diff options
Diffstat (limited to '42701.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 42701.txt | 12328 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 12328 deletions
diff --git a/42701.txt b/42701.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 86159bf..0000000 --- a/42701.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12328 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's The Colonies 1492-1750, by Reuben Gold Thwaites - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Colonies 1492-1750 - -Author: Reuben Gold Thwaites - -Release Date: May 12, 2013 [EBook #42701] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COLONIES 1492-1750 *** - - - - -Produced by Clare Boothby, Carol Brown and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -Illustration: - - EPOCH MAP I - - PHYSICAL FEATURES - OF THE - UNITED STATES OF AMERICA - BASED UPON GOVERNMENT MAPS - - _Dark buff represents 2,000 ft. and over._ - - - - - _Epochs of American History_ - - THE COLONIES - - 1492-1750 - - BY - REUBEN GOLD THWAITES, LL.D. - - EDITOR OF "JESUIT RELATIONS," "EARLY WESTERN TRAVELS," - "ORIGINAL JOURNALS OF THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITIONS," - ETC. AUTHOR OF "FRANCE IN AMERICA," "FATHER - MARQUETTE," "DANIEL BOONE," "ROCKY - MOUNTAIN EXPLORATION," "HISTORIC - WATERWAYS," "WISCONSIN," ETC. - - WITH FOUR MAPS AND - NUMEROUS BIBLIOGRAPHIES - - LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. - - FOURTH AVENUE & 30TH STREET, NEW YORK - LONDON, BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA - - - - - _Copyright, 1890_, - BY CHARLES J. MILLS. - - _Copyright, 1897_, - BY LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. - - _Copyright, 1910_, - BY LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. - - _All rights reserved._ - - First Edition, December, 1890. - -Reprinted, September, 1891, February, 1892, (Revised), January and August, -1893, December, 1893, (Revised), August, 1894, October, 1895, July, 1896, -August, 1897, (Revised), November, 1897, July, 1898, July, 1899, April, -1900, January, 1901, October, 1901, August, 1902, November, 1902, October, -1904, September, 1906, May, 1908, June, 1910, (Revised), October, 1911. - - - - - EDITOR'S PREFACE. - - -In offering to the public a new HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES,--for such the -three volumes of the EPOCHS OF AMERICAN HISTORY, taken together, are -designed to form,--the aim is not to assemble all the important facts, or -to discuss all the important questions that have arisen. There seems to be -a place for a series of brief works which shall show the main causes for -the foundation of the colonies, for the formation of the Union, and for the -triumph of that Union over disintegrating tendencies. To make clear the -development of ideas and institutions from epoch to epoch,--this is the aim -of the authors and the editor. - -Detail has therefore been sacrificed to a more thorough treatment of the -broad outlines: events are considered as evidences of tendencies and -principles. Recognizing the fact that many readers will wish to go more -carefully into narrative and social history, each chapter throughout the -Series will be provided with a bibliography, intended to lead, first to the -more common and easily accessible books, afterward, through the lists of -bibliographies by other hands, to special works and monographs. The reader -or teacher will find a select list of books in the Suggestions a few pages -below. - -The historical geography of the United States has been a much-neglected -subject. In this Series, therefore, both physical and political geography -will receive special attention. I have prepared four maps for the first -volume, and a like number will appear in each subsequent volume. Colonial -grants were confused and uncertain; the principle adopted has been to -accept the later interpretation of the grants by the English government as -settling earlier questions. - -To my colleague, Professor Edward Channing, I beg to offer especial thanks -for many generous suggestions, both as to the scope of the work and as to -details. - - ALBERT BUSHNELL HART. - -CAMBRIDGE, December 1, 1890. - - - - - AUTHOR'S PREFACE. - - -Upon no epoch of American history has so much been written, from every -point of view, as upon the Thirteen Colonies. There has, nevertheless, been -lacking a book devoted especially to it, compact in form, yet sufficiently -comprehensive in scope at once to serve as a text-book for class use and -for general reading and reference. The present work is intended to meet -that want. - -In this book American colonization is considered in the light of general -colonization as a phase of history. Englishmen in planting colonies in -America brought with them the institutions with which they had been -familiar at home: it is shown what these institutions were, and how, in -adapting themselves to new conditions of growth, they differed from English -models. As prominent among the changed conditions, the physical geography -of America and its aboriginal inhabitants receive somewhat extended -treatment; and it is sought to explain the important effect these had upon -the character of the settlers and the development of the country. The -social and economic condition of the people is described, and attention is -paid to the political characteristics of the several colonies both in the -conduct of their local affairs and in their relations with each other and -the mother-country. It is shown that the causes of the Revolution were -deep-seated in colonial history. Attention is also called to the fact, -generally overlooked, that the thirteen mainland colonies which revolted in -1776 were not all of the English colonial establishments in America. - -From Dr. Frederick J. Turner, of the University of Wisconsin, I have had -much advice and assistance throughout the prosecution of the work; Dr. -Edward Channing, of Harvard College, has kindly revised the proof-sheets -and made many valuable suggestions; while Dr. Samuel A. Green, librarian of -the Massachusetts Historical Society, has generously done similar service -on the chapters referring to New England. To all of these gentlemen, each -professionally expert in certain branches of the subject, I tender most -cordial thanks. - - REUBEN GOLD THWAITES. - -MADISON, WIS., December 1, 1890. - - - - - PREFACE TO TWENTY-SECOND EDITION. - - -From time to time there have been several revisions of the text, so that it -has been kept fairly abreast of current investigation. The bibliographies, -however, have remained untouched since the tenth edition (August, 1897). -The principal change in the present, therefore, consists in the -introduction of new and carefully prepared references, which will render -the book of greater service to the student than it has been at any time -within the past ten years. In this revision, I have had the valuable -assistance of Miss Annie A. Nunns. - - R. G. THWAITES. - -MADISON, WIS., June 1, 1910. - - - - - SUGGESTIONS. - - -While this volume is intended to be complete in itself, compression has -been necessary in order to make it conform to the series in which it -appears. It really is but an outline of the subject, a centre from which to -start upon a study of the American colonies. The reader, especially the -teacher, who would acquire a fairly complete knowledge of this interesting -period of our history, will need to examine many other volumes; from them -gaining not only further information, but the point of view of other -authors than the present--only in this manner may an historical perspective -be obtained. The classified bibliographies, given by the author at the head -of each chapter, have been prepared with much care. While perhaps few will -desire to follow the topics to the lengths there suggested, it is urged -that as many of the other volumes as possible be consulted, particularly -those containing source material. - - * * * * * - -Following is a list of books which, even for a brief study, would be -desirable for reference and comparison, or for the preparation of topics: - - -1-5. JOHN ANDREW DOYLE: _English Colonies in America_. 5 vols. New York: H. -Holt & Co., 1882-1907.--An analytical study, in much detail, by an English -author. - -6-13. JOHN FISKE: _Beginnings of New England; The Discovery of America_, 2 -vols.; _Dutch and Quaker Colonies in America_, 2 vols.; _New France and -New England; Old Virginia and her Neighbours_, 2 vols. Boston: Houghton, -Mifflin & Co., 1897-1902.--The best popular accounts; but while eminently -readable and inspiring, not sufficiently thorough at all points, to serve -as authoritative studies. - -14. HENRY CABOT LODGE: _Short History of the English Colonies in America_. -New York: Harper Brothers Co., 1881.--Concise and readable. - -15-17. HERBERT LEVI OSGOOD: _American Colonies in the 17th Century_. 3 -vols. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1904-1907.--The most elaborate treatment -of this period, from the American point of view. - - -If a detailed study is intended, the following volumes should be added to -the foregoing: - - - A. Bibliography. - - -1. EDWARD CHANNING and ALBERT BUSHNELL HART: _A Guide to the Study of -American History_. Boston: Ginn & Co., 1896.--A well-arranged manual for -both students and general readers. - -2. JOSEPHUS NELSON LARNED: _Literature of American History_. Boston: -Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1902.--More detailed than the foregoing. Contains -critical estimates of many of the works cited, by experts in the several -subjects. - - - B. General. - - -3-5. ELROY MCKENDREE AVERY: _A History of the United States and its People -from their Earliest Records to the Present Time_. 15 vols. Cleveland: -Burrows Brothers Co., 1904+.--Volumes I.-III. cover the colonial period. -Especially notable for its illustrations--for the most part, reproductions -of contemporary views, maps, portraits, and articles of historical -interest. The bibliographies are quite full. - -6, 7. EDWARD CHANNING: _A History of the United States_. 8 vols. New York: -The Macmillan Co., 1905+.--A calm, philosophical treatise, written with -care and erudition. - -8-13. Albert Bushnell Hart, Editor: _The American Nation_. New York: Harper -Brothers Co., 1904-1907.--The latest co-operative history of the United -States. Each volume is by an author who specializes in the topic treated. -Vols. II.-VII. are concerned with the colonial period. The bibliographical -chapters are very useful. - -14, 15. WOODROW WILSON: _A History of the American People_. 5 vols. New -York: Harper Brothers Co., 1902.--Popular and readable, often brilliant. -Only vols. I. and II. cover the colonial period. - -16-20. JUSTIN WINSOR: _Narrative and Critical History of America_. 8 vols. -Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1889.--A co-operative enterprise, the -chapters being by different hands, for the most part specialists. There is -a wealth of illustrations, notes, and bibliographical references. But much -of the work has been superseded by later publications. Vols. I.-V. cover -the colonial period. - - - C. Special Histories. - - -21, 22. PHILIP ALEXANDER BRUCE: _Economic History of Virginia in the 17th -Century_. 2 vols. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1896.--A careful, detailed -study. - -23. PHILIP ALEXANDER BRUCE: _Social Life of Virginia in the 17th Century_. -Richmond: Whittet & Shepperson, 1907.--Thorough and clear. - -24, 25. SYDNEY GEORGE FISHER: _Men, Women, and Manners in Colonial Times_. -2 vols. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1898.--A readable and useful -survey. - -26. FREDERICK WEBB HODGE: _Handbook of American Indians north of Mexico_. -Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1907.--The author, a member of the -Ethnological Bureau, is an authority on this subject. - -27-38. FRANCIS PARKMAN: _France and England in North America_. 12 vols. -Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1851-1892. The titles of volumes comprising -this series are: Pioneers of France in the New World; The Jesuits in North -America; La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West; The Old Regime in -Canada; Count Frontenac and New France; A Half-Century of Conflict, 2 -vols.; Montcalm and Wolfe, 2 vols.; The Conspiracy of Pontiac, 2 vols.--In -spite of its age, this work remains the principal authority for the -thrilling story of New France. A first-hand study, written in fascinating -style. - -39. ELLEN CHURCHILL SEMPLE: _American History and its Geographic -Conditions_. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1903.--Of first importance in -understanding the causes and effects of the movements of population. - -40. CYRUS THOMAS: _The Indians of North America in Historic Times_. -Philadelphia: G. Barrie & Sons, 1903.--The latest compendious treatment; -somewhat repellent in style, but useful for reference. The author is a -well-known authority. - -41, 42. WILLIAM BABCOCK WEEDEN: _Economic and Social History of New -England, 1620-1789_. 2 vols. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1890.--An -admirably executed work. - - - D. Sources. - -43, 44. ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Editor: _American History Told by -Contemporaries_. 4 vols. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1897, 1898.--Very -useful for purposes of illustration. Vols. I., II., are devoted to colonial -material. - -45-64. JOHN FRANKLIN JAMESON, Editor: _Original Narratives of Early -American History_. 20 vols. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, -1906+.--Carefully edited, and indispensable for first-hand study. - -65. WILLIAM MACDONALD, Editor: _Documentary Source Book of American -History, 1606-1898_. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1908.--Useful reprints of -material otherwise difficult to obtain. - - -In addition to the above, the publications of colonial and town record -commissions and state and local historical and antiquarian societies -contain material of the utmost value in the study of our colonial history. -Among them may especially be mentioned the volumes issued by the Prince -Society, Gorges Society, American Antiquarian Society, and the state -historical societies of Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, and -Virginia; also the colonial records of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New -York, New Jersey, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and North -and South Carolina. - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - - THE LAND AND THE NATIVE RACES. - PAGES - 1. References, p. 1.--2. Physical characteristics of North - America, p. 2.--3. The native races, p. 7.--4. Characteristics - of the Indian, p. 13.--5. Relations of the Indians and - colonists, p. 17 1-19 - - - CHAPTER II. - - DISCOVERIES AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS (1492-1606). - - 6. References, p. 20.--7. Pre-Columbian discoveries, p. 21.--8. - Early European discoveries (1492-1512), p. 23.--9. Spanish - exploration of the interior (1513-1542), p. 27.--10. Spanish - colonies (1492-1687), p. 31.--11. The French in North America - (1524-1550), p. 32.--12. French attempts to colonize Florida - (1562-1568), p. 33.--13. The French in Canada (1589-1608), p. - 35.--14. English exploration (1498-1584), p. 36.--15. English - attempts to colonize (1584-1606), p. 38.--16. The experience - of the sixteenth century (1492-1606), p. 42 20-44 - - - CHAPTER III. - - COLONIZATION AND THE COLONISTS. - - 17. References, p. 45.--18. Colonial policy of European states, - p. 45.--19. Spanish and Portuguese policy, p. 47.--20. - French policy, p. 48.--21. Dutch and Swedish policy, p. - 50.--22. English policy, p. 51.--23. Character of English - emigrants, p. 53.--24. Local government in the colonies, p. - 55.--25. Colonial governments, p. 58.--26. Privileges of - the colonists, p. 61 45-63 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - THE COLONIZATION OF THE SOUTH (1606-1700). - - 27. References, p. 64.--28. Reasons for final English colonization, - p. 65.--29. The charter of 1606, p. 66.--30. The settlement - of Virginia (1607-1624), p. 69.--31. Virginia during the - English revolution (1624-1660), p. 75.--32. Development of - Virginia (1660-1700), p. 78.--33. Settlement of Maryland - (1632-1635), p. 81.--34. Maryland during the English - revolution (1642-1660), p. 84.--35. Development of Maryland - (1660-1715), p. 86.--36. Early settlers in the Carolinas - (1542-1665), p. 87.--37. Proprietorship of the Carolinas - (1663-1671), p. 89.--38. The two settlements of Carolina - (1671-1700), p. 92 64-95 - - - CHAPTER V. - - SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS IN THE SOUTH IN 1700. - - 39. References, p. 96.--40. Land and People in the South, p. - 96.--41. Slavery and servants, p. 98.--42. Middle and upper - classes, p. 100.--43. Occupations, p. 102.--44. Navigation - Acts, p. 104.--45. Social life, p. 106.--46. Political - life, and conclusions, p. 109 96-111 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - THE COLONIZATION OF NEW ENGLAND (1620-1643). - - 47. References, p. 112.--48. The New England colonists, - p. 113.--49. Plymouth colonized (1620-1621), p. 116.--50. - Development of Plymouth (1621-1691), p. 120.--51. - Massachusetts founded (1630), p. 124.--52. Government of - Massachusetts (1630-1634), p. 127.--53. Internal - dissensions in Massachusetts (1634-1637), p. 129.--54. - Religious troubles in Massachusetts (1636-1638), p. - 132.--55. Indian wars (1635-1637), p. 136.--56. Laws and - characteristics of Massachusetts (1637-1643), p. 137.--57. - Connecticut founded (1633-1639), p. 140.--58. The - Connecticut government (1639-1643), p. 142.--59. New Haven - founded (1637-1644), p. 144.--60. Rhode Island founded - (1636-1654), p. 146.--61. Maine founded (1622-1658), p. - 150.--62. New Hampshire founded (1620-1685), p. 152 112-153 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - NEW ENGLAND FROM 1643 TO 1700. - - 63. References, p. 154.--64. New England confederation formed - (1637-1643), p. 154.--65. Workings of the confederation - (1643-1660), p. 157.--66. Disturbances in Rhode Island - (1641-1647), p. 159.--67. Policy of the confederation - (1646-1660), p. 161.--68. Repression of the Quakers - (1656-1660), p. 165.--69. Royal commission (1660-1664), p. - 166.--70. Indian wars (1660-1678), p. 170.--71. Territorial - disputes (1649-1685), p. 173.--72. Revocation of the - charters (1679-1687), p. 174.--73. Restoration of the - charters (1689-1692), p. 176 154-177 - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS IN NEW ENGLAND IN 1700. - - 74. References, p. 178.--75. Land and people, p. 179.--76. - Social classes and professions, p. 181.--77. Occupations, - p. 184.--78. Social conditions, p. 186.--79. Moral and - religious conditions, p. 188.--80. The witchcraft delusion, - p. 190.--81. Political conditions, p. 192 178-194 - - - CHAPTER IX. - - THE COLONIZATION OF THE MIDDLE COLONIES (1609-1700). - - 82. References, p. 195.--83. Dutch settlement (1609-1625), - p. 196.--84. Progress of New Netherland (1626-1664), p. - 198.--85. Conquest of New Netherland (1664), p. 202.--86. - Development of New York (1664-1700), p. 203.--87. Delaware - (1623-1700), p. 207.--88. New Jersey (1664-1738), p. - 210.--89. Pennsylvania (1681-1718), p. 215 195-217 - - - CHAPTER X. - - SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS IN THE MIDDLE COLONIES IN 1700. - - 90. References, p. 218.--91. Geographical conditions in the - middle colonies, p. 218.--92. People of the middle - colonies, p. 220.--93. Social classes, p. 222.--94. - Occupations, p. 224.--95. Social life, p. 226.--96. - Intellectual and moral conditions, p. 229.--97. Political - conditions, and conclusion, p. 231 218-232 - - - CHAPTER XI. - - OTHER ENGLISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES (1605-1750). - - 98. References, p. 233.--99. Outlying English colonies, - p. 234.--100. Windward and Leeward Islands (1605-1814), p. - 236.--101. Bermudas (1609-1750) and Bahamas (1522-1783), p. - 238.--102. Jamaica (1655-1750), p. 240.--103. British - Honduras (1600-1798), p. 241.--104. Newfoundland - (1497-1783), p. 241.--105. Nova Scotia, Acadia (1497-1755), - p. 242.--106. Hudson's Bay Company, p. 243 233-244 - - - CHAPTER XII. - - THE COLONIZATION OF NEW FRANCE (1608-1750). - - 107. References, p. 245.--108. Settlement of Canada (1608-1629), - p. 246.--109. Exploration of the Northwest (1629-1699), p. - 247.--110. Social and political conditions, p. 249.--111. - Intercolonial wars (1628-1697), p. 252.--112. Frontier wars - (1702-1748), p. 254.--113. Territorial claims, p. - 255.--114. Effect of French colonization, p. 257 245-257 - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - THE COLONIZATION OF GEORGIA (1732-1755). - - 115. References, p. 258.--116. Settlement of Georgia - (1732-1735), p. 258.--117. Slow development of Georgia - (1735-1755), p. 261 258-263 - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - THE CONTINENTAL COLONIES FROM 1700 TO 1750. - - 118. References, p. 264.--119. Population (1700-1750), - p 265.--120. Attacks on the charters (1701-1749), p. - 266.--121. Settlement and boundaries (1700-1750), p. - 267.--122. Schemes of colonial union (1690-1754), p. - 269.--123. Quarrels with royal governors (1700-1750), p. - 271.--124. Governors of southern colonies, p. 272.--125. - Governors of middle colonies, p. 273.--126. Governors of - New England colonies, p. 275.--127. Effect of the French - wars (1700-1750), p. 277.--128. Economic conditions, p. - 278.--129. Political and social conditions (1700-1750), p. - 280.--130. Results of the half-century (1700-1750), p. 282 264-284 - - - INDEX 285 - - - - - LIST OF MAPS. - - - 1. Physical Features of the United States _Frontispiece_. - - 2. North America, 1650 _End of volume_. - - 3. English Colonies in North America, 1700 _End of volume_. - - 4. North America, 1750 _End of volume_. - - - - - EPOCHS OF AMERICAN HISTORY - - - - - THE COLONIES. - - 1492-1750. - - - - - CHAPTER I. - - THE LAND AND THE NATIVE RACES. - - - 1. References. - - -Bibliographies.--L. Farrand, _Basis of American History_, ch. xviii.; J. -Larned, _Literature of American History_, 21-50; J. Winsor, _Narrative and -Critical History_, I., II.; Channing and Hart, _Guide_, Secs. 21, 77-80; C. -Lummis, _Reading List on Indians_. - -Historical Maps.--No. 1, this volume (_Epoch Maps_, No. 1); T. MacCoun, -_Historical Geography of United States_; school histories of Channing, -Elson, Gordy, James and Sanford, Mace, McLaughlin, McMaster, and -Montgomery. - -General Accounts.--Historical significance of geography of the United -States: H. Mill, _International Geography_, ch. xxxix.; F. Ratzel, -_Vereinigte Staaten_, I. ch. ii.; B. Hinsdale, _How to Study and Teach -History_, ch. xiv.; E. Bogart, _Economic History of United States_, -introduction; E. Semple, _American History and its Geographic Conditions_; -A. Brigham, _Geographic Influences in American History_; W. Scaife, -_America: its Geographical History_.--Topographical descriptions of the -country: J. Whitney, _United States_, I. pt. i.; N. Shaler, _United -States_, I., and _Nature and Man in America_; Mill, as above; E. Reclus, -_North America_, III.; Hinsdale, as above, ch. xv.--Prehistoric Man in -America: L. Morgan, _Ancient Society_; J. Nadaillac, _Prehistoric America_; -J. Foster, _Prehistoric Races_; Winsor, as above, I. ch. vi.; E. Avery, -_United States and its People_, I. chs. i., ii.; Farrand, as above, ch. -v.--The Indians (or Amerinds): D. Brinton, _American Race_; C. Thomas, -_Indians in Historic Times_; F. Hodge, _Handbook of American Indians_; -Farrand, as above, chs. vi.-xviii.; Avery, as above, I. ch. xxii.; F. -Dellenbaugh, _North Americans of Yesterday_; S. Drake, _Aboriginal Races of -America_; G. Ellis, _Red Man and White Man in North America_; G. Grinnell, -_Story of the Indian_. The introduction to F. Parkman, _Jesuits in North -America_, and his _Conspiracy of Pontiac_, I. ch. i., are admirable general -surveys. Briefer, also excellent, is J. Fiske's _Discovery of America_, I. -ch. i. The mound-builders have now been identified as Indians. L. Carr, -_Mounds of the Mississippi Valley Historically Considered_ is the best -exposition of this subject. C. Thomas, _Catalogue of Prehistoric Works East -of the Rocky Mountains_ is useful. - -Special Histories.--Larned, _History for Ready Reference_, I. 83-115, gives -brief account and bibliographies of tribes; Farrand, as above, 279-286, -does the same by geographical groups. Especially notable are L. Morgan, -_League of the Iroquois_, and C. Colden, _Five Indian Nations_. For -detailed treatment of the aborigines of that section, consult H. Bancroft, -_Native Races of the Pacific Coast_, II., and _Mexico_, I.; J. Palfrey, -_New England_, I. chs. i., ii., describes the Indians in that region; T. -Roosevelt, _Winning of the West_, I. chs. iii., iv., the Southern tribes; -and Parkman, _Pontiac_, the old Northwest tribes. There are numerous -biographies of chiefs, and a considerable literature on border warfare. - - - 2. Physical Characteristics of North America. - - Sidenote: Origin of the native races, a mere matter of conjecture. - -Whence came the native races of America? Doubtless the chain of Aleutian -islands served as stepping-stones for straggling bands of Asiatics to cross -over into continental Alaska many centuries ago; others may have traversed -the ice-bridge of Bering's Strait; possibly prehistoric vessels from China, -Japan, or the Malay peninsula were blown upon our shores by westerly -hurricanes, or drifted hither upon the ocean currents of the Pacific. There -are striking similarities between the flora on each shore of the North -Pacific; and the Eskimos of North America, like the West-Slope Indians of -South America, have been thought to exhibit physical resemblances to the -Mongols and Malays. On the other hand, some archaeologists hold that men as -far advanced as the present Eskimos followed the retreating ice-cap of the -last glacial epoch. In the absence of positive historical evidence, the -origin of the native peoples of America is a mere matter of conjecture. - - Sidenote: Difficulties of colonization from the west. - -North America could not, in a primitive stage of the mechanic arts, have -been developed by colonization on any considerable scale from the west, -except in the face of difficulties almost insuperable. The Pacific coast of -the country is dangerous to approach; steep precipices frequently come down -to the shore, and the land everywhere rises rapidly from the sea, until not -far inland the broad and mighty wall of the Cordilleran mountain system -extends from north to south. That formidable barrier was not scaled by -civilized men until modern times, when European settlement had already -reached the Mississippi from the east, and science had stepped in to assist -the explorers. At San Diego and San Francisco are the only natural harbors, -although Puget Sound can be entered from the extreme north, and skilful -improvements have in our day made a good harbor at the mouth of Columbia -River. The rivers of the Pacific Slope for the most part come noisily -tumbling down to the sea over great cliffs and through deep chasms, and -cannot be utilized for progress far into the interior. - - Sidenotes: The Atlantic seaboard the natural approach to North America. - - The river system. - - The Appalachian valley system. - -The Atlantic seaboard, upon the other hand, is broad and inviting. The -Appalachian range lies for the most part nearly a hundred miles inland. The -gently sloping coast abounds in indentations,--safe harbors and generous -land-locked bays, into which flow numerous rivers of considerable breadth -and depth, by means of which the land can be explored for long distances -from tide-water. By ascending the St. Lawrence and the chain of the Great -Lakes, the interior of the continent is readily reached. Dragging his craft -over any one of a half-dozen easy portages in Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, -or Ohio, the canoe traveller can emerge into the Mississippi basin, by -means of whose far-stretching waters he is enabled to explore the heart of -the New World, from the Alleghanies to the Rockies, from the Great Lakes to -the Gulf of Mexico. A carrying trail, at the headwaters of the Missouri, -will lead him over to tributaries of the Columbia, whereby he gains access -to the Pacific slope; while by another portage of a few miles in length, -from Pigeon River to Rainy River, he is given command of the vast basin of -Hudson Bay,--a labyrinth of waterways extending northward to the Arctic -Ocean, and connected by still other portages with the Pacific. The Hudson -River and Lakes George and Champlain form a natural highway from the St. -Lawrence southward to the ocean. By the Mohawk and a short carrying-place, -the Hudson was from early times connected with the Great Lakes. The -Potomac, the Susquehanna, the Roanoke, and other Southern rivers can be -traced northwestward to their sources in the mountains; and hard by are the -headwaters of west-flowing feeders of the Mississippi. The Appalachian -mountains run for the most part in parallel ridges northeast and southwest; -and their valley system, opening out through the Cumberland Gap upon the -Kentucky prairies and the valleys of the Ohio basin, also affords a -comparatively easy highway from the Atlantic sea-coast to the interior. - - Sidenote: An inviting field for Aryan colonization. - -Thus with the entrance of North America facing the east, and with Europe -lying but little more than one half the distance from Boston that Asia lies -from San Francisco, it was in the order of things that from the east should -have come the people who were to settle and civilize the New World. -Colonists could on this side of the continent found new commonwealths, yet -at the same time easily maintain their connection with the fatherland. The -march of Aryan emigration has ever been on lines little diverging from due -east or west. It is fortunate that the geographical conditions of North -America were such as to make her an inviting field for the further -migration of the race. - - Sidenotes: Geographical characteristics of New England and of the South. - - Three grand natural divisions of the Atlantic slope. - - Extractive industries. - - Soil. - - Climate. - -The Atlantic border may be considered as the threshold of the continent. It -was among its dense, gloomy forests of hard wood and pine that European -nations planted their colonies; here those colonies grew into States, which -were the nucleus of the American Union. The Appalachians are not high -enough seriously to affect the climate or landscape of the region. Their -flanks slope gradually down to the sea, furrowed by rivers which from the -first gave character to the colonies. In New England, where there is an -abundance of good harbors, the coast is narrow and the streams are short -and rapid, with stretches of navigable water between the waterfalls which -turn the wheels of industry for a busy, ingenious, and thrifty people. The -long, broad rivers of the South, flowing lazily through a wide base-plain, -the coast of which furnishes but little safe anchorage, served as avenues -of traffic for the large, isolated colonial estates strung along their -banks; the autocratic planters taking pleasure in having ports of entry at -their doors. The Hudson and the Potomac lead far inland,--paths to the -water ways of the interior,--and divide the Atlantic slope into three grand -natural divisions, the New England, the Middle, and the Southern, in which -grew up distinct groups of colonies, having quite a different origin, and -for a time but few interests in common. The Appalachian mountains and their -foot-hills abound in many places in iron and coal; works for the smelting -of the former were erected near Jamestown, Virginia, as early as 1620, and -early in the eighteenth century the industry began to be of considerable -importance in parts of New England, New York, and New Jersey; but the -mining of anthracite coal was not commenced until 1820. The soil of the -Atlantic border varies greatly, being much less fertile in the North than -in the South; but nearly everywhere it yields good returns for a proper -expenditure of labor. The climate is subject to frequent and extreme -changes. At about 30 deg. latitude the mean temperature is similar to that on -the opposite side of the Atlantic; but farther north the American climate, -owing to the divergence of the Gulf Stream and the influence of the great -continent to the west, is much colder than at corresponding points in -Europe. The rainfall along the coast is everywhere sufficient. - - Sidenotes: The Mississippi basin. - - The Pacific slope. - -Beyond the Appalachian mountain wall, the once heavily forested land dips -gently to the Mississippi; then the land rises again, in a long, treeless -swell, up to the foot of the giant and picturesque Cordilleras. The -isothermal lines in this great central basin are nearly identical with -those of the Atlantic coast. The soil east of the 105th meridian west from -Greenwich is generally rich, sometimes extremely fertile; and it is now -agreed that nearly all the vast arid plains to the west of that meridian, -formerly set down as desert, needs only irrigation to blossom as the rose. -The Pacific slope, narrow and abrupt, abounds in fertile, pent-up valleys, -with some of the finest scenery on the continent and a climate everywhere -nearly equal at the same elevation; the isothermal lines here run north and -south, the lofty mountain range materially influencing both climate and -vegetation. - - Sidenote: Summary. - -There is no fairer land for the building of a great nation. The region -occupied by the United States is particularly available for such a purpose. -It offers a wide range of diversity in climate and products, yet is -traversed by noble rivers which intimately connect the North with the -South, and have been made to bind the East with the West. It possesses in -the Mississippi basin vast plains unsurpassed for health, fertility, and -the capacity to support an enormous population, yet easily defended; for -the great outlying mountain ranges, while readily penetrated by bands of -adventurous pioneers, and though climbed by railway trains, might easily be -made serious obstacles to invading armies. The natural resources of North -America are apparently exhaustless; we command nearly every North American -seaport on both oceans, and withal are so isolated that there appears to be -no necessity for "entangling alliances" with transatlantic powers. The -United States seems permitted by Nature to work out her own destiny -unhampered by foreign influence, secure in her position, rich in -capabilities. Her land is doubtless destined to become the greatest -stronghold of the Aryan race. - - - 3. The Native Races. - - Sidenotes: The aborigines. - - Divisible into two divisions. - -When Europeans first set foot upon the shores of America it was found not -only that a New World had been discovered, but that it was peopled by a -race of men theretofore unknown to civilized experience. The various -branches of the race differed greatly from each other in general appearance -and in degrees of civilization, and to some extent were settled in -latitudinal strata; thus the reports concerning them made by early -navigators who touched at different points along the coast, led to much -confusion in European estimates of the aborigines. We now know that but one -race occupied the land from Hudson Bay to Patagonia. Leaving out of account -the Carib race of the West Indies, the portion resident in North and -Central America may be roughly grouped into two grand divisions:-- - - Sidenote: Mexicans, Peruvians, Pueblos, Cliff-Dwellers, and Indians of - the lower Mississippi valley. - -I. The semi-civilized peoples represented by the sun-worshipping Mexicans -and Peruvians, who had attained particular efficiency in architecture, -road-making, and fortification, acquired some knowledge of astronomy, were -facile if not elegant in sculpture, practised many handicrafts, but appear -to have exhibited little capacity for further progress. Their government -was paternal to a degree nowhere else observed, and the people, exercising -neither political power nor individual judgment in the conduct of many of -the common affairs of life, were helpless when deprived of their native -rulers by the Spanish conquerors, Cortez and Pizarro. Closely upon the -border of this division, both geographically and in point of mental status, -were the Pueblos and Cliff-Dwellers of New Mexico, Arizona, and Southern -California,--the occupants of the country around the headwaters of the Rio -Grande and Gila rivers, and of the foot-hills of the Desert Range. These -people, like the Mexicans, lived in great communal dwellings of stone or -sun-dried brick, and were also sun-worshippers. They made crude cloth and -pottery, and irrigated and cultivated large tracts of arid land, but were -inferior as fighters, and occupied a mental plane considerably below the -Mexicans. Allied in race and similar in acquirements were the tribes -inhabiting the lower Mississippi valley, the Natchez and perhaps other -tribes lying farther to the east. - - Sidenote: The Red Indians of North America. - -II. The natives of North America, called Red Indians,--a name which -perpetuates the geographical error of Columbus, and has given rise to an -erroneous opinion as to their color--occupied a still lower plane of -civilization. Yet one must be cautious in accepting any hard-and-fast -classification. The North Americans presented a considerable variety of -types, ranging from the Southern Indians, some of whose tribes were rather -above the Caribs in material advancement, and quite superior to them in -mental calibre, down to the Diggers, the savage root-eaters of the -Cordilleran region. - - Sidenote: Philological divisions of Red Indian tribes. - -The migrations of some of the Red Indian tribes were frequent, and they -occupied overlapping territories, so that it is impossible to fix the -tribal boundaries with any degree of exactness. Again, the tribes were so -merged by intermarriage, by affiliation, by consolidation, by the fact that -there were numerous polyglot villages of renegades, by similarities in -manner, habits, and appearance, that it is difficult even to separate the -savages into families. It is only on philological grounds that these -divisions can be made at all. In a general way we may say that between the -Atlantic and the Rockies, Hudson Bay and the Gulf of Mexico, there were -four Indian languages in vogue, with great varieties of local dialect. - - Sidenote: The Algonquians. - -I. The Algonquians were the most numerous, holding the greater portion of -the country from the unoccupied "debatable land" of Kentucky northward to -Hudson Bay, and from the Atlantic westward to the Mississippi. Among their -tribes were the Narragansetts and Mohicans. These savages were rude in life -and manners, were intensely warlike, depended for subsistence chiefly on -hunting and fishing, lived in rude wigwams covered with bark, skins, or -matted reeds, practised agriculture in a crude fashion, and were less -stable in their habitations than the Southern Indians. They have made a -larger figure in our history than any other family, because through their -lands came the heaviest and most aggressive movement of white population. -Estimates of early Indian populations necessarily differ, in the absence of -accurate knowledge, but it is now known that the numbers were never so -great as was at first estimated. The colonists on the Atlantic seaboard -found a native population much larger than elsewhere existed, for the -Indians had a superstitious, almost a romantic, attachment to the seaside; -and fish-food abounded there. Back from the waterfalls on the Atlantic -slope,--in the mountains and beyond,--there were large areas destitute of -inhabitants; and even in the nominally occupied territory the villages were -generally small and far apart. A careful modern estimate is that the -Algonkins at no time numbered over ninety thousand souls, and possibly not -over fifty thousand. - - Sidenote: The Iroquois. - -II. In the heart of this Algonquian land was planted an ethnic group called -the Iroquois, with its several distinct branches, often at war with each -other. The craftiest, most daring, and most intelligent of Red Indians, yet -still in the savage hunter state, the Iroquois were the terror of every -native band east of the Mississippi, and eventually pitted themselves -against their white neighbors. The five principal tribes of this -family--Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas, all stationed in -pallisaded villages south and east of Lakes Erie and Ontario--formed a -loose confederacy, styled by themselves "The Long House," and by the whites -"The Five Nations," which firmly held the waterways connecting the Hudson -River and the Great Lakes. The population of the entire group was not over -seventeen thousand,--a remarkably small number, considering the active part -they played in American history, and the control which they exercised over -wide tracts of Algonquian territory. Later they were joined by the -Tuscaroras from North Carolina, and the confederacy was thereafter known as -"The Six Nations." - - Sidenote: The Southern Indians. - -III. The Southern Indians occupied the country between the Tennessee River -and the Gulf, the Appalachian ranges and the Mississippi. They were divided -into five lax confederacies,--the Cherokees, Chickasaws, Choctaws, Creeks, -and Seminoles. Of a milder disposition than their Northern cousins, they -were rather in a barbarous than a savage state. The Creeks, in particular, -had good intellects, were fair agriculturists, and quickly adopted many -mechanic and rural arts from their white neighbors; so that by the time of -the Revolution they were not far behind the small white proprietors in -industrial or domestic methods. In the Indian Territory of to-day the -descendants of some of these Southern Indians are good farmers and -herdsmen, with a capacity for self-government and shrewd business dealing. -It is not thought that the Southern tribes ever numbered above fifty -thousand persons. - - Sidenote: The Dakotahs. - -IV. The Dakotah, or Sioux, family occupied for the most part the country -beyond the Mississippi. They were and are a fierce, high-strung people, are -genuine nomads, and war appears to have been their chief occupation. Before -the advent of the Spaniards they were foot-wanderers; but runaway horses -came to them from Mexico and from the exploring expeditions of Narvaez, -Coronado, and De Soto, and very early in the historic period the Indians of -the far western plains became expert horsemen, attaining a degree of -equestrian skill equal to that of the desert-dwelling Arabs. Outlying bands -of the Dakotahs once occupied the greater part of Wisconsin and northern -Illinois, and were, it is believed by competent investigators, one of the -various tribes of mound-builders. Upon withdrawing to the west of the -Mississippi, they left behind them one of their tribes,--the -Winnebagoes,--whom Nicolet found (1634) resident on and about Green Bay of -Lake Michigan, at peace and in confederacy with the Algonquians, who hedged -them about. Other trans-Mississippi nations there are, but they are neither -as large nor of such historical importance as the Dakotahs. - - Sidenote: Other tribes. - -The above enumeration, covering the territory south of Hudson Bay and east -of the Rocky Mountains, embraces those savage nations with which the white -colonists of North America have longest been in contact. North and west of -these limits were and are other aboriginal tribes of the same race, but -materially differing from those to whom allusion has been made, as well as -from each other, in speech, stature, feature, and custom. These, too, lie, -generally speaking, in ethnological zones. North of British Columbia are -the fish-eating and filthy Hyperboreans, including the Eskimos and the -tribes of Alaska and the British Northwest. South of these dwell the -Columbians,--the aborigines of Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia,--a -somewhat higher type than the Hyperboreans, but much degenerated from -contact with whites. The Californians are settled not only in what is now -termed California, but stretch back irregularly into the mountains of -Oregon, Idaho, Nevada, and Utah. - - - 4. Characteristics of the Indian. - -But of all the North American tribes, our interest in this book is with the -traditional Red Indian,--the savage of eastern North America, the crafty -forest warrior whom our fathers met on landing, and whose presence so -materially shaped the fortunes of the colonies. - - Sidenote: The Indian as a hunter and fisher. - -First of all, the Indian was a hunter and fisherman. As such, his life was -a struggle for existence. Enemies were to be driven from the tribe's -hunting-grounds, but the game-preserves of other tribes were invaded when -convenient, and this led to endless feuds. War was not only a pastime, but -a necessity in the competition for food. Villages were as a consequence -almost invariably built at vantage points,--at inlets of the sea, at -waterfalls, on commanding banks of lakes and rivers, on portage paths -between the headwaters of streams, and at river junctions. Hence we find -that many, if not most, of the early white towns, built before railways -were introduced, are on sites originally occupied by Indian villages. - - Sidenote: Political organization. - -The political organization of the Indians was weak. The villages were -little democracies, where one warrior held himself as good as another, -except for the deference naturally due to headmen of the several clans, or -to those of reputed wisdom or oratorical ability. There was a sachem, or -peace-chief, hereditary in the female line, whose authority was but slight, -unless aided by natural gifts which commanded respect. In times of war the -fighting men ranged themselves as volunteers under some popular -leader,--perhaps a permanent chief; sometimes a warrior without titular -distinction. Much which appears in the early writings about the power and -authority of "nobles," "kings," and "emperors" among the red men was -fanciful, the authors falling into the error of judging Indian institutions -by Old World standards. Around the village council-fires all warriors had a -right to be heard; but the talking was chiefly done by the privileged -classes of headmen, old men, wise men, and orators, who were also selected -as the representatives of villages in the occasional deliberative -assemblies of the tribe or confederacy. The judgment of such a council -could not bind the entire village, tribe, or confederacy; any one might -refuse to obey if it pleased him. It was seldom that an entire tribe united -in an important enterprise, still more unusual for several tribes to stand -by each other in adversity. It was this weakness in organization,--inherent -in a pure democracy,--combined with their lack of self-control and -steadfastness of purpose, and with the ever-prevailing tribal jealousies, -which caused Indians to yield before the whites, who better understood the -value of adherence in the face of a common foe. Here and there in our -history we shall note some formidable Indian conspiracies for entirely -dispossessing the whites,--such as the Virginia scheme (1622), King -Philip's uprising (1675), and the Pontiac War (1763). They were the work of -native men of genius who had the gift of organization highly developed, but -who could not find material equal to their skill; hence these uprisings -were short-lived. - - Sidenote: The Indian as a fighter. - -The strength of the Indian as a fighter lay in his capacity for stratagem, -in his ability to thread the tangled thicket as silently and easily as he -would an open plain, in his powers of secrecy, and in his habit of making -rapid, unexpected sallies for robbery and murder, and then gliding back -into the dark and almost impenetrable forest. The child of impulse, he soon -tired of protracted military operations; and in a siege or in the open -usually yielded to stoutly sustained resistance on the part of an enemy -inferior in numbers. But the colonists were obliged to learn and adopt the -Indian's skulking method of warfare before they could successfully cope -with him in the forest. - - Sidenote: Social characteristics. - -The Indian was lord of his own wigwam and of the squaws, whom he purchased -of their fathers, kept as his slaves, and could divorce at his caprice. -Families were not large, chiefly owing to the lack of food and to heavy -infant mortality. The wigwams, or huts,--each tribe having peculiarities in -its domestic architecture,--were foully kept, and the bodies of their dirty -inhabitants swarmed with vermin. Kind and hospitable to friends and -unsuspected strangers, the Indian was merciless to his enemies, no cruelty -being too severe for a captive. Yet prisoners were often snatched from the -stake or the hands of a vindictive captor to be adopted into the family of -the rescuer, taking the place of some one slaughtered by the enemy. In -council and when among strangers, the Indian was dignified and reserved, -too proud to exhibit curiosity or emotion; but around his own fire he was -often a jolly clown, much given to verbosity, and fond of comic tales of -doubtful morality. Improvidence was one of his besetting sins. - - Sidenotes: Dress. - - Religion. - - Medicine. - -The summer dress of the men was generally a short apron made of the pelt of -a wild animal, the women being clothed in skins from neck to knees; in -winter both sexes wrapped themselves in large robes of similar material. -Indian oratory was highly ornate; it abounded in metaphors drawn from a -minute observance of nature and from a picturesque mythology. A belief in -the efficacy of religious observances was deep seated. Long fastings, -penances, and sacrifices were frequent. The elements were peopled with -spirits good and bad. Every animal, every plant, had its manitou, or -incarnate spirit. Fancy ran riot in superstition. Even the dances practised -by the aborigines had a certain religious significance, being pantomimes, -and in some features resembling the mediaeval miracle-plays of Europe. The -art of healing was tinctured with necromancy, although there was -considerable virtue in their decoctions of barks, roots, and herbs, and -their vapor-baths, which came in time to be borrowed from them by the -whites. - - Sidenote: Intellectual status. - -In intellectual activity the red man did not occupy so low a scale as has -often been assigned him. He was barbarous in his habits, but was so from -choice: it suited his wild, untrammelled nature. He understood the arts of -politeness when he chose to exercise them. He could plan, he was an -incomparable tactician and a fair strategist; he was a natural logician; -his tools and implements were admirably adapted to the purpose designed; he -fashioned boats that have not been surpassed in their kind; he was -remarkably quick in learning the use of firearms, and soon equalled the -best white hunters as a marksman. A rude sense of honor was highly -developed in the Indian; he had a nice perception of public propriety; he -bowed his will to the force of custom,--these characteristics doing much to -counteract the anarchical tendency of his extreme democracy. He understood -the value of form and color, as witness his rock-carvings, his rude -paintings, the decorations on his finely tanned leather, and his often -graceful body markings. It was because the savage saw little in civilized -ideas to attract him, that he either remained obdurate in the face of -missionary endeavors, or simulated an interest he could not feel. - - - 5. Relations of the Indians and Colonists. - - Sidenotes: The Indians and the colonists. - - Indians as foes. - -The colonists from Europe met the Red Indian in a threefold capacity,--as a -neighbor, as a customer and trader, and as a foe opposed to encroachments -upon his hunting grounds. At first the whites were regarded by the -aborigines as of supernatural origin, and hospitality, veneration, and -confidence were displayed toward the new-comers. But the morality of the -Europeans was soon made painfully evident to them. When the early -Spaniards, and afterwards the English, kidnapped tribesmen to sell them -into slavery or to use them as captive guides for future expeditions, or -even murdered the natives on slight provocation, distrust and hatred -naturally succeeded the sentiment of awe. Like many savage races, like the -earlier Romans, the Indian looked upon the member of every tribe with which -he had not made a formal peace as a public enemy; hence he felt justified -in wreaking his vengeance on the race whenever he failed to find individual -offenders. He was exceptionally cruel, his mode of warfare was skulking, he -could not easily be got at in the forest fastnesses which he alone knew -well, and his strokes fell heaviest on women and children; so that whites -came to fear and unspeakably to loathe the savage, and often added greatly -to the bitterness of the struggle by retaliation in kind. The white -borderers themselves were frequently brutal, reckless, and lawless; and -under such conditions clashing was inevitable. - - Sidenote: The fur-trade, and inter-tribal barter. - -But the love of trade was strong among the Indians, and caused them to some -extent to overcome or to conceal their antipathies. There had always -existed a system of inter-tribal barter, so widespread that the first -whites landing on the Atlantic coast saw Indians with copper ornaments and -tools which came from the Lake Superior mines; and by the middle of the -seventeenth century many articles of European make had passed inland, by -means of these forest exchanges, as far as the Mississippi, in advance of -the earliest white explorers. The trade with the Indians was one of the -incentives to colonization. The introduction of European blankets at once -revolutionized the dress of the coast tribes; and it is surprising how -quickly the art of using firearms was acquired among them, and barbaric -implements and utensils abandoned for those of civilized make. So rapid was -this change that it was not long before the Indians became dependent on the -whites for nearly every article of dress and ornament, and for tools and -weapons. The white traders, who travelled through the woods visiting the -tribes, exchanging these goods for furs, often cheated and robbed the -Indian, taught him the use of intoxicants, bullied and browbeat him, -appropriated his women, and in general introduced serious demoralization -into the native camps. Trouble frequently grew out of this wretched -condition of affairs. The bulk of the whites doubtless intended to treat -the Indian honorably; but the forest traders were beyond the pale of law, -and news of the details of their transactions seldom reached the coast -settlements. - - Sidenotes: The Indian as a neighbor. - - The inevitable struggle for mastery. - -As a neighbor the Indian was difficult to deal with, whether in the -negotiation of treaties of amity, or in the purchase of lands. Having but a -loose system of government, there was no really responsible head, and no -compact was secure from the interference of malcontents who would not be -bound by treaties made by the chiefs. The English felt that the red-men -were not putting the land to its full use, that much of the territory was -growing up as a waste, that they were best entitled to it who could make it -the most productive. On the other hand, the earlier cessions of land were -made under a total misconception: the Indians supposed that the new-comers -would, after a few years of occupancy, pass on and leave the tract again -to the natives. There was no compromise possible between races with -precisely opposite views of property in land. The struggle was -inevitable,--civilization against savagery. No sentimental notions could -prevent it. It was in the nature of things that the weaker must give way. -For a long time it was not certain that a combined effort might not drive -the whites into the sea and undo the work of colonization; but in the end -the savage went to the wall. - - Sidenote: Good effect of Indian opposition on the colonists. - -Taking a general view of the growth of the American nation, it is now easy -to see that it was fortunate that Englishmen met in the Indian so -formidable an antagonist: such fierce and untamed savages could never be -held long as slaves; and thus were the American colonists of the North--the -bone and sinew of the nation--saved from the temptations and the moral -danger which come from contact with a numerous servile race. Again, every -step of progress into the wilderness being stubbornly contested, the spirit -of hardihood and bravery--so essential an element in nation-building--was -fostered among the borderers; and as settlement moved westward slowly, only -so fast as the pressure of population on the seaboard impelled it, the -Americans were prevented from planting scattered colonies in the interior, -and thus were able to present a solid front to the mother-country when, in -due course of time, fostering care changed to a spirit of commercial -control, and commercial control to jealous interference and menace. - - - - - CHAPTER II. - - DISCOVERIES AND EARLY SETTLEMENTS. - (1492-1606.) - - - 6. References. - - -Bibliographies.--Winsor, _Columbus_, and _Narrative and Critical History_, -I. xix-xxxvii, 33-58, 76-132, 369-444, II. 153-179, 205, III. 7-58, 78-84, -97-104, 121, 126, 184-218; Larned, _Literature of American History_, 50-68, -and _History for Ready Reference_, I. 54-79; Avery, _United States_, I. -376-403; Channing and Hart, _Guide_, Secs. 81-96; also bibliographical -chapters in Bourne, Cheney, and Tyler, below. - -Historical Maps.--No. 1, this volume (_Epoch Maps_, No. I); MacCoun; -Winsor, _Narrative and Critical History_, I., II.; H. Harrisse, _Discovery -of North America_, and _Decouverte et Evolution Cartographique de -Terre-Neuve_; E. L. Stevenson, _Maps illustrating Early Discovery and -Exploration in America_; maps in _American Nation_ series (Bourne, Cheney, -and Tyler). - -General Accounts.--On geographical knowledge of ancients, and pre-Columbian -discoveries: Winsor, _Narrative and Critical_, I. chs. i., ii.,; W. Wilson, -_American People_, I. ch. i.; Avery, I. chs. iii.-vi.; E. Cheney, _European -Background of American History_, chs. i.-v.--On discovery and settlement, -from Columbus to Jamestown: M. Creighton, _Age of Elizabeth_ (Epochs of -Modern History); R. Hildreth, _United States_, I. chs. i., iii.; G. -Bancroft, _United States_, I. chs. i.-v.; Winsor, _Narrative and Critical_, -II. chs. i.-vii., III. chs. i.-iv., and _Columbus_; Avery, I. chs. -vii.--xxi.; E. Channing, _United States_, I. chs. i.-v.; J. Doyle, _English -Colonies in America_, I. ch. iv. - -Special Histories.--E. Bourne, _Spain in America_; Parkman, _Pioneers of -France in the New World_, 28-233, 296-309; Winsor, _Cartier to Frontenac_, -chs. i.-iii.; C. Baird, _Huguenot Emigration to America_; L. Tyler, -_England in America_, chs. i., ii. For lives of explorers, consult -bibliographies, above. - -Contemporary Accounts.--Hakluyt, _Voyages_; Camden Society, _Publications_, -lxxxvii.; _Relation of Captain Gosnold's Voyage_ (1602); Breton, _Brief and -True Relation_ (1602); Pring, _Voyage for Discovery of North Part of -Virginia_ (1603); Rosier, _True Relation_ (1605); Amerigo Vespuccius, -_Letters._--Reprints: Prince Society, _Publications; American History told -by Contemporaries_, I. part ii.; J. Jameson, _Original Narratives of Early -American History; American History Leaflets_, 1, 3, 9, 13. - - - 7. Pre-Columbian Discoveries. - - Sidenote: The Scandinavian claim. - -The Basques, Normans, Welsh, Irish, and Scandinavians are the principal -claimants for the honor of discovering America before Columbus; and there -are also believers in early African migrations to the western continent, -chiefly influenced by supposed ethnological and botanical evidences found -in South America. The Scandinavians make out the strongest case. Iceland, -so tradition runs, was first conquered by the Britons in the sixth century. -Then followed a succession of Danish and Irish settlements. But the Celts -were driven out by Ingolf, who led a colony of Norwegians thither in 875 -and founded Reikjavik. - -The ancient Norse sagas--oral traditions, none of which were fixed in -writing until the twelfth century, and most of them not until the -fourteenth--mention voyages to the west from Iceland, and the discovery of -new lands in that quarter as early as 876. In 985 Eric the Red is said to -have led colonies to this western land,--by this time called Greenland. The -following year (986) Bjarni Herjulfson claimed to have been driven by -contrary winds to a strange shore nine days' sail southwest from -Greenland,--"to a land flat and covered with trees." Then comes the -familiar story, that in the year 1000 Leif, son of Eric the Red, having -come from Norway and introduced Christianity into both Iceland and -Greenland, sailed away to the southwest with thirty-five companions, intent -on visiting the country which Bjarni had discovered before him. They -wintered, so the saga reads, "at a place where a river flowed out from a -lake," called the region Vinland because of wild grapes growing there, -"erected large buildings," and then set out for Greenland with a cargo of -timber,--a commodity much needed in the fishing colonies of the -less-favored North. It is related that other explorations succeeded this, -and that in 1007 a temporary settlement was formed in sunny Vinland, where -the colonists, nearly one hundred in number, "had all the good things of -the country, both of grapes and of all sorts of game and other things." -Trading voyages to the new country now became frequent, say the sagas, and -considerable shipments of timber were made from Vinland to Greenland. Eric -Upsi, a Greenland bishop, is alleged, on doubtful authority, to have gone -to Vinland in 1121; and in 1347 there is mention of a Greenland ship -sailing out there for a cargo of timber,--but this is the very last -reference to Vinland by the Norwegian bards. - - Sidenote: It is shadowy, but not improbable. - -An enormous mass of literature has been the outgrowth of these geographical -puzzles in the sagas, and many writers have ventured to identify every -headland and other natural object mentioned in them. The common theory -among the advocates of the Scandinavian claim is, that Vinland was -somewhere on the coast south of Labrador; but as to the exact locality, -there is much diversity of opinion. There may easily have been early -voyages to the American mainland south of Davis Straits by the hardy Norse -seamen colonized in Iceland and Greenland, and it is probable that there -were numerous adventures of that sort. - -The sagas, like the Homeric tales, were oral narrations for centuries -before they were committed to writing, and as such were subject to -distortion and patriotic and romantic embellishment. It is now difficult to -separate in them the true from the false; yet we have other contemporaneous -evidence (Adam of Bremen, 1076) that the Danes regarded Vinland as a -reality. Pretended monuments of the early visits of Northmen to our shores -have been exhibited,--notably the old mill at Newport and the Dighton Rock; -but modern scholarship has determined that these are not relics of the -vikings, and had a much less romantic origin. It is now safe to say that -nowhere in America, south of undisputed traces in Greenland, are there any -convincing archaeological proofs of these alleged centuries of Norse -occupation in America. - - - 8. Early European Discoveries (1492-1512). - - Sidenotes: American development begun with Columbus. - - The race for India. - - The idea of sailing westward to reach India not original with Columbus. - -But even granting the possibility, and indeed the probability, of -pre-Columbian discoveries, they bore no lasting fruit, and are merely the -antiquarian puzzles and curiosities of American history. The development of -the New World began with the landing (Oct. 12, 1492) on an island in the -Bahamas, of Christopher Columbus, the agent of Spain. It was an age of -daring maritime adventure. India, whence Europe obtained her gold and -silks, her spices, perfumes, and precious stones, was the common goal. For -many centuries the great trade route had been by caravans from India -overland through Central Asia and the Balkan peninsula to Italy, the Rhine -country, the Netherlands, and beyond; but the raids of the fierce desert -tribes and the capture of Constantinople (1453) had closed this path, and -now the trade passed through Egypt. With improvements in the art of -navigation there arose a general desire to reach India by sea. Three -centuries before Christ, Aristotle had taught that the earth was a sphere, -and that the waters which laved Europe on the west washed the eastern -shores of Asia. Here and there through the centuries others advanced the -same opinion, and the map which the great Italian astronomer Toscanelli -sent to Columbus (1474) showed China to be but fifty-two degrees west of -Europe. The idea that by sailing west India could be reached, was therefore -quite familiar to the contemporaries of Columbus, although he stands in the -front as the one man who put his faith to the test. The mistake lay in the -current calculations regarding the size of the earth. Instead of being only -three thousand miles to the west, Asia was twelve thousand, and the -continent of America blocked the way. It is probable that Columbus went to -his grave still firm in the belief that he had reached the confines of -India,--indeed, the names he gave to the islands and to the strange people -who inhabited them stand as enduring evidence of his geographical error. - - Sidenote: Pope Alexander's bull. - -The Portuguese, on the other hand, sought India by the southeast passage, -around the continent of Africa, and had been creeping southward along the -African coast for several years before Spain sent Columbus to reach Asia by -the west. Thus in the race for India and the discovery of intermediate -lands, the Portuguese and the Spanish had adopted opposite routes. Pope -Alexander VI. now issued his famous bull (May 4, 1493), partitioning the -un-Christian world into two parts,--Spain to have lands west of an -imaginary meridian 100 leagues west of Cape de Verde islands, and Portugal -those to the east--a simple arrangement, on paper. Next year, by agreement, -the line was moved to 270 leagues westward, but it was still supposed to be -in mid-ocean. By this change, however, the eastern part of what is now -Brazil fell to Portugal. - - Sidenote: England sends out John Cabot. - -England, although still Catholic, was not disposed to allow Spain and -Portugal to monopolize between them those portions of the earth which -Europeans had not yet seen; and we are told that there was grievous -disappointment at the court of London because Spain had been the -path-breaker to the west. In 1497 John Cabot set sail from England armed -with a trading charter, to endeavor to reach Asia by way of the northwest. -He had knowledge of the exploit of Columbus, and may well have heard of the -Scandinavian discovery of Vinland. Early in the morning of the 24th of June -he sighted the gloomy headlands of Cape Breton,--the first known European -to make this important discovery. It is on record that "great honors" were -heaped upon the adventurous mariner upon his return to England, and that -the generous king gave "L10 to him that found the new isle"--the equivalent -of $700 or $800 of our money. - - Sidenotes: Portugal reaches India by the southeast. - - Sebastian Cabot's voyage. - -The year 1498 was one of the most notable in the long and splendid history -of maritime discovery. Young Vasco da Gama, of Portugal, turned the Cape of -Good Hope, and gayly sailed his little fleet into the harbor of Calicut -(May 20). At last India had been discovered by the southeast passage: -Portugal had first reached the goal. In May, also, Columbus set forth upon -his third voyage, during which he first discovered the mainland of South -America; and in the same month John Cabot's second son, Sebastian, left -Bristol in the hope of finding the northwest passage, which his father had -failed to reach, and which was undiscovered until our own times (1850). -Icebergs turned Sebastian southward, and he explored the American shores -down to the vicinity of Chesapeake Bay. From this voyage sprang the claim -under which the English colonies in North America were founded. - - Sidenote: Newfoundland as a colonial nucleus. - -Three years later (1501) a Portuguese mariner, Gaspar Cortereal, explored -the American coast south of the Gulf of St. Lawrence for a long distance. -By 1504 we know that fishermen from Brittany and Normandy were at -Newfoundland, and from that time forward there appear to have been more or -less permanent colonies of fishermen there,~-French, Portuguese, Spanish, -and English,--with their little huts and drying scaffolds clustered along -the shores. Newfoundland proved valuable as a supply and repair station for -future explorers and colonizers. It was the nucleus of both French and -English settlement in America. By 1578 there were no less than one hundred -and fifty French vessels alone employed in the Newfoundland fisheries, and -a good trade with the Indians had been established. - - Sidenote: Searching for a short cut through America. - -The idea that America was but a projection of Asia possessed all the early -explorers; and indeed it was a century and a half later (1728) before -Bering sailed from the Pacific Ocean to the Arctic and proved that America -was insulated. There was another geographical error, which took even a -longer time to explode,--the notion that a waterway somewhere extended -through the American continent, uniting the Atlantic and the Pacific. John -Smith and other English colonists thought that by ascending the James, the -York, the Potomac, the Roanoke, or the Hudson, they could emerge with ease -upon waters flowing to the ocean of the west. Champlain sent (1634) the -fur-trader Nicolet up the Ottawa River and the Great Lakes into Wisconsin, -which he thought to be Asia; and Jolliet and Marquette (1673) imagined they -had found the highway thither when their birch-bark canoes glided into the -upper Mississippi at Prairie du Chien. - -One hundred and seven years before the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth Rock, -Balboa scaled the continental backbone at Darien (1513), and in the name of -Spain claimed dominion over the waters of the Pacific. With undaunted zeal -did Spanish explorers then beat up and down the western shore of the Gulf -of Mexico, vainly seeking for a passage through by water. A great stimulus -had now been given to the general desire to reach India by sea; for the -Turks were overrunning Egypt (1512-1520) and despoiling the caravans from -the East, so that the manufactures and trade of western Europe were sadly -crippled. But thus far Portugal alone held the key to the sea-route to -India. - - - 9. Spanish Exploration of the Interior (1513-1542). - - Sidenote: Ponce de Leon in Florida. - -This same year (1513) was notable also for the first visit made by -Spaniards to the mainland of North America. Ponce de Leon, a valiant -soldier worn out in long service, and who had been serving as governor of -Porto Rico, went to the Florida mainland, where a popular legend said there -was a fountain giving forth waters capable of recuperating life. The -country was ablaze with brilliant flowers, but the elixir of life was not -there, and he returned disappointed. - - Sidenote: Vasquez in South Carolina. - -In 1519 Pineda, another Spaniard, explored the northern shore of the Gulf -of Mexico. The following year (1520) a slave-hunting expedition, under -Vasquez, visited the coast of South Carolina, which the commander styled -Chicora. The brilliant conquest of Mexico by Cortez (1519-1521) had made -that hardy adventurer the hero of Christendom; and in the hope of rivalling -his splendid achievement, Vasquez returned to Chicora in 1525, commissioned -by Charles V. as governor of the country. But Chicora was not Mexico, and -the Red Indians were of a different temper from the Aztecs. The expedition -met with disaster. While Vasquez was fighting the embittered savages in -South Carolina, Gomez, also in behalf of Spain, was ranging along the -Atlantic coast from Newfoundland to New Jersey, and instituting a -successful trade with the natives. - - Sidenote: Narvaez in the Florida wilds. - -In April, 1528, Narvaez, with three hundred enthusiastic young nobles and -gentlemen from Spain, landed at Tampa Bay and renewed his sovereign's claim -to Florida and its supposed wealth of mines and precious stones. Led by the -fables of the wily native guides, who were careful to tell what their -Spanish tormentors wished most to hear, they floundered hither and thither -through the great swamps and forests, continually wasted by fatigue, -famine, disease, and frequent assaults of savages. At last, after many -distressing adventures, but four men were left out of this brilliant -company,--Cabeza de Vaca, treasurer of the expedition, and three -companions. For eight years did these four bruised and ragged Spaniards -wearily roam through the region now divided into Texas, Indian Territory, -New Mexico, and Arizona,--through entangled forests, across broad rivers -and desert stretches beset with wild beasts and wilder men, but ever -spurred on by vague reports of a colony of their countrymen in the far -southwest. At last (May, 1536), the miserable wanderers reached Culiacan, -on the Gulf of California, whence they were borne in triumph to the city of -Mexico as the guests of the province. - - Sidenote: Spaniards reaching northward from Mexico. - -Their coming revived the shadowy native tales of gold mines and wealthy -cities to the north, which had for some years been exciting the cupidity of -the conquerors of Mexico. In response to these rumors there had been -frequent reachings out northward. In 1528 Cortez had despatched Maldonado -up along the Pacific coast for three hundred miles. Two years later (1530) -Guzman penetrated to the mouth of the Gulf of California and established -the town of Culiacan. Cortez again had vessels on the Pacific in 1532, and -by 1535 his lieutenants were claiming for him the Lower California -peninsula. It is possible that Spanish vessels coasted northward beyond the -Columbia; but no news of their discoveries reached the geographers in -Europe. - - Sidenote: The "Seven Cities of Cibola." - -It was in 1530 that specific reports first came, through native slaves, of -seven great cities of stone-built houses a few hundred miles north of the -capital of the Aztecs, where the inhabitants had such a profusion of gold -and silver that their household utensils were made of those metals. The -search for "the seven cities of Cibola," as these alleged communities came -to be called by the Spaniards, was at once begun. Guzman, just then at the -head of affairs in New Spain, led northward a considerable expedition of -Spanish soldiers and Indians, which suffered great hardships, but failed to -discover Cibola. - - Sidenote: Coronado's march. - -Cabeza de Vaca and his fellow-adventurers claimed, upon their arrival, to -have themselves seen the seven cities; and they enlarged on the previous -stories. Coronado, governor of the northern province of New Gallicia, was -accordingly sent to conquer this wonderful country which Guzman had failed -to find. Early in 1540 he set out with a well-equipped following of three -hundred Spaniards and eight hundred Indians. The Cibola cities were found -to be but pueblos in Arizona or New Mexico, like the communal dwellings of -the Hopis and Zunis, with the aspect of which we are so familiar to-day; -while the mild inhabitants destitute of wealth, peacefully practising their -crude industries and tilling their irrigated fields, were foemen hardly -worthy of Castilian steel. Disappointed, but still hoping to find the -country of gold, Coronado's gallant little army, frequently thinned by -death and desertion, beat for three years up and down the southwestern -wilderness,--now thirsting in the deserts, now penned up in gloomy