friend of Pirkheimer and Durer.&mdash;Von Murr,
+Journal, 10er Theil, S.&nbsp;36.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV57" id = "noteV57" href = "#tagV57">V.57</a>
+Those three engravings are respectively numbered 1, 60, and 67 in
+Bartsch’s list of Durer’s works in his Peintre-Graveur, tom. vii. The
+Adam and Eve is nine inches and three-fourths high by seven inches and a
+half wide,&mdash;date 1504; St. Jerome, nine inches and five-eighths
+high by seven inches and three-eighths wide,&mdash;date 1514;
+Melancolia, nine inches and three-eighths high by seven inches and one
+fourth wide,&mdash;date 1514.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV58" id = "noteV58" href = "#tagV58">V.58</a>
+Isaiah, chapter xxxv. verse 9.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV59" id = "noteV59" href = "#tagV59">V.59</a>
+One of the largest wood-cuts designed by Cranach is a subject
+representing the baptism of some saint; and having on one side a
+portrait of Frederick, Elector of Saxony, and on the other a portrait of
+Luther. The block has consisted of three pieces, and from the
+impressions it seems as if the parts containing the portraits of the
+elector and Luther had been added after the central part had been
+finished. The piece altogether is comparatively worthless in design, and
+is very indifferently engraved.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV60" id = "noteV60" href = "#tagV60">V.60</a>
+Burgmair also made the designs for a series of saints, male and female,
+of the family of the emperor, which are also engraved on wood. The
+original blocks, with the names of the engravers written at the back,
+are still preserved, and are at present in the Imperial Library at
+Vienna.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV61" id = "noteV61" href = "#tagV61">V.61</a></p>
+<div class = "verse">
+<p class = "open">“Solche Gestalt unser baider was,</p>
+<p>Im Spigel aber nix dan das!”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A small engraving in a slight manner appears to have been made of the
+portraits of Burgmair and his wife by George Christopher Kilian, an
+artist of Augsburg, about 1774.&mdash;Von Murr, Journal, 4er Theil,
+S.&nbsp;22.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV62" id = "noteV62" href = "#tagV62">V.62</a>
+The original title of the work is: “Die gevarlichkeiten und eins teils
+der Geschichten des loblichen streytparen und hochberümbten Helds und
+Ritters Tewrdanckha.” That is: The adventurous deeds and part of the
+history of the famous, valiant, and highly-renowned hero Sir Theurdank.
+The name, Theurdank, in the language of the period, would seem to imply
+a person whose thoughts were only employed on noble and elevated
+subjects. Goethe, who in his youth was fond of looking over old books
+illustrated with wood-cuts, alludes to Sir Theurdank in his admirable
+play of Götz von Berlichingen: “Geht! Geht!” says Adelheid to
+Weislingen, “Erzählt das Mädchen die den Teurdanck lesen, und sich so
+einen Mann wünschen.”&mdash;“Go! Go! Tell that to a girl who reads Sir
+Theurdank, and wishes that she may have such a husband.” In Sir Walter
+Scott’s faulty translation of this play&mdash;under the name of
+<i>William</i> Scott, 1799,&mdash;the passage is rendered as follows:
+“Go! Go! Talk of that to some forsaken damsel whose Corydon has proved
+forsworn.” In another passage where Goethe makes Adelheid allude to the
+popular “Märchen,” or tale, of Number-Nip, the point is completely lost
+in the translation: “Entbinden nicht unsre Gesetze solchen
+Schwüren?&mdash;Macht das Kindern weiss die den Rübezahl glauben.”
+Literally, “Do not our laws release you from such oaths?&mdash;Tell that
+to children who believe Number-Nip.” In Sir Walter Scott’s translation
+the passage is thus most incorrectly rendered: “Such agreement is no
+more binding than an unjust extorted oath. Every child knows what faith
+is to be kept with robbers.” The name <i>Rübezahl</i> is literally
+translated by <i>Number-Neep</i>; Rübe is the German name for a
+turnip,&mdash;Scoticè, a&nbsp;neep. The story is as well known in
+Germany as that of Jack the Giant-Killer in England.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV63" id = "noteV63" href = "#tagV63">V.63</a>
+Charaktere Teutscher Dichter und Prosaisten, S.&nbsp;71. Berlin,
+1781.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV64" id = "noteV64" href = "#tagV64">V.64</a></p>
+<div class = "verse">
+<p>Nec sic incipies, ut scriptor cyclicus olim:</p>
+<p>“Fortunam Priami cantabo, et nobile bellum:”</p>
+<p>Quid dignum tanto feret hic promissor hiatu?</p>
+<p>Parturiunt montes; nascetur ridiculus mus.</p>
+<p class = "author">Ars Poetica, v.&nbsp;136-139.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In a Greek epigram the Cyclic poets are thus noticed:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p class = "greek" title = "Tous kuklious toutous tous autar epeita legontas">
+Τοὺς κυκλίους τούτους τοὺς αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα λέγοντας</p>
+<p class = "greek" title = "Misô lôpodutas allotriôn epeôn.">
+Μισῶ λωποδύτας ἀλλοτρίων ἐπέων.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV65" id = "noteV65" href = "#tagV65">V.65</a>
+Dissertation sur l’Origine et les Progres de l’Art de Graver en Bois,
+p.&nbsp;74. Paris, 1758.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV66" id = "noteV66" href = "#tagV66">V.66</a>
+The kind of character in which the text of Sir Theurdank is printed is
+called “Fractur” by German printers. “The first work,” says Breitkopf,
+“which afforded an example of a perfectly-shaped <i>Fractur</i> for
+printing, was unquestionably the Theurdank, printed at Nuremberg,
+1517.”&mdash;Ueber Bibliographie und Bibliophile, S.&nbsp;8.
+1793.&mdash;Neudörffer, a&nbsp;contemporary, who lived at Nuremberg at
+the time when Sir Theurdank was first published, says that the specimens
+for the types were written by Vincent Rockner, the emperor’s
+court-secretary.&mdash;Von Murr, Journal, 2er Theil, S.&nbsp;159; and
+Lichtenberger, Initia Typographica, p.&nbsp;194.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV67" id = "noteV67" href = "#tagV67">V.67</a>
+The title of the volume is “Der Weiss Kunig. Eine Erzehlung von den
+Thaten Kaiser Maximilian des Ersten. Von Marx Treitzsaurwein auf dessen
+Angeben zusammen getragen, nebst von Hannsen Burgmair dazu verfertigten
+Holzschnitten. Herausgegeben aus dem Manuscripte der Kaiserl. Königl.
+Hofbibliothek. Wien, auf Kosten Joseph Kurzböckens, 1775.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV68" id = "noteV68" href = "#tagV68">V.68</a>
+In the Imperial Library at Vienna there is a series of old impressions
+of cuts intended for “Der Weiss Kunig,” consisting of two hundred and
+fifty pieces; it would therefore appear, supposing this set to be
+perfect, that there are fourteen of the original blocks lost. Why a
+single modern cut has been admitted into the book, and thirteen of the
+old impressions not re-engraved, it perhaps would be difficult to give a
+satisfactory reason.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV69" id = "noteV69" href = "#tagV69">V.69</a>
+Charaktere Teutscher Dichter und Prosaisten, S.&nbsp;70.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV70" id = "noteV70" href = "#tagV70">V.70</a>
+Bibliographical Tour, vol iii. p. 330.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV71" id = "noteV71" href = "#tagV71">V.71</a>
+The subjects of those sixteen cuts are chiefly the statues of the
+emperor’s ancestors, with representations of himself, and of his family
+alliances. Several of the carriages are propelled by mechanical
+contrivances, which for laborious ingenuity may vie with the machine for
+uncorking bottles in one of the subjects of Hogarth’s Marriage à la
+Mode. In the copy before me those engravings are numbered 89, 90, 91,
+91, 92, 92, 93, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 99, 101, 102, 103.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV72" id = "noteV72" href = "#tagV72">V.72</a>
+Breitkopf, Ueber Bibliographie und Bibliophile, S.&nbsp;4. Leipzig,
+1793. Von Murr, Journal, 9er Theil, S.&nbsp;1. At page 255 I have said:
+“Though I have not been able to ascertain satisfactorily the subject of
+Durer’s painting in the Town-hall of Nuremberg, I&nbsp;am inclined to
+think that it is the Triumphal <i>Car</i> of Maximilian.” Since the
+sheet containing the above passage was printed off I have ascertained
+that the subject <i>is</i> the Triumphal Car; and that it is described
+in Von Murr’s Nürnbergischen Merkwürdigkeiten, S.&nbsp;395.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV73" id = "noteV73" href = "#tagV73">V.73</a>
+<i>Jobst</i> and <i>Jos</i>, in this inscription, are probably intended
+for the name of the same person. For the name Jobst, Jost, Josse, or
+Jos&mdash;for it is thus variously spelled&mdash;we have no equivalent
+in English. It is not unusual in Germany as a baptismal name&mdash;it
+can scarcely be called <i>Christian</i>&mdash;and is Latinized,
+I&nbsp;believe, under the more lengthy form of <i>Jodocus</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV74" id = "noteV74" href = "#tagV74">V.74</a>
+The printed numbers on those two cuts are 105 and 106, though the
+descriptions are numbered 120 and 121 in the text. The subjects are,
+No.&nbsp;105, two ranks, of five men each, on foot, carrying long
+lances; and No.&nbsp;106, two ranks, of five men each, on foot, carrying
+large two-handed swords on their shoulders.&mdash;Perhaps it may not be
+out of place to correct here the following passage which occurs at page
+285 of this volume: “Bartsch, however, observes, that ‘what Strutt has
+said about there being two persons of this name [Hans Schaufflein], an
+elder and a younger, seems to be a mere conjecture.’” Since the sheet
+containing this passage was printed off, I&nbsp;have learnt from a
+paper, in Meusel’s Neue Miscellaneen, 5tes. Stück, S.&nbsp;210, that
+Hans Schäufflein had a son of the same name who was also a painter, and
+that the elder Schäufflein died at Nordlingen, in 1539. At page 281, his
+death, on the authority of Bartsch, is erroneously placed in 1550.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV75" id = "noteV75" href = "#tagV75">V.75</a>
+The name of Cornelius Liefrink occurs at the back of some of the
+wood-cuts representing the saints of the family of Maximilian, designed
+by Burgmair, mentioned at page 278, note.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV76" id = "noteV76" href = "#tagV76">V.76</a>
+In all the blocks, the tablets and scrolls, and the upper part of
+banners intended to receive verses and inscriptions, were left
+unengraved. In order that the appearance of the cuts might not be
+injured, the black ground, intended for the letters, was cut away in
+most of the tablets and scrolls, in the edition of 1796.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV77" id = "noteV77" href = "#tagV77">V.77</a>
+That part of the flail which comes in contact with the corn is, in the
+North of England, termed a <i>swingel</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV78" id = "noteV78" href = "#tagV78">V.78</a>
+The substance of almost every rhyme and inscription is, that the person
+who bears the rhyme-tablet or scroll has derived great improvement in
+his art or profession from the instructions or suggestions of the
+emperor. Huntsmen, falconers, trumpeters, organists, fencing-masters,
+ballet-masters, tourniers, and jousters, all acknowledge their
+obligations in this respect to Maximilian. For the wit and humour of the
+jesters and the natural fools, the emperor, with great forbearance,
+takes to himself no credit; and Anthony von Dornstett, the leader of the
+drummers and fifers, is one of the few whose art he has not
+improved.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV79" id = "noteV79" href = "#tagV79">V.79</a>
+Those three are the numbers 77, 78, 79, representing musicians on
+horseback. The same person who drew the standard-bearers has evidently
+drawn those three cuts also.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV80" id = "noteV80" href = "#tagV80">V.80</a>
+Minutes of Evidence before the Select Committee on Arts and
+Manufactures, p.&nbsp;130. Ordered to be printed, 16th August 1836.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV81" id = "noteV81" href = "#tagV81">V.81</a>
+Among the principal modern wood-cuts engraved on blocks consisting of
+several pieces the following may be mentioned: The Chillingham Bull, by
+Thomas Bewick, 1789; A&nbsp;view of St. Nicholas’ Church,
+Newcastle-on-Tyne, by Charlton Nesbit, from a drawing by
+R.&nbsp;Johnson, 1798; The Diploma of the Highland Society, by Luke
+Clennell, from a design by B.&nbsp;West, P.R.A. 1808; The Death of
+Dentatus, by William Harvey, from a painting by B.&nbsp;R. Haydon, 1821;
+and The Old Horse waiting for Death, left unfinished, by T.&nbsp;Bewick,
+and published in 1832.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV82" id = "noteV82" href = "#tagV82">V.82</a>
+At the foot of this cut, to the right, after the name of the
+designer,&mdash;“<span class = "smallcaps">Raphael
+Urbinas</span>,”&mdash;is the following privilege, granted by Pope
+Leo&nbsp;X. and the Doge of Venice, prohibiting all persons from
+pirating the work. “<span class = "smallcaps">Quisque has tabellas
+invito autore imprimet ex Divi Leonis&nbsp;X. et Il͞l Principis
+Venetiarum decretis excominicationis sententiam et alias penas
+incurret.</span>” Below this inscription is the engraver’s name with the
+date: “Romæ apud Ugum de Carpi impressum. <span class =
+"smallroman">MDXVIII.</span>”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV83" id = "noteV83" href = "#tagV83">V.83</a>
+“J’ai trouvé dans les <ins class = "correction" title = "printed as shown, but source has ‘Recueils’">Receueils</ins> de l’Abbé de Marolles,
+au Cabinet du Roi de France, une piece détachée, qui, suivant mon
+sentiment, est la plus ancienne de celles, qui sont gravées en bois dans
+les Païs-Bas, et qui portent le nom de l’artiste. Cette estampe est
+marquée: <i>Gheprint&nbsp;t’ Antwerpen by my Phillery de
+figursnider&mdash;Imprimé à Anvers, chez moi Phillery, le graveur de
+figures</i>. Elle sert de preuve, que les graveurs de moules étoient
+aussi, dans cet ancien tems, imprimeurs à Anvers.”&mdash;Idée Générale
+d’une Collection complette d’Estampes, p.&nbsp;197.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV84" id = "noteV84" href = "#tagV84">V.84</a>
+In a work of a similar kind, and of equal authority, published in 1834,
+we are informed that Ugo da Carpi was a historical painter, and that he
+died in 1500. He was only born in 1486.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV85" id = "noteV85" href = "#tagV85">V.85</a>
+The sign of Mr. Benjamin White, formerly a bookseller in Fleet Street,
+was Horace’s Head. In Scopoli’s Deliciæ, Flora, et Fauna Insubriæ, plate
+24 is thus inscribed: “Auspiciis Benjamini White et Horatii Head,
+Bibliopol. Londinensium.” The learned naturalist had mistaken Mr.
+White’s sign for his partner in the business.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV86" id = "noteV86" href = "#tagV86">V.86</a>
+This cut of Urse Graff is described in Bartsch’s Peintre-Graveur, tom.
+vii. p.&nbsp;465, No.&nbsp;16.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV87" id = "noteV87" href = "#tagV87">V.87</a>
+The device of Frobenius at the end of an edition of the same work,
+printed by him in 1518, is much inferior to that in the edition of 1519.
+In both, the ornamental border of the title-page is the same.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV88" id = "noteV88" href = "#tagV88">V.88</a>
+The title of this book is, in red letters, “Triompho di Fortuna, di
+Sigismondo Fanti, Ferrarese.” The title-page is also ornamented with a
+wood-cut, representing the Pope, with Virtue on one side, and Vice on
+the other, seated above the globe, which is supported by Atlas, and
+provided with an axis, having a handle at each side, like a winch. At
+one of the handles is a devil, and at the other an angel; to the left is
+a naked figure holding a die, and near to him is an astronomer taking an
+observation. At the foot of the cut is the mark I.&nbsp;M. or
+T.&nbsp;M., for I cannot positively decide whether the first letter be
+intended for an I or a T.&nbsp;The following is the colophon: “Impresso
+in la inclita citta di Venegia per Agostin da Portese. Nel anno dil
+virgineo parto <span class = "smallroman">MD.XXVII.</span> Nel mese di
+Genaro, ad instātia di Jacomo Giunta Mercatāte Florentino. Con il
+Privilegio di Clemente Papa VII, et del Senato Veneto a requisitione di
+l’Autore.” In the Catalogue of the British Museum this book is
+erroneously entered as printed at Rome, 1526. The compiler had mistaken
+the date of the Pope’s licence for the time when the book was printed.
+This trifling mistake is noticed here, as from similar oversights
+bibliographers have sometimes described books as having been twice or
+thrice printed, when, in fact, there had been only one edition.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV89" id = "noteV89" href = "#tagV89">V.89</a>
+The following questions, selected from a number of others, will perhaps
+afford some idea of this “Opera utilissima et jocosa,” as it is called
+by the author. “Se glie bene a pigliar bella, o&nbsp;bruta donna; se’l
+servo sara fidele al suo signore; se quest’ anno sara carestia o
+abundantia; quanti mariti havera la donna; se glie bene a far viaggio et
+a che tempo; se’l parto della donna sara maschio o femina; se’l sogno
+fatto sara vero; se’l fin del huomo sara buono.” The three small
+illustrations of the last query are of evil omen; in one, is seen a
+gallows; in another, a&nbsp;man praying; and in the third, the quarters
+of a human body hung up in terrorem.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV90" id = "noteV90" href = "#tagV90">V.90</a>
+The following lines descriptive of this cut are printed underneath
+it:</p>
+<div class = "verse blackletter">
+<p>How Mary and Joseph with iesu were fayne.</p>
+<p>In to Egypte for socour to fle.</p>
+<p>Whan the Innocentes for his sake wer slayne.</p>
+<p>By com̄issyon of Herodes <ins class = "correction" title = "text reads ‘rueltie’">crueltie</ins>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV91" id = "noteV91" href = "#tagV91">V.91</a>
+In a folio work entitled “Epitome Thesauri Antiquitatum, hoc est <span
+class = "smallcaps">Impp.</span> Rom. Orientalium et Occidentalium
+Iconum, ex Antiquis Numismatibus quam fidelissime delineatarum. Ex Musæo
+Jacobi de Strada Mantuani Antiquarii,” Lyons, 1553, it is stated that
+the first work containing portraits of the Roman emperors engraved from
+their coins was that entitled “Illustrium Imagines,” written by Cardinal
+Sadolet, and printed at Rome by Jacobus Mazochius.&mdash;In Strada’s
+work the portraits are executed in the same manner as in that of
+Huttichius. The wood-cut containing the printer’s device, on the
+title-page of Strada’s work, is admirably engraved.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV92" id = "noteV92" href = "#tagV92">V.92</a>
+Heineken ranks the following in the class of <i>little masters</i>:
+Henry Aldgrever, Albert Altdorffer, Bartholomew Behaim, Hans Sebald
+Behaim, Hans Binck, Henry Goerting, George Penez, and Virgil Solis. Most
+of them were engravers on copper.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV93" id = "noteV93" href = "#tagV93">V.93</a>
+The following curious testimony respecting a lock of Albert Durer’s
+hair, which had formerly been in the possession of Hans Baldung Grün, is
+translated from an article in Meusel’s Neue Miscellaneen, 1799. The lock
+of hair and the document were then in the possession of Herr H.&nbsp;S.
+Hüsgen of Frankfort on the Mayn: “Herein is the hair which was cut from
+the head of that ingenious and celebrated painter Albert Durer, after
+his death at Nuremberg, 8th April 1528, as a token of remembrance. It
+afterwards came into the possession of that skilful painter Hans
+Baldung, burger of this city, Strasburg; and after his death, in 1545,
+my late brother-in-law, Nicholas Krämer, painter, of this city, having
+bought sundry of his works and other things, among them found this lock
+of hair, in an old letter, wherein was written an account of what it
+contained. On the death of my brother-in-law, in 1550, it was presented
+to me by my sister Dorothy, and I now enclose it in this letter for a
+memorial. 1559. <span class = "smallcaps">Sebold Büheler</span>.” To
+this testimony are subjoined two or three others of subsequent date,
+showing in whose possession the valued relic had been before it came
+into the hands of Herr Hüsgen.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteV94" id = "noteV94" href = "#tagV94">V.94</a>
+Evidence of Dr. G. F. Waagen of Berlin before the Select Committee of
+the House of Commons on Arts and their Connexion with Manufactures,
+1835.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class = "correction">
+<h5>Errors in Chapter V</h5>
+
+<p><span class = "citation">
+necessary to examine the grounds of this opinion.</span><br>
+gronnds</p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+wood engravings supposed to have been executed by Albert
+Durer</span><br>
+excuted</p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+have evidently been supplied by his own country.</span><br>
+<i>final . invisible</i></p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+Durer proceeded from Nuremberg direct to Bamberg</span><br>
+foom</p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+About thirty-five chapters, from XV. to L., are chiefly
+occupied</span><br>
+to L, are</p>
+
+<p>Footnote V.12</p>
+<p class = "continue">
+<span class = "citation">we find the words: “<i>Gedrukt durch Albrecht
+Durer, Maler</i>,”</span><br>
+<i>open quote missing</i></p>
+<p>Footnote V.13</p>
+<p class = "continue">
+<span class = "citation">is called his “wander-jahre,”</span><br>
+<i>open quote missing</i></p>
+<p>Footnote V.27</p>
+<p class = "continue">
+<span class = "citation">between page 730 and page 731.</span><br>
+<i>final . missing</i></p>
+<p>Footnote V.30</p>
+<p class = "continue">
+<span class = "citation">impressus vero per Albertum Durer. Anno
+MDXXIII.”</span><br>
+<i>close quote missing</i></p>
+<p>Footnote V.35</p>
+<p class = "continue">
+<span class = "citation">For biting-in on steel, <i>nitric</i> acid is
+used</span><br>
+<i>comma after “steel” invisible</i></p>
+<p>Footnote V.40</p>
+<p class = "continue">
+<span class = "citation">rather a “humble friend” than a menial
+servant</span><br>
+<i>l in “menial” invisible</i></p>
+<p>Footnote V.45</p>
+<p class = "continue">
+<span class = "citation">“Am Donnerstage nach Marien
+Himmelfahrt,”</span><br>
+Donnnerstage</p>
+<p>Footnote V.49</p>
+<p class = "continue">
+<span class = "citation">was a supporter of the doctrines of
+Luther.”</span><br>
+<i>close quote missing</i></p>
+<p>Footnote V.53</p>
+<p class = "continue">
+<span class = "citation">a letter addressed to “Hernn Frey in
+Zurich,”</span><br>
+<i>spelling unchanged</i></p>
+<p>Footnote V.62</p>
+<p class = "continue">
+<span class = "citation">“Go! Go! Tell that to a girl who reads Sir
+Theurdank, and wishes that she may have such a husband.”</span><br>
+<i>text unchanged: correct translation is plural “who read and wish that
+they”</i></p>
+<p>Footnote V.67</p>
+<p class = "continue">
+<span class = "citation">nebst von Hannsen Burgmair dazu verfertigten
+Holzschnitten. Herausgeben aus dem Manuscripte der Kaiserl. Königl.
+Hofbibliothek</span><br>
+<i>printed as shown, but real title is “nebst den von Hannsen Burgmair
+Herausgegeben aus dem Manuscripte.”</i></p>
+<p>Footnote V.83</p>
+<p class = "continue">
+<span class = "citation">“J’ai trouvé dans les Receueils de l’Abbé de
+Marolles</span><br>
+<i>printed as shown, but source has “Recueils”</i></p>
+<p>Footnote V.90</p>
+<p class = "continue">
+<span class = "citation">By com̄issyon of Herodes crueltie.</span><br>
+rueltie</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "endnote">
+<p><a name = "page_image" id = "page_image" href = "#page164">Page
+164</a>, as printed:</p>
+
+<p class ="illustration">
+<img src = "images/page164.png" width = "453" height = "686"
+alt = "complete page image"></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "mynote">
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html">Introduction</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html#illus">List of Illustrations</a> (separate
+file)</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html">Chapter I</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_II">Chapter II</a> (separate
+file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_III">Chapter III</a> (separate
+file)<br>
+<a href = "#chap_IV">Chapter IV</a><br>
+<a href = "#chap_V">Chapter V</a><br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html">Chapter VI</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html">Chapter VII</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html">Chapter VIII</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html">Chapter IX</a> (separate file)</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html#index">Index</a> (separate file)</p>
+</div>
+
+</body>
+</html>
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+</head>
+
+<body>
+<div class = "mynote">
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html">Introduction</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html#illus">List of Illustrations</a> (separate
+file)</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html">Chapter I</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_II">Chapter II</a> (separate
+file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_III">Chapter III</a> (separate
+file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html">Chapter IV</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#chap_V">Chapter V</a> (separate file)<br>
+Chapter VI<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html">Chapter VII</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html">Chapter VIII</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html">Chapter IX</a> (separate file)</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html#index">Index</a> (separate file)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "titlepage">
+
+<h2><span class = "smallest">ON</span><br>
+WOOD ENGRAVING.</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page324" id = "page324">
+324</a></span>
+
+<h3><a name = "chap_VI" id = "chap_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a><br>
+<span class = "subhead">FURTHER PROGRESS AND DECLINE OF WOOD
+ENGRAVING.</span></h3>
+
+<p class = "synopsis">
+The dance of death&mdash;painted in several old churches&mdash;two
+paintings of this subject at basle&mdash;old editions of la danse
+macabre, with wood-cuts&mdash;les simulachres et historiées faces de la
+mort, usually called the dance of death, printed at lyons,
+1538&mdash;various editions and copies of this work&mdash;icones
+historiarum veteris testamenti, or bible cuts, designed by hans
+holbein&mdash;similarity between these cuts and those of the lyons dance
+of death&mdash;cuts of both works, probably designed by the same
+person&mdash;portrait of sir t.&nbsp;wyatt&mdash;cuts in cranmer’s
+catechism&mdash;and in other old english works&mdash;wood-engraving in
+italy&mdash;chiaro-scuro&mdash;marcolini’s sorti&mdash;s.&nbsp;munster’s
+cosmography&mdash;maps&mdash;virgil solis&mdash;bernard
+solomon&mdash;jost ammon&mdash;andrea andreani&mdash;henry
+goltzius&mdash;english wood-cuts&mdash;cuts by christopher jegher from
+the designs of rubens&mdash;general decline of the art in the
+seventeenth century.</p>
+
+<div class = "maintext">
+
+<p class = "first">
+<span class = "firstword"><span class = "dropcap">
+<a name = "illus_324" id = "illus_324"><img src = "images/illus_324.png"
+width = "188" height = "187" alt = "T"></a></span>he</span>
+best of the wood-cuts of the time of Albert Durer, more especially those
+executed by German engravers, are for the most part of rather large
+size; the best of those, however, which appeared within forty years of
+his decease are generally small. The art of wood engraving, both as
+regards design and execution, appears to have attained its highest
+perfection within about ten years of the time of Durer’s decease; for
+the cuts which, in my opinion, display the greatest excellence of the
+art as practised in former times, were published in 1538. The cuts to
+which I allude are those of the celebrated Dance of Death, which were
+first published in that year at Lyons. So admirably are those cuts
+executed,&mdash;with so much feeling and with so perfect a knowledge of
+the capabilities of the art,&mdash;that I do not think any wood engraver
+of the present time is capable of surpassing them. The manner in which
+they are engraved is comparatively simple: there is no laboured and
+unnecessary cross-hatching where the same effect might be obtained by
+simpler means; no display
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page325" id = "page325">
+325</a></span>
+of fine work merely to show the artist’s talent in cutting delicate
+lines. Every line is expressive; and the end is always obtained by the
+simplest means. In this the talent and feeling of the engraver are
+chiefly displayed. He wastes not his time in mere mechanical
+execution&mdash;which in the present day is often mistaken for
+excellence;&mdash;he endeavours to give to each character its
+appropriate expression; and in this he appears to have succeeded better,
+considering the small size of the cuts, than any other wood engraver,
+either of times past or present.</p>
+
+<p>Though two or three of the cuts which will subsequently be given may
+be of rather earlier date than those of the Dance of Death, it seems
+preferable to give first some account of this celebrated work; and to
+introduce the cuts alluded to, though not in strict chronological
+order,&mdash;which is the less necessary as they do not illustrate the
+progress of the art,&mdash;with others executed in a similar style.</p>
+
+<p>Long before the publication of the work now so generally known as
+“The Dance of Death,” a&nbsp;series of paintings representing, in a
+similar manner, Death seizing on persons of all ranks and ages, had
+appeared on the walls of several churches. A&nbsp;Dance of Death was
+painted in the cloisters of the Church of the Innocents at Paris, in the
+cloisters of St. Paul’s, London, and in the portico of St. Mary’s,
+Lubec. The painting in St Paul’s is said to have been executed at the
+cost of one Jenkin Carpenter, who lived in the reign of Henry VI, and
+who was one of the executors of that famous “lord-mayor of London,”
+Richard Whittington; and Dugdale, in his History of St. Paul’s
+Cathedral, says that it was in imitation of that in the cloisters of the
+Church of the Innocents at Paris.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI1" id =
+"tagVI1" href = "#noteVI1">VI.1</a> This subject seems to have been
+usually known in former times by the name of “The Dance of Machabre,”
+from a French or German poet&mdash;for this point is not settled by the
+learned&mdash;of the name of Macaber or Macabre, who is said to have
+written a poem on this subject.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI2" id =
+"tagVI2" href = "#noteVI2">VI.2</a> The
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page326" id = "page326">
+326</a></span>
+Dance of Death, however, which as a painting has attained greater
+celebrity and given rise to much more discussion than any other, is that
+which was painted on the wall of a kind of court-house attached to the
+Church of the Dominicans at Basle. This painting has frequently been
+ascribed to Holbein; but it certainly was executed before he was born;
+and there is not the slightest reason to believe that he ever touched it
+in any of the repairs which it underwent in subsequent years.</p>
+
+<p>The following particulars respecting this painting are such as seem
+best authenticated.</p>
+
+<p>It is said to owe its origin to a plague which ravaged the city of
+Basle in 1439, during the time of the great council, which commenced in
+1431, and did not terminate till 1448. A&nbsp;number of persons of
+almost all ranks, whom the council had brought to this city, having
+fallen victims to the plague, it is said that the painting was executed
+in remembrance of the event, and as a memento of the uncertainty of
+life. Though it may be true that the great mortality at Basle in 1439
+might have been the occasion of such a picture in the
+church-court&mdash;<i>Kirchhofe</i>, as it is called by Hegner in his
+Life of Holbein&mdash;of the Dominicans in that city, it is almost
+certain that the subject must have been suggested by one of much earlier
+date painted on the walls of an old building which had formerly been the
+cloisters of a nunnery which stood in that part of Basle which is called
+the Little City. This convent was founded in 1275; and the painting
+appears to have been executed in 1312, according to the following date,
+which was to be seen above one of the figures, that of the Count, who
+was also one of the characters in the painting in the church-court of
+the Dominicans: “<span class = "blackletter">Dussent jar treihuntert und
+Xii</span>;” in English: One thousand three hundred and twelve. Several
+of the figures in this old painting were almost the same as in that of
+the church-court of the Dominicans, though executed in a coarser manner;
+and, like the latter, were accompanied with explanatory inscriptions in
+verse. This curious old work appears to have remained unnoticed till
+1766, when one Emanuel Büchel, of Basle, by trade a baker, but an
+admirer of art, and an industrious draughtsman, had his attention
+directed to it. He made a careful copy in colours of all that then
+remained of it, and his drawings are now in the public library of Basle.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page327" id = "page327">
+327</a></span>
+“This oldest Dance of Death,” says Hegner, writing in 1827, “is almost
+entirely effaced, and becomes daily more so, as well on account of age
+as from the cloisters of the old nunnery having been for many years used
+as a warehouse for salt.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI3" id = "tagVI3"
+href = "#noteVI3">VI.3</a></p>
+
+<p>It is supposed that the Dance of Death in the church-court of the
+Dominicans at Basle was originally painted in <i>fresco</i> or
+distemper. The number of characters, each accompanied by a figure of
+Death, was originally forty;<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI4" id =
+"tagVI4" href = "#noteVI4">VI.4</a> but in 1568, a&nbsp;painter, named
+Hans Hugo Klauber, who was employed by the magistrates to repair the old
+painting, introduced a figure of the reformer Oecolampadius as if
+preaching to the characters composing the Dance, with portraits of
+himself, his wife, and their little son, at the end. It is probable that
+he painted over the old figures in oil-colour, and introduced sundry
+alterations, suggested by other paintings and engravings of the same
+subject. It appears likely that, at the same time, many of the old
+inscriptions were changed for others more in accordance with the
+doctrines of the Reformation, which then prevailed at Basle. The verses
+above the figure of the Pope were certainly not such as would have been
+tolerated at the period when the subject is supposed to have been first
+painted.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI5" id = "tagVI5" href =
+"#noteVI5">VI.5</a> In 1616 the painting was again repaired; but, though
+a Latin inscription was then added containing the names of the
+magistrates who had thus taken care to preserve it, there is no mention
+made of any artist by whom the subject
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page328" id = "page328">
+328</a></span>
+had been originally painted or subsequently retouched. Had there been
+any record of Holbein having been at any time employed on the work, such
+a circumstance would most likely have been noticed; as his memory was
+then held in the highest estimation, and Basle prided herself on having
+had so eminent an artist enrolled among the number of her citizens. In
+1658 the painting was again renewed: and there seems reason to believe
+that further alterations were then introduced both in the costume and
+the colouring. It was retouched in 1703; but from that time, as the
+paint began to peel off from the decaying walls, all attempts for its
+further preservation appear to have been considered hopeless. It would
+indeed seem to have become in a great measure disregarded by the
+magistrates, for a rope-maker used to exercise his trade under the roof
+that protected it from the weather. As the old wall stood much in the
+way of new buildings, it is not unlikely that they might be rather
+wishful to have it removed. In 1805 the magistrates pronounced sentence
+against the Dance of Death, and the wall on which it was painted was by
+their orders pulled down, though not without considerable opposition on
+the part of many of the citizens, more especially those of the suburb of
+St. John, within which the old church-court of the Dominicans stood.
+Several pieces of the painting were collected, and are still preserved
+at Basle as memorials of the old “Todten-tanz,” which was formerly an
+object of curiosity with all strangers who visited the city, and which
+has been so frequently the subject of discussion in the history of
+art.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Douce has given a list of many books containing the figures of a
+Dance of Death printed before the celebrated Simulachres et Historiées
+Faces de la Mort of Lyons, 1538; and among the principal the following
+may be here enumerated.&mdash;A German edition, intitled “Der Dodtendanz
+mit figuren. Clage und Antwort schon von allen staten der Welt.” This
+work, which is small folio, is mentioned in Braun’s Notitia librorum in
+Bibliotheca ad SS. Udalricum et Afram Augustæ, vol. ii. p.&nbsp;62. It
+is without date, but Braun supposes that it may have been printed
+between 1480 and 1500. It consists of twenty-two leaves, with wood-cuts
+of the Pope, Cardinal, Bishop, Abbot, &amp;c. &amp;c.&nbsp;accompanied
+by figures of Death. The descriptions are in German verse, and printed
+in double columns.&mdash;The earliest printed book on this subject with
+a date is intitled “La Danse Macabre imprimée par ung nommé Guy
+Marchand,” &amp;c.&nbsp;Paris, 1485, small folio. In 1486 Guy
+Marchand,&mdash;or Guyot Marchant, as he is also called,&mdash;printed
+another edition, “La Danse Macabre nouvelle,” with several additional
+cuts; and in the same year he printed “La Danse Macabre des Femmes,”
+a&nbsp;small folio of fifteen leaves. This is the first edition of the
+Macaber Dance of females. Thirty-two subjects are described, but there
+are only cuts of two, the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page329" id = "page329">
+329</a></span>
+Queen and the Duchess. In 1490 an edition appeared with the following
+title: “Chorea ab eximio Macabro versibus Alemanicis edita, et à Petro
+Desrey emendata. Parisiis, per magistrum Guidonem Mercatorem [Guy
+Marchand] pro Godefrido de Marnef.” In the same year Marchand printed
+another edition of “La nouvelle Danse Macabre des Hommes;” and in the
+year following there appeared from his press a second edition of “La
+Danse Macabre des Femmes,” with cuts of all the characters and other
+additions. A&nbsp;Dance of Death, according to Von der Hagen, in his
+Deutsche Poesie, p.&nbsp;459, was printed at Leipsic in 1496; and in
+1499 a “Grande Danse Macabre des Hommes et Femmes” was printed in folio
+at Lyons. The latter is supposed to be the earliest that contains cuts
+of both men and women. About 1500, Ant. Verard printed an edition, in
+folio, of the Danse Macabre at Paris; and in various years between 1500
+and 1530 a work with the same title and similar cuts was printed at
+Paris, Troyes, Rouen, Lyons, and Geneva. Besides those works, characters
+from the Dance of Death were frequently introduced as incidental
+illustrations in books of devotion, more especially in those usually
+denominated Horæ or Hours of the Virgin, and printed in France.<a class
+= "tag" name = "tagVI6" id = "tagVI6" href = "#noteVI6">VI.6</a></p>
+
+<p>The celebrated “Dance of Death,” the cuts of which have been so
+generally ascribed to Hans Holbein as the engraver as well as designer,
+was first published at Lyons, in 1538. It is of small quarto size, and
+the title is as follows: “Les Simulachres &amp; Historiées faces de la
+Mort, autant elegammēt pourtraictes, que artificiellement imaginées.
+A&nbsp;Lyon, Soubz l’escu de Coloigne. <span class =
+"smallroman">M.D.XXXVIII.</span>” On the title-page is an emblematic
+wood-cut, very indifferently executed, representing three heads joined
+together, with a wreath above them; the middle one a full face, and
+those on each side in profile. Instead of shoulders, the heads, or
+busts, are provided with a pair of wings of peacock’s feathers; they
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page330" id = "page330">
+330</a></span>
+rest on a kind of pedestal, on which is also an open book inscribed with
+the maxim, “<span class = "greek smallroman" lang = "el" title =
+"(Greek) GNÔTHI SEAUTON">ΓΝΩΘΙ ΣΕΑΥΤΟΝ</span>.” A large serpent is seen
+confined by the middle in a hole which must be supposed to pass through
+the pedestal; and to it (the pedestal) are chained two globes,&mdash;one
+surmounted by a small cross, like the emblem of imperial authority, and
+the other having two wings. This emblematic cut, which is certainly not
+“l’escu de Coloigne,” is accompanied with the motto “<i>Usus me
+Genuit</i>.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI7" id = "tagVI7" href =
+"#noteVI7">VI.7</a> At the conclusion of the book is the imprint, within
+an ornamental wood-cut border: “<span class = "smallroman">EXCVDEBANT
+LVGDVNI MELCHIOR ET GASPAR TRECHSEL FRATRES. 1538.</span>” The title is
+succeeded by a preface, of six pages, which is followed by seven pages
+more, descriptive of “diverses tables de Mort, non painctes, mais
+extraictes de l’escripture saincte, colorées par Docteurs
+Ecclesiastiques, et umbragées par Philosophes.” After those verbal
+sketches of Death come the cuts, one on each page; and they are
+succeeded by a series of descriptions of death and reflections on
+mortality, the general title to which, commencing at signature H, is,
+“Figures de la Mort moralement descriptes, &amp; depeinctes selon
+l’authorité de l’scripture, &amp; des sainctz Peres.”</p>
+
+<p>By far the most important passage in the book, at least so far as
+relates to the designer or engraver of the cuts, occurs in the preface,
+which is written much in the style of a pedantic father-confessor to a
+nunnery who felt a pleasure in ornamenting his Christian discourses and
+exhortations with the flowers of Pagan eloquence. The preface is
+addressed, “A&nbsp;moult reverende Abbesse du religieux convent
+S.&nbsp;Pierre de Lyon, Madame Jehanne de Touszele, Salut dun vray
+Zele,”<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI8" id = "tagVI8" href =
+"#noteVI8">VI.8</a> and the passage above mentioned is to the following
+effect. “But to return to our figured representations of Death, we have
+greatly to regret the death of him who has imagined such elegant figures
+as are herein contained, as much excelling all those heretofore
+printed,<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI9" id = "tagVI9" href =
+"#noteVI9">VI.9</a> as the pictures of Apelles or of Zeuxis surpass
+those of modern times; for, his funereal histories,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page331" id = "page331">
+331</a></span>
+with their gravely versified descriptions, excite such admiration in
+beholders, that the figures of Death appear to them most life-like,
+while those of the living are the very pictures of mortality. It
+therefore seems to me that Death, fearing that this excellent painter
+would paint him in a manner so lively, that he should be no longer
+feared as Death, and apprehensive that the artist would thus become
+immortal, determined to shorten his days, and thus prevent him finishing
+other subjects which he had already drawn. Among these is one of a
+waggoner, knocked down and crushed under his broken waggon, the wheels
+and horses of which appear so frightfully shattered and maimed that it
+is as fearful to see their overthrow as it is amusing to behold the
+liquorishness of a figure of Death, who is perceived roguishly sucking
+the wine out of a broken cask, by means of a reed. To such imperfect
+subjects, as to the inimitable heavenly bow named Iris,<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagVI10" id = "tagVI10" href = "#noteVI10">VI.10</a> no one has
+ventured to put the last hand, on account of the bold drawing,
+perspectives, and shadows contained in this inimitable chef-d’œuvre,
+there so gracefully delineated, that from it we may derive a pleasing
+sadness and a melancholy pleasure, as in a thing mournfully delightful.”
+The cut of the waggoner, described by the French euphuist, was, however,
+afterwards finished, and, with others, inserted in a subsequent edition
+of the work. It is figured in the present volume at page 344.</p>
+
+<p>The number of cuts in the first edition, now under examination, is
+forty-one; above each is a text of Scripture, in Latin; and below are
+four verses in French&mdash;the “descriptions severement rithmées,”
+mentioned in the preface&mdash;containing some moral or reflection
+germane to the subject. A&nbsp;few sets of impressions of all those
+cuts, except one, appear to have been taken before the work appeared at
+Lyons. They have been printed by means of a press,&mdash;not taken by
+friction in the manner in which wood engravers usually take their
+proofs,&mdash;and at the top of each cut is the name in the German
+language, but in Italic type. “Why those German names,” says Hegner, “in
+a work which, so far as we know, was first published at Lyons? They
+appear to confirm the opinion of the cuts having been actually engraved
+at Basle; and the descriptions correspond with the dialect of that
+city.” The late Mr. Ottley had impressions of forty of those original
+cuts, and six of those which were inserted in a later edition. In his
+Inquiry into the Origin and Early History of Engraving, Mr. Ottley,
+speaking of the Dance of Death, says: “It is certain that the cuts had
+been previously printed at Basle; and, indeed, some writers assert that
+the work was published in that city, with texts of Scripture, in the
+German language, above the cuts, and verses, in the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page332" id = "page332">
+332</a></span>
+same language, underneath, as early as 1530; although, hitherto,
+I&nbsp;have been unable to meet with or hear of any person who had seen
+a copy of such an edition.” In a note upon this passage, Jansen, the
+compiler of an Essay on the Origin of Engraving, and the anonymous
+author of a work entitled Notices sur les Graveurs, Besançon, 1807, are
+cited as mentioning such an edition. To give every one his due, however,
+and to show the original authority for the existence of such an edition,
+I&nbsp;beg here to give an extract from Papillon, who never felt any
+difficulty in supposing a date, and whose conjectures such writers as
+Jansen have felt as little hesitation in converting into certainties.
+The substance of Papillon’s observations on this point is as follows:
+“But to return to Holbein’s Dance of Death, which is unquestionably a
+master-piece of wood engraving. There are several editions; the first of
+which, <i>so far as may be judged</i>, ought to be about 1530, as has
+been already said,<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI11" id = "tagVI11" href
+= "#noteVI11">VI.11</a> and was printed at Basle or Zurich, with a title
+to each cut, and, <i>I&nbsp;believe</i>, verses underneath, all in the
+German language.” What Papillon puts forth as a matter of conjecture and
+opinion, Von Murr, Jansen, and the author of the Notices sur les
+Graveurs, promulgate as facts, and Mr. Ottley refers to the two latter
+writers as if he were well inclined to give credit to their
+assertions.</p>
+
+<p>From the following passage it would appear that Mr. Ottley had also
+been willing to believe that those impressions might have been
+accompanied with explanatory verses and texts of Scripture. “I&nbsp;have
+only to add, upon the subject of this celebrated work, that I am myself
+the fortunate possessor of forty pieces, (the complete series of the
+first edition, excepting one,) which are printed with the greatest
+clearness and brilliancy of effect, on one side of the paper only; each
+cut having over it its title, printed in the German language with
+moveable type. It is possible that they may originally have had verses
+underneath, and texts of Scripture above, in addition to the titles just
+mentioned: but as the margins are clipped on the sides and at bottom, it
+is now impossible to ascertain the fact.”<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagVI12" id = "tagVI12" href = "#noteVI12">VI.12</a></p>
+
+<p>Had the forty impressions in question been accompanied with verses
+and texts of Scripture, they certainly might be considered as having
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page333" id = "page333">
+333</a></span>
+belonged to an earlier edition of the work than that of 1538, and for
+the existence of which Mr. Ottley has referred to the testimony of
+Jansen and the editor of the Notices sur les Graveurs, printed at
+Besançon. There is, however, a&nbsp;set of those cuts preserved in the
+public library at Basle, which seems clearly to prove that they had only
+been taken as specimens without any further accompaniment than the
+titles. They are printed on four folio leaves, on only one side of the
+paper, and there are ten cuts on each page; the title, in the German
+language, and in Italic type, like Mr. Ottley’s, is printed above each;
+and the same cut&mdash;that of the astrologer&mdash;is also wanting.
+From these circumstances there can scarcely be a doubt that the set
+formerly belonging to Mr. Ottley<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI13" id =
+"tagVI13" href = "#noteVI13">VI.13</a> had been printed in the same
+manner, and that each impression had subsequently been cut out, perhaps
+for the purpose of mounting them singly. The following are the titles
+given to those cuts, and to each is subjoined a literal translation.
+They are numbered as they follow each other in <span class =
+"smallcaps">Les Simulachres et Historiees Faces de la Mort</span>, 1538,
+which perhaps may not be incorrectly expressed by the English title,
+“Pictorial and Historical Portraits of Death.”</p>
+
+<div class = "list">
+
+<div class = "starting">
+<p>1. <i>Die schöpfung aller ding</i>&mdash;The creation of all
+things.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Adam Eua im Paradyſs</i>&mdash;Adam and Eve in Paradise.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Vertribung Ade Eue</i>&mdash;The driving out of Adam and
+Eve.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Adam baugt die erden</i>&mdash;Adam cultivates the earth.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Gebeyn aller menschen</i>&mdash;Skeletons of all men.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Der Papst</i>&mdash;The Pope.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>Der Keyser</i>&mdash;The Emperor.</p>
+
+<p>8. <i>Der Künig</i>&mdash;The King.</p>
+
+<p>9. <i>Der Cardinal</i>&mdash;The Cardinal.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>10. <i>Die <ins class = "correction" title = "anomalous . in original">Keyserinn.</ins></i>&mdash;The Empress.</p>
+
+<p>11. <i>Die Küniginn</i>&mdash;The Queen.</p>
+
+<p>12. <i>Der Bischoff</i>&mdash;The Bishop.</p>
+
+<p>13. <i>Der Hertzog</i>&mdash;The Duke.</p>
+
+<p>14. <i>Der Apt</i>&mdash;The Abbot.</p>
+
+<p>15. <i>Die Aptissinn</i>&mdash;The Abbess.</p>
+
+<p>16. <i>Der Edelman</i>&mdash;The Nobleman.</p>
+
+<p>17. <i>Der Thümherr</i>&mdash;The Canon.</p>
+
+<p>18. <i>Der Richter</i>&mdash;The Judge.</p>
+
+<p>19. <i>Der Fürspräch</i>&mdash;The Advocate.</p>
+
+<p>20. <i>Der Rahtsherr</i>&mdash;The Magistrate.</p>
+
+<p>21. <i>Der Predicant</i>&mdash;The Preaching Friar.</p>
+
+<p>22. <i>Der Pfarrherr</i>&mdash;The Parish-priest.</p>
+
+<p>23. <i>Der Münch</i>&mdash;The Monk.</p>
+
+<p>24. <i>Die Nunne</i>&mdash;The Nun.</p>
+
+<p>25. <i>Dass Altweyb</i>&mdash;The Old Woman.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page334" id = "page334">
+334</a></span>
+<p>26. <i>Der Artzet</i>&mdash;The Doctor.</p>
+
+<p>27. (Wanting in the specimens.) The Astrologer.</p>
+
+<p>28. <i>Der Rychman</i>&mdash;The Rich Man.</p>
+
+<p>29. <i>Der Kauffman</i>&mdash;The Merchant.</p>
+
+<p>30. <i>Der Schiffman</i>&mdash;The Sailor.</p>
+
+<p>31. <i>Der Ritter</i>&mdash;The Knight.</p>
+
+<p>32. <i>Der Graff</i>&mdash;The Count.</p>
+
+<p>33. <i>Der Alt man</i>&mdash;The Old Man.</p>
+
+<p>34. <i>Die Greffinn</i>&mdash;The Countess.</p>
+
+<p>35. <i>Die Edelfraw</i>&mdash;The Lady.</p>
+
+<p>36. <i>Die Hertzoginn</i>&mdash;The Duchess.</p>
+
+<p>37. <i>Der Krämer</i>&mdash;The Pedlar.</p>
+
+<p>38. <i>Der Ackerman</i>&mdash;The Farmer.</p>
+
+<p>39. <i>Das Jung Kint</i>&mdash;The Young Child.</p>
+
+<p>40. <i>Das Jüngst Gericht</i>&mdash;The Last Judgment.</p>
+
+<p>41. <i>Die Wapen des Thots</i>&mdash;Death’s coat-of-arms.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1542 a second edition of the Dance of Death, with the same cuts as
+the first, was published at Lyons, “Soubz l’escu de Coloigne,” by John
+and Francis Frellon, who appear to have succeeded to the business of the
+brothers Trechsel,&mdash;if, indeed, the latter were not merely the
+printers of the first edition. In a third edition, with the title
+Imagines Mortis, 1545, the verses underneath each cut are in Latin.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagVI14" id = "tagVI14" href =
+"#noteVI14">VI.14</a> A&nbsp;cut of a lame beggar, which has no relation
+to the Dance of Death, is introduced as a tail-piece to one of the
+discourses on death&mdash;Cypriani Sermo de Mortalitate&mdash;at the end
+of the volume; but it is neither designed nor executed in the same style
+as the others.</p>
+
+<p>In a fourth edition, with the title “Imagines Mortis,”<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagVI15" id = "tagVI15" href = "#noteVI15">VI.15</a> 1547,
+eleven additional cuts are introduced; namely: 1.&nbsp;Death fighting
+with a soldier in Swiss costume; 2.&nbsp;Gamblers, with a figure of
+Death, and another of the Devil; 3.&nbsp;Drunkards, with a figure of
+Death; 4.&nbsp;The Fool, with a figure of Death playing on the bagpipes;
+5.&nbsp;The Robber seized by Death; 6.&nbsp;The Blind Man and Death;
+7.&nbsp;The Waggoner and Death; 8.&nbsp;Children, one of whom is borne
+on the shoulders of the others as a conqueror triumphing; 9.&nbsp;A
+child with a shield and dart; 10.&nbsp;Three children; one riding on an
+arrow, another on a bow, as on a hobby-horse, the third carrying a hare
+over his shoulder, suspended from a hunting pole; 11.&nbsp;Children as
+Bacchanalians. The last four subjects have no relation to a Dance of
+Death, but have evidently been introduced merely to increase the number
+of the cuts; they are, however, beautifully designed and well engraved.
+This edition contains twelve more cuts, reckoning the tail-piece of the
+Lame Beggar, than the first. Another edition, forming the fifth, was
+also published in 1547 under the title of “Les Images de la
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page335" id = "page335">
+335</a></span>
+Mort,” with French verses, as in the edition of 1538. The number of cuts
+is the same as in the edition of 1547 with Latin verses, and the title
+“Imagines Mortis,” or “Icones Mortis.”</p>
+
+<p>In 1549, a sixth edition, with the same number of cuts as the last,
+was published, under the title of “Simolachri, Historie, e&nbsp;Figure
+de la Morte,” with the letter-press in Italian, with the exception of
+the texts of Scripture, which were in Latin, as in the others. In the
+preface, John Frellon&mdash;whose name appears alone in the edition of
+1547, and in those of subsequent years&mdash;complains of a piracy of
+the book, which was printed at Venice in 1545, with fac-similes of the
+cuts of the first edition. “Frellon, by way of revenge,” says Mr. Douce,
+“and to save the trouble of making a new translation of the articles
+that compose the volume, made use of that of his Italian competitor.”<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagVI16" id = "tagVI16" href =
+"#noteVI16">VI.16</a> A&nbsp;seventh edition, with the title “Icones
+Mortis,” and containing fifty-three cuts, appeared, without any
+printer’s name, in 1554.</p>
+
+<p>In an eighth edition, 1562, with the title “Les Images de la Mort,
+auxquelles sont adjoustees dix-sept figures,” five additional cuts are
+introduced, thus making seventeen more than are contained in the first.
+The total number of cuts in the edition of 1562 is fifty-eight; and that
+of the Lame Beggar, which first appeared as a tail-piece in the edition
+of 1545, has now a place among the others in the body of the book. The
+subjects of the five new cuts are: 1.&nbsp;The Husband, with a figure of
+Death; 2.&nbsp;The Wife,&mdash;Death leading a young woman by the hand,
+preceded by a young man playing on a kind of guitar; 3.&nbsp;Children as
+part of a triumph, one of them as a warrior on horseback; 4.&nbsp;Three
+children; one with a trophy of armour, another carrying a vase and a
+shield, the third seated naked on the ground; 5.&nbsp;Children with
+musical instruments. The subjects of children are designed and executed
+in the same style as those first introduced in the edition of 1547. The
+last of those five new cuts does not appear in regular order with the
+other fifty-seven; but is given as a tail-piece at the end of a preface
+to a devotional tract&mdash;La Medicine de l’Ame&mdash;in the latter
+part of the book. Mr. Douce mentions another edition with the date 1574.
+He, however, observes in a note: “This edition is given on the authority
+of Peignot,<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI17" id = "tagVI17" href =
+"#noteVI17">VI.17</a> page 62, but has not been seen by the author of
+this work. In the year 1547 there were three editions, and it is not
+improbable that, by the transposition of the two last figures, one of
+these might have been intended.” As one of Mr. Douce’s <i>three</i>
+editions of 1547 differs only
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page336" id = "page336">
+336</a></span>
+from another of the same date by having “<i>Icones</i>” instead of
+“<i>Imagines</i>” in the title-page, he might as consistently have
+claimed a fourth for the same year on the ground of a <i>probable</i>
+transposition of 74 for 47. All the authentic editions of the “Dance of
+Death,” previously noticed, were published at Lyons. The first, as has
+been already observed, was in small quarto; the others are described by
+Mr. Douce as being in duodecimo. In a Dutch Dance of Death, intitled “De
+Doodt vermaskert met swerelts ydelheit,” duodecimo, Antwerp, 1654,
+fourteen of the cuts, according to Mr. Douce, were from the original
+blocks which had been used in the Lyons editions.</p>
+
+<p>It seems probable that the earliest copies of the cuts in “Les
+Simulachres et Historiées Faces de la Mort,” or Dance of Death, as the
+work is more frequently called, appeared in a small folio, intitled
+“Todtentantz,” printed at Augsburg in 1544, by “<i>Jobst Denecker,
+Formschneyder</i>.” As I have never seen a copy of this edition,
+I&nbsp;take the liberty of extracting the following notice of it from
+Mr. Douce: “This edition is not only valuable from its extreme rarity,
+but for the very accurate and spirited manner in which the fine original
+cuts are copied. It contains all the subjects that were then published,
+but not arranged as those had been. It has the addition of one singular
+print, intitled, ‘Der Eebrecher,’ <i>i.&nbsp;e.</i> the Adulterer,
+representing a man discovering the adulterer in bed with his wife, and
+plunging his sword through both of them, Death guiding his hands. On the
+opposite page to each engraving there is a dialogue between Death and
+the party, and at bottom a Latin hexameter. The subject of the Pleader
+has the unknown mark <img class = "middle" src = "images/illus_336.png"
+width = "30" height = "20" alt = "symbol"> and on that of the Duchess in
+bed, there is the date 1542.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI18" id =
+"tagVI18" href = "#noteVI18">VI.18</a> Mr. Douce is of opinion that the
+“<i>Jobst Denecker, Formschneyder</i>,” who appears as the printer, was
+the same person as Jobst or Jost de Negker, the wood engraver whose name
+is at the back of one of the cuts of the Triumphal Procession of
+Maximilian.&mdash;The next copy of the work is that intitled
+“Simolachri, Historie, e&nbsp;Figure de la Morte,” Venice, 1545, the
+piracy complained of by Frellon in his Italian edition of 1549. It
+contains forty-one cuts, as in the first Lyons edition of 1538. There is
+no variation in the figures; but the expression of the faces is
+frequently lost, and the general execution of the whole is greatly
+inferior to that of the originals. Another edition, in Latin, was
+published in 1546; and Mr. Douce says that there are impressions of the
+cuts on single sheets, at the bottom of one of which is the date
+1568.&mdash;In 1555, an edition with the title “Imagines Mortis,” with
+fifty-three cuts, similar to those in the Lyons edition of 1547, was
+published at Cologne by the heirs of Arnold Birkman, Cologne, 1555; and
+there are four other editions of the same work, respectively dated 1557,
+1566, 1567, and 1572. Alterations are
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page337" id = "page337">
+337</a></span>
+made in some of those cuts; in five of them the mark <img class =
+"middle" src = "images/illus_337a.png" width = "28" height = "21" alt =
+"SA"> is introduced; and in the cut of the Duchess the mark <img class =
+"middle" src = "images/illus_337b.png" width = "19" height = "17" alt =
+"symbol">, seen on the bed-frame in the original, is omitted. All the
+alterations are for the worse; some of the figures seem like caricatures
+of the originals; and the cuts generally are, in point of execution,
+very inferior to those in the Lyons editions. The name of the artist to
+whom the mark <img class = "middle" src = "images/illus_337a.png" width
+= "28" height = "21" alt = "SA"> belongs is unknown. In the preface to
+the Emblems of Mortality, page xx, the writer says it is “that of <span
+class = "smallcaps">Silvius Antonianus</span>, an artist of considerable
+merit.” This, however, is merely one of the blunders of Papillon, who,
+according to Mr. Douce, has converted the owner of this mark into a
+cardinal. Papillon, it would seem, had observed it on the cuts of an
+edition of Faerno’s Fables&mdash;printed at Antwerp, 1567, and dedicated
+to Cardinal Borromeo by Silvio Antoniano, professor of Belles Lettres at
+Rome, afterwards a cardinal himself&mdash;and without hesitation he
+concluded that the editor was the engraver.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagVI19" id = "tagVI19" href = "#noteVI19">VI.19</a> The last of the
+editions published in the sixteenth century with wood-cuts copied from
+the Lyons work, appeared at Wittemberg in 1590.</p>
+
+<p>Various editions of the Dance of Death, with copper-plate engravings
+generally copied from the work published at Lyons, are enumerated by Mr.
+Douce, but only one of them seems to require notice here. Between 1647
+and 1651 Hollar etched thirty subjects from the Dance of Death,
+introducing occasionally a few alterations. From a careful examination
+of those etchings, I&nbsp;am inclined to think that most of them were
+copied not from the cuts in any of the Lyons editions, but from those in
+the edition published by the heirs of Birkman at Cologne. The original
+copper-plates of Hollar’s thirty etchings having come into the
+possession of Mr. James Edwards, formerly a bookseller in Pall-Mall, he
+published an edition in duodecimo, without date, but about 1794,<a class
+= "tag" name = "tagVI20" id = "tagVI20" href = "#noteVI20">VI.20</a>
+with preliminary observations on the Dance of Death, written by the late
+Mr. F.&nbsp;Douce. Those preliminary observations are the germ of Mr.
+Douce’s beautiful and more complete volume, published by
+W.&nbsp;Pickering in 1833 (and republished with additions by Mr. Bohn in
+1858). As Petrarch’s amatory sonnets and poems have been called
+“a&nbsp;labour of Love,” with equal
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page338" id = "page338">
+338</a></span>
+propriety may Mr. Douce’s last work be intitled “a&nbsp;labour of
+Death.” Scarcely a cut or an engraving that contains even a death’s head
+and cross-bones appears to have escaped his notice. Incorporated is a
+<i>Catalogue raisonné</i> which contains an enumeration of all the
+tomb-stones in England and Wales that are ornamented with those standard
+“Emblems of Mortality,”&mdash;skull, thigh-bones in saltire, and
+hour-glass. In his last “Opus Magnum Mortis,” the notices of the several
+Dances of Death in various parts of Europe are very much enlarged, but
+he has not been able to adduce any further arguments or evidences beyond
+what appeared in his first essay, to show that the cuts in the original
+edition of the Dance of Death, published at Lyons, were not designed by
+Holbein. Throughout the work there are undeniable proofs of the
+diligence of the collector; but no evidences of a mind that could make
+them available to a useful end. He is at once sceptical and credulous;
+he denies that any poet of the name of Macaber ever lived; and yet he
+believes, on the sole authority of one T.&nbsp;Nieuhoff Picard, whose
+existence is as doubtful as Macaber’s, that Holbein painted a Dance of
+Death as large as life, in fresco, in the old palace at Whitehall.</p>
+
+<p>Having now given a list of all the authentic editions of the Dance of
+Death and of the principal copies of it, I&nbsp;shall next, before
+saying anything about the supposed designer or engraver, lay before the
+reader a few specimens of the original cuts. Mr. Douce observes, of the
+forty-nine cuts given in his Dance of Death, 1833, that “they may be
+very justly regarded as scarcely distinguishable from their fine
+originals.” Now, without any intention of depreciating these clever
+copies, I&nbsp;must pronounce them inferior to the originals, especially
+in the heads and hands. In this respect the wood-cuts of the first Lyons
+edition of the Dance of Death are unrivalled by any other productions of
+the art of wood engraving, either in past or present times. In the
+present day, when mere delicacy of cutting in the modern French taste is
+often mistaken for good engraving, there are doubtless many admirers of
+the art who fancy that there would be no difficulty in finding a wood
+engraver who might be fully competent to accurately copy the originals
+in the first edition of the Dance of Death. The experiment, however,
+would probably convince the undertaker of such a task, whoever he might
+be, that he had in this instance over-rated his abilities. Let the heads
+in the Lyons cuts, and those of any copies of them, old or recent, be
+examined with a magnifying glass, and the excellence of the former will
+appear still more decidedly than when viewed with the naked eye.</p>
+
+<p>The following cut is a copy of the same size as the original, which
+is the second of the Dance of Death, of the edition of 1538. The subject
+is Adam and Eve eating of the forbidden fruit; and in the series of
+early impressions, formerly Mr. Ottley’s, but now in the Print Room of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page339" id = "page339">
+339</a></span>
+the British Museum, it is intitled “<i>Adam Eva im
+Paradyss</i>”&mdash;Adam and Eve in Paradise. The serpent, as in many
+other old engravings, as well as in paintings, is represented with a
+human face. In order to convey an idea of the original page, this cut is
+accompanied with its explanatory text and verses printed in similar
+type.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_339" id = "illus_339">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_339.png" width = "253" height = "461"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "right">
+<a class = "mynote" href = "#note_6a">Text within illustration</a></p>
+
+<p>In the two first cuts, which represent the Creation of Eve, and Adam
+taking the forbidden fruit, the figure of Death is not seen. In the
+third, Adam and Eve driven out of Paradise, Death, playing on a kind of
+lyre, is seen preceding them; and in the fourth, Adam cultivating the
+earth, Death is perceived assisting him in his labour. In the fifth,
+intitled <i>Gebeyn aller menschen</i>&mdash;Skeletons of all
+men&mdash;in the early impressions of the cuts, formerly belonging to
+Mr. Ottley, but now in the British Museum, all the figures are
+skeletons; one of them is seen beating a pair of kettle drums, while
+others are sounding trumpets, as if rejoicing
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page340" id = "page340">
+340</a></span>
+in the power which had been given to Death in consequence of the fall of
+man. The texts above this cut are, “Væ væ væ habitantibus in terra.
+<span class = "smallcaps">Apocalypsis viii</span>;” and “Cuncta in
+quibus spiraculum vitæ est, mortua sunt. <span class =
+"smallcaps">Genesis vii.</span>” In the sixth cut there are two figures
+of Death,&mdash;one grinning at the pope as he bestows the crown on a
+kneeling emperor, and the other, wearing a cardinal’s hat, as a witness
+of the ceremony. In the thirty-sixth cut, the Duchess, there are two
+figures of Death introduced, and there are also two in the
+thirty-seventh, the Pedlar; but in all the others of this edition, from
+the seventh to the thirty-ninth, inclusive, there is only a single
+figure of Death, and in every instance his action and expression are
+highly comic, most distinctly evincing that man’s destruction is his
+sport. In the fortieth cut there is no figure of Death; the Deity seated
+on a rainbow, with his feet resting on the globe, is seen pronouncing
+final judgment on the human race. The forty-first, and last cut of the
+original edition, represents Death’s coat-of-arms&mdash;&mdash;<i>Die
+wapen des Thots</i>. On an escutcheon, which is rent in several places,
+is a death’s-head, with something like a large worm proceeding from the
+mouth; above the escutcheon, a&nbsp;barred helmet, seen in front like
+that of a sovereign prince, is probably intended to represent the power
+of Death; the crest is a pair of fleshless arms holding something like a
+large stone immediately above an hour-glass; on the dexter side of the
+escutcheon stands a gentleman, who seems to be calling the attention of
+the spectator to this memento of Death, and on the opposite side is a
+lady; in the distance are Alpine mountains, the top of the highest
+partly shaded by a cloud. The appropriate text is, “Memorare novissima,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page341" id = "page341">
+341</a></span>
+et in æternum non peccabis. <span class = "smallcaps">Eccle.
+vii</span>;” and the following are the verses underneath:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p class = "open">“Si tu veulx vivre sans peché</p>
+<p>Voy ceste imaige a tous propos,</p>
+<p>Et point ne seras empesché</p>
+<p>Quand tu t’en iras en repos.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_340" id = "illus_340">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_340.png" width = "205" height = "267"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The total number of cuts of the first edition in which Death is seen
+attending on men and women of all ranks and conditions, mocking them,
+seizing them, slaying them, or merrily leading them to their end, is
+thirty-seven.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_341" id = "illus_341">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_341.png" width = "240" height = "462"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "right">
+<a class = "mynote" href = "#note_6b">Text within illustration</a></p>
+
+<p>The above cut is a copy of the thirty-third, the Old Man&mdash;<i>Der
+Alt man</i>&mdash;whom Death leads in confiding imbecility to the grave,
+while he
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page342" id = "page342">
+342</a></span>
+pretends to support him and to amuse him with the music of a dulcimer.
+The text and verses are given as they stand in the original.</p>
+
+<p>The following cut is a copy of the thirty-sixth, the
+Duchess&mdash;<i>Die Hertzoginn</i>. In this cut, as has been previously
+observed, there are two figures of Death; one rouses her from the
+bed&mdash;where she appears to have been indulging in an afternoon
+nap&mdash;by pulling off the coverlet, while the other treats her to a
+tune on the violin. On the frame of the bed, or couch, to the left, near
+the bottom of the cut, is seen the mark <img class = "middle" src =
+"images/illus_342b.png" width = "29" height = "21" alt = "HL">, which
+has not a little increased the difficulty of arriving at any clear and
+unquestionable conclusion with respect to the designer or engraver of
+those cuts. The text and the verses are given literally, as in the two
+preceding specimens.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_342" id = "illus_342">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_342.png" width = "214" height = "452"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "right">
+<a class = "mynote" href = "#note_6c">Text within illustration</a></p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page343" id = "page343">
+343</a></span>
+
+<p>The following cut, the Child&mdash;<i>Das Iung Kint</i>&mdash;is a
+copy of the thirty-ninth, and the last but two in the original edition.
+Death having been represented in the preceding cuts as beguiling men and
+women in court and council-chamber, in bed-room and hall, in street and
+field, by sea and by land, is here represented as visiting the
+dilapidated cottage of the poor, and, while the mother is engaged in
+cooking, seizing her youngest child.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_343" id = "illus_343">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_343.png" width = "274" height = "442"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "right">
+<a class = "mynote" href = "#note_6d">Text within illustration</a></p>
+
+<p>The cut of the Waggon overturned, from which the following is copied,
+first appeared with ten others in the edition of 1547. From an
+inspection of this cut, which most probably is that mentioned as being
+left unfinished, in the prefatory address to Madame Jehanne de Touszele
+in the first edition, 1538, it will be perceived that the description
+which is there given of it is not correct, and hence arises
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page344" id = "page344">
+344</a></span>
+a doubt if the writer had actually seen it. He describes the driver as
+knocked down, and lying bruised under his broken waggon, and he says
+that the figure of Death is perceived roguishly sucking the wine out of
+a broken cask by means of a reed.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI21" id =
+"tagVI21" href = "#noteVI21">VI.21</a> In the cut itself, however, the
+waggoner is seen standing, wringing his hands as if in despair on
+account of the accident, and a figure of Death,&mdash;for there are two
+in this cut,&mdash;instead of sucking the wine, appears to be engaged in
+undoing the rope or chain by which the cask is secured to the waggon.
+A&nbsp;second figure of Death is perceived carrying off one of the
+waggon-wheels. In this cut the subject is not so well
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page345" id = "page345">
+345</a></span>
+treated as in most of those in the edition of 1538; and it is also not
+so well engraved.&mdash;The text and verses annexed are from the edition
+of 1562.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_344" id = "illus_344">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_344.png" width = "232" height = "417"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "right">
+<a class = "mynote" href = "#note_6e">Text within illustration</a></p>
+
+<p>Of the eleven additional cuts inserted in the edition of 1547, there
+are four of children, which, as has already been observed in page 334,
+have not the slightest connexion with the Dance of Death. The following
+is a copy of one of them. The editor seems to have found no difficulty
+in providing the subject with a text; and it serves as a peg to hang a
+quatrain on as well as the others which contain personi&shy;fications of
+Death.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_345" id = "illus_345">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_345.png" width = "232" height = "426"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "right">
+<a class = "mynote" href = "#note_6f">Text within illustration</a></p>
+
+<p>In the edition of 1562 five more cuts are inserted; but two of them
+only&mdash;the Bridegroom and the Bride&mdash;have relation to the Dance
+of Death; the other three are of a similar character to the four cuts of
+children first inserted in the edition of 1547. All the seven cuts of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page346" id = "page346">
+346</a></span>
+children have been evidently designed by the same person. They are well
+engraved, but not in so masterly a style as the forty-one cuts of the
+original edition. The following is a copy of one of the three which were
+inserted in the edition of 1562.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_346" id = "illus_346">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_346.png" width = "252" height = "417"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "right">
+<a class = "mynote" href = "#note_6g">Text within illustration</a></p>
+
+<p>Having now given what, perhaps, may be considered a sufficiently
+ample account of the Lyons Dance of Death, it next appears necessary to
+make some enquiries respecting the designer of the cuts. Until the
+publication of Mr. Douce’s observations, prefixed to the edition of
+Hollar’s etchings from those cuts, by Edwards, about 1794, scarcely any
+writer who mentions them seems to entertain a doubt of their having been
+designed by Holbein; and Papillon, in his usual manner, claims him as a
+wood engraver, and unhesitatingly declares that not only the cuts of the
+Lyons Dance of Death, but all the other cuts which are generally
+supposed to have been of his designing, were engraved by himself. Mr.
+Douce’s arguments are almost entirely negative,&mdash;for he produces no
+satisfactory evidence to show that those cuts were certainly
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page347" id = "page347">
+347</a></span>
+designed by some other artist,&mdash;and they are chiefly founded on the
+passage in the first Lyons edition, where the writer speaks of the death
+of the person “qui nous en a icy imaginé si elegantes figures.”</p>
+
+<p>The sum of Mr. Douce’s objections to Holbein being the designer of
+the cuts in question is as follows. “The singularity of this curious and
+interesting dedication is deserving of the utmost attention. It seems
+very strongly, if not decisively, to point out the edition to which it
+is prefixed, as the first; and what is of still more importance, to
+deprive Holbein of any claim to the invention of the work. It most
+certainly uses such terms of art as can scarcely be mistaken as
+conveying any other sense than that of originality of design. There
+cannot be words of plainer import than those which describe the painter,
+as he is expressly called, <i>delineating</i> the subjects and leaving
+several of them unfinished: and whoever the artist might have been, it
+clearly appears that he was not living in 1538. Now, it is well known
+that Holbein’s death did not take place before the year 1554, during the
+plague which ravaged London at that time. If then the expressions used
+in this dedication signify anything, it may surely be asked what becomes
+of any claim on the part of Holbein to the designs of the work in
+question, or does it not <i>at least</i> remain in a situation of doubt
+and difficulty?”<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI22" id = "tagVI22" href =
+"#noteVI22">VI.22</a> With respect to the true import of the passage
+referred to, my opinion is almost directly the reverse of that expressed
+by Mr. Douce.</p>
+
+<p>What the writer of the address to Madame Jehanne de Touszele, in the
+Lyons edition of 1538, says respecting the unfinished cuts, taken all
+together, seems to relate more properly to the engraver than the
+designer; more especially when we find that a cut&mdash;that of the
+Waggoner,&mdash;expressly noticed by him as being then unfinished, was
+given with others of a similar character in a subsequent edition.</p>
+
+<p>From the incorrect manner in which the cut of the Waggoner is
+described, I&nbsp;am very much inclined to think that the writer had
+neither seen the original nor the other subjects already
+traced&mdash;the “<i>plusieurs aultres figures jà par luy
+trassées</i>”&mdash;of whose “bold drawing, perspectives, and shadows,”
+he speaks in such terms of admiration. If the writer knew little of the
+process of wood engraving, he would be very likely to commit the mistake
+of supposing that the engraver was also the designer of the cuts. Though
+I consider it by no means unlikely that the engraver might have been
+dead before the publication of the first edition, yet I am very much
+inclined to believe that the passage in which the cuts are mentioned is
+purposely involved in obscurity: the writer, while he speaks of the
+deceased artist in terms of the highest commendation, at the same time
+carefully conceals his name. If the account in the preface be admitted
+as correct, it would
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page348" id = "page348">
+348</a></span>
+appear that the cuts were both designed and engraved by the same person,
+and that those already drawn on the block<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagVI23" id = "tagVI23" href = "#noteVI23">VI.23</a> remained
+unfinished in consequence of his decease; for if he were <i>not</i> the
+engraver, what prevented the execution of the other subjects already
+traced, and of which the bold drawing, perspective, and shadows, all so
+gracefully delineated, are distinctly mentioned? The engraver, whoever
+he might be, was certainly not only the best of his age, but continues
+unsurpassed to the present day, and I am satisfied that such precision
+of line as is seen in the heads could only be acquired by great
+practice. The designs are so excellent in drawing and composition, and
+so admirably are the different characters represented,&mdash;with such
+spirit, humour, and appropriate expression,&mdash;that to have produced
+them would confer additional honour on even the greatest painters of
+that or any other period. Are we then to suppose that those excellencies
+of design and of engraving were combined in an obscure individual whose
+name is not to be found in the roll of fame, who lived comparatively
+unknown, and whose death is only incidentally noticed in an ambiguous
+preface written by a nameless pedant, and professedly addressed to an
+abbess whose very existence is questionable?<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagVI24" id = "tagVI24" href = "#noteVI24">VI.24</a> Such a supposition
+I conceive to be in the highest degree improbable; and, on the contrary,
+I&nbsp;am perfectly satisfied that the cuts in question were <i>not</i>
+designed and engraved by the same person. Furthermore, admitting the
+address to Madame Jehanne de Touszele to be written in good faith,
+I&nbsp;am firmly of opinion that the person whose death is there
+mentioned, was the engraver, and not the designer of the cuts of the
+first edition.</p>
+
+<p>The mark <img class = "middle" src = "images/illus_342b.png" width =
+"29" height = "21" alt = "HL"> in the cut of the Duchess, is certainly
+not Holbein’s; and Mr. Douce says, “that it was intended to express the
+name of the designer, cannot be supported by evidence of any kind.” That
+it is not the mark of the designer, I&nbsp;agree with Mr. Douce, but my
+conclusion is drawn from premises directly the reverse of his; for had I
+not found evidence elsewhere to convince me that this mark can only be
+that of the engraver, I&nbsp;should most certainly have concluded that
+it was intended for the mark of the designer. In direct opposition to
+what Mr. Douce here says, up to the time of the publication of the Lyons
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page349" id = "page349">
+349</a></span>
+Dance of Death, the mark on wood-cuts is most frequently that of the
+designer, and whenever that of the engraver appears, it is as an
+exception to the general custom. It is, in fact, upon the evidence of
+the mark alone that the greater part of the wood-cut designs of Durer,
+Cranach, Burgmair, Behaim, Baldung, Grün, and other old masters, are
+respectively ascribed to them. The cuts of the Triumphal Procession of
+Maximilian with Hans Burgmair’s mark in front, and the names of the
+engravers written at the back of the blocks, may serve as an
+illustration of the general practice, which is directly the reverse of
+Mr. Douce’s opinion. If the weight of probability be not on the opposite
+side, the mark in question ought certainly, according to the usual
+practice of the period, to be considered as that of the designer.</p>
+
+<p>In a subsequent page of the same chapter, Mr. Douce most
+inconsistently says, “There is an unfortunate ambiguity connected with
+the marks that are found on ancient engravings on wood, and it has been
+a <i>very great error</i> on the part of all the writers who treat on
+such engravings, in referring the marks that accompany them to the
+block-cutters, or as the Germans properly denominate them the
+<i>formschneiders</i>, whilst, perhaps, the greatest part of them really
+belong to the designers.” He commits in the early part of the chapter
+the very error which he ascribes to others. According to his own
+principles, as expressed in the last extract, he was bound to allow the
+mark <img class = "middle" src = "images/illus_342b.png" width = "29"
+height = "21" alt = "HL"> to be that of the designer until he could show
+on probable grounds that it was not. But though Mr. Douce might deny
+that Holbein were the designer of those cuts, it seems that he durst not
+venture to follow up the line of his argument, and declare that Hans
+Lutzelburger <i>was</i> the designer, which he certainly might have done
+with at least as much reason as has led him to decide that Holbein
+<i>was not</i>. But he prudently abstained from venturing on such an
+affirmation, the improbability of which, notwithstanding the mark, might
+have led his readers to inquire, how it happened that so talented an
+artist should have remained so long undiscovered, and that even his
+contemporaries should not have known him as the designer of those
+subjects.</p>
+
+<p>Though I am satisfied that the mark <img class = "middle" src =
+"images/illus_342b.png" width = "29" height = "21" alt = "HL"> is that
+of the <i>engraver</i> of the cuts in the first edition of the Lyons
+Dance of Death, I&nbsp;by no means pretend to account for its appearing
+alone&mdash;thus forming an exception to the general rule&mdash;without
+the mark of the designer, and without any mention of his name either in
+the title or preface to the book. We have no knowledge of the connexion
+in the way of business between the working wood engravers and the
+designers of that period; but there seems reason to believe that the
+former sometimes got drawings made at their own expense and risk, and,
+when engraved, either published them on their own account, or disposed
+of them to booksellers and printers. It is
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page350" id = "page350">
+350</a></span>
+also to be observed that about the time of the publication of the first
+Lyons edition of the Dance of Death, or a few years before, wood
+engravers began to occasionally introduce their name or mark into the
+cut, in addition to that of the designer. A&nbsp;cut, in a German
+translation of Cicero de Officiis, Frankfort, 1538, contains two marks;
+one of them being that of Hans Sebald Behaim, and the other, the letters
+H.&nbsp;W., which I take to be that of the engraver. At a later period
+this practice became more frequent, and a considerable number of
+wood-cuts executed between 1540 and 1580 contain two marks; one of the
+designer, and the other of the engraver: in wood-cuts designed by Virgil
+Solis in particular, double marks are of frequent occurrence. As it
+seems evident that the publishers of the Lyons Dance of Death were
+desirous of concealing the name of the designer, and as it appears
+likely that they had purchased the cuts ready engraved from a Swiss or a
+German,&mdash;for the designs are certainly not French,&mdash;it surely
+cannot be surprising that he should wish to affix his mark to those most
+admirable specimens of art. Moreover, if those cuts were not executed
+under the personal superintendence of the designer, but when he was
+chiefly resident in a distant country, the engraver would thus have the
+uncontrolled liberty of inserting his own mark; and more especially, if
+those cuts were a private speculation of his own, and not executed for a
+publisher who had employed an artist to make the designs. Another
+reason, perhaps equally us good as any of the foregoing, might be
+suggested; as those cuts are decidedly the best executed of any of that
+period, the designer&mdash;even if he had opportunities of seeing the
+proofs&mdash;might have permitted the mark of the engraver to appear on
+one of them, in approbation of his talent.</p>
+
+<p>This mark, <img class = "middle" src = "images/illus_342b.png" width
+= "29" height = "21" alt = "HL">, was first assigned to a wood engraver
+named Hans Lutzelburger, by M.&nbsp;Christian von Mechel,
+a&nbsp;celebrated engraver of Basle, who in 1780 published forty-five
+copper-plate engravings of a Dance of Death from drawings said to be by
+Holbein, and which almost in every respect agree with the corresponding
+cuts in the Lyons work, though of greater size.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagVI25" id = "tagVI25" href = "#noteVI25">VI.25</a> M.&nbsp;Mechel’s
+conjecture respecting the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page351" id = "page351">
+351</a></span>
+engraver of those cuts appears to have been first published in the
+sixteenth volume of Von Murr’s Journal; but though I am inclined to
+think that he is correct, it has not been satisfactorily shown that Hans
+Lutzelburger ever used the mark <img class = "middle" src =
+"images/illus_342b.png" width = "29" height = "21" alt = "HL">. He,
+however, lived at that period, and it is almost certain that he executed
+an alphabet of small initial letters representing a Dance of Death,
+which appear to have been first used at Basle by the printers Bebelius
+and Cratander about 1530. We give (on&nbsp;the following page) the
+entire series. He is also supposed to have engraved two other alphabets
+of ornamental initial letters, one representing a dance of peasants,
+“intermixed,” says Mr. Douce, “with other subjects, some of which are
+not of the most delicate nature;” the other representing groups of
+children in various playful attitudes. All those three alphabets are
+generally described by German and Swiss writers on art as having been
+designed by Holbein; and few impartial persons I conceive can have much
+doubt on the subject, if almost perfect identity between most of the
+figures and those in his known productions be allowed to have any
+weight.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page352" id = "page352">
+[352]</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<a name = "illus_352" id = "illus_352">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_352a.png" width = "428" height = "97"
+alt = "A B C D">
+<img src = "images/illus_352b.png" width = "431" height = "95"
+alt = "E F G H">
+<img src = "images/illus_352c.png" width = "431" height = "96"
+alt = "I K L M">
+<img src = "images/illus_352d.png" width = "430" height = "99"
+alt = "N O P Q">
+<img src = "images/illus_352e.png" width = "431" height = "102"
+alt = "R S T V">
+<img src = "images/illus_352f.png" width = "432" height = "105"
+alt = "W X Y Z">
+</div>
+
+<p>There is a set of proofs of the alphabet of the Dance of Death,
+printed on one sheet, preserved in the Public Library at Basle, and
+underneath is printed in moveable letters the name <span class =
+"blackletter">HAnns Lützelburger formschnider, genannt
+Franck</span>,&mdash;that is, “Hanns Lutzelburger, wood engraver, named
+Franck.” The first H is an ornamented Roman capital; the other letters
+of the name are in the German character. The size of the cuts in this
+alphabet of the Dance of Death is one inch by seven-eighths. The reason
+for supposing that Hans Lutzelburger was the engraver of the cuts in the
+first edition of the Lyons Dance of Death are: 1.&nbsp;The similarity of
+style between the latter and those of the Basle alphabet of the same
+subject; and 2.&nbsp;The correspondence of the mark in the cut of the
+Duchess with the initial letters of the name H[ans] L[utzelburger], and
+the fact of his being a wood engraver of that period. Mr. Douce, in the
+seventh chapter of his work, professes to
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page353" id = "page353">
+353</a></span>
+examine the “claim of Hans Lutzelburger as to the design or execution of
+the Lyons engravings of the Dance of Death,” but his investigations seem
+very unsatisfactory; and his chapter is one of those “in which,” as
+Fielding says, “nothing is concluded.” He gives no opinion as to whether
+Lutzelburger was the designer of the Lyons cuts or not, though this is
+one of the professed topics of his investigation; and even his opinion,
+for the time being, as to the engraver, only appears in the heading of
+the following chapter, where it is thus announced: “<i>List of several
+editions of the Lyons work on the Dance of Death, with the mark of
+Lutzenburger</i>.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI26" id = "tagVI26" href
+= "#noteVI26">VI.26</a> His mind, however, does not appear to have been
+finally made up on this point; for in a subsequent page, 215, speaking
+of the mark <img class = "middle" src = "images/illus_342b.png" width =
+"29" height = "21" alt = "HL"> in the cut of the Duchess, which he had
+previously mentioned as that of Hans Lutzelburger, he says, “<i>but to
+whomsoever this mark may turn out to belong</i>, certain it is that
+Holbein never made use of it.” His only unalterable decision appears to
+be that Holbein did not design the cuts of the Lyons Dance of Death, and
+in support of it he puts forth sundry arguments which are at once absurd
+and inconsistent; rejects unquestionable evidence which makes for the
+contrary opinion; and admits the most improbable that seems to favour
+his own.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Douce, in his seventh chapter, also gives a list of cuts, which
+he says were executed by Hans Lutzelburger; but out of the seven single
+cuts and three alphabets which he enumerates, I&nbsp;am inclined to
+think that Lutzelburger’s name is only to be found attached to one
+single cut and to one alphabet,&mdash;the latter being that of the
+initial letters representing a Dance of Death. The single cut to which I
+allude&mdash;and which, I&nbsp;believe, is the only one of the kind that
+has his name underneath it,&mdash;represents a combat in a wood between
+some naked men and a body of peasants. Within the cut, to the left, is
+the mark, probably of the designer, on a reversed tablet, <img class =
+"middle" src = "images/illus_353.png" width = "76" height = "31" alt =
+"symbol"> thus; and underneath is the following inscription, from a
+separate block: <span class = "smallcaps">Hanns . Leuczellburger .
+Furmschnider</span> × 1.5.2.2. An impression of this cut is preserved in
+the Public Library at Basle; and an alphabet of Roman capitals, engraved
+on wood, is printed on the same folio, below Lutzelburger’s name. In not
+one of the other single cuts does this engraver’s name occur, nor in
+fact any mark that can be fairly ascribed to him. The seventh cut,
+described by Mr. Douce,&mdash;a copy of Albert Durer’s Decollation of
+John the Baptist,&mdash;is ascribed to Lutzelburger on the authority of
+Zani. According to this writer,&mdash;for I have not seen the cut myself
+any more than Mr. Douce,&mdash;it has “the mark H.&nbsp;L. reversed,”
+which perhaps may prove to be L.&nbsp;H. “In the index of names,” says
+Mr. Douce, “he (Zani) finds his name thus written, <span class =
+"smallcaps">Hans</span>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page354" id = "page354">
+354</a></span>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Lutzelburger Formschnider genant</span>
+(chiamato) <span class = "smallcaps">Franck</span>, and calls him the
+true prince of engravers on wood.” In what index Zani found the reversed
+mark thus expounded does not appear; I, however, am decidedly of opinion
+that there is no wood-cut in existence with the mark H.&nbsp;L. which
+can be ascribed with anything like certainty to Lutzelburger; and his
+name is only to be found at length <i>under</i> the cut of the Fight
+above mentioned, and printed in moveable characters on the sheet
+containing the proofs of the alphabet of the Dance of Death.<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagVI27" id = "tagVI27" href = "#noteVI27">VI.27</a> The
+title of “true prince of engravers on wood,” given by Zani to
+Lutzelburger, can only be admitted on the supposition of his being the
+engraver of the cuts in the first edition of the Lyons Dance of Death;
+but it yet remains to be proved that he ever used the mark <img class =
+"middle" src = "images/illus_342b.png" width = "29" height = "21" alt =
+"HL"> or the separate letters H.&nbsp;L. on any previous or subsequent
+cut. Though, from his name appearing on the page containing the alphabet
+of the Dance of Death, and from the correspondence of his initials with
+the mark in the cut of the Duchess in the Lyons Dance of Death,
+I&nbsp;am inclined to think that he was the engraver of the cuts in the
+latter work, yet I have thought it necessary to enter thus fully into
+the grounds of his pretensions to the execution of those, and other wood
+engravings, in order that the reader may judge for himself.</p>
+
+<p>Hegner, in his Life of Holbein, treats the claims that have been
+advanced on behalf of Lutzelburger too lightly. He not only denies that
+he was the engraver of the cuts in the first edition of the Lyons work,
+but also that he executed the cuts of the alphabet of the Dance of
+Death, although his name with the addition of “wood
+engraver”&mdash;<i>formschnider</i>&mdash;be printed on the sheet of
+proofs. If we cannot admit the inscription in question as evidence of
+Lutzelburger being the engraver of this alphabet, we may with equal
+reason question if any wood engraver actually executed the cut or cuts
+under which his name only appears printed in type, or which may be
+ascribed to him in the title of a book. Mr. Douce, speaking of the three
+alphabets,&mdash;of peasants, boys, and a Dance of Death,&mdash;all of
+which he supposes to have been engraved by Lutzelburger, says that the
+proofs “may have been deposited by him in his <i>native</i> city,”
+meaning Basle. Hegner, however, says that there is no trace of him to be
+found either in registers of baptism or burger-lists of Basle. He
+further adds, though I by no means concur with him in this opinion, “It
+is indeed likely that, as a travelling dealer in works of art&mdash;who,
+according to the custom of that period, took up their temporary
+residence sometimes in one place, sometimes in another,&mdash;he had
+obtained possession of those blocks, [of the alphabet of Death’s Dance,
+and the Fight, with his name,] and that he sold impressions from them in
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page355" id = "page355">
+355</a></span>
+the way of trade.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI28" id = "tagVI28" href
+= "#noteVI28">VI.28</a> Mr. Douce says that it may admit of a doubt
+whether the alphabets ascribed to Lutzelburger were cut on metal or on
+wood. It may admit of a doubt, certainly, with one who knows very little
+of the practice of wood engraving, but none with a person who is
+accustomed to see cuts executed in a much more delicate style by wood
+engravers of very moderate abilities. To engrave them on wood, would be
+comparatively easy, so far as relates to the mere delicacy of the lines;
+but it would be a task of great difficulty to engrave them in relief in
+any metal which should be much harder than that of which types are
+composed. To suppose that they might have been executed in type-metal,
+on account of the delicacy of the lines, would involve a contradiction;
+for not only can finer lines be cut on box-wood than on type-metal, but
+also with much greater facility.</p>
+
+<p>It perhaps may not be unnecessary to give here two instances of the
+many vague and absurd conjectures which have been propounded respecting
+the designer or the engraver of the cuts in the Lyons editions of the
+Dance of Death. In a copy of this work of the edition 1545 now in the
+British Museum, but formerly belonging to the Reverend C.&nbsp;M.
+Cracherode, a&nbsp;portrait of a painter or engraver named Hans
+Ladenspelder is inserted opposite to the cut of the Duchess, as if in
+support of the conjecture that <i>he</i> might be the designer of those
+cuts, merely from the circumstance of the initial letters of his name
+corresponding with the mark <img class = "middle" src =
+"images/illus_342b.png" width = "29" height = "21" alt = "HL">. The
+portrait is a small oval engraved on copper, with an ornamental border,
+round which is the following inscription: “Imago Joannis Ladenspelder,
+Essendiensis, Anno ætatis suæ xxviii. 1540.”<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagVI29" id = "tagVI29" href = "#noteVI29">VI.29</a> The mark <img
+class = "middle" src = "images/illus_355a.png" width = "20" height =
+"17" alt = "L"> is perceived on this portrait, and underneath is written
+the following MS. note, referring to the mark in the cut of the Duchess:
+“<img class = "middle" src = "images/illus_342b.png" width = "29" height
+= "21" alt = "HL"> the mark of the designer of these designs of Death’s
+Dance, not H.&nbsp;Holbein. By several persons that have seen Holbein’s
+Death Dance at Basil, it is not like these, nor in the same manner.”
+This note, so far as relates to the implied conjecture about
+Ladenspelder, may be allowed to pass without remark for what it is
+worth; but it seems necessary to remind the reader that the painting of
+the Dance of Death at Basle, here evidently alluded to, <i>was not</i>
+the work of Holbein, and to observe that this note is not in the
+handwriting of Mr. Cracherode, but that it has apparently been written
+by a former owner of the volume.</p>
+
+<p>In a copy of the first edition, now lying before me, a former owner
+has written on the fly-leaf the following verses from page 158 of the
+Nugæ&mdash;Lyons, 1540,&mdash;of Nicholas Borbonius, a&nbsp;French
+poet:</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page356" id = "page356">
+356</a></span>
+<div class = "verse">
+<p class = "open">“Videre qui vult Parrhasium cum Zeuxide,</p>
+<p class = "indent">Accersat a Britannia</p>
+<p>Hansum Ulbium, et Georgium Reperdium</p>
+<p class = "indent">Lugduno ab urbe Galliæ.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The meaning of these verses may be thus expressed in English:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p>Whoever wishes to behold,</p>
+<p>Painters like to those of old,</p>
+<p>To England straightway let him <ins class = "correction" title = "‘n’ invisible">send</ins>,</p>
+<p>And summon Holbein to attend;</p>
+<p>Reperdius,<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI30" id = "tagVI30" href =
+"#noteVI30">VI.30</a> too, from Lyons bring,</p>
+<p>A city of the Gallic King.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>To the extract from Borbonius,&mdash;or Bourbon, as he is more
+frequently called, without the Latin termination,&mdash;the writer has
+added a note: “<i>An Reperdius harum Iconum sculptor fuerit?</i>” That
+is: “Query, if Reperdius were the engraver of these cuts?”&mdash;meaning
+the cuts contained in the Lyons Dance of Death. Mr. Douce also cites the
+preceding verses from Nicholas Bourbon; and upon so slight and unstable
+a foundation he, <i>more solito</i>, raises a ponderous superstructure.
+He, in fact, says, that “it is <i>extremely probable</i> that he might
+have begun the work in question [the designs for the Dance of Death],
+and have died before he could complete it, and that the Lyons publishers
+might have afterwards employed Holbein to finish what was left undone,
+as well as to make designs for additional subjects which appeared in the
+subsequent editions. Thus would Holbein be so connected with the work as
+to obtain in future such notice as would constitute him by general
+report the real inventor of it.”</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps in the whole of the discussion on this subject a more
+tortuous piece of argument is not to be found. It strikingly exemplifies
+<ins class = "correction" title = ". missing">Mr.</ins> Douce’s
+eagerness to avail himself of the most trifling circumstance which
+seemed to favour his own views; and his manner of twisting and twining
+it is sufficient to excite a suspicion even in the mind of the most
+careless inquirer, that the chain of argument which consists of a series
+of such links must be little better than a rope of sand. Mr. Douce must
+have had singular notions of probability, when, upon the mere mention of
+the name of Reperdius, by Bourbon, as a painter then residing at Lyons,
+he asserts that it is <i>extremely probable</i> that he, Reperdius,
+might have begun the work: it is evident that he does not employ the
+term in its usual and proper sense. If for “<i>extremely probable</i>”
+the words “<i>barely possible</i>” be substituted, the passage will be
+unobjectionable; and will then fairly represent the value of the
+conjecture of Reperdius having designed any of the cuts in question. If
+it be <i>extremely probable</i>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page357" id = "page357">
+357</a></span>
+that the cuts of the first edition of the Lyons Dance of Death were
+designed by Reperdius, from the mere occurrence of his name in Bourbon,
+the evidence in favour of their being designed by Holbein ought with
+equal reason to be considered as <i>plusquam-perfect</i>; for the voices
+of his contemporaries are expressly in his favour, the cuts themselves
+bear a strong general resemblance to those which are known to be of his
+designing, and some of the figures and details in the cuts of the Dance
+of Death correspond so nearly with others in the Bible-cuts designed by
+Holbein, and also printed at Lyons by the brothers Trechsel, and in the
+same year, that there cannot be a doubt in the mind of any impartial
+inquirer who shall compare them, that either both series must have been
+designed by the same person, or that Holbein had servilely copied the
+works of an unknown artist greater than himself. Upon one of the horns
+of this dilemma, Mr. Douce, and all who assert that the cuts of the
+Lyons Dance of Death <i>were not designed by Holbein</i>, must
+inevitably be fixed.</p>
+
+<p>One of the earliest evidences in favour of Holbein being the designer
+of the cuts in the Lyons Dance of Death is Nicholas Bourbon, the author
+of the epigram previously cited. In an edition of his Nugæ, published at
+Basle in 1540, are the following verses:<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagVI31" id = "tagVI31" href = "#noteVI31">VI.31</a></p>
+
+<div class = "verse w25">
+<h5><i>De morte picta à Hanso pictore nobili.</i></h5>
+
+<p>Dum mortis Hansus pictor imaginem exprimit,</p>
+<p>Tanta arte mortem retulit ut mors vivere</p>
+<p>Videatur ipsa: et ipse se immortalibus</p>
+<p>Parem Diis fecerit operis hujus gloria.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now,&mdash;after premising that the term <i>picta</i> was applied to
+designs engraved on wood, as well as to paintings in oil or
+water-colours,<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI32" id = "tagVI32" href =
+"#noteVI32">VI.32</a>&mdash;it may be asked to what work of Holbein’s do
+these lines refer? The painting in the church-court at Basle was not
+executed by Holbein; neither was it ascribed to him by his
+contemporaries; for the popular error which assigns it to him appears to
+have originated with certain travellers who visited Basle upwards of a
+hundred years after Holbein’s decease. It indeed may be answered that
+Bourbon might allude to the <i>alphabet</i> of the Dance of Death which
+has been ascribed to Holbein. A&nbsp;mere supposition of this kind,
+however, would be untenable in this instance; for there is no direct
+evidence to show that Holbein was the designer of this alphabet, and the
+principal reason for supposing it to
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page358" id = "page358">
+358</a></span>
+have been designed by him rests upon the previous assumption of his
+being the designer of the cuts of the Lyons Dance of Death. Deny him the
+honour of this work, and assert that the last quoted verses of Bourbon
+must relate to some other, and the difficulty of showing by anything
+like credible evidence, that he was the designer of any other series of
+cuts, or even of a single cut, or painting, of the same subject, becomes
+increased tenfold. Mr. Douce, with the gross inconsistency that
+distinguishes the whole of his arguments on this subject, ascribes the
+alphabet of the Dance of Peasants to Holbein, and yet cautiously avoids
+mentioning him as the designer of the alphabet of the Dance of Death,
+though the reasons for this conclusion are precisely the same as those
+on which he rests the former assertion. Nay, so confused and
+contradictory are his opinions on this point, that in another part of
+his book he actually describes both alphabets as being the work of the
+same designer and the same engraver.</p>
+
+<p>“Some of the writers on engraving,” says Mr. Douce, “have manifested
+their usual inaccuracy on the subject of Holbein’s Dance of
+Peasants.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. There is, however,
+<i>no doubt</i> that his beautiful pencil was employed on this subject
+in various ways, of which the following specimens are worthy of being
+recorded. In a set of initial letters frequently used in books printed
+at Basle and elsewhere,” &amp;c.&nbsp;After thus having unhesitatingly
+ascribed the Dance of Peasants to Holbein, Mr. Douce, in a subsequent
+page,&mdash;when giving a list of cuts which he ascribes to Hans
+Lutzelburger,&mdash;writes as follows: “8. An alphabet with a Dance of
+Death, the subjects of which, with a few exceptions, are the same as
+those in the other Dance; the designs, however, occasionally vary,”
+&amp;c.&nbsp;On concluding his description of this alphabet, he thus
+notices the alphabet of the Dance of Peasants, having apparently forgot
+that he had previously ascribed the latter to Holbein. “9. Another
+alphabet <i>by the same artists</i>. It is a Dance of Peasants,
+intermixed with other subjects, some of which are not of the most
+delicate nature.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI33" id = "tagVI33" href =
+"#noteVI33">VI.33</a></p>
+
+<p>It is, however, uncertain if Mr. Douce really did believe Holbein to
+be the designer of the alphabet of the Dance of Death, though from the
+preceding extracts it is plainly, though indirectly asserted, that he
+<i>was</i>. In his wish to claim the engraving of the Dance of Peasants
+for Lutzelburger, Mr. Douce does not seem to have been aware that from
+the words “by the same artists,” coupled with his previous assertion, of
+Holbein being the designer of that alphabet, it followed as a direct
+consequence that he was also the designer of the alphabet of the Dance
+of Death. Putting this charitable construction on Mr. Douce’s words, it
+follows that <i>his</i> assertion of Lutzelburger being the engraver of
+the Dance of Peasants is purely gratuitous. If Mr. Douce really believed
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page359" id = "page359">
+359</a></span>
+that Holbein was the designer of the alphabet of the Dance of Death, he
+ought in fairness to have expressly declared his opinion; although such
+declaration would have caused his arguments, against Holbein being the
+designer of the cuts in the Lyons Dance of Death, to appear more
+paradoxical and absurd than they are when unconnected with such an
+opinion; for what person, with the slightest pretensions to rationality,
+could assert that Holbein was the designer of the alphabet of the Dance
+of Death executed in 1530, the subjects, with few exceptions, the same
+as those in the Dance of Death published at Lyons in 1538, and yet in
+direct opposition to contemporary testimony, and the internal evidence
+of the subjects themselves, deny that he was the designer of the cuts in
+the latter work, on the sole authority of the nameless writer of a
+preface which only appeared in the first edition of the book, and which,
+there seems reason to suspect, was addressed to an imaginary personage?