canyons, -now crawling over pathless mountains, suffering the horrors of starvation -and of despair, but following this will-o'-the-wisp with a melancholy -perseverance seldom seen in man save when searching for some mysterious -treasure. Coronado apparently crossed the State of Kansas twice; "through -mighty plains and sandy heaths, smooth and wearisome and bare of wood.... -All that way the plains are as full of crookback oxen as the mountain -Serena in Spain is of sheep.... They were a great succor for the hunger and -want of bread which our people stood in. One day it rained in that plain a -great shower of hail as big as oranges, which caused many tears, -weaknesses, and vows." The wanderer ventured as far as the Missouri, and -would have gone still farther eastward but for his inability to cross the -swollen river. Co-operating parties explored the upper valleys of the Rio -Grande and Gila, ascended the Colorado for two hundred and forty miles -above its mouth, and visited the Grand Canyon of the same river. Coronado at -last returned, satisfied that he had been made the victim of travellers' -idle tales. He was rewarded with contumely and lost his place as governor -of New Gallicia; but his romantic march stands in history as one of the -most remarkable exploring expeditions of modern times. - - Sidenote: De Soto follows Narvaez. - -Early in the summer of 1539 Hernando de Soto, the favorite of Pizarro in -the conquest of Peru (1532), anchored his fleet in the bay of Espiritu -Santo, Florida, determined to gain independent renown as the conqueror of -the North American wilds. His was a much larger and better-equipped party -than had subjugated either Mexico or Peru. But he met the fate of Narvaez. -False Indian guides led him hither and thither through the swamps and -moss-grown jungles of the Gulf region, and the survivors formed a sorry -company indeed when the Mississippi River was reached (April, -1541),--probably at the lowest Chickasaw Bluff,--after two years of -fruitless wandering. The next winter, still betrayed by his savage guides -and harassed by attacks from other natives, he spent upon the Washita, but -despairing of reaching Mexico by land, he returned to the Mississippi, -where he died of swamp-fever (May 21, 1542). The great river he had -discovered was his tomb. His wretched followers, by this time much reduced -in numbers, descended the stream, and after great hardships finally reached -the Mexican coast-settlements in September. - - - 10. Spanish Colonies (1492-1687). - - Sidenotes: Spanish friars in the southwest. - - Spain's American possessions at close of sixteenth century. - - -A half century had now passed since the advent of Columbus in the Bahamas; -yet upon the mainland to the north, Spain as yet held neither harbor, fort, -nor settlement. In the southwest, the proximity of Mexico and the milder -character of the natives made it easier to maintain a settlement in what is -now United States territory. In 1582, forty years after Coronado's march, -Franciscan friars opened missions in the valleys of the Rio Grande and the -Gila,--the Cibola of old. Sixteen years later (1598) Santa Fe was -established as the seat of Spanish power in the north; by 1630 this power -was at its highest in New Mexico and Arizona, fifty missions administering -religious instruction to ninety Pueblo towns. In 1687 the chain of missions -had reached the Gulf of California, and then slowly extended northward -along the Pacific coast till San Francisco, with its system of Indian -vassalage, was established in 1776. In Florida, after the extermination of -the French Huguenot colony in 1564, Spain made wholesale claims to all that -region; but De Gourgues dealt her settlements a staggering blow, and she -seemed thereafter incapable of further colonizing the province. At the -close of the sixteenth century Spain held but few points in what is now the -United States,--Santa Fe in New Mexico, a few scattering missions along the -Gila and Rio Grande, and St. Augustine in Florida. - - - 11. The French in North America (1524-1550). - - Sidenotes: The French enter the field. - - Cartier at Montreal; and Quebec. - -The French were not far behind the Spanish in their attempts to colonize -North America. In 1524 John Verrazano, a Florentine in the employ of -Francis I., while seeking the supposed water passage through America to -China, explored the coast from about Wilmington, N. C., to Newfoundland. -Ten years later (1534) Jacques Cartier, a St. Malo seaman, sailed up the -north shore of the estuary of the St. Lawrence "until land could be seen on -either side." The next year he was back again, and ascended to the first -rapids at La Chine, naming the island mountain there, Mont-Real. Having -spent the winter in this inhospitable region, his reports were such as to -discourage for a time further attempts at colonization in America by the -French, who were just now engaged at home in serious difficulties with -Spain. - -A truce being at last declared between France and Spain, Cartier was made -captain-general and chief pilot of an American colonizing expedition which -Francis allowed the lord of Roberval to undertake. But this conflict of -authority was distasteful to both Cartier and Roberval, and the former -started off before his chief in May, 1541. He built a fort near Quebec, but -a year later returned to France, just before Roberval arrived with -reinforcements for the colony. The latter remained for a year in America -before returning home, and it is thought that he visited Massachusetts Bay -in his voyages alongshore. France was now ablaze with civil war, and the -Huguenots, with their independent notions, were engaging all the resources -of the royal power, so that further American discoveries were for the time -postponed. The Newfoundland industry, however, grew apace, for the Church -prescribed a fish diet on certain days and at certain seasons, and the -consumption of salted fish in Europe had grown to be enormous. Breton -vessels were from the first prominent in the traffic. - - - 12. French Attempts to colonize Florida (1562-1568). - - Sidenote: Coligny's colony at Port Royal. - -Admiral Coligny, the great Huguenot leader, was ambitious to establish a -colony of French Protestants in America which should be a refuge for his -persecuted countrymen whenever it became desirable for them to seek new -seats. Jean Ribaut went out under his auspices in 1562, discovered St. -John's River in Florida, went up Broad River, named the country Carolina, -after the boy-king, Charles IX., and left twenty-six colonists at Port -Royal, on Lemon Island. But the settlers soon tired of their enterprise, -and the following year set out for home. An English cruiser captured the -party on the high sea when it was reduced to the last extremity for want of -food. The more exhausted of the company were landed in France; the rest -were taken to England. - - Sidenote: Laudonniere in Florida. - -The succeeding season (1564), another colonizing expedition, made up of -Protestants, headed by Rene Goulaine de Laudonniere, and aided by the king, -sought Carolina. Avoiding Port Royal as ill-omened, they established -themselves on St. John's River. The emigrants were a dissolute set, as -emigrants were apt to be in an age when the sweepings of European jails and -gutters were thought to furnish good colonizing material for America. -Laudonniere hung some of his followers for piracy against Spanish vessels; -others were captured in the act by the Spaniards, and sold into slavery in -the West Indies. What remained of the colony soon lost, through dishonesty -and severity, the respect of the Indians, who had at first received the -intruders kindly. When, in August, 1565, Sir John Hawkins, the noted slaver -and navigator, appeared with his fleet, he was able to render the now -half-starved settlers most needed help. Ribaut soon came also, with -recruits, provisions, seeds, domestic animals, and farming implements, -greatly to the joy of the little colony. - - Sidenote: The Spanish massacre. - -But this happiness was not of long duration. The attention of Philip II. of -Spain was at length called to this colony of French heretics which was -gaining a foothold upon his domain of Florida. In August, 1565, his agent, -Pedro Melendez de Aviles, appeared on the scene and announced his purpose -to "gibbet and behead all the Protestants in these regions." Melendez -established St. Augustine, which is thus the oldest town in the United -States east of the Mississippi, and then with blood-thirsty deliberateness -proceeded to wipe the French settlement out of existence. French writers -claim that nine hundred persons were cruelly massacred; and the Spanish -estimate is not far below that number. - - Sidenote: The Huguenots avenged. - -A Gascon soldier, Dominic de Gourgues, soon came over (1567) to avenge the -wrong done his fellow-Huguenots. He captured all the Spanish establishments -left by Melendez, except St. Augustine. When he found, the following year, -that he could not hold his prizes, he hung the Spanish prisoners to trees -and hastened back to France. His king, however, being under the influence -of Spain, disavowed this act of reprisal, and relinquished all further -claim to Florida. - - - 13. The French in Canada (1589-1608). - - Sidenote: De la Roche's ill-fated venture. - -The colonial policy of Henri IV. (1589-1610) was more progressive and -enlightened than that of his immediate predecessors on the throne of -France. But he had not yet learned what succeeding generations were to -discover to their cost,--that criminals and paupers do not make good -colonists. In 1598 the familiar error was repeated, when the Marquis de la -Roche took out a company of forty jail-birds, liberated for the purpose, -and landed them on the dreary, storm-washed Isle of Sable, off the Nova -Scotia coast, where, eighty years earlier (1518), the Baron de Lery had -made a vain attempt to start a colony. La Roche, beggared on his return -home, was unable to succor his colonists, who on their inhospitable sands -lived more like beasts than men. Five years later the twelve skin-clad -survivors were picked up by a chance vessel and taken back to France, to -tell a tale of almost matchless horror. - - Sidenotes: Champlain's first voyage. - - De Monts' colony. - - Quebec established. - -It was an age of licensed commercial monopolies, as well as of other -economic experiments. In the year 1600 Chauvin obtained the exclusive right -to prosecute the fur-trade in the New Land to the west, and united with him -a St. Malo merchant, Pontgrave. They made two lucrative voyages, but -established no settlement. Samuel de Champlain, in Pontgrave's company, -went out in 1603, ascending the St. Lawrence as far as Montreal. Later -(this same year) De Monts, a Calvinist, was given the viceroyalty and the -fur-trade monopoly of Acadia,--between the fortieth and sixtieth degrees of -latitude,--and religious freedom was granted there for Huguenots, though -the Indians were to be instructed in the Romish faith. De Monts and his -strangely assorted party of vagabonds and gentlemen first settled on an -island, near the present boundary between Maine and New Brunswick, in the -fall of 1604, but the following spring moved to Port Royal,--now Annapolis, -Nova Scotia. This, the first French agricultural colony yet planted in -America, suffered disaster after disaster; but although Port Royal was -abandoned in 1607, the germ of colonization lived. In 1608, Champlain--who -had, four years before, while in the employ of De Monts, explored the coast -as far south as Cape Cod--set up a permanent French post upon the gloomy -cliff at Quebec. Soon the Jesuits came; and by the time the "Mayflower" had -reached New England, New France was established beyond a doubt, and French -influence was penetrating inland. Wandering savages from the Upper Lakes, -nearly a thousand miles in the interior, had at last seen the white man and -begun to feel his power. - - - 14. English Exploration (1498-1584). - - Sidenote: English interests at Newfoundland. - -England would have followed up Cabot's discovery of North America with more -vigor had not Henry VII., being a Catholic prince, hesitated to set aside -the Pope's bull giving the new continent to Spain. His subjects, however, -made large hauls of fish along the foggy shores of Newfoundland, and in -1502 some American savages were exhibited to him in London. Henry VIII. was -at first similarly scrupulous; but when, in 1533, he got rid of his queen, -Catharine of Aragon, he was free from Spanish entanglements, and aspired to -make England a maritime nation. Among many other enterprises the northwest -passage allured him, although nothing came of his ventures in that -direction. With the accession of Edward VI. (1547) a progressive era -opened. The Newfoundland fisheries were now so effectively encouraged that -by 1574, under Elizabeth, from thirty to fifty English ships were making -annual trips to the Grand Banks. - - Sidenote: Elizabeth's courtiers looking towards America. - -The most popular ventures among the nobles of Elizabeth's court were the -northwest passage, American colonization, and freebooting voyages. Writers -of voyages and travels and cartographers sprang up on every hand, the most -noteworthy being Richard Eden, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, Richard Hakluyt, and -Martin Frobisher. Patronized by the powerful Earl of Warwick, Frobisher in -three successive voyages (1576-1578) vainly sought gold in Labrador. -Francis Drake, on his famous buccaneering tour around the world, explored -the Pacific coast of the United States as far north as Cape Blanco (1579), -unsuccessfully searching for a short cut by water through the continent. - - Sidenote: Gilbert's voyage. - -Gilbert saw that Newfoundland must thereafter be considered as the nucleus -of English settlement in America; and in 1579 Sir Humphrey, himself a -soldier and a member of Parliament, accompanied by his step-brother, Sir -Walter Raleigh, went out to lead the way. Storms and other disasters drove -them back, and it was 1583 before another squadron could be equipped. -Raleigh remained in England; but Gilbert landed at St. John's, where he -found that four hundred vessels of various nationalities, mainly Spanish -and Portuguese, were annually engaged in the fisheries. He took possession -of the island for the queen, examined the neighboring mainland, and -freighted his ships with glistening rock, ignorantly declared by an -unskilful expert accompanying the expedition to contain silver. Upon the -return voyage the vessel carrying Gilbert was lost, the companion ship, -with its worthless cargo, reaching Falmouth safely. - - - 15. English Attempts to colonize (1584-1606). - - Sidenote: Amadas and Barlowe. - -Under Raleigh's auspices two vessels set out in 1584, commanded by Philip -Amadas and Arthur Barlowe. They landed at the island of Roanoke, the -southernmost of the reefs enclosing Albemarle Sound, in North Carolina; but -although charmed with the country, which they declared to be "the most -plentiful, sweet, fruitful, and wholesome of all the world," and well -treated by the Indians,--"people most gentle, loving, and faithful,"--they -made no settlement, and returned to England. Raleigh, however, was pleased -by the reports brought back; he was knighted, his claim was confirmed, he -named the country Virginia, in token of his virgin queen, and he -entertained visions of establishing a considerable province there, and of -enjoying a comfortable rent-roll. - - Sidenote: Raleigh's first colony. - -In 1585, aided by the queen, he sent out seven vessels and one hundred and -eight colonists, the fleet being commanded by Sir Richard Grenville, and -the intending settlers by Ralph Lane, a soldier of much merit. Few maritime -enterprises were sent out by England in the Elizabethan age that did not -include in their orders a project for preying on Spanish commerce by the -way; for our ancestors were as yet not far removed in this regard from the -spirit of the old Norse pirates. Grenville therefore sailed around by the -Canaries, picked up Spanish prizes partly to meet the cost of the -undertaking, and in due time anchored at Wocoken, whence he proceeded to -Roanoke island. - -With the colonists was Manteo, a native who had gone to England with some -former expedition; and the good-natured fellow secured for his new friends -a warm reception on the part of the aborigines. But Grenville before his -return treated them harshly, leaving to them and the colonists a legacy of -mutual distrust and grievances. In March, 1586, Lane ascended the Roanoke -River, hoping to find rich ores and pearls in the upper country; for the -deceitful savages, wishing to divide the white men's forces, had told him -that the stream had its source near the western ocean, in a country -abounding with these articles, and encouraged his expedition with promises -of assistance. The enterprise proved full of hardship and peril, and the -governor returned just in time to check a conspiracy to attack the -garrison. - -Lane had employed his men in frequent explorations, their journeyings -reaching on the north to Chesapeake Bay and Elizabeth River, on the south -to the Secotan. But the situation became irksome. The spirit of adventure -and wealth-seeking prevailed among the colonists; it was not a community -calculated for the uneventful and toilsome prosecution of agriculture; and -before long the fretful disease of homesickness prevailed on the island of -Roanoke. - - Sidenote: The enterprise abandoned. - -In June, 1586, Sir Francis Drake appeared with twenty-three vessels. He had -made a rich haul from Spanish treasure-ships in the West Indies, and had -turned aside on his return trip, curious to see how his friend Raleigh's -colony fared. Yielding to the importunities of the settlers, he took them -aboard his fleet and carried them back to England. They had been gone from -Roanoke but a few days, when a ship, bringing supplies sent out by Raleigh, -sailed into the inlet, only to find the place deserted. In another -fortnight, Grenville appeared with three well-furnished ships, and left -fifteen men on the island to renew the colonizing experiment. - - Sidenote: Raleigh's second attempt. - -Raleigh displayed most remarkable persistence. He was undismayed by this -long chapter of disasters. Men on whose judgment he relied brought back -good reports from the site of the ill-fated colony, and again he fitted out -an expedition,--this time entirely at his own charge, for Elizabeth had had -enough of the experiment. It was in July, 1587, when John White arrived -with Raleigh's new colonists off the shores of North Carolina. At Roanoke, -deer were quietly grazing in a field fertilized by the bones of Grenville's -contingent of the year before, and the fort was in ruins. Governor White -re-established the settlement. - - Sidenote: Birth of Virginia Dare. - -The 18th of August the daughter of White, Eleanor Dare, gave birth to a -daughter, called Virginia, after the country,--the first child of English -parents born on the soil of the United States. A few days later, White left -for England,--ostensibly for recruits and supplies, the colony which he -left behind being composed of eighty-nine men, seventeen women, and two -children. But England was now threatened with invasion from Spain; the -energy and resources of the island were being mustered in its defence; -Raleigh, Drake, Grenville, Frobisher, Hawkins, and the rest were engaged in -preparing to resist the enemy. It was no time for colonization schemes. The -Armada scattered, the father of English colonization in America found -himself ruined, having spent L40,000 in his several fruitless ventures. -Still hopeful, he next adopted a scheme of making large grants in Virginia -to merchants and adventurers, and in this manner obtained some aid. - - Sidenote: Wreck of the colony. - -In 1591 White returned to Roanoke, to find it again deserted, with no -traces of his daughter or of the other colonists. They had probably been -overcome by the Indians, and those whose lives were spared adopted into the -neighboring tribes. In spite of the many costly attempts, the sixteenth -century closed with no English settlement on the shores of America. - - Sidenote: Causes of English failures thus far. - -Among the principal causes of this early failure in Virginia were the -improper character and spirit of the emigrants, who, instead of looking to -the soil as the chief source of supplies, expected to find rich mines, or -tribes possessing gold, and relied upon England for the necessaries of -life; they had not enough occupation to keep them from brooding over their -isolation, and by their harshness they turned the Indians into harassing -enemies. - - Sidenotes: Gosnold's voyages. - - Pring in Maine, and Weymouth at Cape Cod. - - Gorges becomes interested. - -Bartholomew Gosnold has had the reputation of being the first mariner who -set out for America on a direct voyage from England, thus avoiding the West -Indies and the Spanish, and saving nearly a thousand miles; but others -before him had taken the direct course,--notably Verrazano (1524). In 1602, -while trading with the Indians, Gosnold explored the coast from Cape -Elizabeth, Maine, to the Elizabeth Islands, on his way landing upon and -naming Cape Cod. The following year Martin Pring discovered many harbors -and rivers in Maine. In 1605 George Weymouth, sent by the Earl of -Southampton and Lord Arundel, explored from Cape Cod northward. He carried -back with him several kidnapped natives, three of whom he gave to Sir -Ferdinando Gorges, governor of the English port of Plymouth. Gorges was -particularly struck with the reported abundance of good harbors in the -north, compared with the scarcity of such in Virginia and Carolina, and -became at once strongly interested in New England exploration. - -Public attention in England had by this time become strongly attracted to -the northern region as probably the most desirable for future experiments -in colonization; it was pointed out with much force that the lack of good -anchorage was one of the reasons why the southern attempts had failed. -Conditions in England, too, had at last so changed as to make it possible -to undertake colonization with better assurances of success. But New -England was not destined to be the site of the first permanent plantation. -That honor was reserved for what is now Virginia. - - - 16. The Experience of the Sixteenth Century - (1492-1606). - - Sidenote: Sixteenth century notable for interest in discovery and - settlement. - -In reviewing the period from 1492 to 1606,--practically the sixteenth -century,--we see that it was notable for the extraordinary interest -displayed in discovery and settlement. Attention has been called to the -part played by the general desire of Europeans to secure the trade of -India. But we must not forget as well that, as a feature of the great -Renaissance and Reformation movement, the spirit of investigation was -abroad, in religion, philosophy, and the arts; there had grown up great -commercial and trading cities, in which the successful foreign merchant -became a part of a powerful aristocracy; popular imagination had been fired -by traders' stories of India, China, and Japan; there was an eagerness to -reach out into the regions of mystery, to enlarge the horizon of human -knowledge. The effect was greatly to increase skill in navigation, to build -up a merchant marine, and--it being an age of universal freebooting--to -cultivate an experience in naval warfare which was a preparation for the -great sea-fights of the eighteenth century. - - Sidenote: Causes of failure in North American colonization. - -Of the three nations which, in the sixteenth century, attempted to colonize -America north of the Gulf of Mexico, all had practically failed. Spain had -with comparative ease conquered the unwarlike natives of Mexico and Peru -upon their cultivated plains. That very ease took away the disposition, -even had her people been capable of the effort, slowly and painfully to -subdue the tangled forests and savage warriors of Florida, with no other -promise of reward than the possession of unredeemed soil. Not suited to the -task, she utterly wasted alike the resources of the home government -applicable to colonization, and those of the established colonies. France -had failed because of dissensions at home, inferior powers of organization, -the want of the proper colonizing temper, and the severity of the climate -in that portion of the New World which she had seized upon as the seat of -her colonies. English colonization thus far had been unproductive because -there was a want of understanding of the difficulties, because of the -selection of colonists who lacked experience in agriculture, because poor -harbors were generally chosen, because there was difficulty in keeping up -communications with the mother-land, because the resident leaders lacked -courage and had not the staying qualities which were in after years the -salvation of the Plymouth Pilgrims. But the effect of these early English -efforts was important in giving the people needed training in navigation -and colonization, and a knowledge of the country. - - Sidenote: European claims in America, 1600. - -Taking a general view of America at the close of the sixteenth century, we -find Spain in undisputed possession of Peru, Central America, the country -west and northwest of the Gulf of Mexico, the greater part of the West -Indies, and the coast of what is now Florida; while they claimed all of the -southern third of the present United States and the greater part of South -America, except Guiana and Brazil. The French laid claim to the basin of -the St. Lawrence and to the coast northward and southward, but their -colonies were not as yet permanently planted; the attempts to make Huguenot -settlements in Brazil (1555) and Florida had been unsuccessful, and French -claims there had been abandoned under Spanish influence. It was not until -1609, when Hudson sailed up the river named for him, that the Dutch laid -any claims to American soil. Cabral discovered Brazil for the Portuguese in -1500; but when Portugal, eighty years later, became the dependency of Spain -(a condition lasting sixty years), her South American colonies were harried -by the Dutch, though she did not relinquish control of them. The English -claimed all the North American coast from Newfoundland to Florida, and of -course through to the Pacific, no one then entertaining the belief that the -continent was many hundred miles in width; but as yet none of their -colonizing efforts had been successful. The Bermudas, Bahamas, and Barbados -were neither claimed nor settled by Englishmen until the seventeenth -century. The great Mississippi basin had been visited by a few Spanish -overland wanderers, but as yet was practically forgotten and unclaimed, -except so far as it was included in the undefined Spanish and English -transcontinental zones; the Hudson Bay country, Oregon, and Alaska were -also undiscovered lands. A few thousand miles of American coast-line were -now familiar to European explorers; but of the interior of the continent -scarcely more was known than might be seen over the tree-tops from the -mast-head of a caravel. - - - - - CHAPTER III. - - COLONIZATION AND THE COLONISTS. - - - 17. References. - - -Bibliographies.--C. Lucas, _Introduction to Historical Geography of British -Colonies_, vii., viii.; Winsor, _Narrative and Critical History_, III., V.; -Larned, _Literature of American History_, 67-76; Avery, _United States_, -II. 409-411; E. Greene, _Provincial America_, ch. xix.; Channing and Hart, -_Guide_, Secs. 92, 104, 110. - -Historical Maps.--No. 2, this volume (_Epoch Maps_, No. 2); MacCoun, -Winsor, and Avery. - -General Accounts.--Colonization: Lucas, as above (colonial policies of the -European states); J. Seeley, _Expansion of England_, chs. iii., iv.; A. -Smith, _Wealth of Nations_, chapter "Of Colonies"; H. Morris, _History of -Colonization_; A. Snow, _Administration of Dependencies_, chs. -i.-v.--English movement: G. Beer, _Origin of British Colonial System_; H. -Merivale, _Colonization and the Colonies_; H. Egerton, _Short History of -British Colonial Policy_, and _Origin and Growth of English Colonies_; W. -Woodward, _Expansion of British Empire_; C. Dilke, _Greater Britain_, and -_Problems of Greater Britain_; E. Creasy, _Imperial and Colonial -Constitutions_; Mill, _Colonial Constitutions_; J. Toner, _Colonies of -North America_; J. Marsden, _Early Puritans_.--Free institutions imported -by American colonists, and colonial government generally: Greene, -_Provincial Governor_; E. Eggleston, _Transit of Civilization_, and -_Beginners of a Nation_; A. Low, _American People_; Wilson, _The State_, Secs. -832-864; E. Freeman, _English People in its Three Homes_, lecture vi.; H. -Taylor, _English Constitution_, 15-48; Channing, _Town and County -Government_; C. Bishop, _History of Elections in the Colonies_. - -Contemporary Accounts.--Published records (chiefly by historical societies) -of the several American colonies. See also Hakluyt, _Voyages_; Holinshed, -_Chronicles_.--Reprints: E. Arber, _Pilgrim Colonists_; A. Brown, _Genesis -of United States_; W. Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book of American -History_; _American History told by Contemporaries_, I. part iii. - - - 18. Colonial Policy of European States. - -The time had now come for making the first permanent English settlement in -America. Before we proceed to the story of that famous enterprise, however, -it will be well hastily to summarize the colonial policies of those -European States which have at various times established plantations in the -New World. It will be well also to know what sort of people were the seed -of English colonization, and what institutions they brought with them as -the foundations of American commonwealths. - - Sidenote: Motives of colonization. - -Four motives, working either singly or conjointly, lead to -colonization,--the spirit of adventurous enterprise, the desire for wealth, -economic or political discontent, and religious sentiment. For instance, -Columbus was quite as much a religious enthusiast desirous of spreading the -gospel in new lands as he was an adventurer; the southern group of English -colonies in America was in the main the outgrowth of a trading spirit -working in conjunction with economic distress in England; and the Puritan -migration to New England was impelled by economic and political causes, as -well as by religious. - - Sidenote: Colonization is the expansion of the parent State, though - early viewed as a source of revenue to it. - -In a large sense the planting of a colony means merely the expansion of the -parent State. But this was not the view formerly taken by European -governments. For a long time colonies were treated as dependencies of the -mother-country, existing chiefly to furnish revenue to the latter, either -directly in taxes or indirectly in increased trade. It was because the -English colonists in America, taking a broad view of their relationship to -Great Britain, wished to be treated as free Englishmen in Greater Britain, -and not merely as revenue-producing subjects, that they revolted in 1776. -Colonial history is nearly everywhere the history of this obtuseness of -vision on the part of the home government, and it is full of most painful -details. - - - 19. Spanish and Portuguese Policy. - - Sidenote: Spain. - -It chanced that the American discoveries made by Spain were in the region -of rich and physically weak nations. Consequently she won her vast -dominions on this continent by sweeping conquest rather than by commercial -growth. This was in sharp contrast with the slow, steady planting of New -England, where the settlers were obliged to conquer a sterile soil and -brave a rigid climate, where they were hemmed about with savage neighbors -who disputed their establishment, and where they met as well the sharp -opposition, first of the Dutch, and then of the French,--the latter, in -their desire for the Mississippi valley, jealously endeavoring to restrict -Englishmen to the Atlantic slope. The Spaniards were brave, and they could -rule with severity. But they thirsted for adventure, conquest, and wealth, -for which their appetite was early encouraged; their progress in Mexico, -Peru, and the West Indies had been too rapid and brilliant for them to be -satisfied with the dull life and patient development of an agricultural -colony. Had they known in advance the conditions of success on the North -American mainland, it is probable that we should never have been obliged to -chronicle the splendid but disastrous expeditions of Narvaez and De Soto. -They would doubtless have made no attempt to subdue a land which offered -nothing for such appetites as theirs. Their aims were sordid, their State -was loosely knit, their commercial policy was rigidly exclusive, their -morals were lax, and their treatment of the savages was cruel, despite the -tendency of the colonists to amalgamate with the latter, and thus to -descend in the scale of civilization. The effect of the specie so easily -acquired in Mexico and Peru was to make Spain rapidly rich without -manufactures; but her people were thereby demoralized and unfitted for the -ordinary channels of employment, and her rulers were corrupted and -enfeebled; in the end the country was impoverished, declining as rapidly as -it had risen. Spain's glory was fast waning both in the New and the Old -World at the close of the sixteenth century, and France was ready, in the -march of events, to succeed to her place as the leading nation of Europe. -France was to be supplanted a century later by England, which was not known -as a great power until the dispersion of the Armada. We have seen that in -this historical progress Spain unwittingly helped England by driving the -French out from Florida and Carolina; nevertheless the decline of Spain -left France the most formidable rival of the English. - - Sidenote: Portugal. - -The Portuguese, though impelled by a similar passion for conquest, were -more eager for trade than their powerful and often domineering Spanish -neighbors. They oppressed their colonies, were greedy in their commercial -strivings, maltreated the weak natives of Brazil and the West Indies, -lacked administrative ability and the spirit of progress, and suffered from -want of a well-balanced colonial system. The Portuguese colonies in America -had much the same history as the Spanish, their situation being similar. -Brazil was of no great importance until the early years of the nineteenth -century, and made herself independent in 1822,--thus following the lead of -Mexico, which set up an independent government the previous year. - - - 20. French Policy. - - Sidenote: France. - -France had no permanent colonies in America before the seventeenth century. -Port Royal was planted in 1604, and Quebec not until four years later. The -French were good fighters, enterprising, and while not eager to colonize, -were capable of adapting themselves to new conditions; they had the -capacity to carry their ideas with them across the seas, and they readily -assimilated with the aborigines. While freely intermarrying with the -natives, unlike the Spaniards they rather improved the savage stock than -were degraded by it. They had the faculty of making the red barbarian a -boon companion, and of inducing him to serve them and fight for them; -indeed, since their colonizing enterprises were based on the fur-trade, -their opposition to the advance of English agricultural possession was, -like that of the Indians, fundamental. The French and the savages were -therefore united in a common cause against a common foe. - -The Breton and Norman merchant-seamen who went out to Newfoundland and -carried on fisheries and the fur-trade paved the way for the future throng -of emigrants. As colonizers the French worked quietly and persistently, and -would have succeeded, had not their enterprises been ruined by their -unfortunate political and ecclesiastical policy and the mismanagement of -their rulers. Louis XIV. was capricious and extravagant. His court was a -nest of intrigue, corruption, peculation, jealousies, and dissensions. The -Huguenots, who represented the industrial classes, began the French -colonization of America; but we have seen how sadly their government -neglected them in Florida. Finally, when the revocation of the Edict of -Nantes (1685) resulted in driving them from home, and they were eager to -join their lot with that of their countrymen in Canada, priest-rule -prescribed their deliberate exclusion from the colonies,--which they could -have made a New France in fact,--and thus forced them to contribute their -strength to the rival English settlements farther down the coast. The -government was in some respects over-liberal to its North American -colonies,--it aided them financially to an extent unknown elsewhere; but -they were not self-governed, and the king continually interfered with the -commercial companies, which in a large measure controlled the colonies, so -that a favor granted through corrupt influences to-day might to-morrow be -revoked by counter-influences equally corrupt. Paternalism, centralization, -bureaucratic government, official rottenness, instability of system, -religious exclusiveness, and a vicious system of land-tenure were the prime -causes of the ruin of New France; although we must not forget that the -centre of its power had been planted in an inhospitable climate, and that -its far-reaching water-system tempted the inhabitants into the forests and -cultivated the fur-trade at the expense of agriculture, thereby placing the -province at a disadvantage from the start. - - - 21. Dutch and Swedish Policy. - - Sidenote: Holland. - -The burden of over-population with which Spain, France, and Portugal were -troubled, and to relieve the pressure of which was one of the motives of -their colonizing efforts, was not felt by Holland; for despite the fact -that she sustained a more dense population than any other European State, -her citizens were prosperous. They were not stirred, like neighboring -peoples, by the impulse of emigration. Preeminently a trading nation, -Holland sought commerce rather than extension of empire. Long the chief -carrier of Europe before striking into a broader field, she followed in the -steps of the Portuguese, and by the opening of the seventeenth century took -rank as a colonizing power. Her most fruitful labors were in the East -rather than in the West. It was in the attempt to find the northwest -passage to India that Hudson discovered the river which bears his name. -With the Dutch, though religious reformers, religion was secondary to -trade. So long as trade was good, they were patient under insult and -outrage. Individually they made but little impress upon the community. -Commerce was chiefly conducted through large chartered companies, minutely -managed in Holland. Dutch colonies declined because their commercial system -was non-progressive and unsound; they appear to have been unable to rise -out of the trader state. Yet we must not forget that Holland was of small -size and had overbearing, jealous neighbors; her long and heroic struggle -with Spain tended greatly to delay her efforts to trade in and colonize the -New World. - - Sidenote: Sweden. - -The Swedish colony on the Delaware was planned by authority of Gustavus -Adolphus on broad, liberal principles; he hoped it would become "the jewel -of his kingdom." But while it throve for a time and gave much promise of -endurance, the Dutch soon overpowered it. Had the Swedish monarch lived to -carry out the design, doubtless he would have proved that Scandinavians -could successfully maintain an independent province in the New World. Like -the Germans, however, they have in later years been in the main content to -colonize as the subjects of foreign governments. - - - 22. English Policy. - - Sidenote: England. - -England remains the only country which planted populous colonies within the -present United States and retained them long after they were planted. Her -insular position and fine harbors have given her a race of sailors; her -climate has proved favorable for rearing a hardy people, who, secure in -their boundaries and not necessarily entangled in Continental affairs, have -been left free to develop and to push independent enterprises. As regards -American exploration, the fact that England is the westernmost State in -Europe had at first much to do with her pre-eminence. Until the close of -the sixteenth century England's resources were slender, and her government -was not desirous of incurring the hostility of stronger European neighbors -by poaching too freely on their colonial preserves. Cabot went out at his -own cost. Drake's operations, while adding to the glory of England, and -directly favored by Queen Elizabeth, were continually endangering her with -Spain. But in the face of all discouragements, the sixteenth century was a -notable training period for English sea-rovers. The records of the age are -aglow with the deeds of the Cabots, Frobisher, Davis, Drake, Cavendish, -Gilbert, Raleigh, Grenville, and their like, who, while invariably failing -in their persistent efforts at colonization, were charting the American -coast-line, making the New World familiar to their countrymen, and striking -out shorter paths across the Atlantic. At first outstripped by other -European nations, England was becoming one of the principal maritime powers -when the seventeenth century began. Spain, weakened by the defection of the -Netherlands, and still further humiliated by the defeat of the Armada -(1588), was by this time showing evidences of decay, and France was the -growing rival in the West. - - Sidenote: The English trading spirit. - -English occupation in North America, like the French, began with the -fishermen who, following in Cabot's wake, early sought the banks of -Newfoundland. They were courageous, businesslike men, who soon supplemented -their calling as fishermen with a profitable native trade in peltries. The -trading spirit has always been deeply implanted in the Teutonic races; when -England had gathered sufficient strength to make it discreet to assert -herself, we find that her reachings out for wider territory took the shape -of commercial enterprise. The romantic adventurers of the age of Elizabeth, -as much freebooters as explorers, were now succeeded by prosaic trading -companies, which undertook to plant colonies along the Atlantic coast. In -doing this they were impelled in part by a desire to relieve England from -some of her surplus population; but in the main the colonies were to serve -as trading and supply stations. - - Sidenote: Scanty State aid. - -In aiding these corporations, which succeeded after a fashion in planting -colonies, but failed for the most part in reaping profits, the State -expected increased revenue rather than the spread of European civilization. -In England, State assistance to such undertakings was always slight and -uncertain; the strength of the early colonies lay in the wealth and -persistence of their promoters. - - - 23. Character of English Emigrants. - - Sidenote: English impulse to emigration. - -The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were full of trouble for the -English people. Religious restlessness was succeeded by revolution and -civil war, while crude and oppressive economic conditions induced lawless -disturbance and disaster. Colonizing schemes were readily taken up in such -times of unrest. At first the notion prevailed that the colonies might -profitably be utilized for clearing the mother-country of jail-birds and -paupers, although with these went out many who were worthy pioneers. It -remained for the Plymouth planting to demonstrate that only the honest and -thrifty can work out the salvation of a wilderness. America attracted the -attention alike of traders and settlers because its soil was supposed to be -rich, because the climate was temperate and not unlike that of England, -because there was plenty of room, and because the unknown land attracted -the adventurous. - - Sidenotes: Englishmen as colonists. - - Their characteristics, - -Englishmen were soon found to be the best colonizers in the world. An -intelligent, large, well-built, and handsome race, active in a high degree -and passionately fond of out-door life and manly sports, they are brave and -enterprising, will fight for supremacy, are tenacious of purpose, and carry -with them in their migrations their ideas, their customs, and their laws. -They do not assimilate with other races,--in fact, there is inbred in them -a strong disdain of foreigners, and still more of inferior races; but they -rule with vigor, and make a lasting impress of their characteristics upon -the communities they establish. Although Englishmen in the seventeenth -century, when they colonized America, lacked many of the refinements of -civilization, were coarse in their tastes and sentiments, and much given to -dissipation and petty vices, a fibre of robust morality ran through the -national life. The leaders were educated, they were ambitious for their -race, and there was a healthy tone to their patriotic aspirations. Simple -and reserved in manner, they prided themselves on repressing the utterance -of their feelings, entering upon the serious business of rearing a nation -in the wilds with most becoming gravity. Their conduct was often bad, but -they were schooled in piety and reverence, and were steadfast in high aims. - - Sidenote: and their free institutions. - -They had been trained in self-government, and were sticklers for healthy -political precedents. They were the heirs of grim and sturdy Teutonic -ancestors who knew no rule but that imposed by "the armed assembly of the -whole people." The germs of modern English free and representative -institutions are to be plainly traced in the forest councils of the -Germanic tribes. In the succeeding ages these institutions had grown -irregularly, but it was a growth founded on the irresistible will of the -people; they had descended to the men of the seventeenth century as the -sacred heirlooms of generations which had freely spent blood and treasure -for the rights of all Englishmen to come. The principle and habit of -self-government were deep rooted in the heart of every English commoner; it -was a part of his nature. And this principle, this habit, he brought with -him to America. English institutions were merely transplanted to the New -World, where they developed with perhaps greater rapidity than at -home,--certainly on somewhat different and characteristic lines; but they -were and still are English institutions. - - - 24. Local Government in the Colonies. - - Sidenote: The English town and county. - -The primary local body in the England which these first colonists to -America knew, was the parish, or town, which had both an ecclesiastical and -a temporal jurisdiction. Next above the parishes was the territorial -division known as the county, with an independent magistracy and a judicial -and military organization adapted to the needs of a large rural area. In -making independent settlements on the American coast, the English -commercial companies and proprietors were not establishing states; what -they planted were but the germs of states. Each detached colony had a -distinct life, and it was natural that, despite the general rules of -government established by the companies, the people should proceed at once -to govern themselves in their local affairs upon either the town or the -county plan, according to circumstances. The flexibility of English -representative institutions has never elsewhere been so well illustrated as -in the different forms they took on in the American colonies, without once -departing from the integrity of historic models. - - Sidenote: The county the political unit in the Southern colonies; - -In the Southern colonies the country was traversed by deep, broad river -highways, leading far inland; the climate was genial, the savages proved -comparatively friendly, and the introduction of slavery tended to foster an -aristocratic class of landed proprietors,--large plantations, therefore, -were the rule. There were a few small trading villages, but the bulk of the -people were isolated, and township governments were impracticable. The -settlers therefore adopted a primary government akin to the English rural -county, having jurisdiction over a wide tract of country, with a commander -of militia, appointed by the governor and styled a lieutenant, whose duties -and authority were similar to those of the lords-lieutenant at home; -judicial powers being exercised by eight or more gentlemen, also appointed -by the governor, serving as a county court. It should be remembered that -the Southern county was not, as in England, a group of towns,--it was -itself the primary organization. The parish was sometimes, in newly settled -portions, co-extensive with the county; but more often the latter was, for -religious purposes, divided into parishes, the vestries of which had -authority in some civil matters. Again, for the purposes of tax levy and -collection, the county was divided into precincts; and in some districts -conditions were such--among them the hostility of the savages--that the -people of each plantation or small neighborhood assembled for worship by -themselves, and thus became recognized as a separate community, in some -matters self-governed. These differences in local organization account for -the terms "plantation," "congregation," and "hundred," often met with in -early Southern records. The tendency of the Southern political and social -system was to concentrate power in the hands of a few men, in sharp -distinction to the New England plan, where the people governed themselves -in small primary assemblies, only delegating the conduct of details to -their agents, the town officers. - - Sidenotes: and the town in New England. - - Unconscious reversion to older Teutonic forms. - -In New England, the narrowness of the Atlantic slope, the shortness of the -rivers, the severe climate, the hostility of the savages, the neighborhood -of the French, the density of the forests, and the fact that each community -was an organized religious congregation,--people belonging to one church, -who had "resolved to live together,"--led to the establishment of more or -less compact communities, called towns; and these were the political and -ecclesiastical units. Since the conditions were changed, some features of -the English parish were modified to suit the more primitive necessities of -life in the wilderness. Thus we find that here and there in New England was -a reversion to older Teutonic forms, although of this significant fact the -colonists themselves were unaware; for the now familiar truth that the -ancestry of our institutions reaches back to the beginnings of the race, -had not then been discovered. Not only was the English town government -practically reproduced on American soil, with such changes as were adapted -to the new environment, but the titles of the town officials were, in many -cases, borrowed from the mother-land. When the first town meeting was held, -English local government had been successfully grafted upon the New World. - - Sidenote: The mixed system in the middle colonies. - -In the middle colonies, which partook of the climatic characteristics of -both their Northern and Southern neighbors, and had a population made up of -various nationalities, there were compact trading towns as well as large -agricultural regions; and there we find a mixed system, of both townships -and counties. - - Sidenote: Differences only in form. - -With all these differences in form, the principle at work was the same. -From the beginning the American colonists were hampered in the work of -their general assemblies, at first by commercial companies, and then by -royal and proprietary interference; nevertheless, in the conduct of their -purely local affairs they often exercised a greater degree of freedom than -their brethren in England. It is the purpose of this and succeeding volumes -to show how, amid many shiftings, unions, and divisions, these isolated, -self-governing English colonies, planted independently here and there in -the American wilds, unconscious of the great future before them, were, by -an orderly, logical progression of events, the trend of which was often not -noticeable to the men of the time, successfully merged, at first into -states, and finally into a nation. - - - 25. Colonial Governments. - - Sidenote: Social distinctions. - -The colonists were accustomed in England to specific ranks and orders of -society. In America, while there were from the first sharp social -distinctions, the fact that the great body of the settlers began life in -the wilderness side by side, on an equal basis, was favorable to a -democratic sentiment. Nobility was connected, in English minds, with great -landed estates, of which there were few in America outside of Virginia, -Maryland, South Carolina, and New York. Under Locke's constitution it was -attempted by the proprietaries formally to divide Carolina society into -groups, with hereditary titles; but the project could not be carried out. -Nevertheless, Southern society was in the main as distinctly stratified, -after the introduction of slavery, as though titles had existed. New -England life was calculated strongly to foster the spirit of independence; -and the slave class was not large enough materially to affect social -conditions. Still, there was an acknowledged and respected aristocracy, -founded on ancestry, education, commercial success, and individual merit, -but lacking staying qualities; for it had neither large estates nor -primogeniture to back it. The scheme of Lord Brooke, Lord Say and Sele, and -others, to introduce hereditary rank in Massachusetts (1636) fortunately -failed to receive popular approval. - - Sidenote: Colonial governors. - -Used as they were to the exercise of the royal prerogative, the colonists -accepted the free exercise by the governors of the privileges of -appointment and veto, whether those officials were selected by the Crown or -by proprietaries. In addition to these privileges, the governor of a royal -colony was the bearer of royal instructions and the medium of royal -directions; he was the executive officer, the granter of pardons (except in -capital cases), the commander of the military and naval forces, the head of -the established church, and the chief of the judiciary; and he could -summon, prorogue, and dissolve the assembly. The assembly held the -purse-strings, however, and the actual power of the governor was -consequently in a great degree curtailed. The record of colonial politics -is largely made up of disputes between the representatives and the -executive, in which the assembly usually won by withholding supplies until -the governor came to its terms. - - Sidenote: The judiciary. - -The judiciary system was alike in no two colonies, but there were certain -resemblances in all. There were commonly local justices of the peace, with -jurisdiction limited to petty civil cases; sometimes these were elected by -the freeholders of the district, but generally they were appointed by the -governor. Then came the county courts, the members of which were appointees -of the governor, except in New Jersey, where they were elected. These -county judges were representative gentlemen, and not trained in the law. -They had criminal jurisdiction except in capital cases, and final -jurisdiction in civil cases not involving large amounts; the limit was L20 -in Virginia and L2 in Maryland, and elsewhere between these extremes. Next -was the provincial, supreme, or general court: ordinarily this was composed -of the governor, as chancellor, and the members of his council; but in -several colonies this colonial court was a separate body, appointed by the -governor, who, with his council, constituted a still higher court of -appeals and chancery. From the highest courts a suitor could, in important -cases, carry his appeal to the king in council. The common and statute law -of England prevailed when provincial law was silent on the subject. -Sometimes questions arose upon the validity of provincial statutes: when -the courts found that they were not in accordance with the charter, they -declared them void; but the matter could be carried to the English Privy -Council for ultimate decision. This was the germ of the power of the United -States Supreme Court to decide on the constitutionality of a law. - - Sidenote: Charters. - -At first American territory was granted to chartered commercial -companies,--notably the Virginia Company and the Council for New -England,--which sought to control their colonies from England, under the -supervision of the Crown. The Virginia colony was early deprived of its -charter by the Crown (1624); but members of the Massachusetts Company -boldly emigrated to America, and taking advantage of the confusion in -England, kept up a practically independent state for two generations; -though at last (1692) the people were obliged to accept a new charter -establishing a royal governor. The colonies of Rhode Island and Connecticut -obtained charters direct from England, with privileges of self-government, -and lived under them till long after they had become States. New Hampshire, -after having been governed by Massachusetts, became a royal province -without having passed through the charter or proprietary stage. The other -colonies were proprietary, but all finally reverted to the Crown. Maryland -and Pennsylvania and Delaware were still proprietary at the outbreak of the -Revolution, having been restored to the proprietors after reversion. - - Sidenote: Two houses. - -The two houses of Parliament had made the colonists accustomed to the -bicameral system. In Virginia under company management the corporation -council in England served in a measure as the upper house, with powers of -general direction. In Massachusetts (where the company was technically -resident in the colony), and in the proprietary and royal colonies as well, -there was for a long time but one house. Finally, often as the result of -dissensions between the deputies and the officials, the former came to sit -apart,--the colonies thus in most cases returning to the English system of -two houses; but the council was small, and had administrative functions -which made it very different from the House of Lords. These colonial -assemblies were schools for the cultivation of the spirit of independence. -Burke said the colonists "had formed within themselves, either by royal -instruction or royal charter, assemblies so exceedingly resembling a -parliament in all their forms, functions, and powers that it was impossible -they should not imbibe some opinion of a similar authority." - - - 26. Privileges of the Colonists. - - Sidenote: The suffrage. - -Electoral qualifications varied greatly. In the consideration of this, as -well as of other institutions, Massachusetts and Virginia must be taken as -types of opposite systems, the other colonies departing more or less from -them, according to proximity. Originally in Massachusetts, "any person -inhabiting within the town" could vote at town-meetings; later, with the -arrival of objectionable immigrants, this privilege was restricted (1634) -to freemen,--practically all the members of the church,--and still later -(1691), to "the possessors of an estate of freehold in land to the value of -40s. per annum, or other estate to the value of L40." In Virginia, at the -start, all freemen were allowed to vote. But it was afterwards decided -(1670) that the "usuall way of chuseing burgesses by the votes of all -persons who, haveing served their time, are freemen of this country," was -detrimental to the colony; and the principle was laid down that "a voyce in -such election" should be given "only to such as by their estates, real or -personall, have interest enough to tye them to the endeavour of the -publique good." By the beginning of the eighteenth century a freehold test -obtained in most, if not in all, the colonies. In 1746 Parliament added a -further qualification, in the guise of a general naturalization law, -providing that a voter must have resided seven years in his colony, taken -the oath of allegiance, and professed the "Protestant Christian faith." - - Sidenote: Representation. - -The principle of representation, by which a few are charged with acting and -speaking for the many in the conduct of public affairs, has been familiar -to Englishmen since the time when a parliament was convoked during the -contest between John and the barons (1213). The practice was adopted early -in the history of the colonies,--the first house of burgesses of Virginia -meeting in 1619; while in Massachusetts, the refusal of Watertown (1632) to -be taxed without representation caused the adoption of the plan of sending -deputies to the General Court. The American colonial assemblies were more -truly representative of the great body of the people than the English -Parliament of the period; to-day, male suffrage is nearly universal in -England, and entirely so in all the British dependencies, with the -exception of the Crown colonies. - - Sidenote: Rights of the colonists. - -In the American colonies the execution of the laws was as a rule -comparatively an easy task. The English colonists had been trained in the -political art of self-control; they had an abounding regard for just laws -and the courts; they respected precedent, and stoutly stood for the common -law, or recognized customs of their race. They were restive under statutes -which conflicted with the customary rights of Englishmen, which had come -down to them from the earliest times, and had been confirmed by Magna -Charta. These rights had not been strictly observed by the Tudor -sovereigns, and many of the earlier settlers had in the mother-country -assisted in agitation for their renewal. Now that they were transplanted to -America, the struggle was continued at long range with the Stuarts, thus -developing in the colonists a habit of resistance which was to stand them -in good stead in the troublous period leading up to the American -Revolution. - - - - - CHAPTER IV. - - THE COLONIZATION OF THE SOUTH. - (1606-1700.) - - - 27. References. - - -Bibliographies.--S. Kingsbury, _Introduction to Records of Virginia -Company_, 207-214; P. Bruce, _Economic History of Virginia_, I. xv.-xix.; -N. Mereness, _Maryland_, 521-524; E. Whitney, _Government of South -Carolina_, footnotes; Avery, _United States_, II. 411-417, 434-438, III. -407-410, 412, 413; Larned, _Literature of American History_, 100-106; -Winsor, III. 153-166, 553-562, V. 335-356; C. Andrews, _Colonial -Self-Government_, 351-354; Channing and Hart, _Guide_, Secs. 97-102. - -Historical Maps.--Nos. 2 and 3, this volume (_Epoch Maps_, Nos. 2, 3); -Doyle, _English Colonies_, I.; MacCoun, Winsor, and school histories cited -in our ch. i. - -General Accounts.--Lodge, _English Colonies_, chs. i., iii., v., vii.; -Doyle, as above, I.; H. Osgood, _American Colonies in Seventeenth Century_; -Avery, as above, II. chs. ix., x., III. chs. i.-iii.; Channing, _United -States_, I. chs. v.-ix.; Andrews, as above, chs. ix., xiii.-xv.; Greene, -_Provincial America_, chs. i.-v.; Winsor, as above, III. chs. v., xiii., V. -ch. v. - -Special Histories.--Virginia: Brown, _First Republic in America_, and -_English Politics in Early Virginia History_; Bruce, as above; Fiske, _Old -Virginia and Her Neighbors_; J. Cooke (Commonwealths); L. Tyler, _Cradle of -the Republic_, and _Williamsburg_; R. Pryor, _Birth of the Nation_; J. -Wayland, _German Element in Shenandoah Valley_.--Maryland: Browne -(Commonwealths), Scharf, Bozman, Mereness, as above; C. Hall, _Lords -Baltimore_; B. Steiner, _Beginnings of Maryland_.--Carolinas: J. Moore, I. -chs. i.-iii.; C. Raper; E. McCrady, _South Carolina under Proprietary -Government_; S. Ashe, _North Carolina_, I. Lives of Smith by Bradley, -Roberts, and Smith. - -Contemporary Accounts.--Reprints of Smith's _True Relation_, and other -early documents: Force, Tracts; publications of historical societies and -commissions of the several states; Carroll, _Historical Collections_; -Brown, _Genesis of United States_; Kingsbury and Osgood, _Records of -Virginia Company_; Jameson, _Original Narratives of Early American History; -American History told by Contemporaries_, I. part iv; _American History -Leaflets_, No. 27. - - - 28. Reasons for Final English Colonization. - - Sidenotes: Over-population of England in the seventeenth century. - - Colonization as a means of relief. - -By the beginning of the seventeenth century it was quite evident to -thoughtful men that England needed room for growth. The population of the -island had greatly increased during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. -The extension of the wool trade had encouraged the turning of vast tracts -of tillable ground into sheep-pastures, which elbowed large communities of -farm-laborers out of their calling. England at large waxed great, the -condition of the merchant and upper classes was improved, but the peasant -remained where he was, the gulf widening between him and those above him. -The growth of the merchant class and their appearance on the scene as large -landholders, still further lessened the feudal sympathy between peasant and -landlord. The land abounded with idle men. Everywhere was noticed the -uneasiness which frets a people too closely packed to find ready -subsistence. Starvation induced lawlessness. Colonization was thought by -many to be the only means of obtaining permanent relief from the pressing -political and economic dangers of pauperism; and naturally America, from -which Gosnold, Pring, and Weymouth had but recently brought favorable -reports, was deemed most available for the planting of new English -communities. - - Sidenote: Chartered trading companies undertake the task. - -But the temper of Englishmen had somewhat changed since the days of -Raleigh's brilliant enterprises. A spirit of sober calculation had -succeeded with the increase of the mercantile habit. Raleigh was out of -favor, and there were no longer any private men who would undertake the -task of colonization. If it were to be done at all, it must be by chartered -trading companies; and naturally they looked upon all ventures with -merchants' eyes rather than statesmen's. The career of the Muscovy Company, -which had been profitably trading to Russia for a half century, and the -rapid successes achieved by the East India Company, founded in 1599, were -pointed to as examples of what could be done in this direction; although -the obvious fact that Russia and India were old and wealthy countries, -while America was a wilderness peopled by savages, appears not to have been -considered. - - - 29. The Charter of 1606. - - Sidenote: The London and Plymouth Companies organized. - -Gosnold, returning from his voyage to New England, was ardent in the desire -to establish a colony in the milder climate of Virginia, and easily won to -his support six representative Englishmen,--Richard Hakluyt, then -prebendary of Westminster, and now famous as an editor of the chronicles of -early voyages; Robert Hunt, a clergyman; Sir Thomas Gates and Sir George -Somers, two "brave and pious gentlemen;" a London merchant named Edward -Maria Wingfield; and John Smith, a soldier. As a result of their -endeavors,--seconded by Sir John Popham, chief justice of England, and Sir -Ferdinando Gorges (page 41, Sec. 15),--a charter was granted by King James -(April 10, 1606) to a company with two subdivisions,--1. The London -Company, composed of London merchants, who were to establish a colony -somewhere between the 34th and 41st degrees of latitude; that is, between -the southern limit of the North Carolina of to-day and the mouth of Hudson -River. 2. The Plymouth Company, composed chiefly of traders and country -gentlemen in the West of England, with chief offices at Plymouth, who were -to plant a settlement somewhere between the 38th and 45th degrees; that is, -north of the mouth of the Potomac, and south of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. -But neither was to make a planting within one hundred miles of the other, -although their assigned territories overlapped each other three degrees. -Later (1609), the southern colony was given bounds in more specific -terms,--it was to extend two hundred miles along the coast in either -direction from Old Point Comfort, and "up into the land from sea to sea, -west and northwest;" this latter phrase being the foundation of the later -claim of Virginia to the Northwest. - - Sidenote: How the colonies were governed. - -King James, unlike Elizabeth, did not favor colonization; but he was -induced to yield his consent to this undertaking. The colonies established -under the charter were directly under the king's control, and not under -that of Parliament. The government of the two proposed colonies was placed -in the hands of two resident councils, of thirteen members each, nominated -by the Crown from among the colonists; while above them was a general -council of fourteen in England, also appointed by the king. Afterwards, -eleven other persons, similarly selected, were added to the council in -England. - - Sidenote: Royal instructions to the Virginia colonists. - -The resident council was to govern according to laws, ordinances, and -instructions dictated by the Crown. The royal instructions sent out with -the first colonists to Virginia stipulated that the Church of England and -the king's supremacy must be maintained, but the president of the council -must not be in holy orders. The land tenure was to be the same as in -England. Jury trial was guaranteed. Summary punishment must be enforced for -drunkards, vagrants, and vagabonds, while the death penalty was prescribed -for rioting, mutiny, and treason, murder, manslaughter, and offences -against chastity. The resident council might coin money and control the -extraction of all precious metals, giving one fifth to the Crown. It might -also make provisions for the proper administration of public affairs; but -all laws were to remain in vogue only conditionally, till ratified by the -general council in England or the Crown. In another clause the king -declared that all ordinances should be "consonant to the laws of England -and the equity thereof." All trade was to be public, and in charge of a -treasurer or cape merchant,--an officer chosen by the resident council from -its own membership. All the produce of the colony was to be brought to a -magazine, from which settlers were to be supplied with necessaries by the -cape merchant. Doyle says: "The company ... was to be a vast joint-stock -farm, or collection of farms, worked by servants who were to receive, in -return for their labor, all their necessaries and a share in the proceeds -of the undertaking." As a pious afterthought, the colonists were admonished -"to show kindness to the savages and heathen people in those parts, and use -all proper means to draw them to the true knowledge and service of God." - - Sidenote: The rights of the patentees. - -The rights given to the patentees, represented in the general council in -England, were: free transport of emigrants and goods, the right to exact a -duty of two and one half per cent on trade with the colony by Englishmen, -and five per cent on trade by foreigners. For twenty-one years the proceeds -of the enterprise were to accrue to the company; after that, to the Crown. - - Sidenote: The king is granted too much power. - -It should be noted that this patent, given by James to the combined London -and Plymouth companies, differed greatly from that granted by Elizabeth to -Gilbert and Raleigh, for it prescribed a constitution for the colonies, and -left but little to the judgment of the patentees. The latter, in their -eagerness to get a commercial charter, had allowed the king to assume an -undue political control over their establishment. It was fortunate for -Englishmen, both in America and England, that James was a weak monarch. He -might readily have used his supreme power over the Virginia colonists, not -only to browbeat them at will, but to tax them unmercifully for the purpose -of raising money, with which he would be the better enabled to bid the home -Parliament defiance while attacking the liberties of his people. He did not -lack desire, but was wanting in courage and astuteness, and allowed those -shrewder than himself gradually to re-shape the American charter until, -within twenty years, Virginia had emerged into practical independence. - - - 30. The Settlement of Virginia (1607-1624). - - Sidenotes: The London Company first in the field. - - Character of the colonists. - -The London Company, of which Hakluyt, Somers, and Gates were the most -active spirits, was first in the field. A hundred and forty-three colonists -were gathered aboard three ships,--the "Discovery," the "Good Speed," and -the "Susan Constant,"--which on the 19th of December, 1606, sailed down the -Thames, on the way to Virginia. The composition of the party was not -promising. Most of them were "gentlemen," unused to and scorning manual -toil; only twelve were laborers; and among the artisans were "jewellers, -gold-refiners, and a perfumer." Adventure, mines, and golden sands were in -the minds of the company, and the "gentlemen" doubtless thought they were -out for a holiday excursion. The fact that there were neither women nor -children in the expedition shows how little conception these people had of -the true mission of a colony. The little fleet was in charge of Christopher -Newport, a seaman of good reputation, with whom Gosnold was associated. - - Sidenote: John Smith. - -Among the party was one of the patentees,--Captain John Smith. He was the -son of a Lincolnshire gentleman; and being a soldier of fortune, had -travelled and experienced adventures in many European countries,--a brave, -robust, self-reliant, public-spirited, enterprising, humane, and withal a -boastful Englishman, he has come down to us as one of the most romantic -figures in American history. Smith's active temperament was not at first -appreciated by his fellow-colonists, and in a fit of jealousy on shipboard -they put him into irons upon a silly charge of conspiracy; and though he -had been named a councillor by the king, he was not allowed to participate -in the government for nearly a month after landing. - - Sidenote: Jamestown settled. - -On the sixteenth of April, 1607, land was sighted, and the adventurers soon -entered Chesapeake Bay, naming the outlying capes, Henry and Charles, after -the king's sons, and the river, which they soon ascended, the James, in -honor of the monarch himself. Fifty miles above the mouth of the river is -"a low peninsula half buried in the tide at high water," which they -unfortunately selected as the site of a town; and landing there on the -thirteenth of May, they called the place Jamestown. Wingfield, one of the -patentees, was chosen president of the resident council, exploring parties -were sent out, fortifications were begun, and a few log-huts reared. The -colonists had been instructed by the English council to search for water -passages running through to the Pacific. A party soon set out, under -Newport and Smith; but on reaching the falls of the James turned back. At -first they were troubled by Indians; but peace had been made with the -neighboring chief before Newport left for England, the twenty-second of -June. - - Sidenote: A dismal summer. - -The marshes were rank, the water was bad, and food scanty at Jamestown. The -colonists were for the most part a shiftless set, lacking the habit of -industry. The heat was so intense during the first summer that few houses -were built, and the tents were rotten and leaky. The natives, being -ill-treated, soon broke out again into hostilities. When autumn came, fifty -of the colonists had died. "Some departed suddenly," wrote a chronicler, -"but for the most part they died of mere famine. There were never -Englishmen left in a foreign country in such misery as we were in this new -discovered Virginia.... It would make ... hearts bleed to hear the pitiful -murmurings and outcries." The only men in office who had not in some degree -succumbed to the miseries of the situation were Gosnold, a man of really -superior ability, and Smith himself, the latter having now attained to -supreme control by common consent. Smith compelled his people to -labor,--"he that will not work shall not eat," was his dictum,--maintained -trade with the Indians, among whom he became popular, drilled the little -garrison, kept up the fortifications, explored and mapped the country and -the coast, wrote appeals for assistance to London, and was the life and -soul of the colony for two years. - - Sidenote: Smith the savior of the colony. - -In 1609 Newport had come out with supplies and one hundred and twenty -emigrants, who again were mainly "gentlemen, goldsmiths, and libertines;" -and he promptly sailed back with a load of worthless shining earth. Smith -found the new-comers seized with a frenzy for discovering gold mines, and -his troubles increased. The company, impatient for returns, were -disappointed because he insisted on having the people cultivate the rich -soil, build houses, trade with the natives, and explore, rather than go -seeking for gold where there was none. He appears to have been the only man -of authority in the enterprise who understood the true conditions of -colonization. He had repeatedly urged the patentees in London to cease -sending him gentlemen, idlers, and curious handicraftsmen, and instead of -such to ship "carpenters, husbandmen gardeners, fishermen, blacksmiths, -masons, and diggers up of trees' roots;" and insisted that they "as yet -must not look for profitable returning." To Smith we owe it that Jamestown -lived through all its early disasters, so that when he left it, in October, -1609, it had acquired a foothold and was the nucleus of permanent -settlement in Virginia. He never again returned to the colony, although in -later years we find him diligently exploring the New England coast. - - Sidenotes: The king yields some of his prerogatives. - - Administrations of Delaware and Dale. - -With the following year began a new order of things. The London Company, -stimulated by ill success, had gained from the king many of the powers -heretofore reserved to himself, and secured the appointment of Lord -Delaware as governor and captain-general; he was authorized to rule by -martial law, thus depriving the turbulent colonists of numerous privileges -heretofore given them. Delaware was in Jamestown but for one year, being -succeeded by Sir Thomas Dale (1611), who found the colony in ill condition; -many of its servants had defaulted, and there was a large deficiency. In -March following (1612), the company obtained a fresh charter, giving it -still further powers of self-direction and of dealing with crime and -insubordination, and adding to its domain the Bermudas, or Somers -Islands,--called thus after Sir George Somers, who had touched at them in -1609 while on a voyage of relief to Virginia. Dale, now possessed of -enlarged authority, met with excellent success in bringing the unruly mob -of settlers under control of the military code, and induced fresh -immigration of a somewhat better class. He caused the abandonment of the -non-progressive and unsatisfactory system of communal proprietorship, -introduced individual allotment, and broadened the foundations of a -prosperous State. - - Sidenote: Liberals gain control of the company. - -Samuel Argall, "a sea-captain of piratical tastes," followed Dale in the -governorship (1617), but was soon recalled (1618), because the settlers -complained bitterly of tyrannical and mercenary treatment at his hands. The -liberals in England--prominent among whom were Sir Edwin Sandys and the -Earl of Southampton--had now gained control of the corporation, and were -fighting the king through the colony, with the result that Virginia gained -in the next few years political privileges which were never after wholly -relinquished; the colonists, too, had, in the case of Argall, learned the -power of organized resistance,--a lesson which long stood them in good -stead. - - Sidenotes: First meeting of the assembly. - - Indented servants. - - Introduction of slavery. - -The colony was granted a representative assembly,--the first in -America,--called the house of burgesses, which was first convened in June, -1619. In the words of the "briefe declaration," written a few years later, -"That they might have a hande in the governinge of themselves, y{t} was -graunted that a general Assemblie shoulde be helde yearly once, whereat -were to be present the Gov{r} and Counsell w{th} two Burgesses from each -Plantation, freely to be elected by the Inhabitants thereof, this Assemblie -to have power to make and ordaine whatsoever lawes and orders should by -them be thought good and profitable for our subsistance." In this assembly -Governor Yeardley (arrived April, 1619) and his council had seats and took -active part. The effect of this convention, composed of twenty-two -burgesses, representing eleven "cities," "hundreds," and "plantations," was -greatly to restrict the governor's power, heretofore quite absolute. -Yeardley was a judicious executive, and the settlement, in spite of many -difficulties, prospered under his rule. Men with families began to come out -from England; but an unfortunate element in the immigration of the time was -the class of indented servants, which not only included convicts and -vagabonds, but was largely made up of boys and girls entrapped on the -London streets by press-gangs and hurried off to Virginia to be forcibly -placed in servitude for long terms of years,--the nucleus of the "poor -white" element in the South. Another and far worse disaster befell the -colony this year (1619). Twenty African slaves, the first in America, were -landed and sold in Jamestown from a Dutch man-of-war. This was the -beginning of a large and wide-spreading traffic in human beings throughout -the Southern colonies. - - Sidenote: Further political concessions. - -In 1622 Sir Francis Wyatt succeeded Governor Yeardley, and brought out with -him, as a gift to the colonists, a most unexpected political -concession,--confirmation of all liberties previously granted, and definite -assurances and provisions for the regular assemblage of the house of -burgesses. It is no wonder that the king declared the London Company, with -its free debates and bold experiments in popular government in Virginia, "a -seminary for a seditious Parliament." - - Sidenote: Virginia becomes a royal province. - -The following year (1623) the Indians combined against the whites, who had -persistently maltreated them, and more than three hundred settlers were -killed. This loss, which was a serious blow to the colony, was one of the -grounds urged by James in annulling the company's charter (1624). Thereupon -the settlers passed under the immediate control of the king,--which was, on -principle, an improvement over government by a profit-seeking commercial -company, however liberal the tendencies of the latter. The growing of -tobacco had by this time become an important industry in Virginia,--forty -thousand pounds being shipped to England in 1620,--and both James and his -son and successor, Charles, received a considerable revenue from taxes on -the product. - - - 31. Virginia during the English Revolution - (1624-1660). - - Sidenote: Harvey's administration. - -After a succession of inefficient governors, Sir John Harvey came out in -1629, being the first serving under direct royal appointment. Harvey proved -obnoxious to the colonists because of his despotic rule and constant -attempt to browbeat the house of burgesses; by the latter he was "thrust -out of his government" in 1635, whereupon he hastened to England to plead -his cause before Charles. The king, much incensed at the unruly temper of -his people, ordered the governor back; but four years later, desirous of -mollifying the Virginians, upon the profits of whose tobacco-raising he had -an eye, the king supplanted Harvey, and again sent out Wyatt. Under his -mild rule the colony once more lifted its head. - - Sidenote: Berkeley's first term. - -Sir William Berkeley succeeded Wyatt in 1642. While frequently quarrelling -with the assembly, as all the royal governors did, and eager for the spoils -of office, he was an educated, courtly gentleman and a courageous -statesman, though often unscrupulous and overbearing. A man of strong -passions and convictions, he was a pitiless hater of enemies of the State; -and in his estimation Puritans and Catholics were more prominent in that -category than the marauding savages who skulked in the forests. A second -Indian uprising (1644) was vigorously suppressed by the governor. - - Sidenotes: During the Long Parliament. - - Virginia a refuge for Cavaliers. - -During the great struggle in England between Charles I. and the Long -Parliament (1642-1649), public sentiment in Virginia was with the king. -There were but few Puritans in or about Jamestown, and they had for the -most part come in from New England under Harvey's administration; their -missionary labors in the conservative South were unwelcome, and they were -warned "to depart the collony with all conveniencie,"--while the Papists, -who had settled Maryland in 1634 under Lord Baltimore, were not tolerated -in Virginia under any conditions. The execution of Charles (1649) naturally -aroused deep indignation among the colonists, refugee Cavaliers from -England soon joined them by thousands, and Berkeley seriously, but in vain, -invited Charles II. to take up his abode among his American subjects. The -extent of this sudden influx of Cavalier immigration to the colony was so -great that while the population of Virginia was but fifteen thousand in -1650, it had increased to forty thousand by 1670. - - Sidenote: Parliamentary commissioners take possession. - -Parliament, however, was not disposed to allow Virginia to become a -breeding-place for disloyalty to the Commonwealth, and appointed -commissioners (1652), to whom the colony was surrendered possession with -surprising promptness. "No sooner," wrote Lord Clarendon, "had the 'Guinea' -frigate anchored in the waters of the Chesapeake than all thoughts of -resistance were laid aside." The Puritan party at once took charge of the -government, ruling with moderation and wisdom; and the colony, now allowed -the utmost freedom in the conduct of its home affairs, prospered -politically and financially under the Protectorate. - - Sidenote: Claiborne's quarrel with Maryland. - -Among the commissioners was William Claiborne, an able, resolute, and -passionate Virginian, who was the leader of the Puritan party, and carried -on a considerable trade with Nova Scotia, New England, and Manhattan. He -had been much before the public of late years. The grant of Maryland to -Lord Baltimore was regarded by Virginians as an invasion of their -territory; and Claiborne, holding a royal license to trade in that region, -had planted a settlement (1631) on Kent Island, in Chesapeake Bay, within -the limits now claimed by Baltimore. Not acknowledging Baltimore's -proprietorship there, he was summarily ejected. The following year (1635) -he led a party of rangers against Maryland, compelled the Catholic -governor, Calvert, to fly to Virginia, and seized the government himself; -being soon expelled, however, by Calvert, who had now secured Berkeley's -support. As one of the Roundhead commissioners to settle the affairs of the -colonies, the turbulent Claiborne proceeded promptly to pay back some of -his old debts against the Maryland Catholics. In 1654, Puritan invaders of -Maryland, headed by Claiborne, who was now Secretary of the Province of -Virginia, met the Catholics near the mouth of the Severn River and worsted -them, thus again obtaining temporary control of the northern colony. Three -years later a compromise was reached between Baltimore and the Puritans. - - Sidenote: Governors under the Commonwealth. - -Richard Bennett was the first governor of Virginia under the Commonwealth -(1652), being elected by the burgesses and receiving his authority from -them. He was succeeded by Edward Digges (1655) and Samuel Matthews (1656), -both similarly chosen. They quarrelled with the burgesses, like the -governors of old, but were worthy and sensible men, and when outvoted -generally yielded with grace. Claiborne's affair with Maryland and an -unimportant Indian panic (1656) were the only clouds upon the horizon -during this tranquil period. - - - 32. Development of Virginia (1660-1700). - - Sidenotes: Berkeley recalled. - - The Restoration. - -When Oliver Cromwell died (1658), his successor, Richard, was accepted in -Virginia without question; but when the following year the latter -abdicated, Berkeley was quickly recalled, as "the servant of the people," -from peaceful retirement on his country estate; and upon the Restoration -(1660) the king's party was suffered again to take control of the -government, and Claiborne was dismissed from the secretaryship. The return -of the Royalists to power was accompanied in Virginia by harsh measures -against Dissenters, by the enforcement of the Navigation Act under which -the colonists were obliged to ship their tobacco to English ports alone, -and to import no European goods except in vessels loaded in England, and by -the gift of the entire province to Lords Arlington and Culpeper. The -Puritans, angered by the harshness and profligacy of the church, by -economic distress occasioned by the navigation laws, and by the ruthless -invalidation of long-established land-titles, rose against the provincial -government in 1663, and were not repressed until several of their leaders -were hanged. The government became corrupt and despotic, and for many years -the people were denied the privilege of electing a new house of -burgesses,--the Royalist house chosen at the time of the Restoration -holding over by prorogation. - - Sidenotes: The Bacon rebellion. - - Berkeley recalled by the king. - -The Bacon rebellion (1676) was an outgrowth of the general discontent. The -Indians were murdering settlers in the frontier counties; but Berkeley, -accused of having fur-trade interests at stake, and perhaps fearing to have -the people armed, dismissed the self-organized volunteers who proposed to -go out against the savages. Nathaniel Bacon, a popular young member of the -council, honest and courageous, but indiscreet, took it upon himself to -raise a small force for the purpose. Berkeley refused Bacon a military -commission, and declared him and his rangers rebels, and sought to crush -them with the regular militia. Through the succeeding four months Virginia -was thrown into confusion by a warfare which resembled the stormy military -duels with which the South American republics have been so often harassed. -The opposing forces had varying fortunes, and the fickle militiamen rallied -under one standard or the other, according to the direction of the wind. -Harrying Berkeley out of Jamestown, Bacon burned the capital to ashes, -"that the rogues should harbor there no more." In October he died, either -from poisoning or swamp-fever. His adherents, having no other cohesion than -their sympathy for him, now scattered, and were caught by Berkeley, who -executed twenty-three of them, and returned to Jamestown to renew his -tyrannical policy for a time undisturbed. But even Charles tired of his -governor's harsh and bloody doings, saying: "That old fool has hanged more -men in that naked country than I have done for the murder of my father." -Berkeley was summoned to England, his departure being celebrated by the -colonists with salutes, bonfires, and general rejoicings. The king refused -him an audience upon his arrival in London, and Berkeley died (1677) "of a -broken heart." - - Sidenote: A sorry time under the Royalists. - -The Royalists were now in full power, the friends of Bacon discreetly held -their peace, and the governors were allowed to browbeat and rob the -province at their will. The successor to Berkeley was Colonel Sir Herbert -Jeffries (1677); after him came Sir Henry Chicheley (1678), Thomas Lord -Culpeper, one of the proprietors under the king's patent (1679), Lord -Howard of Effingham (1684), Sir Francis Nicholson (1690), Sir Edmund Andros -(1692) and Nicholson again (1698). During the administration of Culpeper, -who was a greedy extortionist, the tobacco-planters rose in rebellion -because of the disaster to their industry brought on by the attempt of -government to regulate prices and establish ports of shipment. The governor -hanged a number of the offenders, and still further added to his -unpopularity as a ruler and his notoriety as a rascal by arbitrarily and -for his own gain raising and lowering the standard of coinage. - -These closing years of the seventeenth century were sorry times for -Virginia. Riots and consequent imprisonments and hangings were ordinary -events. Nicholson told the gentlemen of the province that he would "beat -them into better manners," or "bring them to reason with halters about -their necks." The people were discontented, the province grew poorer as -each new governor introduced some fresh extortion, immigration practically -ceased, and the spirit of political independence was torpid. - - Sidenotes: Virginia in the Albany Council. - - Establishment of William and Mary College. - - Arrival of Huguenots. - -There were two or three gleams of sunshine during this period of almost -total darkness. Delegates were sent to Albany in 1684 to represent the -province at the famous council to consider a plan of union for repressing -Indian outbreaks. It was one of the earliest attempts at the confederation -of the colonies,--a scheme which Governor Nicholson persistently fostered, -in the vain hope, it is said, of being placed at the head of the united -provinces as governor-general. Again, under Nicholson's rule (1691), the -house of burgesses sent Commissary Blair to England to solicit a patent for -a college. This was obtained, and in 1693 the agent returned with the -charter of "William and Mary," the second university in America,--Harvard, -in Massachusetts, being the first and Yale, founded in 1701, the third. The -new college was set up at Williamsburg, whither Governor Nicholson had -removed the capital of the province. Another event, quite as significant, -signalized the close of the century. De Richebourg's colony of Huguenots -settled (1699) on the upper waters of the James and "infused a stream of -pure and rich blood into Virginia society." - -Thus, in the ninety years from 1607 to 1697, the population of Virginia had -increased from a few score to nearly a hundred thousand; the dreams of -speedy wealth entertained by the patentees had been idle, but the hard -labor of Englishmen, supplemented by the forced service of negroes, had -built up a prosperous agricultural community. More important still was it -that, through all the vicissitudes of control, of government in England, -and of party in America, the germ of popular government had grown into an -established system, jealously watched by the colonies. - - - 33. Settlement of Maryland (1632-1635). - - Sidenote: George Calvert, Lord Baltimore. - -George Calvert, Lord Baltimore, had been one of the members of the London -Company as well as a councillor in the Plymouth Company. From the beginning -of the century he had taken a strong interest in English colonization -schemes. A staunch Roman Catholic, he was (1618-1625) principal Secretary -of State to James I. Baltimore's observation of the turbulent career of -Virginia had convinced him that a commercial colony could not be -successful, because of divided administration and the mercenary aims of -non-resident stockholders. He went out with a colony to Newfoundland (1621) -under a proprietary patent, but the inhospitable climate was against the -project. In 1629 he landed at Jamestown with forty Catholic colonists; but -the Protestant Virginians made it uncomfortable for the Romanists, and they -returned to England. - - Sidenotes: Secures a charter for Maryland. - - His son Cecil succeeds him. - - Provisions of the charter. - -Baltimore thereupon secured a charter from King Charles I. for a tract of -country north of Potomac river, the limits being imperfectly defined,--on -the north, the fortieth degree of latitude (the southern boundary of the -Plymouth Company's patent); on the west, a line drawn due north from the -head of the Potomac. The lands embraced in this grant were within the -bounds of Virginia, as specified in 1609, but had thus far not been -occupied. At the king's request the country was named Maryland, in honor of -his queen, Henrietta Maria. Lord Baltimore died before the charter had -passed the seal, and was succeeded in his rights and titles by his son -Cecil. The province of Maryland being made a palatinate, Lord Baltimore was -given almost royal powers, the Crown reserving feudal supremacy and -exacting a nominal yearly tribute. The proprietor could declare war, make -peace, appoint all officers, including judges, rule by martial law, pardon -criminals, and confer titles. He was to summon the freemen to assist him in -making laws, which were to be similar to those of England, but did not -require the king's confirmation, and need not be sent to England. It was -therefore impossible for the Privy Council to check or inaugurate -legislation in Maryland. The relations between the Crown and his lordship -being thus established, it was left for the colonists and the proprietor to -settle their relation under the charter; but no tax could be levied without -consent of the freemen. - - Sidenotes: St. Mary's founded. - - Quarrel with Claiborne. - -In November, 1633, Cecil sent out his brother Leonard with two hundred -colonists,--some twenty of whom were gentlemen, and the others laborers and -mechanics,--and in March following they founded a town near the mouth of -the Potomac, calling it St. Mary's. The troubles with Claiborne, the -Virginian who had made a settlement on Kent Island, in the Chesapeake and -within Baltimore's grant, have already been alluded to (page 77, Sec. 31). The -dispute was a protracted one, and gave rise to much ill-feeling and some -bloodshed. - - Sidenotes: Religious toleration. - - Humane treatment of Indians. - - The settlers of good quality. - -Many of Baltimore's colonists were Protestants. He was, however, sincere in -his desire for complete religious toleration, and did not appear to concern -himself in what his subjects believed. The Jesuit priests accompanying the -party exerted their influence in behalf of a humane treatment of the -Indians, and a cordial friendship was soon established with the resident -tribes. As for the settlers, they were thrifty and industrious, held their -land in fee-simple, and up to the Commonwealth period there was prosperity -and content. - - Sidenote: Legislative dispute with the proprietor. - -The colonists were, however, not blind to their political rights, in the -midst of this economic security. In primary assembly, in which proxies were -allowed, the freemen adopted a code of laws (1635) which the proprietor -rejected because the former had presumed to take the initiative, and for -two years the province was self-governed under the English common law. In -1638 a set of laws drafted by the proprietor was promptly vetoed by the -assembly, and thus a deadlock was created. The matter was soon arranged by -compromise, with the utmost good-nature on both sides; there was created a -representative house of burgesses,--in which, however, individual freemen -might also appear,--Baltimore was granted a poll-tax subsidy, and the -people reserved to themselves the rights of self-taxation and legislative -initiative. The anomalous system of allowing both freemen--of whom there -were but one hundred and eighty-two in 1642--and their representatives to -sit in the general assembly continued, with some variations, until 1647, -when that body became truly representative. Three years later (1650), the -legislature was divided into two houses, the burgesses sitting in the lower -chamber, and the councillors and others especially summoned by the -proprietor in the upper. - - - 34. Maryland during the English Revolution (1642-1660). - - Sidenotes: Religious dissensions arise. - - Claiborne drives out Calvert, but the latter eventually wins. - -As in the other colonies, the outbreak of the civil war in England resulted -in serious dissensions in Maryland. The Puritan party waxed strong, and -sympathized with Claiborne's intruding Protestant colonists on Kent Island. -The seizure of a Parliament ship by Deputy-Governor Brent, under orders -from King Charles, resulted in popular disturbances. Claiborne, taking -advantage of the disorder and coming over from Virginia, seized the -government at St. Mary's. Governor Calvert fled to Virginia, where Governor -Berkeley gave him shelter until he was able to march back at the head of a -large force and suppress the Claiborne administration, which was weak and -mercenary, and had not commended itself to the people. - - Sidenote: Growth of the Protestant party. - -Leonard Calvert died in 1647. William Stone, a Protestant, appointed -Governor in 1648, favored Parliament as against the king, but was sworn by -the proprietor to protect Catholics and give them an equal chance with -other colonists. The Protestant party grew apace; but while represented by -the governor and council, was in the minority in the assembly. In 1649 a -"Toleration Act" was passed, by which Sunday games, blasphemy, and abuse of -rival sects were severally prohibited. "Whereas the enforcing of the -conscience in matters of religion," ran the preamble, "hath frequently -fallen out to be of dangerous consequence, ... and the better to preserve -mutual love and amity among the inhabitants of the province," no person -professing to be a Christian shall be "in any ways molested or -discountenanced for or in respect of his or her religion, nor in the free -exercise thereof." - - Sidenote: Under the Protectorate. - -The Parliamentary commissioners sent to reduce the colonies (1652) -displaced Stone; but his great popularity caused them to reinstate him. -Stone, however, now sided with the proprietor, who wished to banish all -colonists who would not take the oath of fidelity to his lordship. The -governor proclaimed the Puritan leaders as seditious, and ejected many. The -Puritans therefore rose and called in Claiborne, who was one of the -Parliamentary commissioners, to help them. In a pitched battle at -Providence (1655) the Protestants won, and followed up their victory by the -execution of several of Stone's followers and the sequestration of their -estates. Stone himself, though sentenced to death, was reprieved. The party -of Cromwell was now in full power in the palatinate. Claiborne renewed his -claim to Kent Island; but the Commissioners for Plantations do not appear -ever to have recognized it. - - Sidenote: Baltimore restored to his proprietorship. - -Baltimore was finally restored to his proprietorship by the English -Commissioners for Plantations (1657), the assembly accepted the situation, -an Act of Indemnity was passed, the right of the colonists to -self-government was reaffirmed, and the policy of toleration was again -adopted. The result of the proprietor's restoration was to enlarge the -political privileges of the people, and toleration succeeded Catholic -supremacy in Maryland,--a reflex of the tendencies of the Great Rebellion -in the mother-land. - - - 35. Development of Maryland (1660-1715). - - Sidenote: Charles Calvert as governor. - -In 1661 Charles Calvert, eldest son of Lord Baltimore, became governor of -the province. His admirable administration lasted for fourteen years, -during which the colony greatly prospered, there being a considerable -immigration of Quakers and foreigners,--Maryland, with its religious -toleration and beneficent laws, becoming widely known as a haven for the -oppressed of all nations. Unhampered by the proprietor, the assembly was -reasonable in its dealings with him, and harmony prevailed between them. -The crops, particularly of tobacco, were profitable, the Indians were never -a source of serious disturbance, and the people were contented and loyal. - - Sidenotes: A spirit of unrest. - - The Fendall and Coode revolt. - - Maryland declared a royal province. - -By the death (1675) of Cecil, Lord Baltimore, Charles fell heir to the -family title and estates. Thomas Notly was sent out from England as -deputy-governor. In 1681 the new proprietor secured the passage of a law -limiting the suffrage to those having freeholds of fifty acres or other -property worth forty pounds. There was some popular uneasiness over this, -as well as over the encroachments on the Maryland grant made by William -Penn; the Navigation Act, compelling the planters to sell their tobacco in -English ports alone, was also fretting the people; while the Protestants, -most of whom were now of the Church of England, and bitter against Puritans -and other Dissenters, as well as Catholics, deemed the Toleration Act an -impious compact. Taking advantage of this spirit of unrest, and smarting -under old grievances, Josias Fendall, an unworthy demagogue, intrigued with -a retired clergyman named John Coode and instigated a revolt, in which the -aid of some Virginians was obtained. The uprising was promptly suppressed; -but under the influence of the revolution in England (1688) Coode again -headed an insurrection under the auspices of the Association for the -Defence of the Protestant Religion. In 1689 the associators seized the -government of Maryland, under the flimsy pretext that they were upholding -the cause of William and Mary. They at first won the favorable -consideration of the king; but in 1691 Maryland was declared a royal -province, and Sir Lionel Copley came out as the first royal governor. -Baltimore's interests were respected, but he now became a mere absentee -landlord. The powers of government rested in the Crown, the Church of -England was established, and other Protestant sects were discountenanced -while practically tolerated, but Catholics were persecuted. - - Sidenote: Annapolis becomes the capital. - -The capital was removed from St. Mary's, the centre of the Catholic -interest, to Annapolis,--first settled by Puritans, and now controlled by -the adherents of the establishment. Maryland's prosperity, heretofore -unrivalled in the colonies, now suffered a check, and for a term of years -the royal administration was signalized by religious persecution and a low -political and social tone, till in 1715 the proprietorship was -re-established. In 1729 the city of Baltimore was founded as a convenient -port for the planters. The settlement and growth of Maryland had enforced -two lessons which were never wholly forgotten,--the possibility, under -official toleration, of bringing members of different religious sects -together in one civil community and government; and the comfort and -prosperity attainable in a well-governed colony. - - - 36. Early Settlers in the Carolinas (1542-1665). - - Sidenote: Early colonial attempts. - -Between Virginia and Spanish Florida a broad belt of territory lay long -unoccupied. A Huguenot colony in 1562 had had a brief existence there, and -in consequence France claimed the country as her share of Florida. But the -Spaniards drove out the French, and thus unwittingly left the field to the -north clear for the English. In 1584 Amadas and Barlowe led a prospecting -party to Roanoke Island (p. 38), and here also (1585, 1587) two of -Raleigh's ill-fated colonies spent their strength. The swamp-girted coast -had few harbors, the colonizing material did not possess staying qualities, -the ill-treated Indians turned on the invaders of their soil, the sites of -settlements were ill-chosen. For a long period of years after the failure -of these enterprises a prejudice existed against the middle region as a -colonizing ground. - - Sidenotes: Adventurous Virginians explore North Carolina. - - Roger Green plants Albemarle. - -But before Jamestown was two years old restless Virginians had explored the -upper waters of some of the southern rivers, and by 1625 the region was -fairly familiar to hunters and adventurous land-seekers as far south as the -Chowan. In 1629 Charles I. gave "the province of Carolana" to Sir Robert -Heath, his attorney-general; but nothing came of the grant. The Virginia -Assembly took it upon itself to issue exploring and trading permits in the -southern portion of the Virginia claims, often called Carolana, to certain -commercial companies, with the result that the character of the country -became generally known. In 1653 a small colony of Virginia dissenters, -harassed by the Church of England party at home, were led by Roger Green to -the banks of the Chowan and Roanoke; and there they planted Albemarle, the -first permanent settlement in what is now North Carolina. - - Sidenotes: Miscellaneous colonizing parties. - - New Englanders at Cape Fear River. - - Colonists from Barbadoes at Clarendon. - -Numerous colonizing parties and individual settlers ventured into North -Carolina during the next twenty years, and purchased lands of the Indians. -Among these were many Baptists and Quakers who had found life intolerable -in the northern settlements. The story goes that in 1660 a number of New -Englanders, desiring to raise cattle, settled at the mouth of Cape Fear -River; but they incurred the hatred of the Indians, and the colony soon -melted away. The survivors, upon taking their departure, affixed to a post -a "scandalous writing, ... the contents whereof tended not only to the -disparagement of the land about the said river, but also to the great -discouragement of all such as should hereafter come into those parts to -settle." This was said to have been found in 1663 by a company of wanderers -from the English community on the island of Barbados, which had been -founded in 1625. These West Indian colonists, headed by a wealthy planter, -Sir John Yeamans, established themselves (1664), to the number of several -hundred, on the Cape Fear, in the district which soon came to be known as -Clarendon. - - - 37. Proprietorship of the Carolinas (1663-1671) - - Sidenotes: The Lords Proprietors acquire the Carolinas. - - Early prosperity. - -It is probable that Charles II. knew little of these infant settlements of -Virginians and Barbados men at Albemarle and Clarendon,--which were some -three hundred miles apart,--or of the numerous small holdings between them; -but he cautiously confirmed all private purchases from the Indians, in -giving Carolina (1663) to a coterie of his favorites. Chief among these -were the Earl of Clarendon, the Duke of Albemarle, the Earl of Shaftesbury, -and Sir William Berkeley, then governor of Virginia. The proprietaries had -been commanded to recognize the land-claims of the settlers already on the -ground. William Drummond, a Scotch colonist in Virginia, was made governor -of Albemarle, while Yeamans remained governor of Clarendon, these two -districts roughly corresponding to the North and South Carolina of to-day. -The proprietaries at first authorized a popular government on the simplest -plan, and the settlers, particularly in Albemarle, looked forward to a -prosperous career. A considerable trade in lumber and fur at once sprang -up, and the crops were good; for the soil proved richer than in any other -of the American colonies then occupied. - - Sidenotes: An enlargement of bounds. - - Immigrants attracted. - -In 1667 Samuel Stephens succeeded Governor Drummond, who went to Virginia, -where he became a leader in the Bacon rebellion. The Lords Proprietors in -1665 secured a charter, with enlargements of their bounds; their new grants -in terms included the present territory of the United States between -Virginia and Florida, to the Pacific. In 1670 was added the -Bahamas,--neither the claims of Virginia nor of Spain being considered in -the grants. Stephens was assisted by a council of twelve, his own -appointees when the proprietaries did not choose them. The assembly, of -twelve members chosen by the people, was a lower house. This first -legislature met in 1669; and actuated by a desire to attract immigrants, -declared that no debts contracted abroad by settlers previous to removal to -Carolina could be collected in their new home. As a consequence, along with -many desirable colonists flocking in from the Bermudas, Bahamas, New -England, and Virginia, came others who were not worthy material for a -pioneer community. The proprietaries themselves were quite liberal in their -land-grants to inhabitants. - - Sidenote: Locke's Fundamental Constitutions. - -Unfortunately for the Carolinians, the Lords Proprietors engaged John -Locke, the famous philosopher, to devise for them a scheme of colonial -government (1669). It was a complicated feudal structure, entitled the -Fundamental Constitutions, not suited to any community, old or new, and now -chiefly interesting as a philosophical curiosity. The province was to be -divided into counties, and they into seignories, baronies, precincts, and -colonies; and the people were to be separated into four estates of the -realm,--proprietaries, landgraves, caciques, and commons. Locke defined -"political power to be the right of making laws for regulating and -preserving property." The objects sought to be attained in his constitution -were avowedly the "establishing the interest of the lords proprietors," the -making of a government "most agreeable to the monarchy, ... that we may -avoid erecting a numerous democracy," and the connecting political power -with hereditary wealth. The leet-men, or tenants, were to be kept from -asserting themselves by rigid feudal restrictions: "nor shall any leet-man -or leet-woman have liberty to go off from the land of their particular lord -and live anywhere else without license obtained from their said lord, under -hand and seal. All the children of leet-men shall be leet-men, and so to -all generations." The plan was the dream of an aristocrat; it was an -attempt to reproduce the thirteenth century in the seventeenth; it was -artificial and unwieldy. While the rough backwoods-men could not grasp its -intricacies or understand its mediaeval terms, they instinctively felt it to -be a useless bit of constitutional romancing, and would have little to do -with it. - -The only important result of the attempt was to unsettle existing -conditions and, especially in Albemarle, to create a contempt for all -government; while the attempt of the proprietaries to regulate trade -strengthened the too-prevalent spirit of lawlessness. Their officious -lordships had set out to establish the Church of England; but the result of -their interference was that the Quakers, elsewhere despised, took advantage -of the spirit of dissent and obtained a firm hold over the Carolinians. - - Sidenote: The planting of Charleston. - -During this period of unrest in the northern settlements William Sayle, who -had explored the coast in 1667, planted (1670-1671) a colony "on the first -highland" at the junction of the Ashley and Cooper rivers,--the site of the -Charleston of to-day. - - - 38. The Two Settlements of Carolina (1671-1700). - - Sidenotes: North Carolina neglected by the proprietaries. - - The Culpeper rebellion. - -The settlements at Cape Fear and Charleston being more orderly and -promising than that at Albemarle, the proprietaries were henceforth more -considerate towards them. North Carolina, as it was ultimately called, was -practically left to take care of itself for upwards of a decade, during -which the neglected colonists made a rough struggle for existence upon -their crude clearings in the wilderness, those nearest the coast eking out -their scanty income by trafficking with New England smugglers. Throughout -the rest of the seventeenth century the proprietaries had but a nominal -hold upon the people of the northern colony. In 1676 Thomas Eastchurch was -appointed governor of Albemarle, but he ruled only through deputies. Deputy -Miller, collector of the king's customs, a drunken, vicious fellow, added -to his unpopularity by attempting to browbeat the assembly. The colonists -rose in arms (1678), imprisoned Miller, chose one Culpeper as collector of -customs, and convened a new assembly, which confirmed the revolutionary -proceedings and controlled affairs until 1683, when Seth Sothel was sent -out as governor. Sothel won the reputation of being an arbitrary and -rapacious official, and in 1688 the unruly assembly deposed and banished -him, despite the feeble remonstrance of the proprietaries. - - Sidenote: Charleston aided by the proprietaries. - -Meanwhile, Sayle's colony at Charleston made good progress, the -proprietaries being lavish in their aid of the enterprise. While it was -found that but few features of Locke's elaborate constitutions could be put -into practice in a frontier settlement, their lordships minutely managed -the affairs of the colony, leaving little to the judgment of the -inhabitants. Sayle died the first winter, and Yeamans, the founder of the -Cape Fear colony, succeeded him as governor (1672). Two years later (1674), -the unpopularity of Yeamans led to his being supplanted by Joseph West, who -ruled in a wholesome manner for twelve years. - - Sidenote: Thrifty condition of Clarendon. - -In 1682 the Clarendon settlements, now chiefly centred at Charleston, which -had an excellent town government, embraced about three thousand persons. -Despite trade restrictions, the exports of furs and timber were large for -the time, much live-stock was reared, the cultivation of tobacco was -extensively engaged in, and the supply of fish was abundant. - - Sidenotes: Arrival of Huguenots. - - Scotch Presbyterians routed by the Spanish. - -The settlers were of various types,--among the colonists being groups of -Englishmen from the Bahamas, Barbados, Virginia, and New England; while in -1679 French Huguenots began to arrive in considerable numbers, and had a -permanent effect upon the character of the province. A small party of -Scotch Presbyterians, flying from persecution at home, established -themselves at Port Royal,--the southernmost of the English settlements. Two -days' sail to the south lay the Spanish town of St. Augustine. The -Spaniards, jealous of this encroachment, and suffering as well from the -raids of pirates who made their headquarters in Charleston, fell upon the -little outpost of Port Royal (1686) and completely destroyed it. It was -long held as a cause of complaint in the Carolinas that the proprietaries -peremptorily forbade the colonists chastising the Spanish, on the principle -that a dependency had no right to carry on war against a country with which -the home government was at peace. - - Sidenote: Colonial grievances in South Carolina. - -The Huguenots, who had settled chiefly in Craven County, were for a time -denied all political rights, although the proprietaries favored them. The -buccaneers, who frequently appeared in Charleston, were continually preying -on Spanish commerce, and causing their lordships much trepidation lest -these sea-rovers should bring on a war with Spain. The dissenters, who were -in the majority, were constantly warring with the Church of England party, -represented by the proprietaries. The trade restrictions were exceedingly -unpopular. Proprietary interference, even when well intended, unsettled the -public mind. The colonists, while conducting their local political affairs -on independent English models, were continually apprehensive of a change in -the form of government, and in general nursed many grievances, petty and -great. - - Sidenotes: A period of turbulence. - - The Carolinas reunited. - -After the close of West's first term (1683) there was some turbulence, and -within the following seven years a succession of unsatisfactory governors. -Sothel (1690) was driven out by the Southern colonists in 1691, as he had -been by the Northern (page 93, Sec. 38), and Philip Ludwell came on from -Virginia to assume control. The proprietaries had at last changed their -policy, and determined to rule both Carolinas, as one province, Ludwell -being the first governor (1691) of the united colonies. He was weak, -however, and unable to restore order and public confidence. Under his -successor, Thomas Smith, the assembly was granted a share in initiating -legislation. - - Sidenote: The century closes with improved conditions. - -It was not until John Archdale, a sound-headed and conservative Quaker, -himself one of the proprietaries, came out (1695) as governor that the -colonists ceased their bickerings and the province settled down into a -condition of peace and good order. Joseph Blake, Archdale's nephew, -succeeded him (1696). Under Blake's benign rule the century closed in the -Carolinas with a better popular feeling towards the Huguenots, complete -religious toleration to all Christians except Catholics, and a marked -increase in the material prosperity of the settlers. - -The Carolinas, which had been planted sixty years later than Virginia, were -in 1700 still feeble; and it was half a century before they began to be -important colonies. The chief interest of the Carolinas in the development -of America is the failure of the proprietors to stem or to deflect the tide -of local government. Nowhere does the innate determination of the -Anglo-Saxon to control his own political destiny more strikingly appear -than in the contentions of the Carolinians with their rulers in England. - - - - - CHAPTER V. - - SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS IN THE SOUTH IN 1700. - - - 39. References. - - -Bibliographies.--Same as Sec. 27, above. - -General Accounts.--Doyle, _Colonies_, I. ch. xiii.; Cooke, _Virginia_, ch. -xxiv. - -Special Histories.--Eggleston, _Beginners of a Nation_; Bruce, _Social Life -of Virginia_, and _Economic History of Virginia_; S. Fisher, _Men, Women, -and Manners in Colonial Times_, I. ch. i.; T. Page, _Old Dominion_, ch. -iii.; A. Earle, _Colonial Dames and Good Wives_, and _Home Life in Colonial -Days_; M. Goodwin, _Colonial Cavalier_; A. Wharton, _Colonial Days and -Dames_; Hall, _Lords Baltimore_, lecture vi.; Channing, _Town and County -Government_; J. Ballagh, _Slavery in Virginia_; S. Weeks, _Quakers_; G. -Bernheim, _German Settlements_; many publications in _Johns Hopkins -University Studies_. See also, biographies of prominent men. - -Contemporary Accounts.--W. Hening, _Statutes_; narratives enumerated in Sec. -27, above. Reprints in _American History told by Contemporaries_, I. chs. -ix., xiii.; publications of historical societies and commissions. - - - 40. Land and People in the South. - - Sidenote: Traits common to the Southern colonies. - -Although of dissimilar origin, developed along somewhat different lines, -and having striking individual characteristics, the Southern colonies -possessed in common so many traits--climatic, geographical, social, and -economic--that we may conveniently treat them as a distinct group. - - Sidenote: Geography. - -Virginia and Maryland, topographically similar, have numerous large and -safe harbors, and the area of cultivation extends to the coast. In the -Carolinas there are scarcely any good harbors; along the sea-shore are -great sand-fields and pine-barrens, interspersed by swamps, but the country -gradually slopes up to the Alleghany foot-hills, the soil improving with -the rise in elevation. Throughout the Southern colonies the country is -drained by broad rivers running down to the sea. - - Sidenote: Population. - -It is estimated that in 1688 there were but twenty-five thousand persons, -white and black, in Maryland, sixty thousand in Virginia, and four thousand -in the Carolinas. The English were dominant in all the colonies, but their -supremacy was more strongly marked in Virginia and Maryland than in the -Carolinas, where foreign elements (1700-1750) increased rapidly in numbers -and variety. The North Carolina lumbering industry attracted many -immigrants,--in the main French Huguenots, Moravians, and Germans, with -some Swiss and Scotch-Irish interspersed. The Huguenots, a particularly -desirable class, were stronger in South Carolina than in any other American -colony. While Virginia and Maryland were chiefly settled by colonists -direct from England, the Carolinas were largely peopled from the other -English colonies in North America, the Bahamas, and the West Indies. - - Sidenote: Unimportant character of the villages. - -In the South the rich soil was widely distributed, the rivers served as -convenient highways, and the climate was mild; except for protection from -the Indians, there was no necessity in colonial times for the massing of -the people. Villages were few, and the plantations were strung along the -streams, often many miles apart and separated by dense forests. The -legislatures of the Southern provinces from time to time endeavored to -create trading and manufacturing towns by statute; but with few exceptions -these remained, down to the Revolution, merely places of resort for -elections and courts, with perhaps an inn, a jail, a court-house, and two -or three dwellings. What trade there was at these cross-roads hamlets was -of the most petty retail character, and the traders themselves were deemed -of small consequence in the community. Jamestown remained the Virginia -capital until late in the century, and during the sessions of the -legislature and at gubernatorial inaugurations was a favorite resort for -the wealthy and fashionable from all parts of the province; but it was a -small, untidy village, with few of the characteristics of a modern town -except for its public buildings. Williamsburg, its successor, was but -little better. The original capital of Maryland, St. Mary's, was not worthy -the name of town; but when, in the last decade of the century, Providence, -rechristened Annapolis, became the seat of government, the new capital soon -grew into an improvement on the old, several sightly public buildings were -erected, and trade expanded with the increase of fashion. Charleston, the -capital of South Carolina, was the most important town in the South; the -wealthiest planters in the colony lived there, leaving their estates to the -care of overseers; and trade, fashion, and politics centred in the village, -which was well-built and handsome. - - - 41. Slavery and Servants. - - Sidenote: Negro slaves. - -Society was divided into four classes, social distinctions being sharply -drawn. The lowest stratum was composed of the negro slaves, first -introduced in 1619. For many years the number of blacks was comparatively -small, servile labor being mainly performed by convicts and indented -servants. At first the African slave was looked upon as but an improved -variety of indented servant, whose term of labor was for life instead of a -few years. In 1650 there were but three hundred negroes in Virginia and -fifteen thousand whites. The slave system fast extended, after this date, -so that in 1661 Virginia had two thousand blacks, and by the close of the -seventeenth century they nearly equalled the whites in number; in South -Carolina, in 1708, two thirds of the population were of the negro race. It -was not until the blacks had become a numerous class that we find the laws -regarding them savoring of harshness. They were especially severe after -1687, when a negro insurrection in Virginia inspired the whites with fear. -The statutes for the repression of the slaves now became fairly ferocious. -In the eye of the law they were simply chattels, being hardly granted the -rights of human beings. A master might kill his slave, for he was but -destroying his own property. Runaways could be slain at sight by any one, -the owner being reimbursed from the public treasury. The laws against -racial amalgamation were savage, but the actual treatment of the slave by -his owner was not so barbarous as the laws suggest,--especially in the two -northern colonies of the Southern group. He was there comfortably housed, -clothed, and fed, and indulged in many amusements. The raising of tobacco -required constant care at certain seasons of the year, but there was much -leisure, and the occupation was healthful. Work in the rice-swamps and -indigo-fields, in the fierce summer heat of South Carolina, was extremely -exhausting, and the negroes rapidly wore out; for this reason there was a -tendency on the part of the planters of that province to work them to their -full capacity while still in their prime. Nowhere else in the South was -slave life so burdensome, and nowhere was the slave trade so active. - - Sidenote: Indented white servants. - -Removed from the slaves by the impassable gulf of color, but nevertheless -almost as much despised by the upper and middle class whites as the blacks, -were the indented white servants. While here and there among them were men -capable, when freed from their bonds, of rising to the middle and indeed -the upper class, they were of low character frequently, such as transported -convicts, the riff-raff of London, and in some cases children who had been -kidnapped by lawless adventurers in the streets of the English cities. As -servants they were under no gentle bonds. The laws concerning them were -harsh. They might not marry without the consent of their masters; an -assault on the latter was heavily punished; to run away was but to lengthen -the term of service, and for a second offence to be branded on the cheek. -For numerous petty offences their service could be prolonged, and masters -might thus retain them for years after the term fixed in the bond. - - - 42. Middle and Upper Classes. - - Sidenote: Middle class. - -The middle class--small farmers and tradesmen--merged into each other, so -that it was often difficult to draw the line between them. In South -Carolina there was practically no middle class, and indented servants were -few; there existed in this colony a perfect oligarchy,--lords and their -slaves. In all the Southern colonies the trader was despised by the upper -class, which was composed of officials and wealthy planters. The men of the -middle class were uneducated, rude, and addicted to gambling, -hard-drinking, and rough sports; they were, however, a sturdy set, manly -and liberty-loving, and gave strong political support to the planters. - - Sidenote: Upper class. - -The upper class, in dress, manners, and political thought, resembled the -English country gentlemen of their time. Here and there among them were men -of fair scholarship, with degrees from Oxford and Cambridge, but the -majority had but slight education, such as was picked up haphazard from the -parish parson, an occasional tutor, or a freed servant of more than -ordinary attainments. The speech and manners of the young were badly -affected by being reared among slaves. The life of both men and women in -these "good old colony days" was exceedingly monotonous; the chief charge -of the former being the care of their plantation and negroes, and of the -latter the superintendence of their domestic affairs and the training of -house servants. There was much visiting to and fro among the county -families, and dancing was a favorite evening amusement; and there were -annual visits to the capital, where horse-racing, gambling, cock-fighting, -and wrestling were favorite recreations. The Crown officers did much to -keep the English fashions alive, and the inauguration of a governor was a -brilliant social event. - -The manners of the gentry were better than those of the middle class; -nevertheless they drank overmuch, had a passion for gaming, and sometimes -engaged in brawls at the polling-places. The fist, especially in Virginia -and Maryland, was preferred to the duel as a means of settling -controversies. The landed gentlemen, born aristocrats, were indolent, vain, -haughty, arrogant, and sensitive to restraint,--a natural outgrowth of the -social conditions of the times. But they had great virtues as well as great -faults. There was a keen sense of honor among them, and great pride of -ancestry. They were of good, vigorous English stock, especially those who -came after the Restoration, and in the struggle for independence, two -generations later, furnished to the patriot cause a high class of soldiers, -diplomats, and statesmen. - - - 43. Occupations. - - Sidenote: Scarcity of professional men. - -There were practically no professions in Virginia and North Carolina. In -Maryland and South Carolina a litigious spirit prevailed, and there arose a -small body of lawyers fairly well equipped. Medicine was in a crude state. -The clergymen of the English Established Church--except in South Carolina, -to which colony the London Society for the Propagation of the Gospel sent -out good material--were as a rule sadly deficient in manners and education, -although there were among them many men of superior attainments and noble -character. This was especially noticeable in Maryland. The dissenting -ministers were often of quite inferior calibre. - - Sidenote: Agriculture. - -Agriculture was the mainstay of the people, tobacco being the one great -crop; although in the Carolinas rice and indigo came to be close rivals. -Naval stores were also a staple export. In South Carolina there was a -greater area devoted to mixed tillage than elsewhere in the South, and corn -and cotton were raised in considerable quantities. In both the Carolinas -cattle-raising was an important industry, the large branded herds roaming -the glades and forests at will. - - Sidenote: Economic independence of the planter. - -A great plantation, with its galleried manor-house, its rows of negro -quarters, and group of barns and shops, was in a large measure a -self-sustained community. The planter needed little that could be obtained -elsewhere in his own colony or in the South, and conducted his commercial -operations direct with England, the West Indies, and the Northern colonies. -Vessels came to his landing, bringing the supplies which he had ordered of -his correspondents, and loading for the return trip with such material as -he had for export. Under this independent system, whereby the rural magnate -was his own merchant, and negro slaves his only workmen, neither general -trade nor industries could flourish. Manufactures of every sort--even -tables, chairs, stools, wooden bowls, and birchen brooms--were, along with -many necessaries of life, imported from England and neighboring colonies. -There were a few negroes on every plantation who were trained to the -mechanic arts; and a small number of white craftsmen found work in -travelling around the country, doing such jobs as were beyond the capacity -of the slaves. - - Sidenote: Commerce. - -There was a considerable trade with the other continental colonies, as well -as with sister colonies in the West Indies and with England. Small vessels -were built in Virginia and Maryland for the coasting traffic, though -Englishmen, New Englanders, and Dutchmen were the principal carriers. The -independent methods of the planters, with their systems of barter and -direct importations, suited the lordly notions prevalent among them; but -the luxury was an expensive one, for it placed them quite at the mercy of -their foreign correspondents. Tobacco was the chief export, and barter was -based upon its value, which, despite legal restrictions, was subject to -great fluctuation. The importance of the crop, as the basis of exchange, -led to governmental supervision of its quality, which was uniformly -excellent except in North Carolina, where public spirit was at a low stage. -The importance attached by the government to this industry is illustrated -by a famous remark of Attorney-General Seymour. In 1692, when a delegation -from Virginia were soliciting a charter for the College of William and -Mary, on the ground that a higher education was necessary as a step towards -the salvation of souls by the clergy, he blurted out: "Souls! Damn your -souls; grow tobacco!" The Southern colonies had also a large and profitable -export of lumber, tar, turpentine, and furs; from the Carolinas beef was -shipped in great quantities to the West Indies; and rice, indigo, and -cotton were sent to the Northern colonies and England. The trade with the -Indians grew to considerable proportions in Virginia and Maryland, but was -long neglected in the Carolinas. - - - 44. Navigation Acts. - - Sidenote: Early attempts to protect English shipping. - -All manner of trade, however, was more or less hampered by the -Parliamentary Acts of Navigation and Trade. In the time of Richard II. -(1377-1399) it had been enacted that "None of the king's liege people -should ship any merchandise out of or into the realm, except in the ships -of the king's ligeance, on pain of forfeiture." Under Henry VII. -(1485-1509) only English-built ships manned by English sailors were -permitted to import certain commodities; and in the reign of Elizabeth -(1558-1603) only such vessels could engage in the English coasting trade -and fisheries. - - Sidenote: The Commonwealth Acts. - -The earliest English colonies were exempted by their charters from these -restrictions, but under James I. (1603-1625) the colonies were included. -For many years the colonists did not heed the Navigation Acts; in -consequence, the Dutch, then the chief carriers on the ocean, obtained -control of the colonial trade, and thereby amassed great wealth. Jealous of -their supremacy, the statesmen of the Commonwealth sought to upbuild -England by forcing English trade into English channels; and this policy -succeeded. Holland soon fell from her high position as a maritime power, -and England, with her far-spreading colonies, succeeded her. The Act of -1645 declared that certain articles should be brought into England only by -ships fitted out from England, by English subjects, and manned by -Englishmen; this was amended the following year so as to include the -colonies. In exchange for the privilege of importing English goods free of -duty, the colonists were not to suffer foreign ships to be loaded with -colonial goods. In 1651, a stringent Navigation Act was passed by the Long -Parliament, the beginning of a series of coercive ordinances extending down -to the time of the American Revolution: it provided that the rule as to the -importation of goods into England or its territories, in English-built -vessels, English manned, should extend to all products "of the growth, -production, or manufacture of Asia, Africa, or America, or of any part -thereof, ... as well of the English Plantations as others;" but the term -"English-built ships" included colonial vessels, in this and all subsequent -Acts. - - Sidenote: Under the Restoration. - -Under the Restoration the Commonwealth law was confirmed and extended -(1660). Such enumerated colonial products as the English merchants desired -to purchase were to be shipped to no other country than England; but those -products which they did not wish might be sent to other markets, provided -they did not there interfere in any way with English trade. In all -transactions, however, "English-built ships," manned by "English subjects" -only, were to be patronized. Three years later (1663) another step was -taken. By an Act of that year, such duties were levied as amounted to -prohibition of the importation of goods into the colonies except such as -had been actually shipped from an English port; thus the colonists were -forced to go to England for their supplies,--the mother-country making -herself the factor between her colonies and foreign markets. - - Sidenote: Repression of intercolonial trade. - -A considerable traffic had now sprung up between the colonies. New England -merchants were competing with Englishmen in the Southern markets. At the -behest of commercial interests in the parent isle, an Act was passed in -1673 seriously crippling this intercolonial trade; all commodities that -could have been supplied from England were now subjected to a duty -equivalent to that imposed on their consumption in England. From 1651 to -1764 upwards of twenty-five Acts of Parliament were passed for the -regulation of traffic between England and her colonies. Each succeeding -ministry felt it necessary to adopt some new scheme for monopolizing -colonial trade in order to purchase popularity at home. It was 1731 before -the home government began to repress the manufacture in the colonies of -goods that could be made in England; thereafter numerous Acts were passed -by Parliament having this end in view. - - Sidenotes: England's coercive commercial policy a cause of the Revolution. - -In brief, the mother-country regarded her American colonies merely as -feeders to her trade, consumers of her manufactures, and factories for the -distribution of her capital. Parliament never succeeded in satisfying the -greed of English merchants, while in America it was thought to be doing too -much. The constant irritation felt in the colonies over the gradual -application of commercial thumb-screws--turned at last beyond the point of -endurance--was one of the chief causes of the Revolution. Had it not been -that colonial ingenuity found frequent opportunities for evading these Acts -of Navigation and Trade, the final collision would doubtless have occurred -at a much earlier period. - - - 45. Social Life. - - Sidenote: Travel and roads. - -The system of agriculture throughout the South was vicious. Few crops so -soon exhaust the soil as tobacco; and as this staple was the main reliance -of the planters, it was usual to seek fresh fields as fast as needed, -leaving the old planting grounds to revert to wilderness. From this, as -well as from other causes already stated, the settlements became diffuse, -and great belts of forest often separated the holdings. The far-reaching -rivers were fringed with plantations, and the waterways were the paths of -commerce. The cross-country roads were very bad, often degenerating into -mere bridle-paths; there was little travel, and that largely restricted to -saddle or sulky,--the former preferred; for there were numerous streams to -ford or swim. It was not uncommon for travellers to lose their way and to -be obliged to pass the night in the thicket. Inns were few and wretched; -but the hospitality of the planters was unstinted, every respectable -wayfarer being joyfully welcomed as a guest to the manor-houses. - - Sidenote: Life at the plantations. - -Some glowing pictures of life in these "baronial halls," with their great -open fireplaces, rich furnishings imported from England, crowds of negro -lackeys, bounteous larders, and general air of crude splendor, have come -down to us in the journals of pre-Revolutionary travellers. But the wealth -of the large planters was more apparent than real. Their wasteful -agricultural and business methods fostered a speculative spirit, their -habits were reckless, their tastes expensive, and their hospitality -ruinous; they were generally steeped in debt, and bankruptcy was frequent. -The South Carolina planters, however, were more prosperous and independent -than those to the north of them. - - Sidenote: Education. - -The means of education were limited. Governor Berkeley, in his famous -report on the state of the Virginia colony (1670), said: "I thank God there -are no free schools, nor printing, and I hope we shall not have these -hundred years; for learning has brought disobedience into the world, and -printing has divulged them, and libels against the best of governments. God -keep us from both!" Berkeley told the truth. There were not only no free -schools, but scarcely any that were not free. Settlers were supposed to be -capable of teaching their own children all that it was necessary for them -to know. At the wealthiest homes tutors were kept, some of these being -younger sons of good families in England who had come to America in an -adventurous spirit, while now and then a freed servant who had seen better -days was employed in this capacity, as was, a little later, the case in the -family of the Washingtons; occasionally the parish clergyman, when fitted -for the task, instructed the youth of the district, and here and there a -young man was sent to England to take a collegiate course. The upper class -as a rule had but meagre scholastic training and few intellectual -recreations, the middle class had even a scantier mental equipment, while -the poor whites were densely ignorant. Berkeley's bluntly expressed -opposition to the education of the masses, as tending to foster political -and social independence, perhaps reflected the sentiments of the majority -of the ruling order. - - Sidenote: Religion. - -In Virginia there was manifested throughout the century an intolerant -spirit towards dissenters by both the ruling sects, Puritans and Churchmen. -Catholics and Quakers were persecuted, pilloried and fined; but the sturdy -Scotch-Irish Presbyterians made a bold stand, and were finally tolerated -after a fashion. In Pennsylvania and Maryland there was more religious -toleration than elsewhere in the colonies,--the Catholics were in political -control until the triumph of William and Mary, when the Protestants came to -the front and harassed the Catholics with exorbitant taxes. The turbulent -population of North Carolina paid little attention to religious matters -throughout the seventeenth century, although there were some flourishing -congregations. There was no settled Episcopal minister there until 1701, -and no church until 1702. The majority in South Carolina dissented from the -Church of England, the Puritan element holding political power, and it was -1681 before an Episcopal church was built in Charleston; the Huguenots were -not at first tolerated, but in 1697 all Protestant sects were guaranteed -equal rights. - - Sidenote: Crime. - -The negroes and the poor whites formed the criminal class,--a not -inconsiderable element in the Southern colonies. The pillory or stocks, -whipping post, and ducking-stool were maintained at every county seat, and -were familiar objects to all. Paupers, and indeed all persons receiving -public relief, were compelled to wear conspicuous badges. - - - 46. Political Life, and Conclusions. - - Sidenote: Political life. - -The colonists, like their brothers across sea, were eager politicians, and -their political methods were much the same as in the mother-country. -Attempts upon the part of England to regulate the raising and selling of -tobacco, in connection with the general policy of commercial and industrial -control, led to frequent quarrels with the home government, which were -harassing enough to the Americans, but served their purpose as a school of -legislative resistance. The gentlemen controlled colonial affairs, but -found efficient support in the middle class; to these two classes suffrage -was for the most part restricted. - - Sidenote: Administration. - -The political organization throughout the South was closely patterned after -that of England, the governor standing for the king, the council for the -House of Lords, and the assembly or house of burgesses for the Commons. -There were four sources of revenue: (1) quit-rents, payable to the king or -the proprietors; (2) export and port duties, for the benefit of the -provincial government; (3) any duties levied by and for the assembly; (4) -regular parish, county, and provincial levies. The last mentioned were -payable in tobacco, and the others as might be specified. The system of -taxation was simple, and was based chiefly on lands and negroes; it was -moderate in extent, but not always paid cheerfully,--in North Carolina, -especially, there was chronic objection to taxes in any form. - - Sidenote: Official rapacity. - -The salaries of the government officials were small; but the governor--who -was the executive officer, and might lawfully have ruled his little realm -in most despotic fashion, had not the assembly, as the holder of the -purse-strings, continually kept him in check--considered the salary a small -part of his income. By farming the quit-rents, taking fees for patenting -lands, and assessing office-holders, he reaped a rich harvest. Broken-down -court favorites considered an appointment to the colonies as governor a -means of retrieving fallen fortunes, and made little attempt to conceal -their sordid purpose. The members of the council were often admitted to a -share of the spoils, and official morality was much of the time in a low -condition. - - Sidenote: Summary. - -Thus we see that in the Southern colonies, in the year 1700, there were -three sharply-defined social grades among the whites,--the upper class, the -middle class, and the indented servants; with a caste still lower than the -lowest of these, the negro slaves. The status of the bondsmen, both white -and black, was morally and socially wretched, and from them sprang the -criminal class: the former were the basis of the "poor white trash," which -remains to-day a degenerating influence in the South. The presence of -degraded laborers made all labor dishonorable, and trade was held in -contempt by the country gentleman. The economic condition was bad, there -were practically no manufactures, the methods of the planters were -wasteful, there prevailed a wretched system of barter based on a -fluctuating crop, and finances were unsettled. The manners even of the -upper class were often coarse, while those of the lowest whites were not -seldom brutal. The people were clannish and narrow, having little -communication or sympathy with the outer world. Political power was for the -most part in the hands of the aristocratic planters, backed by the middle -class; the people at large exercised but slight control over public -affairs. Religion was at a low ebb, especially in the established church; -Bishop Meade says, "There was not only defective preaching, but, as might -be expected, most evil living among the clergy." The professions of law and -medicine were scarcely recognized. In looking back upon the life of the -Southern colonists at this time we cannot but consider their social, -economic, and moral condition as poor indeed; but it must be remembered -that there was latent in them a sturdy vitality; these men were of lusty -English stock, and when the crisis came, a half century later, they were of -the foremost in the ranks and the councils of the Revolution. - - - - - CHAPTER VI. - - THE COLONIZATION OF NEW ENGLAND. - (1620-1643). - - - 47. References. - - -Bibliographies.--Winsor, III. 244-256, 283-294; Larned, _Literature of -American History_, 72-92; Avery, II. 421-423; Andrews, _Colonial -Self-Government_, ch. xx.; Green, _Provincial America_, ch. xix.; M. -Wilson, _Reading List on Colonial New England_; Channing and Hart, _Guide_, -Secs. 109-123. - -Historical Maps.--No. 2, this volume (_Epoch Maps_, No. 2); Doyle, -_Colonies_, II.; MacCoun, Winsor, and school histories already cited. - -General Accounts.--J. Palfrey, _New England_, I. 47-268; Winsor, III. chs. -vii.-ix.; Doyle, II. chs. i.-vii.; Osgood, _Colonies_; Lodge, _Colonies_, -341-351, 373-375, 385-387, 397, 398; Avery, II. chs. v.-viii.; Andrews and -Greene, as above, _passim_; Channing, _United States_, I. ch. xiv.; B. -James, _New England_; G. Bancroft, I. 177-288; Hildreth, I. chs. vi., vii., -ix.; Fiske, _Beginnings of New England_, I. chs. i.-iii.; Eggleston, -_Beginners of a Nation_; L. Mathews, _Expansion of New England_, chs. -i.-iii. - -Special Histories.--Ellis, _Puritan Age and Rule_; E. Byington, _Puritans -in England and New England_, and _Puritan as Colonist and Reformer_; D. -Campbell, _Puritan in Holland, England, and America_; M. Dexter, _Story of -the Pilgrims_; J. Brown, _Pilgrim Fathers_; W. Cockshott, _Pilgrim -Fathers_; F. Noble, _Pilgrims_; J. Goodwin, _Pilgrim Republic_; D. Howe, -_Puritan Republic_.--Massachusetts: W. Northend, _Bay Colony_; B. Adams, -_Emancipation of Massachusetts_; C. F. Adams, _Three Episodes of -Massachusetts History_; Winsor, _Memorial History of Boston_; H. Lodge, -_Boston_.--Connecticut: C. Levermore, _Republic of New Haven_; E. Atwater, -_New Haven Colony_; Andrews, _River Towns of Connecticut_; C. Orr, _Pequot -War_; state histories by Johnston (Commonwealths), Trumbull, and -Morgan.--Rhode Island: I. Richman, _Rhode Island: its Making and its -Meaning_; Arnold, Field, and Richman (Commonwealths).--New Hampshire: -Belknap and Sanborn (Commonwealths).--Maine: Williamson. - -Contemporary Accounts.--Morton, _New England's Memorial_ (1669); Bradford, -_Plymouth Plantation_; Winthrop, _New England_; Johnson, _Wonder-Working -Providence_; Wood, _New England's Prospect_; _New England's First-Fruits_; -Shepard, _Autobiography_.