+Was Madame Jehanne de Touszele likely to feel herself highly
+complimented by having dedicated to her a work which contains undeniable
+evidences of the artist’s having been no friend to popery? In one cut a
+couple of fiends appear to be ridiculing his “Holiness” the pope; and in
+another is a young gallant with a guitar, entertaining a nun in her
+bed-chamber. If a pious abbess of St. Peter’s, Lyons, in 1538, should
+have considered that such cuts “tended to edification,” she must have
+been an extremely liberal woman for her age. It is exceedingly amusing,
+in looking over the cuts of the Lyons Dance of Death, to contrast the
+drollery and satire of the designer with the endeavours of the textuary
+and versifier to give them a devout and spiritual turn.</p>
+
+<p>As it is certain from the verses of Bourbon, in praise of Holbein as
+the painter or designer of a subject, or a series of subjects,
+representing “Death as if he were alive,”&mdash;ut mors vivere
+videatur,&mdash;that this celebrated artist <i>had designed</i> a Dance
+of Death, Mr. Douce, being unable to deny the evidence thus afforded,
+paradoxically proceeds to fit those verses to his own theory; and after
+quoting them, at page 139, proceeds as follows: “It has already been
+demonstrated that these lines could not refer to the old painting of the
+Macaber Dance at the Dominican convent, whilst from the important
+dedication to the edition of the wood-cuts first published at Lyons in
+1538, it is next to impossible that that work could then have been in
+Borbonius’s contemplation. It appears from several places in his Nugæ
+that he was in England in 1535, at which time Holbein drew his portrait
+in such a manner as to excite his gratitude and admiration in another
+copy of verses .&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. He returned to Lyons
+in 1536, and it is known that he was there in 1538, when he probably
+wrote the complimentary lines in Holbein’s Biblical designs a short time
+before their publication, either out of friendship to the painter, or at
+the instance of the Lyons publisher, with whom he was
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page360" id = "page360">
+360</a></span>
+certainly connected.&mdash;Now, if Borbonius, during his residence at
+Lyons, had been assured that the designs in the wood-cuts of the Dance
+of Death were the production of Holbein, would not his before-mentioned
+lines on that subject have been likewise introduced into the Lyons
+edition of it, or at least into some subsequent editions, in none of
+which is any mention whatever made of Holbein, although the work was
+continued even after the death of that artist? The application,
+therefore, of Borbonius’s lines must be sought for elsewhere; but it is
+greatly to be regretted that he has not adverted to the place where the
+painting,<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI34" id = "tagVI34" href =
+"#noteVI34">VI.34</a> as he seems to call it, was made.”</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Douce next proceeds in his search after the “painting,” and he is
+not long in finding what he wishes for. According to his statement,
+“<i>very soon after</i> the calamitous fire at Whitehall, 1697, which
+consumed nearly the whole of that palace, a&nbsp;person, calling himself
+T.&nbsp;Nieuhoff Piccard, probably belonging to the household of William
+III, and a man who appears to have been an amateur artist,” made
+etchings after nineteen of the cuts in the Lyons Dance of Death.
+Impressions of those etchings, accompanied with manuscript dedications,
+appear to have been presented by this T.&nbsp;Nieuhoff Piccard to his
+friends or patrons, and among others to a Mynheer Heymans, and to “the
+high, noble, and well-born Lord William Denting, Lord of Rhoon,
+Pendraght,” &amp;c.&nbsp;The address to Mynheer Heymans contains the
+following important piece of information respecting a work of Holbein’s,
+which appears most singularly to have escaped the notice of every other
+writer, whether English or foreign. “Sir,&mdash;The costly palace of
+Whitehall, erected by Cardinal Wolsey, and the residence of King Henry
+VIII, contains, among other performances of art, a&nbsp;Dance of Death,
+<i>painted by Holbein</i>, in its galleries, which, through an
+unfortunate conflagration, has been reduced to ashes.”<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagVI35" id = "tagVI35" href = "#noteVI35">VI.35</a> In the
+dedication to the “high, noble, and well-born Lord William Benting,” the
+information respecting this curious work of art,&mdash;all memory of
+which would have perished had it not been for the said T.&nbsp;Nieuhoff
+Piccard,&mdash;is rather more precise. “Sir, [not My Lord,]&mdash;In the
+course of my constant love and pursuit of works of art, it has been my
+good fortune to meet with that scarce little work of Hans Holbein,
+neatly engraved on wood, and which he himself had <i>painted as large as
+life</i>, in fresco, on the walls of Whitehall.” Who Mynheer Heymans was
+will probably never be discovered, but he seems to have been a person of
+some consequence in his day, though unfortunately never mentioned in any
+history or memoirs of the period, for it appears that the court thought
+proper, in consideration of his singular deserts, to
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page361" id = "page361">
+361</a></span>
+cause a dwelling to be built for him at Whitehall. My Lord William
+Benting,<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI36" id = "tagVI36" href =
+"#noteVI36">VI.36</a>&mdash;though from his name and titles he might be
+mistaken for a member of the Bentinck family,&mdash;appears to have been
+actually born in the palace. It is, however, very unfortunate that his
+name does not occur in the peerage of that time; and as neither Rhoon
+nor Pendraght are to be found in Flanders or Holland, it is not unlikely
+that these may be the names of two of his lordship’s <i>castles in
+Spain</i>.</p>
+
+<p>T. Nieuhoff Piccard’s express testimony of Holbein having painted a
+Dance of Death in fresco, at Whitehall, is, in Mr. Douce’s opinion,
+further corroborated by the following circumstances: 1.&nbsp;“In one of
+Vanderdort’s manuscript catalogues of the pictures and rarities
+transported from St. James’s to Whitehall, and placed there in the newly
+erected cabinet room of Charles I, and in which several works by Holbein
+are mentioned, there is the following article: ‘A&nbsp;little piece,
+where Death with a green garland about his head, stretching both his
+arms to apprehend a Pilate in the habit of one of the spiritual
+Prince-Electors of Germany. Copied by Isaac Oliver from Holbein.’ There
+cannot be a doubt that this refers to the subject of the Elector as
+painted by Holbein in the Dance of Death at Whitehall, proving at the
+same time the identity of the painting with the wood-cuts, whatever may
+be the inference. 2.&nbsp;Sandrart, after noticing a remarkable portrait
+of Henry VIII. at Whitehall, states ‘that there yet remains at that
+palace <i>another work</i>, by Holbein, that constitutes him the Apelles
+of his time.’ This is certainly <i>very like an allusion</i> to a Dance
+of Death. 3.&nbsp;It is <i>by no means improbable</i> that Matthew Prior
+may have alluded to Holbein’s painting at Whitehall, as it is not likely
+that he would be acquainted with any other.</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p>‘Our term of life depends not on our deed,</p>
+<p>Before our birth our funeral was decreed;</p>
+<p>Nor aw’d by foresight, nor misled by chance,</p>
+<p>Imperious Death directs the ebon lance,</p>
+<p>Peoples great Henry’s tombs, and leads up Holbein’s Dance.’</p>
+
+<p class = "author">
+<i>Prior, Ode to the Memory of George Villiers.</i>”<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagVI37" id = "tagVI37" href = "#noteVI37">VI.37</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mr. Douce having previously <i>proved</i> that Holbein was <i>not</i>
+the designer of the cuts in the Lyons Dance of Death, thus, in a manner
+<i>equally
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page362" id = "page362">
+362</a></span>
+satisfactory</i>, accounts for the verses of Bourbon, by showing, on the
+<i>unexceptionable</i> evidence of “a&nbsp;person, calling himself
+T.&nbsp;Nieuhoff Piccard, <i>probably</i> belonging to the household of
+William III,” that the great work of Holbein&mdash;by the fame of which
+he had made himself equal with the immortal gods&mdash;was painted as
+large as life, in fresco, on the walls of Whitehall. The ingenuity
+displayed in depriving Holbein of the honour of the Lyons cuts is no
+less exemplified in proving him to be the painter of a similar subject
+in Whitehall. The key-stone is worthy of the arch.</p>
+
+<p>Though the <i>facts</i> and <i>arguments</i> put forth by Mr. Douce,
+in proof of Holbein having painted a Dance of Death on the walls of the
+old palace of Whitehall, and of this having been the identical Dance of
+Death alluded to by Bourbon, might be summarily dismissed as being of
+that kind which no objection could render more absurd, yet it seems
+necessary to direct the especial attention of the reader to one or two
+points; and first to the assertion that “it is next to impossible that
+the Lyons Dance of Death of 1538 could then have been in Borbonius’s
+contemplation.” Now, in direct opposition to what is here said, it
+appears to me highly probable that <i>this</i> was the very work on
+account of which he addressed his epigram to Holbein; and it is moreover
+evident that Bourbon expresses in Latin verse almost precisely the same
+ideas as those which had previously been expressed in French by the
+writer of the address to Madame Jehanne de Touszele, when speaking of
+the merits of the nameless artist who is there alluded to as the
+designer or engraver of the cuts.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI38" id =
+"tagVI38" href = "#noteVI38">VI.38</a> As Holbein is not certainly known
+to be the painter or designer of any other Dance of Death which might
+merit the high praise conveyed in Bourbon’s verses, to what other work
+of his will they apply? Even supposing, as I do, that the alphabet of
+the Dance of Death was designed by Holbein, I&nbsp;conceive it “next to
+impossible,” to use the words of Mr. Douce, that Bourbon should have
+described Holbein as having attained immortality through the fame of
+those twenty-four small letters, a&nbsp;perfect set of which I believe
+is not to be found in any single volume.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page363" id = "page363">
+363</a></span>
+That Bourbon <i>did</i> know who was the designer of the cuts of the
+Lyons Dance of Death there can scarcely be the shadow of a doubt; he was
+at Lyons in the year in which the work was published; he was connected
+with the printers; and another work, the Icones Historiarum Veteris
+Testamenti, also published by them in 1538, has at the commencement a
+copy of verses written by Bourbon, from which alone we learn that
+Holbein was the designer of the cuts,&mdash;the first four of which
+cuts, be it observed, being from the same blocks as the first four in
+the Dance of Death, published by the same printers, in the same year.
+What might be the motives of the printers for not inserting Bourbon’s
+epigram in praise of Holbein in the subsequent editions of the Dance of
+Death, supposing him to be the designer of the cuts, I&nbsp;cannot tell,
+nor will I venture to <i>guess</i>. They certainly must have had some
+reason for concealing the designer’s name, for the writer of the
+prefatory address to Madame Jehanne de Touszele takes care not to
+mention it even when speaking in so laudatory a style of the excellence
+of the designs. Among the other unaccountable things connected with this
+work, I&nbsp;may mention the fact of the French prefatory address to the
+abbess of St. Peter’s appearing only in the first, and being omitted in
+every subsequent edition.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to T. Nieuhoff Piccard, whose manuscript addresses to
+“Mynheer Heymans” and “Lord William Benting” are cited to <i>prove</i>
+that Bourbon’s verses must relate to a painting of the Dance of Death by
+Holbein in the old palace of Whitehall, nothing whatever is known; and
+there is not the slightest reason to believe that a Lord William
+Benting, born in the old palace of Whitehall, “Lord of Rhoon,
+Pendraght,” &amp;c.&nbsp;ever existed. I&nbsp;am of opinion that the
+addresses of the person calling himself T.&nbsp;Nieuhoff Piccard are a
+clumsy attempt at imposition.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI39" id =
+"tagVI39" href = "#noteVI39">VI.39</a> Though Mr. Douce had seen both
+those addresses, and also another of the same kind, he does not appear
+to have made any attempt to trace their former owners, nor does he
+mention the names of the parties in whose possession they were at the
+time that he saw them. He had seen the address to “Lord William Benting”
+previous to the publication of his
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page364" id = "page364">
+364</a></span>
+observations on the Dance of Death in 1794, when, if he had felt
+inclined, he might have ascertained from whom the then possessor had
+received it, and thus obtained a clue to guide him in his inquiries
+respecting the personal identity of the Lord of Rhoon and Pendraght. But
+this would not have suited his purpose; for he seems to have been
+conscious that any inquiry respecting such a person would only have
+tended to confirm the doubts respecting the paper addressed to him by
+Piccard. It is also uncertain at what time those pretended addresses
+were written, but there are impressions of the etchings which
+accompanied them with the date 1720; and I am inclined to think that if
+the paper and handwriting were closely examined, it would be found that
+those pretended presentation addresses were manufactured about the same,
+or perhaps at a later period. Whoever the person calling himself
+T.&nbsp;Nieuhoff Piccard may have been, or at whatever time the
+addresses to Mynheer Heymans and others may have been written, the only
+evidence of there having been a painting of the Dance by Holbein at
+Whitehall rests on his unsupported statement. Such a painting is not
+mentioned by any foreign traveller who had visited this country, nor is
+it noticed by any English writer prior to 1697; it is not alluded to in
+any tragedy, comedy, farce, or masque, in which we might expect that
+such a painting would have been incidentally mentioned had it ever
+existed. Evelyn, who must have frequently been in the old palace of
+Whitehall, says not a word of such a painting, though he mentions the
+Lyons Dance of Death under the title of Mortis Imago, and ascribes the
+cuts to Holbein;<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI40" id = "tagVI40" href =
+"#noteVI40">VI.40</a> and not the slightest notice of it is to be found
+in Vertue or Walpole.</p>
+
+<p>The learned Conrad Gesner, who was born at Zurich in 1516, and died
+there in 1565, expressly ascribes the Lyons Dance of Death to Holbein;<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagVI41" id = "tagVI41" href =
+"#noteVI41">VI.41</a> and, notwithstanding the contradictory statement
+in the preface to the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page365" id = "page365">
+365</a></span>
+first edition of this work, such appears to have been the general belief
+of all the artist’s contemporaries. Van Mander, who was born in 1548,
+and who died in 1606, appears to have been the first person who gave any
+account of the life of Holbein. His work, entitled Het Schilder Boek,
+consisting of biographical notices of painters, chiefly Germans and
+Flemings, was first published in 1604; and, when speaking of Holbein, he
+mentions the Lyons Dance of Death among his other works. Sandrart, in
+common with every other writer on art of the period, also ascribes the
+Lyons work to Holbein, and he gives the following account of a
+conversation that he had with Rubens respecting those cuts:
+“I&nbsp;remember that in the year 1627, when the celebrated Rubens was
+proceeding to Utrecht to visit Honthorst, I&nbsp;accompanied him as far
+as Amsterdam; and during our passage in the boat I looked into Holbein’s
+little book of the Dance of Death, the cuts of which Rubens highly
+praised, recommending me, as I was a young man, to copy them, observing,
+that he had copied them himself in his youth.” Sandrart, who seems to
+have been one of the earliest writers who supposed that Durer, Cranach,
+and others engraved their own designs, without any just grounds
+describes Holbein as a wood engraver. Patin, in his edition of the
+“Stultitiæ Laus” of Erasmus, 1676, repeats the same story; and Papillon
+in his decisive manner clenches it by asserting that “most of the
+delicate wood-cuts and ornamental letters which are to be found in books
+printed at Basle, Zurich, and towns in Switzerland, at Lyons, London,
+&amp;c.&nbsp;from 1520 to about 1540, were engraved by Holbein himself.”
+Papillon also says that it is believed&mdash;<i>on croit</i>&mdash;that
+Holbein began to engrave in 1511, when he was about sixteen. “What is
+extraordinary in this painter,” he further adds, “is, that he painted
+and engraved with the left hand, so that he consequently engraved the
+lines on the wood from right to left, instead of, as with us, engraving
+from left to right.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI42" id = "tagVI42"
+href = "#noteVI42">VI.42</a> Jansen, and a host of other compilers,
+without inquiry, repeat the story of Holbein having been a wood
+engraver, and that the cuts of the Lyons Dance of Death were engraved by
+himself. That he was the designer of those cuts I am thoroughly
+convinced, though I consider it “next to impossible” that he should have
+been also the engraver.</p>
+
+<p>Holbein’s Bible Cuts, as they are usually called, were first
+published at Lyons, in 1538, the same year, and by the same printers, as
+the Dance of Death. The book is a small quarto, and the title is as
+follows: “Historiarum Veteris Testamenti Icones ad vivum expressæ. Una
+cum brevi, sed quoad fieri potuit, dilucida earundem et Latina et
+Gallica
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page366" id = "page366">
+366</a></span>
+expositione. Lugduni sub scuto Coloniensi. <span class =
+"smallroman">M.D.XXXVIII.</span>”<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI43" id =
+"tagVI43" href = "#noteVI43">VI.43</a> On the title-page is an
+emblematic cut, with the motto <i>Usus me genuit</i>, similar to that on
+the title-page in the first edition of the Dance of Death, but not
+precisely the same; and at the end is the imprint of the brothers
+Melchior and Caspar Trechsel within an ornamental border, as in the
+latter work. I&nbsp;am greatly inclined to think that the brothers were
+only the printers of the first editions of the Dance of Death and the
+Bible cuts, and that the real proprietors were John and Francis Frellon,
+whose names appear as the publishers in subsequent editions.</p>
+
+<p>This opinion seems to be corroborated by the fact of there being an
+address from “<i>Franciscus Frellaeus</i>” to the Christian Reader in
+the Bible cuts of 1538 and 1539, which in subsequent editions is altered
+to “Franciscus <i>Frellonius</i>.” That the same person is designated by
+those names, I&nbsp;think there can be little doubt, as the addresses
+are literally the same. From adopting the form “Frellaeus,” however, in
+the editions of 1538 and 1539, it would seem that the writer was not
+wishful to discover his name. When the work becomes popular he writes it
+Frellonius; and in the second edition of the Dance of Death, when the
+character of this work is also established, and there seems no longer
+reason to apprehend the censures of the church of Rome, we find the
+names of John and Francis Frellon on the title-page under the “shield of
+Cologne.” Whatever might be their motives, it seems certain that the
+first publishers of the Dance of Death were wishful to withhold their
+names; and it is likely that the designer of the cuts might have equally
+good reasons for concealment. Had the Roman Catholic party considered
+the cuts of the Pope, the Nun, and two or three others as the covert
+satire of a <i>reformed</i> painter, the publishers and the designer
+would have been as likely to incur danger as to reap profit or fame.</p>
+
+<p>The address of Franciscus Frellaeus is followed by a copy of Latin
+verses by Nicholas Bourbon, in which Holbein is mentioned as the
+designer; and immediately preceding the cuts is an address “aux
+lecteurs,” in French verse, by Gilles Corrozet, who, perhaps, might be
+the poet that supplied the French expositions of those cuts, and the
+“descriptions severement rithmées” of the Dance of Death. The following
+is an extract from Bourbon’s prefatory verses, the whole of which it
+appears unnecessary to give.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page367" id = "page367">
+367</a></span>
+<div class = "verse">
+<p class = "open">“Nuper in Elysio cum fortè erraret Apelles</p>
+<p class = "indent">Una aderat Zeuxis, Parrhasiusque comes.</p>
+<p>Hi duo multa satis fundebant verba; sed ille</p>
+<p class = "indent">Interea mœrens et taciturnus erat.</p>
+<p>Mirantur comites, farique hortantur et urgent:</p>
+<p class = "indent">Suspirans imo pectore, Coûs ait:</p>
+<p>O famæ ignari, superis quæ nuper ab oris</p>
+<p class = "indent">(Vana utinam!) Stygias venit ad usque domos:</p>
+<p>Scilicet, esse hodie quendam ex mortalibus unum</p>
+<p class = "indent">Ostendat qui me vosque fuisse nihil:</p>
+<p>Qui nos declaret pictores nomine tantum,</p>
+<p class = "indent">Picturæque omneis ante fuisse rudes.</p>
+<p>Holbius est homini nomen, qui nomina nostra</p>
+<p class = "indent">Obscura ex claris ac prope nulla facit.</p>
+<p>Talis apud manes querimonia fertur: et illos</p>
+<p class = "indent">Sic equidem merito censeo posse queri,</p>
+<p>Nam tabulam siquis videat, quam pinxerit Hansus</p>
+<p class = "indent">Holbius, ille artis gloria prima suæ,</p>
+<p>Protinus exclamet, Potuit Deus edere monstrum</p>
+<p class = "indent">Quod video? humanæ non potuere manus.</p>
+<p>Icones hæ sacræ tanti sunt, optime lector,</p>
+<p class = "indent">Artificis, dignum quod venereris opus.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Besides those verses there is also a Greek distich by Bourbon, to
+which the following translation “pene ad verbum” is appended:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p class = "open">“Cernere vis, hospes, simulacra simillima vivis?</p>
+<p>Hoc opus Holbinæ nobile cerne manus.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When <ins class = "correction" title = ". missing">Mr.</ins> Douce
+stated that it was “<i>extremely probable</i> that the anonymous painter
+or designer of the Dance might have been employed also by the Frellons
+to execute a set of subjects for the Bible previously to his death, and
+that Holbein was afterwards employed to complete the work,” he seems to
+have forgot that such a testimony of Holbein being the designer was
+prefixed to the Bible cuts. In answer to Mr. Douce it may be asked, in
+his own style, if the Frellons knew that another artist was the designer
+of the cuts of the Dance of Death, and if he also had been originally
+employed to design the Bible cuts, how does it happen that they should
+allow Bourbon to give all the honour of the latter to Holbein, who, if
+the Dance of Death be not his, was certainly much inferior as a designer
+to the nameless artist whose unfinished work he was employed to
+complete?</p>
+
+<p>The total number of the Bible cuts in the first edition of the work
+is ninety, the first four of which are the same as the first four of the
+Dance of Death; the other eighty-six are of a different form to the
+first four, as will be perceived from the specimens, which are of the
+same size as the originals. Those eighty-six cuts are generally much
+inferior in design to those of the Dance of Death, and the style in
+which they are engraved is very unequal, some of them being executed
+with considerable
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page368" id = "page368">
+368</a></span>
+neatness and delicacy, and others in a much coarser manner. The
+following cut, Abraham about to sacrifice Isaac, Genesis <span class =
+"smallroman">XXII</span>, is one of those which are the best engraved;
+but even these, so far as regards the expression of the features and the
+delicate marking of the hands, are generally much inferior to the cuts
+of the Dance of Death.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_368" id = "illus_368">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_368.png" width = "333" height = "207"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Though most of the Bible cuts are inferior both in design and
+execution to those of the Dance of Death, and though several of them are
+rudely drawn and badly engraved, yet many of them afford points of such
+perfect identity with those of the Dance of Death, that it seems
+impossible to come to any other conclusion than that either the cuts of
+both works have been designed by the same person, or that the designer
+of the one series has servilely copied from the designer of the other,
+and, what is most singular, in many trifling details which seem the
+least likely to be imitated, and which usually constitute individual
+peculiarities of style. For instance, the small shrubby tree in the
+preceding cut is precisely of the same species as that seen in the cut
+of the Old Woman in the Dance of Death; and the angel about to stay
+Abraham’s hand bears a strong general resemblance to the angel in Adam
+and Eve driven out of Paradise.</p>
+
+<p>The cut on the opposite page&mdash;the Fool, Psalm <span class =
+"smallroman">LIII</span>&mdash;is copied from one of those executed in a
+coarser style than the preceding. The children in this cut are evidently
+of the same family as those of the Dance of Death.</p>
+
+<p>In the first cut, the Creation, a crack is perceived running nearly
+down the middle from top to bottom, in the edition of the Dance of Death
+of 1545. It is also perceptible in all the subsequent Lyons editions of
+this work and of the Bible cuts. It is, however, less obvious in the
+Bible cuts of the edition 1549 than in some of the preceding,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page369" id = "page369">
+369</a></span>
+probably in consequence of the block having been cramped to remedy the
+defect. Mr. Douce speaks, at page 105, as if the crack were not
+discernible in the Bible cuts of 1549; it is, however, quite perceptible
+in every copy that has come under my notice. Some of the latter editions
+of this work contain four additional cuts, which are all coarsely
+executed. In the edition of 1547 they form the illustrations to
+Ezekiel&nbsp;<span class = "smallroman">XL</span>; Ezekiel <span class =
+"smallroman">XLIII</span>; Jonah <span class = "smallroman">I</span>,
+<span class = "smallroman">II</span>, and <span class =
+"smallroman">III</span>; and Habakkuk. The Bible cuts were also printed
+with explanations in English. The title of a copy now before me is as
+follows: “The Images of the Old Testament, lately expressed, set forthe
+in Ynglishe and Frenche vuith a playn and brief exposition. Printed at
+Lyons by Johan Frellon, the yere of our Lord God, 1549,” 4to. In the
+latter editions there are wood-cuts of the four Evangelists, each within
+an oval border, on the last leaf. They bear no tokens of Holbein’s
+style.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_369" id = "illus_369">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_369.png" width = "334" height = "235"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Among the many instances of resemblance which are to be perceived on
+comparing the Dance of Death with the Bible cuts, the following may be
+enumerated as the most remarkable. The peculiar manner in which fire
+with smoke, and the waves of the sea, are represented in the Dance of
+Death can scarcely fail to strike the most heedless observer; for
+instance, the fire in the cut of Death seizing the child, and the waves
+in the cut of the Seaman. In the Bible cuts we perceive the same
+peculiarity; there is the same kind of fire in Moses directing the
+manner of burnt offerings, Leviticus&nbsp;<span class =
+"smallroman">I</span>; in the burning of Nadab and Abihu,
+Leviticus&nbsp;<span class = "smallroman">X</span>; and in every other
+one of those cuts where fire is seen. In the destruction of Pharaoh and
+his host, Exodus <span class = "smallroman">XIV</span>, are the same
+kind of curling waves. Except in the Dance of Death and the Bible cuts,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page370" id = "page370">
+370</a></span>
+I&nbsp;have never seen an instance of fire or water represented in such
+a manner. If those cuts were designed by two different artists, it is
+certainly singular that in this respect they should display so perfect a
+coincidence of idea. The sheep in the cut of the Bishop in the Dance of
+Death are the same as those in the Bible cut of Moses seeing God in the
+burning bush, Exodus <span class = "smallroman">III</span>; and the
+female figure in the cut of the Elector in the former work is perceived
+in the Bible cut of the captive Midianites, Numbers <span class =
+"smallroman">XXXI</span>. The children introduced in both works are
+almost perfectly identical, as will be perceived on comparing the cut of
+Little Children mocking Elijah, chapter&nbsp;<span class =
+"smallroman">II</span>, Kings&nbsp;<span class = "smallroman">II</span>,
+with those of the Elector, and Death seizing the child, in the Dance of
+Death. The face of the Duchess in the latter work is the same as that of
+Esther in the Bible cut, Esther, chapter&nbsp;<span class =
+"smallroman">II</span>; and in this cut ornaments on the tapestry, like
+fleurs-de-lis, behind the throne of Ahasuerus, are the same as those on
+the tapestry behind the King in the Dance of Death. The latter
+coincidence has been noticed by Mr. Douce, who, in direct opposition to
+the evidence of the German or Swiss costume of the living characters of
+the Dance of Death, considers it as contributing to demonstrate that
+both the series of those cuts are of Gallic origin.<a class = "tag" name
+= "tagVI44" id = "tagVI44" href = "#noteVI44">VI.44</a> It is needless
+to enumerate more instances of almost complete identity of figures and
+details in the cuts of the Dance of Death and those of the Bible
+illustrations; they are too frequent to have originated from a
+conventional mode of representing certain objects and persons; and they
+are most striking in minor details, where one artist would be least
+likely to imitate another, but where the same individual designer would
+be most likely to repeat himself. “As to the designs of these truly
+elegant prints,” says Mr. Douce, speaking of the cuts of the Dance of
+Death, “no one who is at all skilled in the knowledge of Holbein’s style
+and manner of grouping his figures would hesitate immediately to ascribe
+them to that artist.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI45" id = "tagVI45"
+href = "#noteVI45">VI.45</a> As this opinion is corroborated by a
+comparison of the Dance of Death with the Bible cuts, and as the
+internal evidence of the cuts of the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page371" id = "page371">
+371</a></span>
+Dance of Death in favour of Holbein is confirmed by the testimony of his
+contemporaries, the reader can decide for himself how far Holbein’s
+positive claims to the honour of this work ought to be affected by the
+passage in the anonymous address to Madame Jehanne de Touszele, which
+forms the groundwork of Mr. Douce’s theory.</p>
+
+<p>Having now examined the principal arguments which have been alleged
+to show that Holbein <i>was not</i> the designer of the Dance of Death,
+and having endeavoured to justify his claims to that honour by producing
+the evidences on which they rest, I&nbsp;shall now take leave of this
+subject, feeling thoroughly assured that <span class =
+"smallcaps">Holbein was the designer of the cuts of the first edition of
+the Lyons Dance of Death</span>; and trusting, though with no
+overweening confidence, that the preceding investigation will render it
+necessary for the next questioner of his title to produce stronger
+objections than the solitary ambiguous passage in the preface to the
+first edition of the work, and to support them with more forcible and
+consistent arguments than have been put forth by Mr. Douce. M.&nbsp;T.
+Nieuhoff Piccard, I&nbsp;am inclined to think, will never again be
+called as a witness in this cause; and before the passage in the preface
+can be allowed to have any weight, it must be shown that such a
+personage as Madame Jehanne de Touszele <i>was</i> prioress of the
+convent of St. Peter at Lyons at the time of the first publication of
+the work: and even should such a fact be established, the ambiguity of
+the passage&mdash;whether the pretendedly deceased artist were the
+engraver or designer, or both,&mdash;and the obvious desire to conceal
+his name, remain to be explained.</p>
+
+<p>In 1538, the year in which the Dance of Death and the Bible cuts were
+first published at Lyons, Holbein was residing in England under the
+patronage of Henry VIII; though it is also certain that about the
+beginning of September in that year he returned to Basle and he remained
+there a few weeks.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI46" id = "tagVI46" href
+= "#noteVI46">VI.46</a></p>
+
+<p>As the productions of this distinguished painter occupy so large a
+portion of this chapter, it perhaps may not be unnecessary to give here
+a few particulars of his life, chiefly derived from Hegner’s work,
+previous to his coming to England. Hans Holbein, the Younger, as he is
+often called by German writers to distinguish him from his father, was
+the son of Hans Holbein, a&nbsp;painter of considerable reputation. The
+year and place of his birth have not been positively ascertained, but
+there seems reason to believe that he was born in 1498, at Augsburg,<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagVI47" id = "tagVI47" href =
+"#noteVI47">VI.47</a>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page372" id = "page372">
+372</a></span>
+of which city his father was a burgher, and from whence he appears to
+have removed with his family to Basle, about the end of the fifteenth or
+the beginning of the sixteenth century. Young Holbein was brought up to
+his father’s profession, and at an early age displayed the germ of his
+future excellence. There is a portrait in oil by young Holbein of the
+date of 1513, which, according to Hegner, though rather weak in colour
+and somewhat hard in outline, is yet clearly and delicately painted.
+From the excellence of his early productions, Patin, in his Life of
+Holbein, prefixed to an edition of the Laus Stultitiæ of Erasmus<a class
+= "tag" name = "tagVI48" id = "tagVI48" href = "#noteVI48">VI.48</a>
+thinks that he must have been born in 1495. That he was born in 1498
+there can, however, be little doubt, for Hegner mentions a portrait of
+him, at Basle, when in the forty-fifth year of his age, with the date
+1543. Several anecdotes are told of Holbein as a jolly fellow, and of
+his twice or thrice discharging his account at a tavern by painting a
+Dance of Peasants. Though there seems reason to believe that Holbein was
+a free liver, and that he did paint such a subject in a house at Basle,
+the stories of his thus settling for his liquor are highly improbable.
+He appears to have married young, for in a painting of his wife and two
+children, executed before he left Basle for England in 1526, the eldest
+child, a&nbsp;boy, appears to be between four and five years old.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagVI49" id = "tagVI49" href =
+"#noteVI49">VI.49</a></p>
+
+<p>The name of Holbein’s wife is unknown; but it is said that, like
+Durer’s, she was of an unhappy temper, and that he enjoyed no peace with
+her. It is not, however, unlikely that his own unsettled disposition and
+straitened circumstances also contributed to render his home
+uncomfortable. Like most other artists of that period, he appears to
+have frequently travelled; but his journeys do not seem to have extended
+beyond Switzerland and Suabia, and they were for the most part confined
+to the former country. He seems to have travelled rather in search of
+employment than to improve himself by studying the works
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page373" id = "page373">
+373</a></span>
+of other masters. Perhaps of all the eminent painters of that period
+there is no one whose style is more original than Holbein’s, nor one who
+owes less to the study of the works of his contemporaries or
+predecessors. Though there can be no doubt of his talents being highly
+appreciated by his fellow-townsmen, yet his profession during his
+residence at Basle appears to have afforded him but a scanty income. The
+number of works executed by him between 1517 and 1526 sufficiently
+testify that he was not deficient in industry, and the exercise of his
+art seems to have been sufficiently varied:&mdash;he painted portraits
+and historical subjects; decorated the interior walls of houses,
+according to the fashion of that period, with fanciful and historical
+compositions; and made designs for goldsmiths and wood-engravers. It is
+said that so early as 1520, the Earl of Arundel,<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagVI50" id = "tagVI50" href = "#noteVI50">VI.50</a> an English
+nobleman, having seen some of his works in passing through Basle,
+advised him to try his fortune in England. If such advice were given to
+Holbein at that period, it is certain that it was not adopted until
+several years after, for he did not visit this country till 1526.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_374" id = "illus_374">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_374.png" width = "433" height = "582"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+THE SHEATH OF A DAGGER, INTENDED AS A DESIGN FOR A CHASER.<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagVI51" id = "tagVI51" href = "#noteVI51">VI.51</a></p>
+
+<p>Before he left Basle he had painted two or three portraits of
+Erasmus, and there is a large wood-cut of that distinguished scholar
+which is said not only to have been painted, but also engraved by
+Holbein. This cut is of folio size, and the figure of Erasmus is a whole
+length. His right arm rests upon a terminus, and from a richly
+ornamented arch is suspended a tablet, with the inscription, <span class
+= "smallcaps">Er. Rot.</span> Some old impressions have two verses
+printed underneath, which merely praise the likeness without alluding to
+the painter, while others have four which contain a compliment to the
+genius of Erasmus and to the art of Holbein.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagVI52" id = "tagVI52" href = "#noteVI52">VI.52</a> The original block
+is still preserved in the Public Library at Basle; but there is not the
+slightest reason for believing that it was engraved by Holbein. In 1526
+Holbein left Basle for England: Patin says, because he could no longer
+bear to live with his imperious wife. Though this might not be the chief
+cause, it is easy to conceive that a person of Holbein’s character would
+feel but little regret at parting from such a helpmate. Van Mander says
+that he took with him a portrait which he had painted of Erasmus, with a
+letter of recommendation from the latter to Sir Thomas More, wherein it
+was observed that this portrait ‘was
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page374" id = "page374">
+374</a></span>
+much more like him than any of Albert Durer’s.’ Hegner, however, thinks
+that what Van Mander says about the contents of this letter is not
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page375" id = "page375">
+375</a></span>
+correct, as no such passage is to be found in the published
+correspondence of Erasmus with Sir Thomas More. Erasmus had already sent
+two portraits of himself to England;<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI53" id
+= "tagVI53" href = "#noteVI53">VI.53</a> and as Sir Thomas More was
+personally acquainted with him, Hegner is of opinion that it would be
+unnecessary to mention that the portrait was a better likeness than any
+of those painted by Albert Durer. It is, however, by no means unlikely
+that Erasmus in speaking of a portrait of himself by
+Holbein&mdash;whether forwarded by the latter or not&mdash;might give
+his own opinion of it in comparison with one from the pencil of
+Durer.</p>
+
+<p>It would appear that in 1525 Erasmus had already mentioned Holbein’s
+desire of trying his fortune in England to Sir Thomas More, for in a
+letter written by Sir Thomas to Erasmus, dated from the court at
+Greenwich, 18th of December 1525, there is a passage to the following
+effect: “Your painter, dear Erasmus, is an excellent artist, but I am
+apprehensive that he will not find England so fruitful and fertile as he
+may expect. I&nbsp;will, however, do all that I can in order that he may
+not find it entirely barren.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI54" id =
+"tagVI54" href = "#noteVI54">VI.54</a> From a letter, dated 29th of
+August 1526, written by Erasmus to his friend Petrus Aegidius at
+Antwerp, it seems reasonable to conclude that Holbein left Basle for
+England about the beginning of September. Though Holbein’s name is not
+expressly mentioned in this letter, there cannot be a doubt of his being
+the artist who is thus introduced to Aegidius: “The bearer of this is he
+who painted my portrait. I&nbsp;will not annoy you with his praises,
+although he is indeed an excellent artist. Should he wish to see
+Quintin, and you not have leisure to go with him, you can let a servant
+show him the house. The arts perish here; he proceeds to England to gain
+a few angels; if you wish to write [to England] you can send your
+letters by him.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI55" id = "tagVI55" href =
+"#noteVI55">VI.55</a> In this extract we discover a trait of the usual
+prudence of Erasmus, who, in introducing his humbler friends to persons
+of power or influence, seems to have been particularly careful not to
+give annoyance
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page376" id = "page376">
+376</a></span>
+from the warmth of his recommendations. How gently, yet significantly,
+does he hint to Aegidius that the poor painter who brings the letter is
+a person about whom he need give himself no trouble: if he has not
+<i>leisure</i> to introduce him personally to Quintin&mdash;that is,
+Quintin Matsys&mdash;he can send a servant to show him his house. The
+suggestion of the servant was a hint from Erasmus that he did not expect
+the master to go with Holbein himself.</p>
+
+<p>Holbein on his arrival in England appears to have been well received
+by Sir Thomas More; and it is certain that he resided for some time with
+the learned and witty chancellor in his house at Chelsea. It is indeed
+said that he continued with him for three years, but Walpole thinks that
+this is very unlikely. Whether he may have resided during the whole of
+the intermediate time with Sir Thomas More or not, there seems reason to
+believe that Holbein entered the service of Henry VIII. in 1528. About
+the autumn of 1529<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI56" id = "tagVI56" href
+= "#noteVI56">VI.56</a>, he paid a short visit to Basle, probably to see
+his family, which he had left in but indifferent circumstances, and to
+obtain permission from the magistracy for a further extension of his
+leave of absence, for no burgher of the city of Basle was allowed to
+enter into the service of a foreign prince without their sanction.
+Patin, in his Life of Holbein, says that during his visit he spent most
+of his time with his old tavern companions, and that he treated the more
+respectable burghers, who wished to cultivate his friendship, with great
+disrespect. Hegner, however, considers all those accounts which
+represent Holbein as a man of intemperate habits and dissolute
+character, as unworthy of credit; in his opinion it seems impossible
+that he who was a favourite of Henry VIII, and so long an inmate of Sir
+Thomas More’s house, should have been a dissolute person. M.&nbsp;Hegner
+throughout his work shows a praiseworthy regard for Holbein’s moral
+character, but his presumption in this instance is not sufficient to
+counterbalance the unfavourable reports in the opposite scale.</p>
+
+<p>About the latter end of 1532, or the beginning of 1533, Holbein again
+visited Basle; and his return appears to have been chiefly
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page377" id = "page377">
+377</a></span>
+influenced by an order of the magistracy, which was to the following
+effect: “To M.&nbsp;Hans Holbein, painter, now in England. We Jacob
+Meier, burgomaster and councillor, herewith salute you our beloved Hans
+Holbein, fellow-burgher, and give you to understand that it is our
+desire that you return home forthwith. In order that you may live easier
+at home, and provide for your wife and child,<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagVI57" id = "tagVI57" href = "#noteVI57">VI.57</a> we are pleased to
+allow you the yearly sum of thirty guilders, until we can obtain for you
+something better. That you may make your arrangements accordingly, we
+acquaint you with this resolution. Given, Monday, 2nd September 1532.”<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagVI58" id = "tagVI58" href =
+"#noteVI58">VI.58</a> It is uncertain how long Holbein remained at Basle
+on his second visit, but it was probably of short duration. Though he
+obeyed the summons of the magistracy to return, he seems to have had
+sufficient interest to obtain a further extension of his leave of
+absence. For the third and last time he revisited Basle in 1538; and
+from a licence, signed by the burgomaster Jacob Meier, dated 16th
+November in that year, it appears that he obtained permission to return
+to England and remain there for two years longer. In this licence fifty
+guilders per annum are promised to Holbein on his return to Basle, and
+till then the magistrates further agree to allow his wife forty guilders
+per annum to be paid quarterly, and the first quarter’s payment to
+commence on the eve of St. Lucia next ensuing,&mdash;that is, on the
+12th of December. As the mention of the allowance to Holbein’s wife
+would seem to imply that she was not very well provided for by her
+husband, Hegner attempts to excuse his apparent neglect by suggesting
+“that the great sometimes forget to pay, and will not bear dunning;” and
+in illustration of this he refers to the passage in Albert Durer’s
+Journal which has been previously given at page 269.</p>
+
+<p>Holbein’s three visits to Basle have been here especially noticed in
+order that the reader might judge for himself as to the probability of
+his making the drawings for the Lyons Dance of Death on any of those
+occasions. As this work was published in 1538, and as Holbein on his
+last visit appears to have arrived at Basle about the beginning of
+September in that year, it is impossible that he should have made the
+drawings then; for if the forty-one cuts were executed by one
+person&mdash;as
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page378" id = "page378">
+378</a></span>
+from the similarity and excellence of the style there seems every reason
+to believe&mdash;it would require at the least half a year to engrave
+them, supposing that the artist worked as expeditiously as a wood
+engraver of modern times. As it is highly probable that Holbein both
+made designs and painted on his former visits, in 1529, and in 1532 or
+1533, I&nbsp;think it most likely that they were made on the latter
+occasion,&mdash;that is, supposing them to have been designed on one of
+those visits. It is, however, just as probable that the designs were
+made in England, and forwarded to a wood engraver at Basle.</p>
+
+<p>Of the various paintings executed by Holbein during his residence in
+England it is not necessary to give any account here; those who wish for
+information on this point are referred to Walpole’s Anecdotes of
+Painting.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI59" id = "tagVI59" href =
+"#noteVI59">VI.59</a> Of his life in England there are few particulars.
+“In some household accounts of Henry VIII,” says Mr. Douce, “there are
+payments to him in 1538, 1539, 1540, and 1541, on account of his salary,
+which appears to have been thirty pounds per annum. From this time
+little more is recorded of him till 1553, when he painted Queen Mary’s
+portrait, and shortly afterwards died of the plague in 1554.” Thomas
+Howard, Earl of Arundel, the great patron of artists, in the time of
+Charles I, was desirous of erecting a monument to the memory of Holbein,
+but gave up the intention as he was unable to discover the place of the
+artist’s interment. As Holbein seems to have left no will, and as his
+death appears to have excited no notice, it is likely that he died poor,
+and in comparative obscurity. If his satirical drawings<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagVI60" id = "tagVI60" href = "#noteVI60">VI.60</a> of Christ’s
+Passion, ridiculing the Pope and the popish clergy, were known to Mary,
+or any of her spiritual advisers, it could not be expected that he
+should find favour at her court.</p>
+
+<p>Wood engraving in England during the time of Holbein’s residence in
+this country appears to have been but little cultivated; but though
+there cannot be a doubt that the art was then practised here by native
+wood
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page379" id = "page379">
+379</a></span>
+engravers, yet I very much question if it were practised by any person
+in England as a distinct profession. It is not unlikely that many of the
+wood-cuts which appear in books printed in this country about that
+period were engraved by the printers themselves. It has indeed been
+supposed that most of the wood-cuts in English books printed at that
+period were engraved on the continent; but this opinion seems highly
+improbable&mdash;there could be no occasion to send abroad to have
+wood-cuts so rudely executed. Perhaps the difficulty, or rather the
+impossibility of finding a wood engraver in England capable of doing
+justice to his designs might be one reason why Holbein made so few for
+the booksellers of this country during his long residence here. The
+following portrait of Sir Thomas Wyatt, the poet, who died in 1541, was
+probably drawn on the block by Holbein. It is given on the reverse of
+the title of a small work in quarto, printed at London, 1542, and
+entitled “Næniæ in mortem Thomæ Viati equitis incomparabilis. Joanne
+Lelando antiquario autore.” The verses, which are printed underneath the
+cut, seem decisive of the drawing having been made by Holbein. There is
+a drawing of Sir Thomas Wyatt by Holbein, in the Royal Collection, which
+is engraved in Chamberlain’s work, entitled “Imitations of Original
+Drawings by Hans Holbein,” folio, 1792. There is little similarity
+between the drawing and the cut, though on comparison it is evident that
+both are intended for the same person.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture w400">
+<a name = "illus_379" id = "illus_379">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_379.png" width = "174" height = "174"
+alt = "see text">
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<h5>In effigiem Thomæ Viati.</h5>
+
+<p>Holbenus nitida pingendi maximus arte</p>
+<p>Effigiem expressit graphicè: sed nullus Apelles</p>
+<p>Exprimet ingenium felix animumque Viati.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It has been supposed that the original cut, of which the preceding is
+a fac-simile, was engraved by Holbein himself: if this were true, and
+the cut itself taken as a specimen of his abilities in this department
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page380" id = "page380">
+380</a></span>
+of art, there could not be a doubt of his having been a very indifferent
+wood engraver, for though there be considerable expression of character
+in the drawing of the head, the cut is executed in a very inferior style
+of art.</p>
+
+<p>The cuts in Cranmer’s Catechism, a small octavo, printed in 1548,<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagVI61" id = "tagVI61" href =
+"#noteVI61">VI.61</a> have been ascribed to Holbein; but out of the
+whole number, twenty-nine, including the cut on the reverse of the
+title, there are only two which contain his mark. In the others the
+manner of pencilling is so unlike that of these two, and the drawing and
+composition bear so little resemblance to Holbein’s usual style, that I
+do not believe them to have been of his designing. In the cut on the
+reverse of the title, the subject is Cranmer presenting the Bible to
+Edward VI.; the others, twenty-eight in number, but containing only
+twenty-six different subjects,&mdash;as two of them are
+repeated,&mdash;are illustrative of different passages of Scripture
+cited in the work. The following cut is one of those designed by
+Holbein. It occurs at folio CL as an illustration of “the fyrst sermon.
+A&nbsp;declaration of the fyrst peticion” [of the Lord’s Prayer].
+Holbein’s initials, H.&nbsp;H.&mdash;though the cross stroke of the
+first H is broken away&mdash;are perceived on the edge of what seems to
+be a book, to the left of the figure praying.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_380" id = "illus_380">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_380.png" width = "234" height = "169"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The other cut, designed by Holbein, and which contains his name at
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page381" id = "page381">
+381</a></span>
+full length,<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI62" id = "tagVI62" href =
+"#noteVI62">VI.62</a> occurs at folio CCI. The subject is Christ casting
+out Devils, in illustration of the seventh petition of the Lord’s
+Prayer,&mdash;“Deliver us from evil.” The following is a fac-simile.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_381" id = "illus_381">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_381.png" width = "237" height = "170"
+alt = "see text" title = "HANS.HOLBEN"></p>
+
+<p>For the purpose of showing the difference of style between those two
+cuts and the others contained in the same work, the three given on the
+following page have been selected. The first, illustrating the Creation,
+occurs at the folio erroneously numbered <span class =
+"smallroman">CXCV</span>, properly <span class =
+"smallroman">CIX</span>, No.&nbsp;1; the second, illustrating the sermon
+of our redemption, at folio <span class = "smallroman">CXXI</span>,
+No.&nbsp;2; and the third, illustrating the third petition of the Lord’s
+Prayer,&mdash;“Thy will be done,”&mdash;at folio <span class =
+"smallroman">CLXVIII</span>, No.&nbsp;3. The following are the
+introductory remarks to the explanation of what the archbishop calls the
+third petition: “Ye have herde how in the former petycions, we require
+of our Lorde God to gyve us al thinges that perteyne to his glorye and
+to the kyngdom of heaven, whereof he hath gyven us commaunde&shy;mente
+in the three preceptes written in the first table. Nowe folowethe the
+thirde peticyon, wherein we praye God to graūte us that we may fulfyll
+the other seven commaūde&shy;mentes also, the whiche intreat of matiers
+concerning this worldly kingdome and transitorye lyfe, that is to saye,
+to honoure our parentes and gouernours, to kyl no man, to committe none
+adulterye, to absteyne from thefte and lyinge, and to behave our selfes
+in all thinges obedientlye, honestlye, peaceably, and godly.”</p>
+
+<div class = "picture w250">
+<p><a name = "illus_382a" id = "illus_382a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_382a.png" width = "237" height = "176"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 1.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picture w250">
+<p><a name = "illus_382b" id = "illus_382b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_382b.png" width = "234" height = "177"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 2.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picture w250">
+<p><a name = "illus_382c" id = "illus_382c">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_382c.png" width = "241" height = "179"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 3.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page382" id = "page382">
+382</a></span>
+<p>The feebleness of the drawing and the want of distinctness in these
+three cuts, are totally unlike the more vigorous delineation of Holbein,
+as exemplified, though but imperfectly, in the two which are doubtlessly
+of his designing. None of them have the slightest
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page383" id = "page383">
+383</a></span>
+pretensions to delicacy or excellence of engraving, though they may be
+considered as the best that had been executed in this country up to that
+time. Those which, in my opinion, were not designed by Holbein have the
+appearance of having been engraved on a <i>frushy</i> kind of wood, of
+comparatively coarse grain. It is not, however, unlikely that this
+appearance might result from the feebleness of the drawing, conjoined
+with want of skill on the part of the engraver.</p>
+
+<p>The following cut will not perhaps form an inappropriate termination
+to the notice of the principal wood engravings which have been ascribed
+to Holbein. It occurs as an illustration of the generation of Christ,
+Matthew, chapter&nbsp;<span class = "smallroman">I</span>, in an edition
+of the New Testament, printed at Zurich, by Froschover, in 1554,<a class
+= "tag" name = "tagVI63" id = "tagVI63" href = "#noteVI63">VI.63</a> the
+year of Holbein’s death. Though there be no name to this cut, yet from
+the great resemblance which it bears to Holbein’s style, I&nbsp;have
+little doubt of the design being his.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_383" id = "illus_383">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_383.png" width = "263" height = "263"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The three following specimens of the cuts in Tindale’s Translation of
+the New Testament, printed at Antwerp in 1534,<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagVI64" id = "tagVI64" href = "#noteVI64">VI.64</a> ought, in strict
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page384" id = "page384">
+384</a></span>
+chronological order, to have preceded those of the Dance of Death; but
+as Holbein holds the same rank in this chapter as Durer in the
+preceding, it seemed preferable to give first a connected account of the
+principal wood-cuts which are generally ascribed to him, and which
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page385" id = "page385">
+385</a></span>
+there is the strongest reason to believe were actually of his designing.
+The celebrity of Tindale’s translation, as the earliest English version
+of the New Testament which appeared in print, and the place which his
+name occupies in the earlier part of the history of the Reformation in
+England, will give an interest to those cuts to which they could have no
+pretensions as mere works of art. It is probable that they were executed
+at Antwerp, where the book was printed; and the drawing and engraving
+will afford some idea of the style of most of the small cuts which are
+to be found in works printed in Holland and Flanders about that period.
+The first of the preceding cuts represents St. Luke employed in painting
+a figure of the Virgin, and it occurs at the commencement of the Gospel
+of that Evangelist. The second, which occurs at the commencement of the
+General Epistle of James, represents that Saint in the character of a
+pilgrim. The third, Death on the Pale Horse, is an illustration of the
+sixth chapter of Revelations.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<div class = "picblock w100">
+<p><a name = "illus_384a" id = "illus_384a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_384a.png" width = "96" height = "138"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 1.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picblock w150">
+<p><a name = "illus_384b" id = "illus_384b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_384b.png" width = "103" height = "142"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 2.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_384c" id = "illus_384c">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_384c.png" width = "240" height = "350"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 3.</p>
+
+<p>There is a beautiful copy, printed on vellum, of this edition of
+Tindale’s Translation of the New Testament in the Library of the British
+Museum. It appears to have formerly belonged to Queen Anne Boleyn, and
+was probably a presentation copy from the translator. The title-page is
+beautifully illuminated; the whole of the ornamental border, which is
+seen in the copies on paper, is covered with gilding and colour, and the
+wood-cut of the printer’s mark is covered with the blazoning of the
+royal arms. On the edges, which are gilt, there is inscribed, in red
+letters, <span class = "smallcaps">Anna Regina Angliæ</span>. This
+beautiful volume formerly belonged to the Reverend C.&nbsp;M.
+Cracherode, by whom it was bequeathed to the Museum.</p>
+
+<p>The first complete English translation of the Old and New Testaments
+was that of Miles Coverdale, which appeared in folio, 1535,<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagVI65" id = "tagVI65" href = "#noteVI65">VI.65</a>
+without the name or residence of the printer, but supposed to have been
+printed at
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page386" id = "page386">
+386</a></span>
+Zurich by Christopher Froschover. The dedication is addressed to Henry
+VIII, by “his Graces humble subjecte and daylie oratour, Myles
+Coverdale;” and in the copy in the British Museum the commencement is as
+follows: “Unto the most victorious Prynce and our most gracyous
+soveraigne Lorde, kynge Henry the eyght, kynge of Englonde and of
+Fraunce, lorde of Irlonde, &amp;c.&nbsp;Defendour of the Fayth, and
+under God the chefe and supreme heade of the churche of Englonde. ¶The
+ryght and just administracyon of the laws that God gave unto Moses and
+unto Josua: the testimonye of faythfulnes that God gave of David: the
+plenteous abundance of wysdome that God gave unto Salomon: the lucky and
+prosperous age with the multiplicacyon of sede which God gave unto
+Abraham and Sara his wyfe, he gevē unto you most Gracyous Prynce, with
+your dearest just wyfe and most virtuous Pryncesse, Quene Anne. Amen.”
+In most copies, however, “Quene Jane” is substituted for “Quene Anne,”
+which proves that the original dedication had been cancelled after the
+disgrace and execution of Anne Boleyn, and that, though the colophon is
+dated 4th October 1535, the work had not been generally circulated until
+subsequent to 20th May 1536, the date of Henry’s marriage with Jane
+Seymour.</p>
+
+<p>This edition contains a number of wood-cuts, all rather coarsely
+engraved, though some of them are designed with such spirit as to be not
+unworthy of Holbein himself, as will be apparent from two or three of
+the following specimens. In the first, Cain killing Abel, the attitude
+of Abel, and the action of Cain, sufficiently indicate that the original
+designer understood the human figure well, and could draw it with great
+force in a position which it is most difficult to represent.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_386" id = "illus_386">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_386.png" width = "277" height = "200"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 1.</p>
+
+<p>The figure of Abraham in No. 2 bears in some parts considerable
+resemblance to that of the same subject given as a specimen of Holbein’s
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page387" id = "page387">
+387</a></span>
+Bible cuts at page 368; but there are several others in the work which
+are much more like his style; and which, perhaps, might be copied from
+earlier cuts of his designing. The two preceding may be considered as
+specimens of the best designed cuts in the Old Testament; and the
+following, the return of the Two Spies, is given us one of the more
+ordinary.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_387a" id = "illus_387a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_387a.png" width = "283" height = "206"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 2.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_387b" id = "illus_387b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_387b.png" width = "283" height = "203"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 3.</p>
+
+<p>The three next cuts are from the New Testament. The first forms the
+head-piece to the Gospel of St. Matthew; the second, which occurs on the
+title-page, and displays great power of drawing in the figure, is John
+the Baptist; and the third represents St. Paul writing, with his sword
+before him, and a weaver’s loom to his left: the last incident,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page388" id = "page388">
+388</a></span>
+which is frequently introduced in old wood-cuts of this Saint, is
+probably intended to designate his business as a tentmaker, and also to
+indicate that, though zealously engaged in disseminating the doctrines
+of Christ, he had not ceased to “work with his hands.”</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_388a" id = "illus_388a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_388a.png" width = "275" height = "197"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 1.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_388b" id = "illus_388b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_388b.png" width = "120" height = "198"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 2.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_388c" id = "illus_388c">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_388c.png" width = "261" height = "170"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 3.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page389" id = "page389">
+389</a></span>
+
+<p>Many of the cuts in this work are copied in a subsequent edition,
+also in folio, printed in 1537; and some of the copies are so extremely
+like the originals&mdash;every line being retained&mdash;as to induce a
+suspicion that the impressions of the latter had been transferred to the
+blocks by means of what is technically termed “rubbing down.”</p>
+
+<p>About 1530 the art of chiaro-scuro engraving on wood, which appears
+to have been first introduced into Italy by Ugo da Carpi, was practised
+by Antonio Fantuzzi, called also Antonio da Trente. Most of this
+engraver’s chiaro-scuros are from the designs of Parmegiano. It is said
+that Fantuzzi was employed by Parmegiano for the express purpose of
+executing chiaro-scuro engravings from his drawings, and that, when
+residing with his employer at Bologna, he took an opportunity of robbing
+him of all his blocks, impressions, and designs. Between 1530 and 1540
+Joseph Nicholas Vincentini da Trente engraved several chiaro-scuros,
+most of which, like those executed by Fantuzzi, are from the designs of
+Parmegiano. From the number of chiaro-scuros engraved after drawings by
+this artist, I&nbsp;think it highly probable that the most of them were
+executed under his own superintendence and published for his own
+benefit. Baldazzar Peruzzi and Domenico Beccafumi, both painters of
+repute at that period, are said to have engraved in chiaro-scuro; but
+the prints in this style usually ascribed to them are not numerous, and
+I consider it doubtful if they were actually of their own engraving.</p>
+
+<p>From about 1530, the art of wood engraving, in the usual manner,
+began to make considerable progress in Italy, and many of the cuts
+executed in that country between 1540 and 1580 may vie with the best
+wood engravings of the same period executed in Germany. Instead of the
+plain and simple style, which is in general characteristic of Italian
+wood-cuts previous to 1530, the wood engravers of that country began to
+execute their subjects in a more delicate and elaborate manner. In the
+period under consideration, we find cross-hatching frequently introduced
+with great effect; there is a greater variety of <i>tint</i> in the
+cuts; the texture of different substances is indicated more correctly;
+the foliage of trees is more natural; and the fur and feathers of
+animals are discriminated with considerable ability.</p>
+
+<p>The following cut will afford perhaps some idea of the best Italian
+wood-cuts of the period under consideration. It is a reduced copy of the
+frontispiece to Marcolini’s Sorti,<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI66" id =
+"tagVI66" href = "#noteVI66">VI.66</a> folio, printed at Venice in 1540.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page390" id = "page390">
+390</a></span>
+There is an impression of this cut on paper of a greenish tint in the
+Print Room of the British Museum, and from this circumstance it is
+placed, though improperly, in a volume, marked I.&nbsp;W. 4, and
+lettered “Italian chiaro-scuros.” Underneath this impression the late
+Mr. Ottley has written, “Not in Bartsch;” and from his omitting to
+mention the work for which it was engraved, I&nbsp;am inclined to think
+that he himself was not aware of its forming the frontispiece to
+Marcolini’s Sorti. Papillon, speaking of the supposed engraver, Joseph
+Porta Garfagninus, whose name is seen on a tablet near the bottom
+towards the right, says, “J’ai de lui une fort belle Académie des
+Sciences,”<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI67" id = "tagVI67" href =
+"#noteVI67">VI.67</a> but seems not to have known of the work to which
+it belonged. This cut is merely a copy, reversed, of a study by Raffaele
+for his celebrated fresco, usually
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page391" id = "page391">
+391</a></span>
+called the School of Athens, in the Vatican. It is engraved in a work
+entitled “Vies et Oeuvres des Peintres les plus célèbres,” 4to. Paris,
+1813; and in the Table des Planches at the commencement of the volume in
+which it occurs, the subject is thus described: “Pl. <span class =
+"smallroman">CCCCV.</span> Etude pour le tableau de l’Ecole d’Athènes.
+Ces différens episodes ne se retrouvant pas dans le tableau qui a été
+exécuté des mains de Raphaël, ne doivent être considérées que comme des
+essais ou premières pensées. <i>Grav. M.&nbsp;Ravignano.</i>” From this
+description it appears that the same subject had been previously
+engraved on copper by Marco da Ravenna, who flourished about the year
+1530. Though I have never seen an impression of Marco’s engraving of
+this subject, and though it is not mentioned in Heineken’s catalogue of
+the engraved works of Raffaele,<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI68" id =
+"tagVI68" href = "#noteVI68">VI.68</a> I&nbsp;have little doubt that
+Porta’s wood-cut is copied from it.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_390" id = "illus_390">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_390.png" width = "332" height = "406"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Joseph Porta, frequently called Joseph Salviati by Italian authors,
+was a painter, and he took the surname of Salviati from that of his
+master, Francesco Salviati.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI69" id =
+"tagVI69" href = "#noteVI69">VI.69</a> There are a few other wood-cuts
+which contain his name; but whether he was the designer, or the engraver
+only, is extremely uncertain.</p>
+
+<p>Marcolini’s work contains nearly a hundred wood-cuts besides the
+frontispiece, but, though several of them are designed with great
+spirit, no one is so well engraved.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI70" id
+= "tagVI70" href = "#noteVI70">VI.70</a> The following is a fac-simile
+of one which occurs at page 35. The relentless-looking old woman is a
+personification of <i>Punitione</i>&mdash;Punishment&mdash;holding in
+her right hand a tremendous scourge for the chastisement of evil-doers.
+Though this cut be but coarsely engraved, the domestic Nemesis, who here
+appears to wield the retributive scourge, is designed with such spirit
+that if the figure were executed in marble it might almost pass for one
+of Michael
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page392" id = "page392">
+392</a></span>
+Angelo’s. The drapery is admirably cast; the figure is good; and the
+action and expression are at once simple and severe.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<div class = "picblock w350">
+<p><a name = "illus_392a" id = "illus_392a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_392a.png" width = "317" height = "307"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picblock w300">
+<p><a name = "illus_392b" id = "illus_392b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_392b.png" width = "297" height = "298"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The preceding cut, also a fac-simile, occurs at page 81 as an
+illustration of Matrimony. The young man, with his legs already tied,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page393" id = "page393">
+393</a></span>
+seems to be deliberating on the prudence of making a contract which may
+possibly add a yoke to his shoulders. The ring which he holds in his
+hand appears to have given rise to his cogitations.</p>
+
+<p>The following small cuts of cards&mdash;“Il Re, Fante, Cavallo, e
+Sette di denari”&mdash;are copied from the instructions in the
+preface;<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI71" id = "tagVI71" href =
+"#noteVI71">VI.71</a> and the beautiful design of Truth rescued by
+Time&mdash;<span class = "smallcaps">Veritas Filia
+Temporis</span>&mdash;occurs as a tail-piece on the last page of the
+work. This cut occurs not unfrequently in works published by Giolito, by
+whom I believe the Sorti was printed; and two or three of the other cuts
+contained in the volume are to be found in a humorous work of Doni’s,
+entitled “I&nbsp;Marmi,” printed by Giolito in 1552.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_393a" id = "illus_393a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_393a.png" width = "305" height = "46"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_393b" id = "illus_393b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_393b.png" width = "172" height = "233"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The wood engravers of Venice about the middle of the sixteenth
+century appear to have excelled all other Italian wood engravers, and
+for the delicacy of their execution they rivalled those of Lyons, who at
+that period were chiefly distinguished for the neat and delicate manner
+of their engraving small subjects. In the pirated edition of the Lyons
+Dance of Death, published at Venice in 1545 by V.&nbsp;Vaugris, the cuts
+are more correctly copied and more delicately engraved than
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page394" id = "page394">
+394</a></span>
+those in the edition first published at Cologne by the heirs of Arnold
+Birkman in 1555. In fact, the wood engravings in books printed at Lyons
+and Venice from about 1540 to 1580 are in general more delicately
+engraved than those executed in Germany and the Low Countries during the
+same period. Among all the Venetian printers of that age, Gabriel
+Giolito is entitled to precedence from the number and comparative
+excellence of the wood-cuts contained in the numerous illustrated works
+which issued from his press. In several of the works printed by him
+every cut is surrounded by an ornamental border; and this border, not
+being engraved on the same block as the cut, but separately as a kind of
+frame, is frequently repeated: sixteen different borders, when the book
+is of octavo size and there is a cut on every page, would suffice for
+the whole work, however extensive it might be. The practice of
+<i>ornamenting</i> cuts in this manner was very prevalent about the
+period under consideration, and at the present time some publishers seem
+inclined to revive it. I&nbsp;should, however, be sorry to see it again
+become prevalent, for though to some subjects, designed in a particular
+manner, an ornamental border may be appropriate, yet I consider the
+practice of thus <i>framing</i> a series of cuts as indicative of bad
+taste, and as likely to check the improvement of the art. Highly
+ornamented borders have, in a certain degree, the effect of reducing a
+series of cuts, however different their execution, to a standard of
+mediocrity; for they frequently conceal the beauty of a well-engraved
+subject, and serve as a screen to a bad one. In Ludovico Dolce’s
+Transformationi&mdash;a translation, or rather paraphrase of Ovid’s
+Metamorphoses&mdash;first printed by Giolito in 1553, and again
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page395" id = "page395">
+395</a></span>
+in 1557, the cuts, instead of having a border all round, have only
+ornaments at the two vertical sides. The preceding is a fac-simile of
+one of those cuts, divested of its ornaments, from the edition of 1557.
+The subject is the difficult labour of Alcmena,&mdash;a favourite with
+Italian artists. This is the cut previously alluded to at <a href =
+"WoodEngraving4.html#illus_217">page 217</a>.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_394" id = "illus_394">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_394.png" width = "330" height = "234"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>A curious book, of which an edition, in quarto, was printed at Rome
+in 1561, seems deserving of notice here, not on account of any merit in
+the wood-cuts which it contains, but on account of the singularity of
+four of them, which are given as a specimen of a “Sonetto figurato,” in
+the manner of the cuts in a little work entitled “A&nbsp;curious
+Hieroglyphick Bible,” first printed in London, in duodecimo, about 1782.
+The Italian work in question was written by “Messer Giovam Battista
+Palatino, Cittadino Romano,” and from the date of the Pope’s grant to
+the author of the privilege of exclusively printing it for ten years, it
+seems likely that the first edition was published about 1540. The work
+is a treatise on penmanship; and the title-page of the edition of
+1561&mdash;which is embellished with a portrait of the author&mdash;may
+be translated as follows: “The Book of M.&nbsp;Giovam Battista Palatino,
+citizen of Rome, in which is taught the manner of writing all kinds of
+characters, ancient and modern, of whatever nation, with Rules,
+Proportions, and Examples. Together with a short and useful Discourse on
+Cyphers. Newly revised and corrected by the Author. With the addition of
+fifteen beautiful cuts.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI72" id = "tagVI72"
+href = "#noteVI72">VI.72</a> In Astle’s Origin and Progress of Writing,
+page 227, second edition, Palatino’s work is thus noticed: “In 1561,
+Valerius Doricus printed at Rome a curious book on all kinds of writing,
+ancient and modern. This book contains specimens of a great variety of
+writing practised in different ages and countries; some of these
+specimens are printed from types to imitate writing, and others from
+carved wood-blocks. This book also contains a treatise on the art of
+writing in cipher, and is a most curious specimen of early
+typography.”</p>
+
+<p>After his specimens of “Lettere Cifrate,” Palatino devotes a couple
+of pages to “Cifre quadrate, et Sonetti figurati,” two modes of
+riddle-writing which, it appears, are solely employed for amusement. The
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page396" id = "page396">
+396</a></span>
+“Cifro quadrato” is nothing more than a monogram, formed of a cluster of
+interwoven capitals, but in which every one of the letters of the name
+is to be found. In the following specimen the name thus ingeniously
+disguised is <span class = "smallcaps">Lavinia</span>.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_396a" id = "illus_396a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_396a.png" width = "129" height = "113"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The following is a slightly reduced copy of the first four lines of
+the “Sonetto figurato;” the other ten lines are expressed by figures in
+a similar manner. “As to figured sonnets,” says the author, “no better
+rule can be given, than merely to observe that the figures should
+clearly and distinctly correspond with the matter, and that there should
+be as few supplementary letters as possible. Of course, orthography and
+pure
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page397" id = "page397">
+397</a></span>
+Italian are not to be looked for in such exercises; and it is no
+objection that the same figure be used for the beginning of one word,
+the middle of another, or the end of a third. It is the chief excellence
+of such compositions that there should be few letters to be
+supplied.”</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_396b" id = "illus_396b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_396b.png" width = "329" height = "376"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The “interpretatio” of the preceding figured text is as follows:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p class = "open">“Dove son gli occhi, et la serena forma</p>
+<p class = "indent">Del santo alegro et amoroso aspetto?</p>
+<p class = "indent">Dov’ è la man eburna ov’ e ’l bel petto</p>
+<p>Ch’ appensarvi hor’ in fonte mi transforma?”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This figured sonnet is a curious specimen of hieroglyphic and
+“phonetic” writing combined. For those who do not understand Italian, it
+seems necessary to give the following explanation of the words, and
+point out their phonetic relation to the things. <i>Dove</i>, where, is
+composed of <i>D</i>, and <i>ove</i>, eggs, as seen at the commencement
+of the first line. <i>Son</i>, are, is represented by a man’s head and a
+trumpet, making a sound, <i>son</i>. The preceding figures are examples
+of what is called “phonetic” writing, by modern expounders of Egyptian
+antiquities,&mdash;that is, the figures of <i>things</i> are not placed
+as representatives of the things themselves, but that their names when
+pronounced may form a word or part of a word, which has generally not
+the least relation to the thing by which it is <i>phonetically</i>, that
+is, vocally, expressed. <i>Occhi</i>, eyes, is an instance of
+hieroglyphic writing; the figure and the idea to be represented agree.
+<i>La</i>, the, is represented by the musical note <i>la</i>;
+<i>serena</i>, placid, by a
+Siren,&mdash;<i>Sirena</i>,&mdash;orthography, as the author says, is
+not to be expected in figured sonnets; and <i>forma</i>, shape, by a
+shoemaker’s last, which is called <i>forma</i> in Italian.</p>
+
+<p>In the second line, <i>Santo</i>, holy, is represented by a Saint,
+<i>Santo</i>; <i>allegro</i>, cheerfulness, by a pair of wings,
+<i>ale</i>, and <i>grue</i>, a crane, the superfluous <i>e</i> forming,
+with the <span class = "smallroman">T</span> following, the conjunction
+<i>et</i>, and. The words <i>amoroso aspetto</i> are formed of
+<i>amo</i>, a hook, <i>rosa</i>, a rose, and <i>petto</i>, the breast,
+with a supplementary <i>s</i> between the rose and the breast.</p>
+
+<p>In the third line we have <i>ove</i>, eggs, and the musical <i>la</i>
+again; <i>man</i>, the hand, is expressed by its proper figure;
+<i>eburna</i>, ivory-like, is composed of the letters <span class =
+"smallroman">EB</span> and an urn, <i>urna</i>; and in the latter part
+of the line the eggs, <i>ov’</i>, and the breast, <i>petto</i>, are
+repeated.</p>
+
+<p>At the commencement of the fourth line, a couple of cloaks,
+<i>cappe</i>, stand for <i>ch’ appe</i> in the compound word <i>ch’
+appe</i>nsarvi; <i>hor’</i>, now, is represented by an hour-glass,
+<i>hora</i>, literally, an hour; <i>fonte</i>, a fountain, is expressed
+by its proper figure; and the words <i>mi transforma</i>, are
+phonetically expressed by a mitre, <i>mitra</i>, the supplementary
+letters <span class = "smallroman">NS</span>, and the shoemaker’s last,
+<i>forma</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the reign of Queen Elizabeth, a taste for inventing devices in
+this manner seems to have been fashionable among professed wits; and the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page398" id = "page398">
+398</a></span>
+practice of expressing a name by a rebus was not unfrequent in an
+earlier age. It is probable that the old sign of the Bolt-in-Tun in
+Fleet Street derives its origin from Bolton, a&nbsp;prior of St.
+Bartholomew’s in Smithfield, who gave a bird-<i>bolt</i> in the
+bung-hole of a <i>tun</i> as the rebus of his name. The peculiarities of
+the Italian figured sonnet are not unaptly illustrated in Camden’s
+Remains, in the chapter entitled “<i>Rebus,<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagVI73" id = "tagVI73" href = "#noteVI73">VI.73</a> or
+Name-Devises</i>:” “Did not that amorous youth mystically expresse his
+love to <i>Rose Hill</i>, whom he courted, when in a border of his
+painted cloth he caused to be painted as rudely as he devised grossely,
+a&nbsp;rose, a&nbsp;hill, an eye, a&nbsp;loafe, and a well,&mdash;that
+is, if you will spell it,</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<i>Rose Hill I love well.</i>”<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI74" id =
+"tagVI74" href = "#noteVI74">VI.74</a></p>
+
+<p>Among the wood engravers of Lyons who flourished about the middle of
+the sixteenth century, the only one whose name has come down to modern
+times is Bernard Solomon; and if he were actually the engraver of the
+numerous cuts which are ascribed to him, he must have been extremely
+industrious. I&nbsp;am not, however, aware of any cut which contains his
+mark; and it is by no means certain whether he were really a wood
+engraver, or whether he only made the designs for wood engravers to
+execute. Papillon, who has been blindly followed by most persons who
+have either incidentally or expressly written on wood engraving,
+unhesitatingly claims him as a wood engraver; but looking at the
+inequality in the execution of the cuts ascribed to him, and regarding
+the sameness of character in the designs, I&nbsp;am inclined to think
+that he was not an engraver, but that he merely made the drawings on the
+wood. Sir E.&nbsp;L. Bulwer has committed a mistake of this kind in his
+England and the English: “This country,” says he in his second volume,
+page 205, edition 1833, “may boast of having, in Bewick of Newcastle,
+brought wood engraving to perfection; his pupil, Harvey, continues the
+profession with reputation.” The writer here evidently speaks of that
+which he knows very little about, for at the time that his book was
+published, Harvey, though originally a wood engraver, and a pupil of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page399" id = "page399">
+399</a></span>
+Bewick, had abandoned the profession for about eight years, and had
+devoted himself entirely to painting and drawing for copper-plate and
+wood engravers. Indeed I very much question if Sir Edward Lytton Bulwer
+ever saw a cut&mdash;except, perhaps, that of Dentatus,&mdash;which was
+actually engraved by Harvey. With about equal propriety, a&nbsp;writer,
+speaking of wood engraving in England twenty years ago, might have
+described the late John Thurston as “continuing the profession with
+reputation,” merely because he was one of the principal designers of
+wood engravings at that period.</p>
+
+<p>Bernard Solomon, whether a designer or engraver on wood, is justly
+entitled to be ranked among the “little masters” in this branch of art.
+All the cuts ascribed to him which have come under my notice are of
+small size, and most of them are executed in a delicate manner; they
+are, however, generally deficient in effect,<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagVI75" id = "tagVI75" href = "#noteVI75">VI.75</a> and may readily be
+distinguished by the tall slim figures which he introduces. He evidently
+had not understood the “capabilities” of his art, for in none of his
+productions do we find the well-contrasted “black-and-white,” which,
+when well managed, materially contributes to the excellence of a
+well-engraved wood-cut. The production of a good <i>black</i> is,
+indeed, one of the great advantages, in point of conventional colour,
+which wood possesses over copper; and the wood engraver who neglects
+this advantage, and labours perhaps for a whole day to cut with
+mechanical precision a number of delicate but unmeaning lines, which a
+copper-plate engraver would execute with facility in an hour, affords a
+tolerably convincing proof of his not thoroughly understanding the
+principles of his art. In Bernard’s cuts, and in most of those executed
+at Lyons about the same period, we find much of this ineffective labour;
+we perceive in them many evidences of the pains-taking workman, but few
+traits of the talented artist. From the time that a taste for those
+little and laboriously executed, but spiritless cuts, began to prevail,
+the decline of wood engraving may be dated. Instead of confining
+themselves within the legitimate boundaries of their own art, wood
+engravers seem to have been desirous of emulating the delicacy of
+copper-plate engraving, and, as might naturally be expected by any one
+who understands the distinctive peculiarities of the two arts, they
+failed. The book-buyers of the period having become sickened with the
+glut of tasteless
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page400" id = "page400">
+400</a></span>
+and ineffective trifles, wood engraving began to decline: large
+well-engraved wood-cuts executed between 1580 and 1600 are comparatively
+scarce.</p>
+
+<p>Bernard Solomon, or, as he is frequently called, <i>Little</i>
+Solomon, from the smallness of his works, is said to have been born in
+1512, and the most of the cuts which are ascribed to him appeared in
+works printed at Lyons between 1545 and 1580. Perhaps more books
+containing small wood-cuts were printed at Lyons between those years
+than in any other city or town in Europe during the corresponding
+period. It appears to have been the grand mart for Scripture cuts,
+emblems, and devices; but out of the many hundreds which appear to have
+been engraved there in the period referred to, it would be difficult to
+select twenty that can be considered really excellent both in execution
+and design. One of the principal publishers of Lyons at that time was
+Jean de Tournes; many of the works which issued from his press display
+great typographic excellence, and in almost all the cuts are engraved
+with great neatness. The following cut is a fac-simile of one which
+appears in the title-page of an edition of Petrarch’s Sonnetti, Canzoni,
+e&nbsp;Trionfi, published by him in a small octodecimo volume, 1545.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_400" id = "illus_400">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_400.png" width = "188" height = "206"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The design of the cut displays something of the taste for emblem and
+device<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI76" id = "tagVI76" href =
+"#noteVI76">VI.76</a> which was then so prevalent, and which became so
+generally diffused by the frequent editions of Alciat’s Emblems, the
+first of which was printed about 1531. The portraits of Petrarch and
+Laura, looking not unlike “Philip and Mary on a shilling,” are
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page401" id = "page401">
+401</a></span>
+seen enclosed within a heart which Cupid has pierced to the very core
+with one of his arrows. The volume contains seven other small cuts,
+designed and engraved in a style which very much resembles that of the
+cuts ascribed to Bernard Solomon; and as there is no mark by which his
+productions are to be ascertained, I&nbsp;think they are as likely to be
+of his designing as three-fourths of those which are generally supposed
+to be of his engraving.</p>
+
+<p>The work entitled “Quadrins Historiques de la Bible,” with wood-cuts,
+ascribed to Bernard Solomon, and printed at Lyons by Jean de Tournes,
+was undoubtedly suggested by the “Historiarum Veteris Testamenti
+Icones”&mdash;Holbein’s Bible-cuts&mdash;first published by the brothers
+Frellon in 1538. The first edition of the Quadrins Historiques was
+published in octavo about 1550, and was several times reprinted within
+the succeeding twenty years. The total number of cuts in the edition of
+1560 is two hundred and twenty-nine, of which no less than one hundred
+and seventy are devoted to the illustration of Exodus and Genesis. At
+the top of each is printed the reference to the chapter to which it
+relates, and at the bottom is a “Quadrin poëtique, tiré de la Bible,
+pour graver en la table des affeccions l’amour des sacrees Histories.”
+Those “Quadrins” appear to have been written by Claude Paradin. The
+composition of several of the cuts is good, and nearly all display great
+<i>neatness</i> of execution. The following is a fac-simile of the
+seventh, Adam and Eve driven out of Paradise. It is, however, necessary
+to observe that this is by no means one of the best cuts either in point
+of design or execution.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_401" id = "illus_401">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_401.png" width = "318" height = "226"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page402" id = "page402">
+402</a></span>
+<p>A similar work, entitled “Figures du Nouveau Testament,” with cuts,
+evidently designed by the person who had made the drawings for those in
+the “Quadrins Historiques de la Bible,” was also published by Jean de
+Tournes about 1553, and several editions were subsequently printed. The
+cuts are rather less in size than those of the Quadrins, and are, on the
+whole, rather better engraved. The total number is a hundred and four,
+and under each are six explanatory verses, composed by Charles Fonteine,
+who, in a short poetical address at the commencement, dedicates the work
+“A&nbsp;Tres-illustre et Treshaute Princesse, Madame Marguerite de
+France, Duchesse de Berri.” The following, Christ tempted by Satan, is a
+copy of the sixteenth cut, but like that of the expulsion of Adam and
+Eve, it is not one of the best in the work.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_402" id = "illus_402">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_402.png" width = "183" height = "234"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Old engravings and paintings illustrative of manners or of costume
+are generally interesting; and on this account a set of large wood-cuts
+designed by Peter Coeck of Alost, in Flanders, is deserving of notice.
+The subjects of those cuts are the manners and costumes of the Turks;
+and the drawings were made on the spot by Coeck himself, who visited
+Turkey in 1533. It is said that he brought from the east an important
+secret relative to the art of dyeing silk and wool for the fabrication
+of tapestries, a&nbsp;branch of manufacture with which he appears to
+have been connected, and for which he made a number of designs. He was
+also an architect and an author; and published several treatises on
+sculpture, geometry, perspective, and architecture. The cuts
+illustrative of the manners and costume of the Turks were not published
+until 1553, three years after his decease, as we learn from an
+inscription
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page403" id = "page403">
+403</a></span>
+on the last.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI77" id = "tagVI77" href =
+"#noteVI77">VI.77</a> They are oblong, of folio size; and the seven of
+which the set consists are intended to be joined together, and thus to
+form one continuous subject. The figures, both on foot and horseback,
+are designed with great spirit, but they want relief, and the engraving
+is coarse. One of the customs which he has illustrated in the cut
+No.&nbsp;3 is singular; and though this <i>orientalism</i> has been
+noticed by a Scottish judge&mdash;Maclaurin of Dreghorn&mdash;Peter
+Coeck appears to be the only traveller who has graphically represented
+“<i>quo modo Turci mingunt</i>,” i.&nbsp;e. <i>sedentes</i>. Succeeding
+artists have availed themselves liberally of those cuts. As the Turks in
+the sixteenth century were much more formidable as a nation than at
+present, and their manners and customs objects of greater curiosity,
+wood engravings illustrative of their costume and mode of living appear
+to have been in considerable demand at that period, for both in books
+and as single cuts they are comparatively numerous.</p>
+
+<p>Though chiaro-scuro engraving on wood was, in all probability, first
+practised in Germany, yet the art does not appear to have been so much
+cultivated nor so highly prized in that country as in Italy. Between
+1530 and 1550, when Antonio Fantuzzi, J.&nbsp;N. Vincentini, and other
+Italians, were engaged in executing numerous chiaro-scuros after the
+designs of such masters as Raffaele, Corregio, Parmegiano, Polidoro,
+Beccafumi, and F.&nbsp;Salviati, the art appears to have been
+comparatively abandoned by the wood engravers of Germany. The
+chiaro-scuros executed in the latter country cannot generally for a
+moment bear a comparison, either in point of design or execution, with
+those executed in Italy during the same period. I&nbsp;have, however,
+seen one German cut executed in this style, with the date 1543, which,
+for the number of the blocks from which it is printed, and the delicacy
+of the impression in certain parts, is, if genuine, one of the most
+remarkable of that period. As the paper, however, seems comparatively
+modern, I&nbsp;am induced to suspect that the date may be that of the
+painting or drawing, and that this picture-print&mdash;for, though
+executed by the same process, it would be improper to call it a
+chiaro-scuro&mdash;may have been the work of Ungher, a&nbsp;German wood
+engraver, who executed some chiaro-scuros at Berlin about seventy years
+ago. Whatever may be the date, however, or whoever may have been the
+artist, it is one of the best executed specimens of coloured block
+printing that I have ever seen.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page404" id = "page404">
+404</a></span>
+<p>This curious picture-print, including the border, is ten inches and
+three quarters high by six inches and three quarters wide. The subject
+is a figure of Christ; in his left hand he holds an orb emblematic of
+his power, while the right is elevated as in the act of pronouncing a
+benediction. His robe is blue, with the folds indicated by a darker
+tint, and the border and lighter parts impressed with at least two
+lighter colours. Above this robe there is a large red mantle, fastened
+in front with what appears to be a jewel of three different colours,
+ruby, yellow, and blue; the folds are of a darker colour; and the lights
+are expressed by a kind of yellow, which has evidently been either
+impressed, or laid on the paper with a brush, before the red colour of
+the mantle, and which, from its glistening, seems to have been
+compounded with some metallic substance like fine gold-dust. The border
+of the print consists of a similar yellow, between plain black lines.
+The face is printed in flesh colour of three tints, and the head is
+surrounded with rays of glory, which appear like gilding. The engraving
+of the face, and of the hair of the head and beard, is extremely well
+executed, and much superior to anything that I have seen in wood-cuts
+containing Ungher’s mark. The globe is blue, with the lights preserved,
+intersected by light red and yellow lines; and the small cross at the
+top is also yellow, like the light on the red mantle. The hands and feet
+are expressed in their proper colours; the ground on which the Redeemer
+stands is something between a lake and a fawn colour; and the ground of
+the print, upwards from about an inch above the bottom, is of a lighter
+blue than the robe. To the right, near the bottom, are the date and
+mark, thus:
+<span class = "figfloat">
+<a name = "illus_404" id = "illus_404">
+<img src = "images/illus_404.png" width = "71" height = "57"
+alt = "see text"></a></span>
+The figure like a winged serpent resembles a mark which was frequently
+used by Lucas Cranach, except that the serpent or dragon of the latter
+appears less crooked, and usually has a ring in its mouth. The letter
+underneath also appears rather more like an I than an L.&nbsp;The
+drawing of the figure of Christ, however, is very much in the style of
+Lucas Cranach, and I am strongly inclined to think that the original
+painting or drawing was executed by him, whoever may have been the
+engraver. There must have been at least ten blocks required for this
+curious print, which, for clearness and distinctness in the colours, and
+for delicacy of impression, more especially in the face, may challenge a
+comparison not only with the finest chiaro-scuros of former times, but
+also with the best specimens of coloured block-printing of the present
+day.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI78" id = "tagVI78" href =
+"#noteVI78">VI.78</a></p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page405" id = "page405">
+405</a></span>
+<p>In 1557, Hubert Goltzius, a painter, but better known as an author
+than as an artist, published at Antwerp, in folio, a&nbsp;work
+containing portraits, executed in chiaro-scuro, of the Roman emperors,
+from Julius Cæsar to Ferdinand&nbsp;I.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI79"
+id = "tagVI79" href = "#noteVI79">VI.79</a> Descamps, in his work
+entitled “La Vie des Peintres Flamands, Allemands et Hollandois,” says
+that those portraits, which are all copied from medals, were “engraved
+on wood by a painter of Courtrai, named Joseph Gietleughen;”<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagVI80" id = "tagVI80" href = "#noteVI80">VI.80</a> and
+Papillon, who had examined the work more closely, but not closely
+enough, says that the outlines are etched, and that the two
+<i>rentrées</i>&mdash;the subsequent impressions which give to the whole
+the appearance of a chiaro-scuro drawing&mdash;are from blocks of wood
+engraved in <i>intaglio</i>. What Papillon says about the outlines being
+etched is true; but a close inspection of those portraits will afford
+any person acquainted with the process ample proof of the “rentrées”
+being also printed from plates of metal in the same manner as from
+engraved wood-blocks.</p>
+
+<p>Each of those portraits appears like an enlarged copy of a medal, and
+is the result of three separate impressions; the first, containing the
+outlines of the head, the ornaments, and the name, has been printed from
+an etched plate of copper or some other metal, by means of a
+copper-plate printing-press; and the two other impressions, over the
+first, have also been from plates of metal, mounted on blocks of wood,
+and printed by means of the common typographic printing-press. The
+outlines of the head and of the letters forming the legend are black;
+the field of the medal is a muddy kind of sepia; and the head and the
+border, printed from the same surface and at the same time, are of a
+lighter shade. The lights to be preserved have been cut in
+<i>intaglio</i> in the plates for the two “rentrées” in the same manner
+as on blocks of wood for printing in chiaro-scuro. The marks of the pins
+by which the two plates for the “rentrées” have been fastened to blocks
+of wood, to raise them to a proper height, are very perceptible; in the
+field of the medal they appear like circular points, generally in pairs;
+while round the outer margin they are mostly of a square form. It is
+difficult to conceive what advantage Goltzius might expect to derive by
+printing the “rentrées” from metal plates; for all that he has thus
+produced could have been more simply effected by means of wood-blocks,
+as practised up to that time by all other chiaro-scuro engravers. Though
+those portraits possess but little merit as chiaro-scuros, they are yet
+highly interesting in the history of art, as affording the first
+instances of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page406" id = "page406">
+406</a></span>
+etching being employed for the outlines of a chiaro-scuro, and of the
+substitution, in surface-printing, of a plate of metal for a wood-block.
+Goltzius’s manner of etching the outlines of a chiaro-scuro print was
+frequently practised both by French and English artists about the middle
+of the last century; and about 1722, Edward Kirkall engraved the
+principal parts of his chiaro-scuros in mezzo-tint, and afterwards
+printed a tint from a metal plate mounted on wood. In the present day
+Mr. George Baxter has successfully applied the principle of engraving
+the ground and the outlines of his subjects in aqua-tint; and, as in the
+case of Hubert Goltzius and Kirkall, he sometimes uses a metal-plate
+instead of a wood-block in surface-printing. In the picture-prints
+executed by Mr. Baxter for the Pictorial Album, 1837, the tint of the
+paper on which each imitative painting appears to be mounted, is
+communicated from a smooth plate of copper, which receives the colour,
+and is printed in the same manner as a wood-block.</p>
+
+<p>Among the German artists who made designs for wood engravers from the
+time of Durer to about 1590, Erhard Schön, Virgil Solis, Melchior
+Lorich, and Jost Amman may be considered as the principal. They are all
+frequently described as wood engravers from the circumstance of their
+marks being found on the cuts which they undoubtedly designed, but most
+certainly did not engrave. Erhard Schön chiefly resided at Nuremberg;
+and some of the earliest cuts of his designing are dated 1528. In 1538
+he published at Nuremberg a small treatise, in oblong quarto, on the
+proportions of the human figure, for the use of students and young
+persons.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI81" id = "tagVI81" href =
+"#noteVI81">VI.81</a> This work contains several wood-cuts, all coarsely
+engraved, illustrative of the writer’s precepts; two or three of
+them&mdash;where the heads and bodies are represented by squares and
+rhomboidal figures&mdash;are extremely curious, though apparently not
+very well adapted to improve a learner in the art of design. Another of
+the cuts, where the proportions are illustrated by means of a figure
+inscribed within a circle, is very like one of the illustrations
+contained in Flaxman’s Lectures on Sculpture. Some cuts of
+playing-cards, designed by Schön, are in greater request than any of his
+other works engraved on wood, which, for the most part, have but little
+to recommend them. He died about 1550.</p>
+
+<p>Virgil Solis, a painter, copper-plate engraver, and designer on wood,
+was born at Nuremberg about 1514. The cuts which contain his mark are
+extremely numerous; and, from their being mostly of small size, he is
+ranked by Heineken with the “Little Masters.” Several of his cuts
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page407" id = "page407">
+407</a></span>
+display great fertility of invention; but though his figures are
+frequently spirited and the attitudes good, yet his drawing is generally
+careless and incorrect. As a considerable number of his cuts are of the
+same kind as those of Bernard Solomon, it seems as if there had been a
+competition at that time between the booksellers of Nuremberg and those
+of Lyons for supplying the European market with illustrations of two
+works of widely different character, to wit, the Bible, and Ovid’s
+Metamorphoses,&mdash;Virgil Solis being retained for the German, and
+Bernard Solomon for the French publishers. He designed the cuts in a
+German edition of the Bible, printed in 1560; most of the portraits of
+the Kings of France in a work published at Nuremberg in 1566;
+a&nbsp;series of cuts for Esop’s fables; and the illustrations of an
+edition of Reusner’s Emblems. Several cuts with the mark of Virgil Solis
+are to be found in the first edition of Archbishop Parker’s Bible,
+printed by Richard Jugge, folio, London, 1568. In the second edition,
+1572, there are two ornamented initial letters, apparently of his
+designing, which seem to show that his sacred and profane subjects were
+liable to be confounded, and that cuts originally designed for an
+edition of Ovid might by some singular oversight be used in an edition
+of the Bible, although printed under the especial superintendence of a
+Right Reverend Archbishop. In the letter G, which forms the commencement
+of the first chapter of St. Paul’s Epistle to the Hebrews, the subject
+represented by the artist is Leda caressed by Jupiter in the form of a
+swan; and in the letter T at the commencement of the first chapter of
+the Epistle General of St. John, the subject is Venus before Jove, with
+Cupid, Juno, Mars, Neptune, and other Heathen deities in attendance.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagVI82" id = "tagVI82" href =
+"#noteVI82">VI.82</a></p>
+
+<p>A series of wood-cuts designed by Virgil Solis, illustrative of
+Ovid’s Metamorphoses, was published at Frankfort, in oblong quarto, by
+George Corvinus, Sigismund Feyerabend, and the heirs of Wigand Gallus,
+in 1569. Each cut is surrounded by a heavy ornamental border; above each
+are four verses in Latin, and underneath four in German, composed by
+Johannes Posthius, descriptive of the subject. In the title-page,<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagVI83" id = "tagVI83" href =
+"#noteVI83">VI.83</a> which is both in Latin and in German, it is stated
+that they are <i>designed</i>&mdash;<i>gerissen</i>&mdash;by Virgil
+Solis for the use and benefit of painters, goldsmiths, and statuaries.
+It is thus evident that they were not engraved by him; and in
+corroboration of this opinion it may be observed that several
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page408" id = "page408">
+408</a></span>
+of them, in addition to his mark, <img class = "middle" src =
+"images/illus_408a.png" width = "27" height = "18" alt = "symbol">, also
+contain another, <img class = "middle" src = "images/illus_408b.png"
+width = "20" height = "20" alt = "symbol">, which is doubtless that of
+the wood engraver. The latter mark occurs frequently in the cuts
+designed by Virgil Solis, in the first edition of Archbishop Parker’s
+Bible.</p>
+
+<p>Evelyn, in his Sculptura, has the following notice of this artist:
+“Virgilius Solis graved also in wood <i>The story of the Bible</i> and
+<i>The mechanic arts</i> in little; but for imitating those vile
+postures of Aretine had his eyes put out by the sentence of the
+magistrate.” There is scarcely a page of this writer’s works on art
+which does not contain similar inaccuracies, and yet he is frequently
+quoted and referred to as an authority. The “mechanic arts” to which
+Evelyn alludes were probably the series of cuts designed by Jost Amman,
+and first published in quarto, at Frankfort, in 1564; and the improbable
+story of Virgil Solis having had his eyes put out for copying Julio
+Romano’s obscene designs, engraved by Marc Antonio, and illustrated with
+sonnets by the scurrilous ribald, Pietro Aretine, is utterly devoid of
+foundation. No such copies have ever been mentioned by any well-informed
+writer on art, and there is not the slightest evidence of Virgil Solis
+ever having been punished in any manner by the magistrates of his native
+city, Nuremberg, where he died in 1570.</p>
+
+<p>Wood-cuts with the mark of Melchior Lorich are comparatively scarce.
+He was a native of Flensburg in Holstein, and was born in 1527. He
+obtained a knowledge of painting and copper-plate engraving at Leipsic,
+and afterwards travelled with his master through some of the northern
+countries of Europe. He afterwards visited Vienna, and subsequently
+entered into the service of the Palsgrave Otho, in whose suite he
+visited Holland, France, and Italy. In 1558 he went with the Imperial
+ambassador to Constantinople, where he remained three years. His
+principal works engraved on wood consist of a series of illustrations of
+the manners and customs of the Turks, published about 1570. There is a
+very clever cut, a&nbsp;Lady splendidly dressed, with his mark and the
+date 1551; it is printed on what is called a “broadside,” and underneath
+is a copy of verses by Hans Sachs, the celebrated shoemaker and
+<i>meistersänger</i> of Nuremberg,<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI84" id =
+"tagVI84" href = "#noteVI84">VI.84</a> entitled “<i>Eer und Lob einer
+schön wolgezierten Frawen</i>”&mdash;The Honour and Praise of a
+beautiful well-dressed woman. A&nbsp;large cut of the Deluge, in two
+sheets, is
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page409" id = "page409">
+409</a></span>
+considered one of the best of his designing. Among the copper-plates
+engraved by Melchior Lorich, a&nbsp;portrait of Albert Durer, and two
+others, of the Grand Signior and his favourite Sultana, are among the
+most scarce. The time of his death is uncertain, but Bartsch thinks that
+he was still living in 1583, as there are wood-cuts with his mark of
+that date.</p>
+
+<p>Jost Amman, one of the best designers on wood of the period in which
+he lived, was born at Zurich in 1539, but removed to Nuremberg about
+1560.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI85" id = "tagVI85" href =
+"#noteVI85">VI.85</a> His designs are more bold, and display more of the
+vigour of the older German masters, than those of his contemporary
+Virgil Solis. A&nbsp;series of cuts designed by him, illustrative of
+professions and trades, was published in 1564, quarto, with the title
+“Hans Sachse eigentliche Beschreibung aller Stände auf Erden&mdash;aller
+Künste und Handwerker,” &amp;c.&mdash;that is, Hans Sachs’s correct
+Description of all Ranks, Arts, and Trades; and another edition in
+duodecimo, with the descriptions in Latin, appeared in the same year.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagVI86" id = "tagVI86" href =
+"#noteVI86">VI.86</a> For the correctness of the date of those editions
+I am obliged to rely on Heineken, as I have never seen a copy of either;
+the earliest edition with Hans Sachs’s descriptions that has come under
+my notice is dated 1574. In a duodecimo edition, 1568, and another of
+the same size, 1574, the descriptions, by Hartman Schopper, are in Latin
+verse.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI87" id = "tagVI87" href =
+"#noteVI87">VI.87</a> This is perhaps the most curious and interesting
+series of cuts, exhibiting the various ranks and employments of men,
+that ever was published. Among the higher orders, constituting what the
+Germans call the “<i>Lehre und Wehr Stande</i>”&mdash;teachers and
+warriors&mdash;are the Pope, Emperor, King, Princes, Nobles, Priests,
+and Lawyers; while almost every branch of labour or of trade then known
+in Germany, from agriculture to pin-making, has its representative.
+There are also not a few which it would be difficult to reduce to any
+distinct class, as they are neither trades nor honest professions. Of
+those heteroclytes is the “Meretricum procurator&mdash;der
+Hurenweibel”&mdash;or, as Captain Dugald Dalgetty says, “the captain of
+the Queans.”</p>
+
+<p>The subject of the following cut, which is of the same size as the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page410" id = "page410">
+410</a></span>
+original, is a <i>Briefmaler</i>,&mdash;literally, a&nbsp;card-painter,
+the name by which the German wood engravers were known before they
+adopted the more appropriate one of <i>Formschneider</i>. It is evident,
+that, at the time when the cut was engraved, the two professions were
+distinct:<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI88" id = "tagVI88" href =
+"#noteVI88">VI.88</a> we here perceive the Briefmaler employed, not in
+engraving cuts, but engaged in colouring certain figures by means of a
+<i>stencil</i>,&mdash;that is, a&nbsp;card or thin plate of metal, out
+of which the intended figure is cut. A&nbsp;brush charged with colour
+being drawn over the pierced card, as is seen in the cut, the figure is
+communicated to the paper placed underneath. The little shallow vessels
+perceived on the top of the large box in front are the saucers which
+contain his colours. Near the window, immediately to his right, is a
+pile of sheets which, from the figure of a man on horseback seen
+impressed upon them, appear to be already finished.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_410" id = "illus_410">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_410.png" width = "236" height = "313"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The subject of the following cut, from the same work, is a
+<i>Formschneider</i>, or wood engraver proper. He is apparently at work
+on a block which he has before him; but the kind of tool which he
+employs is not exactly like those used by English wood engravers
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page411" id = "page411">
+411</a></span>
+of the present day. It seems to resemble a small long-handled
+desk-knife; while the tool of the modern wood engraver has a handle
+which is rounded at the top in order to accommodate it to the palm of
+the hand. It is also never held vertically, as it appears in the hand of
+the <i>Formschneider</i>. It is, however, certain, from other woodcuts,
+which will be subsequently noticed, that the wood engravers of that
+period were accustomed to use a tool with a handle rounded at the top,
+similar to the graver used in the present day.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagVI89" id = "tagVI89" href = "#noteVI89">VI.89</a>&mdash;The verses
+descriptive of the annexed cut are translated from Hans Sachs.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture w250">
+<p><a name = "illus_411" id = "illus_411">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_411.png" width = "236" height = "314"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p>I am a wood-engraver good,</p>
+<p>And all designs on blocks of wood</p>
+<p>I with my graver cut so neat,</p>
+<p>That when they’re printed on a sheet</p>
+<p>Of paper white, you plainly view</p>
+<p>The very forms the artist drew:</p>
+<p>His drawing, whether coarse or fine,</p>
+<p>Is truly copied line for line.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Jost Amman died in 1591, and from the time of his settling at
+Nuremberg to that of his decease he seems to have been chiefly employed
+in making designs on wood for the booksellers of Nuremberg and
+Frankfort. He also furnished designs for goldsmiths; and
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page412" id = "page412">
+412</a></span>
+it is said that he excelled as a painter on glass. The works which
+afford the best specimens of his talents as a designer on wood are those
+illustrative of the costume of the period, first published between 1580
+and 1585 by S.&nbsp;Feyerabend at Frankfort. One of those works contains
+the costumes of men of all ranks, except the clergy, interspersed with
+the armorial bearings of the principal families in Germany; another
+contains the costume of the different orders of the priesthood of the
+church of Rome; and a third, entitled Gynæceum sive Theatrum Mulierum,
+is illustrative of the costume of women of all ranks in Europe.
+A&nbsp;work on hunting and fowling, edited by J.&nbsp;A. Lonicerus, and
+printed in 1582, contains about forty excellent cuts of his designing.