--Reprints: Force, _Tracts_; Arber, _Pilgrim -Colonists_; Young, _Chronicles of Pilgrim Fathers_, and _Chronicles of -Massachusetts_; Jameson, _Original Narratives_; _American History told by -Contemporaries_, I. part v.; and the many publications of colonial and town -record commissions, state and local historical and antiquarian societies, -Prince Society, Gorges Society, etc. - - - 48. The New England Colonists. - - Sidenote: The Popham colony. - -It will be remembered that the commercial company chartered by King James -I. (1606) to colonize Virginia, as all of English America was then styled, -consisted of two divisions,--the London (or South Virginia) Company, and -the Plymouth (or North Virginia) Company. We have seen how the London -Company planted a settlement at Jamestown, and what came of it. The -Plymouth Company was not at first so successful. In 1607, the same year -that Jamestown was founded, the Plymouth people--urged thereto by two of -their members, Sir Ferdinando Gorges, governor of the port of Plymouth, and -Sir John Popham, chief-justice of England--sent out a party of one hundred -and twenty colonists to the mouth of the Kennebec, headed by George Popham, -brother of Sir John; but the following winter was exceptionally severe, -many died, among them Popham, and the survivors were glad of an opportunity -to get back to England (1608). - - Sidenote: Smith's voyage to New England. - -In 1614 John Smith, after five years of quiet life in England, made a -voyage to North Virginia as the agent and partner of some London merchants, -and returned with a profitable cargo of fish and furs. The most notable -result of his voyage, however, was the fact that he gave the title of New -England to the northern coast, and upon many of the harbors he discovered, -Prince Charles bestowed names of English seaports. During the next -half-dozen years there were several voyages of exploration to New England, -its fisheries became important, and some detailed knowledge of the coast -was obtained; but its colonization was not advanced. - - Sidenote: The new Plymouth charter (1620). - -Chief among the patrons of these enterprises was Sir Ferdinando Gorges. In -1620 Gorges and his associates secured a new and independent charter for -the Plymouth Company, usually known as the Council for New England, wherein -that corporation was granted the country between the fortieth and -forty-eighth degrees of latitude,--from about Long Branch, N. J., to the -Bay of Chaleurs. The region received in this charter the name which Smith -had bestowed upon it,--New England. To the company, consisting of forty -patentees, was given the monopoly of trade within the grant, and its income -was to be derived from the letting or selling of its exclusive rights to -individual or corporate adventurers. It had power, also, both to establish -and to govern colonies. But the enterprise lacked capital and popular -support. Virginia, founded as an outlet for victims of economic distress in -England, appeared to absorb all those who cared to devote either money or -energy to the planting of America. The reorganized Plymouth Company would -doubtless have waited many years for settlements upon its lands, had not -aid come from an unexpected source. - - Sidenote: Religious groups in England. - -The persecution of a religious sect led to the permanent planting of New -England. The English Protestants under Elizabeth may be roughly divided -into several groups: (1) The great majority of the people, including most -of the rich and titled, adhered to the Church of England; as the -"establishment," or State religion, it retained much of the Catholic ritual -and creed, but with many important omissions and modifications. (2) Besides -the Catholics, few and oppressed, there was a distinct class who wished to -stay the progress of the Reformation and more closely to follow Rome. (3) -The Puritans sought to alter the forms of the church in the other -direction, but they were themselves divided into two camps: (_a_) the -conformists, who would go further than the establishment in purifying the -State religion and in rejecting Romish forms, yet were content to remain -and attempt their reforms within the folds of the Church; and (_b_) the -dissenters, who had withdrawn from the Church of England and would have no -communion with it. The dissenters were themselves divided: (1) there were -those who wished to be ruled by elders, on the Presbyterian plan, such as -had been introduced by Calvin and his followers in Switzerland and France, -by Zwingli in Switzerland and Germany, and by John Knox in Scotland; then -there were (2) the Independents, or Separatists, who would have each -congregation self-governing in religious affairs,--a system in vogue in -some parts of Germany. "Seeing they could not have the Word freely -preached, and the sacraments administered without idolatrous gear, they -concluded to break off from public churches, and _separate_ in private -houses." Sometimes the Separatists were called Brownists, after one of -their prominent teachers, Robert Browne. The Presbyterians and Independents -were alike few in number in Elizabeth's time; but as the result of -persecution under James I., and the impossibility of obtaining concessions -to the demand for reform, these sects steadily gained strength. The -Independents in particular were harshly treated, so that many fled to -Holland, where there was religious toleration for all; and from this branch -of the Separatists came the Pilgrims, who first colonized New England. - - - 49. Plymouth colonized (1620-1621). - - Sidenotes: The Scrooby congregation. - - The Independents in Holland. - -Among those who thus departed to a strange land, to dwell among a people -with habits and speech foreign to theirs, were about one hundred yeomen and -artisans, members of the Independent congregation at Scrooby, a village on -the border between Yorkshire and Nottinghamshire. Headed by their wise and -excellent minister, John Robinson, and the ruling elder of the church, -William Brewster, the party first settled at Amsterdam (1608), but early -the following year moved to Leyden. Here, joined by many other refugees, -they lived for ten years, laboring in whatever capacities they could obtain -employment. - -They lived peacefully enough in Holland, free from religious restraints, -but remained Englishmen at heart; they saw with dissatisfaction, as the -years went on, that there was no chance for material improvement in Leyden, -and that their children were being made foreigners. After long deliberation -they resolved to emigrate again, this time to America, far removed from -their old persecutors, and there in the wilderness to rear a New England, -where they might live under English laws, speak their native tongue, train -their children in English thought and habits, establish godly ways, and -perchance better their temporal condition. Mingled with these aspirations -was a desire to lay "some good foundation, or at least make some way -thereunto, for ye propagating & advancing ye gospell of ye kingdom of -Christ in those remote parts of ye world; yea, though they should be but -even as stepping-stones unto others for ye performing of so great a work." - - Sidenote: Emigration to America. - -Obtaining a grant of land from the London (South Virginia) Company, and a -promise from the king that they should not be disturbed in their proposed -colony if they behaved properly, the emigrants sailed from Leyden to -Southampton, where they were to take passage for the New World. These -Pilgrims, as they styled themselves, were about one hundred in number, and -under the excellent guidance of Brewster, Robinson remaining behind with -the majority of the congregation, who had decided to await the result of -the experiment. - -Possessing little beyond their capacity to labor, the Pilgrims had found it -necessary to make the best bargain possible with a number of London -capitalists for transportation and supplies. A stock partnership was -formed, with shares at ten pounds each, each emigrant being deemed -equivalent to a certain amount of cash subscription; all over sixteen years -of age were counted as equal to one share, and a sliding scale covered the -cases of children and those who furnished themselves with supplies. All -except those so provided drew necessaries from the common stock. There was -to be a community of trade, property, and labor for seven years, at the end -of which time the corporation was to disband, and the assets were to be -distributed among the shareholders. The entire capital stock at the -beginning was seven thousand pounds, from a quarter to a fifth of this -being represented by the persons of the emigrants. The London partners sent -out several laborers on their account. - - Sidenote: The landing. - -The voyage of the "Mayflower" is one of the most familiar events in -American history. Its companion vessel, the "Speedwell," was obliged to -return to England because of an accident, and thus several of the original -company remained behind. The adventurers first saw land on the ninth of -November; it was the low, sandy spit of Cape Cod. Their purpose had been to -settle in the domain of the South Virginia Company, somewhere between the -Hudson and the Delaware; but fate happily willed otherwise. The captain, -thought to be in the pay of the Dutch, who were trading on the Hudson, -professed to be unable to proceed farther southward because of contrary -winds. After beating up and down the bay between the cape and the mainland, -and exploring the coast here and there, the Pilgrims landed at a spot "fit -for situation" (Dec. 22, 1620). - - Sidenote: The social compact. - -With true English instinct for combination against unruly elements, the -Pilgrims had (November 11), while lying off Cape Cod, formed themselves -into a body politic under a social compact. This notable document read as -follows: "We whose names are under-writen, the loyall subjects of our dread -soveraigne Lord, King James, by ye grace of God of Great Britaine, Franc, & -Ireland king, defender of ye faith, &c., haveing undertaken, for ye glorie -of God and advancemente of ye Christian faith, and honour of our king and -countrie, a voyage to plant ye first colonie in ye Northerne parts of -Virginia, doe by these presents solemnly and mutualy in ye presence of God, -and one of another, covenant and combine ourselves togeather into a civill -body politick, for our better ordering and preservation and furtherance of -ye ends aforesaid; and _by vertue hearof_ to enacte, constitute, and frame -such just and equall lawes, ordinances, acts, constitutions, and offices, -from time to time, as shall be thought most meete and convenient for ye -generall good of ye Colonie, unto which we promise all due submission and -obedience." - -The compact was signed by the adult males of the company, forty-one in -number, only twelve of whom bore the title of "Master," or "Mr.,"--then of -some significance. They elected Deacon John Carver as their first governor, -styled the place where they landed Plymouth, and entered upon the serious -business of building New England. - - Sidenote: The first winter. - -An exceptionally mild winter had opened, yet it was with difficulty that -they could provide adequate shelter for themselves, much less secure -comfortable quarters. The stock of food they had brought with them soon -failed, and what was left was not wholesome; in consequence of hunger and -exposure, sickness ensued, and about one half of the company died. Among -those who succumbed was Governor Carver; in his place was chosen William -Bradford, who held the office for twelve years, was the historian of the -colony, and until his death (1657) the leading man among his people. Those -who survived this terrible ordeal were so few and feeble that under -ordinary conditions the Indians could readily have massacred them. But -owing to a pestilence which, a few years before, had wasted the New England -coast tribes, it was many years before the aborigines were strong enough -seriously to annoy the Plymouth colonists. - - Sidenote: Persistence amid adversity. - -Had the Pilgrims been ordinary colonists, they would no doubt have -abandoned their settlement and returned in the vessel that brought them. -But they were of sterner stuff than the men who succumbed to less hardship -at Roanoke and on the Kennebec, and their religious conviction nerved them -to a grim task which they believed to be God-given. It was not for -faint-hearts to found a new Canaan. - -In November, 1621, fifty more of the Leyden congregation came out. By this -time the people of Plymouth had, amid many sore trials, erected log-houses -enough for their use, built a rude fort on the hill overlooking the -settlement, made a clearing of twenty-six acres, and had laid by enough -provisions and fuel for the winter. But the addition to the number of -mouths materially decreased the _per capita_ allotment of rations. - - Sidenote: Patent from the Plymouth Company. - -The Pilgrims having settled upon land for which they had no grant, it had -become necessary for the London adventurers, who backed the enterprise, to -secure a patent from the reorganized Plymouth Company. That company was -working under a charter from the king as the feudal lord, giving it -privileges of settlement, trade, and government; rights to colonize and -trade, it was authorized to parcel out to others, in the form of patents, -and a document of this character was issued to the adventurers in May, -1621. - - - 50. Development of Plymouth (1621-1691). - - Sidenote: The industrial system. - -The industrial system inaugurated at Plymouth was, like that adopted for -Jamestown, pure communism. The governor and assistants organized the -settlers into a working band, all produce going into a common stock, from -which the wants of the people were first supplied: the surplus to be the -profit of the corporation. As in the case of Jamestown, the London partners -were not pleased with the results of the speculation, and in harshly -expressing their dissatisfaction soon fell into a wordy dispute with the -colonists. - - Sidenote: Dissatisfaction of the London partners. - -Thirty-five new settlers came out in the autumn of 1622, and thereafter -nearly every year brought increase in the number; but the partners failed -to ship supplies with the new-comers, deeming it proper that the colony -should be self-supporting; and this neglect still further strained existing -relations. - - Sidenote: Communal system partially abandoned. - -In 1624 the communal system was partially abandoned, each freeman being -allowed one acre as a permanent holding. This land was to be as close to -the town as possible; for the climatic conditions, the necessity for -protection against Indians, and the desire for ease of assemblage at -worship, made it important that the settlement should be compact,--in sharp -distinction to the scattered river-side plantations of the South. In 1627 -each household was granted twenty acres as a private allotment; but for -many years there existed as well a system of common tillage and pasturage -similar to that with which the colonists were familiar in the English -villages. About the same time (1627) the colonists purchased the interest -of their London partners for eighteen hundred pounds, and became wholly -independent of dictation from England. - - Sidenote: The Pilgrims obtain sole control. - -Up to this time many of the new colonists were sent or selected by the -London shareholders, and were not always congenial to the Pilgrims. It now -rested with them to invite whom they might; and as a result many of their -faith from England were brought over. In 1643 there were three thousand -inhabitants in the eight distinct towns comprising Plymouth colony; there -were also several independent trading and fishing stations along the coast -established under the auspices of the Plymouth Company. The colony was -beyond the danger of abandonment. - -The early history of Plymouth is a story full of painful details of -suffering. It was a long time before the people became inured to the -rigorous climate; the tedious winters were often seasons of much hardship -and privation. The life they led was toilsome, but they bore up under it -bravely. - - Sidenotes: Relations with the Indians. - - Relations with white neighbors. - -The original colonists were kind and considerate to the aborigines, and for -many years were the firm friends and allies of Massasoit, head chief of the -Pokanokets, whose lands they had occupied. Whites were not always as -comfortable neighbors as the savages. Thomas Weston, one of the London -partners, sent out (1622) an independent colony of seventy men to -Wessaugusset, about twenty-five miles north of Plymouth. They were an idle, -riotous set, and after making serious trouble with the Indians, a year or -two later returned to England. In 1623, Robert Gorges, son of Ferdinando, -was appointed governor-general of the country by the Council for New -England, and in person attempted to form a colony upon land patented to him -"on the northeast side of Massachusetts Bay," but soon abandoned his -enterprise and returned home. In 1625, Captain Wollaston appeared with a -number of indented white servants and started a colony on the site of the -Quincy of to-day. But this form of slave labor not being suited to the -democratic conditions of New England life, Wollaston took his servants to -the more congenial climate of Virginia, and his plant was taken possession -of by his partner, Thomas Morton, who styled the settlement Merrymount. -Morton was much disliked by the Puritans, who were scandalized at his -free-and-easy habits, regarded the apparently innocent sports in which he -encouraged his people as "beastly practices," and charged him with the -really serious offence of selling rum and firearms to the natives. The -Plymouth militia dispersed the merrymakers and sent Morton to England -(1628). - -Several Church of England men, representatives of Robert Gorges,--who had a -patent for a strip of territory ten miles coastwise and thirty miles -inland,--had come out in 1623, among them William Blackstone, settling on -Shawmut peninsula, now Boston, Thomas Walford at Charlestown, and Samuel -Maverick at Chelsea. Blackstone afterwards vacated his peninsula in favor -of the Puritans of Charlestown. Maverick, in his palisaded fort, was a man -of importance, and afterwards a royal commissioner to the colonies. There -was also a small trading station at the mouth of the Piscataqua, and -another at Nantasket, with here and there an individual plantation. With -most of these the Plymouth people had business relations, but little else -in common. - - Sidenote: Form of government. - -Plymouth was at first governed in primary assembly with a governor and -assistants elected by popular vote. As the colony grew and new towns were -organized by compact bodies of people detaching themselves from the parent -settlement, it became inconvenient for all of the people frequently to -assemble in Plymouth. The representative system was adopted in 1638, each -township sending two delegates to an administrative body called the General -Court, in which the governor and assistants also sat. It was some years -later before the General Court was given law-making powers, this privilege -being retained by the whole body of freemen. For sixteen years the laws of -England were in vogue, but in 1636 a code of simple regulations was -adopted, more especially suited to the community. The assistants, with the -aid of the jury, tried cases as well as aided the governor in the conduct -of public affairs. Purely local matters were managed by primary assemblies -in the several towns, and petty cases were tried by town magistrates. - - Sidenote: Characteristics of Plymouth. - -Many features of American government and character may be readily traced to -the influence of Plymouth. It was the first permanent colony in New -England; it had become well established before another was planted, and -therefore served in some sense as a model for its successors. It was a -community of Independents acting without a charter, working out their own -career practically free from royal supervision or veto, and with an -elective governor and council. The Plymouth people were closely knit: their -struggle for existence had been hard, and it had taught them the value of -solidarity; they set the example of a compact religious brotherhood; they -were good traders, cultivated peace with the Indian tribes, and advanced -their towns only so fast as they needed room for growth and could hold and -cultivate the land. In many respects Plymouth may be regarded as a modern -American State in embryo. - - Sidenote: Futile effort to obtain a charter. - -Three several times (1618, 1676-77, and 1690-91) the colony endeavored, as -a measure of self-defence, to obtain a charter from the Crown; but failed -in each application,--at first through the influence of the prelates, and -afterwards because of the jealousy of its neighbors. Finally, in 1691, -Plymouth was incorporated with Massachusetts and lost its identity. - - - 51. Massachusetts founded (1630). - - Sidenote: Boundary disputes. - -The Plymouth Company did business in a rather haphazard Way. Land-grants -were freely made to all manner of speculators, many of them members of the -corporation, with little or no regard to the geography of New England. -These grants were dealt out to third parties, often with a lordly -indifference to previous patents. The result was that holdings frequently -overlapped each other, giving rise to boundary quarrels which lasted -through several generations of claimants. - - Sidenote: Settlement at Cape Ann. - -In 1623, an association of merchants in Dorchester, England, sent out a -party to form a colony near the mouth of the Kennebec, where they had -fishing interests. The master, however, landed his men at Cape Ann, in -Massachusetts Bay, the site of the present Gloucester. Roger Conant, who, -withdrawing from Plymouth "out of dislike of their principles of rigid -separation," had made an independent settlement at Cape Ann, was appointed -local manager for the Dorchester merchants. In 1626 the merchants abandoned -their colony as unprofitable, most of the settlers returning to England; -and Conant led those remaining to Salem, then called Naumkeag. - - Sidenote: White's scheme. - -John White, a conforming Puritan rector at Dorchester, determined to make -this settlement of Dorchester men a success. To the settlers at Naumkeag he -sent urgent advice to stay, while at home he set on foot a movement which -resulted in a definite scheme of colonization. The arbitrary policy of -Charles I. towards dissenters had greatly alarmed the Puritans, and White's -plan of "raising a bulwark against the kingdom of Antichrist" in America -had the support of many wealthy and influential men. - - Sidenote: The Massachusetts land grant. - -In 1628, six persons, heading the movement, obtained from the Plymouth -Company a patent for a strip about sixty miles wide along the coast,--from -three miles south of Charles River to three miles north of the Merrimack, -and westward to the Pacific Ocean, which in those days was thought to be -not much farther away than the river discovered by Hendrik Hudson in 1609. -This patent conflicted with grants already issued (1622 and 1623) to Sir -Ferdinando Gorges, his son Robert, and John Mason, of whom we shall hear -later on. - - Sidenote: The first charter (1628). - -In September, 1628, John Endicott, gentleman, one of the patentees, arrived -at Salem with sixty persons, to reinforce the colony already there, and -supersede Conant. The following spring, the patentees being organized as a -trading company, the king granted them a charter styling the corporation -the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England; their -only relationship to the Plymouth Company was now that of purchasers of a -tract of the latter's land. - - Sidenote: Form of government. - -Under this trading charter the whole body of freemen, or members of the -company, was to elect annually a governor, a deputy-governor, and eighteen -assistants, who were to meet monthly to perform such public duties as might -be imposed upon them by the quarterly meeting of the company, or "Quarter -Court." There was also to be an annual meeting, known as "General Court," -or "Court of Elections." Laws were to be adopted by the general assembly of -"freemen,"--that is, of stockholders,--not contrary to the established laws -of England. Endicott was continued as governor of the colony, which was at -once recruited by three hundred and eighty men and women of the better -grade of colonizing material. - - Sidenote: Religious aspirations. - -Although the company was chartered as a trading corporation, its principal -object was not gain, but to found a religious commonwealth. It was composed -of men of rare ability and tact, as well as of consummate courage. Among -them were members of parliament, diplomats, state officials, and some of -the brightest and most liberal-minded clergymen in England. The church -which they set up in Salem was not at first avowedly Separatist, like that -of Plymouth; it was simply a purified English church, with a system of -faith and discipline such as they had long insisted upon in the ranks of -the mother-church. But under the circumstances this purified church was as -independent in its character as the professedly Separatist congregations of -Plymouth; and it was not long, as one step led to another, and persecution -hurried them on, before the Massachusetts Puritans were, like their -brethren in England, full-fledged Independents. - - Sidenotes: The company moves to America. - - Character of the founders. - -Soon there was taken the most important step of all. The Massachusetts -company, in the desire for still greater independence, removed its seat of -government to the colony, thus boldly transforming itself, without legal -sanction, from an English trading company into an American colonial -government. In April, 1630, eleven vessels went out to Massachusetts Bay, -with a large company of English reformers; and during the year there -crossed over to America not less than a thousand English men and women who -had found the arbitrary rule of Charles quite unbearable. John Winthrop, a -wealthy Suffolk gentleman forty-two years of age, and one of the strongest -and most lovable characters in American history, was the first governor -under the new arrangement. Thomas Dudley, the deputy, was a stern and -uncompromising Puritan, cold and narrow-minded. Francis Higginson, the -first teacher, who had come over with Endicott, but died in 1630, was a -Cambridge alumnus who had lost his church in Leicestershire because of -nonconformity. Skelton, the pastor, was also a Cambridge man. - - - 52. Government of Massachusetts (1630-1634). - - Sidenote: Salem divides. - -There were now too many people assembled at the port of Salem for the -supply of food, and sickness and hunger prevailed to such an alarming -degree that many died in consequence. It became necessary to divide, and -independent congregations were established, on the Salem model, at -Charlestown, Cambridge, Watertown, Roxbury, and later at Boston, which soon -became the capital of the colony (September, 1630). Morton, who had -returned to Merrymount, was again driven from the country; Sir Christopher -Gardiner, a disturbing element among the settlers, was obliged to withdraw -to the Piscataqua: the Puritans now held Massachusetts Bay, and brooked no -rival claimants. In establishing this commonwealth in America, the Puritan -founders were determined to have things their own way. - - Sidenote: The theocracy established. - -It was early decided by the General Court (1631) that none but church -members should be admitted as freemen. Four times a year the freemen were -to meet in quarter court, and with them the governor, his deputy, and the -assistants. But, as in Plymouth, it was found after a time that the towns -and the freemen had so multiplied that this primary assemblage became -inconvenient. In 1630 the assistants were given the power to elect the -governor and deputy governor, and also to make laws. Then it came about -that in certain cases the control of the colony was in the hands of only -five of the assistants, which made the government almost oligarchical. The -cap-sheaf was applied when (1631) it was ordered that the assistants were -to hold office so long as the freemen did not remove them. - - Sidenote: The Watertown protest. - -That same year, however, came a vigorous protest against this autocratic -rule. The Watertown freemen declined to pay a tax of L60, levied by the -assistants for fortifications built at Cambridge. It was argued that a -people who submitted to taxation without representation were in danger of -"bringing themselves and posterity into bondage." The next General Court -accepted this plea as valid, and a House of Representatives was inaugurated -on the plan of the English Commons, each town sending two deputies, and the -governor and assistants sitting as members. - - Sidenote: The representative system established. - -For a time the freemen resumed the right of election of governor and -deputy-governor, but soon handed this duty over to the representatives. -Voting by ballot was introduced in 1634, and the freemen, who had become -annoyed at threats from England of interference with their charter, -asserted their independence of the official class by rebuking the -assistants, turning Winthrop out of office, electing Dudley as governor, -making new rules for the election of deputies, providing for an oath of -allegiance to the colony, and placing their representative system on an -enduring foundation. Ten years later (1644), as the result of a quarrel -between the assistants and the deputies, growing out of a petty civil suit -over a lost pig, the colonial parliament became bicameral, the assistants -forming one house, and the deputies the other. - - Sidenote: Aristocratic propositions rejected. - -There had been a healthy renewal of immigration to Massachusetts in 1633 -because of increased harshness towards Puritans in England, and a number of -strong men,--such as Sir Henry Vane and Hugh Peter,--destined to play no -inconsiderable part in the history of America and England, were among the -new arrivals. There were other Puritans higher in the social scale who -would have liked to come,--such as Lord Say and Sele, and Lord Brook; but -their proposition (1636) that an hereditary order of nobility be -established in the province, did not meet with popular favor; a desire to -be free from such distinctions was one of the causes which had impelled -thousands to flee to America. A little later (1638) the freemen put down -another attempt at aristocratic rule,--a movement looking to the -establishment of a permanent council, whose members were to hold for life -or until removed for cause. - - - 53. Internal Dissensions in Massachusetts (1634-1637). - - Sidenote: Condition of the colony (1634). - -In 1634 the colony, now firmly planted with free English institutions in -full force, contained about four thousand inhabitants, resident in sixteen -towns. The old log-houses of the first settlers were gradually giving way -to commodious frame structures with gambrel roofs and generous gables. The -fields were being fenced, roads laid out between the towns, and -watercourses bridged; and the farms were beginning to take on an air of -prosperity. Goats, cattle, and swine abounded. Adventurous trading -skippers, often in home-made boats, had cautiously worked their way through -Long Island Sound as far as the Dutch settlements at New York, and up the -coast to the Piscataqua, doing a small business by barter. Salt fish, furs, -and lumber were exported to England, the vessels bringing back manufactured -articles; for as yet the industries of New England were few and crude. - - Sidenote: Harvard College founded. - -The Massachusetts colonists were for the most part middle-class Englishmen, -and education was general among them. Many were graduates of Cambridge, and -the clergymen had, as conscientious Reformers seeing no hope of improvement -in the English Church, abandoned comfortable livings at home to take charge -of rude Independent meeting-houses in America. In 1636, an appropriation of -L400--a very large sum, considering the means of the province--was made by -the General Court to found a college at Cambridge, that "the light of -learning might not go out, nor the study of God's Word perish." Two years -later (1638) the Rev. John Harvard, a graduate of Emmanuel College, who had -come out in 1637, dying, left his library and a legacy of L800 to the new -institution of learning, "towards the erecting of a college;" and the Court -decreed that it should bear his name. For two centuries the college -continued to receive grants from the commonwealth. - - Sidenote: Malcontents make trouble. - -While the colonists were thus bravely making progress in laying the -foundations of liberal institutions in America, there were troubles brewing -both at home and abroad. The uncongenial spirits whom they had driven from -Massachusetts Bay made complaints in England of the ill-treatment they had -received, and carried to Archbishop Laud and other members of the Privy -Council reports that the Puritans were setting up in America a practically -independent state and church. As an immediate consequence, emigrants, early -in 1634, were not permitted to go to New England without taking the royal -oath of allegiance and promising to conform to the Book of Common Prayer. - - Sidenote: Attack on the charter. - -In April a royal commission of twelve persons was appointed, ostensibly to -take charge of all the American colonies, secure conformity, and even to -revoke charters; but it was well understood that Massachusetts was -especially aimed at. The Massachusetts people were speedily ordered to lay -their charter before the Privy Council. Their answer, however, was -withheld, pending prayerful consideration. Meanwhile Dorchester, -Charlestown, and Castle Island were fortified; a military commission was -set to work to collect and store arms; militiamen were drilled; -arrangements were made on Beacon Hill, in Boston, for signalling the -inhabitants of the interior in case of an attack; the people were ordered -on pain of death, in the event of war, to obey the military authorities, -and no longer to swear allegiance to the Crown, but to the colony of -Massachusetts. - - Sidenote: The charter annulled. - -But the men of the colony were politic as well as pugnacious, and -despatched Winslow to England to make peace with the authorities. While he -was in London, in February, 1635, the Plymouth Company surrendered its -charter to the king, with the condition that the latter should annul all -existing titles in New England, and partition the country in severalty -among the members of the Plymouth council. In accordance with this -arrangement, a writ of _quo warranto_ was issued against the Massachusetts -charter, it was declared null and void, and Gorges was authorized to be -viceregal governor of New England. - - Sidenote: Judgment suspended. - -Winslow was imprisoned in England for four months for having broken the -ecclesiastical law in celebrating marriages in the Plymouth colony, but -upon his release did good diplomatic work and neutralized much of the -opposition. Meanwhile, another and stricter order was sent out to the -Massachusetts Company to surrender its charter. This again was met by -silence and renewed military preparations. English Puritans were at this -time attempting to leave for America in great numbers, on account of acts -of royal tyranny. The difficulty with the Scotch Church ensued, and by 1640 -the Long Parliament was in session. In the excitement occasioned by the -Puritan rising in the mother-land, the day of punishment for Massachusetts -was postponed. - - - 54. Religious Troubles in Massachusetts (1636-1638). - - Sidenote: Roger Williams. - -The opposition at home, occasioned by differences in religious belief, was -not, however, so easily thrust aside. Roger Williams, an able and learned, -but bigoted young Welshman, a graduate from Pembroke College, Cambridge, -came out to Plymouth in 1631. His tongue was too bold to suit the English -ecclesiastical authorities, and to gain peace he had been obliged to depart -for the colonies. In 1633 he went to Salem, where he became pastor of the -church. Williams was fond of abstruse metaphysical discussion, and he was -an extremist in thought, speech, and action; but while his arguments were -phrased in such manner as often to make it difficult for us to understand -him, the views he held were in the main what we style modern. He opposed -the union of church and state, such as obtained in Massachusetts, where -political power was exercised only by members of the congregation; he was -opposed to enforced attendance on church, and would have done away with all -contributions for religious purposes which were not purely voluntary. Such -doctrines were, however, held to be dangerous to the commonwealth; and -indeed expression of them would not at that time have been permitted in -England nor in many parts of Continental Europe. But this was not all. -Williams in a pamphlet pronounced it as his solemn judgment that the king -was an intruder, and had no right to grant American lands to the colonists; -that honest patents could only be procured from the Indians by purchase; -and that all existing titles were therefore invalid. This was deemed -downright treason, which he was compelled by the magistrates to recant. At -Salem, Endicott, who was one of his disciples, became so heated under his -pastor's teachings that, in token of his hatred of the symbols of Rome, he -cut the cross of St. George from the English ensign. The General Court, -greatly alarmed lest these proceedings should anger the king, reprimanded -Endicott; and, because of his "divers new and dangerous opinions," ordered -Williams (January, 1636) to return to England. The latter escaped, and -passed the winter in missionary service among the Indians. In the spring, -privately aided by the lenient Winthrop, the troublesome agitator passed -south, with five of his followers, to Narragansett Bay, and there -established Providence Plantation. - - Sidenote: Anne Hutchinson and the Antinomians. - -Mrs. Anne Hutchinson arrived in Boston from England in the autumn of 1634. -She was a woman of brilliant parts, but impetuous and indiscreet, and by -instinct an agitator. Her religious views are described by Winthrop as -containing "two dangerous errors,--first, that the person of the Holy Ghost -dwells in a justified person; second, that no sanctification can help to -evidence to us our justification." This is cloudy to a modern layman. The -theory is styled Antinomian by its enemies, and was substantially as -follows: Any person in a "state of grace" or "justification" is at the same -time "sanctified;" since he is both justified and sanctified, the person of -the Holy Ghost dwells in his heart, and his acts cannot in the nature of -things partake of sin: therefore he need have no great concern about the -outward aspect of his works. This doctrine was contrary to that entertained -by the Puritans, who believed that a person must be first justified by -faith, and then sanctified by works. They thought the Antinomian dogma open -to pernicious interpretation, and not conducive to the welfare of society. -Its advocacy threw Boston into a great ferment. - -Mrs. Hutchinson soon had a large following, among whom were Wheelwright, -John Cotton, and Thomas Hooker, of the ministers; while among laymen who -were well inclined towards her doctrine was the younger Henry Vane, then -governor of the colony, who was in later years to become prominent as one -of the leaders in the English Commonwealth. In the conditions then existing -in Massachusetts Mrs. Hutchinson's teachings were considered dangerous to -the State; they opposed the authority of the ecclesiastical rulers, and -this tended to breed civil dissension. One of her supporters, Greensmith, -was fined L40 by the General Court (March, 1637) for publicly declaring -that all the preachers except Cotton, Wheelwright, and Thomas Hooker taught -a covenant of works instead of a covenant of grace, the difference between -which, the layman Winthrop said, "no man could tell, except some few who -knew the bottom of the matter." At the same time Wheelwright was found -guilty of sedition because in a sermon he had counselled his hearers to -fight for their liberties, but with weapons spiritual, not carnal. When the -Boston church supported their minister, the Court responded by voting to -hold its next meeting at Newtown (Cambridge), where it might deliberate -amid quieter surroundings than at Boston. - -When the Court of Election met at Newtown (May, 1637), Vane and his friends -were, in the course of a tumultuous session, dropped out of the government, -Winthrop was again chosen governor, and the uncompromising heretic-hater -Dudley deputy-governor. Vane departed for England in disgust, never to -return. For a time it seemed as if peace had come under the politic -Winthrop, and the Hutchinsonians gave evidences of a desire to compromise. -In a few months, however, the Court re-opened the whole controversy by -legislating against all new-comers who were tainted with heresy. The old -warfare broke out again. The charges of sedition against Wheelwright were -renewed, he was banished, and fled, with a few adherents, to the -Piscataqua. - - Sidenote: Mrs. Hutchinson banished. - -Mrs. Hutchinson was placed on trial (November, 1637) and commanded to leave -the colony, which she did in March following, and went to Rhode Island. -Seventy-six of her followers were disarmed, some were disfranchised, others -fined, and still others "desired and obtained license to remove themselves -and their families out of the jurisdiction." Quiet once more prevailed. -Wheelwright recanted after a time, and was permitted to resume his -habitation in Boston; and many others of the disaffected were finally -restored to citizenship. - - Sidenote: The policy of repression successful. - -The little commonwealth had been shaken to its foundations by a controversy -which to-day---when religion and politics are separated, to the advantage -of both--would be considered of small moment even in one of our rural -villages; but the State and the Church were one in the colony of -Massachusetts, and ecclesiastical contumacy was political contumacy as -well. Under such conditions there could safely be neither liberty of -opinion nor of speech; the welfare of a government thus constituted lay in -stern repression. The suppression and banishment of Roger Williams and Mrs. -Hutchinson were eminently successful in restoring order and public -security, in the train of which came increased immigration and greater -prosperity. - - - 55. Indian Wars (1635-1637). - - Sidenote: The Dutch at Hartford. - -While these things were going on in Boston and Newtown, warfare of another -sort was in progress to the south. In 1635 residents of Massachusetts made -a settlement on the Connecticut river, on the site of Windsor, above the -Dutch fort at Hartford; and later in the same year another party, under -John Winthrop the younger, built Saybrook, at the mouth of the stream. -These Connecticut settlements formed an outpost in the heart of the Indian -country, and trouble was inevitable. - - Sidenote: The Pequod war. - -At last the attitude of the Pequods, the tribe occupying the lower portion -of the Connecticut valley, became unbearable; they interfered with -immigrants going overland, and rendered trade by sea dangerous. They -endeavored to enlist the sympathy of the Narragansetts in their forays. -Could these tribes have formed a coalition, it seems likely that the New -England colonists, then few and weak, must have been driven into the sea. -Roger Williams, bearing no malice towards his old enemies in Massachusetts, -averted this calamity. As the result of great exertions on his part, the -Narragansetts were induced to disregard the overtures of their old enemies, -the Pequods, and the Connecticut Indians went alone upon the war-path. They -made life a burden to the settlers in the little towns of Saybrook, -Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield. An appeal for aid went up from the -colonists in the Connecticut valley to Massachusetts and Plymouth, and was -promptly answered. - - Sidenote: The Pequods crushed. - -In the little intercolonial army of some three hundred men, Captains John -Mason of Windsor and John Underhill of Massachusetts were the leading -figures. The Pequods were surprised in their chief town (May 20, 1637), the -walls of which were burned by the whites, while volleys of musketry were -poured into the crowd of savages, who huddled together in great fear. Says -Underhill, "It is reported by themselves that there were about four hundred -souls in this fort, and not above five of them escaped out of our hands;" -others report that seven hundred Pequods fell on that terrible day. Of the -besiegers but two were killed, though a quarter of the force were wounded. -From this scene of slaughter the victorious colonists marched through the -rest of the enemy's territory, burning wigwams and granaries, taking some -of the survivors prisoners, to be sold into slavery, and so thoroughly -scattering the others that the Pequod tribe never reorganized; the -expedition had thoroughly uprooted it. - - - 56. Laws and Characteristics of Massachusetts - (1637-1643). - - Sidenote: Laws. - -For more than ten years after the planting of Massachusetts the magistrates -dispensed justice according to their understanding of right and wrong; -there were no statutes, neither had the English common law been officially -recognized, except so far as it was understood that Englishmen carried the -law of their land with them in emigrating to America. "In the year 1634," -says Hutchinson, "the plantation was greatly increased, settlements were -extended more than thirty miles from the capital town, and it was thought -high time to have known established laws, that the inhabitants might no -longer be subject to the varying uncertain judgments which otherwise would -be made concerning their actions. The ministers and some of the principal -laymen were consulted with about a body of laws suited to the circumstances -of the colony, civil and religious. Committees of magistrates and elders -were appointed" from year to year by the General Court, but it was not -until 1641 that a body of statutes was finally adopted. - - Sidenote: The Body of Liberties. - -The influence of the clergy is well illustrated in the fact that the two -codes finally submitted were the work of ministers,--John Cotton of Boston, -and Nathaniel Ward of Ipswich. The latter's plan, in which he received the -aid of Winthrop and others of the elders, was adopted in 1641, under the -title of The Body of Liberties. In England, Ward had at one time been a -barrister, and was well read in the common law, on which his code was -mainly based, although it also contained many features of the law of Moses. -Equal justice was vouchsafed to all, old or young, freeman or foreigner, -master or servant, man or woman; persons and property were to be inviolable -except by law; brutes were to be humanely treated; no one was to be tried -twice for the same offence; barbarous or cruel punishments were forbidden; -public records were to be open for inspection; church regulations were to -be enforced by civil courts, and church officers and members were amenable -to civil law; the Scriptures were to overrule any custom or prescription; -the general rules of judicial proceedings were defined, as were also the -privileges and duties of freemen, and the liberties and prerogatives of the -churches; public money was to be spent only with the consent of the -taxpayers. "There shall be no bond slaverie, villinage or Captivitie -amongst us unles it be lawfull Captives taken in just warres, and such -strangers as willingly selle themselves or are sold to us;" but all such -were to be allowed "all the liberties and Christian usages which the law of -god established in Israell." Notwithstanding this enlightened provision, -persons continued to be born and to live and die as slaves within the -boundaries of the commonwealth down to 1780. Servants fleeing from the -cruelty of their masters were to be protected, and there was to be appeal -from parental tyranny. "Everie marryed woeman shall be free from bodilie -correction or stripes by her husband, unlesse it be in his owne defence -upon her assalt." The capital offences, selected from the Scriptures, were -twelve in number; among them were: "(2) If any man or woman be a witch -(that is, hath or consulteth with a familiar spirit), they shall be put to -death;" and "(12) If any man shall conspire and attempt any invasion, -insurrection, or publique rebellion against our commonwealth, ... or shall -treacherously and perfediouslie attempt the alteration and subversion of -our frame of politie or Government fundamentallie, he shall be put to -death." The essence of this Body of Liberties was afterwards incorporated -into the formal laws of the colony. It was the foundation of the -Massachusetts code. - - Sidenote: Characteristics of Massachusetts. - -Massachusetts was the first large colony in New England. Its people were -educated, and as a rule of a higher social grade than those of Plymouth. -Under a charter which contained many very liberal provisions, a highly -organized government was developed, which served as a model to the other -colonies, and had a wide influence in the building of a nation founded on -the principles of self-government. Plymouth had, after sixteen years, -separated into towns; but when organized town and church governments moved -bodily from Massachusetts to found Connecticut, Massachusetts became the -first mother of colonies. Massachusetts was bolder, more aggressive, and -more tenacious of her liberties than any other of the American colonies; -her people took firm, sometimes obstinate, stand for their rights as -Englishmen, and were often alone in their early contentions for principles -upon which in after years the Revolution was based. In their treatment of -the Indians they were inclined to be more imperious than their neighbors. - - - 57. Connecticut founded (1633-1639). - - Sidenote: Plymouth traders at Windsor. - -In 1633 Plymouth built a fur-trading house on the site of Windsor, on the -Connecticut River. A party of Dutch traders from New York was already -planted at Hartford, in "a rude earthwork with two guns," and strenuously -objected to this intrusion; but the Plymouth men found trade with the -Indians profitable, and stood their ground. - - Sidenote: The Massachusetts hegira. - -The same year the overland route to the Connecticut was explored by the -Massachusetts trader, John Oldham, who was afterwards slain by the Pequods -at Block Island. The favorable reports which Oldham carried back induced a -number of people in Newtown (Cambridge), Dorchester, and Watertown, in the -Massachusetts colony, to remove to the Connecticut and set up an -independent State. "Hereing of ye fame of Conightecute river, they had a -hankering mind after it." Ostensibly they sought better pasturage for their -cattle, to prevent the Dutch from gaining a permanent hold on the country, -and to plant an outpost in the Pequod country; but there also appear to -have been some differences of opinion between these people and the -Massachusetts authorities, growing out of the taxation of Watertown in -1631; and no doubt their ministers and elders--among whom were such strong -men as Thomas Hooker, Samuel Stone, and Roger Ludlow--were desirous of -greater recognition than they obtained at home. These differences were not -so grave but that Massachusetts, after a spasm of opposition, formally -permitted the migration, gave to the outgoing colonists a commission, and -lent to them a cannon and some ammunition. - - Sidenote: Plymouth overawed. - -During the summer of 1635 a Dorchester party planted a settlement at -Windsor around the walls of the Plymouth post. Plymouth did not approve of -this cavalier treatment of her prior rights by the Massachusetts pioneers, -but was obliged to submit with what grace she might, as she had in many -controversies with her domineering neighbor to the north. - - Sidenote: Winthrop at Saybrook. - -That same autumn (1635) John Winthrop, Jr., appeared at the mouth of the -Connecticut with a commission as governor, issued by Lord Brook, Lord Say -and Sele, and their partners, to whom in 1631 Lord Warwick, as president of -the council for New England, had granted all the country between the -Narragansett River and the Pacific Ocean. Winthrop had just thrown up a -breastwork when a Dutch vessel appeared on its way to Hartford with -supplies for the traders, and was ordered back; thus were the New Amsterdam -people cut off from a profitable commerce on the Connecticut, and from -territorial expansion eastward, although their Hartford colony lived for -many years. - - Sidenote: Condition of the colony (1636-1637). - -The migration from Massachusetts to the Connecticut continued vigorously -during 1636, and by the spring of 1637 the colony had a population of eight -hundred souls, grouped in the three towns of Windsor, Hartford, and -Wethersfield,--Winthrop's establishment at Saybrook being but a military -station, which had no connection with the Massachusetts settlements up the -river until 1644. The Pequod war, in 1637, stirred Connecticut to its -centre. A force of about one hundred and fifteen Massachusetts and -Connecticut men, under the command of Capt. John Mason of Windsor, was -handled with much skill, and soon nearly annihilated the Pequod tribe. The -Indians crushed, immigration was renewed, and prosperity became general -throughout the valley. - - - 58. The Connecticut Government (1639-1643). - - Sidenote: Government established. - -During the first year the Connecticut towns were still claimed by the -parent colony, and were controlled by a commission from Massachusetts. At -the end of that time (1637) there was held a General Court, in which each -town was represented by two magistrates, this body adopting such local -regulations as were of immediate necessity. - - Sidenote: The Connecticut Constitution. - -In January, 1639, the three towns adopted a constitution in which -Massachusetts acquiesced, thus practically abandoning her claims of -sovereignty over them. This Connecticut constitution was undoubtedly, as -Fiske says, "the first written constitution known to history that created a -government,"--the "Mayflower" compact being rather an agreement to accept a -constitution, while Magna Charta did not create a government. Bryce -characterizes the Connecticut document as "the oldest truly political -constitution in America." It is noticeable for the fact that it made no -reference to the king or to any charter or patent; it was simply an -agreement between colonists in neighboring towns, independent of any but -royal authority, as to the manner of their local and general -self-government. The governor and six magistrates (another name for -assistants) were to be elected by a majority of the whole body of free men; -but later, with the spread of the colony, voting by proxies was allowed. -The governor alone need be a church member, and he was not to serve for two -years in succession; but this restriction on re-election was abolished in -favor of the younger Winthrop in 1660. Each town might admit freemen by -popular vote; and it is noticeable that despite the fact that the original -settlers of Connecticut came as organized congregations, with their -ministers and elders, it was ordained there should be no religious -restriction on suffrage, which was thus made almost unrestricted; the towns -were to be represented in the General Court by two deputies each; the -practical administration was in the hands of the governor and his -assistants, who were also members of the General Court. In time the system -became bicameral, the deputies forming the lower, and the council the upper -house; the towns were allowed all powers not expressly granted to the -commonwealth, the affairs of each being executed by a board of "chief -inhabitants," acting as magistrates. The government of Connecticut was on -the whole somewhat more liberal and democratic than that of Massachusetts, -and was the model upon which many American States were afterwards built. - - Sidenote: Hooker's influence. - -More than to any other man, the credit for this epoch-making constitution -belongs to the Rev. Thomas Hooker, of Hartford, the leading spirit of the -colony. He argued that "the foundation of authority is laid in the free -consent of the people;" that "the choice of public magistrates belongs unto -the people by God's own allowance;" and that "they who have power to -appoint officers and magistrates have the right also to set the bounds and -limitations of the power and place unto which they call them." These are -truisms to-day, but in 1638 they were the utterances of a political -prophet. - - Sidenote: Characteristics of Connecticut. - -Under her liberal constitutional government, based upon the voice of the -people, Connecticut was from the first a practically independent republic. -The public officers were plain, honest men, who acceptably administered the -affairs of the colony with small cost. The colonists were shrewd in -political management, frugal in their expenditures, hard-working, and -ingenious. Education flourished, a severe morality obtained, and religious -persecution was unknown. Connecticut was noted among the colonies for its -prosperity, independence, and enlightenment. - - - 59. New Haven founded (1637-1644). - - Sidenote: Origin of the colony. - -Theophilus Eaton was a London merchant "of fair estate, and of great esteem -for religion and wisdom in outward affairs." He was at one time an -ambassador to the Danish court, and had been one of the original assistants -of the Massachusetts Company, although not active in its affairs. John -Davenport had been an ordained minister in London; he turned Puritan, and -on his resignation in 1633 went to Holland. These two men formed a -congregation, composed for the most part of middle-class Londoners, who -resolved to migrate to America, there to set up a State founded on -scriptural models. The Plymouth and Massachusetts men had started out with -this same idea; but as the result of circumstances, had made compromises -which Eaton and Davenport could not countenance. - - Sidenote: The plantation covenant. - -In July, 1637, the two leaders arrived in Boston with a small company of -their disciples, among whom were several men of wealth and good social -position, but extremely narrow and bigoted in religious faith. They have -been styled the Brahmins of New England Puritanism. They did not deem it -practicable to settle in Massachusetts, and the following spring (March, -1638) sailed to Long Island Sound and established an independent settlement -on the site of New Haven, thirty miles west of the Connecticut river. For a -year their only bond of union was a "plantation covenant" to obey the -Scriptures in all things. - - Sidenote: The Constitution. - -In October, 1639, there was adopted a constitution, in the making of which -Davenport had the chief hand. The governor and four magistrates were to be -elected by the freemen, who were, as in Massachusetts, church members; -trial by jury was rejected, because it lacked scriptural authority; and it -was formally declared "that the Word of God shall be the only rule attended -unto in ordering the affairs of government." Eaton was chosen governor, and -held the office by annual election until his death, twenty years later. - - Sidenote: Neighboring towns. - -The neighborhood of New Haven was soon settled by other immigrants, most of -whom were also strict constructionists of the Scriptures, while a few -others were as liberal in their ideas as the people of the Connecticut -valley. Guilford was established (1639) seventeen miles to the north, and -Milford (1639) eleven miles westward; Stamford (1640), well on towards New -York, followed, while Southold was boldly planted (1640) on Long Island, -opposite Guilford, in territory claimed by the Dutch. As each town was as -well a church, these were for some years little independent communities, -founded on the New Haven model. In 1643, however, they formed a union with -New Haven, and a system of representation was introduced. Each town sent up -deputies to the General Court, in which also sat the governor, -deputy-governor, and assistants, elected by the whole body of freemen; yet -a majority of either the deputies or the magistrates might veto a measure. -Local magistrates--seven to each town, known as "pillars of the -church"--tried petty cases, but important suits were passed upon by the -assistants. The "seven pillars" were the autocrats of their several towns, -and colonial affairs were also practically in the hands of the select few -who controlled the church. - - Sidenote: Peter's False Blue Laws. - -At the meeting of the General Court in April, 1644, the magistrates in the -confederation were ordered to observe "the judicial laws of God as they -were delivered by Moses." This injunction afterwards gave rise to an absurd -report, circulated in 1781 by Rev. Samuel Peters, a Tory refugee, that the -New Haven statutes were of peculiar quaintness and severity. For nearly one -hundred years Peters's fable of the New Haven Blue Laws was accepted as -historic truth. - - Sidenote: Characteristics of New Haven. - -At first, New Haven failed to prosper; but after a few years, with the -increase of trade, better times prevailed, and by the close of the century -the town was noted for the wealth of its inhabitants and their fine houses. -Education was greatly encouraged, and there were considerable shipping -interests; but the ecclesiastical system was peculiar, and suffrage greatly -restricted. There were, in consequence, frequent outbursts of -dissatisfaction among the people. The colony thus had conspicuous elements -of weakness, and was finally absorbed by Connecticut. - - - 60. Rhode Island founded (1636-1654). - - Sidenote: Roger Williams. - -In 1636, with five of his disciples, Roger Williams, driven from -Massachusetts as a reformer of a dangerous type, established the town of -Providence, at the head of Narragansett Bay. - - Sidenote: Anne Hutchinson. - -The following year (1637) a party of Anne Hutchinson's followers--also -expelled from Massachusetts because of heretical opinions--settled on the -island of Aquedneck (afterwards Rhode Island), eighteen miles to the south. -Mrs. Hutchinson joined them in 1638, and the town was eventually called -Portsmouth. - - Sidenote: Newport established. - -Both communities at once attracted from Massachusetts people who had either -been expelled from that colony or were not in entire harmony with it, and -by the close of 1638 Providence contained sixty persons, and Portsmouth -nearly as many. The next year fifty-nine of the Portsmouth people, headed -by the chief magistrate, Coddington, dissenting from some of Mrs. -Hutchinson's "new heresies," withdrew to the southern end of the island and -settled Newport; but the two towns reunited in 1640, under the name of -Rhode Island, with Coddington as governor. - - Sidenote: The Providence agreement. - -Each of these colonies, Providence and Rhode Island, was at first an -independent body politic. It is interesting to note their original -compacts. The Providence agreement (1636), signed by Roger Williams and -twelve of his sympathizers, was as follows: "We whose names are hereunder, -desirous to inhabit in the Town of Providence, do promise to subject -ourselves in active or passive obedience to all such orders or agreements -as shall be made for the public good of the body, in an orderly way, by the -major assent of the present inhabitants, masters of families, incorporated -together into a town fellowship, and such others whom they shall admit unto -them, only in civil things." Five freemen, called arbitrators, managed -public affairs, and for some years there appear to have been no fixed rules -for their guidance. - - Sidenote: The Portsmouth declaration. - -At Portsmouth the people united in the following declaration: "We do here -solemnly, in the presence of Jehovah, incorporate ourselves into a body -politic, and as He shall help will submit our persons, lives, and estates -unto our Lord Jesus Christ, the King of kings and Lord of lords, and to all -those perfect and most absolute laws of His, given us in His holy words of -truth, to be guided and judged thereby." The freemen conducted public -affairs in town meeting, with a secretary, a clerk, and a chief magistrate. -Newport was similarly organized; but when Newport and Portsmouth reunited, -a more complex government was instituted. A General Court was then -established, in which sat the governor, the deputy-governor, and four -assistants,--one town choosing the governor and two of the assistants, and -the other the deputy-governor and the remaining assistants; the freemen -composed the body of the court, and settled even the most trivial cases. In -1641 it was declared that "it is in the power of the body of the freemen -orderly assembled, or the part of them, to make and constitute just laws by -which they shall be regulated, and to depute from among themselves such -ministers as shall see them faithfully executed between man and man." At -the same session an order was adopted "that none be accounted a delinquent -for doctrine, provided it be not directly repugnant to the government or -laws established." - - Sidenote: An asylum for sectaries. - -By the other colonies Providence and Rhode Island were deemed hot-beds of -anarchy. Persons holding all manner of Protestant theological notions -flocked thither in considerable numbers, and it is true that for many years -there were hot contentions between them, often to the disturbance of public -order. Despite these years of bickerings, Providence and Rhode Island -prospered. - - Sidenote: Establishment of Providence Plantations. - -Through the exertions of Roger Williams, Providence, Portsmouth, and -Newport, with a new town called Warwick were united under one charter -(1644), as the colony of Providence Plantations. This liberal document, -issued by the Parliamentary Committee on the Colonies, gave to the -inhabitants along Narragansett Bay authority to rule themselves "by such -form of civil government as by the voluntary consent of all or the greatest -part of them shall be found most serviceable to their estate and -condition." Larger power could not have been wished for. By a curious -provision, adopted in 1647, a law had to be proposed at the General Court; -it was then sent round to the towns for the freemen to pass upon it, thus -giving the voters a voice in the conduct of affairs, without the necessity -of attending court. A majority of freemen in any one town could defeat the -measure. A code of laws resembling the common laws of England, and with few -references to biblical precedents, passed safely through the ordeal in -1647; one important section provided that "all men may walk as their -conscience persuades them." - - Sidenote: The Coddington faction. - -The following year Coddington, as the head of a faction, obtained a -separate charter for Newport and Portsmouth,--much to the disgust of many -of the inhabitants of those as well as of the other towns. A bitter feud -lasted until 1654, when Williams once more appeared as peacemaker and -secured the reunion of all the towns under the general charter of 1644, -with himself as president. The old law code was restored. - - Sidenote: Characteristics of Rhode Island. - -Rhode Island was founded by a religious outcast, and always remained as an -asylum for those sectaries who could find no home elsewhere. The purpose -was noble, and Williams persisted in his policy, despite the fact that life -was often made uncomfortable for him by his ill-assorted fellow-colonists, -who were continually bickering with each other. Throughout the seventeenth -century Rhode Island was a hot-bed of disorder. Fanaticism not only -expressed itself in religion, but in politics and society; and no scheme -was so wild as to find no adherents in this confused medley. The condition -of the colony served as a warning to its neighbors, seeming to confirm the -wisdom of their theocratic methods. - - - 61. Maine founded (1622-1658). - - Sidenote: Sir Ferdinando Gorges. - -Sir Ferdinando Gorges, governor of Plymouth in England, became interested -in New England, we have seen, as early as 1605. Ten years later he assisted -John Smith in organizing an unsuccessful voyage to the northern coast; in -1620 we find him a member of the council of the Plymouth Company; in 1622 -he and John Mason (not the hero of the Pequod war), both of them Churchmen -and strong friends of the king, obtained a grant of the country lying -between the Merrimack and Kennebec Rivers; and it was Gorges who sent out -Maverick to settle on Noddle's Island, and Blackstone to hold the Boston -peninsula. Later (1629), Mason obtained an individual grant from the -Plymouth Council of the territory between the Merrimack and the Piscataqua -(New Hampshire), and Gorges that from the Piscataqua to the Kennebec -(Maine); these grants were similar in character to the charter of the -Massachusetts Bay Company. When the Plymouth Company threw up its charter -in 1634, and New England was parcelled out (1635) among the members of the -council, Gorges and Mason secured a confirmation of their former personal -grants. Mason died a few months later, leaving the settlements in his tract -to be annexed to Massachusetts in 1641. - - Sidenote: Becomes Lord Proprietor of Maine. - -In April, 1639, Gorges obtained a provincial charter from the king, -conferring upon him the title of Lord Proprietor of the Province or County -of Maine, his domain to extend, as before, from the Kennebec to the -Piscataqua, and backward one hundred and twenty miles from the coast. He -received almost absolute authority over the people of his province, who -were then but three hundred in number. Saco, established by him about the -year 1623, was the principal settlement, and contained one half of the -population; while a half-dozen smaller hamlets, chiefly of his creation, -were scattered along the neighboring shore, inhabited by fishermen, -hunters, and traders. The greater part of these people were adherents of -the king and the Established Church. Notwithstanding Gorges's -long-sustained effort to attract men of wealth to his plantations, the -province was not as flourishing as its neighbors to the south. - - Sidenote: His cumbrous constitution. - -Gorges amused his old age by drafting a cumbrous Constitution for his -people. He was to make laws in conjunction with the freemen; the laws of -England were to prevail in cases not covered by the statutes; the Church of -England was to be the State religion; all Englishmen were to be allowed -fishing privileges; the proprietor was to establish manorial courts; and he -was also empowered, of his own motion, to levy taxes, raise troops, and -declare war. In examining the official machinery which Gorges sought to -erect in Maine, we are reminded of Locke's constitution for the Carolinas; -the proprietor was to be represented by a deputy-governor, under whom was -to be a long line of officers with high-sounding titles, these to form the -council; with them were to meet the deputies selected by the freeholders. -The provinces were to be cut up into bailiwicks or counties, hundreds, -parishes, and tithings; justice in each bailiwick was to be administered by -a lieutenant and eight magistrates, the nominees of the proprietor or his -deputy, and under each was a staff of minor functionaries. There were -almost enough officers provided for in Gorges's plan to give every one of -his subjects a public position. - - Sidenote: The colony neglected. - -The proprietor himself never visited America; he was represented by his son -Thomas as deputy-governor. It was impossible for the latter, however, to -carry all of his father's plans into effect, and gradually the province -sank into disorder and neglect. Its towns were finally absorbed by -Massachusetts (1652-1658). - - Sidenote: Characteristics of Maine. - -The settlers brought out to people Maine were the servants of individuals -or companies having a tract of land to be occupied and cultivated, -fisheries to conduct, and fur-trade to prosecute. They did not come to -found a church or build a state, and such institutions as they developed -were the immediate outcome of their necessities. They had little sympathy -or communication with their neighbors of Massachusetts and Plymouth. - - - 62. New Hampshire founded (1620-1685). - - Sidenote: Origin of the first settlements. - -We have seen that John Mason was given a grant in 1629 of the country -between the Merrimack and the Piscataqua. In his scheme for colonizing the -tract, Gorges was associated with him. But David Thomson and three Plymouth -fur-traders had already gained a footing at Rye in 1622, under a grant from -the Plymouth Council. Dover had been founded before 1628 by the brothers -Hilton, Puritan fish-dealers in London; and some of Mrs. Hutchinson's -adherents, exiles from Massachusetts, founded Exeter and Hampton. In 1630 -Neal, as colonizing agent of Mason and Gorges, settled at Portsmouth, on -the Piscataqua, with a large party of farmers and fishermen, all of them -Church of England men; and it is probable that this colony absorbed the -neighboring settlement at Rye. By the time the proprietors dissolved -partnership in 1635 (page 150, Sec. 61), considerable property had been -accumulated by them here, as in the inventory of their possessions at -Portsmouth we find twenty-two cannons, two hundred and fifty small-arms, -forty-eight fishing-boats, forty horses, fifty-four goats, nearly two -hundred sheep, and over a hundred cattle. This argues a large -establishment. Upon the death of Mason, later in the year, the Piscataqua -colony was left to its own guidance. All of the New Hampshire towns were -from the first independent communities, governed much after the fashion of -the other English towns to the south of them. - - Sidenote: Characteristics of New Hampshire. - -The beginnings of New Hampshire were the results of commercial enterprise -in England and theological dissensions in Massachusetts. The inhabitants of -the several towns had little in common, and held different political and -religious views. Planted under various auspices, when they grew to -importance they were the subject of long struggles for jurisdiction. It -would be tiresome to trace the history of these disputes; suffice it to say -that after many changes the settlements on or near the Piscataqua were -(1641-1643) incorporated with Massachusetts, which ruled them with marked -discretion, and refrained from meddling with their religious views. In -1679, as the result of disputes growing out of the revival of the Mason -claim in England, New Hampshire was turned into a royal province, but in -1685 was reunited to Massachusetts. As to the character of the people of -New Hampshire, what has been said in regard to those of Maine may in a -great measure also be applied to them. - - - - - CHAPTER VII. - - NEW ENGLAND FROM 1643 TO 1700. - - - 63. References. - - -Bibliographies.--Same as Sec. 47, above; Avery, II., III.; Channing and Hart, -_Guide_, Secs. 124-128. - -Historical Maps.--Same as Sec. 47, above. - -General Accounts.--Doyle, _Colonies_, II. chs. viii., ix., III. chs. i.-v.; -Lodge, _Colonies_, 351-362, 375-380, 387-392, 398-400; Osgood, _Colonies_; -Avery, II. chs. xiii.-xviii., III. chs. vii., viii., x.-xii., xix.-xxi.; G. -Bancroft, I. 289-407, 574-613; Channing, _United States_, I. chs. xv., -xviii., xix.; Hildreth, I. chs. x., xii., xiv.; Palfrey, _New England_, I. -269-408, III. 1-386; Fiske, _Beginnings of New England_; Hallowell, _Quaker -Invasion of Massachusetts_; R. Frothingham, _Rise of the Republic_, chs. -ii., iii.; A. MacLear, _Early New England Towns_; Winsor, _Narrative and -Critical_, as in Sec. 47. - -Special Histories.--Consult the numerous local histories, some of them of -much importance; Winsor's _Boston_, and Sheldon's _Deerfield_ are examples. - -Contemporary Accounts.--Sewall, _Diary_; Mather, _Magnalia_; Bishop, _New -England Judged_; Hubbard, _Trouble with the Indians_.--Reprints in -publications of colonial and town record commissions, historical and -antiquarian societies, Prince Society, Gorges Society, etc.; Andros, -_Tracts_; _American History Leaflets_, Nos. 7, 25, 29; _Old South -Leaflets_; _American History told by Contemporaries_, I. ch. xx., II. - - - 64. New England Confederation formed (1637-1643). - - Sidenote: Local politics excluded. - -In the preceding chapter has been sketched the origin and planting of the -New England colonies. Most of those colonies maintained a separate -existence and had a history of their own during the rest of the seventeenth -century. But the limits of this work do not permit a sketch of the local -and internal history of each colony. In this chapter will therefore be -considered only those events of common interest and having a significance -in the development of all the colonies. - - Sidenote: Connecticut makes overtures for a colonial federation (1637). - -First in time and first in its consequences is the federation of the New -England colonies, for which in August, 1637, the men of Connecticut made -overtures to the Massachusetts General Court. Connecticut, as an outpost of -English civilization in the heart of the Indian country and "over against -the Dutch," had especial need of support from the older colonies to the -east. The tribesmen were uneasy and the menaces of the Dutch at New -Amsterdam were especially alarming. Twice had the doughty Hollanders -endeavored to drive English settlers from the Connecticut valley and -recover their lost fur-trade there; both attempts had been failures, but it -seemed likely that in time the Dutch might summon sufficient strength to -make it more difficult to withstand them. Again, the French, who had -settled at Quebec in 1608, were beginning to push the confines of New -France southward; and there had been trouble with them at various times for -several years, the outgrowth of boundary disputes and race hatred. The -Connecticut and Hudson rivers were highways quite familiar to the French -Canadians and their Indian allies, and the Connecticut colonists were -apprehensive of partisan raids overland from the north, which they could -not hope to repel single-handed. - - Sidenote: Massachusetts at last favorable (1642). - -The proposition for union was renewed in 1639, and again in September, -1642. At first Massachusetts was indifferent; but finally "the ill news we -had out of England concerning the breach between the king and Parliament" -appears to have caused her statesmen to look favorably on the project. -Affairs were at such a pass in the mother-country that it behooved -Englishmen in America to be prepared to act on the defensive in the event -of the war-cloud drifting in their direction. Should the king win, there -was reason to believe that he would speedily turn his attention towards the -correction of New England, which had long been to dissenting Englishmen in -the mother-land an object-lesson in political independence and a ready -refuge in time of danger. - - Sidenote: Formation of the New England Confederation. - -In May, 1643, twelve articles were agreed upon at Boston between the -representatives of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven. -Winthrop tells us that the representatives "coming to consultation -encountered some difficulties, but being all desirous of union and studious -of peace, they readily yielded each to other in such things as tended to -common utility." Compromises were the foundation of this as well as of -later American constitutions. - - Sidenote: The Constitution. - -The four colonies were bound together by a formal written constitution, -under the name of "The United Colonies of New England," in "a firm and -perpetual league of friendship and amity for offence and defence, mutual -advice and succor, upon all just occasions, both for preserving and -propagating the truth and liberties of the Gospel, and for their own mutual -safety and welfare." Each colony was allowed to manage its internal -affairs; but a body of eight federal commissioners, two from each colony, -and all of them church members, were empowered to "determine all affairs of -war or peace, leagues, aids, charges, and numbers of men for war, division -of spoils and whatsoever was gotten by conquest, receiving of more -confederates for plantations into combination with any of the confederates, -and all things of like nature which were the proper concomitants or -consequents of such a confederation for amity, offence, and defence." Six -commissioners formed a working majority of the board; but in case of -disagreement, the question at issue was to be sent to the legislatures of -the several colonies for decision. War expenses were to be levied against -each colony in proportion to its male population between the ages of -sixteen and sixty. The board was to meet at least once a year, and oftener -when necessary. The president of the commissioners, chosen from their own -number, was to be "invested with no power or respect" except that of a -presiding officer. - - - 65. Workings of the Confederation (1643-1660). - - Sidenote: Inequality of representation. - -The league which it represented is "interesting as the first American -experiment in federation;" but it had one fertile source of weakness. There -were in the four colonies represented an aggregate population of about -twenty-four thousand, of which Massachusetts contained fifteen thousand, -the other three having not more than three thousand each. In case of war -Massachusetts agreed to send one hundred men for every forty-five furnished -by each of her colleagues. In two ways she bore the heaviest burden,--in -the number of men sent to war, and in the amount of taxes levied therefor. -As each colony was to have an equal vote in the conduct of the league, -Massachusetts was placed at a disadvantage. She frequently endeavored to -exercise larger power than was allowed her under the articles, thus -arousing the enmity of the smaller colonies, and endangering the existence -of the union. - - Sidenote: Massachusetts in control. - -Nevertheless, during the twenty years in which the confederation was the -strongest political power on the continent of North America, Massachusetts -maintained control of its general policy. Maine and the settlements along -Narragansett Bay in vain made application to join the confederation. It was -objected that public order was not established in Rhode Island, and -moreover the oath taken by the freemen there bespoke fealty to the English -king. As for Maine, its proprietor, Gorges, was enlisted on the side of the -monarch, and the political system in vogue in his province differed from -that in the other colonies. - - Sidenote: Nature of the Board of Commissioners. - -The board was little more than a committee of public safety; it acted upon -the colonial legislatures, and not on the individual colonists, and had no -power to enforce its decrees. One of its early interests was the building -up of Harvard College; and at its request there was taken up, throughout -the four colonies, a contribution of "corn for the poor scholars in -Cambridge." - - Sidenote: Local independence greater than national patriotism. - -In the articles of confederation there was no reference whatever to the -home government. The New Englanders had taken charge of their own affairs, -apparently without a thought of the supremacy of either king or parliament. -The spirit of local independence among these people was greater than -national patriotism. With Laud in prison and the king an outcast, there -could be no interference from that quarter, and Parliament was too busy -just then to give much thought to the doings of the distant American -colonists. In November (1643) Parliament instituted a commission for the -government of the colonies, with the Earl of Warwick at its head; but it -was of small avail so far as New England was concerned. - - Sidenote: Jealousy of interference from England. - -Massachusetts was ever in an attitude of jealousy towards even a suspicion -of interference from England. In 1644 the General Court voted that any one -attempting to raise soldiers for the king should be "accounted as an -offender of an high nature against this commonwealth, and to be proceeded -with, either capitally or otherwise, according to the quality and degree of -his offence." The colony was, however, no more for the Commons than for the -king. When, in 1651, Parliament desired that Massachusetts surrender her -charter granted by King Charles and receive a new one at its hands, for a -year no notice was taken of the command; when at last England had a war -with Holland on her hands, the Massachusetts men evasively replied that -they were quite satisfied "to live under the government of a governor and -magistrates of their own choosing and under laws of their own making." The -General Court was also bold enough to establish a colonial mint (1652), and -for thirty years coined "pine-tree shillings," in the face of all -objections. In 1653 Cromwell, always a firm friend to New England, was -declared Lord Protector; yet Massachusetts did not allow the event to be -proclaimed within her borders, and when he wished Massachusetts to help him -in his war against the Dutch by capturing New Amsterdam, the colonial court -somewhat haughtily "gave liberty to his Highness's commissioners" to raise -volunteers in her territory. At the Restoration it was not until warning -came from friends in England, that Charles II. was proclaimed in New -England. - - - 66. Disturbances in Rhode Island (1641-1647). - - Sidenote: The sectaries on Narragansett Bay. - -Over on Narragansett Bay the public peace continued to be disturbed by -factious disputations. Because of the freedom there generously offered to -all men, the settlements of Rhode Island and Providence were the -harboring-place for dissenters of every class, who for the most part had -been ordered to leave the other colonies. Many of these persons were of the -Baptist faith, or held other theological views which would be considered -sober enough in our day; but among them were numerous rank fanatics, whom -no well-ordered society was calculated to please. - - Sidenote: The case of Gorton. - -Some of Roger Williams's adherents had built Pawtuxet. To them came a band -of fanatics, headed by Samuel Gorton, described by his orthodox neighbors -as "a proud and pestilent seducer," of "insolent and riotous carriage," but -who was by no means so black as they painted him. The Pawtuxet settlers -asked Massachusetts (1641) "of gentle courtesy and for the preservation of -humanity and mankind," to "lend a neighbor-like helping hand" and relieve -them of the disturber. At the same time they secured the annexation of -their town to Massachusetts, so that it might be within the jurisdiction of -the latter. Gorton and nine of his followers were taken as prisoners to -Boston (1643), where they were convicted of blasphemy, and after four or -five months at hard labor were released, with threats of death if they did -not at once depart from Massachusetts soil. - -Gorton went to England (1646) and appealed to the parliamentary -commissioners, who declared that he might "freely and quietly live and -plant" upon his land which he had purchased from the Indians at Shawomet -(Warwick), on the western shore of Narragansett Bay. Edward Winslow of -Plymouth was now sent over (1647) to represent Massachusetts in the Gorton -case; and through him the plea was entered that the commissioners, being -far distant from America, should not undertake the decision of appeals from -the colonies; and moreover, that the Massachusetts charter was an "absolute -power of government." The commissioners, in return, protested that they -"intended not to encourage any appeals from your justice;" nevertheless, -they "commanded" the General Court to allow Gorton and his followers to -dwell in peace; but "if they shall be faulty, we leave them to be proceeded -with according to justice." The offender was allowed to return, but his -presence was haughtily ignored; and when his settlement was threatened by -Indians, he cited in vain the parliamentary order as a warrant for -assistance. - - - 67. Policy of the Confederation (1646-1660). - - Sidenote: Expressions of independence. - -The sturdy and independent spirit of the colonists was expressed in words -as well as in deeds. While Winslow was thus representing the colonists in -England he made his famous reply to those who were disposed to criticise -the formation of the New England confederacy as a presumptuous assertion of -independence: "If we in America should forbear to unite for offence and -defence against a common enemy till we have leave from England, our throats -might be all cut before the messenger would be half seas through." A -similar impatience of authority from England was expressed by Governor John -Winthrop. An opinion which he delivered about this time betokened the proud -and independent attitude of Massachusetts, and was prophetic of the spirit -of the Revolution. By a legal fiction, when the king granted land in -America it was held as being in the manor of East Greenwich. It was said -that the American colonists were represented in that body by the member -returned from the borough containing this manor, and were therefore subject -to Parliament. Winthrop held, however, that the supreme law in the colonies -was the common weal, and should parliamentary authority endanger the -welfare of the colonists, then they would be justified in ignoring that -authority. - - Sidenote: The Presbyterians. - -Religious liberty was quite as dear to the New England people as political -liberty. In 1645, under Scottish influence, Presbyterianism was established -by Act of Parliament as the state religion of England. Massachusetts was, -however, stoutly Independent, and furnished some of the chief champions for -that faith during the great controversy which was then raging between the -two sects on both sides of the water. A number of Massachusetts -Presbyterians sought (1646) to induce the home government to settle -churches of their faith in the colonies, and to secure the franchise to -all, regardless of religious affiliation; but before they reached England -to state their case the Independents were again in the ascendent, and the -Puritan theocracy in Massachusetts was undisturbed. Two years later (1648) -a synod of churches was held at Cambridge, at which was formulated a church -discipline familiarly styled "the Cambridge platform." In it the -Westminster Confession was approved, the powers of the clergy defined, the -civil power invoked to "coerce" churches which should "walk incorrigibly or -obstinately in any corrupt way of their own," and the term "Congregational" -established, to distinguish New England orthodoxy from "those corrupt sects -and heresies which showed themselves under the vast title of Independency." -In 1649 this platform was laid by the General Court before the several -congregations, and two years later it was formally agreed to. - - Sidenote: Encroachments upon Dutch possessions. - -It was hardly to be supposed that a people so little inclined to -acknowledge the rights of England should treat with greater respect those -of Holland; and indeed they had the countenance of the home government in -encroachments upon the Dutch colonies. In 1642 Boswell, who represented -England at the Hague, advised his fellow-countrymen in New England to "put -forward their plantations and crowd on, crowding the Dutch out of those -places where they have occupied." - -The New Englanders were not slow to adopt this aggressive policy. -Settlements were pushed out westward from New Haven on the mainland, and -southward on Long Island. Peter Stuyvesant, then governor of New -Netherland, bitterly complained of these encroachments,--for the Dutch then -claimed everything between the Connecticut and Delaware rivers,--and -appealed to the federal commissioners to put a stop to them; but the answer -came that the Dutch were selling arms and ammunition to the Indians, that -their conduct was not conducive to peace, that they harbored criminals from -the English colonies, and that the United Colonies proposed to "vindicate -the English rights by all suitable and just means." Stuyvesant, who was a -hot-headed man, would have liked to go to war with the New Englanders, but -was informed by the Dutch West India Company that war "cannot in any event -be to our advantage: the New England people are too powerful for us." The -matter was finally (1651) left to arbitrators, who settled a provisional -boundary line which "on the mainland was not to come within ten miles of -the Hudson River," and which gave to Connecticut the greater part of Long -Island. - - Sidenote: Weakness of the confederation in the Dutch War. - -War broke out between England and Holland in 1652, and the Connecticut -people were anxious to attack New Netherland, which had not ceased its -depredations on the outlying settlements. All of the federal commissioners -except those from Massachusetts voted to go to war; there was a stormy -session of the federal court, in which Massachusetts endeavored in vain to -override the other colonies. Connecticut and New Haven applied to Cromwell -for assistance. He sent over a fleet to Boston, with injunctions to -Massachusetts to cease her opposition. The General Court stoutly refused to -raise troops for the enterprise, although it gave to the agents of Cromwell -the privilege of enlisting five hundred volunteers in the colony if they -could. But while arrangements were in progress for an attack by eight -hundred men on New Amsterdam, news came that England and Holland had -proclaimed peace (April 5, 1654), and warlike preparations in America -ceased. - - Sidenote: Massachusetts in collision with the commissioners. - -The weakness of the New England confederation was evident in domestic -affairs as well as in foreign wars. Massachusetts was frequently in -collision with the commissioners. An instance occurred as early as -1642-1643, when trouble broke out with the Narragansetts, who were friends -and allies of the disturber Gorton at Shawomet. Massachusetts refused to -sanction hostilities; nevertheless the commissioners despatched a federal -force against the Indians; but the expedition proved futile, owing to lack -of support from the chief colony. - - Sidenote: Contention between Connecticut and Massachusetts. - -Saybrook, at the mouth of the Connecticut River, was purchased by the -Connecticut federation in 1644. In order to compensate herself, Connecticut -levied toll on every vessel passing up the river. Massachusetts owned the -valley town of Springfield, and entered complaint before the commissioners -(1647) that Connecticut had no right to tax Massachusetts vessels trading -with a Massachusetts town. Two years later (1649) the commissioners decided -in favor of Connecticut; whereupon Massachusetts levied both export and -import duties at Boston designed to hamper the trade of her sister -colonies; at the same time she demanded that because of her greater size -she be allowed three commissioners, and insisted that the power of the -federal body be reduced. This action created great hostility, and -threatened at one time to break up the union. By 1654 the contention had -been allowed to drop on both sides, and duties on intercolonial trade -ceased. - - - 68. Repression of the Quakers (1656-1660). - - Sidenote: Treatment of the Quakers. - -During the remainder of the Commonwealth period the most serious question -which arose in New England was what to do with the Quakers. In the -theocracy of the seventeenth century the attitude of the sect was both -theologically and politically well calculated to arouse hostility. They -would strip all formalities from religion, they would recognize no priestly -class, they would not take up arms in the common defence, would pay no -tithes and take no oath of allegiance, they doubted the efficacy of -baptism, had no veneration for the Sabbath, and had a large respect for the -right of individual judgment in spiritual matters. They were aggressive and -stubborn, and, goaded on by persecution, broke out into fantastic displays -of opposition to the State religion. In England four thousand of them were -in jail at one time. When Anne Austin and Mary Fisher arrived in Boston -(1656) from England, by way of the Barbados, as a vanguard of the Quaker -missionary army, the colonial authorities were aghast with horror. The -adventurous women were shipped back to the Barbados, and a law was enacted -against "all Quakers, Ranters, and other notorious heretics," providing for -their flogging and imprisonment at hard labor. Despite this harsh -treatment, the Quakers continued to arrive. Roger Williams said, when -applied to by Massachusetts to harry them out of Rhode Island: where they -are "most of all suffered to declare themselves freely, and only opposed by -arguments in discourse, there they least of all desire to come.... They are -likely to gain more followers by the conceit of their patient sufferings -than by consent to their pernicious sayings." Nevertheless, Rhode Island -was and is the stronghold of the Friends in New England. - -In 1657 it was enacted that Quakers who had once been sent away and -returned, should have their ears lopped off, and for the third offence -should have their tongues pierced with red-hot irons. Banishment on pain of -death was recommended by the federal commissioners in 1658; and in -1659-1660 four Quakers lost their lives by hanging on Boston Common. Public -sentiment revolted at these spectacles, and in 1660 the Massachusetts -death-law was repealed, and Quakers were thereafter subjected to nothing -worse than being flogged in the several towns; even this gradually ceased, -with the growth of a more humane spirit. In Connecticut the sect suffered -but little persecution, and in Rhode Island none; while Plymouth and New -Haven were nearly as harsh in their treatment as Massachusetts. - - Sidenote: New England in the hands of the council for the plantations. - -The restoration of royalty in England (1660) began a new epoch in the -history of the colonies. Their control was placed in the hands of a council -for the plantations, and twelve privy councillors were designated to take -New England in charge. The Quakers had seized the opportunity of gaining an -early hearing from the new king, who was charitably disposed towards them. -In its address to Charles, the Massachusetts court expatiated on the -factious spirit of the Quakers; but the king replied that while he meant -well by the colonies, he desired that hereafter the Quakers be sent to -England for trial,--a desire which was as a matter of course disregarded. - - -69. Royal Commission (1660-1664). - - Sidenote: The king suspects New England's loyalty. - -It is not surprising that the king was disposed to look with suspicion upon -the men of New England. He had been told that the confederacy was "a war -combination made by the four colonies when they had a design to throw off -their dependence on England, and for that purpose." The New Englanders, -too, had been somewhat slow to proclaim his ascendancy; while two of the -judges who had sentenced his father to death, Goffe and Whalley, were -screened from royal justice by the people of New Haven, and afterwards by -those of Hadley, a Massachusetts town in the Connecticut valley. -Massachusetts had been bold enough when the home government was so -distracted by other affairs as to render attention to the colonies -impracticable; now that Charles appeared to be turning his attention to -America a more politic course was pursued. Simon Bradstreet, a leading -layman, and John Norton, prominent among the ministers, were sent to -England to make peace with the Crown, and soon returned (1662) with a -gracious answer, which, however, was coupled with an order to the court to -grant all "freeholders of competent estate" the right of suffrage and -office-holding, "without reference to their opinion or profession," to -allow the Church of England to hold services, to administer justice in the -name of the king, and to compel all inhabitants to swear allegiance to him. -The court decreed that legal papers should thereafter run in the king's -name; but all other matters in the royal mandate were referred to a -committee which failed to report upon them. - - Sidenote: Arrival of royal commissioners. - -Affairs now went on peacefully enough in Massachusetts until 1664. In that -year the king sent over four royal commissioners to look after the -colonies, among them being Samuel Maverick, one of the Presbyterian -petitioners who had made trouble for the New Englanders a few years before. -These commissioners were required "to dispose the people to an entire -submission and obedience to the king's government;" also to feel the public -pulse in Massachusetts, in order to see whether the Crown might not -judiciously assume to appoint a governor for that colony. They arrived at -Boston in July with two ships-of-war and four hundred troops. Obtaining -help from Connecticut, the expedition proceeded to New Amsterdam and easily -conquered that port from the Dutch. During the months the commissioners -were at Boston they were engaged in a prolonged quarrel with the -Massachusetts men, who claimed that their charter allowed them to govern -themselves after their own fashion, without interference from a royal -commission. The court was persistently importuned to give a plain answer to -the king's demands sent out in 1662; but nothing satisfactory could be -obtained, and the commissioners were obliged to return without having -accomplished their mission. The Dutch war against England was now going on, -and political affairs at home were unquiet. A policy of delay had been -profitable for Massachusetts. - - Sidenote: Treatment of Connecticut, and of Rhode Island. - -In the other colonies of New England better treatment had been accorded the -commissioners. Connecticut had sent over her governor, the younger -Winthrop, to represent her at court. He was well received there, being a -man of scholarly tastes and pleasing manner; the king was the more disposed -to favor him because by helping Connecticut a rival to Massachusetts would -be built up. A liberal charter was granted to his colony; and New -Haven--disliked by Charles for having harbored the regicides--was now, -despite her protest, annexed to her sister colony. Rhode Island, too, was -benefited by the royal favor, and received a charter making it a separate -colony. Doubtless the fact that the people of Narragansett Bay had been -shut out from the New England confederacy had inclined the king to look -kindly upon them. For these reasons Connecticut and Rhode Island had -received the commissioners with consideration, while weak Plymouth was also -praised for her ready obedience. - - Sidenote: Decadence of the confederation. - -The suppression of New Haven by the king, and the practical victory of the -Quakers over the theocratic policy of Massachusetts, were staggering blows -to the confederation. The federal commissioners held triennial meetings -thereafter until 1684, when the Massachusetts charter was revoked; but its -proceedings, except during King Philip's war, were of little importance. - - Sidenote: A prosperous period. - -The period of the decadence of the confederation, however, was in the main -one of prosperity for New England. Emigration to America had almost wholly -ceased after 1640, with the rise of the Puritans in England; but the -restoration of the Stuarts and the passage of the Act of Uniformity, with -its accompanying persecutions, caused a renewal of the departure of -Dissenters, and the movement included many, both laymen and clericals, of -eminent ability. New industries were introduced, commerce grew, the area of -settlement extended, and wealth increased. - - Sidenote: Change of attitude towards England. - -But the accretion of wealth and the passage of time brought changes in the -attitude towards England that threatened in a measure to counteract the -quiet struggle for independence which had been going on for nearly half a -century. A second generation of Americans had come upon the stage, with but -a traditional knowledge of the tyrannies practised upon their fathers in -the old country. Larger wealth secured greater leisure, which resulted in a -cultivation of the graceful arts, with a softening of the austere manners -and thinking of the first emigrants. There was now manifest a desire on the -part of many members of the upper class to bring about closer relations -with the Old World, with its fine manners, its aristocracy, and its -historic associations. Opposition to England began to give place to -imitation of England; colonial life had entered the provincial stage. Two -parties had by this time sprung up, although as yet without -organization,--one desiring to conciliate England, the other standing for -independence in everything except in name. Thus far none had ventured to -think of the possibility of dissolving all political connection with the -mother-land. - - - 70. Indian Wars (1660-1678). - - Sidenote: Indian policy of New England. - -The Indian policy of the New Englanders was more humane than that adopted -in any of the other colonies except Pennsylvania. Compensation had been -granted to the savages for lands taken, firm friendships had been formed -between some of the chiefs and the whites, and the missionary enterprises -among the red-men were conducted on a large scale and with much zeal. -Martha's Vineyard, Cape Cod, and the country round about Boston were the -centres of proselytism; the "praying Indians" were gathered into village -congregations with native teachers, most notable being those under the -supervision of John Eliot, "the apostle." Of these converted Indians there -were in 1674 about four thousand; several hundred of them were taught a -written language invented by Eliot, who successfully undertook the -monumental labor of translating the Bible into it for their benefit. - - Sidenote: Troubles with Philip. - -Massasoit, head-chief of the Pokanokets, had made a treaty of alliance with -the Plymouth colonists soon after their arrival, and kept it strictly until -his death (1660). His two sons were christened at Plymouth as Alexander and -Philip. Alexander died (1662) at Plymouth, where he had gone to answer to a -charge of plotting with the Narragansetts against the whites. Philip, now -chief sachem, wrongfully thinking his brother to have been poisoned, was -thereafter a bitter enemy of the dominant race. For twelve years there were -numerous complaints against him, and he was frequently summoned to Plymouth -to make answer. He was smooth-spoken and fair of promise, but came to be -regarded as an unsatisfactory person with whom to deal. In 1674 it became -evident that Philip was planning a general Indian uprising, to drive the -English out of the land. - - Sidenote: King Philip's War. - -His territory was now chiefly confined to Mount Hope,--a peninsula running -into Narragansett Bay; and here he "began to keep his men in arms about -him, and to gather strangers unto him, and to march about in arms towards -the upper end of the neck on which he lived, and near to the English -houses." On the twentieth of June a party of his warriors attacked the -little town of Swanzey, killing many settlers and perpetrating fiendish -outrages. War-parties from Mount Hope now quickly spread over the country, -joined by the Nipmucks and other tribes. Throughout the white settlements -panic prevailed, and several towns in Massachusetts, as far west as the -Connecticut valley, were scenes of heart-rending tragedies. - -The Narragansetts had played fast and loose in this struggle, their -disaffection growing with the success of the savage arms. It was evident -that unless crushed, they would openly espouse Philip's cause in the coming -spring, and the danger be doubled. A thousand volunteers, enlisted by the -federal commissioners, on December 19 attacked their palisaded fortress in -what is now South Kingston. Two thousand warriors, with many women and -children, were gathered within the walls. About one thousand Indians were -slain in the contest, which was one of the most desperate of its kind ever -fought in America. - -The following spring and summer Philip again made bloody forays on the -settlements; but he was persistently attacked, his followers were -scattered, and he was at last driven, with a handful of followers, into a -swamp on Mount Hope. Here (Aug. 12, 1676) he was shot to death by a -friendly Indian, and "fell upon his face in the mud and water, with his gun -under him; ... upon which the whole army gave three loud huzzas." His hands -and head were cut off and taken to Boston and Plymouth respectively, in -token to the people at home that King Philip's war was at an end, and that -thereafter white men were to be supreme in New England. - - Sidenote: The effect of the struggle. - -During the two years' deadly struggle the colonists had been surfeited with -horrors, of which the statistics of loss can convey but slight idea. Of the -eighty or ninety towns in Plymouth and Massachusetts, nearly two-thirds had -been harried by the savages,--ten or twelve wholly, and the others -partially destroyed; while nearly six hundred fighting men--about ten per -cent of the whole--had either lost their lives or had been taken prisoners, -never to return. It was many years before the heavy war-debts of the -colonies could be paid; in Plymouth the debt exceeded in amount the value -of all the personal property. - -The year before Philip fell (1675), trouble broke out with the Indians to -the north, on the Piscataqua. In the summer of 1678 the English of Maine -felt themselves compelled to purchase peace, thus establishing a precedent -which fortunately has not often been followed in America. The home -government was much annoyed at the obstinacy of the colonists in not -calling on it for aid in these two Indian wars. Jealous of English -interference, they preferred to fight their battles for themselves, and -thus to give no excuse to the king for maintaining royal troops in New -England. - - - 71. Territorial Disputes (1649-1685). - - Sidenote: Massachusetts extends her territory. - -Massachusetts early gave evidence of a desire to extend her territory. -Disputes in regard to lands frequently gave rise to quarrels with the -Indians. In 1649 the strip of mainland along Long Island Sound, between the -western boundary of Rhode Island and Mystic River, was granted to her by -the federal commissioners. From 1652 to 1658 she absorbed the settlements -in Maine, now neglected by the heirs of Gorges, just as in 1642-1643 she -had annexed the New Hampshire towns. The council for foreign plantations -had been dissolved in 1675, and the management of colonial affairs was -resumed by a standing committee of the Privy Council styled "the Lords of -the Committee of Trade and Plantations." At this time the Gorges and Mason -heirs renewed their respective claims to Maine and New Hampshire, which -they said had been wrongfully swallowed up by Massachusetts. - - Sidenote: The king's charges against Massachusetts. - -Other complaints against the Bay Colony, that had been allowed to slumber -for some time, were now revived, and the Lords of Trade, as they were -familiarly called, were soon sitting in council upon the deeds of the -obstinate colony. The king's charges of early years were again advanced: -that the Acts of Navigation and Trade (page 104, Sec. 44) were not being -observed; that ships from various European countries traded with Boston -direct, without paying duty to England on their cargoes; that money was -being coined at a colonial mint; and that Church of England members were -denied the right of suffrage. Edward Randolph, a relative of the Masons, -was sent over (1676) to be collector at the port of Boston, now a town of -five thousand inhabitants, and to investigate the colonies. His manner was -insulting, and he was rudely treated by the people, who were greatly -embittered against England in consequence of his malicious reports to the -home government. - - Sidenote: New Hampshire a royal province. - -In 1679 the king erected New Hampshire into a separate royal province. -Edward Cranfield, a tyrannical man, became the governor (1682), but his -conduct drove the people into insurrection. He was obliged to fly to the -West Indies (1685), and in the same year New Hampshire was reunited to -Massachusetts. - - Sidenote: Massachusetts purchases Maine. - -In 1665 the royal commissioners detached Maine from Massachusetts; but -three years later (1668) that commonwealth calmly took it back again. -Gorges was inclined to make trouble, and agents of Massachusetts quietly -purchased his claim (1677) for L1,250. The skilful manoeuvre excited the -displeasure of the king, who had intended himself to buy out the claims of -Gorges, in order to erect Maine into a proprietary province for his reputed -son, the Duke of Monmouth. The company of Massachusetts Bay now governed -Maine under the Gorges charter as lord proprietor, and did not make it a -part of the Massachusetts colony. - - - 72. Revocation of the Charters (1679-1687). - - Sidenote: The Massachusetts charter annulled. - -It was two years later (1679) before Charles was ready again to make a -movement upon Massachusetts. He demanded that Maine should be delivered up -to the Crown, on repayment of the purchase money, and also that all other -complaints should at once be satisfied. The General Court gave an evasive -answer, and adopted its usual method of sending over agents to ward off -hostilities by a policy of delay. But in 1684 the blow came: a writ of _quo -warranto_ was issued against the simple trading charter under which -Massachusetts had so long been permitted to grow and prosper; the charter -was held to be annulled, and the colony now became a royal possession. - - Sidenote: Arrival of Andros. - -With the death of Charles II. (1685), James II. came to the English throne. -As a Roman Catholic, and imbued with a taste of absolute power, the -colonies had little favor to expect from him. In 1686, as a step towards -abolishing the American charters, James sent over Sir Edmund Andros as -governor of Massachusetts, Plymouth, New Hampshire, and Maine; he brought -authority to ignore all local political machinery and to govern the country -through a council, the president of which was Joseph Dudley, the unpopular -Tory son of the stern old Puritan who had been Winthrop's lieutenant. The -charters of Rhode Island and Connecticut were demanded for annulment -(1686). The former colony was, as usual, obedient, and yielded up her -charter; Connecticut failed to respond to the demand of Andros, and he went -to Hartford (October, 1687) and ordered the charter to be produced. A -familiar myth alleges that the document was concealed from him in the -hollow trunk of a large tree, known ever after as the "charter oak;" -nevertheless Andros arbitrarily declared the colony annexed to the other -New England colonies which he governed. - - Sidenote: His despotic rule. - -The following year (1688) Andros was also made governor of New York and the -Jerseys, his jurisdiction now extending from Delaware Bay to the confines -of New France, with his seat of government at Boston. The government of -Andros was despotic, and fell heavily on a people who had up to this time -been accustomed to their own way. Episcopal services were held in the -principal towns, and Congregational churches were frequently seized upon -for the purpose; the writ of _habeas corpus_ was suspended; a censorship of -the press was restored, with Dudley as censor; excessive registry fees were -charged; arbitrary taxes were levied; land grants made under former -administrations were annulled; private property was unsafe from -governmental interference; common lands were enclosed and divided among the -friends of Andros; the General Court was abolished, and most popular rights -were ignored. Dudley tersely described the situation (1687) on the trial of -the Rev. John Wise, of Ipswich, for heading a movement in that town to -resent taxation without representation: "Mr. Wise, you have no more -privileges left you than not to be sold for slaves." - - - 73. Restoration of the Charters (1689-1692). - - Sidenote: Andros deposed. - -In April, 1689, news came of the Revolution in England, the flight of the -arrogant James, and the accession of the Prince of Orange. The example of -revolt was already foreshadowed in Boston, where Andros and Dudley were -deposed. Elsewhere in the Northern colonies the representatives of the -tyrant extortioners were driven out. The Protestant sovereigns, William and -Mary, were proclaimed amid great popular rejoicings. - - Sidenote: New England under William and Mary. - -The old charters were restored for the time. In September, 1691, Plymouth -and the newly acquired territory of Acadia were united to Massachusetts -under a new charter, which had been secured from the king chiefly through -the agency of the Rev. Increase Mather, of Boston, now influential in -colonial politics, as were also other members of the Mather family. In May -following (1692) this new charter for Massachusetts was received at Boston. -It was not as liberal as had been hoped. The people were allowed their -representative assembly as before, but the governor was to be appointed by -the Crown; the religious qualification for suffrage was abolished, a small -property qualification (an estate of L40 value, or a freehold worth L2 a -year) being substituted; laws passed by the General Court were subject to -veto by the king,--a provision fraught with danger to the colonists. Thus -Massachusetts became a Crown charter colony,--a position not uncomfortable -so long as the executive and the legislature could agree. The first royal -governor, Sir William Phipps (1692-1695), proved to be popular, generous, -and well-meaning. He had a romantic history, but was of slender capacity, -and owed his appointment to the favor of his pastor, Increase Mather. - -Connecticut and Rhode Island received their charters back; New Hampshire -was governed by its new proprietor, Samuel Allen, but without a charter; -Maine continued under Massachusetts,--the Bay Colony now extending from -Rhode Island to New Brunswick, except for the short intervening strip of -New Hampshire coast. - -It was fortunate for American liberty that the scheme of a consolidation of -the New England colonies was put forward by the Stuarts too late for -accomplishment. It was also fortunate that Massachusetts was flanked by and -often competed with by her neighbors, Plymouth, Connecticut, Rhode Island, -and New Hampshire, who were protected against her by a jealous government -in England, and that the Dutch cut off her ambitious territorial -aspirations to the west. In the separate colonial life was sown the spirit -of local patriotism which is now embodied in the American States. In New -England, as in the South, there was a leading, but never a dominant, -colony; the smaller colonies shared the experiences of the larger, but were -freer from calamitous changes, and enjoyed in some respects governments -which were more immediately under the control of the people. - -The end of the century saw all the New England colonies established on what -seemed a permanent basis of loyalty to the Crown and of local independence. - - - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS IN NEW ENGLAND IN 1700. - - - 74. References. - - -Bibliographies.--Same as Secs. 47 and 63, above; Channing and Hart, _Guide_, Sec. -130. - -Historical Maps.--Same as Sec. 47, above. - -General Accounts.--Osgood, _Colonies_; Doyle, _Colonies_, III. ch. ix.; -Lodge, _Colonies_, ch. xxii.; W. Weeden, _Economic and Social History_; J. -Bishop, _History of American Manufactures_; American Statistical -Association _Publications_, No. 1. - -Special Histories.--Manners and customs: Earle, _Costumes of Colonial -Times_, _Customs and Fashions in Old New England, Sabbath in Puritan New -England_, and _Stage Coach and Tavern Days_; W. Bliss, _Colonial Times on -Buzzard's Bay_, and _Old Colony Town_; F. Child, _Colonial Parsons of New -England_; J. Felt, _Customs of New England_; Fisher, _Men, Women, and -Manners_, I. chs. ii.-v.; Howe, _Puritan Republic_, chs. v.-ix.; W. Love, -_Fast and Thanksgiving Days_; M. Ward, _Old Colony Days_; Wharton, -_Colonial Days and Dames_.--Education: C. Johnson, _Old Time Schools and -School Books_; E. Brown, _Making of our Middle Schools_.--Theology: B. -Adams, _Emancipation of Massachusetts_; F. Foster, _New England Theology_; -M. Greene, _Development of Religious Liberty in Connecticut_; C. F. Adams, -_Antinomianism_.--Press: C. Duniway, _Freedom of Press in Massachusetts_; -G. Littlefield, _Early Massachusetts Press_; R. Roden, _Cambridge -Press_.--Slavery: G. Moore, _Slavery in Massachusetts_; G. Williams, _Negro -Race in America, 1619-1880_; W. Dubois, _Suppression of Slave Trade_.--On -the witchcraft delusion: C. Upham, _Salem Witchcraft_; S. Drake, _Annals of -Witchcraft_; J. Taylor, _Witchcraft Delusion in Connecticut_.--Medical -practice: O. Holmes, _Medical Profession in Massachusetts_. See also, -biographies of prominent men. - -Contemporary Accounts.--Same as Sec. 63, above. - - - - 75. Land and People. - - Sidenote: Geography. - -North of Cape Cod the shores of New England are rugged and forbidding, -though the coast-line is indented by numerous inlets from the sea, -affording safe anchorage. To the south of the cape there are also abundant -harbors; but the mountains nowhere approach the shore, and the beach is -wide, with a sand strip extending for some distance inland, while -treacherous shoals are not uncommon. The rivers, except those in Maine and -the Merrimac and the Connecticut, are small, and have their sources in -innumerable small lakes; the upper streams fall in successions of -picturesque cascades, the water-power of which is often profitably utilized -in manufacturing; and the larger rivers are held back by great dams, about -which have grown up the manufacturing towns of Manchester, Nashua, Lowell, -Lawrence, Holyoke, and many others. - -Two ranges of mountains traverse New England: the Green Mountains and their -continuation, the Berkshire Hills, run nearly north and south from Canada -to Connecticut; the White Mountains form a group, rather than a chain, -nearer the coast. In the eastern half of Maine the low watershed comes down -to within one hundred and forty miles of the sea-shore, and the -Atlantic-coast region may be said practically to end there. The highest -elevation in the Appalachian system north of North Carolina is Mount -Washington (six thousand two hundred and ninety feet), in the White -Mountain range. The soil of New England is for the most part thin, and -interspersed with rocks and gravel. The banks of some of the principal -rivers are enriched by alluvial deposits left by overflows; there are fair -pasturage lands in Vermont and New Hampshire, while Maine, back from the -shore, has much good soil. The New England hills are rich in quarries of -fine building stone. Their mineral wealth is not great; iron and manganese -have been found in considerable quantities, together with some anthracite -coal, lead, and copper. Originally New England was one vast forest, and the -trees had to be cleared away in order to prepare the soil for cultivation. -The climate is subject to rapid variations, being generally accounted -superb in the summer and autumn; but the winters are long and severe, and -the springs late and brief. - -The natural obstacles to human welfare in New England were great; but the -English settlers were men of tough fibre and rare determination. They were -not daunted by rugged hills, gloomy forest, harsh climate, and niggardly -soil. With courageous toil they built up thrifty towns along the narrow -slope, and erected enduring commonwealths, in which the English -institutions to which they had been accustomed were reproduced, and often -improved upon. - - Sidenote: The population. - -The population of New England in 1700, by which time a second generation of -Englishmen had arisen in America, is roughly estimated at about a hundred -and five thousand souls, of whom seventy thousand were in Massachusetts and -Maine, five thousand in New Hampshire, six thousand in Rhode Island, and -twenty-five thousand in Connecticut. The people were almost wholly of pure -English stock. Up to 1640, when the first great Puritan exodus ceased, full -twenty thousand English Dissenters, mainly from the eastern counties of -England, came to New England; thenceforth the population, says Palfrey, -"continued to multiply on its own soil for a century and a half, in -remarkable seclusion from other communities." During this time there was a -small infusion of Normans from the Channel Islands, Welsh, Scotch-Irish -(chiefly in 1652 and 1719), and Huguenots (1685). It is computed that at -the opening of the Revolutionary War ninety-eight per cent of New England -people were English or unmixed descendants of Englishmen. Nowhere else in -the American colonies was there so homogeneous a population, or one of such -uniformly high quality. As said Stoughton, lieutenant-governor of -Massachusetts (1692-1701): "God sifted a whole nation, that he might send -choice grain over into this wilderness." - - - 76. Social Classes and Professions. - - Sidenote: Classes. - -Social distinctions were almost as sharply drawn in New England as in the -South. There was a powerful and much-respected aristocratic class, -beginning with the village "squire" and ending with the Crown officials in -the capital towns. "The foundations of rank," says Lodge, "were birth, -ancestral or individual service to the State, ability, education, and to -some extent wealth." The recognized classes were, in order of precedence, -gentlemen, yeomen, merchants, and mechanics; and at church the people were -punctiliously seated according to station. Down to 1772 the students in -Harvard College were carefully arranged in the catalogue in the order of -their social rank, the Hutchinsons, Saltonstalls, Winthrops, and Quincys -near the head. There was also a distinction between new-comers and -old-comers, the "old family" class laying some pretensions to social -superiority. The aristocrats were not men of leisure,--everybody in New -England worked; but the public offices and the professions were reserved -for gentlemen. Now and then some of them conducted large estates, although -aristocracy was not, as in England, supported on landed possessions and -primogeniture. The force of public opinion alone separated the classes; -with the growth of the democratic idea, social barriers ultimately -weakened, although they continued to appear in the politics of the -commonwealth down to the middle of the present century. - - Sidenote: Slavery. - -Slaves were comparatively few in number, the greater part of them being -house and body servants, and they were not harshly treated; travellers have -left record of the fact that some of the humbler farmers ate at table with -their human chattels. The race was, however, generally despised, and in one -of the old churches in Boston is still to be seen the lofty "slaves' -gallery." Judge Samuel Sewall issued the first public denunciation of -slavery in Massachusetts, in a pamphlet issued in 1700, wherein he -denounced "the wicked practice." For many years this distinguished jurist -and diarist followed up his assaults, allowing no opportunity to escape -wherein he might espouse the cause of the oppressed "blackamores" and -mitigate the severity of the laws against them. But the colonists in -general saw nothing in the system to shock their moral sense, and it was -not until the Revolution that anti-slavery ideas began, in New England, to -spread beyond a narrow circle of humanitarians. - - Sidenote: The legal profession. - -There was a full system of courts, ranging from the colonial judges down to -the justices of the peace and "commissioners of small causes," appointed by -colonial authority in each town. The magistrates were uniformly men of good -character, of the upper, well-educated class, and rendered substantial -justice, although not specially trained in the law. The legal profession -was practically neglected throughout the seventeenth century, doubtless -owing in great part to lack of facilities for study and to the overtowering -importance of the ministry; we do not read of a professional barrister in -Massachusetts until 1688. There was, however, no lack of litigation; -personal disputes were rife in Rhode Island, and in Connecticut there were -frequent legal contests between towns regarding lands. Between the -colonies, also, there were complicated and hotly-contested boundary -disputes. The bar gained strength, but it was not till about the middle of -the eighteenth century that it stood beside the ministry. - - Sidenote: The ministry. - -We have had frequent evidences, in preceding chapters, of the large -influence of the clergy in the temporal affairs of New England. The ranks -of the Puritan ministry contained men of the best ability and station; they -were pre-eminently the strongest class, and as the popular leaders, deeply -impressed their character upon the laws and institutions of the community. -They were held in great affection and reverence; but in a body of sturdy, -intelligent parishioners they could maintain their supremacy only by the -exercise of superior mental gifts: their calling was one offering rich -rewards for excellence, and attracted to it men of the finest calibre, like -the Mathers and Hooker. The sloth or the dullard was soon taught by his -people that he had mistaken his calling. Jonathan Edwards, although of a -later period than that of which we are treating, was a fair type, and his -early resolution "to live with all my might while I do live," was an -expression of the spirit which dominated his order. - - Sidenote: Medicine. - -It was an age in which quackery flourished. The regular physicians, though -excellent men and highly regarded by the people, depended upon nostrums, -and had little medical knowledge; they were in the main "herb-doctors" and -"blood-letters." Many of the practitioners were barbers, and others -clergymen. "This relation between medicine and theology," writes Dr. -Holmes, "has existed from a very early period; from the Egyptian priest to -the Indian medicine-man, the alliance has been maintained in one form or -another. The partnership was very common among our British ancestors." -There were few facilities for the study of medicine in the colonies until -after the Revolution. The first medical school in America was established -in Philadelphia, about 1760. - - - 77. Occupations. - - Sidenote: Domestic manufactures. - -Unlike the Southern colonists, New Englanders were dependent on England -only for the most important manufactures. Mechanics were sufficiently -numerous in every community. The lumber industry was important, and in -Connecticut and Massachusetts there was profitable iron mining, which gave -rise to several kindred pursuits. There being abundant water-power, small -saw and grist mills were numerous; there were many tanneries and -distilleries; the Scotch-Irish in Massachusetts and New Hampshire made -linens and coarse woollens, and beaver hats and paper were manufactured on -a small scale. The people were largely dressed in homespun cloth, and a -spinning-wheel was to be found in every farm-house. It was not until after -the Revolution, however, that New England manufacturing interests attained -much magnitude; the home government, through the Acts of Navigation and -Trade (page 104, Sec. 44), had discouraged, as far as possible, American -efforts in this direction. - - Sidenote: Fisheries. - -The fisheries, particularly whale and cod, were an important source of -income, those of Massachusetts being estimated, in 1750, at L250,000 per -year. Fishers' hamlets, with their great net-reels and drying stages, were -strung along the shores. The men engaged in the traffic were hardy and -bold, no weather deterring them from long voyages to Newfoundland and -Labrador, while whale-fishers ventured into the Arctic seas. From their -ranks were largely recruited the superb sailors who made the American navy -famous in the two wars with England. - - Sidenote: Shipbuilding. - -A pinnace, called the "Virginia," was constructed by the Popham colonists -in 1607,--the first ocean-going vessel built in New England. Shipbuilding -was first undertaken at Plymouth in 1625, and in Massachusetts six years -later (1631). By 1650 New England vessels were to be seen all along the -coast, and carried the bulk of the export cargoes. Before 1724 English ship -carpenters complained of American competition. In 1760 ships to the extent -of twenty thousand tons a year were being turned out of American -shipyards,--chiefly in New England; and most of them found a market in the -mother-country. - - Sidenote: Commerce. - -Dried fish was the chief commodity carried out of New England, and was -exported in American bottoms to Spain, Portugal, and the West Indies. -Fish-oil and timber were also sent out of Maine and Massachusetts to -foreign countries; hay, grain, and cattle were taken to New York, -Philadelphia, and the West Indies. There was an active longshore coasting -service by small craft, which ascended the rivers and gathered produce from -the farmers; these they took to neighboring ports, and brought back other -colonial products in exchange. Larger vessels went with miscellaneous -cargoes to the West Indies, and returned with slaves and sugar. New -Englanders manufactured rum from West India sugar and molasses, and -exported the finished product. There are instances of New England ships -taking rum to Africa, where it was exchanged for slaves; these slaves were -then transported to the West Indies, to be bartered for sugar and molasses, -which was carried home and converted into rum. It was a day when kegs of -rum and wines were given to ministers at donation parties, and ministers -themselves made brandy by the barrel for domestic use, and sold it to their -parishioners. Wines were imported from Madeira and Malaga, and manufactured -goods from England and the Continent. A very large and profitable business -was done in the general carrying trade, which was developed by enterprising -New England men in all the sister colonies. Boston alone employed, by the -middle of the eighteenth century, about six hundred vessels in her foreign -commerce, and a thousand in her fisheries and coast-trade. - - Sidenote: Distribution of occupations. - -At the beginning of the eighteenth century the population was in about -equal degree engaged in trade and agriculture. Trade was the chief calling -in Rhode Island, and agriculture in Connecticut and New Hampshire, while in -Maine and Massachusetts both flourished. All of the colonies were also much -interested in the fisheries. - - - 78. Social Conditions. - - Sidenote: The towns. - -Boston, Newport, and New Haven were the chief towns; the former was at this -time the centre of political and mercantile life on the North American -continent, and there were external evidences of considerable wealth and -some luxury. New Haven was famed for its prosperous appearance, and the -houses of its rich men were of a better style of architecture than commonly -seen in the colonies. Small villages, neighborhood centres of the several -townships, abounded everywhere. The houses of the minister and the -school-teacher, with the little shops of tradesmen and artisans, formed the -nucleus around which the farm-houses were grouped with more or less -density. The village streets, overhung with arching elms, were kept in -tolerable order by the "hog-reeves," "fence-viewers," and other town -officials. The quaint, roomy, gambrel-roofed houses were scrupulously plain -and clean, and were presided over by model housewives. - - Sidenote: Life and manners. - -The people in these rural communities were in moderate financial -circumstances, neat in habit, intelligent, and fairly educated; both sexes, -young and old, worked hard, were frugal, thrifty, and as a rule rigid in -morals. While coldly reserved towards strangers, they were kind and -hospitable, and noted far and wide for their acute inquisitiveness. They -wore sober-colored garments except on Sunday, the important day of the -week, when there was a general display of quaint finery of a sombre -character. The men wore long stockings and knee-breeches, with buckled -shoes; workmen had breeches and jackets of leather, buckskin, or coarse -canvas, while those of higher degree were generally dressed in coarse -homespun,--only the richest could afford imported cloths. Their great open -fireplaces were ill-adapted to withstand the winter's rigor. Their churches -were wholly unprovided with heating accommodations. Their diet was spare. -The well-to-do prided themselves on their old silver tableware, and New -England kitchens were noted for their displays of brightly burnished pewter -and brasses. Cider and New England rum were favorite beverages; but -drunkenness was less prevalent than in the other colonies: the New England -temperament was not inclined to excesses and roistering. The general tone -of life was sedate, even gloomy; the Puritans had "a lurking inherited -distrust for enjoyment," yet they cultivated a certain dry humor, and for -the young people there was not lacking a round of simple amusements, such -as house-raisings, dancing parties, and husking, spinning, quilting, and -apple-paring bees, into which the neighborhoods entered with great zest. In -the towns there was more pretension and ceremonial; but taking changed -conditions into account, the life of the townspeople and their habits of -thought differed but little from those of their rural cousins. - - Sidenote: Roads and travel. - -The highways were generally of fair character, but the larger streams were -unbridged. Outside of the neighborhoods of the large towns wheeled -vehicles, except for heavy loads, were not common until the time of the -Revolution. Horseback was the ordinary mode of travel. A tavern kept by -some leading citizen could be found in every town, with good lodgings at -reasonable rates, although there was general complaint of the cookery. -Nowhere else in the colonies was there so much intercommunication as in New -England. - - - 79. Moral and Religious Conditions. - - Sidenote: Education. - -A system of public education was among the first institutions established -by the Puritans. Each town had its school; by 1649 there was no New England -colony, except Rhode Island, in which some degree of education was not -compulsory. Deep learning was rare, but the people were well drilled in the -rudiments; except on the far-off borders of Maine there was no illiteracy -in New England when the Revolution broke out. Latin schools and academies -soon supplemented parental instruction and the common schools. We have seen -that Boston was but six years old when Harvard College was established -(1636); and Yale College was opened at New Haven in the year 1700. - - Sidenote: Crime. - -Crime appears to have been less frequent in New England than in the -Southern or the middle colonies; the highways were safe after the close of -King Philip's war and the Tarratine trouble; doors and windows were seldom -barred in the country, and young women could travel anywhere with perfect -safety. The list of capital crimes was a long one in that day, as well in -the mother-land as in the colonies, and hangings, particularly of the -pirates who infested the coast, were spectacles frequently seen in New -England. A more cruel form of punishment was reserved for the negro race. -There were several cases of negroes being burned at the stake for murder or -arson. Great publicity was given to all manner of punishments; gibbets, -stocks, ducking-stools, pillories, and whipping-posts were familiar objects -in nearly every town. Criminals might also be branded, mutilated, or -compelled to wear, conspicuously sewed to their garments, colored letters -indicative of the offences committed. Hawthorne's romance of the "Scarlet -Letter" is based on this last-named custom. - - Sidenote: Religion. - -Organized on the Independent, or Congregational, form, each religious -congregation was a law unto itself, electing its own deacons and minister, -and was but little influenced by the occasional synods, or councils of -churches, which at last fell into disuse. At first the Church was bitterly -intolerant; but this spirit gradually softened as it became more and more -separated from the State. By the close of the seventeenth century John -Eliot complained that religion had declined; in 1749 Douglass was able to -write, "At present the Congregationalists of New England may be esteemed -among the most moderate and charitable of Christian professions." The -introduction of the Church of England under Andros aroused bitter -opposition. Episcopalianism was vigorously preached against until the -Revolution; but there was no great cause for complaint, as it was not -sought to foist it upon the people, but to gain for it a hearing. The name -"Bishop's palace," still applied to a house in Cambridge which was supposed -when built to have been intended for an imported bishop, bears testimony to -the popular feeling against the system. It had no success except among the -Tory element in Boston and Portsmouth,--and later (1736-1750) in New Haven. -In Rhode Island perfect tolerance made the colony a harboring place for all -manner of despised sects and factious disturbers driven out of other -communities, and the spirit of turbulence long reigned there. - - Sidenote: "The great awakening." - -A "great awakening" of religious fervor affected New England between 1713 -and 1744. Originating in Northampton, Mass., in revivals under Solomon -Stoddard, the popular excitement became almost frenzied under Jonathan -Edwards, beginning in 1734. A visit from George Whitefield, the English -revivalist, in 1740 caused a great fervor of religious interest, and it is -estimated that twenty-five thousand converts were made by the great -agitator throughout his New England pilgrimage. By 1744, when Whitefield -again visited the scene of his triumphs, the excitement had greatly -subsided. - - - 80. The Witchcraft Delusion. - - Sidenote: The witchcraft craze. - -The witchcraft craze at Salem is commonly thought to have been a legitimate -outgrowth of the gloomy religion of the Puritans. It was, however, but one -of those panics of fear which during several centuries periodically swept -over civilized lands. In the twelfth century thousands of persons in Europe -were sacrificed because the people believed them to be witches, in league -with the devil, and with the power to ride through the air and vex humanity -in many occult ways. Pope Innocent VIII. commanded (1484) that witches be -arrested, and hundreds of odd and repulsive old women were burned or hanged -in consequence. From King John down to 1712, innocent lives were constantly -sacrificed in England on this charge; in the year 1661 alone, one hundred -and twenty were hanged there. It was therefore no new frenzy that broke out -in Massachusetts. In 1648 Margaret Jones was hanged as a witch at -Charlestown; in 1656 the sister of Deputy-Governor Bellingham, for being -"too subtle in her perception of what was occurring around her," suffered -the same fate; in 1688 an Irish washerwoman named Glover went to the -gallows because a spiteful child said she had been bewitched by the poor -creature. - - Sidenote: The trials. - -There was general despondency in Massachusetts in 1692, the result of four -small-pox epidemics which had quickly followed each other, the loss of the -old charter, a temporary increase in crime, financial depression, and -general dread of another Indian outbreak. The time was ripe for an epidemic -of superstitious fear. All at once it broke out with great fury in the old -town of Salem. Despite the protest of Cotton Mather and other prominent -clergymen, who, though believers in witches, condemned unjust methods of -procedure, a special court of oyer and terminer was hastily organized -(1692) by the governor and council for the trial of the accused. -Lieutenant-Governor Stoughton, who presided over this extraordinary -tribunal, was in active sympathy with the fanatics who conducted the -prosecution. The witnesses were chiefly children, and the testimony the -flimsiest ever seriously received in an American court of justice. But the -judges, although sober and respectable citizens, were as deluded as the -people; while the frenzy lasted, nineteen persons were hanged for having -bewitched children in the neighborhood, and one was pressed to death -because he would not plead. Of the hundreds of others who were arrested, -two died while in prison. - - Sidenote: Sewall's repentance. - -By the following year the craze had exhausted itself, and there was a -general jail-delivery. Many of the children afterwards confessed to the -falsity of their testimony. Samuel Sewall was one of the trial judges. He -afterwards, while standing in his pew in the Old South Church at Boston, -had read at the desk at public declaration expressing his deep repentance -that he had been in such grievous error, and asking the congregation to -unite with him in praying for the forgiveness of God. Cotton Mather, -however, endeavored to vindicate himself by the statement, "I know not that -ever I have advanced any opinion in the matter of witchcraft but what all -the ministers of the Lord that I know of in the world, whether English or -Scotch, or French or Dutch, are of the same opinion with me." - - Sidenote: The witchcraft delusion elsewhere in the colonies. - -Belief in witchcraft was not confined to Massachusetts. Evidence of this -superstition--childish to us of to-day, but a stern reality in the -strongest minds of Cotton Mather's time--was noticeable throughout most of -the colonies until the middle of the eighteenth century. In 1705 a witch -was "ducked" in Virginia. There were trials for witchcraft in Maryland -during the last quarter of the seventeenth century, but there is no -evidence extant of an execution. In Pennsylvania in 1683 a woman was tried -as a witch, and bound to good behavior. In 1779, during a similar panic -among the French creoles at Cahokia, Ill., two negro slaves were condemned -to be hanged, and another to be burned alive while chained to a post, on -the charge of practising sorcery; there is, however, no evidence that the -sentence was carried out. - - - 81. Political Conditions. - - Sidenote: Administration. - -The town was in New England the political unit. The town-meeting was a -primary assembly, at which were transacted all local affairs,--those which -came nearest to the individual. The colonial government dealt with general -interests; the colonial machinery of administration might break down, and -yet the immediate needs of the people would have been for a time subserved -by the town governments. This was the case at the beginning of the -Revolution. But the indispensable function of legislation upon property and -contracts, the definition of crimes, and all the judicial affairs of the -people, were from the first carried out by the colony. In the -town-meetings--and in church congregations, which were for a long period -scarcely distinguishable from them--the people were trained in -self-government; their intellects were sharpened, and there was bred a -stout spirit of political self-sufficiency. By the beginning of the -eighteenth century a freehold test for suffrage was common in New England, -as in most of the American colonies. Taxes raised on land, polls, and -personal property were not onerous, as public expenditures were carefully -watched and criticised by a frugal people. The introduction of royal -governors opened the door to bickerings between the executive and the -legislature,--so prominent a feature in eighteenth-century colonial history -prior to the Revolution. Up to 1700, with a few exceptions, the political -machinery had run quite smoothly, when not subjected to outside -interference. The several colonial governments in New England varied in -detail, but they were alike in being largely independent of England, in -being administered in a spirit of simplicity and economy, and in the extent -to which the body of the people were enabled to influence the conduct of -affairs. - - Sidenote: Summary. - -New England men were brave and liberty-loving, stoutly withstanding any -attempt on the part of the home government to curtail their rights as -Englishmen or hamper their progress. They were not always successful in -their resistance, but were vastly more independent than their French and -Spanish neighbors; and the principles of popular government were nowhere -else, even in the English colonies, so successfully put in practice. They -were hard-working, frugal, God-fearing, educated, and virtuous men. They -sprang from a high quality of pure English stock, and they had raised -indeed "choice grain." They founded an enduring empire amid obstacles that -two and a half centuries ago might well have seemed appalling. The creed of -the Puritans was harsh, their view of life gloomy, and their church -intolerant; but their mission, as they conceived it, was a serious one, and -the stormy experience of Rhode Island was not calculated elsewhere to -encourage looseness in religious thinking. They were enterprising and -thrifty to a high degree. In commerce, domestic trade, manufactures, and -political sagacity, for nearly two centuries New England easily led all the -American colonies. The nation owes much to the wisdom, the energy, and the -fortitude of New England colonial statesmen; and New England institutions -are to-day in large measure characteristics of the American commonwealth. - - - - - CHAPTER IX. - - THE COLONIZATION OF THE MIDDLE COLONIES (1609-1700). - - - 82. References. - - -Bibliographies.--Larned, _Literature of American History_, 92-100; Andrews, -_Colonial Self-Government_, ch. xx.; Avery, II. 417-421, 438-444, III. -413-418, 430-432, 443-445; Winsor, III. 411-420, 449-456, 495-516, IV. -409-442, 488-502; Channing and Hart, _Guide_, Secs. 104-108. - -Historical Maps.--Nos. 1, 2, and 3, this volume (_Epoch Maps_, Nos. 1, 2, -3); Winsor, as above. - -General Accounts.--Fiske, _Dutch and Quaker Colonies_; Doyle, _Colonies_, -IV.; Lodge, _Colonies_, chs. ix.-xvi.; Channing, _United States_, I. chs. -xvi., xvii., II. chs. ii., iv., v., vii.; Avery, II. chs. iv., xi., xii., -III. chs. iv.-vi., xv., xvii., xviii., xxvi.; Andrews, as above, chs. -v.-viii., xi., xii.; Winsor, III. chs. x.-xii., IV. chs. viii., ix. - -Special Histories.--New York: Roberts (Commonwealths), and Brodhead: -O'Callaghan, _New Netherlands_; G. Schuyler, _Colonial New York_, I.; W. -Griffis, _New Netherland_; histories of New York city by Innis, Janvier, -Lamb, Rensselaer, Roosevelt, Stone, and Wilson.--Delaware: Conrad and -Scharf; Jameson, _Willem Usselinx_.--New Jersey: Lee, Mulford, Raum, and -Tanner; F. Stockton, _Stories of New Jersey_; A. Melick, _Old New Jersey -Farm_.--Pennsylvania: S. Fisher, _Making of Pennsylvania_; H. Jenkins, -_Pennsylvania_; I. Sharpless, _Two Centuries of Pennsylvania_, and _Quaker -Government_; A. Myers, _Irish Quakers_; O. Kuhns, _German and Swiss -Settlements_; J. Sachse, _Pennsylvania Germans_, and _German Pietists_; -Scharf and Westcott, _Philadelphia_. - -Contemporary Accounts.