+A&nbsp;separate volume, consisting of cuts selected from the four
+preceding works, and of a number of other cuts chiefly illustrative of
+mythological subjects and of the costume of Turkey, was published by
+Feyerabend about 1590. In a subsequent edition of this work, printed in
+1599, it is stated that the collection is published for the especial
+benefit of painters and amateurs.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI90" id =
+"tagVI90" href = "#noteVI90">VI.90</a> Among the numerous other cuts
+designed by him, the following may be mentioned: illustrations for a
+Bible published at Frankfort 1565; a&nbsp;series of subjects from Roman
+History, entitled Icones Livianæ, 1572; and the cuts in an edition of
+Reynard the Fox. The works of Jost Amman have proved a mine for
+succeeding artists; his figures were frequently copied by wood engravers
+in France, Italy and Flanders; and even some modern English paintings
+contain evidences of the artist having borrowed something more than a
+hint from the figures of Jost Amman.</p>
+
+<p>Jost Amman was undoubtedly one of the best professional designers on
+wood of his time; and his style bears considerable resemblance to that
+of Hans Burgmair as exemplified in the Triumphs of Maximilian. Many of
+his figures are well drawn; but even in the best of his subjects the
+attitudes are somewhat affected and generally too violent; and this,
+with an overstrained expression, makes his characters appear more like
+actors in a theatre than like real personages. In the cuts of the horse
+in the “Kunstbüchlein” the action of the animal is frequently
+represented with great spirit: but in points of detail the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page413" id = "page413">
+413</a></span>
+artist is as frequently incorrect. Some of his very best designs are to
+be found among his equestrian subjects. His men generally have a good
+“seat,” and his ladies seem to manage their heavy long-tailed steeds
+with great ease and grace.</p>
+
+<p>Several of the views of cities, in Sebastian Munster’s
+Cosmography&mdash;first published in folio, at Basle, 1550&mdash;contain
+two marks, one of the designer, and the other of the person by whom the
+subject was engraved, the latter being frequently accompanied by a
+graver, thus: <img class = "middle" src = "images/illus_413a.png" width
+= "39" height = "23" alt = "H·H">; or with two gravers of different
+kinds, thus: <img class = "middle" src = "images/illus_413b.png" width =
+"69" height = "42" alt = "·C·S·"> This last mark, which also occurs in
+Jost Amman’s Kunstbüchlein, is said to be that of Christopher Stimmer,
+a&nbsp;brother of Tobias Stimmer, a&nbsp;Swiss artist, who is generally
+described as a designer and engraver on wood. The cuts with the former
+mark have been ascribed to Hans Holbein, but they bear not the least
+resemblance to his style of design, and they have been assigned to him
+solely on account of the letters corresponding with the initials of his
+name. Professor Christ’s Dictionary of Monograms, and Papillon’s
+Treatise on Wood-engraving, afford numerous instances of marks being
+assigned to persons on no better grounds.</p>
+
+<p>A writer, in discussing the question, “Were Albert Durer, Lucas
+Cranach, Hans Burgmair, and other old German artists, the engravers or
+only the designers of the cuts which bear their mark?” has been pleased
+to assert that the mark of the actual engraver is usually distinguished
+by the graver with which it is accompanied. This statement has been
+adopted and further disseminated by others; and many persons who have
+not an opportunity of judging for themselves, and who receive with
+implicit credit whatever they find asserted in a Dictionary of
+Engravers, suppose that from the time of Albert Durer, or even earlier,
+the figure of a graver generally distinguishes the mark of the
+<i>formschneider</i> or engraver on wood. So far, however, from this
+being a general rule, I&nbsp;am not aware of any wood-cut which contains
+a graver in addition to a mark of an earlier date than those in
+Munster’s Cosmography, and the practice which appears to have been first
+introduced about that time never became generally prevalent. When the
+graver is thus introduced there can be no doubt that it is intended to
+distinguish the mark of the engraver; but as at least ninety-nine out of
+every hundred marks on cuts executed between 1550 and 1600 are
+unaccompanied with a graver, it is exceedingly doubtful in most cases
+whether the mark be that of the engraver or the designer.</p>
+
+<p>The wood-cuts in Munster’s Cosmography are generally poor in design
+and coarse in execution. One of the best is that representing an
+encounter of two armed men on horseback with the mark <img class =
+"middle" src = "images/illus_413c.png" width = "27" height = "24" alt =
+"symbol">, which also occurs in some of the cuts in Gesner’s History of
+Animals, printed
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page414" id = "page414">
+414</a></span>
+at Zurich, 1551-1558. This cut, as well as several others, is repeated
+in another part of the book, in the manner of the Nuremberg Chronicle,
+where the same portrait or the same view is used to represent several
+different persons or places. The cuts are not precisely the same in
+every edition of Munster’s work, which was several times reprinted
+between 1550 and 1570. Those which are substituted in the later editions
+are rather more neatly engraved.</p>
+
+<p>The present cut is copied from one at page 49 of the first edition,
+where it is given as an illustration of a wonderful kind of tree said to
+be found in Scotland, and from the fruit of which it was believed that
+geese were produced. Munster’s account of this wonderful tree and its
+fruit is as follows; “In Scotland are found trees, the fruit of which
+appears like a ball of leaves. This fruit, falling at its proper time
+into the water below, becomes animated, and turns to a bird which they
+call the <i>tree goose</i>. This tree also grows in the island of Pomona
+[the largest of the Orkneys], not far distant from Scotland towards the
+north. As old cosmographers&mdash;especially Saxo
+Grammaticus&mdash;mention this tree, it is not to be considered as a
+fiction of modern authors. Aeneas Sylvius also notices this tree as
+follows: ‘We have heard that there was a tree formerly in Scotland,
+which, growing by the margin of a stream, produced fruit of the shape of
+ducks; that such fruit, when nearly ripe, fell, some into the water and
+some on land. Such as fell on land decayed, but such as fell into the
+water quickly became animated, swimming below, and then flying into the
+air with feathers and wings.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page415" id = "page415">
+415</a></span>
+When in Scotland, having made diligent inquiry concerning this matter of
+King James, a&nbsp;square-built man, and very fat,<a class = "tag" name
+= "tagVI91" id = "tagVI91" href = "#noteVI91">VI.91</a> we found that
+miracles always kept receding;&mdash;this wonderful tree is not found in
+Scotland, but in the Orcades.’”</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_414" id = "illus_414">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_414.png" width = "288" height = "273"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The bird said to be the produce of this tree is the “Bernacle Goose,
+Clakis, or Tree Goose” of Bewick; and the pretended <i>tree</i> from
+which it was supposed to be produced was undoubtedly a testaceous
+insect, a&nbsp;species of which, frequently found adhering to ships’
+bottoms, is described under the name of “Lepas <i>Anatifera</i>” by
+Linnæus, who thus commemorates in the trivial name the old opinion
+respecting its winged and feathered fruit. William Turner, a&nbsp;native
+of Morpeth in Northumberland, one of the earliest writers on British
+Ornithology, notices the story of the Bernacle Goose being produced from
+“something like a fungus proceeding from old wood lying in the sea.” He
+says it is mentioned by Giraldus Cambrensis in his description of
+Ireland, and that the account of its being generated in this wonderful
+manner is generally believed by the people inhabiting the sea-coasts of
+England, Scotland, and Ireland. “But,” says Turner, “as it seemed not
+safe to trust to popular report, and as, on account of the singularity
+of the thing, I&nbsp;could not give entire credit to Giraldus, I, when
+thinking of the subject of which I now write, asked a certain clergyman,
+named Octavianus, by birth an Irishman, whom I knew to be worthy of
+credit, if he thought the account of Giraldus was to be believed. He,
+swearing by the Gospel, declared that what Giraldus had written about
+the generation of this bird was most true; that he himself had seen and
+handled the young unformed birds, and that if I should remain in London
+a month or two, he would bring me some of the brood.”<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagVI92" id = "tagVI92" href = "#noteVI92">VI.92</a> In Lobel
+and Pena’s Stirpium Adversaria Nova, folio, London, 1570, there is a cut
+of the “Britannica Concha Anatifera,” growing on a stalk from a rock,
+with figures of ducks or geese in the water below. In the text the
+popular belief of a kind of goose being produced from the shell of this
+insect is noticed, but the writer declines pronouncing any opinion till
+he shall have had an opportunity of visiting Scotland and judging for
+himself. Gerard, in his Herbal, London, 1597, has an article on the
+<i>Goose-tree</i>; and he says that its native soil is a small island,
+called the Pile of Fouldres, half a mile from the main land of
+Lancashire. Ferrer
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page416" id = "page416">
+416</a></span>
+de Valcebro, a&nbsp;Spanish writer, in a work entitled “El Gobierno
+general hallado en las Aves,” with coarse wood-cuts, quarto, printed
+about 1680, repeats, with sundry additions, the story of the Bernacle,
+or, as he calls it, the Barliata, being produced from a tree; and he
+seems rather displeased that his countrymen are not disposed to yield
+much faith to such singularities, merely because they do not occur in
+their own country.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_416" id = "illus_416">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_416.png" width = "341" height = "309"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>There are two portraits of Erasmus in the first edition of Munster’s
+Cosmography, one at page 130, and the other, with the mark <img class =
+"middle" src = "images/illus_416b.png" width = "45" height = "14" alt =
+"HRMD">, at page 407. The latter, as the author especially informs the
+reader, was engraved after a portrait by Holbein in the possession of
+Bonifacius Amerbach. The present is a reduced copy of a cut at page 361
+of Henry Petri’s edition, 1554. On a stone, near the bottom, towards the
+left, is seen a mark<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI93" id = "tagVI93"
+href = "#noteVI93">VI.93</a>&mdash;probably that of the artist who made
+the drawing on the block&mdash;consisting of the same letters as the
+double mark just noticed as occurring in the portrait of Erasmus,
+H.R.&nbsp;M.D.&nbsp;A cut
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page417" id = "page417">
+417</a></span>
+of the same subject, William Tell about to shoot at the apple on his
+son’s head, was given in the first edition, but the design is somewhat
+different and the execution more coarse. The cut from which the
+preceding is copied may be ranked among the best in the work.</p>
+
+<p>Though Sebastian Munster, in a letter, probably written in 1538,
+addressed to Joachim Vadianus, alludes to an improvement which he and
+his printer had made in the mode of printing maps, and to a project for
+casting complete words, yet the maps which appear in his Cosmography,
+with the outlines, rivers, and mountains engraved on wood, and the names
+inserted in type, are certainly not superior to the generality of other
+maps executed wholly on wood about the same period.<a class = "tag" name
+= "tagVI94" id = "tagVI94" href = "#noteVI94">VI.94</a> Joachim
+Vadianus, to whom Munster writes, and of whose assistance he wished to
+avail himself in a projected edition of Ptolemy, was an eminent scholar
+of that period, and had published an edition, in 1522, of Pomponius
+Mela, with a commentary and notes. The passage in Munster’s letter,
+wherein maps are mentioned, is to the following effect: “I&nbsp;would
+have sent you an impression of one of the Swiss maps which I have had
+printed here, if Froschover had not informed me of his having sent you
+one from Zurich. If this mode of printing should succeed tolerably well,
+and when we shall have acquired a certain art of <i>casting whole
+words</i>, Henri Petri, Michael Isengrin, and I have thought of printing
+Ptolemy’s Cosmography; not of so great a size as it has hitherto been
+frequently printed, but in the form in which your Annotations on
+Pomponius appear. In the maps we shall insert only the names of the
+principal cities, and give the others alphabetically in some blank
+space,&mdash;for instance, in the margin or any adjoining space beyond
+the limits of the map.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI95" id = "tagVI95"
+href = "#noteVI95">VI.95</a> The art of casting whole words, alluded to
+in this passage, appears to have been something like an attempt at what
+has been called “logographic printing;”<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI96"
+id = "tagVI96" href = "#noteVI96">VI.96</a> though it is not unlikely
+that
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page418" id = "page418">
+418</a></span>
+those “whole words” might be the names of countries and places intended
+to be inserted in a space cut out of the block on which the map was
+engraved. By thus inserting the names, either cast as complete words, or
+composed of separate letters, the tedious process of engraving a number
+of letters on wood was avoided, and the pressman enabled to print the
+maps at one impression. In some of the earlier maps where the names are
+printed from types, the letters were not inserted in spaces cut out of
+the block, but were printed from a separate form by means of a
+“re-iteration” or second impression.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI97" id
+= "tagVI97" href = "#noteVI97">VI.97</a> In illustration of what Munster
+says about a certain art of casting whole words,&mdash;“<i>artem aliquam
+fundendarum integrarum dictionum</i>,”&mdash;the following extract is
+given from Dr. Dibdin’s Bibliographical Tour, volume iii. page 102,
+second edition. “What think you of undoubted proofs of <span class =
+"smallroman">STEREOTYPE PRINTING</span> in the middle of the sixteenth
+century? It is even so. What adds to the whimsical puzzle is, that these
+pieces of metal, of which the surface is composed of types, fixed and
+immovable, are sometimes inserted in wooden blocks, and introduced as
+titles, mottoes, or descriptions of the subjects cut upon the blocks.
+Professor May [of Augsburg] begged my acceptance of a specimen or two of
+the types thus fixed upon plates of the same metal. They rarely exceeded
+the height of four or five lines of text, by about four or five inches
+in length. I&nbsp;carried away, with his permission, two proofs (not
+long ago pulled) of the same block containing this intermixture of
+stereotype and wood-block printing.”</p>
+
+<p>As the engraving of the letters in maps executed on wood&mdash;or
+indeed on any other material&mdash;is, when the names of many places are
+given, by far the most tedious and costly part of the process, the plan
+of inserting them in type by means of holes pierced in the block, as
+adopted
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page419" id = "page419">
+419</a></span>
+in Munster’s Cosmography, was certainly a great saving of labour; yet on
+comparing the maps in this work with those in Ptolemy’s Cosmography,
+printed by Leonard Holl, at Ulm, 1482, and with others engraved in the
+early part of the sixteenth century, it is impossible not to perceive
+that the art of wood engraving, as applied to the execution of such
+works, had undergone no improvement: with the exception of the letters,
+the maps in Holl’s Ptolemy&mdash;the earliest that were engraved on
+wood&mdash;are, in point of appearance, equal to those in the work of
+Munster, published about eighty years later. Considering that the
+earliest printed maps&mdash;those in an edition of Ptolemy, printed by
+Arnold Bukinck, at Rome, 1478<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI98" id =
+"tagVI98" href = "#noteVI98">VI.98</a>&mdash;are from copper-plates, it
+seems rather surprising that, until about 1570, no further attempt
+should have been made to apply the art of engraving on copper to this
+purpose. In the latter year a collection of maps, engraved on copper,<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagVI99" id = "tagVI99" href =
+"#noteVI99">VI.99</a> was published at Antwerp under the superintendence
+of Abraham Ortelius; and so great was their excellence when compared
+with former maps executed on wood, that the business of map engraving
+was within a few years transferred almost exclusively to engravers on
+copper. In 1572 a map engraved on copper was printed in England, in the
+second edition of Archbishop Parker’s Bible. It is of folio size, and
+the country represented is the Holy Land. Within an ornamented tablet is
+the following inscription: “Graven bi Humfray Cole, goldsmith, an
+English man born in y<sup>e</sup> north, and pertayning to y<sup>e</sup>
+mint in the Tower. 1572.” In Walpole’s Catalogue of Engravers the
+portraits engraved on copper of Queen Elizabeth, the Earl of Leicester,
+and Lord Burleigh, which appear in the first edition of Archbishop
+Parker’s Bible, 1568,<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI100" id = "tagVI100"
+href = "#noteVI100">VI.100</a> are ascribed to Humphrey Cole, apparently
+on no better ground than that his name appears as the engraver of the
+map, which is given in the second. If Cole were really the engraver of
+those portraits, he was certainly entitled to a more favourable notice<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagVI101" id = "tagVI101" href =
+"#noteVI101">VI.101</a> than he
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page420" id = "page420">
+420</a></span>
+receives from the fastidious compiler of the “Catalogue of Engravers who
+have been born or resided in England;” for, considering <i>when</i> and
+<i>where</i> they were executed, the engraver is entitled to rank at
+least as high as George Vertue. In fact, the portrait of Leicester,
+considered merely as a specimen of engraving, without regard to the time
+and place of its execution, will bear a comparison with more than one of
+the portraits engraved by Vertue upwards of a hundred and fifty years
+later.</p>
+
+<p>The advantages of copper-plate engraving for the purpose of executing
+maps, as exemplified in the work of Ortelius, appear to have been
+immediately appreciated in England, and this country is one of the first
+that can boast of a collection of provincial or county maps engraved on
+copper. A&nbsp;series of maps of all the counties of England and Wales,
+and of the adjacent islands, were engraved, under the superintendence of
+Christopher Saxton, between 1573 and 1579, and published at London, in a
+folio volume, in the latter year. Though the greater number of those
+maps were the work of Flemish engravers, eight, at least, were engraved
+by two Englishmen, Augustine Ryther and Nicholas Reynolds.<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagVI102" id = "tagVI102" href = "#noteVI102">VI.102</a>
+They appear to have been all drawn by Christopher Saxton, who lived at
+Tingley, near Leeds. Walpole says, that “he was servant to Thomas
+Sekeford, Esq. Master of the Court of Wards,” the gentleman at whose
+expense they were engraved. He also states that many of them were
+engraved by Saxton himself; but this I consider to be extremely
+doubtful. In his account of early English copper-plate engravers,
+Walpole is frequently incorrect: he mentions Humphrey Lhuyd&mdash;an
+author who wrote a short description of Britain, printed at Cologne in
+1572<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI103" id = "tagVI103" href =
+"#noteVI103">VI.103</a>&mdash;as the <i>engraver</i> of the map of
+England in the collection of Ortelius; and he includes Dr. William
+Cuningham, a&nbsp;physician of Norwich, in his catalogue of engravers,
+without the slightest reason beyond the mere fact, that a book entitled
+“The Cosmographical
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page421" id = "page421">
+421</a></span>
+Glasse,” written by the Doctor, and printed in 1559, contains several
+<i>wood-cuts</i>. He might, with equal justice, have placed Archbishop
+Parker in his catalogue, and asserted that some of the <i>plates</i> in
+the Bible were “engraved by his own hand.”</p>
+
+<p>In connexion with the preceding account of the earliest maps executed
+in England on copper, it perhaps may not be unnecessary to briefly
+notice here the introduction of copper-plate engraving into this
+country. According to Herbert, in his edition of Ames’s Typographical
+Antiquities, the frontispiece of a small work entitled “Galenus de
+Temperamentis,” printed at Cambridge, 1521, is the earliest specimen of
+copper-plate engraving that is to be found in any book printed in
+England. The art, however, supposing that the plate was really engraved
+and printed in this country, appears to have received no encouragement
+on its first introduction, for after this first essay it seems to have
+lain dormant for nearly twenty years. The next earliest specimens appear
+in the first edition of a work usually called “Raynalde’s Birth of
+Mankind,” printed at London in 1540.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI104"
+id = "tagVI104" href = "#noteVI104">VI.104</a> This work, which is a
+treatise on the obstetric art, contains, when perfect, three plates,
+illustrative of the subject. Not having had an opportunity of seeing any
+one of these three plates nor the frontispiece to “Galenus de
+Temperamentis,” I&nbsp;am obliged to trust to Herbert for the fact of
+their being engraved on copper. In the third volume of his edition of
+Ames, page 1411, there is a fac-simile of the frontispiece to the
+Cambridge book; and in the Preliminary Disquisition on Early Engraving
+and Ornamental Printing, prefixed to Dr. Dibdin’s edition of the
+Typographical Antiquities, will be found a fac-simile, engraved on wood,
+of one of the plates in Raynalde’s Birth of Mankind. In an edition of
+the latter work, printed in 1565, the “byrthe figures” are not engraved
+on copper, but on wood.</p>
+
+<p>A work printed in London by John Hereford, 1545, contains several
+unquestionable specimens of copper-plate engraving. It is of folio size,
+and the title is as follows: “Compendiosa totius Anatomiæ delineatio ære
+exarata, per Thomam Geminum.” The ornamental title-page, with the arms
+of Henry VIII. towards the centre, is engraved on copper, and several
+anatomical subjects are executed in the same manner.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page422" id = "page422">
+422</a></span>
+Gemini, who is believed to have been the engraver of those plates, was
+not a native of this country.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI105" id =
+"tagVI105" href = "#noteVI105">VI.105</a> In a dedication to Henry VIII,
+he says that in his work he had followed Andrew Vesalius of Brussels;
+and he further mentions that in the year before he had received orders
+from the King to have the plates printed off [<i>excudendas</i>]. A
+second edition, dedicated to Edward VI, appeared in 1553; and a third,
+dedicated to Queen Elizabeth, in 1559.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI106"
+id = "tagVI106" href = "#noteVI106">VI.106</a> In the last edition the
+Royal Arms on the title-page are effaced, and the portrait of Queen
+Elizabeth engraved in their stead. Traces of the former subject are,
+however, still visible, and the motto, “Dieu et mon Droit,” has been
+allowed to remain. One of the engravings in this work affords a curious
+instance of the original plate of copper having been either mended or
+enlarged by joining another piece to it. Even in the first edition, the
+zigzag line where the two pieces are joined, and the forms of the little
+<i>cramps</i> which hold them together, are visible, and in the last
+they are distinctly apparent.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest portrait engraved on copper, printed singly, in this
+country, and not as an illustration of a book, is that of Archbishop
+Parker engraved by Remigius Hogenberg. It is a small print four and a
+half inches high by three and a half wide. At the corners are the arms
+of Canterbury, impaled with those of Parker; the archbishop’s arms
+separately; a&nbsp;plain shield, with a cross and the letters <img class
+= "middle" src = "images/illus_422.png" width = "8" height = "19" alt =
+"IX">; and the arms of Archbishop Cranmer. The portrait is engraved in
+an oval, round the border of which is the following inscription: “Mūdus
+transit, et cupiscētia ejus. Anno Domini 1572, ætatis suæ Anno 69. Die
+mensis Augusti sexto.” In an impression, now before me, from the
+original plate, the date and the archbishop’s age are altered to 1573
+and 70, but the marks of the ciphers erased are quite perceptible. The
+portrait of the archbishop is a half-length; he is seated at a table, on
+which are a bell, a&nbsp;small coffer, and what appears to be a stamp.
+A&nbsp;Bible is lying open before him, and on one of the pages is
+inscribed in very small letters the following passage from the <span
+class = "smallroman">VI.</span> chapter of Micah, verse&nbsp;8:
+“Indicabo tibi, o&nbsp;homo, quid sit bonum, et quid Deus requirat a te,
+utique facere judicium, et diligere misericordiam, et solicitum ambulare
+cum Deo tuo.” The engraver’s name, “<i>R.&nbsp;Berg f.</i>,” appears at
+the bottom of the print to the right: a&nbsp;cross line from the R to
+the B indicates the abbreviation of the surname, which, written at
+length, was
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page423" id = "page423">
+423</a></span>
+<i>Hogenberg</i>. Caulfield, speaking of this engraving in his
+Calcographiana, page 4, 1814, says,&mdash;“The only impression supposed
+to be extant is in the library at Lambeth Palace; but within the last
+two years, Mr. Woodburn, of St. Martin’s Lane, purchased a magnificent
+collection of portraits, among which was a very fine one of Parker.”</p>
+
+<p>The number of books, containing copper-plate engravings, published in
+England between 1559 and 1600, is extremely limited; and the following
+list will perhaps be found to contain one or two more than have been
+mentioned by preceding writers: 1.&nbsp;Pena and Lobel’s Stirpium
+Adversaria Nova, folio, 1570,&mdash;ornamented title-page, with the arms
+of England at the top, and a small map towards the bottom:&mdash;the
+ornaments surrounding the map are very beautifully engraved.
+2.&nbsp;Archbishop Parker’s Bible, 1568-1572, with the portraits,
+previously noticed at page 419. 3.&nbsp;Saxton’s Maps, with the portrait
+of Queen Elizabeth on the title, 1579. 4.&nbsp;Broughton’s Concent of
+Scripture, 1591,&mdash;engraved title, and four other plates.
+5.&nbsp;Translation of Ariosto by Sir John Harrington,
+1591,&mdash;engraved title-page, containing portraits of the author and
+translator, and forty-six other plates. 6.&nbsp;R. Haydock’s Translation
+of Lomazzo’s Treatise on Painting and Architecture, Oxford,
+1598,&mdash;engraved title-page, containing portraits of Lomazzo and
+Haydock, and several very indifferent plates, chiefly of architecture
+and figures in outline.</p>
+
+<p>Walpole mentions a plate of the arms of Sir Christopher Hatton on the
+title-page of the second part of Wagenar’s Mariner’s Mirrour, printed in
+1588, and the plates in a work entitled “A&nbsp;True Report of the
+Newfoundland of Virginia,” all engraved by Theodore de Bry. The first of
+these works I have not been able to obtain a sight of;<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagVI107" id = "tagVI107" href = "#noteVI107">VI.107</a> and the
+second cannot properly be included in a list of works containing
+copper-plates published in England previous to 1600;<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagVI108" id = "tagVI108" href = "#noteVI108">VI.108</a> for
+though it appeared in 1591, it was printed at Frankfort. In the reigns
+of James and Charles I, copper-plate engraving was warmly patronised in
+England, and several foreign engravers, as in the reign of Elizabeth,
+were induced to take up their abode in this country. In the first
+edition of Chambers’ Cyclopedia, it is stated that the art of
+copper-plate engraving was brought
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page424" id = "page424">
+424</a></span>
+to this country from Antwerp by Speed the historian,&mdash;an error
+which is pointed out by Walpole: the writer it seems had not been aware
+of any earlier copper-plates printed in England than Speed’s maps, which
+were chiefly executed by Flemish engravers.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_424" id = "illus_424">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_424.png" width = "473" height = "647"
+alt = "portrait with text Ἡ ΜΕΓΑΛΗ ΕΥΔΑΙΜΟΝΙΑ ΟΥΔΕΝΙ ΦΘΟΝΕΙΝ ÆTATIS 28"
+title = "Ἡ ΜΕΓΑΛΗ ΕΥΔΑΙΜΟΝΙΑ ΟΥΔΕΝΙ ΦΘΟΝΕΙΝ ÆTATIS 28"></p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page425" id = "page425">
+425</a></span>
+<p>Dr. William Cuningham, whom Walpole describes as an engraver, was a
+physician practising at Norwich; and his book, entitled The
+Cosmographical Glasse,<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI109" id = "tagVI109"
+href = "#noteVI109">VI.109</a> some of the <i>plates</i> of which are
+said to have been “engraved by the doctor’s own hand,” was printed at
+London by John Day in 1559. It contains no <i>plates</i>, properly
+speaking, for the engravings are all from wood-blocks. At the foot of
+the ornamental title-page, and in a large bird’s-eye view of Norwich, is
+the mark I.&nbsp;B. F, which, from something like a tool for engraving,
+between the B.&nbsp;and F in the original, is most likely that of the
+engraver. The principal cut is a portrait of the author,
+a&nbsp;fac-simile of which is given in the opposite page.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<div class = "picblock w250">
+<p><a name = "illus_425" id = "illus_425">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_425.png" width = "249" height = "249"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picblock w250">
+<p><a name = "illus_426a" id = "illus_426a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_426a.png" width = "245" height = "245"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is much more likely that some of those cuts were engraved by the
+printer of the book, John Day, than by the author, Dr. Cuningham; for
+the initials I.&nbsp;D. appear on a cut at the end of the book,&mdash;a
+skeleton extended on a tomb, with a tree growing out of it&mdash;and
+also on two or three of the large ornamental letters. John Day, in a
+book printed
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page426" id = "page426">
+426</a></span>
+by him in 1567, says that the Saxon characters used in it were
+<i>cut</i> by himself. The cut on page 425 and the three following are
+specimens of some of the large ornamental letters which occur in the
+Cosmographical Glasse. The first, the letter D, inclosing the arms of
+Lord Robert Dudley, afterwards Earl of Leicester, to whom the work is
+dedicated. The second, the letter&nbsp;A, Silenus on an ass, accompanied
+by satyrs; the mark, a&nbsp;C with a small <span class =
+"smallroman">I</span> within the curve, is perceived near the bottom, to
+the right.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI110" id = "tagVI110" href =
+"#noteVI110">VI.110</a>
+The third, the letter I, with a military commander taking the angles
+between three churches; and the mark I.&nbsp;D. at the bottom to the
+left.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page427" id = "page427">
+427</a></span>
+The fourth, the letter T, a&nbsp;ship with a naked figure as pilot,
+preceded by Neptune on a dolphin. A&nbsp;mark, H, is perceived in the
+right-hand corner, at the bottom.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<div class = "picblock w250">
+<p><a name = "illus_426b" id = "illus_426b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_426b.png" width = "250" height = "250"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picblock w250">
+<p><a name = "illus_427" id = "illus_427">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_427.png" width = "247" height = "248"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of all the books printed in England in the reigns of Queen Mary and
+Queen Elizabeth, those from the press of John Day generally contain the
+best executed wood-cuts; and even though he might not be the engraver of
+the cuts which contain his initials, yet it cannot be doubted that he
+possessed a much better taste in such matters than any other English
+printer of his age. Some of the large ornamental letters in works
+printed by him are much superior to anything of the kind that had
+previously appeared in England. In the “Booke of Christian Prayers”
+printed by John Daye 1569, which goes by the name of “Queen Elizabeth’s
+Prayer Book,” there is a portrait of her Majesty, kneeling upon a superb
+cushion, with elevated hands, in prayer, of which the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page428" id = "page428">
+428</a></span>
+following is a fac-simile. The book is decorated with wood-cut borders
+of considerable spirit and beauty, representing, among other things,
+some of the subjects of Holbein’s Dance of Death.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_428" id = "illus_428">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_428.png" width = "358" height = "536"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Our next cut is a copy, slightly reduced, of a large letter, C, at
+the commencement of the dedication of Fox’s Acts and Monuments to Queen
+Elizabeth, in the edition printed by Day in 1576. The Queen, appearing
+more juvenile than she is usually represented, is seen seated on a
+throne, attended by three persons, supposed to be intended for one
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page429" id = "page429">
+429</a></span>
+of her council, John Day, the printer, and John Fox, the author of the
+work. A&nbsp;cherub, with an immense cornucopia over his shoulder, holds
+a rose and a lily in one hand, and with the other supports the arms of
+England; while underneath a representation of the Pope is introduced,
+holding in his hands the broken keys.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI111"
+id = "tagVI111" href = "#noteVI111">VI.111</a></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_429" id = "illus_429">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_429.png" width = "309" height = "339"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Though it be beyond the plan of the present work to trace the
+progress of the various kinds of large ornamental letters engraved on
+wood that have been from time to time introduced by the principal
+German, French, Italian, and English printers from the invention of
+typography, it may not be unnecessary to say a few words on this
+subject. In the earliest works of the German printers, as the type was a
+close imitation of the handwriting of the period, as used in Bibles and
+Missals, the large ornamental letters occasionally introduced are
+distinguished by their flourishes and grotesque work extending on the
+margin both above and below the body of the letter, as is frequently
+seen in illumined manuscripts of the period. Large initial letters of
+this kind are not
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page430" id = "page430">
+430</a></span>
+unfrequent in early French works; but are comparatively scarce in books
+printed in England, where a letter, engraved on a square block,
+appearing, with the ornaments, white on a black ground, was adopted
+shortly after the introduction of printing by Caxton.<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagVI112" id = "tagVI112" href = "#noteVI112">VI.112</a> As the
+capitals of the Roman character used in Italy did not admit of the
+flourishes which accorded so well with the curves of Gothic or German
+capitals, the printers of that country, towards the end of the fifteenth
+century, began to introduce flowers, figures of men, birds, and
+quadrupeds, as back-grounds to their large initial letters. Between 1520
+and 1530 this mode of ornamenting their large Roman letters was in great
+repute with the printers of Basle, Geneva, and Zurich, and to this taste
+we owe the small alphabet of the Dance of Death. Subsequently the
+Italian wood engravers, employed by the printers, carried this style of
+ornament a step further by introducing landscapes as well as figures to
+form a back-ground to the letter. The following specimen of letter thus
+ornamented is from a work printed by Giolito at Venice about 1550. The
+large capitals, in Cuningham’s Cosmographical Glasse, were doubtless
+suggested by Italian letters in the same taste.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_430" id = "illus_430">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_430.png" width = "141" height = "145"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The borders which appear in the title-pages of Italian books of this
+period, and more especially in those printed at Venice, frequently
+display considerable excellence both in design and execution. They are
+generally much lighter and more varied in design than the borders in
+German books; and cross-hatching, which is seldom seen in Italian
+wood-cuts executed previous to 1520, is so frequently introduced that it
+would seem that this mode of producing a certain effect&mdash;which
+might often have been accomplished by simpler means&mdash;was then
+considered as a proof of the engraver’s talent. Some of the Italian
+printers’ marks and devices, on the title-page, or at the end of a work,
+are drawn and engraved with great spirit. The following devices occur in
+a folio
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page431" id = "page431">
+431</a></span>
+edition of Dante&mdash;known to bibliographers as the <i>cat
+edition</i>&mdash;published by the brothers Sessa, at Venice, in 1578.
+The smaller cut&mdash;with ornamental work on each side, occupying
+nearly the width of a page, but omitted in the copy&mdash;is several
+times repeated; the larger&mdash;where Grimalkin “sits like an eastern
+monarch upon his throne”<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI113" id =
+"tagVI113" href = "#noteVI113">VI.113</a>&mdash;forms the <ins class =
+"correction" title = "text reads ‘tailpiece’">tail-piece</ins> at the
+end of the volume.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<div class = "picblock w300">
+<p><a name = "illus_431" id = "illus_431">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_431a.png" width = "289" height = "324"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picblock w200">
+<p><img src = "images/illus_431b.png" width = "176" height = "161"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the latter part of the sixteenth and the beginning of the
+seventeenth century, an Italian artist named Andrea Andreani executed a
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page432" id = "page432">
+432</a></span>
+considerable number of chiaro-scuros on wood. He was born at Mantua in
+1540, and one of his earliest and largest works in this style is dated
+1586. The subject is the History of Abraham, from the pavement of the
+cathedral of Siena;<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI114" id = "tagVI114"
+href = "#noteVI114">VI.114</a> the first compartment consists of twelve
+pieces, printed in three colours, forming, when joined together,
+a&nbsp;large composition about five feet six inches wide by about two
+feet six inches high. The second compartment, Moses breaking the Tables
+of the Law, is not properly a chiaro-scuro, but a large wood-cut,
+consisting of several pieces, printed in ink in the usual manner. It is
+about six feet wide by about four feet high. Another large work of
+Andreani’s is the Triumphs of Julius Cæsar, from the designs of Andrea
+Mantegna, dedicated to Vincentius Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, and published
+in a folio volume in 1598. Andreani having obtained the blocks of
+several of the chiaro-scuros executed by Ugo da Carpi, Antonio da
+Trente, Nicholas da Vincenza, and others, reprinted them with the
+addition of his own mark; and from this circumstance he frequently
+obtains the credit of having engraved many pieces which were really
+executed by his predecessors and superiors in the art. The chiaro-scuros
+which he reprinted are generally superior to those pieces which were
+engraved by himself from original designs, and in the execution of which
+he had to depend on his own judgment and taste. He continued to engrave
+in this manner till he was upwards of seventy years old, for there are
+one or two subjects by him dated 1612. Bartsch says that he died in
+1623, but observes that some writers place his death in 1626.</p>
+
+<p>Henry Goltzius, a painter and engraver, born in 1558, near Venloo, in
+Flanders, executed several chiaro-scuros, chiefly from his own designs.
+The most of them are from three blocks; and among the best executed are
+Hercules and Cacus, and four separate pieces representing the four
+elements. Like most of the other productions of this artist, whether
+paintings or copper-plate engravings, his chiaro-scuros are designed
+with great spirit, though the action of the figures is frequently
+extravagant. He imitated Michael Angelo, but not with success; he too
+frequently mistakes violence of action for the expression of
+intellectual grandeur, and displays the “contortions of the pythoness
+without her inspiration.” The cut in the opposite page is a reduced copy
+of the subject intended
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page433" id = "page433">
+433</a></span>
+to represent the element of water. In the original the impression is
+from four blocks; one with the outlines and shaded parts black, as in
+the copy here given; the other three communicating different tints of
+sepia. Henry Goltzius died in 1617. His mark, an H combined with a G, is
+seen at the bottom of the cut.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_433" id = "illus_433">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_433.png" width = "314" height = "414"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The cuts contained in a work on ancient and modern costume, printed
+at Venice in 1590,<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI115" id = "tagVI115"
+href = "#noteVI115">VI.115</a> are frequently described as having been
+drawn by Titian and engraved by his <i>brother</i>, Cesare Vecellio.
+That this person might have been a relation of Titian, whose family name
+was Vecelli, is not unlikely, but it is highly improbable that he was
+his brother; for
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page434" id = "page434">
+434</a></span>
+Titian died in 1576, aged ninety-nine, and the dedication of the work to
+Pietro Montalbano by Cesare Vecellio is dated October, 1589. In the
+title it is stated that the costumes in question were
+“done”&mdash;<i>fatti</i>&mdash;by Vecellio himself; but whether this
+word relates to the drawing or the engraving, or to both, it would be
+exceedingly difficult to ascertain. Those cuts have the appearance of
+having been drawn on the block with pen-and-ink; and some of the best
+display so much “character” that they look like portraits of individuals
+freely sketched by the hand of a master. It was first stated in an
+edition of the work, printed in 1664, that the cuts were drawn by Titian
+and engraved by Cesare Vecellio, his brother. The improbable assertion
+was merely a bookseller’s trick to attract purchasers. It has also been
+frequently asserted, that the cuts in Vesalius’s Anatomy, printed at
+Basle in 1548, were drawn by Titian. The Abbé Morelli has, however,
+shown that they were not drawn by him, but by John Calcar,
+a&nbsp;Flemish painter, who had been one of his pupils.</p>
+
+<p>Papillon, who in his desire to dignify his art claims almost every
+eminent painter as a wood engraver, pretends that Titian executed
+several large cuts from his own designs. He says that Titian began to
+engrave on wood when he was twenty-five years old [in 1502], and he
+mentions a cut of the Virgin and the infant Christ, with other
+figures,&mdash;probably intended to represent the marriage of St.
+Catherine,&mdash;as one of the earliest specimens of his talents as a
+wood engraver. Papillon also informs us that Titian engraved a large cut
+of the Triumph of Christ, or of Faith, in 1508; and in another part of
+his work he describes several others as engraved by Titian himself.</p>
+
+<p>Several of the cuts after designs by Titian, but which were certainly
+not of his engraving, are of large size, and executed in a free, coarse
+manner, as if they were rather intended to paste against a wall than to
+be inserted in a portfolio. One of the largest is the destruction of
+Pharaoh and his host; it consists of several pieces, which, when united,
+form a complete subject about four and a half feet wide by about three
+feet high. A&nbsp;dog, which the painter has introduced in a peculiar
+attitude,<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI116" id = "tagVI116" href =
+"#noteVI116">VI.116</a> gives to the whole the air of burlesque. The
+person by whom it was engraved styles himself “depintore,” a&nbsp;word
+perhaps intended to imply that he was a brother of the guild, or society
+of painter-stainers, stencillers, and wood engravers.<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagVI117" id = "tagVI117" href = "#noteVI117">VI.117</a> His
+name, with the date, is engraved thus at the bottom of the cut, which is
+one of those which Papillon says
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page435" id = "page435">
+435</a></span>
+were executed by Titian himself: “In Venetia p.&nbsp;dominico dalle
+greche depintore venetiano. <span class =
+"smallroman">M.DXLIX.</span>”</p>
+
+<p>The following is a reduced copy of a cut designed by Titian, and said
+to have been intended by him to ridicule those painters who, not being
+able to succeed in colouring, recommended ancient sculptures, on account
+of the correctness of the forms, as most deserving of a painter’s
+diligent study. The subject is a caricature of the Laocoon; and the
+professed admirers of antiquity, who, above all, insisted on correct
+drawing, and thought slightly of colouring, are represented by the old
+ape wanting a tail, seen in the distance, attended by three of her young
+ones. The original cut is fifteen inches and seven-eighths wide by ten
+inches and a half high. It is coarsely engraved, and contains neither
+name nor date.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI118" id = "tagVI118" href =
+"#noteVI118">VI.118</a> There are several chiaro-scuros after designs by
+Titian, engraved by Boldrini, Andreani, and others.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_435" id = "illus_435">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_435.png" width = "342" height = "229"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Wood engraving in Germany at the close of the sixteenth century
+appears to have greatly declined; the old race of artists who furnished
+designs for the wood engraver had become extinct, and their places were
+not supplied by others. The more expensive works were now illustrated
+with copper-plates; and the wood-cuts which appeared in the commoner
+kinds of books were in general very indifferent both in design and
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page436" id = "page436">
+436</a></span>
+execution. As Germany was the country in which wood engraving was first
+encouraged and fostered, so was it also the country in which the art
+earliest declined and subsequently became most thoroughly neglected. In
+France and Italy, wood engraving had also by this time experienced a
+considerable decline, but not to such an extent as in Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Between 1590 and 1610, when the art was rapidly declining in other
+countries, the wood-cuts which are to be met with in English books are
+generally better executed than at any preceding period. Engraved
+title-pages were then frequent, and several of them are executed with
+considerable skill. A&nbsp;large wood-cut, with the date 1607, in
+particular displays great merit both in design and engraving. The
+following is a reduced copy of an impression preserved in the Print Room
+of the British Museum.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI119" id = "tagVI119"
+href = "#noteVI119">VI.119</a> The original, exclusive of the verses,
+and the ornaments at each side of them, is about fourteen inches high by
+about fourteen and a half wide.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_437" id = "illus_437">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_437.png" width = "329" height = "430"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "right">
+<a class = "mynote" href = "#note_6h">Text within illustration</a></p>
+
+<p>The following are the six concluding lines of the sonnet underneath
+the cut: in the original they are printed in smaller type than the
+others, and in a double column. In the copy they are merely indicated to
+show the relative size of the type to that of the first eight lines.</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p class = "indent">And (thus) to these to stand still open wide,</p>
+<p>He neither wrings with Wrongs nor racks his Rents;</p>
+<p class = "indent">But saves the charge of wanton Waste &amp;
+Pride:</p>
+<p>For, Thrift’s right Fuel of Magnificence:</p>
+<p class = "indent">As Protean Fashions of new Prodigalitie</p>
+<p class = "indent">Have quight worn out all ancient Hospitalitie.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The flowers at each side of the verses are, in the original, very
+coarsely executed. They are merely printers’ ornaments, engraved
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page437" id = "page437">
+437</a></span>
+on separate pieces of wood, and not on the same block as the cut above
+them.</p>
+
+<p>From one or two worm-holes, which have been in the block when it was
+printed in 1607, and which are apparent in the impression, it seems
+probable that this cut had been engraved some time previous to the date
+which appears at the bottom. As it is, however, very likely that the
+block was of pear-tree, which is extremely liable to the attacks of the
+worm, it is possible that it might have been injured in this manner
+within a year or two of its being finished. The bold, <i>cleanly cut</i>
+lines of the original are very much like the work of Christopher Jegher,
+one of the best wood engravers of that period. He resided at Antwerp,
+but he is said to have been born in Germany in 1578. His best works are
+several large cuts which he engraved for Rubens from drawings made on
+the block by Rubens himself, who appears to have originally
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page438" id = "page438">
+438</a></span>
+published them on his own account. From the manner in which the great
+painter’s name is introduced at the bottom of each&mdash;“<i>P.&nbsp;P.
+Rub. delin. &amp; excud.</i>”&mdash;it would appear that they were both
+designed and printed by him. Impressions of those cuts sometimes occur
+with a tint printed over them, in sepia, from a second block, in the
+manner of chiaro-scuros. We here give a reduced copy of one of the
+largest.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI120" id = "tagVI120" href =
+"#noteVI120">VI.120</a></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_438" id = "illus_438">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_438.png" width = "333" height = "258"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>As profit could not have been Rubens’s motive for having these cuts
+engraved, it is not unlikely that his object was to compare his designs
+when executed in this manner with those of the older German
+masters&mdash;Durer, Burgmair, and Cranach. The best, however, differ
+considerably in the manner of their execution from the best old German
+wood-cuts, for the lines are too uniform and display too much of art; in
+looking at those which consist chiefly of figures, attention is first
+called to the <i>means</i> by which an effect is produced, rather than
+to the effect itself in connexion with the entire subject. This
+objection applies most forcibly to the cut which represents the Virgin
+crowned by the Almighty and Jesus Christ. The design displays much of
+Rubens’s grandeur, with not less of his extravagance in the attitude of
+the figures; but he seems to have studied less the effect of the whole,
+than to have endeavoured to express certain parts by a peculiar
+arrangement of lines und hatchings. The subject does not produce that
+feeling, which it is the great object of art to excite, in consequence
+of the attention being diverted from the contemplation of the whole to
+the means by which it is executed. In such impressions, however, as have
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page439" id = "page439">
+439</a></span>
+a tint of sepia printed over them from a second block, the hardness of
+the lines and heaviness in the hatchings are less apparent. The
+following is a reduced copy of another of those cuts, which, for the
+beautiful simplicity of the design, is perhaps the most pleasing of the
+whole. The execution of the original is, however, coarse, a&nbsp;defect
+which is not so apparent in the copy in consequence of the small scale
+on which it is engraved.<a class = "tag error" name = "tagVI121" id =
+"tagVI121" href = "#noteVI121" title = "missing tag">VI.121</a></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_439" id = "illus_439">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_439.png" width = "329" height = "246"
+alt = "see text" title = "CUM PRIVILEGIIS"></p>
+
+<p>Cornelius van Sichem,<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI122" id =
+"tagVI122" href = "#noteVI122">VI.122</a> a contemporary of Christopher
+Jegher, appears to have been one of the most industrious wood engravers
+of his time. He was a native of Holland, and is supposed to have resided
+at Amsterdam. One of his best cuts is a large head, engraved from a
+drawing by Henry Goltzius, with the date 1607. This and several other
+large cuts, which he probably engraved about the same time, are so much
+superior to the smaller cuts, with his mark, which appear in books, that
+I am inclined to think that most of the latter must have been engraved
+by his pupils; they are indeed so numerous that it seems almost
+impossible that he should have engraved them all himself. He seems at
+first to have worked for fame, and afterwards to have turned a
+manufacturer of wood-cuts for money. The cuts with his mark contained in
+a quarto book entitled “Bibels Tresoor,” printed at Amsterdam
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page440" id = "page440">
+440</a></span>
+in 1646, by no means afford an idea of his ability as a wood-engraver;
+many of them are wretched copies of old wood-cuts designed by Albert
+Durer and other old masters, discreditable alike to the engraver and to
+the originals. The following is a slightly reduced copy of a cut,
+engraved by Van Sichem, from a design by Henry Goltzius. The original,
+which was probably engraved about 1607, may be considered as an average
+specimen of the engraver’s talents; it is not so well executed as some
+of his best large cuts, while it is much superior to the greater number
+of the small cuts which contain his mark. The subject is Judith with the
+head of Holofernes.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_440" id = "illus_440">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_440.png" width = "337" height = "444"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>About 1625 a French wood engraver of the name of Businck executed
+several chiaro-scuros chiefly from designs by Lalleman and Bloemart; and
+between 1630 and 1647, Bartolomeo Coriolano, who sometimes styles
+himself “Romanus Eques,” practised the same art
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page441" id = "page441">
+441</a></span>
+at Bologna with great reputation.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI123" id =
+"tagVI123" href = "#noteVI123">VI.123</a> In an edition of Hubert
+Goltzius’s Lives of the Roman Emperors, enlarged by Casper Gevartius,
+folio, printed at Antwerp in 1645, the portraits, in the manner of
+chiaro-scuros, from two blocks, are executed with great spirit. The name
+of the engraver is not mentioned, but from the mark I.&nbsp;C.
+I.&nbsp;on a tail-piece at the end of the work, I&nbsp;am inclined to
+think that he was the same person who engraved the cuts in a little book
+of devotion, first printed in Latin, French, Spanish, and Flemish, at
+Antwerp, about 1646.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI124" id = "tagVI124"
+href = "#noteVI124">VI.124</a> The number of cuts in this little work is
+forty, and most of them contain the mark of the designer, <img class =
+"middle" src = "images/illus_441.png" width = "22" height = "22" alt =
+"AS">, as well as that of the engraver. From the drawing of these cuts
+it would seem that the designer was either a pupil of Rubens, or had
+closely copied his manner. In Professor Christ’s Dictionary of Monograms
+the mark <img class = "middle" src = "images/illus_441.png" width = "22"
+height = "22" alt = "AS"> is ascribed to Andrea Salmincio, “an engraver
+and pupil of Valesius.” Papillon, Traité de la Gravure en Bois, tom.
+i.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;274, adopting Professor Christ’s explanation of the
+mark, mentions “Andrea Salmincio” as the designer of those cuts; but in
+page 461 of the same volume, he says, referring to his former statement,
+that he had since been informed by M.&nbsp;Eisen, a&nbsp;painter, and a
+native of Valenciennes, that they were designed by “a&nbsp;famous
+Flemish painter and engraver on wood, named Sallarte,
+a&nbsp;contemporary of Rubens, and who is supposed to have assisted the
+latter in some of his great works.” Those cuts may perhaps be considered
+as the last series that were expressly designed by an artist of talent
+in the seventeenth century, for the purpose of being engraved on wood.
+The style in which they are executed is not worthy of the designs,
+though, considering the period, they are not without merit. The engraver
+appears to have been extremely partial to a kind of cross-hatching, in
+which the interstices are more like squares than acute-angled lozenges,
+thus giving to the figures and draperies a hard and unpliable
+appearance.</p>
+
+<p>Though several English wood engravings of the reigns of James&nbsp;I.
+and Charles&nbsp;I. have evidently been executed by professed wood
+engravers, yet a great proportion of those contained in English books
+and pamphlets printed in this country during the seventeenth century
+appear to have been the work of persons who had not learnt and did not
+regularly practise the art. The cuts of those occasional wood engravers,
+who were
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page442" id = "page442">
+442</a></span>
+most likely printers, are as rude in design as they are coarse in
+execution, frequently displaying something like the fac-simile of a
+boy’s drawing in his first attempts to sketch “the human <i>form</i>
+divine.” Such cuts, evidently executed on the spur of the moment, are of
+frequent occurrence in tracts and pamphlets published during the time of
+the war between Charles&nbsp;I. and the Parliament. Evelyn, in the first
+edition of his Sculptura, published in 1662, thus mentions Switzer as a
+wood engraver of that period: “We have likewise Switzer for cutting in
+wood, the son of a father<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI125" id =
+"tagVI125" href = "#noteVI125">VI.125</a> who sufficiently discovered
+his dexterity in the <i>Herbals</i> set forth by Mr. Parkinson, Lobel,
+and divers other works.” The cuts of plants in the work, usually called
+Lobel’s Botany, were most certainly not engraved by the elder Switzer;
+they are much superior to the cuts of the same kind which are
+undoubtedly of his engraving, and the work in which they first appeared
+was printed in London in 1571. He engraved the cuts in Speed’s History
+of Britain, folio, 1611; and, though the author calls him “the most
+exquisite and curious hand of that age,” they abundantly testify that he
+was a very ordinary workman. They are executed in a meagre, spiritless
+manner; the best are those which represent the portraitures of the
+ancient Britons. The cuts in Parkinson’s Paradisus Terrestris, folio,
+1629, were also undoubtedly engraved by him; his name,
+“<i>A.&nbsp;Switzer</i>,” with a graver underneath, occurs at the bottom
+of the very indifferent cut which forms the title-page. The portrait of
+the author is scarcely superior to the title-page; and the cuts of
+plants are the most worthless that are to be found in any work of the
+kind. It is not unlikely that the cuts in Topsell’s History of
+Four-footed Beasts, 1607, and in Moffet’s Theatre of Insects, 1634, were
+also engraved by the elder Switzer. The taste for wood-cuts must have
+been low indeed when such an engraver was considered one of the best of
+his age. Of the younger Switzer’s abilities I have had no means of
+judging, never having seen a single cut which was known to be of his
+engraving.</p>
+
+<p>Between 1650 and 1700 wood engraving, as a means of multiplying
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page443" id = "page443">
+443</a></span>
+the designs of eminent artists, either as illustrations of books or as
+separate cuts, may be considered as having reached its lowest ebb.
+A&nbsp;few tolerably well executed cuts of ornaments are occasionally to
+be found in Italian, French, and Dutch books of this period; but though
+they sufficiently attest that the race <i>of workmen</i> was not wholly
+extinct, they also afford ample proof that <i>artists</i> like those of
+former times had ceased to furnish designs for the wood engraver. The
+art of design was then, however, in a languishing condition throughout
+Europe; and even supposing that wood engraving had been as much in
+fashion as copper-plate printing then was for the purpose of
+illustrating books, it would be vain to expect in wood-cuts that
+excellence of composition and drawing which is not to be found in the
+works of the best painters of the time. Wood engravings to please must
+possess <i>some</i> merit in the design&mdash;must show some trait of
+feeling for his subject on the part of the designer. Deficiency in this
+respect can never be compensated by dexterity of execution: in anything
+that approaches to fine art, mere workmanship, the result of laborious
+application, can never atone for want of mind. The man who drew a
+portrait of Queen Anne with a pen, and wrote the Psalms in the lines of
+the face, and in the curls of the hair, in characters so small that it
+required a glass to read them, does not rank with a Vandyke or a
+Reynolds, nor even with a Lely or a Kneller. At the period of the
+greatest decline of wood engraving, the want that was felt was not of
+working engravers to execute cuts, but of talented artists to design
+them.</p>
+
+<p>The principal French wood engravers about the end of the seventeenth
+century were: Peter Le Sueur,&mdash;born in 1636, died 1716; his two
+sons, Peter and Vincent; John Papillon the elder&mdash;who died in 1710;
+and his son, of the same name, who was born in 1661, and died in 1723.
+Though John Michael Papillon, son of John Papillon the younger, and
+author of the Traité de la Gravure en Bois, speaks highly of the talents
+of the aforesaid members of the families of Le Sueur and Papillon as
+wood engravers, yet, from his account of their productions, it would
+seem that they were chiefly employed in engraving subjects which
+scarcely allowed of any display of excellence either in design or
+execution. Their fine works were ornamental letters, flowered vignettes,
+and tail-pieces for the booksellers; while their staple productions
+appear to have been blocks for card-makers and paper-stainers, with
+patterns for embroiderers, lace-workers, and ribbon-manufacturers. In
+the succeeding century, J.&nbsp;M. Papillon, grandson of the first John
+Papillon, and Nicholas le Sueur, grandson of the elder Peter Le Sueur,
+fully supported the character of their respective families as wood
+engravers. Some account of their works will be given in the proper
+place.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page444" id = "page444">
+444</a></span>
+<p>The tail-piece at the conclusion of this chapter will afford some
+idea of the primitive style of the wood-cuts previously mentioned as
+occurring in tracts and pamphlets printed in England during the civil
+war. It is a fac-simile of a cut which originally appeared on the
+title-page to the first known edition of Robin Hood’s Garland, printed
+in 1670.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVI126" id = "tagVI126" href =
+"#noteVI126">VI.126</a> The original block is now in the possession of
+Mr. William Garret of Newcastle-on-Tyne, and was frequently used by the
+late Mr. George Angus of that town, as it had also been by his
+predecessors in the same business, to decorate the title-pages of the
+penny histories and garlands, which they supplied in such abundance for
+the winter-evenings’ entertainment of the good folks of Northumberland
+and the “Bishoprick.” Mr. Douce, in the second volume of his
+Illustrations of Shakspeare, also gives a fac-simile of this cut; and
+the following is his explanation of the subject.</p>
+
+<p>“Mr. Ritson has taken notice of an old wooden cut ‘preserved on the
+title-page of a penny history (<i>Adam Bell, &amp;c.</i>), printed at
+Newcastle in 1772,’ and which represents, in his opinion, a&nbsp;morris
+dance, consisting of the following personages: 1.&nbsp;A bishop.
+2.&nbsp;Robin Hood. 3.&nbsp;The potter or beggar. 4.&nbsp;Little John.
+5.&nbsp;Friar Tuck. 6.&nbsp;Maid Marian. He remarks that the whole is
+too rude to merit a copy, a&nbsp;position that is not meant to be
+controverted; but it is necessary to introduce the cut in this place for
+the purpose of correcting an error into which the above ingenious writer
+has fallen. It is proper to mention that it originally appeared on the
+title-page to the first known edition of Robin Hood’s Garland, printed
+in 1670, 18mo. Now, this cut is certainly not the representation of a
+morris dance, but merely of the principal characters belonging to the
+Garland. These are Robin Hood, Little John, <i>Queen Catherine</i>, the
+bishop, the <i>curtal frier</i>, (not Tuck,) and the beggar. Even though
+it were admitted that Maid Marian and Friar Tuck were intended to be
+given, it could not be maintained that either the bishop or the beggar
+made part of a morris.”</p>
+
+<p>To give more specimens of wood engraving when in its lowest state of
+declension has not been thought necessary; for even at this period it
+would not be difficult to produce cuts which in point of mere execution
+are superior to many which appeared when the art was at its height. It
+is sufficient to have stated that, towards the end of the seventeenth
+century, wood engraving for the higher purposes of the art had sunk into
+utter neglect; that the best productions of the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page445" id = "page445">
+445</a></span>
+regular wood engravers of the period mostly consist of unmeaning
+ornaments which neither excite feeling nor suggest a thought; and that
+the wood-cuts which appear to have been engraved by persons not
+instructed in the business partake generally of the character of the
+following tail-piece. Having now brought down the history of the art of
+wood engraving to the end of the seventeenth century, its revival in the
+eighteenth, with some account of the works of Thomas Bewick and the
+principal English wood engravers of his time, will form the subject of
+the next chapter.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_445" id = "illus_445">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_445.png" width = "297" height = "295"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<div class = "footnote">
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI1" id = "noteVI1" href = "#tagVI1">VI.1</a>
+Besides those above mentioned, there is said to have been a “Death’s
+Dance” at the following places: in Hungerford’s Chapel, Salisbury
+Cathedral; Hexham Church; at Fescamp in Normandy, carved in stone; at
+Dresden; Leipsic; Annaberg; and Berne in Switzerland. The last, painted
+on the walls of the cloisters of the Dominican friars, was the work of
+Nicholas Emanuel Deutsch, previously mentioned at page 314. So early as
+1560 this painting was destroyed in consequence of the cloisters being
+pulled down to widen a street. There are two copies of it in
+water-colours preserved at Berne. From one of them a series of
+lithographic engravings has been made. An ample list of old paintings of
+this subject will be found in Mr. Douce’s Dance of Death, chapters iii.
+and iv, published by Pickering, 1833, and republished, with additions,
+by H.&nbsp;G. Bohn, 1858.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI2" id = "noteVI2" href = "#tagVI2">VI.2</a>
+Mr. Douce says, “Macaber was not a German or any other poet, but a
+nonentity.” He supposes that the name <i>Macaber</i> is only a slight
+and obvious corruption of <i>Macarius</i>, a Saint who lived as a hermit
+in Egypt, and of whom there is a story of his showing to three kings or
+noblemen an emblem of mortality in the shape of three skeletons. “The
+word <i>Macabre</i>,” observes Mr. Douce, “is found only in French
+authorities; and the Saint’s name, which in the modern orthography is
+<i>Macaire</i>, would in many ancient manuscripts be written
+<i>Macabre</i> instead of <i>Macaure</i>, the letter <i>b</i> being
+substituted for that of <i>u</i> from the caprice, ignorance, or
+carelessness of transcribers.” Mr. Douce’s conjecture would have been
+more feasible had he produced a single instance from any ancient
+manuscript of the name having been written <i>Macabre</i> instead of
+<i>Macaure</i> or <i>Macarius</i>. By a similar process of reasoning, it
+would not be difficult to prove a hundred old writers and poets
+non-entities. In the earliest French editions, the work is intitled “La
+Danse Macabre;” and in a Parisian edition, “Per Magistrum Guidonem
+Mercatorem pro Godefrido de Marnef,” folio, 1490, the title is as
+follows: “Chorea ab eximio Macabro versibus Alemanicis edita, et à Petro
+Desrey emendata.” This seems to prove that Peter Desrey knew something
+of a person named Macaber who had written a description of the Dance in
+German.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI3" id = "noteVI3" href = "#tagVI3">VI.3</a>
+Hans Holbein der Jüngere. Von Ulrich Hegner, S.&nbsp;309. Berlin,
+1827.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI4" id = "noteVI4" href = "#tagVI4">VI.4</a>
+All the persons introduced were of the size of life. Death, in only one
+instance, was represented as a perfect skeleton, and that was in the
+subject of the Doctor, whom he was supposed to address as follows:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse blackletter">
+<p>“Herr Doctor b’schaw die Anatomey</p>
+<p>An mir, ob sie recht g’macht sey.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>that is:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p class = "open">“Doctor, take of me a sight,</p>
+<p>Say if the skeleton be right.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It has been said that the Pope, the Emperor, and the King, were
+intended respectively for portraits of Pope Felix V, the Emperor
+Sigismund, and Albert II, his successor, as King of the Romans. This,
+however, is merely a conjecture, and not a very probable one. Sigismund
+died before the commencement of the plague which is said to have been
+the occasion of the painting.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI5" id = "noteVI5" href = "#tagVI5">VI.5</a>
+Those verses, as they appeared in later times, are as follows:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse blackletter">
+<p>“Heilig war ich auff Erd genan</p>
+<p>Ohn Gott der höchst führt ich mein stand.</p>
+<p>Der Ablass that mir gar wol lohnen</p>
+<p>Doch will der tod mein nicht verschonen.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Their meaning may be thus expressed in English:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p class = "open">“His Holiness, on earth my name;</p>
+<p>From God my power never came;</p>
+<p>Although by pardons wealth I got,</p>
+<p>Death, alas, will pardon not!”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI6" id = "noteVI6" href = "#tagVI6">VI.6</a>
+Several characters are to be found in those Dances of Death which do not
+occur in the Simulachres et Historiées Faces de la Mort of Lyons, 1538.
+In the preface to the Emblems of Mortality,&mdash;with wood-cuts by John
+Bewick, 1789,&mdash;written by John Sidney Hawkins, Esq., the following
+list is given of the cuts in an edition of “La grande Danse de Macabre
+des Hommes et Femmes,” 4to. printed at Troyes for John Garnier, but
+without a date. “The Pope, Emperor, Cardinal, King, Legate, Duke,
+Patriarch, Constable, Archbishop, Knight, Bishop, Squire, Abbot,
+Bailiff, Astrologer, Burgess, Canon, Merchant, Schoolmaster, Man of
+Arms, Chartreux, Serjeant, Monk, Usurer, Physician, Lover, Advocate,
+Minstrel, Curate, Labourer, Proctor, Gaoler, Pilgrim, Shepherd,
+Cordelier, Child, Clerk, Hermit, Adventurer, Fool. The women are the
+Queen, Duchess, Regent’s Wife, Knight’s Wife, Abbess, Squire’s Wife,
+Shepherdess, Cripple, Burgess’s Wife, Widow, Merchant’s Wife, Bailiff’s
+Wife, Young Wife, Dainty Dame, Female Philosopher, New-married Wife,
+Woman with Child, Old Maid, Female Cordelier, Chambermaid,
+Intelligence-Woman, Hostess, Nurse, Prioress, Damsel, Country Girl, Old
+Chambermaid, Huckstress, Strumpet, Nurse for Lying-in-Woman, Young Girl,
+Religious, Sorceress, Bigot, Fool.” Nearly the same characters occur in
+borders of the old Dutch Prayer Book mentioned at page 318, though in
+the latter they are yet more numerous; among the men there is a
+fowler&mdash;<i>vogelaer</i>&mdash;and among the women, the
+beauty&mdash;<i>scone</i>&mdash;and the old woman&mdash;<i>alde
+vrou</i>&mdash;which do not occur in the preceding list.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI7" id = "noteVI7" href = "#tagVI7">VI.7</a>
+It has been thought necessary to be thus particular in describing the
+title-page of this rare edition, as it is incorrectly described by Mr.
+Douce. In the copy in the British Museum the title-page is wanting.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI8" id = "noteVI8" href = "#tagVI8">VI.8</a>
+This “vray Zele” having said in the first page of the preface that the
+name and surname of the revered abbess had the same sound as his own,
+with the exception of the letter T, the editor of the Emblems
+conjectures “that his name was <span class = "smallcaps">Jean</span>,
+or, as it was anciently written, <span class = "smallcaps">Jehan de
+Ouszell</span>, or <span class = "smallcaps">Ozell</span> as it is now
+usually spelt.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI9" id = "noteVI9" href = "#tagVI9">VI.9</a>
+In the original, “avancantes autāt les patronées jusques ici.” The word
+<i>patronées</i>, I conceive to refer to cuts printed from wood-blocks.
+The editor of the Emblems, 1688, who is followed by Mr. Ottley,
+translated the passage, “exceeding all the <i>examples</i> hitherto.”
+Works executed by means of a stencil were in old French said to be
+<i>patronées</i>, and the word also appears to have been applied to
+impressions printed from wood-blocks. The verb <i>patroner</i> is thus
+explained in Noel and Chapsal’s Nouveau Dictionnaire de la Langue
+Française, Paris, 1828: “Terme de cartier: enduire de couleur, au moyen
+du patron évidé, les endroits où cette couleur doit paraître.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI10" id = "noteVI10" href = "#tagVI10">VI.10</a>
+Mr. Douce supposes that the rainbow here alluded to was that which
+appears in the cut of the Last Judgment, the last but one in the first
+edition. The writer evidently means the natural rainbow which is mostly
+seen imperfect.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI11" id = "noteVI11" href = "#tagVI11">VI.11</a>
+Traité de la Gravure en Bois, tom. i. p. 168. Papillon in a preceding
+page had observed: “These cuts must have been engraved about 1530, for
+we find the four first among the little figures of the Old Testament
+printed in 1539, from which it is easy to perceive that many thousand
+impressions had already been taken from the blocks.”&mdash;Those four
+cuts in the first edition of the Dance of Death, have not the slightest
+appearance of having been from blocks that had already furnished many
+thousand impressions. In the copy now before me, I&nbsp;cannot perceive
+a break or an imperfection in the most delicate lines. The first edition
+of the “Historiarum Veteris Testamenti Icones,” to which Papillon
+alludes, first appeared in the same year as the Simulachres, 1538, and
+from the office of the same publishers, the brothers Melchior and Gaspar
+Trechsel.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI12" id = "noteVI12" href = "#tagVI12">VI.12</a>
+Inquiry into the Origin and Early History of Engraving, vol. ii.
+p.&nbsp;762.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI13" id = "noteVI13" href = "#tagVI13">VI.13</a>
+Those cuts, with that of the astrologer and five others, supplied from a
+later edition, were bought, at the sale of Mr. Ottley’s prints, in 1837,
+for the British Museum, for £37 10<i>s.</i> In the catalogue, which,
+I&nbsp;understand, was chiefly drawn up from his own memoranda, they are
+thus described, under the head “<span class = "smallcaps">Hans
+Holbein</span>,” No.&nbsp;458: “<span class = "smallcaps">The celebrated
+Dance of Death</span>, first impressions, printed (probably at Basle,
+about 1530,) upon one side only, with German titles at the top in type;
+supposed to be <span class = "smallroman">UNIQUE</span>.” That they were
+printed in 1530 is highly <i>improbable</i>, and they certainly are
+<span class = "smallroman">NOT</span> <i>unique</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI14" id = "noteVI14" href = "#tagVI14">VI.14</a>
+The French verses were translated into Latin by George Æmylius, “an
+eminent German divine of Mansfelt,” says Mr. Douce, “and the author of
+many pious works.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI15" id = "noteVI15" href = "#tagVI15">VI.15</a>
+Some copies have the title “Icones Mortis;” and though they correspond
+in every other respect with those of the same year, intitled Imagines
+Mortis, Mr. Douce seems to consider that this trifling variation is a
+sufficient ground for describing them as different editions.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI16" id = "noteVI16" href = "#tagVI16">VI.16</a>
+Dance of Death, p. 107, edit. 1833 (Bohn’s edition, p.&nbsp;95). It is
+stated in the Italian piracy that it was printed “<i>Con gratia e
+privilegio de l’Illustriss. Senato Vinitiano, per anni dieci. Appresso
+Vincenzo Vaugris, al Segno d’Erasmo.</i> <span class =
+"smallroman">MDXLV.</span>”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI17" id = "noteVI17" href = "#tagVI17">VI.17</a>
+Author of the work intitled, “Recherches sur les Danses des Morts.”
+Dijon et Paris, 1826.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI18" id = "noteVI18" href = "#tagVI18">VI.18</a>
+Dance of Death, p. 118. Edit. 1833.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI19" id = "noteVI19" href = "#tagVI19">VI.19</a>
+Mr. Douce gives another amusing instance of Papillon’s sagacity in
+assigning marks and names to their proper owners. “He (Papillon) had
+seen an edition of the Emblems of Sambucus with cuts, bearing the mark
+<img class = "middle" src = "images/illus_337a.png" width = "28" height
+= "21" alt = "SA">, in which there is a fine portrait of the author with
+his favourite dog, and under the latter the word <span class =
+"smallcaps">Bombo</span>, which Papillon gravely states to be the name
+of the engraver; and finding the same word on another of the emblems,
+which has also the dog, he concludes that all the cuts which have not
+the <img class = "middle" src = "images/illus_337a.png" width = "28"
+height = "21" alt = "SA"> were engraved by the same <span class =
+"smallcaps">Bombo</span>.”&mdash;Dance of Death, p.&nbsp;114, 1833.
+Those blunders of Papillon are to be found in his Traité Historique et
+Pratique de la Gravure en Bois, tom. i.&nbsp;pp. 238 et 525.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI20" id = "noteVI20" href = "#tagVI20">VI.20</a>
+Mr. Douce himself says, “about 1794.” A copy in the British Museum,
+formerly belonging to the late Reverend C.&nbsp;M. Cracherode, has,
+however, that gentleman’s usual mark, and the date 1793.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI21" id = "noteVI21" href = "#tagVI21">VI.21</a>
+Mr. Douce, when correcting the mistake of the writer of the address,
+commits an error himself. He says that “Death is in the act of
+untwisting the <i>fastening to one of the hoops</i>.” Now, it is very
+evident that he is undoing the rope or chain that steadies the cask and
+confines it to the waggon. He has hold of the stake or piece of wood,
+which serves as a <span class = "blackletter">twitch</span> to tighten
+the rope or chain, in the manner in which large timber is secured to the
+waggon in the present day.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI22" id = "noteVI22" href = "#tagVI22">VI.22</a>
+Dance of Death, p. 88. Edit. 1833 (Bohn’s edit. 1858, p.&nbsp;77.)</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI23" id = "noteVI23" href = "#tagVI23">VI.23</a>
+The words “<i>jà par luy trassées</i>” will apply more properly to
+drawings already made on the block, but unengraved, than to unfinished
+drawings on paper. It is indeed almost certain that the writer meant the
+former, for their “<i>audacieux traicts, perspectives, et umbrages</i>”
+are mentioned; they were moreover “<i>gracieusement deliniées</i>.”
+These expressions will apply correctly to a finished, though unengraved
+design on the block, but scarcely to an unfinished drawing on paper.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI24" id = "noteVI24" href = "#tagVI24">VI.24</a>
+I am very much inclined to think that Madame Jehanne de Touszele is a
+fictitious character. I&nbsp;have had no opportunities of learning if
+such a person were really abbess of the Convent of St. Peter at Lyons in
+1538, and must therefore leave this point to be decided by some other
+enquirer.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI25" id = "noteVI25" href = "#tagVI25">VI.25</a>
+Mechel’s work is in folio, with four subjects on each full page, and is
+entitled “Oeuvre de Jean Holbein, ou Receuil de Gravures d’après ses
+plus beaux ouvrages, &amp;c.&nbsp;Première Partie. La Triomphe de Mort.”
+It is dedicated to George III, and the presentation copy is in the
+King’s Library at the British Museum. The first part contains, besides
+forty-five subjects of the Dance of Death, the design for the sheath of
+a dagger from a drawing ascribed to Holbein, which has been re-engraved
+in the work of Mr. Douce. It is extremely doubtful if the drawings of
+the Dance, from which Mechel’s engravings are copied, be really by
+Holbein. They were purchased by M.&nbsp;Fleischmann of Strasburg, at
+Crozat’s sale at Paris in 1741. It was stated in the catalogue that they
+had formed part of the Arundelian collection, and that they had
+afterwards come into the possession of Jan Bockhorst, commonly called
+Lang Jan, a&nbsp;contemporary of Vandyke. This piece of information,
+however, can only be received as an auctioneer’s puff. M.&nbsp;Mechel
+himself, according to Mr. Douce, had not been able to trace those
+drawings previously to their falling into the hands of Monsieur Crozat.
+They were purchased of M.&nbsp;Fleischmann by Prince Gallitzin,
+a&nbsp;Russian nobleman, by whom they were lent to M.&nbsp;Mechel. They
+are now in the Imperial Library at Petersburg. According to Mr. Coxe,
+who saw them when in M.&nbsp;Mechel’s possession, they were drawn with a
+pen, and slightly shaded with Indian ink. Hegner, in his Life of
+Holbein, speaks slightingly of Mechel’s engravings, which he says were
+executed by one of his workmen from copies of the pretended original
+drawings made by an artist named Rudolph Schellenburg of Winterthur.
+Those copper-plates certainly appear feeble when compared with the
+wood-cut in the Lyons work, and Hegner’s criticism on the figure of Eve
+seems just, though Mr. Douce does not approve of it. Hegner says, “Let
+any one compare the figure of Eve under the tree in Mechel’s second
+plate with the second wood-cut; in the former she is sitting in as
+elegant an attitude as if she belonged to a French family by
+Boucher.”&mdash;Boucher, a&nbsp;French painter, who died in 1770, was
+famous in his time for the pretty women introduced into his
+landscapes.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI26" id = "noteVI26" href = "#tagVI26">VI.26</a>
+Mr. Douce in every instance spells the name thus. In the proofs of the
+alphabet of the Dance of Death it is <i>Lützelburger</i>, and below the
+cut with the date 1522, <i>Leuczellburger</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI27" id = "noteVI27" href = "#tagVI27">VI.27</a>
+There are proofs of this alphabet in the Royal Collection at Dresden, as
+well as in the Public Library at Basle.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI28" id = "noteVI28" href = "#tagVI28">VI.28</a>
+Hans Holbein der Jüngere, S. 332.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI29" id = "noteVI29" href = "#tagVI29">VI.29</a>
+Hans Ladenspelder was a native of Essen, a frontier town in the duchy of
+Berg. The following mark is to be found on his engravings <img class =
+"middle" src = "images/illus_355b.png" width = "29" height = "29" alt =
+"symbol">, which Bartsch thinks may be intended for the single letters
+I.&nbsp;L. V.&nbsp;E. S.,&mdash;representing the words <i>Joannes
+Ladenspelder Von Essen Sculpsit</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI30" id = "noteVI30" href = "#tagVI30">VI.30</a>
+Of this George Reperdius, or his works, nothing, I&nbsp;believe, is
+known beyond the brief mention of his name in conjunction with that of
+Holbein in the verses of Bourbon.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI31" id = "noteVI31" href = "#tagVI31">VI.31</a>
+Neither these verses, nor those previously cited, occur in the first
+edition of the Nugæ, Paris, 1533.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI32" id = "noteVI32" href = "#tagVI32">VI.32</a>
+At that period a wood-cut, as well as a painting, was termed
+<i>pictura</i>.&mdash;On the title-page of an edition of the New
+Testament, with wood-cuts, Zurich, 1554, by Froschover, we find the
+following: “Novi Testamenti Editio postrema per Des. Erasmum
+Roterodamum. Omnia <i>picturis</i> illustrata.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI33" id = "noteVI33" href = "#tagVI33">VI.33</a>
+Douce’s Dance of Death, pp. 80, 100, and 101.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI34" id = "noteVI34" href = "#tagVI34">VI.34</a>
+Mr. Douce here seems to lay some weight on the word <i>picta</i>, which,
+as has been previously observed, was applied equally to wood engravings
+and paintings.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI35" id = "noteVI35" href = "#tagVI35">VI.35</a>
+Douce, Dance of Death, p. 141.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI36" id = "noteVI36" href = "#tagVI36">VI.36</a>
+“The identification of William Benting,” says Mr. Douce with exquisite
+bon-hommie, “must be left to the sagacity of others. He <i>could not
+have been</i> the Earl of Portland created in 1689, or he would have
+been addressed accordingly. He is, moreover, described as a youth born
+at Whitehall, and then residing there, and whose dwelling consisted of
+nearly the whole of the palace that remained after the
+fire.”&mdash;Dance of Death, p.&nbsp;244. It appears that these
+addresses of Piccard were written in a foreign language, though, whether
+Dutch, French, German, or Latin, Mr. Douce most unaccountably neglects
+to say: he merely mentions that his extracts are translated.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI37" id = "noteVI37" href = "#tagVI37">VI.37</a>
+Douce’s Dance of Death, pp. 144, 145.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI38" id = "noteVI38" href = "#tagVI38">VI.38</a>
+That the reader may judge for himself of the similarity of thought in
+the passages referred to, they are here given in juxta-position.</p>
+
+<p class = "continue">
+“Car ses histoires funebres, avec leurs descriptions severement
+rithmées, aux advisans donnent telle admiration, qu’ilz en <i>jugent les
+mortz y apparoistre tresvivement</i>, et les vifs tresmortement
+representer. Qui me faict penser, que la Mort craignant que ce excellent
+painctre ne la paignist tant vifve qu’elle ne fut plus crainte pour
+Mort, <i>et que pour cela luy mesme n’en devint immortel</i>, que a
+ceste cause,” &amp;c.&mdash;<i>Epistre des Faces de la Mort.</i></p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p class = "open">“Dum mortis Hansus pictor imaginem exprimit,</p>
+<p>Tanta arte mortem retulit, ut mors vivere</p>
+<p>Videatur ipsa: et ipse se immortalibus</p>
+<p>Parem Diis fecerit, operis hujus gloria.”</p>
+<p class = "author"><i>Borbonius.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI39" id = "noteVI39" href = "#tagVI39">VI.39</a>
+Hegner, in his Life of Holbein, speaking of the Nieuhoff discovery,
+says: “Of this fable no notice would have been taken here had not Mr.
+Douce ascribed undeserved authority to it, and had not his superficial
+investigations found undeserved credit with English and other
+compilers.” Hans Holbein der Jüngere, S.&nbsp;338.</p>
+
+<p class = "continue">
+Mr. Douce, at page 240 of his Dance of Death, complains of Hegner’s want
+of urbanity and politeness; and in return calls his account of Holbein’s
+works <i>superficial</i>, and moreover says that “his arguments, if
+worthy of the name, are, generally speaking, of a most weak and flimsy
+texture.” He also gives him a sharp rebuff by alluding to him as the
+“above <i>gentleman</i>,” the last word, to give it point, being printed
+in Italics. Mr. Douce, when he was thus pelting Hegner, does not seem to
+have been aware that his own anti-Holbenian superstructure was a house
+of glass.</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+“Cedimus, inque vicem dedimus crura sagittis.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI40" id = "noteVI40" href = "#tagVI40">VI.40</a>
+Evelyn is only referred to here on account of his <i>silence</i> with
+respect to the pretended painting at Whitehall. What he says of Holbein
+cannot be relied on, as will be seen from the following passage, which
+is a fair specimen of his general knowledge and accuracy. “We have seen
+some few things cut in wood by the incomparable Hans Holbein the Dane,
+but they are rare and exceedingly difficult to come by; as his
+<i>Licentiousness of the Friars and Nuns</i>; <i>Erasmus</i>; <i>The
+Dance Macchabre</i>; the <i>Mortis Imago</i>, which he painted in great
+in the Church of Basil, and afterwards graved with no less
+art.”&mdash;Evelyn’s Sculpture, p.&nbsp;69. Edition 1769.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI41" id = "noteVI41" href = "#tagVI41">VI.41</a>
+“Imagines Mortis expressæ ab optimo pictore Johanne Holbein cum
+epigrammatibus Georgii Æmylii, excusæ Francofurti et Lugduni apud
+Frellonios, quorum editio plures habet picturas. Vidi etiam cum metris
+Gallicis et Germanicis, si bene memini.” Mr. Douce cites this passage
+from Gesner’s Pandectæ, “a&nbsp;supplemental volume of great rarity to
+his well-known Bibliotheca.” The correct title of the volume in which it
+occurs is “Partitiones Theologicæ, Pandectarum Universalium Conradi
+Gesneri Liber Ultimus.” Folio, printed by Christopher Froschover, Zurich
+(Tiguri) 1549. The notice of the Dance of Death is in folio 86,
+<i>a</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI42" id = "noteVI42" href = "#tagVI42">VI.42</a>
+Traité de la Gravure en Bois, tom. i. p. 165. Van Mander asserts that
+Holbein painted with his left hand; but Horace Walpole, however, in
+opposition to this, refers to a portrait of Holbein, formerly in the
+Arundelian collection, where he appears holding the pencil in his
+<i>right</i> hand.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI43" id = "noteVI43" href = "#tagVI43">VI.43</a>
+A copy of this edition is preserved in the Public Library at Basle, and
+there is another copy in the Royal Collection at Dresden. Another
+edition, in every respect similar to the first, was also printed by the
+brothers Trechsel in 1539. Hegner, in his Life of Holbein, does not seem
+to have known of this edition; speaking of that of 1538, he says, “It is
+probably the same as that to which Papillon gives the date 1539.” There
+is a copy of the edition of 1539 in the British Museum.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI44" id = "noteVI44" href = "#tagVI44">VI.44</a>
+“A comparison of the 8th subject of the Simulachres,” says Mr. Douce,
+“with that of the Bible for Esther <span class = "smallroman">I</span>,
+<span class = "smallroman">II</span>, where the canopy ornamented with
+fleurs-de-lis is the same in both, will contribute to strengthen the
+above conjecture, as will both the cuts to demonstrate their Gallic
+origin. It is most certain that the King sitting at table in the
+Simulachres is intended for Francis I, which if any one should doubt,
+let him look upon the miniature of that king, copied at p.&nbsp;214, in
+Clarke’s ‘Repertorium Bibliographicum.’” The “above conjecture” referred
+to in this extract is that previously cited at page 367, where Mr. Douce
+conjectures that Holbein <i>might have been</i> employed to complete the
+Bible cuts which <i>might have been</i> left unfinished in consequence
+of the death of Mr. Douce’s “great unknown” designer of the Dance of
+Death.&mdash;Dance of Death, p.&nbsp;96. Mr. Douce, not being able to
+deny the similarity of many of the cuts, says it is highly probable that
+Holbein was merely employed to finish the Bible cuts, without ever
+considering that it is <i>primâ facie</i> much more probable that
+Holbein was the designer of the cuts in both works.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI45" id = "noteVI45" href = "#tagVI45">VI.45</a>
+Dance of Death, p. 82.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI46" id = "noteVI46" href = "#tagVI46">VI.46</a>
+“Venit nuper Basileam ex Anglia Ioannes Holbein, adeo felicem ejus regni
+statum prædicans, qui aliquot septimanis exactis rursum eo migraturus
+est.” From a letter written by Rudolph Gualter to Henry Bullinger, of
+Zurich, about the middle of September 1538.&mdash;Quoted by Hegner,
+S.&nbsp;246.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI47" id = "noteVI47" href = "#tagVI47">VI.47</a>
+Dr. Dibdin, in his Bibliographical Tour vol. iii. pp. 80, 81, Edit.
+1829, mentions two paintings at Augsburg by the elder Holbein, one dated
+1499 and the other 1501. The elder Holbein had a brother named
+Sigismund, who was also a painter, and who appears to have established
+himself at Berne. Papillon, in his usual manner, makes Sigismund Holbein
+a wood engraver. By his will, dated 1540, he appoints his nephew Hans
+the heir of all his property in Berne.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI48" id = "noteVI48" href = "#tagVI48">VI.48</a>
+Patin’s edition of this work was published in octavo, at Basle, in 1676.
+It contains eighty-three copper-plate engravings, from pen-and-ink
+sketches, drawn by Holbein, in the margin of a copy of an edition
+printed by Frobenius, in 1514, and still preserved (1860) in the Public
+Library at Basle. It is said that Erasmus, when looking over those
+sketches, exclaimed, when he came to that intended for himself, “Oho, if
+Erasmus were now as he appears here, he would certainly take a wife.”
+Above another of the sketches, representing a man with one of his arms
+about a woman’s neck, and at the same time drinking out of a bottle,
+Erasmus is said to have written the name “<i>Holbein.</i>” In an edition
+of the Laus Stultitiæ, edited by G.&nbsp;G. Becker, Basle, 1780, 8vo.
+those sketches are engraved (very indifferently) on wood.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI49" id = "noteVI49" href = "#tagVI49">VI.49</a>
+Hegner, Hans Holbein der Jüngere, S. 110.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI50" id = "noteVI50" href = "#tagVI50">VI.50</a>
+It is conjectured by Walpole that this might be Henry Fitz-Alan, Earl of
+Arundel.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI51" id = "noteVI51" href = "#tagVI51">VI.51</a>
+It is impossible to exceed the beauty and skill that are manifested in
+this fine piece of art. The figures are, a&nbsp;king, queen, and a
+warrior; a&nbsp;young woman, a&nbsp;monk, and an infant; all of whom
+most unwillingly accompany Death in the Dance. The despair of the king,
+the dejection of the queen, accompanied by her little dog, the terror of
+the soldier who hears the drum of Death, the struggling of the female,
+the reluctance of the monk, and the sorrow of the poor infant, are
+depicted with equal spirit and veracity. The original drawing is in the
+public library at Basle, and ascribed to Holbein.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI52" id = "noteVI52" href = "#tagVI52">VI.52</a>
+The verses underneath the impressions which are supposed to be the
+earliest, are as follows:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p class = "open">“Corporis effigiem si quis non vidit Erasmi,</p>
+<p>Hunc scite ad vivum picta tabella dabit.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The others:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p class = "open">“Pallas Apellæam nuper mirata tabellam,</p>
+<p>Hanc, ait, æternum Bibliotheca colat.</p>
+<p>Dædaleam monstrat musis Holbeinnius artem,</p>
+<p>Et summi ingenii Magnus Erasmus opes.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI53" id = "noteVI53" href = "#tagVI53">VI.53</a>
+Erasmus, writing to Bilibald Pirkheimer, in 1524, says, “Rursus nuper
+misi in Angliam Erasmum bis pictum ab artifice satis eleganti.” Hegner
+thinks that this artist was Holbein. In 1517 a portrait of Erasmus, with
+that of his friend Petrus Aegidius, was painted at Antwerp by Quintin
+Matsys. It was intended by Erasmus as a present to Sir Thomas More. This
+painting came subsequently into the possession of Dr. Mead, at whose
+sale it was purchased, as the production of Holbein, by Lord Radnor, for
+£110.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI54" id = "noteVI54" href = "#tagVI54">VI.54</a>
+“Pictor tuus, Erasme carissime, mirus est artifex, sed vereor ne non
+sensurus sit Angliam tam fœcundam ac fertilem quam sperarat. Quanquam ne
+reperiat omnino sterilem, quoad per me fieri potest, efficiam. Ex aula
+Grenwici. 18 Dec. 1525.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI55" id = "noteVI55" href = "#tagVI55">VI.55</a>
+“Qui has reddit, est is qui me pinxit. Ejus commendatione te non
+gravabo, quanquam est insignis artifex. Si cupiet visere Quintinum, nec
+tibi vacabit hominem adducere, poteris per famulum commonstrare domum.
+Hic frigent artes: petit Angliam ut corradat aliquot angelatos: per eum
+poteris quæ voles scribere.”&mdash;Erasmi Epist.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI56" id = "noteVI56" href = "#tagVI56">VI.56</a>
+Erasmus, in a letter to Sir Thomas More, written from Freyburg in
+Brisgau, 5th September, 1529, alludes to a picture of More and his
+family which had been brought over by Holbein; and Margaret Roper, the
+eldest daughter of Sir Thomas More, writing to Erasmus in the following
+November, says, that she is pleased to hear of the painter’s arrival
+with the family picture,&mdash;“utriusque mei parentis nostrumque omnium
+effigiem depictam.” Hegner thinks that those portraits of Sir Thomas
+More and his family was only a drawing in pen-and-ink, which is now in
+the Public Library at Basle. The figures in this drawing are: Sir Thomas
+and his wife, his father, his son, and a young lady, three daughters,
+a&nbsp;servant, and Sir Thomas’s jester. Over and under the figures are
+written the name and age of each. The drawing is free and light; and the
+faces and hands are very distinctly expressed.&mdash;Hans Holbein der
+Jüngere, S.&nbsp;202-235-237. The drawing in the Public Library at Basle
+was probably a sketch of Holbein’s large picture of the family of Sir
+Thomas More.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI57" id = "noteVI57" href = "#tagVI57">VI.57</a>
+Holbein’s wife and <i>child</i> only, not children, are mentioned in
+this licence. It is not known what became of Holbein’s children, as
+there are no traces of his descendants to be found at Basle. Merian,
+a&nbsp;clergyman of Basle, in a letter to Mechel on this subject, in
+1779, writes to this effect: “According to a pedigree of the Merian
+family, printed at Regensburg in 1727, Christina Syf, daughter of
+Rodolph Syf and Judith Weissin, and grand-daughter of Hans Holbein the
+unequalled painter, (born 1597,) was married on the 17th of November
+1616 to Frederick Merian.” Perhaps it is meant that Judith Weissin was
+Holbein’s grand-daughter: there is evidently an error in the pedigree;
+and if it be wrong in this respect, it is not entitled to much credit in
+another.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI58" id = "noteVI58" href = "#tagVI58">VI.58</a>
+Hegner, S. 242.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI59" id = "noteVI59" href = "#tagVI59">VI.59</a>
+See Dallaway’s edition, revised by R. N. Wornum. London, Bohn, 1849,
+3&nbsp;vols. 8vo. Vol. i.&nbsp;pp. 66 et seq.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI60" id = "noteVI60" href = "#tagVI60">VI.60</a>
+Those designs were engraved on sixteen small plates by Hollar, but
+without his name. The enemies of Christ are represented in the dress of
+monks and friars, and instead of weapons they bear croziers, large
+candlesticks, and other church ornaments; Judas appears as a capucin,
+Annas as a cardinal, and Caiaphas as a bishop. In the subject of
+Christ’s Descent to Hades, the gates are hung with papal bulls and
+dispensations; above them are the Pope’s arms, and the devil as keeper
+of the gate wears a triple crown. Underneath this engraving are the
+following verses, which are certainly not of the period of Holbein:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p class = "open">“Lo! the Pope’s kitchin, where his soles are
+fried,</p>
+<p>Called Purgatorie; see his pardons tied</p>
+<p>On strings; his triple crown the Divell weares,</p>
+<p>And o’er the door the Pope’s own arms he beares.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the subject of Christ before Caiaphas is the following inscription
+in German: “<i>Wer wider die Römischen, der soll
+sterben</i>,”&mdash;that is, “He who is against the Romans shall
+die.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI61" id = "noteVI61" href = "#tagVI61">VI.61</a>
+The following is the title of this scarce little volume. “Catechismus,
+that is to say, a&nbsp;shorte instruction into Christian religion for
+the singuler commoditie and profyte of childrē and yong people. Set
+forth by the mooste reverende father in God, Thomas Archbyshop of
+Canterbury, primate of all Englande and Metropolitane.&mdash;Gualterus
+Lynne excudebat, 1548.” At the end of the book, under a cut of Christ
+with a child before him, is the colophon: “Imprynted at London, in
+S.&nbsp;Jhones Streete, by Nycolas Hyll, for Gwalter Lynne dwellyng on
+Somers kaye, by Byllynges gate.” Mr. Douce, at page 96, mentions a cut
+with the name <i>Hans Holbein</i> at the bottom, as occurring in the
+title-page of “A&nbsp;lytle treatise after the manner of an Epystle
+wryten by the famous clerk Doctor Urbanus Regius,” &amp;c.&nbsp;also
+published by Walter Lynne, 1548.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI62" id = "noteVI62" href = "#tagVI62">VI.62</a>
+Mr. Douce, in his observations prefixed to Hollar’s etchings of the
+Dance of Death, published by Edwards in 1794, says, “A&nbsp;<i>set</i>
+of cuts with the latter mark [<i>Hans Holben</i>] occurs in Archbishop
+Cranmer’s Catechism, printed by Walter Lyne, in 1548;” and in the same
+page he commits another mistake by describing the mark on the cut of the
+Duchess in the Lyons Dance of Death as <img class = "middle" src =
+"images/illus_441.png" width = "22" height = "22" alt = "HB">, instead
+of <img class = "middle" src = "images/illus_381b.png" width = "28"
+height = "20" alt = "HL">. It has been considered necessary to notice
+these errors, as it is probable that many persons who possess the work
+in which they occur, but who never may have seen a copy of the Lyons
+Dance of Death, nor of Cranmer’s Catechism, may have been misled in
+those matters by implicitly relying on Mr. Douce’s authority.
+A&nbsp;certain class of compilers are also extremely liable to transmit
+such mistakes, and, to borrow an expression of Hegner’s, to give
+currency to them, as if they stood ready for use “in
+<i>stereotype</i>.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI63" id = "noteVI63" href = "#tagVI63">VI.63</a>
+The title-page of this book&mdash;which has previously been referred to
+at page 357, in illustration of the word <i>picta</i>&mdash;is as
+follows: “Novi Testamenti Editio postrema per Des. Erasmum Roterodamum.
+Omnia picturis illustrata. Accesserunt Capitum argumenta Elegiaco
+carmine, Rudolpho Gualtero authore, conscripta. Tiguri, in Officina
+Froschoviana. Anno <span class = "smallroman">M.D.LIIII.</span>”
+8vo.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI64" id = "noteVI64" href = "#tagVI64">VI.64</a>
+The volume is of octavo size, and the title is as follows: “The Newe
+Testament. Imprinted at Antwerp by Marten Emperour. Anno <span class =
+"smallroman">M.D.XXXIIII.</span>” The letters on the wood-cut of the
+printer’s device, seen in the copies on paper, are <span class =
+"smallroman">M.&nbsp;K.</span> The first edition of Tindale’s
+Translation was printed in 1526. William Tindale, otherwise Hitchins,
+was born on the borders of Wales, but was of a Northumberland family,
+being descended from Adam de Tindale of Langley, near Haydon Bridge, in
+that county. He was strangled, and his body was afterwards burnt as that
+of a heretic by the popish party, at Vilvorde, near Brussels, in
+1536.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI65" id = "noteVI65" href = "#tagVI65">VI.65</a>
+The title of this edition is as follows: “<span class =
+"smallcaps">Biblia.</span> The Bible, that is, the holy Scripture of the
+Olde and Newe Testaments, faithfully translated out of Douche and Latyn
+in to Englishe. <span class = "smallroman">M.D.XXXV.</span>” This title
+is surrounded with an ornamental wood-cut border of ten compartments:
+1.&nbsp;Adam and Eve. 2.&nbsp;The name of Jehovah in Hebrew characters
+in the centre at the top. 3.&nbsp;Christ with the banner of the cross
+trampling on the serpent, sin, and death. 4.&nbsp;Moses receiving the
+tables of the law. 5.&nbsp;Jewish High Priest,&mdash;Esdras.
+6.&nbsp;Christ sending his disciples to preach the Gospel. 7.&nbsp;Paul
+preaching. 8.&nbsp;David playing on the harp. 9.&nbsp;In the centre at
+the bottom, King Henry VIII. on his throne giving a book&mdash;probably
+intended for the Bible&mdash;to certain abbots and bishops. 10.&nbsp;St.
+Paul with a sword. The day of the month mentioned in the colophon was
+probably the date of the last sheet being sent to press: “Prynted in the
+yeare of our Lorde <span class = "smallroman">M.D.XXXV</span>, and
+fynished the fourth daye of October.” Copies of this edition with the
+title-page are extremely rare. Some copies have a modern lithographed
+title prefixed, which is not exactly correct, though professedly a
+fac-simile: in one of the scrolls it has “<i>telius meus</i>” for
+“filius meus.” In the corresponding scroll in a copy in the British
+Museum the words are in English: “This is my deare Son in whom I delyte,
+heare him,”&mdash;above the figure of Christ with the banner of the
+cross. I&nbsp;have not the least doubt of this title-page having been
+designed by Holbein.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI66" id = "noteVI66" href = "#tagVI66">VI.66</a>
+The following is the title of this curious and scarce work: “Le Sorti di
+Francesco Marcolini da Forli, intitolate Giardino di Pensieri.”
+Dedicated, “Allo Illustrissimo Signore Hercole Estense, Duca di
+Ferrara.” At the conclusion is the colophon: “In Venetia per Francesco
+Marcolini da Forli, ne gli anni del Signore <span class =
+"smallroman">MDXXXX.</span> Del mese di Ottobre.” In a <i>proemio</i>,
+or preface, the author explains the manner of applying his “<i>piacevole
+inventione</i>,” which is nothing more than a mode of resolving
+questions by cards, and was probably suggested by Fanti’s Triompho di
+Fortuna, of which some account is given at page 315.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI67" id = "noteVI67" href = "#tagVI67">VI.67</a>
+Papillon, Traité de la Gravure en Bois, tom. i.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;137.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI68" id = "noteVI68" href = "#tagVI68">VI.68</a>
+This catalogue is printed in the second volume of Heineken’s Nachrichten
+von Künstlern und Kunst-Sachen, 8vo. Leipzig, 1768-1769. This work,
+which appeared two years before his Idée Générale d’une Collection
+complette d’Estampes, contains much information on the early history of
+art, which is not to be found in the latter. All the fac-similes of old
+engravings in the Idée Générale originally appeared in the Nachrichten.
+Heineken, in the first volume of this work, p.&nbsp;340, mentions
+Porta’s cut, but says nothing of its being copied from a design by
+Raffaele.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI69" id = "noteVI69" href = "#tagVI69">VI.69</a>
+Heineken, in his Nachrichten, 1er. Theil, S.&nbsp;340, says that Joseph
+Porta “was a pupil of <i>Cecchino</i> Salviati, who is not to be
+confounded with <i>Francesco</i> Salviati;” and yet in his Idée
+Générale, published subsequently, page 134, we find “Francesco del
+Salviati, autrement Rossi, de Florence, et son disciple Giuseppe Porta,
+appellé communément Giuseppe Salviati.” Heineken, in his first work,
+committed the mistake of supposing that Francesco Salviati’s to-name was
+the Christian name of another person. In Huber’s Notice Générale des
+Graveurs et Peintres, Francis Salviati appears as “François Cecchini,
+dit Salviati.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI70" id = "noteVI70" href = "#tagVI70">VI.70</a>
+The first forty-six cuts are the best, generally, both in design and
+execution. The others, commencing at page 108, are illustrative of the
+sayings and doctrines of ancient philosophers and moralists, and one or
+two of the cuts are repeated. In this portion of the work, each page,
+except what is occupied by the cut, is filled with explanatory or
+illustrative verses arranged in triplets.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI71" id = "noteVI71" href = "#tagVI71">VI.71</a>
+The first hundred and seven pages of the work are chiefly filled with
+similar figures of cards variously combined, with short references. How
+Marcolini’s pleasant invention is to be applied to discover the secrets
+of Fate, I&nbsp;have not been able to comprehend.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI72" id = "noteVI72" href = "#tagVI72">VI.72</a>
+The following is a literal copy of the title: “Libro di M.&nbsp;Giovam
+Battista Palatino, Cittadino Romano, Nelqual s’insegna à Scriver ogni
+sorte lettera, Antica &amp; Moderna, di qualunque natione, con le sue
+regole, &amp; misure, &amp; essempi: Et con un breve, et util Discorso
+de le Cifre: Riveduto novamente, &amp; corretto dal proprio Autore. Con
+la giunta di quindici tavole bellissime.” At the end of the work is the
+imprint: “In Roma per Valerio Dorico alla Chiavica de Santa Lucia. Ad
+Instantia de M.&nbsp;Giovan della Gatta. L’Anno <span class =
+"smallroman">M.D.LXI.</span>” 4to. Papillon says that the work first
+appeared in 1540, and was reprinted in 1545, 1547, 1548, 1550, 1553, and
+1556. An edition was also published at Venice in 1588.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI73" id = "noteVI73" href = "#tagVI73">VI.73</a>
+There is a curious allusion to a <i>Rebus</i> in Horace, Satyr. Lib.
+I.&nbsp;Sat.&nbsp;V., Vers. 88, which has escaped the notice of all his
+commentators:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p class = "open">“Quatuor hinc rapimur viginti et millia rhedis,</p>
+<p>Mansuri oppidulo, quod versu dicere non est,</p>
+<p><i>Signis perfacile est.</i>”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "continue">
+The place which he did not think proper to name was undoubtedly Asculum,
+whose situation exactly corresponds with the distance from
+<i>Trivicum</i>, where he rested the preceding night. From the manner in
+which Horace alludes to the <i>signa</i>&mdash;<i>as</i> and
+<i>culum</i>&mdash;of which the name is composed, it seems likely that a
+certain vulgar benison was not unknown at Rome in the age of
+Augustus.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI74" id = "noteVI74" href = "#tagVI74">VI.74</a>
+Remaines concerning Britaine, with additions by John Philpot, Somerset
+Herald, p.&nbsp;164. Edit. 1636.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI75" id = "noteVI75" href = "#tagVI75">VI.75</a>
+Papillon, who speaks highly of the execution of the cuts ascribed to
+Bernard Solomon, admits that they want effect. “La gravure,” says he,
+speaking of the cuts contained in ‘Quadrins Historiques de la Bible,’
+“est fort belle, excepté qu’elle manque de clair obscur, parce que les
+tailles sont presque toutes de la même teinte, ce qui fait que les
+lointains ne fuyent pas assez. C’est le seul defaut des gravures de
+Bernard Salomon; ce qui lui a été commun avec plus de quarante autres
+graveurs en bois de son temps.”&mdash;Traité de la Gravure en Bois, tom.