--Josselyn, _Two Voyages_ (1675); Dankers Sluyter, -_Voyage to New York_ (1679); Penn, _Some Account_ (1681); Budd, _Good Order -Established_ (1685); Sewel, _History of Quakers_ (1722); Hazard, _Annals of -Pennsylvania_; Gabriel Thomas, _West Jersey_. Reprints: _Colonial -Documents_ and _Records_ of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania; _Half -Moon Series_; _American History told by Contemporaries_, I. part vi.; -Jameson, _Original Narratives_; publications by colonial and town record -commissions, and historical and antiquarian societies. - - - 83. Dutch Settlement (1609-1625). - - Sidenote: Hudson's discovery. - -In September, 1609, Hendrik Hudson, an English navigator in the employ of -the Dutch East India Company, sailed up the river to which his name has -been given by the English--the Dutch called it North River--as far as the -future site of Albany. He found "that the land was of the finest kind for -tillage, and as beautiful as the foot of man ever trod upon." Six weeks -earlier Champlain, the commander of New France, had been on the shores of -Lake Champlain about one hundred miles to the north, fighting the native -Iroquois. The object of Hudson's search was a familiar one in his -time,--the discovery of a water-passage through the continent that might -serve as a short-cut to India, where his masters were engaged in trade. He -did not find what he sought, but opened the way to a lucrative traffic with -the American savages, whose good graces the thrifty Dutch strove to -cultivate. The French leader's introduction to the Iroquois had been as an -enemy, but the explorer from Holland came as a friend: the Dutch reaped -advantage from the contrast. - - Sidenote: Early Dutch trading-posts. - -Dutch traders annually visited the region of Hudson River during the next -few years. There was at first no attempt at colonization, for Holland just -at that time was not prepared to give offence to her old enemy, Spain, -which claimed most of North America by the right of discovery and Pope -Alexander's bull of partition. Nevertheless, the country was styled New -Netherland, and Holland recognized it as a legal dependency. A Dutch -navigator, Adrian Block, as the result of an accident, spent a winter on -either Manhattan or Long Island, and built a coasting-vessel (1614) for -trafficking in furs. A small trading-house, called Fort Nassau, was also -erected this year on the site of Albany; a similar establishment, without -defences, and surrounded by a few huts for traders, was built on Manhattan -Island, at the mouth of the river, the following season (1615); a new Fort -Nassau was afterwards (1623) set up on the Delaware River, four miles below -the site of Philadelphia, but was soon abandoned. - - Sidenote: The New Netherlands Company. - -In 1615 the New Netherland Company obtained a trading charter from the -States-General of Holland. The corporation was granted a monopoly of the -Dutch fur-traffic in New Netherland for three years, and conducted -extensive operations between Albany and the Delaware, coastwise and in the -interior. The Dutch thus far had not ventured to exercise political control -over the New Netherland. The country was still claimed by the English -Virginia Company. The land originally granted to the Pilgrims from Leyden -by the latter company was described as being "about the Hudson's River." We -have seen how the party on the "Mayflower" were prevented by storms--or -possibly by the design of the captain--from reaching their destination and -planting an English colony in the neighborhood of the Dutch trading posts. - - Sidenote: The Dutch West India Company. - -In 1621 the Dutch West India Company came upon the scene as the successor -of the New Netherland Company. Its charter bade it "to advance the peopling -of those fruitful and unsettled parts," and to "do all that the service of -those countries and the profit and increase of trade shall require." The -corporation was given almost absolute commercial and political power in all -Dutch domains between Newfoundland and the Straits of Magellan, the home -government reserving only the right to decline confirmation of colonial -officers. Three years elapsed before the company attempted to plant a -colony. Thirty families of Protestant Walloons--a people of mixed Gallic -and Teutonic blood, living in the southern provinces of Holland, whose -offer to settle in Virginia had been rejected by the English--were sent -over by the Dutch proprietors (1624) to their new possessions. The greater -part of the emigrants went to Albany, which they styled Fort Orange; others -were sent to the Delaware River colony; a small party went on to the -Connecticut; a few settled on Long Island; and eight men stayed on -Manhattan. These settlements, relying for their chief support on the -fur-trade with the Indians, were quite successful, and the New Netherlands -soon became an important group of commercial colonies. - - - 84. Progress within New Netherland (1626-1664). - - Sidenote: The settlements united. - -In 1626 Peter Minuit, then director for the company, purchased Manhattan -from the Indians, united all the settlements under one system of direction, -and founded New Amsterdam (afterwards New York city) as the central trading -depot. In every direction the trade of New Netherland grew. - - Sidenote: The patroon system. - -As the settlers seemed to be interested in commerce, and agricultural -colonization did not flourish, the corporation secured from the -States-General a new charter of "freedoms and exemptions" (1629), which -they thought better adapted to the fostering of emigration. This document -sought to transplant the European feudal system to the American wilds. -Members of the Dutch West India Company might purchase tracts of land from -the Indians and plant colonies thereon, of which these proprietors were to -be the patroons, or patrons. Each patroon thus establishing a colony of -fifty persons upwards of fifteen years of age, was granted a tract "as a -perpetual inheritance," sixteen miles wide along the river, or eight miles -on both sides, "and so far into the country as the situation of the -occupiers will permit." The company retained intervening lands; but no one -might settle within thirty miles of a patroon colony without consent of the -patroon, subject to the order of the company's officials. The patroons were -given political and judicial power over their colonists; the latter might -take appeals to the New Netherlands council, but the patroons were -generally careful to bind the settlers before starting out not to exercise -this right. - - Sidenote: Patroon settlements. - -Leading members of the company were quick to avail themselves of this -opportunity to become members of a landed aristocracy and absolute chiefs -of whatever colonies they might plant. Small settlements were soon made on -these several domains, which were taken up chiefly along Hudson River, the -principal highway into the Indian country. Van Rensselaer founded -Rensselaerswyck, near Fort Orange; Pauw secured Hoboken and Staten Island; -while Godyn, Blommaert, De Vries, and others settled Swaanendael, on the -Delaware. Many of the old patroon estates long remained undivided, and the -heirs of the founders claimed some semi-feudal privileges well into the -nineteenth century. Attempts to collect long arrears of rent on the great -Van Rensselaer estate led to a serious anti-rent movement (1839-1846), -which broke out in bloody riots and affected New York politics for several -years. - - Sidenote: Collisions with English traders. - -The patroons, as individuals, haughtily assumed to shut out the Dutch West -India Company, of which they were members, from the trade of their petty -independent States. The corporation was not only torn by internal -dissensions, but soon had on hand a quarrel with New England because of the -establishment of a Dutch fur-trading post at Hartford, on the Connecticut -(1633), and the vain assertion of a right to exclude English vessels from -the Hudson river. On the south, the Dutch came into collision with -Virginians trading on the Delaware and the Schuylkill. Trade increased, but -colonization did not thrive, owing in part to the rapacity of the patroons, -and partly to the mismanagement of the governors sent out to represent the -company. - - Sidenote: An Indian war. - -The singular lack of tact displayed by Governor Kieft led to an Algonquian -Indian uprising (1643-45), which resulted in the death of sixteen hundred -savages, but left the border settlements in ruins, and seriously checked -colonial growth for several years. The Algonkins being enemies of the -Iroquois, the friendship originally formed between the Dutch and the latter -was not disturbed by this outbreak. - - Sidenote: Attempts to foster colonization. - -In 1640 the company fixed the limits of a patroon's estate at one mile -along the river front and two miles in depth, but did not disturb the -feudal privileges. As a counter-influence, a new class of settlers was -provided for. Any one going to New Netherland with five other emigrants -might take two hundred acres of land as a bounty and be independent of the -patroons. A species of local self-government was also provided for at this -time, the officers of each town or village being chosen by the directors of -the company from a list made up by the inhabitants. These inducements do -not seem to have attracted many colonists, for when Peter Stuyvesant came -out as governor (1647), and strutted about Manhattan "like a peacock,--as -if he were the Czar of Muscovy," there were only three hundred fighting men -in the entire province. - - Sidenote: The colonists struggling for political rights. - -Up to this time the people had been obliged to rely chiefly on petitions as -a means of presenting their political grievances. In 1641 Kieft had been -forced by popular opinion to call a council of twelve deputies from the -several settlements to advise him in regard to treatment of the Indians, -and again in 1644 to consult as to taxes; but he rode rough-shod over the -deputies. The public outcry over this arbitrary conduct led to his recall -and the institution of some minor reforms. Under Stuyvesant there was -formed a council of nine, the members being selected by him from a list of -popular nominations. The board was so arranged as to be self-perpetuating, -and the people, after the original election, ceased to have any hand in its -makeup. In an important struggle between Stuyvesant and the residents of -New Amsterdam (1651) relative to an excise tax, the director general was -obliged to yield. - - Sidenote: A heterogeneous population. - -A source of anxiety to the rulers of New Netherland was the heterogeneous -character of the population. The first permanent settlers had been the -Walloons. The Dutch themselves soon followed. Besides these were several -bands of Protestant reformers who had fled from persecution in Europe, and -numerous sectaries from New England who had found life intolerable there. -There were so many French-speaking people in the district that public -documents were often printed both in French and Dutch. In 1643 it was -reported that eighteen languages were spoken in New Amsterdam. - - Sidenote: Encroachments by the Swedes. - -The South Company of Sweden sent out a colony in 1638 under charge of -Minuit, formerly employed by the Dutch West India Company. He built Fort -Christina, on the future site of Wilmington, Del., and called the country -New Sweden. The Dutch governor at New Amsterdam vainly protested against -this occupation of territory claimed by his employers. Two years later -(1641) a party of Englishmen from New Haven built trading-houses on the -Schuylkill, and at Salem, N. J., near Fort Nassau, but were soon compelled -to leave. The Swedish enterprise went unchecked until Stuyvesant's rule, -when a fort was built (1651) on the site of Newcastle, Del., below the -Swedish fort; and four years after this (1655) the South Company was -obliged, upon display of force, to abandon its enterprise. - - - 85. Conquest of New Netherland (1664). - - Sidenote: English interference. - -So long as a foreign nation and a formidable commercial rival held the -geographical centre, the northern and southern colonies of England were -separated, intercommunication was hampered, and international boundary -disputes arose. Moreover, New Amsterdam had the best harbor on the coast, -and the Hudson river was an easy highway for traffic with the Indians; it -was, as well, altogether too convenient for possible raids of French and -Indians from the north. For these reasons England was desirous of obtaining -possession of the New Netherlands. There were not wanting excuses for -interference. Englishmen in Connecticut, on Long Island, and on the -Schuylkill had had land disputes with the Dutch, and there had been much -bad temper displayed on both sides. - - Sidenote: England captures New Netherlands. - -In 1654 Cromwell sent out a fleet to take the country; but peace between -England and Holland intervened in time to give to New Netherland a respite -of ten years. In 1664 Charles II. revived the claim that Englishmen had -discovered the region before the Dutch. In August of that year Colonel -Nicolls appeared before New Amsterdam, then a town of fifteen hundred -inhabitants, with a fleet of four ships, having on board four hundred and -fifty English soldiers and Connecticut volunteers, and demanded its -surrender. There was a stone fort and twenty cannon; but the enemy were too -strong to be profitably resisted. Despite Stuyvesant's protest, "I would -rather be carried to my grave" than yield, the white flag was eagerly run -up by the frightened town officers, and Dutch rule in New Amsterdam came to -an end. - - Sidenote: Importance of the conquest. - -By October every possession of Holland in North America was in the hands of -the English, who now held the Atlantic coast from the Savannah to the -Kennebec. The achievement of Nicolls had rendered it possible for the -American colonies to unite, and thus was of the greatest importance to the -political development of the country. Had King Charles been able to foresee -the trend of events, he would no doubt have been glad to allow the Dutch to -stand as an obstacle to the union of his transatlantic possessions. - - Sidenote: Introduction of English rule. - -The Duke of York was made proprietor of the conquered territory, the -province and capital being now styled New York; Fort Orange was -rechristened Albany. But beyond the change of names, little was done to -interrupt the smooth current of life, and Dutch customs in household and -trade were retained so far as practicable; while the public offices were -impartially shared, and former Dutch officials were consulted. There was -one notable act of injustice: all land-grants had to be confirmed by the -new governor, Nicolls, and fees were exacted for this service. Under -English rule the prosperity of the colony greatly increased. - - - 86. Development of New York (1664-1700). - - Sidenote: Local government. - -The methods of local self-government were quietly transformed. Under the -Dutch, the towns, manors, and villages held direct relations with the West -India Company. A systematic code drawn by Nicolls and a convention of the -settlers (1665)--promulgated as "the duke's laws"--provided for -town-meetings for the election in each town by a "plurality of the voices -of the freeholders," of a constable and eight overseers. These officers -were the governing board of the town, with judicial and legislative powers, -thus differing from the New England selectmen, who but carried out the -mandates of the town-meeting. There was created a judicial district called -a "riding," with an area embracing several towns and presided over by a -sheriff. In 1683, these ridings developed into counties; afterwards (1703), -it was arranged that a supervisor was to be elected by the freeholders in -each town, to represent it in a county board whose duties were chiefly to -levy, collect, and apportion taxes. Thus we see the genesis in the middle -colonies of the mixed system of local government,--town and county being of -equal importance, with elective executive officers in each: it was a -compromise between the town system of New England and the county system of -Virginia; and this mixed system now prevails in perhaps most of the States -of the Union. The duke's charter enabled him to make all laws, without -asking the advice or assistance of the freemen. By "the duke's laws," power -was vested in the hands of the governor and council, the people being -wholly ignored in all matters above the affairs of the riding. Perfect -religious liberty was allowed throughout the province. - - Sidenote: Recapture by the Dutch. - -In 1672 England and Holland were again at war, and Francis Lovelace, then -governor of New York, made such preparations as he could against -anticipated attack. The Dutch colonists had had more or less trouble about -taxes with the English authorities, and there had been some friction -because the duke had made grants to Carteret and Berkeley in what -afterwards by the release became New Jersey, and thus had still further -complicated land-titles; but in general the English rule had been borne -with comparative equanimity. Nevertheless, the Dutch were highly delighted -when a fleet from Holland appeared before the city (1673), and easily -secured the surrender of the place. - - Sidenote: England again in possession. - -Fifteen months later (1674) the treaty of Westminster ceded the province -back to England, and it became New York once more. The population at this -time was about seven thousand. - - Sidenote: The rule of Andros. - -Edmund Andros, later concerned in the attempt to reduce New England (page -174, Sec. 72), now came out as governor. His domestic policy was wise, and the -province experienced a healthy growth, the fur-trade being greatly expanded -under his administration. Both Nicolls and Andros sought to neutralize the -ill effects of the New Jersey grants by contending that they were still -tributary to New York, and Andros, in particular, adopted aggressive -measures to maintain what he held to be his prerogative; but Carteret and -Berkeley were too influential at court, and the governor was recalled -(1680) and given other employment. - - Sidenote: Charter of liberties. - -Under Gov. Thomas Dongan (1683-1688) the government yielded to the clamor -of the people, who pointed to the greater freedom allowed the New -Englanders; and an assembly was formed composed of eighteen deputies -elected by the freeholders. A charter of liberties was adopted by this -body, with the king's consent, making the assembly co-ordinate with the -governor and council; freeholders and freemen of corporations were invested -with the franchise; religious toleration was ordained for all Christians; -taxes were not to be levied without the assembly's sanction: but all laws -were to require the assent of the duke, who was also to grant lands and -establish custom-houses. This liberal treatment was of short duration. The -Duke of York came to the throne in 1685 as James II., and his reign was -signalized by depriving his subjects in New York of their representative -government (1686). The governor and council were ordered to establish the -Church of England in the province, and to refuse permits to schools not -licensed by the Church. - - Sidenote: Leisler's revolution. - -In 1688 New York was annexed to New England under the rule of Andros, who -was represented in New York by a deputy, Francis Nicholson. Later in the -year news came of the Revolution in England. Jacob Leisler, an energetic -but uneducated German shopkeeper, who had come out as a soldier in the West -India Company's employ, headed the militia in driving Nicholson out and -proclaiming the Prince of Orange. Leisler assumed the government; but his -rule was rash and arbitrary, although there is no doubt of his patriotic -spirit, and soon there arose a demand from the conservative element for his -withdrawal. By various subterfuges, however, he retained office for three -years. His term was distinguished by his issuance of a call for the first -Colonial Congress held in America; it met at Albany, February, 1690, with -seven delegates, chiefly from New England, and sought to organize a -retaliatory raid against the French and their Algonquian allies, who had -recently swept Schenectady with fire and tomahawk. The following year -(1691) Leisler was forced to surrender to the royal governor, Col. Henry -Sloughter, who soon after, while intoxicated, was induced by Leisler's -enemies to sign the death-warrant of his predecessor. - - Sidenote: Closing years of the century. - -A representative assembly was called, which annulled Leisler's proceedings -and formulated a code similar to the earlier charter of liberties. Gov. -Benjamin Fletcher (1692-1698) was notoriously corrupt. He levied blackmail -on the pirates and smugglers who swarmed in the harbors, and intrigued for -money with members of the assembly; but in his dealings with the hostile -French and Indians he was firm and successful. In 1698 the Earl of -Bellomont was appointed governor, and New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts, -and New Hampshire were jointly placed under his rule. In New York he -restored order, reduced crime, and rooted out corruption and piracy, so -that when he died (1701), his loss was sincerely regretted. - - Sidenote: Characteristics of New York. - -New York had gone through a development which down to the end of the -eighteenth century marked the colony out from her sisters. No other colony -had a history of any importance before the English domination; in no other -colony were a foreign race and a foreign language and customs so -intrenched. No colony had such an experience of control from England. The -history of New York up to 1700 is chiefly a history of administrations. The -commercial pre-eminence of New York was hardly shown in colonial times. Its -chief importance among the colonies arose out of the relations with the -Iroquois. - - - 87. Delaware (1623-1700). - - Sidenote: Early Dutch settlers. - -We have seen that the Dutch West India Company established (1623) a trading -post, called Fort Nassau, on the banks of the Delaware River within the -present town of Gloucester, N.J., and four miles below the future site of -Philadelphia. The settlers were a portion of the party of Walloons sent out -to America in that year. Eight years later (1631), De Vries, Blommaert, -and other patroons (page 199, Sec. 84) of New Netherlands founded -Swaanendael, near the site of Lewes, Del.; but a quarrel soon arose -between the new settlers and the Indians, resulting in the complete -massacre of the Swaanendael colonists and the driving away of the garrison -at Fort Nassau. In 1635 the patroons owning lands on both shores of -Delaware Bay and River sold their possessions to the Dutch West India -Company, and a small garrison was sent by the latter to re-occupy Fort -Nassau. A party of Englishmen from New Haven attempted that year to settle -in the district, but were taken to New Amsterdam as prisoners. - - Sidenote: The South Company of Sweden. - -A third nation now appeared upon the scene as a competitor for the Delaware -country. The South Company of Sweden--which purposed trading in Asia, -Africa, and America, but especially in the last--had been chartered in -1624, under the auspices of the enterprising and ambitious Gustavus -Adolphus, by Willem Usselinx, an Amsterdam merchant, founder of the Dutch -West India Company. Usselinx had become embittered against the Dutch -company, which pursued a narrow and exclusive policy; and with him in this -new enterprise were associated several who had been formerly connected with -the Dutch corporation. Among these were Samuel Blommaert, one of the chief -patroons in the Delaware region, and Peter Minuit, a Walloon, once governor -at New Amsterdam. Minuit led the first Swedish trading colony to the -Delaware River (1638), and erected Fort Christina on the future site of -Wilmington, Del. - - Sidenote: The rivals on the Delaware. - -The governor at New Amsterdam, Kieft, protested loudly against this -invasion of soil claimed by the Dutch, although it was clearly within the -grant already made to Lord Baltimore by the English, who probably had as -good right in the district as the Dutch. The latter had indeed for a time -allowed it to revert to the Indians, after their first colonizing attempt. -Kieft rebuilt Fort Nassau, a menace to which the Swedes replied by -fortifying the island of Tinicum, six miles below the mouth of the -Schuylkill, thus planting the first colony in Pennsylvania as well as in -Delaware. In 1643 this island became the seat of Swedish government. - - Sidenote: Prosperity of New Sweden. - -New Sweden prospered. The settlers were industrious, thrifty, intelligent, -and contented. Along the shores of Delaware River and Bay were scattered -neat hamlets, and the company's fur-trade was extended far into the -interior. - - Sidenote: Swedish aggressiveness ends in the fall of New Sweden. - -In 1641 two English settlements were made on the river by New Haven men; -but there was good reason to distrust the new-comers, who belonged to a -land-hungry race, and Dutch and Swedes united to drive them out. Possibly -the Swedes might have finally settled down into friendly neighborhood -relations with the Dutch, had not the Swedish governor, John Printz, -adopted an aggressive attitude towards the New Netherlanders. This led to -reprisals. Stuyvesant, who succeeded Kieft at New Amsterdam, built Fort -Casimir, near the present city of Newcastle, Del., below the Swedish forts -(1651), and thus endeavored to cut them off from ocean communication. In -1654 a Swedish war-vessel anchored before Casimir, which was quietly -surrendered. The next year (1655) Stuyvesant raised an army of six or seven -hundred men, which suddenly appeared on the Delaware, overawed the Swedes, -and compelled them to abandon control of the region. Thus New Sweden fell, -amid a storm of protest, but without bloodshed. - - Sidenote: The Dutch domination. - -Part of the Delaware country was sold by the Dutch West India Company to -the city of Amsterdam (1656). The officers sent out by the municipality -were as a rule inefficient, and the colony declined; bad crops, famine, -disease, Indian troubles, quarrels with New Netherland, and boundary -difficulties with the English in Maryland, being additional reasons for -retrogression. - - Sidenote: English rule established. - -The city had just acquired the whole of the Delaware River region, when the -English took possession (1664), and Amsterdam rule was succeeded by that of -the Duke of York, with laws similar to those in vogue elsewhere in his -province. There were a few outbreaks, but as a rule both Dutch and Swedes -prospered under English domination. - - Sidenote: Annexed to Pennsylvania. - -The district was for some time the object of contention by rival English -claimants. Maryland and New Jersey both wanted it, but Penn finally secured -a grant of the country (1682), to give his province of Pennsylvania an -outlet to the sea. Delaware, now known as "the territories," "lower -counties," or "Delaware hundreds" of Pennsylvania, was for many years the -source of much anxiety to its Quaker proprietor, for political jealousy of -the "province," or Pennsylvania proper, gave rise to much popular -discontent. In 1691 the "territories" were granted a separate assembly and -a deputy-governor. But the "territories" and the "province" were reunited -under Fletcher's temporary rule (1693), and so remained until 1703, when -Delaware was recognized as a separate colony, with an assembly of its own, -although under the same governorship as Pennsylvania. - - Sidenote: Characteristics of Delaware. - -The separate existence of Delaware was almost an accident. The colony was -unjustly cut out of the Maryland grant, and was little more than a strip -along Chesapeake Bay. It remained down to the Revolution the smallest and -least important of all the colonies. - - - 88. New Jersey (1664-1738). - - Sidenote: Berkeley and Carteret's grant. - -We have already noticed the erection of Fort Nassau by the Dutch, and the -struggle over the possession of the banks of Delaware River and Bay between -the Dutch, the Swedes, and the English. When the Duke of York came into -possession of the country (1664), he granted the lands between the Delaware -and the Hudson to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, under the name of -New Jersey; this title was in compliment to Carteret, who had been governor -of the island of Jersey and bravely held it for Charles II. during the -Great Rebellion. New Jersey had a hundred and twenty miles of sea-coast; it -was as yet sparsely settled; it had a fixed natural boundary on the west; -and it was considered a particularly desirable seat for colonization. - - Sidenote: Liberal plan of government. - -The new proprietors agreed upon a plan of government by which the -administration of affairs was placed in the hands of a governor, council, -and representative assembly, as in the other colonies; the proprietors -reserved the right to annul laws and to control the official appointments. -There was to be religious liberty to all "who do not actually disturb the -civil peace of said province;" and all who were subjects of the king and -swore fealty to him "and faithfulness to the lords, shall be admitted to -plant and become freemen." - - Sidenote: A body of laws framed. - -Philip Carteret, a nephew of Sir George, came out (1665) as governor, and -with him a body of English emigrants, who founded the town of Elizabeth. -There were already on the ground, at Bergen, a number of Dutch and Swedes, -while at Shrewsbury were several English sectaries, exiles from Connecticut -and Long Island, who had purchased land from the Indians. Other New -Englanders settled Middletown and Newark in 1666. Soon after the arrival of -Carteret, several more companies came out to New Jersey from the Eastern -colonies, together with a plentiful sprinkling of Scotch. In May, 1668, -deputies from each of the towns met at Elizabeth to frame a body of laws -for the colony. The Puritan element strongly influenced the code, -particularly in the penalties for crime, which were remarkable for their -severity. - - Sidenote: The Quaker purchase. - -Throughout 1672 there was much turbulence, owing to disputes about -quit-rents between the inhabitants and the proprietors. Berkeley was by -this time thoroughly dissatisfied, and sold his undivided moiety of the -province for a thousand pounds to a party of Quakers who desired to found a -retreat for their sect; nine tenths of this purchase soon (1674) fell into -the hands of William Penn and other Friends who were associated with him. -Two years later (1676) the Penn party purchased the remainder of the Quaker -interest. - - Sidenote: The Jerseys divided. - -In 1673 the Dutch recaptured the district. When they were obliged by treaty -(1674) to give it back to the English, Charles II. and the Duke of York -reaffirmed Sir George Carteret's claim in New Jersey. The new charter for -the first time made a division of the country, giving Carteret the eastern -part,--much more than one half,--and leaving the rest to the Quaker -proprietors. In 1676, Carteret and the Quakers agreed upon a boundary line, -running from Little Egg Harbor northwest to the Delaware, at 41 deg. 40'. - - Sidenote: West New Jersey. - -In West New Jersey the Quakers set up a liberal government, in which the -chief features were religious toleration, a representative assembly, and an -executive council, whose members--"ten honest and able men fit for -government"--were to be elected by the assembly. As a proprietary body, the -framers of these "concessions and agreements" retained no authority for -themselves; they truly said, "We put the power in the people." To this -refuge for the oppressed, four hundred Quakers came out from England in -1677. - - Sidenote: East New Jersey. - -Sir George Carteret died in 1680, and in 1682 William Penn and twenty-four -associates--among whom were several Scotch Presbyterians--purchased East -New Jersey from the Carteret heirs. A government was established similar to -that in the western colony, except that the new proprietors and their -deputies were to form the executive council. In neither colony were the -public offices restricted to Quakers, and every Christian possessed the -elective franchise. - - Sidenote: Trouble with the Duke of York. - -Both the Jerseys had made excellent progress; but for several years there -was difficulty with Andros (page 205, Sec. 86), who claimed that the country -was still the property of the Duke of York and therefore within his -jurisdiction, and who attempted to levy taxes. There was much bitterness -over the dispute, in the course of which Andros displayed a despotic -temper; but in the end the duke's claims were overruled by the English -arbitrator. - - Sidenote: The Crown takes possession. - -When the duke ascended the throne as James II., he had writs of _quo -warranto_ issued (1686) against the Jersey governments on the ground of -wholesale smuggling by the residents. Under this pressure the patents were -surrendered to the Crown (1688), so far as the government was concerned, -but there was a proviso that the landed rights of the proprietors were to -be undisturbed. Andros took the two colonies under his charge; thus he was -now governor of all the country north and east of the Delaware, except New -Hampshire. But though united to the northern colonies, the Jerseymen did -not cease to assert their independence. Andros again attempted to levy -taxes upon them, and they opposed him as stubbornly as ever, claiming that -there could be no lawful taxation without representation. With the -proprietors also they had ceaseless bickerings over the quit-rents. Affairs -were in a feverish state until the former, tired of keeping up the -profitless discussion, and now rent by dissensions in their councils, -surrendered all their claims to the Crown (1702). The policy of James was -to unite the colonies, and bring them into greater dependence. - - Sidenote: New Jersey's condition as a royal province. - -New Jersey, at last reunited, was made a royal colony; but until 1738, when -given a governor of its own, it was under the administration of the -governor of New York, who ruled through a deputy. The New Jersey council -was appointed by the king, and there was a popularly elected representative -assembly. All Christian sects were tolerated, but Roman Catholics were -denied political privileges. There was a property qualification for -suffrage,--the possession of two hundred acres of land, or other property -worth L50. The inhabitants were generally prosperous. Their isolated -geographical position secured them immunity from attacks by hostile -Indians; they had scrupulously purchased the lands from the native -inhabitants, and with the few who were now left they maintained friendly -relations. The new government brought them greater political security, and -under it they thrived even better than before. - - Sidenote: Characteristics of New Jersey. - -The annals of New Jersey are like the population and political -system,--confused and uninteresting. It was many years before a tradition -of common interest could be established between East and West New Jersey. -One of the most remarkable lessons in government furnished by the colony -was a decision of the courts that an Act of the assembly was void because -not in accordance with the frame of government. - - - 89. Pennsylvania (1681-1718). - - Sidenote: Penn's charter. - -In 1676 William Penn, prominent among the English Quakers, became -financially concerned, with others of his sect, in the colony of West New -Jersey, and thereby acquired an interest in American colonization. His -father, an admiral in the English navy, had left him (1670) a claim against -the government for sixteen thousand pounds; in lieu of this he induced -Charles II. (1681) to give him a proprietary charter of forty thousand -square miles in America. The king called the region Pennsylvania, in honor -of the admiral, but against the protest of the grantee, who "feared lest it -be looked on as vanity in me." - - Sidenote: His colonization scheme. - -Penn at once widely advertised his dominions. He offered to sell one -hundred acres of land for L2, subject to a small quit-rent, and even -servants might acquire half this amount. He proposed to establish a popular -government, based on the principle of exact justice to all, red and white, -regardless of religious beliefs; there was to be trial by jury; murder and -treason were to be the only capital crimes; and punishment for other -offences was to have reformation, not retaliation, in view. By the terms of -the charter Penn was, in conjunction with and by the consent of the -free-men, to make all necessary laws. The proposals of the new proprietor -were received with enthusiasm among the people of his religious faith -throughout England. - -In October three ship-loads of Quaker emigrants were sent out, and a year -later (1682) Penn himself followed, with a hundred fellow-passengers. At -the time of his arrival the Dutch had a church at Newcastle, Del., which -was within his grant, the Swedes had churches at Christina, Tinicum, and -Wicacoa, and Quaker meeting-houses were established at Chester, Shakamaxon, -and near the lower falls of the Delaware. - - Sidenote: Constitution and laws. - -The constitution drawn up by Penn for his colony provided that the -proprietor was to choose the governor, but the people were to elect the -members of the council, and also deputies to a representative assembly; it -was practically the West New Jersey plan. The laws decided upon by the -first assembly, convened by the proprietor soon after his arrival, were -beneficent. They included provisions for the humane treatment of Indians; -for the teaching of a trade to each child; for the useful employment of -criminals in prisons; for religious toleration, with the qualification that -all public officers must be professing Christians, and private citizens -believers in God. The principles set forth in Penn's original announcement -were thus given the sanction of law. - - Sidenote: Relations between the "territories" and the province. - -A distinction was made between the original Pennsylvania, as granted by the -king to Penn, and the territory afterwards known as Delaware, which the -latter had obtained in a special grant from the Duke of York,--the royal -grant being known as "the province," and the purchase from the duke as "the -territories," of Pennsylvania. In the province three counties were -established, and in the territories three more. These counties were given -popularly elected governing boards, and were made the unit of -representation in the assembly; the towns were merely administrative -subdivisions of the counties, without any form of local government. - - Sidenote: Relations with the Indians. - -Penn was eminently successful in treating with the Indians in his -neighborhood. Circumstances favored him greatly in this regard, but -nevertheless much was due to his shrewd diplomacy and humane spirit; and -for a long period the Quaker district of Pennsylvania was exempt from the -border warfare which harassed most of the other colonies. - - Sidenote: Political turbulence. - -Obliged to return to England in 1684, Penn did not again visit his American -possessions until fifteen years had elapsed, and then but for a brief time -(1699-1701). This intervening period was one of continuous political -disquiet for the proprietor and the colonists alike, despite the fact that -the material condition of the people--Quakers, Swedes, Dutch, Germans, and -Welsh alike--continued to improve. A boundary dispute with Maryland -required the intervention of the English government (1685) as an -arbitrator; during two years (1692-1694), Penn was dispossessed of his -colony by the Crown; and the turbulent "territories" gave him so much -trouble that he sought peace by erecting them into the separate colony of -Delaware in 1703. - -Dissensions, however, did not cease either in the provinces or in Delaware. -Penn died in 1718, leaving to his heirs a legacy of petty but harassing -disputes which lasted until the Revolution. - - Sidenote: Characteristics of Pennsylvania. - -Planted as Pennsylvania was, half a century after the earlier Southern and -New England colonies, and aided by rich men and court favorites, its -progress was rapid and its prosperity assured from the beginning. The -pacific policy of Penn towards the Indians saved his colony from the -expense and danger of frontier wars. Nevertheless from the beginning the -colony showed the same indisposition to submit to the control of -proprietors that had so disturbed Maryland and the Carolinas. -Notwithstanding, Pennsylvania shortly became the most considerable of the -middle colonies, and eventually equalled Virginia and Massachusetts in -importance. - - - - - CHAPTER X. - - SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS IN THE MIDDLE COLONIES IN 1700. - - - 90. References. - - -Bibliographies.--Same as Sec. 82, above. - -Historical Maps.--Same as Sec. 82, above. - -General Accounts.--Doyle, _Colonies_, IV.; Lodge, _Colonies_, chs. xiii., -xv., xvii.; Andrews, _Colonial Self-Government_, chs. xviii., xix. See also -histories of separate colonies, Sec. 82, above. - -Special Histories.--Topography: Semple, _American History and its -Geographic Conditions_, chs. i.-iv.; Roberts, _New York_, I. ch. viii.; -Scharf, _Delaware_, ch. i.--Manners and Customs: Fisher, _Men, Women, and -Manners in Colonial Times_, I. chs. vi., vii., II. ch. viii.; Wilson, -_Rambles in Colonial Byways_; Earle, _Colonial Days in Old New York_; C. -Hemstreet, _When Old New York was Young_; T. Janvier, _Old New York_; E. -Singleton, _Dutch New York_; J. Van Rensselaer, _Goede Vrouw of -Mana-ha-ta_; A. Gummere, _The Quaker: a Study in Costume_; novels by -S. W. Mitchell.--Industries: Bishop, _History of American -Manufactures_.--Slavery: J. Brackett, _Negro in Maryland_. See also Sec. 82, -above, and biographies of prominent men. - -Contemporary Accounts.--Same as Sec. 82, above. - - - 91. Geographical Conditions in the Middle Colonies. - - Sidenote: Geography. - -The middle section of the Atlantic plain in the United States is -distinguished by three deep indentations,--Chesapeake, Delaware, and New -York bays; each of these is the expanded mouth of a comprehensive river -system, and furnishes abundant anchorage,--New York bay being the finest -harbor on the continent. Along the coast south of New York is a low, level -base-plain of sand and clay, from twenty-five to fifty miles in width, the -larger towns being generally situated on the uplands beyond. The -Appalachian mountains extend in several ridges across the middle district -from southwest to northeast, the highest elevations being those of the -Catskill group in southeastern New York, where Slide Mountain towers 4,205 -feet above sea-level. New Jersey is largely occupied by the base-plain, -with hills in the northwest. From the eastern range of mountains, the -surface of New York slopes gently down, with great diversity, to Lake -Ontario; the mountains are rent by the interesting and important water-gap -of the Mohawk valley, which in an earlier geological age connected the lake -basin with the trough of the Hudson. Pennsylvania has three distinct -topographical divisions: (1) the highly fertile district between the Blue -Mountains and the sea,--including Delaware; (2) the middle belt of elevated -valleys, separated by low parallel ridges of mountains rich in anthracite -coal and iron ore; (3) the upland north and west of the mountain walls, -sloping down to the tributaries of the Ohio with a wealth of bituminous -coal, oil, and natural gas. - - Sidenote: Intermingling river-systems. - -In the New York and Pennsylvania hills the numerous rivers of the region -have their rise. These rivers either flow westward into the Mississippi -basin, northward into the Great Lakes, eastward into the deep cleft cut -through the mountains by the Hudson, or southward into the estuaries of the -Delaware and Chesapeake. Within a short distance of each other are waters -which will reach the Atlantic ocean by three divergent routes,--through the -Gulf of Mexico, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and the bays we have mentioned. -This fact has had a potent influence on the course of American settlement -and trade, which have persistently followed the water highways into the -interior of the continent; and along those rivers were fought two great -wars. - - Sidenote: Their historical significance. - -The ease with which the French and English in America could approach each -other, along the almost continuous water-route formed by Hudson River and -Lake Champlain and their tributaries, made this central region the theatre -of a protracted and desperate struggle throughout the French and Indian -war; while we shall see that during the Revolution the Hudson was regarded -as the key to the military situation. It has already been remarked (page -202, Sec. 85) how important the English government deemed the possession of -the Hudson, in 1664, as a means to the unification of the Anglo-American -empire. Through its Mohawk arm, waters running into the Great Lakes -could be readily reached. - - Sidenote: Soil and climate. - -The soil in the middle district, back from the sandy coast-belt, is for the -most part fertile. Originally the entire country was densely wooded, even -to the summits of the mountains, which nowhere rise to the snow-line. The -climate is, judged by the record of average temperature, an agreeable -compromise between New England and the South; although, as elsewhere on the -Atlantic slope, it is subject to rapid and extreme variations. Penn wrote -that the "weather often changeth without notice, and is constant almost in -its inconstancy." - - - 92. People of the Middle Colonies. - - Sidenote: Population of New York, - -The population of the middle colonies was noted for its heterogeneous -character. New York was first settled by the Dutch, who ruled the district -for fifty years. After the English conquest (1664), Dutch immigration -practically ceased; nevertheless in 1700 a majority of the whites were -Dutch, although the English, more of whom had emigrated from New England -than from the parent isle, were widely spread and politically dominant. -There were in 1700 about twenty-five thousand inhabitants, perhaps two -thousand five hundred being blacks. Besides the prevailing Dutch and -English, there were many French Huguenots, a number of Palatine Germans who -had fled from persecution at home, and a few Jews. The New York colonists -chiefly dwelt on the islands and shores of New York bay, and the banks of -the Hudson and Mohawk. Beyond this thin fringe of settlement, the forest -wall was for the most part still unbroken. Agricultural development was as -yet slow, but the fur-trade was spreading far into the interior. - - Sidenote: of the Jerseys, - -East Jersey had a population of about ten thousand, composed of Quakers, -New England men, and Scotch Presbyterians. Of the four thousand inhabitants -of West Jersey, the Quakers were the prevailing element. The population of -New Jersey was homogeneous, being very largely English; the few Dutch, -Germans, and Swedes having little effect on the character of the colony. -Jerseymen were vigorous and quick-witted, although Governor Belcher -(1748-1757) wrote, "They are a very rustical people, and deficient in -learning." - - Sidenote: and of Pennsylvania and Delaware. - -Pennsylvania and Delaware had, together, a population of about twenty -thousand in 1700, having developed more rapidly than any other of the -American colonies. Somewhat over one half were English Quakers, the others -being sectaries from New England, French, Dutch, Germans, Swedes, Finns, -Welsh, and Scotch-Irish Presbyterians. The Germans moved in large numbers -to what were then the western borders, where they evolved a distinct -dialect, popularly known as "Pennsylvania Dutch." Although valuable -pioneers of civilization, they exhibited a stubborn temper, which, with -their strong opposition to the bearing of arms, made them untrustworthy -during the French and Indian wars. The rugged, liberty-loving Scotch-Irish -were a later acquisition. The pure Irish, destined to become so prominent -on the frontier, did not commence arriving until 1719. The Swedes were -strong, sturdy, and simple agriculturists. The English Quakers were of the -middle class of tradesmen and small farmers. Their prejudice against taking -up arms made it difficult for the colonial military officers to defend the -province against the disastrous Indian forays of the eighteenth century, -and was a fruitful source of political and social disturbance. - -By the close of the seventeenth century a people had grown up in most of -the middle colonies which was largely English in composition, with habits -of speech, thought, and manner greatly affected by English traditions, but -still much modified by the liberal infusion of blood from kindred -nationalities on the continent of Europe. The eager, enterprising spirit of -the English, quickened by removal to the New World, had, after a generation -or two of amalgamation, been noticeably tempered by the phlegmatic -temperament of the German, Dutch, and Scandinavian settlers. - - - 93. Social Classes. - - Sidenote: Classes. - -In the middle colonies, as in New England and the South, there existed an -acknowledged aristocracy, although there was a wide gap between the haughty -and elegant Dutch manor-chiefs in New York and the rude gentlemen farmers -who headed New Jersey society. The servile classes common to the Southern -colonies were also present here, as a foundation for aristocratic -distinction; but they were comparatively insignificant in number. Nowhere -in this middle group was free white labor regarded as degrading; nearly all -the colonists were workers, whether behind the desk or the counter, in the -shop or in the field. Trade was exalted to a high station. - - Sidenote: Slavery. - -New York had many negroes, left over from the Dutch rule, but there was a -strong physical prejudice against them, and their further importation was -gradually restricted. In 1711 and 1741, on insufficient evidence, the -blacks were accused of plots against the whites of New York city, and were -cruelly dealt with,--on the former occasion nineteen were hanged; on the -latter, eighteen suffered death by the gallows, and thirteen were burned at -the stake. The laws against negroes were harsh in all of the middle -colonies. But in practice, slaves were mildly treated, compared with those -in the South. The Quakers were opposed to human bondage on principle, yet -many employed slaves, chiefly as house-servants. There were numerous -indented servants, especially in Pennsylvania, and most stringent laws were -adopted for their regulation. From these and the negroes the criminal class -was recruited. Among Pennsylvania Quakers were formed the first abolition -societies. - - Sidenote: The Dutch aristocrats. - -No aristocrats in America so nearly resembled the nobility of the Old World -as the great-landed Dutch proprietors in New York,--such as the Van -Rensselaers, the Cortlandts, and the Livingstons. Their vast estates up the -Hudson, granted to their fathers in the days of the Dutch West India -Company, were rented out to tenant-farmers, over whom they ruled in -princely fashion, dispensing justice, and bountifully feasting the tenants -on semi-annual rent-days. Some of these estates were entitled to -representatives in the assembly, and the lords of the manor practically -held such appointments in their keeping. There was an impassable gulf -between the rural aristocrats and the small freeholders and tradesmen. This -condition of affairs was not calculated to encourage settlement; and out of -these feudal privileges, often harshly exercised, there arose conflicts -which became riotous as the Revolution approached. - - Sidenote: Aristocracy among the Quakers. - -The aristocrats of Pennsylvania and Delaware were also the wealthy landed -gentry, chiefly Penn's followers; but the class was not strongly marked, -and almost imperceptibly faded away into the ranks of the merchants and -small freeholders. Each village, however, had its Quaker "squire" or -magistrate, in powdered wig, broad ruffles, cocked hat, and gold-headed -cane, who meted out justice at the neighboring tavern and was highly -regarded. Rich and poor alike, among the Quakers, were simple in tastes and -habits. In New Jersey there was a mild recognition of the social -superiority of the gentlemen farmers, notwithstanding a strong underlying -spirit of democracy; a rude plenty prevailed, and the gentlemen's houses -were not without some degree of elegance. - - - 94. Occupations. - - Sidenote: The professions. - -The judicial system was very similar to that which obtained elsewhere in -America. In each province was an upper court, consisting of a chief justice -and associates, appointed by the governor; from this an appeal might go in -important cases to the governor and council, and in causes involving L200 -or over, to the king in council. Below the upper court was a regular series -of courts, ranging down to the local justices of the peace. Justice was -cheap, and court practice simple. In New York, the quality of both bench -and bar was inferior, and remained so down to the Revolution; the judges -had often no legal training, and the law was not recognized as a -profession. In Delaware, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania men of ability and -character were engaged on the bench and at the bar, and their calling won -universal respect. Penn brought out two physicians with him, and in the -Quaker colonies the art of medicine had from the first an honorable -standing; but in New York physicians were not licensed until 1760. In all -four colonies the clergymen for the most part were zealous, upright men, of -learning and ability, and took high social rank. - - Sidenote: Agriculture and manufacturing. - -Except in New York, where trade was equally important, agriculture was the -chief industry; but as the soil was fertile and the average farmer -consequently careless, farming was, except among the painstaking Quakers of -Pennsylvania, in a low condition. The principal crop was wheat, although -there was much variety in farm products, and New Jersey raised large herds -of cattle on her broad lowland meadows. There were many small manufactures -for domestic use, the most important being among the Germans of Germantown, -who made, in a small way, paper and glass, and also some varieties of knit -goods and coarse cloths; the spinning-wheel was a familiar household -machine, for homespun was much worn by all except the rich. But the bulk of -manufactured goods was imported from England and the continent of Europe. -Little picturesque windmills, with broad canvas sails, after the Dutch -fashion, were numerous. Many of the Maryland and Virginia colonists came -long distances to patronize the Pennsylvania mills. It was not until 1720 -than an iron furnace was erected in the latter province,--the first in the -middle group of colonies. - - Sidenote: Trade and commerce. - -The middle-colony people had a keen sense for trade. The fur-traffic was -widespread and of the first importance, particularly in New York and -Pennsylvania; while the personal danger to the adventurous forest trader -was very great, the profits on packs of peltries successfully landed in New -York and Philadelphia were such as to warrant the hazard. The principal -exports were grain, flour, and furs, and vessels with these American -products sailed to England, Lisbon, Madeira, and the West Indies; the -exports of goods were never equal to the imports, however, and ships -bringing over wines, sugar, and miscellaneous manufactured articles often -found it difficult to obtain return cargoes. There was a profitable -'longshore commerce in farm products and small manufactures, boats -penetrating up the rivers far inland. New England bottoms were largely -employed, although a shipbuilding industry soon sprang up at Philadelphia. -New York was the chief port of the middle colonies for foreign trade; her -merchants were highly active and prosperous. - - - 95. Social Life. - - Sidenote: Life and manners in New York. - -In 1700 the Dutch were still the largest landowners in New York. The -English and other nationalities, jealously excluded from the landed class -as far as possible, were to be mainly found in the large towns in the -southern portion of the province, engaged in trade. The Dutch adhered to -old dress and customs with remarkable tenacity. Their farm-houses were -usually of wood, with the second story overhanging; the great rafters -showed in the ceilings; the fireplaces were ornamented with pictured tiles, -and above were rows of great wooden and pewter dishes, and racks of long -tobacco-pipes; the floors were daily scrubbed and sanded, and evidences of -neatness and thrift were distinguishing features. In the little hamlets, as -well as on the farms, there was plenty of good plain living; but the -people, while thrifty, sober, contented, and industrious, were -superstitious, ignorant, grasping, and slow. Life with them was narrow and -monotonous. The wealthy landed proprietors lived on their estates up the -Hudson in summer, and moved to New York city in winter; their manor-houses -were large and richly furnished, they had trains of servants, black and -white, and maintained a degree of splendor scarcely equalled elsewhere in -the colonies. The Dutch women, rich and poor, were noted for their -excellence as housekeepers, their unaffected piety, and their love of -flowers. - - Sidenote: Elsewhere in the middle colonies. - -In Pennsylvania and Delaware there was a wide difference between the -condition of the dwellers in the long-settled portions, where there was -intelligent progress, sobriety, and neatness, and that of the western -borderers, who were a rude, turbulent people, living amid wretched economic -and sanitary conditions. The better class of farmers in the eastern section -were prosperous but simple; men and women alike worked in the fields, and a -patriarchal system of family life prevailed. The soberly attired Quakers -still exercised a large influence on society, which was pervaded by a -healthy moral tone; tradesmen had a particularly keen sense of business -honesty. New Jersey was also a well-to-do colony; but her farms and -villages long had the reputation of presenting an untidy appearance. - - Sidenote: Social intercourse. - -Although life among the middle-colony folk was sober and filled with toil, -there were the customary rough and simple popular diversions of the -period,--for the farmers corn-huskings, spinning-bees, house-raisings, and -dancing-parties, at which hard drinking was not infrequent; for the -townsfolk horse-racing, bull-baiting, cock-fighting, tavern-parties, balls, -and picnics. The people were, as a whole, of a more social temperament than -their New England neighbors. There was little luxury within their reach, -but they appear to have been as a rule satisfied in their condition, and -above want. - - Sidenote: Town life. - -The principal town was New York. Society there was more gay than in Boston, -and more fashionable than in any other American city, except perhaps -Charleston. The wealthy landed proprietors spent money freely during the -winter season, and the latest London styles were eagerly sought and -followed. A social polish was aimed at, clubs were fostered, and pride was -taken in the fact that no other American city was so cosmopolitan in -tone,--a result of its being the centre of a far-reaching foreign trade. -There was much that was English in New York, yet even here the Dutch -influence was strong. Visitors speak of the wide, pleasant streets lined -with trees, the low brick and stone houses, with their projecting eaves and -their gables to the street,--a fashion general in the colonies,--and the -insignificant character of the few public buildings. Albany was the centre -of the northern fur-trade, and purely Dutch in composition and -architecture. - -Philadelphia was the Quaker capital. Laid out like a checker-board, with -architecture of severe simplicity, its best residences were surrounded by -gardens and orchards. The town was substantial, neat, and had the -appearance of prosperity. Germantown, near by, settled by the Germans -(1683), was largely given over to small manufactures. Newcastle was -ill-built and unattractive. The New Jersey towns were rather comely, but -insignificant; Trenton was chiefly supported by travellers along the great -highway between New York and Philadelphia. - - Sidenote: Roads and travel. - -There was little intercommunication, except between the larger towns, and -the facilities for travel were meagre. Rude farm-wagons, two-wheeled -chaises, and saddle-horses were the chief means of conveyance over the -rough, stony roads; and on the many and far-reaching rivers, travellers and -traders proceeded leisurely by slow-moving craft. New Jersey was traversed -by the highways between New York and Philadelphia, over which post-boys -rode weekly with the mail in saddlebags. Taverns were in every town in New -York and Pennsylvania, and were favorite meeting-places for the village and -country folk; but in New Jersey it required legislation to induce villages -to maintain "ordinaries" for wayfarers. - - - 96. Intellectual and Moral Conditions. - - Sidenote: Education. - -Under the Dutch domination common schools flourished in New York, each town -supporting them by public aid. The English, however, jealous of educational -enterprises under charge of a nonconforming church, suffered them to fall -into neglect. Thus at the close of the seventeenth century education was -neither general nor of good quality. The English Society for the -Propagation of the Gospel established an excellent Church of England school -in New York city (1704), but the Dutch did not take kindly to it; they long -clung to their mother-tongue and the few rude schools of their own -ordering. In Pennsylvania but little attempt was made by the English in the -direction of popular education outside of the capital, where was opened -(1698) the now famous Penn Charter School, destined for fifty years to be -the only public school in the province. The Germans and Moravians -maintained some good private schools in the larger Pennsylvania and New -Jersey towns, but educational facilities in the rural places were generally -wretched, where there were any at all. - - Sidenote: Religion. - -The Church of England was nominally established in all except Pennsylvania; -but it was managed with great lack of discretion, and aroused popular -hostility against it and the mother-country. On Long Island and in New -Jersey the Puritans exerted a powerful influence on manners and thought. -Everywhere the laws against excesses in amusement and Sabbath-breaking were -very severe, but only in the Puritan communities were they strictly -enforced, although a strong sentiment of piety was general among all -respectable classes of the people. Except in New York, towards the close of -the seventeenth century there was toleration for all Protestant sects, but -in Pennsylvania alone were Roman Catholics entitled to equal consideration; -the New York laws against "Jesuits and Popish priests" were harsh, and -founded on the false notion that they incited the Indians to acts of -violence. In New York the Church of England endeavored for a time -(commencing in 1692), by violent persecution, to repress all forms of -dissent; but the sectaries flourished despite official opposition. The -leading denominations were the Dutch Lutheran, Dutch Reformed, English -Independent, and English Presbyterian. The Scotch Presbyterians and New -England Congregationalists were most numerous in New Jersey. In -Pennsylvania and Delaware, next to the Quakers stood the Lutherans and -Scotch Presbyterians, and the preachers of the latter church were vigorous -proselyters, especially successful among the western borderers. The -Germans, brought over, at first, largely through Penn's efforts, included a -number of persecuted groups,--Quakers, Palatines, Ridge Hermits, Dunkards, -and Pietists. All Christian forms and creeds were liberally represented in -Pennsylvania, where there was as genuine religious freedom as exists -anywhere in the United States to-day. - - Sidenote: Crime and pauperism. - -In none of the middle colonies was crime so prevalent as to be a -troublesome question, with the one exception of piracy,--the most common -and widely demoralizing of all the dangers to which the colonists were -subjected. Public officials often corruptly connived at the practice, and -popular sentiment was not strongly against a set of men who brought wealth -to the seaport towns and spent it lavishly. Hangings and whippings were not -infrequent public spectacles in the colonies, and the pillory was much in -use. In the Long Island towns the New Englanders, who were dominant there, -faithfully reproduced their native customs in the punishment of crime as in -most other particulars. The Quakers were, on the whole, the most lenient in -their treatment of evil-doers, up to 1718, when the second generation of -colonists abandoned the old theory of criminal legislation and adopted -measures of harsh repression similar to those in vogue in other colonies. -There was little pauperism, but perhaps more in Pennsylvania than -elsewhere. In the treatment of this evil the Quakers were also wise, and in -Philadelphia they established the first hospital for the insane, on the -continent. - - - 97. Political Conditions and Conclusion. - - Sidenote: Political spirit in the Jerseys, - -New Jersey having no foreign trade and but little manufacturing, her people -were without experience of the harshness of the English Acts of Navigation -and Trade (page 104, Sec. 44). Since there was not much to complain of -regarding treatment by the mother-country, they were generally loyal. Taxes -were light, public salaries small, and the colony, with Pennsylvania and -New York as buffers, was in no danger from Indians. - - Sidenote: in New York, - -On the other hand, New York was constantly subjected to border warfare, -which proved a serious financial burden; taxation, levied by duties on -slaves and imports, and on real and personal property, was clumsy and -oppressive, and the government corrupt and expensive. English officials and -wealthy Dutch were loyal because it was their interest to be so; but the -mass of the people, rich and poor, favored liberal candidates to the -assembly. The men from New England exerted a strong influence on the -general trend of political thought. Elections excited great bitterness and -often rioting, and they were made an excuse for the usual holiday excesses. -There was a strong feeling of resentment against the home government, -growing out of the Navigation Laws and the impressment of seamen. - - Sidenote: and in Pennsylvania. - -In Pennsylvania there prevailed a similar attitude of opposition to -England; the Quakers were, however, conservative, and slow in action, and -their dislike to bear arms made the colony a drag upon all attempts at -continental union for common defence. As in New York, local politics ran in -extremely narrow channels, and election riots were not uncommon. - - Sidenote: Summary. - -Taking a general view of the middle colonies, we find that the fur-traffic, -the fertile soil, a mixed system of agriculture, and an enterprising -commercial spirit, were the chief sources of their material prosperity. -There was prevalent a broader spirit of religious toleration; there was, -perhaps, on the whole, a more democratic spirit among all classes of the -people, than in New England or the South; except in the case of the Dutch -patroons, aristocracy did not flourish among them; the state of popular -education was pitiable; the population was more mixed than anywhere else in -America. The continental nationalities gave a more cheerful tone to society -than existed in New England and the South; the several communities varied -greatly in speech, customs, and thought, according to their origin, -although we find, as the eighteenth century opens, that the English -Puritans from New England were coming more and more to exercise a -considerable influence in political, social, and religious affairs. - - - - - CHAPTER XI. - - OTHER ENGLISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES (1605-1750). - - - 98. References. - - -Bibliographies.--Larned, _Literature of American History_, 430-438, -458-462; Winsor, VIII. 65-80, 175-177, 188-190, 270-291. - -Historical Maps.--Nos. 2, 3, and 4, this volume (_Epoch Maps_, Nos. 2, 3, -4); Winsor, MacCoun, and school histories already cited. - -General Accounts.--H. Fox-Bourne, _Story of our Colonies_, chs. i.-xi.; -Egerton, _British Colonial Policy_; Morris, _History of Colonization_; E. -Payne, _European Colonies_; Cotton and Payne, _Colonies and Dependencies_. - -Special Histories.--West Indies: Lucas, _Historical Geography_, II., secs. -i., ii.; C. Eden, _West Indies_; J. Froude, _English in West Indies_ -(answered by J. Thomas, _Froudacity_); A. Kennedy, _Story of West Indies_; -J. Rodway, _West Indies and Spanish Main_; J. Lefroy, _Discovery and Early -Settlement of Bermudas_; J. Esquemeling, _Buccaneers of America_ (and -similar books by Archenholtz, Burney, and Pyle); J. Masefield, _On the -Spanish Main_.--Newfoundland: D. Prowse, _Newfoundland_; also histories of -the island by Hatton and Harvey, Smith, and Pedley; S. Dawson, _Canada and -Newfoundland_; W. Greswell, _Geography of Canada and Newfoundland_.--Nova -Scotia: J. Bourinot, _Builders of Nova Scotia_; T. Haliburton, _Nova -Scotia_; B. Murdoch, _Nova Scotia_; E. Richard, _Acadia_.--Canada: see Sec. -107.--Hudson's Bay Company: G. Bryce, _Remarkable History of Hudson's Bay -Company_; L. Burpee, _Search for the Western Sea_; A. Laut, _Conquest of -Great Northwest_; B. Willson, _Great Company_. Consult also publications of -Royal Society of Canada, and provincial historical and antiquarian -societies. - -Contemporary Accounts.--Whitbourne, _Discourse and Discovery of -Newfoundland_ (1620); Mason, _Brief Discourse of Newfoundland_ (1620); Du -Tertre, _Histoire Generale des Antilles_ (1654); Denys, _Description and -Natural History of Arcadia_ (1672); Labat, _Nouveau Voyage aux Isles -d'Amerique_ (1724); Oldmixon, _British Empire in America_ (1741); Dobbs, -_Countries adjoining to Hudson's Bay_ (1744); Ellis, _Voyage to Hudson Bay_ -(1748); Hakluyt, _Voyages_. Reprints in publications of historical and -antiquarian societies. - - - 99. Outlying English Colonies. - - Sidenote: Differences between the thirteen colonies and their English - neighbors to the south and north. - -It is usual to think and speak of the English colonies in North America as -though they included only the thirteen which, in 1775, revolted against the -mother-country. In the eyes of the home government, however, and of the -colonists themselves, the relations between the mother-land and the English -West India Islands, the Bermudas, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, Hudson's Bay, -and, after 1763, Canada, were much the same as between it and Virginia or -New Hampshire or Pennsylvania. The chief differences between the colonies -were of race and occupation. Nova Scotia had, before the Revolution, but a -few thousand English inhabitants; the West Indies were almost exclusively -sugar-producing colonies. Both on the north and on the southeast the -English colonies touched elbows with the French in active commercial and -territorial competition. The West Indies were the emporium for sugar and -slaves, and an extensive traffic was had in both commodities with the -continental colonies. This important commerce has already been frequently -referred to, particularly in the treatment of New England (page 185, Sec. 77), -whose vessels did the bulk of the colonial carrying trade. - - Sidenote: Why those neighbors did not revolt against England. - -Various causes conspired to prevent Englishmen in these outlying -plantations from joining their brethren of New England, the middle -colonies, and the South, in the movement for independence. The West India -planters were largely aided by English capital, and in England, where many -of them had summer residences, they enjoyed a profitable and exclusive -market for sugar, cotton, and other tropical products. It was considered -good policy by English statesmen to favor the island colonies as against -the continental, for the products of the former did not compete with those -of Great Britain; so that while the Navigation Acts (page 104, Sec. 44), -restricting all colonial trade to British ports, at first bore heavily on -the island planters, they were compensated in part by numerous -discriminations in their favor. Many of these planters were the sons of -Cavaliers who had fled to the islands of the Caribbean Sea to escape from -the rule of the Commonwealth; or wealthy men who had, in times of popular -disturbance, been made to feel uncomfortable in their old homes on the -American mainland. In Nova Scotia and Newfoundland the ports were filled -with English traders and officers; and a great belt of untraversed forest -separated them from the New Englanders, with whom they had little in -common. But perhaps above all was the fact that His Majesty's fleet easily -commanded these outlying colonies, and revolt was not to be thought of -within the reach of the guns of ships. - -It is worth our while briefly to review the history of these British -American dependencies which for one reason or another did not enter the -struggle that was soon to rend the empire in twain at the moment it had -reached its greatest extent. - - - 100. Windward and Leeward Islands (1605-1814). - - Sidenote: Settlement of Barbados. - -_Barbados_, the easternmost of the Windward Islands, was first visited by a -party of English adventurers in 1605, since which time it has been an -English possession. But it was not until 1625 that a colony was planted on -the island. Its plan of government was much the same as that of the -mainland colonies. - - Sidenote: Refuge for loyalists. - -During the Puritan uprising in England, Barbados was a place of refuge for -loyalists, who were disposed, till the appearance of a parliamentary force -(1651), to hold the island for the king. Under Cromwell's rule many -prisoners of war were sent to the island, thus increasing the royalist -population. The Restoration was promptly proclaimed. - - Sidenote: Warfare. - -The colony made rapid progress, although now and then checked by the fact -that its exposed position made it in time of war a favorite point of attack -by enemies of England. The numerous harbors along the coast were, in such -troublous periods, infested by privateers, who seriously interfered with -the commerce of the island. In the war between Great Britain and France, -commencing in 1756, the West Indies was the theatre of a prolonged -conflict, into which the Barbadians entered with zeal, supplying money and -troops to the English side, and oftentimes suffering from reverses. - - Sidenote: Commerce. - -Before the Navigation Acts (page 104, Sec. 44), by which England sought to -compel all her colonists to trade with her alone, the Dutch were good -customers for Barbados sugar; after that, English merchants having a -monopoly of the traffic, the planters had much reason to complain. -Nevertheless, the majority were stanch Tories, and remained so throughout -the Revolutionary war. Many Barbadians settled from time to time upon the -mainland, particularly in the Carolinas. We have seen that Sir John -Yeamans, a Barbados planter, led several hundred of his fellow-islanders -thither (1664), and founded a town on Cape Fear river (page 89, Sec. 36). - - Sidenote: St. Vincent. - -_St. Vincent_, a hundred miles west of Barbados, although discovered by -Columbus in 1498 was unclaimed until 1627, when it was granted to the Earl -of Carlisle by Charles I., along with others of the Windward group. In -1722, the Duke of Montagu came into possession of it; and then immigrants -were introduced, who exported sugar, rum, molasses, and arrowroot. - - Sidenote: Other Windward islands. - -_St. Lucia_ was settled by the English in 1639; its ownership was long -passed back and forth by France and England, but in 1794 the latter secured -permanent possession. The English flag was raised over _Tobago_ in 1580, -but the island was alternately held by English and Dutch until 1814, since -which date the proprietorship of the former has been undisputed. _Grenada_ -and the _Grenadines_, colonized by the French, first came into English -possession under the treaty of 1763. _Trinidad_, the southernmost of the -chain of islands and one of the most valuable, was occupied by the Spanish -until 1797, when it was yielded up to Great Britain, under show of force; -to-day it is one of the most progressive of the smaller English -dependencies. - - Sidenotes: Early settlement. - - Changes in ownership. - -Upon the Leeward, or northern, islands of the Caribbean group are the -colonies of Antigua, Montserrat, St. Christopher (St. Kitts), Nevis, -Dominica, and the Virgin Islands. _Antigua_, the seat of the present -colonial government, is the most important. English families settled there -in 1632, and again in 1663. Ravaged by France three years later (1666), it -was soon after restored to the English under the treaty of Breda. -_Montserrat_, the healthiest island in the West Indies, was also colonized -by the English in 1632, and remained in their possession except for two -brief terms (1664-1668 and 1782-1784), when the French were in control. -_St. Christopher_ and _Nevis_ form a united English colony which traces its -history back to 1628. Dutch buccaneers intrenched themselves on the rocky -islets of the _Virgin_ group as early as 1648, but were driven out by -English pirates in 1666, since which date the archipelago has been the -property of Great Britain; a better class of settlers came in with the -eighteenth century. _Dominica_, the largest of the Leeward Isles, was -included in Carlisle's patent (1627); but the French were already in -possession, living on friendly terms with the native Caribs, just as their -compatriots in New France were with the more warlike Algonkins. Ceded by -France to England in 1763, Dominica was several times recaptured, and not -finally relinquished to the latter until 1814. - - - 101. Bermudas (1609-1750) and Bahamas (1522-1783). - - Sidenote: Early settlement. - -The fertile Bermudas, or Somers's Islands,--"still vex'd Bermoothes" of -Shakespeare,--lie about six hundred miles east of South Carolina. They bear -the names of two navigators who were cast away upon them,--Juan Bermudez, a -Spaniard (1522), and an Englishman, Sir George Somers (1609); the latter -being on his way to Virginia to administer the affairs of that colony. -Somers founded the first settlement. - - Sidenote: In the possession of Virginia. - -Under the third patent to the Virginia Company in 1612 (page 72, Sec. 30), the -Bermudas and all islands within three hundred leagues of the Virginia shore -were ceded to that corporation. Except Nova Scotia, therefore, the Bermudas -are the only present English colony which ever formed an integral part of -any of the present States or Territories of the United States. The Virginia -Company afterwards (1616) parted with its right to the Bermuda Company, -which carried thither a considerable company of Virginians. During the -Commonwealth, the Bermudas, like Barbados, were a refuge for royalists from -England. Representative government, similar to that of the mainland -colonies, was established in 1620, and has been ever since maintained. -Tobacco was the staple of the colony until about 1707, when a salt-making -industry sprang up and soon became the chief interest. - - Sidenote: Strategic importance. - -The Bermudas were from the earliest times recognized as an important marine -station. During the Revolutionary war Washington wrote: "Let us annex the -Bermudas, and thus possess a nest of hornets to annoy the British trade." -But the place was undisturbed, and remained loyal to the king. - - Sidenote: The landfall of Columbus. - -The first American soil trod by Columbus was an island in the fruitful -Bahama group. "This country," he wrote, "excels all others as far as the -day surpasses the night in splendor." The natives were numerous; "their -conversation is the sweetest imaginable; their faces always smiling; and so -gentle and so affectionate are they that I swear to your highness there is -not a better people in the world." Yet (commencing in 1509) the Spaniards -almost depopulated the islands; forty thousand of these innocent aborigines -were carried away to a wretched death in the mines of Cuba. - - Sidenote: Spanish and French opposition to English settlement. - -In 1629, an English colony was planted on New Providence, in the then -deserted archipelago. But the French and Spanish persisted in harrying the -settlement, which was frequently the scene of stormy conflicts. At last, in -1718, the English government drove out the pirates who had come to resort -there in great numbers, resettled the islands, and an era of progress -opened. - - Sidenote: Americans capture the colony. - -During the Revolutionary war many wealthy Tories went from the continental -colonies to the Bahamas and opened up large plantations, with slave labor. -The colony was captured by the Americans (1776),--the only conquest of -British territory during the Revolution, except the Canadian campaign of -1775 and the occupation of the Northwest by Virginia troops in 1778. The -Spanish took it in 1782, but it was soon retaken by the English (1783). -Three quarters of a century later the islands became famous as the point of -departure for blockade-runners bound into Confederate ports. - - - 102. Jamaica (1655-1750). - - Sidenote: England captures the island. - -Jamaica was under Spanish control until 1655, when an English fleet under -Admirals Penn and Venables--the former, father of the founder of -Pennsylvania--compelled the surrender of the island to the Commonwealth. -The opposition of the Spanish planters and their negro slaves--the latter -were called Maroons--long made English government difficult; the Spaniards -were finally driven off, but the Maroons, fleeing to the mountains, were -troublesome until the close of the eighteenth century. Much annoyance was -also suffered in the seventeenth century from the buccaneers, who infested -the Jamaica coast and preyed indiscriminately on all West Indian commerce; -they were suppressed with great difficulty. In 1728, English laws and -statutes became applicable to the island. - - Sidenote: The Tory element. - -Like other islands in the West Indies, Jamaica was resorted to by many Tory -planters from the continental colonies, and apparently had no sympathy with -the struggle of the latter for independence. It was a colony having a large -slave population, and after the separation of the continental colonies -became, to some degree, a competitor with them. The abolition of slavery in -the island (1830-1837) had a great influence on the slavery conflict in the -United States. - - - 103. British Honduras (1600-1798). - - Sidenote: Lawless character of English settlers. - -Belize, or British Honduras, on the eastern shore of the Yucatan peninsula, -was not occupied by Englishmen until after the suppression of freebooting -in the Spanish main,--about the opening of the eighteenth century. At that -time parties of English dyewood and mahogany cutters, many of whom had been -pirates, established themselves at Belize. Their holdings were frequently -beset by rival Spanish logging companies, but in 1798 the latter were -expelled. - - Sidenote: English rights questioned. - -Since that day Belize has existed as a prosperous Crown colony, although -England's legal right to the country is still questioned by some -authorities, and in 1846 this fact gave rise to serious diplomatic -difficulties with the United States. - - - 104. Newfoundland (1497-1783). - - Sidenote: Early settlements. - -Newfoundland is the oldest of the colonial possessions of Great Britain. We -have seen (page 25, Sec. 8) that John Cabot discovered it in 1497, that -Cortereal was there for the Portuguese in 1500, and that by 1504 fishermen -from Normandy, Brittany, and the Basque provinces were regularly engaged on -its shores. It was the nucleus for both French and English occupation of -the mainland, and from the first an important fishery station. - -Not until 1583 did the English take formal possession, and it was much -later before any of their numerous colonizing schemes attained any great -measure of success. - - Sidenote: Growth of the colony. - -By the treaty of Utrecht (1713) Newfoundland was acknowledged as English -territory, but the French were given fishing privileges on the western and -northern coasts. This led to diplomatic contentions, not yet ended; -nevertheless settlement at once increased, and a satisfactory growth has -since been maintained. In 1728, a form of civil government was for the -first time established. - - Sidenote: Loyalty to England. - -During the American Revolution Newfoundland had sufficient inducement to -remain loyal; since French and American competitors in the fisheries were -kept out by British fleets, her merchants had a monopoly of the European -markets, and were enabled to maintain high prices. - - - 105. Nova Scotia, Acadia. (1497-1755). - - Sidenote: French and English rivalry. - -First visited by the Cabots in 1497, it was not until 1604 that European -colonization was attempted in Nova Scotia, under the Frenchman De Monts -(page 35, Sec. 13). In 1613, the Virginia privateer, Argall, basing his excuse -on Cabot's previous discovery, swooped down on the French settlements, -demolished the cabins, and expelled the inhabitants. A grant of the -peninsula--called Acadia by the French, but in this document styled Nova -Scotia by the king--was made by James I. to Sir William Alexander; the -latter was, however, prevented by the French (1623) from carrying out his -colonizing scheme. Nevertheless, several Englishmen and Scotchmen came into -the country and mingled with the French, who were slowly re-populating it. - - Sidenote: New England captures the country. - -Recaptured by an English force in 1654, Nova Scotia was, thirteen years -later (1667), ceded to France. But the ease of communication by water made -the colony an uncomfortably close neighbor for the English colonies farther -south. In 1710 the Massachusetts men captured Port Royal; and in 1713 -France relinquished possession to England by the treaty of Utrecht. Again -in 1745, Massachusetts volunteers captured Louisbourg on Cape Breton (Secs. -111, 112). - - Sidenote: Deportation of the Acadians. - -England paid little attention to Nova Scotia until 1749, when four thousand -emigrants were sent over to found Halifax. The French settlers, known as -Acadians, had meanwhile become numerous, and greatly abused their -privileges as neutrals by fostering and joining Indian war-parties against -the New England settlers. In 1755, the Acadians were easily reduced by -General Monkton, and seven thousand transported to the British provinces -southward, many of them finally drifting to the French settlement at the -mouth of the Mississippi. - - Sidenote: An asylum for Tories. - -A colonial constitution of the regulation English pattern was granted to -Nova Scotia in 1758, and France formally released her claim by the treaty -of 1763. At the same time Cape Breton, which had been a second time -captured (1758), was added. The Englishmen in Nova Scotia were largely of -the official and trading class, having little in common with their -neighbors of the more southern colonies. In the Revolution several thousand -loyalist refugees found an asylum in the peninsula. - -For the remaining French colony, Canada, special treatment will be -necessary. - - - 106. Hudson's Bay Company. - - Sidenote: Similarity to the Massachusetts Bay Company. - -The Hudson's Bay Company, from the time it was chartered by Charles II. -(1670) until its lands were sold to the British Government (1869), was a -joint-stock association, with exclusive commercial and political -privileges, very similar to the Company of Massachusetts Bay. To-day it -trades as a private corporation; its former territory--the lands draining -into Hudson's Bay--is now open to all on equal terms. - - Sidenote: French opposition. - -Fur-trade factories, protected by strong forts, were early planted by the -company at the mouths of several sub-arctic rivers, such as the Rupert, -Moore, Albany, Nelson, and Churchill, the only inhabitants being the small -garrisons and the company's trading servants. Several expeditions were -successively made to Hudson's Bay by French war vessels; much devastation -was wrought and blood spilled, until in 1697 the treaty of Ryswick put an -end to the trouble, and left the company in undisputed possession. It had -lost more than L200,000 in this predatory warfare, but soon regained its -position, through the profits of the fur-trade. - - Sidenote: American rivals. - -After the fall of New France (1763), the Hudson's Bay Company met -formidable rivals in the enterprising Northwest and American organizations; -the story of the fierce competition which ensued, with its effect on -American settlement and international boundaries, belongs to the period -covered by other volumes of this series. - - Sidenote: Summary. - -From the foregoing sketch it will be seen that for all the American -colonies to the south of Georgia the English were obliged to fight a -changeful battle with the Spaniards and the French. It was not till after -the Revolutionary war that the permanent ownership of the islands was -assured to Great Britain. A similar struggle, though briefer and sooner -concluded, went on for the possession of the colonies north of Maine. But -twelve years before the Revolution the last of them had been yielded to the -British. In Nova Scotia, and later in Canada, English residents were not -numerous till the beginning of the nineteenth century. In Newfoundland and -Hudson's Bay, in colonial times, the settlers were English, but in numbers -they were few. - - - - - CHAPTER XII. - - THE COLONIZATION OF NEW FRANCE (1608-1750). - - - 107. References. - - -Bibliographies.--Thwaites, _Jesuit Relations_, LXXI. 219-365, and _France -in America_, ch. xix.; H. Biggar, _Early Trading Companies_, 171-296; -Larned, _Literature of American History_, 395-421; Avery, II. 403-408, III. -436, 437; P. Gagnon, _Essai de bibliographie canadienne_; H. Harrisse, -_Notes pour servir a l'histoire du Canada_. Consult also Wrong and Langton, -_Review of Historical Publications relating to Canada_ (published -annually). - -Historical Maps.--No. 4, this volume (_Epoch Maps_, No. 4); also maps in -Parkman, Thwaites, Winsor, and MacCoun. - -General Accounts.--Lucas, _Historical Geography_, V. The standard English -history of Canada is by W. Kingsford. The principal French historians are -M. Faillon, J. Ferland, F. Garnier (English translation by Bell), and B. -Sulte. The prime authority for New France is Parkman's series (12 vols., -condensed into one by P. Edgar, 1902), _France and England in North -America_. Briefer and more recent treatment of New France will be found in -Works by Bourinot, Douglas, Greswell, Laut, Roberts, Thwaites, and Tracy. - -Special Histories.--Winsor, _Cartier to Frontenac_, and _Mississippi -Basin_; Biggar, as above; Doughty and Dionne, _Quebec under Two Flags_; G. -Parker, _Old Quebec_; Laut, _Pathfinders of the West_; F. Ogg, _Opening of -the Mississippi_; C. Moore, _Northwest under Two Flags_; W. Munro, -_Seignorial System in Canada_; Bourinot, _Local Government in -Canada_.--French and Indian War: Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_; A. Bradley, -_Fight with France for North America_; W. Wood, _Fight for Canada_; A. -Doughty, _Siege of Quebec_.--French in Northwest: Hinsdale, _Old -Northwest_, chs. iii.-v.; Thwaites, _Wisconsin_ (Commonwealths).--Manners -and customs: C. Colby, _Canadian Types of the Old Regime (1608-1698)_; -Dunn's _Indiana_ (Commonwealths), chs. ii., iii. for the Northwest; M. -Pepper, _Maids and Matrons of New France_; Machar and Marquis, _Stories of -New France_. See also biographies of prominent men. - -Contemporary Accounts.--For detailed list, consult Thwaites, _France in -America_, 298-303. Numerous publications of Canadian and American -historical and antiquarian societies (especially the Champlain Society) -contain useful material. Relative to the Northwest, see _Wisconsin -Historical Collections_, XVI-XVIII. - - - 108. Settlement of Canada (1608-1629). - -The story of early French efforts at colonization in North America, from -Cartier's visit (1534) to Champlain's foundation of Quebec (1608), the -first permanent French colony in Canada, has already been told (Chapter -II.). - - Sidenote: Effect of Iroquois opposition. - -It was unfortunate for New France that Champlain incurred at the outset the -hostility of the Iroquois (page 196, Sec. 83); the French and the Algonquians -with whom they maintained friendly relations were long after sorely -afflicted by them. Had it not been for the Iroquois wall interposed between -Champlain and the South, the French would doubtless have preceded the -English upon the Atlantic plain. The presence of this opposition led the -founder of New France, in his attempts to extend the sphere of French -influence, to explore along the line of least resistance, to the north and -west. - - Sidenote: Champlain on Lake Huron. - -In 1611, Montreal was planted at the first rapids in the St. Lawrence, and -near the mouths of the Ottawa and Richelieu. Four years later (1615), -Champlain reached Lake Huron by the way of the Ottawa. There were easier -highways to the Northwest, but the French were compelled for many years -thereafter to take this path, because of its greater security from the -all-devouring Iroquois. - - Sidenote: Explorers and _coureurs de bois_. - -To extend the sphere of French influence and the Catholic religion, as well -as to induce the savages to patronize French commerce, were objects which -inspired both lay and clerical followers of Champlain. Their wonderful zeal -illumined the history of New France with a poetic glamour such as is cast -over no other part of America north of Mexico. Under Champlain's guidance -and inspired by his example, traders and priests soon penetrated to the far -west,--the former bent on trafficking for peltries, and the latter on -saving souls. Another large class of rovers, styled _coureurs de bois_, or -wood-rangers, wandered far and wide, visiting and fraternizing with remote -tribes of Indians; they were attracted by the love of lawless adventure, -and conducted an extensive but illicit fur-trade. Many of these explorers -left no record of their journeys, hence it is now impossible to say who -first made some of the most important geographical discoveries. - - - 109. Exploration of the Northwest (1629-1699). - - Sidenote: Early discoveries in the Northwest. - -We know that by 1629, the year before the planting of the Massachusetts Bay -colony, Champlain saw an ingot of copper obtained by barter with Indians -from the shores of Lake Superior. In 1634, Jean Nicolet, another emissary -from Champlain, penetrated to central Wisconsin, by way of the Fox River, -and thence went overland to the Illinois country, making trading agreements -with the savage tribes along his path. Seven years afterwards (1641), -Jesuit priests said mass before two thousand naked savages at Sault Ste. -Marie. In the winter of 1658-1659, two French fur-traders, Radisson and -Grosseilliers, imbued with a desire "to travell and see countreys" and "to -be knowne with the remotest people," visited Wisconsin, probably saw the -Mississippi, and built a log fort on Chequamegon Bay of Lake Superior. -During 1662 they discovered James's Bay to the far northeast, and became -impressed with the fur-trading capabilities of the Hudson's Bay region. Not -receiving French support in their enterprise, they sold their services to -England. On the strength of their discoveries, the Hudson's Bay Company was -organized (1670). Saint-Lusson took formal possession of the Northwest for -the French king, at Sault Ste. Marie, in 1671. Two years later (1673), -Joliet and Marquette made their now famous trip over the Fox-Wisconsin -waterway and rediscovered the Mississippi. - - Sidenote: La Salle. - -Champlain died at Quebec in 1635, having extended the trade and domination -of France westward to Wisconsin, by the Ottawa highway. It remained for the -fur-trader, La Salle, one of the most brilliant of American explorers, to -add the Mississippi valley to French territory (1679-1682), his route being -up the Great Lakes and _via_ the Chicago-Illinois portage. It was 1699 -before a French settlement was planted in Louisiana (Old Biloxi), and 1718 -before New Orleans was founded. - -The central geographical fact to be remembered in connection with the -history of New France is, that the St. Lawrence and the chain of Great -Lakes which serve as its feeders furnish a natural highway to the heart of -the continent (page 4, Sec. 2). - - Sidenote: Early explorations on the Great Lakes. - -It has been shown that the hostility of the Iroquois forced the French, in -their earliest explorations westward, to take the northern, or indirect, -route of the Ottawa River, and caused Huron to be the first great lake -discovered; Ontario, Superior, and Michigan being next unveiled, in the -order named. Erie, the last to be seen by whites, was known as early as -1640, but owing to Iroquois warriors blocking the way, was not navigated -until 1669, except by _coureurs de bois_ seeking the New York fur-markets. -Thus Frenchmen were familiar with the sites of Sault Ste. Marie, Mackinaw, -Ashland, Green Bay, Prairie du Chien, and Chicago before they had visited -the site of Detroit (1669). But that place came to be recognized after its -settlement (1701) as the most important strategic point in the western -possessions of New France. - - Sidenote: Differences between French and English colonists. - -The difference between the character of the English and French colonies in -North America was great. Englishmen were content to sow and reap in a -plodding fashion, extending their territorial bounds no faster than their -settlements needed room for growth. Their acquaintance with the Indians did -not, with the exception of the New York and Southern fur-traders, extend -beyond the tribes which touched their borders. They were possessed of -remarkable vitality and a strong sense of political and commercial -independence. - - - 110. Social and Political Conditions. - - Sidenote: _Coureur de bois versus_ farmer. - -The rigor of the Canadian winter, the shortness of the summer season, and -persistent annoyance from the Iroquois, who at times had carried their -warfare to the very walls of the settlements, combined to make the lot of -the French farmer on the St. Lawrence far from prosperous. During many of -its early years, New France largely depended for food upon supplies brought -out from the mother-country. The fur-trader experienced but little more -personal danger than the agriculturist who remained upon his narrow -farmhold abutting on the St. Lawrence; while the fascination of the -unbridled life of adventure led by the former, free from the restraints of -church and society, was such as strongly appealed to young men of spirit. -The trade of New France was farmed out to commercial companies and to -favorites of the king and his autocratic colonial governors. Unlicensed -traffic, such as was carried on by the _coureurs de bois_, was looked upon -as akin to smuggling, and harsh laws were promulgated against it. -Nevertheless the forests, far into the continental interior, were -penetrated by gay adventurers conducting illicit barter with the red -barbarians, while the agriculture of the colony languished. The -river-systems of the English coast colonies did not easily conduct to the -interior, but the far-reaching waterways of New France were a continual -invitation. - - Sidenote: French treatment of the Indians. - -Iroquois interests were bound up with the Dutch, and after them with the -English. The better to improve their own position and to keep up prices, -the Iroquois sought to prevent Algonquians of the upper lakes from trading -with the Canadians. But French influence in the Northwest was nevertheless -strong. Colonial officials cajoled the Indians and plied them with -presents; while the wandering traders and their employees dwelt in -comparative harmony with the red men, were adopted into many of the tribes, -and married squaws, who reared in the forest villages an extensive -half-breed progeny. - - Sidenote: Paternal policy of France. - -The disposition of the French Crown to interfere with the fur-trade and to -repress all commercial initiative not emanating from privileged circles, -was but an evidence of its general colonial policy. The colony on the St. -Lawrence was made continually to feel the hand of the king. In contrast to -the free town and county systems of the English, the people of New France -had no voice in their government or in the appointment of their officials. -Even in the most trivial affairs they looked to the Crown for action. - - Sidenote: The administration of New France. - -The country was governed much like a province in France. It was divided: -(1) for judicial purposes, into districts, with a judge at the head of -each, from whom there might be an appeal to the superior council. Within -the districts were (2) seigniories, or great estates. The seignior held his -land immediately from the king, and parcelled it out among his vassals, the -_habitants_, or cultivators, who paid him a small rent, patronized his -shops and mills, and owed him certain feudal obligations. Upon the estates -were (3) parishes, in which the cure and the captain of militia were the -chief personages. The only public duties exercised by the _habitants_ were -in connection with parish affairs, and then the initiative was taken at -Quebec, where resided the central authority, vested in the governor, -intendant, and council. In 1672, Frontenac attempted to set up in Canada an -assembly of the three estates or orders; but Colbert, the king's prime -minister, rebuked him, and gave directions for a gradual restriction of all -privileges of representation. "It seems better that every one should speak -for himself, and no one for all." The people were not permitted to think or -act for themselves, and they did not covet the privilege. Without political -training, they had no notion of what the English call political rights. - - Sidenote: Causes of weakness. - -Had King Louis XIV. been a wise monarch, paternalism might not have been a -disadvantage for a population of this sort. But the royal patronage of -colonial enterprises was spasmodic, sometimes breaking out into extravagant -aid, again remarkable for its penuriousness. There were several in the long -roll of colonial governors who were men of commanding ability, and well -fitted, under right conditions, to make of New France a success,--notably -Champlain (1622-1635), Frontenac (1672-1682, and 1689-1698), and De -Nonville (1685-1689). But the times and the material at hand were against -them. Official corruption ran riot. From the monopolists, who were the -present favorites of the king, down to the military commander of the most -distant forest trading station, officials considered the public treasury -and the resources of the colony as a source of individual profit. The -priesthood held full sway; little was done without the sanction of the -hierarchy. The missionaries of the faith won laurels for bravery, -self-denial, and hardihood, under the most adverse circumstances. But the -policy of the Church was too exclusive for the good of the colony. -Huguenots, driven from France by persecution, were forbidden by the bishops -to reside in Canada, and thus were compelled to contribute their brain and -brawn to the upbuilding of the rival English settlements. Of all Frenchmen, -these were the best adapted to the rearing of an industrial empire in the -New World. - - - 111. Intercolonial Wars (1628-1697). - - Sidenote: The struggle between French and English postponed. - -In Champlain's time, while France was busy in crushing Protestant revolts -at home, the settlements of Port Royal and Quebec, then wretched hamlets of -a few dozen huts each, fell an easy prey to small English naval forces -(1628-1629). For a few months France did not hold one foot of ground in -North America. But as peace had been declared between France and England -before this conquest, the former received back all its possessions, -including Acadia (Nova Scotia) and the island of Cape Breton. The -inevitable struggle for the mastery of the continent was postponed, and -Frenchmen held Canada for four generations longer. By the close of the -seventeenth century, men of New France were ranging at will over much of -the country beyond the mountains, with visions of empire as extensive as -the continent. - - Sidenote: English jealousy of the expansion of New France. - -The French were not exploring and occupying the western country unwatched. -English colonial statesmen understood from the first the import of the -movement, and their alarm was frequently expressed in communications to the -home government. While Charles II. was a pensioner of Louis XIV., the royal -intendant in Canada expressed the situation clearly when he urged Louis -(1666) to purchase New York, "whereby he would have two entrances to -Canada, and by which he would give to the French all the peltries of the -north, of which the English share the profit by the communication which -they have with the Iroquois, by Manhattan and Orange." In 1687, Governor -Dongan of New York warned the ministry at London: "If the French have all -they pretend to have discovered in these parts, the king of England will -not have a hundred miles from the sea anywhere." - - Sidenote: Extent of French settlement. - -With the accession of Protestant William and Mary (1689), the Palatinate -war broke out between England and France, and at once spread to America, -where it was styled King William's War. The French had at that time -colonies in the undefined region of Acadia, on Cape Breton, and along the -north bank of the St. Lawrence as far up as Montreal. There were a few -small stockades scattered at long intervals through the Illinois country, -upon the banks of the upper Mississippi, at Chequamegon Bay of Lake -Superior, at Sault Ste. Marie, on the St. Joseph's River, and elsewhere; -with here and there a lonely Jesuit mission, and the movable camps of -_coureurs de bois_. Elsewhere, north and west of the Atlantic plain, the -grim solitude was broken only by bands of red savages, who roved to and fro -through the dark woodlands, intent on war or the chase. - -The population of New France, in this wide region, was not, in 1690, more -than twelve thousand, against one hundred thousand in New England and New -York. Had it not been for the help of her Indian allies, the military -strength of many of her more important stations, and the fighting qualities -of her commanders, aided by division in the councils of the English -colonists, New France would from the first have made a feeble defence -against the overpowering resources of her southern neighbors. - - Sidenote: King William's War. - -King William's (or Frontenac's) War was costly to the colonists, and -resulted in no material advantage to either side. The French, under -Governor Frontenac, conducted their operations with vigor. Three winter -expeditions, composed almost entirely of Indians, were sent out (1690) -against the English frontier line, furiously attacking it at widely -separated points,--New York, New Hampshire, and Maine. In consequence of -the alarm created by these raids, the first colonial congress was held at -New York (1690). A fleet commanded by Sir William Phipps (page 177, Sec. 73), -with eighteen hundred New England militiamen on board, captured Acadia and -Port Royal that summer, but Acadia was retaken by the French the following -season. During the five ensuing years fighting was confined to bushranging -along the New York and New England border. The struggle was without further -incident until Newfoundland yielded to the French (1696), and a party of -French and Indians sacked the little village of Andover, Mass. (1697), but -twenty-five miles out of Boston. Later in the year came the treaty of -Ryswick, under which each belligerent recovered what he possessed at the -outset of the war. - - - 112. Frontier Wars (1702-1748). - - Sidenote: Outbreak of Queen Anne's War. - -After the treaty of Ryswick (1697) there was peace between England and -France for five years. Then broke out what is known in America as Queen -Anne's War (1702-1713), and in Europe as the War of the Spanish Succession. -The war originated in Europe; but one of England's objects in the struggle -was to prevent the French from obtaining too firm a foothold in America. -Much the same military operations as in King William's War were undertaken -by both of the American opponents. - - Sidenote: Continuation of border warfare. - -Three attempts were made by New England troops to recapture Acadia (1704, -1707, and 1710), the last being successful. The peace of Utrecht (1713) -recognized England's right to Acadia, "with its ancient boundaries," but it -brought only nominal peace to the New York and New England colonists. -Unfortunately the northern and western boundaries of Acadia were not -therein fixed, and the country between the Kennebec and the St. Lawrence -was in as much dispute as ever. Border settlers all along the line from the -Hudson to the Kennebec were in hourly peril of their lives from Indian -scalping-parties. There was abundant proof that the authorities of New -France, instructed by the government at Paris, were actively inciting the -red savages to forays for scalps and plunder. This fact tended greatly to -embitter the relations between the rival white races, and led to measures -of reprisal. - - Sidenote: King George's War; capture of Louisbourg. - -The irregular War of the Austrian Succession when it extended to America -was known as King George's War (1744-1748). The principal event was the -capture (1744) by New England troops of the strong fortress of Louisbourg, -on the island of Cape Breton. Having achieved so heroic a victory almost -single-handed, New Englanders considered themselves slighted by the treaty -of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), by which Louisbourg was surrendered to France, -and in other respects the unfortunate state of affairs existing before the -war was restored. Disappointment was openly expressed, and tended still -further to strain the relations between the colonies and the mother-land. - - - 113. Territorial Claims. - - Sidenote: Boundary disputes. - -An attempt had been made at the convention at Aix-la-Chapelle to settle the -boundary disputes in America by referring the matter to a commission. -France now asserted her right to all countries drained by streams emptying -into the St. Lawrence, the Great Lakes, and the Mississippi. This allowed, -the narrow strip of the Atlantic coast would alone have been left to -English domination. It was asserted on behalf of Great Britain that the -charters of her coast colonies carried their western bounds to the Pacific; -further, that as by the treaty of Utrecht France had acknowledged the -suzerainty of the British king over the Iroquois confederacy, the English -were entitled to all lands "conquered" by those Indians, whose war-paths -had extended from the Ottawa River on the north to the Carolinas on the -south, and whose forays reached alike to the Mississippi and to New -England. For three years the commissioners quarrelled at Paris over these -conflicting claims; but the dispute was irreconcilable; the only -arbitrament possible was by the sword. - - Sidenote: The French line of frontier forts. - -Meanwhile both sides were preparing to occupy and hold the contested -fields. New France already had a weak chain of water-side forts and -commercial stations, the rendezvous of priests, fur-traders, travellers, -and friendly Indians, extending, with long intervening stretches of -savage-haunted wilderness, through the heart of the continent,--chiefly on -the shores of the Great Lakes, and the banks of the principal river -highways,--from Lower Canada to her outlying post of New Orleans. Around -each of these frontier forts was a scattered farming community, the -holdings being narrow fields reaching far back into the country from the -water-front, with the neat log-cabins of the _habitants_ nestled in close -neighborhood upon the banks. In the summer the men, aided by their large -families, tilled the ribbon-like patches in a desultory fashion, and in the -winter assisted the fur-traders as oarsmen and pack-carriers. Many were -married to squaws, and the younger portion of the population was to a large -extent half-breed. They were a happy, contented people, without ambition -beyond the day's enjoyment, combining with the light-heartedness of the -French the improvidence of the savage. - - Sidenote: The French covet the Ohio. - -From 1700 on, the conflict seemed inevitable. The French realized that they -could not keep up connection between New Orleans and their settlements on -the St. Lawrence if not permitted to hold the valley of the Ohio. Governor -La Jonquiere (1749-1752) understood the situation, and pleaded for the -shipment of ten thousand French peasants to settle the region; but the -government at Paris was just then as indifferent to New France as was King -George to his colonies, and the settlers were not sent. - - - 114. Effect of French Colonization. - - Sidenote: Characteristics of New France. - -Of the region in which were scattered the permanent French settlements, the -southern shore of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi valley eventually -became a part of the United States; although these settlements were few and -small, the influence of French operations in the West, on the development -of the English colonies, was far reaching. New France will always be -renowned for the immense area held by a small European population. She was -from the first hampered by serious drawbacks,--centralization, paternalism, -official corruption, instability of system, religious exclusiveness, the -fascination of the fur-trade, a deadly Indian foe, and an inhospitable -climate,--the sum of which was in the end to destroy her (page 49, Sec. 20). -She expanded with mushroom growth, but was predestined to collapse. Yet -more than any other part of North America, the French colonies in what is -now Canada preserve the language and the customs of the time of their -settlement. - - - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - THE COLONIZATION OF GEORGIA (1732-1755). - - - 115. References. - - -Bibliographies.--Avery, III. 438-440; Winsor, V. 392-406; Channing and -Hart, _Guide_, Sec. 103. - -Historical Maps.--No. 4, this volume (_Epoch Maps_, No. 4), MacCoun, and -school histories already cited. - -General Accounts.--Avery, III. ch. xxiv.; Doyle, _Colonies_, V. ch. viii.; -G. Bancroft, II. 268-291; Greene, _Provincial America_, ch. xv.; Hildreth, -II. 362-377; Lodge, _Colonies_, ch. ix.; Winsor, V. ch. vi.; McCrady, -_South Carolina under Royal Government_, chs. xi., xii.; W. Wilson, -_American People_, II. 62-68; histories of Georgia by Jones, McCall, and -Stevens. - -Special Histories.--C. Jones, _Dead Towns of Georgia_; P. A. Strobel, -_Salzburgers_; J. MacLean, _Scotch Highlanders in America_, ch. vi.; G. -White, _Historical Collections of Georgia_; lives of Oglethorpe by Bruce, -Cooper, Harris, and Wright. - -Contemporary Accounts.--Oglethorpe, _Account_ (1732); Martyn, _Reasons for -Establishing Georgia_ (1733); _Account Showing Progress of Georgia_ (1741); -_Impartial Enquiry into State and Utility of Province of Georgia_ (1741); -Cadogan, _Impartial Account of Expedition against St. Augustine_ (1743); -Moore, _Voyage to Georgia_ (1744); Egmont, _Journal of Trustees for -Establishing Colony of Georgia_; Candler, _Colonial Records_. - - - 116. Settlement of Georgia (1732-1735). - - Sidenote: Unsettled territory. - -The southern boundary of South Carolina was practically the Savannah River; -but the English claimed as far south as the St. John's. Just below the St. -John's, and one hundred and seventy miles south of the Savannah, lay the -old Spanish colony of St. Augustine, founded (page 34, Sec. 12) in 1565. The -country between the Savannah and the St. John's was a part of the old -Carolina claim; but when the Carolinas became royal provinces the king -reserved this unsettled district as crown lands. - - Sidenote: Formation of the Georgia Company. - -James Oglethorpe had been an army officer; he was a member of parliament, -and was prominent in various efforts at domestic reform, particularly in -the improvement of the condition of debtors' prisons. Stirred by the -terrible revelations of his inquiry, he engaged other wealthy and -benevolent men with him, and formed a company (1732) for the settlement of -the reserved Carolina tract, which was to be styled Georgia, in honor of -the king, George II. The proposed colony was to serve the double purpose of -checking the threatened Spanish advance upon the southern colonies in -America, and of furnishing a home for members of the debtor class, who -would be given a chance to retrieve their fortunes by a fresh start in -life. This scheme, half philanthropic and half military, had also in view -the extension of the English fur-traffic among the Cherokees, whose trade -was now being eagerly sought by the Spanish on the south, and the French on -the west. - - Sidenote: The charter. - -The company was given a charter under the name of "The Trustees for -establishing the Colony of Georgia in America," its land-grant extending -from the Savannah to the Altamaha. There were twenty-one trustees, with -full powers of management; they were to appoint the governor and other -officials during the first four years,--after that the Crown was to -appoint. No member of the company was to hold any salaried colonial office. -Never was a colony founded upon motives more disinterested. It was to be, -literally, "an asylum for the oppressed." The settlers themselves were not -given any political privileges, for it was thought the trustees would be -better managers than a class of people who had not heretofore proved their -capacity for business affairs. Slavery was prohibited, because it would -interfere with free white labor, and a slave population might prove -dangerous in case of a frontier war with the Spanish. That immigration -might be encouraged, and thus that the colony might be strong from a -military point of view, it was ordered that no one should own over five -hundred acres of land. It was also ordained that all foreigners should have -equal rights with Englishmen, that there was to be complete religious -toleration except for Roman Catholics, that none but settlers of steady -habits should be admitted, that no rum should be imported, and that the -colonists were to practise military drill. - - Sidenotes: Savannah founded. - - Other settlements. - -In November, 1732, Oglethorpe,--appointed governor and general, without -pay,--set out from England with thirty-five selected families, and in -February (1733) founded the city of Savannah, on a bluff overlooking -Savannah River, some ten miles from the sea. In May he made a firm alliance -with the neighboring Creeks, whom he treated with great consideration. The -second year (1734) there arrived a number of German Protestants, persecuted -exiles from Salzburg, who had been invited to America by the English -Society for Propagating the Gospel. The Salzburgers proved a desirable -acquisition, setting a much-needed example of industry and thrift. The -Germans settled the town of Ebenezer; in the same year Augusta was planted, -two hundred and thirty miles up the Savannah River, as a fortified trading -outpost in the Indian country; while two years later (1736), another armed -colony was sent to found Frederica, at the mouth of the Altamaha, on the -Spanish frontier. - - Sidenote: The fur-trade. - -Augusta, which in 1741 numbered but forty-seven permanent inhabitants, in -addition to a small garrison, was the chief seat of the Georgia and South -Carolina fur-traffic. It was the eastern key to the Creek, Chickasaw, and -Cherokee hunting-grounds. In 1741, it was estimated that about one hundred -and twenty-five white men--traders, pack-horse men, servants, and -townsmen--depended for their livelihood upon the traffic centring at the -Augusta station; another estimate, made in the same year, placed the number -of horses engaged at five hundred, and the annual value of skins at fifty -thousand pounds. The profits were great, and would have been larger but for -sharp competition in the far-away camps of the barbarians; there the -Georgians and Carolinians met Frenchmen, who had wandered from far -Louisiana by devious ways, part water, and part land, and Virginians, who -found their way to the southwest through the parallel valley system, thus -escaping the necessity of climbing the mountain wall. - - - 117. Slow development of Georgia (1735-1755). - - Sidenote: Dissatisfaction of the colonists. - -The trustees perceived at last that men who had failed at home were not -likely to be successful as colonists, and they sent over a party of Scotch -Highlanders and yet more German Protestants. The colony now proved a -success. Savannah was well built, courts were established, the land-system -was well arranged, and Salzburgers, Moravians, and Highlanders soon came -out in considerable numbers (1735-1736). Yet there was no lack of -discontent. The very class for whom the colony was founded formed its most -undesirable inhabitants; hardly a regulation originally established for -their supposed benefit was to their taste, idle and worthless fellows were -numerous, and some of them, finding their complaints unheeded, fled to the -Carolinas or to join the rough borderers. Among the settlers were three -enthusiastic sectaries, Charles Wesley, secretary to Oglethorpe, his -brother John, a missionary to the Indians, and George Whitefield, who -succeeded the latter after he returned to England. Whitefield in later -years deeply stirred the American colonists, from Florida to New England, -in his efforts to arouse in them a strong religious conviction (page 190, -Sec. 79.) - - Sidenote: Expedition against Spanish Florida. - -In 1736, Oglethorpe made an expedition to the south as far as the English -claim extended, and planted several forts. At the same time he made a -treaty with the Chickasaws, and thus strengthened the southern line. Three -years later (1739), war broke out between Spain and England. Fearing that -he might not be able to withstand an attack from the Spaniards, Oglethorpe -took the offensive (1740), and marching into Florida planted himself before -St. Augustine, which had a garrison of two thousand men, well supplied with -artillery. Troops from Carolina soon came up. Sickness breaking out in the -camp, and many of the Carolinians deserting, the siege, which had been -gallantly conducted, was at last abandoned. - - Sidenote: The Spaniards unsuccessfully retaliate. - -Up to this time the Spaniards had been obliged to stand on the defensive; -Cuba was threatened by a large English squadron,--but the attack there -proved a failure, and opportunity was given for concentrating Spanish -troops in Florida. In 1742 a heavy assault by land and sea was made on -Frederica. By a combination of bravery and superior stratagem, Oglethorpe -succeeded in holding the place until the enemy's fleet was frightened off -by the arrival of English vessels, and Georgia was henceforth free from -Spanish invasion. - - Sidenote: A change of policy. - -Oglethorpe returned to England the following year (1743), never to return -to the colony. The trustees now placed the government in charge of a -president and four assistants. But after the departure of its gallant and -public-spirited founder the colony no longer flourished, and in a vain -attempt to remove causes for dissatisfaction the company made matters -worse. Slavery was introduced (1749), free traffic in rum was permitted, -and restrictions on the acquisition of land were removed. Discontent grew -apace among the original settlers, who were always hard to suit; only the -Highlanders and Germans remained satisfied. - - Sidenote: A royal province. - -In 1752, the charter was surrendered by the disappointed proprietors, and -Georgia became a royal province, with a government similar to that of South -Carolina. The change wrought improvement in many ways. - - Sidenote: Characteristics of Georgia. - -Georgia was the last of the thirteen colonies to be founded, and remained -one of the weakest until long after the Revolution. Its history is a proof -that the robust growth of a colony depends, not upon the character and aims -of its founders, but upon the slow accretion of public sentiment and public -spirit. - - - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - THE CONTINENTAL COLONIES FROM 1700 TO 1750. - - - 118. References. - -Bibliographies.--Avery, III. 426-446; Greene, _Provincial America_, ch. -xix.; Winsor, V. _passim_. - -Historical Maps.--Nos. 3 and 4, this volume (_Epoch Maps_, Nos. 3, 4); -MacCoun, and school histories already cited. - -General Accounts.--Avery, III. chs. x.-xxvii.; G. Bancroft, II. 212-565; -Channing, II. chs. xi.-xix.; Doyle, V.; G. Eggleston, _Eighteenth Century_; -Frothingham, _Rise of Republic_, ch. iv.; Greene, as above; Hildreth, II. -chs. xxii.-xxvii.; Lodge, _Colonies_; E. Sparks, _Expansion of American -People_; Wilson, _American People_, II. chs. i.-iii; Winsor, V. chs. -ii.-vi. - -Special Histories.--Political: L. Kellogg, _Colonial Charter_; Channing, -_Town and County Government_; A. Cross, _Anglican Episcopate_; Greene, -_Provincial Governor_; C. Bishop, _Elections in American Colonies_; A. -McKinley, _Suffrage Franchise_; McCrady, _South Carolina_.--Economic: -Weeden, _Economic History_; E. Lord, _Industrial Experiments_; G. Beer, -_Commercial Policy_; R. Paine, _Ships and Sailors of Old -Salem_.--Nationalities: L. Fosdick, _French Blood in America_; J. -Rosengarten, _French Colonists and Exiles_; S. Cobb, _Palatines_; F. -Diffenderfer, _German Immigration_; L. Bittinger, _Germans in Colonial -Times_, and _German Religious Life_; Sachse, _German Sectarians_; Wayland, -_German Element_; C. Hanna, _Scotch-Irish_; McLean, _Scotch -Highlanders_.--Financial: D. Dewey, _Financial History_, ch. i.; A. Davis, -_Currency in Massachusetts Bay_; F. McLeod, _Fiat Money in New England_; C. -MacFarlane, _Pennsylvania Paper Currency_; W. Shaw, _Currency_.--Taxation: -F. Jones, _Taxation in Connecticut_.--Press: L. Schuyler, _Liberty of -Press_; L. Rutherford, _Zenger_.--See also F. Dexter, _Population in -Colonies_, and state histories. - -Contemporary Accounts.--Hutchinson, _History of Massachusetts Bay_; -Falckner, _Curieuse Nachricht von Pennsylvania_ (1702); Madam Knight, -_Journal_ (1704); Fontaine, _Diary_ (1710-1716); Mittelberger, _Journey to -Pennsylvania_ (1750-1754); Franklin, _Autobiography_; Woolman, _Journal_. - - - 119. Population (1700-1750). - - Sidenote: Phases of common development. - -Up to 1700 the history of each colony is the history of a unit; the impulse -of colonization came in successive waves, but each little commonwealth had -its own interests, its own struggles, and looked forward to its own future. -From 1700 to 1750, though the separate life and history of each colony -continued, there were perceptible certain great phases of common -development, which will be briefly outlined. - - Sidenote: Growth of population. - -Although disturbed by wars with the French and Indians, by domestic -political quarrels, and by disputes with the mother country regarding the -regulation of commerce and manufactures, there was a steady growth of -population in British North America during the first half of the -seventeenth century. The rewards of industry were sufficient, coupled with -considerable religious and political freedom, to entice a continuous, -though fluctuating, immigration from England and the continent of Europe. -In New England, where the English stock was practically unmixed with -foreign blood, the rate of progress was less pronounced than in -Pennsylvania and the South, which were largely recruited from other races. -In 1700, the population of New England was something, over one hundred and -five thousand. By the beginning of the French and Indian War (1754) it was -a little less than four hundred thousand, New Hampshire having forty -thousand, Massachusetts and Maine two hundred thousand, Rhode Island forty -thousand, and Connecticut a hundred and ten thousand. The middle colonies -commenced the century with fifty-nine thousand; but by 1750 this had, -chiefly owing to the exceptionally rapid growth of Pennsylvania after 1730, -increased to three hundred and fifty-five thousand, of which New York -contained ninety thousand, New Jersey eighty thousand, and Pennsylvania and -Delaware one hundred and eighty-five thousand. In the Southern group there -was a population of eighty-nine thousand in 1700, which had grown to six -hundred and twenty-five thousand in 1763, not counting Georgia, settled in -1733, which in twenty years had acquired a population of five thousand; -Maryland had a hundred and fifty-four thousand, chiefly Englishmen, but -there was a liberal admixture of Germans and people of other nationalities. -Virginia had nearly three hundred thousand, of whom the blacks were now in -the majority. North Carolina, important in numbers only, had ninety -thousand, of whom twenty per cent were slaves; South Carolina had eighty -thousand, the blacks outnumbering the whites by two or three to one. The -total for the thirteen colonies in 1750 is about thirteen hundred and -seventy thousand. - - - 120. Attacks on the Charters (1701-1749). - - Sidenote: Attack on the New England charters. - -For many years the New England charters were in imminent danger of -annulment, the purpose apparently being to place the colonies under a -viceregal government. Those of Connecticut and Rhode Island were the -liberal documents granted to them early in their career; electing their own -governors, they were practically independent of the mother-country, and the -general movement against the charters had these two especially in view. -From 1701 to 1749, the charters were seriously menaced at various times; -but on each occasion the astute diplomacy of the colonial agents in England -succeeded in warding off the threatened attack. Worthy of especial mention -in this connection are Sir Henry Ashurst, the representative of -Connecticut, and Jeremiah Dummer, his successor. In 1715, at a time when it -was proposed to annex Rhode Island and Connecticut to the unchartered royal -province of New Hampshire, Dummer issued his now famous Defence of the -American Charters, in which he forcibly argued,--(1) That the colonies -"have a good and undoubted right to their respective charters," inasmuch as -they had been irrevocably granted by the sovereign "as premiums for -services to be performed." (2) "That these governments have by no -misbehavior forfeited their charters," and were in no danger of becoming -formidable to the mother-land. (3) That to repeal the charters would -endanger colonial prosperity, and "whatever injures the trade of the -plantations must in proportion affect Great Britain, the source and centre -of their commerce." (4) That the charters should be proceeded against in -lower courts of justice, not in parliament. Dummer's presentment of the -case was regarded by the friends of the colonies as unanswerable, and was -largely instrumental in causing an ultimate abandonment of the ministerial -attack on the New England charters. - - Sidenote: The Carolinas become royal provinces. - -In 1728, as a consequence of popular disturbances in the Carolinas, a writ -of _quo warranto_ was issued against the charter, and the proprietors sold -their interests to the Crown. A royal governor was now sent out to each -province. Heretofore, North Carolina had been nominally ruled by a deputy -serving under the South Carolina governor. - - - 121. Settlement and Boundaries (1700-1750). - - Sidenote: Boundary disputes. - -Boundary disputes were a constant source of intercolonial irritation. There -were long and vexatious boundary wrangles between Connecticut and her -neighbors, Rhode Island, New York, and Massachusetts. In 1683 an agreement -reached between Connecticut and New York was the basis of the present line, -surveyed in 1878-1879; it was 1826 before the final survey between -Connecticut and Massachusetts; the quarrel between Connecticut and Rhode -Island was protracted and heated, the line between them not being -definitively established until 1840. Wentworth, the first royal governor of -New Hampshire (1740-1767), made large land-grants, which overlapped -territory claimed by New York, and thus brought on a protracted boundary -controversy between those two provinces. Patents covering both sides of -Lake Champlain were alike issued by New York and New Hampshire; the -settlers east of the lake organized in revolt, under the cognomen of Green -Mountain Boys, and were preparing to set up a government of their own, when -the Revolution broke out, and in 1777 the unacknowledged government of -Vermont was formed. A settlement of the boundary was not reached until -Vermont was admitted to the Union (1791). The boundary disputes of New York -with Massachusetts and Connecticut were settled prior to the Revolution. In -1737 a boundary commission adopted the present line between Massachusetts -and New Hampshire. The same commission established the present western -boundary of Maine. In a contest between Massachusetts and Rhode Island, the -former claimed a portion of the latter's territory, on the ground that it -was included in the old Plymouth patent; but in the final settlement Rhode -Island retained possession. The Penn and Baltimore families long wrangled -over the boundaries between Pennsylvania and Maryland. An agreement was -reached in 1732, and ratified by a convention in 1760: under its terms, -Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, two eminent London mathematicians, ran -the famous "Mason and Dixon line" (1767), separating the southern colonies -from the northern. The boundary line between the Carolinas was not defined -until 1735-1746. To the north and west, English boundary disputes with the -French led to protracted and harassing wars; while to the south, Georgia's -claims clashed with those of the Spaniards in Florida, and during the war -between Spain and England occasion was taken by Oglethorpe (1740), governor -of Georgia, to invade Spanish territory (page 262, Sec. 117). - - Sidenote: Spotswood's enterprising spirit. - -No man of his time was more energetic in pushing the confines of settlement -and encouraging development than Governor Spotswood of Virginia -(1710-1722), a stalwart soldier who had fought under Marlborough. He built -iron furnaces, introduced German vine-growers, made peace with the Indians, -and established several excellent mission schools for them upon the -frontier; under his administration the fur-trade spread far inland, and he -did much to extend topographical knowledge of Virginia by fostering -exploration. - - Sidenote: The mountain borderers. - -The Shenandoah valley, opened to settlement by Spotswood, became, after -1730, a notable home for Scotch-Irish Presbyterians, driven by English -persecution from their home in Ulster. They were by this time coming over -to America in two steady streams, one pouring in at Philadelphia, and the -other at Charleston, S. C. Those arriving at Philadelphia pushed westward -to the mountains, and drifting southwestward through the long parallel -valleys of the Alleghany range, met in the Shenandoah and kindred valleys -those of their brethren who had gone up into the hills of Carolina. It was -from these frontier valley homes that the migration into Kentucky and -Tennessee proceeded a generation later, led by such daring spirits as -Boone, Sevier, and Robertson. - - - 122. Schemes of Colonial Union (1690-1754). - - Sidenote: Governmental plans. - -Schemes for a union of the colonies, to provide for the common defence and -settle intercolonial differences, were numerous enough, after the example -set by the New England Confederacy (Chapter VII.). They emanated almost -entirely, however, from the government party, and chiefly for this reason -were regarded with popular suspicion. In 1690 a continental congress had -been held at New York for the purpose of treating with the Iroquois against -the common enemy, New France (page 206, Sec. 86). In 1697 William Penn laid -before the Board of Trade a plan providing for a high commissioner, -appointed by the king, to preside over a council composed of two delegates -from each province, and to act as commander-in-chief in times of war. The -scheme aroused much opposition from colonial pamphleteers, and failed of -adoption; other plans which were promulgated from time to time, for the -next sixty years, were in the main adaptations of Penn's, some of them -providing for two or three strongly centralized provinces, each to be -presided over by a Viceroy, assisted by a council of colonial delegates. - - Sidenote: Neighborhood congresses. - -While the Board of Trade, distracted by doubts whether the colonies could -be more firmly held as separate governments or under a viceregal union, was -engaged in considering the various propositions submitted to it, several -neighborhood congresses were held by the provinces themselves, chiefly to -treat with Indians or for purposes of defence. But these congresses were in -no sense popular meetings; they were composed of the official class, and -had little more effect on the people than to accustom them to the spectacle -of colonial union for matters of common interest. - - Sidenotes: The second colonial congress. - - Its plan of union rejected. - -In 1754 the Lords of Trade recommended a second general congress of the -colonies, to treat with the Iroquois again; they also favored "articles of -union and confederation with each other for the mutual defence of his -Majesty's subjects and interests in North America, as well in time of peace -as war." The congress was held at Albany. Only seven of the colonies were -represented,--New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New -York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. The convention adopted a plan of union -prepared by Franklin, providing for a general government that should be -self-sustaining and control federal affairs,--war, Indians, and public -lands,--while the colonial governments were to retain their constitutions -intact. The plan was rejected by the colonial assemblies. Franklin himself -wrote: "The Crown disapproved it, as having too much weight in the -democratic part of the constitution, and every assembly as having allowed -too much to prerogative." The defeat of the Albany plan marks the end of -efforts at union on the part of the official class. The next movement came -from the people themselves, as the result of oppression on the part of the -mother-country. - - - 123. Quarrels with Royal Governors (1700-1750). - - Sidenote: Quarrels between governors and assemblies. - -The history of the English continental colonies during the first half of -the seventeenth century was largely made up of petty bickerings between the -popular assemblies and the royal governors. The salary question was the -most prominent feature of these disputes. Acting under orders from the -Crown, the governor in each colony insisted on being paid a regular salary -at stated intervals; but the assembly as persistently refused, and desiring -to keep him dependent upon them, voted from time to time such sums as they -chose. The principle at stake was important: a fixed salary grant would -have been in the nature of a tax imposed by the Crown. Had the assembly -been complaisant, the government would have been thrown into the hands of -the royal governor and council, through their absolute power to veto laws. -The acrimonious contention was greatly disturbing to all material -interests, but it served as a most valuable constitutional training school -for the Revolution. - - Sidenote: The salary question in Massachusetts. - -At times, in Boston, excitement over this perennial quarrel ran to a high -pitch, and now and then it looked as though the assembly would be obliged -to yield; but the men of Massachusetts were of stubborn clay, and never -displayed more bravery than when the governor, backed by writs from -England, threatened them the loudest. In 1728, the assembly, defended -itself, saying it was "the undoubted right of all Englishmen, by Magna -Charta, to raise and dispose of money for the public service of their own -free accord, without compulsion." The Privy Council at last yielded the -point (1735), and left the Massachusetts governor free to receive whatever -the assembly chose to grant. In some of the colonies this salary question -resulted in frequent deadlocks, in which all public business was at a -standstill. - - - 124. Governors of Southern Colonies. - - Sidenotes: Other differences. - - South Carolina's experience. - -Other differences between the governors and their assemblies hinged on -claims of prerogative, fees for issuing land-titles, issues of paper money, -official attempts to favor the Church of England at the expense of -dissenters, and levies of men and money for the public defence. There were -also special grievances in many of the provinces. In South Carolina -(1704-1706), the proprietors attempted to exclude all but Church of England -men from the assembly. This led to a bitter controversy, in which the -dissenters successfully appealed to the House of Lords, and legal -proceedings were commenced by the Crown for the revocation of the Carolina -charter; but they were not then pushed to an issue. In 1719 the meddlesome -executive policy of the proprietors resulted in a popular uprising, in -which the governor was deposed. Later, the authorities (1754-1765) -attempted to resist the issue of paper money, and also to reduce -representation in the assembly, while at the same time the home government -introduced some offensive regulations regarding land patents. Popular -indignation again expressed itself in bloody turbulence, and the colony -fell into great disorder. - - Sidenote: North Carolina. - -In North Carolina the scattered colonists maintained a vigorous resistance -to arbitrary authority; the tone of official life was low; corruption in -office was common; contests over questions of public policy often led to -rioting and anarchy; bloodshed was not infrequent in such times of popular -disturbance. In the far western valleys there was for a long period no -pretence of law or order, and criminals of every sort found a safe refuge -there; while pirates--until Blackbeard's capture by Governor Spotswood of -Virginia in 1718--freely used the deep-coast inlets as snug harbors, from -which they darted out with rakish craft to attack passing merchant-vessels. -From 1704 to 1711 there was practically no government in the province, -owing to an insurrection headed by Thomas Carey, whom Governor Spotswood -finally arrested (1710) and sent prisoner to England. - - Sidenote: Virginia. - -During the administration of Governor Nicholson (1698-1705) the Virginia -assembly had quietly gained control of the financial machinery, by making -the treasurer an officer of its own appointment. When, therefore, the -customary eighteenth-century wrangling commenced, the assembly was master -of the situation. The burgesses refused to vote money for public defence -until the governors yielded their claims of prerogative, and land-title -fees. - - - 125. Governors of Middle Colonies. - - Sidenote: Pennsylvania. - -Nowhere was the weary disagreement between governor and assembly so harmful -to provincial interests as in Pennsylvania. There were elements in the -contention there not existing elsewhere. The Penn family, as the -proprietors, resisted the proposed inclusion of their lands in tax levies -for the conduct of military operations, while the assembly for many years -would vote no money for such purposes or pay the governor's salary, except -on the condition that the proprietary estates paid their share in the cost -of defence. The proprietors finally yielded (1759). Other points of -difference were,--the assertion of the gubernatorial prerogative of -establishing courts, and proprietary opposition to the reckless issues of -paper money frequently ordered by the assembly. The Quakers were opposed to -warfare on principle; they would neither take up arms themselves in defence -of the borderers from the French and Indians, nor, except when driven to it -in times of great distress, vote money to equip or pay volunteers. They -had, too, a great objection to levying and paying taxes; and in this they -found strong allies in the Germans, who had now come over in large numbers, -chiefly to settle on wild lands in the interior of the province. Most of -the Germans and Quakers would go to almost any length in compromise with -the Indian and French invaders who were mercilessly destroying the pioneer -settlements. The proprietors and their governors fretted and threatened; -the English government sent over order after order to the stubborn -legislators; the borderers plied the deputies with heart-rending appeals -for aid: yet the assembly long maintained its obstinate course, now and -then grudgingly voting insufficient issues of depreciated bills of credit. - - Sidenote: New York. - -Lord Cornbury, who succeeded the Earl of Bellomont as governor of New York -and New Jersey (1702), was not a man to inspire respect, being profligate -and overbearing; he opposed popular interests, winning especial hatred -through his petty persecution of dissenters from the Church of England. He -was recalled in 1708, in response to general denunciation of his course. -His successors were in continuous and often acrimonious controversy with -their assemblies, but generally succeeded in inducing the deputies to -contribute with more or less liberality to the conduct of expeditions -against the French and Indians. - - Sidenote: New Jersey. - -Governor Belcher of New Jersey (1748-1757), who had been worsted in a -heated salary contest in Massachusetts (1730-1741), and had profited by -experience, was now one of the few executives who understood how to handle -an assembly. By an obliging temper he readily secured the passage of such -revenue bills as were essential to the proper defence of the colony in the -French and Indian war, and avoided serious dispute. - - - 126. Governors of New England Colonies. - - Sidenote: Phipps's difficulties in Massachusetts. - -The brief term of Sir William Phipps (1692-1695), as governor of -Massachusetts,--a province then extending all the way from Rhode Island to -New Brunswick, with the exception of New Hampshire,--was filled with -bitterness and disappointment. At the outset of his career and the -inauguration of the new charter (page 176, Sec. 73), the assembly in the -absence of any provision under that head, enacted that taxes were only to -be levied in the province with the consent of the assembly. Had this rule -been accepted by the Crown it would have left little occasion for quarrels -between governor and people; its rejection by the home government left the -door open to a train of events which ended, eighty-four years later, in -continental independence. The witchcraft delusion (page 190, Sec. 80) had -stirred the colony to its centre, and Phipps gained no friends from his -attitude in that affair; he angered Boston and crippled its political -influence by securing the passage of a law (1694) that deputies to the -assembly must be residents of the districts they represented; and his -temper was so testy that at the time of his recall he was engaged in a -quarrel with nearly every leading man in the province. - - Sidenote: The Earl of Bellomont, and Massachusetts. - -The Earl of Bellomont came over in 1698 as governor of New York, New -Jersey, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire. In November the General Court of -Massachusetts invited him to visit Boston "so soon as the season of the -year might comfortably admit his undertaking so long and difficult a -journey." In the following spring (1699) he responded to the call. In -Massachusetts Bellomont won favor by siding, as he had in New York, with -the popular party, and recommending to his government the introduction of -many reforms. In Rhode Island, where he tarried by the way, he found much -to dissatisfy him, and reported the people as being ignorant, in a state of -political and moral disorder, with an indifferent set of public officials, -who were corrupt and abetted the pirates who swarmed in Narragansett Bay. -Bellomont promptly devoted himself to the suppression of these sea-robbers, -and in the year of his own death (1701) brought the notorious Kidd to the -gallows. Bellomont's conciliatory attitude towards Massachusetts did not -please the English Board of Trade, which sent him warning that the -colonists had "a thirst for independency," as was particularly exemplified -in their "denial of appeals." - - Sidenote: Connecticut and Rhode Island free from disputes. - -Connecticut and Rhode Island were left with their old charters and their -popularly elected governors, and thus were happily spared those quarrels -over salaries, prerogatives, and fees which elsewhere in the colonies -aroused so much ill-feeling. Governor Fletcher of New York was commissioned -to take military control of Connecticut. He went to Hartford (1693) to -assert his right; but meeting with rude treatment, felt impelled to return -home, and little more was heard from him. Like Massachusetts, Connecticut -was successful in preventing legal appeals to England. - - Sidenote: The Mason claim in New Hampshire. - -In New Hampshire--which was separated from Massachusetts in 1741 and became -a royal province--there had been more than a century of dispute between the -settlers and the proprietors respecting the Mason claim, and much confusion -had at times arisen. The matter was at last ended by the purchase of the -claim by a land company (1749), which released all of the settled tracts. - - - 127. Effect of the French Wars (1700-1750). - - Sidenote: War with French and Indians. - -The aggressions of the French and their policy of inciting the northern and -western Indians to murderous attacks on the slowly advancing English -frontier, kept the colonies which abutted on New France in an almost -constant state of excitement. Those provinces which had no Indian frontier, -such as Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey, and Rhode Island, and the -Carolinas,--which latter had, however, several desperate local Indian -uprisings to quell,--experienced but little alarm over the common danger, -viewed schemes of union with indifference, and contributed but grudgingly -to the funds and expeditions for general defence. Pennsylvania was open to -attack along an extended border; the Germans and Quakers being opposed to -making war on Indians, her frontier suffered greatly from frequent raids of -the enemy. New York, being on the highway between the Atlantic coast and -the Great Lakes and Canada, was the scene of many bloody encounters. No -other province was so greatly exposed, and on none did the cost of the -prolonged and desperate contest between the French and English in America -so heavily fall. In 1706, during Queen Anne's war (1702-1713), the French -made an unavailing attack on Charleston, South Carolina. In the capture of -Port Royal (1710), New England men chiefly participated, and they were -otherwise prominent throughout the war. In King George's War (1744-1748), -New Englanders alone took part, although New York and a few other colonies -contributed to the army chest. Louisburg was captured in 1745 by New -England troops, who were highly elated at their brilliant conquest. -England, too busy with her own affairs, could not well send protection the -following year, when a French fleet threatened New England; a curious -chapter of marine disasters alone saved the Americans from being severely -punished in retaliation. This doubtless unavoidable neglect on the part of -the mother-country, and the final surrender of Louisburg to the French by -the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), tended still further to strain the -relations between England and her colonies on the American continent. - - Sidenote: Vernon's expedition to the West Indies. - -Admiral Vernon's expedition against the French in the West Indies in 1740 -was participated in by men from nearly all the English colonies, island and -continental. A campaign against the Spanish settlements in Florida was -undertaken by Oglethorpe during the same year (page 262, Sec. 117). The -Carolinas gave somewhat tardy aid to Georgia in this daring enterprise. - - - 128. Economic Conditions. - - Sidenote: Paper money and finance. - -Massachusetts was the first of the colonies to issue paper money. This was -in 1690, to aid in fitting out an expedition against Canada. The other -provinces followed at intervals. Affairs had come to such a pass by 1748 -that the price in paper of L100 in coin ranged all the way from L1100 in -New England to L180 in Pennsylvania. The royal governors in all the -colonies, acting under instructions from home, were generally persistent -opponents of this financial expedient. Governor Belcher of Massachusetts, -in a proclamation against the practice (1740), said it gave "great -interruption and brought confusion into trade and business," and "reflected -great dishonor on