+i.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;209.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI76" id = "noteVI76" href = "#tagVI76">VI.76</a>
+Several editions of Alciat’s Emblems and Claude Paradin’s Devises
+Heroïques were published at Lyons in the sixteenth century. The first
+edition of the latter work was printed there by Jean de Tournes, in
+1557, 8vo.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI77" id = "noteVI77" href = "#tagVI77">VI.77</a>
+The following explanatory title occurs on the first cut: “Ces moeurs et
+fachons de faire de Turcz avecq’ les Regions y appartenantes, ont este
+au vif contrefactez par Pierre Coeck d’Alost, luy estant en Turquie,
+l’an de Jesu Christ <span class = "smallroman">M.D.</span> 33. Lequel
+assy de sa main propre a pourtraict ces figures duysantes à l’impression
+d’ycelles.” From another of the cuts we thus learn the time of his
+death: “Marie Verhulst vefue du dict Pierre d’Alost, trespasse en l’anne
+<span class = "smallroman">MDL</span>, a faict imprimer les dicts
+figures soubz Grace et Privilege de l’Imperialle Maiestie. En l’Ann
+<span class = "smallroman">MCCCCCLIII</span>.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI78" id = "noteVI78" href = "#tagVI78">VI.78</a>
+This interesting specimen of the combined arts of wood engraving and
+printing formerly belonged to the late Mr. Robert Branston, wood
+engraver, who executed several of the chiaro-scuros, and imitations of
+coloured drawings, in Savage’s work on Decorative Printing. It is now in
+the possession of his son, Mr. Frederick Branston, who is of the same
+profession as his father.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI79" id = "noteVI79" href = "#tagVI79">VI.79</a>
+The title-page of this work is printed in three colours,&mdash;black,
+sepia, and green. The black ornamental outlines are from an etched
+plate; the sepia and green colours are printed from wood-blocks. An
+edition of this work, enlarged by Gevartius, with portraits in two
+colours, and entirely engraved on wood, was printed at Antwerp in
+1645.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI80" id = "noteVI80" href = "#tagVI80">VI.80</a>
+Tom. i. p. 129. Paris, 1753.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI81" id = "noteVI81" href = "#tagVI81">VI.81</a>
+The following is a copy of the title: “Underweisung der Proportzion und
+Stellung der Possen, liegent und stehent; abgestochen wie man das vor
+augen sieht, in dem puchlein, durch Erhart Schon von Norrenberg; für die
+Jungen gesellen und Jungen zu unterrichtung die zu der Kunst lieb
+tragen. In den druck gepracht, 1538.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI82" id = "noteVI82" href = "#tagVI82">VI.82</a>
+This last letter contains the mark <img class = "middle" src =
+"images/illus_337a.png" width = "28" height = "21" alt = "SA">, which is
+to be found on some of the cuts in the editions of the Dance of Death
+printed at Cologne, 1555-1572.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI83" id = "noteVI83" href = "#tagVI83">VI.83</a>
+The title is as follows: “Johan. Posthii Germershemii Tetrasticha in
+Ovidii Metam. Lib. xv. Quibus accesserunt Vergilii Solis figuræ
+elegantissimæ, primum in lucem editæ.&mdash;Schöne Figuren, auss dem
+fürtrefflichen Poeten Ovidio, allen Malern, Goldtschmiden, und
+Bildthauern, zu nutz und gutem mit fleiss gerissen durch Vergilium
+Solis, und mit Teutschen Reimen kürtzlich erkläret, dergleichein vormals
+im Druck nie aussgangen, Durch Johan. Posthium von Germerssheim. <span
+class = "smallroman">M.D.LXIX.</span>”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI84" id = "noteVI84" href = "#tagVI84">VI.84</a>
+Hans Sachs, whose poetical works might vie in quantity with those of
+Lope Vega, was born at Nuremberg in 1494. Notwithstanding the immense
+number of verses which he composed, he did not trust to his profession
+of Meistersänger for the means of living, but continued to carry on his
+business as a shoemaker till his death, which happened in 1576. His
+verses were much admired by his contemporaries; and between 1570 and
+1579, a&nbsp;collection of his works was published in five volumes
+folio. Several short pieces by him were originally printed as
+“broadsides,” with an ornamental or illustrative cut at the top.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI85" id = "noteVI85" href = "#tagVI85">VI.85</a>
+Papillon, who appears to have been extremely wishful to swell his
+catalogue of wood engravers, describes Jost Amman of Zurich and Jost
+Amman of Nuremberg as two different persons.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI86" id = "noteVI86" href = "#tagVI86">VI.86</a>
+Heineken, Idée Générale, p. 244.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI87" id = "noteVI87" href = "#tagVI87">VI.87</a>
+The following is the title of the edition of 1568;&mdash;that of 1574 is
+somewhat different. “<span class = "smallroman greek" lang = "el" title
+= "(Greek) PANOPLIA">ΠΑΝΟΠΛΙΑ</span> omnium Illiberalium mechanicarum
+aut sedentariarum artium, continens quotquot unquam vel a veteribus, aut
+nostri etiam seculi celebritate excogitari potuerunt, breviter et
+dilucide confecta: carminum liber primus, tum mira varietate rerum
+vocabulorumque novo more excogitatorum copia perquam utilis, lectuque
+jucundus. Accesserunt etiam venustissimæ Imagines omnes omnium artificum
+negociantes ad vivum lectori representantes, antehac nec visæ nec unquam
+æditæ: per Hartman Schopperum, Novoforens. Noricum.&mdash;Frankofurti ad
+Moenum, cum privelegio Cæsario, <span class =
+"smallroman">M.D.LXVIII.</span>”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI88" id = "noteVI88" href = "#tagVI88">VI.88</a>
+The <i>Briefmalers</i>, though at that time evidently distinct from the
+<i>Formschneiders</i>, still continued to <i>print</i> wood-cuts. On
+several large wood-cuts with the dates 1553 and 1554 we find the words,
+“Gedrukt zu Nürnberg durch Hanns Glaser, <i>Brieffmaler</i>.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI89" id = "noteVI89" href = "#tagVI89">VI.89</a>
+See the mark C. S. at page 413.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI90" id = "noteVI90" href = "#tagVI90">VI.90</a>
+This work is entitled “Kunstbüchlein,” and consists entirely of cuts
+without any explanatory letter-press. The first cut consists of a group
+of heads, drawn and engraved with great spirit. On what appears
+something like a slab of stone or wood&mdash;most unmeaningly and
+awkwardly introduced&mdash;are Jost Amman’s initials, I.A., towards the
+top, and lower down the mark, <img class = "middle" src =
+"images/illus_412.png" width = "36" height = "20" alt = "MF"> which is
+doubtless that of the engraver. This mark, with a figure of a graver
+underneath, occurs on several of the other cuts. The three following
+marks, with a graver underneath each, also occur: L.&nbsp;F.
+C.S.&nbsp;G. H.&nbsp;These facts are sufficient to prove that Jost Amman
+was not the engraver of the cuts which he designed. In the edition of
+1599 the cuts are said to have been <i>drawn</i> by “the late most
+excellent and celebrated artist, Jost Amman of Nuremberg.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI91" id = "noteVI91" href = "#tagVI91">VI.91</a>
+It is uncertain if James I. or James II. be meant. According to Sir
+Walter Scott, Aeneas Sylvius, afterwards Pope Pius II, visited Scotland
+in 1448, when James II.&mdash;if Chalmers be correct, Caledonia, vol.
+i.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;831,&mdash;was scarcely nineteen, and when his
+appearance was not likely to correspond with the learned prelate’s
+description,&mdash;“hominem quadratum et multa pinguedine gravem.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI92" id = "noteVI92" href = "#tagVI92">VI.92</a>
+“Avium præcipuarum, quarum apud Plinium et Aristotelem mentio est,
+brevis et succincta historia. Per Dn. Gulielmum Turnerum, artium et
+medicinæ doctorem,” 8vo. Coloniæ, <span class =
+"smallroman">M.D.XLIIII</span>, fol. 9&nbsp;<i>b</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI93" id = "noteVI93" href = "#tagVI93">VI.93</a>
+In Professor Christ’s Dictionary of Monograms this mark is ascribed,
+though doubtfully, to “Manuel Deutsch.” It is certainly not the mark of
+Nicholas Emanuel Deutsch of Bern, for he died several years before 1548,
+the date on several of the cuts with the mark H.R.&nbsp;M.D.&nbsp;in
+Munster’s Cosmography, and which date evidently relates to the year in
+which the artist made the drawing. There can be no doubt that those four
+letters belong to a single name, for some of the cuts in which they
+occur also contain the mark of an engraver.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI94" id = "noteVI94" href = "#tagVI94">VI.94</a>
+A map of Russia, engraved wholly on wood, in a work entitled “Commentari
+della Moscovia e parimente della Russia,” &amp;c.&nbsp;translated from
+the Latin of Sigmund, Baron von Herberstein, printed at Venice, 4to.
+1550, is much superior in point of appearance to the best in the work of
+Munster. This map, which is of folio size, appears to have been
+constructed by “Giacomo Gastaldo, Piamontese, Cosmographo in Venetia.”
+The work also contains six wood-cuts, which afford some curious
+specimens of Russian and Tartar arms and costume.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI95" id = "noteVI95" href = "#tagVI95">VI.95</a>
+Philologicarum Epistolarum Centuria una, ex Bibliotheca M.&nbsp;H.
+Goldasti, p.&nbsp;165. 8vo. Francofurti, 1610.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI96" id = "noteVI96" href = "#tagVI96">VI.96</a>
+According to this method, certain words, together with radices and
+terminations of frequent occurrence, were cast entire, and not in
+separate letters, and placed in cases in such an order that the
+compositor could as “readily possess himself of the Type of a word as of
+the Type of a single letter.” This method, for which a patent was
+obtained, is explained in a pamphlet entitled “An Introduction to
+Logography: or the Art of Arranging and Composing for Printing with
+Words entire, their Radices and Terminations, instead of single Letters.
+By Henry Johnson: London, printed Logographically, and sold by
+J.&nbsp;Walter, bookseller, Charing Cross, and J.&nbsp;Sewell, Cornhill,
+<span class = "smallroman">M.DCC.LXXXIII.</span>” Several works were
+printed in this manner, and among others an edition of Anderson’s
+History of Commerce, 4&nbsp;vols. 4to. 1787-1789, by John Walter, at the
+Logographic Press, Printing-House-Square, Blackfriars. Logography has
+long been abandoned. The following account of this art is given in
+H.&nbsp;G. Bohn’s Lecture on Printing, pp. 88, 89. “Something akin to
+stereotyping is another mode of printing called Logography, invented by
+the late Mr. Walter, of the <i>Times</i>, in 1783, and for which he took
+out a patent. This means a system of printing from type cast in words
+instead of single letters, which it was thought would save time and
+corrections when applied to newspapers, but it was not found to answer.
+A&nbsp;joke of the time was a supposed order to the typefounder for some
+words of frequent occurrence, which ran thus:&mdash;‘Please send me a
+hundred-weight, sorted, of murder, fire, dreadful robbery, atrocious
+outrage, fearful calamity, alarming explosion, melancholy accident; an
+assortment of honourable member, whig, tory, hot, cold, wet, dry;
+half-a-hundred weight, made up in pounds, of butter, cheese, beef,
+mutton, tripe, mustard, soap, rain, &amp;c.; and a few devils, angels,
+women, groans, hisses, &amp;c.’ This method of printing did not succeed:
+for if twenty-four letters will give six hundred sextillions of
+combinations, no printing office could keep a sufficient assortment of
+even popular words.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI97" id = "noteVI97" href = "#tagVI97">VI.97</a>
+See an edition of Ptolemy, printed at Venice by Jacobus Pentius de
+Leucho, in 1511, previously noticed at page 203.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI98" id = "noteVI98" href = "#tagVI98">VI.98</a>
+Some account of this work is given at page 200.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI99" id = "noteVI99" href = "#tagVI99">VI.99</a>
+At page 204 it is stated, on the authority of Breitkopf, that those maps
+were engraved by Ægidius Diest. Ortelius himself says in the preface
+that they were engraved by “Francis Hogenberg, Ferdinand and Ambrose
+Arsens, and others.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI100" id = "noteVI100" href = "#tagVI100">VI.100</a>
+The portrait of Queen Elizabeth appears on the title; the Earl of
+Leicester’s is prefixed to the Book of Joshua; and Lord Burleigh’s is
+given, with a large initial B, at the beginning of the first psalm. In
+the second edition, 1572, the portrait of Lord Burleigh is omitted, and
+the impressions of the other two are much inferior to those in the first
+edition in consequence of the plates being worn. Many of the cuts in the
+second edition are quite different from those in the first, and
+generally inferior to the cuts for which they are substituted.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI101" id = "noteVI101" href = "#tagVI101">VI.101</a>
+“Humphrey Cole, as he says himself, was born in the North of England,
+and <i>pertayned to the mint in the Tower</i>, 1572. I&nbsp;suppose he
+was one of the engravers that <i>pertayned</i> to Archbishop Parker, for
+this edition was called Matthew Parker’s Bible. I&nbsp;hope the flattery
+of the favourites was the incense of the engraver!” Catalogue of
+Engravers, p.&nbsp;16. Edit. 1794.&mdash;Walpole does not appear to have
+paid the least attention to the engraver’s merits&mdash;supposing, as he
+does, the portraits to have been executed by him:&mdash;he sneers at him
+because he had engraved certain portraits for a <i>Bible</i>, and
+because he was supposed to have been patronised by a <i>bishop</i>. A
+more liberal writer on art would have praised Parker, although he were
+an <i>archbishop</i>, for his patronage of a native engraver.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI102" id = "noteVI102" href = "#tagVI102">VI.102</a>
+“Augustinus Ryther, <i>Anglus</i>,” occurs on the maps of Cumberland and
+Westmorland, Gloucester, and Yorkshire. Ryther afterwards kept a
+bookseller’s shop in Leadenhall-street. He engraved some maps and
+charts, which were published about 1588. On the map of the county of
+Hertford, Reynolds’s name occurs thus: “Nicholas Reynoldus, Londinensis,
+sculpsit.” Several of those maps were engraved by Remigius Hogenberg,
+one of the engravers who are said to have been employed by Archbishop
+Parker in his palace at Lambeth.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI103" id = "noteVI103" href = "#tagVI103">VI.103</a>
+This little work, entitled “Commentarioli Britannicæ Descriptionis
+Fragmentum,” was sent by the author to Ortelius, and the prefatory
+address is dated Denbigh, in North Wales, 30th August 1568.
+A&nbsp;translation of it, under the title of a “Breviary of Britain,”
+was printed at London in 1573.&mdash;Lhuyd had only furnished Ortelius
+with materials for the construction of the map of England.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI104" id = "noteVI104" href = "#tagVI104">VI.104</a>
+The name of “Thomas Raynalde, Physition,” is not to be found in the
+edition of 1540. The title of the work is, “The byrth of Mankynd, newly
+translated out of Latin into Englysshe. In the which is entreated of all
+suche thynges the which chaunce to women in theyr labor,”
+&amp;c.&nbsp;At folio vi. there is an address from Richard Jonas, “Unto
+the most gracious, and in all goodnesse most excellent vertuous Lady
+Quene Katheryne, wyfe and most derely belovyd spouse unto the moste
+myghty sapient Christen prynce, Kynge Henry the VIII.”&mdash;This “most
+excellent vertuous lady” was <i>Catherine Howard</i>. The imprint at the
+end of the work is as follows: “Imprynted at London, by T.&nbsp;R, Anno
+Domini, <span class = "smallroman">M.CCCCC.XL.</span>” Raynalde’s name
+first appears in the second edition, 1545. Between 1540 and 1600 there
+were at least eight editions of this work printed in London.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI105" id = "noteVI105" href = "#tagVI105">VI.105</a>
+At the end of the dedication to Henry VIII. he signs himself “Thomas
+Geminus, Lysiensis.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI106" id = "noteVI106" href = "#tagVI106">VI.106</a>
+In the edition of 1559 there is a large wood-cut&mdash;“Interiorum
+corporis humani partium viva delineatio”&mdash;with the mark R.&nbsp;S.
+and a graver underneath. In this cut the interior parts of the body are
+impressed on separate slips, which are pasted, by one edge, at the side
+of the figure. Those slips on being raised show the different parts as
+they occur on dissection.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI107" id = "noteVI107" href = "#tagVI107">VI.107</a>
+In Herbert’s edition of the Typographical Antiquities, vol. iii.
+p.&nbsp;1681, both parts of this work are said to have engraved titles,
+and the arms of Sir C.&nbsp;Hatton are said to occur at the back of the
+title to the first part. The work contains twenty-two maps and charts,
+probably copied from the original Dutch edition of Wagenar, who was a
+native of Enchuysen. There is no printer’s name in the English
+edition.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI108" id = "noteVI108" href = "#tagVI108">VI.108</a>
+Walpole erroneously states that “Broughton’s book was not printed till
+1600,” and he says that “the <i>cuts</i> were probably engraved by an
+English artist named William Rogers.” The mark <img class = "middle" src
+= "images/illus_423.png" width = "29" height = "22" alt = "WR"> is to be
+found on some of the plates of the edition of 1600, but it is to be
+observed that they are not the same as those in the edition of 1591. The
+<i>first</i> edition of the work was printed in 1588.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI109" id = "noteVI109" href = "#tagVI109">VI.109</a>
+The following is the title of this work: “The Cosmographical Glasse,
+conteinyng the pleasant Principles of Cosmographie, Geographie,
+Hydrographie or Navigation. Compiled by William Cuningham, Doctor in
+Physicke. Excussum Londini in officina Joan. Daii, Anno 1559.</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p>In this Glasse, if you will beholde</p>
+<p class = "indent">The starry skie and yearth so wide,</p>
+<p>The seas also, with the windes so colde,</p>
+<p class = "indent">Yea, and thy selfe all these to guide:</p>
+<p>What this Type mean first learne a right,</p>
+<p class = "indent">So shall the gayne thy travaill quight.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "continue">
+The “<i>Type</i>” mentioned in these verses relates to the various
+allegorical and other figures in the engraved title-page.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI110" id = "noteVI110" href = "#tagVI110">VI.110</a>
+This mark, which occurs in two other cuts of large letters in the
+Cosmographical Glasse, is also to be found on a large ornamented letter
+in Robert Record’s Castle of Knowledge, folio, printed at London, by
+Reginald Wolfe, 1556. This work, like that of Cuningham, is a treatise
+on Geography. A&nbsp;mark, I.&nbsp;C., with a graver between the
+letters, occurs frequently in cuts which ornament the margins of a work
+entitled “A&nbsp;Book of Christian Prayers,” &amp;c. 4to. first printed
+by John Day in 1569. It is usually called “Queen Elizabeth’s Prayer
+Book.” In Herbert’s edition of the Typographical Antiquities it is
+erroneously stated that such of the cuts as relate to the History of
+Christ are “after Albert Durer and his wife, <i>Agnes Frey</i>.” They
+are <i>not</i> copied from any cuts designed by Albert Durer, and his
+wife most certainly neither drew nor engraved on wood. It is also
+incorrectly stated “that a Dance of Death, in the same work, is after
+Hans Holbein.”&mdash;The cuts in this work are very unequal in point of
+execution. The best are those of the Senses&mdash;without any
+mark&mdash;Sight, Hearing, Taste, Smelling, and Touch. A&nbsp;mark not
+unlike that in the letter A, from Cuningham’s Cosmographical Glass,
+occurs on several of the smaller cuts.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI111" id = "noteVI111" href = "#tagVI111">VI.111</a>
+This work contains a considerable number of wood-cuts, all undoubtedly
+designed and engraved in England. Two of the best are Henry VIII,
+attended by his council, giving his sanction to the publication of the
+Bible in English, with the mark I.&nbsp;F.; and a view of Windsor
+Castle, with the mark M.&nbsp;D. Both these cuts are in the second
+volume of the edition of 1576.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI112" id = "noteVI112" href = "#tagVI112">VI.112</a>
+Dr. Dibdin, in his Preliminary Disquisition on Early Engraving and
+Ornamental Printing, in his edition of Ames and Herbert’s Typographical
+Antiquities, has given several curious specimens of large ornamented
+capitals.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI113" id = "noteVI113" href = "#tagVI113">VI.113</a>
+Bibliographical Decameron, vol. i. p. 289.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI114" id = "noteVI114" href = "#tagVI114">VI.114</a>
+“The pavement of this cathedral is the work of a succession of artists
+from Duccio down to Meccarino, who have produced the effect of the
+richest mosaic, merely by inserting grey marble into white, and hatching
+both with black mastic. The grandest composition is the History of
+Abraham, a&nbsp;figure which is unfortunately multiplied in the same
+compartments; but, when grasping the knife, the patriarch is truly
+sublime. These works lay exposed at least for a hundred years to the
+general tread, and have been rather improved than defaced by the
+attrition; for one female figure which had never been trodden looks
+harsher than the rest. Those of the choir were opportunely covered two
+centuries ago.”&mdash;Forsyth’s Italy, p.&nbsp;102, 2nd Edit.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI115" id = "noteVI115" href = "#tagVI115">VI.115</a>
+The following is the title of this work, which is a large octavo: “De
+gli Habiti Antichi et Moderni di diverse Parti del Mondo Libri due,
+fatti da Caesare Vecellio, &amp; con Discorsi da lui dichiriati. In
+Venetia, <span class = "smallroman">MD.XC.</span>” This work is thus
+mentioned in the notes to Rogers’s Italy: “Among the Habiti Antichi, in
+that admirable book of wood-cuts ascribed to Titian, (A.&nbsp;D. 1590,)
+there is one entitled Sposa Venetiana à Castello. It was taken from an
+old painting in the Scuola di S.&nbsp;Giovanni Evangelista, and by the
+writer is believed to represent one of the brides here
+described.”&mdash;Italy, p.&nbsp;257, note. Edit. 1830.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI116" id = "noteVI116" href = "#tagVI116">VI.116</a>
+A dog performing the same act occurs as a tail-piece in the first
+edition of Bewick’s Quadrupeds, 1790, page 310.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI117" id = "noteVI117" href = "#tagVI117">VI.117</a>
+I have seen a large head, which at first sight might be mistaken for an
+impression from a wood-block, executed by means of a stencil after a
+design of Correggio. It was unquestionably old, and was about three feet
+high by two and a half wide.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI118" id = "noteVI118" href = "#tagVI118">VI.118</a>
+The following is Papillon’s description of this cut: “Une Estampe que je
+possede, et que l’on regarde assez indifférement, est le Laocoon gravé
+en bois par le Titien, représenté sous la figure d’un singe et ses deux
+petits entourés de serpens. Il fit ce morceau pour railler les Peintres
+de son temps qui étudoient cette figure et les Statues antiques; et il
+prétendit démontrer par cette Estampe qu’ils ressembloient aux singes,
+lesquels ne font qu’imiter ce qu’ils voyent, sans rien inventer d’eux
+mêmes.”&mdash;Traité de la Gravure en Bois, tom.
+i.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;160.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI119" id = "noteVI119" href = "#tagVI119">VI.119</a>
+There is also in the Print Room of the British Museum a curious
+wood-cut, of large size, engraved on several blocks, apparently of the
+time of James&nbsp;I. The title at the top, in Latin and English, is as
+follows: “<span class = "smallcaps">Humanæ vitæ imago olim ab Apelle in
+tabula quadam depicta</span>. The image of the lyfe of man that was
+painted in a table by Apelles.” The subject, however, is not so much a
+general representation of the life of man in its several stages, as an
+allegorical representation of the evils attendant on sensual indulgence.
+Several of the figures are designed with great spirit, and the
+explanations underneath the principal are engraved on the same block, in
+Latin and English. It seems likely that this cut was engraved for the
+purpose of being pasted or hung against a wall. It is about five feet
+four inches wide by about three feet high. Some of the figures are
+engraved with considerable spirit, but the groups want that
+well-contrasted light and shade which give such effect to the large cuts
+of Durer and Burgmair. It is likely that large cuts of this kind were
+intended to be pasted on the walls of rooms, to serve at once for
+instruction and ornament, like “King Charles’s Golden Rules and the
+Royal Game of Goose” in later times.&mdash;<i>To this note Mr. Jackson
+adds in his annotated copy</i>: “The drawing appears to have been
+executed by an artist who was rather partial to cross-hatching, and the
+engraving by one who knew how to render every line before him with a
+degree of sharpness and delicacy by no means common at that period.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI120" id = "noteVI120" href = "#tagVI120">VI.120</a>
+The original cut is twenty-three inches and a half wide by eighteen
+inches high.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI121" id = "noteVI121" href = "#tagVI121">VI.121</a>
+The original is eighteen inches wide by thirteen inches and a half high,
+including the margin with the inscription “Cum privilegiis,” which is
+engraved on the same block.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI122" id = "noteVI122" href = "#tagVI122">VI.122</a>
+Papillon, tom. i. p. 274-276, calls this engraver <i>C.&nbsp;S.
+Vichem</i>; and charges Professor Christ with confounding three
+<i>Sichems</i> with three <i>Vichems</i>. The name at the bottom of the
+cut, in the following page, is most certainly intended for <i>C.&nbsp;V.
+Sichem</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI123" id = "noteVI123" href = "#tagVI123">VI.123</a>
+The twelfth volume of Bartsch’s Peintre-Graveur contains an ample list
+of Italian chiaro-scuros, together with the names of the painters and
+engravers.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI124" id = "noteVI124" href = "#tagVI124">VI.124</a>
+The only perfect copy which I have seen of this little work is in
+Spanish. The title is as follows: “La Perpetua Cruz, o&nbsp;Passion de
+Jesu Christo Nuestro Señor, desde el principio de su encarnacion hasta
+su muerte. Representada en quarenta estampas que se reparten de balde,
+y&nbsp;explicada con differentes razones y oraciones de devocion. En
+Amberes, en la emprenta de Cornelio Woons, 1650.” The cuts were engraved
+at the instance of the Archbishop of Malines. Before the Spanish edition
+appeared, thirty thousand copies of the work in Flemish and Latin had
+already been circulated.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI125" id = "noteVI125" href = "#tagVI125">VI.125</a>
+In Walpole’s Catalogue of Engravers there is the following notice of the
+elder Switzer: “In the Harleian Library was a set of wooden cuts,
+representing the broad seals of England from the conquest to
+James&nbsp;I. inclusive, neatly executed. Vertue says this was the sole
+impression he had seen, and believed that they were cut by Chr. Switzer,
+and that these plates were copied by Hollar for Sandford. Switzer also
+cut the coins and seals in Speed’s History of Britain, 1614 [1611], from
+the originals in the Cottonian Collection. Speed calls him <i>the most
+exquisite and curious hand of that age</i>. He probably engraved the
+botanic figures for Lobel’s Observations, and the plates [cuts] for
+Parkinson’s Paradisus Terrestris, 1629. Chr. Switzer’s works have
+sometimes been confounded with his son’s, who was of both his
+names.”&mdash;Catalogue of Engravers, p.&nbsp;18 note, Edit. 1794. It is
+doubtful if the elder Switzer’s Christian name were Christopher. The
+initial in Parkinson’s Paradisus Terrestris is an A.&nbsp;It is,
+however, possible that this letter may be intended for a Latin
+preposition, and not for the first letter of the engraver’s Christian
+name.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVI126" id = "noteVI126" href = "#tagVI126">VI.126</a>
+The cuts in an edition of “The most Delightful History of Reynard the
+Fox,” 4to. London, printed for Thomas Passinger, 1681, are scarcely
+superior to this cut in point of execution, though it must be confessed
+that the figures are generally in better “keeping.”</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "endnote">
+
+<h4>Illustrations with Text (pages 339-346, 437)</h4>
+
+<p><a name = "note_6a" id = "note_6a" href = "#illus_339">
+Page 339</a>:</p>
+
+<div class = "w25">
+<p class = "hanging">
+Quia audiſti vocem vxoris tuæ, &amp; comediſti<br>
+de ligno ex quo preceperam tibi ne come-<br>
+deres &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p class = "center extended">
+GENESIS &nbsp; III</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p><span class = "extended">ADAM</span> fut par <span class =
+"extended">EVE</span> deceu</p>
+<p>Et contre <span class = "extended">DIEV</span> mangea la pomm</p>
+<p>Dont tous deux out la Mort receu,</p>
+<p>Et depuis fut mortel tout homme.</p>
+<p class = "author">C</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name = "note_6b" id = "note_6b" href = "#illus_341">
+Page 341</a>:</p>
+
+<div class = "w25">
+<p class = "hanging">
+Spiritus meus attenuabitur, dies mihi bre-<br>
+viabuntur, &amp; ſolum mihi ſupereſt ſepul-<br>
+chrum.</p>
+
+<p class = "center extended">
+IOB &nbsp; XVII</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p>Mes eſperitz ſont attendriz,</p>
+<p>Et ma uie ſ’en ua tout beau.</p>
+<p>Las mes longz iours ſont amoindriz</p>
+<p>Plus ne me reſte qu’un tombeau.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name = "note_6c" id = "note_6c" href = "#illus_342">
+Page 342</a>:</p>
+
+<div class = "w25">
+<p class = "hanging">
+De lectulo ſuper quem aſcendi-<br>
+ſti non deſcendes, ſed morte<br>
+morieris.</p>
+
+<p class = "center extended">
+III &nbsp; REG. &nbsp; I</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p>Du lict ſus lequel as monté</p>
+<p>Ne deſcendras a ton plaiſir.</p>
+<p>Car Mort t’aura tantoſt dompté,</p>
+<p>Et en brief te uiendra ſaiſir.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name = "note_6d" id = "note_6d" href = "#illus_343">
+Page 343</a>:</p>
+
+<div class = "w25">
+<p class = "hanging">
+Homo natus de muliere, brevi vivens tempore<br>
+repletur multis miſeriis, qui quaſi flos egre-<br>
+ditur, &amp; conteritur, &amp; fugit velut umbra.</p>
+
+<p class = "center extended">
+IOB &nbsp; XIIII</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p>Tout homme de la femme yſſant</p>
+<p>Remply de miſere, &amp; d’encombre,</p>
+<p>Ainſi que fleur toſt finiſſant,</p>
+<p>Sort &amp; puis fuyt comme faict l’umbre.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name = "note_6e" id = "note_6e" href = "#illus_344">
+Page 344</a>:</p>
+
+<div class = "w25">
+<p>Il cheut en son chariot.</p>
+
+<p class = "center extended">
+I. &nbsp; ROIS &nbsp; IX.</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p>Au passage de MORT perverse</p>
+<p>Raison, Chartier tout esperdu,</p>
+<p>Du corps le char, &amp; chevaux verse,</p>
+<p>Le vin (sang de vie) esperdu.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name = "note_6f" id = "note_6f" href = "#illus_345">
+Page 345</a>:</p>
+
+<div class = "w25">
+<p>Il sera percé de sagettes.</p>
+
+<p class = "center extended">
+EXOD. &nbsp; XIX.</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p>L’eage du sens, du sang l’ardeur</p>
+<p>Est legier dard, &amp; foible escu</p>
+<p>Contre MORT, qui un tel dardeur</p>
+<p>De son propre dard rend vaincu.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name = "note_6g" id = "note_6g" href = "#illus_346">
+Page 346</a>:</p>
+
+<div class = "w25">
+<p>Il partira les despoilles avec les puissans.</p>
+
+<p class = "center extended">ISAIE &nbsp; LIII.</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p>Pour les victoires triumphées</p>
+<p>Sur les plus forts des humains cœurs,</p>
+<p>Les despoilles dresse en trophées</p>
+<p>La MORT vaincresse des vainqueurs.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name = "note_6h" id = "note_6h" href = "#illus_437">
+Page 437</a> (see body text for final six lines of sonnet):</p>
+
+<div class = "w30">
+<p>The good | Howſ-holder</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p>The good Howſ-holder, that his Howſe may hold,</p>
+<p class = "indent">Firſt builds it on the Rock, not on the Sand.</p>
+<p class = "indent">Then, with a warie head and charie hand</p>
+<p class = "indent">Pro[v]ides (in tyme) for Hunger and for Cold:</p>
+<p>Not daintie Fare and Furniture of Gold,</p>
+<p class = "indent">But handſom-holſom (as with Health dooth ſtand).</p>
+<p class = "indent">Not for the Rich that can as much command</p>
+<p class = "indent">But the poor Stranger, th’Orfan &amp; the Old.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>PRINTED AT LON<br>
+DON IN THE<br>
+BLACKE<br>
+FRIERS.<br>
+1607</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<!-- end div endnote -->
+
+<div class = "correction">
+<h5>Errors in Chapter VI</h5>
+
+<p><span class = "citation">
+10. <i>Die Keyserinn.</i>&mdash;The Empress.</span><br>
+<i>anomalous . in original</i></p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+To England straightway let him send,</span><br>
+<i>n in “send” invisible</i></p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+When Mr. Douce stated that it was</span><br>
+Mr Douce</p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+It strikingly exemplifies Mr. Douce’s eagerness</span><br>
+Mr Douce’s</p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+forms the tail-piece at the end of the volume.</span><br>
+tailpiece</p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+[VI-121]</span><br>
+<i>footnote tag missing: best guess</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "mynote">
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html">Introduction</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html#illus">List of Illustrations</a> (separate
+file)</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html">Chapter I</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_II">Chapter II</a> (separate
+file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_III">Chapter III</a> (separate
+file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html">Chapter IV</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#chap_V">Chapter V</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "#chap_VI">Chapter VI</a><br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html">Chapter VII</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html">Chapter VIII</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html">Chapter IX</a> (separate file)</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html#index">Index</a> (separate file)</p>
+</div>
+
+
+</body>
+</html>
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+<body>
+<div class = "mynote">
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html">Introduction</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html#illus">List of Illustrations</a> (separate
+file)</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html">Chapter I</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_II">Chapter II</a> (separate
+file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_III">Chapter III</a> (separate
+file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html">Chapter IV</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#chap_V">Chapter V</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html">Chapter VI</a> (separate file)<br>
+Chapter VII<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html">Chapter VIII</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html">Chapter IX</a> (separate file)</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html#index">Index</a> (separate file)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "titlepage">
+
+<h2><span class = "smallest">ON</span><br>
+WOOD ENGRAVING.</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page446" id = "page446">
+446</a></span>
+<h3><a name = "chap_VII" id = "chap_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a><br>
+<span class = "subhead">REVIVAL OF WOOD ENGRAVING.</span></h3>
+
+<p class = "synopsis">
+English wood-cuts in 1712&mdash;howel’s medulla historiæ
+anglicanæ&mdash;maittaire’s classics
+1713&mdash;e.&nbsp;kirkall&mdash;his chiaro-scuros&mdash;cuts in
+croxall’s æsop, 1722&mdash;j.&nbsp;b. jackson&mdash;chiaro-scuros
+engraved by him at venice, 1738-1742&mdash;french wood engravers,
+1710-1768; j.&nbsp;m. papillon, m.&nbsp;le sueur, and p.&nbsp;s.
+fournier&mdash;english wood-cuts, 1760-1772&mdash;cuts in sir john
+hawkins’s history of music, 1776&mdash;thomas bewick&mdash;his first
+wood-cuts, in hutton’s mensuration, 1768-1770&mdash;cuts by him in a
+hieroglyphic bible&mdash;in fables, 1779-1784&mdash;his cut of the
+chillingham bull&mdash;his quadrupeds, british birds, and
+fables&mdash;john bewick&mdash;cuts by him in emblems of mortality, and
+other books&mdash;poems by goldsmith and parnell&mdash;somerviles’s
+chase&mdash;robert johnson, designer of several of the tail-pieces in
+bewick’s works&mdash;charlton nesbit&mdash;luke clennell&mdash;william
+harvey&mdash;robert branston&mdash;john thompson, and others.</p>
+
+<div class = "maintext">
+
+<p class = "first"><span class = "firstword"><span class = "dropcap">
+<a name = "illus_446" id = "illus_446"><img src = "images/illus_446.png"
+width = "188" height = "188" alt = "A"></a></span>lthough</span>
+wood engraving had fallen into almost utter neglect by the end of the
+seventeenth century, and continued in a languishing state for many years
+afterward, yet the art was never lost, as some persons have stated; for
+both in England and in France a regular succession of wood engravers can
+be traced from 1700 to the time of Thomas Bewick. The cuts which appear
+in books printed in Germany, Holland, and Italy during the same period,
+though of very inferior execution, sufficiently prove that the art
+continued to be practised in those countries.</p>
+
+<p>The first English book of this period which requires notice is an
+edition of Howel’s Medulla Historiæ Anglicanæ, octavo, printed at London
+in 1712.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII1" id = "tagVII1" href =
+"#noteVII1">VII.1</a> There are upwards of sixty wood-cuts in this work,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page447" id = "page447">
+447</a></span>
+and the manner in which they are executed sufficiently indicates that
+the engraver must have either been self-taught or the pupil of a master
+who did not understand the art. The blocks have, for the most part, been
+engraved in the manner of copper-plates; most of the lines, which a
+regular wood engraver would have left in relief, are cut in
+<i>intaglio</i>, and hence in the impression they appear white where
+they ought to be black. The bookseller, in an address to the reader,
+thus proceeds to show the advantages of those cuts, and to answer any
+objection that might be urged against them on account of their being
+engraved on wood. “The cuts added in this edition are intended more for
+use than show. The utility consists in these two particulars. 1.&nbsp;To
+make the better impression on the memory. 2.&nbsp;To show more readily
+when the notable passages in our history were transacted; which, without
+the knowledge of the names of the persons, are not to be found out, by
+even the best indexes. As for example: In what reign was it that a
+rebellious rout, headed by a vile fellow, made great ravage, and
+appearing in the King’s presence with insolence, their captain was
+stabbed upon the spot by the Lord-Mayor? Here, without knowing the names
+of some of the parties, which a world of people are ignorant of, the
+story is not to be found by an index; but by the help of the cut, which
+catches the eye, is soon discovered. We all have heard of the piety of
+one of our queens who sucked the poison out of her husband’s wound, but
+very few remember which of them it was, which the cut presently shows.
+The same is to be said of all the rest, since we have chosen only such
+things as are <span class = "smallroman">NOTABILIA</span> in the history
+to describe in our sculptures.&mdash;And if it be objected that the
+graving is in wood, and not in copper, which would be more beautiful; we
+answer, that such would be much more expensive too. And we were willing
+to save the buyer’s purse; especially since even the best engraving
+would not better serve the purposes above-said.”</p>
+
+<p>Though no mark is to be found on any of those cuts, I am inclined to
+think that they were executed by Edward Kirkall, whose name appears as
+the engraver of the copper-plate frontispiece to the book. The accounts
+which we have of Kirkall are extremely unsatisfactory. Strutt says that
+he was born at Sheffield in 1695; and that, visiting London in search of
+improvement, he was for some time employed in graving arms, stamps, and
+ornaments for books. It is, however, likely that he was born previous to
+1695; for the frontispiece to Howel’s
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page448" id = "page448">
+448</a></span>
+Medulla is dated 1712, when, if Strutt be correct, Kirkall would be only
+seventeen. That he engraved on wood, as well as on copper, is
+unquestionable; and I am inclined to think that he either occasionally
+engraved small ornaments and head-pieces on type-metal for the use of
+printers, or that casts in this kind of metal were taken from some of
+his small cuts.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII2" id = "tagVII2" href =
+"#noteVII2">VII.2</a></p>
+
+<p>The head-pieces and ornaments in Maittaire’s Latin Classics,
+duodecimo, published by Tonson and Watts, 1713, were probably engraved
+on wood by Kirkall, as his initials, E.&nbsp;K., are to be found on one
+of the tail-pieces. Papillon speaks rather favourably of those small
+cuts, though he objects to the uniformity of the tint and the want of
+precision in the more delicate parts of the figures, such as the faces
+and hands. He notices the tail-piece with the mark E.&nbsp;K. as one of
+the best executed; and he suspects that these letters were intended for
+the name of an English painter&mdash;called <i>Ekwits</i>, to the best
+of his recollection,&mdash;who “taught the arts of painting and of
+engraving on wood to J.&nbsp;B. Jackson, so well known to the printers
+of Paris about 1730 from his having supplied them with so large a stock
+of indifferent cuts.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII3" id = "tagVII3"
+href = "#noteVII3">VII.3</a></p>
+
+<p>The cuts in Croxall’s edition of Æsop’s Fables, first published by
+J.&nbsp;and R.&nbsp;Tonson and J.&nbsp;Watts, in 1722, were, in all
+probability, executed by the same person who engraved the head-pieces
+and other ornaments in Maittaire’s Latin Classics, printed for the same
+publishers about nine years before; and there is reason to believe that
+this person, as has been previously observed, was E.&nbsp;Kirkall.
+Bewick, in the introduction prefixed to his “Fables of Æsop and others,”
+first printed in 1818, says that the cuts in Croxall’s edition were “on
+metal, in the manner of wood.” He, however, gives no reason for this
+opinion, and I very much question its correctness. After a careful
+inspection I have not been able to discover any peculiar mark which
+should induce me to suppose that they had been engraved on metal; and
+without some such mark indicating that the engraved surface had been
+fastened to the block to raise it to the height of the type,
+I&nbsp;consider it impossible for any person to decide merely from the
+appearance of the impressions that those cuts were printed from a
+metallic surface. The difference, in point of impression, between a
+wood-cut and an engraving on type-metal in the same manner, or a cast in
+type-metal from a wood-cut, is not to be distinguished. A&nbsp;wood
+engraver of the present day, when casts
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page449" id = "page449">
+449</a></span>
+from wood-cuts are so frequently used instead of the original engraved
+block, decides that a certain impression has been from a cast, not in
+consequence of any peculiarity in its appearance denoting that it is
+printed from a metallic surface, but from certain marks&mdash;little
+flaws in the lines and minute “picks”&mdash;which he knows are
+characteristic of a “cast.” When a cast, however, has been well taken,
+and afterwards carefully cleared out with the graver, it is frequently
+impossible to decide that the impression has been taken from it, unless
+the examiner have also before him an impression from the original block
+with which it may be compared; and even then, a&nbsp;person not very
+well acquainted with the practice of wood engraving and the method of
+taking casts from engraved wood-blocks, will be extremely liable to
+decide erroneously.</p>
+
+<p>Though it is by no means improbable that a person like Kirkall, who
+had been accustomed to engrave on copper, might attempt to engrave on
+type-metal in the same manner as on wood, and that he might thus execute
+a few small head-pieces and flowered ornaments, yet I consider it very
+unlikely that he should <i>continue to prefer metal</i> for the purpose
+of relief engraving after he had made a few experiments. The advantages
+of wood over type-metal are indeed so great, both as regards clearness
+of line and facility of execution, that it seems incredible that any
+person who had tried both materials should hesitate to give the
+preference to wood. If, however, the cuts in Croxall’s Æsop were really
+engraved on metal in the manner of wood, they are, as a series, the most
+extraordinary specimens of relief engraving for the purpose of printing,
+that have ever been executed. When Bewick stated that those cuts were
+engraved on metal, I&nbsp;am inclined to think that he founded his
+opinion rather on popular report than on close and impartial examination
+of the cuts themselves; and it is further to be observed that Thomas
+Bewick, with all his merits as a wood engraver, was not without his
+weaknesses as a man; he was not unwilling that people should believe
+that the art of wood engraving was lost in this country, and that the
+honour of its re-discovery, as well as of its subsequent advancement,
+was due to him. Though he was no doubt sincere in the opinion which he
+gave, yet those who know him are well aware that he would not have felt
+any pleasure in calling the attention of his readers to a series of
+wood-cuts executed in England upwards of thirty years before he was
+born, and which are not much inferior&mdash;except as regards the
+animals&mdash;to the cuts of fables engraved by himself and his brother
+previous to 1780.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII4" id = "tagVII4" href =
+"#noteVII4">VII.4</a> The cuts in Croxall’s Æsop not only
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page450" id = "page450">
+450</a></span>
+display great improvement in the engraver, supposing him to be the same
+person that executed the head-pieces and ornaments in Maittaire’s Latin
+Classics printed in 1713, but are very much superior to any cuts
+contained in works of the same kind printed in France between 1700 and
+1760.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII5" id = "tagVII5" href =
+"#noteVII5">VII.5</a></p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<div class = "picblock w300">
+<p><a name = "illus_450a" id = "illus_450a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_450a.png" width = "285" height = "225"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+FROM A COPPER-PLATE BY S. LE CLERC.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picblock w300">
+<p><a name = "illus_450b" id = "illus_450b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_450b.png" width = "275" height = "213"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+FROM A WOOD-CUT IN CROXALL’S ÆSOP.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many of the subjects in Croxall are merely reversed copies of
+engravings on copper by S.&nbsp;Le Clerc, illustrative of a French
+edition
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page451" id = "page451">
+451</a></span>
+of Æsop’s Fables published about 1694. The first of the preceding cuts
+is a fac-simile of one of Le Clerc’s engravings; and the second is a
+copy of the same subject as it appears in Croxall. The fable to which
+they both relate is the Fox and the Goat.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_451" id = "illus_451">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_451.png" width = "318" height = "231"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The above cut is by no means one of the best in Croxall: it has not
+been selected as a specimen of the manner in which those cuts are
+executed, but as an instance of the closeness with which the English
+wood-cuts have been copied from the French copper-plates. In several of
+the cuts in Bewick’s Fables of Æsop and others, the arrangement and
+composition appear to have been suggested by those in Croxall; but in
+every instance of this kind the modern artist has made the subject his
+own by the superior manner in which it is treated: he restores to the
+animals their proper forms, represents them <i>acting</i> their parts as
+described in the fable, and frequently introduces an incident or sketch
+of landscape which gives to the whole subject a natural character. The
+following copy of the Fox and Goat, in the Fables of Æsop and others,
+1818-1823, will serve to show how little the modern artist has borrowed
+in such instances from the cuts in Croxall, and how much has been
+supplied by himself.</p>
+
+<p>Between 1722 and 1724, Kirkall published by subscription twelve
+chiaro-scuros engraved by himself, chiefly after designs by old Italian
+masters. In those chiaro-scuros the outlines and the darker parts of the
+figures are printed from copper-plates, and the sepia-coloured tints
+afterwards impressed from wood-blocks; though they possess considerable
+merit, they are deficient in spirit, and will not bear a comparison with
+the chiaro-scuros executed by Ugo da Carpi and other early
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page452" id = "page452">
+452</a></span>
+Italian wood engravers. Most of them are too smooth, and want the bold
+outline and vigorous character which distinguish the old chiaro-scuros:
+what Kirkall gained in delicacy and precision by the introduction of
+mezzotint, he lost through the inefficient engraving of the wood-blocks.
+One of the largest of those chiaro-scuros is a copy of one of Ugo da
+Carpi’s&mdash;Æneas carrying his father on his shoulders&mdash;after a
+design by Raffaele. In Walpole’s Catalogue of Engravers, a&nbsp;notice
+of Kirkall’s “new method of printing, composed of etching, mezzotinto,
+and wooden stamps,” concludes with the following passage: “He performed
+several prints in this manner, and did great justice to the drawing and
+expression of the masters he imitated. This invention, for one may call
+it so, had much success, much applause, no imitators.&mdash;I suppose it
+is too laborious and too tedious. In an opulent country where there is
+great facility of getting money, it is seldom got by merit. Our artists
+are in too much hurry to gain it, or deserve it.”</p>
+
+<p>About 1724 Kirkall published seventeen views of shipping, from
+designs by W.&nbsp;Vandevelde, which he also called “prints in
+chiaro-scuro.” They have, however, no just pretensions to the name as it
+is usually understood when applied to prints, for they are merely tinted
+engravings worked off in a greenish-blue ink. These so-called
+chiaro-scuros are decided failures.</p>
+
+<p>Kirkall engraved, on copper, the plates in Rowe’s translation of
+Lucan’s Pharsalia, folio, published by Tonson, 1718; the plates for an
+edition of Inigo Jones’s Stonehenge, 1725; and a frontispiece to the
+works of Mrs. Eliza Haywood, which is thus alluded to in the
+Dunciad:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p class = "open">“See in the circle next Eliza placed,</p>
+<p>Two babes of love close clinging to her waist;</p>
+<p>Fair as before her works she stands confest,</p>
+<p>In flowers and pearls by bounteous Kirkall drest.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A considerable number of rude and tasteless ornaments and
+head-pieces, with the mark F.&nbsp;H., engraved on wood, are to be found
+in English books printed between 1720 and 1740. Several of them have
+been cast in type-metal,<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII6" id = "tagVII6"
+href = "#noteVII6">VII.6</a> as is evident from the marks of the pins,
+in the impressions, by which they have been fastened to the blocks; the
+same head-piece or ornament is also frequently found in books printed in
+the same year by different printers. Some of the best headings and
+tail-pieces of this period occur in a volume of “Miscellaneous Poems,
+original and translated, by several hands. Published
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page453" id = "page453">
+453</a></span>
+by Mr. Concanen,” London, printed for J.&nbsp;Peele, octavo, 1724. The
+subjects are, Apollo with a lyre; Minerva with a spear and shield; two
+men sifting corn; Hercules destroying the hydra; and a man with a large
+lantern. They are much superior to any cuts of the same kind with the
+mark F.&nbsp;H.; and from the manner in which they are executed,
+I&nbsp;am inclined to think that they are the work of the person who
+engraved the cuts in Croxall’s Æsop. The following is a fac-simile of
+one of the best of the cuts that I have ever seen with the mark
+F.&nbsp;H. It occurs as a tail-piece at the end of the preface to
+“Strephon’s Revenge: A&nbsp;Satire on the Oxford Toasts,” octavo,
+London, 1724.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII7" id = "tagVII7" href =
+"#noteVII7">VII.7</a></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_453" id = "illus_453">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_453.png" width = "286" height = "199"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>John Baptist Jackson, an English wood engraver, was, according to
+Papillon, a&nbsp;pupil of the person who engraved the small head-pieces
+and ornaments in Maittaire’s Latin Classics, published by Tonson and
+Watts in 1713; and as the cuts in Croxall’s Æsop were probably engraved
+by the same person, as has been previously observed, it is not unlikely
+that Jackson, as his apprentice, might have some share in their
+execution. Though these cuts were much superior to any that had appeared
+in England for about a hundred years previously, wood engraving seems to
+have received but little encouragement. Probably from want of employment
+in his own country, Jackson proceeded to Paris, where he remained
+several years, chiefly employed in engraving head-pieces and ornaments
+for the booksellers. Papillon, who seems to have borne no good-will
+towards Jackson, thus speaks of him in the first volume of his “Traité
+de la Gravure en Bois.”</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page454" id = "page454">
+454</a></span>
+<p>“J. Jackson, an Englishman, who resided several years in Paris, might
+have perfected himself in wood engraving, which he had learnt of an
+English painter, as I have previously mentioned, if he had been willing
+to follow the advice which it was in my power to give him. Having called
+on me, as soon as he arrived in Paris, to ask for work, I&nbsp;for
+several months gave him a few things to execute in order to afford him
+the means of subsistence. He, however, repaid me with ingratitude; he
+made a duplicate of a flowered ornament of my drawing, which he offered,
+before delivering to me the block, to the person for whom it was to be
+engraved. From the reproaches that I received, on the matter being
+discovered, I&nbsp;naturally declined to employ him any longer. He then
+went the round of the printing-offices in Paris, and was obliged to
+engrave his cuts without order, and to offer them for almost nothing;
+and many of the printers, profiting by his distress, supplied themselves
+amply with his cuts. He had acquired a certain insipid taste which was
+not above the little mosaics on snuff-boxes; and with ornaments of this
+kind, after the manner of several other inferior engravers, he
+surcharged his works. His mosaics, however delicately engraved, are
+always deficient in effect, and display the engraver’s patience rather
+than his talent; for the other parts of the cut, consisting of delicate
+lines without tints or a gradation of light and shade, want that force
+which is necessary to render the whole striking. Such wood engravings,
+however deficient in this respect, are yet admired by printers of vulgar
+taste, who foolishly pretend that they most resemble copper-plates, and
+that they print better than cuts of a picturesque character, and
+containing a variety of tints.</p>
+
+<p>“Jackson, being obliged, through destitution, to leave Paris, where
+he could get nothing more to do, travelled in France; and afterwards,
+being disgusted with his profession, he accompanied a painter to Rome,
+from whence he went to Venice, where, as I am informed, he married, and
+subsequently returned to England, his native country.”<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagVII8" id = "tagVII8" href = "#noteVII8">VII.8</a></p>
+
+<p>Though Papillon speaks disparagingly of Jackson, the latter was at
+least as good an engraver as himself. Jackson appears to have visited
+Paris not later than 1726, for Papillon mentions a vignette and a large
+letter engraved by him in that year for a Latin and French dictionary,
+printed in 1727 by the brothers Barbou; and it is likely that he
+remained there till about 1731. In an Italian translation of the Lives
+of the Twelve Cæsars, printed there in quarto 1738, there is a large
+ornamental title-page of his engraving; and in the same year he engraved
+a chiaro-scuro of Christ taken down from the cross, from a
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page455" id = "page455">
+455</a></span>
+painting by Rembrandt,<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII9" id = "tagVII9"
+href = "#noteVII9">VII.9</a> in the possession of Joseph Smith, Esq. the
+British consul at Venice, a&nbsp;well-known collector of pictures and
+other works of art. Between 1738 and 1742, when residing at Venice, he
+also engraved twenty-seven large chiaro-scuros,&mdash;chiefly after
+pictures by Titian, G.&nbsp;Bassano, Tintoret, and
+P.&nbsp;Veronese,&mdash;which were published in a large folio volume in
+the latter year. They are very unequal in point of merit; some of them
+appearing harsh and crude, and others flat and spiritless, when compared
+with similar productions of the old Italian wood engravers. One of the
+best is the Martyrdom of St. Peter Dominicanus, after Titian, with the
+date 1739; the manner in which the foliage of the trees is represented
+is particularly good. On his return to England he seems to have totally
+abandoned the practice of wood engraving in the ordinary manner for the
+purpose of illustrating or ornamenting books; for I have not been able
+to discover any English wood-cut of the period that either contains his
+mark, or seems, from its comparative excellence, to have been of his
+engraving. Finding no demand in this country for wood-cuts, he appears
+to have tried to render his knowledge of engraving in chiaro-scuro
+available for the purpose of printing paper-hangings. In an “Essay on
+the Invention of Engraving and Printing in Chiaro Oscuro,”<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagVII10" id = "tagVII10" href = "#noteVII10">VII.10</a>
+published in his name in 1754, we learn that he was then engaged in a
+manufacture of this kind at Battersea. The account given in this essay
+of the origin and progress of chiaro-scuro engraving is frequently
+incorrect; and from several of the statements which it contains, it
+would seem that the writer was very imperfectly acquainted with the
+works of his predecessors and contemporaries in the same department of
+wood engraving. From the following passage, which is to be found in the
+fifth page, it is evident that the writer was either ignorant of what
+had been done in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and even in
+his own age, or that he was wishful to enhance the merit of Mr.
+Jackson’s process by concealing what had recently been done in the same
+manner by others. “After having said all this, it may seem highly
+improper to give to Mr. Jackson the merit of inventing this art; but let
+me be permitted to say, that an art recovered is less little than an art
+invented. The works of the former artists remain indeed; but the manner
+in which they were done is entirely lost: the inventing then the manner
+is really due to this latter undertaker, since no writings, or other
+remains, are to be found by
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page456" id = "page456">
+456</a></span>
+which the method of former artists can be discovered, or in what manner
+they executed their works; nor, in truth, has the Italian method since
+the beginning of the sixteenth century been attempted by any one except
+Mr. Jackson.” What is here called the “Italian method,” that is, the
+method of executing chiaro-scuros entirely on wood, was practised in
+France at the end of the seventeenth century: and Nicholas Le Sueur had
+engraved several cuts in this manner about 1730, the very time when
+Jackson was living in Paris. The principles of the art had also been
+applied in France to the execution of paper-hangings upwards of fifty
+years before Jackson attempted to establish the same kind of manufacture
+in England. Not a word is said of the chiaro-scuros of Kirkall,<a class
+= "tag" name = "tagVII11" id = "tagVII11" href = "#noteVII11">VII.11</a>
+from whom it is likely that Jackson first acquired his knowledge of
+chiaro-scuro engraving: with the exception of the outlines and some
+other parts in these chiaro-scuros being executed in mezzotint, the
+printing of the rest from wood-blocks is precisely the same as in the
+Italian method.</p>
+
+<p>The Essay contains eight prints illustrative of Mr. Jackson’s method;
+four are chiaro-scuros, and four are printed in “proper colours,” as is
+expressed in the title, in imitation of drawings. They are very poorly
+executed, and are very much inferior to the chiaro-scuros engraved by
+Jackson when residing at Venice. The prints in “proper colours” are
+egregious failures. The following notices respecting Mr. Jackson are
+extracted from the Essay in question.</p>
+
+<p>“Certainly Mr. Jackson, the person of whom we speak, has not spent
+less time and pains, applied less assiduity, or travelled to fewer
+distant countries in search of perfecting his art, than other men;
+having passed twenty years in France and Italy to complete himself in
+drawing after the best masters in the best schools, and to see what
+antiquity had most worthy the attention of a student in his particular
+pursuits. After all this time spent in perfecting himself in his
+discoveries, like a true lover of his native country, he is returned
+with a design to communicate all the means which his endeavours can
+contribute to enrich the land where he drew his first breath, by adding
+to its commerce, and employing its inhabitants; and yet, like a citizen
+of it, he would willingly enjoy some little share of those advantages
+before he leaves this world, which he must leave behind him to his
+countrymen when he shall be no more.”</p>
+
+<p>“During his residence at Venice, where he made himself perfect
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page457" id = "page457">
+457</a></span>
+in the art which he professes, he finished many works well known to the
+nobility and gentry who travelled to that city whilst he lived in
+it.&mdash;Mr. Frederick, Mr. Lethuillier, and Mr. Smith, the English
+consul at Venice, encouraged Mr. Jackson to undertake to engrave in
+chiaro-oscuro, blocks after the most capital pictures of Titian,
+Tintoret, Giacomo Bassano, and Paul Veronese, which are to be found in
+Venice, and to this end procured him a subscription. In this work may be
+seen what engraving on wood will effectuate, and how truly the spirit
+and genius of every one of those celebrated masters are preserved in the
+prints.</p>
+
+<p>“During his executing this work he was honoured with the
+encouragement of the Right Honourable the Marquis of Hartington, Sir
+Roger Newdigate, Sir Bouchier Wrey, and other English gentlemen on their
+travels at Venice, who saw Mr. Jackson drawing on the blocks for the
+print after the famous picture of the Crucifixion painted by Tintoret in
+the albergo of St. Roche. Those prints may now be seen at his house at
+Battersea.&mdash;Not content with having brought his works in
+chiaro-oscuro to such perfection, he attempted to print landscapes in
+all their original colours; not only to give to the world all the
+outline light and shade, which is to be found in the paintings of the
+best masters, but in a great degree their very manner and taste of
+colouring. With this intent he published six landscapes,<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagVII12" id = "tagVII12" href = "#noteVII12">VII.12</a> which
+are his first attempt in this nature, in imitation of painting in
+<i>aquarillo</i> or water-colours; which work was taken notice of by the
+Earl of Holderness, then ambassador extraordinary to the republic of
+Venice; and his excellency was pleased to permit the dedication of those
+prints to him, and to encourage this new attempt of printing pictures
+with a very particular and very favourable regard, and to express his
+approbation of the merit of the inventor.”</p>
+
+<p>John Michael Papillon, one of the best French wood engravers of his
+age, was born in 1698. His grandfather and his father, as has been
+previously observed, were both wood engravers. In 1706, when only eight
+years old, he secretly made his first essay in wood engraving; and when
+only nine, his father, who had become aware of his amusing himself in
+this manner, gave him a large block to engrave, which he appears to have
+executed to his father’s satisfaction, though he had previously received
+no instructions in the art.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII13" id =
+"tagVII13" href = "#noteVII13">VII.13</a> The block was intended
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page458" id = "page458">
+458</a></span>
+for printing paper-hangings, the manufacture of which was his father’s
+principal business. Though until the time of his father’s death, which
+happened in 1723, Papillon appears to have been chiefly employed in such
+works, and in hanging the papers which he had previously engraved, he
+yet executed several vignettes and ornaments for the booksellers, and
+sedulously endeavoured to improve himself in this higher department of
+his business.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly after the death of his father he married; and, having given
+up the business of engraving paper-hangings, he laboured so hard to
+perfect himself in the art of designing and engraving vignettes and
+ornaments for books, that his head became affected; and he sometimes
+displayed such absence of mind that his wife became alarmed, fancying
+that “he no longer loved her.” On his assuring her that his behaviour
+was the result of his anxiety to improve himself in drawing and
+engraving on wood, and to write something about the art, she encouraged
+him in his purpose, and aided him with her advice, for, as she was the
+daughter of a clever man, M.&nbsp;Chaveau, a&nbsp;sculptor, and had
+herself made many pretty drawings on fans, she had some knowledge of
+design. Papillon’s fits of absence, however, though they may have been
+proximately induced by close application and anxiety about his success
+in the line to which he intended to apply himself in future, appear to
+have originated in a tendency to insanity, which at a later period
+displayed itself in a more decided manner. In 1759, in consequence of a
+determination of blood to the head, as he says, through excessive joy at
+seeing his only daughter, who had lived from the age of four years with
+her uncle, combined with a recollection of his former sorrows, his mind
+became so much disordered that it was necessary to send him to an
+hospital, where, through repeated bleedings and other remedies, he seems
+to have speedily recovered. He mentions that in the same year, four
+other engravers were attacked by the same malady, and that only one of
+them regained his senses.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII14" id =
+"tagVII14" href = "#noteVII14">VII.14</a></p>
+
+<p>Papillon’s endeavours to improve himself were not unsuccessful; the
+cuts which he engraved about 1724, though mostly small, possess
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page459" id = "page459">
+459</a></span>
+considerable merit; they are not only designed with much more feeling
+than the generality of those executed by other French engravers of the
+period, but are also much more effective, displaying a variety of tint
+and a contrast of light and shade which are not to be found in the works
+of his contemporaries. In 1726, in order to divert his anxiety and to
+bring his cuts into notice, he projected <i>Le petit Almanach de
+Paris</i>, which subsequently was generally known as “Le Papillon.” The
+first that he published was for the year 1727; and the wood-cuts which
+it contained equally attracted the attention of the public and of
+connoisseurs. Monsieur Colombat, the editor of the Court Calendar, spoke
+highly of the cut for the mouth of January; the cross-hatchings, he
+said, were executed in the first style of wood engraving, and he kindly
+predicted to Papillon that he would one day excel in his art. From this
+time he seems to have no longer had any doubt of his own abilities, but,
+on the contrary, to have entertained a very high opinion of them. He
+appears to have considered wood engraving as the highest of all the
+graphic arts, and himself as the greatest of all its professors, either
+ancient or modern.</p>
+
+<p>From this, to him, memorable epoch,&mdash;the publication of “Le
+petit Almanach de Paris,” with cuts by <span class =
+"smallcaps">Papillon</span>,&mdash;he appears to have been seldom
+without employment, for in the Supplement to the “Traité de la Gravure
+en Bois,” he mentions that in 1768, the “Collection of the Works of the
+Papillons,” presented by him to the Royal Library, contained upwards of
+<i>five thousand</i> pieces of his own engraving. This “Recueil des
+Papillons,” which he seems to have considered as a family monument “ære
+perennius,” is perpetually referred to in the course of his work. It
+consisted of four large folio volumes containing specimens of wood
+engravings executed by the different members of the Papillon family for
+three generations&mdash;his grandfather, his father, his uncle, his
+brother, and himself.</p>
+
+<p>Papillon was employed not only by the booksellers of his own country,
+but also by those of Holland. A&nbsp;book, entitled “Historische School
+en Huis-Bybel,” printed at Amsterdam in 1743, contains two hundred and
+seventeen cuts, all of which appear to have been either engraved by
+Papillon himself, or under his superintendence. His name appears on
+several of them, and they are all engraved in the same style. From a
+passage in the dedication, it seems likely that they had appeared in a
+similar work printed at the same place a few years previously. They are
+generally executed in a coarser manner than those contained in
+Papillon’s own work, but the style of engraving and general effect are
+the same. The cut on the next page is a copy of the first, which is one
+of the best in the work. To the left is
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page460" id = "page460">
+460</a></span>
+Papillon’s name, engraved, as was customary with him, in very small
+letters, with the date, 1734.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_460" id = "illus_460">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_460.png" width = "297" height = "216"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Papillon’s History of Wood Engraving, published in 1766, in two
+octavo volumes, with a Supplement,<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII15" id
+= "tagVII15" href = "#noteVII15">VII.15</a> under the title of “Traité
+Historique et Pratique de la Gravure en Bois,” is said to have been
+projected, and partly written, upwards of thirty years before it was
+given to the public. Shortly after his being admitted a member of the
+Society of Arts, in 1733, he read, at one of the meetings, a&nbsp;paper
+on the history and practice of wood engraving; and in 1735 the Society
+signified their approbation that a work written by him on the subject
+should be printed. It appears that the first volume of such a work was
+actually printed between 1736 and 1738, but never published. He does not
+explain why the work was not proceeded with at that time; and it would
+be useless to speculate on the possible causes of the interruption. He
+mentions that a copy of this volume was preserved in the Royal Library;
+and he charges Fournier the younger, who between 1758 and 1761 published
+three tracts on the invention of wood engraving and printing, with
+having availed himself of a portion of the historical information
+contained in this volume. The public, however, according to his own
+statement, gained by the delay; as he grew older he gained more
+knowledge of the history of the art, and “invented” several important
+improvements in his practice, all of which are embodied in his later
+work. In 1758 he also discovered the memoranda which he had made at
+Monsieur De Greder’s, in 1719 or 1720, relative to the interesting
+twins,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page461" id = "page461">
+461</a></span>
+Alexander Alberic Cunio and his sister Isabella, who, about 1284,
+between the fourteenth and sixteenth years of their age, executed a
+series of wood engravings illustrative of the history of Alexander the
+Great.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII16" id = "tagVII16" href =
+"#noteVII16">VII.16</a> However the reader may be delighted or amused by
+the romantic narrative of the Cunio, Papillon’s reputation as the
+historian of his art would most likely have stood a <i>little</i> higher
+had he never discovered those memoranda. They have very much the
+character of ill-contrived forgeries; and even supposing that he
+believed them, and printed them in good faith, his judgment must be
+sacrificed to save his honesty.</p>
+
+<p>The first volume of Papillon’s work contains the history of the art;
+it is divided into two parts, the first treating of wood engraving for
+the purpose of printing in the usual manner from a single block, and the
+second treating of chiaro-scuro. He does not trace the progress of the
+art by pointing out the improvements introduced at different periods; he
+enumerates all the principal cuts that he had seen, without reference to
+their execution as compared with those of an earlier date; and, from his
+desire to enhance the importance of his art, he claims almost every
+eminent painter whose name or mark is to be found on a cut, as a wood
+engraver. He is in this respect so extremely credulous as to assert that
+Mary de Medici, Queen of Henry IV. of France, had occasionally amused
+herself with engraving on wood; and in order to place the fact beyond
+doubt he refers to a cut representing the bust of a female, with the
+following inscription: “<span class = "smallcaps">Maria Medici.
+F.&nbsp;m.d.lxxxvii.</span>” “The engraving,” he observes, with his
+usual <i>bonhomie</i>, “is rather better than what might be reasonably
+expected from a person of such quality; it contains many
+cross-hatchings, somewhat unequal indeed, and occasionally imperfect,
+but, notwithstanding, sufficiently well engraved to show that she had
+executed several wood-cuts before she had attempted this. I&nbsp;know
+more than one wood engraver&mdash;or at least calling himself
+such&mdash;who is incapable of doing the like.” In 1587, the date of
+this cut, Mary de Medici was only fourteen years old; and since its
+execution, according to Papillon, shows that she was then no novice in
+the art, she must have acquired her practical knowledge of wood
+engraving at rather an early age,&mdash;at least for a princess.
+Papillon never seems to have considered that F is the first letter of
+“<span class = "smallcaps">Filia</span>” as well as of “<span class =
+"smallcaps">Fecit</span>,” nor to have suspected that the cut was simply
+a portrait of Mary de Medici, and not a specimen of her engraving.</p>
+
+<p>From the following passage in the preface, he seems to have been
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page462" id = "page462">
+462</a></span>
+aware that his including the names of many eminent painters in his list
+of wood engravers would be objected to. “Some persons, who entertain a
+preconceived opinion that many painters whom I mention have not engraved
+on wood, may perhaps dispute the works which I ascribe to them. Of such
+persons I have to request that they will not condemn me before they have
+acquainted themselves with my researches and examined my proofs, and
+that they will judge of them without prejudice or partiality.” The
+“researches” to which he alludes, appear to have consisted in searching
+out the names and marks of eminent painters in old wood-cuts, and his
+“proofs” are of the same kind as that which he alleges in support of his
+assertion that Mary de Medici had engraved on wood,&mdash;a fact which,
+as he remarks, “was unknown to Rubens.” The historical portion of
+Papillon’s work is indeed little more than a confused catalogue of all
+the wood-cuts which had come under his observation; it abounds in
+errors, and almost every page affords an instance of his credulity.</p>
+
+<p>In the second volume, which is occupied with details relative to the
+practice of the art, Papillon gives his instructions and enumerates his
+“inventions” in a style of complacent self-conceit. The most trifling
+remarks are accompanied by a reference to the “Recueil des Papillons;”
+and the most obvious means of effecting certain objects,&mdash;such
+means as had been regularly adopted by wood engravers for upwards of two
+hundred years previously, and such as in succeeding times have suggested
+themselves to persons who never received any instructions in the
+art,&mdash;are spoken of as important discoveries, and credit taken for
+them accordingly. One of his fancied discoveries is that of lowering the
+surface of a block towards the edges in order that the engraved lines in
+those parts may be less subject to the action of the <i>plattin</i> in
+printing, and consequently lighter in the impression. The Lyons Dance of
+Death, 1538, affords several instances of blocks lowered in this manner,
+not only towards the edges, but also in the middle of the cut, whenever
+it was necessary that certain delicately engraved lines should be
+lightly printed, and thus have the appearance of gradually diminishing
+till their extremities should scarcely be distinguishable from the paper
+on which they are impressed. Numerous instances of this practice are
+frequent in wood-cuts executed from 1540 to the decline of the art in
+the seventeenth century. Lowering was also practised by the engraver of
+the cuts in Croxall’s Æsop; by Thomas Bewick, who acquired a knowledge
+of wood engraving without a master; and by the self-taught artist who
+executed the cuts in Alexander’s Expedition down the Hydaspes,
+a&nbsp;poem by Dr. Thomas Beddoes, printed in 1792, but never
+published.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII17" id = "tagVII17" href =
+"#noteVII17">VII.17</a> As the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page463" id = "page463">
+463</a></span>
+same practice has recently been claimed as an “invention,” it would seem
+that some wood engravers are either apt to ascribe much importance to
+little things, or are singularly ignorant of what has been done by their
+predecessors. Such an “invention,” though unquestionably useful, surely
+does not require any particular ingenuity for its discovery; such
+“discoveries” every man makes for himself as soon as he feels the want
+of that which the so-called invention will supply. The man who pares the
+cork of a quart bottle in order to make it fit a smaller one is, with
+equal justice, entitled to the name of an inventor, provided he was not
+aware of the thing having been done before: such an “adaptation of means
+to the end” cannot, however, be considered as an effort of genius
+deserving of public commendation.</p>
+
+<p>In Papillon’s time it was not customary with French engravers on wood
+to have the subject perfectly drawn on the block, with all the lines and
+hatchings pencilled in, and the <i>effect</i> and the different tints
+indicated either in pencil or in Indian ink, as is the usual practice in
+the present day. The design was first drawn on paper; from this, by
+means of tracing paper, the engraver made an outline copy on the block;
+and, without pencilling in all the lines or washing in the tints, he
+proceeded to “translate” the original, to which he constantly referred
+in the progress of his work, in the same manner as a copper-plate
+engraver does to the drawing or painting before him. Papillon perceived
+the disadvantages which resulted from this mode of proceeding; and
+though he still continued to make his first drawing on paper, he copied
+it more carefully and distinctly on the block than was usual with his
+contemporaries. He was thus enabled to proceed with greater certainty in
+his engraving; what he had to effect was immediately before him, and it
+was no longer necessary to refer so frequently to the original. To the
+circumstance of the drawings being perfectly made on the block, Papillon
+ascribes in a great measure the excellence of the old wood engravings of
+the time of Durer and Holbein.</p>
+
+<p>Papillon, although always inclined to magnify little things connected
+with wood engraving, and to take great credit to himself for trifling
+“inventions,” was yet thoroughly acquainted with the practice of his
+art. The mode of thickening the lines in certain parts of a cut, after
+it has
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page464" id = "page464">
+464</a></span>
+been engraved, by scraping them down, was frequently practised by him,
+and he explains the manner of proceeding, and gives a cut of the tools
+required in the operation.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII18" id =
+"tagVII18" href = "#noteVII18">VII.18</a> As Papillon, previous to the
+publication of his book, had contributed several papers on the subject
+of wood engraving to the famed Encyclopédie, he avails himself of the
+second volume of the Traité to propose several additions and corrections
+to those articles. The following definition proposed to be inserted in
+the Encyclopédie, after the article <span class =
+"smallcaps">Gratuit</span>, will afford some idea of the manner in which
+he is accustomed to speak of his “inventions.” The term which he
+explains is “<span class = "smallcaps">Gratture</span> ou <span class =
+"smallcaps">Grattage</span>,” literally, “<span class =
+"smallcaps">Scraping</span>,” the practice just alluded to. “This is,
+according to the new manner of engraving on wood, the operation of
+skilfully and carefully scraping down parts in an engraved block which
+are not sufficiently dark, in order to give them, as may be required,
+greater strength, and to render the shades more effective. This
+admirable plan, utterly unknown before, was accidentally discovered in
+1731 by M.&nbsp;Papillon, by whom the art of wood engraving is advanced
+to a state tending to perfection, and approaching more and more towards
+the beauty of engraving on copper.” The tools used by Papillon to scrape
+down the lines of an engraved block, and thus render them thicker and,
+consequently, the impression darker, differ considerably in shape from
+those used for the same purpose by modern wood engravers in England.
+This tool now principally used is something like a copper-plate
+engraver’s burnisher, and occasionally a fine and sharp file is
+employed.</p>
+
+<p>In Papillon’s time the French wood engravers appear to have held the
+graver in the manner of a pen, and in forming a line to have cut
+<i>towards them</i> as in forming a down-stroke in writing, and to have
+engraved on the longitudinal, and not the cross section of the wood.
+Modern English wood engravers, having the rounded handle of the graver
+supported against the hollow of the hand, and directing the blade by
+means of the fore-finger and thumb, cut the line <i>from them</i>; and
+always engrave on the cross section of the wood. Papillon mentions box,
+pear-tree, apple-tree, and the wood of the service-tree, as the best for
+the purposes of engraving: box was generally used for the smaller and
+finer cuts intended for the illustration or ornament of books; the
+larger cuts, in which delicacy was not required, were mostly engraved on
+pear-tree wood. Apple-tree wood was principally used by the wood
+engravers of Normandy. Next to box, Papillon prefers the wood of the
+service-tree. The box brought from Turkey, though of larger size, he
+considers inferior to that of Provence, Italy, or Spain.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page465" id = "page465">
+465</a></span>
+<p>Although Papillon’s <i>modus operandi</i> differs considerably from
+that of English wood engravers of the present day, I&nbsp;am not aware
+of any supposed discovery in the modern practice of the art that was not
+known to him. The methods of lowering a block in certain parts before
+drawing the subject on it, and of thickening the lines, and thus getting
+more <i>colour</i>, by scraping the surface of the cut when engraved,
+were, as has been observed, known to him; he occasionally introduced
+cross-hatchings in his cuts;<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII19" id =
+"tagVII19" href = "#noteVII19">VII.19</a> and in one of his chapters he
+gives instructions how to insert a <i>plug</i> in a block, in order to
+replace a part which had either been spoiled in the course of engraving
+or subsequently damaged. One of the improvements which he suggested, but
+did not put in practice, was a plan for engraving the same subject on
+two, three, or four blocks, in order to obtain cross-hatchings and a
+variety of tints with less trouble than if the subject were entirely
+engraved on the same block. Such cuts were not to be printed as
+chiaro-scuros, but in the usual manner, with printer’s ink. It is worthy
+of observation that Bewick in the latter part of his life had formed a
+similar opinion of the advantages of engraving a subject on two or more
+blocks, and thus obtaining with comparative ease such cross-lines and
+varied tints as could only be executed with great difficulty on a single
+block. He, however, proceeded further than Papillon, for he began to
+engrave a large cut which he intended to finish in this manner; and he
+was so satisfied that the experiment would be successful, that when the
+pressman handed to him a proof of the first block, he exclaimed,
+“I&nbsp;wish I was but twenty years younger!”</p>
+
+<p>Papillon, in his account of the practice of the art, explains the
+manner of engraving and printing chiaro-scuros; and in illustration of
+the process he gives a cut executed in this style, together with
+separate impressions from each of the four blocks from which it is
+printed. There is also another cut of the same kind prefixed to the
+second part of the first volume, containing the history of engraving in
+chiaro-scuro. Scarcely anything connected with the practice of wood
+engraving appears to have escaped his notice. He mentions the effect of
+the breath in cold weather as rendering the block damp and the drawing
+less distinct; and he gives in one of his cuts the figure of a
+“mentonnière,”&mdash;that is to say, a&nbsp;piece of quilted linen, like
+the pad used by women to keep their bonnets cocked up,&mdash;which,
+being placed
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page466" id = "page466">
+466</a></span>
+before the mouth and nostrils, and kept in its place by strings tied
+behind the head, screened the block from the direct action of the
+engraver’s breath.</p>
+
+<p>He frequently complains of the careless manner in which wood-cuts
+were printed;<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII20" id = "tagVII20" href =
+"#noteVII20">VII.20</a> but from the following passage we learn that the
+inferiority of the printed cuts when compared with the engraver’s proofs
+did not always proceed from the negligence of the printer. “Some wood
+engravers have the art of fabricating proofs of their cuts much more
+excellent and delicate than they fairly ought to be; and the following
+is the manner in which they contrive to obtain tolerably decent proofs
+from very indifferent engravings. They first take two or three
+impressions, and then, to obtain one to their liking, and with which
+they may deceive their employers, they only ink the block on those
+places which ought to be dark, leaving the distances and lighter parts
+without any ink, except what remained after taking the previous
+impressions. The proof which they now obtain appears extremely delicate
+in those parts which were not properly inked; but when they come to be
+printed in a page with type, the impression is quite different from the
+proof which the engraver delivers with the blocks; there is no variety
+of tint, all is hard, and the distance is sometimes darker than objects
+in the fore-ground. I&nbsp;run no great risk in saying that all the
+three <i>Le Sueurs</i> have been accustomed to practise this
+deception.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII21" id = "tagVII21" href =
+"#noteVII21">VII.21</a></p>
+
+<p>All the cuts in Papillon’s work, except the portrait prefixed to the
+first volume,<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII22" id = "tagVII22" href =
+"#noteVII22">VII.22</a> are his own engraving, and, for the most part,
+from his own designs. The most of the blocks were lent to the author by
+the different persons for whom he had engraved them long previous to the
+appearance of his work.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII23" id =
+"tagVII23" href = "#noteVII23">VII.23</a> They are introduced as
+ornaments at the beginning and end of the chapters; but though they may
+enable the reader to judge of Papillon’s abilities as a designer and
+engraver on wood, beyond this they do not in the least illustrate the
+progress of the art.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page467" id = "page467">
+467</a></span>
+The execution of some of the best is extremely neat; and almost all of
+them display an effect&mdash;a contrast of black and white&mdash;which
+is not to be found in any other wood-cuts of the period. A&nbsp;few of
+the designs possess considerable merit, but in by far the greater number
+simplicity and truth are sacrificed to ornament and French taste.
+Whatever may be Papillon’s faults as a historian of the art, he deserves
+great credit for the diligence with which he pursued it under
+unfavourable circumstances, and for his endeavours to bring it into
+notice at a time when it was greatly neglected. His labours in this
+respect were, however, attended with no immediate fruit. He died in
+1776, and his immediate successors do not appear to have profited by his
+instructions. The wood-cuts executed in France between 1776 and 1815 are
+generally much inferior to those of Papillon; and the recent progress
+which wood engraving has made in that country seems rather to have been
+influenced by English example than by his precepts.</p>
+
+<p>Nicholas Le Sueur&mdash;born 1691, died 1764,&mdash;was, next to
+Papillon, the best French wood engraver of his time. His chiaro-scuros,
+printed entirely from wood-blocks, are executed with great boldness and
+spirit, and partake more of the character of the earlier Italian
+chiaro-scuros than any other works of the same kind engraved by his
+contemporaries.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII24" id = "tagVII24" href =
+"#noteVII24">VII.24</a> He chiefly excelled in the execution of
+chiaro-scuros and large cuts; his small cuts are of very ordinary
+character; they are generally engraved in a hard and meagre style, want
+variety of tint, and are deficient in effect.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_468" id = "illus_468">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_468.png" width = "235" height = "183"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>P. S. Fournier, the younger, a letter-founder of considerable
+reputation,&mdash;born at Paris 1712, died 1768,&mdash;occasionally
+engraved on wood. Papillon says that he was self-taught; and that he
+certainly would have made greater progress in the art had he not devoted
+himself almost exclusively to the business of type-founding. Monsieur
+Fournier is, however, better known as a writer on the history of the art
+than as a practical wood engraver. Between 1758 and 1761 he published
+three tracts relating to the origin and progress of wood engraving, and
+the invention of typography.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII25" id =
+"tagVII25" href = "#noteVII25">VII.25</a> From these works it is evident
+that, though
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page468" id = "page468">
+468</a></span>
+he takes no small credit to himself for his practical knowledge of wood
+engraving and printing, he was very imperfectly acquainted with his
+subject. They abound in errors which it is impossible that any person
+possessing the knowledge he boasts of should commit, unless he had very
+superficially examined the books and cuts on which he pronounces an
+opinion. He seems indeed to have thought that, from the circumstance of
+his being a wood engraver and letter-founder, his decisions on all
+doubtful matters in the early history of wood engraving and printing
+should be received with implicit faith. Looking at the comparatively
+small size of his works, no writer, not even Papillon himself, has
+committed so many mistakes; and his decisions are generally most
+peremptory when utterly groundless or evidently wrong. He asserts that
+Faust and Scheffer’s Psalter, 1457-1459, is printed from moveable types
+of wood, and that the most of the earliest specimens of typography are
+printed from the same kind of types; and in the fulness of his knowledge
+he also declares that the text of the Theurdank is printed not from
+types, but from engraved wood-blocks. Like Papillon, he seems to have
+possessed a marvellous sagacity in ferreting out old wood engravers. He
+says that Andrea Mantegna engraved on wood a grand triumph in 1486; that
+Sebastian Brandt engraved in 1490 the wood-cuts in the Ship of Fools,<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagVII26" id = "tagVII26" href =
+"#noteVII26">VII.26</a> after the designs of J.&nbsp;Locher; and that
+Parmegiano
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page469" id = "page469">
+469</a></span>
+executed several wood-cuts after designs by Raffaele. He decides
+positively that Albert Durer, Lucas Cranach, Titian, and Holbein were
+wood engravers, and, like Papillon, he includes Mary de Medici in the
+list. Papillon appears to have had good reason to complain that Fournier
+had availed himself of his volume printed in 1738. His taste appears to
+have been scarcely superior to his knowledge and judgment: he mentions a
+large and coarsely engraved cut of the head of Christ as one of the best
+specimens of Albert Durer’s engraving; and he says that Papillon’s cuts
+are for excellence of design and execution equal to those of the
+greatest masters!</p>
+
+<p>From a passage in one of Fournier’s tracts&mdash;Remarques
+Typographiques, 1761,&mdash;it is evident that wood engraving was then
+greatly neglected in Germany. It relates to the following observation of
+M.&nbsp;Bär’s, almoner of the Swedish chapel at Paris, on the length of
+time necessary to engrave a number of wooden types sufficient to print
+such a work as Faust and Scheffer’s Psalter: “M.&nbsp;Schœpflin declares
+that, by the general admission of all experienced persons, it would
+require upwards of six years to complete such a work in so perfect a
+manner.” The following is Fournier’s rejoinder: “To understand the value
+of this remark, it ought to be known that, so far from there being many
+experienced wood engravers to choose from, M.&nbsp;Schœpflin would most
+likely experience some difficulty in finding one to consult.” The
+wood-cuts which occur in German books printed between 1700 and 1760 are
+certainly of the most wretched kind; contemptible alike in design and
+execution. Some of the best which I have seen&mdash;and they are very
+bad&mdash;are to be found in a thin folio entitled “Orbis Literatus
+Germanico-Europaeus,” printed at Frankfort in 1737. They are cuts of the
+seals of all the principal colleges and academical foundations in
+Germany. The art in Italy about the same period was almost equally
+neglected. An Italian wood engraver, named Lucchesini, executed several
+cuts between 1760 and 1770. Most of the head-pieces and ornaments in the
+Popes’ Decretals, printed at Rome at this period, were engraved by him;
+and he also engraved the cuts in a Spanish book entitled “Letania
+Lauretana de la Virgen Santissima,” printed at Valencia in 1768. It is
+scarcely necessary to say that these cuts are of the humblest
+character.</p>
+
+<p>Though wood engraving did not make any progress in England from 1722
+to the time of Thomas Bewick, yet the art was certainly never lost in
+this country; the old stock still continued to put forth a
+branch&mdash;<i>non deficit alter</i>&mdash;although not a golden one.
+Two wood-cuts tolerably well executed, and which show that the engraver
+was acquainted with the practice of “lowering,” occur in a thin quarto,
+London, printed for H.&nbsp;Payne, 1760. The book and the cuts are thus
+noticed in Southey’s Life
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page470" id = "page470">
+470</a></span>
+of Cowper, volume&nbsp;<span class = "smallroman">I.</span> page 50. The
+writer is speaking of the Nonsense Club, of which Cowper was a
+member.</p>
+
+<p>“At those meetings of</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p>Jest and youthful Jollity,</p>
+<p>Sport that wrinkled Care derides,</p>
+<p>And Laughter holding both his sides,</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "continue">
+there can be little doubt that the two odes to Obscurity and Oblivion
+originated, joint compositions of Lloyd and Colman, in ridicule of Gray
+and Mason. They were published in a quarto pamphlet, with a vignette, in
+the title-page, of an ancient poet safely seated and playing on his
+harp; and at the end a tail-piece representing a modern poet in huge
+boots, flung from a mountain by his Pegasus into the sea, and losing his
+tie-wig in the fall.” The following is a fac-simile of the cut
+representing the poet’s fall. He seems to have been tolerably confident
+of himself, for, though the winged steed has no bridle, he is provided
+with a pair of formidable spurs.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_470" id = "illus_470">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_470.png" width = "331" height = "296"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The cuts in a collection of humorous pieces in verse, entitled “The
+Oxford Sausage,” 1764, are evidently by the same engraver, and almost
+every one of them affords an instance of “lowering.” At the foot of one
+of them, at page 89, the name “Lister” is seen; the subject is a
+bacchanalian figure mounted on a winged horse, which has undoubtedly
+been drawn from the same model as the Pegasus in Colman and Lloyd’s
+burlesque odes. In an edition of the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page471" id = "page471">
+471</a></span>
+Sausage, printed in 1772, the name of “T.&nbsp;Lister” occurs on the
+title-page as one of the publishers, and as residing at Oxford. Although
+those cuts are generally deficient in effect, their execution is
+scarcely inferior to many of those in the work of Papillon; the portrait
+indeed of “Mrs. Dorothy Spreadbury, Inventress of the Oxford Sausage,”
+forming the frontispiece to the edition of 1772, is better executed than
+Monsieur Nicholas Caron’s votive portrait of Papillon, “the restorer of
+the art of wood engraving.”</p>
+
+<p>In 1763, a person named S. Watts engraved two or three large
+wood-cuts in outline, slightly shaded, after drawings by Luca Cambiaso.
+Impressions of those cuts are most frequently printed in a yellowish
+kind of ink. About the same time Watts also engraved, in a bold and free
+style, several small circular portraits of painters. In Sir John
+Hawkins’s History of Music, published in 1776, there are four wood-cuts;
+and at the bottom of the largest&mdash;Palestrini presenting his work on
+Music to the Pope&mdash;is the name of the engraver thus:
+<i>T.&nbsp;Hodgson. Sculp.</i> Dr. Dibdin, in noticing this cut, in his
+Preliminary Disquisition on Early Engraving and Ornamental Printing,
+prefixed to his edition of the Typographical Antiquities, says that it
+was “done by Hodgson, the master of the celebrated Bewick.”<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagVII27" id = "tagVII27" href = "#noteVII27">VII.27</a>
+If by this it is meant that Bewick was the apprentice of Hodgson, or
+that he obtained from Hodgson his knowledge of wood engraving, the
+assertion is incorrect. It is, however, almost certain that Bewick, when
+in London in 1776, was employed by Hodgson, as will be shown in its
+proper place.</p>
+
+<p>Having now given some account of wood engraving in its languishing
+state&mdash;occasionally showing symptoms of returning vigour, and then
+almost immediately sinking into its former state of depression&mdash;we
+at length arrive at an epoch from which its revival and progressive
+improvement may be safely dated. The person whose productions recalled
+public attention to the neglected art of wood engraving was</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_471" id = "illus_471">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_471.png" width = "423" height = "142"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page472" id = "page472">
+472</a></span>
+<p>This distinguished wood engraver, whose works will be admired as long
+as truth and nature shall continue to charm, was born on the 10th or
+11th of August, 1753, at Cherry-burn, in the county of Northumberland,
+but on the south side of the Tyne, about twelve miles westward of
+Newcastle.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_472" id = "illus_472">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_472.png" width = "338" height = "259"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+THE HOUSE IN WHICH BEWICK WAS BORN.</p>
+
+<p>His father rented a small land-sale colliery at Mickley-bank, in the
+neighbourhood of his dwelling, and it is said that when a boy the future
+wood engraver sometimes worked in the pit. At a proper age he was sent
+as a day-scholar to a school kept by the Rev. Christopher Gregson at
+Ovingham, on the opposite side of the Tyne. The Parsonage House, in
+which Mr. Gregson lived, is pleasantly situated on the edge of a sloping
+bank immediately above the river; and many reminiscences of the place
+are to be found in Bewick’s cuts; the gate at the entrance is
+introduced, with trifling variations, in three or four different
+subjects; and a person acquainted with the neighbourhood will easily
+recognise in his tail-pieces several other little local sketches of a
+similar kind. In the time of the Rev. James Birkett, Mr. Gregson’s
+successor, Ovingham school had the character of being one of the best
+private schools in the county; and several gentlemen, whose talents
+reflect credit on their teacher, received their education there. In the
+following cut, representing a view of Ovingham from the south-westward,
+the Parsonage House, with its garden sloping down to the Tyne, is
+perceived immediately to the right of the clump of large trees. The bank
+on which those trees grow is known as the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page473" id = "page473">
+473</a></span>
+<i>crow-tree bank</i>. The following lines, descriptive of a view from
+the Parsonage House, are from “The School Boy,” a&nbsp;poem, by Thomas
+Maude, A.M., who received his early education at Ovingham under Mr.
+Birkett.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_473" id = "illus_473">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_473.png" width = "332" height = "247"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+PARSONAGE AT OVINGHAM.</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p class = "open">“But can I sing thy simpler pleasures flown,</p>
+<p>Loved <span class = "smallcaps">Ovingham</span>! and leave the
+<i>chief</i> unknown,&mdash;</p>
+<p>Thy <i>annual Fair</i>, of every joy the mart,</p>
+<p>That drained my pocket, ay, and took my childish heart?</p>
+<p>Blest morn! how lightly from my bed I sprung,</p>
+<p>When in the blushing east thy beams were young;</p>
+<p>While every blithe co-tenant of the room</p>
+<p>Rose at a call, with cheeks of liveliest bloom.</p>
+<p>Then from each well-packed drawer our vests we drew,</p>
+<p>Each gay-frilled shirt, and jacket smartly new.</p>
+<p>Brief toilet ours! yet, on a morn like this,</p>
+<p>Five extra minutes were not deemed amiss.</p>
+<p>Fling back the casement!&mdash;Sun, propitious shine!</p>
+<p>How sweet your beams gild the clear-flowing Tyne,</p>
+<p>That winds beneath our master’s garden-brae,</p>
+<p>With broad bright mazes o’er its pebbly way.</p>
+<div class = "bracket">
+<p class = "triplet">&nbsp;</p>
+<p>See Prudhoe! lovely in the morning beam:&mdash;</p>
+<p>Mark, mark, the ferry-boat, with twinkling gleam,</p>
+<p>Wafting fair-going folks across the stream.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Look out! a bed of sweetness breathes below,</p>
+<p>Where many a rocket points its spire of snow;</p>
+<p>And from the <i>Crow-tree Bank</i> the cawing sound</p>
+<p>Of sable troops incessant poured around!</p>
+<p>Well may each little bosom throb with joy!</p>
+<p>On such a morn, who would not be a boy?”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Bewick’s school acquirements probably did not extend beyond English
+reading, writing, and arithmetic; for, though he knew a little
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page474" id = "page474">
+474</a></span>
+Latin, he does not appear to have ever received any instructions in that
+language. In a letter dated 18th April, 1803, addressed to Mr.
+Christopher Gregson,<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII28" id = "tagVII28"
+href = "#noteVII28">VII.28</a> London, a&nbsp;son of his old master,
+introducing an artist of the name of Murphy, who had painted his
+portrait, Bewick humorously alludes to his <i>beauty</i> when a boy, and
+to the state of his coat-sleeve, in consequence of his using it instead
+of a pocket-handkerchief. Bewick, it is to be observed, was very
+hard-featured, and much marked with the small-pox. After mentioning Mr.
+Murphy as “a&nbsp;man of worth, and a first-rate artist in the miniature
+line,” he thus proceeds: “I&nbsp;do not imagine, at your time of life,
+my dear friend, that you will be solicitous about forming new
+acquaintances; but it may not, perhaps, be putting you much out of the
+way to show any little civilities to Mr. Murphy during his stay in
+London. He has, on his own account, taken my portrait, and I dare say
+will be desirous to show you it the first opportunity: when you see it,
+you will no doubt conclude that T.&nbsp;B. is turning <i>bonnyer</i> and
+<i>bonnyer</i><a class = "tag" name = "tagVII29" id = "tagVII29" href =
+"#noteVII29">VII.29</a> in his old days; but indeed you cannot <i>help
+knowing this</i>, and also that there were <i>great indications</i> of
+its turning out so <i>long since</i>. But if you have forgot our
+earliest youth, perhaps your brother P.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagVII30" id = "tagVII30" href = "#noteVII30">VII.30</a> may help you
+to remember what a <i>great beauty</i> I was at that time, when the grey
+coat-sleeve was <i>glazed</i> from the cuff towards the elbows.” The
+words printed in Italics are those that are underlined by Bewick
+himself.</p>
+
+<p>Bewick, having shown a taste for drawing, was placed by his father as
+an apprentice with Mr. Ralph Beilby, an engraver, living in Newcastle,
+to whom on the 1st of October 1767 he was bound for a term of seven
+years. Mr. Beilby was not a wood engraver; and his business in the
+copper-plate line was of a kind which did not allow of much scope for
+the display of artistic talent. He engraved copper-plates for books,
+when any by chance were offered to him; and he also executed
+brass-plates for doors, with the names of the owners handsomely filled
+up, after the manner of the old “<i>niellos</i>,” with black
+sealing-wax. He engraved crests and initials on steel and silver
+watch-seals; also on tea-spoons, sugar-tongs, and other articles of
+plate; and the engraving of numerals and ornaments, with the name of the
+maker, on clock-faces,&mdash;which were not then enamelled,&mdash;seems
+to have formed one of the chief branches of his very general business.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagVII31" id = "tagVII31" href =
+"#noteVII31">VII.31</a></p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page475" id = "page475">
+475</a></span>
+<p>Bewick’s attention appears to have been first directed to wood
+engraving in consequence of his master having been employed by the late
+Dr. Charles Hutton, then a schoolmaster in Newcastle, to engrave on wood
+the diagrams for his Treatise on Mensuration. The printing of this work
+was commenced in 1768, and was completed in 1770. The engraving of the
+diagrams was committed to Bewick, who is said to have invented a graver
+with a fine groove at the point, which enabled him to cut the outlines
+by a single operation.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_475" id = "illus_475">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_475.png" width = "241" height = "241"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The above is a fac-simile of one of the earliest productions of
+Bewick in the art of wood engraving. The church is intended for that of
+St. Nicholas, Newcastle.</p>
+
+<p>Subsequently, and while he was still an apprentice, Bewick
+undoubtedly endeavoured to improve himself in wood engraving; but his
+progress does not appear to have been great, and his master had
+certainly very little work of this kind for him to do. He appears to
+have engraved a few bill-heads on wood; and it is not unlikely that the
+cuts in a little book entitled “Youth’s Instructive and Entertaining
+Story Teller,” first published by T.&nbsp;Saint, Newcastle, 1774, were
+executed by him before the expiration of his apprenticeship.</p>
+
+<p>Bewick, at one period during his apprenticeship, paid ninepence a
+week for his lodgings in Newcastle, and usually received a brown loaf
+every week from Cherry-burn. “During his servitude,” says Mr. Atkinson,
+“he paid weekly visits to Cherry-burn, except when the river was so much
+swollen as to prevent his passage of it at Eltringham, when he
+vociferated his inquiries across the stream, and then returned to
+Newcastle.” This account of his being accustomed to <i>shout</i> his
+enquiries
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page476" id = "page476">
+476</a></span>
+across the Tyne first appeared in a Memoir prefixed to the Select
+Fables, published by E.&nbsp;Charnley, 1820. Mr. William Bedlington, an
+old friend of Bewick, once asked him if it were true? “Babbles and
+nonsense!” was the reply. “It never happened but once, and that was when
+the river had suddenly swelled before I could reach the top of the
+<i>allers</i>,<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII32" id = "tagVII32" href =
+"#noteVII32">VII.32</a> and yet folks are made to believe that I was in
+the habit of doing it.”</p>
+
+<p>On the expiration of his apprenticeship he returned to his father’s
+house at Cherry-burn, but still continued to work for Mr. Beilby. About
+this time he seems to have formed the resolution of applying himself
+exclusively in future to wood engraving, and with this view to have
+executed several cuts as specimens of his ability. In 1775 he received a
+premium of seven guineas from the Society of Arts for a cut of the
+Huntsman and the Old Hound, which he probably engraved when living at
+Cherry-burn after leaving Mr. Beilby.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII33"
+id = "tagVII33" href = "#noteVII33">VII.33</a> The following is a
+fac-simile of this cut, which was first printed in an edition of Gay’s
+Fables, published by T.&nbsp;Saint, Newcastle, 1779. Mr. Henry Bohn, the
+publisher of the present edition, happening to be in possession of the
+original cut, it is annexed on the opposite page.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_476" id = "illus_476">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_476.png" width = "267" height = "209"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>In 1776, when on a visit to some of his relations in Cumberland,<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagVII34" id = "tagVII34" href =
+"#noteVII34">VII.34</a> he availed himself of the opportunity of
+visiting the Lakes; and in after-life
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page477" id = "page477">
+477</a></span>
+he used frequently to speak in terms of admiration of the beauty of the
+scenery, and of the neat appearance of the white-washed, slate-covered
+cottages on the banks of some of the lakes. His tour was made on foot,
+with a stick in his hand and a wallet at his back; and it has been
+supposed that in a tail-piece, to be found at page 177 of the first
+volume of his British Birds, first edition, 1797, he has introduced a
+sketch of himself in his travelling costume, drinking out of what he
+himself would have called the <i>flipe</i> of his hat. The figure has
+been copied in our ornamental letter T at <a href = "#illus_471">page
+471</a>.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_477" id = "illus_477">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_477.png" width = "272" height = "207"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>In the same year, 1776, he went to London, where he arrived on the
+1st of October. He certainly did not remain more than a twelvemonth in
+London,<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII35" id = "tagVII35" href =
+"#noteVII35">VII.35</a> for in 1777 he returned to Newcastle, and
+entered into partnership with his former master, Mr. Ralph Beilby.
+Bewick&mdash;who does not appear to have been wishful to undeceive those
+who fancied that he was the person who rediscovered the “long-lost art
+of engraving on wood”<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII36" id = "tagVII36"
+href = "#noteVII36">VII.36</a>&mdash;would never inform any of the
+good-natured friends, who fished for intelligence with the view of
+writing his life, of the works on which he was employed when in London.
+The faith of a believer in the story of Bewick’s re-discovering “the
+long-lost art” would have received too great a shock had he been told by
+Bewick himself that
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page478" id = "page478">
+478</a></span>
+on his arrival in London he found professors of the “long-lost art”
+regularly exercising their calling, and that with one of them he found
+employment.</p>
+
+<p>There is every reason to believe that Bewick, when in London, was
+chiefly employed by T.&nbsp;Hodgson, most likely the person who engraved
+the four cuts in Sir John Hawkins’s History of Music. It is at any rate
+certain that several cuts engraved by Bewick appeared in a little work
+entitled “A&nbsp;curious Hieroglyphick Bible,” printed by and for
+T.&nbsp;Hodgson, in George’s Court, St. John’s Lane, Clerkenwell.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagVII37" id = "tagVII37" href =
+"#noteVII37">VII.37</a> Proofs of three of the principal cuts are now
+lying before me. The subjects are: Adam and Eve, with the Deity seen in
+the clouds, forming the frontispiece; the Resurrection; and a cut
+representing a gentleman seated in an arm-chair, with four boys beside
+him: the border of this cut is of the same kind as that of the large cut
+of the Chillingham Bull engraved by Bewick in 1789. These proofs appear
+to have been presented by Bewick to an eminent painter, now dead, with
+whom either then, or at a subsequent period, he had become acquainted.
+Not one of Bewick’s biographers mentions those cuts, nor seems to have
+been aware of their existence. The two memoirs of Bewick, written by his
+“friends” G.&nbsp;C. Atkinson and John F.&nbsp;M. Dovaston,<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagVII38" id = "tagVII38" href = "#noteVII38">VII.38</a>
+sufficiently demonstrate that neither of them had enjoyed his confidence
+in matters relative to his progress in the art of wood engraving.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Atkinson, in his Sketch of the Life and Works of Bewick, says
+that when in London he worked with a person of the name of Cole. Of this
+person, as a wood engraver, I&nbsp;have not been able to discover any
+trace. Bewick did not like London; and he always advised his former
+pupils and north-country friends to leave the “province covered with
+houses” as soon as they could, and return to the country to there enjoy
+the beauties of Nature, fresh air, and
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page479" id = "page479">
+479</a></span>
+content. In the letter to his old schoolfellow, Mr. Christopher Gregson,
+previously quoted, he thus expresses his opinion of London life. “Ever
+since you paid your last visit to the north, I&nbsp;have often been
+thinking upon you, and wishing that you would <i>lap up</i>, and leave
+the metropolis, to enjoy the fruits of your hard-earned industry on the
+banks of the Tyne, where you are so much respected, both on your own
+account and on that of those who are gone. Indeed, I&nbsp;wonder how you
+can think of turmoiling yourself to the end of the chapter, and let the
+opportunity slip of contemplating at your ease the beauties of Nature,
+so bountifully spread out to enlighten, to captivate, and to cheer the
+heart of man. For my part, I&nbsp;am still of the same mind that I was
+in when in London, and that is, <i>I&nbsp;would rather be herding sheep
+on Mickley bank top than remain in London, although for doing so I was
+to be made the premier of England</i>.” Bewick was truly a
+<i>country</i> man; he felt that it was better “to hear the lark sing
+than the mouse cheep;” for, though no person was capable of closer
+application to his art when within doors, he loved to spend his hours of
+relaxation in the open air, studying the character of beasts and birds
+in their natural state; and diligently noting those little incidents and
+traits of country life which give so great an interest to many of his
+tail-pieces. When a young man, he was fond of angling; and, like Roger
+Ascham, he “dearly loved a main of cocks.” When annoyed by
+street-walkers in London, he used to assume the air of a stupid
+countryman, and, in reply to their importunity, would ask, with an
+expression of stolid gravity, if they knew “Tommy Hummel&nbsp;o’
+Prudhoe, Willy Eltringham&nbsp;o’ Hall-Yards, or Auld Laird
+Newton&nbsp;o’ Mickley?”<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII39" id =
+"tagVII39" href = "#noteVII39">VII.39</a> He thus, without losing his
+temper, or showing any feeling of annoyance, soon got quit of those who
+wished to engage his attention, though sometimes not until he had
+received a hearty malediction for his stupidity.</p>
+
+<p>In 1777, on his return to Newcastle, he entered into partnership with
+Mr. Beilby; and his younger brother, John Bewick, who was then about
+seventeen years old, became their apprentice. From this time Bewick,
+though he continued to assist his partner in the other branches of their
+business,<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII40" id = "tagVII40" href =
+"#noteVII40">VII.40</a> applied himself chiefly to engraving on
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page480" id = "page480">
+480</a></span>
+wood. The cuts in an edition of Gay’s Fables, 1779,<a class = "tag" name
+= "tagVII41" id = "tagVII41" href = "#noteVII41">VII.41</a> and in an
+edition of Select Fables, 1784, both printed by T.&nbsp;Saint,
+Newcastle, were engraved by Bewick, who was probably assisted by his
+brother. Several of those cuts are well engraved, though by no means to
+be compared to his later works, executed when he had acquired greater
+knowledge of the art, and more confidence in his own powers. He
+evidently improved as his talents were exercised; for the cuts in the
+Select Fables, 1784, are generally much superior to those in Gay’s
+Fables, 1779; the animals are better drawn and engraved; the sketches of
+landscape in the back-grounds are more natural; and the engraving of the
+foliage of the trees and bushes is, not unfrequently, scarce inferior to
+that of his later productions. Such an attention to nature in this
+respect is not to be found in any wood-cuts of an earlier date. The
+following impressions from two of the original cuts in the Select Fables
+are fair specimens; one is interesting, as being Bewick’s first idea of
+a favourite vignette in his British Land
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page481" id = "page481">
+481</a></span>
+Birds; the other as his first treatment of the lion and the four bulls,
+afterwards repeated in his Quadrupeds. In the best cuts of the time of
+Durer and Holbein the foliage is generally neglected; the artists of
+that period merely give general forms of trees, without ever attending
+to that which contributes so much to their beauty. The merit of
+introducing this great improvement in wood engraving, and of depicting
+quadrupeds and birds in their natural forms, and with their
+characteristic expression, is undoubtedly due to Bewick. Though he was
+not the discoverer of the art of wood engraving, he certainly was the
+first who applied it with success to the delineation of animals, and to
+the natural representation of landscape and woodland scenery. He found
+for himself a path which no previous wood engraver had trodden, and in
+which none of his successors have gone beyond him. For several of the
+cuts in the Select Fables, Bewick was paid only nine shillings each.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<div class = "picblock w250">
+<p><a name = "illus_480a" id = "illus_480a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_480a.png" width = "222" height = "160"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picblock w250">
+<p><a name = "illus_480b" id = "illus_480b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_480b.png" width = "231" height = "169"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1789 he drew and engraved his large cut of the Chillingham Bull,<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagVII42" id = "tagVII42" href =
+"#noteVII42">VII.42</a> which many persons suppose to be his
+master-piece; but though it is certainly well engraved, and the
+character of the animal is well expressed, yet as a wood engraving it
+will not bear a comparison with several of the cuts in his History of
+British Birds. The grass and the foliage of the trees are most
+beautifully expressed; but there is a want of variety in the more
+distant trees, and the bark of that in the fore-ground to the left is
+too rough. This exaggeration of the roughness of the bark of trees is
+also to be perceived in many of his other cuts. The style in which the
+bull is engraved is admirably adapted to express the texture of the
+short white hair of the animal; the dewlap, however, is not well
+represented, it appears to be stiff instead of flaccid and pendulous;
+and the lines intended for the hairs on its margin are too <i>wiry</i>.
+On a stone in the fore-ground he has introduced a <i>bit</i> of
+cross-hatching, but not with good effect, for it causes the stone to
+look very much like an old scrubbing-brush. Bewick was not partial to
+cross-hatching, and it is seldom to be found in cuts of his engraving.
+He seems to have introduced it in this cut rather to show to those who
+knew anything of the matter that he could engrave such lines, than from
+an opinion that they were necessary, or in the slightest degree improved
+the cut. This is almost the only instance in which Bewick has introduced
+black lines crossing each other, and thus forming what is usually called
+“cross-hatchings.” From the commencement of his career as a wood
+engraver, he adopted a much more simple method of obtaining colour. He
+very justly considered, that, as impressions of wood-cuts are printed
+from lines engraved in <i>relief</i>, the unengraved
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page482" id = "page482">
+482</a></span>
+surface of the block already represented the darkest colour that could
+be produced; and consequently, instead of labouring to produce colour in
+the same manner as the old wood engravers, he commenced upon colour or
+black, and proceeded from <i>dark to light</i> by means of lines cut in
+intaglio, and appearing white when in the impression, until his subject
+was completed. This great simplification of the old process was the
+result of his having to engrave his own drawings; for in drawing his
+subject on the wood he avoided all combinations of lines which to the
+designer are easy, but to the engraver difficult. In almost every one of
+his cuts the effect is produced by the simplest means. The colour which
+the old wood engravers obtained by means of cross-hatchings, Bewick
+obtained with much greater facility by means of single lines, and masses
+of black slightly intersected or broken with white.</p>
+
+<p>When only a few impressions of the Chillingham Bull had been taken,
+and before he had added his name, the block split. The pressmen, it is
+said, got tipsy over their work, and left the block lying on the
+window-sill exposed to the rays of the sun, which caused it to warp and
+split.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII43" id = "tagVII43" href =
+"#noteVII43">VII.43</a> About six impressions were taken on thin vellum
+before the accident occurred. Mr. Atkinson says that one of those
+impressions, which had formerly belonged to Mr. Beilby, Bewick’s
+partner, was sold in London for twenty pounds; A.&nbsp;Stothard, R.A.,
+had one, as had also Mr. C.&nbsp;Nesbit.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the latter end of 1785 Bewick began to engrave the cuts for
+his General History of Quadrupeds, which was first printed in 1790.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagVII44" id = "tagVII44" href =
+"#noteVII44">VII.44</a> The descriptions were written by his partner,
+Mr. Beilby, and the cuts were all drawn and engraved by himself. The
+comparative excellence of those cuts, which, for the correct delineation
+of the animals and the natural character of the <i>incidents</i>, and
+the back-grounds, are greatly superior to anything of the kind that had
+previously appeared, insured a rapid sale for the work; a&nbsp;second
+edition was published in 1791, and a third in 1792.<a class = "tag" name
+= "tagVII45" id = "tagVII45" href = "#noteVII45">VII.45</a></p>
+
+<p>The great merit of those cuts consists not so much in their execution
+as in the spirited and natural manner in which they are drawn. Some of
+the animals, indeed, which he had not had an opportunity of seeing, and
+for which he had to depend on the previous engravings of others, are not
+correctly drawn. Among the most incorrect are the Bison, the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page483" id = "page483">
+483</a></span>
+Zebu, the Buffalo, the Many-horned Sheep, the Gnu, and the Giraffe or
+Cameleopard.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII46" id = "tagVII46" href =
+"#noteVII46">VII.46</a> Even in some of our domestic quadrupeds he was
+not successful; the Horses are not well represented; and the very
+indifferent execution of the Common Bull and Cow, at page 19, edition
+1790, is only redeemed by the interest of the back-grounds. In that of
+the Common Bull, the action of the bull seen chasing a man is most
+excellent; and in that of the Cow, the woman, with a <i>skeel</i> on her
+head, and her petticoats tucked up behind, returning from milking, is
+evidently a sketch from nature. The Goats and the Dogs are the best of
+those cuts both in design and execution; and perhaps the very best of
+all the cuts in the first edition is that of the Cur Fox at page 270.
+The tail of the animal, which is too long, and is also incorrectly
+marked with black near the white tip, was subsequently altered.</p>
+
+<p>In the first edition the characteristic tail-pieces are comparatively
+few; and several of those which are merely ornamental, displaying
+neither imagination nor feeling, are copies of cuts which are frequent
+in books printed at Leipsic between 1770 and 1780, and which were
+probably engraved by Ungher, a&nbsp;German wood engraver of that period.
+Examples of such tasteless trifles are to be found at pages 9, 12, 18,
+65, 110, 140, 201, 223, and 401. Ornaments of the same character occur
+in Heineken’s “Idée Générale d’une Collection complette d’Estampes,”
+Leipsic and Vienna, 1771. Bewick was unquestionably better acquainted
+with the history and progress of wood engraving than those who talk
+about the “long-lost art” were aware of. The first of the two following
+cuts is a fac-simile of a tail-piece which occurs in an edition of “Der
+Weiss Kunig,”<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII47" id = "tagVII47" href =
+"#noteVII47">VII.47</a> printed at Vienna, 1775, and which Bewick has
+copied at page 144 of the first edition of the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page484" id = "page484">
+484</a></span>
+Quadrupeds, 1790. The second, from one of the cuts illustrative of
+Ovid’s Metamorphoses, 1569, designed by Virgil Solis,<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagVII48" id = "tagVII48" href = "#noteVII48">VII.48</a> is
+copied in a tail-piece in the first volume of Bewick’s Birds, page 330,
+edition 1797.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<div class = "picblock w200">
+<p><a name = "illus_483" id = "illus_483">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_483a.png" width = "199" height = "116"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picblock w150">
+<p><img src = "images/illus_483b.png" width = "102" height = "147"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The following may be mentioned as the best of the tail-pieces in the
+first edition of the Quadrupeds, and as those which most decidedly
+display Bewick’s talent in depicting, without exaggeration, natural and
+humorous incidents. In this respect he has been excelled by no other
+artist either of past or present times. The Elephant, fore-shortened, at
+page 162; the Dog and Cat, 195; the Old Man crossing a ford, mounted on
+an old horse, which carries, in addition, two heavy sacks, 244; the
+Bear-ward, with his wife and companion, leading Bruin, and accompanied
+by his dancing-dogs,&mdash;a gallows seen in the distance, 256;
+a&nbsp;Fox, with Magpies flying after him, indicating his course to his
+pursuers, 265; Two unfeeling fellows enjoying the pleasure of hanging a
+dog,&mdash;a gibbet, seen in the distance, to denote that those who
+could thus quietly enjoy the dying struggles of a dog would not be
+unlikely to murder a man, 274; a&nbsp;Man eating his dinner with his dog
+sitting beside him, expecting his share, 285; Old Blind Man led by a
+dog, crossing a bridge of a single plank, and with the rail broken, in a
+storm of wind and rain, 320; a&nbsp;Mad Dog pursued by three
+men,&mdash;a feeble old woman directly in the dog’s way, 324; a&nbsp;Man
+with a bundle at his back, crossing a stream on stilts, 337;
+a&nbsp;winter piece,&mdash;a Man travelling in the snow, 339;
+a&nbsp;grim-visaged Old Man, accompanied by a cur-dog, driving an old
+sow, 371; Two Boys and an Ass on a common, 375; a&nbsp;Man leaping, by
+means of a pole, a&nbsp;stream, across which he has previously thrown
+his stick and bag, 391; a&nbsp;Man carrying a bundle of faggots on the
+ice, 395; a&nbsp;Wolf falling into a trap, 430; and Two Blind Fiddlers
+and a Boy, the last in the book, at 456. In this cut Bewick has
+represented the two blind fiddlers earnestly scraping away, although
+there is no one to listen to their strains; the bare-legged
+<i>tatty</i>-headed boy who leads them, and the half-starved
+melancholy-looking dog at their heels, are in admirable keeping with the
+principal characters.</p>
+
+<p>On the next page is a copy of the cut of the Two Boys and the Ass,
+previously mentioned as occurring at page 375. This cut, beyond any
+other of the tail-pieces in the first edition of the Quadrupeds, perhaps
+affords the best specimen of Bewick’s peculiar talent of depicting such
+subjects; he faithfully represents Nature, and at the same time conveys
+a moral, which gives additional interest to the sketch. Though the ass
+remains immoveable, in spite of the application of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page485" id = "page485">
+485</a></span>
+a branch of furze to his hind quarters, the young graceless who is
+mounted evidently enjoys his seat. The pleasure of the twain consists as
+much in having <i>caught</i> an ass as in the prospect of a <ins class =
+"correction" title = ". missing">ride.</ins> To such characters the
+stubborn ass frequently affords more <i>amusement</i> than a willing
+goer; they like to flog and thump a thing well, though it be but a
+gate-post. The gallows in the distance&mdash;a favourite <i>in
+terrorem</i> object with Bewick&mdash;suggests their ultimate destiny;
+and the cut, in the first edition, derives additional <i>point</i> from
+its situation among the animals found in <i>New South
+Wales</i>,&mdash;the first shipment of convicts to Botany Bay having
+taken place about two years previous to the publication of the work.
+This cut, as well as many others in the book, affords an instance of
+lowering,&mdash;the light appearance of the distance is entirely
+effected by that process.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_485" id = "illus_485">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_485.png" width = "296" height = "123"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The subsequent editions of the Quadrupeds were enlarged by the
+addition of new matter and the insertion of several new cuts. Of these,
+with the exception of the Kyloe Ox,<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII49" id
+= "tagVII49" href = "#noteVII49">VII.49</a> the tail-pieces are by far
+the best. The following are the principal cuts of animals that have been
+added since the first publication of the work; the pages annexed refer
+to the edition of 1824, the last that was published in Bewick’s
+life-time: the Arabian Horse, page 4,&mdash;the stallion, seen in the
+back-ground, has suffered a dismemberment since its first appearance;<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagVII50" id = "tagVII50" href =
+"#noteVII50">VII.50</a> the Old English Road Horse, 9; the Improved Cart
+Horse, 14; the Kyloe Ox, 36; the Musk Bull, 49; the Black-faced, or
+Heath Ram, 56; Heath Ram of the Improved Breed, 57; The Cheviot Ram, 58;
+Tees-water Ram of the Old Breed, 60; Tees-water Ram, Improved Breed, 61;
+the American Elk, 125; Sow of the Improved Breed, 164; Sow
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page486" id = "page486">
+486</a></span>
+of the Chinese Breed, 166; Head of a Hippopotamus, (engraved by
+W.&nbsp;W. Temple,) 185; Indian Bear, 293; Polar, or Great White Bear,
+substituted for another cut of the same animal, 295; the Spotted Hyena,
+substituted for another cut of the same animal, 301; the Ban-dog, 338;
+the Irish Greyhound, 340; the Harrier, 347; Spotted Bavy, substituted
+for another cut of the same animal, 379; the Grey Squirrel, 387; the
+Long-tailed Squirrel, 396; the Jerboa, substituted for another cut of
+the same animal, 397; the Musquash, or Musk Beaver, 416; the Mouse,
+substituted for another cut of the same animal, 424; the Short-eared
+Bat, 513; the Long-eared Bat, 515; the Ternate Bat, 518; the Wombach,
+523; and the Ornithorhynchus Paradoxicus, 525. The cut of the animal
+called the Thick-nosed Tapiir, at page 139 of the first edition, is
+transposed to page 381 of the last edition, and there described under
+the name of the Capibara: it is probably intended for the Coypu rat,
+a&nbsp;specimen of which is at present in the Gardens of the Zoological
+Society, Regent’s Park. Bewick was a regular visitor of all the
+wild-beast shows that came to Newcastle, and availed himself of every
+opportunity to obtain drawings from living animals.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_486" id = "illus_486">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_486.png" width = "317" height = "154"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The tail-pieces introduced in subsequent editions of the Quadrupeds
+generally display more humour and not less talent in representing
+natural objects than those contained in the first. In the annexed cut of
+a sour-visaged old fellow going with corn to the mill, we have an
+exemplification of cruelty not unworthy of Hogarth.<a class = "tag" name
+= "tagVII51" id = "tagVII51" href = "#noteVII51">VII.51</a> The
+over-laden,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page487" id = "page487">
+487</a></span>
+half-starved old horse,&mdash;broken-kneed, greasy-heeled, and evidently
+troubled with the string-halt, as is indicated by the action of the
+<i>off</i> hind-leg,&mdash;hesitates to descend the brae, at the foot of
+which there is a stream, and the old brute on his back urges him forward
+by <i>working</i> him, as jockeys say, with the halter, and beating him
+with his stick. In the distance, Bewick, as is usual with him when he
+gives a sketch of cruelty or knavery, has introduced a gallows. The
+miserable appearance of the poor animal is not a little increased by the
+nakedness of his hind quarters; his stump of a tail is so short that it
+will not even serve as a <i>catch</i> for the crupper or
+<i>tail-band</i>.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_487" id = "illus_487">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_487.png" width = "318" height = "167"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>In the cut of the child, unconscious of its danger, pulling at the
+long tail of a young unbroken colt, the story is most admirably told.
+The nurse, who is seen engaged with her sweetheart by the side of the
+hedge, has left the child to wander at will, and thus expose itself to
+destruction; while the mother, who has accidentally perceived the danger
+of her darling, is seen hastening over the stile, regardless of the
+steps, in an agony of fear. The backward glance of the horse’s eye, and
+the heel raised ready to strike, most forcibly suggest the danger to
+which the unthinking infant is exposed.</p>
+
+<p>Though the subject of the following cut be simple, yet the
+<i>sentiment</i> which it displays is the genuine offspring of true
+genius. Near to a ruined cottage, while all around is covered with snow,
+a&nbsp;lean and hungry ewe is seen nibbling at an old broom, while her
+young and
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page488" id = "page488">
+488</a></span>
+weakly lamb is sucking her milkless teats. Such a picture of animal
+want&mdash;conceived with so much feeling, and so well
+expressed,&mdash;has perhaps never been represented by any artist except
+Bewick.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_488a" id = "illus_488a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_488a.png" width = "304" height = "168"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The original of the following cut forms the tail-piece to the last
+page of the edition of 1824. An old man, wearing a parson’s cast-off
+beaver and wig, is seen carrying his young wife and child across a
+stream. The complacent look of the cock-nosed wife shows that she enjoys
+the treat, while the old drudge patiently bears his burden, and with his
+right hand keeps a firm <i>grip</i> of the nether end of his better
+part. This cut is an excellent satire on those old men who marry young
+wives and become dotingly uxorious in the decline of life; submitting to
+every indignity to please their youthful spouses and reconcile them to
+their state. It is a <i>new reading</i> of January and May,&mdash;he an
+old travelling beggar, and she a young slut with her heels peeping, or
+rather staring, through her stockings.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_488b" id = "illus_488b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_488b.png" width = "312" height = "135"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Mr. Solomon Hodgson, the printer of the first four editions of the
+Quadrupeds, had an interest in the work; he died in 1800; and in
+consequence of a misunderstanding between his widow and Bewick, the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page489" id = "page489">
+489</a></span>
+latter had the subsequent editions printed at the office of Mr. Edward
+Walker. Mrs. Hodgson having asserted, in a letter printed in the Monthly
+Magazine for July 1805, that Bewick was neither the author nor the
+projector of the History of Quadrupeds, but “was employed merely as the
+engraver or wood-cutter,” he, in justification of his own claims, gave
+the following account of the origin of the work.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagVII52" id = "tagVII52" href = "#noteVII52">VII.52</a> “From my first
+reading, when a boy at school, a&nbsp;sixpenny History of Birds and
+Beasts, and a then wretched composition called the History of Three
+Hundred Animals, to the time I became acquainted with works on Natural
+History written for the perusal of men, I&nbsp;never was without the
+design of attempting something of this kind myself; but my principal
+object was (and still&nbsp;is) directed to the mental pleasure and
+improvement of youth; to engage their attention, to direct their steps
+aright, and to lead them on till they become enamoured of this innocent
+and delightful pursuit. Some time after my partnership with Mr. Beilby
+commenced, I&nbsp;communicated my wishes to him, who, after many
+conversations, came into my plan of publishing a History of Quadrupeds,
+and I then immediately began to draw the animals, to design the
+vignettes, and to cut them on wood, and this, to avoid interruption,
+frequently till very late in the night; my partner at the same time
+undertaking to compile and draw up the descriptions and history at his
+leisure hours and evenings at home. With the accounts of the foreign
+animals I did not much interfere; the sources whence I had drawn the
+little knowledge I possessed were open to my coadjutor, and he used
+them; but to those of the animals of our own country, as my partner
+before this time had paid little attention to natural history,
+I&nbsp;lent a helping hand. This help was given in daily conversations,
+and in occasional notes and memoranda, which were used in their proper
+places. As the cuts were engraved, we employed the late Mr. Thomas
+Angus, of this town, printer, to take off a certain number of
+impressions of each, many of which are still in my possession. At Mr.
+Angus’s death the charge for this business was not made in his books,
+and at the request of his widow and ourselves, the late Mr. Solomon
+Hodgson fixed the price; and yet the widow and executrix of Mr. Hodgson
+asserts in your Magazine, that I was ‘merely employed as the engraver or
+wood-cutter,’ (I&nbsp;suppose) by her husband! Had this been the case,
+is it probable that Mr. Hodgson would have had the cuts printed in any
+other office than his own? The fact is the reverse of Mrs. Hodgson’s
+statement; and although I have never, either ‘insidiously’ or otherwise,
+used any means to cause the reviewers, or others, to hold me up as the
+‘first and sole mover of the concern,’ I&nbsp;am now dragged forth by
+her to declare that <i>I am the man</i>.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page490" id = "page490">
+490</a></span>
+<p>“But to return to my story:&mdash;while we were in the progress of
+our work, prudence suggested that it might be necessary to inquire how
+our labours were to be ushered to the world, and, as we were
+unacquainted with the printing and publishing of books, what mode was
+the most likely to insure success. Upon this subject Mr. Hodgson was
+consulted, and made fully acquainted with our plan. He entered into the
+undertaking with uncommon ardour, and urged us strenuously not to retain
+our first humble notions of ‘making it like a school-book,’ but pressed
+us to let it ‘assume a more respectable form.’ From this warmth of our
+friend we had no hesitation in offering him a share in the work, and a
+copartnership deed was entered into between us, for that purpose, on the
+10th of April 1790. What Mr. Hodgson did in correcting the press, beyond
+what falls to the duty of every printer, I&nbsp;know not; but I am
+certain that he was extremely desirous that it should have justice done
+it. In this <i>weaving of words</i> I did not interfere, as I believed
+it to be in hands much fitter than my own, only I took the liberty of
+blotting out whatever I knew not to be truth.”</p>
+
+<p>The favourable manner in which the History of Quadrupeds was received
+determined Bewick to commence without delay his History of British
+Birds. He began to draw and engrave the cuts in 1791, and in 1797 the
+first volume of the work, containing the Land Birds, was published.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagVII53" id = "tagVII53" href =
+"#noteVII53">VII.53</a> The letter-press, as in the Quadrupeds, was
+written by his partner, Mr. Beilby, who certainly deserves great praise
+for the manner in which he has performed his task. The descriptions
+generally have the great merit of being simple, intelligible, and
+correct. There are no trifling details about system, no confused
+arguments about classification, which more frequently bewilder than
+inform the reader who is uninitiated in the piebald jargon of what is
+called “Systematic nomenclature.” He describes the quadruped or bird in
+a manner which enables even the most unlearned to recognize it when he
+sees it; and, like one who is rather wishful to inform his readers than
+to display his own acquaintance with the scientific vocabulary, he
+carefully avoids the use of all terms which are not generally
+understood. Mr. Beilby, though in a different manner and in a less
+degree, is fairly entitled to share with Bewick in the honour of having
+rendered popular in this country the study of the most interesting and
+useful branches of Zoology&mdash;Quadrupeds and Birds&mdash;by giving
+the descriptions in simple and intelligible language, and presenting to
+the eye the very form and character of the living animals. As a
+copper-plate engraver, Mr. Beilby has certainly no just pretensions
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page491" id = "page491">
+491</a></span>
+to fame; but as a compiler, and as an able coadjutor of Bewick in
+simplifying the study of Natural History, and rendering its most
+interesting portions easy of attainment to the young, and to those
+unacquainted with the “science,” he deserves higher praise than he has
+hitherto generally received. Roger Thornton’s Monument, and the Plan of
+Newcastle, in the Reverend John Brand’s History of that town, were
+engraved by Mr. Beilby. Mr. Brand’s book-plate was also engraved by him.
+It is to be found in most of the books that formerly belonged to that
+celebrated antiquary, who is well known to all collectors from the
+extent of his purchases at stalls, and the number of curious old books
+which he thus occasionally obtained.&mdash;The Reverend William Turner,
+of Newcastle, in a letter printed in the Monthly Magazine for June 1801,
+vindicates the character of Mr. Beilby from what he considers the
+detractions of Dr. Gleig, in an article on Wood-cuts in the Supplement
+to the Encyclopedia Britannica. Mr. Beilby was a native of the city of
+Durham, and was brought up as a silversmith and seal-engraver under his
+father. He died at Newcastle on the 4th of January 1817, in the
+seventy-fourth year of his age.</p>
+
+<p>The partnership between Beilby and Bewick having been dissolved in
+1797, shortly after the publication of the first volume of the Birds,
+the descriptions in the second, which did not appear till 1804, were
+written by Bewick himself, but revised by the Reverend Henry Cotes,
+vicar of Bedlington. The publication of this volume formed the key-stone
+of Bewick’s fame as a designer and engraver on wood; for though the cuts
+are not superior to those of the first, they are not excelled, nor
+indeed equalled, by any that he afterwards executed. The subsequent
+additions, whether as cuts of birds or tail-pieces, are not so excellent
+as numerous&mdash;in this respect the reverse of the additions to the
+Quadrupeds. Though all the birds were designed, and nearly all of them
+engraved by Bewick himself, there are yet living witnesses who can
+testify that both in the drawing and the engraving of the tail-pieces he
+received very considerable assistance from his pupils, more especially
+from Robert Johnson as a draftsman, and Luke Clennell as a wood
+engraver.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII54" id = "tagVII54" href =
+"#noteVII54">VII.54</a> Before saying anything further on this subject,
+it seems
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page492" id = "page492">
+492</a></span>
+necessary to give the following passage from Mr. Atkinson’s Sketch of
+the Life and Works of Bewick. “With regard to the circumstance that the
+<i>British Birds</i>, with very few exceptions, were finished by his own
+hand, I&nbsp;have it in my power to pledge myself. I&nbsp;had been a
+good deal surprised one day by hearing a gentleman assert that very few
+of them were his own work, all the easy parts being executed by his
+pupils. I&nbsp;saw him the same day, and, talking of his art, inquired
+if he permitted the assistance of his apprentices in many cases? He
+said, ‘No; it had seldom happened, and then they had injured the cuts
+very much.’ I&nbsp;inquired if he could remember any of them in which he
+had received assistance? He said, ‘Aye: I&nbsp;can soon tell you them;’
+and, after a few minutes’ consideration, he made out, with his
+daughter’s assistance, <i>the Whimbrel</i>, <i>Tufted Duck</i>, and
+<i>Lesser Tern</i>:<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII55" id = "tagVII55"
+href = "#noteVII55">VII.55</a> he tried to recollect more, and turning
+to his daughter, said, ‘Jane, honey, dost thou remember any more?’ She
+considered a little, and said, ‘No: she did not; but that certainly
+there were not half a dozen in all:’ those we both pressed him to do
+over again. ‘He intended it,’ he said; but, alas! this intention was
+prevented. In some cases, I&nbsp;am informed, he made his pupils block
+out for him; that is, furnished them with an outline, and let them cut
+away the edges of the block to that line; but as, in this case, the
+assistance rendered is much the same as that afforded by a turner’s
+apprentice when he rounds off the heavy mass of wood in readiness for a
+more experienced hand, but not a line of whose performance remains in
+the beautiful toy it becomes, it does not materially shake the
+authenticity of the work in question.”</p>
+
+<p>Though it is evident that Bewick meant here simply to assert that all
+the <i>figures</i> of the <i>birds</i>, except the few which he
+mentions, were entirely engraved by himself, yet his biographer always
+speaks as if <i>every one</i> of the cuts in the work&mdash;both birds
+and tail-pieces&mdash;were exclusively engraved by Bewick himself; and
+in consequence of this erroneous opinion he refers to seven cuts<a class
+= "tag" name = "tagVII56" id = "tagVII56" href = "#noteVII56">VII.56</a>
+as affording favourable
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page493" id = "page493">
+493</a></span>
+instances of Bewick’s manner of representing water, although <i>not
+one</i> of them was engraved by him, but by Luke Clennell, from drawings
+by himself or by Robert Johnson. Mr. Atkinson, in his admiration of
+Bewick, and in his desire to exaggerate his fame, entirely overlooks the
+merits of those by whom he was assisted. Charlton Nesbit and Luke
+Clennell rendered him more assistance, though not in the cuts of birds,
+than such as that “afforded by a turner’s apprentice when he rounds off
+the heavy mass of wood;” and Robert Johnson, who designed many of the
+best of the tail-pieces, drew the human figure more correctly than
+Bewick himself, and in landscape-drawing was at least his equal. These
+observations are not intended in the least to detract from Bewick’s just
+and deservedly great reputation, but to correct the erroneous opinions
+which have been promulgated on this subject by persons who knew nothing
+of the very considerable assistance which he received from his pupils in
+the drawing and engraving of the tail-pieces in his history of British
+Birds.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_493" id = "illus_493">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_493.png" width = "258" height = "136"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Though three of the best specimens of Bewick’s talents as a designer
+and engraver on wood&mdash;the Bittern, the Wood-cock, and the Common
+Duck<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII57" id = "tagVII57" href =
+"#noteVII57">VII.57</a>&mdash;are to be found in the second volume,
+containing the water-birds, yet the land-birds in the first volume, from
+his being more familiar with their habits, and in consequence of their
+allowing more scope for the display of Bewick’s excellence in the
+representation of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page494" id = "page494">
+494</a></span>
+foliage, are, on the whole, superior both in design and execution to the
+others; their characteristic attitude and expression are represented
+with the greatest truth, while, from the propriety of the back-grounds,
+and the beauty of the trees and foliage, almost every cut forms a
+perfect little picture. Bewick’s talent in pourtraying the form and
+character of birds is seen to great advantage in the hawks and the owls;
+but his excellence, both as a designer and engraver on wood, is yet more
+strikingly displayed in several of the other cuts contained in the same
+volume, and among these the following are perhaps the best. The numbers
+refer to the pages of the first edition of the Land Birds, 1797. The
+Field-fare, page 98; the Yellow Bunting, a&nbsp;most exquisite cut, and
+considered by Bewick as the best that he ever engraved, 143; the
+Goldfinch, 165; the Skylark, 178; the Woodlark, 183; the Lesser and the
+Winter Fauvette, 212, 213; the Willow Wren, 222; the Wren, 227; the
+White-rump, 229; the Cole Titmouse, 241; the Night-Jar, 262; the
+Domestic Cock, 276; the Turkey, 286; the Pintado, 293; the Red Grouse,
+301; the Partridge, 305; the Quail, 308; and the Corncrake,
+311.&mdash;Among the Birds in the second volume, first edition, 1804,
+the following may be instanced as the most excellent. The Water Crake,
+page 10; the Water Rail, 13; the Bittern, 47; the Woodcock, 60; the
+Common Snipe, 68; the Judcock, or Jack Snipe, 73; the Dunlin, 117; the
+Dun Diver, 257; the Grey Lag Goose, 292; and the Common Duck, 333.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing of the same kind that wood engraving has produced since the
+time of Bewick can for a moment bear a comparison with these cuts. They
+are not to be equalled till a designer and engraver shall arise
+possessed of Bewick’s knowledge of nature, and endowed with his happy
+talent of expressing it. Bewick has in this respect effected more by
+himself than has been produced by one of our best wood engravers when
+working from drawings made by a professional designer, but who knows
+nothing of birds, of their habits, or the places which they frequent;
+and has not the slightest feeling for natural incident or picturesque
+beauty.&mdash;No mere fac-simile engraver of a drawing ready made to his
+hand, should venture to speak slightingly of Bewick’s talents until he
+has both <i>drawn and engraved</i> a cut which may justly challenge a
+comparison with the Kyloe Ox, the Yellow-hammer, the Partridge, the
+Wood-cock, or the Tame Duck.</p>
+
+<p>Bewick’s style of engraving, as displayed in the Birds, is
+exclusively his own. He adopts no conventional mode of representing
+texture or producing an effect, but skilfully avails himself of the most
+simple and effective means which his art affords of faithfully and
+efficiently representing his subject. He never wastes his time in
+laborious trifling to display his skill in execution;&mdash;he works
+with a higher aim, to represent
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page495" id = "page495">
+495</a></span>
+nature; and, consequently, he never bestows his pains except to express
+a meaning. The manner in which he has represented the feathers in many
+of his birds, is as admirable as it is perfectly original. His feeling
+for his subject, and his knowledge of his art, suggest the best means of
+effecting his end, and the manner in which he has employed them entitle
+him to rank as a wood engraver&mdash;without reference to his merits as
+a designer&mdash;among the very best that have practised the art.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_495" id = "illus_495">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_495.png" width = "298" height = "188"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Our copy of his cut of the Partridge, though not equal to the
+original, will perhaps to a certain extent serve to exemplify his
+practice. Every line that is to be perceived in this bird is the best
+that could have been devised to express the engraver’s perfect idea of
+his subject. The soft downy plumage of the breast is represented by
+delicate black lines crossed horizontally by white ones, and in order
+that they may appear comparatively light in the impression, the block
+has in this part been lowered. The texture of the skin of the legs, and
+the marks of the toes, are expressed with the greatest accuracy; and the
+varied tints of the plumage of the rump, back, wings, and head, are
+indicated with no less fidelity.&mdash;Such a cut as this Bewick would
+execute in less time than a modern French wood engraver would require to
+cut the delicate cross-hatchings necessary, according to French taste,
+to denote the grey colour of a soldier’s great coat.</p>
+
+<p>The cut of the Wood-cock, of which that on the next page is a copy,
+is another instance of the able manner in which Bewick has availed
+himself of the capabilities of his art. He has here produced the most
+perfect likeness of the bird that ever was engraved, and at the same
+time given to his subject an effect, by the skilful management of light
+and shade, which it is impossible to obtain by means of copper-plate
+engraving. Bewick thoroughly understood the advantages of his art in
+this
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page496" id = "page496">
+496</a></span>
+respect, and no wood engraver or designer, either ancient or modern, has
+employed them with greater success, without sacrificing nature to mere
+effect.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_496" id = "illus_496">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_496.png" width = "310" height = "243"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Among the very best of Bewick’s cuts, as a specimen of wood
+engraving, is, as we have already said, the Common Duck. The round, full
+form of the bird, is represented with the greatest fidelity; the plumage
+in all its downy, smooth, and glossy variety,&mdash;on the sides, the
+rump, the back, the wings, and the head,&mdash;is singularly true to
+nature; while the legs and toes, and even the webs between the toes, are
+engraved in a manner which proves the great attention that Bewick, when
+necessary, paid to the minutest points of detail. The effect of the
+whole is excellent, and the back-ground, both in character and
+execution, is worthy of this master-piece of Bewick as a designer and
+engraver on wood.</p>
+
+<p>The tail-pieces in the first editions of the Birds are, taken all
+together, the best that are to be found in any of Bewick’s works; but,
+though it is not unlikely that he suggested the subjects, there is
+reason to believe that many of them were drawn by Robert Johnson, and
+there cannot be a doubt that the greater number of those contained in
+the second volume were engraved by Luke Clennell. Before saying anything
+more about them, it seems necessary to give a list of those which were
+either not drawn or not engraved by Bewick himself; it has been
+furnished by one of his early pupils who saw most of Johnson’s drawings,
+and worked in the same room with Clennell when he was engraving those
+which are here ascribed to him. The pages show where those cuts are to
+be found in the edition of 1797 and in that of 1821.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page497" id = "page497">
+497</a></span>
+
+<table class = "editions">
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "center smallest" colspan = "2">EDITIONS</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "center">VOLUME I</td>
+<td>1797</td>
+<td>1821</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "smallest">PAGE</td>
+<td class = "smallest">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Boughs and Bird’s-nest, drawn and engraved by Charlton Nesbit,
+preface</td>
+<td class = "item">i</td><td class = "item">i</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Sportsman and Old Shepherd, drawn by Robert Johnson, engraved by
+Bewick, preface (transferred to Vol. ii. preface, page vi. in the
+edition of 1821)</td>
+<td class = "item">vi</td><td class = "item">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Old Man breaking stones, drawn by R. Johnson, engraved by
+Bewick</td>
+<td class = "item">26</td><td class = "item">xxviii</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Horse running away with boys in the cart, drawn by R. Johnson,
+engraved by Bewick</td>
+<td class = "item">82</td><td class = "item">146</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Fox and Bird, drawn by R. Johnson, engraved by Bewick</td>
+<td class = "item">159</td><td class = "item">140</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Winter piece, the <i>geldard</i>, drawn by R. Johnson, engraved by
+Bewick</td>
+<td class = "item">162</td><td class = "item">160</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class = "editions">
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "center smallest" colspan = "2">EDITIONS</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "center">VOLUME II</td>
+<td>1804</td>
+<td>1821</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "smallest">PAGE</td>
+<td class = "smallest">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Two Old Soldiers, “the Honours of War,” drawn by R. Johnson,
+engraved by Bewick, introduction</td>
+<td class = "item">v</td><td class = "item">vii</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Man creeping along the branch of a tree to cross a stream, drawn by
+R. Johnson, engraved by L. Clennell</td>
+<td class = "item">3</td><td class = "item">63</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Old Fisherman, with a leister, drawn by R. Johnson, engraved by L.
+Clennell</td>
+<td class = "item">23</td><td class = "item">38</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Broken Branch, drawn by R. Johnson, engraved by Bewick</td>
+<td class = "item">31</td><td class = "item">41</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Old Man watching his fishing-lines in the rain, drawn by R. Johnson,
+engraved by Bewick</td>
+<td class = "item">41</td><td class = "item">48</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Man angling, his coat-skirts pinned up, engraved by L. Clennell</td>
+<td class = "item">46</td><td class = "item">57</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Old Angler <i>fettling</i> his hooks, engraved by L. Clennell</td>
+<td class = "item">50</td><td class = "item">97</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Partridge shooting, drawn by R. Johnson, engraved by L.
+Clennell</td>
+<td class = "item">82</td><td class = "item">105</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Woman hanging out clothes, engraved by L. Clennell (transferred to
+vol. i. page 164, edition of 1821)</td>
+<td class = "item">106</td><td class = "item">&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Man fallen into the water, engraved by L. Clennell</td>
+<td class = "item">94</td><td class = "item">262</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>River scene, engraved by L. Clennell</td>
+<td class = "item">107</td><td class = "item">132</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Coast scene, engraved by H. Hole</td>
+<td class = "item">123</td><td class = "item">124</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Coast scene, moonlight, drawn by R. Johnson, engraved by L.
+Clennell</td>
+<td class = "item">125</td><td class = "item">122</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Coast scene, drawn by R. Johnson, engraved by H. Hole</td>
+<td class = "item">144</td><td class = "item">142</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Beggar and Mastiff, engraved L. Clennell</td>
+<td class = "item">160</td><td class = "item">207</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Coast scene, drawn by R. Johnson, engraved by Bewick</td>
+<td class = "item">161</td><td class = "item">151</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Burying-ground, drawn and engraved by L. Clennell</td>
+<td class = "item">166</td><td class = "item">237</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Man and Cow, drawn by R. Johnson, engraved by Bewick</td>
+<td class = "item">173</td><td class = "item">161</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Tinker and his Wife, windy day, drawn by R. Johnson, engraved by H.
+Hole</td>
+<td class = "item">176</td><td class = "item">148</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Winter piece, skating, drawn by R. Johnson engraved by Bewick</td>
+<td class = "item">180</td><td class = "item">202</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Man on a rock, drawn by R. Johnson, engraved by L. Clennell</td>
+<td class = "item">182</td><td class = "item">177</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Icebergs, Ship frozen up, drawn and engraved by L. Clennell</td>
+<td class = "item">188</td><td class = "item">156</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Sea piece, moonlight, engraved by L. Clennell</td>
+<td class = "item">194</td><td class = "item">190</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Tired Sportsman, engraved by L. Clennell</td>
+<td class = "item">202</td><td class = "item">245</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>The Glutton, engraved by L. Clennell</td>
+<td class = "item">211</td><td class = "item">195</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Sea piece, engraved by L. Clennell</td>
+<td class = "item">215</td><td class = "item">197</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Runic Pillar, drawn by R. Johnson, engraved by John Johnson</td>
+<td class = "item">220</td><td class = "item">342</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Esquimaux and Canoe, drawn and engraved by L. Clennell</td>
+<td class = "item">230</td><td class = "item">211</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Sea piece, drawn and engraved by L. Clennell</td>
+<td class = "item">238</td><td class = "item">306</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Coast scene, drawn by R. Johnson, engraved by L. Clennell</td>
+<td class = "item">240</td><td class = "item">218</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Coast scene, drawn by R. Johnson, engraved by Bewick</td>
+<td class = "item">245</td><td class = "item">220</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Man and Dog, engraved by H. Hole</td>
+<td class = "item">251</td><td class = "item">228</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Geese going home, engraved by L. Clennell</td>
+<td class = "item">271</td><td class = "item">260</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Boys sailing a Ship, engraved by L. Clennell</td>
+<td class = "item">282</td><td class = "item">268</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Old Man and a Horse, going to market with two sacks full of
+geese</td>
+<td class = "item">286</td><td class = "item">247</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Boys riding on gravestones, drawn by R. Johnson, engraved by L.
+Clennell</td>
+<td class = "item">304</td><td class = "item">323</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page498" id = "page498">
+498</a></span>
+Man smoking, engraved by L. Clennell</td>
+<td class = "item">337</td><td class = "item">303</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Pumping water on a weak leg, engraved by L. Clennell</td>
+<td class = "item">348</td><td class = "item">304</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Sea piece, drawn and engraved by L. Clennell</td>
+<td class = "item">359</td><td class = "item">314</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Sea piece, drawn and engraved by L. Clennell</td>
+<td class = "item">366</td><td class = "item">242</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Sea piece, drawn and engraved by L. Clennell (in Supplement to vol.
+ii. p. 20)</td>
+<td class = "item">380</td><td class = "item">&mdash;</td>
+</tr></table>
+
+
+<p>This list might be considerably increased by inserting many other
+tail-pieces engraved by Clennell; but this does not appear necessary, as
+a sufficient number has been enumerated to show that both in the
+designing and in the engraving of those cuts Bewick received very
+considerable assistance from his pupils. In the additional tail-pieces
+to be found in subsequent editions the greater number are not engraved
+by Bewick himself. In the last edition, published in 1832, there are at
+least thirty engraved by his pupils subsequent to the time of
+Clennell.</p>
+
+<p>The head-piece at the commencement of the introduction,
+volume&nbsp;<span class = "smallroman">I.</span> page vii. drawn and
+engraved by Bewick himself, presents an excellent view of a farm-yard.
+Everything is true to nature; the birds assembled near the woman seen
+winnowing corn are, though on a small scale, represented with the
+greatest fidelity; even among the smallest the wagtail can be
+distinguished from the sparrow. The dog, feeling no interest in the
+business, is seen quietly resting on the dunghill; but the chuckling of
+the hens, announcing that something like eating is going forward, has
+evidently excited the attention of the old sow, and brought her and her
+litter into the yard in the expectation of getting a share. The season,
+the latter end of autumn, is indicated by the flight of field-fares, and
+the comparatively naked appearance of the trees; and we perceive that it
+is a clear, bright day from the strong shadow of the ladder projected
+against the wall, and on the thatched roof of the outhouse.
+A&nbsp;heron, a&nbsp;crow, and a magpie are perceived nailed against the
+gable end of the barn; and a couple of pigeons are seen flying above the
+house. The cut forms at once an interesting picture of country life, and
+a graphic summary of the contents of the work.</p>
+
+<p>Among the tail-pieces drawn and engraved by Bewick himself, in the
+first edition of the Birds, the following appear most deserving of
+notice. In volume&nbsp;<span class = "smallroman">I.</span>: A traveller
+drinking,&mdash;supposed to represent a sketch of his own costume when
+making a tour of the Lakes in 1776,&mdash;introduced twice, at the end
+of the contents, page xxx. and again at page 177. A&nbsp;man
+<i>watering</i>, in a different sense to the preceding, a&nbsp;very
+natural, though not a very delicate subject, at page 42. At page 62, an
+old miller, lying asleep behind some bushes; he has evidently been tipsy
+and from the date on a stone to the left, we are led to suppose that
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page499" id = "page499">
+499</a></span>
+he had been indulging too freely on <ins class = "correction" title =
+"text reads ‘the the’">the</ins> King’s birth-day, 4th June. The
+following is a copy of the cut.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_499a" id = "illus_499a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_499a.png" width = "280" height = "121"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "continue">
+Two cows standing in a pool, under the shade of a <i>dyke-back</i>, on a
+warm day, page 74. In this cut Bewick has introduced a sketch of a
+magpie chased by a hawk, but saved from the talons of its pursuer by the
+timely interference of a couple of crows. Winter scene, of which the
+following is a copy, at page 78. Some boys have made a large snow man,
+which excites the special wonderment of a horse; and Bewick, to give the
+subject a moral application, has added “<i>Esto perpetua!</i>” at the
+bottom of the cut: the great work of the little men, however they may
+admire it, and wish for its endurance, will be dissolved on the first
+thaw.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_499b" id = "illus_499b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_499b.png" width = "311" height = "180"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "continue">
+At page 97 the appearance of mist and rain is well expressed; and in the
+cut of a poacher tracking a hare, the snow is no less naturally
+represented. At page 157, a&nbsp;man riding with a <i>howdy</i>&mdash;a
+midwife&mdash;behind him, part of the cut appears covered with a leaf.
+Bewick once being asked the meaning of this, said that “it was done to
+indicate that the scene which was to follow required to be concealed.”
+At page 194 we perceive a full-fed old churl hanging his cat; at page
+226, a&nbsp;hen attacking a dog; and at page 281, two cocks
+fighting,&mdash;all three excellent of their kind.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page500" id = "page500">
+500</a></span>
+<p>Bewick’s humour occasionally verges on positive grossness, and a
+<i>glaring</i> instance of his want of delicacy presents itself in the
+tail-piece at page 285. After the work was printed off Bewick became
+aware that the nakedness of a prominent part of his subject required to
+be covered, and one of his apprentices was employed to blacken it over
+with ink. In the next edition a plug was inserted in the block, and the
+representation of two bars of wood engraved upon it to hide the
+offensive part. The cut, however, even thus amended, is still extremely
+indelicate.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII58" id = "tagVII58" href =
+"#noteVII58">VII.58</a></p>
+
+<p>The following is a copy of the head-piece at the commencement of the
+advertisement to the second volume. It represents an old man saying
+grace with closed eyes, while his cat avails herself of the opportunity
+of making free with his porridge. The Reverend Henry Cotes, vicar of
+Bedlington, happening to call on Bewick when he was finishing this cut,
+expressed his disapprobation of the subject, as having a tendency to
+ridicule the practice of an act of devotion; but Bewick denied that he
+had any such intention, and would not consent to omit the cut. He drew a
+distinction between the act and the performer; and though he might
+approve of saying grace before meat, he could not help laughing at one
+of the over-righteous, who, while craving a blessing with hypocritical
+grimace, and with eyes closed to outward things, loses a present good.
+The head-piece to the contents presents an excellent sketch of an old
+man going to market on a windy and rainy day. The old horse on which he
+is mounted has become restive, and the rider has both broken his stick
+and lost his hat. The horse seems determined not to move till it suits
+his own pleasure; and it is evident that the old man dare not get down
+to recover his hat, for, should he do so, encumbered as
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page501" id = "page501">
+501</a></span>
+he is with a heavy basket over his left arm and an egg-pannier slung
+over his shoulder, he will not be able to remount.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_500" id = "illus_500">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_500.png" width = "199" height = "154"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The following are the principal tail-pieces drawn and engraved by
+Bewick himself in the first edition of the second volume of the Birds,
+1804. A&nbsp;shooter with a gun at his back crossing a stream on long
+stilts, page&nbsp;5. An old wooden-legged beggar gnawing a bone near the
+entrance to a gentleman’s house, and a dog beside him eagerly watching
+for the reversion, page 27. A&nbsp;dog with a kettle tied to his tail,
+pursued by boys,&mdash;a great hulking fellow, evidently a blacksmith,
+standing with folded arms enjoying the sport, page 56. A&nbsp;man
+crossing a frozen stream, with a branch of a tree between his legs, to
+support him should the ice happen to break, page 85. A&nbsp;monkey
+basting a goose that is seen roasting, page 263. An old woman with a
+pitcher, driving away some geese from a well, page 291. An old
+beggar-woman assailed by a gander, page 313.</p>
+
+<p>One of the best of the tail-pieces subsequently inserted is that
+which occurs at the end of the description of the Moor-buzzard, volume
+I.&nbsp;in the editions of 1816 and 1821, and at page 31 in the edition
+of 1832. It represents two dyers carrying a tub between them by means of
+a cowl-staff; and the figures, Mr. Atkinson says, are portraits of two
+old men belonging to Ovingham,&mdash;“the one on the right being ‘auld
+Tommy Dobson of the Bleach Green,’ and the other ‘Mat. Carr.’”<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagVII59" id = "tagVII59" href = "#noteVII59">VII.59</a>
+The action of the men is excellent, and their expression is in perfect
+accordance with the business in which they are engaged&mdash;to wit,
+carrying their tub full of <i>chemmerly</i>&mdash;chamber-lye&mdash;to
+the dye-house. The olfactory organs of both are evidently affected by
+the pungent odour of their load. It may be necessary to observe that the
+dyers of Ovingham had at that time a general reservoir in the village,
+to which most of the cottagers were contributors; but as each family had
+the privilege of supplying themselves from it with as much as they
+required for scouring and washing, it sometimes happened that the dyers
+found their trough empty, and were consequently obliged to solicit a
+supply from such persons as kept a private stock of their own. As they
+were both irritable old men, the phrase, “He’s like a <i>raised</i>
+[enraged] dyer begging <i>chemmerly</i>,” became proverbial in Ovingham
+to denote a person in a passion. This cut, as I am informed by one of
+Bewick’s old pupils, was copied on the block and engraved by Luke
+Clennell from a water-colour drawing by Robert Johnson.</p>
+
+<p>When the second volume of the History of British Birds was published,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page502" id = "page502">
+502</a></span>
+in 1804, Bewick had reached his fiftieth year; but though his powers as
+a wood engraver continued for long afterwards unimpaired, yet he
+subsequently produced nothing to extend his fame. The retouching of the
+blocks for the repeated editions of the Quadrupeds and the Birds, and
+the engraving of new cuts for the latter work, occupied a considerable
+part of his time. He also engraved, by himself and pupils, several cuts
+for different works, but they are generally such as add nothing to his
+reputation. Bewick never engraved with pleasure from another person’s
+drawing; in large cuts, consisting chiefly of human figures, he did not
+excel. His excellence consisted in the representation of animals and in
+landscape. The Fables, which had been projected previous to 1795, also
+occasionally occupied his attention. This work, which first appeared in
+1818, was by no means so favourably received as the Quadrupeds and the
+Birds; and several of Bewick’s greatest admirers, who had been led to
+expect something better, openly expressed their disappointment. Dr.
+Dibdin, speaking of the Fables, says, “It would be a species of
+<i>scandalum magnatum</i> to depreciate any production connected with
+the name of Bewick; but I will fearlessly and honestly aver that his
+Æsop disappointed me; the more so, as his Birds and Beasts are volumes
+perfectly classical of their kind.” The disappointment, however, that
+was felt with respect to this work resulted perhaps rather from people
+expecting too much than from any deficiency in the cuts as
+<i>illustrations of Fables</i>. There is a great difference between
+representing birds and beasts in their natural character, and
+representing them as actors in imaginary scenes. We do not regard the
+cock and the fox holding an imaginary conversation, however ably
+represented, with the interest with which we look upon each when
+faithfully depicted in its proper character. The tail-piece of the bitch
+seeing her drowned puppies, at page 364 of the Quadrupeds, edition 1824,
+is far more interesting than any cut illustrative of a fable in
+Æsop;&mdash;we at once feel its truth, and admire it, because it is
+natural. Birds and beasts represented as performing human characters can
+never interest so much as when naturally depicted in their own. Such
+cuts may display great fancy and much skill on the part of the artist,
+but they never can excite true feeling. The martyr Cock Robin, killed by
+that malicious archer the Sparrow, is not so interesting as plain Robin
+Redbreast picking up crumbs at a cottage-door in the snow:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class = "verse">
+“One touch of nature makes the whole world kin.”</p>
+
+<p>Whatever may be the merits or defects of the cuts in those Fables,
+Bewick most certainly had very little to do with them; for by far the
+greater number were designed by Robert Johnson, and engraved by
+W.&nbsp;W. Temple and William Harvey, while yet in their apprenticeship.
+In
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page503" id = "page503">
+503</a></span>
+the whole volume there are not more than three of the largest cuts
+engraved by Bewick himself.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII60" id =
+"tagVII60" href = "#noteVII60">VII.60</a> The tail-pieces in this work
+will not bear a comparison with those in the Birds; the subjects are
+often both trite and tamely treated; the devil and the
+gallows&mdash;Bewick’s two stock-pieces&mdash;occur rather too
+frequently, considering that the book is chiefly intended for the
+improvement of young minds; and in many instances nature has been
+sacrificed in order that the moral might be obvious.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_503" id = "illus_503">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_503.png" width = "232" height = "170"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+THE CROW AND THE LAMB.</p>
+
+<p>The letter-press was entirely selected and arranged by Bewick
+himself, and one or two of the fables were of his own writing. Though an
+excellent illustrator of Natural History, Bewick is but an indifferent
+fabulist.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII61" id = "tagVII61" href =
+"#noteVII61">VII.61</a> Though the work is professedly intended for the
+instruction of the young, there are certainly a few tail-pieces
+introduced for the <i>entertainment</i> of the more advanced in years;
+and of this kind is the old beggar and his trull lying asleep, and a
+bull looking over a rail at them. The explanation of this subject would
+certainly have little tendency to improve young minds. Bewick, though
+very fond of introducing the devil in his cuts to frighten the wicked,
+does not appear to have been willing that a ranting preacher should in
+his discourses avail himself of the same character, though to effect the
+same purpose, as we learn from the following anecdote related by Mr.
+Atkinson. “Cant and hypocrisy he (Bewick) very much disliked.
+A&nbsp;ranter took up his abode near Cherry-burn, and used daily to
+horrify the country people with very familiar details of ultra-stygian
+proceedings. Bewick went to hear him, and after listening patiently for
+some time to
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page504" id = "page504">
+504</a></span>
+a blasphemous recital of such horrors, at which the poor people were
+gaping with affright, he got behind the holder-forth, and pinching his
+elbow, addressed him when he turned round with great solemnity: ‘Now
+then thou seems to know a great deal about the devil, and has been
+frightening us a long while about him: can thou tell me whether he wears
+his own hair or a wig?’”&mdash;This is a bad joke;&mdash;the query might
+have been retorted with effect. The engraver, it seems, might introduce
+his Satanic majesty <i>ad libitum</i> in his cuts; but when a ranting
+preacher takes the same liberty in his discourses, he is called upon to
+give proof of personal acquaintance.</p>
+
+<p>Bewick’s morality was rather rigid than cheerful; and he was but too
+prone to think uncharitably of others, whose conduct and motives, when
+weighed in the scales of impartial justice, were perhaps as correct and
+as pure as his own. His good men are often represented as somewhat cold,
+selfish individuals, with little sympathy for the more unfortunate of
+their species, whose errors are as often the result of ignorance as of a
+positively vicious character. As a moralist, he was accustomed to look
+at the dark rather than the bright side of human nature, and hence his
+tendency to brand those with whom he might differ in opinion as fools
+and knaves. One of the fables, written by himself, was objected to by
+the printer, the late Mr. E.&nbsp;Walker, and at his request it was
+omitted. We give a copy of the cut intended for it. The world is
+represented as having lost its balance, and legions of his favourite
+devils are seen hurled about in a confused vortex. The fable, it is
+said, was intended as a satire on
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page505" id = "page505">
+505</a></span>
+the ministerial politics of the time. A&nbsp;thumb-mark is seen at the
+upper end of what is intended to represent a piece of paper forming part
+of the page of a Bible pasted across the cut. A&nbsp;similar mark is to
+be found at page 175 of the Land Birds, first edition, 1797, and in the
+bill and receipt prefixed to the Fables, 1818-1823.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_504" id = "illus_504">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_504.png" width = "320" height = "278"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>In a novel, entitled “Such is the World,” there is the following
+erroneous account of Bewick’s reason for affixing his thumb-mark to this
+bill.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII62" id = "tagVII62" href =
+"#noteVII62">VII.62</a> “Having completed his task to the entire
+satisfaction of his own mind, Mr. Bewick bethought him of engraving a
+frontispiece. But having some suspicion that the said frontispiece might
+be pirated by some of those corsairs who infest the ocean of literature,
+he resolved to put a mark on it, whereby all men might distinguish it as
+readily as a fisherman distinguishes a haddock<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagVII63" id = "tagVII63" href = "#noteVII63">VII.63</a> from a
+cod-fish. Accordingly, he touched with his thumb the little black ball
+with which he was wont to ink his cuts, in order to take off proof
+impressions of his work: he then very deliberately pressed his thumb on
+the frontispiece which he was at that moment engraving, and cut the most
+beautiful image of the original, which he designated by the appropriate
+words ‘John Bewick, his mark.’” Had the writer looked at the
+“frontispiece,” as he calls it, he would have found “<i>Thomas</i>,” and
+not “<i>John</i>.” The conclusion of this account is a fair sample of
+its general accuracy. In a preliminary observation the author, with
+equal correctness, informs his readers that the work in which this
+“frontispiece” appeared was “a&nbsp;superb edition of <i>Gay’s</i>
+Fables.”</p>
+
+<p>Bewick’s <i>mark</i> is, in fact, added to this bill merely as a
+jest; the mode which he took to authenticate the copies that were
+actually issued by himself, and not pilfered by any of the workmen
+employed about the printing-office,<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII64" id
+= "tagVII64" href = "#noteVII64">VII.64</a> was to print at his own
+work-shop, in red ink from a copper-plate, a&nbsp;representation of a
+piece of sea-weed lying above the wood-cut which had previously been
+printed off at a printing-office. This mode of printing a copper-plate
+over a wood-cut was a part of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page506" id = "page506">
+506</a></span>
+one of the plans which he had devised to prevent the forgery of
+bank-notes.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII65" id = "tagVII65" href =
+"#noteVII65">VII.65</a></p>
+
+<p>The first of the two following cuts, copied from his Fables, records
+the decease of Bewick’s mother, who died on the 20th of February 1785,
+aged 58; and the second that of his father, who died on the 15th of
+November in the same year, aged 70. The last event also marks the day on
+which he began to engrave the first cut intended for the Quadrupeds.
+This cut was the Arabian Camel, or Dromedary, and he had made very
+little progress with it when a messenger arrived from Cherry-burn to
+inform him of his father’s death.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<div class = "picblock w200">
+<p><a name = "illus_506" id = "illus_506">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_506a.png" width = "159" height = "116"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picblock">
+<p><img src = "images/illus_506b.png" width = "152" height = "82"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Several years previous to his decease Bewick had devised an
+improvement, which consisted in printing a subject from two or more
+blocks,&mdash;not in the manner of chiaro-scuros, but in order to obtain
+a greater variety of <i>tint</i>, and a better effect than could be
+obtained, without great labour, in a cut printed in black ink from a
+single block. This improvement, which had been suggested by Papillon in
+1768, Bewick proceeded to carry into effect. The subject which he made
+choice of to exemplify what he considered his original discovery, was an
+old horse waiting for death.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII66" id =
+"tagVII66" href = "#noteVII66">VII.66</a> He accordingly made the
+drawing on a large block consisting of four different pieces, and
+forthwith proceeded to engrave it. He however did not live to complete
+his intention; for even this block, which he meant merely for the first
+impression&mdash;the subject having to be completed by a
+second&mdash;remained unfinished at his decease.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagVII67" id = "tagVII67" href = "#noteVII67">VII.67</a> He had,
+however, finished it all
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page507" id = "page507">
+507</a></span>
+with the exception of part of the horse’s head, and when in this state
+he had four impressions taken about a week before his death. It was on
+this occasion that he exclaimed, when the pressman handed him the proof,
+“I&nbsp;wish I was but twenty years younger!”</p>
+
+<p>This cut, with the head said to have been finished by another person,
+was published by Bewick’s son, Mr. Robert Elliott Bewick, in 1832. It is
+the largest cut that Bewick ever engraved,<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagVII68" id = "tagVII68" href = "#noteVII68">VII.68</a> but having
+been left by him in an unfinished state, it would be impossible to say
+what he might have effected had he lived to work out his ideas, and
+unfair to judge of it as if it were a finished performance. It is,
+however, but just to remark, that the miserable appearance of the poor,
+worn-out, neglected animal, is represented with great feeling and
+truth,&mdash;excepting the head, which is disproportionately large and
+heavy,&mdash;and that the landscape displays Bewick’s usual fidelity in
+copying nature.</p>
+
+<p>Bewick’s life affords a useful lesson to all who wish to attain
+distinction in art, and at the same time to preserve their independence.
+He diligently cultivated his talents, and never trusted to booksellers
+or designers for employment. He did not work according to the directions
+of others, but struck out a path for himself; and by diligently pursuing
+it according to the bent of his own feelings, he acquired both a
+competence with respect to worldly means and an ample reward of fame.
+The success of his works did not render him inattentive to business; and
+he was never tempted by the prospect of increasing wealth to indulge in
+expensive pleasures, nor to live in a manner which his circumstances did
+not warrant. What he had honestly earned he frugally husbanded; and,
+like a prudent man, made a provision for his old age. “The hand of the
+diligent,” says Solomon, “maketh rich.” This Bewick felt, and his life
+may be cited in the exemplification of the truth of the proverb. He
+acquired not indeed great wealth, but he attained a competence, and was
+grateful and contented. No favoured worshipper of Mammon, though
+possessed of millions obtained by “watching the turn of the market,”
+could say more.</p>
+
+<p>He was extremely regular and methodical in his habits of business:
+until within a few years of his death he used to come to his shop in
+Newcastle from his house in Gateshead at a certain hour in the morning,
+returning to his dinner at a certain time, and, as he used to say,
+<i>lapping
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page508" id = "page508">
+508</a></span>
+up</i> at night, as if he were a workman employed by the day, and
+subject to a loss by being absent a single hour. When any of his works
+were in the press, the first thing he did each morning, after calling at
+his own shop, was to proceed to the printer’s to see what progress they
+were making, and to give directions to the pressmen about printing the
+cuts.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII69" id = "tagVII69" href =
+"#noteVII69">VII.69</a> It is indeed owing to his attention in this
+respect that the cuts in all the editions of his works published during
+his life-time are so well printed. The edition of the Birds, published
+in 1832, displays numerous instances of the want of Bewick’s own
+superintendence: either through the carelessness or ignorance of the
+pressmen, many of the cuts are quite spoiled.</p>
+
+<p>The following cut represents a view of Bewick’s workshop in St.
+Nicholas’ Churchyard, Newcastle. The upper room, the two windows of
+which are seen in the roof, was that in which he worked in the latter
+years of his life. In this shop he engraved the cuts which will
+perpetuate his name; and there for upwards of fifty years was he
+accustomed to sit, steadily and cheerfully pursuing the labour that he
+loved. He used always to work with his hat on; and when any gentleman or
+nobleman
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page509" id = "page509">
+509</a></span>
+called upon him, he only removed it for a moment on his first entering.
+He used frequently to whistle when at work, and he was seldom without a
+large quid of tobacco in his mouth. The prominence occasioned by the
+quid, which he kept between his under lip and his teeth, and not in his
+cheek, is indicated in most of his portraits.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_508" id = "illus_508">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_508.png" width = "320" height = "318"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>A stick, which had been his brother John’s, was a great favourite
+with him, and he generally carried it in his walks, always carefully
+putting it in a certain place when he entered his workroom. He used to
+be very partial to a draught of water in the afternoon, immediately
+before leaving work. The water was brought fresh by one of the
+apprentices from the <i>pant</i> at the head of the Side, in an
+earthenware jug, and the glass which Bewick used to drink the water out
+of, was, as soon as done with, carefully locked up in his book-case. One
+of his apprentices once happening to break the jug, Bewick scolded him
+well for his carelessness, and made him pay twopence towards buying
+another.</p>
+
+<p>Bewick was a man of athletic make, being nearly six feet high, and
+proportionally stout. He possessed great personal courage, and in his
+younger days was not slow to repay an insult with personal chastisement.
+On one occasion being assaulted by two pitmen on returning from a visit
+to Cherry-burn, he resolutely turned upon the aggressors, and, as he
+said, “<i>paid</i> them both well.” Though hard-featured, and much
+marked with the small-pox, the expression of Bewick’s countenance was
+manly and open, and his dark eyes sparkled with intelligence. There is a
+good bust of him by Bailey in the Library of the Literary and
+Philosophical Society of Newcastle, and the best engraved portrait is
+perhaps that of Burnet, after a painting by Ramsey.<a class = "tag" name
+= "tagVII70" id = "tagVII70" href = "#noteVII70">VII.70</a> The portrait
+on page 510, engraved on wood, is another attempt to perpetuate the
+likeness of one to whom the art owes so much.</p>
+
+<p>In the summer of 1828 Bewick visited London; but he was then
+evidently in a declining state of health, and he had lost much of his
+former energy of mind. Scarcely anything that he saw interested him, and
+he longed no less than in his younger years to return to the banks of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page510" id = "page510">
+510</a></span>
+the Tyne. He had ceased to feel an interest in objects which formerly
+afforded him great pleasure; for when his old friend, the late Mr.
+William Bulmer, drove him round the Regent’s Park, he declined to alight
+for the purpose of visiting the collection of animals in the Gardens of
+the Zoological Society.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_510" id = "illus_510">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_510.png" width = "336" height = "431"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+THOMAS BEWICK.</p>
+
+<p>On his return to Newcastle he appeared for a short time to enjoy his
+usual health and spirits. On the Saturday preceding his death he took
+the block of the Old Horse waiting for Death to the printer’s, and had
+it proved; on the following Monday he became unwell, and after a few
+days’ illness he ceased to exist. He died at his house on the
+Windmill-hills, Gateshead, on the 8th of November, 1828, aged
+seventy-five. He was buried at Ovingham, and the following cut
+represents a view of the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page511" id = "page511">
+511</a></span>
+place of his interment, near the west end of the church. The tablets
+seen in the wall are those erected to the memory of himself and his
+brother John.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_511" id = "illus_511">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_511.png" width = "312" height = "272"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The following are the inscriptions on the tablets:</p>
+
+<div class = "picture smaller">
+<div class = "picblock">
+<p class = "center">
+In Memory of<br>
+JOHN BEWICK,<br>
+Engraver,<br>
+Who died December, 5, 1795,<br>
+Aged 35 years.</p>
+<hr class = "mid">
+<p class = "center">
+His Ingenuity as an
+Artist<br>
+was excelled only by<br>
+his Conduct as a<br>
+Man.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picblock">
+<p class = "center">
+The<br>
+Burial Place<br>
+of<br>
+THOMAS BEWICK,<br>
+Engraver,<br>
+Newcastle.<br>
+Isabella, his Wife,<br>
+Died 1st February, 1826,<br>
+Aged 72 years.<br>
+THOMAS BEWICK,<br>
+Died 8th of November, 1828,<br>
+Aged 75 years.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In an excellent notice of the works of Bewick&mdash;apparently
+written by one of his townsmen (said to be Mr.
+T.&nbsp;Doubleday)&mdash;in Blackwood’s Magazine for July, 1825, it is
+stated that the final tail-piece to Bewick’s Fables, 1818-1823, is
+“A&nbsp;View of Ovingham Churchyard;” and in the Reverend William
+Turner’s Memoir of Thomas Bewick, in the sixth volume of the
+Naturalist’s Library, the same statement is repeated. It is, however,
+erroneous; as both the writers might have known had they thought it
+worth their while to pay a visit to Ovingham, and take a look
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page512" id = "page512">
+512</a></span>
+at the church. The following cut, in which is introduced an imaginary
+representation of Bewick’s funeral, presents a correct view of the
+place. The following popular saying, which is well known in
+Northumberland, suggested the introduction of the rain-bow:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p class = "open">“Happy is the bride that the sun shines on,</p>
+<p>And happy is the corpse that the rain rains on,&mdash;”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "continue">
+meaning that sunshine at a wedding is a sign of happiness in the
+marriage state to the bride, and that rain at a funeral is a sign of
+future happiness to the person whose remains are about to be
+interred.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_512" id = "illus_512">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_512.png" width = "366" height = "258"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The following eloquent tribute to the merits of Bewick is from an
+article on Wilson’s Illustrations of Zoology in Blackwood’s Magazine for
+June, 1828.</p>
+
+<p>“Have we forgotten, in our hurried and imperfect enumeration of wise
+worthies,&mdash;have we forgotten</p>
+
+<p class = "verse">
+‘The Genius that dwells on the banks of the Tyne,’<a class = "tag" name
+= "tagVII71" id = "tagVII71" href = "#noteVII71">VII.71</a></p>
+
+<p class = "continue">
+the Matchless, Inimitable Bewick? No. His books lie on our parlour,
+bed-room, dining-room, drawing-room, study table, and are never out of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page513" id = "page513">
+513</a></span>
+place or time. Happy old man! The delight of childhood, manhood,
+decaying age!&mdash;A moral in every tail-piece&mdash;a sermon in every
+vignette. Not as if from one fountain flows the stream of his inspired
+spirit, gurgling from the Crawley Spring so many thousand gallons of the
+element every minute, and feeding but one city, our own Edinburgh. But
+it rather oozes out from unnumbered springs. Here from one scarcely
+perceptible but in the vivid green of the lonesome sward, from which it
+trickles away into a little mountain rill&mdash;here leaping into sudden
+life, as from the rock&mdash;here bubbling from a silver pool,
+overshadowed by a birch-tree&mdash;here like a well asleep in a
+moss-grown cell, built by some thoughtful recluse in the old monastic
+day, with a few words from Scripture, or some rude engraving, religious
+as Scripture, <span class = "smallcaps">Omne bonum desuper&mdash;Opera
+Dei mirifica</span>.”</p>
+
+<p>John Bewick, a younger brother of Thomas, was born at Cherry-burn in
+1760, and in 1777 was apprenticed as a wood engraver to his brother and
+Mr. Beilby. He undoubtedly assisted his brother in the execution of the
+cuts for the two editions of Fables, printed by Mr. Saint in 1779 and
+1784; but in those early productions it would be impossible, judging
+merely from the style of the engraving, to distinguish the work of the
+two brothers. Among the earliest cuts known to have been engraved by
+John Bewick, on the expiration of his apprenticeship, are those
+contained in a work entitled “Emblems of Mortality,” printed in 1789 for
+T.&nbsp;Hodgson, the publisher of the Hieroglyphic Bible, mentioned at
+page 478. Those cuts, which are very indifferently executed, are copies,
+occasionally altered for the worse, of the cuts in Holbein’s Dance of
+Death. Whether he engraved them in London, or not, I&nbsp;have been
+unable to ascertain; but it is certain that he was living in London in
+the following year, and that he resided there till 1795. When residing
+in the metropolis he drew and engraved the cuts for “The Progress of Man
+and Society,” compiled by Dr. Trusler, and published in 1791; the cuts
+for “The Looking Glass of the Mind,” 1796; and also those contained in a
+similar work entitled “Blossoms of Morality,” published about the same
+time. Though several of those cuts display considerable talent, yet the
+best specimens of his abilities as a designer and engraver on wood are
+to be found in Poems by Goldsmith and Parnell, 1795, and in Somervile’s
+Chase, 1796, both printed in quarto, to display the excellence of modern
+printing, type-founding, wood-engraving, and paper-making. Mr. Bulmer,
+who suggested those editions, being himself a Northumbrian, had been
+intimately acquainted with both Thomas and John Bewick. In the preface
+to the Poems by Goldsmith and Parnell, he is careful to commemorate the
+paper-maker, type-founder, and the engravers; but he omits to mention
+the name of Robert Johnson, who designed three of the principal
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page514" id = "page514">
+514</a></span>
+cuts.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII72" id = "tagVII72" href =
+"#noteVII72">VII.72</a> The merits of this highly-talented young man
+appear to have been singularly overlooked by those whose more especial
+duty it was to notice them. In the whole of Bewick’s works he is not
+once mentioned. Mr. Bulmer also says, that all the cuts were engraved by
+Thomas and John Bewick; but though he unquestionably believed so
+himself, the statement is not strictly correct; for the four vignette
+head and tail-pieces to the Traveller and the Deserted Village were
+engraved by C.&nbsp;Nesbit. The vignettes on the title-pages, the large
+cut of the old woman gathering water-cresses, and the tail-piece at the
+end of the volume, were drawn and engraved by John Bewick; the remainder
+were engraved by Thomas.</p>
+
+<p>The cuts in this book are generally executed in a free and effective
+style, but are not remarkable as specimens of wood engraving, unless we
+take into consideration the time when they were published. The best in
+point of execution are, The Hermit at his morning devotion, and The
+Angel, Hermit, and Guide, both engraved by Thomas Bewick; the manner in
+which the engraver has executed the foliage in these two cuts is
+extremely beautiful and natural. It is said that George III. thought so
+highly of the cuts in this book that he could not believe that they were
+engraved on wood; and that his bookseller, Mr. George Nicol, obtained
+for his Majesty a sight of the blocks in order that he might be
+convinced of the fact by his own inspection. This anecdote is sometimes
+produced as a proof of the great excellence of the cuts, though it might
+with greater truth be cited as a proof of his Majesty being totally
+unacquainted with the process of wood engraving, and of his not being
+able to distinguish a wood-cut from a copper-plate. If Bewick’s
+reputation as a wood engraver rested on those cuts, it certainly would
+not stand very high. Much better things of the same kind have been
+executed since that time by persons who are generally considered as
+having small claims to distinction as wood engravers.</p>
+
+<p>The cuts in the Chase were all, except one, designed by John Bewick;
+but in consequence of the declining state of his health he was not able
+to engrave them. Soon after he had finished the drawings on the block he
+left London for the north, in the hope of deriving benefit from his
+native air. His disorder, however, continued to increase; and, within a
+few weeks from the time of his return, he died at Ovingham, on the 5th
+of December, 1795, aged thirty-five.</p>
+
+<p>The cuts in the Chase, which were all, except one, engraved by Thomas
+Bewick, are, on the whole, superior in point of execution to those in
+the Poems of Goldsmith and Parnell. Though boldly designed, some of them
+display great defects in composition, and among the most objectionable
+in this respect are the Huntsman and three Hounds, at
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page515" id = "page515">
+515</a></span>
+page 5; the conclusion of the Chase, page 31; and George III.
+stag-hunting, page 93. Among the best, both as respects design and
+execution, are: Morning, vignette on title-page, remarkably spirited;
+Hounds, page 25; a&nbsp;Stag drinking, page 27; Fox-hunting, page 63;
+and Otter-hunting, page 99. The final tail-piece, which has been spoiled
+in the engraving, was executed by one of Bewick’s pupils.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_515" id = "illus_515">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_515.png" width = "322" height = "396"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>John Bewick, as a designer and engraver on wood, is much inferior to
+his brother. Though several of his cuts possess considerable merit with
+respect to design, by far the greater number are executed in a dry,
+harsh manner. His best cuts may be readily distinguished from his
+brother’s by the greater contrast of black and white in the cuts
+engraved by John, and by the dry and withered appearance of the foliage
+of the trees. The above is a reduced copy of a cut entitled the “Sad
+Historian,” drawn and engraved by John Bewick, in the Poems by Goldsmith
+and Parnell.</p>
+
+<p>The most of John Bewick’s cuts are much better conceived than
+engraved; and this perhaps may in a great measure have arisen from
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page516" id = "page516">
+516</a></span>
+their having been chiefly executed for children’s books, in which
+excellence of engraving was not required. His style of engraving is not
+good; for though some of his cuts are extremely <i>effective</i> from
+the contrast of light and shade, yet the lines in almost every one are
+coarse and harsh, and “laid in,” to use a technical expression, in a
+hard and tasteless manner. Dry, stiff, parallel lines, scarcely ever
+deviating into a pleasing curve, are the general characteristic of most
+of his small cuts. As he reached the age of thirty-five without having
+produced any cut which displays much ability in the execution, it is not
+likely that he would have excelled as a wood engraver had his life been
+prolonged. The following is a fac-simile of one of the best of his cuts
+in the Blossoms of Morality, published about 1796. It exemplifies his
+manner of strongly contrasting positive black with pure white; and the
+natural attitudes of the women afford a tolerably fair specimen of his
+talents as a designer.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_516" id = "illus_516">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_516.png" width = "233" height = "179"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Robert Johnson, though not a wood engraver, has a claim to a brief
+notice here on account of the excellence of several of the tail-pieces
+designed by him in Bewick’s Birds, and from his having made the drawings
+for most of the wood-cuts in Bewick’s Fables. He was born in 1770, at
+Shotley, a&nbsp;village in Northumberland, about six miles to the
+south-west of Ovingham; and in 1778 was placed by his father, who at
+that time resided in Gateshead, as an apprentice to Beilby and Bewick to
+be instructed in copper-plate engraving. The plates which are generally
+supposed to have been executed by him during his apprenticeship possess
+very little merit, nor does he appear to have been desirous to excel as
+an engraver. His great delight consisted in sketching from nature and in
+painting in water-colours; and in this branch of art, while yet an
+apprentice, he displayed talents of very high order.<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagVII73" id = "tagVII73" href = "#noteVII73">VII.73</a> He
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page517" id = "page517">
+517</a></span>
+was frequently employed by his master in drawing and making designs, and
+at his leisure hours he took every opportunity of improving himself in
+his favourite art. The Earl of Bute happening to call at Beilby and
+Bewick’s shop on one occasion when passing through Newcastle,
+a&nbsp;portfolio of Johnson’s drawings, made at his leisure hours, was
+shown to his lordship, who was so much pleased with them that he
+selected as many as amounted to forty pounds. This sum Beilby and Bewick
+appropriated to themselves, on the ground that, as he was their
+apprentice, those drawings, as well as any others that he might make,
+were legally their property. Johnson’s friends, however, thinking
+differently, instituted legal proceedings for the recovery of the money,
+and obtained a decision in their favour. One of the pleas set up by
+Beilby and Bewick was, that the drawings properly belonged to them, as
+they taught him the art, and that the making of such drawings was part
+of his business. This plea, however, failed; it was elicited on the
+examination of one of their own apprentices, Charlton Nesbit, that
+neither he nor any other of his fellow apprentices was taught the art of
+drawing in water-colours by their masters, and that it formed no part of
+their necessary instruction as engravers.</p>
+
+<p>On the expiration of his apprenticeship Johnson gave up, in a great
+measure, the practice of copper-plate engraving, and applied himself
+almost exclusively to drawing. In 1796 he was engaged by Messrs.
+Morison, booksellers and publishers of Perth, to draw from the original
+paintings the portraits intended to be engraved in “the Scottish
+Gallery,” a&nbsp;work edited by Pinkerton, and published about 1799.
+When at Taymouth Castle, the seat of the Earl of Breadalbane, copying
+some portraits painted by Jameson, the Scottish Vandyke, he caught a
+severe cold, which, being neglected, increased to a fever. In the
+violence of the disorder he became delirious, and, from the ignorance of
+those who attended him, the unfortunate young artist, far from home and
+without a friend to console him, was bound and treated like a madman.
+A&nbsp;physician having been called in, by his order blisters were
+applied, and a different course of treatment adopted. Johnson recovered
+his senses, but it was only for a brief period; being of a delicate
+constitution, he sank under the disorder. He died at Kenmore on the 29th
+October, 1796, in the twenty-sixth year of his age.<a class = "tag" name
+= "tagVII74" id = "tagVII74" href = "#noteVII74">VII.74</a></p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page518" id = "page518">
+518</a></span>
+<p>The following is a copy of a cut&mdash;from a design by Johnson
+himself&mdash;which was drawn on the wood, and engraved by Charlton
+Nesbit, as a tribute of his regard for the memory of his friend and
+fellow-pupil.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_518a" id = "illus_518a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_518a.png" width = "242" height = "310"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The next cut represents a view of a monument on the south side of
+Ovingham church, erected to the memory of Robert Johnson by a few
+friends who admired his talents, and respected him on account of his
+amiable private character.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_518b" id = "illus_518b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_518b.png" width = "305" height = "276"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page519" id = "page519">
+519</a></span>
+<p>Charlton Nesbit, who is justly entitled to be ranked with the best
+wood engravers of his time, was born in 1775 at Swalwell, in the county
+of Durham, about five miles westward of Gateshead, and when about
+fourteen years of age was apprenticed to Beilby and Bewick to learn the
+art of wood engraving. During his apprenticeship he engraved a few of
+the tail-pieces in the first volume of the History of British Birds, and
+all the head and tail-pieces, except two, in the Poems by Goldsmith and
+Parnell, printed by Bulmer in 1795. Shortly after the expiration of his
+apprenticeship he began to engrave a large cut, containing a view of St.
+Nicholas Church, Newcastle-on-Tyne, from a drawing by his fellow-pupil,
+Robert Johnson. We here present a reduced copy of this cut, which is one
+of the largest ever engraved in England.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagVII75" id = "tagVII75" href = "#noteVII75">VII.75</a> The original
+was engraved on a block consisting of twelve different pieces of box,
+firmly cramped together, and mounted on a plate of cast iron to prevent
+their warping. For this cut, which was first published about 1799, Mr.
+Nesbit received a medal from the Society for the Encouragement of Arts
+and Manufactures.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_519" id = "illus_519">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_519.png" width = "335" height = "252"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>About 1799 Mr. Nesbit came to London, where he continued to reside
+till 1815. During his residence there he engraved a number of cuts for
+various works, chiefly from the designs of the late Mr. John Thurston,<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagVII76" id = "tagVII76" href =
+"#noteVII76">VII.76</a>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page520" id = "page520">
+520</a></span>
+who at that time was the principal, and indeed almost the only artist of
+any talent in London, who made drawings on the block for wood engravers.
+Some of the best of his cuts executed during this period are to be found
+in a History of England printed for R.&nbsp;Scholey, and in a work
+entitled Religious Emblems, published by R.&nbsp;Ackermann and Co. in
+1808. The cuts in the latter work were engraved by Nesbit, Clennell,
+Branston, and Hole, from drawings by Thurston; and they are
+unquestionably the best of their kind which up to that time had appeared
+in England. Clennell’s are the most artist-like in their execution and
+effect, while Nesbit’s are engraved with greater care. Branston, except
+in one cut,&mdash;Rescued from the Floods,&mdash;does not appear to such
+advantage in this work as his northern rivals. There is only one
+cut&mdash;Seed sown&mdash;engraved by Hole. The following may be
+mentioned as the best of Nesbit’s cuts in this work:&mdash;The World
+Weighed, The Daughters of Jerusalem, Sinners hiding in the Grave, and
+Wounded in the Mental Eye. The best of Clennell’s are:&mdash;Call to
+Vigilance, the World made Captive, and Fainting for the Living Waters.
+These are perhaps the three best cuts of their kind that Clennell ever
+engraved.</p>
+
+<p>In 1815 Mr. Nesbit returned to his native place, where he continued
+to reside until 1830. While living in the country, though he did not
+abandon the art, yet the cuts executed by him during this period are
+comparatively few. In 1818, when residing in the North, he engraved a
+large cut of Rinaldo and Armida for Savage’s Hints on Decorative
+Printing: this cut and another, the Cave of Despair, in the same work
+and of the same size, engraved by the late Robert Branston, were
+expressly given to display the perfection to which modern wood engraving
+had been brought. The foliage, the trees, and the drapery in Nesbit’s
+cut are admirably engraved; but the lines in the bodies of the figures
+are too much broken and “<i>chopped up</i>.” This, however, was not the
+fault of the engraver, but of the designer, Mr. J.&nbsp;Thurston. The
+lines, which now have a dotted appearance, were originally continuous
+and distinct; but Mr. Thurston objecting to them as being too dark,
+Nesbit went over his work again, and with immense labour reduced the
+strength of his lines, and gave them their present dotted appearance. As
+a specimen of the engraver’s abilities, the first proof submitted to the
+designer was superior to the last.</p>
+
+<p>In order to give a fictitious value to Mr. Savage’s book, most of the
+cuts, as soon as a certain number of impressions were taken, were sawn
+across, but not through, in several places, and impressions of them when
+thus defaced were given in the work.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII77"
+id = "tagVII77" href = "#noteVII77">VII.77</a> Nesbit’s cut was,
+however,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page521" id = "page521">
+521</a></span>
+carefully repaired, and the back part of Armida’s head having been
+altered, the impressions from the block thus amended were actually given
+in the work itself as the <i>best</i>, instead of those which were taken
+before it was defaced. This re-integration of the block was the work of
+the late Mr. G.&nbsp;W. Bonner, Mr. Branston’s nephew. The transverse
+pieces are so skilfully inserted, and engraved so much in the style of
+the adjacent parts, that it is difficult to discover where the defacing
+saw had passed.</p>
+
+<p>In 1830 Mr. Nesbit returned to London, where he continued to reside
+until his death, which took place at Queen’s Elms, the 11th of November
+1838, aged 63. Some of the best of his cuts are contained in the second
+series of Northcote’s Fables; and the following, of his execution, may
+be ranked among the finest productions of the art of wood engraving in
+modern times:&mdash;The Robin and the Sparrow, page&nbsp;1; The Hare and
+the Bramble, page 127; The Peach and the Potatoe, page 129; and The
+Cock, the Dog, and the Fox, page 238. Nesbit is unquestionably the best
+wood engraver that has proceeded from the great northern hive of the
+art&mdash;the workshop of Thomas Bewick.</p>
+
+<p>Luke Clennell, one of the most distinguished of Bewick’s pupils as a
+designer and painter, as well as an engraver on wood, was born at
+Ulgham, a&nbsp;village near Morpeth, in Northumberland, on the 8th of
+April, 1781. At an early age he was placed with a relation,
+a&nbsp;grocer in Morpeth, and continued with him, assisting in the shop
+as an apprentice, until he was sixteen. Some drawings which he made when
+at Morpeth having attracted attention, and he himself showing a decided
+predilection for the art, his friends were induced to place him as a
+wood engraver with Bewick, to whom he was bound apprentice for seven
+years on the 8th of April, 1797. He in a short time made great
+proficiency in wood engraving; and as he drew with great correctness and
+power, Bewick employed him to copy, on the block, several of Robert
+Johnson’s drawings, and to engrave them as tail-pieces for the second
+volume of the History of British Birds. Clennell for a few months after
+the expiration of his apprenticeship continued to work for Bewick, who
+chiefly employed him in engraving some of the cuts for a History of
+England, published by Wallis and Scholey, 46, Paternoster Row. Clennell,
+who was paid only two guineas apiece for each of those cuts, having
+learnt that Bewick received five, sent to the publisher a proof of one
+of them&mdash;Alfred in the Danish Camp&mdash;stating that it was of his
+own engraving. In the course of a few days Clennell received an answer
+from the publisher, inviting him to come to London, and offering him
+employment
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page522" id = "page522">
+522</a></span>
+until all the cuts intended for the work should be finished. He accepted
+the offer, and shortly afterwards set out for London, where he arrived
+about the end of autumn, 1804.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII78" id =
+"tagVII78" href = "#noteVII78">VII.78</a></p>
+
+<p>Most of Clennell’s cuts are distinguished by their free and
+<i>artist-like</i> execution and by their excellent effect; but though
+generally spirited, they are sometimes rather coarsely engraved. He was
+accustomed to improve Thurston’s designs by occasionally heightening the
+effect.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII79" id = "tagVII79" href =
+"#noteVII79">VII.79</a> To such alterations Thurston at first objected;
+but perceiving that the cuts when engraved were thus very much improved,
+he afterwards allowed Clennell to increase the lights and deepen the
+shadows according to his own judgment. An admirable specimen of
+Clennell’s engraving is to be found in an octavo edition of Falconer’s
+Shipwreck, printed for Cadell and Davies, 1808. It occurs as a vignette
+to the second canto at p.&nbsp;43, and the subject is a ship running
+before the wind in a gale. The motion of the waves, and the gloomy
+appearance of the sky, are represented with admirable truth and feeling.
+The dark shadow on the waters to the right gives wonderful effect to the
+white crest of the wave in front; and the whole appearance of the cut is
+indicative of a gloomy and tempestuous day, and of an increasing storm.
+Perhaps no engraving of the same kind, either on copper or wood, conveys
+the idea of a storm at sea with greater fidelity.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagVII80" id = "tagVII80" href = "#noteVII80">VII.80</a> The drawing
+was made on the block by Thurston; but the spirit and
+<i>effect</i>,&mdash;the lights and shadows, the apparent seething of
+the waves, and the troubled appearance of the sky,&mdash;were introduced
+by Clennell. All the other cuts in this edition of the Shipwreck are of
+his engraving; but though well executed, they do not require any
+especial notice. Two of them, which were previously designed for another
+work, are certainly not <i>illustrations</i> of Falconer’s
+Shipwreck.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_523" id = "illus_523">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_523.png" width = "329" height = "317"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+DIPLOMA OF THE HIGHLAND SOCIETY<br>
+<i>Reduced to one-fourth of the original size</i></p>
+
+<p>Clennell’s largest cut is that which he engraved for the diploma of
+the Highland Society, from a design by Benjamin West, President of the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page523" id = "page523">
+523</a></span>
+Royal Academy; and for this he received fifty guineas. The original
+drawing was made on paper, and Clennell gave Thurston fifteen pounds for
+copying on the block the figures within the circle: the supporters,
+a&nbsp;Highland soldier and a fisherman, he copied himself. The block on
+which he first began to engrave this cut consisted of several pieces of
+box veneered upon beech; and after he had been employed upon it for
+about two months, it one afternoon suddenly split when he was at tea.
+Clennell, hearing it crack, immediately suspected the cause; and on
+finding it rent in such a manner that there was no chance of repairing
+it, he, in a passion that the labour already bestowed on it should be
+lost, threw all the tea-things into the fire. In the course of a few
+days however, he got a new block made, consisting of solid pieces of box
+firmly screwed and cramped together; and having paid Thurston fifteen
+pounds more for re-drawing the figures within the circle, and having
+again copied the supporters, he proceeded with renewed spirit to
+complete his work. For engraving this cut he received a hundred and
+fifty guineas&mdash;he paying Thurston himself for the drawing on the
+block; and the Society for the Encouragement of Arts and Manufactures
+presented him with their gold medal, May 30, 1809. This cut is
+characteristic of Clennell’s style of engraving&mdash;the lines are in
+some places coarse, and in
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page524" id = "page524">
+524</a></span>
+others the execution is careless; the more important parts are, however,
+engraved with great spirit; and the cut, as a whole, is bold and
+effective. Cross-hatchings are freely introduced, not so much, perhaps,
+because they were necessary, as to show that the engraver could execute
+such kind of work,&mdash;the vulgar error that cross-hatchings could not
+be executed on wood having been at that time extremely prevalent among
+persons who had little knowledge of the art, and who yet vented their
+absurd notions on the subject as if they were undeniable truths. The
+preceding is a reduced copy of this cut.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagVII81" id = "tagVII81" href = "#noteVII81">VII.81</a> The original
+block, when only a very limited number of impressions had been printed
+off, was burnt in the fire at Mr. Bensley’s printing-office. The subject
+was afterwards re-engraved on a block of the same size by John
+Thompson.</p>
+
+<p>The illustrations to an edition of Rogers’s Poems, 1812, engraved
+from pen-and-ink drawings by Thomas Stothard, R.A., may be fairly ranked
+among the best of the wood-cuts engraved by Clennell. They are executed
+with the feeling of an artist, and are admirable representations of the
+original drawings.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII82" id = "tagVII82"
+href = "#noteVII82">VII.82</a> Stothard himself was much pleased with
+them; but he thought that when wood engravers attempted to express more
+than a copy of a pen-and-ink drawing, and introduced a variety of tints
+in the manner of copper-plate engravings, they exceeded the legitimate
+boundaries of the art. A&nbsp;hundred wood-cuts by Bewick, Nesbit,
+Clennell, and Thompson might, however, be produced to show that this
+opinion was not well founded.</p>
+
+<p>Clennell, who drew beautifully in water-colours, made many of the
+drawings for the Border Antiquities; and the encouragement which he
+received as a designer and painter made him resolve to entirely abandon
+wood engraving. With this view he laboured diligently to improve himself
+in painting, and in a short time made such progress that his pictures
+attracted the attention of the Directors of the British Institution. In
+1814, the Earl of Bridgewater employed him to paint a large picture of
+the entertainment given to the Allied Sovereigns in the Guildhall by the
+city of London. He experienced great difficulty in obtaining sketches of
+the numerous distinguished persons whose portraits it was necessary to
+give in the picture; and he lost much time, and suffered considerable
+anxiety, in procuring those preliminary materials for his work. Having
+at length completed his sketches, he began the picture, and had made
+considerable progress in it when, in April 1817, he suddenly became
+insane, and the work was interrupted.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII83"
+id = "tagVII83" href = "#noteVII83">VII.83</a> It has
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page525" id = "page525">
+525</a></span>
+been said that his malady arose from intense application, and from
+anxiety respecting the success of his work. This, however, can scarcely
+be correct; he had surmounted his greatest difficulties, and was
+proceeding regularly and steadily with the painting, when he suddenly
+became deprived of his reason. One of his fellow-pupils when he was with
+Bewick, who was intimate with him, and was accustomed to see him
+frequently, never observed any previous symptom of insanity in his
+behaviour, and never heard him express any particular anxiety about the
+work on which he was engaged.</p>
+
+<p>Within a short time after Clennell had lost his reason, his wife also
+became insane;<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII84" id = "tagVII84" href =
+"#noteVII84">VII.84</a> and the malady being accompanied by a fever, she
+after a short illness expired, leaving three young children to deplore
+the death of one parent and the confirmed insanity of the other. These
+most distressing circumstances excited the sympathy of several noblemen
+and gentlemen; and a committee having been appointed to consider of the
+best means of raising a fund for the support of Clennell’s family, it
+was determined to publish by subscription an engraving from one of his
+pictures. The subject made choice of was the Decisive Charge of the Life
+Guards at Waterloo, for which Clennell had received a reward from the
+British Institution. It was engraved by Mr. W.&nbsp;Bromley, and
+published in 1821. The sum thus raised was, after paying for the
+engraving, vested in trustees for the benefit of Clennell’s children,
+and for the purpose of providing a small annuity for himself.</p>
+
+<p>Clennell, after having been confined for three or four years in a
+lunatic asylum in London, so far recovered that it was no longer
+necessary to keep him in a state of restraint. He was accordingly sent
+down to the North, and lived for several years in a state of harmless
+insanity with a relation in the neighbourhood of Newcastle; amusing
+himself with making drawings, engraving little wood-cuts, and
+occasionally writing <i>poetry</i>. Upwards of sixty of those drawings
+are now lying before me, displaying at once so much of his former genius
+and of his present imbecility that it is not possible to regard them,
+knowing whose they are, without a deep feeling of commiseration for his
+fate. He used occasionally to call on Bewick, and he once asked for a
+block to engrave. Bewick, to humour him, gave him a piece of wood, and
+left him to choose his own subject; and Clennell, on his next visit,
+brought with him the cut finished: it was like the attempt of a boy when
+first beginning to engrave, but he thought it one of the most successful
+of his productions in the art. The following specimens of his cuts and
+of his poetry were respectively engraved and written in 1828.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page526" id = "page526">
+526</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<div class = "picblock w100">
+<p><a name = "illus_526" id = "illus_526">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_526a.png" width = "83" height = "156"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picblock">
+<p><img src = "images/illus_526b.png" width = "203" height = "163"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "verse w20">
+<h5>SONG.</h5>
+
+<p>Good morning to you, Mary,</p>
+<p class = "indent">It glads me much to see thee once again;</p>
+<p>What joy, since thee I’ve heard!</p>
+<p class = "indent">Heaven such beauty ever deign,</p>
+<p class = "deep">Mary of the vineyard!</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "verse w20">
+<h5>THE EVENING STAR.</h5>
+
+<p>Look! what is it, with twinkling light,</p>
+<p>That brings such joy, serenely bright,</p>
+<p>That turns the dusk again to light?&mdash;</p>
+<p class = "indent3">’Tis the Evening Star!</p>
+<p>What is it with purest ray,</p>
+<p>That brings such peace at close of day,</p>
+<p>That lights the traveller on his way?&mdash;</p>
+<p class = "indent3">’Tis the Evening Star!</p>
+<p>What is it, of purest holy ray,</p>
+<p>That brings to man the promised day,</p>
+<p>And peace?&mdash;</p>
+<p class = "indent3">’Tis the Evening Star!</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "verse w25">
+<h5>COMPENDIUM POETICA.</h5>
+
+<p>A drop of heaven’s treasure, on an angel’s wing,</p>
+<p>Such heaven alone can bring;&mdash;</p>
+<p>The painted hues upon the rose,</p>
+<p>In heaven’s shower reposing,</p>
+<p>Is an earthly treasure of such measure.</p>
+<p>The butterfly, in his spell,</p>
+<p>Upon the rosy prism doth dwell,</p>
+<p>And as he doth fly, in his tour</p>
+<p>From flower to flower,</p>
+<p>Is seen for a while</p>
+<p>Every care to beguile,</p>
+<p>And so doth wing his little way,</p>
+<p>A little fairy of the day!</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page527" id = "page527">
+527</a></span>
+
+<div class = "verse w18">
+<h5>A FLOWERET.</h5>
+
+<p>Where lengthened ray</p>
+<p>Gildeth the bark upon her way;</p>
+<p>Where vision is lost in space,</p>
+<p class = "indent3">To trace,</p>
+<p>As resting on a stile,</p>
+<p>In ascent of half a mile&mdash;</p>
+<p>It is when the birds do sing,</p>
+<p>In the evening of the spring.</p>
+<p>The broad shadow from the tree,</p>
+<p class = "indent3">Falling upon the slope,</p>
+<p>You may see,</p>
+<p>O’er flowery mead,</p>
+<p>Where doth a pathway lead</p>
+<p class = "indent3">To the topmost ope&mdash;</p>
+<p>The yellow butter-cup</p>
+<p class = "indent3">And purple crow-foot,</p>
+<p>The waving grass up,</p>
+<p class = "indent3">Rounding upon the but&mdash;</p>
+<p>The spreading daisy</p>
+<p>In the clover maze,</p>
+<p>The wild rose upon the hedge-row,</p>
+<p>And the honey-suckle blow</p>
+<p class = "indent3">For village girl</p>
+<p>To dress her chaplet&mdash;</p>
+<p>Or some youth, mayhap, let&mdash;</p>
+<p>Or bind the linky trinket</p>
+<p class = "indent3">For some earl&mdash;</p>
+<p>Or trim up in plaits her hair</p>
+<p>With much seeming care,</p>
+<p>As fancy may think it&mdash;</p>
+<p>Or with spittle moisten,</p>
+<p>Or half wink it,</p>
+<p>Or to music inclined,</p>
+<p>Or to sleep in the soft wind.</p>
+
+<p class = "stanza right">
+St Peter’s, August 1828.<br>
+L. C.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>About 1831, Clennell having become much worse, his friends were again
+compelled to place him under restraint. He was accordingly conveyed to a
+lunatic asylum near Newcastle, where he is still living. Until within
+this last year or two, he continued to amuse himself with drawing and
+writing poetry, and perhaps may do so still. It is to be hoped that,
+though his condition appear miserable to us, he is not miserable
+himself; that though deprived of the light of reason, he may yet enjoy
+imaginary pleasures of which we can form no conception; and that his
+confinement occasions to him</p>
+
+<p class = "verse">
+“Small feeling of privation, none of pain.”<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagVII85" id = "tagVII85" href = "#noteVII85">VII.85</a></p>
+
+<p>William Harvey, another distinguished pupil of Bewick, and one whose
+earlier engravings are only surpassed by his more recent productions as
+a designer on wood, was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne, 13th of July 1796.
+Having from an early age shown great fondness for drawing, he was at the
+age of fourteen apprenticed to Thomas Bewick to learn the art of
+engraving on wood.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII86" id = "tagVII86"
+href = "#noteVII86">VII.86</a> In conjunction with his fellow-pupil,
+W.&nbsp;W. Temple, he engraved most of the cuts in Bewick’s Fables,
+1818; and as he excelled in drawing as well as in engraving, he was
+generally entrusted by Bewick to make the drawings on the block after
+Robert
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page528" id = "page528">
+528</a></span>
+Johnson’s designs. One of the best cuts engraved by Harvey during his
+apprenticeship was a vignette for the title-page of a small work
+entitled “Cheviot: a&nbsp;Poetical Fragment,” printed at Newcastle in
+1817. This cut, which was also drawn by himself, is extremely beautiful
+both in design and execution; the trees and the foliage are in
+particular excellently represented; and as a small picturesque subject
+it is one of the best he ever engraved.</p>
+
+<p>Harvey was a great favourite of Bewick, who presented him with a copy
+of the History of British Birds as a new year’s gift on the 1st of
+January 1815, and at the same time addressed to him the following
+admonitory letter. Mr. Harvey is a distinguished artist, a&nbsp;kind
+son, an affectionate husband, a&nbsp;loving father, and in every
+relation of life a most amiable man: he has not, however, been exposed
+to any plots or conspiracies, nor been persecuted by envy and malice, as
+his master anticipated; but, on the contrary, his talents and his
+amiable character have procured for him public reputation and private
+esteem.</p>
+
+<p class = "address">“Gateshead, 1st January, 1815.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">“Dear William,</p>
+
+<p>“I sent you last night the History of British Birds, which I beg your
+acceptance of as a new year’s gift, and also as a token of my respect.
+Don’t trouble yourself about thanking me for them; but, instead of doing
+so, let those books put you in mind of the duties you have to perform
+through life. Look at them (as&nbsp;long as they last) on every new
+year’s day, and at the same time resolve, with the help of the all-wise
+but unknowable God, to conduct yourself on every occasion as becomes a
+good man.&mdash;Be a good son, a&nbsp;good brother, (and when the time
+comes) a&nbsp;good husband, a&nbsp;good father, and a good member of
+society. Peace of mind will then follow you like a shadow; and when your
+mind grows rich in integrity, you will fear the frowns of no man, and
+only smile at the plots and conspiracies which it is probable will be
+laid against you by envy, hatred, and malice.</p>
+
+<p class = "quotation">
+“To William Harvey, jun. Westgate.</p>
+
+<p class = "right">
+<img src = "images/illus_528.png" width = "161" height = "25"
+alt = "signature of Thomas Bewick" title = "Thomas Bewick">.”</p>
+
+<p>In September, 1817, Mr. Harvey came to London; and shortly
+afterwards, with a view of obtaining a correct knowledge of the
+principles of drawing, he became a pupil of Mr. B.&nbsp;R. Haydon, and
+he certainly could not have had a better master. While improving himself
+under Mr. Haydon, he drew and engraved from a picture by that eminent
+artist his large cut of the Death of Dentatus, which was published in
+1821.<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII87" id = "tagVII87" href =
+"#noteVII87">VII.87</a>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page529" id = "page529">
+529</a></span>
+As a large subject, this is unquestionably one of the most elaborately
+engraved wood-cuts that has ever appeared. It scarcely, however, can be
+considered a successful specimen of the art; for though the execution in
+many parts be superior to anything of the kind, either of earlier or
+more recent times, the cut, as a whole, is rather an attempt to rival
+copper-plate engraving than a perfect specimen of engraving on wood,
+displaying the peculiar advantages and excellences of the art within its
+own legitimate bounds. More has been attempted than can be efficiently
+represented by means of wood engraving. The figure of Dentatus is indeed
+one of the finest specimens of the art that has ever been executed, and
+the other figures in the fore-ground display no less talent; but the
+rocks are of too uniform a <i>tone</i>, and some of the more distant
+figures appear to <i>stick</i> to each other. These defects, however,
+result from the very nature of the art, not from inability in the
+engraver; for all that wood engraving admits of he has effected. It is
+unnecessary to say more of this cut here: some observations relating to
+the details, illustrated with specimens of the best engraved parts, will
+be found in the next chapter.</p>
+
+<p>About 1824 Mr. Harvey entirely gave up the practice of engraving, and
+has since exclusively devoted himself to designing for copper-plate and
+wood engravers. His designs engraved on copper are, however, few when
+compared with the immense number engraved on wood. The copper-plate
+engravings consist principally of the illustrations in a collected
+edition of Miss Edgeworth’s Works, 1832; in Southey’s edition of
+Cowper’s Works, first published in 1836, and since by Mr. Bohn in his
+Standard Library; and in the small edition of Dr. Lingard’s History of
+England.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_530" id = "illus_530">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_530a.png" width = "437" height = "141"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+SPECIMENS OF MR. HARVEY’S WOOD-ENGRAVING.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/illus_530b.png" width = "419" height = "301"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+FROM DR. HENDERSON’S HISTORY OF ANCIENT AND MODERN WINES.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/illus_530c.png" width = "439" height = "139"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The beautiful vignettes and tail-pieces in Dr. Henderson’s History of
+Ancient and Modern Wines, 1824, drawn and engraved by Mr. Harvey, may be
+considered the ground-work of his reputation as a designer, and by the
+kindness of Dr. Henderson we are enabled (in&nbsp;this second edition)
+to present impressions of seven of them. The cuts in the first and
+second series of Northcote’s Fables, 1828, 1833;<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagVII88" id = "tagVII88" href = "#noteVII88">VII.88</a> in the Tower
+Menagerie,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page530" id = "page530">
+530</a></span>
+1828; in the Gardens and Menagerie of the Zoological Society, 1831; and
+in Latrobe’s Solace of Song, 1837, were all drawn by him.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_531" id = "illus_531">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_531.png" width = "370" height = "469"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page531" id = "page531">
+531</a></span>
+
+<p class = "continue">
+Among the smaller works illustrated with wood-cuts, and published about
+the same time as the preceding, the following may be mentioned as
+containing beautiful specimens of his talents as a designer on
+wood:&mdash;The Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green; The Children in the Wood;
+A&nbsp;Story without an End, translated from the German by Mrs. Austin;
+and especially his one hundred and twenty beautiful designs for the
+Paradise Lost, and other poems of Milton, and his designs for Thomson’s
+Seasons, from which two works we select four examples with the view of
+exhibiting at the same time the talents of the distinguished engravers,
+viz., John Thompson and Charles Gray.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_532a" id = "illus_532a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_532a.png" width = "265" height = "318"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "continue">
+For various other
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page532" id = "page532">
+532</a></span>
+works he has also furnished, in all, between three and four thousand
+designs. As a designer on wood, he is decidedly superior to the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page533" id = "page533">
+533</a></span>
+majority of artists of the present day; and to his excellence in this
+respect, wood engraving is chiefly indebted for the very great
+encouragement which it has of late received in this country.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<div class = "picblock w300">
+<p><a name = "illus_532b" id = "illus_532b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_532b.png" width = "264" height = "327"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picblock w200">
+<p><a name = "illus_532c" id = "illus_532c">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_532c.png" width = "180" height = "307"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The two cuts on pages 533 and 534 are also from drawings by Mr.
+Harvey; and both are printed from casts. The first is one of the
+illustrations of the Children in the Wood, published by Jennings and
+Chaplin, 1831; and the subject is the uncle bargaining with the two
+ruffians for the murder of the children. This cut is freely and
+effectively executed, without any display of useless labour.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_533" id = "illus_533">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_533.png" width = "306" height = "396"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The second is one of the illustrations of the Blind Beggar of Bethnal
+Green, published by Jennings and Chaplin, in 1832. The subject
+represents the beggar’s daughter and her four suitors, namely,&mdash;the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page534" id = "page534">
+534</a></span>
+gentleman of good degree, the gallant young knight in disguise, the
+merchant of London, and her master’s son. This cut, though well
+engraved, is scarcely equal to the preceding. It is, however, necessary
+to observe that these cuts are not given as specimens of the engravers’
+talents, but merely as two subjects designed by Mr. Harvey.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_534" id = "illus_534">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_534.png" width = "299" height = "396"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>What has been called the “London School” of wood engraving produced
+nothing that would bear a comparison with the works of Bewick and his
+pupils until the late Robert Branston began to engrave on wood. About
+1796, the best of the London engravers was J.&nbsp;Lee. He engraved the
+cuts for the “Cheap Repository,” a&nbsp;collection of religious and
+moral tracts, printed between 1794 and 1798, and sold by
+J.&nbsp;Marshall, London, and S.&nbsp;Hazard, Bath. Those cuts, though
+coarsely executed, as might be expected, considering the work for which
+they were intended, frequently display considerable merit in the design;
+and
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page535" id = "page535">
+535</a></span>
+in this respect several of them are scarcely inferior to the cuts drawn
+and engraved by John Bewick in Dr. Trusler’s Progress of Man and
+Society. Mr. Lee died in March, 1804; and on his decease, his
+apprentice, Henry White, went to Newcastle, and served out the remainder
+of his time with Thomas Bewick. James Lee, a&nbsp;son of Mr.
+J.&nbsp;Lee, the elder, is also a wood engraver; he executed the
+portraits in Hansard’s Typographia, 1825.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_535" id = "illus_535">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_535.png" width = "291" height = "387"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<i>Rob. Branston.</i></p>
+
+<p>Robert Branston, like Bewick, acquired his knowledge of wood
+engraving without the instructions of a master. He was born at Lynn, in
+Norfolk, in 1778, and died in London in 1827. He served his
+apprenticeship to his father, a&nbsp;general copper-plate engraver and
+heraldic painter, who seems to have carried on the same kind of
+miscellaneous business as Mr. Beilby, the master of Bewick. About 1802
+Mr. Branston came to London, and finding that wood engraving was
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page536" id = "page536">
+536</a></span>
+much encouraged, he determined to apply himself to that art. Some of his
+first productions were cuts for lottery bills; but as he improved in the
+practice of engraving on wood, he began to engrave cuts for the
+illustration of books. His style of engraving is peculiarly his own, and
+perfectly distinct from that of Bewick. He engraved human figures and
+in-door scenes with great clearness and precision; while Bewick’s chief
+excellence consisted in the natural representation of quadrupeds, birds,
+landscapes, and <i>road-side</i> incidents. In the representation of
+trees and of natural scenery, Branston has almost uniformly failed. Some
+of the best of his earlier productions are to be found in the History of
+England, published by Scholey, 1804-1810; in Bloomfield’s Wild Flowers,
+1806; and in a quarto volume entitled “Epistles in Verse,” and other
+poems by George Marshall, 1812.</p>
+
+<p>The best specimen of Mr. Branston’s talents as a wood engraver is a
+large cut of the Cave of Despair, in Savage’s Hints on Decorative
+Printing. It was executed in rivalry with Nesbit, who engraved the cut
+of Rinaldo and Armida for the same work, and it would be difficult to
+decide which is the best. Both are good specimens of the styles of their
+respective schools; and the subjects are well adapted to display the
+peculiar excellence of the engravers. Had they exchanged subjects,
+neither of the cuts would have been so well executed; but in this case
+there call be little doubt that Nesbit would have engraved the figure
+and the rocks in the Cave of Despair better than Branston would have
+engraved the trees and the foliage in the cut of Rinaldo and Armida. The
+cut on the previous page is a reduced copy of a portion of that of Mr.
+Branston.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Branston, like many others, did not think highly of the cuts in
+Bewick’s Fables; and feeling persuaded that he could produce something
+better, he employed Mr. Thurston to make several designs, with the
+intention of publishing a similar work. After a few of them had been
+engraved, he gave up the thought of proceeding further with the work,
+from a doubt of its success. Bewick’s work was already in the market;
+and it was questionable if another of the same kind, appearing shortly
+after, would meet with a sale adequate to defray the expense. The three
+cuts in the opposite page were engraved by Mr. Branston for the proposed
+work. The two first are respectively illustrations of the fables of
+Industry and Sloth, and of the Two Crabs; the third was intended as a
+tail-piece. The cut of Industry and Sloth is certainly superior to that
+of the same subject in Bewick’s Fables; but that of the Two Crabs,
+though more delicately engraved, is not equal to the cut of the same
+subject in Bewick.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page537" id = "page537">
+[537]</a></span>
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_537" id = "illus_537">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_537a.png" width = "316" height = "224"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+INDUSTRY AND SLOTH.&mdash;<i>Robert Branston.</i></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/illus_537b.png" width = "314" height = "228"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+THE TWO CRABS.&mdash;<i>Robert Branston.</i></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/illus_537c.png" width = "233" height = "178"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+TAIL-PIECE TO THE TWO CRABS.&mdash;<i>Robert Branston.</i></p>
+
+<p>Mr. Branston also thought that Bewick’s Birds were estimated too
+highly; and he engraved two or three cuts to show that he could do the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page538" id = "page538">
+538</a></span>
+same things as well, or better. In this respect, however, he certainly
+formed a wrong estimate of his abilities; for, it is extremely doubtful
+if&mdash;even with the aid of the best designer he could find&mdash;he
+could have executed twenty cuts of birds which, for natural character,
+would bear a comparison with twenty of the worst engraved by Bewick
+himself. The great North-country man was an artist as well as a wood
+engraver; and in this respect his principal pupils have also been
+distinguished. The cut on our present page is one of those engraved by
+Mr. Branston to show his superiority over Bewick. The bird represented
+is probably the Grey Phalarope, or Scallop-toed Sand-piper, and it is
+unquestionably executed with considerable ability; but though Bewick’s
+cut of the same bird be one of his worst, it is superior to that
+engraved by Mr. Branston in every essential point.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_538" id = "illus_538">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_538.png" width = "283" height = "169"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Between twenty and thirty years ago, a wood engraver named Austin
+executed several cuts, but did nothing to promote the art. William
+Hughes, a&nbsp;native of Liverpool, who died in February 1825, at the
+early age of thirty-two, produced a number of wood engravings of very
+considerable merit. He chiefly excelled in architectural subjects. One
+of his best productions is a dedication cut in the first volume of
+Johnson’s Typographia, 1824, showing the interior of a chapel,
+surrounded by the arms of the members of the Roxburgh Club. Another
+artist of the same period, named Hugh Hughes, of whom scarcely anything
+is now known, executed a whole volume of singularly beautiful wood
+engravings, entitled “The Beauties of Cambria, consisting of Sixty Views
+in North and South Wales,” London, 1823. The work was published by
+subscription at one guinea, or on India paper at two guineas, and was
+beautifully printed by the same John Johnson who printed William Hughes’
+cuts in the “Typographia,” and who, a&nbsp;few years previously, had
+conducted the Lee Priory Press. The annexed four examples will give an
+idea of the high finish and perfection of this elegant series.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page539" id = "page539">
+539</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w550">
+<p><a name = "illus_539a" id = "illus_539a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_539a.png" width = "503" height = "332"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside full">
+<i>Hugh Hughes, del. et sc.</i></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+PISTILL CAIN.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picture w500">
+<p><a name = "illus_539b" id = "illus_539b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_539b.png" width = "498" height = "331"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside full">
+<i>Hugh Hughes, del. et sc.</i></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+MOLL FAMAU.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page540" id = "page540">
+540</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w500">
+<p><a name = "illus_540a" id = "illus_540a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_540a.png" width = "500" height = "326"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside full">
+<i>Hugh Hughes, del. et sc.</i></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+WREXHAM CHURCH.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picture w500">
+<p><a name = "illus_540b" id = "illus_540b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_540b.png" width = "491" height = "326"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside full">
+<i>Hugh Hughes, del. et sc.</i></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+PWLL CARADOC.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page541" id = "page541">
+541</a></span>
+
+<p>John Thompson,<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII89" id = "tagVII89" href
+= "#noteVII89">VII.89</a> one of the best English wood engravers of the
+present day, was a pupil of Mr. Branston. He not only excels, like his
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page542" id = "page542">
+542</a></span>
+master, in the engraving of human figures, but displays equal talent in
+the execution of all kinds of subjects. Among the very many excellent
+cuts which have been engraved in England within the last twenty years,
+those executed by John Thompson rank foremost. As he is rarely unequal
+to himself, it is rather difficult to point out any which are very much
+superior to the others of his execution. The following, however, may be
+referred to as specimens of the general excellence of his
+cuts:&mdash;The title-page to Puckle’s Club, 1817, and the cuts of
+Moroso, Newsmonger, Swearer, Wiseman, and Xantippe in the same work; the
+Trout, the Tench, the Salmon, the Chub, and a group of small fish,<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagVII90" id = "tagVII90" href =
+"#noteVII90">VII.90</a> consisting
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page543" id = "page543">
+543</a></span>
+of the Minnow, the Loach, the Bull-head, and the Stickle-back, in
+Major’s edition of Walton’s Angler;<a class = "tag" name = "tagVII91" id
+= "tagVII91" href = "#noteVII91">VII.91</a></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_541" id = "illus_541">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_541a.png" width = "319" height = "187"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+GROUP OF FISH.&mdash;<i>J. Thompson.</i></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/illus_541b.png" width = "313" height = "210"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+SALMON.&mdash;<i>J. Thompson.</i></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/illus_541c.png" width = "306" height = "125"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+CHUB.&mdash;<i>J. Thompson.</i></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_542a" id = "illus_542a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_542a.png" width = "291" height = "202"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+PIKE.&mdash;<i>R. Branston.</i></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_542b" id = "illus_542b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_542b.png" width = "290" height = "163"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+EEL.&mdash;<i>H. White.</i></p>
+
+<p class = "continue">
+many of the cuts in Butler’s Hudibras, published by Baldwyn in 1819, and
+reprinted by Bohn, in 1859, of which we annex an example; the portrait
+of Butler, prefixed to an edition of his Remains, published in 1827; and
+The Two Swine, The Mole become a Connoisseur, Love and Friendship, and
+the portrait of Northcote, in the second series of Northcote’s Fables.
+One of his latest cuts is the beautifully executed portrait of Milton
+and his daughters, after a design by Mr. Harvey, already given at
+<a href = "#illus_531">page 531</a>. The following cut&mdash;a reduced copy
+of one of the plates in the Rake’s Progress&mdash;by Mr. Thompson,
+engraved a few years ago for a projected edition of Hogarth’s Graphic
+Works, of which only about a dozen cuts were completed, is one of the
+best specimens of the art that has been executed in modern times. In the
+engraving of small
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page544" id = "page544">
+544</a></span>
+cuts of this kind Mr. Thompson has never been surpassed; and it is
+beyond the power of the art to effect more than what has here been
+accomplished.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture w400">
+<p><a name = "illus_543" id = "illus_543">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_543.png" width = "353" height = "239"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "rightside full">
+<i>John Thompson.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_544" id = "illus_544">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_544.png" width = "293" height = "244"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The English wood engravers, who next to Charlton Nesbit and John
+Thompson seem best entitled to honourable mention, are:&mdash;Samuel
+Williams;* Thomas Williams; Ebenezer Landells; John Orrin Smith;* George
+Baxter; Robert Branston; Frederick W.&nbsp;Branston; Henry White,
+senior, and Henry White, junior; Thomas Mosses;* Charles Gorway; Samuel
+Slader;* W.&nbsp;T. Green; W.&nbsp;J. Linton; John Martin; J.&nbsp;W.
+Whimper; John Wright; W.&nbsp;A. Folkard; Charles Gray;* George Vasey;
+John Byfield;* John Jackson;* Daniel Dodd, and John Dodd,
+brothers.&mdash;William Henry Powis, who died in 1836, aged 28, was one
+of the best wood engravers of his time. Several beautiful cuts executed
+by him are to be found in Martin and Westall’s Pictorial Illustrations
+of the Bible, 1833, and in an edition of Scott’s Bible, 1834; both works
+now published by Mr. Bohn. The following examples, principally taken
+from Martin and Westall’s Illustrations, will exemplify the talents of a
+few of the distinguished artists above mentioned. It would swell the
+book beyond its limits to give more, otherwise we might select from the
+same work, which contains one hundred and forty engravings, by all the
+principal wood engravers of the day.</p>
+
+<div class = "footnote">
+<p>* All the engravers to whose names an asterisk is added are now
+deceased.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page545" id = "page545">
+545</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w450">
+<p><a name = "illus_545a" id = "illus_545a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_545a.png" width = "405" height = "258"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+JOHN MARTIN</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+JOHN JACKSON</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The above cut was engraved by Mr. John Jackson in 1833. Abundant
+evidences of the versatility of his xylographic talent, are scattered
+throughout the present volume, of which, though not the author in a
+literary sense, he was at least the conductor and proprietor. Among the
+subjects pointed out by Mr. Chatto as engraved by Mr. Jackson, those on
+pages 473, 495, 496, 512, 605, 614, deserve to be mentioned.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture w400">
+<p><a name = "illus_545b" id = "illus_545b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_545b.png" width = "395" height = "250"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+JOHN MARTIN</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+F. W. BRANSTON</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mr. F. W. Branston, brother of Mr. Robert Branston, has long been
+known as one of our best engravers, as the annexed Specimen will
+shew.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page546" id = "page546">
+546</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w400">
+<p><a name = "illus_546a" id = "illus_546a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_546a.png" width = "389" height = "248"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+JOHN MARTIN</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+E. LANDELLS</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Mr. Ebenezer Landells</span>, the engraver
+of this beautiful cut, has quite recently been lost to us. He was
+projector, and for a long time proprietor, of The Ladies’ Illustrated
+Newspaper, and has engraved an immense number of subjects of all
+classes.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture w400">
+<p><a name = "illus_546b" id = "illus_546b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_546b.png" width = "398" height = "249"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+JOHN MARTIN</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+W. H. POWIS</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The talented engraver of the present subject has already been named,
+with commendation, at page 544. We learn that the sum paid him for
+engraving it was fifteen guineas, being three guineas more than the
+average price. Mr. Wm. Bagg, now a successful draftsman of anatomical
+subjects, made this and all the other drawings on the blocks at the rate
+of five guineas each, and Mr. John Martin had ten guineas each for the
+designs. As the volume contains 144 subjects it must have cost
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page547" id = "page547">
+547</a></span>
+the projectors, Messrs. Bull and Churton, upwards of four thousand
+guineas: it may now be bought for a dozen shillings.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture w450">
+<p><a name = "illus_547a" id = "illus_547a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_547a.png" width = "405" height = "264"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+JOHN MARTIN</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+THOS. WILLIAMS</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Mr. Thomas Williams</span> ranks high as an
+engraver on wood, and the illustrated works of the last twenty years
+teem with his performances. Some of the engravings in the Merrie Days of
+England, 1859, are by him.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture w450">
+<p><a name = "illus_547b" id = "illus_547b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_547b.png" width = "426" height = "279"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+JOHN MARTIN</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+W. T. GREEN</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The only other Illustration which we shall take from Martin and
+Westall’s Bible Prints is the above, engraved by Mr. W.&nbsp;T. Green,
+who continues to exercise his burin with great skill, and has recently
+engraved one of the plates in Merrie Days of England, and Favourite
+English Poems, and several of Maclise’s designs for Tennyson’s Princess.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page548" id = "page548">
+548</a></span>
+To this is added, as a vignette finish to the chapter, an engraving
+recently executed by him for an illustrated edition of Milton’s Paradise
+Lost, now published in Bohn’s Library, and already mentioned at page
+531.</p>
+
+<p>One of the principal wood engravers in Germany, about the time that
+Bewick began to practise the art in England, was Unger. In 1779 he
+published a tract, containing five cuts of his own engraving, discussing
+the question whether Albert Durer actually engraved on wood: his
+decision is in the negative. In the same year, his son also published a
+dissertation, illustrated with wood-cuts, on the progress of wood
+engraving in Brandenburg, with an account of the principal books
+containing wood-cuts printed in that part of Prussia. They jointly
+executed some chiaro-scuros, and a number of trifling book-illustrations
+such as are to be found in Heineken’s Idée Générale d’une Collection
+complette d’Estampes. These cuts are of a very inferior character.
+Gubitz, a&nbsp;German wood engraver, who flourished about thirty years
+ago, executed several cuts which are much superior to any I have seen by
+the Ungers. Several of those engraved by Gubitz, bear considerable
+resemblance to the cuts of Bewick. The principal French wood engravers
+in the eighteenth century, subsequent to Papillon, were Gritner and
+Beugnet; but neither of them produced anything superior to the worst of
+the cuts to be found in the work of Papillon. With them wood engraving
+in France rather declined than advanced. Of late years the art has made
+great progress both in Germany and France; and should the taste for
+wood-cuts continue to increase in those countries, their engravers may
+regain for the art that popularity which it enjoyed in former times,
+when Nuremberg and Lyons were the great marts for works illustrated with
+wood engravings.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture w350">
+<p><p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_548" id = "illus_548">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_548.png" width = "320" height = "284"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+W. HARVEY</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+W. T. GREEN</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "footnote">
+<p><a name = "noteVII1" id = "noteVII1" href = "#tagVII1">VII.1</a>
+Small wood-cuts appear to have been frequently used about this time in
+newspapers, for what the Americans call a “caption” to advertisements.
+“The great art in writing advertisements is the finding out a proper
+method to catch the reader’s eye, without which many a good thing may
+pass over unobserved, or be lost among commissions of bankrupts.
+Asterisks and hands were formerly of great use for this purpose. Of late
+years the N.B.&nbsp;has been much in fashion, as also <i>little cuts and
+figures</i>, the invention of which we must ascribe to the author of
+spring trusses.”&mdash;Tatler, No.&nbsp;224, 14th September 1710. The
+practice is not yet obsolete. Cuts of this kind are still to be found in
+country newspapers prefixed to advertisements of quack medicines,
+horse-races, coach and steam-boat departures, sales of ships, and the
+services of <i>equi admissorii</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII2" id = "noteVII2" href = "#tagVII2">VII.2</a>
+Some of the cuts in an edition of Dryden’s plays, 6&nbsp;vols. 12mo.
+published by Tonson and Watts in 1717, have evidently been either
+engraved on some kind of soft metal or been casts from a wood block. In
+the corner of such cuts, the marks of the pins, which have fastened the
+engraved metal-plate to a piece of wood below, are quite apparent.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII3" id = "noteVII3" href = "#tagVII3">VII.3</a>
+Papillon, Traité de la Gravure en Bois, tom. i.&nbsp;p.&nbsp;323.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII4" id = "noteVII4" href = "#tagVII4">VII.4</a>
+“The Fables of Mr. John Gay,” with cuts by Thomas and John Bewick, was
+published in 1779. “Select Fables, a&nbsp;new edition improved,” with
+cuts by the same, appeared in 1784; both in duodecimo, printed by
+T.&nbsp;Saint, Newcastle-on-Tyne. The cuts in the latter work are
+considerably better than those in the former. Several of the cuts which
+originally appeared in those two works are to be found in “Select
+Fables; with cuts designed and engraved by Thomas and John Bewick, and
+others,” octavo, printed for Emerson Charnely, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
+1820.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII5" id = "noteVII5" href = "#tagVII5">VII.5</a>
+The cuts in two different editions of Æsop’s Fables, published at
+Paris,&mdash;the one by Charles Le Clerc in 1731, and the other by
+J.&nbsp;Barbou in 1758,&mdash;are most wretchedly executed. The mark of
+Vincent Le Sueur appears on the frontispiece to Le Clerc’s edition.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII6" id = "noteVII6" href = "#tagVII6">VII.6</a>
+It is not unlikely that the frequency of such casts has induced many
+persons to suppose that most of the cuts of this period were
+“<i>engraved</i> on metal in the manner of wood.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII7" id = "noteVII7" href = "#tagVII7">VII.7</a>
+Two cuts, with the same mark, are to be found in Thoresby’s Vicaria
+Leodinensis, 8vo. London, 1724; one at the commencement of the preface,
+and the other at the end of the work.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII8" id = "noteVII8" href = "#tagVII8">VII.8</a>
+Traité de la Gravure en Bois, tom. i. pp. 327, 328.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII9" id = "noteVII9" href = "#tagVII9">VII.9</a>
+This painting, which is wholly in chiaro-scuro, is now in the National
+Gallery, to which it was presented by the late Sir George Beaumont.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII10" id = "noteVII10" href = "#tagVII10">VII.10</a>
+The title at length is as follows: “An Essay on the Invention of
+Engraving and Printing in Chiaro Oscuro, as practised by Albert Durer,
+Hugo di Carpi, &amp;c., and the Application of it to the making Paper
+Hangings of taste, duration, and elegance, by Mr. Jackson of Battersea.
+Illustrated with Prints in proper colours.” 4to. London, 1754.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII11" id = "noteVII11" href = "#tagVII11">VII.11</a>
+There can be no doubt that the mention of Kirkall’s name is purposely
+avoided. The “attempts” of Count Caylus, who executed several
+chiaro-scuros by means of copper-plates and wood-blocks subsequent to
+Kirkall, are noticed; but the name of Nicholas Le Sueur, who assisted
+the Count and engraved the wood-blocks, is never mentioned. It is also
+stated in the Essay, page 6, that some of the subjects begun by Count
+Caylus were finished by Mr. Jackson, and “approved by the lovers and
+promoters of that art in Paris.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII12" id = "noteVII12" href = "#tagVII12">VII.12</a>
+I have only seen one of these landscapes; and from it I form no very
+high opinion of the others. It is scarcely superior in point of
+execution to the prints in “proper colours” contained in the Essay.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII13" id = "noteVII13" href = "#tagVII13">VII.13</a>
+Papillon, in the Supplement to his “Traité de la Gravure en Bois,” page
+6, gives a small cut&mdash;a copy of a figure in a copper-plate by
+Callot&mdash;engraved by himself when nine years old. If the cut be
+genuine, the engraver had improved but little as he grew older.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII14" id = "noteVII14" href = "#tagVII14">VII.14</a>
+Traité de la Gravure en Bois, Supplement, tom. iii. p.&nbsp;39. In the
+first volume, page 335, he alludes to the disorder as “un accident et
+une fatalité commune à plusieurs graveurs, aussi bien que moi.” Has the
+practice of engraving on wood or on copper a tendency to induce
+insanity? Three distinguished engravers, all from the same town, have in
+recent times lost their reason; and several others, from various parts
+of the country, have been afflicted with the same distressing malady.
+These facts deserve the consideration of parents who design to send
+their sons as pupils to engravers. When there is the least reason to
+suspect a hereditary taint of insanity in the constitution of the youth,
+it perhaps would be safest to put him to some other business or
+profession where close attention to minute objects is less required.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII15" id = "noteVII15" href = "#tagVII15">VII.15</a>
+The Supplement, or “Tome troisième,” as it is also called, though dated
+1766, was not printed until 1768, as is evident from a “Discours
+Nuptial,” at page 97, pronounced on 13th June 1768. Two of the cuts also
+contain the date 1768.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII16" id = "noteVII16" href = "#tagVII16">VII.16</a>
+Papillon’s account of the Cunio, with an examination of its credibility,
+will be found in chapter i.&nbsp;pp. 26-39.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII17" id = "noteVII17" href = "#tagVII17">VII.17</a>
+This poem was privately printed and never published. It was written
+expressly in imitation of Dr. Darwin, some of whose friends had
+contended that his style was inimitable, but were deceived into a belief
+that this poem was written by him, until the real author avowed himself.
+In the Advertisement prefixed to it Dr. Beddoes speaks thus of the
+engraver of the cuts: “The engravings in the following pages will be
+praised or excused when it is known that they are the performance of an
+uneducated and uninstructed artist, if such an application be not a
+profanation of the term, in a remote village. All the assistance he
+received was from the example of Mr. Bewick’s most masterly engravings
+on wood.” The name of this self-taught artist was Edward Dyas, who was
+parish-clerk at Madeley, Shropshire, where the book was printed. The
+<i>compositor</i>, as is stated in the same Advertisement, was a young
+woman.&mdash;See <i>Bibliotheca Parriana</i>, p.&nbsp;513.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII18" id = "noteVII18" href = "#tagVII18">VII.18</a>
+“Manière de Gratter les tailles déjà gravées pour les rendre plus
+fortes, afin de les faire ombrer davantage.”&mdash;Supplément du Traité
+de la Gravure en Bois, p.&nbsp;50.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII19" id = "noteVII19" href = "#tagVII19">VII.19</a>
+Several cuts in which cross-hatching is introduced occur in the “Traité
+de la Gravure en Bois;” and the author refers to several others in the
+“Recueil des Papillons” as displaying the same kind of work. He
+considers the execution of such hatchings as the test of excellence in
+wood engraving; “for,” he observes, “when a person has learnt to execute
+them he may boast of having mastered one of the most difficult parts of
+the art, and may justly assume the name of a wood engraver.”&mdash;Tom.
+ii. p.&nbsp;90.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII20" id = "noteVII20" href = "#tagVII20">VII.20</a>
+He complains in another part of the work that many printers, both
+compositors and pressmen, by pretending to engrave on wood, had brought
+the art into disrepute. They not only spoiled the work of regular
+engravers, but <i>dared</i> to engrave wood-cuts themselves.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII21" id = "noteVII21" href = "#tagVII21">VII.21</a>
+Traité de la Gravure en Bois, tom. ii. p. 365.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII22" id = "noteVII22" href = "#tagVII22">VII.22</a>
+The portrait was engraved “<i>in venerationis testimonium</i>,” and
+presented to Papillon by Nicholas Caron, a&nbsp;bookseller and wood
+engraver of Besançon. The following complimentary verses are engraved
+below the portrait:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p class = "open">“Tu vois ici les traits d’un Artiste fameux</p>
+<p class = "indent">Dont la savante main enfanta des merveilles;</p>
+<p class = "indent">Par ses travaux et par ses veilles</p>
+<p>Il resuscita l’Art qui le trace à tes yeux.”
+</div>
+
+<p>Papillon speaks favourably of Caron as a wood engraver; he says that
+“he is much superior to Nioul, Jackson, Contat, Lefevre, and others his
+contemporaries, and would at least have equalled the Le Sueurs had he
+applied himself to drawing the figure.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII23" id = "noteVII23" href = "#tagVII23">VII.23</a>
+From several of those blocks not less than sixty thousand impressions
+had been previously taken, and from one of them four hundred and
+fifty-six thousand had been printed.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII24" id = "noteVII24" href = "#tagVII24">VII.24</a>
+In the chiaro-scuros from original drawings in the collection of
+Monsieur Crozat, with the figures etched by Count Caylus, the
+wood-blocks from which the sepia-coloured tints were printed were
+engraved by Nicholas Le Sueur.&mdash;About the same period Arthur Pond
+and George Knapton in England, and Count M.&nbsp;A. Zanetti in Italy,
+executed in the same manner several chiaro-scuros in imitation of
+drawings and sketches by eminent painters. The taste for chiaro-scuros
+seems to have been revived in France by the Regent-Duke of Orleans, who
+declared that Ugo da Carpi’s chiaro-scuros afforded him more pleasure
+than any other kind of prints.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII25" id = "noteVII25" href = "#tagVII25">VII.25</a>
+The following are the titles of those tracts, which are rather scarce.
+They are all of small octavo size, and printed by J.&nbsp;Barbou.
+1.&nbsp;Dissertation sur l’Origine et les Progrès de l’Art de Graver en
+Bois, pour éclaircir quelques traits de l’Histoire de l’Imprimerie, et
+prouver que Guttemberg n’en est pas l’Inventeur. Par Mr. Fournier le
+Jeune, Graveur et Fondeur de Caractères d’Imprimerie, 1758. 2.&nbsp;De
+l’Origine et des productions de l’Imprimerie primitive en taille en
+Bois, 1759. 3.&nbsp;Remarques sur un Ouvrage intitulé, Lettre sur
+l’Origine de l’Imprimerie, &amp;c. 1761. This last was an answer to a
+letter written by M.&nbsp;Bär, almoner of the Swedish chapel in Paris,
+in which the two former tracts of Fournier were severely
+criticised.&mdash;Fournier was also the author of a work in two small
+volumes, entitled “Manuel Typographique, utile aux Gens de lettres, et à
+ceux qui exercent les differentes parties de l’Art de l’Imprimerie.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII26" id = "noteVII26" href = "#tagVII26">VII.26</a>
+The cut here introduced is the first in the <i>Stultifera Navis</i>, or
+“Ship of Fools,” and is copied from Pyason’s edition of 1509. The
+following lines accompany it:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p class = "open">“&mdash;&mdash;this is my mynde, this one pleasoure
+have I,</p>
+<p>Of bokes to have great plenty and aparayle.</p>
+<p>I take no wysdome by them; nor yet avayle</p>
+<p>Nor them perceyve not: And then I them despyse.</p>
+<p>Thus am I a foole and all that serve that guyse.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII27" id = "noteVII27" href = "#tagVII27">VII.27</a>
+Dr. Dibdin adds: “Mr. Douce informs me that Sir John Hawkins told him of
+the artist’s obtaining the prize for it from the Society for the
+Encouragement of Arts.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII28" id = "noteVII28" href = "#tagVII28">VII.28</a>
+Mr. Christopher Gregson, who was an apothecary, lived in Blackfriars. He
+died about the year 1813. As long as he lived, Bewick maintained a
+friendly correspondence with him.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII29" id = "noteVII29" href = "#tagVII29">VII.29</a>
+<i>Prettier</i> and <i>prettier</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII30" id = "noteVII30" href = "#tagVII30">VII.30</a>
+Philip.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII31" id = "noteVII31" href = "#tagVII31">VII.31</a>
+“While with <span class = "smallcaps">Beilby</span> he was employed in
+engraving clock-faces, which, I&nbsp;have heard him say, made his hands
+as hard as a blacksmith’s, and almost disgusted him with
+engraving.”&mdash;Sketch of the Life and Works of the late Thomas
+Bewick, by George C.&nbsp;Atkinson. Printed in the Transactions of the
+Natural History Society, Newcastle, 1830.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII32" id = "noteVII32" href = "#tagVII32">VII.32</a>
+Alders&mdash;the name of a small plantation above Ovingham, which Bewick
+had to pass through on his way to Eltringham ferry-boat.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII33" id = "noteVII33" href = "#tagVII33">VII.33</a>
+The Reverend William Turner, of Newcastle, in a letter printed in the
+Monthly Magazine for June 1801, says that Bewick obtained this premium
+“<i>during his apprenticeship</i>.” This must be a mistake; as his
+apprenticeship expired in October 1774, and he obtained the premium in
+1775. It is possible, however, that the engraving may have been executed
+during that period.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII34" id = "noteVII34" href = "#tagVII34">VII.34</a>
+Bewick’s mother, Jane Wilson, was a daughter of Thomas Wilson of
+Ainstable in Cumberland, about five miles north-north-west of Kirk-<ins
+class = "correction" title = ". missing">Oswald.</ins></p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII35" id = "noteVII35" href = "#tagVII35">VII.35</a>
+Bewick, in London, in 1828, observed to one of his former pupils, that
+it was then fifty-one years since he left London, on his first visit, to
+return to Newcastle.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII36" id = "noteVII36" href = "#tagVII36">VII.36</a>
+Mr. Atkinson talks about wood engraving having taken a nap for a century
+or two “after the time of Durer and Holbein,” and of Bewick being the
+restorer of the “long-lost art;” and yet, with singular inconsistency,
+in another part of his Sketch, he refers to Papillon, whose work,
+containing a minute account of the art as then practised, was published
+about two years before Bewick began to engrave on wood.&mdash;The
+Reverend William Turner, who ought to have known better, also speaks of
+the “long-lost art,” in his Memoir of Thomas Bewick.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII37" id = "noteVII37" href = "#tagVII37">VII.37</a>
+I have not been able to discover the date of the first edition of this
+work. The third edition is dated 1785.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII38" id = "noteVII38" href = "#tagVII38">VII.38</a>
+“Some Account of the Life, Genius, and Personal Habits of the late
+Thomas Bewick, the celebrated Artist and Engraver on Wood. By his Friend
+John F.&nbsp;M. Dovaston, Esq. A.M.,” was published in Loudon’s Magazine
+of Natural History, 1829-1830. Mr. Dovaston seems to have caught a
+knowledge of Bewick’s personal habits at a glance; and a considerable
+number of his observations on other matters appear to have been the
+result of a peculiar quickness of apprehension. What he says about the
+church of Ovingham not being “parted into proud pews,” when Bewick was a
+boy, is incorrect. It had, in fact, been pewed from an early period;
+for, on the 2nd of September, 1763, Dr. Sharp, Archdeacon of
+Northumberland, on visiting the church, notices the pews as being “very
+bad and irregular;” and on a board over the vestry-door is the following
+inscription: “This Church was new pewed, A.&nbsp;D. 1766.” No boards
+from this church containing specimens of Bewick’s early drawing were
+ever in the possession of the Duke of Northumberland. Mr. Dovaston is
+frequently imaginative, but seldom correct. His personal sketch of
+Bewick is a ridiculous caricature.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII39" id = "noteVII39" href = "#tagVII39">VII.39</a>
+Humble, Eltringham, and Newton were the names of three of his country
+acquaintances; Prudhoe, Hall-Yards, and Mickley are places near
+Ovingham.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII40" id = "noteVII40" href = "#tagVII40">VII.40</a>
+Bewick could engrave on copper, but did not excel in this branch of
+engraving. The following are the principal copper-plates which are known
+to be of his engraving. Plates in Consett’s Tour through Sweden, Swedish
+Lapland, Finland, and Denmark, 4to. Stockton, 1789; The Whitley large
+Ox, 1789; and the remarkable Kyloe Ox, bred in the Mull, Argyleshire,
+1790&mdash;A set of silver buttons, containing sporting devices,
+engraved by Bewick for the late H.&nbsp;U. Reay, Esq. of Killingworth,
+which passed into the possession of Mr. Reay’s son-in-law, Matthew Bell,
+Esq. of Wolsingham.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII41" id = "noteVII41" href = "#tagVII41">VII.41</a>
+Mr. Atkinson says that “about the same time he executed the cuts
+[sixty-two in number] for a small child’s book, entitled ‘A&nbsp;pretty
+Book of Pictures for little Masters and Misses, or Tommy Trip’s History
+of Beasts and Birds.’”&mdash;An edition of the Select Fables, with very
+bad wood-cuts, was printed by Mr. Saint in 1776. The person by whom they
+were engraved is unknown. Bewick always denied that any of them were of
+his engraving.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII42" id = "noteVII42" href = "#tagVII42">VII.42</a>
+This cut was executed for Marmaduke Tunstall, Esq. of Wycliffe, near
+Greta Bridge, in Yorkshire.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII43" id = "noteVII43" href = "#tagVII43">VII.43</a>
+The block remained in several pieces until 1817, when they were firmly
+united by means of cramps, and a number of impressions printed off.
+These impressions are without the border, which distinguishes the
+earlier ones. The border, which was engraved on separate pieces,
+enclosed the principal cut in the manner of a frame.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII44" id = "noteVII44" href = "#tagVII44">VII.44</a>
+A Prospectus containing specimens of the cuts was printed in 1787.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII45" id = "noteVII45" href = "#tagVII45">VII.45</a>
+The first edition consisted of fifteen hundred copies in demy octavo at
+8<i>s.</i>, and one hundred royal at 12<i>s.</i> The price of the demy
+copies of the <i>eighth</i> edition, published in 1825, was £1
+1<i>s.</i> A proof of the estimation in which the work continued to be
+held.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII46" id = "noteVII46" href = "#tagVII46">VII.46</a>
+The cut of the Giraffe in the edition of 1824 is not the original one
+engraved by Bewick. In the later cut, which was chiefly engraved by
+W.&nbsp;W. Temple, one of Bewick’s pupils, the marks on the body of the
+animal appear like so many white-coloured lines crossing each other, and
+enclosing large irregular spots.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII47" id = "noteVII47" href = "#tagVII47">VII.47</a>
+Some account of this work is previously given at page 287.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII48" id = "noteVII48" href = "#tagVII48">VII.48</a>
+This work is noticed at page 407.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII49" id = "noteVII49" href = "#tagVII49">VII.49</a>
+The Kyloe Ox, which occurs at page 36 of the edition of 1824, the last
+that was published in Bewick’s life-time, is one of the very best cuts
+of a quadruped that he ever engraved. The drawing is excellent, and the
+characteristic form and general appearance of the animal are represented
+in a manner that has never been excelled.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII50" id = "noteVII50" href = "#tagVII50">VII.50</a>
+The Lancashire <i>Bull</i>, of the first edition, by a similar process
+has been converted into the Lancashire <i>Ox</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII51" id = "noteVII51" href = "#tagVII51">VII.51</a>
+The originals of this and the three following cuts occur respectively at
+pages 13, 15, 69, and 526 of the edition of 1824. The other principal
+tail-pieces in this edition are: Greyhound-coursing, (originally
+engraved on a silver cup for a person at Northallerton,) drawn by Bewick
+on the block, but engraved by W.&nbsp;W. Temple, page x, at the end of
+the Index; the Old Coachman and the Young Squire, 12; Tinker’s Children
+in a pair of panniers on the back of an Ass, 21; a&nbsp;Cow drinking,
+28; Winter scene, 34; Two Men digging, (engraved by H.&nbsp;White, who
+also engraved the cut of the Musk Bull at page&nbsp;49,) 37; Dog
+worrying a Sheep, 62; Old Soldier travelling in the rain, 117; Smelling,
+tail-piece to the Genet, a&nbsp;<i>strong bit</i>, 269; Drunken Man
+making his Dam, 378; and Seals on a large piece of floating ice,
+510.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII52" id = "noteVII52" href = "#tagVII52">VII.52</a>
+This account is extracted from a letter written by Bewick, and printed
+in the Monthly Magazine for November 1805.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII53" id = "noteVII53" href = "#tagVII53">VII.53</a>
+Of this edition, 1,874 copies were printed,&mdash;one thousand demy
+octavo, at 10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i>; eight hundred and fifty thin and
+thick royal, at 13<i>s.</i>, and 15<i>s.</i>; and twenty-four imperial
+at £1 1<i>s.</i> The first edition of the second volume, 1804, consisted
+of the same number of copies as the first, but the prices were
+respectively 12<i>s.</i>, 15<i>s.</i>, 18<i>s.</i> and £1 4<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII54" id = "noteVII54" href = "#tagVII54">VII.54</a>
+Pinkerton having stated in his Scottish Gallery, on the authority of
+Messrs. Morison, printers, of Perth, that Bewick, “observing the
+uncommon genius of his late apprentice, Robert Johnson, employed him to
+trace the figures on the wood in the History of Quadrupeds,” Bewick, in
+his letter, printed in the Monthly Magazine for November 1805,
+previously quoted, thus denies the assertion: “It is only necessary for
+me to declare, and this will be attested by my partner Mr. Beilby, who
+compiled the History of Quadrupeds, and was a proprietor of the work,
+that neither Robert Johnson, nor any person but myself, made the
+drawings, or traced or cut them on the wood.”&mdash;Robert Johnson was
+employed by Messrs. Morison to copy for the Scottish Gallery several
+portraits at Taymouth Castle, the seat of the Earl of Breadalbane.
+Bewick in this letter carefully avoids pleading to that with which he
+was not charged; he does not deny that several of the drawings of the
+tail-pieces in the History of British Birds were made by Robert Johnson.
+A&nbsp;pupil of Bewick’s, now living, saw many of Johnson’s drawings for
+these cuts, and sat beside Clennell when he was engraving them.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII55" id = "noteVII55" href = "#tagVII55">VII.55</a>
+These three cuts were engraved by one of Bewick’s pupils, named Henry
+Hole. Neither Bewick’s memory nor his daughter’s had been accurate on
+this occasion; but not one of the other cuts which they failed to
+recollect can be compared with those engraved by Bewick himself. In
+addition to those three, the following, not engraved by Bewick himself,
+had appeared at the time the above conversation took place&mdash;some
+time between 1825 and 1826:&mdash;the Brent Goose, the Lesser Imber, and
+the Cormorant, engraved by L.&nbsp;Clennell; the Velvet Duck, the
+Red-breasted Merganser, and the Crested Cormorant, by H.&nbsp;Hole; the
+Rough-legged Falcon, the Pigmy Sand-piper, the Red Sand-piper, and the
+Eared Grebe, by W.&nbsp;W. Temple.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII56" id = "noteVII56" href = "#tagVII56">VII.56</a>
+“He never could, he said, please himself in his representations of water
+in a state of motion, and a horse galloping: his taste must have been
+fastidious indeed, if that beautiful moonlight scene at sea, page 120,
+vol. ii. [edition 1816]; the river scene at page 126; the sea breaking
+among the rocks at page 168, or 177, or 200, or 216; or the rippling of
+the water as it leaves the feet of the old fisherman, at page 95, did
+not satisfy him.” In scarcely one of the cuts engraved by Bewick himself
+is water in a state of motion well represented. He knew his own
+deficiency in this respect; though Mr. Atkinson, not being able to
+distinguish the cuts engraved by Bewick himself from those engraved by
+his pupils, cannot perceive it.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII57" id = "noteVII57" href = "#tagVII57">VII.57</a>
+The cut here given is engraved by Bewick at a somewhat earlier date, for
+a once popular work entitled the History of Three Hundred Animals, since
+incorporated in Mrs. Loudon’s “Entertaining Naturalist.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII58" id = "noteVII58" href = "#tagVII58">VII.58</a>
+The subject of this cut is thus explained in Brockett’s Glossary of
+North Country Words: “<span class = "smallcaps">Neddy, Netty</span>, a
+certain place that will not bear a written explanation; but which is
+<i>depicted to the very life</i> in a tail-piece in the first edition of
+Bewick’s Land Birds, p.&nbsp;285. In the second edition a bar is placed
+against the offending part of this broad display of native humour.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII59" id = "noteVII59" href = "#tagVII59">VII.59</a>
+“Mr. Atkinson must have misunderstood Bewick, as the old man’s name was
+George, not Matthew, Carr. He was grandfather to Edward Willis, one of
+Bewick’s pupils, and to George Stephenson, the celebrated engineer.
+Matthew Carr was a tailor, who lived and died at Righton, in
+Durham.”&mdash;<span class = "smallcaps">Jno. Jackson.</span></p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII60" id = "noteVII60" href = "#tagVII60">VII.60</a>
+The cuts engraved by Bewick himself are: a tail-piece (a&nbsp;Cow
+standing under some bushes) to “The Two Frogs,” page 200. The fable of
+“The Deer and the Lion,” page 315. “Waiting for Death,” page 338. He
+also engraved the figure of the <i>Lion</i> in the fable of “The Lion
+and the four Bulls,” page 89 (see cut at our page 480). The Man, Crow,
+and Sheep in the fable of the “Eagle and the Crow,” of which we give the
+original cut. The Man and two Birds in the fable of “The Husbandman and
+the Stork.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII61" id = "noteVII61" href = "#tagVII61">VII.61</a>
+The fable of the Ship Dog is one of those written by Bewick.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII62" id = "noteVII62" href = "#tagVII62">VII.62</a>
+Mr. Atkinson says that this account determined Bewick to write a life of
+himself. It appears that he actually completed such a work, but that his
+family at present decline to publish it. [Mr. Jackson adds,
+“I&nbsp;engraved two portraits for it: one was a portrait of the Rev.
+Wm. Turner, of Newcastle, the other that of an engineer or millwright,
+at Morpeth, named Rastack, or Raistick<ins class = "correction" title =
+"close quote missing">.”</ins></p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII63" id = "noteVII63" href = "#tagVII63">VII.63</a>
+“There is a tradition that the two black marks on the opposite sides of
+the haddock were occasioned by St. Peter’s thumb and fore-finger when he
+took the piece of money out of the fish’s mouth to give it as a tribute
+to Cæsar.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII64" id = "noteVII64" href = "#tagVII64">VII.64</a>
+Bewick’s suspicions in this respect were not altogether groundless.
+Happening to go into a bookbinder’s shop in Newcastle in 1818, he found
+a copy of his Fables, which had been sent there to bind before the work
+had been issued to the public. He claimed the book as his property, and
+carried it away; but the name of the owner who had purchased it, knowing
+it to have been dishonestly obtained, was not publicly divulged.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII65" id = "noteVII65" href = "#tagVII65">VII.65</a>
+About 1799 Bewick frequently corresponded with Mr. Abraham Newland,
+cashier of the Bank of England, respecting a plan which he had devised
+to prevent the forgery of bank notes. He was offered a situation in the
+Bank to superintend the engraving and printing of the notes, but he
+refused to leave Newcastle. The notes of Ridley and Co.’s bank were for
+many years engraved and printed under the superintendence of Bewick,
+who, after <ins class = "correction" title = ". missing">Mr.</ins>
+Beilby’s retirement, still continued the business of copper-plate
+engraving and printing, and for this purpose always kept presses of his
+own.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII66" id = "noteVII66" href = "#tagVII66">VII.66</a>
+A small cut of the same subject, though with a different back-ground,
+occurs as a tail-piece in the Fables, 1818-1823.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII67" id = "noteVII67" href = "#tagVII67">VII.67</a>
+The last <i>bird</i> that Bewick engraved was the Cream-coloured Plover,
+at page 383, vol. i.&nbsp;of the Birds, in the edition of 1832. Several
+years previous to his death he had projected a History of British
+Fishes, but very little progress was made in the work. A&nbsp;few cuts
+of fishes were engraved, chiefly by his pupils; that of the John Dory,
+an impression of which is said to have been sold for a considerable sum,
+is one of those not engraved by Bewick himself. As a work of art the
+value of an India paper impression of the John Dory may be about
+twopence. This cut is an early performance of Mr. Jackson’s, who also
+engraved, in 1823, about twenty of the additional tail-pieces in the
+last edition of the Birds, 1832.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII68" id = "noteVII68" href = "#tagVII68">VII.68</a>
+This cut is eleven inches and five-eighths wide by eight inches and
+three-fourths high. It is entitled, “Waiting for Death: Bewick’s last
+work, left unfinished, and intended to have been completed by a series
+of impressions from separate blocks printed over each other.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII69" id = "noteVII69" href = "#tagVII69">VII.69</a>
+When Bewick removed the printing of his works from Mr. Hodgson’s office
+to that of Mr. E.&nbsp;Walker, a&nbsp;pressman, named Barlow, was
+brought from London for the purpose of printing the cuts in the second
+volume of the Birds in a proper manner. Bewick’s favourite pressman at
+Mr. Hodgson’s was John Simpson.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII70" id = "noteVII70" href = "#tagVII70">VII.70</a>
+The following is a list of the principal engraved portraits of Bewick:
+on copper, by J.&nbsp;A. Kidd, from a painting by Miss Kirkley, 1798. On
+copper, by Thomas Ranson, after a painting by William Nicholson, 1816.
+On copper, by I.&nbsp;Summerfield, from a miniature by Murphy&mdash;that
+alluded to in Bewick’s letter to Mr. C.&nbsp;Gregson, previously
+quoted&mdash;1816. On copper, by John Burnet, from a painting by James
+Ramsey, 1817. Copies of all those portraits, engraved on wood, are given
+in Charnley’s edition of Select Fables, 1820; and there is also prefixed
+to the work a portrait excellently engraved on wood by Charlton Nesbit,
+one of Bewick’s earliest pupils, from a drawing made on the block by
+William Nicholson.&mdash;In the Memoir of Thomas Bewick, prefixed to the
+Natural History of Parrots, Naturalist’s Library, vol. vi., it is
+incorrectly stated that Ranson, the engraver of one of the above
+portraits, was a pupil of Bewick’s. He was a pupil of J.&nbsp;A. Kidd,
+copper-plate engraver, Newcastle.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII71" id = "noteVII71" href = "#tagVII71">VII.71</a>
+This line is adapted from Wordsworth, who, at the commencement of his
+verses entitled “The Two Thieves, or The Last Stage of Avarice,” thus
+expresses his high opinion of the talents of Bewick:</p>
+
+<div class = "verse">
+<p class = "open">“O now that the genius of Bewick were mine,</p>
+<p>And the skill which he learned on the banks of the Tyne!</p>
+<p>Then the Muses might deal with me just as they chose,</p>
+<p>For I’d take my last leave both of verse and of prose.”</p>
+
+<p class = "author"><i>Lyrical Ballads</i>, vol. ii. p. 199. Edition
+1805.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII72" id = "noteVII72" href = "#tagVII72">VII.72</a>
+The cut of the Hermit at his morning devotion was drawn by John Johnson,
+a&nbsp;cousin of Robert, and also one of Bewick’s pupils.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII73" id = "noteVII73" href = "#tagVII73">VII.73</a>
+Johnson’s water-colour drawings for most of the cuts in Bewick’s Fables,
+are extremely beautiful. They are the size of the cuts; and as a set are
+perhaps the finest small drawings of the kind that were ever made. Their
+finish and accuracy of drawing are admirable&mdash;they look like
+miniature <i>Paul Potters</i>. It is known to only a few persons that
+they were drawn by Johnson during his apprenticeship. Most of them were
+copied on the block by William Harvey, and the rest chiefly by Bewick
+himself.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII74" id = "noteVII74" href = "#tagVII74">VII.74</a>
+John Johnson, a cousin of Robert, was also an apprentice of Beilby and
+Bewick. He was a wood engraver, and executed a few of the tail-pieces in
+the History of British Birds. Like Robert, he possessed a taste for
+drawing; and the cut of the Hermit at his morning devotion, engraved by
+T.&nbsp;Bewick, in Poems by Goldsmith and Parnell, was designed by him.
+He died at Newcastle about 1797, shortly after the expiration of his
+apprenticeship.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII75" id = "noteVII75" href = "#tagVII75">VII.75</a>
+The original cut, including the border, is fifteen inches wide by about
+twelve inches high.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII76" id = "noteVII76" href = "#tagVII76">VII.76</a>
+Mr. Thurston was a native of Scarborough, and originally a copper-plate
+engraver. He engraved, under the late Mr. James Heath, parts of the two
+celebrated plates of the death of Major Peirson and the Dead Soldier. He
+was one of the best designers on wood of his time. He drew very
+beautifully, but his designs are too frequently deficient in natural
+character and feeling. He died in 1821.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII77" id = "noteVII77" href = "#tagVII77">VII.77</a>
+The practice of thus giving a fictitious value to works of limited
+circulation, and which are not likely to reach a second edition during
+the lifetime of their authors, is less frequent now than it was a few
+years ago. It is little more than a trick to enhance the price of the
+book to subscribers, by giving them an assurance that no second edition
+can appear with the same embellishments. In three cases out of four
+where the plates and cuts of a work have been intentionally destroyed,
+there was little prospect of such work reaching a second edition during
+the writer’s life.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII78" id = "noteVII78" href = "#tagVII78">VII.78</a>
+Between the expiration of his apprenticeship and his departure for
+London he appears to have engraved several excellent cuts for a
+school-book entitled “The Hive of Ancient and Modern Literature,”
+printed by S.&nbsp;Hodgson, Newcastle.&mdash;Clennell’s fellow-pupils
+were Henry Hole and Edward Willis. Mr. Hole engraved the cuts in
+M’Creery’s Press, 1803, and in Poems by Felicia Dorothea Browne,
+(afterwards Mrs. Hemans) 1808. Mr. Hole gave up wood engraving several
+years ago on succeeding to a large estate in Derbyshire. Mr. Willis, who
+was a cousin of Mr. George Stephenson, the celebrated engineer, died in
+London, the 10th of February, 1842, aged 58; but had for some time
+previously entirely abandoned the art.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII79" id = "noteVII79" href = "#tagVII79">VII.79</a>
+He also invariably corrected the <i>outline</i> of Thurston’s animals;
+“Fainting for the Living Waters” in the Religious Emblems, and a little
+subject in an edition of Beattie’s Minstrel, published at Alnwick,
+representing a shepherd and dog on the brow of a hill, were thus
+improved by Clennell.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII80" id = "noteVII80" href = "#tagVII80">VII.80</a>
+Mr. Jackson was in possession of the first proof of this pretty wood
+engraving, inscribed Twickenham, September 10, 1807, where Clennell was
+residing at the time.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII81" id = "noteVII81" href = "#tagVII81">VII.81</a>
+The original cut is about ten inches and a half high, measured from the
+line below the inscription, by about thirteen inches and a half wide,
+measured across the centre.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII82" id = "noteVII82" href = "#tagVII82">VII.82</a>
+Several additional cuts of the same kind, engraved with no less ability
+by J.&nbsp;Thompson, were inserted in a subsequent edition.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII83" id = "noteVII83" href = "#tagVII83">VII.83</a>
+This painting was afterwards finished by E.&nbsp;Bird, R.A., who also
+became insane.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII84" id = "noteVII84" href = "#tagVII84">VII.84</a>
+Clennell’s wife was a daughter of the late C.&nbsp;Warren, one of the
+best copper-plate engravers of his time.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII85" id = "noteVII85" href = "#tagVII85">VII.85</a>
+Clennell died in the Lunatic Asylum, Feb. 9, 1840, in his fifty-ninth
+year.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII86" id = "noteVII86" href = "#tagVII86">VII.86</a>
+Isaac Nicholson, now established as a wood engraver at Newcastle, was
+the apprentice immediately preceding Harvey. W.&nbsp;W. Temple, who
+abandoned the business on the expiration of his apprenticeship for that
+of a draper and silk-mercer, came to Bewick shortly after Harvey; and
+the younger apprentice was John Armstrong.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII87" id = "noteVII87" href = "#tagVII87">VII.87</a>
+This cut is about fifteen inches high by about eleven inches and one
+quarter wide. It was engraved on a block consisting of seven different
+pieces, the joinings of which are apparent in impressions that have not
+been subsequently <i>touched</i> with Indian ink.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII88" id = "noteVII88" href = "#tagVII88">VII.88</a>
+What may be considered the sketches for the principal cuts were supplied
+by Northcote himself. The following account of the manner in which he
+<i>composed</i> them is extracted from a Sketch of his Life, prefixed to
+the second series of his Fables, 1833:&mdash;“It was by a curious
+process that Mr. Northcote really made the designs for these Fables the
+amusement of his old age, for his talent as a draftsman, excelling as he
+did in animals, was rarely required by this undertaking. His general
+practice was to collect great numbers of prints of animals, and to cut
+them out; he then moved such as he selected about upon the surface of a
+piece of paper until he had illustrated the fable by placing them to his
+satisfaction, and had thus composed his subject; then fixing the
+different figures with paste to the paper, a&nbsp;few pen or pencil
+touches rendered this singular composition complete enough to place in
+the hands of Mr. Harvey, by whom it was adapted or freely translated on
+the blocks for the engravers.”&mdash;Mr. Harvey’s work was something
+more than free translation. He <i>completed</i> that which Northcote
+merely suggested. The tail-pieces and letters are all of Mr. Harvey’s
+own invention and drawing.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII89" id = "noteVII89" href = "#tagVII89">VII.89</a>
+Charles Thompson, the brother of John, is also a wood engraver. He
+resides at Paris, and his cuts are better known in France than in this
+country. Miss Eliza Thompson, a&nbsp;daughter of John Thompson, also
+engraves on wood.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII90" id = "noteVII90" href = "#tagVII90">VII.90</a>
+The Salmon, Chub, and group of small fish are given on the preceding
+page from the actual cuts referred to.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteVII91" id = "noteVII91" href = "#tagVII91">VII.91</a>
+Bewick was accustomed to speak highly of the cuts of fish in this
+beautiful work (several of which are given on the previous pages): the
+Salmon, engraved by J.&nbsp;Thompson, and the Eel, by H.&nbsp;White, he
+especially admired. Among others scarcely less excellent are the Pike,
+by R.&nbsp;Branston; and the Carp, the Grayling, and the Ruffe, by
+H.&nbsp;White. Major, in his second edition, went to great expense in
+substituting other engravings for most of these, with the intention of
+surpassing all that, by the aid of artists, he had done before&mdash;in
+which he to some extent succeeded. In this second edition, the Salmon is
+engraved by John Jackson. All Mr. Major’s wood-cuts, as well as many of
+Bewick’s, having passed into the hands of Henry G.&nbsp;Bohn (the
+present publisher), his edition of Walton’s Angler is extensively
+enriched by them.</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "correction">
+<h5>Errors in Chapter VII</h5>
+
+<p><span class = "citation">
+as much in having <i>caught</i> an ass as in the prospect of a
+ride.</span><br>
+<i>final . missing</i></p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+we are led to suppose that he had been indulging too freely on the
+King’s birth-day</span><br>
+on the the</p>
+
+<p>Footnote VII.34</p>
+<p class = "continue">
+<span class = "citation">about five miles north-north-west of
+Kirk-Oswald.</span><br>
+<i>final . missing</i></p>
+<p>Footnote VII.62</p>
+<p class = "continue">
+<span class = "citation">at Morpeth, named Rastack, or
+Raistick.”</span><br>
+<i>close quote missing</i></p>
+<p>Footnote VII.65</p>
+<p class = "continue">
+<span class = "citation">under the superintendence of Bewick, who, after
+Mr. Beilby’s retirement</span><br>
+Mr Beilby’s</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "mynote">
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html">Introduction</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html#illus">List of Illustrations</a> (separate
+file)</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html">Chapter I</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_II">Chapter II</a> (separate
+file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_III">Chapter III</a> (separate
+file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html">Chapter IV</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#chap_V">Chapter V</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html">Chapter VI</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "#chap_VII">Chapter VII</a><br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html">Chapter VIII</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html">Chapter IX</a> (separate file)</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html#index">Index</a> (separate file)</p>
+</div>
+
+</body>
+</html>
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+<div class = "mynote">
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html">Introduction</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html#illus">List of Illustrations</a> (separate
+file)</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html">Chapter I</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_II">Chapter II</a> (separate
+file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_III">Chapter III</a> (separate
+file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html">Chapter IV</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#chap_V">Chapter V</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html">Chapter VI</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html">Chapter VII</a> (separate file)<br>
+Chapter VIII<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html">Chapter IX</a> (separate file)</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html#index">Index</a> (separate file)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "titlepage">
+
+<h2><span class = "smallest">ON</span><br>
+WOOD ENGRAVING.</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class = "maintext">
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page549" id = "page549">
+549</a></span>
+
+<h3><a name = "chap_VIII" id = "chap_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a><br>
+<span class = "subhead">ARTISTS AND ENGRAVERS ON WOOD OF THE PRESENT
+DAY.</span></h3>
+
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">The</span> present chapter, which is
+additional to the former edition, had not been contemplated until the
+previous pages were printed off. But it was then suggested to the
+publisher, by one who was able and willing to co-operate in the object,
+that although the book was intended to be merely an improved reprint of
+what had been given before, a&nbsp;short chapter might advantageously be
+added respecting those Artists of the present day who were omitted by
+Jackson, or have risen to eminence since his time.</p>
+
+<p>Applications in the form of a circular were accordingly issued, and
+have resulted in the Specimens now presented. They must speak for
+themselves, it not being within the province of the publisher to
+pronounce as to their respective merits. Besides which, the art of
+wood-engraving, owing to the enormous impulse given to it during the
+last twenty years, has attained such a pitch of excellence, that it
+would be somewhat difficult to determine who, if sufficiently
+stimulated, could produce the most perfect work. Artists in Wood, like
+Artists in Oil, have their specialties, and excel relatively in
+Landscape, Cattle, or Figure drawing; Architecture, Natural History,
+Diagrams, or Humour. But though each may acquire distinction in the
+department which choice or accident has assigned him, some can undertake
+all departments equally well. In saying this we refer to engraving
+rather than designing, for Harrison Weir would hardly undertake
+Architecture; Orlando Jewitt, Animals; or George Cruikshank,
+Mathematical Diagrams.</p>
+
+<p>When, with the age of Bewick, wood-engraving began to reassume its
+importance for book illustration, both designing and engraving were
+generally performed by the same hand; but, in the present day, the
+professions are becoming too important to be joined, and those who, like
+William Harvey, Samuel Williams, and others, commenced by practising
+both, now, recognising the modern policy of a division of labour,
+confine themselves with few exceptions to one. Our business here, so far
+as designs are concerned, is almost limited to those draughtsmen who
+habitually draw on wood, for it is unnecessary to say that every drawing
+or painting may be transferred to wood by the practical operator.</p>
+
+<p>The following Specimens are given in accidental order rather than
+with any notion of precedence or classification.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page550" id = "page550">
+550</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w350">
+<p><a name = "illus_550" id = "illus_550">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_550.png" width = "335" height = "422"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+PERCIVAL SKELTON</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+JAMES COOPER
+<p class = "caption">
+THE SIERRA MORENA</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The present and following specimens are engraved by <span class =
+"smallcaps">James Cooper</span>. The first one is from Mr. Murray’s
+illustrated edition of Childe Harold, published in 1859, which contains
+eighty engravings, all designed by Mr. Percival Skelton; the others from
+the Select Poems and Songs of Robert Burns, published by Kent &amp; Co.
+in 1858. Mr. Cooper is favourably known to the artistic world by his
+engravings in Rhymes and Roundelayes, a&nbsp;volume to which we shall
+presently refer again; Poetry and Pictures from Thomas Moore, Longmans,
+1858; The Merrie Days of England, 1859; Favourite English Poems, 1858;
+and Bloomfield’s Farmer’s Boy, 1858&mdash;mostly after designs by Birket
+Foster, and all produced under the superintendence of Mr. Joseph
+Cundall.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page551" id = "page551">
+551</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_551a" id = "illus_551a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_551a.png" width = "346" height = "338"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+BANKS OF THE NITH.<br>
+<span class = "subhead">BURNS’ POEMS</span></p>
+
+<div class = "picture w450">
+<p><a name = "illus_551b" id = "illus_551b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_551b.png" width = "408" height = "331"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+HARRISON WEIR</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+JAMES COOPER
+<p class = "caption">
+THE TWA DOGS.<br>
+<span class = "subhead">BURNS’ POEMS</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page552" id = "page552">
+552</a></span>
+
+<p>This and the preceding three specimens complete what we have to
+adduce of Mr. Cooper’s engraving: the designers will be spoken of in
+subsequent pages.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture w450">
+<p><a name = "illus_552" id = "illus_552">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_552.png" width = "424" height = "524"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+HARRISON WEIR</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+JAMES COOPER
+<p class = "caption">
+TO AULD MARE MAGGIE<br>
+<span class = "subhead">BURNS’ POEMS</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page553" id = "page553">
+553</a></span>
+<div class = "picture w450">
+<p><a name = "illus_553" id = "illus_553">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_553.png" width = "402" height = "500"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+HARRISON WEIR</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+J. GREENAWAY
+<p class = "caption">
+THE POETRY OF NATURE.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Mr. Harrison Weir</span> is distinguished
+for his spirited drawings of animals and rural landscapes, as will be
+seen in the annexed examples, which are engraved by W.&nbsp;Wright
+(formerly with Vizetelly) and John Greenaway. He has contributed to most
+of the popular works of recent date, in which animals form a feature.
+Among them may be named: The Poetry of the Year; Poems and Songs by
+Robert Burns; Poetry and Pictures from Thomas Moore; Favourite English
+Poems; Barry Cornwall’s Dramatic Scenes and Poems; Fable Book for
+Children; James Montgomery’s Poems, 1860, and Wood’s Natural
+History.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page554" id = "page554">
+554</a></span>
+<div class = "picture w350">
+<p><a name = "illus_554a" id = "illus_554a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_554a.png" width = "347" height = "393"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+HARRISON WEIR</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+N. WRIGHT
+<p class = "caption">
+BLOOMFIELD’S FARMER’S BOY</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picture w300">
+<p><a name = "illus_554b" id = "illus_554b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_554b.png" width = "297" height = "251"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+HARRISON WEIR</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+GREENAWAY
+<p class = "caption">
+CAMPBELL’S PLEASURES OF HOPE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page555" id = "page555">
+555</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w350">
+<p><a name = "illus_555" id = "illus_555">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_555.png" width = "348" height = "491"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+HARRISON WEIR</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+J. GREENAWAY</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Both this and the specimen on the preceding page are from the
+illustrated edition of Campbell’s Pleasures of Hope, of which all the
+plates are engraved by <span class = "smallcaps">Mr. John
+Greenaway</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Greenaway has contributed to many other of the illustrated
+publications of the present day, and among them to the Poetry of Nature,
+edited by Mr. J.&nbsp;Cundall, with thirty-six cuts all designed by
+Harrison Weir. Low and Son, 1860. Bloomfield’s Farmer’s Boy, 1858;
+Favourite English Ballads, 1859.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page556" id = "page556">
+556</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w450">
+<p><a name = "illus_556" id = "illus_556">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_556.png" width = "445" height = "546"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+BIRKET FOSTER
+<p class = "rightside">
+EDMUND EVANS
+<p class = "caption">
+WILD FLOWERS.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Engraved by <span class = "smallcaps">Edmund Evans</span> from a
+design by Birket Foster for Rhymes and Roundelayes, published by Mr.
+Bogue in 1857, and since by Messrs. Routledge. Mr. Evans has likewise
+engraved the Landscapes in Cowper’s Task, after designs by the same
+artist, Herbert’s Poetical Works, and Graham’s Sabbath, all published by
+Nisbet &amp; Co.; the Landscapes in Scott’s Lay of the Last Minstrel,
+and Marmion, published by Adam Black &amp; Co.; many of the subjects in
+Poems and Songs by Robert Burns, from which we have given several
+specimens, The Merrie Days of England, &amp;c.; and all the
+illustrations in Goldsmith’s Poetical Works, which are printed in
+Colours by himself.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page557" id = "page557">
+557</a></span>
+<div class = "picture w450">
+<p><a name = "illus_557" id = "illus_557">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_557.png" width = "435" height = "512"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+BIRKET FOSTER</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+W. J. PALMER
+<p class = "caption">
+LAYS OF THE HOLY LAND</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Engraved by <span class = "smallcaps">W. J. Palmer</span>, after a
+design by Birket Foster, for Lays of the Holy Land, published by Nisbet
+&amp; Co. Mr. Palmer has also contributed to the Illustrated edition of
+Thomson’s Seasons, The Merchant of Venice, Gray’s Poems, published by
+Low and Son; The Merrie Days of England, Kent &amp; Co., and other
+pictorial works, chiefly after the designs of Birket Foster, and under
+the superintendence of Mr. Cundall.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page558" id = "page558">
+558</a></span>
+<p>Although several specimens have already been given of Birket Foster’s
+powers of design, in speaking of the engravers, we give another, one of
+his earliest, that we may have occasion to say something of himself.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture w350">
+<p><a name = "illus_558" id = "illus_558">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_558.png" width = "332" height = "372"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+BIRKET FOSTER</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+H. VIZETELLY
+<p class = "caption">
+EVANGELINE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Mr. Birket Foster</span> was a pupil of Mr.
+Landells, who, discerning his artistic talent, employed him from an
+early age in the superior department of his profession. After he
+commenced on his own account, his first important illustrations were for
+Longfellow’s Poetical Works, of which the above is a specimen. He has
+since partly or wholly illustrated, besides those works already
+mentioned under the name of the engraver, Adams’s Allegories, published
+by Messrs. Rivington; The Book of Favourite Modern Ballads, Poets of the
+Nineteenth Century, Christmas with the Poets, Favourite English Poems,
+Home Affections, The Merrie Days of England, Barry Cornwall’s Dramatic
+Scenes and Poems, Southey’s Life of Nelson, Gosse’s Rivers of the Bible,
+and many other of the best works of the period. In 1859 he was elected a
+member of the Old Water Colour Society, and has since then devoted
+himself almost exclusively, and with great success, to painting in Water
+Colours.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page559" id = "page559">
+559</a></span>
+<div class = "picture w400">
+<p><a name = "illus_559" id = "illus_559">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_559.png" width = "384" height = "417"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+JOHN TENNIEL</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+DALZIEL</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Mr. John Tenniel</span> is a successful
+illustrator of Historical subjects, and Ballad poetry, and has produced
+many fine examples of his pencil. His most recent work is a series of
+sixty-nine designs for the illustrated edition of Moore’s Lalla Rookh,
+engraved by the Messrs. Dalziel, which the “Times” of Nov. 1, 1860,
+calls the “greatest illustrative achievement of any single hand,” and of
+which we here present an example. He is now engaged in illustrating
+Shirley Brooks’ story called The Silver Cord, in “Once a Week;” and in
+1857 he contributed a number of spirited designs to the illustrated
+edition of Barry Cornwall’s Poetical Works. Among Mr. Tenniel’s earlier
+works are several in the Book of British Ballads, edited by Samuel
+Carter Hall, in 1843; and among his popular designs, sketched with a
+free pencil, are his large cuts in “Punch,” and his small ones in
+Punch’s Pocket Book.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page560" id = "page560">
+560</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_560a" id = "illus_560a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_560a.png" width = "313" height = "348"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+DEATH OF SFORZA.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture w250">
+<p><a name = "illus_560b" id = "illus_560b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_560b.png" width = "170" height = "292"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+JOHN TENNIEL</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+DALZIEL
+<p class = "caption">
+SFORZA.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Both these examples are from Barry Cornwall’s dramatic sketch,
+entitled Ludovico Sforza, published in the illustrated edition of his
+Poems.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page561a" id = "page561a">
+561*</a></span>
+<div class = "picture w400">
+<p><a name = "illus_x561" id = "illus_x561">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x561.png" width = "393" height = "427"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+JOHN GILBERT.</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+DALZIEL BROTHERS.
+<p class = "caption">
+ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Engraved by <span class = "smallcaps">Messrs. Dalziel,
+Brothers</span>, after the designs of <span class = "smallcaps">Mr. John
+Gilbert</span>. These highly appreciated Artists appear together in a
+considerable number of the illustrated publications of the present day.
+Messrs. Dalziel are among the most extensive of our wood-engravers, and
+have taken part in all the illustrated works of importance which have
+been produced during the last twenty years. Among the recent ones
+are:&mdash;Staunton’s Illustrated Shakspeare, from which the above
+specimen is taken, and Longfellow’s Poems, Routledge, 1859; Barry
+Cornwall’s Dramatic Scenes and Poems, with fifty-seven wood-engravings,
+published by Chapman and Hall in 1857, now republished by Henry
+G.&nbsp;Bohn; and Tennyson’s Princess, after drawings by Maclise. These
+artists are at present engaged in engraving Millais’ Designs in the
+“Cornhill Magazine.”</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page562a" id = "page562a">
+562*</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w300">
+<p><a name = "illus_x562" id = "illus_x562">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x562.png" width = "300" height = "391"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+THOMAS DALZIEL</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+DALZIEL BROTHERS
+<p class = "caption">
+THE FLORENTINE PARTY.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The present engraving, executed by the Brothers Dalziel, for Barry
+Cornwall’s Poems, gives a pleasing example of Mr. Thomas Dalziel’s
+drawing.</p>
+
+<p class = "paragraph space">
+The next two are early designs by Mr. John Gilbert. The first is from
+the Percy Tales of the Kings of England, originally published in 1840,
+by Mr. Cundall, and since by Henry G.&nbsp;Bohn; the other from
+Maxwell’s Life of the Duke of Wellington, in which there are upwards of
+one hundred similar vignettes, originally published in 1840, by Messrs.
+Baily, Brothers.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page563a" id = "page563a">
+563*</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w300">
+<p><a name = "illus_x563a" id = "illus_x563a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x563a.png" width = "271" height = "339"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+JOHN GILBERT</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+KIRCHNER
+<p class = "caption">
+PRINCE ARTHUR AND HUBERT DE BOURG.<br>
+<span class = "subhead">FROM PERCY TALES OF THE KINGS OF
+ENGLAND.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picture w350">
+<p><a name = "illus_x563b" id = "illus_x563b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x563b.png" width = "337" height = "345"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside full">
+JOHN GILBERT</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page564a" id = "page564a">
+564*</a></span>
+
+<div class = "demon">
+<p class = "demon"><a name = "illus_x564" id =
+"illus_x564">&nbsp;</a></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+JOHN GILBERT.</p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+THE DEMON LOVER.</p>
+
+<p class = "paragraph">
+We have here, engraved by <span class = "smallcaps">Mr. W. A.
+Folkard</span>, another of the early designs of <span class =
+"smallcaps">Mr. John Gilbert</span>. It is one of the illustrations to
+the Book of English Ballads, edited by S.&nbsp;C. Hall, in 1843, which
+contains upwards of four hundred wood-engravings, and was the first work
+of any consequence that presented a combination of the best artists of
+the time. Indeed, it was the leader in what may be called the
+Illustrated Christmas Books of the present day. Since this period, Mr.
+Gilbert has probably produced more drawings on wood than any other
+artist, and has contributed to almost every illustrated book of any
+importance. He is a member of the Old Water Colour Society, and has sent
+many fine drawings to the Exhibition.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "mynote">
+<p><a href = "#page_image">Page image</a> showing original layout.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page565a" id = "page565a">
+565*</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w400">
+<p><a name = "illus_x565" id = "illus_x565">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x565.png" width = "368" height = "385"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+G. H. THOMAS</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+W. L. THOMAS
+<p class = "caption">
+FROM HIAWATHA.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">William L. Thomas</span> deserves to rank
+among the foremost of our wood-engravers, as will be seen by the present
+specimen. He engraved most of the subjects to Hiawatha, all of which
+were drawn by his brother George&nbsp;H. <span class =
+"smallcaps">Thomas</span>, and are now included in Bohn’s Illustrated
+edition of Longfellow’s Works; many of Mr. Maclise’s masterly designs
+for Tennyson’s Princess, and all the subjects for the Boys’ Book of
+Ballads, from drawings by John Gilbert. They have also contributed,
+separately or together, to the Book of Favourite Modern Ballads, Poetry
+and Pictures from Thomas Moore, Burns’ Poems, The Merrie Days of
+England, Favourite English Poems, and many other illustrated works.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page566a" id = "page566a">
+566*</a></span>
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_x566a" id = "illus_x566a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x566a.png" width = "359" height = "363"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+HIAWATHA.</p>
+
+<p class = "figfloat">
+<a name = "illus_x566b" id = "illus_x566b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x566b.png" width = "305" height = "271"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Engraved by <span class = "smallcaps">Horace Harral</span> (a pupil
+of the late John Orrin Smith), after a design by George Thomas, for the
+illustrated edition of Longfellow’s Poems, formerly published in
+detached portions by Kent &amp; Co., and now completely by H.&nbsp;G.
+Bohn. These artists have also contributed to the illustrated editions of
+Coleridge’s Ancient Mariner, Burns’ Poems, Campbell’s Pleasures of Hope,
+the Merchant of Venice, and The Merrie Days of England; also to the
+Poetry and Pictures from Thomas Moore. Mr. George Thomas, who has long
+ranked as one of our best draughtsmen of figure subjects, has of late
+turned his attention almost exclusively to painting in oils, and is a
+successful exhibitor.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page567a" id = "page567a">
+567*</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w350">
+<p><a name = "illus_x567a" id = "illus_x567a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x567a.png" width = "349" height = "415"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+G. H. THOMAS</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+E. EVANS
+<p class = "caption">
+JOHN ANDERSON MY JO.<br>
+<span class = "subhead">BURNS’ POEMS.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picture w300">
+<p><a name = "illus_x567b" id = "illus_x567b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x567b.png" width = "292" height = "201"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+G. H. THOMAS</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+E. EVANS</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>These pleasing specimens conclude our examples of the drawing of Mr.
+George Henry Thomas. Of Mr. Evans the engraver we have already
+spoken.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page568a" id = "page568a">
+568*</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w400">
+<p><a name = "illus_x568" id = "illus_x568">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x568.png" width = "396" height = "470"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+D. MACLISE</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+W. THOMAS
+<p class = "caption">
+FROM TENNYSON’S PRINCESS.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The illustrated volume from which this is taken has twenty-six
+illustrations, engraved by W.&nbsp;Thomas, W.&nbsp;T. Green,
+E.&nbsp;Williams, and Dalziel, Brothers. Miss E.&nbsp;Williams is a
+daughter of the late talented Samuel Williams.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page569a" id = "page569a">
+569*</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w350">
+<p><a name = "illus_x569a" id = "illus_x569a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x569a.png" width = "323" height = "179"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+D. MACLISE, R.A.</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+J. THOMPSON
+<p class = "caption">
+LEONORA</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Here is another Design by <span class = "smallcaps">Mr. D.
+Maclise</span>, R.A., who in his own peculiar manner has furnished
+drawings on wood for several finely illustrated publications, among
+which may be enumerated Longman’s edition of the Poems and Songs of
+Thomas Moore, and especially Tennyson’s Princess, of which we have given
+an example on a previous page. The present is the smallest of a series
+of designs engraved by Mr. John Thompson, for that stirring Ballad,
+Bürger’s Leonora.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture w400">
+<p><a name = "illus_x569b" id = "illus_x569b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x569b.png" width = "354" height = "278"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+PERCIVAL SKELTON</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+J. W. WHYMPER
+<p class = "caption">
+CHILDE HAROLD.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Mr. Percival Skelton</span> has been
+mentioned incidentally on a previous page, and we should have given in
+addition a fine example of his pencil from the Book of Favourite Modern
+Ballads, but the plate is too large. This present small specimen is to
+introduce the name of <span class = "smallcaps">Mr. J.&nbsp;W.
+Whymper</span>, who has been concerned in many of the illustrated
+publications of the last thirty years, and especially those published by
+the Christian Knowledge Society.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page570a" id = "page570a">
+570*</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w400">
+<p><a name = "illus_x570" id = "illus_x570">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x570.png" width = "386" height = "565"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+CLARKSON STANFIELD, R.A.</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+H. VIZETELLY
+<p class = "caption">
+ANDERSON READING THE BIBLE TO JACK.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Mr. Henry Vizetelly</span> has been so
+indefatigable for the last twenty years in producing illustrated works
+in every department, that examples of his wood engraving are extensively
+distributed. He is besides a printer, well skilled in bringing up
+wood-cuts, which is a most delicate and artistic process. All the
+engravings in Miller’s Boy’s Country Year Book, and the Book of
+Wonderful Inventions, are engraved by him, or under his direction, as
+are also most of the charming series of designs made by <span class =
+"smallcaps">Clarkson Stanfield</span>, R.A.&nbsp;for Marryat’s Poor
+Jack, of which the annexed is a specimen; many of the plates in Bohn’s
+illustrated
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page571a" id = "page571a">
+571*</a></span>
+edition of Longfellow’s Poems; and the entire series of Christmas with
+the Poets, fifty-three subjects, printed in tints by himself.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture w350">
+<p><a name = "illus_x571" id = "illus_x571">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x571.png" width = "328" height = "481"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+BIRKET FOSTER</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+H. VIZETELLY
+<p class = "caption">
+CHRISTMAS IN THE OLDEN TIME.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>We here present a specimen of a series of engravings executed by Mr.
+Vizetelly, for a work projected by the late Mr. Bogue, and yet
+unpublished.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page572a" id = "page572a">
+572*</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_x572a" id = "illus_x572a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x572a.png" width = "300" height = "271"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Samuel Williams</span> (recently deceased)
+deserves a conspicuous niche in the Walhalla of Artists for his
+forty-eight beautiful illustrations of Thomson’s Seasons, all drawn and
+engraved by himself. The annexed specimens selected from that volume
+(now about to be published by Mr. Bohn in his Illustrated Library) will
+give a fair example of his peculiar taste in the miniature treatment of
+rural subjects.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_x572b" id = "illus_x572b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x572b.png" width = "270" height = "303"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page573a" id = "page573a">
+573*</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w400">
+<p><a name = "illus_x573" id = "illus_x573">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x573.png" width = "399" height = "446"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+JOHN WOLF</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+G. PEARSON
+<p class = "caption">
+EAGLES, STAGS AND WOLVES.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This and the following engraving were executed by <span class =
+"smallcaps">Mr. George Pearson</span>, a rising artist, after drawings
+made by <span class = "smallcaps">John Wolf</span>, for the
+illustrations of T.&nbsp;W. Atkinson’s Travels in the Region of the
+Upper and Lower Amoor (in&nbsp;Eastern Asia). Mr. Wolf, like Mr.
+Harrison Weir, has a preference for animal drawing, and excels
+in&nbsp;it.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page574a" id = "page574a">
+574*</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w450">
+<p><a name = "illus_x574a" id = "illus_x574a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x574a.png" width = "437" height = "295"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+JOHN WOLF</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+G. PEARSON
+<p class = "caption">
+HARE HAWKING.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This well-executed cut of Hare Hawking is from Messrs. Freeman and
+Salvin’s Work on Falconry, recently published by Messrs. Longman.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Pearson has lately been engaged in engraving <ins class =
+"correction" title = "spelling unchanged">Icthyological</ins> subjects
+for Hartwig’s Sea and its Living Wonders, and some other works of
+Natural History, a&nbsp;department which he is cultivating by
+preference.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture w350">
+<p><a name = "illus_x574b" id = "illus_x574b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x574b.png" width = "322" height = "213"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "rightside full">
+G. PEARSON
+<p class = "caption">
+FALLS OF NIAGARA.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Vignette by the same engraver is one of the Illustrations of
+Bohn’s Pictorial Hand-book of Geography just published.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page575a" id = "page575a">
+575*</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w350">
+<p><a name = "illus_x575" id = "illus_x575">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x575.png" width = "310" height = "500"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+H. ANELAY</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+MEASOM
+<p class = "caption">
+FROM SANDFORD AND MERTON.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Mr. H. Anelay</span> is well known to the
+public as a draughtsman on wood, especially in the departments of
+portrait and figure drawing. The present example, taken from Bohn’s
+Illustrated edition of Sandford and Merton, is engraved by <span class =
+"smallcaps">Mr. Measom</span>, whose practice is extensive and of long
+standing. Several of the figure subjects in Merrie Days of England,
+recently published by Kent and Co., and in Favourite English Poems,
+published by Low and Co. are by him.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page576a" id = "page576a">
+576*</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w350">
+<p><a name = "illus_x576" id = "illus_x576">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x576.png" width = "325" height = "336"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+JOHN ABSOLON</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+THOMAS BOLTON
+<p class = "caption">
+MILES STANDISH.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Mr. J. Absolon</span> has for many years
+been an illustrator of popular story books and poems, most of which have
+been published or edited by Mr. Cundall. Among them may be named,
+Favourite English Poems, published by Low and Co., in 1859; Rhymes and
+Roundelayes, Routledge, 1858; Goldsmith’s Poetical Works; and Lockhart’s
+Spanish Ballads, published by Murray. The present specimen is from
+Bohn’s Illustrated edition of Longfellow’s Poems, in which the Miles
+Standish is chiefly illustrated by the designs of Mr. Absolon, and
+entirely engraved by <span class = "smallcaps">Mr. Thomas Bolton</span>,
+an artist of considerable repute, whose name appears in many of the
+books quoted in these pages, and among others, in the Poems and Songs of
+Robert Burns.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Bolton has just invented a process by which the powers of
+photography may be applied direct to the production of subjects from
+nature or art on wood, and from which the engraving can be made without
+the intervention of drawing. We annex his first specimen; others are
+about to appear in the illustrated edition of Miss Winkworth’s Lyra
+Germanica.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page577a" id = "page577a">
+577*</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w400">
+<p><a name = "illus_x577" id = "illus_x577">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x577.png" width = "356" height = "486"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+FLAXMAN</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+THOMAS BOLTON</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This specimen of <span class = "smallcaps">Mr. Bolton’s</span> new
+process is taken from the well-known relief of Flaxman, “<i>Deliver us
+from evil</i>.” It is one of the first successful photographs on wood,
+and was printed and engraved by <span class = "smallcaps">Mr. Thomas
+Bolton</span>, from Mr. Leighton’s negative.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page578a" id = "page578a">
+578*</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w350">
+<p><a name = "illus_x578" id = "illus_x578">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x578.png" width = "322" height = "473"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+R. DOYLE</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+JOHN SWAIN
+<p class = "caption">
+MONTALVA’S FAIRY TALES.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Mr. Richard Doyle</span>’s manner of
+drawing is fairly exemplified in the present engraving, executed by him
+for Montalva’s Fairy Tales of all Nations, published by Chapman &amp;
+Hall in 1859. Mr. Doyle has illustrated a considerable number of books
+of a popular character, among which may be named: The Scouring of the
+White Horse; The Newcomes; The Continental Tour of Brown, Jones, and
+Robinson, of which we give an example on the next page: Manners and
+Customs of the English; and Pips’ Diary.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page579a" id = "page579a">
+579*</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w400">
+<p><a name = "illus_x579" id = "illus_x579">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x579.png" width = "393" height = "446"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+RICHARD DOYLE</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+JOHN SWAIN
+<p class = "caption">
+BROWN, JONES, AND ROBINSON IN VENICE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mr. Doyle’s “Foreign Tour of Brown, Jones, and Robinson, what they
+saw and did in Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy,” published in
+1855, has acquired great popularity among the lovers of comic
+literature, and by the kindness of the publishers, Messrs. Bradbury and
+Evans, we are enabled to give a specimen.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page580a" id = "page580a">
+580*</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w400">
+<p><a name = "illus_x580" id = "illus_x580">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x580.png" width = "378" height = "466"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+JOHN LEECH</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+ORRIN SMITH
+<p class = "caption">
+FROM UNCLE TOM’S CABIN.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Mr. John Leech</span> is so well known to
+every reader of “Punch,” that we need hardly do more here than merely
+mention his name as one of the best and most extensive of our graphic
+humorists.</p>
+
+<p>Among the many books to which he has contributed are: The Comic
+History of England; Comic History of Rome; Comic Aspects of English
+Social Life; Tour in Ireland; Soapy Sponge’s Sporting Tour; Young
+Troublesome; Mr. Jorrocks’ Hunt; Punch’s Almanack; and several editions
+of Uncle Tom’s Cabin, from one of which (our own) the above specimen is
+taken, drawn, as we have reason to believe, in the course of two or
+three hours.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page581a" id = "page581a">
+581*</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w400">
+<p><a name = "illus_x581" id = "illus_x581">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x581.png" width = "378" height = "435"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+JOHN LEECH</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+JOHN SWAIN
+<p class = "caption">
+PEASANTRY ON THEIR WAY TO AN IRISH FAIR.<br>
+<span class = "subhead">TOUR IN IRELAND.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another specimen of Mr. Leech’s comic humour, taken from his Tour in
+Ireland, published at the Punch Office.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page582a" id = "page582a">
+582*</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w550">
+<p><a name = "illus_x582" id = "illus_x582">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x582.png" width = "529" height = "528"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+JOHN LEIGHTON</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+HENRY LEIGHTON
+<p class = "caption">
+HASTEN AT LEISURE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>We here present a specimen of that curious work, “Moral Emblems of
+all Ages and Nations,” published by Messrs. Longman &amp; Co. The whole
+book has been drawn after the originals and superintended throughout by
+<span class = "smallcaps">Mr. John Leighton</span>, who is well known
+under his pseudonyme of “Luke Limner.” The engraving is by <span class =
+"smallcaps">Henry Leighton</span>.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page583a" id = "page583a">
+583*</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w350">
+<p><a name = "illus_x583" id = "illus_x583">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x583a.png" width = "323" height = "323"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+EDWARD DUNCAN</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+HORACE HARRAL
+<p class = "caption">
+THE BLOWING UP OF CORINTH</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Edward Duncan</span>, a member of the Old
+Water Colour Society, often draws on wood, especially Landscapes and
+Naval subjects. He has contributed to the Book of Favourite Modern
+Ballads, Favourite <ins class = "correction" title = "text reads ‘Englis’">English</ins> Poems, Rhymes and Roundelayes, Poetry and
+Pictures from Thomas Moore, the Soldier’s Dream, and Lays of the Holy
+Land.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture w350">
+<p><img src = "images/illus_x583b.png" width = "327" height = "267"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+E. DUNCAN</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+H. HARRAL</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>These two examples of his style are engraved by <span class =
+"smallcaps">Horace Harral</span> for Bohn’s Illustrated edition of
+Southey’s Life of Nelson.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page584a" id = "page584a">
+584*</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w400">
+<p><a name = "illus_x584" id = "illus_x584">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x584.png" width = "370" height = "618"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+O. JEWITT</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+&nbsp;</p>
+<p class = "caption">
+NORTH PORCH OF STA. MARIA MAGGIORE, BERGAMO.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The wood-engravings in the present and following pages are by <span
+class = "smallcaps">Mr. Orlando Jewitt</span>, who devotes himself
+almost exclusively to Gothic Architecture and Ornament, in which he is
+pre-eminent. He is one of the very few who continue to combine designing
+and drawing
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page585a" id = "page585a">
+585*</a></span>
+with engraving. The first specimen here presented is from Street’s Brick
+and Marble Architecture of Italy in the Middle Ages, 8vo., published by
+Mr. Murray in 1855.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture w450">
+<p><a name = "illus_x585" id = "illus_x585">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x585.png" width = "413" height = "591"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside full">
+O. JEWITT</p>
+<p class = "caption">
+SHRINE IN BAYEUX CATHEDRAL.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Our second specimen, and two of those on the next page, are from Mr.
+Pugin’s splendid work, the “Glossary of Ecclesiastical Ornament,”
+published by Henry G.&nbsp;Bohn in 1846.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page586a" id = "page586a">
+586*</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w400">
+<p><a name = "illus_x586" id = "illus_x586">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x586a.png" width = "364" height = "368"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+HEARSE OF MARGARET, COUNTESS OF WARWICK.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<div class = "picblock w200">
+<p><img src = "images/illus_x586b.png" width = "183" height = "322"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption"><span class = "subhead">
+CAPITAL OF THE PRESBYTERY, LINCOLN CATHEDRAL.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picblock">
+<p><img src = "images/illus_x586c.png" width = "153" height = "367"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+SPECIMENS OF ENGRAVING BY ORLANDO JEWITT.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page587a" id = "page587a">
+587*</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w400">
+<p><a name = "illus_x587" id = "illus_x587">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x587.png" width = "388" height = "425"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside full">
+<span class = "smallroman">O. JEWITT</span>, del. et sc.</p>
+<p class = "caption">
+BRICK TRACERY, ST. STEPHEN’S CHURCH, TANGERMUNDE, PRUSSIA.<br>
+<span class = "subhead"><i>Unpublished.</i></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among the many works to which Mr. Jewitt has contributed, besides
+those already mentioned, are Bloxam’s first principles of Gothic
+Architecture; the Glossary of Architecture published by Mr. Parker of
+Oxford; Rickman’s Gothic Architecture, fifth edition; and the Baptismal
+Fonts, published by Mr. Van Voorst. He is now engaged in drawing and
+engraving Murray’s Handbook of English Cathedrals.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page588a" id = "page588a">
+588*</a></span>
+
+<div class = "nutbrown">
+
+<p class = "nutbrown"><a name = "illus_x588" id =
+"illus_x588">&nbsp;</a></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+T. CRESWICK</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+J. WILLIAMS</p>
+
+<p class = "paragraph">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Mr. Creswick</span>, <ins class = "correction"
+title = ", missing">R.A.,</ins> the distinguished painter, has
+occasionally drawn on wood, but more as a favour than part of his
+<i>métier</i>. The present specimen, one of a series contributed to the
+Book of British Ballads, is so highly praised by Mr. Ruskin, and at the
+same time so elaborately criticised, that we think it in place to quote
+his words. After comparing him advantageously with Poussin, he proceeds
+to say, “Who with one thought or memory of nature in his heart could
+look at the two landscapes, and receive Poussin’s with ordinary
+patience? Take Creswick in black and white, where he is unembarrassed by
+his fondness for pea-green, the illustrations, for instance, to the
+<i>Nut-Brown Maid</i>, in the Book of English Ballads. Look at the
+intricacy and fulness of the dark oak foliage, where it bends over the
+brook; see how you can go through it, and into it, and come out behind
+it, to the quiet bit of sky. Observe the grey aërial transparency of the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page589a" id = "page589a">
+589*</a></span>
+stunted copse on the left, and the entangling of the boughs where the
+light near foliage detaches itself. Above all, note the forms of the
+masses of light. Not things like scales or shells, sharp at the edge,
+and flat in the middle, but irregular and rounded, stealing in and out
+accidentally from the shadow, and presenting in general outline, as the
+masses of all trees do, a&nbsp;resemblance to the specific forms of the
+leaves of which they are composed. Turn over the page, and look into the
+weaving of the foliage and sprays against the dark-night-sky, how near
+they are, yet how untraceable; see how the moonlight creeps up
+underneath them, trembling and shivering on the silver boughs above;
+note also, the descending bit of ivy, on the left, of which only a few
+leaves are made out, and the rest is confusion, or tells only in the
+moonlight like faint flakes of snow.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "mynote">
+<p><a href = "#page_image">Page image</a> showing original layout.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>“But nature observes another principle in her foliage, more important
+even than its intricacy. She always secures an exceeding harmony and
+repose. She is so intricate that her minuteness of parts becomes to the
+eye, at a little, one united veil or cloud of leaves, to destroy the
+evenness of which is perhaps a greater fault than to destroy its
+transparency. Look at Creswick’s oak again, in its dark parts. Intricate
+as it is, all is blended into a cloud-like harmony of shade, which
+becomes fainter and fainter as it retires, with the most delicate
+flatness and unity of tone. And it is by this kind of vaporescence, so
+to speak, by this flat misty unison of parts, that nature and her
+faithful followers are enabled to keep the eye in perfect repose in the
+midst of profusion, and to display beauty of form wherever they choose,
+to the greatest possible advantage, by throwing it across some quiet
+visionary passage of dimness and rest.”</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Creswick has recently contributed several vignettes to Tennyson’s
+Poems. The following, engraved by <span class = "smallcaps">Mason
+Jackson</span>, is from Bohn’s Illustrated edition of Walton’s Angler,
+to which Mr. Creswick has contributed several others.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture w300">
+<p><a name = "illus_x589" id = "illus_x589">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x589.png" width = "261" height = "237"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+CRESWICK</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+MASON JACKSON</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page590a" id = "page590a">
+590*</a></span>
+<div class = "picture w450">
+<p><a name = "illus_x590a" id = "illus_x590a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x590a.png" width = "422" height = "270"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+JOHN MARTIN</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+W. J. LINTON</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Mr. W. J. Linton</span> has for many years
+had extensive practice both as a draughtsman and an engraver on wood,
+and still continues to combine both professions. The specimens on the
+present page shew his early work; the first is after a drawing by John
+Martin from the series of Bible Prints before quoted; the second,
+a&nbsp;vignette after <span class = "smallcaps">McIan</span>, from the
+Book of British Ballads.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture w450">
+<p><a name = "illus_x590b" id = "illus_x590b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x590b.png" width = "445" height = "343"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+R. R. MC IAN</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+W. J. LINTON</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page591a" id = "page591a">
+591*</a></span>
+<p>His later work is beautifully exemplified on the opposite page by the
+subject called Death’s Door, after a drawing by that remarkable man
+<span class = "smallcaps">William Blake</span>, of whom some account
+will be found at p.&nbsp;632. It was published in the Art Union Volume
+of 1859, and is by the kindness of the Council of that Society inserted
+here.</p>
+
+<p>To complete this page we annex two other of Mr. Linton’s late works.
+They are taken from Milton’s L’Allegro, published by Low &amp; Co.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture w400">
+<p><a name = "illus_x591a" id = "illus_x591a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x591a.png" width = "359" height = "220"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+STONHOUSE</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+W. J. LINTON
+<p class = "caption">
+“SHALLOW BROOKS AND RIVERS WIDE.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many of the illustrated books of the last twenty years exhibit the
+talents of Mr. Linton. We may name, besides the Book of Ballads, The
+Pictorial Tour of the Thames, The Merrie Days of England, 1859, Burns’
+Poems and Songs, Favourite English Poems, 1859, Shakspere’s Birthplace,
+and the Illustrated edition of Milton’s Poetical Works formerly
+published by Kent &amp; Co. and now in Bohn’s Illustrated Library.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture w400">
+<p><a name = "illus_x591b" id = "illus_x591b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x591b.png" width = "363" height = "212"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+J. L. HORSLEY, A.R.A.</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+W. J. LINTON
+<p class = "caption">
+“SUCH AS THE MELTING SOUL MAY PIERCE.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page592a" id = "page592a">
+592*</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w400">
+<p><a name = "illus_x592a" id = "illus_x592a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x592a.png" width = "354" height = "263"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside full">
+F. W. FAIRHOLT</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Mr. F. W. Fairholt</span> is distinguished
+for his knowledge of Costume and Mediæval art, which he has exemplified
+in a considerable number of shaded outlines, mostly drawn and engraved
+by himself. The wood-engraving at the head of this page is from the
+Archæological Album published in 1845, under the auspices of the British
+Archæological Association, to whose journal Mr. Fairholt has contributed
+largely. Ten of the subjects in the Book of British Ballads,
+illustrative of the Story of Sir Andrew Barton, are designed by him and
+give a favourable specimen of his drawing. They are cleverly engraved by
+T.&nbsp;Armstrong.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture w300">
+<p><a name = "illus_x592b" id = "illus_x592b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x592b.png" width = "260" height = "210"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside full">
+F. W. FAIRHOLT</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Vignette is from the illustrated edition of Robin Hood, edited by
+Mr. J.&nbsp;M. Gutch in 1847. Mr. Fairholt has also edited and
+illustrated a volume on the Costume of England; a&nbsp;History of
+Tobacco, published by Messrs. Chapman &amp; Hall; and the Translation of
+Labarte’s Arts of the Middle Ages, published by Mr. Murray.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page593a" id = "page593a">
+593*</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w300">
+<p><a name = "illus_x593" id = "illus_x593">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x593a.png" width = "283" height = "277"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+JOSEPH DINKEL</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+JAMES LEE
+</div>
+<p class = "caption">
+SHELL-LIMESTONE FROM THE MOUTH OF THE THAMES.<br>
+From Dr. Mantell’s Geological Work, Medals of Creation.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture w300">
+<p><img src = "images/illus_x593b.png" width = "293" height = "208"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+JOSEPH DINKEL</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+JAMES LEE
+</div>
+<p class = "caption">
+MOSASAURUS HOFMANNI.<br>
+From Dr. Mantell’s Petrifactions and their Teachings.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Mr. Joseph Dinkel</span> is a very accurate
+draughtsman of subjects of Natural History, especially of Fossil
+remains; but though he has most practice in this department, he also
+undertakes Architectural and Engineering drawings. The present specimens
+are skilfully engraved by <span class = "smallcaps">Mr. James
+Lee</span>. Nearly all the drawings of the great work of Professor
+Agassiz, ‘Poissons Fossiles,’ published at Neuchatel, from 1833 to 1843,
+were executed by Mr. Dinkel; and he drew almost exclusively for the late
+Dr. Mantell. He is now much employed by Professor Owen; Thomas Bell,
+Esq. President of the Linnæan Society; and the Royal, Geological, and
+Palæontological Societies.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page594a" id = "page594a">
+594*</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture w350">
+<p><a name = "illus_x594" id = "illus_x594">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x594.png" width = "342" height = "413"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+E. H. WEHNERT</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+HORACE HARRAL
+<p class = "caption">
+FROM COLERIDGE’S ANCIENT MARINER.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Edward H. Wehnert</span>, a member of the
+New Society of Painters in Water Colours, frequently draws upon wood. He
+illustrated Coleridge’s Ancient Mariner, Grimm’s Tales, Eve of St.
+Agnes, and contributed designs to Bohn’s edition of Longfellow’s Poems
+and to many other popular works of poetry and fiction. His style is
+essentially German. He has recently contributed thirty-four subjects to
+the Favourite English Poems and completed a number of drawings for
+Andersen’s Tales, the electrotypes of which are produced by a new
+process by Mr. W.&nbsp;J. Linton.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page595a" id = "page595a">
+595*</a></span>
+
+<p class = "figfloat">
+<a name = "illus_x595" id = "illus_x595">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x595a.png" width = "269" height = "341"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">George Cruikshank</span> is especially
+celebrated for the felicitous humour which he throws into every subject
+that comes under his pencil or burin. His works are legion and all
+highly prized, but his designs on wood are much less numerous than his
+etchings on copper. Mr. Ruskin, in his ‘Modern Painters,’ has lately
+expatiated as enthusiastically on the artistic merits of Mr. Cruikshank
+as he has done on those of Mr. Creswick, quoted by us in a previous
+page. He concludes by saying: “Taken all in all, the works of Cruikshank
+have the most sterling value of any belonging to this class produced in
+England.” The present examples, taken from his ‘Three Courses and a
+Dessert,’ published in Bohn’s Illustrated Library, will afford some idea
+of his peculiar talent. On the following page we give examples of his
+early work, being illustrations contributed to the ‘Universal Songster,’
+a&nbsp;once popular work to which other artists including his late
+brother Robert
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page596a" id = "page596a">
+596*</a></span>
+Cruikshank also contributed. The engraver, rather a coarse hand, was
+J.&nbsp;R. Marshall.</p>
+
+<p class = "allclear">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<div class = "picblock">
+<p><img src = "images/illus_x595b.png" width = "218" height = "225"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picblock">
+<p><img src = "images/illus_x595c.png" width = "209" height = "138"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picture w400">
+<p><a name = "illus_x596" id = "illus_x596">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x596a.png" width = "377" height = "286"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside full">
+GEORGE CRUIKSHANK</p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+THE OLD COMMODORE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picture w400">
+<p><img src = "images/illus_x596b.png" width = "375" height = "290"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside full">
+GEORGE CRUIKSHANK</p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+GILES SCROGGINS AND MOLLY BROWN.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page597a" id = "page597a">
+597*</a></span>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<div class = "picblock w150">
+<p><a name = "illus_x597a" id = "illus_x597a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x597a.png" width = "135" height = "161"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside full">
+ALFRED CROWQUILL.</p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+THE MAN WHO WISHED TO BE TALLER.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picblock w200">
+<p><a name = "illus_x597b" id = "illus_x597b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x597b.png" width = "156" height = "154"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside full">
+ALFRED CROWQUILL.</p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+THE WOMAN WHO WISHED TO BE YOUNGER.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "figfloat">
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_x597c" id = "illus_x597c">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x597c.png" width = "237" height = "162"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside full">
+ALFRED CROWQUILL.</p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+DRINKING IS A VICE THAT LOWERS A MAN.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "figfloat">
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_x597d" id = "illus_x597d">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_x597d.png" width = "171" height = "306"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+KENNY MEADOWS.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Our last page of illustrations is devoted to humour. Three of the
+subjects are from the Pictorial Grammar, by <span class =
+"smallcaps">Alfred Crowquill</span> (<i>i.e.</i> A.&nbsp;Forester), the
+fourth, a&nbsp;design by <span class = "smallcaps">Kenny Meadows</span>
+(from the Book of British Ballads), one of his early productions, but
+unsurpassed by anything he has since done.</p>
+
+<p>These artists have in former years illustrated a number of books.
+Among Crowquill’s may be named eight subjects to the Book of British
+Ballads. His latest work is ‘The Adventures of Gooroo Simple and his
+Five Disciples.’</p>
+
+<p>Among those by Kenny Meadows, we remember as his best an illustrated
+edition of Shakespeare, in three vols. royal 8vo. originally published
+by Mr. Tyas. London, 1843.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page598a" id = "page598a">
+598*</a></span>
+
+<p>The Publisher here concludes his additional chapter; not for want of
+material, for he has more than enough to fill another volume, but for
+want of space. In endeavouring to give some indication of xylographic
+art-progress in England, he has made no attempt at completeness, and has
+said nothing whatever of foreign art, which has progressed quite as
+rapidly as our own. So much remains to be done in both domains, and so
+many fine examples are either lying before him, or placed at his
+disposal, which might advantageously have been adduced, that he
+contemplates following the present volume, at no very distant period,
+with one that shall supply what has now been necessarily omitted. Among
+the many skilful Artists whose names have not yet been mentioned are the
+following, arranged in three distinct alphabets. The first alphabet
+comprises those who are professionally painters in oil, but occasionally
+draw on wood; the second, those who make drawing on wood their leading
+profession, although many of them also paint in oil; the third, those
+who almost confine themselves to engraving the designs of others,
+although some of them are themselves good draughtsmen. One or more of
+the books to which they have contributed, are indicated.</p>
+
+<h5 class = "ital">
+Painters who occasionally Draw on Wood.</h5>
+
+<p><ins class = "correction" title = ", missing"><span class =
+"smallcaps">Andrews</span>,</ins> G. H. <i>Figure subjects and
+Landscapes</i>; Ministering Children.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Ansdell</span>, Richard. <i>Animals</i>; Rhymes and
+Roundelayes.&mdash;<ins class = "correction" title = ", missing"><span
+class = "smallcaps">Armitage</span>,</ins> Edward. <i>Figure
+subjects</i>; Winkworth’s Lyra Germanica.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Cope</span>, Charles West, <span class =
+"smallroman">R.A.</span> <i>Figure subjects</i>; Book of Favourite
+Modern Ballads, Adams’ Allegories, Excelsior Ballads, Burns’ Poems,
+Poetry of Thomas Moore.&mdash;<span class = "smallcaps">Corbould</span>,
+E.&nbsp;H. <i>Figure subjects and Architecture</i>; Merrie Days of
+England, Book of Favourite Modern Ballads, Burns’ Poems, Poetry of
+Thomas Moore, Barry Cornwall’s Poems.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Cropsey</span>, Jasper. <i>Landscapes</i>; Poetry of Thomas
+Moore, Poe’s Poems.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Dodgson</span>,&nbsp;G. <i>Landscape</i>; Lays of the Holy
+Land.&mdash;<span class = "smallcaps">Frith</span>, William Powell,
+<span class = "smallroman">R.A.</span> <i>Figure subjects</i>; Book of
+British Ballads.&mdash;<span class = "smallcaps">Goodall</span>, Edward.
+<i>Landscapes</i>; Rhymes and Roundelayes.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Grant</span>, W.&nbsp;J. <i>Figure subjects</i>; Favourite
+Modern Ballads, Bloomfield’s Farmer’s Boy.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Hicks</span>, G.&nbsp;E. <i>Figure subjects</i>; Favourite
+Modern Ballads.&mdash;<span class = "smallcaps">Horsley</span>, John
+Calcott, <span class = "smallroman">A.R.A.</span> <i>Figure
+subjects</i>; Poetry of Thomas Moore, Burns’ Poems, Tennyson’s Poems,
+Favourite English Poems, Favourite Modern Ballads.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Hunt</span>, W.&nbsp;Holman. <i>Figure subjects</i>;
+Tennyson’s Poems, Mrs. Gatty’s Parables, Once a Week.&mdash;<span class
+= "smallcaps">Le Jeune</span>,&nbsp;H. <i>Figure subjects</i>; Poetry of
+Thomas Moore, Lays of the Holy Land, Ministering Children.&mdash;<span
+class = "smallcaps">Millais</span>, John Everett, <span class =
+"smallroman">A.R.A.</span> <i>Figure subjects</i>; Tennyson’s Poems,
+Lays of the Holy Land, Once a Week. Mr. Millais is now engaged in
+illustrating a volume of Parables to be engraved by the
+Dalziels.&mdash;<span class = "smallcaps">Mulready</span>,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page599a" id = "page599a">
+599*</a></span>
+William, <span class = "smallroman">R.A.</span> <i>Figure subjects</i>;
+Tennyson’s Poems, Vicar of Wakefield, (engraved by Mr. John
+Thompson).&mdash;<span class = "smallcaps">Nash</span>, Joseph.
+<i>Figures and Architecture</i>; Merrie Days of England.&mdash;<span
+class = "smallcaps">Pickersgill</span>, F.&nbsp;Richard, <span class =
+"smallroman">R.A.</span> <i>Figure subjects</i>; Poetry of Thomas Moore,
+Book of British Ballads, Lays of the Holy Land.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Redgrave</span>, Richard, <span class =
+"smallroman">R.A.</span> <i>Figure subjects</i>; Favourite English
+Poems, Book of British Ballads.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Roberts</span>, David, <span class =
+"smallroman">R.A.</span> <i>Architectural Landscapes</i>; Lockhart’s
+Spanish Ballads.&mdash;<span class = "smallcaps">Selous</span>,
+H.&nbsp;C. <i>Figure subjects</i>; Poems and Pictures, Book of British
+Ballads.&mdash;<span class = "smallcaps">Solomon</span>,&nbsp;A.
+<i>Figure subjects</i>; Book of Favourite Modern Ballads.&mdash;<span
+class = "smallcaps">Warren, H.</span> <i>Figure subjects and
+Architecture</i>; Book of British Ballads, Lockhart’s Spanish Ballads,
+Poetry of Thomas Moore, Lays of the Holy Land.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Webster</span>, Thomas, <span class =
+"smallroman">R.A.</span> <i>Infantine subjects</i>; Favourite English
+Poems, Book of British Ballads.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Wyburd</span>,&nbsp;F. <i>Figure subjects</i>; Poetry and
+Pictures of Thomas Moore.</p>
+
+<h5 class = "ital">
+Professional Draughtsmen on Wood.</h5>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Archer</span>, J. W. <i>Antiquarian and
+Architectural</i>; Vestiges of Old London.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Archer</span>,&nbsp;J. <span class =
+"smallroman">R.S.A.</span> <i>Figure subjects</i>; Burns’
+Poems.&mdash;<span class = "smallcaps">Bennett</span>, Charles.
+<i>Humorous subjects</i>; Poets’ Wit and Humour, Quarles’ Emblems, 1860,
+Proverbs in Pictures.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Brandling</span>,&nbsp;H. <i>Figure subjects and
+Architecture</i>; Merchant of Venice.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Clayton</span>, J.&nbsp;R. <i>Figure subjects</i>; Barry
+Cornwall’s Poems, Lays of the Holy <ins class = "correction" title = ". missing">Land.</ins>&mdash;<span class = "smallcaps">Coleman</span>, Wm.
+<i>Landscape and Figure subjects</i>; Mary Howitt’s Tales.&mdash;<span
+class = "smallcaps">Darley</span>, Felix. <i>Figure subjects</i>; Poe’s
+Poetical Works, Poets of the <ins class = "correction" title = ". missing">West.</ins>&mdash;<span class = "smallcaps">Dickes</span>,
+William. <i>Figures and Landscape</i>; most of the subjects in Masterman
+Ready. Mr. Dickes’ attention is now turned to
+Colour-printing.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Edmonston</span>,&nbsp;S. <i>Figure subjects</i>; Burns’
+Poems.&mdash;<span class = "smallcaps">Franklin</span>, John. <i>Figure
+subjects</i>; Book of British Ballads, Mrs. S.&nbsp;C. Hall’s Midsummer
+Eve, Seven Champions of Christendom, Poets of the West.&mdash;<span
+class = "smallcaps">Goodall</span>, Walter. <i>Figure subjects</i>;
+Rhymes and Roundelayes, Ministering Children.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Hulme</span>, F.&nbsp;W. <i>Landscapes</i>; Rhymes and
+Roundelayes.&mdash;<span class = "smallcaps">Humphreys</span>, Noel.
+<i>Ornamental Vignettes</i>; Rhymes and Roundelayes.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Jones</span>, Owen. <i>Moresque Ornaments and
+Architecture</i>; Lockhart’s Spanish Ballads.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Keene</span>, Charles. <i>Figure subjects</i>; Punch, Once a
+Week, Voyage of the Constance.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Lawless</span>, M.&nbsp;J. <i>Figure subjects</i>; Once a
+Week, Punch.&mdash;<span class = "smallcaps">Macquoid</span>, Thomas.
+<i>Ornamental Letters and Borders</i>; Rhymes and Roundelayes, Burns’
+Poems, Favourite English Poems, &amp;c.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Morgan</span>, Matthew&nbsp;S. <i>Figures and Landscape</i>;
+Miles Standish.&mdash;<span class = "smallcaps">Phiz</span> (Hablot
+K.&nbsp;Browne). <i>Humour</i>; Bleak House, Martin Chuzzlewit, The
+Pickwick Series, Wits and Beaux of Society, Lever’s St. Patrick’s Eve,
+&amp;c.&nbsp;He has executed more etchings on steel than drawings on
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page600a" id = "page600a">
+600*</a></span>
+wood.&mdash;<span class = "smallcaps">Prout</span>, J.&nbsp;S.
+<i>Landscapes and Architecture</i>; Rhymes and Roundelayes.&mdash;<span
+class = "smallcaps">Read</span>, Samuel. <i>Landscapes and
+Architecture</i>; Rhymes and Roundelayes, contributes to the London
+News.&mdash;<span class = "smallcaps">Rogers</span>, Harry.
+<i>Ornamental Letters and Vignettes</i>; Quarles’ Emblems, Poe’s
+Poetical Works.&mdash;<span class = "smallcaps">Scott</span>, T.&nbsp;D.
+<i>Figure subjects and Landscapes</i>; able reducer and copyist of
+Pictures on Wood; Book of British Ballads.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Shaw</span>, Henry. <i>Architectural Ornaments, Letters,
+Furniture, &amp;c.</i>; has designed extensively on wood, chiefly for
+his own works.&mdash;<span class = "smallcaps">Stephenson</span>, James.
+<i>Figure subjects</i>; Clever Boys, Wide Wide World (Bohn’s Edition),
+&amp;c.&nbsp;A skilful engraver on steel.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Stocks</span>, Lumb, <span class =
+"smallroman">A.R.A.</span> <i>Figure subjects</i>; Ministering Children,
+Ministry of Life, English Yeomen, &amp;c.&nbsp;Mr. Stocks has
+considerable reputation as an engraver on steel.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Sulman</span>, T.&nbsp;Jun. <i>Ornamental Borders and
+Vignettes</i>; Lalla Rookh.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Topham</span>, F.&nbsp;W. <i>Irish Character</i>; Poetry of
+Thomas Moore, Mrs. S.&nbsp;C. Hall’s Midsummer Eve, Burns’
+Poems.&mdash;<span class = "smallcaps">Watson</span>, J.&nbsp;D.
+<i>Figure subjects</i>; Pilgrim’s Progress, 110 designs, Eliza Cook’s
+Poems.&mdash;<span class = "smallcaps">Zwecker</span>, John&nbsp;B.
+<i>Animals</i>; mostly engraved by the Dalziels; Wood’s Natural History,
+&amp;c.</p>
+
+<h5 class = "ital">
+Engravers on Wood not before mentioned.</h5>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Armstrong</span>, Wm. Don Quixote, 1841,
+Illustrated News, Clever Boys 1860.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Gorway</span>, C.&nbsp;has successfully engraved many of
+John Gilbert’s designs.&mdash;<span class = "smallcaps">Hammond</span>,
+J.&nbsp;Poems and Songs of Robert Burns.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Jackson</span>, Mason, son of the Projector of the present
+volume, in which some of the subjects are engraved by him; also Walton’s
+Angler (Bohn’s Edition), Ministering Children.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Loudon</span>, J.&nbsp;engraves for the Illustrated
+Times.&mdash;<span class = "smallcaps">Smyth</span>, F.&nbsp;G.
+<i>Figure subjects</i>; Illustrated News.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Swain</span>, Joseph. <i>Figure subjects</i>; Lyra
+Germanica.&mdash;<span class = "smallcaps">Wimperis</span>,
+E.&nbsp;Merrie Days of England.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Woods</span>, H.&nbsp;N. <i>Ornamental Borders and
+Vignettes</i>; Moore’s Lalla Rookh.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class = "endnote">
+<p><a name = "page_image" id = "page_image" href = "#page564a">Page
+564*</a>, as printed:</p>
+
+<p class ="illustration">
+<img src = "images/page564a.png" width = "458" height = "686"
+alt = "complete page image"></p>
+
+<p><a href = "#page588a">Page 588*</a>, as printed:</p>
+
+<p class ="illustration">
+<img src = "images/page588a.png" width = "448" height = "681"
+alt = "complete page image"></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class = "correction">
+<h5>Errors in Chapter VIII</h5>
+
+<p><span class = "citation">
+Mr. Pearson has lately been engaged in engraving Icthyological
+subjects</span><br>
+<i>spelling unchanged</i></p>
+
+<p><span class = "citation">
+Favourite Modern Ballads, Favourite English Poems</span><br>
+Englis</p>
+
+<p><span class = "citation">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Mr. Creswick</span>, R.A., the distinguished
+painter</span><br>
+R.A. the</p>
+
+<p><span class = "citation">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Andrews</span>, G. H. <i>Figure subjects and
+Landscapes</i>; Ministering Children.&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Ansdell</span>, Richard. <i>Animals</i>; Rhymes and
+Roundelayes.&mdash; <span class = "smallcaps">Armitage</span>,
+Edward.</span><br>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Andrews</span> G. H. ... <span class =
+"smallcaps">Armitage</span> Edward.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "citation">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Archer</span>, J. W. ... Barry Cornwall’s
+Poems, Lays of the Holy Land.&mdash; <span class =
+"smallcaps">Coleman</span>, Wm. ... Poets of the West.&mdash;<span class
+= "smallcaps">Dickes</span>,</span><br>
+Lays of the Holy Land&mdash; ... West&mdash;<span class =
+"smallcaps">Dickes</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "mynote">
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html">Introduction</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html#illus">List of Illustrations</a> (separate
+file)</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html">Chapter I</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_II">Chapter II</a> (separate
+file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_III">Chapter III</a> (separate
+file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html">Chapter IV</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#chap_V">Chapter V</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html">Chapter VI</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html">Chapter VII</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "#chap_VIII">Chapter VIII</a><br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving9.html">Chapter IX</a> (separate file)</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html#index">Index</a> (separate file)</p>
+</div>
+
+</body>
+</html>
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+<body>
+<div class = "mynote">
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html">Introduction</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html#illus">List of Illustrations</a> (separate
+file)</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html">Chapter I</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_II">Chapter II</a> (separate
+file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_III">Chapter III</a> (separate
+file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html">Chapter IV</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#chap_V">Chapter V</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html">Chapter VI</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html">Chapter VII</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html">Chapter VIII</a> (separate file)<br>
+Chapter IX</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html#index">Index</a> (separate file)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "titlepage">
+
+<h2><span class = "smallest">ON</span><br>
+WOOD ENGRAVING.</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page561" id = "page561">
+561</a></span>
+<h3><a name = "chap_IX" id = "chap_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a><br>
+<span class = "subhead">THE PRACTICE OF WOOD ENGRAVING.</span></h3>
+
+<p class = "synopsis">
+Erroneous opinions about cross-hatching&mdash;the choice and preparation
+of the wood&mdash;mode of inserting a plug&mdash;magnifying glasses and
+engraver’s lamp&mdash;different kinds of tools&mdash;cutting
+tints&mdash;engraving in outline&mdash;cuts representing colour and
+texture&mdash;maps engraved on wood&mdash;the advantages of lowering a
+block previous to engraving the subject&mdash;chiaro-scuro engraving on
+wood, and printing in colours from wood-blocks&mdash;metallic relief
+engraving, by blake, bewick, branston, and lizars&mdash;mr.
+c.&nbsp;hancock’s patent&mdash;mr. woone’s patent&mdash;casts from
+wood-cuts&mdash;printing wood-cuts&mdash;conclusion.</p>
+
+
+<div class = "maintext">
+
+<p class = "first"><span class = "firstword"><span class = "dropcap">
+<a name = "illus_561" id = "illus_561"><img src = "images/illus_561.png"
+width = "154" height = "185"
+alt = "P"></a></span>erhaps</span> no art exercised in this country is
+less known to the public than that of wood engraving; and hence it
+arises that most persons who have incidentally or even expressly written
+on the subject have committed so many mistakes respecting the practice.
+It is from a want of practical knowledge that we have had so many absurd
+speculations respecting the manner in which the old wood engravers
+executed their cross-hatchings, and so many <i>notions</i> about
+vegetable putties and metallic relief engraving. Even in a Memoir of
+Bewick, printed in 1836, we find the following passage, which certainly
+would not have appeared had the writer paid any attention to the
+numerous wood-cuts, containing cross-hatchings of the most delicate
+kind, published in England between 1820 and 1834:&mdash;“The principal
+characteristic of the ancient masters is the crossing of the black
+lines, to produce or deepen the shade, commonly called
+<i>cross-hatching</i>. Whether this was done by employing different
+blocks, one after another, as in calico-printing and paper-staining,
+<i>it may be difficult to say</i>; but to produce them on the same block
+is so difficult and <i>unnatural</i>, that though Nesbit, one of
+Bewick’s early pupils, attempted it on a few occasions, and the splendid
+print of Dentatus by Harvey shows that it is not impossible even on a
+large scale, yet the waste
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page562" id = "page562">
+562</a></span>
+of time and labour is scarcely worth the effect produced.”<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagIX1" id = "tagIX1" href = "#noteIX1">IX.1</a> Now, the
+difficulty of saying whether the old cross-hatchings were executed on a
+single block, or produced by impressions from two or more, proceeds
+entirely from the writer not being acquainted with the subject; had he
+known that hundreds of old blocks containing cross-hatchings are still
+in existence, and had he been in the habit of seeing similar
+cross-hatchings executed almost daily by very indifferent wood
+engravers, the difficulty which he felt would have vanished. “Unnatural”
+is certainly an improper term for a <i>philosopher</i> to apply to a
+process of art, merely because he does not understand it: with equal
+reason he might have called every other process, both of copper-plate
+and wood engraving, “unnatural;” nay, in this sense there is no process
+in arts or manufactures to which the term “unnatural” might not in the
+same manner be applied.</p>
+
+<p>In giving some account of the practice of wood engraving, it seems
+most proper to begin with the ground-work&mdash;the wood. As it is
+generally understood that box is best adapted for the purposes of
+engraving, and that it is generally used for cuts intended for the
+illustration of books, there seems no occasion to enter into a detail of
+all the kinds of wood that might be used for the more ordinary purposes
+of large coarse cuts for posting-bills, and others of a similar
+character. Mr. Savage, in his Hints on Decorative Printing, has copied
+the principal part of what Papillon has said on the subject of wood,
+intending that it should be received as information from a practical
+wood engraver; but he has omitted to notice that much of what Papillon
+says about the choice of wood, can be of little service in guiding the
+modern English wood engraver, who executes his subject on the
+cross-section of the wood, while Papillon and his contemporaries were
+accustomed to engrave upon the side, or the <i>long-way</i> of the wood.
+“There is no difficulty,” says Papillon, as translated by Mr. Savage,
+“in distinguishing that which is good, as we have only need of taking a
+splinter of the box we wish to try, and break it between the fingers; if
+it break short, without bending, it will not be of any value; whereas,
+if there be great difficulty in breaking it, it is well adapted to our
+purpose.”</p>
+
+<p>Now, it is quite evident from this direction&mdash;independent of the
+fact being otherwise known&mdash;that the thin splinter by which the
+quality of the wood was to be tested was to be cut the long way of the
+wood: a&nbsp;similar cutting taken from the cross-section would break
+short, however excellent the wood might be for the purpose of engraving.
+Papillon’s direction is therefore calculated to mislead, unless
+accompanied with an explanation of the manner in which the splinter is
+to be taken; and it
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page563" id = "page563">
+563</a></span>
+is also utterly useless as a test of box that is intended to be engraved
+on the cross-section, or end-way of the wood.</p>
+
+<p>For the purposes of engraving no other kind of wood hitherto tried is
+equal to box. For fine and small cuts the smallest logs are to be
+preferred, as the smallest wood is almost invariably the best. American
+and Turkey box is the largest; but all large wood of this kind is
+generally of inferior quality, and most liable to split; it is also
+frequently of a red colour, which is a certain characteristic of its
+softness, and consequent unfitness for delicate engraving. From my own
+experience, English box is superior to all others; for though small, it
+is generally so clear and firm in the grain that it never crumbles under
+the graver; it resists evenly to the edge of the tool, and gives not a
+particle beyond what is actually cut out. The large red wood, on the
+contrary, besides being soft, is liable to crumble and to cut short;
+that is, small particles will sometimes <i>break</i> away from the sides
+of the line cut by the graver, and thus cause imperfections in the work.
+Box of large and comparatively quick growth, is also extremely liable to
+shrink unevenly between the rings, so that after the surface has been
+planed perfectly level, and engraved, it is frequently difficult to
+print the cut in a proper manner, in consequence of the inequality of
+the surface.</p>
+
+<p>As even the largest logs of box are of comparatively small diameter,
+it is extremely difficult to obtain a perfect block of a single piece
+equal to the size of an octavo page. In order to obtain pieces as large
+as possible, some dealers are accustomed to saw the log in a slanting
+direction&mdash;in the manner of an oblique section of a
+cylinder&mdash;so that the surface of a piece cut off shall resemble an
+oval rather than a circle. Blocks sawn in this manner ought never to be
+used; for, in consequence of the obliquity of the grain, there is no
+preventing small particles tearing out when cutting a line.</p>
+
+<p>Large red wood containing <i>white spots</i> or streaks is utterly
+unfit for the purposes of the engraver; for in cutting a line across,
+adjacent to these spots or streaks, sometimes the entire piece thus
+marked will be removed, and the cut consequently spoiled. A&nbsp;clear
+yellow colour, and as equal as possible over the whole surface, is
+generally the best criterion of box-wood. When a block is not of a clear
+yellow colour throughout, but only in the centre, gradually becoming
+lighter towards the edges, it ought not to be used for delicate work;
+the white, in addition to its not cutting so “sweetly,” being of a
+softer nature, absorbs more ink than the yellow, and also retains it
+more tenaciously, so that impressions from a block of this kind
+sometimes display a perceptible inequality of colour;&mdash;from the
+yellow parts allowing the ink to leave them freely, while the white
+parts partially retain it, the printed cut has the appearance of having
+received either too much ink in one place, or too
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page564" id = "page564">
+564</a></span>
+little in another. Besides this, the ink remaining on the white parts
+becomes so adhesive, that, should the sheet be rather too damp
+(as&nbsp;will frequently happen when much paper is wetted at one time),
+it will sometimes stick to the paper; a&nbsp;small spot of white will
+hence appear in the impression, while a minute piece of paper will
+remain adhering to the block, to be mixed up with the ink on the balls,
+and transferred as a black speck to another part of the cut in a
+subsequent impression. But this is not all: should the piece of paper
+remain unnoticed for some time it will make a small indention in the
+block, and occasion a white or grey speck in the impressions printed
+after its removal. Soft red and white box, more especially the latter,
+being more porous than clear yellow, blocks of those kinds of wood are
+most liable to be injured by the liquids used to clean them after
+printing. Should the printer wash them with either lees or spirits of
+turpentine, these fluids will enter the wood more freely than if it were
+yellow, and cause it to expand in proportion to the quantity used, and
+sometimes to such an extent as to distort the drawing. If a block of any
+kind of box, whether red, white, or yellow, be wetted or exposed to
+dampth, it will expand considerably;<a class = "tag" name = "tagIX2" id
+= "tagIX2" href = "#noteIX2">IX.2</a> but with care it will return to
+its former dimensions, should it have been sufficiently seasoned before
+being printed. When, however, the expansion has been caused by lees or
+spirits of turpentine, the block will never again contract to its
+original size.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIX3" id = "tagIX3" href =
+"#noteIX3">IX.3</a></p>
+
+<p>As publishers frequently provide the drawings which are to be
+engraved, perhaps a knowledge of the different qualities of box is as
+necessary to them as to wood engravers themselves. In reply to this it
+may be said, why not require the engraver who is to execute the cuts to
+supply proper wood himself? Where only one engraver is employed to
+execute all the cuts for a work, the choice of the wood may indeed be
+very properly left to himself. But where several are employed, and each
+required to send his own wood to the designer, very few are particular
+what kind they send; for when the designer receives the different pieces
+he generally consigns them to a drawer until wanted, and when he has
+finished a design, he not unfrequently sends it to an engraver who did
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page565" id = "page565">
+565</a></span>
+not supply the identical piece of wood on which it is drawn. Hence
+scarcely any engraver pays much attention to the kind of wood he sends;
+for where many are employed in the execution of a series of cuts for the
+same work, it is very unlikely that each will receive the drawings on
+the wood supplied by himself. Even when the designer is particular in
+making the drawings of the subjects which he thinks best suited to each
+engraver’s talents on the wood which such engraver has supplied, it not
+unfrequently happens that the person who employs the engravers will not
+give the blocks to those for whom the artist intended them. Publishers
+have a much greater interest in this matter than they seem to suspect.
+If soft wood be supplied, the finer lines will soon be bruised down in
+printing, and the cut will appear like an old one before half the number
+of impressions required have been printed; if red-ringed, the surface is
+extremely liable to become uneven, and also to warp and split.</p>
+
+<p>As box can seldom be obtained of more than five or six inches
+diameter, and as wood of this size is rarely sound throughout, blocks
+for cuts exceeding five inches square are usually formed of two or more
+pieces firmly united by means of iron pins and screws. Should the block,
+however, be wetted or exposed to dampth, the joints are certain to open,
+and sometimes to such an extent as to require a piece of wood to be
+inserted in the aperture.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIX4" id = "tagIX4"
+href = "#noteIX4">IX.4</a> Perhaps the best way to guard against a large
+block opening at the joining of the pieces would be to enclose it with
+an iron hoop or frame; such hoop or frame being fixed when nearly
+red-hot in the same manner as a tire is applied to a coach or cart
+wheel. If the iron fit perfectly tight when forced on to the block in
+the manner of a tire, it will be the more likely, by its contracting in
+cold and damp weather, to resist the expansive force of the wood at such
+times.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the hardness and toughness of box, which allows of clear
+raised lines, capable of bearing the action of the press, being cut on
+its surface, this wood, from its not being subject to the attacks of the
+worm, has a great advantage over apple, pear-tree, beech,<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagIX5" id = "tagIX5" href = "#noteIX5">IX.5</a> and other
+kinds of wood, formerly used for the purposes of engraving. Its
+preservation in this respect is probably owing to its poisonous nature,
+for other kinds of wood of greater hardness and durability are
+frequently pierced through and through by worms. The chips of box, when
+chewed, are certainly unwholesome to human beings. A&nbsp;fellow-pupil,
+who had acquired a habit of chewing the small pieces which he cut out
+with his graver,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page566" id = "page566">
+566</a></span>
+became unwell, and was frequently attacked with sickness. On mentioning
+the subject to his medical adviser, he was ordered to refrain from
+chewing the pieces of box; he accordingly took the doctor’s advice, gave
+up his bad habit, and in a short time recovered his usual health.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tagIX6" id = "tagIX6" href =
+"#noteIX6">IX.6</a></p>
+
+<p>Box when kept long in a dry place becomes unfit for the purpose of
+engraving. I&nbsp;have at this time in my possession a drawing which has
+been made on the block about ten years, but the wood has become so dry
+and brittle that it would now be impossible to engrave the subject in a
+proper manner.</p>
+
+<p>When the wood does not cut clear, but crumbles as if it were too dry,
+the defect may sometimes be remedied by putting the block into a deep
+earthenware jug or pan, and placing such jug or pan in a cool place for
+ten or twelve hours. When the wood is too hard and dry to be softened in
+the above manner, I&nbsp;would recommend that the back of the block
+should be placed in water&mdash;in a plate or large dish&mdash;to the
+depth of the sixteenth part of an inch, for about an hour. If allowed to
+remain longer there is a risk of the block afterwards splitting.</p>
+
+<p class = "figfloat">
+<a name = "illus_566" id = "illus_566">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_566.png" width = "85" height = "25"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Box, of whatever kind, when not well seasoned, is extremely liable to
+warp and bend; but a little care will frequently prevent many of the
+accidents to which drawings on unseasoned wood are exposed by neglect.
+For instance, when a block is received by the engraver from the designer
+or publisher, it ought, if not directly put in hand, to be placed on one
+of its edges, and not, as is customary with many, laid down flat, with
+the surface on which the drawing is made upwards. If a block of
+unseasoned wood be permitted to lie in this manner for a week or two, it
+is almost certain to turn up at the edges, the upper surface becoming
+concave, and the lower convex, as is shown in the annexed cut,
+representing the section of such a block.</p>
+
+<p>The same thing will occur in the process of engraving, though to a
+small extent, should the engraver’s hands be warm and moist; and also
+when working by lamp-light without a globe filled with water between the
+lamp and the block. Such slight warping in the course of engraving is,
+however, easily remedied by laying the block with its face&mdash;that
+is, the surface on which the drawing is made&mdash;downward on the desk
+or table at all times when the engraver is not actually employed on the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page567" id = "page567">
+567</a></span>
+subject. The block so placed, provided that it be not of very dry wood,
+in a short time recovers its former level. When a block of very dry wood
+becomes <i>dished</i>, or concave, on its upper surface, as shown in the
+preceding cut, there is little chance of its ever again becoming
+sufficiently flat to allow of its being well printed. When the deviation
+from a perfect level at the bottom is not so great as to attract the
+notice of the pressman previous to taking an impression, the block not
+unfrequently yields to the action of the platten, and splits. The
+fracture remains perhaps unobserved for a short time, and when it is at
+length noticed, the block is probably spoiled beyond remedy.</p>
+
+<p>When box is very dry it is extremely difficult to cut a clear line
+upon it, as it crumbles, and small pieces fly out at the sides of the
+line traced by the graver. The small white spots so frequently seen in
+the delicate lines of the sky in wood-cuts are occasioned by particles
+flying out in this manner. If a block consist partly of yellow wood and
+partly of wood with red rings, the yellow will cut clear, while in the
+red it will be almost impossible to cut a perfect line. When the same
+piece of wood is yellow and red alternately it is extremely difficult to
+produce an even <i>tint</i> upon it. Wood of this kind ought always to
+be rejected, both from the difficulty of engraving upon it with
+clearness, and from the uncertainty of the surface continuing perfectly
+flat, as the red rings are more liable to shrink in drying than the
+other parts, and, from their thus not receiving a sufficient quantity of
+ink, to appear like so many rainbows in the impression.</p>
+
+<p>The spaces between those rings are greater or less, accordingly as
+the seasons have been favourable or unfavourable to the growth of the
+tree. Besides the injurious effect which those red rings are apt to
+produce in an impression, wood of this kind is very unpleasant and
+uncertain to engrave on; for as the yellow parts cut pleasant and clear,
+the engraver, unless particularly on his guard, is betrayed to trust to
+the whole piece as being of the same uniform tenacity, and before he is
+aware of its inequality in this respect, or can check the progress of
+his graver, its point has entered one of those soft red rings, and, to
+the injury of his work, has either caused a small piece to fly out, or
+carried the line further than he intended. Wood of this kind is unfit
+for anything except very common work, and ought never to be used for
+delicate engraving. There is no certain means of forming a judgment of
+box-wood until it be cut into slices or trencher-like pieces from the
+log; for many logs which externally appear sound and of a good colour,
+prove very faulty and cracked in the centre when sawn up. Turkey box is
+in particular so defective in this respect that a large slice can seldom
+be procured without a crack. This, probably, is occasioned by the manner
+in which the tree is felled. Previous to their beginning to cut down
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page568" id = "page568">
+568</a></span>
+a tree the Turkish wood-cutters fasten a rope to the top, by means of
+which they break the tree down when the bole is little more than half
+cut through. The consequence is that a <i>shiver</i> frequently extends
+through the most valuable portion of the log.</p>
+
+<p>Many artists, who are not accustomed to make drawings on wood,
+erroneously suppose that the block requires some peculiar preparation.
+Nothing more is required than to rub the previously planed and smoothed
+surface with a little powdered Bath-brick, slightly mixed with water: as
+little water as possible is, however, to be used, as otherwise the block
+will absorb too much, and be afterwards extremely liable to split. When
+this thin coating is perfectly dry, it is to be removed by rubbing the
+block with the palm of the hand. No part of the light powder ought to
+remain, for, otherwise, the pencil coming in contact with it will make a
+coarse and comparatively thick line, which, besides being a blemish in
+the drawing, is very liable to be rubbed off. The object of using the
+powdered Bath-brick is to render the surface less slippery, and thus
+capable of affording a better <i>hold</i> to the point of the black-lead
+pencil.</p>
+
+<p>When the principal parts of the drawing are first washed in upon the
+block in Indian ink, it is of great advantage to gently rub the surface
+of the block, when dry, with a little dry and finely powdered
+Bath-brick, before the drawing is completed with the black-lead pencil.
+By this means the hard edges of the Indian-ink wash will be softened,
+the different tints delicately blended, and the subsequent touches of
+the pencil be more distinctly seen. Some artists, previous to beginning
+to draw on the block, are in the habit of washing over the surface with
+a mixture of flake-white and gum-water.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIX7"
+id = "tagIX7" href = "#noteIX7">IX.7</a> This practice is, however, by
+no means a good one. The drawing indeed may appear very bright and showy
+when first made on such a white surface, but in the progress of
+engraving a thin film of the preparation will occasionally rise up
+before the graver and carry with it a portion of the unengraved work,
+which the engraver is left to restore according to his ability and
+recollection. This white ground also mixes with the ink in taking a
+first proof, and fills up the finer parts of the cut. If a white wash be
+used without gum, the drawing is very liable to be partially effaced in
+the progress of engraving, and the engraver left to finish his work as
+he can. The risk of this inconvenience ought to be especially avoided in
+making drawings on a block, as the wood engraver has not the opportunity
+of referring to another drawing or to an original painting in the manner
+of an engraver on copper.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page569" id = "page569">
+569</a></span>
+<p>The less that is done to change the original colour of the
+wood&mdash;by white or any other preparation&mdash;so much the better
+for the engraver; a&nbsp;piece of clear box is sufficiently light to
+allow of the most delicate lines being distinctly drawn upon it. When
+the surface of the block is whitened, another inconvenience arises
+besides those already noticed. It is this: when the drawing is made upon
+a white ground, and the subject partially engraved, the effect of the
+whole becomes very confused and perplexing to the engraver in
+consequence of the parts already engraved appearing nearly of the
+original colour of the wood, while the ground of the parts not yet cut
+is white, as first drawn. The engraver’s eye cannot correctly judge of
+the whole, and the inconvenience is increased by his neither having an
+original drawing to refer to, nor a proof to guide him: until the cut be
+completed he has no means of correctly ascertaining whether he has left
+too much <i>colour</i> or taken too much away.</p>
+
+<p>The engraver on copper or on steel can have an impression of his
+etching as soon as it is <i>bit</i> in, and can take impressions of the
+plate at all times in the course of his progress; the wood engraver, on
+the contrary, enjoys no such advantages; he is obliged to wait until all
+be completed ere he can obtain an impression of his work. If the wood
+engraver has kept his subject generally too dark, there is not much
+difficulty in reducing it; but if he has engraved it too light, there is
+no remedy. If a small part be badly engraved, or the block has sustained
+an injury, the defect may be repaired by inserting a small piece of wood
+and re-engraving it: this mode of repairing a block is technically
+termed “<i>plugging</i>.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagIX8" id = "tagIX8"
+href = "#noteIX8">IX.8</a></p>
+
+<p>When a block requires to be thus amended or repaired, it is first to
+be determined how much is necessary to be taken out that the restoration
+may accord with the adjacent parts; for sometimes, in order to render
+the insertion less perceptible, it may be requisite to take out rather
+more than the part imactually perfect or injured. This being decided on,
+a&nbsp;hole is drilled in the block, as is represented in the next page,
+of a size sufficient to admit “the <i>plug</i>.” The hole ought not to
+be drilled quite through the block, as the piece let in would, from the
+shaking and battering of the press, be very likely to become loosened.
+Should it receive more pressure at the top than bottom, it would sink a
+little below the engraved surface of the block, and thus appear lighter
+in the impression than the surrounding parts; while should it be
+slightly forced up from below it, would appear darker,&mdash;in each
+case forming
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page570" id = "page570">
+570</a></span>
+a positive blemish in the cut.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIX9" id =
+"tagIX9" href = "#noteIX9">IX.9</a> When the shape of the part to be
+restored is too large to be covered with one circular plug, it is better
+to add one plug to another till the whole be covered, than to insert one
+of a different shape, and thus fill the space at once. When a single
+plug is used the section appears thus;</p>
+
+<p class = "figfloat">
+<a name = "illus_570b" id = "illus_570b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_570b.png" width = "206" height = "53"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "figfloat">
+<a name = "illus_570c" id = "illus_570c">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/illus_570c.png" width = "145" height = "191"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "continue">
+the plug being driven in like a wedge, and having a vacant space around
+it at the bottom. If an oblong space of the form No.&nbsp;1. is to be
+restored, it will be best effected by first inserting a plug at each
+end, as at No.&nbsp;2, then adding two others, as at No.&nbsp;3, and
+finally wedging them all fast by a central plug, as at No.&nbsp;4, like
+the key-stone in an arch. When a plug is firmly fixed, the top is
+carefully cut down to the level of the block, and the part of the
+subject wanting re-drawn and engraved. When these operations are well
+performed no trace of the insertion can
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page571" id = "page571">
+571</a></span>
+be discovered, except by one who should know where to look for it.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_570a" id = "illus_570a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_570a.png" width = "254" height = "274"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+THE PLUG OUT.</p>
+
+<p>When a cast is taken from a block which requires the insertion of a
+plug, the best mode is to have the part intended to be renewed cast
+blank. In this case a hole of sufficient size is to be drilled in the
+block, and afterwards filled up with plaster to the level of the
+surface. A&nbsp;cast being then taken, the part to be re-engraved
+remains blank, but of a piece with the rest of the metal, so that there
+is no possibility of its rising up above or sinking below the surface,
+as sometimes happens when a plug is inserted in a wood-block. When the
+part remaining blank in the cast is engraved in accordance with the work
+of the surrounding parts, it is almost impossible to discover any trace
+of the insertion. The following impression is from a cast of the block
+illustrating the “plug,” with the part which appears white in the former
+cut restored and re-engraved in this manner. A&nbsp;white circular line,
+near the handle of the pail, has been purposely cut to indicate the
+place of the plug.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_571" id = "illus_571">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_571.png" width = "259" height = "280"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Before beginning to engrave any subject, it is necessary to observe
+whether the drawing be entirely, or only in part, made with a pencil. If
+it be what is usually called a <i>wash</i> drawing, with little more
+than the outlines in pencil, it is not necessary to be so cautious in
+defending it from the action of the breath or the occasional touching of
+the hand;
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page572" id = "page572">
+572</a></span>
+but if it be entirely in pencil, too much care cannot be taken to
+protect it from both.</p>
+
+<p>Before proceeding to engrave a delicate pencil drawing the block
+ought to be covered with paper, with the exception of the part on which
+it is intended to begin. Soft paper ought not to be used for this
+purpose, as such is most likely to partially efface the drawing when the
+hand is pressed upon the block. Moderately stout post-paper with a
+glazed surface is the best; though some engravers, in order to preserve
+their eyes, which become affected by white paper, cover the block with
+blue paper, which is usually too soft, and thus expose the drawing to
+injury. The dingy, grey, and over-done appearance of several modern
+wood-cuts is doubtless owing, in a great measure, to the block when in
+course of engraving having been covered with soft paper, which has
+partially effaced the drawing. The drawing, which originally may have
+been clear and <i>touchy</i>, loses its brightness, and becomes
+indistinct from its frequent contact with the soft pliable paper; the
+spirited dark touches which give it effect are rubbed down to a sober
+grey, and all the other parts, from the same cause, are comparatively
+weak. The cut, being engraved according to the appearance of the
+drawing, is tame, flat, and spiritless.</p>
+
+<p class = "figfloat">
+<a name = "illus_572" id = "illus_572">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_572.png" width = "122" height = "63"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Different engravers have different methods of fastening the paper to
+the block.<a class = "tag error" name = "tagIX10" id = "tagIX10" href =
+"#noteIX10" title = "footnote tag missing">IX.10</a> Some fix it with
+gum, or with wafers at the sides; but this is not a good mode, for as
+often as it is necessary to take a view of the whole block, in order to
+judge of the progress of the work, the paper must be torn off, and
+afterwards replaced by means of new wafers or fresh gum, so that before
+the cut is finished the sides of the block are covered with bits of
+paper in the manner of a wall or shop-front covered with fragments of
+posting-bills. The most convenient mode of fastening the paper is to
+first wrap a piece of stiff and stout thread three or four times round
+the edges of the block, and then after making the end fast to remove it.
+The paper is then to be closely fitted to the block, and the edges being
+brought over the sides, the thread is to be re-placed above it. If the
+turns of the thread be too tight to pass over the last corner of the
+block, <span class = "smallroman">A</span>, a piece of string, <span
+class = "smallroman">B</span>, being passed within them and firmly
+pulled, in the manner here represented, will cause them to stretch a
+little and pass over on to the edge without difficulty. When this plan
+is adopted the paper forms a kind of moveable cap, which can
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page573" id = "page573">
+573</a></span>
+be taken off at pleasure to view the progress of the work, and replaced
+without the least trouble.</p>
+
+<p>I have long been of opinion that many young persons, when beginning
+to learn the art of wood engraving, have injured their sight by
+unnecessarily using a magnifying glass. At the very commencement of
+their pupilage boys will furnish themselves with a glass of this kind,
+as if it were as much a matter of course as a set of gravers; they
+sometimes see men use a glass, and as at this period they are prone to
+ape their elders in the profession, <i>they</i> must have one also; and
+as they generally choose such as magnify most, the result not
+unfrequently is that their sight is considerably impaired before they
+are capable of executing anything that really requires much nicety of
+vision.</p>
+
+<p>I would recommend all persons to avoid the use of glasses of any
+kind, whether single magnifiers or spectacles, until impaired sight
+renders such aids necessary; and even then to commence with such as are
+of small magnifying power. The habit of viewing minute objects
+alternately with a magnifying glass and the naked eye&mdash;applying the
+glass every two or three minutes&mdash;is, I&nbsp;am satisfied,
+injurious to the sight. The magnifying glass used by wood engravers is
+similar to that used by watch-makers, and consists of a single lens,
+fitted into a short tube, which is rather wider at the end applied to
+the eye. As the glass seldom can be fixed so firmly to the eye as to
+entirely dispense with holding it, the engraver is thus frequently
+obliged to apply his left hand to keep it in its place; as he cannot
+hold the block with the same hand at the same time, or move it as may be
+required, so as to enable him to execute his work with freedom, the
+consequence is, that the engraving of a person who is in the habit of
+using a magnifying glass has frequently a cramped appearance. There are
+also other disadvantages attendant on the habitual use of a magnifying
+glass. A&nbsp;person using such a glass must necessarily hold his head
+aside, so that the eye on which the glass is fixed may be directly above
+the part on which he is at work. In order to attain this position, the
+eye itself is not unfrequently distorted; and when it is kept so for any
+length of time it becomes extremely painful. I&nbsp;never find my eyes
+so free from pain or aching as when looking at the work directly in
+front, without any twisting of the neck so as to bring one eye only
+immediately above the part in course of execution. I&nbsp;therefore
+conclude that the eyes are less likely to be injured when thus employed
+than when one is frequently distorted and pained in looking through a
+glass. I&nbsp;am here merely speaking from experience, and not
+professedly from any theoretic knowledge of optics; but as I have
+hitherto done without the aid of any magnifying power, I&nbsp;am not
+without reason convinced that glasses of all kinds ought to be dispensed
+with until impaired vision renders their use absolutely
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page574" id = "page574">
+574</a></span>
+necessary. I&nbsp;am decidedly of opinion that to use glasses <i>to
+preserve</i> the sight, is to meet half way the evil which is thus
+sought to be averted. A&nbsp;person who has his sense of hearing perfect
+never thinks of using a trumpet or acoustic instrument in order to
+preserve it. All wood engravers, whether their eyes be naturally weak or
+not, ought to wear a shade, similar to that represented in the following
+figure, No.&nbsp;1, as it both protects the eyes from too strong a
+light, and also serves to concentrate the view on the work which the
+engraver is at the time engaged in executing.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<div class = "picblock">
+<a name = "illus_574" id = "illus_574">&nbsp;</a>
+<p><img src = "images/illus_574a.png" width = "102" height = "134"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<div class = "picblock">
+<p><img src = "images/illus_574b.png" width = "92" height = "139"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 2.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When speaking on this subject, it may not be out of place to mention
+a kind of shade or screen for the nose and mouth, similar to that in the
+preceding figure, No.&nbsp;2. Such a shade or screen is called by
+Papillon a <i>mentonnière</i>,<a class = "tag" name = "tagIX11" id =
+"tagIX11" href = "#noteIX11">IX.11</a> and its object is to prevent the
+drawing on the block being injured by the breath in damp or frosty
+weather. Without such a precaution, a&nbsp;drawing made on the block
+with black-lead pencil would, in a great measure, be effaced by the
+breath of the engraver passing freely over it in such weather. Such a
+shade or screen is most conveniently made of a piece of thin pasteboard
+or stiff paper.</p>
+
+<p>There are various modes of protecting the eyes when working by
+lamp-light, but I am aware of only one which both protects the eyes from
+the light and the face from the heat of the lamp. This consists in
+filling a large transparent glass-globe with clear water, and placing it
+in such a manner between the lamp and the workman that the light, after
+passing through the globe, may fall directly on the block, in the manner
+represented in the following cut. The height of the lamp can be
+regulated according to the engraver’s convenience, in consequence of its
+being moveable on the upright piece of iron or other metal which forms
+its support. The dotted line shows the direction of the light when the
+lamp is elevated to the height here seen; by lowering the lamp a
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page575" id = "page575">
+575</a></span>
+little more, the dotted line would incline more to a horizontal
+direction, and enable the engraver to sit at a greater distance. By the
+use of those globes one lamp will suffice for three or four persons, and
+each person have a much clearer and cooler light than if he had a lamp
+without a globe solely to himself.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIX12" id =
+"tagIX12" href = "#noteIX12">IX.12</a></p>
+
+<div class = "picture w300">
+<p><a name = "illus_575" id = "illus_575">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_575.png" width = "275" height = "304"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+SANDBAG AND BLOCK.</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+LAMP.</p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+GLOBE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It has been said, and with some appearance of truth, that “the best
+engravers use the fewest tools;” but this, like many other sayings of a
+similar kind, does not generally hold good. He undoubtedly ought to be
+considered the best engraver who executes his work in the <i>best
+manner</i> with the fewest tools; while it is no less certain that he is
+a bad engraver who executes his work badly, whether he use many or few.
+No wood engraver who understands his art will incumber his desk or table
+with a number of useless tools, though, from a regard to his own time,
+he will take care that he has as many as are necessary. There are some
+who pride themselves upon executing a great variety of work with one
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page576" id = "page576">
+576</a></span>
+tool, and hence, firmly believing in the truth of the saying above
+quoted, fancy that they are first-rate engravers. Such would be better
+entitled to the name if they executed their work well. A&nbsp;person who
+makes his tools his <i>hobby-horse</i>, and who bestows upon their
+ornaments&mdash;ebony or ivory handles, silver hoops, &amp;c.&mdash;that
+attention which ought rather to be devoted to his subject, rarely excels
+as an engraver. He who is vain of the beautiful appearance of his tools
+has not often just reason to be proud of his work.</p>
+
+<p class = "figfloat">
+<a name = "illus_576a" id = "illus_576a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_576a.png" width = "210" height = "41"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>There are only four kinds of cutting tools<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIX13" id = "tagIX13" href = "#noteIX13">IX.13</a> necessary in wood
+engraving, namely:&mdash;gravers; tint-tools; gouges or scoopers; and
+flat tools or chisels. Of each of these four kinds there are various
+sizes. The following cut shows the form of a graver that is principally
+used for outlining or separating one figure from another. A, is the back
+of the tool; B, the face; C, the point; and D, what is technically
+called the belly. The horizontal dotted line, 1, 2, shows the surface of
+the block, and the manner in which part of the handle is cut off after
+the blade is inserted.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIX14" id = "tagIX14"
+href = "#noteIX14">IX.14</a> This tool is very fine at the point, as the
+line which it cuts ought to be so thin as not to be distinctly
+perceptible when the cut is printed, as the intention is merely to form
+a termination or boundary to a series of lines running in another
+direction. Though it is necessary that the point should be very fine,
+yet the blade ought not to be too thin, for then, instead of cutting out
+a piece of the wood, the tool will merely make a delicate opening, which
+would be likely to close as soon as the block should be exposed to the
+action of the press. When the outline tool becomes too thin at the point
+the lower part should be rubbed on a hone, in order to reduce the
+extreme fineness.</p>
+
+<p class = "figfloat">
+<a name = "illus_576b" id = "illus_576b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_576b.png" width = "215" height = "82"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>About eight or nine gravers of different sizes, beginning from the
+outline tool, are generally sufficient. The blades differ little in
+shape, when first made, from those used by copper-plate engravers; but
+in order to render them fit for the purpose of wood engraving, it is
+necessary to give the points their peculiar form by rubbing them on a
+Turkey stone. In this cut are shown the faces and part of the backs of
+nine gravers of different sizes; the lower dotted line, <span class =
+"smallroman">A&nbsp;C</span>, shows the extent to which the points of
+such
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page577" id = "page577">
+577</a></span>
+tools are sometimes ground down by the engraver in order to render them
+broader. When thus ground down the points are slightly rounded, and do
+not remain straight as if cut off by the dotted line <span class =
+"smallroman">A C</span>. These tools are used for nearly all kinds of
+work, except for series of parallel lines, technically called “tints.”
+The width of the line cut out, according to the thickness of the graver
+towards the point, is regulated by the pressure of the engraver’s
+hand.</p>
+
+<p class = "figfloat">
+<a name = "illus_577" id = "illus_577">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_577a.png" width = "211" height = "91"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<div class = "figfloat">
+<p><img src = "images/illus_577b.png" width = "120" height = "72"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "leftside">
+TINT-TOOL.</p>
+<p class = "rightside">
+GRAVER.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tint-tools are chiefly used to cut parallel lines forming an even and
+uniform <i>tint</i>, such as is usually seen in the representation of a
+clear sky in wood-cuts. They are thinner at the back, but deeper in the
+side than gravers, and the angle of the face, at the point, is much more
+acute. About seven or eight, of different degrees of fineness, are
+generally sufficient. The following cut will afford an idea of the shape
+of the blades towards the point. The handle of the tint-tool is of the
+same form as that of a graver. The figure marked A presents a side view
+of the blade; the others marked B show the faces. Some engravers never
+use a tint-tool, but cut all their lines with a graver. There is,
+however, great uncertainty in cutting a series of parallel lines in this
+manner, as the least inclination of the hand to one side will cause the
+graver to increase the width of the white line <i>cut out</i>, and
+undercut the raised one <i>left</i>, more than if in the same
+circumstances a tint-tool were used. This will be rendered more evident
+by a comparison of the points and faces of the two different tools: The
+tint-tool, being very little thicker at B than at the point A, will
+cause a very trifling difference in the width of a line in the event of
+a wrong inclination, when compared with the inequality occasioned by the
+unsteady direction of a graver, whose angle at the point is much greater
+than that of a proper tint-tool. Tint-tools ought to be sufficiently
+strong at the back to prevent their bending in the middle of the blade
+when used, for with a weak tool of this kind the engraver cannot
+properly guide the point, and hence freedom of execution is lost.
+Tint-tools that are rather thick in the back are to be preferred to such
+as are thin, not only from their allowing of great steadiness in
+cutting, but from their leaving the raised lines thicker at the bottom,
+and consequently more capable of sustaining the action of the press.
+A&nbsp;tint-tool that is of the same thickness, both at the back and the
+lower part, cuts out
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page578" id = "page578">
+578</a></span>
+the lines in such manner that a section of them appears thus:
+<a name = "illus_578" id = "illus_578">
+<img src = "images/illus_578a.png" width = "45" height = "20"
+alt = "see text"></a>
+the black or raised lines from which the impression is obtained being no
+thicker at their base than at the surface; while a section of the lines
+cut by a tool that is thicker at the back than at the lower part appears
+thus.
+<img src = "images/illus_578b.png" width = "41" height = "18"
+alt = "see text">
+It is evident that lines of this kind, having a better support at the
+base, are much less liable than the former to be broken in printing.</p>
+<div class = "figfloat">
+<p><img src = "images/illus_578c.png" width = "109" height = "57"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+<p class = "caption">GOUGES.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "figfloat">
+<p><img src = "images/illus_578d.png" width = "104" height = "48"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+<p class = "caption">CHISELS.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "figfloat">
+<p><img src = "images/illus_578e.png" width = "25" height = "43"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+<p class = "caption">C</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "continue">
+Gouges of different sizes, from <span class = "smallroman">A</span> the
+smallest to <span class = "smallroman">B</span> the largest, as here
+represented, are used for scooping out the wood towards the centre of
+the block; while flat tools or chisels, of various sizes, are chiefly
+employed in cutting away the wood towards the edges. Flat tools of the
+shape seen in figure <span class = "smallroman">C</span> are sometimes
+offered for sale by tool-makers, but they ought never to be used; for
+the projecting corners are very apt to cut <i>under</i> a line, and thus
+remove it entirely, causing great trouble to replace it by inserting new
+pieces of wood.</p>
+
+<p>The face of both gravers and tint-tools ought to be kept rather long
+than short; though if the point be ground <i>too fine</i>, it will be
+very liable to break. When the face is long&mdash;or, strictly speaking,
+when the angle, formed by the plane of the face and the lower line of
+the blade, is comparatively acute&mdash;thus,
+<span class = "figfloat">
+<img src = "images/illus_578f.png" width = "126" height = "25"
+alt = "see text"></span>
+a&nbsp;line is cut with much greater clearness than when the face is
+comparatively obtuse, and the small shaving cut out turns gently over
+towards the hand. When, however, the face of the tool approaches to the
+shape seen in the following cut, the reverse happens; the small shaving
+is rather ploughed out than cleanly cut out; and the force necessary to
+push the tool forward frequently causes small pieces to fly out at each
+side of the hollowed line, more especially if the wood be dry. The
+shaving also, instead of turning aside over the face of the tool, turns
+over before the point, thus,
+<span class = "figfloat">
+<img src = "images/illus_578g.png" width = "126" height = "22"
+alt = "see text"></span>
+and hinders the engraver from seeing that part of the pencilled line
+which is directly under it. A&nbsp;short-faced tool of itself prevents
+the engraver from distinctly seeing the point. When the face of a tool
+has become obtuse, it ought to be ground to a proper form, for instance,
+from the shape of the figure A to that of&nbsp;B.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<div class = "picblock">
+<p><img src = "images/illus_578h.png" width = "106" height = "27"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picblock">
+<p><img src = "images/illus_578i.png" width = "107" height = "27"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page579" id = "page579">
+579</a></span>
+
+<p>Gravers and tint-tools when first received from the maker are
+generally too hard,&mdash;a defect which is soon discovered by the point
+breaking off short as soon as it enters the wood. To remedy this, the
+blade of the tool ought to be placed with its flat side above a piece of
+iron&mdash;a poker will do very well&mdash;nearly red-hot. Directly it
+changes to a straw colour it is to be taken off the iron, and either
+dipped in sweet oil or allowed to cool gradually. If removed from the
+iron while it is still of a straw colour, it will have been softened no
+more than sufficient; but should it have acquired a purple tinge, it
+will have been softened too much; and instead of breaking at the point,
+as before, it will bend. A&nbsp;small grindstone is of great service in
+grinding down the faces of tools that have become obtuse. A&nbsp;Turkey
+stone, though the operation requires more time, is however a very good
+substitute, as, besides reducing the face, the tool receives a point at
+the same time. Though some engravers use only a Turkey stone for
+sharpening their tools, yet a hone in addition is of great advantage.
+A&nbsp;graver that has received a final polish on a hone cuts a clearer
+line than one which has only been sharpened on a Turkey stone; it also
+cuts more pleasantly, gliding smoothly through the wood, if it be of
+good quality, without stirring a particle on each side of the line.</p>
+
+<p class = "figfloat">
+<a name = "illus_579a" id = "illus_579a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_579a.png" width = "180" height = "31"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "figfloat">
+<img src = "images/illus_579b.png" width = "181" height = "31"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The gravers and tint-tools used for engraving on a plane surface are
+straight at the point, as is here represented; but for engraving on a
+block rendered concave in certain parts by lowering, it is necessary
+that the point should have a slight inclination upwards, thus. The
+dotted lines show the direction of the point used for plane surface
+engraving. There is no difficulty in getting a tool to <i>descend</i> on
+one side of a part hollowed out or lowered; but unless the point be
+slightly inclined upwards, as is here shown, it is extremely difficult
+to make it <i>ascend</i> on the side opposite, without getting <i>too
+much hold</i>, and thus producing a wider white line than was
+intended.</p>
+
+<p class = "figfloat">
+<a name = "illus_579c" id = "illus_579c">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_579c.png" width = "204" height = "67"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>As the proper manner of holding the graver is one of the first things
+that a young wood engraver is taught, it is necessary to say a few words
+on this subject. Engravers on copper and steel, who have much harder
+substances than wood to cut, hold the graver with the fore-finger
+extending on the blade beyond the thumb, thus, so that by its pressure
+the point may be pressed into the plate. As box-wood, however, is much
+softer than copper or steel, and as it is seldom of perfectly equal
+hardness
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page580" id = "page580">
+580</a></span>
+throughout, it is necessary to hold the graver in a different manner,
+and employ the thumb at once as a stay or rest for the blade, and as a
+check upon the force exerted by the palm of the hand, the motion being
+chiefly directed by the fore-finger, as is shown in the following
+cut.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_580a" id = "illus_580a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_580a.png" width = "291" height = "164"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The thumb, with the end resting against the side of the block, in the
+manner above represented, allows the blade to move back and forward with
+a slight degree of pressure against it, and in case of a slip it is ever
+ready to check the graver’s progress. This mode of resting the thumb
+against the edge of the block is, however, only applicable when the cuts
+are so small as to allow of the graver, when thus guided and controlled,
+to reach every part of the subject. When the cut is too large to admit
+of this, the thumb then rests upon the surface of the block, thus:</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_580b" id = "illus_580b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_580b.png" width = "310" height = "181"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "continue">
+still forming a stay to the blade of the graver, and a check to its
+slips, as before.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page581" id = "page581">
+581</a></span>
+
+<div class = "figfloat">
+<p><a name = "illus_581a" id = "illus_581a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_581a.png" width = "91" height = "61"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 1.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In order to acquire steadiness of hand, the best thing for a pupil to
+begin with is the cutting of tints,&mdash;that is, parallel lines; and
+the first attempts ought to be made on a small block such as is
+represented in No.&nbsp;1, which will allow each entire line to be cut
+with the thumb resting against the edge. When lines of this length can
+be cut with tolerable precision, the pupil should proceed to blocks of
+the size of No.&nbsp;2. He ought also to cut waved tints, which are not
+so difficult; beginning, as in straight ones, with a small block, and
+gradually proceeding to blocks of greater size. Should the wood not cut
+smoothly in the direction in which he has begun, he should reverse the
+block, and cut his lines in the opposite direction; for it not
+unfrequently happens that wood which cuts short and crumbles in one
+direction will cut clean and smooth the opposite way. It is here
+necessary to observe, that if a certain number of lines be cut in one
+direction, and another portion, by reversing the block, be cut the
+contrary way, the tint, although the same tool may have been used for
+all, will be of two different shades, notwithstanding the pains that may
+have been taken to keep the lines of an even thickness throughout. This
+difference in the appearance of the two portions of lines cut from
+opposite sides is entirely owing to the wood cutting more smoothly in
+one direction than another, although the difference in the resistance
+which it makes to the tool may not be perceptible by the hand of the
+engraver. It is of great importance that a pupil should be able to cut
+tints well before he proceeds to any other kind of work. The practice
+will give him steadiness of hand, and he will thus acquire a habit of
+carefully executing such lines, which subsequently will be of the
+greatest service. Wood engravers who have not been well schooled in this
+elementary part of their profession often cut their tints carelessly in
+the first instance, and, when they perceive the defect in a proof,
+return to their work; and, with great loss of time, keep thinning and
+dressing the lines, till they frequently make the tint appear worse than
+at first.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_581b" id = "illus_581b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_581b.png" width = "276" height = "122"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 2.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page582" id = "page582">
+582</a></span>
+
+<div class = "figfloat">
+<p><a name = "illus_582a" id = "illus_582a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_582a.png" width = "152" height = "157"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 3.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "illus_582b" id = "illus_582b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_582b.png" width = "152" height = "73"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 4.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When uniform tints, both of straight and waved lines, can be cut with
+facility, the learner should proceed to cut tints in which the lines are
+of unequal distance apart. To effect this, tools of different sizes are
+necessary; for in tints of this kind the different distances between the
+black lines, are according to the width of the different tools used to
+cut them; though in tints of a graduated tone of colour, the difference
+is sometimes entirely produced by increasing the pressure of the graver.
+In the annexed cut, No.&nbsp;3, the black lines are of equal thickness,
+but the width of the white lines between them becomes gradually less
+from the top to the bottom. By comparing it with No.&nbsp;4, the
+difference between a uniform tint, where the lines are of the same
+thickness and equally distant, and one where the distance between the
+lines is unequal, will be more readily understood.</p>
+
+<p>A straight-line tint, either uniform, or with the lines becoming
+gradually closer without appearing darker, is generally adopted to
+represent a clear blue sky. In No.&nbsp;3 the tint has been commenced
+with a comparatively broad-pointed tool; and after cutting a few lines,
+less pressure, thus allowing the black lines to come a little closer
+together, has been used, till it became necessary to change the tool for
+one less broad in the face. In this manner a succession of tools, each
+finer than the preceding, has been employed till the tint was
+completed.&mdash;To be able to produce a tint of delicately graduated
+<i>tone</i>, it is necessary that the engraver should be well acquainted
+with the use of his tools, and also have a correct eye. The following is
+a specimen of a tint cut entirely with the same <i>graver</i>, the
+difference in the colour being produced by increasing the pressure in
+the lighter parts.</p>
+
+<div class = "figfloat">
+<p><a name = "illus_582c" id = "illus_582c">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_582c.png" width = "219" height = "112"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 5.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "continue">
+Tints of this kind are obtained with greater facility and certainty by
+using a graver, and
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page583" id = "page583">
+583</a></span>
+increasing the pressure, than by using several tint-tools. On comparing
+No.&nbsp;3 with No.&nbsp;5, it will be perceived that the black lines in
+the latter decrease in thickness as they approach the bottom of the cut,
+while in the former they are of a uniform thickness throughout. If a
+clear sky is to be represented, there is no other mode of making that
+part near the horizon appear to recede except by means of fine black
+lines becoming gradually closer as they descend, as seen in the tint
+No.&nbsp;3. As the black lines in this tint are closer at the bottom
+than at the top, it might naturally be supposed that the colour would be
+<ins class = "correction" title = "text unchanged">proportionably</ins>
+stronger in that part. It is, however, known by experience that the
+unequal distance of the lines in such a tint does not cause any
+perceptible difference in the colour; as the upper lines, in consequence
+of their being more apart, print thicker, and thus counterbalance the
+effect of the greater closeness of the others.</p>
+
+<p>The two following cuts are specimens of tints represented by means of
+waved lines: in No.&nbsp;6 the lines are slightly undulated; in
+No.&nbsp;7 they have more of the appearance of zig-zag.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_583a" id = "illus_583a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_583a.png" width = "292" height = "125"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 6.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_583b" id = "illus_583b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_583b.png" width = "275" height = "124"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 7.</p>
+
+<p>Waved lines are generally introduced to represent clouds, as they not
+only form a contrast with the straight lines of the sky, but from their
+form suggest the idea of motion. It is necessary to observe, that if the
+alternate undulations in such lines be too much curved, the tint,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page584" id = "page584">
+584</a></span>
+when printed, will appear as if intersected from top to bottom, like
+wicker-work with perpendicular stakes, in the manner shown in the
+following specimen, No.&nbsp;8. This appearance is caused by the unequal
+pressure of the tool in forming the small curves of which each line is
+composed, thus making the black or raised line rather thicker in some
+parts than in others, and the white interstices wide or narrow in the
+same proportion. The appearance of such a tint is precisely the same
+whether cut by hand or by a machine.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIX15" id
+= "tagIX15" href = "#noteIX15">IX.15</a> In executing waved tints it is
+therefore necessary to be particularly careful not to get the
+undulations too much curved.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_584" id = "illus_584">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_584.png" width = "285" height = "131"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 8.</p>
+
+<p>As the choice of proper tints depends on taste, no specific rules can
+be laid down to guide a person in their selection. The proper use of
+lines of various kinds as applied to the execution of wood-cuts, is a
+most important consideration to the engraver, as upon their proper
+application all indications of form, texture, and conventional colour
+entirely depend. Lines are not to be introduced merely as such,&mdash;to
+display the mechanical skill of the engraver; they ought to be the signs
+of an artistic meaning, and be judged of accordingly as they serve to
+express it with feeling and correctness. Some wood engravers are but too
+apt to pride themselves on the delicacy of their <i>lining</i>, without
+considering whether it be well adapted to express their subject; and to
+fancy that excellence in the art consists chiefly in cutting with great
+labour a number of delicate unmeaning lines. To such an extent is this
+carried by some of this class that they spend more time in expressing
+the mere scratches of the designer’s pencil in a shade than a Bewick or
+a Clennell would require to engrave a cut full of meaning and interest.
+Mere delicacy of lines will not, however, compensate for want of natural
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page585" id = "page585">
+585</a></span>
+expression, nor laborious trifling for that vigorous execution which is
+the result of feeling. “Expression,” says Flaxman, “engages the
+attention, and excites an interest which compensates for a multitude of
+defects&mdash;whilst the most admirable execution, without a just and
+lively expression, will be disregarded as laborious inanity, or
+contemned as an illusory endeavour to impose on the feelings and the
+understanding.&mdash;Sentiment gives a sterling value, an irresistible
+charm, to the rudest imagery or the most unpractised scrawl. By this
+quality a firm alliance is formed with the affections in all works of
+art.”<a class = "tag" name = "tagIX16" id = "tagIX16" href =
+"#noteIX16">IX.16</a> Perpetrators of laborious inanities find, however,
+their admirers; and an amateur of such delicacies is in raptures with a
+specimen of “exquisitely fine lining,” and when told that such
+wood-<i>peckings</i> are, as works of art, much inferior to the
+productions of Bewick, he asks where his works are to be found; and
+after he has examined them he pronounces them “coarse and
+tasteless,&mdash;the rude efforts of a <i>country</i> engraver,” and not
+to be compared with certain delicate, but spiritless, wood engravings of
+the present day.</p>
+
+<p class = "figfloat">
+<a name = "illus_585" id = "illus_585">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_585.png" width = "59" height = "78"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>With respect to the direction of lines, it ought at all times to be
+borne in mind by the wood engraver,&mdash;and more especially when the
+lines are not <i>laid in</i> by the designer,&mdash;that they should be
+disposed so as to denote the peculiar form of the object they are
+intended to represent. For instance, in the limb of a figure they ought
+not to run horizontally or vertically,&mdash;conveying the idea of
+either a flat surface or of a hard cylindrical form,&mdash;but with a
+gentle curvature suitable to the shape and the degree of rotundity
+required. A&nbsp;well chosen line makes a great difference in properly
+representing an object, when compared with one less appropriate, though
+more delicate. The proper disposition of lines will not only express the
+form required, but also produce more <i>colour</i> as they approach each
+other in approximating curves, as in the following example, and thus
+represent a variety of light and shade, without the necessity of
+introducing other lines crossing them, which ought always to be avoided
+in small subjects: if, however, the figures be large, it is necessary to
+break the hard appearance of a series of such single lines by crossing
+them with others more delicate.</p>
+
+<p>In cutting curved lines, considerable difficulty is experienced by
+not commencing properly. For instance, if in executing a series of such
+lines as are shown in the preceding cut, the engraver commences at A,
+and works towards B, the tool will always be apt to cut through the
+black line already formed; whereas by commencing at B, and working
+towards A, the graver is always outside of the curve, and consequently
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page586" id = "page586">
+586</a></span>
+never touches the lines previously cut.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIX17"
+id = "tagIX17" href = "#noteIX17">IX.17</a> This difference ought always
+to be borne in mind when engraving a series of curved lines, as, by
+commencing properly, the work is executed with greater freedom and ease,
+while the inconvenience arising from slips is avoided. When such lines
+are introduced to represent the rotundity of a limb, with a break of
+white in the middle expressive of its greatest prominence, as is shown
+in the following figure A, it is advisable that they should be first
+<i>laid in</i> as if intended to be continuous, as is seen in figure B,
+and the part which appears white in A <i>lowered</i> out before
+beginning to cut them, as by this means all risk of their disagreeing,
+as in C, will be avoided.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_586" id = "illus_586">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_586a.png" width = "336" height = "84"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "figfloat">
+<img src = "images/illus_586b.png" width = "116" height = "215"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The rotundity of a column or similar object is represented by means
+of parallel lines, which are comparatively open in the middle where
+light is required, but which are engraved closer and thicker towards the
+sides to express shade. The effect of such lines will be rendered more
+evident by comparing the column in the annexed cut with the square base,
+which is represented by a series of equidistant lines, each of the same
+thickness as those in the middle of the column.</p>
+
+<p>Many more examples of tints and simple lines might be given; but, as
+no real benefit would be derived from them, it is needless to increase
+the number, and make “much ado about nothing.” Every new subject that
+the engraver commences presents something new for him to effect, and
+requires the exercise of his taste and judgment as to the best mode of
+executing it, so that the whole may have some claim to the character of
+a work of art. If a thousand examples were given, they would not enable
+an engraver to
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page587" id = "page587">
+587</a></span>
+execute a subject properly, unless he were endowed with that indefinable
+<i>feeling</i> which at once suggests the best means of attaining his
+end. Such feeling may indeed be excited, but can never be perfectly
+communicated by rules and examples. In this respect every artist,
+whether a humble wood engraver, or a sculptor or a painter of the
+highest class, must be self-instructed; the feeling displayed in his
+works must be the result of his own perceptions and ideas of beauty and
+propriety. It is the difference in feeling, rather than any greater or
+less degree of excellence in the mechanical execution, that
+distinguishes the paintings of Raffaele from those of Le Brun, Flaxman’s
+statues from those of Roubilliac, and the cuts in the Lyons Dance of
+Death from many of the laborious inanities of the present day.</p>
+
+<p>Clear, unruffled water, and all bright and smooth metallic
+substances, are best represented by single lines; for if cross-lines be
+introduced, except to indicate a strong shadow, it gives to them the
+appearance of roughness, which is not at all in accordance with the
+ideas which such substances naturally excite. Objects which appear to
+reflect brilliant flashes of light ought to be carefully dealt with,
+leaving <i>plenty of black</i> as a ground-work, for in wood engravings
+such lights can only be effectively represented by contrast with deep
+<i>colour</i>. Reflected lights are in general best represented by means
+of single lines running in the direction of the object, with a few
+touches of white judiciously taken out. In this respect Clennell
+particularly excelled as a wood engraver. Painting itself can scarcely
+represent reflected lights with greater effect than he has expressed
+them in several of his cuts. In Harvey’s large cut of the Death of
+Dentatus, after Haydon’s noble picture, the shield of Dentatus affords
+an instance of reflected light most admirably represented.</p>
+
+<p>As my object is to point out to the uninitiated the method of cutting
+certain lines, rather than to engage in the fruitless task of showing
+how such lines are to be generally applied, I&nbsp;shall now proceed to
+offer a few observations on engraving in outline, a&nbsp;process with
+which the learner ought to be well acquainted before he attempts
+subjects consisting of complicated lines. The word <i>outline</i> in
+wood engraving has two meanings: it is used, first, to denote the
+distinct boundaries of all kinds of objects; and secondly, to denote the
+delicate white line that is cut round any figure or object in order to
+form a boundary to the lines by which such figure or object is
+surrounded, and to thus allow of their easier liberation: it forms as it
+were a terminal furrow into which the lines surrounding the figure run.
+In speaking of this second outline in future, it will be distinguished
+as the <i>white outline</i>; while the other, which properly defines the
+different figures and forms, will be called the true or proper outline,
+or simply
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page588" id = "page588">
+588</a></span>
+the outline, without any distinctive additional term. As the white
+outline ought never to be distinctly visible in an impression, care
+ought to be taken, more especially where the adjacent tint is dark, not
+to cut it too deep or too wide. In the first of the two following cuts,
+the white outline, intentionally cut rather wider than is necessary, is
+distinctly seen from its contrast with the dark parts immediately in
+contact with it.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_588" id = "illus_588">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_588a.png" width = "271" height = "216"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "continue">
+In the second cut of the same subject, with a different back-ground, it
+is less visible in consequence of the parts adjacent being light. It is,
+however, still distinctly seen in the shadow of the feet; but it is
+shown here purposely to point out an error which is sometimes committed
+by cutting a white outline where, as in these parts, it is not required.
+The white outline is here quite unnecessary, as the two blacks
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page589" id = "page589">
+589</a></span>
+ought not to be separated in such a manner; the proper intention of the
+white outline is not so much to define the form of the figure or object,
+but, as has been already explained, to make an incision in the wood as a
+boundary to <i>other lines</i> coming against it, and to allow of their
+being clearly liberated without injury to the proper outline of the
+object: when a line is cut to such a boundary, the small shaving forced
+out by the graver becomes immediately released, without the point of the
+tool coming in contact with the true outline. The old German wood
+engravers, who chiefly engraved large subjects on apple or pear tree,
+and on the <i>side</i> of the wood, were not in the habit of cutting a
+white outline round their figures before they began to engrave them, and
+hence in their cuts objects frequently appear <i>to stick</i> to each
+other. The practice is now, however, so general, that in many modern
+wood-cuts a white line is improperly seen surrounding every figure.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/illus_588b.png" width = "177" height = "184"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>In proceeding to engrave figures, it is advisable to commence with
+such as consist of little more than outline, and have no shades
+expressed by cross-lines. The first step in executing such a subject is
+to cut a white line on each side of the pencilled lines which are to
+remain in relief of the height of the plane surface of the block, and to
+form the impression when it is printed. A&nbsp;cut when thus engraved,
+and previous to the parts which are white, when printed, being cut away,
+or, in technical language, <i>blocked out</i>, would present the
+following appearance.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIX18" id = "tagIX18"
+href = "#noteIX18">IX.18</a></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_589" id = "illus_589">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_589.png" width = "322" height = "175"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "continue">
+It is, however, necessary to observe that all the parts which require to
+be blocked away have been purposely retained in this cut in order to
+show more clearly the manner in which it is executed; for the engraver
+usually cuts away as he proceeds all the black masses seen within the
+subject. A&nbsp;wide margin of solid wood round the edges of the cut is,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page590" id = "page590">
+590</a></span>
+however, generally allowed to remain until a proof be taken when the
+engraving is finished, as it affords a support to the paper, and
+prevents the exterior lines of the subject from appearing too hard. This
+margin, where room is allowed, is separated from the engraved parts by a
+moderately deep and wide furrow, and is covered with a piece of paper
+serving as a <i>frisket</i> in taking a proof impression by means of
+friction. In clearing away such of the black parts in the preceding cut
+as require to be removed, it is necessary to proceed with great care in
+order to avoid breaking down or cutting through the lines which are to
+be left in relief. When the cut is properly cleared out and blocked
+away, it is then finished, and when printed will appear thus:</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_590a" id = "illus_590a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_590a.png" width = "316" height = "161"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Sculptures and bas-reliefs of any kind are generally best represented
+by simple outlines, with delicate parallel lines, running horizontally,
+to represent the ground. The following cut is from a design by Flaxman
+for the front of a gold snuff-box made by Rundell and Bridge for George
+IV. about 1827.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_590b" id = "illus_590b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_590b.png" width = "341" height = "92"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "continue">
+The subject of this design was intended to commemorate the General Peace
+concluded in 1814: to the left Agriculture is seen flourishing under the
+auspices of Peace; while to the right a youthful figure is seen placing
+a wreath above the helmet of a warrior; the trophy indicates his
+services, and opposite to him is seated a figure of Victory. The three
+other sides, and the top and bottom, were also
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page591" id = "page591">
+591</a></span>
+embellished with figures and ornaments in relief designed by Flaxman.
+The whole of the dies were cut in steel by Henning and Son&mdash;so well
+known to admirers of art from their beautiful reduced copies and
+restorations of the sculptures of the Parthenon preserved in the British
+Museum&mdash;and from these dies the plates of gold composing the box
+were struck, so that the figures appear in slight relief. A&nbsp;blank
+space was left in the top of the box for an enamel portrait of the King,
+which was afterwards inserted, surrounded with diamonds, and the margin
+of the lid was also ornamented in the same manner. This box is perhaps
+the most beautiful of the kind ever executed in any country: it may
+justly challenge a comparison with the drinking cups by Benvenuto
+Cellini, the dagger hafts designed by Durer, or the salts by Hans
+Holbein. The process of engraving in this style is extremely simple, as
+it is only necessary to leave the lines drawn in pencil untouched, and
+to cut away the wood on each side of them. An amateur may without much
+trouble teach himself to execute cuts in this manner, or to engrave
+fac-similes of small pen-and-ink sketches such as the annexed.<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagIX19" id = "tagIX19" href = "#noteIX19">IX.19</a></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_591" id = "illus_591">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_591.png" width = "103" height = "138"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Having now explained the mode of procedure in outline engraving, it
+seems necessary, before proceeding to speak of more complicated
+subjects, to say a few words respecting drawings made on the block; for,
+however well the engraving may be executed, the cut which is a
+fac-simile of a bad drawing can never be a good one. An artist’s
+knowledge of drawing is put to the test when he begins to make designs
+on wood; he cannot resort, as in painting, to the trick of colour to
+conceal the defects of his outlines. To be efficient in the engraving,
+his principal figures must be distinctly made out; a&nbsp;drawing on the
+wood admits of no <i>scumbling</i>; black and white are the only means
+by which the subject can be represented; and if he be ignorant of the
+proper management of chiaro-scuro, and incorrect and feeble in his
+drawing, he will not be able
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page592" id = "page592">
+592</a></span>
+to produce a really good design for the wood engraver. Many persons can
+paint a tolerably good picture who are utterly incapable of making a
+passable drawing on wood. Their drawing will not stand the test of
+simple black and white; they can indicate generalities “indifferently
+well” by means of positive colours, but they cannot delineate individual
+forms correctly with the black-lead pencil. It is from this cause that
+we have so very few persons who professedly make designs for wood
+engravers; and hence the sameness of character that is to be found in so
+many modern wood-cuts. It is not unusual for many second and third rate
+painters, when applied to for a drawing for a wood-cut, to speak
+slightingly of the art, and to decline to furnish the design required.
+This generally results rather from a consciousness of their own
+incapacity than from any real contempt for the art. As greater painters
+than any now living have made designs for wood engravers in former
+times, a&nbsp;second or third rate painter of the present day surely
+could not be much degraded by doing the same. The true reason for the
+refusal, however, is generally to be found in such painter’s
+incapacity.</p>
+
+<p>The two next cuts, both drawn from the same sketch,<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagIX20" id = "tagIX20" href = "#noteIX20">IX.20</a> but by
+different persons, will show how much depends upon having a good,
+artist-like drawing. The first is meagre; the second, on the contrary,
+is remarkably spirited, and the additional lines which are introduced
+not only give effect to the figure, but also in printing form a support
+to the more delicate parts of the outline.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<div class = "picblock w200">
+<p><a name = "illus_592" id = "illus_592">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_592a.png" width = "176" height = "248"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No 1.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picblock">
+<p><img src = "images/illus_592b.png" width = "194" height = "257"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 2.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page593" id = "page593">
+593</a></span>
+<p>Though a learner in proceeding from one subject to another more
+complicated will doubtless meet with difficulties which may occasionally
+damp his ardour, yet he will encounter none which will not yield to
+earnest perseverance. As it is not likely that any amateur practising
+the art merely for amusement would be inclined to test his patience by
+proceeding beyond outline engraving, the succeeding remarks are more
+especially addressed to those who may wish to apply themselves to wood
+engraving as a profession.</p>
+
+<p>When beginning to engrave in outline, it is advisable that the
+subjects first attempted should be of the most simple
+kind,&mdash;similar, for instance, to the preceding figure marked
+No.&nbsp;1. When facility in executing cuts in this style is obtained,
+the learner may proceed to engrave such as are slightly shaded, and have
+a back-ground indicated as in No.&nbsp;2. He may next proceed to
+subjects containing a greater variety of lines, and requiring greater
+neatness of execution, but should by no means endeavour to get on too
+fast by attempting to do <i>much</i> before he can do a little
+<i>well</i>. Whatever kind of subject be chosen, particular attention
+ought to be paid to the causes of failure and success in the execution.
+By diligently noting what produces a good effect in certain subjects, he
+will, under similar circumstances, be prepared to apply the same means;
+and by attending to the faults in his work he will be the more careful
+to avoid them in future. The group of figures here, selected from Sir
+David Wilkie’s picture of the Rent Day, will serve as an example of a
+cut executed by comparatively simple means; the subject is also
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page594" id = "page594">
+594</a></span>
+such a one as a pupil may attempt after he has made some progress in
+engraving slightly shaded figures. There are no complicated lines which
+are difficult to execute; the hatchings are few, and of simple
+character; and for the execution of the whole, as here represented,
+nothing is required but a <i>feeling</i> for the subject; and a moderate
+degree of skill in the use of the graver, combined with patient
+application.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_593" id = "illus_593">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_593.png" width = "297" height = "285"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>When the pupil is thus far advanced, he ought, in subjects of this
+kind, to avoid introducing more work, more especially in the features,
+than he can execute with comparative facility and precision; for, by
+attempting to attain excellence before he has arrived at mediocrity, he
+will be very likely to fail, and instead of having reason to
+congratulate himself on his success, experience nothing but
+disappointment. To make wood engraving an interesting, instead of an
+irksome study to young persons, I&nbsp;would recommend for their
+practice not only such subjects as are likely to engage their attention,
+but also such as they may be able to finish before they become weary of
+their task. At this period every endeavour ought to be made to smooth
+the pupil’s way by giving him such subjects to execute as will rather
+serve to stimulate his exertions than exhaust his patience. Little
+characteristic figures, like the one here copied, from one of Hogarth’s
+plates of the Four Parts of the Day, seem most suitable for this
+purpose. A&nbsp;subject of this kind does not contain so much work as to
+render a young person tired of it before
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page595" id = "page595">
+595</a></span>
+it be finished; while at the same time it serves to exercise him in the
+practice of the art and to engage his attention.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_594" id = "illus_594">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_594.png" width = "225" height = "296"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>When a pupil feels no interest in what he is employed on, he will
+seldom execute his work well; and when he is kept too long in engraving
+subjects that merely try his patience, he is apt to lose all taste for
+the art, and become a mere mechanical cutter of lines, without caring
+for what they express.</p>
+
+<p>Such a cut as the following&mdash;copied from an etching by
+Rembrandt&mdash;will form a useful exercise to the pupil, after he has
+attained facility in the execution of outline subjects, while at the
+same time it will serve to display the excellent effect in wood
+engravings of well contrasted light and shade. The hog&mdash;which is
+here the principal object&mdash;immediately arrests the eye, while the
+figures in the back-ground, being introduced merely to aid the
+composition and form a medium between the dark colour of the animal and
+the white paper, consist of little more than outline, and are
+comparatively light. In engraving the hog, it is necessary to exercise a
+little judgment in representing the bristly hair, and in <i>touching</i>
+the details effectively.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_595" id = "illus_595">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_595.png" width = "307" height = "268"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>When a learner has made some progress, he may attempt such a cut as
+that on the next page in order to exercise himself in the appropriate
+representation of animal texture. The subject is a dray-horse, formerly
+belonging to Messrs. Meux and Co., and the drawing was made on the block
+by James Ward, R.A., one of the most distinguished animal painters of
+the present time. Such a cut, though executed by simple
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page596" id = "page596">
+596</a></span>
+means, affords an excellent test of a learner’s skill and
+discrimination: the hide is smooth and glossy; the mane is thick and
+tangled; the long flowing hair of the tail has to be represented in a
+proper manner; and the markings of the joints require the exercise of
+both judgment and skill. By attending to such distinctions at the
+commencement of his career, he will find less difficulty in representing
+objects by appropriate texture when he shall have made greater progress,
+and will not be entirely dependent on a designer to <i>lay in</i> for
+him every line. An engraver who requires every line to be drawn, and who
+is only capable of executing a fac-simile of a design made for him on
+the block, can never excel.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_596" id = "illus_596">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_596.png" width = "329" height = "205"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>As enough perhaps has been said in explanation of the manner of
+cutting tints, and of figures chiefly represented by single lines,
+I&nbsp;shall now give a cut&mdash;Jacob blessing the children of
+Joseph&mdash;in which single-lined figures and tint are combined. It is
+necessary to observe that this cut is not introduced as a good specimen
+of engraving, but as being well adapted, from the simplicity of its
+execution, to illustrate what I have to say. The figures are represented
+by single lines, which require the exercise of no great degree of skill;
+and by the introduction of a varied tint as a back-ground the cut
+appears like a complete subject, and not like a sketch, or a detached
+group.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary to remark here, that when comparatively light
+objects, such as the figures here seen, are to be relieved by a tint of
+any kind, whether darker or lighter, such objects are now generally
+separated from it by a black outline. The reason for leaving such an
+outline in parts where the conjunction of the tint and the figures does
+not render it absolutely <i>necessary</i> is this: as those parts in a
+cut which appear white
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page597" id = "page597">
+597</a></span>
+in the impression are to be cut away&mdash;as has already been
+explained,&mdash;it frequently happens that when they are cut away
+<i>first</i>, and the tint cut afterwards, the wood breaks away near the
+termination of the line before the tool arrives at the blank or white.
+It is, therefore, extremely difficult to preserve a distinct outline in
+this manner, and hence a black <i>conventional</i> outline is introduced
+in those parts where properly there ought to be none, except such as is
+formed by the tint <i>relieving</i> against the white parts, as is seen
+in the back part of the head of Jacob in the present cut, where there is
+no other outline than that which is formed by the tint relieving against
+his white cap. Bewick used to execute all his subjects in this manner;
+but he not unfrequently carried this principle too far, not only running
+the lines of his tints into the white on the <i>light</i> side of his
+figures,&mdash;that is, on the side on which the light falls,&mdash;but
+also on both sides of a light object.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_597" id = "illus_597">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_597.png" width = "274" height = "310"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Before dismissing this part of the subject, it is necessary to
+observe further, that when the white parts are cut away before the tint
+is introduced, the conventional black outline is very liable to be cut
+through by the tool slipping. This will be rendered more intelligible by
+an inspection of the following cut,<a class = "tag" name = "tagIX21" id
+= "tagIX21" href = "#noteIX21">IX.21</a> where the house is seen
+finished,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page598" id = "page598">
+598</a></span>
+and the part where a tint is intended to be subsequently engraved
+appears black. Any person in the least acquainted with the practice of
+wood engraving, will perceive, that should the tool happen to slip when
+near the finished parts, in coming directly towards them, it will be
+very likely to cut the outline through, and to make a breach in
+proportion as such outline may be thin, and thus yield more readily to
+the force of the tool.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_598" id = "illus_598">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_598a.png" width = "214" height = "144"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>When the tint is cut <i>first</i>, instead of being left to be
+executed last, as it would be in the preceding cut, the mass of wood out
+of which the house is subsequently engraved serves as a kind of barrier
+to the tool in the event of its slipping, and allows of the tint being
+cut with less risk quite up to the white outline. By attending to such
+matters, and considering what part of a subject can be most safely
+executed first, a&nbsp;learner will both avoid the risk of cutting
+through his outline, and be enabled to execute his work with comparative
+facility. The following cut is an example of the tint being cut first.
+For the information of those who are unacquainted with the process of
+wood engraving, it is necessary to remark that the parts which appear
+positively black are those which remain untouched by the graver.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/illus_598b.png" width = "216" height = "129"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page599" id = "page599">
+599</a></span>
+
+<p>The following subject, copied from one of Rembrandt’s etchings, is
+chiefly represented by black lines crossing each other. Such lines,
+usually termed <i>cross-hatchings</i>, are executed with great facility
+in copper and steel, where they are cut <i>into</i> the metal; but in
+wood engraving, where they are left in <i>relief</i>, it requires
+considerable time and attention to execute them with delicacy and
+precision. In order to explain more clearly the difficulty of executing
+cross-hatchings, let it be conceived that this cut is a drawing made on
+a block, and that the engraver’s object is to produce a fac-simile of
+it: now, as each black line is to be left in relief, it is evident that
+he cannot imitate the cross-hatchings seen in the arms, the neck, and
+other parts, by cutting the lines continuously as in engraving on
+copper, which puts black <i>in</i> by means of an incision, while in
+wood engraving a similar line takes it <i>out</i>. As the wood engraver,
+then, can only obtain white by cutting out the parts that are to appear
+so in the impression, while the black is to be left in relief, the only
+manner in which he is enabled to represent <i>cross-hatchings</i>, or
+<i>black lines crossing each other</i>, is to cut out singly with his
+graver every one of the white interstices. Such an operation, as will be
+evident from an inspection of this cut, necessarily requires not only
+patience, but also considerable skill to perform it in a proper
+manner,&mdash;that is, to cut each
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page600" id = "page600">
+600</a></span>
+white space cleanly out, and to preserve the lines of a regular
+thickness. From the supposed impossibility of executing such cross
+lines, it has been conjectured that many of the old wood-cuts containing
+such work were engraved in metallic relief: this opinion, however, is
+sufficiently refuted, by the fact of hundreds of blocks containing
+cross-hatchings being still in existence, and by the much more delicate
+and difficult work of the same kind displayed in modern wood engravings.
+Not only are cross-hatchings of the greatest delicacy now executed in
+England, but to such a degree of refinement is the process occasionally
+carried, that small black <i>touches</i>&mdash;such as may be perceived
+in the preceding cut in the folds of the sleeve above the elbow of the
+right arm&mdash;are left in the white interstices between the lines.
+Cross-hatchings, where the interstices are entirely white, are executed
+by means of a lozenge-pointed tool, and the piece of wood is removed at
+two <i>cuts</i>, each beginning at the opposite angles. Where a small
+black touch is left within the interstices, the operation becomes more
+difficult, and is performed by cutting round such minute touch of black
+with a finely pointed graver.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_599" id = "illus_599">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_599.png" width = "296" height = "329"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The various conjectures that have been propounded respecting the mode
+in which cross-hatchings have been effected in old wood-cuts require no
+argument to refute them, as they are directly contradicted both by
+undoubted historical facts, and by every day’s experience. Vegetable
+putties, punches, and metallic relief are nothing but the trifling
+speculations of persons who are fonder of propounding theories to
+display their own ingenuity than willing to investigate facts in order
+to arrive at the truth. It has happened rather unfortunately, that most
+persons who have hitherto written upon the subject have known very
+little about the practice of wood engraving, and have not thought it
+worth their while to consult those who were able to give them
+information. There is, however, no fear now of a young wood engraver
+being deterred from attempting cross-hatchings on learning from certain
+heretofore authorities on the subject that such work could not be
+executed on wood. He now laughs at <i>vegetable putties</i>,
+<i>square-pointed punches</i> for indenting the block to produce
+cross-hatchings, and <i>metallic relief</i>: by means of his graver
+alone he produces a practical refutation of every baseless theory that
+has been propounded on the subject.</p>
+
+<p>The right leg of Dentatus in Mr. Harvey’s large wood engraving after
+Mr. Haydon’s picture is perhaps the most beautiful specimen of
+cross-hatching that ever was executed on wood; and, in my opinion, it is
+the best engraved part of the whole subject. Through the kindness of Mr.
+Harvey, I&nbsp;have obtained a cast of this portion of the block, from
+which the present impression is printed. The lines showing the muscular
+rotundity and action of the limb are as admirably <i>laid in</i> as they
+are beautifully engraved. In the wider and stronger cross-hatchings
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page601" id = "page601">
+601</a></span>
+of the drapery above, the small black touches previously mentioned are
+perceived in the lozenge-shaped interstices.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_601" id = "illus_601">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_601.png" width = "324" height = "477"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>From an opinion that the excellence of an engraving consists chiefly
+in the difficulty of its execution, we now frequently find
+cross-hatchings in several modern wood-cuts, more especially in such as
+are manufactured for the French market, where a better effect would have
+been produced by simpler means. Cross-hatchings, <i>properly
+introduced</i>, undoubtedly improve a subject; and some parts of large
+figures, such as the leg of Dentatus, cannot be well expressed without
+their aid, as a series of curved lines on a limb, when not crossed,
+generally cause it to appear stiff and rigid. By crossing them, however,
+by other lines properly <i>laid in</i>, the part assumes a most soft and
+natural appearance.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page602" id = "page602">
+602</a></span>
+<p>As the greatest advantage which wood engraving possesses over copper
+is the effective manner in which strongly contrasted light and shade can
+be represented, Rembrandt’s etchings,&mdash;which, like his paintings,
+are distinguished by the skilful management of the
+chiaro-scuro&mdash;form excellent studies for the engraver or designer
+on wood who should wish to become well acquainted with the capabilities
+of the art. A&nbsp;delicate wood-cut, executed in imitation of a smooth
+steel-engraving of “sober grey” tone, is sure to be tame and insipid;
+and whenever wood engravers attempt to give to their cuts the appearance
+of copper or steel-plates, and neglect the peculiar advantages of their
+own art, they are sure to fail, notwithstanding the pains they may
+bestow. Their work, instead of being commended as a successful
+application of the peculiar means of the art, is in effect condemned by
+being regarded as “a&nbsp;clever <i>imitation</i> of a
+copper-plate.”</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_602" id = "illus_602">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_602.png" width = "323" height = "360"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The above cut of Christ and the Woman of Samaria, copied from an
+etching by Rembrandt, will perhaps more forcibly illustrate what has
+been said with respect to wood engraving being excellently adapted to
+effectively express strong contrasts of light and shade. The original
+etching&mdash;which has been faithfully copied&mdash;is a good example
+of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page603" id = "page603">
+603</a></span>
+Rembrandt’s consummate skill in the management of chiaro-scuro;
+everything that he has wished to forcibly express immediately arrests
+the eye, while in the whole design nothing appears abrupt. The extremes
+of light and shade concentre in the principal figure, that of Christ,
+and to this everything else in the composition is either subordinate or
+accessory. The middle tint under the arched passage forms a medium
+between the darkness of Christ’s robe and the shade under the curve of
+the nearest arch, and the light in the front of his figure is gradually
+carried off to the left through the medium of the woman and the distant
+buildings, which gradually approach to the colour of the paper. Were a
+tint, however delicate, introduced in this subject to represent the sky,
+the effect would be destroyed; the parts which are now so effective
+would appear spotted and confused, and have a crude, unfinished
+appearance. By the injudicious introduction of a tinted sky many
+wood-cuts, which would otherwise be striking and effective, are quite
+spoiled.</p>
+
+<p>It but too frequently happens when works are illustrated with
+wood-cuts, that subjects are chosen which the art cannot successfully
+represent. Whether the work to be illustrated be matter of fact or
+fiction, the designer, unless he be acquainted both with the
+capabilities and defects of the art, seldom thinks of more than making a
+drawing according to his own fancy, and never takes into consideration
+the means by which it has to be executed. To this inattention may be
+traced many failures in works illustrated with wood-cuts, and for which
+the engraver is censured, although he may have, with great care and
+skill, accomplished all that the art could effect. An artist who is
+desirous that his designs, when engraved on wood, should appear like
+impressions from <i>over-done</i> steel-plates, ought never to be
+employed to make drawings for wood engravers: he does not understand the
+peculiar advantages of the art, and his designs will only have a
+tendency to bring it into contempt, while those who execute them will be
+blamed for the defects which are the result of his want of
+knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>Delicate wood engravings which are made to look well in a proof on
+India paper by rubbing the ink partially off the block in the lighter
+parts&mdash;in the manner described by Papillon at page
+466&mdash;generally present a very different appearance when printed,
+either with or without types in the same page. Lines which are cut too
+thin are very liable to turn down in printing from their want of
+support; and hence cuts consisting chiefly of such lines are seldom so
+durable as those which display more black, and are executed in a more
+bold and effective style. A&nbsp;designer who understands the
+peculiarities of wood engraving will avoid introducing delicate lines in
+parts where they receive no support from others of greater strength or
+closeness near to them, but are exposed
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page604" id = "page604">
+604</a></span>
+to the unmitigated force of the press. Cuts in proportion to the
+quantity of <i>colour</i> which they display are so much the better
+enabled to bear the action of the press; the delicate lines which they
+contain, from their receiving support from the others, are not only less
+liable to break down, but, from their contrast with the darker parts of
+the subject, appear to greater advantage than in a cut which is of a
+uniformly grey tone. I&nbsp;am not, however, the advocate of
+<i>black</i>, and little else, in a wood-cut; on the contrary, I&nbsp;am
+perfectly aware of the absurdity of introducing patches of black without
+either meaning or effect. What I wish to inculcate is, that a wood-cut
+to have a good effect must contain more of properly contrasted black and
+white than those who wish their cuts to appear like imitations of steel
+or copper-plate engravings are willing to allow. As wood engraving is
+not well adapted to represent subjects requiring great delicacy of lines
+and variety of tints, such will be generally avoided by a designer who
+understands the art; while, on the contrary, he will avail himself of
+its advantages in representing well contrasted light and shade in a
+manner superior to either copper-plate or steel engraving. Of all modern
+engravers on wood, none understood the advantages of their art in this
+respect better than Bewick and Clennell: the cuts of their engraving are
+generally the most effective that have ever been executed.</p>
+
+<p>Night-pieces, where the light is seen proceeding from a lantern,
+a&nbsp;lamp, or any other luminous object, can be well represented by
+means of wood engraving, although such subjects are very seldom
+attempted. An engraved wood-block, which contains a considerable
+proportion of positive black, prints much better than a copper-plate
+engraving of the same kind; in the former the ink is distributed of an
+even thickness over the <i>surface</i>, and is evenly pressed upon the
+paper; in the latter the ink forms a little pool in the <i>hollowed
+parts</i>, and, instead of being evenly taken up by the paper which is
+<i>pressed into</i> it, adheres only partially, thus giving in the
+corresponding parts a blurred appearance to the impression. For the
+effective representation of such scenes as Meg Merrilies watching by a
+feeble light the dying struggles of a smuggler, or Dirk Hatterick in the
+Cave, from Sir Walter Scott’s Guy Mannering, wood engraving is
+peculiarly adapted,&mdash;that is, supposing the designer, in addition
+to possessing a knowledge of chiaro-scuro, to be also capable of drawing
+correctly, and of treating the subject with proper <i>feeling</i>. Some
+idea of the capability of the art in this respect may be formed from the
+following cut&mdash;the Flight into Egypt,&mdash;copied from an etching
+by Rembrandt. The mere work in this cut is of a very simple character;
+there are no lines of difficult execution; and the only parts that are
+lowered are those which represent the rays of light seen proceeding from
+the lantern.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page605" id = "page605">
+605</a></span>
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_605" id = "illus_605">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_605.png" width = "320" height = "386"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>As the wood engraver can always get his subject <i>lighter</i>, but
+cannot reproduce the black which he has cut away, he ought to be careful
+not to get his subject too light before he has taken a proof; and even
+in reducing the <i>colour</i> according to the touchings of the designer
+on the proof, he ought to proceed with great circumspection; and where
+his own judgment informs him that to take out all the black marked for
+excision would be to spoil the cut, the safest mode would be to take out
+only a part, and not remove all at once; for by strictly adhering to the
+directions of an artist who knows very little of the real advantages of
+wood engraving, it will not unfrequently happen that the cut so amended
+will to himself, when printed, appear worse than it did in its first
+state. In the following cut too much has been done in this respect; it
+has been touched and retouched so often, in order to make it appear
+delicate, that the spirit of the original drawing has been entirely
+lost. In this instance the fault was not that of the artist, but of the
+engraver, who “would not let well alone;” but, in order to improve his
+work, as he
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page606" id = "page606">
+606</a></span>
+fancied, kept <i>trimming</i> the parts which gave effect to the whole
+till he made it what it now appears. So far as relates to the execution
+of the lines, the subject need not have been better; but, from the
+engraver’s having taken away too much colour in places where it was
+necessary, the whole has the appearance of middle tint, the excellence
+of the original drawing is lost, and in its stead we have a dull, misty,
+spiritless wood engraving.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_606a" id = "illus_606a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_606a.png" width = "331" height = "240"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>In every cut there ought to be a principal object to first arrest the
+attention; and if this cannot be effected from want of interest in such
+object considered singly, the designer ought to make the general subject
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page607" id = "page607">
+607</a></span>
+pleasing to the eye by skilful composition or combination of forms, and
+the effective distribution of light and shade.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_606b" id = "illus_606b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_606b.png" width = "337" height = "244"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The preceding cut&mdash;a moonlight scene&mdash;when compared with
+the previous one, will show how much depends on an engraver having a
+proper <i>feeling</i> for his subject. So far as relates to the mere
+execution of the lines, this cut is decidedly inferior to the former;
+but, viewed as a production of art, and as a spirited representation of
+the original drawing, it is very much superior: in the former we see
+little more than mechanical dexterity; while in the latter we perceive
+that the engraver has, from a greater knowledge of his art, produced a
+pleasing effect by comparatively simple means. The former cut displays
+more mechanical skill; the latter more artistic feeling. The one
+contains much delicate work, but is deficient in spirit; the other,
+which has been produced with little more than half the labour, is more
+effective because the subject has been better understood.</p>
+
+<p>The following cut, representing a landscape, with the effect of the
+setting sun, displays great delicacy of execution; but the labour here
+is not thrown away, as in the sea-piece just mentioned: manual dexterity
+in the use of the graver is combined with the knowledge of an artist,
+and the result is a wood engraving at once delicate in execution and
+spirited in its general effect.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_607" id = "illus_607">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_607.png" width = "337" height = "242"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>A volume might be filled with examples and comments on them, and I
+might, like Papillon, <i>instruct</i> the reader in the practice of the
+art, by informing him how many times the graver would have to enter the
+wood in order to produce a certain number of lines in relief; but I have
+no inclination to do either the one or the other: my object is to make
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page608" id = "page608">
+608</a></span>
+a few observations on some of the most important and least understood
+points in the practice of wood engraving, and to illustrate them with
+examples, rather than to enter into minute details, which would be
+uninteresting to the general reader, and useless to the learner who has
+made any progress in the art. The person who wishes to acquire a
+knowledge of wood engraving, with the view of practising it
+professionally, must generally be guided by his own judgment and
+feeling; for he who requires the aid of rules and examples in every
+possible case will never attain excellence. A&nbsp;learner ought not to
+put much trust in what is said about the beautiful wood-cuts&mdash;or
+<i>plates</i>, as some critics call them&mdash;which appear in modern
+publications. He ought to examine for himself, and not pin his faith to
+ephemeral commendations, which are often the customary acknowledgment
+for a presentation copy of the work. It is not unusual to find very
+ordinary wood-cuts praised as displaying the very perfection of the art,
+while others of much greater merit are entirely overlooked.</p>
+
+<p>The person who wishes to excel as a wood engraver,&mdash;that is, to
+display in his cuts the knowledge and feeling of an artist, as well as
+the mechanical dexterity of a workman,&mdash;ought always to bear in
+mind that those who rank highest in modern times, not only as engravers,
+but also as designers on wood, have generally adopted the simplest means
+of effecting their purpose, and have never introduced unmeaning
+cross-hatchings, when working from their own drawings, merely to display
+their skill in execution. In representing a peasant supping his
+porridge, they have not spent a day on the figure, and two in delicately
+engraving the bowl. It may almost be said that Bewick never employed
+cross-hatchings; for, in the two or three instances in which he
+introduced such lines, it has been rather for the sake of experiment
+than to improve the appearance of the cut. Though one of the finest
+specimens of this kind of work ever executed on wood is to be found in
+Mr. Harvey’s cut of Dentatus, yet, on other occasions, when he engraved
+his own designs, he seldom introduced cross-hatchings when he could
+accomplish the same object by simpler means. A&nbsp;wood engraving,
+viewed as a <i>work of art</i>, is <i>not</i> good in proportion as many
+of its parts have the appearance of fine lace. Bewick’s birds and
+tail-pieces are not, in my opinion, less excellent because they do not
+display so much <i>work</i> as a modern wood-cut which contains numerous
+cross-hatchings. Several of the best French designers on wood of the
+present day appear to have formed erroneous opinions on this subject;
+and hence we find in many of their designs much of the engraver’s time
+spent in the execution of parts which are unimportant, while others,
+where expression or feeling ought to be shown, are treated in a careless
+manner. Many of their designs seem to have been made rather to test the
+patience
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page609" id = "page609">
+609</a></span>
+of the engraver as a <i>workman</i> than to display his ability as an
+<i>artist</i>. The following cut, from a cast of a part of the Death of
+Dentatus, is introduced to show in how simple and effective a manner Mr.
+Harvey has represented the shield of the hero. An inferior artist would
+be very likely to represent such an object by means of complicated
+lines, which, while they would be less effective, would require nearly a
+week to engrave.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_609" id = "illus_609">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_609.png" width = "401" height = "507"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Considering the number of wood engravings that are yearly executed in
+this country, it is rather surprising that there should hitherto have
+been so few persons capable of making a good drawing on wood. Till
+within
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page610" id = "page610">
+610</a></span>
+the last few years, it might be said that there was probably not more
+than one <i>artist</i> in the kingdom possessing a knowledge of design
+who professionally devoted himself to making drawings on the block for
+wood engravers. Whenever a good original design is wanted, there are
+still but few persons to whom the English wood engraver can apply with
+the certainty of obtaining it; for though some of our most distinguished
+painters have occasionally furnished designs to be engraved on wood, it
+has mostly been as a matter of especial favour to an individual who had
+an interest in the work in which such designs were to appear. In this
+respect we are behind our French neighbours; the more common kind of
+French wood-cuts containing figures are much superior to our own of the
+same class; the drawing is much more correct, more attention is paid to
+costume, and in the details we perceive the indications of much greater
+knowledge of art than is generally to be found in the productions of our
+second-rate occasional designers on wood. It cannot be said that this
+deficiency results from want of encouragement; for a designer on wood,
+of even moderate abilities, is better paid for his drawings than a
+second-rate painter is for his pictures. The truth is, that a taste for
+correct drawing has hitherto not been sufficiently cultivated in
+England: our artists are painters before they can draw; and hence,
+comparatively few can make a good design on wood. They require the aid
+of positive colours to deceive the eye, and prevent it from resting upon
+the defects of their drawing. It is therefore of great importance that a
+wood engraver should have some knowledge of drawing himself, in order
+that he may be able to correct many of the defects that are to be found
+in the commoner kind of subjects sent to him to be engraved.</p>
+
+<p>In the execution of subjects which require considerable time, but
+little more than the exercise of mechanical skill, it is frequently
+advisable to adopt the principle of <i>the division of labour</i>, and
+have the work performed, as it were, by instalments, allotting to each
+person that portion of the subject which he is likely to execute best.
+In this manner the annexed cut of Rouen Cathedral has been engraved by
+four different persons; and the result of their joint labours is such a
+work as not even the best engraver of the four could have executed by
+himself. Each having to do but a little, and that of the kind of work in
+which he excelled, has worked <i>con amore</i>, and finished his task
+before he became weary of it.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture w450">
+<p><a name = "illus_611" id = "illus_611">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_611.png" width = "408" height = "585"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+ROUEN CATHEDRAL.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Though copper-plate engraving has a great advantage over wood when
+applied to the execution of maps, in consequence of the greater delicacy
+that can be given to the different shades and lines, indicating hills,
+rivers, and the boundaries of districts, and also from the number of
+names that can be introduced, and from the comparative facility of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page611" id = "page611">
+611</a></span>
+executing them; yet, as maps engraved on copper, however simple they may
+be, require to be printed separately, by means of a <ins class =
+"correction" title = "comma invisible">rolling-press,</ins> the
+unavoidable expense frequently renders it impossible to give such maps,
+even when necessary, in books published at a low price. Under
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page612" id = "page612">
+612</a></span>
+such circumstances, where little more than outlines, with the course of
+rivers, and comparatively few names, are required, wood engraving
+possesses an advantage over copper, as such maps can be executed at a
+very moderate expense, and printed with the letter-press of the work for
+which they are intended. As the names in maps engraved on wood are the
+most difficult parts of the subject, the method of drilling holes in the
+block and inserting the names in type&mdash;as was adopted in the maps
+to Sebastian Munster’s Cosmography, Basle, 1550,<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIX22" id = "tagIX22" href = "#noteIX22">IX.22</a>&mdash;has recently
+been revived. The names in the outline maps contained in the Penny
+Cyclopædia are inserted in this manner. Had those maps not been engraved
+on wood, it would have been impossible that any could have been given in
+the work, as the low price at which it is published would
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page613" id = "page613">
+613</a></span>
+not have allowed of their being engraved on copper, and, consequently,
+printed by means of a rolling-press at an additional expense.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_612" id = "illus_612">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_612.png" width = "345" height = "417"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>When, however, a map is of small dimensions, and several names in
+letters of comparatively large size are required to be given, this
+method of piercing the block can scarcely be applied without great risk
+of its breaking to pieces under the press, in consequence of its being
+weakened in parts by the holes drilled through it being so near
+together.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIX23" id = "tagIX23" href =
+"#noteIX23">IX.23</a> This inconvenience, however, may be remedied by
+engraving the names in <i>intaglio</i> where they are most numerous, and
+afterwards cutting a <i>tint</i> over them, so that when printed they
+may appear white on a dark ground. Other names beyond the boundary of
+the map can be inserted, where necessary, in type. The preceding
+skeleton map of England and Wales, showing the divisions of the counties
+and the course of the principal rivers, has been executed in this
+manner: all the names on the land, and the courses of the rivers, were
+first engraved on the smooth surface of the block in
+<i>intaglio</i>&mdash;in less than a third of the time which would have
+been required to engrave them in relief; the tint was next cut; and
+lastly, the block was pierced, and all the other names inserted in type,
+with the exception of the word “ENGLAND” in the title, which was
+engraved in the same manner as the names on the land.</p>
+
+<p>As what has been previously said about the practice of the art
+relates entirely to engraving where the lines are of the same height, or
+in the same plane, and when the impression is supposed to be obtained by
+the pressure of a flat surface, I&nbsp;shall now proceed to explain the
+practice of lowering, by which operation the surface of the block is
+either scraped away from the centre towards the sides, or, as may be
+required, hollowed out in other places. The object of thus lowering a
+block is, that the lines in such places may be less exposed to pressure
+in printing, and thus appear lighter than if they were of the same
+height as the others. This method, though it has been claimed as a
+modern invention, is of considerable antiquity, having been practised in
+1538, as has been previously observed at <a href =
+"WoodEngraving7.html#page462">page 462</a>. Instances of lowering are
+very frequent in cuts engraved by Bewick; but until within the last five
+or six years the practice was not resorted to by south-country
+engravers. It is absolutely necessary that wood-cuts intended to be
+printed by a steam-press should be lowered in such parts as are to
+appear light; for, as the pressure on the cut proceeds from the even
+surface of a metal cylinder covered with a blanket, there is no means of
+<i>helping</i> a cut, as is generally done when printed by a hand-press,
+by means of <i>overlays</i>. Overlaying consists in pasting pieces of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page614" id = "page614">
+614</a></span>
+paper either on the front or at the back of the outer tympan,
+immediately over such parts of the block as require to be printed dark;
+and the effect of this is to increase the action of the platten on those
+parts, and to diminish it on such as are not overlaid. When lowered
+blocks are printed at a common press, it is necessary that a blanket
+should be used in the tympans, in order that the paper may be pressed
+into the hollowed or lowered parts, and the lines thus <i>brought
+up</i>. The application of the steam-press to printing lowered wood-cuts
+may be considered as an epoch in the history of wood engraving.
+Wood-cuts were first printed <i>by a steam-press</i> at Messrs. Clowes
+and Sons’ establishment,<a class = "tag" name = "tagIX24" id = "tagIX24"
+href = "#noteIX24">IX.24</a> and since that time <i>lowering</i> has
+been more generally practised than at any former period.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_614" id = "illus_614">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_614.png" width = "330" height = "397"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page615" id = "page615">
+615</a></span>
+<p>By means of simply lowering the edges of a block, so that the surface
+shall be convex instead of plane, the lines are made to diminish in
+strength as they recede from the centre until they become gradually
+blended with the white paper on which the cut is printed. This is the
+most simple mode of lowering, and is now frequently adopted in such cuts
+as are termed <i>vignettes</i>,&mdash;that is, such as are not bounded
+by definite lines surrounding them in the manner of a border. In the
+preceding cut, representing a group from Sir David Wilkie’s painting of
+the Village Festival, in the National Gallery, the light appearance of
+the lines towards the edges has been produced in this manner.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Landseer, in his Lectures on Engraving, observes that hard edges
+are incident to wood-cut vignettes. He was not aware of the means by
+which this objectionable appearance could be remedied. The following are
+his observations on this subject: “A&nbsp;principal beauty in most
+vignettes consists in the delicacy with which they appear to relieve
+from the white paper on which they are printed. The objects of which
+vignettes consist, themselves forming the boundary of the composition,
+their extremities should for the most part be tenderly blended&mdash;be
+almost melted, as it were, into the paper, or ground. Now, in printing
+with the letter-press, the pressure is rather the strongest at the
+extremities of the engraving, where we wish it to be weakest, and it is
+so from the unavoidable swelling of the damp paper on which the
+impressions are worked, and the softness of the blankets in the tympans
+of the press. Hence, hard, instead of soft edges, are incident to
+vignettes engraven on wood, which all the care of the printer, with all
+the modern accuracy of his machine, can rarely avoid.”</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Landseer’s objection to vignettes engraved on wood applies only
+to such as are engraved on a plane surface, since by lowering the block
+towards the edges, lines gradually blending with the white paper can be
+obtained with the greatest facility. For the representation of such
+subjects,&mdash;supposing that their principal beauty consists in “the
+delicacy with which they appear to relieve from the white
+paper,”&mdash;wood engraving is as well adapted as engraving on copper
+or steel. Though it is certainly desirable that the lines in a vignette
+should gradually become blended with the colour of the paper, yet
+something more is required in an engraving of this kind, whether on wood
+or on metal. Much depends on its form harmonizing with the composition
+of the subject: a&nbsp;beautiful drawing reduced to an irregular shape,
+and having the edges merely softened, will not always constitute a good
+vignette. Of this we have but too many instances in modern copper-plate
+engravings, as well as wood-cuts. Of all modern artists J.&nbsp;M.
+W.&nbsp;Turner, R.A., and W.&nbsp;Harvey appear to excel in giving to
+their vignettes a form suitable to the composition.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page616" id = "page616">
+616</a></span>
+<p>Perhaps it may not be out of place to say a few words here on the
+original meaning of the word <i>vignette</i>, which is now generally
+used to signify either a wood-cut or a copper-plate engraving which is
+not inclosed by definite lines forming a border. The word is French, and
+is synonymous with the Latin <i>viticula</i>, which means a little vine,
+or a vine shoot, such as is here represented.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_616" id = "illus_616">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_616a.png" width = "335" height = "138"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<div class = "capital">
+<p class = "capital">&nbsp;</p>
+<p class = "first"><span class = "firstword"><span class =
+"hidden">C</span>apital</span> letters in ancient manuscripts were
+called by old writers <i>viticulæ</i>, or <i>vignettes</i>, in
+consequence of their being frequently ornamented with flourishes in the
+manner of vine branches or shoots. The letter C, forming the
+commencement of this paragraph, is an example of an old vignette; it is
+copied from a manuscript apparently of the thirteenth century, formerly
+belonging to the monastery of Durham, but now in the British Museum.
+Subsequently the word was used to signify any large ornament at the top
+of a page; in the seventeenth century all kinds of printer’s ornaments,
+such as flowers, head and tail-pieces, were generally termed vignettes;
+and more recently the word has been used to express all kinds of
+wood-cuts or copper-plate engravings which, like the group from the
+Village Festival, are not inclosed within a definite border. Rabelais
+uses the word to denote certain ornaments of goldsmith’s work on the
+scabbard of a sword; and our countryman Lydgate thus employs it in his
+Troy
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page618" id = "page618">
+618</a></span>
+Book to denote the sculptured foliage and tracery at the sides of a
+window:</p>
+
+<div class = "capbottom">
+<div class = "verse">
+<p class = "open">“And if I should rehearsen by and by</p>
+<p>The corve knots, by craft and masonry,</p>
+<p>The fresh embowing with virges right as lines,</p>
+<p>And the housing full of backewines,</p>
+<p>The rich coining, the lusty battlements,</p>
+<p><i>Vinettes</i> running in casements.”</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class = "mynote">
+<p><a href = "#page_image">Page image</a> showing original layout.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page617" id = "page617">
+[617]</a></span>
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_617" id = "illus_617">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_617.png" width = "490" height = "750"
+alt = "decorative capitals: O Q H I E F F D G V B"></p>
+
+<p>The additional specimens of ornamental capitals on the preceding page
+are chiefly taken from Shaw’s Alphabets, in which will be found a great
+variety of capitals of all ages.</p>
+
+<p>Before introducing any examples of concave lowering in the middle of
+a cut, it seems necessary to give first a familiar illustration of the
+principle, in order that what is subsequently said upon this subject may
+be the more readily understood.&mdash;The crown-piece of George IV.,
+which every reader can refer to, will afford the necessary
+illustrations. As the head of the King on the obverse, and the figures
+of St. George, the horse, and the dragon, on the reverse, are in
+<i>relief</i>,&mdash;that is, higher than the field,&mdash;it is
+evident, that if the coin were printed, each side separately, by means
+of pressure from an even surface, whether plane or cylindrical, covered
+with a yielding material, such as a blanket or woollen cloth, so as to
+press the paper against the field or lower parts, the impressions would
+appear as follows,&mdash;that is, with the parts in relief darkest, and
+the lower proportionably lighter from their being less exposed to
+pressure.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_618" id = "illus_618">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_618.png" width = "360" height = "147"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+IMPRESSIONS FROM A SURFACE WITH THE FIGURES IN RELIEF.</p>
+
+<p>If casts be taken of each side of the same coin, the parts which in
+the original are raised, or in <i>relief</i>, will then be concave, or
+in <i>intaglio</i>;<a class = "tag" name = "tagIX25" id = "tagIX25" href
+= "#noteIX25">IX.25</a> and if such casts be printed in the manner of
+wood-cuts, the impressions will appear as in the opposite
+page,&mdash;that is, the field
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page619" id = "page619">
+619</a></span>
+being now highest will appear positively black, while the figures now in
+<i>intaglio</i>, or <i>lowered</i>, as I should say when speaking of a
+wood-cut, will appear lighter in proportion to the concavity of the
+different parts.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_619" id = "illus_619">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_619.png" width = "355" height = "140"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+IMPRESSIONS FROM A SURFACE WITH THE FIGURES LOWERED, OR IN INTAGLIO.</p>
+
+<p>Upon a knowledge of the principle here exemplified the practice of
+lowering in wood engraving entirely depends. When a block is properly
+lowered, there is no occasion for overlays; and when cuts are to be
+printed at a steam-press,&mdash;where such means to increase the
+pressure in some parts and diminish it in others cannot be employed
+without great loss of time,&mdash;it becomes absolutely necessary that
+the blocks should be lowered in the parts where it is intended that the
+lines should appear light.</p>
+
+<p>In order that a cut should be printed properly without overlays,
+either at a common press with a blanket in the tympans, or at a
+steam-press where the cylinder is covered with woollen cloth, it is
+necessary that the parts intended to appear light should be lowered
+before the lines seen upon them are engraved; and the mode of proceeding
+in this case is as follows:&mdash;The designer being aware of the manner
+in which the cut is to be printed, and understanding the practice of
+lowering, first makes the drawing on the block in little more than
+outline,<a class = "tag" name = "tagIX26" id = "tagIX26" href =
+"#noteIX26">IX.26</a> and washes in with flake-white the parts which it
+is necessary to lower. The block is then sent to the engraver, who, with
+an instrument resembling a sharp-edged burnisher, or with a flat tool or
+chisel, scrapes or pares away the wood in the parts indicated. When the
+lowering is completed, the designer finishes the drawing, and the cut is
+engraved. It is necessary to observe, that unless the person who makes
+the drawing on the block perfectly understand the principle of lowering,
+and the purposes for which it is intended, he will never be able to
+design properly a subject intended to be printed by a steam-press.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page620" id = "page620">
+620</a></span>
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_620" id = "illus_620">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_620.png" width = "329" height = "276"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>When an object is to be represented dark upon a light ground, or upon
+middle tint, the first operation in beginning to lower the block is to
+cut a delicate white outline round the dark object, and proceed with a
+flat tool or a scraper, as may be most convenient, to take a thin
+shaving or paring off those parts on which the background or middle tint
+is to be engraved. The extent to which the block must be lowered will
+depend on the degree of lightness intended to be given to such parts. In
+Bewick’s time, when the pressmen used leather balls to ink the cuts and
+types, it was only necessary to take a very thin shaving off the block
+in order to produce the desired effect; as such balls, from the want of
+elasticity in the leather, which was comparatively hard and unyielding,
+would only touch lightly such parts as were below the level of the other
+lines and the face of the types: had the block been lowered to any
+considerable depth, such parts would not have received any ink, and
+consequently would not have shown the lines engraved on them in the
+impression. In the present day, when composition rollers are used, it is
+necessary to lower the parts intended to appear light to a much greater
+depth than formerly;<a class = "tag" name = "tagIX27" id = "tagIX27"
+href = "#noteIX27">IX.27</a> as such rollers, in consequence of their
+greater elasticity, are pressed, in the process of inking, to a
+considerably greater depth between the lines of a cut than the old
+leather balls. The preceding cut&mdash;a Shepherd’s Dog, drawn by
+W.&nbsp;Harvey,&mdash;is printed from
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page621" id = "page621">
+621</a></span>
+a block in which both the fore-ground and distance are lowered to give
+greater effect to the animal. If such a cut, printed in the same page
+with types, as it appears here, were inked with leather balls,
+a&nbsp;considerable portion of the lowered parts would not be visible.
+This cut illustrates the principle of printing from a surface&mdash;such
+as that of a coin&mdash;in which the head or figure is in relief.</p>
+
+<p>In the next cut, an Egret, from a drawing by W. Harvey, the figure of
+the bird appears white on a dark ground,&mdash;the reverse of the cut of
+the Shepherd’s Dog,&mdash;and is an example of lowering the block in the
+middle in the manner of a die with the figures in intaglio, or a cast
+from a coin in which the head or figures are in relief.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_621" id = "illus_621">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_621.png" width = "311" height = "273"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>In a cut of this kind the general form of the principal object
+required to be light is first lowered out, and the drawing of the figure
+being next completed upon the hollowed part, the engraver proceeds to
+cut the lines, beginning with the back-ground and finishing the
+principal object last. In cutting the lines in the hollowed part, the
+engraver uses such a tool, slightly curving upwards towards the point,
+as has been previously described at page 579. In lowering the principal
+object in a cut of this kind, the greatest attention is necessary in
+order that the hollowed parts may be gradually concave, and also of a
+sufficient depth. In performing this operation, the engraver is solely
+guided by his own judgment; and unless he have some practical knowledge
+of the extent to which composition balls and rollers will
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page622" id = "page622">
+622</a></span>
+penetrate in such hollowed parts, it is almost impossible that he should
+execute his work in a proper manner;&mdash;should he succeed, it will
+only be by chance, like a person shooting at a mark blindfolded. In such
+cases, though no special rules can be given, it is necessary to observe
+that the part lowered will, in proportion to its area, be exposed to
+receive nearly the same quantity of ink, and the same degree of
+pressure, as the lines on a level with the types. The <i>depth</i> to
+which such parts require to be lowered will consequently depend on their
+extent; and the degree of lightness intended to be given to the lines
+engraved on them. This, however, will be best illustrated by the annexed
+diagram. If, for instance, the part to be lowered extend from <span
+class = "smallroman">A</span> to <span class = "smallroman">B</span>, it
+will be necessary to hollow the block to the depth indicated by the
+dotted line <span class = "smallroman">A</span>&nbsp;c&nbsp;<span class
+= "smallroman">B</span>. Should it extend from <span class =
+"smallroman">A</span> to <span class = "smallroman">D</span>, it will
+require to be lowered to the depth of the dotted line <span class =
+"smallroman">A</span>&nbsp;e&nbsp;<span class = "smallroman">D</span> in
+order to obtain the same degree of lightness in colour as in the lowered
+part <span class = "smallroman">A</span>&nbsp;c&nbsp;<span class =
+"smallroman">B</span> of less area,&mdash;that is, supposing the
+engraved lines in both cases to be of equal delicacy.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_622" id = "illus_622">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_622a.png" width = "179" height = "16"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>As overlaying such delicately engraved cuts as require the greatest
+attention in printing occupies much time, and lays the press idle during
+the process, the additional sum charged per sheet for works containing a
+number of such cuts has frequently operated to the disadvantage of wood
+engraving, by causing its productions to be dispensed with in many books
+where they might have been introduced with great advantage, both as
+direct and incidental illustrations. It is, therefore, of great
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page623" id = "page623">
+623</a></span>
+importance to adapt the art of wood engraving to the execution of cuts
+of all kinds, whether comparatively coarse or of the greatest delicacy,
+so that they may be properly printed at the least possible expense.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/illus_622b.png" width = "327" height = "222"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The preceding cut, with the two following, which have all been
+lowered, would, if printed at a steam-press, appear nearly as well as
+they do in the present work, where they have been printed by means of a
+common press with a blanket. But such a subject&mdash;a winter-piece,
+with an ass and her foal standing near an old outhouse,&mdash;cannot be
+properly represented without lowering the block; for no overlaying would
+cause the lines indicating the thatch on the houses and the stacks, as
+seen through the snow, to appear so soft as they now do.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_623" id = "illus_623">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_623.png" width = "300" height = "236"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>In this cut of a Salmon Trout, with a view of Bywell Lock, on the
+river Tyne, both the fore-ground and the distance are lowered; the
+objects which appear comparatively dark in those parts are the least
+reduced, while those that appear lightest are such as are lowered to the
+greatest extent. The back of the fish, which appears dark in the
+impression, is in the block like a ridge, which is gradually lowered in
+a hollow curve towards the lower line. In such a cut as this, particular
+care ought to be taken not to lower too much those parts which come into
+immediate contact with a strong black outline, such as the back of the
+Salmon; for where the lowering in such parts is too abrupt, there is
+great risk of the lines engraved on them not being <i>brought up</i>,
+and thus causing the figure in relief to appear surrounded with a white
+line, as in the impressions from the crown-piece at page 618.</p>
+
+<p>By means of lowering, the black pony, on which a boy is seen riding,
+in the following cut, is much more effectively represented, than if the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page624" id = "page624">
+624</a></span>
+whole subject were engraved on a plane surface. The grey horse, and the
+light jacket of the rider, the ground, the garden wall, and the lightest
+of the trees, are all lowered in order to give greater effect to the
+pony.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_624a" id = "illus_624a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_624a.png" width = "308" height = "182"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>A cut which is properly lowered may not only be printed by a
+steam-press without overlays, but will also afford a much greater number
+of good impressions than one of the same kind engraved on a plane
+surface; for the more delicate parts, being lower than those adjacent to
+them, are thus saved from too much pressure, without the necessity of
+increasing it in other places. The preceding cut will serve to show
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page625" id = "page625">
+625</a></span>
+the advantages of lowering in this respect. It was originally engraved,
+from a drawing by William Harvey, for the Treatise on Cattle, published
+under the direction of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
+Knowledge. Though twelve thousand impressions have already been printed
+from it by means of Messrs. Clowes and Sons’ steam-press, it has not
+sustained the slightest injury in any part; and the present impression
+is scarcely inferior to the first proof. With the exception of clearing
+out the ink in two or three places, it has required no preparation or
+retouching to give it its present appearance. Had such a work as the
+Treatise on Cattle been printed at a common press without the blocks
+having been lowered, the cost of printing would have been at least
+double the sum charged by Messrs. Clowes; and the engraving, after so
+great a number of impressions had been taken, would have been
+considerably injured, if not quite spoiled.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_624b" id = "illus_624b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_624b.png" width = "357" height = "312"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>In complicated subjects, consisting of many figures, and in which the
+light and shade are much diversified, it becomes necessary to combine
+the two principles of lowering, which have been separately illustrated
+by the Dog and the Egret, and to adapt them according to circumstances,
+forming some parts convex, and making others concave, respectively, as
+the objects engraved on them are to appear dark or light. In order to
+illustrate this process of combined lowering, I&nbsp;have chosen a
+subject from Rembrandt&mdash;the Descent from the Cross&mdash;in which
+several figures are introduced, and in which the lights and shades are
+so much varied&mdash;in some parts blended by a delicate middle tint,
+and in others strongly contrasted&mdash;as to afford the greatest
+possible scope for the illustration of what is termed <i>lowering</i> in
+a wood engraving.</p>
+
+<p>The cut on the next page shows the appearance of an impression taken
+from the block before a single line had been engraved, except the
+<i>white</i> outline bounding the figures. All that is here seen has
+been effected by the flat tool and the scraper; the lightest parts are
+those that are most concave, the darkest those that are most convex. The
+parts which have the appearance of a middle tint are such as are reduced
+to a medium between the strongest light and the darkest shade. The
+impression in its present state has very much the appearance of an
+unfinished mezzotint.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_626" id = "illus_626">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_626.png" width = "328" height = "437"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>In order to render this example of complicated lowering more
+intelligible to those who have little knowledge of the subject, it seems
+necessary to give a detailed account of the process, even at the risk of
+repeating some previous explanations. In complicated as well as in
+simple subjects intended to be lowered, the design is first drawn in
+outline on the wood. In such a subject as that which is here given, the
+Descent from the Cross, it is necessary to cut a delicate <i>white</i>
+outline&mdash;such as is seen in the ladder&mdash;round all those parts
+where the true
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page626" id = "page626">
+626</a></span>
+outline appears dark against light, previous to lowering out those light
+parts which come into immediate contact with such as are dark. When a
+white outline has been cut where required, a&nbsp;thin shaving is to be
+taken off those parts which are intended to be a shade lighter than the
+middle tints,&mdash;for instance, in the rays of light falling upon the
+cross, and in the lower part of the sky. After this, the light parts of
+the ground and the figures are to be lowered; but, instead of taking a
+mere shaving off the latter, the depth to which they are to be hollowed
+out will depend on the form and size of the parts, and the strength of
+the light intended to appear on them; and where a series of delicate
+lines are to run into <i>pure white</i>, great care must be taken that
+the wood be sufficiently <i>bevelled</i> or rounded off to allow of
+their blending with the white, without their extremities forming a
+distinct line, more especially where rotundity is to be represented. In
+a block thus lowered, the parts intended to be lightest will be the most
+concave, and those intended to be darkest the most in relief; and, when
+printed, the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page627" id = "page627">
+627</a></span>
+impression will appear as in the following cut, in consequence of the
+lowered parts, in proportion to their depth, receiving both less ink and
+less pressure; while those that are to appear positively white are
+lowered to such an extent as to be neither touched by the ink, nor
+exposed to the action of the platten or cylinder.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_627" id = "illus_627">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_627.png" width = "333" height = "439"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>When the block has been thus prepared, the subject is drawn upon it
+in detail, and the engraving of the lines proceeded with. The sky, and
+the lighter and more distant objects, should be engraved first: and care
+ought to be taken not to get the lines too fine at the commencement,
+for, should this happen, there is no remedy for the defect. By keeping
+them comparatively strong, the darker objects can be executed in a
+corresponding degree of boldness; and should the proof be generally too
+dark, the necessary alterations can be easily made. The above cut of the
+Descent from the Cross is printed from the finished block; all the
+positive lines here seen having been engraved subsequent to the process
+of lowering.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page628" id = "page628">
+628</a></span>
+<p>It is necessary to observe that the process of engraving upon an
+uneven surface&mdash;such as that of the lowered block of the Descent
+from the Cross&mdash;is much more difficult than on a surface which is
+perfectly plane; for the graver in traversing such parts as are lowered
+is apt to lose its hold, and to slip in descending, while in ascending
+it is liable to take too much hold, and to <i>tear</i> rather than to
+clearly cut out the wood in certain parts, thus rendering the raised
+lines rough at the sides, and sometimes breaking them quite through. In
+order to remedy in some degree such inconveniences, it is necessary to
+use a graver slightly curving upwards towards the point.</p>
+
+<p>The process of lowering, as previously explained, is peculiarly
+adapted to give the appearance of proper texture to objects of Natural
+History, and in particular to birds, where it is often so desirable to
+impart a soft downy appearance to the plumage. Such softness can never
+be well represented by lines engraved on a perfectly level surface; for,
+however thin and fine they may be, they will always appear too distinct,
+and want that softness which can only be obtained by lowering the block,
+and printing it with a blanket in the tympans at a common press. Those
+who in engraving birds on a plane surface are fond of imitating the
+delicacy of copper-plate or steel engravings, always fail in their
+attempts to represent that soft appearance so peculiar to the plumage of
+birds, whatever may be its colour. Bewick’s Birds, in this respect, have
+never been equalled; and the softness displayed in the plumage has been
+chiefly obtained by lowering, and thus preventing such parts receiving
+too much ink or too much pressure. The characteristic expression of the
+bird, and the variety of texture in the plumage, are not indeed entirely
+dependent on this process; but the appearance of softness, and the
+general effect of the cut as a whole,&mdash;as exemplified in the Birds
+of Bewick,&mdash;are not otherwise to be obtained. Any wood engraver who
+doubts this, should attempt to copy, on an unlowered block, one of the
+best of Bewick’s birds; on comparing a printed impression of his work
+with the original, he will be likely to discover that he has thought too
+highly of his own practice, and too lightly of Bewick’s.</p>
+
+<p>Though chiaro-scuro drawings can be faithfully copied by means of
+wood engraving; yet the art, as applied to the execution of such works,
+has met with but little encouragement in this country, and has
+consequently been little practised. From 1754&mdash;the date of
+J.&nbsp;B. Jackson’s tract on the Invention of Engraving and Printing in
+Chiaro-scuro&mdash;to 1819, when the first part of Mr. Savage’s Hints on
+Decorative Printing was published, the only chiaro-scuro wood engravings
+which appear to have been published in England were those executed about
+1783, by an amateur of the name of John Skippe. The chiaro-scuros
+engraved by
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page629" id = "page629">
+629</a></span>
+Mr. Skippe do not appear to have been numerous; I&nbsp;have only seen
+three&mdash;St. John the Evangelist, St. Paul, and Hebe, all after
+drawings by Parmegiano. The latter is printed from four blocks, and each
+of the others from three. In point of execution, that of St. John is
+decidedly the best: it is much superior to any of the specimens given in
+J.&nbsp;B. Jackson’s work, and will bear a comparison with some of the
+best chiaro-scuros of Nicholas Le Sueur.</p>
+
+<p>Savage’s Hints on Decorative Printing, in two parts, 1819-1823,
+contains several specimens, not only of chiaro-scuro wood engravings,
+but also of subjects printed in positive colours from several
+wood-blocks, in imitation of coloured drawings. Some of the
+chiaro-scuros, properly so called, are well executed, though they
+generally seem too soft and <i>woolly</i>. The following are those which
+seem most worthy of notice:&mdash;A female Bacchante, from a bas-relief
+in the British Museum; Theseus, from the statue in the Elgin Collection
+of Marbles, in the British Museum; Copy of a bust in marble in the
+British Museum; Bridge and Landscape; Passage-boats; and a River Scene.
+For the representation of such subjects as the preceding, when drawn in
+sepia, wood engraving is peculiarly adapted.</p>
+
+<p>The simplest manner of representing a chiaro-scuro drawing is by
+printing a tint, with the lights cut out, from a second block, over the
+impression of a cut engraved in the usual manner. Chiaro-scuros of this
+kind have the appearance of pen-and-ink drawings made on tinted paper,
+and heightened with touches of white. The illustrations to an edition of
+Puckle’s Club were thus printed in 1820,&mdash;the year after they had
+appeared printed in the usual manner in a new edition of the
+work&mdash;but many of them are spoiled by the badly-chosen “fancy”
+colour of the tint.</p>
+
+<p>From the time of the publication of the second part of Savage’s
+Hints, and the tinted illustrations of Puckle’s Club, no further
+attempts appear to have been made to improve or extend the practice of
+chiaro-scuro engraving and printing in colours till Mr. George Baxter
+turned his attention to the subject. His first attempts in chiaro-scuro
+engraving are to be found in a History of Sussex, printed by his father
+at Lewes, in 1835. Mr. Baxter tried various experiments, and at length
+succeeded so much to his satisfaction, that he took out a patent for
+printing in oil-colours. The manner in which he executes picture-prints
+in positive colours, after drawings or paintings in oil, is
+<i>nearly</i> the same as that in which Kirkall executed his
+chiaro-scuros. The ground, the outlines, and the more minute details,
+are first printed in neutral tint from a plate engraved in aquatint; and
+over this impression the proper colours are printed from as many
+wood-blocks as there are different tints. The best specimens of Mr.
+Baxter’s printing in oil-colours, from wood-blocks over
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page630" id = "page630">
+630</a></span>
+an aquatint ground, are to be found in the Pictorial Album, published by
+Chapman and Hall, 1837; and among these the following appear to be most
+deserving of distinct enumeration:&mdash;Interior of the Lady Chapel,
+Warwick; Lugano; Verona; and Jeannie Deans’s Interview with the Queen.
+In some of the most elaborate subjects in this work, the colours have
+been communicated by not less than twenty blocks, each separately
+printed. So far as regards the landscapes, nothing of the same kind
+previously done will bear to be compared with them. But since this
+period, Mr. Baxter has brought his peculiar art to still greater
+perfection, and both large and small examples are to be met with
+abundantly. One of the most popular is his “Holy Trinity, after
+Raphael,” a&nbsp;small plate of which no fewer than 700,000 copies have
+been sold. The subscribers to Bohn’s Scientific Library will find a good
+specimen in the View of Chimborazo, prefixed to Humboldt’s Views of
+Nature.</p>
+
+<p>Another recent invention is that of “Knight’s Patent Illuminated
+Prints and Maps.” In every instance hitherto of surface-printing in
+colours, each colour, having a separate block, had to be worked off
+separately, which rendered such productions extremely expensive.<a class
+= "tag" name = "tagIX28" id = "tagIX28" href = "#noteIX28">IX.28</a> The
+new process has one great advantage over all its predecessors, in
+cheapness, and the facility with which it can multiply impressions. The
+general nature of the process will be best understood from a description
+of the mode of completing a coloured print.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, a subject is engraved upon wood in the usual
+manner, and the impression is coloured by a skilful artist. We will
+suppose four principal colours are introduced, red, blue, yellow, and
+brown. Separate and exact drawings of each colour are then made; and
+four polished plates are prepared, each plate carrying one colour. These
+four plates are then firmly fixed in an ingeniously contrived frame, or
+table, moving upon the table of a common press, the motion being
+regulated by machinery, which ensures the most exact register, after it
+has once been obtained, and affords the greatest facility in obtaining
+it. The colours are then applied to their respective plates in precisely
+the same manner as ink to type, by means of rollers; and four sheets of
+paper of the size intended for the print (or,&nbsp;for convenience, one
+large sheet to be afterwards cut&nbsp;up) are then placed on the
+frisket, which
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page631" id = "page631">
+631</a></span>
+is then turned down on the plates, and the pull applied. The table is
+then turned one quarter round, and the process is repeated, till each
+colour has, in succession, been printed upon the four sheets. Six or
+seven colours are sometimes produced by the same process, and from the
+same plates, by combination; and the union of two colours to produce a
+third is effected perfectly, in consequence of the rapidity of the
+process, which does not allow the colours to dry and become hard. The
+bright whites are, of course, formed by removing the surface in the
+requisite parts from all the plates, and suffering the ground to appear.
+Eight, or indeed any number of colours, can be introduced by using
+another press, or presses; in which case the frisket with the sheet or
+sheets fixed, is passed from one press to the other. The block of the
+drawing is always the last impressed.</p>
+
+<p>From its extreme exactitude this invention seems peculiarly adapted
+for designs of patterns for shawls, ribbons, printed cottons, carpets,
+and such manufactures as have hitherto apparently been left to the fancy
+of the workman, or his employers, who in matters of art have frequently
+quite as little taste as the workman.</p>
+
+<p>But probably the most favourable field for the display of the
+perfections of this invention, would be in subjects where only light and
+shade, or at most what are called neutral tints, are required, such as
+architectural drawings and sculptures, either statues or in relief. For
+such purposes the depth of tone obtainable, and the sharpness of the
+lights, seem peculiarly adapted.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIX29" id =
+"tagIX29" href = "#noteIX29">IX.29</a></p>
+
+<p>What is termed metallic relief engraving consists in executing
+subjects on plates of copper, or any other metal, in such a manner that
+the lines which form the impression shall be in relief, and thus allow
+of such plates being inked and printed in the same manner as a wood-cut.
+Since the revival of wood engraving in this country several attempts
+have been made to <i>etch</i> in metallic relief, and thus save the time
+necessarily required to cut out all the lines in a wood engraving. In
+etching upon copper, in order that the subject may be represented by
+lines <i>in relief</i>,&mdash;the reverse of the usual procedure in
+copper-plate engraving,&mdash;and that the plate may be printed in the
+same manner as a wood-cut, there are several methods of proceeding. In
+one, the subject is <i>drawn</i> upon the plate in Burgundy pitch, or
+any other substance which will resist the action of aquafortis, in the
+same manner
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page632" id = "page632">
+632</a></span>
+as copper-plate engravers in the ordinary process <i>stop out</i> the
+parts intended to be white. When the substance in which the drawing is
+made becomes <i>set</i>, or sufficiently hard, the plate is surrounded
+with a <i>wall</i>, as it is technically termed, and aquafortis being
+poured upon it, all the unprotected parts are corroded, and the drawing
+left in relief.</p>
+
+<p>This was the method generally adopted by William Blake, an artist of
+great but eccentric genius, in the execution of his Songs of Innocence,
+the Book of Thel,<a class = "tag" name = "tagIX30" id = "tagIX30" href =
+"#noteIX30">IX.30</a> the Gates of Paradise, Urizen, and other works,
+published between 1789 and 1800. The following account of the origin of
+this new mode of engraving or etching in metallic relief, by corroding
+the parts intended to appear white in the impression, is extracted from
+the Life of William Blake, in Allan Cunningham’s Lives of British
+Painters, Sculptors, and Architects:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>“He had made the sixty-five designs of his Songs of Innocence, and
+was meditating, he said, on the best means of multiplying their
+resemblance in form and in hue; he felt sorely perplexed. At last he was
+made aware that the spirit of his favourite brother Robert was in the
+room, and to this celestial visitor he applied for counsel. The spirit
+advised him at once: ‘Write,’ he said, ‘the poetry, and draw the designs
+upon the copper, with a certain liquid, (which he named, and which Blake
+ever kept a secret,) then cut the plain parts of the plate down with
+aquafortis, and this will give the whole, both poetry and figures, in
+the manner of stereotype.’ The plan recommended by this gracious spirit
+was adopted, the plates were engraved, and the work printed off. The
+artist then added a peculiar beauty of his own: he tinted both the
+figures and the verse with a variety of colours, amongst which, while
+yellow prevails, the whole has a rich and lustrous beauty, to which I
+know little that can be compared. The size of these prints is four and a
+half inches high by three inches wide. The original genius of Blake was
+always confined, through poverty, to small dimensions. Sixty-five plates
+of copper were an object to him who had little money.”</p>
+
+<p>Blake subsequently executed, in the same manner, “the Gates of
+Paradise,” consisting of sixteen small designs; and “Urizen,” consisting
+of twenty-seven designs. The size of the latter is four inches by six,
+and they are dated Lambeth, 1794. In 1800 he also engraved by a similar
+process, combined with the usual mode of etching <i>through</i> a
+prepared ground laid over the plate, two subjects to illustrate a song
+of his own writing, which was printed with them also from metallic
+relief. The title of this song is “Little Tom the Sailor,” and the date
+is October 5, 1800. It appears to have been a charitable contribution
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page633" id = "page633">
+633</a></span>
+of Blake’s to the “Widow Spicer of Folkstone,” the mother of little Tom;
+and we learn from the imprint at the bottom that it was printed for, and
+sold by her for the benefit of her orphans.</p>
+
+<p>Blake’s metallic relief engravings were printed by himself by means
+of a rolling or copper-plate press, though the impression was obtained
+from the lines in relief in the same manner as from a wood-cut. The only
+difference in the printing consisted in the different manner in which
+the pressure was applied. As it is difficult, according to Blake’s
+process, to corrode the large white parts to a depth sufficient to
+prevent their being touched by the dauber or ball in the process of
+inking, and thus presenting a soiled appearance in the impression, he
+was accustomed to wipe the ink out where it had touched in the hollows.
+As this occupied more time than the mere inking of the plate, his
+progress in printing was necessarily slow.</p>
+
+<p>In another mode of engraving in relief on a plate of copper, the
+plate is first covered with an etching ground in the usual manner, and
+to this ground an outline of the subject is transferred by passing the
+plate with a pencil-drawing above it through a rolling-press. The
+engraver then proceeds to remove with his etching-point, or some other
+tool, as may be necessary, all such parts as are intended to be
+<i>white</i>. When this process, which may be termed <i>reverse
+etching</i>, is completed, the parts intended to be white are corroded
+by pouring aquafortis upon the plate in the usual manner, while the
+lines which represent the object remain in relief, in consequence of
+their being protected at the surface by the coating of etching
+ground.</p>
+
+<p>Several persons have made experiments in this mode of metallic relief
+engraving. It was tried by Bewick, and also by the late Robert Branston;
+but they did not succeed to their satisfaction, and none of their
+productions executed in this manner was ever submitted to the public.
+About twenty years ago, Mr. W.&nbsp;Lizars of Edinburgh appears to have
+turned his attention to the subject of metallic relief engraving, and to
+have succeeded better than either Bewick or Branston. One of the
+earliest-published specimens of his engraving in this style is the
+portrait of Dr. Peter Morris, forming the frontispiece to Peter’s
+Letters to his Kinsfolk, printed at Edinburgh in 1819. This portrait has
+every appearance of being executed by the process of reverse
+etching,&mdash;that is, by first covering the plate with etching ground,
+and then removing the parts that are to be white, and leaving the lines
+that are to appear black in relief. The plate was printed by a common
+printing-press at the office of Ballantyne and Co. In the preface the
+“new invention” of Mr. Lizars is thus mentioned:&mdash;“The portrait of
+Dr. Morris is done in this new style; and, had the time permitted, the
+others would have all been done so likewise. It is thrown off by the
+common printing-press, as the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page634" id = "page634">
+634</a></span>
+reader will observe&mdash;but this is only one of the distinguishing
+excellences of this new and splendid invention of Mr. Lizars.”</p>
+
+<p>Within the last three or four years several plans for executing
+engravings in metallic relief have been devised; and it has been
+prophesied of each, that it would in a short time totally supersede wood
+engraving. The projectors of those plans, however, seem to have taken
+too narrow a view of the subject; and to have thought that the mere
+novelty of their invention was sufficient to ensure it success. They
+appear not to have considered, that it was necessary that their metallic
+relief casts should not only be cheaper than wood-cuts, but that they
+should be also as well executed.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Woone has taken out a patent for his invention, and the principle
+upon which it is founded is that of taking a cast from a copper-plate,
+whereby the lines engraved in <i>intaglio</i> are in the cast in
+<i>relief</i>. His process of metallic relief engraving is as
+follows:&mdash;A smooth plate of metal is covered with a coating of
+plaster of Paris, about equal in thickness to the depth to which the
+lines are cut in engraving on copper or steel. Upon this surface of
+plaster the engraver, with a fine point, as in etching, cuts the lines
+of the subject <i>through</i> to the plate below. When this plaster
+etching is completed, a&nbsp;cast is taken from it in type-metal; and,
+after being <i>cleared out</i>, the subject in metallic relief can be
+printed at a common press in the manner of a wood-cut. According to this
+plan only <i>one</i> cast can be taken of each subject, as the plaster
+is destroyed during the process, so that there is nothing left from
+which a second mould can be made, as in the case of a wood-cut. The
+chief advantage of this invention consists in the lines being of equal
+height in the cast, in consequence of their being etched through the
+plaster to the level surface of the plate beneath. As the coating of
+plaster is, however, extremely thin, it is generally necessary to clear
+out with a graver the interstices of the cast in order to prevent their
+being touched by the inking roller.</p>
+
+<p>A Mr. Schonberg has also made several experiments in metallic relief
+engraving by means of etching on stone, and afterwards taking a cast
+from his work. Though he has been for several years endeavouring to
+perfect his invention, he has not up to this time succeeded in producing
+anything which it would be fair to criticise.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the cuts of trees and shrubs in Loudon’s Arboretum et
+Fruticetum Britannicum are printed from casts in metallic relief,
+executed by Mr. Robert Branston. The mode of procedure, according to Mr.
+Branston’s method, is extremely simple; the subject is first etched on
+copper, and bit in by aquafortis in the usual manner; and from this
+etching a cast is afterwards taken in type-metal. As the plate is not
+corroded to an equal depth in every part, it is necessary to rub on a
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page635" id = "page635">
+635</a></span>
+stone the faces of the casts thus obtained in order to reduce the raised
+lines to the same level. There is also another inconvenience that
+attends casts in metallic relief taken from an etched copper-plate; for,
+as the aquafortis acts laterally as well as vertically, it is difficult
+to corrode the lines to a sufficient depth, without at the same time
+getting them too thick. It is hence necessary to clear out many of the
+hollow parts of such casts with a graver, in order to prevent their
+being touched by the balls or inking-roller, and thus giving to the
+impression a soiled appearance.</p>
+
+<p>Casts in metallic relief from etchings always appear coarse; and,
+from the experiments hitherto made, it seems impossible to execute
+<i>fine</i> work in this manner. So far as relates to cheapness, such
+casts, however well they may be executed, being of a level surface,
+cannot be printed properly by a steam-press in the manner of lowered
+blocks, or casts from lowered blocks. For a work of extensive
+circulation, printed by means of a steam-press, a&nbsp;lowered block, or
+a cast from it, would be cheaper at five pounds, than a cast from an
+etching at four, even admitting that both were equally well
+executed.</p>
+
+<p>The principal feature in Mr. C. Hancock’s patent metallic relief
+engraving, which is quite original, is, that subjects resembling
+mezzotints can be inserted and printed with the text in the same manner
+as wood engravings. A&nbsp;mezzotint plate, if printed in the usual
+manner previous to being engraved upon, would appear black. On the other
+hand, if submitted to the same kind of printing as a wood-cut, it would
+scarcely discolour the paper. Upon this plate Mr. Hancock draws his
+subject with a broad steel point or burnisher, which polishes down the
+small prominences to a smooth surface in proportion to the pressure used
+in drawing. In proportion as the surface becomes smooth, so does it
+print dark, and have the appearance of a mezzotint. The reader will
+perceive that, according to this plan, Mr. Hancock can take a proof of
+his subject at any time, and procure either <i>dark</i> or <i>light</i>
+at pleasure, as the subject may appear to require it. The sparkling
+light can be touched in with the graver, in the same manner as on wood;
+so that such touches appear much sharper than in common mezzotint, where
+the lights are got by burnishing. As Mr. Hancock has not as yet brought
+anything before the public, it would be unfair to anticipate him, by
+introducing anything more in this place than a description of his
+process.</p>
+
+<p>Wood engraving is necessarily confined, by the size of the wood, to
+the execution of subjects of comparatively small dimensions; and this
+limitation, together with the difficulty of printing even tints in
+positive colours, have combined to prevent it from being made
+extensively available in the production of works in chiaro-scuro, of
+large size, by the ordinary modes of surface-printing. Latterly,
+however,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page636" id = "page636">
+636</a></span>
+the demand which the progress of education has created for maps, school
+prints, elementary examples of fine art, and illustrations <i>on a large
+scale</i> for the illustrated newspapers, having called the attention of
+artists to the subject, many attempts have been made, and in some cases
+with success, to produce relief engravings on metal; and also to combine
+that mode of engraving with analogous apparatus for the production of
+works in tints or colours, separate, combined, or mixed with line
+plates, in such degrees as particular cases might require. Several of
+these persons have been already named, and their processes described; it
+only therefore remains to state, that Mr. Stephen Sly, in connexion with
+other artists, has for some years past been steadily engaged in making a
+series of experiments for giving a practical value, by various
+inventions, to the discoveries and experience of their predecessors in
+the art; and with every prospect of success. Their method of procedure
+is: 1.&nbsp;To produce a finished drawing, in simple or crossed lines,
+with etching varnish on a plate prepared for the purpose; 2.&nbsp;To
+bite away, with a compound acid, the spaces between the varnish lines;
+and 3.&nbsp;To deepen and finish the work so produced, by the use of
+engraving tools, in the ordinary manner. The great difficulties in the
+way of these apparently simple operations have been, 1.&nbsp;To cast
+<i>sound</i> and durable plates of a large size, and of a texture
+sufficiently compact to produce sharp lines by the etching process, and
+at the same time soft enough to permit the surfaces to be lowered, and
+the cutting to be executed with facility; 2.&nbsp;To remove the oxide
+formed by the combination of the acid with the metal from between the
+lines; and 3.&nbsp;To carry the biting to a depth sufficiently great to
+permit the plate, with the addition of a small quantity of graver-work,
+to yield a clear impression.</p>
+
+<p>Metallic relief engraving has not unfrequently been practised at
+Paris of late years. I&nbsp;have now lying before me an impression from
+a plate engraved in this manner by Messrs. Best, Andrew, and Leloir, of
+that city. The subject is a wild turkey, and it was engraved about three
+years ago for Mr. Audubon. Though it is the best specimen of metallic
+relief engraving that has come under my notice, I&nbsp;am yet of opinion
+that the subject could be better engraved on wood, and at a less cost.
+Ornaments and borders are sometimes engraved on solid brass by means of
+chisels and gravers in the same manner as a wood-cut. The head of
+Buchanan, and the border on the wrapper of Blackwood’s Magazine, were
+engraved on brass in this manner, more than twenty years ago, by Messrs.
+<ins class = "correction" title = "text reads ‘Vizitelly’">Vizetelly</ins>, Branston, and Co. They were originally
+engraved on wood by Bewick. The greater durability of ornaments engraved
+on brass, compensates for their additional cost. The <i>cheapest</i>
+mode, however, is to have such ornaments first engraved on wood, and
+casts afterwards taken from them in type metal. One great objection to
+<i>cutting</i>
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page637" id = "page637">
+637</a></span>
+on metal with the graver is, that the metal <i>cuts the paper</i> in
+printing from it.</p>
+
+<p>Duplicates of wood engravings may be readily obtained by means of
+casts from the original blocks; and within the last twenty years, the
+practice of thus multiplying subjects originally engraved on wood, has
+become very prevalent both in this country and in France. Casts can be
+obtained from wood engravings by two different processes, and both are
+practised by two or three stereotype printers, to whom this business is
+usually entrusted. By the one mode, a&nbsp;mould is first made from the
+block in plaster of Paris, and from this mould or matrix a cast is
+afterwards taken in type metal. By the other mode&mdash;termed by the
+French <i>clichage</i><a class = "tag" name = "tagIX31" id = "tagIX31"
+href = "#noteIX31">IX.31</a>&mdash;the mould or matrix is not formed of
+plaster; but is obtained by letting the block fall, with its engraved
+surface downwards, directly on a mass of metal,<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIX32" id = "tagIX32" href = "#noteIX32">IX.32</a> just sufficiently
+fluid to receive the impression, and which becomes solid almost at the
+very instant it is touched by the block. From this mould or matrix a
+cast is afterwards taken in the same manner. In order to prevent the
+surface of the block becoming charred by the heat, it is previously
+rubbed over with a composition of common yellow soap and red ochre.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<div class = "picblock w150">
+<p><a name = "illus_637" id = "illus_637">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_637a.png" width = "139" height = "228"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 1 (from Wood).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "picblock">
+<p><img src = "images/illus_637b.png" width = "137" height = "226"
+alt = "see text and caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+No. 2 (from Metal).</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When it is particularly desirable to preserve the original block
+uninjured, the safest mode is that of forming a mould or matrix of
+plaster; for by the process of <i>clichage</i> a delicately engraved
+block is extremely
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page638" id = "page638">
+638</a></span>
+liable to receive damage. As a cast, whether from a matrix of metal or
+of plaster, generally requires certain small specks of the metal to be
+removed, or some of the lines to be cleared out, this operation is
+frequently entrusted to a person employed in a printing-office where
+such cast is taken. Such person, however, should never be allowed to do
+more than remove the specks; for, should he attempt to re-enter or
+re-cut the lines or tints on metal, he will be very likely to spoil the
+work. It is extremely difficult, even to a dexterous engraver, to
+re-enter the lines that have been partially closed up in a tint, so that
+they shall appear the same as the others which have come off clear.
+Should the printer’s <i>picker</i> happen to re-enter them in a
+direction opposite to that in which they were originally cut on the
+block, the work is certain to be spoiled. When a cast requires clearing
+out and retouching in this manner, the operation ought to be performed
+by a wood engraver, and, if possible, by the person who executed the
+original block. When the subject is not very complicated, it is
+extremely difficult to distinguish which of two impressions is from a
+cast, and which is from the original block. Those who profess to have
+great judgment in such matters are left to determine which of the
+preceding busts is printed from metal, and which from wood.</p>
+
+<p>When a duplicate of a modern, or a fac-simile of an old wood-cut is
+required, the best mode of obtaining a correct copy, is to transfer the
+original, if not too large or too valuable, to a prepared block; and the
+mode of effecting this is as follows:&mdash;The back of the impression
+to be transferred is first well moistened with a mixture composed of
+equal parts of concentrated potash and essence of lavender; it is then
+placed above a block whose surface has been slightly moistened with
+water, and rubbed with a burnisher. If the mixture be of proper
+strength, the ink of the old impression will become loosened, and be
+transferred to the wood. Recent impression of a wood-cut, before the ink
+is set, may be transferred to a block without any preparation, merely by
+what is technically termed “rubbing down.” In order to transfer
+impressions from copper-plates, it is necessary to use the <i>oil</i> of
+lavender instead of the <i>essence</i>: if a very old impression, apply
+the preparation to its face.</p>
+
+<p>Since the former edition of this work considerable improvements have
+been made in the mode of taking casts, of which the principal is
+<i>electrotyping</i>, by the galvanic precipitation of copper. By this
+process all the finer lines of the engraving are so perfectly preserved,
+that impressions printed from the cast are quite undistinguishable from
+those printed from the original block.</p>
+
+<p>Before closing this subject we think it right to introduce the notice
+of a new art, which, if it accomplishes all it professes, and as,
+judging by the annexed example, it seems capable of performing, will be
+a great acquisition.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page639" id = "page639">
+639</a></span>
+The art was first brought out as Collins’s process, but is now called
+the <i>Electro-printing Block process</i>, and is managed under the
+inventor’s direction by a company established at No.&nbsp;27, New Bridge
+Street, Blackfriars. The object of the process is to reduce or extend,
+by means of transfer to an elastic material, maps or engravings of any
+size. The specimen given in the present volume is reduced from a
+lithograph copy of an early block print, four times its size,<a class =
+"tag" name = "tagIX33" id = "tagIX33" href = "#noteIX33">IX.33</a> and
+then electrotyped
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page640" id = "page640">
+640</a></span>
+into a surface block, so as to print in the ordinary manner of a
+wood-engraving. The reader will easily imagine that any plate
+transferred to an elastic surface distended equally, will, when
+collapsed, yield a reduced impression, and <i>vice versâ</i>. The only
+drawback to this process seems to be the want of depth in the
+electro-type where there are large unengraved spaces. Such plates will
+want good bringing-up and very careful printing.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_639" id = "illus_639">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_639.png" width = "425" height = "525"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The unequal manner in which wood-cuts are printed, is often injurious
+both to publishers and engravers; for, however well a subject may have
+been engraved, or whatever may have been the expense incurred, both the
+engraver’s talents and the publisher’s money will, in a great measure,
+have been thrown away unless the cut be properly printed. The want of
+cordial co-operation between printers and wood engravers is one of the
+chief causes of wood-cuts being so frequently printed in an improper
+manner. One printer’s method of printing wood-cuts often differs so much
+from that of another, that it is generally necessary for an engraver who
+wishes to have justice done to his work, to ascertain the office at
+which a book is to be printed before he begins to execute any of the
+cuts. If they are intended to be printed at a steam-press, they require
+to be engraved in a manner suitable to that method of printing; and if
+it be further intended to take casts from them, and to print from such
+casts instead of the original blocks, it is necessary for the engraver
+to execute his work accordingly. Should they have to be printed at a
+common press <i>with a blanket</i>, it is necessary that they should be
+lowered in such parts as are most liable to be printed too heavy from
+the parchment of the tympan, when there is a blanket behind it,
+penetrating to a greater depth between the lines than when no blanket is
+used.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIX34" id = "tagIX34" href =
+"#noteIX34">IX.34</a> When it is intended to print cuts in what is
+called the <i>best</i> manner,&mdash;that is, at a common press without
+a blanket, and where the effect is brought up by means of
+overlaying,&mdash;the engraver has nothing to do but to execute his
+subject on a plane surface to the best of his ability, and to leave the
+task of bringing up the dark, and easing the light parts to the
+printer,&mdash;who, if he have not an artist’s eye, can only by chance
+succeed in producing the effect intended by the draftsman and the
+engraver.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_641" id = "illus_641">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_641.png" width = "319" height = "243"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Should a series of wood-cuts be engraved with the view of their being
+printed at a steam-press, or at a common press with a blanket, and
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page641" id = "page641">
+641</a></span>
+should the publisher or proprietor of the work afterwards change his
+intention, and decide on having them printed in the <i>best</i>
+manner,&mdash;that is, by the common press without a blanket, and with
+overlays,&mdash;such cuts, whatever pains might be taken, could not be
+properly and efficiently printed; for those parts which had been lowered
+in order to obviate the <i>in</i>-pressure of the blanket, would either
+be totally invisible, or would only appear imperfectly,&mdash;that is,
+with the lines indistinct and broken, as if they had not been properly
+inked. The following cut, which was lowered for machine-printing, or
+printing with a blanket, but has been worked off at a common press
+without a blanket, when compared with the same subject printed in the
+manner originally intended,&mdash;that is, with a blanket,&mdash;will
+illustrate what has been previously said on the subject. I&nbsp;by no
+means wish it to be understood, that any printer would allow such a cut
+to appear quite so bad as it does in the present impression; he would do
+<i>something</i> to remedy the defects, but he could not, without
+employing a blanket, cause it to have the appearance originally intended
+by the designer and engraver. It is printed here without any aid of
+overlaying, in order that the difference might be the more apparent to
+those who are unacquainted with the subject. I&nbsp;have, however, not
+unfrequently seen excellent cuts spoiled from inattention to bringing up
+the lowered parts, even when printed at the office of printers who have
+acquired a high character for <i>fine</i> work, and whose names on this
+account are announced in advertisements in connexion with those of the
+author, designer, and publisher, as a
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page642" id = "page642">
+642</a></span>
+guarantee for the superior manner in which the cuts contained in the
+work will be printed.<a class = "tag" name = "tagIX35" id = "tagIX35"
+href = "#noteIX35">IX.35</a> The following cut, of the same subject as
+that given on the previous page, shows the appearance of the engraving
+when properly printed in the manner intended; every line is here brought
+up by using a blanket, while from the block having been lowered, with a
+view to its being printed in this manner, there has been no occasion for
+overlays to increase the effect in the darker parts. The difference in
+the two impressions is entirely owing to the different manner of
+printing; for the one is printed from the block, and the other from a
+cast.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_642" id = "illus_642">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_642.png" width = "325" height = "245"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>Subjects engraved on lowered blocks, in the manner of the following
+cut, have always an unfinished appearance when printed without a
+blanket, and the feebleness and confusion apparent in the lighter parts,
+instead of being remedied by overlaying the darker parts, are thus
+rendered more obvious. The connecting medium between the extremes of
+black and white being either entirely omitted or very imperfectly
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page643" id = "page643">
+643</a></span>
+given, causes the impression to have that harsh and unfinished
+appearance which is frequently urged as one of the greatest objections
+to engraving on wood. It is indeed true, that many cuts have this
+objectionable appearance; but it is also true that the fault does not
+originate in any deficiency in the art, but is either the result of want
+of knowledge on the part of the engraver, or is occasioned by improper
+printing. When wood engravers found that anything approaching to
+delicacy, in blending the extremes of black and white in their work, was
+extremely liable to be either lost or spoiled in the printing, it is not
+surprising that they should have paid comparatively little attention to
+the connecting tints. In many excellently engraved cuts, printed at the
+common press with overlays, the tint next in gradation to positive black
+is often perceived to be too dark, in consequence of the extra pressure
+on the adjacent parts; while, on the other hand, the delicate lines
+intended to blend with the white, are either too heavy, or appear broken
+and confused. It is chiefly from this cause, that so much black and
+white, without the requisite connecting middle tints, is found in
+wood-cuts; for the engraver, finding that such tints were frequently
+spoiled in the impression, omitted them whenever he could, in order to
+adapt his subject to the usual method of printing. When, in consequence
+of an improvement in the mode of printing wood-cuts, engravers can
+depend on finding all in the impression that can be executed on the
+block, it will no longer be an objection to the art that its productions
+have a hard and unfinished appearance, and that it is only capable of
+efficiently representing subjects displaying strong contrasts of black
+and white.</p>
+
+<p>Should a wood-cut engraved on a plane surface, with the intention of
+its being printed in the <i>best</i> manner,&mdash;that is, at a common
+press with overlays, and <i>without</i> a blanket,&mdash;be printed at a
+steam-press, or at a common press <i>with</i> a blanket, it will present
+a very different appearance to the engraver’s proof.<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagIX36" id = "tagIX36" href = "#noteIX36">IX.36</a> The
+following cut, which ought properly to have been printed in the
+<i>best</i> manner, is here printed improperly <i>with a blanket</i>,
+and the result is anything but satisfactory; the parts which ought to
+have been delicately printed are, in consequence of the equality of the
+pressure on every part of the unlowered surface brought up too heavy,
+and from their appearing too dark, the effect intended by the designer
+and engraver is destroyed. The same cut, when printed at a common press
+with overlays, and without a blanket, as originally intended, would have
+the light parts relieved, and appear as it does on the following
+page.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page644" id = "page644">
+644</a></span>
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_644a" id = "illus_644a">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_644a.png" width = "335" height = "246"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_644b" id = "illus_644b">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_644b.png" width = "336" height = "249"
+alt = "see text"></p>
+
+<p>The want of something like a uniform method of printing wood-cuts,
+and the high price charged by printers for what is called fine work,
+have operated most injuriously to the progress and extension of wood
+engraving. The practice, however, of printing wood-cuts by a
+steam-press, or a press of any kind with a cylindrical roller instead of
+a platten, seems likely to introduce a general change in the practice of
+the art. By the adoption of this cheap and expeditious method of
+printing, books containing the very best wood engravings can be afforded
+at a much cheaper rate than formerly. As cuts printed in this
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page645" id = "page645">
+645</a></span>
+manner can receive no adventitious aid from overlays, the wood engraver
+is required to finish his work perfectly before it goes out of his
+hands, and not to trust to the taste of a pressman for its being
+properly printed. The great desideratum in wood engraving is to produce
+cuts which can be efficiently printed at the least possible expense;
+and, as a means towards this end, it is necessary that cuts should
+require the least possible aid from the printer, and be executed in such
+manner that, without gross negligence, they will be certain to print
+well. The greatest advantage that wood engraving possesses over
+engraving on copper or steel is the cheap rate at which its productions
+can be printed at one impression, in the same sheet with the
+letter-press. To increase, therefore, by an incomplete method of
+engraving, the cost of printing wood-cuts, is to abandon the great
+vantage ground of the art.</p>
+
+<p>The mode of printing by the common press without a blanket, and of
+<i>helping</i> a cut engraved on a plane surface by means of overlays,
+is not only much more expensive than printing from a lowered block by
+the steam-press, or a common press with a blanket and without
+overlaying, but is also much more injurious to the engraving. When a cut
+requires to be overlaid<a class = "tag" name = "tagIX37" id = "tagIX37"
+href = "#noteIX37">IX.37</a> in order that it may be properly printed,
+a&nbsp;piece of paper is first pasted on the tympan, and on this an
+impression is taken, which remains as a substratum for the subsequent
+overlays. A&nbsp;second impression is next taken, and in this the
+pressman cuts out the lighter parts, and notes such as are too
+indistinct and require <i>bringing up</i>. He then proceeds to paste
+scraps of paper over the corresponding parts in the first impression, on
+a sheet of thin paper, either in front or at the back of the parchment
+tympan, in order to increase in such parts the pressure of the platten;
+and thus continues, sometimes for half a day, pasting scrap over scrap,
+until he obtains what he considers a perfect impression.</p>
+
+<p>As the block is originally of the same height as the type, it is
+evident that the overlays must very much increase the pressure of the
+platten on such parts as they are immediately above. Such increase of
+pressure is not only injurious to the engraving, occasionally breaking
+down the lines; but it also frequently squeezes the ink from the surface
+<i>into</i> the interstices, and causes the impression in such parts to
+appear blotted. While a block, with a flat surface, printed in this
+manner will scarcely afford five thousand good impressions without
+retouching, twenty thousand can be obtained from a lowered block printed
+by a steam-press, or by a common press with a blanket and without
+overlays;
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page646" id = "page646">
+646</a></span>
+the darkest parts in a lowered block being no higher than the type, and
+not being overlaid, are subject to no unequal pressure to break down the
+lines, while the lighter parts being lowered are thus sufficiently
+protected. The intervention of the blanket in the latter case not only
+brings up the lighter parts, but is also less injurious to the
+engraving, than the direct action of the wood or metal platten, with
+only the thin cloth and the parchment of the tympans intervening between
+it and the surface of the block.</p>
+
+<p>When wood-cuts are printed with overlays, and the paper is knotty,
+the engraving is certain to be injured by the knots being indented in
+the wood in those parts where the pressure is greatest. When copies of a
+work containing wood-cuts are printed on India paper, the engraving is
+almost invariably injured, in consequence of the hard knots and pieces
+of bark with which such paper abounds, causing indentions in the wood.
+The consequence of printing off a certain number of copies of a work on
+such paper may be seen in the cut of the Vain Glow-worm, in the second
+edition of the first series of Northcote’s Fables: it is covered with
+white spots, the result of indentions in the block caused by the knots
+and inequalities in bad India paper. Overlays frequently shift if not
+well attended to, and cause pressure where it was never intended.</p>
+
+<p>In order that wood engravings should appear to the greatest
+advantage, it is necessary that they should be printed on proper paper.
+A&nbsp;person not practically acquainted with the subject may easily be
+deceived in selecting paper for a work containing wood engravings. There
+is a kind of paper, manufactured of coarse material, which, in
+consequence of its being pressed, has a smooth appearance, and to the
+view seems to be highly suitable for the purpose. As soon, however, as
+such paper is wetted previous to printing, its smoothness disappears,
+and its imperfections become apparent by the irregular swelling of the
+material of which it is composed. Paper intended for printing the best
+kind of wood-cuts ought to be even in texture, and this ought to be the
+result of good material well manufactured. Paper of this kind will not
+appear uneven when wetted, like that which has merely a <i>good face</i>
+put upon it by means of extreme pressure. The best mode of testing the
+quality of paper is to wet a sheet; however even and smooth it may
+appear when dry, its imperfections will be evident when wet, if it be
+manufactured of coarse material, and merely pressed smooth.</p>
+
+<p>Paper of unequal thickness, however good the material may be, is
+quite unfit for the purpose of printing the best kind of wood
+engravings; for, if a sheet be thicker at one end than the other, there
+will be a perceptible difference in the strength of the impressions of
+the cuts accordingly as they may be printed on the thick or the thin
+parts, those
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page647" id = "page647">
+647</a></span>
+on the latter being light, while those on the former are comparatively
+heavy or dark. When it is known that an overlay of the thinnest tissue
+paper will make a perceptible difference in an impression, the necessity
+of having paper of even texture for the purpose of printing wood-cuts
+well is obvious. As there is less chance of inequality of texture in
+comparatively thin paper than in thick, the former kind is generally to
+be preferred, supposing it to be equally well manufactured.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Savage, at page 46 of his Hints on Decorative Printing,
+recommends that in a sheet which consists entirely of letter-press in
+one <i>form</i>,<a class = "tag error" name = "tagIX38" id = "tagIX38"
+href = "#noteIX38" title = "footnote tag missing">IX.38</a> and of
+letter-press and wood-cuts in the other, the form without cuts should be
+worked first. His words are as follow:&mdash;“When there are wood-cuts
+in one form, and none in the other, then the form without the cuts ought
+to be worked first; as working the cuts last prevents the indention of
+the types appearing on the engraving, which would otherwise take place
+to its prejudice.”</p>
+
+<p>My opinion on this subject is directly the reverse of Mr. Savage’s,
+for, under similar circum&shy;stances, I&nbsp;should advise that the
+form containing the cuts should be printed first; and for the following
+reason:&mdash;When any parts of a wood-cut require to be printed
+light&mdash;whether by lowering the block or by overlaying&mdash;the
+pressure in such parts must necessarily be less than on those adjacent.
+If then the form containing such cuts be printed first, the paper being
+perfectly flat, and without any indentions, all the lines will appear
+distinct and continuous, unless the pressman should grossly neglect his
+duty. If, on the contrary, the form containing such cuts be printed
+last, there is a risk of the lines in the lighter parts appearing broken
+and confused, in consequence of the inequality in the surface of the
+paper, caused by the indention of the types on the opposite side.
+Imperfections of this kind are to be seen in many works containing
+wood-cuts; and they are in particular numerous in the Treatise on Cattle
+published under the superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of
+Useful Knowledge. In many of the cuts in this work the lines
+representing the sky appear discontinuous and broken, and the
+imperfections are always according to the kind of type on the other side
+of the paper. When both forms contain wood-cuts, I&nbsp;should recommend
+that to be first which contains the best. Mr. Savage’s reason,
+independent of the preceding objections, is scarcely a good one; for
+admitting that the indention of the types of the second form does appear
+in the <i>clear</i> and <i>distinct</i> impressions from the cuts in the
+first, when the sheet is just taken from the press, are not such
+inequalities entirely removed when the sheet is <i>dried</i> and
+pressed?</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page648" id = "page648">
+648</a></span>
+<p>In order to produce good impressions in printing wood-cuts, much more
+depends on the manner in which the subject is treated by the designer,
+and on the plate which the cut occupies in a page, than a person
+unacquainted with the nicety required in such matters would imagine.
+Wood-cuts which are delicately engraved, or which consist chiefly of
+outline, are the most difficult to print in a proper manner, in
+consequence of their want of dark masses to relieve the pressure in the
+more delicate parts, and thus cause them to appear lighter in the
+impression. There ought never to be a large portion of light delicate
+work in a wood-cut without a few dark parts near to it, which may serve
+as stays or props to relieve the pressure. In illustration of what is
+here said, I&nbsp;would refer to the cut of King Shahriyár unveiling
+Shahrazád, at page 15 of Mr. Lane’s Translation of the Arabian Nights’
+Entertainments, where it will be seen, that certain dark parts are
+introduced as if at measured distances. It is entirely owing to the
+introduction of those dark parts that the pressman has been enabled to
+print the cut so well: they not only give by contrast the appearance of
+greater delicacy to the lightest parts; but they also serve to relieve
+them from that degree of pressure, which, if the cut consisted entirely
+of such delicate lines, would most certainly cause them to appear
+comparatively thick and heavy. Another instance of the advantage which a
+cut derives from its being placed in a certain situation in the page, is
+also afforded by the same work. The cut to which I allude is that of the
+Return of the Jinnee, at page 47, consisting chiefly of middle tint,
+with a pillar of smoke rising up from the ground, and gradually becoming
+lighter towards the top. Had this cut been introduced at the head of the
+page without any text above it, the light parts would not have appeared
+so delicate as they do now when the cut is printed in its present
+situation. The top of the cut, where the lines are required to be
+lightest, being near to the types, thus receives a support, and is by
+them relieved from that degree of pressure which would otherwise cause
+the lines to appear heavy. Towards the bottom of the cut, which also
+forms the bottom of the page, there are two or three dark figures which
+most opportunely afford that necessary degree of support which in the
+upper part is derived from the types.</p>
+
+<p>The engraver by whom a cut has been executed is unquestionably the
+best person that the printer can apply to for any information as to the
+manner in which it ought to be printed, as he alone can be perfectly
+acquainted with the <i>state of the block</i>, and with any peculiarity
+in the engraving. If any light part should have been lowered to a very
+trifling extent, it is sometimes almost impossible that the printer
+should perceive such lowered part after the block has been covered with
+ink; and hence, notwithstanding the proof which may have been sent by
+the engraver as a guide, such a cut is very likely to be worked off, to
+the great injury of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page649" id = "page649">
+649</a></span>
+the general effect of the subject, without the lowered part being
+properly brought up. In order to avoid such an occurrence, which is by
+no means unfrequent, it is advisable to send to the engraver a printed
+proof of his cut, in order that he may note those parts where the
+pressman has failed in obtaining a perfect impression. From the want of
+this precaution wood-cuts are but too often badly printed; while at the
+same time the engraver is blamed for executing his work imperfectly,
+though in reality the defect is entirely occasioned by the cut not being
+properly printed.</p>
+
+<p>The best mode of cleaning a block after the engraver has taken his
+first proof is to rub it well with a piece of woollen cloth. So long as
+anything remains to be done with the graver, the block, after taking a
+proof, ought never to be cleaned with any liquid, as by such means the
+ink on the surface would be dissolved, and the mixture getting between,
+the lines would thus cause the cut to appear uniformly black, and render
+it difficult for the engraver to finish his work in a proper manner from
+his inability to clearly distinguish the lines.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tagIX39" id = "tagIX39" href = "#noteIX39">IX.39</a> Turpentine or lye
+ought to be very sparingly used to clean a cut after the printing is
+finished, and never unless the interstices be choked up with ink which
+cannot otherwise be removed. When the surface of the block becomes foul,
+in consequence of the ink becoming hardened upon it, it is most
+advisable to clean it with a little soap and water, using as little
+water as possible, and afterwards to rub the block well with a piece of
+woollen cloth. When it is necessary to use turpentine in order to get
+the hardened ink out of the interstices, the surface of the block should
+immediately afterwards be slightly washed with a little soap and water,
+and afterwards rubbed with a piece of woollen cloth.<a class = "tag"
+name = "tagIX40" id = "tagIX40" href = "#noteIX40">IX.40</a> <i>Warm</i>
+water ought never to be used, as it is much more apt than cold to cause
+the block to warp and split. The practice of cleaning wood-cuts in the
+form by means of a <i>hard</i> brush, dipped in turpentine or lye, is
+extremely injurious to the finest parts, as by this means most delicate
+lines are not unfrequently broken. The use of anything damp to clean the
+cuts when the pressman finishes his day’s-work, is to be avoided; as a
+very small degree of damp is sufficient to cause the block to warp when
+left locked up over night in the form. Whenever it is practicable, the
+cuts ought to be taken out of the form at night, and placed on their
+edges till next morning; as, by thus receiving a free circulation of air
+all round them, they will be much less liable to warp, than if allowed
+to remain in the form. As wood-cuts
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page650" id = "page650">
+650</a></span>
+are often injured by being carelessly printed in a rough proof, it is
+advisable not to insert them in the form till all the literal
+corrections are made, and the text is ready for the press.</p>
+
+<p>It is a fact, though I am unable to satisfactorily account for it,
+that an impression from a wood-block, taken by a common press, without
+overlaying, or any other kind of preparation, is generally lighter in
+the middle than towards the edges. Mr. Edward Cowper, who has
+contributed so much to the improvement of machine-printing, when engaged
+in making experiments with common presses constructed with the greatest
+care,<a class = "tag" name = "tagIX41" id = "tagIX41" href =
+"#noteIX41">IX.41</a> informs me, that he frequently noticed the same
+defect. Such inequality in the impression is not perceptible in cuts
+printed by a steam-press, where the pressure proceeds from a
+<i>cylinder</i> instead of a flat platten of metal or wood. Besides the
+advantage which the steam-press possesses over the common press in
+producing a uniformly regular impression, the ink in the former method
+is more equally distributed over every part of the form in consequence
+of the undeviating regularity of the action of the inking rollers.
+Though an equal distribution of the ink be of great advantage when all
+the cuts in a form require to be printed in the same manner,&mdash;that
+is, when all are of a similar <i>tone</i> of colour,&mdash;yet when some
+are dark, and others comparatively light, balls faced with composition
+are decidedly preferable to composition rollers, as by using the former
+the pressman can give to each cut its proper quantity of ink.</p>
+
+<p>I very much doubt, if soft composition rollers, such as are now
+generally used, be so well adapted as composition balls for inking
+wood-cuts engraved on a <i>plane</i> surface. The material of which the
+rollers are formed is so soft and elastic, that it does not only pass
+over the surface of the block, but penetrates to a certain depth between
+the lines, thus inking them at the sides, as well as on their surface.
+The consequence of this is, that when the pressure is too great, the
+paper is forced in between the lines, and receives, to the great
+detriment of the impression, a&nbsp;portion of the ink communicated by
+the soft and elastic roller to their sides. For inking cuts delicately
+engraved on <i>unlowered</i> blocks, I&nbsp;should recommend composition
+balls instead of composition rollers, whenever it is required that such
+cuts should be printed in the <i>best</i> manner.</p>
+
+<p>The great advantage which modern wood engraving possesses over every
+other branch of graphic art, is the cheap rate at which its productions
+can be disseminated in conjunction with types, by means of the press.
+This is the stronghold of the art; and whenever it has been abandoned in
+modern times to compete with copper-plate engraving, in point of
+delicacy or mere difficulty of execution, the result has been
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page651" id = "page651">
+651</a></span>
+a failure. No large modern wood-cuts, published separately, and resting
+on their own merits as works of art, have repaid the engraver. The price
+at which they were published was too high to allow of their being
+purchased by the humbler classes, while the more wealthy collectors of
+fine prints have treated them with neglect. Such persons were not
+inclined to purchase comparatively expensive wood-cuts merely as
+curiosities, showing how closely the peculiarities of copper-plate
+engraving could be imitated on wood.</p>
+
+<p>Though most of the large cuts designed by Albert Durer were either
+published separately without letter-press, or in parts with brief
+explanations annexed; yet we cannot ascribe the favour with which they
+were unquestionably received, to the mere fact of their being executed
+<i>on wood</i>. They were adapted to the taste and feelings of the age,
+and were esteemed on account of the interest of the subjects and the
+excellence of the designs. Were a modern artist of comparatively equal
+talent to publish a series of subjects of excellence and originality,
+engraved on wood in the best manner, I&nbsp;have little doubt of their
+being favourably received; their success, however, would not be owing to
+the circumstance of their being engraved on wood, but to their intrinsic
+merits as works of art.</p>
+
+<p>On taking a retrospective glance at the history of wood engraving, it
+will be perceived that the art has not been regularly progressive. At
+one period we find its productions distinguished for excellence of
+design and freedom of execution, and at another we find mere mechanical
+labour substituted for the talent of the artist. As soon as this change
+commenced, wood engraving, as a means of multiplying works of art began
+to decline. It continued in a state of neglect for upwards of a century,
+and showed little symptoms of revival until the works of Bewick again
+brought it into notice.</p>
+
+<p>The maxim that “a good thing is valuable in proportion as many can
+enjoy it,” may be applied with peculiar propriety to wood engraving; for
+the productions of no other kindred art have been more generally
+disseminated, nor with greater advantage to those for whom they were
+intended. In the child’s first book wood-cuts are introduced, to enable
+the infant mind to connect words with things; the youth gains his
+knowledge of the forms of foreign animals from wood-cuts; and the
+mathematician avails himself of wood engraving to execute his diagrams.
+It has been employed, in the representation of religious subjects, as an
+aid to devotion; to celebrate the triumphs of kings and warriors; to
+illustrate the pages of the historian, the traveller, and the poet; and
+by its means copies of the works of the greatest artists of former
+times, have been afforded at a price which enabled the very poorest
+classes to become purchasers. As at least one hundred thousand good
+impressions
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page652" id = "page652">
+652</a></span>
+can be obtained from a wood-cut, if properly engraved and carefully
+printed; and as the additional cost of printing wood-cuts with
+letter-press is inconsiderable when compared with the cost of printing
+steel or copper plates separately, the art will never want
+encouragement, nor again sink into neglect, so long as there are artists
+of talent to furnish designs, and good engravers to execute them.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "illus_652" id = "illus_652">&nbsp;</a>
+<img src = "images/illus_652.png" width = "279" height = "198"
+alt = "see text: DIES ADDIDIT MEA" title = "DIES ADDIDIT MEA"></p>
+
+<div class = "footnote">
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX1" id = "noteIX1" href = "#tagIX1">IX.1</a>
+Memoir of Thomas Bewick, by the Reverend William Turner, prefixed to
+volume sixth of the Naturalist’s Library, page 18.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX2" id = "noteIX2" href = "#tagIX2">IX.2</a>
+The following is an instance of the effect of dampth upon box-wood.
+I&nbsp;placed one evening a block, composed of several pieces of box
+glued to a thick piece of mahogany, against the wall of a rather damp
+room, and on examining it the next morning I found that the box had
+expanded so much that the edges projected beyond the mahogany upwards of
+the eighth of an inch.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX3" id = "noteIX3" href = "#tagIX3">IX.3</a>
+Some of the blocks engraved for the Penny Magazine, measuring originally
+eight inches and a half by six inches, have, after undergoing the
+process of stereotyping and the subsequent washing, increased not less
+than two inches in their perimeter or exterior lineal dimension, as has
+been proved by comparing the measurement of a block in its present state
+with a first proof taken on India paper, which paper, being dry when the
+impression was taken, has not suffered any contraction.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX4" id = "noteIX4" href = "#tagIX4">IX.4</a>
+Sometimes a piece of metal&mdash;such as part of a thin rule&mdash;is
+inserted in the chink by printers, when the part injured is dark and the
+work not fine. Such a temporary remedy is sure to increase the opening
+in a short time, and make the block worse.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX5" id = "noteIX5" href = "#tagIX5">IX.5</a>
+One of the original blocks of Weever’s Funeral Monuments, 1631,
+preserved in the Print Room of the British Museum, is of beech.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX6" id = "noteIX6" href = "#tagIX6">IX.6</a>
+A few years ago I allowed a rabbit to have the run of a small garden,
+where it soon <ins class = "correction" title = "text unchanged: probably correct">eat</ins> up everything except a small bush of box.
+Happening to leave home for two days without making any provision for
+the rabbit, I&nbsp;found it in a dying state, and all the leaves nibbled
+off the box. The rabbit died in the course of a few hours, and on
+opening it the cause of its death was apparent&mdash;the stomach was
+full of the leaves of the box.&mdash;See Brand’s Popular Antiquities,
+vol. ii. page 265 (Bohn’s edit.), for an account of yew poisoning two
+cows.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX7" id = "noteIX7" href = "#tagIX7">IX.7</a>
+Instead of gum-water, French artists, who are accustomed to make
+drawings on wood, use water in which parchment shavings have been
+boiled.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX8" id = "noteIX8" href = "#tagIX8">IX.8</a>
+This mode of repairing a block was practised by the German wood
+engravers of the time of Albert Durer. The “plug” which they inserted
+was usually square, and not circular as at present. The French wood
+engravers of the time of Papillon continued to employ square plugs.
+There are two or three instances of cuts thus repaired, in the
+Adventures of Sir Theurdank, Nuremberg and Augsburg, 1517-1519.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX9" id = "noteIX9" href = "#tagIX9">IX.9</a>
+In a tail-piece at page 52 of Bewick’s Fables, edition 1823, a&nbsp;plug
+which has been inserted appears lighter than the adjacent parts, in
+consequence of its having sunk a little below the surface; and in the
+cut to the fable of the Hart and the Vine, in the same work, two large
+plugs, at the top, are darker than the other parts in consequence of
+their having risen a little above the surface.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX10" id = "noteIX10" href = "#tagIX10">IX.10</a>
+French wood engravers are accustomed to rub the sides of the block with
+bees’-wax, which on being chafed with the thumb-nail becomes slightly
+softened, and thus adheres to the paper.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX11" id = "noteIX11" href = "#tagIX11">IX.11</a>
+Papillon’s description of a <i>mentonnière</i> is previously noticed at
+page 465.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX12" id = "noteIX12" href = "#tagIX12">IX.12</a>
+Papillon preferred a kind of bull’s-eye lens&mdash;<i>loupe</i>&mdash;of
+about three and a half inches diameter, flat on one side and convex on
+the other, to a globe filled with water&mdash;<i>un bocal</i>&mdash;for
+the purpose of bringing the light of the lamp to a focus. This
+bull’s-eye he had enclosed in a kind of frame, which could be inclined
+to any angle, or turned in any direction by means of a ball-and-socket
+joint. He gives a cut of it at page 75, vol. ii. of his Traité de la
+Gravure en Bois.&mdash;I have tried the bull’s-eye lens, but though the
+light was equally good as that from the globe, I&nbsp;found that the
+heat affected the head in a most unpleasant manner.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX13" id = "noteIX13" href = "#tagIX13">IX.13</a>
+A sharp-edged scraper, in shape something like a copper-plate engraver’s
+burnisher, is used in the process of <i>lowering</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX14" id = "noteIX14" href = "#tagIX14">IX.14</a>
+The handle, when received from the turner’s, is perfectly circular at
+the rounded end; but after the blade is inserted, a&nbsp;segment is cut
+off at the lower part, as seen in the above cut.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX15" id = "noteIX15" href = "#tagIX15">IX.15</a>
+The sky in many of the large wood engravings executed in London is now
+cut by means of a machine invented by Mr. John Parkhouse. In many steel
+engravings the sky is ruled in by means of a machine by persons who do
+little else.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX16" id = "noteIX16" href = "#tagIX16">IX.16</a>
+Lectures on Sculpture, pp. 172-193.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX17" id = "noteIX17" href = "#tagIX17">IX.17</a>
+As the drawing is the reverse of the impression, it is necessary to
+observe that the motion of the graver in this case is from right to left
+on the block,&mdash;that is, the point B forms the beginning, and not
+the termination, of the first line when the work is properly commenced.
+The lines are represented in the cut as they would appear when drawn on
+a block to be engraved in the manner recommended.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX18" id = "noteIX18" href = "#tagIX18">IX.18</a>
+The subject of this cut is the beautiful monument to the memory of two
+children executed by Sir F.&nbsp;Chantrey, in Lichfield Cathedral.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX19" id = "noteIX19" href = "#tagIX19">IX.19</a>
+This small cut is a fac-simile, the size of the original, of Sir David
+Wilkie’s first sketch for his picture of the Rabbit on the Wall.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX20" id = "noteIX20" href = "#tagIX20">IX.20</a>
+The original sketch, from which the figure was copied, is by
+Morland.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX21" id = "noteIX21" href = "#tagIX21">IX.21</a>
+In this cut the <i>white</i> outline, mentioned at page 587, is
+distinctly seen at the top of the buildings and above the trees.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX22" id = "noteIX22" href = "#tagIX22">IX.22</a>
+Some account of the maps in Sebastian Munster’s Cosmography is
+previously given at page 204, and page 417.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX23" id = "noteIX23" href = "#tagIX23">IX.23</a>
+When there is any danger of the block splitting from this cause, it is
+best to have a cast taken from it, as by this means the whole is
+obtained of one solid piece.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX24" id = "noteIX24" href = "#tagIX24">IX.24</a>
+The first work containing lowered cuts printed by a steam-press was that
+on Cattle, published in numbers, under the superintendence of the
+Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, 1832.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX25" id = "noteIX25" href = "#tagIX25">IX.25</a>
+The <i>casts</i> are precisely the same as the <i>dies</i> from which
+the coin is struck.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX26" id = "noteIX26" href = "#tagIX26">IX.26</a>
+If the drawing were finished, the lines on the parts intended to be
+light would necessarily be effaced in lowering the block in such
+parts.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX27" id = "noteIX27" href = "#tagIX27">IX.27</a>
+In cuts printed by a steam-press it not unfrequently happens that
+lowering to the depth of the sixteenth part of an inch scarcely produces
+a perceptible difference in the strength of the impression. In cuts
+inked with leather balls, and printed at the common press, the lines in
+parts lowered to this depth would not be visible.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX28" id = "noteIX28" href = "#tagIX28">IX.28</a>
+Sir William Congreve’s mode of colour printing, however, patented many
+years ago, and now practised by Mr. Charles Whiting of Beaufort House,
+is one of the least expensive of all. It consists in printing several
+colours at one time, and may be thus described:&mdash;“A coloured design
+being made on a block, the various colours are cut into their respective
+sections, like a geographical puzzle, and placed in an ingeniously
+constructed machine, which inks them separately, and prints them
+together. By this mode speed is obtained in large operations, and the
+colours are prevented from running into each other. It is extensively
+applied to book-covers, decorative show-cards, the back of country
+notes, and labels, where the object is to prevent forgery.”&mdash;<i>See
+Bohn’s Lecture on Printing, page 104.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX29" id = "noteIX29" href = "#tagIX29">IX.29</a>
+The best specimen of this art will be found in Charles Knight’s Old
+England’s Worthies, a&nbsp;folio volume, containing twelve large plates
+of Architecture and Costume, printed in colours, and 240 portraits
+engraved on steel, folio (now published by H.&nbsp;G. Bohn), 15<i>s.</i>
+The practice of the art has not been continued, as it was only
+applicable to very large editions (ten thousand and upwards), and was
+more expensive than hand colouring where small editions were required.
+The machinery has been sold off and destroyed.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX30" id = "noteIX30" href = "#tagIX30">IX.30</a>
+The Book of Thel, which, with the titles, consists of seven quarto pages
+of verse and figures engraved in metallic relief, is dated 1789.
+A&nbsp;full list of the works of this remarkable artist will be found in
+Bohn’s enlarged edition of Lowndes’s Bibliographer’s Manual.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX31" id = "noteIX31" href = "#tagIX31">IX.31</a>
+A cast from a form of types, as well as from an engraved wood-block, is
+by French printers termed a <i>cliché</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX32" id = "noteIX32" href = "#tagIX32">IX.32</a>
+The metal of which this matrix is formed, is made several degrees harder
+than common type metal, by mixing with the latter a greater portion of
+regulus of antimony, otherwise the matrix and cast would adhere.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX33" id = "noteIX33" href = "#tagIX33">IX.33</a>
+Taken from Mr. S. Leigh Sotheby’s <i>Principia Typographica</i>, 3 vols.
+folio&mdash;to whose kindness we are indebted for the reduced block.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX34" id = "noteIX34" href = "#tagIX34">IX.34</a>
+The principal difference, so far as relates to wood engravings, between
+printing by a steam-press with cylindrical rollers, and printing by a
+common press with a blanket, is, that the blanket or woollen cloth
+covering the cylinder of the steam-press comes into immediate contact
+with the paper, while in the common press the parchment of the tympan is
+interposed between the paper and the blanket. It is necessary that cuts
+intended to be printed by a steam-press should be lowered to a greater
+depth than cuts intended to be printed with a blanket at a common press,
+as the blanket on the cylinder penetrates to a greater depth between the
+lines.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX35" id = "noteIX35" href = "#tagIX35">IX.35</a>
+I have known a printer, who <i>once</i> had a high character for his
+<i>fine</i> work, charge and receive twelve guineas per sheet for a book
+containing a number of wood-cuts which required to be well printed, and
+I have known a similar work better printed from lowered blocks for less
+than half the sum per sheet. Publishers will at no distant time
+discover, that it is their interest rather to have their cuts first
+properly engraved than to pay a printer a large additional sum for the
+trouble of overlaying them, and thus giving them the appearance which
+they ought to have without such means and appliances, if the blocks were
+originally executed as they ought to be.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX36" id = "noteIX36" href = "#tagIX36">IX.36</a>
+The cuts being arranged back to back, as at pages 641, 642, and thereby
+preventing the types appearing, as they do on the next page, is an
+advantage not to be overlooked.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX37" id = "noteIX37" href = "#tagIX37">IX.37</a>
+What is called <i>underlaying</i> consists in pasting one piece of paper
+or more on the lower part of a block, in order to raise it, and increase
+the pressure. When a block is uneven at the bottom, in consequence of
+warping, underlaying is indispensable.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX38" id = "noteIX38" href = "#tagIX38">IX.38</a>
+The entire quantity of types, or of types and wood-cuts, which is locked
+up together, and printed on one side of a sheet at one impression, is
+called by printers a <i>form</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX39" id = "noteIX39" href = "#tagIX39">IX.39</a>
+When a block, after being printed, requires retouching, it is generally
+necessary to cover it with fine whiting, which, by filling up the
+interstices, thus enables the engraver to distinguish the raised lines
+more clearly.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX40" id = "noteIX40" href = "#tagIX40">IX.40</a>
+When a block has been cleaned with turpentine, and not afterwards washed
+with soap and water, it will not receive the ink well when next used.
+The first fifty or sixty impressions subsequently taken, are almost
+certain to have a grey and scumbled appearance.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "noteIX41" id = "noteIX41" href = "#tagIX41">IX.41</a>
+Some of those presses were so truly constructed, that if the table were
+wetted, and brought in contact with the platten, it could be raised from
+its bed by allowing the platten to ascend, in consequence of the two
+surfaces being so perfectly plane and level.</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "endnote">
+<p><a name = "page_image" id = "page_image" href = "#page616">Page
+616</a>, as printed:</p>
+
+<p class ="illustration">
+<img src = "images/page616.png" width = "448" height = "679"
+alt = "complete page image"></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "correction">
+<h5>Errors in Chapter IX</h5>
+
+<p><span class = "citation">
+[IX.10]</span><br>
+<i>footnote tag missing: best guess</i></p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+that the colour would be proportionably stronger</span><br>
+<i>text unchanged</i></p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+Messrs. Vizetelly, Branston, and Co.</span><br>
+Vizitelly</p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+by means of a rolling-press,</span><br>
+<i>comma invisible</i></p>
+<p><span class = "citation">
+[IX.38]</span><br>
+<i>footnote tag missing: best guess</i></p>
+
+<p>Footnote IX.6</p>
+<p class = "continue">
+<span class = "citation">where it soon eat up everything</span><br>
+<i>text unchanged: probably correct</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "mynote">
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html">Introduction</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html#illus">List of Illustrations</a> (separate
+file)</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html">Chapter I</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_II">Chapter II</a> (separate
+file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving1.html#chap_III">Chapter III</a> (separate
+file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html">Chapter IV</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving4.html#chap_V">Chapter V</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving6.html">Chapter VI</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving7.html">Chapter VII</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "WoodEngraving8.html">Chapter VIII</a> (separate file)<br>
+<a href = "#chap_IX">Chapter IX</a></p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "WoodEngraving.html#index">Index</a> (separate file)</p>
+</div>
+
+</body>
+</html>
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author	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-14 18:34:39 -0700
committer	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-14 18:34:39 -0700
commit	44911a21dc921aff22558bc4e3009a975563abc5 (patch)
tree	5bf00665f4eb6d3c7d72e2e11d24f39738f34b5b /old/42719-h