his Majesty's government here." In 1720, Parliament -passed what was known as "the Bubble Act," designed to break up all private -banking companies in the United Kingdom chartered for the issue of -circulating notes; this Act was made applicable to the colonies in 1740, -and reinforced in 1751, the last-named Act forbidding the further issue of -colonial paper money except in cases of invasion or for the annual current -expenses of the government, these exceptional cases to be under control of -the Crown. In 1763 all issues to date were declared void; although ten -years later (1773), provincial bills of credit were made receivable as -legal tender at the treasuries of the colonies emitting them. The -controversy between the colonies and the home government over these issues -of a cheap circulating medium developed much bitterness on the part of the -former, who deemed the practice essential to their prosperity; and it was -one of the many causes of the Revolution. - - Sidenote: Acts of Navigation and Trade. - -Another constant source of irritation were the parliamentary Acts of -Navigation and Trade (page 104, Sec. 44). In the continental colonies there -was no popular sentiment against smuggling or other interference with the -operation of these obnoxious laws. In no colony were the Acts strictly -observed; had they been enforced they would have worked unbearable -hardship. Massachusetts particularly offended the Board of Trade by openly -refusing to provide for their more rigorous execution; coupling its -stubborn behavior with the bold assertion, quite contrary to ministerial -ideas, that the colonists were "as much Englishmen as those in England, and -had a right, therefore, to all the privileges which the people of England -enjoyed." - - - 129. Political and Social Conditions (1700-1750). - - Sidenote: Virginia ideas _versus_ New England ideas. - -In the colonies, as afterwards in the States, there was a continual contest -for supremacy between Virginia, where political power was lodged in the -aristocratic class, and New England, where there was a voluntary -recognition of aristocracy, but where the body of the people ruled. -Virginia ideas strongly influenced North Carolina on the south, and -Maryland, Delaware, and Pennsylvania on the north. The tone of life in -South Carolina was purely southern, with no trace of Virginian -characteristics; New York, also free from Virginian methods, was strongly -influenced by New England ideas. - - Sidenote: Political affairs in the South; - -The governing class in Virginia were of strong English stock, and when -occasion for political action offered, were ready for it, proving -themselves good soldiers and statesmen, and furnishing some of the most -powerful leaders in the revolt against the mother-country. Their protracted -fights with the French and Indians inured them to habits of the camp; while -quarrels with their governors, and bickerings with the home government over -the Navigation Acts (page 104, Sec. 44) and the impressment of seamen, -furnished schooling in constitutional agitation. By the middle of the -eighteenth century the majority of Virginians were natives of the soil, and -their attachment to England was weaker than that of their fathers; while -the considerable foreign element weakened the bond of union with the -mother-country. In Maryland general hostility to the Church of England and -its impolitic attempt to suppress dissent, was an important factor in -widening the breach. North Carolina continued to be distinguished for -disorder and a low state of morals, education, and wealth, and produced no -great leaders in the opposition to Great Britain. The people, having a keen -perception of their rights, were eager enough in the patriot cause; but -there was a large Tory party, and consequently fierce internal dissensions -characterized the history of the colony throughout the Revolutionary -agitation. Being dependent on England for trade and supplies, the -aristocratic planters of South Carolina were drawn much closer to the -mother-country than in any other continental colony. The Tory element was -powerful, yet the best and strongest men of the slave-holding class were -patriots, and furnished several popular leaders of ability,--the colony -ranking second only to Virginia, in the southern group, during the struggle -with the home government. Georgia was but newly settled, and the English -colonists were still strongly attached to their native country; she was -therefore more loyal than her neighbors. The settlers from New England, -with the political shrewdness peculiar to their section, succeeded in -committing Georgia to the patriot cause; but the mass of the people -remained lukewarm, and when English rule was overturned there was much -lawlessness. The community was immature, and had not yet learned the art of -self-government. - - Sidenote: in the Middle Colonies; - -The Navigation Acts and the impressment of seamen bore hard on -Pennsylvania, and there was no lack of complaint against other forms of -ministerial interference with colonial rights. But the Quakers, who were -chiefly of the shopkeeping and trading class, had not experienced the long -and painful struggle for existence that had been the lot of most of the -other colonists. They had been prosperous from the beginning; and being -conservative, timid, and slow in disposition and action, were not easily -persuaded to make material sacrifices for the sake of political sentiment. -Thus Pennsylvania was an uncertain factor in the revolt. New Jersey, with -no Indian frontier, no foreign trade, and but light taxes, had few causes -for complaint against England. Her rulers were thrifty, conservative -farmers, who were disposed to be loyal; yet as they were of pure English -descent, and tenacious of their liberties, they were gradually drawn into -an attitude of opposition to English rule. New York was the only one of the -middle group of colonies which stood stoutly against England. Since the -days of Andros the people "caught at everything to lessen the prerogative." -New York city, as the second commercial port on the coast, was naturally a -seat of opposition to the navigation laws. But the Tory minority were -nowhere more active or determined than in New York. - - Sidenote: and in New England. - -The New Englanders were pure in race, simple and frugal in habit, -enterprising, vigorous, intelligent, and with a high average of education. -They were small freeholders, possessed of a democratic system which had -powers of indefinite expansion, and were trained in a political school well -calculated to produce great popular leaders. Their political principles, -developed by a century and a half of contention with the home government, -pervaded the colonial revolt, and were carried out in the national -government in which it resulted. The New England Confederation of 1643 bore -fruit in the Stamp-Act congress of 1765, and still more in the -Confederation of 1781 and the Constitution of 1787. - - -130. Results of the Half-Century (1700-1750). - - Sidenote: The colonial spirit. - -Although the period 1700-1750 has not the interest of the previous half -century of colonization, it has great constitutional importance. The rugged -individuality of the founders of the colonies,--New England, middle, and -southern,--was beginning to give way to a distinctly American character. -The colonies lived separate lives; there was little intercommunication, but -their interests were much the same, their relations with the mother-country -were the same, and in the intercolonial wars they learned to act side by -side. More than this, they all enjoyed a greater degree of personal freedom -and local independence than was known anywhere else in the world. They had -no consciousness of any desire to become independent. They had their own -assemblies, made their own laws, and disregarded the Acts of Trade. In -population the colonies increased between 1650 and 1700 from about 100,000 -to 250,000; during the period 1700-1750 they grew to 1,370,000. A few -passable towns were built,--Boston, Philadelphia, and New York. Their means -were small, their horizon narrow, but their spirit was large. - - Sidenote: The English Ohio Company. - -As the year 1750 approached, there came upon the colonies two changes, -destined to lead to a new political life. In the first place, the colonies -at last began to overrun the mountain barrier which had hemmed them in on -the west, and thus to invite another and more desperate struggle with the -French. The first settlement made west of the mountains was on a branch of -the Kanawha (1748); in the same season several adventurous Virginians -hunted and made land-claims in Kentucky and Tennessee. Before the close of -the following year (1749) there had been formed the Ohio Company, composed -of wealthy Virginians, among whom were two brothers of Washington. King -George granted the company five hundred thousand acres, on which they were -to plant one hundred families and build and maintain a fort. The first -attempt to explore the region of the Ohio brought the English and the -French traders into conflict; and troops were not long in following, on -both sides. - - Sidenote: New colonial policy. - -At the same time the home government was awaking to the fact that the -colonies were not under strict control. In 1750 the Administration began to -consider means of stopping unlawful trade. Before the plan could be -perfected the French and Indian War broke out, in 1754. The story of that -war and of the consequences of simultaneously dispossessing the French -enemies of the colonies, and tightening the reins of government, belongs to -the next volume of the series,--the Formation of the Union. - - - - - INDEX. - - - Acadia, united to Massachusetts, 176. _See_ Nova Scotia. - - Africa, supposed migrations from, to America, 21; - European explorations of coast of, 24. - - Aix-la-Chapelle, treaty of, 255, 278. - - Alaska, Asiatic migration to, 2; - aborigines of, 12. - - Albany, founded, 196; - as Fort Nassau, 197; - as Fort Orange, 198, 199; - re-named by English, 203; - characteristics, 228; - fur-trade, 253; - first Colonial Congress, 80, 206; - second Colonial Congress, 270. - - Albemarle, 89; - a district in Carolina, 88-91. - - Alexander VI., Pope, bull of partition, 24, 36, 196. - - Algonquian Indians, status, 9-12; - as allies of the French, 206, 246, 250; - uprising in New York, 200. - - Alleghany mountains. _See_ Appalachian. - - Andover, Mass., sacked by French and Indians, 254. - - Andros, Sir Edmund, governor of Virginia, 79; - governor of New York and the Jerseys, 175, 176, 205, 206, 282; - governor of New England, 175, 189, 211. - - Augusta, Ga., founded, 260; - fur-trade, 261. - - Annapolis, Md., founded, 87, 98. - - --, Nova Scotia. _See_ Port Royal. - - Antigua, Leeward Islands, 237. - - Antinomian theory, held by Anne Hutchinson, 133, 134. - - Appalachian mountains, extent of, 3,4, 6, 7; - early explorations, 4, 269; - characteristics, 5, 6, 97, 179, 219; - aborigines, 11; - early Scotch settlements in, 269. - - Argall, Samuel, governor of Virginia, 73; - destroys French settlements in Acadia, 242. - - Arizona, aborigines of, 8; - early Spanish explorations, 28-30; - Spanish missions, 31. - - Armada, the Spanish, interrupts American colonization, 40; - defeat of, 48, 52. - - Asia, possible emigration from, to America, 2, 3; - distance from America, 5; - relation to American exploration, 25-27; - early European commerce in, 23, 24. - - Assemblies, hampered by commercial companies and royal and proprietary - interference, 58; - hold the purse-strings, 59; - origin of bicameral system, 61; - representative system, 62, 63; - in the South generally, 97, 109, 110; - in Virginia, 73, 75, 77, 78; - in the Carolinas, 90, 92; - in Maryland, 82-86; - in Pennsylvania, 215, 216; - in New Jersey, 211, 212, 214; - in New Netherlands, 200, 201; - in New York, 200, 201, 204-206; - in Connecticut, 142, 143; - in Rhode Island, 147, 148; - in Massachusetts, 123, 126, 128; - quarrels with the royal governors (1700-1750), 271-279. - - Association for the defence of the Protestant religion in Maryland, 87. - - Atlantic slope, natural entrance of North America, 3, 5; - rivers, 3, 4; - three grand natural divisions, 5, 6; - mining, 6; - soil and climate, 6, 97; - aborigines of, 9, 10; - early fur-trade on, 18; - early European explorations, 25-28; - early English colonies on, 47. - - Aztecs. _See_ Mexico. - - - Bacon, Nathaniel, rebellion of, 78, 79, 80. - - Bahamas, the, discovered by Columbus, 23; - claimed by English, 44; - included in Carolina, 90; - send settlers to Carolina, 93, 97; - historical sketch, 239, 240. - - Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, discovers Pacific ocean, 26. - - Baltimore, Md., founded, 87. - - --, Lord. _See_ Calvert. - - Baptists, in Carolina, 89; - in Rhode Island, 159. - - Barbados, founded, 89; - claimed by English, 44; - send settlers to Virginia, 93; - Quakers at, 165; - historical sketch, 236, 237, 239. - - Basques, American discoveries by, 21; - engaged in Newfoundland fisheries, 241. - - Belcher, Jonathan, governor of New Jersey, 221, 275; - governor of Massachusetts, 279. - - Belize, history of, 241. - - Bellomont, Earl of, governor of New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts, and - New Hampshire, 207, 274, 276. - - Berkeley, Sir William, governor of Virginia, 75, 77, 78, 79, 84; - one of the Carolina proprietors, 89; - on education in Virginia, 107, 108; - interest in New Jersey colonization, 205, 211, 212. - - Bermudas, claimed by English, 44; - annexed to Virginia, 72; - send settlers to Carolina, 90; - intercolonial relations, 234; - historical sketch, 238, 239. - - Biloxi (Old), Miss., founded, 248. - - Blackbeard, a noted pirate, 273. - - Blommaert, Samuel, Dutch patroon, 199, 207, 208. - - Blue Laws, fabricated by Peters, 146. - - Body of Liberties, 138, 139. - - Boston, founded, 127; - the Anne Hutchinson episode, 133-136; - New Haven colonists in, 144; - formation of New England Confederation, 156; - Gortonites at, 160; - expeditions against New Netherlands, 163, 164, 168; - levies intercolonial duties, 164; - repression of the Quakers, 165, 166; - arrival of royal commissioners, 168; - Indian missionary efforts, 170; - evasion of Navigation Acts, 173; - the rule of Andros, 175, 176; - slavery, 182; - commerce, 186; - condition in 1700, 186; - Tory element, 189; - Sewall's repentance, 191, 192; - characteristics, 228; - disputes with Phipps, 275, 276; - Bellomont's visit, 276. - - Boundary disputes between the Jerseys, 212; - between Maryland and Pennsylvania, 217; - between French and English colonies, 255, 256; - summary of intercolonial, 267-269. - - Brazil, discovered by Cabral, 44; - Portuguese colonies, 43, 44, 48; - Huguenots in, 44. - - Breda, treaty of, 237. - - Brewster, William, leader of the Pilgrims, 116, 117. - - British Honduras, historical sketch, 241. - - Brittany, early fishers from, at Newfoundland, 26, 33, 241. - - Brook, Lord, attempt to introduce hereditary rank in Massachusetts, 59, - 129; - Connecticut land grant, 141. - - Brownists, a branch of the Independents, 115. - - Bubble Act, passed by Parliament, 279. - - - Cabot, John, discovery of North America, 25, 36, 52, 241, 242. - - --, Sebastian, on the American coast, 25. - - California, gulf of, aborigines, 8, 12; - early Spanish explorations, 28, 29, 31; - Spanish missions, 31. - - Calvert, Cecilius, second Lord Baltimore, 82, 83, 85, 86. - - --, Charles, as governor of Maryland, 86; - as third Lord Baltimore, 86, 87. - - --, George, first Lord Baltimore, 76, 77, 81, 82, 208. - - --, Leonard, governor of Maryland, 77, 82, 83, 84. - - Calvin, John, influence of his teachings, 115. - - Calvinists, De Monts' colony of, 35, 36. - - Cambridge, Mass., founded, 127; - fortifications at, 128; - meeting of General Court, 135, 136; - establishment of Harvard College, 130, 158, 188; - emigration to Connecticut, 140; - the "bishop's palace," 189. - - Cambridge platform adopted, 162. - - Canada. _See_ New France. - - Cape Breton island, discovered by Cabot, 25; - in early struggles between French and English, 252; - fall of Louisburg, 243; - in King William's War, 253; - in King George's War, 255. - - Cape Cod, Champlain's visit, 36; - named by Gosnold, 41; - arrival of Pilgrims, 117, 118; - Indian missionary efforts, 170; - character of, 179. - - Caribs, the, 8, 9, 236, 239. - - Carolina, named after Charles IX., 33; - causes of failure of early colonies, 41-43; - French expelled by Spaniards, 48; - early settlers, 87-89; - under the lords proprietors, 89-92; - division of the colonies, 92; - reunited, 94; - Barbadians in, 236, 237; - geography, 96, 97; - population, 97; - character of colonists, 97; - agriculture, 102; - commerce, 104. - _See_ North Carolina and South Carolina. - - Carteret, Sir George, obtains grant of New Jersey, 205, 211, 212. - - --, Philip, governor of New Jersey, 211. - - Cartier, Jacques, explores St. Lawrence River, 32, 246. - - Catholics, in England, 115; - in Virginia, 76; - in Maryland, 77, 81-87, 108; - in the Carolinas, 95; - in Pennsylvania, 108, 230; - in New Jersey, 214; - in Georgia, 260; - policy of the church in New France, 49, 50, 246, 247, 251, 252. - - Cayuga Indians, 10, 11. - - Champlain, Samuel de, early explorations, 26, 35; - founds Quebec, 36, 246; - fights the Iroquois, 196; - on Lake Huron, 246, 247; - as governor of New France, 251, 252; - death, 248. - - Charles I., king of England, interest in Virginia, 75; - interest in Maryland, 82, 84; - interest in Carolina, 88; - attitude towards the Puritans, 125, 127; - annuls Massachusetts charter, 131; - grants Windward Islands to Carlisle, 237; - execution, 76. - - Charles II., king of England, reception of Berkeley, 79; - proclaimed in Massachusetts, 159; - attitude towards Quakers, 166; - displeased with New Englanders, 166-168, 174; - treatment of Connecticut and Rhode Island, 168, 169; - claims New Netherlands, 202, 203; - interest in New Jersey, 212; - charter to Penn, 215; - charters Hudson's Bay Company, 243; - attitude towards New France, 252; - death, 175. - - Charleston, S.C., founded, 92, 93, 98; - churchmen in, 109; - characteristics, 228; - arrival of Scotch, 269; - attacked by French, 278. - - Charlestown, Mass., founded, 122, 127; - fortified, 131; - hanging of a witch, 190. - - Charters, commercial privileges of, 104, 105; - of Virginia, 60, 66-69, 72, 74, 113; - of Maryland, 81, 82; - of the Carolinas, 88, 89, 267, 272; - of Georgia, 259; - of Delaware, 216; - of Pennsylvania, 210, 215, 217; - under the Dutch, 197, 198; - South Company of Sweden, 208; - of New Jersey, 211-213; - of Connecticut, 61, 141, 168, 175, 276, 277; - of Rhode Island, 60, 61, 148, 149, 168, 175; - Plymouth Company, 120, 121, 124, 131, 150; - Massachusetts Bay, 60, 125-127, 131, 159, 169, 174, 175, 177; - to the Gorges, 122, 125, 150; - to John Mason, 125, 150, 152; - New Hampshire, 174; - ministerial attacks on the (1701-1749), 266, 267. - - Cherokee Indians, status, 11; - relations with Georgians, 259, 261. - - Chesapeake Bay, Cabot at, 25; - reached by Lane, 39; - reached by Jamestown colonists, 70; - arrival of royal commissioners, 76; - Claiborne's operations, 77, 83; - geography, 218, 219. - - Chickasaw Indians, status, 11; - relations with Georgians, 261, 262. - - Chicora, Vasquez's conquest of, 27. - - Choctaw Indians, status, 11. - - Church of England, in England, 114, 115; - in the Carolinas, 88, 91, 94, 109, 272; - in Virginia, 67, 78, 108; - in Maryland, 86, 87, 280; - in the South generally, 102, 111; - in New York, 229, 230, 274; - in Massachusetts, 122, 130-132, 173, 175, 189; - in New Hampshire, 152; - in Maine, 150, 151; - a source of dispute between governors and assemblies, 272. - - Cibola, Seven Cities of, visited by Spaniards, 29-31. - - Clarendon, a district in Carolina, 89, 90, 93. - - Claiborne, William, his quarrel with Maryland, 76-78, 83-85. - - Cliff-Dwellers, status, 8. - - Colleges, Harvard, 80, 130, 158, 181, 188; - Yale, 80; - William and Mary, 80, 81, 103. - - Colonization, motives of, 46; - early views of, 46; - French policy, 35, 48-50; - Spanish policy, 47, 48, 51; - Portuguese policy, 48; - Dutch policy, 50, 51; - German policy, 51; - English policy, 51, 53; - relations of colonists with Indians, 17-19; - experience of sixteenth century, 41-44; - character of English emigrants, 53, 54; - the institutions they imported, 55-63; - reasons for the English movement, 65, 66. - - Columbus, Christopher, discoveries prior to his, 21-23; - his discoveries, 23-25, 31, 237; - his motives, 4, 6. - - Commerce, early Norse, 22; - of Europe with India, 23, 24, 27, 42; - fur-trade of early European explorers, 26, 28, 35, 52, 53; - French commercial companies, 35; - of Spain, in West Indies, 38, 39; - as a motive of colonization, 46; - Spanish policy, 47; - Portuguese policy, 48, 50; - Dutch policy, 50, 51, 103-105; - early English commercial companies, 55, 65, 68, 69; - London company, 66-74; - Plymouth company, 114; - Massachusetts Bay Company, 125-127; - economic effect on England, 65; - intercolonial, 102-107, 130; - colonial, with England, 103, 104, 130, 169; - the Navigation Acts, 104-106. - _See_ Fur-trade. - - Communal proprietorship, in Virginia, 68, 73; - at Plymouth, 117, 120, 121. - - Congregationalists, origin of name, 162; - organization, 189; - in middle colonies, 230. - - Connecticut, founded, 136, 140-142; - Pequod War, 136, 137; - government, 142-144; - early Dutch settlers, 136, 198, 199; - conflicts between Dutch and English, 163, 202; - New Haven founded and absorbed, 144-146, 168; - characteristics of Connecticut and New Haven, 146; - in the New England Confederation, 155, 156; - river-toll levied, 164; - treatment of Quakers, 166; - Massachusetts absorbs more territory, 173; - history of the charter, 168, 175, 177, 266, 267, 276, 277; - litigation, 182, 183; - iron mining, 184; - agriculture, 186; - colonization schemes on the Delaware, 208, 209; - boundary disputes, 267, 268; - represented in second colonial congress, 270; - Fletcher's visit, 276, 277; - population (1700) 180, (1754) 265. - - Cordilleran mountains. _See_ Rocky mountains. - - Cornbury, Lord, governor of New York and New Jersey, 274, 275. - - Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de, search for Cibola, 11, 29-31. - - Cortereal, Gaspar, explores American coast, 25, 241. - - Cortez, Hernando, conquest of Mexico, 8, 27-29. - - Council for New England. _See_ Plymouth Company. - - County, the, in England, 55; in the South, 56; - in middle colonies, 57; - in New York, 204; - in Pennsylvania, 216. - - _Coureurs de bois_, their characteristics, 247, 249, 250; - explorations of, 248, 253. - - Creek Indians, status, 11; - relations with Georgians, 260, 261. - - Cromwell, Oliver, accepted in Virginia, 76, 78; - in Maryland, 85; - friendship for New England, 159; - expedition against New Netherlands, 163, 164, 202; - sends prisoners to Barbados, 236. - - Cuba, slavery in, 239; - threatened by English, 262. - - Culpeper, Thomas, Lord, governor of Virginia, 78-80. - - Cumberland Gap, a highway for exploration, 4. - - - Dakotah Indians, status, 11, 12 - - Danes, in Iceland, 21. - - Dare, Virginia, first English child born in the United States, 40. - - Davenport, John, heads New Haven colony, 144, 145. - - Delaware, early Dutch settlers, 207, 208; - the Swedes, 201, 208; - fall of New Sweden, 209; - annexed to Pennsylvania, 210, 216, 217; - a separate colony, 61, 210, 217; - geography, 218, 219; - social classes, 222-224; - occupations, 224, 225; - trade and commerce, 225, 226; - life and manners, 227; - religion, 230; - general characteristics, 210; - Indian affairs, 277; - influence of Virginian ideas on, 280; - population (1700), 221, 222; (1750), 266. - - --, Lord, governor of Virginia, 72. - - -- River, early settlements on, 51, 197-199, 207-210, 215, 216; - Dutch claims on, 163; - conflicts between Dutch and Swedes, 200. - - De Monts, Sieur, colonizes Nova Scotia, 35, 36, 242. - - De Soto, Hernando, expedition of, 11, 30, 31, 47. - - Detroit, site discovered, 248, 249. - - Digger Indians, status, 9. - - "Discovery," the, carries colonists to Virginia, 69. - - Dominica, Leeward Islands, 237, 238. - - Dorchester, Mass., fortified, 131; - emigration from, to Connecticut, 140, 141. - - Drake, Sir Francis, explorations, 37, 52; - relieves Raleigh's colony, 39; - resists the Armada, 40. - - Dudley, Joseph, president of Andros's council, 175, 176. - - --, Thomas, lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts, 127, 135, 175; - governor, 129. - - "Duke's laws," the, in New York, 203, 204. - - Dummer, Jeremiah, "Defence of the American Charters," 266, 267. - - Dunkards, in Pennsylvania, 230. - - Dutch, the, early claims in America, 44; - colonial policy, 50, 51; - as ocean carriers, 103, 104; - plant New Netherlands, 196-198; - patroon system, 198-200; - operations on the Connecticut, 136, 140, 141; - collisions with English traders and settlers, 47, 145, 155, 162-164, - 199, 200; - Swedish opposition, 51, 208, 209; - wars with England, 159, 163, 164, 168, 201-203; - fall of New Netherlands, 168, 202, 203; - New Netherlands recaptured, but lost again, 205; - in the West Indies, 236-238; - in New York, 203, 204, 220, 221, 223, 227, 229, 231, 232; - in New Jersey, 210, 211, 221; - in Pennsylvania and Delaware, 207-210, 215, 217, 221, 222. - - -- East India Company, sends out Hudson, 196. - - -- Reformed Church, in middle colonies, 230. - - -- West India Company, chartered, 197; - patroon system, 198-200, 223; - plan of government, 203; - Delaware settlements, 207, 209; - pacific policy towards New England, 163. - - - East India Company, 66. - - East Indies, Dutch in the, 50. - - East New Jersey, as a separate province, 212-214; - population (1700), 221. - - Eaton, Theophilus, heads New Haven colony, 144, 145. - - Edward VI., king of England, 36. - - Edwards, Jonathan, character, 183; - revival work, 190. - - Eliot, John, the Indian missionary, 170, 189. - - Elizabeth, queen of England, interest in American colonization, 37, 38, - 40, 52, 53, 67, 68; - English commerce under, 104; - Puritanism under, 114, 115. - - England, attitude towards papal bull of partition, 24, 25; - sends out Cabot, 25; - fishing colony at Newfoundland, 26; - early exploration and settlements in America, 36-44; - becomes a great power, 48; - reasons for final colonization of America, 65, 66; - character of her colonists, 53-55; - her colonial policy, 51-53; - the institutions in which her colonists were trained, 53-58; - Quaker repression, 165. - - Endicott, John, heads the Massachusetts colony, 125, 126. - - Eskimos, possible Asiatic origin of, 2, 3; - status, 12. - - Exeter, N. H., founded, 152. - - - Finns, in Delaware and Pennsylvania, 221. - - Fisheries at Newfoundland, 26, 36, 37, 49, 52, 241, 242; - in Carolina, 93; - in England, 104; - in New England, 113, 114, 124, 130, 151, 184, 185. - - Five Nations. _See_ Iroquois. - - Fletcher, Benjamin, governor of New York, 206, 207, 210, 276. - - Florida, Spanish exploration of, 27, 28, 30, 31; - Spanish occupation, 31, 32, 43, 88, 93; - French occupation, 33, 34, 44, 49, 88; - French expelled by Spanish, 48; - Oglethorpe's expedition, 262, 278. - - Fort Casimir, Del., 209. - - Fort Christina, 208, 215. _See_ Wilmington, Del. - - Fort Nassau, site of Albany, 197. - - --, on the Delaware, 197, 201, 207, 208. - - Fort Orange. _See_ Albany. - - Franklin, Benjamin, plan for colonial union, 271. - - Frederica, Ga., founded, 260; - attacked by Spanish, 262. - - "Freeman," term defined, 62. - - French, the, colonies in Florida, 33, 34, 44, 49, 88; - causes of failure of early colonies, 43, 44; - early attempts to colonize Canada, 35, 36; - fishing colony at Newfoundland, 26, 241, 242; - Quebec founded, 36; - France becomes a great power, 48, 52; - colonial policy of 48-50; - influence on English colonization in America, 57; - opposition to English settlement, 47, 206, 207; - in New Amsterdam, 201; - in Pennsylvania and Delaware, 221; - conflicts with English in West Indies, 236-239, 244; - holds Acadia, 242, 243; - troubles with Hudson's Bay Company, 244; - rivalry of Georgian traders. 259, 261. - - French and Indian War, 221, 222, 274, 275, 284. - - Frobisher, Martin, efforts at American colonization, 37, 52; - resists the Armada, 40. - - Frontenac, Louis de Buade, Comte de, governor of New France, 251, 254. - - Fundamental constitutions, devised for Carolina, 90, 91, 93, 95. - - Fur-trade, early spread of, 17, 18; - by Norsemen, 22; - by other early European explorers, 26, 28, 35, 52, 53; - of New France, 35, 49, 50, 247-251, 256-258; - by Claiborne, 76, 77; - of Georgia, 259, 261; - of Carolina, 93, 104; - of Virginia, 104, 269; - of Maryland, 104; - of Pennsylvania, 225, 226; - of New Amsterdam, 118; - of New Sweden, 208, 209; - of New York, 198, 202, 221, 225, 226, 228; - in middle colonies generally, 232; - of Connecticut, 140, 141, 155; - of Plymouth, 122, 124; - of New Hampshire, 152; - of New England generally, 113; - by Hudson's Bay Company, 243, 244; - by American and Northwest companies, 244. - - - Gama, Vasco da, reaches India, 25. - - George II., king of England, name-giver for Georgia, 259; - grants land to Ohio Company, 283. - - Georgia, settlement of, 258-262; - fur-trade, 259, 261; - expedition against Florida Spaniards, 262, 278; - becomes a royal province, 263; - population (1750), 266; - political spirit, 281. - - Germans, in Georgia, 269, 261, 263; - in North Carolina, 97; - in Virginia, 269; - in Maryland, 266; - in Pennsylvania and Delaware, 217, 221, 222, 225, 229, 230, 274, 277; - in New York, 221. - - Germany, colonial policy of, 51; - Presbyterian movement in, 115. - - Gomez, Estevan, on the North American coast, 27, 28. - - Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, early interest in American colonization, 41, 66, - 150; - member of Plymouth Company, 113, 114; - lord proprietor of Maine, 150-152, 158; - allied with Mason in colonizing New Hampshire, 125, 152. - - --, Robert, governor-general of New England, 122, 132; - land-grants to, 125. - - --, Thomas, deputy-governor of Maine, 152. - - Gorton, Samuel, difficulties with Rhode Islanders, 160, 161, 164. - - Gosnold, Bartholomew, voyages to America, 41, 65, 66, 69, 71. - - Green Bay, Wis., Nicolet at, 12, 248. - - Green Mountain Boys, origin of, 268. - - Greenland, discovered by Norsemen, 21; - Norwegian settlements in, 21-23. - - Grenada, Windward Islands, 237. - - Grenadines, the, Windward Islands, 237. - - Grenville, Sir Richard, leads colony to Roanoke, 38-40, 52; - resists the Armada, 40. - - "Guinea," the, in Chesapeake Bay, 76. - - Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, interest in American colonization, 51, - 208. - - Guzman, Nuno Beltran de, founds Culiacan, 28, 29; - expedition to Cibola, 29. - - - Hadley, Mass., shelters the regicides, 167. - - Hakluyt, Richard, early English chronicler, 37; - interest in American colonization, 66, 69. - - Hartford, Conn., founded, 136, 140, 141; - raided by Indians, 137; - the charter-oak story, 175; - early Dutch settlement at, 199; - Fletcher's visit, 276, 277. - - Harvard College founded, 80, 130, 188; - aided by New England Confederation, 158; - social distinctions at, 181. - - Hawkins, Sir John, visits Florida, 34; - resists the Armada, 40. - - Heath, Sir Robert, first proprietor of Carolina, 88. - - Henri IV., king of France, his colonial policy, 35. - - Henry VII., king of England, rewards Cabot, 25; - attitude towards bull of partition, 36; - Navigation Acts under, 104. - - -- VIII., king of England, interest in northwest passage, 36. - - Hoboken, N. J., founded, 199. - - Holland, English Independents in, 115-117. - _See_ Dutch. - - Hooker, Thomas, supports Anne Hutchinson, 134; - assists in settling Connecticut, 141; - as a constitution-maker, 143; - character, 183. - - Hopi Indians, Spanish with, 29, 30. - - Howard of Effingham, Lord, Governor of Virginia, 79. - - Hudson Bay, exploration of, 4; - aborigines of, 9, 12; - early French visits, 247, 248. - - Hudson, Hendrik, discovers Hudson River, 44, 50, 125, 196. - - -- River, discovered by Hudson, 50, 125, 196; - early Dutch trade on, 118; - as a highway for trade, exploration, and Indian war-parties, 4, 5, 8, - 155, 202, 219, 220, 255; - named in London Company's charter, 66; - Pilgrim land-grant on, 197; - early settlements on, 221; - patroons' estates on, 198-200, 223, 227; - Dutch attempt to exclude English from, 199, 200. - - Hudson's Bay Company, organized, 248; - intercolonial relations, 234; - historical sketch, 243, 244. - - Huguenots, in Florida, 31-34, 49; - De Monts' colony, 35, 36; - in Brazil, 44; - in New France, 49, 252; - in Carolina, 87, 88, 93-95, 97, 108; - in Virginia, 81; - in New York, 221; - in New England, 221. - - Hutchinson, Anne, religious agitator in Massachusetts, 133-136; - in Rhode Island, 146, 147; - her adherents in New Hampshire, 152. - - - Iceland, early settlements in, 21, 22. - - Illinois, canoe portages in, 4; - aborigines of, 12; - French settlements, 247, 253. - - Independents, definition of term, 115; - in Holland, 115-117. - _See_ Puritans. - - India, early commerce with Europe, 23, 24, 66; - reached by Portuguese, 25; - effect on American exploration, 26, 27, 50; - search for water passage to, 42, 196. - - Indian Territory, Southern Indians in, 11; - early Spanish exploration in, 28. - - Indians, their origin, 2, 3; - philological divisions, 9-12; - characteristics, 13-16; - relations with English colonists in general, 17-19, 36, 38-43; - Pequod War, 136, 137; - Philip's War, 14, 170-172, 188; - relations with the Spaniards, 27-32, 42, 43, 47, 238, 239; - with the Portuguese, 48; - with the French, 34, 35, 49, 246-258; - with the Dutch, 163; - with Georgia, 259-261; - with Carolina, 88, 89, 277; - with Virginia, 14, 68, 71, 74, 75, 77, 78, 269, 280; - with Maryland, 83, 86, 277; - with the South generally, 56, 97; - with Pennsylvania, 216, 217, 222, 274, 277; - with Delaware, 207-209, 277; - with New Jersey, 211, 214, 231, 277, 282; - with New York, 196, 198-202, 206, 207, 230, 270, 271, 277; - with Connecticut, 140, 142, 155; - with Rhode Island, 160, 161, 164, 277; - with Massachusetts, 140, 170, 173; - with Maine, 172; - with New England generally, 119, 120, 133, 136, 137, 170. - - Ipswich, Mass., Nathaniel Ward at, 138; - trial of John Wise, 176. - - Irish, American discoveries by, 21; - in Iceland, 21; - in Pennsylvania and Delaware, 222. - - Iroquois, the, status, 10, 11; - hostility to French, 196, 246, 248-250, 253; - allies of Dutch and English, 196, 200, 207, 256. - - - Jamaica, historical sketch, 240, 241. - - James I., king of England, charters London and Plymouth companies, 66-69, - 113; - interest in Virginia colonization, 74, 75, 81; - treatment of Puritans, 115, 116. - - -- II., king of England, colonial policy of, 175; - attitude towards New York and New Jersey, 206, 213, 214; - flight, 176. - - -- River, exploration of, 26; - named by Jamestown colonists, 70; - Huguenot settlement on, 81. - - Jamestown, Va., settlement of, 70-72, 113; - early iron smelting at, 6; - introduction of slaves, 74; - Indian massacre, 74; - Puritans at, 76; - burned, 79; - Baltimore at, 81; - as capital of Virginia, 98; - communal proprietorship at, 120. - - Japan, prehistoric vessels from, 2; - early European attempts to reach, 42. - - Jesuits, in New France, 36, 253; - in Maryland, 83; - in New York, 230; - explorations in the Northwest, 247. - - Jolliet, Louis, discovery of Mississippi River, 26, 248. - - - Kansas, crossed by Coronado, 30. - - Kent island, occupied by Claiborne, 77, 83-85. - - Kentucky, early exploration, 4; - aborigines of, 9; - early white settlements, 269, 283. - - Kidd, William, a noted pirate, 276. - - Kieft, William, governor of New Netherlands, 200, 201, 208, 209. - - King George's War, 255, 256, 278. - - King William's War, 253, 254. - - - Labrador, Norse discovery of, 22; - early English voyages to, 37. - - Lake Champlain, as a highway for exploration and Indian raids, 4, 220; - discovery, 196; - New York and New Hampshire land claims on, 268. - - Lake Erie, aborigines on, 10, 11; - discovery, 248. - - Lake George, as a highway for exploration, 4. - - Lake Huron, reached by Champlain, 246, 248. - - Lake Michigan, discovered, 12, 248. - - Lake Ontario, aborigines on, 10, 11; - drainage system, 219, 220; - discovered, 248. - - Lake Superior, early fur-trade on, 18; - in Champlain's time, 247; - visited by Radisson and Grosseilliers, 247, 248; - early French settlement on, 253. - - La Salle, Chevalier, explorations of, 248. - - Laud, Archbishop, represses dissent in Massachusetts, 131; - in prison, 158. - - Leeward Islands, English colonies on, 237, 238. - - Leisler, Jacob, heads a revolution in New York, 206. - - Leon, Ponce de, explores Florida, 27. - - Lery, Baron de, colonizing attempt of, 35. - - Locke, John, his constitution for the Carolinas, 58, 90, 91, 93, 95. - - London Company, chartered, 66, 113; - settles Virginia, 69-74, 81; - criticised by James I., 74; - grant to the Pilgrims, 116, 117; - charter annulled, 74. - - Long Island, Block's visit, 196; - Walloon settlement, 198; - conflicts between Dutch and English, 163, 202; - Connecticut wins a part, 163; - religion on, 229, 230; - crime on, 231. - - Long Parliament, the, Virginia under, 76; - Navigation Act of, 105; - relation to Massachusetts, 132. - - Louis XIV., king of France, his colonial policy, 49, 251-253. - - Louisburg, captured by the English, 255, 278. - - Ludwell, Philip, governor of South Carolina, 94; - and of reunited Carolina, 94. - - Lutherans, in middle colonies, 230. - - Louisiana, early French settlement of, 248. - - Lower California, early Spanish exploration of, 28, 29, 31. - - - Maine, De Monts' colony, 36; - visited by Gosnold and Pring, 41; - Gorges' proprietorship, 150, 151, 173; - characteristics, 150; - not in the New England Confederation, 157, 158; - absorbed by Massachusetts, 152, 173, 174; - Indian uprising, 172, 188; - rule of Andros, 175; - in King William's War, 177, 254; - river system, 179; - commerce, 185; - agriculture 186; - education, 188; - population (1700) 180, (1754) 265; - boundary established, 268. - - Maldonado, Lorenzo Ferret de, on the Pacific coast, 28. - - Manhattan Island, Block's visit, 196; - early settlement, 197, 198. - _See_ New York City. - - Marquette, Father Jacques, on Mississippi River, 26, 248. - - Martha's Vineyard, Indian missionary efforts at, 170. - - Maryland, origin of name, 82; - settlement, 76, 81-84; - landed estates, 58; - judiciary, 60; - during English Revolution, 84, 85; - development, 86, 87; - becomes a royal province, 61, 87; - Claiborne's quarrel, 76, 77; - geography, 96; - character of colonists, 97; - its capital, 98; - occupations, 102; - religion, 102, 108; - commerce, 103, 104; - tobacco-raising, 103; - William and Mary's College, 103; - witchcraft trials, 192; - boundary disputes, 209, 217, 268; - settlers patronize Pennsylvania mills, 225; - represented in colonial congress, 270; - Indian affairs, 83, 86, 277; - influence of Virginia ideas on, 280; - political spirit, 280; - population (1688) 97, (1763) 266. - - Mason, Charles, runs "Mason and Dixon line," 268. - - --, John, colonizing efforts in New Hampshire, 125, 150, 152, 153, 277. - - --, Capt. John, in Pequod War, 137, 142. - - Massachusetts, settlement, 124-127, 144; - suffrage qualifications, 61, 62, 167; - social distinctions, 59; - Harvard College founded, 80; - internal dissensions, 129-132; - religious troubles, 132-136, 146, 152; - interest in Pequod War, 136, 137; - laws, 137-139; - characteristics, 139, 140; - the Watertown protest, 62; - emigration to Connecticut, 140-142; - emigration to Rhode Island, 147; - interest in the Gorton case, 160, 164; - absorbs New Hampshire, 152, 153, 173; - absorbs Plymouth, 124, 176; - annexes land in Connecticut and Maine, 173; - influence in the Confederation, 155-157, 164; - independent attitude towards England, 158, 159, 161; - jealousy of King Charles, 173; - under the royal commissioners, 167, 168; - charter annulled, 131, 132, 169, 174, 175; - becomes a royal province, 175; - rule of Andros, 175, 176; - the Presbyterian movement, 162; - attitude in war with New Netherlands, 163, 164; - disputes Connecticut ship-toll, 164; - repression of Quakers, 165, 166, 169; - Philip's War, 170-172, 188; - absorbs Acadia, 176; - new charter, 176, 177; - population, (1700) 180, (1754) 265; - slavery, 182, 272, 275; - iron mining, 184; - manufactures, 184; - fisheries, 184; - shipbuilding and commerce, 185; - agriculture, 186; - witchcraft delusion, 190-192; - boundary disputes, 267, 268; - represented in second colonial congress, 270; - Phipps's term, 275, 276; - Bellomont's term, 207, 276; - loses New Hampshire, 277; - paper money, 278, 279. - - Massachusetts Bay, visited by Roberval, 33; - early settlements on, 122, 124, 127. - - -- Company, chartered, 125; - removes to America, 126, 127; - charter annulled, 131, 132, 169, 174, 175. - - Massasoit, head-chief of Pokanokets, 121, 170. - - Mather, Cotton, in witchcraft trials, 191, 192. - - --, Increase, influence in Massachusetts politics, 176, 177. - - Maverick, Samuel, early Massachusetts settler, 122, 150; - royal commissioner, 167. - - "Mayflower," voyage of, 36, 117, 118, 142, 197. - - Melendez de Aviles, Pedro, his massacre of Huguenots in Florida, 34. - - Mexico, aborigines of, 8; - Spanish conquest of, 8, 11, 27-31, 42, 47; - Spanish colonies, 31, 32. - - -- Gulf of, Spanish explorations of, 4, 27; - aborigines of, 9, 11; - Spanish possessions on, 43. - - Middletown, N. J., founded, 211. - - Milford, Conn., founded, 145. - - Mining, Spanish efforts at, 28-30; - early English efforts, 6, 37, 39, 41; - in Virginia, 6, 69, 71, 269; - in New England, 180; - in Pennsylvania, 219, 225. - - Minuit, Peter, founds New Amsterdam, 198; - in employ of the Swedes, 201, 208. - - Mississippi River, portage-routes, 4; - geography of basin, 6, 7; - aborigines of valley of, 9-12; - discovered by De Soto, 31, 44; - French reaching out for the, 47; - seen by Radisson and Grosseilliers, 247; - seen by Jolliet and Marquette, 26, 248; - early trade on, 18; - drainage system, 219; - La Salle on the, 248; - early French settlements on, 253; - as an element in French-English boundary disputes, 256. - - Mohawk Indians, status, 10, 11. - - Mohican Indians, status, 9, 10. - - Montreal, Cartier at, 32; - Champlain's visit, 35; - founded, 246. - - Montserrat, Leeward Islands, 237, 238. - - Moravians, in North Carolina, 97; - in Pennsylvania, 229; - in Georgia, 261. - - Morton, Thomas, at Merrymount, 122, 127. - - Mound-builders, 12. - - - Nantasket, Mass., founded, 122. - - Narragansett Bay, early settlements on, 133, 146, 159, 161; - Philip's War on, 171. - - Narragansett Indians, status, 9, 10; - troubles with whites, 136, 137, 164; - in Philip's War, 170. - - Narvaez, Pamphilo de, in Florida, 11, 28, 30, 47. - - Natchez Indians, 9. - - Navigation Acts, historical sketch of, 104-106; - effect in South Carolina, 94; - in Virginia, 78, 80, 280; - in Maryland, 86; - in Pennsylvania, 281; - in the Jerseys, 231; - in New York, 232; - in Massachusetts, 173, 279, 280; - in New England generally, 184; - in the West Indies, 235, 236; - one of the causes of the Revolution, 279. - - Nevis, Leeward Islands, 237, 238. - - New Amsterdam, founded, 198; - Kieft's term, 208, 209; - Stuyvesant's term, 201, 209; - captured by English, 168, 202, 203; - becomes New York, 203; - fur-trade of, 253. - _See_ Dutch. - - Newark, N. J., founded, 211. - - New Brunswick, De Monts' colony in, 36. - - Newcastle, Del., founded, 202, 215; - characteristics, 228. - - New England, geography of, 5, 6, 179, 180; - early mining, 6; - named by Smith, 72, 113, 114; - population,(1690) 253, (1700) 180, 181, (1700-1750) 265; - social distinctions, 58, 181, 182; - slavery, 182; - occupations, 182-184; - manufactures, 184; - fisheries and shipbuilding, 185; - commerce, 77, 164, 185, 186, 234, 235; - towns, 186; - education, 188; - crime, 188; - religion, 189, 190, 194; - witchcraft delusion, 190-192; - life and manners, 187; - political conditions, 192-194, 282; - repression of Quakers, 165, 166; - formation of the confederation, 156; - decadence of the confederation, 169; - in the hands of the Lords of Trade, 173; - in Queen Anne's War, 255; - in King George's War, 255, 256; - ideas of _versus_ Virginia ideas, 280, 281. - - New England, Council for, chartered, 60. - - Newfoundland, Spaniards at, 28; - early European fishermen at, 36, 37, 49, 52; - early French visits, 32, 33; - claimed by England, 44; - Baltimore's colony, 81; - intercolonial relations, 234, 235; - in King William's War, 254; - historical sketch, 241, 242, 244. - - New France, founded, 36; - Louis XIV.'s policy towards, 49, 50; - Champlain fights the Iroquois, 196; - early settlements of, 246, 247; - exploration of the Northwest, 247-249; - ambition for territorial aggrandizement, 155; - contests with the English, 220, 234, 252-254, 274, 275, 277, 278; - in Queen Anne's War, 254, 255; - in King George's War, 255, 256; - boundary disputes with English, 256; - line of frontier forts, 256; - struggle for the Ohio valley, 257; - social and political conditions of, 249-252; - general characteristics, 249, 257, 258; - causes of decline, 49, 50. - - New Hampshire, Mason's grant, 150, 152, 173, 277; - early colonizing efforts, 152, 153; - soil, 179; - manufactures, 184; - agriculture, 186; - characteristics, 153; - population (1700), 180, (1754) 265; - annexed by Massachusetts, 61, 153, 173; - becomes a royal province, 61, 153, 174, 277; - reunited to Massachusetts, 153, 174; - rule of Andros, 175; - under William and Mary, 177; - in King William's War, 254; - Bellomont's term, 276; - boundary disputes, 268; - represented in second colonial congress, 270. - - New Haven, founded, 144-146, 163; - false "Blue Laws," 146; - joins New England Confederation, 156; - in war with New Netherlands, 163; - treatment of Quakers, 166; - shelters the regicides, 167; - absorbed by Connecticut, 146, 168, 169; - condition in 1700, 186; - Yale College founded, 188; - Tory element in, 189. - - New Jersey, early mining, 6; - visited by Gomez, 28; - early settlements, 199, 210-212; - covets Delaware, 210; - the two Jerseys, 212, 213; - reunited as a royal province, 207, 213, 214; - claimed by New York, 205; - general characteristics, 214; - election of county judges, 59, 60; - geography, 219; - social distinctions, 222-224; - occupations, 224, 225; - trade and commerce, 225, 226; - life and manners, 227-229; - education, 229; - religion, 230; - political conditions, 231, 282; - Bellomont's term, 276; - Indian affairs, 277, 282; - population(1700), 221, (1750), 265. - - New Mexico, aborigines of, 8; - Spanish explorations, 28-30; - Spanish colonies, 31, 32. - - New Netherland, settlement of, 196-198; - progress, 198-202; - Puritan encroachments, 162-164; - settlements on the Delaware, 207-209; - conquered by England, 168, 202, 203, 210-212. - - New Netherlands Company, 197. - - New Orleans, founded, 248, 256. - - Newport, R. I., old mill at, 23; - settled, 147; - unites with Portsmouth, 148; - chartered, 149. - - New Spain. _See_ Mexico. - - New Sweden, its rise and fall, 201, 202, 208, 209. - _See_ Swedes. - - New York, early mining, 6; - geography, 218-220; - social classes, 222-224; - occupations, 224, 225; - trade and commerce, 77, 140, 185, 225, 226; - fur-trade, 248-250; - life and manners, 226-229; - education, 229; - religion, 229, 230; - crime and pauperism, 230, 231; - political conditions, 231, 232, 282; - Indian affairs, 277; - the Dutch regime, 196-202; - captured by English, 202, 203; - the "duke's laws," 204; - recaptured by Dutch, 205; - England again in possession, 205; - the rule of Andros, 205, 206, 213; - the charter of liberties, 205; - Leisler's revolution, 206; - French designs on, 253; - in King William's War, 253, 254; - in Queen Anne's War, 255; - Bellomont's term, 276; - colonial congress, 270, 271; - boundary disputes, 267, 268; - population, (1690) 253, (1700) 220, 221, (1750) 265; - characteristics, 207. - - New York City, founded by the Dutch, 198; - early commerce, 226; - characteristics, 227, 228; - education in, 229; - political spirit in, 282. - - Nicholson, Sir Francis, governor of Virginia, 79, 80, 81, 273; - deputy-governor of New York, 206. - - Normans, American discoveries by, 21, 180; - early at Newfoundland, 26, 49, 241. - - North Carolina, aborigines of, 11; - Raleigh's colonies, 38, 40; - named in London Company's charter, 66; - origin of, 88, 90; - first settlements, 92, 93; - Culpeper rebellion, 92; - character of colonists, 97; - their turbulent spirit, 273, 280, 281; - occupations, 102; - agriculture, 103; - religion, 108, 109; - mountains of, 179; - becomes a royal province, 267; - boundary established, 268; - Indian affairs, 277; - Oglethorpe's expedition, 278; - influence of Virginian ideas, 280; - population (1763), 266. - - North Virgina Company. _See_ Plymouth Company. - - Norwegians, in Iceland, 21. - - Nova Scotia, early French settlement, 35, 36; - Claiborne's trade with, 77; - intercolonial relations, 234, 235; - French-English struggles, 252; - in King William's War, 253, 254; - in Queen Anne's War, 255; - removal of the Acadians, 243; - general history, 242-244. - - - Ocrakoke inlet, English colony on, 38. - - Oglethorpe, James, character, 259; - founds Georgia, 259, 260; - campaign against Florida Spaniards, 262, 269, 278. - - Ohio Company, its colonization efforts, 283. - - Oneida Indians, 10, 11. - - Onondaga Indians, 10, 11. - - Oregon, aborigines of, 12. - - - Pacific ocean, crossed by prehistoric vessels, 2; - effect on American exploration, 26, 27, 70; - discovery by Balboa, 26. - - -- slope, north-shore flora, 2; - difficulties of colonizing, 3; - geography, 3, 4, 6, 7; - early Spanish explorations, 28, 29; - Spanish missions, 31; - Drake's explorations, 37. - - Palatinate War. _See_ King William's War. - - Palatines, in Pennsylvania, 230. - - Paper money, governors oppose its issue, 272-274, 278, 289. - - Parish, the, in England, 55, 57; - in the South, 56. - - Patroon system, in New York, 198-200; - in Delaware, 207, 208. - - Pawtuxet, R. I., founded, 160; - the Gorton case, 160, 161. - - Penn Charter School, founded, 229. - - Penn, William, secures grant of Delaware, 210; - interested in New Jersey, 212, 213, 215; - secures grant of Pennsylvania, 215; - his government, 216; - relations with Indians, 216, 217; - boundary disputes with Maryland, 86; - on American climate, 220; - supported by aristocrats, 224; - introduces physicians, 225; - imports Germans, 230; - plan for colonial union, 270; - death, 217; - his heirs resist taxation of their lands, 273, 274. - - --, Admiral Sir William, father of foregoing, 215, 240. - - Pennsylvania, settlements, 208, 209, 215; - geography, 219; - social classes, 222-224; - occupations, 224, 225; - trade and commerce, 225, 226; - life and manners, 227-229; - education, 229; - religion, 108, 229, 230; - crime and pauperism, 231; - political conditions, 232, 280, 281; - annexation of Delaware, 210, 216; - development, 216, 217; - witchcraft delusion, 192; - boundary disputes, 86, 268; - disagreement between governor and assembly, 273, 274; - Indian affairs, 170, 277; - paper money, 278; - characteristics, 217; - influence of Virgina ideas, 280; - population (1700), 221, 222, (1750) 265, 266. - - Pequod Indians, uprising of, 136, 137, 140-142. - - Philadelphia, first medical school, 184; - commerce, 185, 226; - first insane hospital, 231; - arrival of Scotch, 269; - characteristics, 228. - - Philip II., king of Spain, 34. - - Philip's War, in New England, 169-172, 188. - - Phipps, Sir William, governor of Massachusetts, 177, 275, 276; - captures Port Royal, 254. - - Pilgrims, their staying qualities, 43; - in Holland, 115-117; - voyage of "Mayflower," 117, 118; - settlement of Plymouth, 118-120; - land-grant on the Hudson, 197. - - Piracy, English, on Spanish commerce, 94; - in New York, 206, 207; - in the West Indies, 239, 240; - in Virginia, 273; - in Rhode Island, 276. - - Plantation, as a political unit, 56, 73. - - Plymouth, England, seat of Plymouth Company, 41, 66, 113, 150, 152. - - Plymouth Colony, settled, 116-120, 144; - development, 120-124; - characteristics, 123, 124, 139; - marriages in, 132; - Williams at, 132; - fur-trade on the Connecticut, 140; - in the Gorton case, 160; - treatment of Quakers, 166; - receives royal commissioners, 169; - Indian affairs, 170-172; - joins the confederation, 156; - rule of Andros, 175; - shipbuilding, 185; - merged in Massachusetts, 124, 176; - lesson of the colony, 53. - - Plymouth Company, chartered, 66; - Baltimore a councillor, 81; - southern boundary, 82; - relations with New Englanders, 120, 122, 124; - sends out Popham colony, 113; - reorganizes, 114; - grant to Massachusetts Bay Company, 125; - grant to Brook and Say and Sele, 141; - surrenders its charter, 131, 150, 152. - - Pokanoket Indians, relations with Plymouth, 121, 170. - - Poor whites, genesis of, 74, 100, 110. - - Popham, George, heads the Popham colony, 113. - - --, Sir John, interest in American colonization, 66, 113. - - Population, of Indian tribes, 9-11, 15; - excess of, in Europe, 50, 53, 65; - of Virginia (1650-1670), 76, (1697) 81; - of the South generally (1688), 97; - of Pennsylvania and Delaware (1700), 221, 222; - of the Jerseys (1700), 221; - of New York (1674), 205, (1690) 253, (1700) 220, 221; - of Connecticut (1636), 141; - of Rhode Island (1638), 147; - of Plymouth (1643), 121; - of Massachusetts (1634), 129; - of New England generally (1690), 253, (1700) 180; - of the English colonies generally (1700-1750), 265, 266; - of New France (1690), 253. - - Portage paths, situation and importance of, 4; - Indian villages on, 13. - - Port Royal, Nova Scotia, founded, 36, 48; - captured by English, 242, 243, 252, 254, 278. - - --, S. C., founded by Huguenots, 33, 93; - destroyed by Spanish, 93, 94. - - Portsmouth, N. H., founded, 152, 153; - Tory element at, 189. - - --, R. I., founded, 147; - declaration, 147, 148; - chartered, 149. - - Portuguese, early explorations of, 24, 25, 27; - Alexander's bull of partition and the, 24; - fishing colony at Newfoundland, 26, 37, 241; - South American colonies of the, 44; - colonial policy of, 48; - over-population, 50; - trade with New England, 185. - - Presbyterians, in England, 115; - in Scotland, 115, 132, 161; - on the Continent, 115; - in Virginia, 108; - in Massachusetts, 161, 162; - in Pennsylvania and Delaware, 221; - in middle colonies generally, 230; - in the Shenandoah valley, 269. - - Providence, R. I., founded, 133, 146; - religious disturbances at, 148, 159; - union with Rhode Island, 147; - the compact, 147; - chartered, 148, 149; - population (1638), 147. - - --, Md., former name for Annapolis, 98. - - Pueblo Indians, status, 8; - visited by Spaniards, 29, 30; - Spanish missions among, 31, 32. - - Puritans, definition of term, 115; - in Holland, 115, 117; - motive of emigration to America, 46; - settle New England, 116-140; - gain ascendency over Massachusetts Presbyterians, 162; - rise to power in England, 169; - in Virginia, 75-78, 108; - in South Carolina, 109; - in Maryland, 84-87; - in middle colonies, 230. - - - Quakers, in Carolina, 89, 91, 95; - in Virginia, 108; - in Maryland, 86; - in Pennsylvania and Delaware, 210, 215-217, 221-225, 227, 230-232, 274, - 277, 281; - in the Jerseys, 212, 213, 221; - in New England, 165, 166, 169. - - Quebec, Cartier at, 32; - founded by Champlain, 36, 48, 155, 246; - capital of New France, 251; - captured by English, 252. - - Queen Anne's War, 254, 255, 277, 278. - - - Radisson, Sieur, early French explorer, 247, 248. - - Raleigh, Sir Walter, interest in American colonization, 37-40, 52, 65, - 68, 88; - resists the Armada, 40. - - Randolph, Edward, collector at Boston, 173, 174. - - Representation, colonial practice of, 62; - in Virginia, 73; - in Maryland, 83, 84; - in Pennsylvania, 216; - in New Jersey, 211, 212, 214; - in New Netherlands, 200, 201, 223; - in New York, 204 206; - in Connecticut, 143, 145; - in Plymouth, 123; - in Massachusetts, 62, 128, 129; - the Watertown case, 128. - - Rhode Island, founded, 133, 135, 146-150; - chartered, 61, 168; - religious disturbances, 148, 149, 159-161, 189, 190, 194; - Mrs. Hutchinson in, 135; - treatment of Quakers, 165, 166; - litigation, 182; - trade, 186; - education, 188; - union of colonies as Providence Plantations, 148; - not permitted to join the confederation, 157; - charter troubles, 175, 177, 266, 267; - boundary disputes, 267, 268; - represented in second colonial congress, 270; - Bellomont's visit, 276; - Indian affairs, 277; - population (1700), 180; - characteristics, 49, 50. - - Ridge Hermits, in Pennsylvania, 230. - - Rensselaerswyck, N. Y., founded, 199. - - Roanoke Island, Raleigh's colony on, 38-40, 88, 119. - - Roberval, Jean Francois de, attempt at French colonization, 32, 33. - - Rocky Mountains, a barrier to colonization, 3; - exploration of, 4; - geography of, 6, 7; - aborigines of, 8, 9, 12. - - Ryswick, treaty of, 244, 254. - - - Sable, Isle of, early French colonies on, 35. - - Saint-Lusson, Sieur de, early French explorer, 248. - - Salem, Mass., founded, 125, 126; - divides, 127; - Williams at, 132, 133; - witchcraft delusion at, 190-192. - - Salzburgers, in Georgia, 260, 261. - - San Francisco, harbor of, 3; - founded, 31. - - Santa Fe, N. Mex., founded, 31, 32. - - Sault Ste. Marie, early French visits to, 247, 248; - French settlement at, 253. - - Savannah, Ga., founded, 258. - - Say and Sele, Lord, attempts to introduce hereditary rank, 59, 129; - Connecticut land-grant to, 141. - - Saybrook, Conn., founded, 136, 137, 141, 164; - raided by Indians, 137. - - Scandinavians, pre-Columbian discoveries of, 21-23; - on the Delaware, 51. - - Schenectady, N. Y., sacked by French and Indians, 206. - - Schuylkill River, conflicts between Dutch and English on, 200-202. - - Scotch, in Carolina, 93; - in the Jerseys, 211, 213, 221. - - Scotch-Irish, in Georgia, 261, 263; - in North Carolina, 97; - in Virginia, 108; - in Shenandoah valley, 269; - in Pennsylvania and Delaware, 221, 222; - in New England, 180; - in Nova Scotia, 242. - - Seminoles, status of, 11. - - Seneca Indians, status of, 10, 11. - - Sewall, Samuel, denounces slavery, 182; - in witchcraft trials, 191, 192. - - Shenandoah valley, a home for Scotch Presbyterians, 269. - - Shipbuilding in New England, 146, 185; - Block's vessel, 196; - in Pennsylvania, 226. - - Shrewsbury, N. J., founded, 211. - - Sioux Indians. _See_ Dakotahs. - - Six Nations. _See_ Iroquois. - - Slavery, in Georgia, 260, 263; - in South Carolina, 99; - in Virginia, 74, 81, 99; - in the South generally, 98, 99, 103, 110; - in the middle colonies, 223, 224; - in New England, 58, 139, 182, 185; - in Illinois, 192; - in the West Indies, 234, 239-241. - - Smith, Capt. John, attempts to reach the Pacific, 26; - member of the London Company, 66; - experiences at Jamestown, 70-72; - voyage to New England, 113, 114, 150. - - Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, work in South Carolina, 102; - in New York, 229; - in Georgia, 260. - - Somers, Sir George, member of London Company, 66, 69, 72; - at Bermudas, 238. - - Somers's Islands. _See_ Bermudas. - - Sothel, Seth, governor of North Carolina, 92, 93; - of South Carolina, 94. - - South Carolina as Chicora, 27; - settlement of, 90; - landed estates in, 58; - occupations, 102; - religion, 102, 109; - trade, 102, 261; - social life, 107; - becomes a royal province, 267; - boundary established, 268; - Indian affairs, 277; - Oglethorpe's expedition, 278; - influence of Virginia ideas, 280; - political condition, 281; - population (1763), 266. - - Southern Indians, status of, 9, 11. - - Southold, L. I., founded, 145. - - Spaniards, conquest of Mexico and Peru, 8, 11; - treatment of Indians, 17; - early American discoveries, 23, 24; - the bull of partition, 24, 36; - fishermen at Newfoundland, 25, 37; - exploration of American interior, 27-31; - their American colonies, 26, 31, 32, 88; - character of those colonies, 42, 43; - conflicts with France, 32, 34, 93, 94; - influence on English court, 36; - conflicts with English, 38, 39, 237, 239-241, 244; - war with Holland, 196; - the Armada, 40; - their colonial policy, 47, 48; - over-population in Spain, 50; - causes of failure of North American colonies, 42-44; - trade with New England, 185; - conflicts with Georgia, 259-262, 278. - - St. Augustine, Fla., founded, 32, 34, 94; - in Oglethorpe's campaign, 259, 261. - - St. Christopher, Leeward Islands, 237, 238. - - St. John's, Newfoundland, early fisheries at, 37. - - St. Lawrence River, gateway to continental interior, 4, 248; - explored by Cartier, 32; - by Champlain, 35, 36; - French claims on, 43, 255, 256; - settlements on, 246, 249, 250, 253. - - St. Lucia, Windward Islands, 237. - - St. Mary's, Md., founded, 82, 83; - as the capital, 84, 87, 98. - - St. Vincent, in Windward Islands, 237. - - Stamford, Conn., founded, 145. - - Stoughton, William, lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts, 181; - in witchcraft trials, 191. - - Stuyvesant, Peter, governor of New Netherlands, 163, 200, 201, 202, 203, - 209. - - Suffrage in judicial elections, 59; - general qualifications, 61, 62; - in Maryland, 86; - in New Jersey, 213, 214; - in New Netherlands, 200; - in New York, 204, 205; - in Connecticut, 143; - in Massachusetts, 128, 167, 173, 176; - in New England generally, 193. - - "Susan Constant," the, carries colonists to Virginia, 69. - - Swedes, colonial policy of the, 51; - career of New Sweden, 201, 202, 208, 209; - in Pennsylvania and Delaware, 208-210, 215, 217, 221, 222; - in New Jersey, 211, 221. - - Swiss, in North Carolina, 97. - - - Tarratine Indians, uprising in Maine, 188. - - Tennessee, character of early settlers, 269, 283. - - Texas, early Spanish exploration of, 28. - - Tinicum, island of, seat of Swedish government in America, 208, 215. - - Tobago, Windward Islands, 237. - - Town, the, in England, 55; - in New England, 57, 62, 139, 140, 192, 193; - in the middle colonies, 57, 204, 216. - - Trenton, N. J., characteristics, 228. - - Trinidad, Windward Islands, 237. - - Tuscarora Indians, join the Five Nations, 11. - - - Underhill, John, in Pequod War, 137. - - Union, schemes for colonial, New England Confederation, 155-158; - first colonial congress, 80, 206, 270; - governmental plans, 267, 270; - second congress, 270, 271. - - Usselinx, Willem, founds South Company of Sweden, 208. - - Utah, aborigines of, 12. - - Utrecht, treaty of, 241-243, 255, 256. - - - Vaca, Cabeza de, in Narvaez's expedition, 28, 29. - - Vane, Sir Henry, governor of Massachusetts, 129, 134, 135. - - Van Rensselaer family, 199, 223. - - Vermont, soil, 179; - becomes a State, 268. - - Verrazano, John, on the American coast, 32, 41. - - Virginia, named by Raleigh, 38; - Raleigh's land grants, 40; - causes of early failures in colonizing, 41-44; - geography, 96; - settlement, 69-75; - character of colonists, 97, 114; - landed estates, 58; - judiciary, 60; - suffrage, 61, 62; - first assembly, 62; - first charter, 66-69, 70, 113; - second charter, 72; - development, 75-81; - becomes a royal province, 74; - Bacon's rebellion, 78, 79, 90; - occupations, 102; - commerce, 103, 104; - education, 107, 108; - religion, 108; - witch-ducking, 192; - conflicts with Dutch, 197, 200; - Walloons rejected, 198; - piracy, 273; - Spotswood's term, 269; - Nicholson's term, 273; - includes Bermudas, 238; - Virginia ideas _versus_ New England ideas, 280; - reaching out to the West, 67, 283; - population (1688), 97; (1763), 266. - - "Virginia," the early New England pinnace, 185. - - Virgin Islands, Leeward group, 237, 238. - - - Walford, Thomas, settles at Charlestown, 122. - - Walloons, settle in New Netherlands, 198, 201; - in Delaware, 207, 208. - - Warwick, Earl of, interest in American colonization, 37; - president of Council for New England, 141, 158. - - --, R. I., founded, 148; - Gorton case, 160. - - Washington, George, education of, 108; - opinion of Bermudas, 239. - - Watertown, Mass., founded, 127; - protest against taxation without representation, 62, 128; - emigration to Connecticut, 140. - - Welsh, American discoveries by, 21; - in New England, 180; - in Pennsylvania and Delaware, 217, 221. - - Wesley, Charles, in Georgia, 262. - - --, John, in Georgia, 262. - - West Indies, aborigines of, 8; - Spanish conquest of, 43, 47; - Spanish commerce, 39; - piracy, 34; - Portuguese in, 48; - Dutch in, 50; - trade with Southern colonies, 102, 104; - trade with New England, 185; - trade with middle colonies, 226; - intercolonial relations, 234, 235. - - West Jersey, 212-214, 216, 221. - - Westminster, treaty of, 205. - - Wethersfield, Conn., founded, 141; - sacked by Indians, 137. - - Weymouth, George, explores New England coast, 41, 65. - - Whitefield, George, revival work, 190, 262. - - William III., king of England, 206, 253. - - -- and Mary, sovereigns of England, proclaimed in the colonies, 87, 176. - - William and Mary college, chartered, 80, 81, 103. - - Williams, Roger, character, 132; - at Salem, 132, 133; - founds Providence, 133, 146, 147, 149, 160; - services in Pequod War, 136; - attitude towards Quakers, 165. - - Williamsburg, capital of Virginia, 81, 98. - - Wilmington, Del., founded, 201, 208. - - --, N. C., early French visit to, 32. - - Windsor, Conn., founded, 136, 137, 140, 141. - - Windward Islands, English colonies, 236, 237. - - Wingfield, Edward Maria, member of London Company, 66; - president of Jamestown, 70. - - Winslow, Edward, London agent of Massachusetts, 131, 132; - in the Gorton case, 160; - expression of colonial independence, 161. - - Winthrop, John, governor of Massachusetts, 127, 129, 135, 138, 156; - expression of colonial independence, 161. - - --, John, Jr., founds Saybrook, 136, 141; - governor of Connecticut, 143; - London agent of Connecticut, 168. - - Wisconsin, canoe portages in, 4; - aborigines of, 12; - discovered by Nicolet, 26; - early French explorations in, 247, 248. - - Witchcraft delusion, at Salem, 190-192, 275; - elsewhere, 190, 192. - - Wocoken, island of, English colony on, 38, 88. - - - Yale College, founded, 80, 188. - - Yeamans, Sir John, leads colony to Carolina, 89, 237; - governor of South Carolina, 93. - - York, Duke of, proprietor of New York, 203, 210-212; - becomes James II., 205, 206, 213; - grants Delaware to Pennsylvania, 216. - - - Zuni Indians, visited by Spaniards, 29, 30. - - - - -Illustration: EPOCH MAP II - - NORTH AMERICA 1650. - SHOWING CLAIMS ARISING OUT OF EXPLORATION AND OCCUPANCY. - -Illustration: EPOCH MAP III - - ENGLISH COLONIES 1700. - Showing Extent of Actual Jurisdiction. - -Illustration: EPOCH MAP IV - - NORTH AMERICA 1750. - SHOWING CLAIMS ARISING OUT OF EXPLORATION AND OCCUPANCY. - - - - - TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES: - -Punctuation was standardized. Missing punctuation was added, where -appropriate. William Claiborne's name is also spelled 'Clayborne.' Both -were left as printed. The index entry for Augusta, GA, is out of order in -the original and was not amended. Archaic and obsolete spellings were left -unchanged. Text in italics is surrounded by underscores, _like this_. -Superscripted letters are surrounded by braces, for example, Gov{r}. -Sidenotes were moved to precede the paragraph to which each refers. - -Within the text of the book, where there are references to the book's -page numbers, the section in which that page appears has been added. For -example, "(page 41)" was altered to appear as "(page 41, Sec. 15)," so that -the reader may more easily locate the referenced text. - -The following spelling corrections were made: - - 'da Leon' to 'de Leon' sidenote, Chapter II, Sec. 9 - 'Greene' to 'Green' sidenote, Chapter VI, Sec. 36 - 'Roberth' to 'Robert' Chapter VI, Sec. 36 - 'browbreat' to 'browbeat' Chapter IV, Sec. 38 - 'circumtances' to 'circumstances' Chapter XII, Sec. 110 - 'beween' to 'between' Chapter XIV, Sec. 121 - 'king Charles' to 'King Charles' index entry for Massachusetts - 'Phillip's War' to 'Philip's War' twice, in the index only - -The following hyphenated words were changed for consistency within the text: - - 'brow-beat' to 'browbeat' Chapter IV, Sec. 31 - 'fire-places' to 'fireplaces' Chapter V, Sec. 45 - 'foot-hold' to 'foothold' Chapter XII, Sec. 112 - 'free-men' to 'freemen' Chapter IX, Sec. 89 - 'heartrending' to 'heart-rending' Chapter XIV, Sec. 125 - 'Jersey-men' to 'Jerseymen' Chapter X, Sec. 92 - 'long-shore' to 'longshore' Chapter X, Sec. 94 - 'overpopulation' to 'over-population' index, Portuguese; - and index, Spaniards - 're-affirm' to 'reaffirm' Chapter IV, Sec. 34 - 'Ship-building' to 'Shipbuilding' Chapter VII, Sec. 77; - index, Massachusetts; and - index, Shipbuilding - 'vice-regal' to 'viceregal' Chapter XIV, Sec. 120 - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Colonies 1492-1750, by Reuben Gold Thwaites - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COLONIES 1492-1750 *** - -***** This file should be named 42701.txt or 42701.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/7/0/42701/ - -Produced by Clare Boothby, Carol Brown and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project -Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you -charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you -do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the -rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose -such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and -research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do -practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is -subject to the trademark license, especially commercial -redistribution. - - - -*** START: FULL LICENSE *** - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project -Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at - www.gutenberg.org/license. - - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy -all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. -If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the -terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or -entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement -and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" -or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the -collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an -individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are -located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from -copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative -works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg -are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project -Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by -freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of -this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with -the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by -keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project -Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in -a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check -the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement -before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or -creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project -Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning -the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United -States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate -access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently -whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, -copied or distributed: - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived -from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is -posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied -and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees -or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work -with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the -work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 -through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the -Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or -1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional -terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked -to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the -permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any -word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or -distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than -"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version -posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), -you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a -copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon -request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other -form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided -that - -- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is - owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he - has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the - Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments - must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you - prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax - returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and - sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the - address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to - the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." - -- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or - destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium - and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of - Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any - money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days - of receipt of the work. - -- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set -forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from -both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael -Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the -Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm -collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain -"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or -corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual -property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a -computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by -your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with -your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with -the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a -refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity -providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to -receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy -is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further -opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER -WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO -WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. -If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the -law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be -interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by -the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any -provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance -with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, -promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, -harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, -that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do -or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm -work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any -Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. - - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers -including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists -because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from -people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. -To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 -and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive -Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent -permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. -Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered -throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at 809 -North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email -contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the -Foundation's web site and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To -SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any -particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. -To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |