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diff --git a/42696-8.txt b/42696-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 1419e11..0000000 --- a/42696-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,14311 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, Field and Woodland Plants, by William S. -Furneaux, Illustrated by Patten Wilson - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - - - - -Title: Field and Woodland Plants - - -Author: William S. Furneaux - - - -Release Date: May 11, 2013 [eBook #42696] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FIELD AND WOODLAND PLANTS*** - - -E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, Robert Morse, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made -available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the more than 270 original - illustrations, some in color. - See 42696-h.htm or 42696-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42696/42696-h/42696-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42696/42696-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - https://archive.org/details/fieldwoodlandpla00furn - - - - - -Transcriber's note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - The oe_ligature has been replaced by [oe]. - - - - - -FIELD AND WOODLAND PLANTS - - * * * * * - -THE OUTDOOR WORLD SERIES. - - -THE OUTDOOR WORLD; or, the Young Collector's Handbook. By W. S. FURNEAUX. -With 18 Plates (16 of which are coloured), and 549 Illustrations in the -Text. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6_s._ net. - -BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS (BRITISH). By W. S. FURNEAUX. With 12 coloured -Plates and 241 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6_s._ -net. - -LIFE IN PONDS AND STREAMS. By W. S. FURNEAUX. With 8 coloured Plates and -331 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6_s._ net. - -FIELD AND WOODLAND PLANTS. By W. S. FURNEAUX. With 8 Coloured Plates and -numerous Illustrations from Drawings by PATTEN WILSON and from -Photographs. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6_s._ net. - -THE SEA SHORE. By W. S. FURNEAUX. With 8 Plates in colour and over 300 -Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6_s._ net. - -BRITISH BIRDS. By W.H. HUDSON. With a Chapter on Structure and -Classification by FRANK E. BEDDARD, F.R.S. With 16 Plates (8 of which -are coloured), and over 100 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8 vo. gilt -edges, 6_s._ net. - -COUNTRY PASTIMES FOR BOYS. By P. ANDERSON GRAHAM. With 252 Illustrations -from Drawings and Photographs. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 3_s._ net. - - -LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO. 39 Paternoster Row, London, -New York, Bombay, and Calcutta. - - * * * * * - - -[Illustration: _Plate I._ -SPRING FLOWERS OF THE WOODS. -1. Green Hellebore. 2. Plantain-leaved Leopard's-bane. 3. Lady's -Slipper. 4. Sand Garlic. 5. Wild Hyacinth. 6. Wood Melic Grass.] - - -FIELD AND WOODLAND PLANTS - -by - -W. S. FURNEAUX - -Author of -'The Outdoor World' 'British Butterflies and Moths' -'Life in Ponds and Streams' 'The Sea Shore' etc. - -[Illustration] - -With Eight Plates in Colour, and -Numerous Illustrations by Patten Wilson, and -Photographs from Nature by the Author - - - - - - - -Longmans, Green, and Co. -39 Paternoster Row, London -New York, Bombay, and Calcutta -1909 - -All rights reserved - - - - -PREFACE - - -This additional volume to the young naturalist's 'Outdoor World Series' -is an attempt to provide a guide to the study of our wild plants, shrubs -and trees--a guide which, though comparatively free from technical terms -and expressions, shall yet be strictly correct and scientific. - -The leading feature of the book is the arrangement of the plants and -trees according to their seasons, habitats and habits; an arrangement -which will undoubtedly be of the greatest assistance to the lover of -wild flowers during his work in the field, and also while examining and -identifying his gathered specimens at home. - -A large portion of the space has necessarily been allotted to the -descriptions of plants, several hundreds of which have been included, -and a large proportion of these illustrated; but not a little has been -devoted to an attempt to create an interest in some of those wonderful -habits which lead us to look upon plants as living beings with -attractions even more engrossing than their beautiful forms and colours. - -It has been thought advisable to give but little attention to aquatic -plants and to the flowers which are to be found only on the coast, these -having been previously included in former volumes of this series -dealing, respectively, with pond life and the sea shore. - -The thanks of the author are due to his friend, G. Du Heaume, Esq., for -his valuable assistance in collecting many of the flowers required for -description and illustration. - - W. S. F. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAP. PAGE - - I. INTRODUCTION--GENERAL CHARACTERS OF PLANTS AND THE - IDENTIFICATION OF FLOWERS 1 - - II. THE POLLINATION AND FERTILISATION OF FLOWERS 25 - - III. CLIMBING PLANTS 30 - - IV. EARLY SPRING 39 - - V. WOODS AND THICKETS IN SPRING 48 - - VI. THE SPRING-FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS OF WOODS, THICKETS, - AND HEDGEROWS 61 - - VII. WAYSIDES AND WASTES IN SPRING 81 - - VIII. MEADOWS, FIELDS, AND PASTURES--SPRING 108 - - IX. BOGS, MARSHES, AND WET PLACES IN SPRING 123 - - X. WOODS AND THICKETS IN SUMMER 130 - - XI. WASTES AND WAYSIDES IN SUMMER 151 - - XII. WASTES AND WAYSIDES IN SUMMER--COMPOSITE FLOWERS 175 - - XIII. WASTES AND WAYSIDES IN SUMMER--_continued_ 190 - - XIV. MEADOWS, FIELDS, AND PASTURES--SUMMER 211 - - XV. BOGS, MARSHES, AND WET PLACES--SUMMER 236 - - XVI. ON HEATH, DOWN, AND MOOR 257 - - XVII. IN THE CORN FIELD 281 - - XVIII. ON THE CHALK 296 - - XIX. BY THE RIVER SIDE 312 - - XX. ON WALLS, ROCKS, AND STONY PLACES 318 - - XXI. FIELD AND WAYSIDE IN AUTUMN 328 - - XXII. AUTUMN IN THE WOODS 331 - - XXIII. PARASITIC PLANTS 340 - - XXIV. CARNIVOROUS PLANTS 350 - - LIST OF FLOWERS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR HABITATS - AND HABITS 359 - - LIST OF FLOWERS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR ORDERS - AND GENERA 373 - - GLOSSARIAL INDEX 381 - - - - -COLOURED PLATES - - - I. SPRING FLOWERS OF THE WOODS _Frontispiece_ - - 1. Green Hellebore - - 2. Plantain-leaved Leopard's-Bane - - 3. Lady's Slipper - - 4. Sand Garlic - - 5. Wild Hyacinth - - 6. Wood Melic Grass - - II. FLOWERS OF THE WOODS _To face p._ 130 - - 1. Great Valerian - - 2. Foxglove - - 3. Succory-leaved Hawk's-beard - - 4. Nettle-leaved Bell-flower - - 5. Broad-leaved Helleborine - - 6. Hairy Brome-grass - - III. FLOWERS OF THE WAYSIDE _To face p._ 150 - - 1. Round-leaved Crane's-bill - - 2. Black Horehound - - 3. Evergreen Alkanet - - 4. Bristly Ox-tongue - - 5. Red Bartsia - - 6. Annual Meadow Grass - - 7. Hemlock Stork's-bill - - IV. FLOWERS OF THE FIELD _To face p._ 210 - - 1. Rough Cock's-foot Grass - - 2. Lucerne - - 3. Crimson Clover - - 4. Blue-Bottle - - 5. Common Vetch - - 6. Meadow Clary - - V. FLOWERS OF BOGS AND MARSHES _To face p._ 236 - - 1. Marsh Gentian - - 2. Marsh Marigold - - 3. Marsh Orchis - - 4. Marsh Mallow - - 5. Marsh Vetchling - - 6. Marsh St. John's-wort - - 7. Bog Pimpernel - - VI. FLOWERS OF DOWN, HEATH, AND MOOR _To face p._ 256 - - 1. Musk Thistle - - 2. Clustered Bell-flower - - 3. Spiny Rest Harrow - - 4. Hairy Hawkbit - - 5. Sheep's-bit - - 6. Spotted Orchis - - 7. Heath Rush - - VII. FLOWERS OF THE CORN-FIELD _To face p._ 280 - - 1. Long Smooth-headed Poppy - - 2. Field Scabious - - 3. Corn Cockle - - 4. Corn Marigold - - 5. Flax - - 6. Corn Pheasant's-eye - - VIII. FLOWERS OF CHALKY SOILS _To face p._ 296 - - 1. Red Valerian - - 2. Narrow-leaved Flax - - 3. Tufted Horse-shoe Vetch - - 4. Spiked Speedwell - - 5. Pasque Flower - - 6. Bee Orchis - - 7. Yellow Oat Grass - -_Erratum._--On Plate VI, _for_ 'Spring Rest Harrow' _read_ 'Spiny Rest -Harrow.' - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - -GENERAL CHARACTERS OF PLANTS - - PAGE - - Forms of Roots 2 - - Running underground stem of Solomon's Seal 4 - - Arrangement of Leaves 5 - - Leaf of Pansy with two large Stipules 5 - - Margins of Leaves 6 - - Various Forms of Simple Leaves 7 - - Forms of Compound Leaves 7 - - Forms of Inflorescence 8 - - Longitudinal Section through the flower of the Buttercup 10 - - Inferior and Superior Ovary 11 - - Unisexual Flowers of the Nettle 11 - - Dehiscent Fruits 12 - - - THE POLLINATION AND FERTILISATION OF FLOWERS - - - Pollen Cells throwing out their Tubes 25 - - - CLIMBING PLANTS - - - Prickles of the Wild Rose 31 - - Ivy, showing the Rootlets or Suckers 32 - - Stem of the Bindweed, twining to the left 34 - - Stem of the Hop, twining to the right 35 - - - EARLY SPRING - - - Trees in Winter or Early Spring - - 1. Hazel; 2. Ash; 3. Oak; 4. Lime 41 - - 5. Birch; 6. Poplar; 7. Beech; 8. Alder 43 - - Twig of Lime in Spring, showing the Deciduous, Scaly Stipules 45 - - Seedling of the Beech 46 - - - WOODS AND THICKETS IN SPRING - - The Daffodil 48 - - The Wood Anemone 49 - - The Goldilocks 50 - - The Wild Columbine 51 - - The Dog Violet 52 - - The Wood Sorrel 53 - - The Sweet Woodruff 54 - - The Lesser Periwinkle 55 - - The Bugle 56 - - The Broad-leaved Garlic 57 - - The Star of Bethlehem 58 - - The Hairy Sedge 59 - - - SPRING-FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS - - The Barberry 62 - - The Spindle Tree 63 - - The Wild Cherry 65 - - The Crab Apple 67 - - The Mountain Ash 68 - - The Spurge Laurel 70 - - The Elm in Flower 71 - - The Oak in Flower 72 - - The Beech in Fruit 73 - - The Scots Pine, with Cones 78 - - The Yew in Fruit 79 - - - WAYSIDES AND WASTES IN SPRING - - The Shepherd's Purse 82 - - The Scurvy Grass 83 - - The Common Whitlow Grass 83 - - The Yellow Rocket 84 - - The Procumbent Pearlwort 86 - - The Greater Stitchwort 87 - - The Chickweed 88 - - The Broad-leaved Mouse-ear Chickweed 89 - - The Dove's-foot Crane's-bill 90 - - The Jagged-leaved Crane's-bill 91 - - The Herb Robert 92 - - The Grass Vetchling 93 - - The Strawberry-leaved Cinquefoil 94 - - The Moschatel 95 - - The White Bryony 96 - - The Wild Beaked Parsley 97 - - The Garden Beaked Parsley 98 - - The Goutweed 99 - - The Crosswort 100 - - The Colt's-foot in Early Spring 101 - - The Germander Speedwell 101 - - The White Dead Nettle 102 - - The Yellow Pimpernel 103 - - The Dog's Mercury 104 - - The Black Bryony 105 - - The Wild Arum 106 - - - MEADOWS, FIELDS, AND PASTURES--SPRING - - The Field Pennycress 109 - - The Wild Pansy 110 - - The Ragged Robin 111 - - The Purple Clover 114 - - The Daisy 115 - - The Butterbur 117 - - The Yellow Rattle 118 - - The Henbit Dead Nettle 119 - - The Cowslip 120 - - The Fox-tail Grass 121 - - - BOGS, MARSHES, AND WET PLACES IN SPRING - - The Marsh Potentil 124 - - The Golden Saxifrage 125 - - The Marsh Valerian 126 - - The Marsh Trefoil 127 - - The Marsh Lousewort 127 - - The Yellow Flag 128 - - - WOODS AND THICKETS IN SUMMER - - The Large-flowered St. John's-wort 131 - - The Common St. John's-wort 132 - - The Dyer's Greenweed 133 - - The Sweet Milk Vetch 134 - - The Wild Raspberry 135 - - The Rose Bay Willow Herb 136 - - The Dogwood 137 - - The Wood Sanicle 138 - - The Alexanders 139 - - The Elder 140 - - The Guelder Rose 141 - - The Saw-wort 143 - - The Ivy-leaved Bell-flower 145 - - Twigs of Holly 146 - - The Privet 147 - - The Millet Grass 148 - - The Bearded Wheat 148 - - The Slender False Brome 149 - - - WASTES AND WAYSIDES IN SUMMER - - The Wild Clematis 152 - - The Hedge Mustard 152 - - The Felix Weed 153 - - The Dyer's Weed 154 - - The Deptford Pink 155 - - The Red Campion 156 - - The Common Mallow 157 - - The Musk Mallow 158 - - The Bloody Crane's-bill 159 - - The Fruit of the Stork's-bill 160 - - The Hemlock Stork's-bill 161 - - The Bird's-foot Trefoil 162 - - The Herb Bennet or Geum 163 - - The Dog Rose 164 - - The Silver Weed 164 - - The Agrimony 165 - - The Orpine or Livelong 167 - - The Fool's Parsley 168 - - The Wild Parsnip 169 - - The Cow Parsnip or Hogweed 170 - - The Honeysuckle 171 - - The Great Hedge Bedstraw 172 - - The Teasel 173 - - Teasel Heads 174 - - Flower Head of the Marigold 176 - - Florets of a Composite Flower 176 - - The Yellow Goat's-beard 177 - - The Hawkweed Picris 178 - - The Prickly Lettuce 179 - - The Sharp-fringed Sow-Thistle 180 - - The Smooth Hawk's-beard 181 - - The Nipplewort 182 - - The Burdock 183 - - The Spear Thistle 184 - - The Creeping Thistle 185 - - The Tansy 186 - - The Wormwood 187 - - The Ragwort 188 - - The Scentless Mayweed 189 - - The Yarrow or Milfoil 189 - - The Rampion Bell-flower 191 - - The Great Bindweed 192 - - The Henbane 193 - - The Woody Nightshade or Bittersweet 194 - - The Deadly Nightshade 195 - - The Yellow Toadflax 196 - - The Vervein 197 - - The Balm 198 - - The Hedge Woundwort 199 - - The Gromwell 201 - - The Hound's-tongue 202 - - The White Goosefoot 203 - - The Spotted Persicaria 205 - - The Curled Dock 207 - - The Great Nettle 208 - - The Canary Grass 209 - - - MEADOWS, FIELDS, AND PASTURES--SUMMER - - The Gold of Pleasure 212 - - The Bladder Campion 213 - - The White Campion 214 - - The Kidney Vetch 215 - - The Common Melilot 216 - - The Lady's Mantle 217 - - The Meadow Sweet 219 - - The Burnet Saxifrage 220 - - The Wild Carrot 221 - - The Devil's-bit Scabious 222 - - The Rough Hawkbit 223 - - The Autumnal Hawkbit 224 - - The Meadow Thistle 225 - - The Black Knapweed 226 - - The Great Knapweed 226 - - The Common Fleabane 227 - - The Ox-eye Daisy 228 - - The Sneezewort 229 - - The Small Bindweed 230 - - Section of the Flower of Salvia 231 - - The Self-heal 231 - - The Ribwort Plantain 232 - - The Butterfly Orchis 233 - - The Cat's-tail Grass 233 - - The Meadow Barley 233 - - The Rye Grass or Darnel 234 - - The Sheep's Fescue 234 - - - BOGS, MARSHES, AND WET PLACES--SUMMER - - The Lesser Spearwort 237 - - The Great Hairy Willow Herb 238 - - The Purple Loosestrife 239 - - The Water Hemlock 241 - - The Common Water Dropwort 242 - - The Marsh Thistle 243 - - The Brooklime 244 - - The Water Figwort 245 - - The Gipsy wort 246 - - The Round-leaved Mint 247 - - The Forget-me-not 248 - - The Water Pepper or Biting Persicaria 249 - - The Bog Asphodel 251 - - The Common Rush 252 - - The Shining-fruited Jointed Rush 253 - - The Common Sedge 254 - - The Marsh Sedge 255 - - - HEATH, DOWN, AND MOOR - - The Milkwort 258 - - The Broom 259 - - The Furze or Gorse 260 - - The Tormentil 261 - - The Smooth Heath Bedstraw 264 - - The Dwarf Thistle 265 - - The Carline Thistle 267 - - The Common Chamomile 268 - - The Harebell 269 - - The Cross-leaved Heath 270 - - The Bell Heather or Fine-leaved Heath 271 - - The Eyebright 273 - - The Wild Thyme 275 - - The Autumnal Lady's Tresses 276 - - The Butcher's Broom 277 - - The Common Quaking Grass 278 - - The Common Mat Grass 279 - - - IN THE CORN FIELD - - The Mousetail 282 - - The Common Red Poppy 284 - - The White or Opium Poppy 285 - - The Fumitory 287 - - The Black Mustard 288 - - The Corn Spurrey 289 - - The Shepherd's Needle or Venus's Comb 290 - - The Venus's Looking Glass or Corn Bell-flower 291 - - The Scarlet Pimpernel 292 - - The Climbing Bistort 293 - - The Dwarf Spurge 294 - - - ON THE CHALK - - The Rock Rose 297 - - The Sainfoin 300 - - The Salad Burnet 301 - - The Field Gentian 302 - - The Yellow-wort 303 - - The Great Mullein 304 - - The Red Hemp Nettle 305 - - An Orchis Flower 307 - - The Sweet-scented Orchis 309 - - - BY THE RIVER SIDE - - The Common Meadow Rue 313 - - The Hemp Agrimony 314 - - The Common Skull-cap 315 - - The Comfrey 316 - - - ON WALLS, ROCKS AND STONY PLACES - - The Biting Stonecrop or Wall Pepper 321 - - The Wall Pennywort or Navelwort 322 - - The London Pride 323 - - The Mossy Saxifrage 324 - - The Ivy-leaved Toadflax 325 - - The Wall Pellitory 326 - - - AUTUMN IN THE WOODS - - The Alder in Autumn 333 - - The Ash in Autumn 336 - - The Maple in Fruit 337 - - The Wayfaring Tree in Fruit 338 - - The Strawberry Tree 339 - - - PARASITIC PLANTS - - The Greater Dodder 342 - - The Clover Dodder 343 - - The Great Broomrape 345 - - The Mistletoe 347 - - A Young Mistletoe Plant 348 - - - CARNIVOROUS PLANTS - - The Greater Bladder-wort 351 - - Longitudinal section through the leaf of the Toothwort 352 - - The Common Butterwort 353 - - The Round-leaved Sundew 355 - - - - -FIELD - -AND - -WOODLAND PLANTS - - - - -I - -INTRODUCTION - -GENERAL CHARACTERS OF PLANTS AND THE IDENTIFICATION OF FLOWERS - - -The beginner will often find it difficult, and sometimes quite -impossible, to identify some of the flowers seen or gathered during a -country ramble; and he will hardly be surprised to experience many -disappointments in his attempts to do this when he realises the large -number of species among our flowering plants, and the very close -resemblance that allied species frequently bear to one another. But -there are right and wrong methods of setting to work for the purpose of -determining the identity of a plant, and the object of this chapter is -to put the beginner on the right track. He must remember, however, that -the aid given here is intended to assist him principally in the -identification of the commoner species, though it may, at the same time, -help him to determine the natural affinities or relationships of other -flowers that fall in his way. - -The directions we are about to give the reader regarding this portion of -his work will be understood by him only if he is fairly well acquainted -with the general characters of a flowering plant and with the structure -of flowers; and as it would hardly be advisable to assume such -knowledge, we shall give a brief outline of this part of the subject, -dealing only with those points that are essential to our purpose, and -explaining the meaning of those terms which are commonly employed in the -description of plants and their flowers. - - -THE ROOT - -The root is that portion of the plant which descends into the soil for -the absorption of the mineral food required. It really serves a double -purpose, for, in addition to the function just mentioned, it fixes the -plant in its place, thus forming a basis of support for the stem and its -appendages. - -[Illustration: FORMS OF ROOTS 1. Simple fibrous. 2. Branched fibrous. 3. -Tap root. 4. Tuberous root.] - -Roots are capable of absorbing liquids only, and all fertile soils -contain more or less soluble mineral matter which is dissolved by the -moisture present. This matter is absorbed mainly by the minute -root-hairs--outgrowths of the superficial cells--which are to be found -on the rootlets or small branches that are given off from the main -descending axis. - -The principal forms of roots occurring in our flowering plants are:-- - -1. The _simple fibrous root_, consisting of unbranched fibres such as we -see in the Bulbous Buttercup and the Common Daisy. - -2. The _branched fibrous root_, as that of the Chickweed and Grasses. - -3. The _tap root_, which is thick above and tapers downwards, like the -roots of the Dandelion, Carrot and Wild Parsnip. - -4. The _tuberous root_, common among the Orchids. - -5. The _creeping root_, possessed by some Grasses in addition to their -fibrous roots. - -Besides these common forms there are roots of a somewhat exceptional -character, such as the _aerial roots_ or _suckers_ which grow from the -stem of the Ivy and serve to support the plant; and the roots of the -Mistletoe, which, instead of penetrating the soil, force their way into -the substance of certain trees, from which they derive the necessary -nourishment. - -The student of plant life must always be careful to distinguish between -roots and underground stems, for there are many examples of creeping and -tuberous stems which resemble certain roots in general appearance. A -true root bears no buds, and, therefore, is not capable of producing new -plants. If a root creeps under the ground, as does the root of the -Barley Grass, it merely serves the purpose of collecting nourishment -from a wider area--a matter of considerable importance when the soil is -dry and deficient in suitable mineral food. A creeping stem, on the -other hand, developes buds as it proceeds, each bud giving rise to a new -plant; and the creeping itself is the result of the growth of a -permanent terminal bud. - -Again, when studying plants for the purpose of identification, it is -often important to note whether the root is _annual_, _biennial_, or -_perennial_; that is, whether the root lives for one season only, lives -throughout the winter, and supports the plant for a second season, or -retains its life for an indefinite number of years. - -Most of the roots that live over one season are of a fleshy nature, -thick and tapering, or tuberous, and contain more or less stored -nourishment which assists the new growths that are called forth by the -warmth and light of the early spring sun. - - -THE STEM - -The stems of plants exhibit a much greater variety of structure and -habit than do the roots. Their chief functions are to support the leaves -and flowers, and to arrange these parts in such a manner that they -obtain the maximum of light and air; also to form a means of -communication by which the sap may pass in either direction. Stems also -frequently help to protect the plant, either by the development of -thorns or prickles, or by producing hairs which prevent snails and slugs -from reaching and devouring the leaves and flowers. - -The character of the stem is often of some importance in determining the -species, so we must now note the principal features that should receive -our attention. - -As regards surface, the stem may be _smooth_ or _hairy_. In general -form, as seen in transverse section, it may be _round_, _flattened_, -_triangular_, _square_, or traversed longitudinally by ridges and -furrows more or less distinct. Flattened stems are sometimes more or -less _winged_ with leaf-like extensions, as in the Everlasting Pea, in -which case the wings perform the functions of foliage leaves. It should -also be noted whether the stems are _herbaceous_, or _woody_, and -whether they are _hollow_, or _jointed_. - -In some plants the stem is so short that the leaves appear to start -direct from the root, as in the Dandelion and Primrose. Such stems are -said to be _inconspicuous_. - -[Illustration: RUNNING UNDERGROUND STEM OF SOLOMON'S SEAL - -_a_, Terminal bud from which the next year's stem is developed; _b_, -Stem of the present year; _c_, and _d_, Scars of the stems of previous -years.] - -The longer and conspicuous stems are either _simple_ or _branched_, and -they may be _erect_, _prostrate_, _trailing_, _climbing_, or _running_. -In the case of climbing stems it should be noted whether the necessary -support is obtained by means of tendrils, rootlets, or suckers, or by -the twining of the stem itself. - -Running stems are those which run along the surface of the ground by the -continued growth of a terminal bud, and produce new plants at intervals, -as in the case of the Wild Strawberry. Many stems, however, creep under -the ground, and these should always be distinguished from running roots, -from which they may be known by the production of buds that develop into -new plants, as in the Iris and Solomon's Seal. - - -THE LEAF - -The arrangement of the leaves on the stem is a matter of great -importance for purposes of identification. Especially should it be noted -whether the leaves are _opposite_, _alternate_, _whorled_ (arranged in -circles round the stem), or _radical_ (apparently starting direct from -the root). - -Some leaves have smaller leaves or scales at their bases, that is, at -the points where they are attached to the stem of the plant. Such leaves -or scales are termed _stipules_. They are often so well developed that -they are as conspicuous as the ordinary foliage leaves, and in such -instances they perform the functions of the latter. The presence and -character of the stipules should always be noted. A leaf without -stipules is said to be _exstipulate_. - -[Illustration: ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES -1. Opposite. 2. Alternate. 3. Whorled.] - -A leaf usually consists of two distinct parts--the _petiole_ or stalk, -and the _lamina_ or blade. Some, however, have no petiole, but the blade -is in direct contact with the stem. These leaves are said to be -_sessile_, and some of them clasp the stem, or even extend downwards on -the stem, forming a wing or a sheath. - -[Illustration: LEAF OF THE PANSY WITH TWO LARGE STIPULES.] - -A leaf is said to be _simple_ when the blade is in one continuous whole, -even though it may be very deeply divided; but when the blade is cut -into distinct parts by incisions that extend quite into the midrib (the -continuation of the stalk to the tip of the leaf), the leaf is -_compound_. - -The student must be careful to distinguish between compound leaves and -little branches or twigs bearing several simple leaves, for they are -often very similar in general appearance. The compound leaf may always -be known by the total absence of buds, and often by the presence of one -or more stipules at the base of its stalk; while a branch bearing a -similar appearance usually has a terminal bud, also buds in the exils of -its leaves, and never any stipules at the point where it originates. The -distinct parts of compound leaves are termed _leaflets_. - -Attention to the form and character of the leaf is often of as much -importance as the observation of the flower in the determination of -species. Not only should we note the general shape of the leaf, but also -the character of its surface, its margin, and its apex. The surface may -be _smooth_, _hairy_, _downy_, _velvety_, _shaggy_, _rough_, _wrinkled_ -or _dotted_. The margin is said to be _entire_ when it is not broken by -incisions of any kind. If not entire it may be _toothed_, _serrate_ -(sawlike), _crenate_ or _wavy_. Sometimes it happens that the teeth bear -still smaller teeth, in which case the margin is said to be _doubly -toothed_; or, if the teeth are sawlike, it is _doubly serrate_. As -regards the apex, it is generally sufficient to note whether it is -_acute_ (sharp), _obtuse_ (blunt), or _bifid_ (divided into two). - -[Illustration: MARGINS OF LEAVES -1. Entire. 2. Serrate or sawlike. 3. Doubly serrate. 4. Dentate or -toothed. 5. Crenate. 6. Doubly crenate. 7. Sinuate or wavy.] - -It is not necessary to describe separately all the principal forms of -simple and compound leaves. These are illustrated, and the student -should either make himself acquainted with the terms applied to the -different shapes, or refer, as occasion requires, to the illustrations. -Concerning the compound leaves, however, their segments are themselves -sometimes divided after the manner of the whole, and even the secondary -segments may be similarly cut. Thus, if the segments of a pinnate leaf -are themselves pinnately compound, the leaf is said to be _bi-pinnate_; -and, if the secondary segments are also compound, it is a _tri-pinnate_ -leaf. - - -INFLORESCENCE - -We must now turn our attention to the different kinds of _inflorescence_ -or arrangement of flowers. Flowers are commonly mounted on stalks -(_peduncles_), but in many cases they have no stalks, being attached -directly to the stem of the plant, and therefore said to be _sessile_. -Whether stalked or sessile, if they arise from the axils of the -leaves--the angles formed by the leafstalks and the stem--they are said -to be axillary. When only one flower grows on a stalk it is said to be -_solitary_; but in many cases we find a number of flowers on one -peduncle, in which instances, should each flower of the cluster have a -separate stalk of its own, the main stalk only is called the peduncle, -and the lesser stalks bearing the individual flowers are the -_pedicels_. - - [Illustration: VARIOUS FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES - 1. Oval or elliptical. - 2. Ovate. - 3. Obovate. - 4. Orbicular. - 5. Lanceolate. - 6. Linear. - 7. Cordate (heart-shaped). - 8. Obcordate. - 9. Reniform (kidney-shaped). - 10. Sagittate (Arrow-shaped). - 11. Rhomboidal. - 12. Spathulate (spoon-shaped). - 13. Peltate (stalk fixed to the centre). - 14. Oblique. - 15. Runcinate (lobes pointing more or less downwards). - 16. Hastate (halberd-shaped). - 17. Angled. - 18. Palmate. - 19. Pinnatifid.] - -[Illustration: FORMS OF COMPOUND LEAVES -1. Binate. 2. Ternate. 3. Digitate. 4. Pinnate.] - -[Illustration: FORMS OF INFLORESCENCE -1. Spike. 2. Raceme. 3. Corymb. 4. Umbel. 5. Cyme. 6. Compound Raceme or -Panicle. 7. Capitulum or Head. 8. Compound Umbel.] - -It is often convenient to make use of certain terms to denote the -various arrangements of flower-clusters, and the principal of these are -as follows:-- - -1. _Spike._--Sessile flowers arranged along a common axis. - -2. _Raceme._--Flowers stalked along a common axis. - -3. _Corymb._--Flowers stalked along a common axis, but the lengths of -the pedicels varying in such a manner as to bring all the flowers to the -same level. - -4. _Umbel._--The pedicels all start from the same level on the peduncle. - -5. _Cyme._--An arrangement in which the flower directly at the end of -the peduncle opens first, followed by those on the branching pedicels. - -6. _Panicle._--A compound raceme--a raceme the pedicels of which are -themselves branched. - -7. _Capitulum_ or _Flower-head_.--A dense cluster of flowers, all -attached to a common broad disc or receptacle. - -Other forms of inflorescence may also be compound. Thus, a _compound -umbel_ is produced when the pedicels of an umbel are themselves -umbellate. - - -THE FLOWER - -A flower, if complete in all its parts, consists of modified leaves -arranged in four distinct whorls, the parts being directly or indirectly -attached to a receptacle. - -The outer whorl is the _calyx_, and is composed of parts called -_sepals_, which may be either united or distinct. The calyx is usually -green; but, in some cases, is more or less highly coloured. Sometimes -the calyx is quite free from the pistil or central part of the flower, -the sides of which are thus left naked, and the calyx is then said to be -_inferior_. If, however, it is united to the surface of the pistil it is -_superior_. When it remains after other parts of the flower have -decayed, it is said to be _persistent_. - -The second whorl--the _corolla_--is usually the whorl that gives most -beauty to the flower. It is composed of parts, united or distinct, -called _petals_. - -Both calyx and corolla vary very considerably in shape. They may be -cup-shaped, tubular, bell-shaped, spreading, funnel-shaped, lipped, &c. -If the sepals and petals are arranged symmetrically round a common -centre, the calyx and corolla, respectively, are said to be _regular_; -if otherwise, they are _irregular_. - -The third whorl consists of the _stamens_, each of which, in its most -perfect form, is made up of a _filament_ or stalk, and an _anther_ -which, when mature, splits and sets free the _pollen_ that is formed -within it. Sometimes the stamen has no filament, and the anther is then -said to be sessile. - -The mode of attachment of the stamens is very variable. They may grow -from immediately below the pistil, or from its summit; or they may be -attached to either the petals or the sepals. The filaments are usually -distinct, but sometimes they are united in such a manner as to form a -tube, or grow into two or more bundles. The anthers are usually -distinct, even when the filaments are united; but these sometimes grow -together. - -[Illustration: LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH THE FLOWER OF THE BUTTERCUP -Showing the calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistil. The pistil consists of -several distinct carpels, one of which is represented in section to show -its single ovule.] - -The central part of the flower is the _pistil_, and this is made up of -one or more parts called _carpels_. Each carpel, when distinct, is a -hollow case or _ovary_, prolonged above into one or more stalks or -_styles_, tipped by a viscid secreting surface called the _stigma_. The -ovary contains the _ovules_, attached to a surface called the -_placenta_; and these ovules, after having been impregnated by the -pollen, develop into seeds which are plants in embryo. The ovary may -have no style, and the stigma is then sessile. - -Where the pistil consists of more than one carpel, these carpels may -unite in such a manner as to form a single cell, or an ovary of two or -more cells. In other cases the carpels remain quite distinct, thus -forming a number of distinct ovaries, each with its own stigma. For -purposes of identification it is often necessary to note the position of -the placenta. This may be at the side of the ovary, in which case it is -said to be _parietal_; or it may stand up in the centre of the ovary, -without any attachment to the sides, when it is described as _free -central_. If, however, it occupies the centre of the ovary, but is -attached by means of radiating partitions to the sides, it is termed -_axile_. - -If the ovary is quite free in the centre of the flower, the surrounding -parts being attached below it, it is said to be _superior_; but if the -perianth (p. 11) adheres to it, it is _inferior_. - -A leaf or scale will often be observed at the foot of a flower stalk or -at the base of a sessile flower. This is termed a _bract_, and a flower -possessing a bract is said to be _bracteate_. The bract is sometimes so -large that it almost completely encloses the flower, or even a cluster -of flowers. - -[Illustration: INFERIOR (1) AND SUPERIOR (2)OVARY.] - -The flower is the reproductive part of the plant, being concerned in the -production of the seeds; but the organs directly connected with the -seed-formation are the pistil and the stamens, the former containing the -ovules, and the latter producing the pollen cells by means of which the -ovules are impregnated. Thus the stamens and the pistil are the -_essential_ parts of the flower, though the corolla and the calyx may -perform some subsidiary function in connexion with the reproduction of -the species. - -This being the case, a flower may be described as _perfect_ if it -consists of stamens and pistil only, without any surrounding calyx or -corolla; and _imperfect_ if it possesses no pistil _or_ no stamens, -regardless of the presence or absence of calyx and corolla. - -[Illustration: UNISEX FLOWERS OF THE NETTLE -1. Pistillate. 2. Staminate.] - -The two outer whorls of a well-developed perfect flower (calyx and -corolla) together form the _perianth_. Some flowers, however have only -one whorl outside the anthers, representing both the calyx and corolla -of the more highly organised flower. This one whorl, therefore, is the -perianth, and its parts are not correctly termed either petals or -sepals, since they represent both. - -A perfect flower is sometimes spoken of as _bisexual_, for it includes -the two sexual organs of the plant--the ovary or female part, producing -the ovules; and the stamens or male part, which is concerned in the -impregnation or fertilisation of the ovules. - -Many plants produce only _unisexual_ (and therefore imperfect) flowers, -which contain either no stamens or no pistil. If such possess stamens -and no pistil, they are called _staminate_ or _male_ flowers; and if -pistil and no stamens, _pistillate_ or _female_ flowers. These two kinds -are sometimes borne on the same plant, when they are said to be -_monoecious_; but often on separate plants (_dioecious_), as in some -of the Nettleworts and the Willow Tree. Spikes of unisexual flowers, -such as are common among our forest trees, are called _catkins_. - - -THE FRUIT AND SEED - -[Illustration: DEHISCENT FRUITS -1. Pod. 2. Siliqua. 3. Silicula. 4. Follicles (cluster of three). 5. -Capsule splitting longitudinally. 6. Capsule splitting transversely. 7. -Capsule splitting by pores.] - -After the ovules have been impregnated by the pollen they develop into -seeds, each of which consists of or contains an embryo plant; and, at -the same time, the ovary itself enlarges, changing its character more or -less, till it becomes a ripened _fruit_. - -Fruits vary very considerably in their general characters, but may be -divided into two main groups--those that split when ripe (_dehiscent -fruits_) and those which do not split (_indehiscent fruits_). - -The principal forms of dehiscent fruits are:-- - -1. The _pod_ or _legume_, which splits into two valves, with placenta on -one side. - -2. The _siliqua_, a long, narrow fruit that splits into two valves which -separate from a membrane with placenta on both sides. - -3. The _silicula_, of the same nature as the siliqua, but about as broad -as it is long. - -4. The _follicle_, which splits on one side only, through the placenta. - -5. All other fruits that split are termed _capsules_. Some of these -split longitudinally, some transversely, and others by forming pores for -the escape of the seeds. - -The chief kinds of indehiscent fruits are:-- - -1. The _drupe_ or stone-fruit, which consists of a hard stone surrounded -by a fleshy covering, as the plum and the cherry. - -2. The _berry_, which is soft and fleshy, and contains several seeds, -like the currant and the grape. - -3. The _nut_ or _achene_--a fruit with hard and dry walls, as the -filbert and the acorn. - -4. The _samara_ or winged fruit, like that of the sycamore. - -Various modifications of these indehiscent fruits are to be met with; -thus, the blackberry is not really a berry, but a cluster of little -drupes formed from a single pistil of many carpels. A berry, too, may be -made up of many parts, as is the case with the orange. The apple and -similar fruits consist of a core (the true fruit) surrounded by a fleshy -mass that is produced from the receptacle of the flower; and the -strawberry is a succulent, enlarged receptacle of the flower, with a -number of little achenes (the true fruits) on its surface. - -The seed, as we have already observed, is the embryo plant. It consists -of one or more seed-leaves or _cotyledons_, a _radicle_ or young root, -and a _plumule_ or young bud. In many cases the skin of the seed -encloses nothing more than the three parts of the embryo, as named -above; but it sometimes contains, in addition, a quantity of nutrient -matter in the form of albumen, starch, oil, gum, or other substance. - - -CLASSIFICATION OF FLOWERING PLANTS - -Our flowering plants are divided into two main groups, the -_dicotyledons_ and the _monocotyledons_. These terms suggest that the -division is based on the nature of the seed, which is really the case, -but the groups are characterised by differences in other parts. Thus, -the plants which produce seeds with two cotyledons may be known by the -nature of the stem, which consists of a central pith, surrounded by wood -arranged in one or more rings, and the whole enclosed in an outer -epidermis or in a bark. These plants also bear leaves with netted veins, -and the parts of the flower are usually in whorls of four or five or -multiples of four or five. Those plants whose seeds have only one -cotyledon may be known by the absence of a central pith and true bark in -the stem, while the wood is arranged in scattered bundles instead of in -a ring or rings. They have also, generally, leaves with parallel veins; -and the parts of the flower are usually in threes or multiples of three. -The following table shows these features at a glance:-- - - _Dicotyledons_ _Monocotyledons_ - - Embryo with two cotyledons. Embryo with one cotyledon. - - Stem with central pith, wood in Stem with no central pith, no true - rings or rings, and bark. bark, and wood not in rings. - - Leaves with netted veins. Leaves with parallel veins. - - Parts of flower usually in fours Parts of flower arranged in threes - or fives. or multiples of three. - -These two great divisions or _classes_ are split up into _sub-classes_, -each embracing a large number of plants with common characters; and the -sub-classes are again divided into _orders_, and the orders into -_genera_. - -The student should always endeavour to determine the order to which any -flower he finds belongs; and, if possible, the genus and the species. It -is certainly a pleasure to be able to call flowers by their names, but -at the same time it must be remembered that a vast deal of pleasure may -be gained by the study of flowers--their peculiar structure, habits and -habitats--even though their names are unknown; and the student who has -learnt to recognise these characters, and to discover the relationships -that exist between certain flowers of different species, is certainly -much more fortunate than the one who knows abundance of names with only -a meagre acquaintance with the flowers themselves. - -Our table of classification gives the most important distinguishing -characters of the classes, sub-classes, and orders, of a very large -proportion of our wild flowers, and will enable the reader to determine -the natural order of almost every one he sees. In order to show how this -table is to be used we will take an imaginary example. - -Let us suppose that we find a plant with a square stem; opposite, simple -leaves with netted veins; flowers apparently in whorls, in the axils of -the leaves; persistent calyx of five united sepals; a lipped corolla, of -five united petals, two forming the lower, and three the upper lip; four -stamens, attached to the corolla, two longer than the others; a -superior, four-lobed ovary; and a fruit of four little nuts; then we -proceed to determine the natural order to which it belongs as follows:-- - -The netted veins of the leaves, and the arrangement of the parts of -the flower in whorls of four and five, show us at once that the plant -is a _dicotyledon_. Then, the presence of both calyx and corolla -enables us to decide that the plant belongs to Division I. of the -dicotyledons--that it belongs to one of the orders 1 to 59. Noting, now, -that the corolla is composed of united petals, we are enabled to fix its -position in the subdivision I.B, among orders 37 to 59. Next, the -superior ovary shows that it must be located in the group I.B 2--orders -44 to 59; and as the stamens are attached to the corolla, we see at once -that it is not a member of order 44. Turning now to the Synopsis of the -Natural Orders (p. 17), we find that the irregular flowers of -this group of orders occur only in 51, 52, 53, 54, and 56. Finally, the -square stem, opposite leaves, and character of the fruit, show us that -the plant must belong to the order _Labiatĉ_. - -The student should, as far as possible, deal with all flowers in this -manner, assigning each one to its proper order; and, if he preserves his -specimens for future observation, the names of the orders should always -be attached, and the plants arranged accordingly. - -Again, should the reader meet with a common flower the name of which was -previously known, while he is as yet ignorant as to the order to which -it belongs; or, should he find a flower that he can at once identify by -means of one of our illustrations; he should not rest satisfied on -seeing that the name of the order is given beside the name of the plant, -but turn to the synopsis, and note the distinguishing characters which -determine the natural position of the plant. In this way he will -cultivate the habit of careful observation; will make much more rapid -progress in forming an acquaintance with plants in general, and will -soon become familiar with those natural affinities which mark, more or -less distinctly, a cousinship among the flowers. - -To aid the reader in this part of his work we have given the name of the -natural order with the name of every plant described; and, where -difficulties are likely to occur in the identification of similar common -species of the same genus, though perhaps only one member of the genus -has been selected for description, a few notes are often included with -the object of assisting in the identification of the others. - -In our descriptions of wild flowers we do not always repeat those -features which are common to the species of their respective orders. -These features are, however, of the greatest importance; and thus it is -essential that the reader makes himself acquainted with them, by -referring to the synopsis of the orders, before noting those characters -which are given as being more directly concerned in the determination of -the species themselves. Thus, when we describe the Pasque Flower (p. -297) we do not refer to those general characters that apply to -all the _Ranunculaceĉ_ or Buttercup family, and which may be seen at -once by referring to p. 17, but give all those details that are -necessary to enable one to distinguish between the Pasque Flower and the -other members of the same order. - - -_Dicotyledons_ - -(Leaves with netted veins. Parts of flower generally in fours or fives -or multiples of four or five) - -I. Flowers with both calyx and corolla. - - A. Corolla composed of free and separate petals. - - 1. Stamens attached to base of flower, beneath the pistil--Orders - 1-22. - - 2. Stamens attached above or around the pistil--Orders - 23-36. - - B. Corolla of united petals. - - 1. Ovary inferior. - - _a._ Stamens on the corolla--Orders 37-41. - - _b._ Stamens on the ovary--Orders 42-43. - - 2. Ovary superior. - - _a._ Stamens free from the corolla--Order 44. - - _b._ Stamens on the corolla--Orders 45-59. - -II. Flowers with calyx or corolla or both absent. - - A. Flowers with corolla absent, and, generally, with stamens - and pistil in the same flower. - - 1. Ovary superior--Orders 60-64. - - 2. Ovary inferior--Orders 65-67. - - B. Corolla and calyx usually absent. Stamens and pistil - usually in separate flowers. - - 1. Flowers not in catkins--Orders 68-71. - - 2. Flowers in catkins--Orders 72-76. - - -_Monocotyledons_ - -(Leaves usually with parallel veins. Parts of flower in -threes or multiples of three) - - I. Perianth (see p. 11), coloured or petal-like, not scaly. (Sometimes -absent.) - - A. Ovary inferior. - - 1. Leaves with parallel veins--Orders 77-80. - - 2. Leaves with netted veins--Order 81. - - B. Ovary superior--Orders 82-88. - -II. Flowers without perianth, enclosed in scales or husks. - - A. Grassy herbs, with solid stems; leaves forming unsplit - sheaths round the stem; flowers in spikelets, with one - to three stamens--Order 89. - - B. Grassy herbs, with hollow stems; leaves generally forming - split sheaths round the stem; flowers generally - perfect, with three stamens--Order 90. - -SYNOPSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS - -1. RANUNCULACEĈ.--Herbs mostly with alternate leaves and regular -flowers. Sepals generally 5, distinct. Petals 5 or more. Stamens 12 or -more. Pistil of many distinct carpels. Fruit of many one-seeded achenes. -(The Buttercup Family.) - -2. BERBERIDACEĈ.--Shrub with compound spines; alternate, spiny leaves; -and pendulous flowers. Sepals 6. Petals 6. Stamens 6. Fruit a berry. -(The Berberry Family.) - -3. NYMPHĈACEĈ.--Aquatic plants with floating leaves and solitary -flowers. Petals numerous, gradually passing into sepals outwards, and -into stamens inwards. Ovary of many cells, with many seeds. (The -Water-lily Family.) - -4. PAPAVERACEĈ.--Herbs with a milky sap; alternate leaves without -stipules; and regular (generally nodding) flowers. Sepals 2, deciduous. -Fruit a capsule. Petals 4. Stamens many. Ovary one-celled, but with many -membranous, incomplete partitions. (The Poppy Family.) - -5. FUMARIACEĈ.--Herbs with much divided, exstipulate leaves; and racemes -of small irregular, bracteate flowers. Sepals 2 or 0, deciduous. Petals -4, irregular. Stamens 6, in two bundles. Ovary of two carpels, -one-celled. (The Fumitory Family.) - -6. CRUCIFERĈ.--Herbs with alternate, exstipulate leaves, and racemes of -regular flowers. Sepals 4. Petals 4, cruciform. Stamens 6, four longer -and two shorter. Ovary one-or two-celled. Fruit a siliqua. (The Cabbage -Family.) - -7. RESEDACEĈ.--Herbs or shrubs with alternate, exstipulate leaves; and -spikes of irregular, greenish flowers. Sepals 4 or 5, persistent. Petals -4 to 7, irregular. Stamens many. Ovary of 3 lobes, one-celled. (The -Mignonette Family.) - -8. CISTACEĈ.--Herbs or undershrubs with entire, opposite leaves; and -conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals 3 to 5. Petals 5, twisted in the -bud. Stamens many. Ovary of 3 carpels, one-chambered. (The Rock-rose -Family.) - -9. VIOLACEĈ.--Herbs with alternate, stipuled leaves; and axillary, -irregular flowers. Sepals 5, persistent. Petals 5, unequal, the lower -one prolonged into a spur. Stamens 5. Ovary of three carpels, -one-celled. (The Violet Family.) - -10. DROSERACEĈ.--Small marsh plants with radical, glandular leaves; and -cymes of small, white, regular flowers. Sepals 5. Petals 5. Stamens 5 or -10. Ovary of 3 to 5 carpels, one-celled. (The Sundew Family.) - -11. POLYGALACEĈ.--Herbs with alternate, scattered, exstipulate, simple -leaves; and racemes of irregular flowers. Sepals 5, the inner ones -resembling petals. Petals 3 to 5, unequal. Stamens 8, in two bundles. -Ovary two-celled. Fruit a capsule. (The Milkwort Family.) - -12. FRANKENIACEĈ.--Herb with opposite, exstipulate leaves; and small, -axillary, red, regular flowers. Sepals 4 to 6, united into a tube. -Petals 4 to 6. Stamens 4 to 6. Ovary of 2 to 5 carpels, one-celled. (The -Sea Heath.) - -13. ELATINACEĈ.--Small aquatic herbs, with opposite, stipulate, -spathulate leaves; and minute, axillary, red flowers. Sepals, petals and -stamens 2 to 5. Fruit a capsule with 2 to 5 valves. (The Waterwort -Family.) - -14. CARYOPHYLLACEĈ.--Herbs mostly with jointed stems; opposite, simple -leaves; and red or white, regular flowers. Sepals 4 or 5. Petals 4 or 5. -Stamens 8 or 10. Styles 2 to 5. Fruit a one-celled capsule, opening at -top by teeth. (The Pink Family.) - -15. LINACEĈ.--Herbs with slender stems; narrow, simple, entire, -exstipulate leaves; and cymes of regular flowers. Sepals, petals, -stamens, and carpels 4 or 5. Petals twisted in the bud, fugacious -(falling early). Carpels each with two ovules. Fruit a capsule of 3 to 5 -cells. (The Flax Family.) - -16. MALVACEĈ.--Herbs or shrubs with alternate, stipuled leaves; and -conspicuous, axillary, regular flowers. Sepals 5. Petals 5, twisted in -the bud. Stamens many, united into a tube. Carpels many, each with one -ovule. (The Mallow Family.) - -17. TILIACEĈ.--Trees with alternate, stipuled, oblique, serrate leaves; -a large bract adherent to the flower stalk; and cymes of greenish, -regular flowers. Sepals and petals 5. Stamens many. Carpels 5, each with -two ovules. (The Linden Family.) - -18. HYPERICACEĈ.--Herbs or shrubs with opposite, simple, exstipulate -leaves, often dotted with glands; and cymes of conspicuous yellow, -regular flowers. Sepals 4 or 5, with glandular dots. Petals 4 or 5, -twisted in the bud. Stamens many, united into several bundles. Carpels 3 -to 5, with many ovules. Fruit a capsule with 3 to 5 cells. (The St. -John's-wort Family.) - -19. ACERACEĈ.--Trees with opposite, palmately-lobed leaves; and small, -green, regular flowers. Sepals and petals 4 to 9. Stamens 8, on the -disc. Fruit a samara. (The Maple Family.) - -20. GERANIACEĈ.--Herbs with lobed, generally stipulate leaves; and -conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals 3 to 5, persistent. Petals 3 to 5. -Stamens 5 to 10. Carpels 3 to 5, surrounding a long beak. (The -Crane's-bill Family.) - -21. BALSAMINACEĈ.--Herbs with simple, alternate leaves; and axillary, -irregular, yellow flowers. Sepals 3 or 5, one forming a wide-mouthed -spur. Petals 5, four of which are united in pairs. Stamens 5. Fruit a -capsule with five elastic valves. (The Balsam Family.) - -22. OXALIDACEĈ.--Low herbs, with radical, generally trifoliate leaves; -and axillary, regular flowers. Sepals 5. Petals 5, united at the base. -Stamens 10. Ovary five-celled, with many ovules. (The Wood Sorrel -Family.) - - * * * * * - -23. CELASTRACEĈ.--Trees or shrubs, with opposite leaves; and small, -regular flowers in axillary cymes. Sepals and petals usually 4. Stamens -usually 4, alternating with the petals. Carpels 4. Fruit a fleshy -capsule. (Spindle Tree.) - -24. RHAMNACEĈ.--Shrubs with simple leaves; small, greenish flowers; and -berry-like fruit. Sepals, petals, and stamens 4 or 5. Stamens opposite -the petals. Ovary superior, three-celled, with one ovule in each cell. -(The Buckthorn Family.) - -25. LEGUMINOSĈ.--Herbs or shrubs with alternate, stipuled leaves, -generally pinnate or ternate, often tendrilled; and papilionaceous -(butterfly-like) flowers. Sepals 5, combined. Petals 5, irregular. -Stamens generally 10, all, or nine of them united. Ovary superior. Fruit -a pod. (The Pea Family.) - -26. ROSACEĈ.--Trees, shrubs, or herbs with alternate, stipuled leaves; -and conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals 4 or 5. Petals 4 or 5. Stamens -many. Carpels 1, 2, 5, or many. (The Rose Family.) - -27. ONAGRACEĈ.--Herbs with mostly entire, simple, exstipulate leaves; -and conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals 2 to 4. Petals 2 to 4, twisted -in the bud, or absent. Stamens 2 to 4, or 8. Ovary inferior, with -carpels 1 to 6 (usually 4), many-seeded. (The Willow-herb Family.) - -28. HALORAGIACEĈ.--Aquatic herbs with whorled leaves and minute flowers. -Sepals 2 to 4 or absent. Petals 2 to 4 or absent. Stamens 1, 2, 4, or 8. -Ovary inferior. Carpels 1 to 4. (The Mare's-tail Family.) - -29. LYTHRACEĈ.--Herbs with opposite or whorled, entire leaves; and -conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals, and petals 3 to 6. Stamens -generally twice as many as petals. Ovary superior. Carpels 2 to 6. Fruit -a many-seeded capsule. (The Loosestrife Family.) - -30. TAMARISCACEĈ.--Shrub with minute, scale-like leaves; and lateral -spikes of small, regular flowers. Sepals and petals 4 or 5. Stamens 4 to -10, on the disc. Styles 3. (The Tamarisk.) - -31. CUCURBITACEĈ.--Rough, climbing herb, with tendrilled, -palmately-lobed leaves; greenish, dioecious flowers in axillary -racemes; and scarlet berries. Sepals and petals 5, united. Stamens 3. -Ovary inferior. Carpels 3. (The White Bryony.) - -32. SAXIFRAGACEĈ.--Shrubs and herbs with regular flowers. Sepals and -petals 4 or 5. Stamens 4 or 10. Carpels 2 or 4, united. (The Saxifrage -Family.) - -33. CRASSULACEĈ.--Succulent herbs with simple leaves; and small, -regular, starry flowers. Sepals, petals, and carpels 3 to 20, usually 5. -Stamens twice as many as the petals. Carpels superior, forming -follicles. (The Stonecrop Family.) - -34. ARALIACEĈ.--Climbing shrub with clinging rootlets, evergreen leaves, -umbels of yellowish flowers, and black berries. Sepals, petals, stamens, -carpels, and seeds 5 each. Ovary inferior. (The Ivy.) - -35. CORNACEĈ.--Herbs and shrubs with opposite leaves, small flowers, and -berry-like fruits. Sepals, petals, and stamens 4 or 5. Ovary inferior. -Carpels 2, each with one ovule. (The Dogwood Family.) - -36. UMBELLIFERĈ.--Herbs with mostly compound, pinnate leaves, sheathing -at the base; and compound umbels of small, white flowers. Sepals, -petals, and stamens 5. Ovary inferior. Fruit of two adhering carpels. -(The Parsley Family.) - - * * * * * - -37. CAPRIFOLIACEĈ.--Shrubs and herbs with opposite leaves, and -conspicuous (sometimes irregular) flowers. Sepals and petals 3 to 5. -Stamens 4 to 10. Fruit a berry. (The Honeysuckle Family.) - -38. RUBIACEĈ.--Herbs with whorled leaves; and small, regular flowers. -Sepals, petals, and stamens 4 to 6. Carpels 2. (The Bedstraw Family.) - -39. VALERIANACEĈ.--Herbs with opposite leaves and small (sometimes -irregular) flowers. Sepals 3 to 5, often downy. Petals 3 to 5. Stamens 1 -or 3. Ovary of three carpels, one-celled. (The Valerian Family.) - -40. DIPSACEĈ.--Herbs with opposite leaves; and heads of small flowers, -mostly blue. Calyx enclosed in a whorl of scaly bracts. Petals 4 or 5. -Stamens 4, free. Ovary one-celled and one-seeded. (The Teasel Family.) - -41. COMPOSITĈ.--Herbs with heads of small flowers with tubular or -strap-shaped corollas. Calyx absent or represented by a whorl of silky -hairs (pappus). Stamens 4 or 5, anthers generally united. (The Daisy -Family.) - - * * * * * - -42. CAMPANULACEĈ.--Herbs with milky sap; alternate, entire, scattered -leaves; and usually conspicuous, blue, regular flowers. Sepals, petals, -and stamens 5. Ovary of 2 to 8 carpels. (The Bellflower Family.) - -43. VACCINIACEĈ.--Low (mostly mountainous) shrubs, with scattered, -simple, alternate leaves; small drooping, reddish or pink, regular -flowers; and edible berries. Sepals, petals, and carpels 4 or 5. Stamens -8 or 10. (The Cranberry Family.) - - * * * * * - -44. ERICACEĈ.--Shrubs or herbs with opposite or whorled, evergreen -leaves; and small conspicuous, regular, flowers. Sepals, petals, and -carpels 4 or 5. Stamens 5 to 10. (The Heath Family.) - - * * * * * - -45. AQUIFOLIACEĈ.--Shrub with evergreen, spiny leaves; and small, -greenish, regular flowers. Sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels 4 or 5. -Fruit berry-like, with one-seeded stones. (The Holly.) - -46. OLEACEĈ.--Trees or shrubs with opposite leaves; and small, regular -flowers. Sepals and petals 4, sometimes absent. Stamens 2. Fruit a berry -or a samara. (The Olive Family.) - -47. APOCYNACEĈ.--Slender, prostrate shrubs, with milky sap; opposite, -evergreen, entire leaves; and conspicuous, regular, purple flowers. -Sepals, petals, and stamens 5. Corolla salver-shaped. (The Periwinkle -Family.) - -48. GENTIANACEĈ.--Bitter herbs with opposite, simple, entire leaves; and -regular, conspicuous flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 4 to 10. -Carpels 2. Fruit a capsule. (The Gentian Family.) - -49. CONVOLVULACEĈ.--Herbs, generally twining, with alternate, simple -leaves (sometimes absent); and mostly conspicuous, regular flowers. -Sepals, petals, and stamens 4 or 5. Ovary two-or four-celled. Fruit a -four-seeded capsule. (The Bindweed Family.) - -50. SOLANACEĈ.--Herbs or shrubs with alternate leaves, and axillary -cymes of regular flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 5. Ovary -two-celled. Fruit berry-like or a capsule, many seeded. (The Nightshade -Family.) - -51. SCROPHULARIACEĈ.--Herbs with mostly irregular, lipped flowers. -Sepals and petals 4 or 5. Stamens 2, or 4, two longer than the others. -Carpels 2. Fruit a many-seeded capsule. (The Figwort Family.) - -52. OROBANCHACEĈ.--Fleshy, brown, parasitic plants, with scattered -scale-leaves; and mostly brownish, irregular flowers. Sepals 4 or 5. -Petals 5, lipped. Stamens 4, two longer than the others. Carpels 2. -Fruit a one-chambered, many-seeded capsule. (The Broom-rape Family.) - -53. VERBENACEĈ.--An erect, branched herb, with opposite leaves; and a -compound spike of small, irregular flowers. Sepals and petals 5. Corolla -lipped. Stamens 4, two longer than the others. Ovary four-celled. Fruit -of 4 nutlets. (The Vervain.) - -54. LABIATĈ.--Herbs, mostly aromatic, with square stems, opposite -leaves, and whorls or cymes of irregular flowers. Sepals and petals 5. -Corolla usually lipped. Stamens 4 (rarely 2), two longer than the -others. Fruit of 4 one-seeded nutlets. (The Dead Nettle Family.) - -55. BORAGINACEĈ.--Herbs, mostly rough, with alternate, simple leaves; -and spikes of conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens -5. Carpels 2. Fruit of 4 one-seeded nutlets. (The Borage Family.) - -56. LENTIBULARIACEĈ.--Insectivorous, marsh herbs, with radical, entire -leaves, or much-divided floating leaves with bladders; and conspicuous, -irregular flowers. Sepals and petals 5. Corolla usually lipped. Stamens -2. Fruit a one-chambered, many-seeded capsule. (The Butterwort Family.) - -57. PRIMULACEĈ.--Herbs, mostly with radical leaves; and conspicuous, -regular flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 4 to 9. Stamens opposite -the petals. Ovary one-celled, with free central placenta. Fruit a -many-seeded capsule. (The Primrose Family.) - -58. PLUMBAGINACEĈ.--Herbs, mostly maritime, with radical or alternate -leaves; and mostly blue, regular flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 5. -Stamens opposite the petals, and usually free. Carpels 3 to 5. Ovary -one-celled and one-seeded. (The Thrift Family.) - -59. PLANTAGINACEĈ.--Herbs with (generally) simple, entire, radical -leaves; and spikes of greenish flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 4. -Corolla scaly. Carpels usually 2 or 4. Fruit a one-to four-chambered -capsule. (The Plantain Family.) - -_Note._--_Plants in which calyx or corolla are, or appear to be, absent -occur in orders_ 1, 6, 14, 26, 27, 28, 29, and 32. - - * * * * * - -60. AMARANTHACEĈ.--A smooth, prostrate herb, with scattered, stalked, -exstipulate, simple leaves; and small, axillary, green, monoecious -flowers. Sepals and stamens 3 to 5. (The Amaranth.) - -61. CHENOPODIACEĈ.--Herbs with simple, exstipulate leaves, or leafless, -jointed stems; and small green flowers. Sepals 3 to 5, persistent. -Stamens 1 to 5, opposite the sepals. Fruit indehiscent. (The Goosefoot -Family.) - -62. POLYGONACEĈ.--Herbs with sheathing stipules; alternate, simple -leaves; and small flowers. Sepals 3 to 6, green or coloured, usually -persistent. Stamens 5 to 8. Fruit indehiscent. (The Dock Family.) - -63. ELEAGNACEĈ.--A shrub with silvery scales; alternate, entire, -exstipulate leaves; and inconspicuous, dioecious flowers. Sepals 2 to -4, persistent. Stamens 4. Fruit berry-like. (The Sea Buckthorn.) - -64. THYMELACEĈ.--Shrubs with tough inner bark; simple, entire, -exstipulate leaves; and conspicuous, perfect, sweet-scented flowers. -Sepals 4. Stamens 8. Fruit berry-like. (The Spurge Laurel Family.) - - * * * * * - -65. LORANTHACEĈ.--A green, parasitic, much branched shrub, with -opposite, simple, entire leaves; inconspicuous, dioecious flowers; and -whitish viscid berries. Sepals and stamens 4. Ovary one-chambered. Berry -one-seeded. (The Mistletoe.) - -66. ARISTOLOCHIACEĈ.--Herbs and climbing shrubs, with alternate leaves -and perfect flowers. Sepals 2 or 3, sometimes coloured, sometimes -lipped. Ovary with 4 to 6 chambers, containing many ovules. (The -Birthwort Family.) - -67. SANTALACEĈ.--A slender, prostrate, root-parasite, with alternate, -linear leaves; and inconspicuous, perfect flowers. Sepals and stamens 4 -or 5. Ovary one-celled. Fruit dry, one-seeded. (The Bastard Toad-flax.) - - * * * * * - -68. EMPETRACEĈ.--A mountain, evergreen, resinous shrub, with alternate, -narrow leaves; and inconspicuous, dioecious flowers. Perianth of 6 -scales. Stamens 3. Ovary of 3 to 9 cells, with one ovule in each cell. -(The Crowberry.) - -69. EUPHORBIACEĈ.--Trees, shrubs, or herbs, generally with a milky sap; -simple, entire leaves; and small, inconspicuous flowers, sometimes -enclosed in calyx-like bracts. Perianth of 3 or 4 parts, or absent. -Stamens 1 or many. Fruit separating into 2 or 3 carpels elastically. -(The Spurge Family.) - -70. URTICACEĈ.--Herbs, often with simple, stinging leaves; and small, -green, clustered, unisexual flowers. Stamens 4 or 5, opposite the -sepals. Ovary superior, one-celled. Fruit indehiscent. (The Nettle -Family.) - -71. ULMACEĈ.--Trees with alternate, distichous leaves, and perfect -flowers. Perianth of 4 or 5 parts, bell-shaped. Stamens 4 or 5. Ovary -superior, with one or two cells. Fruit a thin, one-seeded samara. (The -Elm Family.) - - * * * * * - -72. CUPULIFERĈ.--Trees or shrubs with alternate, stipuled, simple -leaves; and small, green flowers. Perianth of 5 or 6 parts. Stamens 5 to -20. Fruit a nut, enclosed in a tough cupule. (The Oak Family.) - -73. BETULACEĈ.--Trees or shrubs with alternate leaves and small flowers. -Stamens 1 or more. Fruit small, indehiscent, winged, not enclosed in a -cup. (The Birch Family.) - -74. SALICACEĈ.--Trees with alternate, simple leaves; and flowers which -generally appear before the leaves. Stamens one or more to each scale. -Fruit many-seeded, not enclosed in a cup. (The Willow Family.) - -75. MYRICACEĈ.--A small aromatic shrub, with alternate, simple leaves; -and inconspicuous flowers. Stamens 4 to 8. Fruit a drupe. (The Bog -Myrtle.) - -76. CONIFERĈ.[1]--Shrubs or trees with rigid evergreen, linear leaves; -and resinous juices. Male flowers in catkins. Female flowers generally -in cones. Seeds not enclosed in an ovary. (The Pine Family.) - - -[1] The members of the Pine family do not really belong to the -Dicotyledons, although their stems increase in thickness in the same way -as those of our other trees and shrubs. They belong to the _Gymnosperms_ -(naked-seeded group), in which the seeds are not produced in ovaries; -but it is more convenient, for our present purpose, to place them near -our other forest trees. - - * * * * * - -77. ORCHIDACEĈ.--Herbs mostly with tuberous roots, and conspicuous, -irregular, perfect flowers in spikes or racemes. Sepals, petals, and -carpels 3. Stamens 1 or 2, united to the style. (The Orchid Family.) - -78. IRIDACEĈ.--Herbs with fleshy, underground stems; narrow leaves; and -handsome, irregular, perfect flowers. Perianth of 6 parts. Stamens and -carpels 3. Ovary 3-celled. Fruit a many-seeded capsule with three -valves. (The Iris Family.) - -79. AMARYLLIDACEĈ.--Herbs with bulbs, narrow leaves, and handsome, -regular, perfect flowers. Perianth of 6 parts. Stamens 6. Ovary -3-celled. Fruit a 3-valved capsule. (The Narcissus Family.) - -80. HYDROCHARIDACEĈ.--Aquatic herbs, with floating or submerged leaves; -and conspicuous, regular, dioecious flowers. Sepals and petals 3. -Stamens 3 to 12. Carpels 3 or 6. Fruit a berry. (The Frog-bit Family.) - - * * * * * - -81. DIOSCORIACEĈ.--A climbing herb, with broad, glossy leaves; and -small, monoecious flowers. Sepals, petals, and carpels 3. Stamens 6. -Ovary 3-celled. Fruit a berry. Seeds 6. (The Black Bryony.) - - * * * * * - -82. LILIACEĈ.--Herbs with mostly narrow leaves, and conspicuous, -regular, perfect flowers. Perianth of 6 parts, Stamens 6. Ovary -3-celled. Fruit a berry or capsule. (The Lily Family.) - -83. ALISMACEĈ.--Aquatic plants with radical, net-veined leaves; and -conspicuous, white, perfect flowers. Perianth of 6 parts. Stamens 6 or -more. Carpels numerous, and distinct or nearly so. (The Water-plantain -Family.) - -84. NAIDACEĈ.--Aquatic plants with mostly floating or submerged leaves; -and inconspicuous flowers. Perianth of 4 to 6 scales, or absent. Stamens -and carpels 1 to 6. (The Pond-weed Family.) - -85. LEMNACEĈ.--Minute floating plants, with green, cellular fronds, -rarely flowering. Flowers very small, enclosed in a bract. Stamen 1. -Ovary one-celled. Ovules 1 to 7. (The Duckweed Family.) - -86. ARACEĈ.--Herbs with net-veined, radical leaves; and small flowers on -a fleshy spadix enclosed in a leafy sheath. Perianth of 6 parts, or -absent. Stamens 1 to 6. Ovary of one to three cells. Fruit berry-like. -(The Cuckoo Pint Family.) - -87. TYPHACEĈ.--Erect marsh plants, with long, narrow leaves; and small -monoecious flowers in conspicuous spikes or heads. Perianth absent. -Stamens many. Fruit a one-seeded drupe. (The Reed-mace Family.) - -88. JUNCACEĈ.--Rush-like herbs, with cylindrical or narrow leaves, and -small, brown flowers. Perianth membranous, of 6 parts. Stamens 6. -Carpels 3. Fruit a 3-valved capsule. (The Rush Family.) - - * * * * * - -89. CYPERACEĈ.--Grassy herbs, with usually solid, triangular stems; and -linear leaves, with tubular sheaths. Flowers in spikelets, unisexual or -perfect. Stamens 1 to 3. Carpels and stigmas 2 or 3. (The Sedge Family.) - -90. GRAMINEĈ.--Grassy herbs, with hollow stems; and linear leaves, with -split sheaths. Flowers usually perfect. Stamens usually 3. Stigmas 1 or -2. (The Grass Family.) - - - - -II - -THE POLLINATION AND FERTILISATION OF FLOWERS - - -Since flowers are the reproductive organs of the plant it seems only -natural to suppose that the wonderful variety of colour and form which -they exhibit might have some connexion with the processes concerned in -the propagation of their respective species, and the more we study the -nature of the flowers and observe the methods by which pollen is -transferred from stamens to stigmas, the stronger becomes our conviction -that the diversities mentioned are all more or less connected with the -one great function of reproduction. - -This being the case, we propose to devote a short chapter to a simple -account of the uses of the parts of a flower, and to the various -contrivances on the part of the plant to secure the surest and best -means of perpetuating the species. - -It has already been stated that the stamens produce pollen cells, and -that the ovary contains one or more ovules. As soon as the anthers are -mature, they open and set free the pollen cells they contained. A stigma -is said to be mature when it exposes a sticky surface to which pollen -cells may adhere, and on which these cells will grow. When a pollen cell -has been transferred to such a stigma, it is nourished by the fluid -secreted by the latter, and sends out a slender, hollow filament (the -pollen tube) which immediately begins to descend through the stigma, and -through the style, if any, till it reaches the ovary. - -[Illustration: POLLEN CELLS THROWING OUT THEIR TUBES] - -Should the reader desire to watch the growth of the pollen tubes, he can -easily do so by shaking some pollen cells (preferably large ones, such -as those of some lilies) on to a solution of sugar, and watching them at -intervals with the aid of a lens. In the course of a few hours the -pollen tubes will be seen to protrude, and these eventually grow to a -considerable length. - -In order that the ovules of a flower may develop into seeds, it is -necessary that they become impregnated by pollen from the anthers of the -same species, and this is brought about in the following manner: The -pollen cells having been transferred by some means to the mature stigma, -they adhere to the surface of the latter, and, deriving their -nourishment from the secretion of the stigmatic cells, as above -described, proceed to throw out their tubes. These tubes force their way -between the cells of the stigma and style, and enter the ovary. Each -tube then finds its way to one of the ovules, which it enters by means -of a minute opening in its double coat called the micropyle, penetrates -the embryo-sac, and reaches the ovum or egg-cell. The ovule is now -impregnated or fertilised, and the result is that the ovum divides and -subdivides into more and more cells till at last an embryo plant is -built up. The ovule has thus become a seed, and its further development -into a mature plant depends on its being transferred to a suitable soil, -with proper conditions as to heat and moisture. - -If the flower concerned is a perfect one, and the ovules are impregnated -by pollen from its own anthers, it is said to be self-fertilised; but if -the pollen cells that fertilise the ovules have been transferred from a -distinct flower, it is said to be cross-fertilised. - -Now, it has been observed that although self-fertilisation will give -rise to satisfactory results in some instances, producing seeds which -develop into strong offspring, cross-fertilisation will, as a rule, -produce better seeds. In fact, self-fertilisation is not at all common -among flowers, and the pollen has frequently no effect unless it has -been transferred from another flower. In a few cases it has been found -that the pollen even acts as a poison when it is deposited on the stigma -of the same flower, causing it to shrivel up and die. In many instances -the structure and growth of the flower is such that self-pollination is -absolutely impossible; and where it is possible the seedlings resulting -from the process are often very weak. - -It has already been hinted that the wonderful variety of form and colour -exhibited by flowers has some connexion with this important matter of -the transfer of pollen, and the reader who is really interested in the -investigation of the significance of this great diversity will find it a -most charming study to search into the advantages (to the flower) of -the different peculiarities presented, especially if he endeavours to -confirm his conclusions by direct observations of the methods by which -the pollen cells are distributed to the stigmas. - -Pollen cells are usually distributed either by the agency of the wind or -by insects; and it is generally easy to determine, by the nature of the -flower itself, which is the method peculiar to its species. - -A wind-pollinated flower is generally very inconspicuous. It produces no -nectar, which forms the food of such a large number of insects, and has -no gaudy perianth, nor does it emit any odour such as would be likely to -attract these winged creatures. Its anthers generally shed an abundance -of pollen, to compensate for the enormous loss naturally entailed in the -wasteful process of wind-distribution, and the pollen is so loosely -attached that it is carried away by the lightest breeze. Further, the -anthers are never protected from the wind, but protrude well out of the -flower; and the stigma or stigmas, which are also exposed, have a -comparatively large area of sticky surface, and are often hairy or -plumed in such a manner that they form effectual traps for the capture -of the floating pollen cells. - -An insect-pollinated flower, on the other hand, has glands (_nectaries_) -for the production of nectar, and its perianth is usually of such a -conspicuous nature that it serves as a signal to attract the insects to -the feast. (In some instances the individual flowers are very small, but -these are generally produced in such clusters that they become -conspicuous through their number.) Often it emits a scent which assists -in guiding the insects to their food. Its stamens are generally so well -protected by the perianth that the pollen is not likely to be removed -except by the insects that enter the flower; and the supply of pollen is -usually not so abundant as in the wind-pollinated species, for the -insects, travelling direct from flower to flower, convey the cells with -greater economy. The stigmas, too, are generally smaller, and are -situated in such a position that, when mature, they are rubbed by that -portion of the insect's body which is already dusted with pollen. - -As we watch the nectar-feeding insects at work, we not only observe that -the flowers they visit possess the general characters given above as -common to the insect-pollinated species, but also that, in many -instances, the structure of the flower is such that the transfer of -pollen from anthers to stigma could only be accomplished by the -particular kind of insect which it feeds. Various contrivances are also -adopted by many flowers to attract the insects which are most useful to -them, and to exclude those species which would deprive them of nectar -and pollen without aiding in the work of pollination. Thus, some flowers -are best pollinated by the aid of certain nocturnal insects, which they -attract at night by the expansion of their pale-coloured corollas and by -the emission of fragrant perfumes. These close their petals by day in -order to economise their stores and protect their parts from injury -while their helpers are at rest. Others require the help of day-flying -insects: these are expanded while their fertilisers are on the wing, and -sleep throughout the night. - -We do not propose to give detailed accounts of the various stratagems by -which flowers secure the aid of insects in this short chapter. Several -examples are given in connexion with the descriptions of flowers in -subsequent pages, but a few typical instances, briefly outlined here, -will give the reader some idea of features which should be observed as -flowers are being examined. - -In many flowers the anthers and the stigma are not mature at the same -time, and consequently self-pollination is quite impossible. With these -it often happens that the anthers and stigma alternately occupy the same -position, so that the same part of the body of an insect which becomes -dusted with pollen in one flower rubs against the stigma of another. - -Other flowers, such as the Forget-me-not, in which both stamens and -stigma are ripe together, project their stigmas above the stamens at -first, in order that an insect from another flower might touch the -stigma before it reaches the stamens, and thus cross-pollinate them; and -their stamens are afterwards raised by the lengthening of the corolla -until they touch the stigma. Thus the flowers attempt to secure -cross-pollination; but, failing this, pollinate themselves. - -In the Common Arum or Cuckoo Pint, described on p. 106, we have -an example of a flower of peculiar construction, surrounded by a very -large bract in which insects are imprisoned and fed until the anthers -are mature, and then set free in order that they might carry the pollen -to another flower of which the stigmas are ripe. - -Sometimes the flowers of the same species assume two or three different -forms as far as the lengths of the stamens and pistils are concerned, -the anthers of one being of just the same height as the stigma of -another, so that the pollen from the former will dust that portion of -the body of the insect which rubs against the latter Examples are to be -found among the Primulas, and in the Purple Loosestrife, both of which -are described in their place. - -In some flowers the stamens are irritable, rising in such a manner as to -strike the insects that visit them; and in these cases the anthers -almost invariably deposit pollen on that portion of the insect's body -which is most likely to come in contact with the stigma of the next -flower visited. Again, in Sages, the anthers are so arranged that they -are made to swing, as on a see-saw, to exactly the same end. - -These few examples will suffice to show that the structure and -conformation of flowers are subservient to the one great purpose of -securing the most suitable means of the distribution of pollen, and the -student who recognises and studies the various forms of flowers in this -connexion will find his work in the field doubly interesting. - - - - -III - -CLIMBING PLANTS - - -Many plants have stems which grow to a considerable length, and which -are at the same time too weak to support the plants in the erect -position. A considerable number of these show no tendency to assume an -upward direction, but simply trail along the surface of the ground, -often producing root fibres at their nodes to give them a firmer hold on -the soil and to absorb additional supplies of water and mineral food. -Some, however, grow in the midst of the shrubs and tall herbage of -thickets and hedgerows, or in some other position in which it becomes -necessary to strive for a due proportion of light, and such plants would -stand but a small chance in the struggle for existence if they did not -develop some means of securing a favourable position among their -competitors. - -These latter are collectively spoken of as climbing plants; but it is -interesting to note that in their seedling stage they are all erect, and -it is only after they reach a certain height that they commence to -assume some definite habit by which they obtain the necessary support, -or to develop special organs by which they can cling to objects near -them. - -Some climbers produce no special organs for the purpose of fastening -themselves to surrounding objects, but trust entirely to the wandering -and more or less zig-zag nature of their feeble stems, and thus reach -the open light merely by a process of interweaving, as in the case of -the Hedge Bedstraw (_Galium mollugo_). Others adopt this same method of -interweaving, but at the same time develop some kind of appendages to -give them additional support. Thus, the Rough Water Bedstraw (_G. -uliginosum_), which sometimes reaches a height of four or five feet, has -recurved bristles all along its slender stem, and these serve as so many -little hooks, holding the plant securely on to the neighbouring rank -herbage of the marsh or swamp in which it grows, while the rigid leaves -further assist by catching in the angles of surrounding stems. - -Another good example is to be seen in the common Goose-grass or Cleavers -(_G. aparine_) of our hedgerows, which also reaches a height of four or -five feet, and clings very effectually by means of the hooked bristles -of its stems and leaves. - -The Marsh Speedwell (_Veronica scutellata_), though it grows to a height -of only one foot, is too weak to stand erect without support, and it has -quite a novel method of securing the aid of the plants among which it -grows. Its two topmost leaves at first stand erect over the terminal -bud, so that they are easily pushed through the spaces in the -surrounding herbage as the stem lengthens. They then diverge, and even -turn slightly downwards, thus forming two supporting arms, the holding -power of which is further increased by the down-turned teeth of their -margins. This process is repeated by the new pairs of leaves formed at -the growing summit of the stem, with the result that the plant easily -retains the erect position. - -[Illustration: PRICKLES OF THE WILD ROSE.] - -The Wild Roses and Brambles growing in the hedgerows support themselves -among the other shrubby growths by the interlacing of their stems, but -are also greatly aided by the abundance of prickles with which these -stems are armed. The prickles, even if erect, would afford considerable -assistance in this respect; but it may be observed that they are -generally directed downwards, and often very distinctly curved in this -direction, and so serve to suspend the weak stems at numerous points. - -We often find the Bramble growing in abundance on heaths and downs, in -situations where suitable props do not exist. In this case the younger -shrubs simply trail along the ground, or form low arches as the weight -of the stems and their appendages cause the apex to bend to the ground. -Yet if we turn to the older shrubs of several years' growth we find that -they have succeeded in reaching a height of some feet. The first stems -of these shrubs formed low arches as we have just described, and then -they gave rise to branches which were first erect, but were afterwards -bent downwards in the same manner, forming arches rising higher than -their predecessors. This continued, year after year, till at last a long -series of stems, forming arch above arch, reached the present height, -the older stems, at the bottom, now dead, serving to support the whole -mass above. - -[Illustration: IVY, SHOWING THE ROOTLETS OR SUCKERS.] - -Some climbing stems produce little roots by means of which they can -cling firmly to available supports. Such are very common among tropical -plants, but our Ivy affords a splendid example. The roots so formed may -appear in clusters at special points of the stem, or in long lines -running longitudinally on it, and they are produced on trailers as well -as on climbers. In fact, we can draw no fine distinction between the -former and the latter in this respect, and even the Ivy will sometimes -trail along the ground after the manner of the Periwinkle, which roots -itself at several points as it proceeds. - -The rootlets of the Ivy and other climbers of the same habit always -avoid the light; and if they are not originally formed on the side of -the stem facing the supporting surface, they soon turn towards the -latter, and give rise to little clinging suckers that firmly adhere. If -they come in contact with a bare rock, or with a surface from which no -nutriment can be derived, they serve the one purpose of clinging only; -but if they reach even a small amount of nutritive soil, they produce -absorbent fibres that are capable of extracting food. - -The ivy usually clings to the bark of trees or to old walls, the -crevices of which often contain some small amount of transported soil, -or more or less organic soil formed by the growth and decay of low forms -of vegetable life; and thus the tree is enabled to obtain a little food -from the objects that give it the necessary mechanical support. - -The well-known Virginian Creeper (_Ampelopsis_) produces rootlets by -means of which it can cling to very smooth surfaces. Its light-avoiding -'tendrils' always turn to the wall or other supporting body; and, on -coming in contact with it, give off little branches which diverge like -the toes of the tree-frog, and produce little adhesive discs which hold -on firmly by the aid of a sticky secretion. - -Perhaps the most interesting of all climbing plants are those which -twine their stems around the props afforded by the neighbouring growths. -As before stated, the stems of these plants are erect when very young; -but after they have reached a certain height the top of the stem bends -to one side, and then, as the growth proceeds, it turns slowly round and -round, describing a circle in the horizontal plane, thus seeking some -support round which it can twine. - -The rate at which the top of the stem revolves varies in different -plants, and also in the same plant according to the temperature and -other conditions affecting the growth. In some species the upper portion -describes a complete circle in less than two hours during warm weather, -while in others a single revolution may occupy one or two days. - -It will be seen, from the nature of these movements, that the revolving -stem is far more likely to come in contact with erect, rather than with -horizontal supports, and observations made on twining stems will show -that they seldom fix themselves round supports which are placed -horizontally or only on a slight incline. In fact, some of these stems -seem quite unable to twist themselves spirally except round an axis -that is either erect or forms a very large angle with the horizontal -plane. - -Should the twining stem succeed in reaching a favourable prop, it -immediately commences to bend itself round and round, forming a more or -less compact spiral; and it is probable that the slight pressure, caused -by the contact, acts as a stimulus which incites the peculiar mode of -growth. - -The direction which the spiral takes is not always the same. In the Hop, -Honeysuckle, and the Climbing Buckwheat or Black Bindweed, the direction -is always the same as that of the hands of a clock; while in the -Bindweeds the spiral is invariably contra-clockwise. Further, it is not -possible to compel any species to turn in a direction opposite to that -which it naturally follows. Its stem may be forcibly twined in the wrong -direction any number of times, but the free end will always follow its -natural course as soon as it is left undisturbed. - -[Illustration: STEM OF THE BINDWEED, TWINING TO THE LEFT.] - -Should the stem of a young twining plant fail to reach a suitable -support, it bends over, not being sufficiently rigid to support itself, -and at last the apex reaches the ground. Then, starting afresh from this -second position of rest, it begins to ascend, and its upper end again -commences to revolve as before. The chances are that it will, from this -second position, find something round which it can twine; but failing -this its summit may again and again bend to the ground, thus renewing -its attempts from various positions more or less distant from one -another, and in each effort so made the revolving upper end of the stem -gradually lengthens, and describes a larger and larger circle in search -for a favourable prop. - -A twining stem sometimes has the advantage of additional support -afforded by the stiff nature of the base of the stem, which is often -rendered still more rigid by a twist or torsion resembling that of the -strands of a rope. Such advantage is often still further increased by -the presence of longitudinal ridges of the stem, frequently bearing rows -of hooked prickles or hairs that hold on to any object touched. Again, -the base of the stem, even though it reaches nothing round which it can -twine, sometimes takes the form of a spiral, thus forming a good -foundation for the upper portion as it seeks out a convenient prop. Yet -another contrivance to secure the same end may be observed in the -Greater Bindweed and some other plants. The stems, failing to secure a -favourable hold, twine round one another, thus producing a kind of rigid -cable for the support of the upper extremities as they revolve in order -to find stems round which to form their spirals. - -Should all the methods and contrivances of the twining plant fail it in -its attempts to secure an uppermost place among the surrounding herbage -or shrubs, it is compelled to trail along the ground. But such a -position is most disadvantageous and unnatural to it, and usually -results in a stunted and sickly plant that may produce no flowers. - -Most of the twining plants of our country are of short duration. Many, -like the Climbing Buckwheat, are annuals; while others, as the Hop and -the Bindweeds, though they have perennial roots, produce fresh stems -each season. The Honeysuckle and the Bittersweet, however, have -perennial, woody stems which increase in thickness year by year, though -the latter does not twine very much, and seems to take an intermediate -place between the typical twiners and the plants which support -themselves by merely interlacing their stems with the neighbouring -plants or shrubs. - -[Illustration: STEM OF THE HOP, TWINING TO THE RIGHT.] - -Some twining stems are unable to form their spirals round thick -supports, and after making some attempt to do so grow off at a tangent -to seek some less bulky prop. It has been observed, for instance, that -the Hop cannot grasp a pole that is more than four inches in diameter. - -In many cases, too, the spirals of the twining stem increase in diameter -after they are first formed, and can thus adapt themselves to the -increasing size of a living stem round which they have grown. The -spirals of the Honeysuckle, however, do not increase in this way; and -consequently, when they surround the trunk or branch of a young tree, -the latter is constricted, often to such an extent that it is strangled -and becomes stunted in its growth. - -Another class of climbing plants cling to their surroundings by means of -tendrils, which are modifications of leaves or shoots that grow spirally -like the stems we have been considering. - -Whatever be the origin of a tendril, it generally grows straight until -it has reached some favourable support, and in order to obtain such -support it performs circular movements similar to those of the tips of -twining stems. Like these stems, too, the tendril is always sensitive, -and forms a close spiral round the object it touches. - -Some tendrils will grow spirally without ever touching a support, but -these often become stunted and wither, while those which reach and -embrace a stem or other structure are apparently incited to a luxuriant -growth by the stimulating effect of the pressure produced. - -When the tip of a tendril is successful in gripping a stem firmly, the -portion behind it often takes part in the spiral movement, thus becoming -shorter, and pulling the support towards its own plant in such a manner -as to bring it within the reach of additional tendrils. - -Of course the tendrilled plants have a much better chance of securing a -suitable support than the twiners, for the latter have to depend on the -searching and clinging powers of but one structure, while the tendrils -are usually very numerous on the same plant, and throw themselves out in -all directions in search of the required aid. The production of tendrils -as a means of support is also much more economical than the method of -clinging by a twining stem, for the former are usually very slender, -while the latter must necessarily be sufficiently thick to convey the -nutritive requirements of the whole plant; and thus the process of -clinging by tendrils is more in accordance with the usual economy of -Nature. - -We have observed that twining stems can, as a rule, twine round only -those supports which are erect or nearly so. This is not the case with -tendrils, which are better adapted for twisting round horizontal stems -and leafstalks. Often, too, they pass from one branch or leaf to -another, and so secure the plant to which they belong by fastenings both -above and below. Further, while the clasping part of a tendril often -becomes hard and rigid, the portion between this and the plant may -remain green and flexible. This latter portion also frequently forms a -new spiral in the opposite direction, thus rendering the connexion -between the plant and its support so supple and elastic that no damage -is likely to accrue from the motions caused by the wind. - -The tendrils which form long spirals are generally modified stems or -leaves, or they may be elongated leaflets of a compound leaf. Those -which are modified stems may be distinguished by their growth from the -axils of the leaves, denoting that they had their origin in axillary -buds after the manner of branches generally; and also, sometimes, by the -fact that they bear imperfect leaves in the form of little scales. The -tendrils of the Common or White Bryony (p. 96) are of this -nature; while those of the Grape Vine are either modified floral stems -or altered flower-stalks. - -In some cases the entire leaf may be changed into a tendril, in which -instance its true nature is revealed by the presence of a bud in its -axil, as in many ordinary foliage leaves. More frequently, however, the -'leaf-tendril' is an altered leaflet of a compound leaf, such as we see -in the Peas and Vetches; and it is interesting to note in such cases -that the loss entailed by the conversion of leaflets into tendrils is -often compensated for by the formation of leaf-like stipules which are -capable of performing the function of leaves. In fact, we often find -that the size of the stipules is proportional to the number of tendrils -produced; and that when the leaflets are considerably reduced in number -by their conversion into tendrils, not only are the stipules large and -leafy, but the stem itself may be extended laterally into broad -wing-like expansions which do the work of foliage leaves. - -Interesting illustrations of this are to be found in the Yellow Vetch--a -rather rare plant sometimes seen in sandy fields--in which all the -leaves are converted entirely into tendrils, and their function -performed by very large leafy stipules; also in the Narrow-leaved -Everlasting Pea of bushy places, in which the leaflets of the compound -leaves are all converted into tendrils with the exception of two, the -work of which is aided by the stipules and by the 'wings' of the stem -and petioles. In the Rough-podded Vetch, too, the stems and petioles are -winged to serve the same end; and other British members of this genus -have either large stipules or winged stems, or both, to compensate for -the loss of leaflets that have been modified into tendrils. - -In other climbers the blade of the leaf is not reduced in size, even -though the leaf serves the purpose of a tendril, the function of -clinging being assigned exclusively to the petiole or leaf-stalk. This -may be observed in the Wild Clematis and the Bryony, in both of which -the petiole forms a ring round any branch or stem with which it comes in -contact. These petioles are apparently equally sensitive on all sides, -and are therefore ready to cling to any available support, whether above -or below. In the Clematis the leaves are at first at right angles to the -stem of the plant, but they afterwards turn downwards, and thus -transform themselves into so many anchors which give additional aid in -supporting the climber among the other hedgerow plants and shrubs. - - - - -IV - -EARLY SPRING - - -The work of the botanist is light during the early spring, especially if -his attention is directed only to plants and trees in their flowering -stages; but, to one whose ambition is to study Nature in all her varied -phases, this season of the bursting of the bud, when all things are -awakening into new life, is full of interest, and demands no small -amount of time. - -The first flowers observed in the spring are mainly those hardy weeds -which may be seen in bloom almost through the year, such as the -Shepherd's Purse, Chickweed, Groundsel, White Dead Nettle, Red Dead -Nettle, and Henbit Dead Nettle. These are soon followed by the Furze, -Strawberry-leaved Cinquefoil, Snowdrop, Hazel, Common Whitlow-grass, and -other flowers that are truly blossoms of the spring. All these will be -described in turn, according to their various habitats; the object of -the present short chapter being to note those signs of early spring -which demand the attention of the lover of Nature while flowers are as -yet few and inconspicuous. - -A ramble over bleak downs and moors during the cold days of early spring -will probably reveal but little of interest in the way of vegetable -life, but in sheltered vales and woods, copses, and protected waysides, -there is much to be observed. Here it is that we find the hardy weeds -which have continued to bloom throughout the winter months; the earliest -of the spring flowers; the fresh green foliage of herbs and shrubs that, -in more exposed situations, have been completely denuded; the first -tender seedlings appearing above the ground long before the frosts are -over; and the expanding 'leaf-buds' showing their green while elsewhere -all life seems dormant. - -This is the season when the young botanist requires his notebook more -than the collecting-book or vasculum; for his records of early flowers, -and of the times of the appearance of the leaf in our trees and shrubs, -will prove of great interest when compared with the corresponding events -and times of other years. Not only do our spring seasons vary -considerably from year to year in such a manner as to alter the general -times of appearance of leaf and flower, but the vicissitudes of our -climate even change the order in which these events occur. - -The general study of the buds of trees should commence before they begin -to burst. We commonly speak of the buds as winter buds, but it should be -known that they were formed in the preceding summer or autumn, and have -remained dormant throughout the winter. There is usually a _terminal -bud_ at the tip of each twig, and _lateral buds_ at the sides. If we -examine a lateral bud we find immediately beneath it a more or less -distinct scar, denoting the position of a leaf that fell in the autumn, -thus showing that the bud in question was formed in the axil or angle of -the leaf. These observations should be verified by examining the trees -in autumn, while the leaves still exist. - -It is not sufficient that we are able to recognise trees when in leaf; -they should be known equally or almost as well during the winter and -early spring while the branches are bare, and this is usually easily -accomplished by making ourselves acquainted with the general form of -each tree as viewed from a distance, and, on closer inspection, with the -nature of the bark and the character of the buds. - -All our forest trees are of the exogenous type; that is, their stems -increase in thickness by the addition of new wood formed outside the -older wood and underneath the bark. Thus the bark, which is composed of -a layer or mass of dead, sapless cells, is gradually pushed outward as -the stem thickens. The result is that the bark is either more or less -fractured, as in the Elm and the Oak, or it flakes off and falls to the -ground, as is the case with the Plane and the Birch. A new layer of bark -is always formed during each summer, and this, in turn, either cracks or -peels away; but while, in the former instance, the accumulated bark -presents a very rugged appearance, and becomes very thick, in the latter -case it remains smooth, and is always thin. - -Then again, how are we to account for the great variety in the general -forms of our different trees--the irregular, crooked nature of the Oak; -the slender, but denser branching of the airy Birch; and the tall, -pyramidal form of the Lombardy Poplar? All this is easily understood if -we carefully observe the positions of the buds as seen during the winter -months; and watch the development of these buds during early spring. - -[Illustration: TREES IN WINTER OR EARLY SPRING -1. Hazel, with catkins. 2. Ash. 3. Oak. 4. Lime, with remains of the -last season's fruits.] - -If the buds are irregularly scattered on the twigs, the lateral buds -being as strongly developed as the terminal ones, while, in the spring, -as is often the case, certain only of the buds develop into new twigs, -the others remaining dormant, then the branches assume that irregular, -crooked appearance so characteristic of the Oak. If, on the other hand, -all the terminal buds are well developed, and the lateral buds are -weaker and more regularly distributed, but farther apart, then the tree -grows more rapidly in height than in breadth, and assumes more nearly -the character of the Pyramidal Poplar. It will thus be seen that the -study of trees in their winter condition is not altogether lacking in -interest. - -Referring once more, but briefly, to the matter of dormant buds, we -recommend the reader not only to observe that some buds do not expand -with the others during the spring, but to make them the subject of -experiment. Thus, when the Horsechestnut is well in leaf, dormant buds -will usually be seen on the sides of the twigs, sheltered by the -spreading leaves produced at the tips. Now remove the whole cluster of -leaves formed by the terminal bud, together with the bud itself, and the -hitherto dormant laterals, under the influence of increased light and -warmth, and supplied with sap that is now directed into new channels, -will speedily show signs of growth. Similarly, the fruit-gardener will -remove the tips of the branches of his fruit trees, which often bear -buds that are destined to produce leafy twigs only, and thus encourage -the growth of the fruiting buds that are situated lower on the twigs. - -Let us now briefly consider the structure of buds and the manner in -which they are protected. Most buds are surrounded by brownish scales -which are impervious to water, and thus prevent a loss by evaporation at -a season when the activity of the roots in absorbing moisture from the -soil is suspended. Such loss is still further insured in some cases by a -covering of natural varnish. On removing this protective coat we find a -dense cluster of closely-packed leaves, variously folded or crumpled in -different species, and often, in the centre, a cluster of flowers. - -What, then, is the true definition of a bud? It is a young branch, and -may give rise to a mature branch bearing foliage leaves only, floral -leaves only, or a combination of both. A transverse section of a bud, -examined, if necessary, with the aid of the microscope, will show the -nature of the branch it was destined to produce; and, in the case of -buds which represent, in embryo, branches bearing flowers, or both -leaves and flowers, it is often an easy matter to see the whorls of the -future flowers, and even the pollen cells in the anthers and the ovules -in the ovary. - -[Illustration: TREES IN WINTER OR EARLY SPRING -5. Birch, with catkins. 7. Beech. 6. Poplar. 8. Alder, with catkins, and -the old fruit 'cones' of the previous season.] - -Interesting as it is to study the structure of buds in their dormant -condition during winter and early spring, even more fascinating is the -watching of the gradual expansion of the bud and the unfolding of the -young leaves. And it is not always necessary to make frequent visits to -the woods in order to carry out such observations, for a large number of -buds will develop almost equally well, at any rate through their earlier -stages, if the twigs bearing them be placed in vessels of water either -in or out of doors; and in many cases all the stages from dormant bud to -perfect leaves and fully-expanded flowers may be watched in this way. - -We have spoken of the protection afforded to the dormant bud during the -winter period, but it is interesting to note that protection is -necessary for the young leaves even after they have forced themselves -well out into the light and air. The reason for this is that the -epidermis or outer skin of the young leaf is not properly developed. It -is not yet water-tight, and, consequently, the sap of the tender leaves -would rapidly evaporate, so that they would soon become dry and -shrivelled. - -The means by which the young leaves are protected will be readily seen -if we watch the gradual development of the bud. In many cases these -leaves remain folded long after they have left the shelter of the -original bud-scales, the manner of folding being the same as that which -obtained while within the bud. Sometimes they are folded like a fan, or -like the leaves of a book; sometimes rolled one within the other, or -irregularly crumpled in such a manner that nothing is exposed to the air -except the edges of the leaves and the surfaces of the veins. - -In addition to the protection from evaporation afforded by the folding -of the young leaves, many are covered with a dense coat of "wool." Young -leaves of the Horsechestnut are very thickly covered with such a coat, -of which only the slightest traces are to be seen in the fully-grown -leaf. The young leaves of the Beech are folded like a fan for some time -after they have left the enclosure of the bud, and the folding is such -that the only parts exposed are the margins, the midrib, and the -strongly-marked parallel veins. But since all these parts are provided -with hairs, the young leaf, as long as it is folded, is surrounded by a -complete protective covering. As the epidermis develops, and the danger -of loss by evaporation thus reduced, the leaf straightens itself out, -and the hairs either fall or become shrivelled. The leaf of the -Wayfaring Tree is protected, while young, by a complete covering of -starlike hairs which form a fine felted coat over the whole surface; and -when the epidermis is properly formed, the hairs are all shed. - -Some young leaves are preserved by scaly stipules which surround them -after they have emerged from the bud; and as soon as the epidermis is -sufficiently impermeable the stipules, having done their work, fall to -the ground. So great is the shower of these transient structures, in the -case of the Oak, Elm, and Lime trees, that the ground is almost -completely covered by them. - -[Illustration: TWIG OF THE LIMB IN SPRING, SHOWING THE DECIDUOUS, SCALY -STIPULES.] - -Young leaves have yet another way of preventing the evaporation of their -sap, and that is by turning themselves into the erect position so that -the warmth of the spring sun has but little effect on them. The young -leaves of various grasses turn their apices upwards; while those of the -Horsechestnut, after having lost the protection afforded by the woolly -covering and the original folding, turn themselves with their points -downwards. Later, when the epidermis is well formed, and the leaves are -so far developed that they are capable of utilising the energy of the -sun in the performance of their functions, they take up the horizontal -position. - -Another interesting matter for spring observation is the relative times -of the bursting of the flowering buds and the leafing buds on the same -species of tree or shrub. In many cases the former are fully developed -before the latter show any signs of active growth, or while the foliage -is as yet only passing through its earliest stages. The Hazel catkins -shed their abundance of pollen before the foliage buds show the -slightest signs of green. The Blackthorn is white with snowy blossoms -before a leaf appears. The upper twigs of the Elm appear fluffy in the -distance through the formation of its flowers while the foliage buds are -still dormant; and the Alder, Willow, Poplar and Aspen likewise produce -full-blown catkins while their branches are otherwise bare. Of the trees -above named, the Hazel, Elm, Alder, Poplar, and Aspen are dependent on -the spring winds for the transfer of the pollen, but the pollination of -the Willow and the Blackthorn is brought about by the agency of early -insects which visit the flowers for the nectar they provide. - -[Illustration: SEEDLING OF THE BEECH, SHOWING THE COTYLEDONS AND THE -FIRST FOLIAGE LEAVES.] - -The same spring sun which calls forth the new leaves and early flowers -exerts its vivifying influence on the seeds that fell to the ground -before the winter's frosts set in, and in sheltered places myriads of -young seedlings of plants and trees may be found in their first stages -of growth. The early history of a plant is as interesting a study as -that of the mature specimen, and the young botanist will do well if he -seeks out the germinating seeds and watches their development. This part -of botanical study may, perhaps, be carried on more conveniently at home -than in the field, for the seedlings may be grown in soil, wet sawdust, -or in water alone, and the stages closely observed. - -The seed is a plant in embryo. It consists of a young root, a bud, and -one or two seed-leaves or cotyledons. Some seeds contain nothing but the -parts just named, and when this is the case the cotyledons contain a -reserve of food material sufficient to maintain the developing plant -until the root is enabled to absorb sufficient nutriment from the soil, -and the first foliage leaves are so far advanced that they can absorb -carbonic acid gas from the air, and build up with the aid of this gas, -together with the food obtained from the soil, the compounds required by -the growing plant. - -Other seeds contain, in addition to the embryo, a reserve of nutrient -material quite distinct from it; and in such instances the cotyledons -have the power of taking up this reserve, changing it to a condition -suitable to the requirements of the plant, and then distributing it to -the growing parts. - -In some seedlings the cotyledons will remain for some time within, or -partially within the seed, in order that they may continue the -absorption of this reserve; and while this process is going on the seed -may remain below the surface of the soil, or it may be lifted into the -air by the upward growth of the cotyledons themselves. - -In cases where the cotyledons contain the food reserve for the seedling -they sometimes remain under the soil, but in many instances they are -pushed into the air by the upward growth of that portion of the plant -axis immediately below them. In either case they decay as soon as their -work is accomplished. This often happens as soon as they have delivered -up to the seedling their reserve of food, but frequently the cotyledons -which ascend into the air expand, becoming really leaflike in general -appearance, assuming a green colour through the development of -chlorophyll (the green colouring matter of plants), and then perform all -the functions of the ordinary foliage leaves of the plant. Such -cotyledons often continue to exist long after the first foliage leaves -have appeared from the bud, for, although the original food reserve has -been exhausted, they are now in a position to manufacture, under the -combined influence of the sun's warmth and light, compounds essential -for their own growth as well as that of the other parts of the seedling. -These cotyledons, however, are never of the same form as the true -foliage leaves. - -The student should obtain a variety of seeds or seedlings of our wild -plants and forest trees in order to study these interesting early -stages. Such employment will prove very valuable at a season when there -is but little call for outdoor work. - - - - -V - -WOODS AND THICKETS IN SPRING - - -One of our earliest spring flowers of the wood is the lovely Daffodil or -Lent Lily (_Narcissus Pseudo-narcissus_) of the order _Amaryllidaceĉ_. -This plant develops from a bulb--an underground bud formed of thick, -fleshy leaves; and the flowers appear during March and April. The -perianth is composed of a tube and six spreading limbs of a delicate -yellow colour; and a deep, bell-shaped, golden coronet, beautifully -notched and curled at the rim. - -[Illustration: THE DAFFODIL.] - -During April and May we meet with the beautiful little Wood Anemone -(_Anemone nemorosa_--order _Ranunculaceĉ_), often in such abundance that -the ground beneath the trees is completely covered by its graceful -leaves and flowers. The leaves are radical, stalked, and deeply lobed, -springing from an underground stem. On the flower stalk, some distance -below the flower, is a whorl of stalked bracts of the same form as the -radical leaves. The flower has six spreading sepals, resembling petals, -usually white, but often tinged with a delicate pink, or, more rarely, -with blue. The fruit consists of a number of downy achenes. - -[Illustration: THE WOOD ANEMONE] - -Belonging to the same order (_Ranunculaceĉ_) we have two species of -Hellebore--the Green Hellebore (_Helleborus viridis_) and the Stinking -Hellebore (_H. foetidus_), both found in woods on chalk or limestone -during April and May. The former, also known in parts as the Bear's-foot -(Plate I, Fig. 1), has leaves palmately lobed, consisting of -five or seven parts; and the flowers, which are more than an inch -across, have spreading green sepals, and small tubular petals which -contain nectar that is supposed to be poisonous on account of the small -dead flies that are commonly found sticking to it. The Stinking -Hellebore, or Setterwort, has evergreen, radical leaves, the lobes of -which do not radiate from a common centre; and the flowers, of which -there are many on each peduncle, have erect sepals. - -The Goldilocks or Wood Ranunculus (_Ranunculus auricomus_) is a flower -very much like the Upright Meadow Buttercup (p. 211), though not -nearly so tall, being only from six to ten inches high. It grows chiefly -in thickets and copses, and flowers from April to July. Its root is -fibrous; the stem erect, slender, and branched; the radical leaves -long-stalked, round or kidney-shaped, divided into three, five, or seven -lobes; and the stem leaves few, sessile, and palmately divided to the -base into very narrow segments. The calyx is downy, consisting of -spreading, yellow sepals; and the petals are often partially or entirely -wanting. This plant is widely distributed, but is most frequent in the -centre and south of England. - -[Illustration: THE GOLDILOCKS.] - -The Columbine (_Aquilegia vulgaris_), also one of the _Ranunculaceĉ_, so -well known as a garden flower, grows wild in the thickets and copses of -several parts, blooming from May to July. Its branched stem grows to a -height of one or two feet; and the leaves are stalked, with three broad, -stalked, three-lobed segments. The pretty, drooping flowers are usually -over an inch in diameter, of a white, blue, or purple colour, in a -loose, leafy panicle. They have five coloured, deciduous sepals; five -petals, each with a curved spur that projects below the base of the -calyx; numerous stamens; and an ovary of five carpels which ripen into -as many follicles. - -The Dog Violet (_Viola canina_--Order _Violaceĉ_) is probably too well -known to need description, seeing that it is easily distinguished from -the other species of the same genus by the absence of scent and by the -presence of running stems. It is, however, very variable, both in its -habits and habitats, so much so, indeed, that some botanists regard the -varieties as distinct species under the titles of Wood Violet, Dark Wood -Violet, Pale Wood Violet, Hill Violet, Bog Violet, &c. These different -forms are distinguished by the shape of the leaves, which may be -broadly-cordate, narrow-cordate, or lanceolate; and also by the nature -of the stem and the form and colour of the spur of the corolla. In some -the main stem is flowerless, but flowering stems proceed from the axils -of its leaves; in others the main stem is long and branched, bearing -flowers. The narrow-leaved and branched varieties occur principally on -heaths, while the broad-leaved forms, in which the main stem is -flowerless, are found chiefly in woods. The student will do well to -compare as many forms as possible as an interesting study in variation. - -[Illustration: THE WILD COLUMBINE.] - -The flowers have five sepals; and five unequal petals, usually of a -bluish-purple colour, the lower one prolonged backward into a blunt -spur. Five stamens closely surround the ovary, which is composed of -three carpels, but is one-celled. - -The mode of the dispersion of the seeds is particularly interesting in -this instance. When the seeds are ripe the ovary splits into three -valves which spread out till they are at right angles to their former -position. Each valve is closely packed with smooth, oval seeds; and, as -the carpels dry, their sides, originally convex, become gradually -straightened so that they press on the seeds. The result is that the -seeds are detached from the placenta, one by one, and suddenly shot out -to a distance sometimes exceeding a yard. The whole process may be -observed by placing some ripe fruits on a large sheet of paper spread in -a warm, airy room. - -Another peculiarity of the violet is to be seen in its production of two -distinct kinds of flowers. The spring flowers, which we know so well, -are conspicuous, and are visited and pollinated by insects, but they -produce few or no seeds. In the autumn another kind of flower is formed, -inconspicuous ones that often possess no petals, and which do not open. -These are fertilised by their own pollen, and produce abundance of seed. - -[Illustration: THE DOG VIOLET.] - -Soon after the appearance of the Dog Violet--usually early in May--we -meet with the flowers of the Wood Sorrel or Alleluia (_Oxalis -Acetosella_), a plant which is often included with the Crane's-bills in -the order _Geraniaceĉ_, but sometimes placed in a separate small order -(_Oxalidaceĉ_) containing only three British species. It is a very -pretty little plant, of an acid nature, springing from a creeping -rhizome. The leaves are radical, ternate, hairy, and sensitive, folding -vertically at night in such a manner that the lower surfaces, containing -the stomata, are completely covered, and thus loss by evaporation -prevented. The flowers are usually solitary and axillary, and the -peduncle has two small bracts about half way up. There are five sepals, -united below; five white or pinkish petals; and ten stamens, all united -into one bundle, but five shorter than the others. The ovary is -five-chambered, and the fruit is a capsule. - -Like the Violet, this flower is particularly interesting both as to the -nature of its flowers, and to the manner in which it scatters its seeds. -It bears two kinds of flowers--the delicate spring flowers just -described, which are barren; and the later inconspicuous blooms, without -petals, and which do not open, but produce seeds. The latter kind of -flower may be seen up to August and September. - -[Illustration: THE WOOD SORREL.] - -When the ovary is ripe it splits longitudinally along five seams, but -the seeds remain attached to the placenta. Now, the seed coat is made up -of layers, one of the inner of which becomes highly strained as the -ripening proceeds, while the outer coat is not so strained. When the -seed is quite ripe the cell-walls of the deeper layer swell, thus -exerting a pressure on the outer layer, which is at last rent. The edges -of the slit formed suddenly roll back, and the seed is violently jerked -out through the opening of the capsule immediately in front of it. - -In April, and from this month to about the end of July, the Wood -Strawberry (_Fragaria vesca_--order _Rosaceĉ_) is in flower. There is no -mistaking this species when in fruit, but at other times the Barren -Strawberry (_Potentilla Fragariastrum_), also called the -Strawberry-leaved Cinquefoil, is often confused with it. The latter may -be known by the absence of runners. - -The chief distinguishing features of the Wood Strawberry are the running -stem; ternate leaves, with sessile, hairy, serrate leaflets; hairy, -erect peduncles; and white flowers, about half an inch in diameter, on -pedicels which droop when in fruit. - -In shady woods grows the Sweet Woodruff (_Asperula odorata_--order -_Rubiaceĉ_)--a small, erect and smooth plant, seldom exceeding eight -inches in height. The leaves are six to nine in each whorl, lanceolate, -with small prickles on the margins. The flowers are white, in terminal -panicles, and the fruit is rough with hooked hairs. The herb emits, when -dry, a pleasant odour resembling that of new hay. - -[Illustration: THE SWEET WOODRUFF.] - -There are two Periwinkles (order _Apocynaceĉ_), both of which have been -introduced into Britain as garden flowers, but have become established -as wild flowers in several parts. One of these--the Lesser Periwinkle -(_Vinca minor_)--is moderately common, especially in the West, where it -is often seen in thickets and other shady places, flowering during April -and May. It has a trailing stem, from one to two feet long, rooting at -the nodes; and short, erect, leafy, flowering branches. The leaves are -opposite, narrow-elliptical, entire, and quite smooth; and the blue or -violet flowers, which are about an inch in diameter, are solitary on -short, erect stalks. The calyx is free, and deeply divided into five -narrow segments; the corolla has a narrow tube, and five broad, -spreading parts; there are five stamens, enclosed in the tube of the -corolla; and the carpels are distinct at the base, but connected at the -top by the single style. - -The other species--the Greater Periwinkle (_Vinca major_)--is a very -similar plant, but its leaves are broader, with minute hairs on the -margin; the calyx segments are also hairy at the edges; and the corolla -is larger, with a broad tube. - -The Tooth-wort (_Lathrĉa squamaria_--order _Orobanchaceĉ_) is a -peculiar, fleshy, pinkish plant, to be found among decaying vegetable -matter or at the roots of the Hazel, Elm and a few other trees. It is -partly parasitic, deriving its nourishment from the roots of the trees -to which it is attached, or sometimes obtaining its food partly or -entirely from decaying leaves and stems. Its upright stem, which reaches -a height of from five to ten inches, is covered with tooth-like, hollow -scales, and bears a one-sided raceme of purple-brown flowers. This -peculiar plant is not only a parasite on trees, but is also a -carnivorous species, provided with the means of capturing and digesting -very small animals, and a more detailed account of its form and habits -will be found in our short chapter devoted especially to carnivorous -plants. - -The Bugle (_Ajuga reptans_, of the order _Labiatĉ_), is a very abundant -flower in moist woods and pastures, blooming in May and June. It has a -short root-stock, generally with creeping runners; and erect, smooth -flowering stems from three to twelve inches high. At the base is a tuft -of obovate, radical leaves, from one to two inches long, gradually -narrowed into the stalk, with wavy margins; and on the stem are shorter -leaves, with very short stalks, the upper ones often deeply tinged with -blue or purple. The flowers are blue (occasionally pink or white), and -are arranged in whorls of from six to ten in the axils of the upper -leaves, the whole forming a leafy spike. They have a five-cleft calyx; a -corolla with a short, erect, notched, upper lip; and a longer lower lip -with three spreading lobes, the middle one of which is broader and -notched. - -[Illustration: THE LESSER PERIWINKLE.] - -The stamens, of which there are two pairs, project beyond the upper lip -of the corolla; and the four nutlets of the fruit are rough and united. - -The Yellow Dead Nettle, Weasel-snout, or Archangel (_Galeobdolon lutea_ -or _Lamium Galeobdolon_) of the same order is very much like the White -Dead Nettle (p. 102) in habit, but is rather more slender, and -less branched. It is not a very common plant, but is abundant in certain -localities, forming one of the conspicuous flowers of thickets, copses -and shady hedgerows during May and June. Its leaves are opposite, -stalked, ovate, acute, and coarsely toothed; and the handsome large -yellow flowers are in dense whorls of from six to ten in the axils of -the upper leaves. The calyx has five short teeth; and the corolla has a -short tube, not much longer than the calyx, and two lips, the upper of -which is arched, while the lower is spotted with red, and has three -lobes. - -Our next example, the lovely Primrose (_Primula vulgaris_ or _P. -acaulis_--order _Primulaceĉ_), which so beautifully bedecks our woods -and banks in April and May, is so well known that a description for -purposes of identification is quite unnecessary. - -There are two distinct forms of the primrose flower, often called the -pin-eyed and the thrum-eyed, the two forms growing on different plants. -The former has its stamens at a contracted portion of the tube, about -half way down, and a style so long that the stigma is visible at the top -of the tube. The latter has its stamens at the contracted throat of the -tube, while the style is so short that the stigma is half-way down. - -[Illustration: THE BUGLE.] - -These two forms may be termed the long-styled and the short-styled -primrose, respectively, and the difference is of great importance, -inasmuch as it helps to bring about the cross-fertilisation of the -flower. - -[Illustration: THE BROAD-LEAVED GARLIC.] - -The principal agents concerned in the transfer of pollen from one flower -to another are the wind and insects, but it is evident that the work is -done, in the case of the primrose, by insects; for not only do we find -that the anthers and the stigma are protected from the wind, being more -or less hidden in the tube of the corolla, but the showy corolla, the -delicate scent emitted by the flower, and the nectar produced at the -base of the tube all combine to encourage nectar-loving insects whose -proboscis is long enough to reach the sweets. - -While such an insect is sucking the nectar from a short-styled primrose, -the base of its proboscis is rubbing pollen from the anthers at the top -of the tube, and the removal of the pollen is assisted by the contracted -throat of the corolla in this kind of flower. Should that insect then -visit a long-styled flower, the base of the proboscis, now dusted with -pollen, will transfer some of the pollen cells to the stigma. In the -same way pollen will be transferred from the anthers of the long-styled -to the short-styled flower, since the stamens and stigma respectively -occupy corresponding positions in the tubes of the corollas. - -[Illustration: THE STAR OF BETHLEHEM.] - -On Plate I (Fig. 3) we represent the Lady's Slipper -(_Cypripedium Calceolus_)--a rare and beautiful orchis found in some of -the limestone woods of North England. Its stem is downy and leafy, -reaching a height of about one foot. The leaves, of which there are -three or four, are oblong and ribbed; and the one or two large flowers -are brownish with the exception of the lip, which is yellow and -inflated. - -Two species of Garlic (order _Liliaceĉ_) are also to be found in woods -early in the season. They are both strong-smelling plants with bulbous -roots, radical leaves, and flowers arranged in an umbel with membranous -spathes. One--the broad-leaved Garlic or Ramsons (_Allium ursinum_)--is -very common, grows to a height of from six to twelve inches, and flowers -from April to June. The stem is bluntly triangular and leafless; and the -broad, radical leaves are much like those of the Lily of the Valley. The -flowers are white, and form a flat umbel with two sharply-pointed bracts -at its base. - -The second species--the Sand Leek or Sand Garlic (_A. -Scorodoprasum_)--grows to two or three feet, and is found almost -exclusively in sandy woods of North England, where it flowers a little -later than the Ramsons. The stem-leaves are linear, and form two-edged -sheaths; and the flowers, which are reddish-purple, are in a loose -umbel. (Plate I, Fig. 4.) - -[Illustration: THE HAIRY SEDGE.] - -The Star of Bethlehem (_Ornithogalum umbellatum_) is a pretty flower -that was originally introduced for cultivation, but has now become well -established as a wild flower in many parts of Britain. It is found -chiefly in copses and thickets, especially in the neighbourhood of towns -and villages, and flowers in April and May. It has an oval bulb -containing an abundance of viscid sap; long narrow, limp, radical -leaves; and a flowering stem from six to twelve inches high. The flowers -are white, from six to ten in number, arranged in a raceme the lower -stalks of which are lengthened in such a manner as to bring all the -flowers to a level, thus giving the general appearance of an umbel. -There is a membranous bract at the base of each pedicel; and each flower -has a perianth of six free, spreading, persistent segments, marked -outside with a central, green line, and having a nectary at the base. - -The same order includes the well-known Blue-bell or Wild Hyacinth -(_Hyacinthus nonscriptus_ or _Scilla festalis_), which is occasionally -confused with the Harebell of the order _Campanulaceĉ_. The leaves of -this plant are linear and channelled, and the drooping flowers form a -raceme of from six to twelve blooms. The perianth is bell-shaped, -composed of six united parts, usually blue, but rarely pink or white. -The anthers are yellow, and as with all the plants of this order, the -ovary is superior. (See Plate I, Fig. 5.) - -In damp woods we often meet with the Hairy Sedge (_Carex hirta_), which -grows from one to two feet high; and in similar situations, the -Pendulous Wood Sedge (_C. sylvatica_)--a tufted species, with a weak, -leafy stem, from two to three feet high, and flaccid leaves. The latter -has a single terminal, male spikelet, of about an inch long; and -slender, drooping female spikelets, of about the same length, on long -stalks. - -On Plate I, we also represent the Wood Melic Grass (_Melica uniflora_), -a slender, graceful species which may be seen in woods, often in bloom -as early as the beginning of May. - - - - -VI - -THE SPRING-FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS OF WOODS, THICKETS, AND HEDGEROWS - - -Having considered the principal low-growing flowers of the woods, we -must now give some attention to the trees and shrubs of the same -localities. - -This portion of the field-naturalist's work will be found at least as -fascinating as the observation of the herbaceous plants, for although -the flowers of trees are often small and very inconspicuous, many are -really beautiful blossoms, and all present features of more or less -interest to the botanist. Moreover, the observations of these flowers -will always be coupled with those of the appearance and expansion of the -leaves, for while some trees produce their flowers shortly before their -leaves, and others after, leaves and flowers often come about the same -time, and the period of the year covered by the present chapter--from -about March to April or early June--will include the bursting of the -leaf-buds and the expansion of the leaves of all our deciduous trees and -shrubs. Opportunities should be made at this season to observe not only -the parts of the trees just named, but to note all other characters -presented by the trees, such as the nature of the trunk and its bark, -the mode of branching, the appearance of the young twigs, and the nature -of the soil and situation in which each species is found. - -Our first example is the Barberry (_Berberis vulgaris_)--the only -British representative of its order (_Berberaceĉ_)--a smooth, pale-green -shrub, from four to seven feet high, often seen in woods, thickets, and -hedgerows, flowering in May and June. Its branches generally droop at -the tips, and have triple spines at the base of each leaf or cluster of -leaves. The latter are obovate, sharply toothed or even prickly, and -often reduced to a cluster of spines. The flowers are pale yellow, in -hanging racemes. Each has several yellow sepals, the outer of which are -very small; six petals, in two whorls, with nectaries at their bases; -and six stamens. The stamens at first lie on the petals; but they are -very sensitive, and when the filaments are touched by an insect as it -seeks the nectar at their bases, the stamens immediately spring upward, -throwing off their pollen, and often depositing some on the insect's -back. It is thus possible that the cross-pollination of the flowers is -greatly aided by the insect, especially as it will often happen that the -same part of its back which has been touched by the elastic stamen will -come in contact with the stigma of another flower. - -[Illustration: THE BARBERRY.] - -The Sycamore, also called the Great Maple and the False Plane (_Acer -pseudo-platanus_--order _Aceraceĉ_), although not really a British tree, -has probably found a home here for nearly five centuries. It has been -named the False Plane on account of its having been mistaken for, and -called, the Plane, which tree it somewhat resembles in the form of the -leaf, as well as in the character of the smooth, thin bark that peels -off, giving the tree a patchy appearance. It should be noted, however, -that the leaves of the Plane are arranged alternately, while those of -the Sycamore are in opposite pairs; also that the fruits of the former -are in pendulous balls while those of the latter are winged, and -generally in two parts. - -[Illustration: THE SPINDLE TREE.] - -The Sycamore grows to a height of from forty to fifty feet and flowers -in May or early June, some time after the appearance of the leaves. The -leaves are simple and cut into five lobes, with a palmate venation and -irregularly toothed margins. The flowers are small, yellowish green, and -produced in graceful, pendulous racemes. Each one is about a quarter of -an inch in diameter, with five narrow sepals, five narrower petals, -eight stamens, and a two-lobed, flattened, hairy ovary which develops -into a pair of 'keys' or samaras, with wings about an inch and a half -long. - -The Maple (_Acer campestre_) is a much smaller tree, with a very -rugged, corky bark. In woods it often reaches a height of fifteen to -twenty feet, though it produces flowers and fruit long before it is -fully grown; and it is often seen, more or less trimmed and stunted, -among hedgerow shrubs. Its leaves are opposite, two to four inches wide, -on slender stalks, palmately veined, and divided to about the middle -into five obtuse, entire or crenate lobes. The greenish flowers are much -like those of the Sycamore, and appear at the same time, but grow in -loose, erect, axillary racemes; and the wings of the fruit always spread -horizontally in a straight line. On p. 337 is a photograph of a -twig of this tree in fruit. - -The Spindle Tree (_Euonymus europĉus_), the only British member of the -order _Celastraceĉ_, is a moderately common wood and hedgerow shrub -which is usually from four to ten feet high, when untrimmed, bearing -yellowish-green flowers during May and June. Its branches are smooth, -green and angular; and its leaves are opposite, shortly-stalked, oval, -acute, finely toothed, with a shining surface. The flowers are usually -from three to five together in loose axillary clusters. They have a -small, flat calyx of four short sepals; four spreading petals, about a -sixth of an inch long; four stamens, about half the length of the -petals; and an ovary of from three to five cells embedded in the fleshy -disc. The fruits are very pretty, and often form a conspicuous feature -of the hedgerow during late summer. They are lobed capsules which open -at the angles, exposing the bright orange mace that encloses the seeds. - -Several of the prettiest of our trees and shrubs belong to the order -_Rosaceĉ_, and among these we may name the Dwarf Cherry, Bird Cherry, -Gean, Sloe, Bullace, Hawthorn, Wild Pear, Crab Apple, Service Tree, -White Beam Tree, and Mountain Ash. The first of these, known variously -as the Wild Cherry, Dwarf Cherry, and Red Cherry (_Prunus Cerasus_), -grows from four to eight feet high, and bears white flowers, in almost -sessile umbels, during May and early June. Its bark is of a reddish -colour, and numerous suckers arise from its root. The leaves are -oval-oblong, smooth, firm, and nearly erect; and the fruit is round, -juicy, and red. Although in the wild state the fruit is very acid, this -is the tree from which our sweet, cultivated cherries have been derived. -In order to distinguish this from other similar species, it should be -noted that the tube of the calyx is _not_ contracted at its mouth. - -The Bird Cherry (_P. Padus_) is found principally in North England, -where it is moderately common in parts. It is larger than the last, -often reaching a height of fifteen feet. Its leaves are narrow, -somewhat egg-shaped, smooth, with a doubly-serrate margin. The flowers, -which appear in May or June, are white, and arranged in pendulous -racemes; and the fruit is oval, almost black, and bitter. - -[Illustration: THE WILD CHERRY.] - -Another wild cherry, generally known as the Gean (_P. Avium_), is still -larger, sometimes reaching a height of thirty feet, and is not uncommon -in woods and hedges. The bark is smooth; the leaves abruptly pointed, -soft, drooping, and downy beneath; and the beautiful white flowers are -in almost sessile umbels. The calyx-tube of this species is contracted -at the mouth, and the fruit is either red or black, heart-shaped, and -bitter. The leaves turn to a deep red colour in the autumn. - -Among the earliest flowers of Spring are the white blossoms of the Sloe -or Blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), which appear in March and April, some -time before the leaves. The shrub grows from four to eight feet high, -has a blackish bark, and numerous branches, the smallest of which -terminate in hard, rigid thorns. The leaves are ovate, finely-toothed, -smooth, stalked, with small, free stipules. The flowers are small, -shortly-stalked, with a free, deciduous calyx of five lobes; five -spreading petals; from fifteen to twenty stamens; and an ovary which -ripens to an almost black, juicy, acrid drupe, about half an inch in -diameter, containing a hard stone, and covered with a bluish bloom. This -shrub is very common in thickets and hedgerows. - -The Bullace (_Prunus insititia_), sometimes regarded as a variety of _P. -spinosa_, is a very similar bush, growing in similar situations, and -flowering at the same time; but its bark is brown, and the branches less -spiny. Its leaves, also, are downy beneath; and the flowers, which -appear at the same time as the leaves, are in pairs, on downy stalks. -The fruit is about double the size of that of the last species, either -dark or yellow in colour, less acrid, and drooping. - -The above two species are the origins of the damsons and plums of our -fruit gardens. - -The May or Hawthorn (_Cratĉgus Oxyacantha_) is so well known that there -would be no necessity to describe it, were it not for the fact that, -being so familiar, its distinguishing characters are liable to be -overlooked. It is a much-branched shrub, with many of the branches -modified into protective spines. The leaves are simple, smooth, -deeply-lobed and obtuse, have deciduous stipules, and appear before the -flowers. The flowers are generally white, sweetly-scented, and arranged -in corymbs. There are five sepals and five petals, and the numerous -stamens have pink anthers producing brown pollen. The carpels, one to -three in number, are enclosed in the calyx-tube; and the fruit is a -bright red pome with a bony core. - -The Wild Pear (_Pyrus communis_) is occasionally met with in woods and -hedgerows, where its white flowers may be seen in April or May. The -leaves of this tree are simple, elliptical, and serrate; and the smaller -branches often terminate in a spine. The flowers are about an inch in -diameter, and arranged in corymbs. They have distinct styles--a feature -which serves to distinguish the blossom from that of the Wild Apple; and -the fruit, which tapers towards the base, is a five-chambered, woody -pome, with a horny core. Two varieties of this species occur, one with -the base of the fruit conical, and the other with the base rounded. - -The Crab Apple (_P. Malus_) is very similar in general appearance, but -has no spines; and the flowers, which are in sessile umbels, are white, -with delicate shades of pink. The styles, also, are united below; and -the fruit is globular, yellow or reddish, concave at the insertion of -the stalk, very acid, and five-chambered. This tree is common in -hedgerows as well as in woods, and flowers during May or early June. - -[Illustration: THE CRAB APPLE.] - -In the woods and hedges of South England we commonly meet with the -Service Tree (_P. torminalis_)--a small tree with downy twigs, and -smooth leaves with from six to ten triangular, serrate lobes. Its -flowers are small, white, and arranged in compound cymes. They bloom in -April and May; and in the autumn their place is occupied by small, -green fruits, spotted with brown, with a two-chambered, brittle core. - -The White Beam (_P. aria_) is a small tree, commonly found on the -outskirts of woods on chalky or limestone soils, which might be confused -with the last species. It has large, irregularly-lobed leaves, white and -downy beneath, with serrate edges. The general form of the leaf is -egg-shaped, while that of the Service Tree is cordate. The corymbs of -white flowers bloom in April; and the fruit, though much like that of -_P. torminalis_, is spotted with _red_. There are no less than four -varieties of this tree, distinguished mainly by the forms of the leaves, -the serration of their edges, and the number of lateral veins. - -[Illustration: THE MOUNTAIN ASH.] - -We have yet another representative of the Rose order in the Mountain -Ash, Rowan, or Fowler's Service Tree (_P. Aucuparia_), which is common -in mountainous woods, and supplies an edible fruit. It is a very -graceful and beautiful tree, with a smooth greyish bark; and pinnate -leaves with from thirteen to seventeen serrate leaflets, downy on the -under side. The flowers are small, of a creamy white colour, in large -corymbs. They bloom in May and June; and later in the year their place -is occupied by the scarlet globular fruits, with a yellow pulp, -enclosing from two to four chambers. - -The Black Currant (_Ribes nigrum_), of the order _Grossulariaceĉ_, or -sometimes included in the _Saxifragaceĉ_, is sometimes found wild in -moist woods, flowering in April or May. It is well known as a garden -shrub, and may be easily recognised by the characteristic odour emitted -from its stems and leaves when bruised. In some northern woods the Red -Currant (_R. rubrum_) is also found wild. - -The Wayfaring Tree or Mealy Guelder Rose (_Viburnum Lantana_--order -_Caprifoliaceĉ_) is moderately common in the woods and hedges of dry -districts, especially on calcareous soils. It grows from ten to twenty -feet high, and flowers during May and June. Its young shoots are covered -with star-like hairs, which give them a characteristic mealy or downy -appearance. The leaves are simple, elliptical-cordate, serrate, without -stipules, and are downy beneath. The flowers are small, white, perfect, -and arranged in terminal cymes. In late summer the tree is rendered -conspicuous by its _flattened_ berries, which become scarlet as they -ripen and afterwards turn black. A photograph of a twig in fruit is -given on p. 338. - -The Ash Tree (_Fraxinus excelsior_--order _Oleaceĉ_) is easily -recognised at a distance, either in summer or winter, by the graceful -curves of the lower branches, which droop, and then bend upward at their -extremities; also, on a closer inspection, by the light ashy colour of -the smooth bark of the twigs, and the large, black, triangular, terminal -buds. The leaves are pinnate, with from nine to seventeen -oblong-lanceolate, sessile, serrate leaflets. The flowers appear before -the leaves in April and May, in dense clusters. They have no perianth: -some consist only of an ovary, some only of two dark purple stamens, -while others are perfect flowers with both ovary and stamens. Some trees -have male blossoms only, and therefore produce no fruit; others bear -dense tufts of pendulous, winged fruits which are ripe in October (p. -336), but often remain on the tree till the following spring. -The wing of the fruit is slightly twisted, and thus, when the fruit is -detached, it falls with a slow, spinning motion that allows it to be -carried some distance by the wind, reaching the ground with its seed-end -downwards. The seed does not germinate until the second spring. A -variety of the Ash occurs with simple leaves. - -Very early in the Spring--February to April--we may often see the -Spurge Laurel (_Daphne Laureola_) in flower in woods and copses. This is -an erect, smooth shrub, from two to four feet high, with a few erect -branches bearing at their summits crowded clusters of thick, glossy, -narrow, evergreen leaves. Its flowers, of a yellowish green colour, are -in drooping, axillary clusters among the leaves. They have a tubular, -inferior perianth, with four spreading lobes; eight stamens inserted in -the top of the tube; and a free ovary of one cell, containing a single -ovule. The perianth falls early; and the ovary afterwards becomes a -berry-like fruit with a single stone. - -[Illustration: THE SPURGE LAUREL.] - -Another similar shrub, known as the Mezereon (_Daphne Mezereum_), is -found in similar situations, and flowers at the same time, but it may be -known by its deciduous leaves, and by its pale red flowers arranged in -threes on the side of the stem. These two species are the only British -representatives of the order _Thymelaceĉ_. - -Two species of Elm are common in our woods and hedgerows. The -small-leaved or Common Elm (_Ulmus campestris_), and the Wych Elm (_U. -montana_). Both are distinguished by their thick, furrowed, corky bark; -and their rough oval-cordate leaves with unequal sides. They are often -placed in the same order (_Urticaceĉ_) as the well-known Stinging -Nettles, but some authorities form a distinct order for these two -species alone, under the name of _Ulmaceĉ_. - -The Common Elm is not indigenous, but was introduced into our country by -the Romans. It is, however, one of our commonest trees, and is -especially abundant in the South. The midrib of the leaf is covered -below with irritating, glandular hairs, somewhat resembling those of -nettles in structure and function; and the stipules are deciduous, -falling early in the season. The flowers are perfect, appearing before -the leaves in March and April, and are in small, dense clusters, -principally on the topmost branches. Each flower has a little, -bell-shaped, persistent perianth; a superior ovary with two styles; and -four or five stamens with black anthers. The fruits are very thin oval -samaras with the seeds above the centre, but they seldom ripen in our -country. They are produced in such abundance that the ground is often -almost completely covered with them when they fall. Botanists recognise -several varieties of this species, but these differ so slightly from one -another that they are barely distinguishable. The Common Elm throws off -a large number of suckers from its roots, often producing a dense -undergrowth round its bole. - -[Illustration: THE ELM IN FLOWER.] - -The Wych Elm is a native of our country, and is also very common, but it -occurs principally in the woods of the North. It is very similar in -general appearance to the last species, which it also resembles in -having several barely distinguishable varieties; but it generally -attains a much greater girth, and does not throw off such an abundance -of suckers from its roots. Its twigs are downy; and the leaves, which -are larger than those of _U. campestris_, are irregularly doubly -serrate, with hairs on the prominent ribs of the under side, and are -arranged in two straight rows, one on each side of the twig. The flowers -are very similar to those of the Common Elm; and the fruit is a broad -oblong or almost round samara, with the seed in the _centre_. Both -species are pollinated by the wind; and, as is the case with -wind-pollinated flowers generally, the stamens protrude well out of the -flower, and produce abundance of pollen. - -[Illustration: THE OAK IN FLOWER.] - -Four of our forest trees belong to the order _Cupuliferĉ_; these are the -Oak, Beech, Hornbeam and Hazel. The first of them--the Oak (_Quercus -Robur_)--is easily recognised in the winter by its deeply-furrowed, -corky bark, its zigzag, spreading branches, and the clusters of oval -buds at the tips of the twigs. In summer it may be known at once by the -oval, sinuate leaves with blunt lobes. The flowers of the Oak appear -with the leaves in April or May; they are imperfect, but both male and -female blossoms appear on the same tree. The former are in slender, -drooping, interrupted catkins; and each flower has ten stamens. The -latter are in clusters of a few only, and each separate flower is -enclosed in a cupule of overlapping scales. The ovary has three cells, -and contains six ovules; but, as a rule, only one ovule of each flower -is fertilised. Sometimes, however, two, three, or more of the ovules -become fertilised, thus producing an acorn which will give rise to as -many separate seedling trees. At times we meet with an Oak nearly every -acorn of which contains two or more ovules. This tree is remarkable for -the number of insects which feed on its leaves, and also for the number -of different species of gall-flies which produce galls on its leaves and -stems. Two well-marked varieties occur: one--_pedunculata_--with sessile -leaves and long flower stalks; and the other--_sessiliflora_--with -stalked leaves and short flower-stalks. - -[Illustration: THE BEECH IN FRUIT.] - -The Beech (_Fagus sylvatica_) is readily recognised during winter and -early spring by its smooth, thin, olive-grey bark, and its long -tapering, pointed, brown buds. The expanding buds have already been -mentioned (p. 44) as of special interest as regards the fan-like -folding of the young leaves, and the arrangement for preventing undue -loss of moisture while the epidermis is as yet very thin and permeable. -The leaves of this tree are ovate, smooth and glossy, with -strongly-marked parallel veins branching from the midrib. When young -they are very silky, but later the fine, silky hairs are seen only on -the slightly-toothed margin, and even these disappear as the season -advances. The flowers are imperfect, and appear in April or early May. -The staminate catkins are of a dark purple-brown colour, rounded and -pendulous, with from eight to forty slender stamens having exposed, -yellow anthers. The pistillate flowers are grouped in little clusters of -from two to four, each one having three stigmas, and being surrounded by -a four-lobed prickly cupule which afterwards forms a closed case. The -fruits are three-cornered nuts, enclosed in the hardened cupules which -split longitudinally, when ripe, into four valves that are lined with -soft, silky hairs. - -The Hornbeam (_Carpinus Betulus_) is a much smaller tree, more or less -abundant in the damp, clayey woods of the South. Its bark is smooth or -slightly furrowed, of a light greyish colour, and its leaves are -elliptical-ovate, with a doubly-serrate margin and acute point. The -arrangement of the principal veins is the same as that of the Beech, and -the young leaves are similarly plaited in the bud, but the expanded -leaves are broader at the base than those of the Beech, are rougher, and -are permanently hairy on the under surface. As with the Beech, the -leaves assume very pleasing tints in the autumn, turning first yellow, -and then through shades of orange to brown; and, in sheltered woods, -many of them remain on the tree throughout the winter. The flowers -appear in May and early June, and are imperfect, male and female flowers -being in separate catkins, but on the same tree. The staminate catkins -are pendulous and leafy, each flower having oval, acute bracts, and from -three to twelve stamens with forked filaments and hairy anthers. The -pistillate flowers are in erect catkins and are arranged in pairs. Their -outer bracts are shed early, but the inner bracts or _bracteoles_, which -are three-lobed, grow very large as the fruits ripen, at which time, -also, the whole catkin becomes pendulous. Each flower has a -two-chambered ovary, and two styles; but only one cell develops, and -thus the fruits, each with only one seed, lie on the bases of the leafy -bracteoles which aid in their dispersion by the wind. - -Our last example of the _Cupuliferĉ_ is the well-known Hazel (_Corylus -Avellana_), which is generally found in trimmed hedges and among the -undergrowth of woods. Its bark on the trunk and larger branches is grey; -but brown, hairy, and dotted with glands, on the young shoots. The -leaves are roundish, slightly cordate and unsymmetrical, with a sharp -apex and an irregularly-serrate edge; and, when young, are -longitudinally plaited in the bud. The flowers appear before the leaves, -and are mature in March or early April, but the early stages of the -catkins may be observed on the tree throughout the winter, and even in -the preceding autumn. The staminate catkins are pendulous, from one to -two inches in length when in full bloom, and are commonly known to -country children as 'lambs-tails.' They are of a bright yellow colour, -and each flower has from four to eight stamens, with hairy anthers that -produce abundance of pollen. The pistillate catkins are small, oval, and -sessile, hardly to be distinguished from the foliage buds until they -protrude their bright crimson stigmas. The minute flowers are enclosed -in overlapping bracts which afterwards form the leafy cupules of the -large woody nuts; and each one has a two-celled ovary and two styles. - -Our forest trees include three representatives of the order -_Betulaceĉ_--the Common Birch, the Dwarf Birch, and the Alder. The first -of these, the Common Birch, Silver Birch, or Lady of the Woods (_Betula -alba_), is at once recognised by its smooth, silver-white bark, which -peels off in horizontal strips; its copper-brown branches; and its very -slender, drooping twigs. The leaves are small, rhomboid or triangular, -with an irregularly doubly-serrate margin, a sharp apex, and veins very -prominent on the under side. They are also provided with long stalks -which, together with the slender character of the weeping twigs, allow -them to be moved by the slightest breeze. The male and female flowers -are in separate catkins, the former of which may be seen on the tree -throughout the winter, but do not bloom until April or May. Both are at -first erect, but the staminate catkins droop as they mature, and shed -abundance of yellow pollen. The flowers have three-lobed, deciduous, -scale-like bracts; the male ones consist of two stamens with forked -filaments; and the females of a flattened, two-celled ovary. The female -catkins droop as they ripen, each one producing a large number of -minute, one-seeded and broadly-winged fruits which are easily dispersed -by the wind. Two varieties of this tree occur, one with the leaves and -twigs covered with downy hairs, and the other with leaves of an -oval-cordate form. - -The Dwarf Birch (_B. nana_) is a mere shrub, seldom exceeding two feet -in height, and is to be found only in some of the mountainous districts -of Scotland. It has rounded, crenate leaves, with short stalks; and the -wings of the fruit are very narrow. - -The Alder (_Alnus glutinosa_) is common in wet woods, and especially -along the banks of streams in wooded valleys. Some of the mountain -streams of the West of England, Wales, and Scotland, are bordered with -almost continuous lines of Alder for miles together. This tree has a -very dark grey bark, and the young branches are more or less triangular -in form. The leaves are round, with a wedge-shaped base, and are green -on both sides. They have very short stalks, are very blunt, and have a -wavy, serrate margin. When very young they are hairy and sticky to the -touch; hence the specific name of _glutinosa_. The catkins appear before -the leaves, and are mature in March or April. The staminate catkins are -pendulous, and much like those of the Birch; but the flowers have red -scales and four stamens. The pistillate catkins are short and erect, and -each flower has a fleshy scale within a reddish-brown, woody bract. The -fruits are shed in the autumn, but the thickened woody bracts of the -female catkin remain on the tree till, and even after, the flowers of -the following spring are in bloom. - -Coming now to the order _Salicaceĉ_, we have to deal with the Poplars, -of which we have several species, all more or less common, and largely -planted in cultivated ground. Our first example is the White Poplar -(_Populus alba_), a large tree frequently seen in abundance in most -woods. It has a smooth, grey bark, spreading branches, downy shoots and -buds, and it throws off many suckers from its roots. The leaves are -roundish, approaching a heart-shape, except those of the young shoots, -which are divided more or less deeply into five lobes; and they are -covered below by a white cottony down. The flowers are imperfect, and -the male and female catkins, produced on different trees, are mature in -March or April. The male catkins are three or four inches long, and each -flower has from six to ten stamens, with red anthers. The female catkins -are much shorter, and its flowers have divided stigmas, with long, -narrow, yellow segments arranged like a cross. The ovaries ripen into -capsules which split open in July, setting free seeds which are provided -with cottony filaments; and the seeds often fall in such abundance as to -almost completely cover the ground beneath the tree. - -The Grey Poplar (_P. canescens_) grows in similar situations, and -flowers at the same time. Its leaves are roundish, with a waved and -toothed margin, and are covered beneath with a slight coating of grey -down. Those of the youngest shoots are more or less lobed. In this -species the two stigmas are purple, wedge-shaped, and divided into from -two to four lobes. - -A third species--the Aspen (_P. tremula_) receives its specific name -from the tremulous movements of its leaves, which swing with a rotary -movement when disturbed even by the slightest breeze. This -characteristic is common, to a greater or lesser degree, to all the -species of this genus, and is due to the peculiar nature of the -leafstalks, which are long, and flattened in a plane at right angles to -that of the blade of the leaf. The Aspen has a grey bark, spreading -branches, and downy shoots. The leaves are nearly round, with a sharp -point and a serrate margin. When young they are downy above and beneath, -but become smooth later. The catkins are very dense, and the flowers of -the female tree have two divided stigmas. - -The Black Poplar (_P. nigra_) and the Lombardy Poplar (_P. fastigiata_), -though very common, are not natives of this country. The former is a -large, spreading tree, and the latter is readily distinguished by its -tall, pyramidal form, with all its branches directed upward. Although -these two trees are so very unlike in general appearance, yet they -resemble one another so closely in the form of the leaves and the -character of the flowers that they are sometimes regarded as two -varieties of the same species. In both the leaves are very variable in -form, being either triangular, rhombic, or nearly circular, with rounded -teeth. Both have smooth shoots, and sticky buds; and their catkins are -not so dense as in the other members of the genus. The leaves also are -smooth on both surfaces except when young, at which stage they are -slightly downy beneath. The male catkins are two or three inches long, -of a deep red colour; and, since they appear before the leaves, are very -conspicuous. The female catkins are much shorter and erect, and the ripe -capsular fruits burst in June, setting free seeds which are covered with -a cottony down. _P. nigra_ has a furrowed grey bark, rendered still more -irregular by prominent swellings, and it rarely produces suckers. _P. -fastigiata_, on the other hand, often produces numerous suckers, and its -trunk generally has a rough, furrowed, and twisted appearance. It is -interesting to note that the female of the latter does not occur in our -country. The tree was introduced by means of suckers, and it appears -certain that suckers of the male tree only were brought over for this -purpose. - -We conclude this chapter by a brief description of the two native -conifers of our woods--the Scotch Fir or Scots Pine (_Pinus sylvestris_) -and the Yew (_Taxus baccata_). The former is very well known, for while -its real home is the elevated parts of the North, it has been planted -more or less in most southern districts; and it is readily distinguished -from other forest trees by its general form, as well as by the nature of -its leaves, and by its 'cones.' It should be noted, however, that -several similar species, which may be confused with the Scots Pine, have -been introduced into our country, but descriptions of these can hardly -be included here. - -[Illustration: THE SCOTS PINE WITH THE CONES OF TWO SEASONS.] - -The bark of the Scots Pine is rough, of a reddish-brown colour, and -peels off in thick scales. Its trunk reaches a diameter of three or four -feet, and it often grows to a height of over one hundred feet. The -leaves are long, slender, rigid, grooved above, and always arranged in -pairs. When young they are of a bright green colour, but turn to a dark -green later, and remain on the tree for two years or more. The male and -female flowers grow on the same tree, and are mature in May or June. The -male catkins are only about a quarter of an inch in diameter, but are -collected into conspicuous spikes, and shed an abundance of pale yellow -pollen. The female catkins are in the form of egg-shaped cones, tapering -to a point. The carpels of the flowers do not enclose the seeds, but are -thick scales beneath which the seeds lie. The cone is two or three -inches in length, and takes about eighteen months to ripen, so that the -cones of two successive years will generally be found on the tree at the -same time. When ripe, the scales are woody and very hard, and as they -separate, the winged, naked seeds are set free and dispersed by the -wind. The tree has usually a very weather-beaten appearance, due to the -fact that the lower branches die as the height increases, and are then -more easily detached in stormy weather. - -[Illustration: THE YEW IN FRUIT.] - -The Yew is a native of mountainous woods, but has been planted largely -in other situations. It is an evergreen tree, with a dark brown, fibrous -bark; and although it never grows to any great height--seldom exceeding -fifty feet, it often has a girth of from twenty to thirty feet, and -reaches an age of fifteen hundred or two thousand years. The leaves are -very crowded, about one inch in length, and arranged in two rows along -the stem. They are linear, pointed, of a dark glossy green above, and -lighter below. The flowers are small, sessile, situated in the axils of -the leaves, and appear in March or April. The male flower consists of -from five to eight anthers, below which is a whorl of overlapping -scales. The female is much smaller, and is composed of a fleshy disc -with a small ovule at the top and scales below. After fertilisation the -ovule enlarges into a green seed, and the disc, which almost completely -surrounds it, develops into a roundish, sweet, fleshy cup, about half an -inch in diameter, of a bright rose-red colour and of a beautiful waxy -appearance. The leaves of the Yew are poisonous, but the fruits are -quite harmless. A variety of this tree occurs of a pyramidal form, with -scattered leaves and an oblong fruit. It should be noted that while the -male and female flowers of the Yew generally grow on separate trees, the -both are occasionally found on the same tree. - - - - -VII - -WAYSIDES AND WASTES IN SPRING - - -In the present chapter we shall consider a number of wild flowers that -are to be found by the waysides, including banks and hedgerows, and in -waste places, during the spring months. - -Our first example is the Celandine (_Chelidonium majus_), of the Poppy -family (order _Papaveraceĉ_), generally spoken of as the _Greater_ -Celandine in order to distinguish it from the Lesser Celandine (p. 108), -which belongs to the _Ranunculaceĉ_. This plant is moderately common in -shady hedgerows and waste places, grows to a height of from one to two -feet, and flowers from May to July or August. It has a yellow, pungent, -poisonous sap. The leaves are pinnate, with an odd leaflet at the tip, -of a glaucous green colour; and all the leaflets are bluntly lobed. The -flowers are yellow, from three-quarters to an inch in diameter, and are -arranged in long-stalked umbels. As in the poppies, there are two sepals -which fall early, and four petals which are crumpled in the bud. There -are numerous stamens, attached below the superior ovary; and the latter -ripens into a pod-like capsule of one chamber, about an inch and a half -in length, which splits, when ripe, into two valves. - -The Order _Cruciferĉ_ is well represented by the wayside and on waste -ground during the spring months, and the reader will do well to note the -general characters of the flowers of this order (p. 17), unless -already acquainted with them, before attempting to identify the species -here described. Our first example--the Shepherd's Purse (_Capsella -Bursa-pastoris_) is a well-known weed, often troublesome in our gardens, -and may be seen in bloom from February to October. It is an erect herb, -from six to eighteen inches high, which may be identified at once by -reference to our illustration. The small white flowers are in -lengthening racemes, and are often made less conspicuous by the -conversion of the four petals into stamens. This weed is easily -distinguished from all the other plants of the order by the form of the -fruit, which is triangular and inversely heart-shaped. When ripe, it -splits into two boat-shaped, keeled valves, which separate from a -central membrane to which the seeds are attached. - -[Illustration: THE SHEPHERD'S PURSE.] - -The Common Scurvy Grass (_Cochlearia officinalis_) is to be found -chiefly on the sea shore, but it often extends for miles inland, -especially along the banks of the estuaries of rivers. It is a smooth, -succulent plant, from four to eight inches high. The little white -flowers have spreading petals, and are arranged in a short raceme; and -the fruit is globular or oval, nearly a quarter of an inch long, pointed -at the top, with several seeds in each cell. This plant commences to -flower in May, and continues in bloom until August. - -The Common Whitlow Grass (_Draba verna_) is a very small and -inconspicuous plant, abundant on banks and hedgerows, bearing minute, -white flowers in April and May. It has a cluster of narrow, toothed, -hairy, radical leaves, from a quarter to half an inch long, that spread -horizontally close to the ground; and a leafless stem, from one to four -inches long, bearing a raceme of flowers on slender pedicels. The petals -of the flowers are deeply notched; and the fruits are oblong, about a -quarter of an inch long and half that width, containing many seeds. - -[Illustration: THE SCURVY GRASS.] - -[Illustration: THE COMMON WHITLOW GRASS.] - -Two species of Winter Cress (genus _Barbarea_) are common in waste -land--the Common Winter Cress or Yellow Rocket (_B. vulgaris_), and the -Early Winter Cress or American Cress (_B. prĉcox_). The former is an -erect plant, from one to two feet high, with numerous, small, yellow -flowers in a loose raceme, blooming from May to August. The radical -leaves are pinnately divided, with a large, rounded, terminal lobe, and -side lobes becoming smaller towards the base; and the upper leaves are -oval and irregularly toothed. All the leaves are smooth and glossy, and -of a deep green colour. The fruits are short, and thicker than the -pedicels. A double variety of this flower is commonly cultivated in -flower gardens. - -[Illustration: THE YELLOW ROCKET.] - -The Early Winter Cress is a very similar plant, flowering at the same -time, but is of a more slender habit, and has narrower leaves, the upper -of which are pinnately divided. The flowers are also larger, and -arranged in a closer raceme; and the fruit is longer, but not thicker -than the pedicel. This species is cultivated as a salad, and frequently -occurs as a garden escape. - -Two species of _Sisymbrium_ are also very common--the Garlic Mustard -(_S. alliaria_), also known as Sauce Alone and Jack-by-the-Hedge; and -the Thale Cress or Wall Cress (_S. Thaliana_). The first named is one of -the commonest of our hedgerow flowers. It grows to a height of one or -two feet, and bears, from April to June, a corymbose cluster of pure -white flowers, each about a quarter of an inch in diameter. The stem and -leaves, when crushed, emit a distinct odour of garlic. The former is -slightly branched; and the leaves are large, stalked, broadly cordate, -with many prominent veins, coarsely toothed, and of a delicate green -colour. The fruits are erect, about two inches long, on short pedicels. - -The Thale Cress grows on dry banks and walls, and displays its minute -white flowers from April to the end of the summer. The stem is erect, -slender and branched, from six to ten inches in height; and the leaves, -which are nearly all radical, are simple, oblong-lanceolate, toothed -and downy. The fruits of this species are erect, narrow, with four -obscure angles, and about twice as long as their stalks. - -The Rape or Cole-seed (_Brassica napus_) is a cruciferous weed commonly -occurring in cultivated ground, and often cultivated for its seeds. It -grows from one to two feet high, and bears corymbose clusters of yellow -flowers during May and June. Its root is fusiform (spindle-shaped), and -all its leaves are smooth and of a sea-green colour. The lower leaves -are lyrately pinnate, with toothed edges; and the stem leaves are -ovate-lanceolate, acute, embracing the stem. The pods spread as they -ripen. - -The Wild Turnip (_Brassica Rapa_) is a very similar plant, producing its -yellow flowers from April to July. Its root is tuberous and fleshy. The -lower leaves are hairy and rough, and not of the glaucous green -characterising the last species, while the upper leaves are glaucous and -smooth. - -The Sweet Violet (_Viola odorata_)--the favourite flower of wayside -banks--is common in many parts, and is generally very easily -distinguished from other similar species of the order (_Violaceĉ_) by -its pleasing fragrance. It has a short root-stock, and, usually, long -creeping runners. At the top of the stock is a cluster of long-stalked -leaves, broadly heart-shaped in form, blunt, with crenate margins and a -slightly downy surface. At the base of the leafstalks are very narrow, -entire stipules; and from among these arise the slender flower-stalks, -of about the same length as those bearing the leaves, with a pair of -small bracts a little above the middle. The flowers are solitary, -drooping, of a violet, lilac, or white colour, with obtuse sepals; a -short, blunt, straight spur to the lower petal; and a hooked, pointed -stigma. The conspicuous, scented flowers with which we are so well -acquainted, bloom from March to April; but all through the summer the -plant bears small petalless flowers that produce the seeds. - -Of the order _Caryophyllaceĉ_ our first example is the Ciliated -Pearlwort (_Sagina ciliata_), a small, creeping plant, flowering in May -and June in dry places. The leaves are very small, narrow, ciliated, -terminating abruptly in a sharp point; and the two of each pair are -united at their bases. The flowers are very small and stalked; and the -petals are either very minute or absent. The sepals, stamens, styles, -and valves of the capsule, are each four; and the sepals lie close -against the capsule. - -The Procumbent Pearlwort (_S. procumbens_), also found in dry places, -is a similar little plant, smooth and prostrate, with very small white -flowers that appear in May and bloom till the end of the summer. The -peduncles of this species curve backward just after flowering, but -become erect afterwards; and the sepals, which are sometimes five in -number, are not close against the fruit, as in the last, but spreading. - -[Illustration: THE PROCUMBENT PEARLWORT.] - -The genus _Stellaria_ includes some plants with pretty, white, star-like -flowers, some of which adorn our hedgerows in early spring. The most -conspicuous of these is the Greater Stitchwort or Satin Flower (_S. -Holostea_), the flowers of which are three-quarters of an inch in -diameter, and are arranged in loose, leafy cymes. The sepals have no -veins, and are about half as long as the petals, which are so deeply -cleft that the flower, at first sight, appears to possess ten instead of -five. - -The Lesser Stitchwort (_S. graminea_) is a very similar flower, common -in dry places, blooming from May to August. The plant is smooth, and -does not possess the glaucous hue of the last species. The stem is very -straggling and slender, from one to three feet long; and the leaves are -grass-like, sessile, and acute. The flowers are very similar to those of -the Greater Stitchwort, but are smaller. The sepals have each three -veins, and are as long as the petals. - -[Illustration: THE GREATER STITCHWORT.] - -The Little Chickweed (_S. media_), so troublesome in our gardens, -belongs to the same genus. Its decumbent, branching stem has a -longitudinal line of hairs placed alternately on opposite sides from -joint to joint; and its ovate, smooth, succulent leaves are shortly -pointed, the lower ones having hairy stalks. The little star-like, white -flowers grow from the axils of the leaves, and have each five hairy -sepals, as long as the deeply-cleft petals, with narrow, membranous -margins. - -These three species of _Stellaria_, and, in fact, all the species of the -genus, are distinguished by their divided petals and the presence of -three styles; but there is another group of flowers in the same order -known as the Mouse-ear Chickweeds (_Cerastium_), also with divided -petals, but having either four or five styles. - -[Illustration: THE CHICKWEED.] - -Three of the species of this group may be included among the spring -flowers of waysides. One of these is the Broad-leaved or Clustered -Mouse-ear Chickweed (_Cerastium glomeratum_), which flowers from April -to the end of the summer. It has an erect, sticky, hairy stem; and pale -green ovate leaves. The little white flowers are tufted, on short -stalks, with sepals and petals of equal length. A second--the -Narrow-leaved Mouse-ear Chickweed (_C. triviale_)--has a similar but -spreading stem; and the leaves are narrow, and of a deep green colour. -In this one, too, the sepals and petals are equal; but the former are -hairy, and the flower-stalks are longer. The other is the Field -Mouse-ear Chickweed (_C. arvense_), which has numerous white flowers, -in forked cymes, blooming from April to August. Its stem is hairy, -prostrate, from six to ten inches long; the leaves very narrow; and the -sepals only about half as long as the petals. - -[Illustration: THE BROAD-LEAVED MOUSE-EAR CHICKWEED.] - -The pretty Wild Geraniums, of which there are several species, often -form a very attractive feature of the wayside. They are readily -recognised as a group by the swollen joints of their stems; the simple, -stipuled, lobed leaves; the axillary flowers; and the fruit composed of -five distinct carpels, with their five long styles adhering to a long -central beak. The flowers have five distinct petals and sepals, and ten -stamens, five of which become alternately larger. When the fruit is ripe -the five carpels separate, and are raised by the curving of the smooth -styles which remain for a time attached to the beak. - -In early April, and from then to August or September, the Dove's-foot -Crane's-bill (_Geranium molle_) may be seen in flower by the wayside. -The plant is prostrate, soft and downy, with rounded leaves lobed and -cut. The pretty pink or lilac flowers are from a third to half an inch -in diameter, with abruptly-pointed sepals and notched petals. This -species may be readily distinguished from similar plants of the same -genus by the smooth, wrinkled capsules, and smooth seeds. - -A second species--the Jagged-leaved Crane's-bill (_G. dissectum_)--is -also very common in wastes and by waysides. It is a hairy, rather than -a downy plant, with spreading stems from one to two feet long; and -displays its bright red, shortly-stalked flowers from April to August. -The flowers, which vary from a quarter to half an inch in diameter, have -long-pointed sepals and notched petals. - -[Illustration: THE DOVE'S-FOOT CRANE'S-BILL.] - -A third species, also very common, is the Herb Robert (_G. -Robertianum_), characterised by a strong odour, and red, hairy, -spreading, succulent stems one or two feet long. The leaves are -compound, with three or five deeply-divided leaflets, and turn to a -bright crimson colour in late summer. The flowers are half an inch or -more in diameter, with ovate entire petals, of a pink colour and -beautifully veined. The sepals have long points, and are rendered very -viscid by glandular hairs. A white-flowered variety of this geranium is -occasionally seen. - -We have now to note four of the spring leguminous plants (order -_Leguminosĉ_)--plants belonging to the Pea family, distinguished by -their butterfly-like flowers, and, usually, by compound, stipuled -leaves. Our first example is the Black Medick or Non-such (_Medicago -lupulina_) which is common in wastes, by the waysides and in pastures. -This is a procumbent, spreading plant, with stems from six inches to two -feet in length, and leaflets inversely egg-shaped, with finely-toothed -edges. The flowers, which appear in April, and continue to bloom till -near the end of the summer, are small, yellow, and arranged in dense -oblong spikes. The calyx has five teeth, and the pods are kidney-shaped, -each with only one seed. - -[Illustration: THE JAGGED-LEAVED CRANE'S-BILL.] - -In shady grassy or bushy places we may see the Crimson Vetch or Grass -Vetchling (_Lathyrus Nissolia_) which, although not common, is rather -frequent in the midland and southern counties of England. It is a very -slender plant, from one to two feet high, bearing crimson flowers in May -and June, and may be identified at once by reference to our -illustration. - -[Illustration: THE HERB ROBERT.] - -The pretty Bird's-foot (_Ornithopus perpusillus_) is commonly found on -waste ground, more particularly on sandy soils. It has a spreading, -prostrate stem, from six to eighteen inches long, and pinnate leaves -with from about fifteen to twenty-five elliptical, downy leaflets. The -flowers appear to be pink when viewed from a distance; but, when -examined closely, are seen to have cream coloured petals that are veined -with crimson. They are arranged in heads, of a few flowers each, on long -stalks, with a leaf immediately below each head. The pods are curved, -and made up of from seven to nine oval, one-seeded joints, with a -terminal beak resembling the claw of a bird, so that each cluster of -pods has much the appearance of a bird's foot. This plant flowers from -April to July. - -Our other example of leguminous flowers is the Bush Vetch (_Vicia -sepium_)--a climbing plant with stem two or three feet long, very common -in hedges, flowering from April to August. The leaves are pinnate, with -from twelve to eighteen oval, blunt leaflets which increase in size -towards the base. The flowers are pale purple, and are arranged in -axillary racemes of from four to six, on very short peduncles. The style -is tufted on one side, and the pods are smooth and erect. - -We have now to note a flower of the Rose order (_Rosaceĉ_), but since it -is common for a beginner to be confused by the general resemblance of -some of the flowers of this group to some of the _Ranunculaceĉ_, it may -be well to point out that in the latter the stamens are united to the -receptacle of the flower, below the carpels, while in the rose order the -stamens are attached around or on the ovary itself. - -[Illustration: THE GRASS VETCHLING.] - -The Strawberry-leaved Cinquefoil or Barren Strawberry (_Potentilla -Fragariastrum_) is very similar to the Wild Strawberry, with which it is -often confused; but no difficulty will arise if it be noted that the -species we are now considering produces no running stems. The Barren -Strawberry is a silky little plant, with a thick, prostrate stem; and, -as one of its popular names implies, a ternate leaf resembling that of -the Wild Strawberry. The flowers are white, half an inch or less in -diameter, on slender peduncles, with notched petals. This is one of our -earliest spring flowers, blooming from February or early March to about -the end of May; and is very common on banks, in hedgerows, and in weedy -wastes. - -The Tuberous Moschatel (_Adoxa Moschatellina_) is a very inconspicuous -but an interesting little plant. It is sometimes placed in the same -order (_Araliaceĉ_) as the Ivy, while some botanists regard it as -belonging to the Honeysuckle family (order _Caprifoliaceĉ_). It has a -scaly, creeping, thick, underground stem or rhizome, and a four-angled -aerial stem; and the whole plant emits the scent of musk. The flowers -are small, of a yellowish-green colour, and are clustered together into -five-flowered, terminal heads. The petals are spreading, the stamens -four or five in number, and the fruit is berry-like, with one-seeded -chambers. The plant is only four or five inches in height, and though -not common, may be found in shady places in many parts. It flowers -during April and May. - -[Illustration: THE STRAWBERRY-LEAVED CINQUEFOIL.] - -The White or Red-berried Bryony (_Bryonia dioica_) is a very common -hedgerow climber, the only British representative of its order -(_Cucurbitaceĉ_). It has a very thick rootstock; a slender stem, that -often reaches a length of ten feet or more; large, bright green, palmate -leaves with three, five or seven angular, coarsely-toothed lobes; and -long simple or branched tendrils. The flowers are imperfect, the males -and females growing on separate plants. The former are of a pale yellow -colour, in stalked clusters, each one consisting of a spreading, -five-lobed corolla, about half an inch in diameter, and five stamens, -one of which is free, while the other four are united in pairs: the -females are smaller, generally in pairs, each consisting of a globular -ovary with three stigmas, and a superior, five-lobed corolla. The fruit -is a scarlet or orange-coloured berry, about a third of an inch in -diameter, containing several seeds. The whole plant is clothed with -small, white hairs, and contains an acrid sap. Time of flowering--May to -September. - -[Illustration: THE MOSCHATEL.] - -The Common Beaked Parsley (_Anthriscus vulgaris_), of the order -_Umbelliferĉ_, is very common by waysides, flowering during May and -June. The stem of this plant is smooth and shining, from two to three -feet high, slightly swollen at the nodes. The leaves are tri-pinnate, -with blunt segments, and slightly hairy on the under side. The white -flowers are arranged in compound umbels with short stalks, and the -umbels droop before the flowers open. There are no bracts at the base of -the main pedicels, but five or six _bracteoles_, with fringed edges, lie -at the foot of the secondary pedicels. The fruits are short, ovate, with -short beaks and hooked bristles. As with the other members of this -genus, the petals have an inflexed lip. - -This genus includes the Chervil or Wild Beaked Parsley (_A. -sylvestris_), which is very common in hedges and waysides, flowering -from April to June. It grows from three to four feet high, and has -tri-pinnate leaves with coarsely-serrated edges. The umbels are -terminal, on long stalks. There are no bracts, but about five narrow, -ovate bracteoles with fringed edges. The flowers are white; and the -fruits are long and narrow, smooth, with short beaks. - -[Illustration: THE WHITE BRYONY, CLIMBING OVER A BED OF NETTLES.] - -The Garden Beaked Parsley (_A. cerefolium_) is very similar to the last -species, but has only three bracteoles in a whorl, and the umbels are -lateral and shortly stalked. Also, the fruit, which is of the same form, -has a longer beak. This species is not a native, but is often found as a -garden escape. It grows to a height of about eighteen inches, and -flowers from May to July. - -Our last example of the _Umbelliferĉ_ is the Goutweed, Bishop-weed or -Herb Gerard (_Ĉgopodium Podagraria_), a rather coarse, erect, smooth -plant, from one to two feet high, commonly seen in wayside ditches and -other damp places. It was formerly cultivated largely for medicinal -purposes, consequently it is to be found chiefly near towns and -villages, where it occurs as a garden escape. It has a creeping, -aromatic stock; a hollow, grooved stem; large long-stalked, biternate -radical leaves, with ovate or narrow, toothed segments, two or three -inches long; and smaller stem-leaves with fewer segments. The flowers -are greenish white, in umbels of many rays, with few or no primary or -secondary bracts; and the fruits are oblong, about a sixth of an inch -long, with the two diverging styles curved downward. The plant flowers -from May to August. - -[Illustration: THE WILD BEAKED PARSLEY.] - -On dry banks by the wayside we may commonly meet with the Crosswort or -Mugwort (_Galium Cruciatum_) of the Bed-straw Family (_Rubiaceĉ_). It is -a prostrate plant, with stem from six to eighteen inches long; and -soft, downy, elliptical leaves arranged crosswise in whorls of four. Its -fragrant little yellow flowers are in whorled, axillary cymes, each -cluster having from six to eight blossoms. The lower flowers have -stamens and no pistil, and the upper ones pistil only. The fruits are -smooth. The time of flowering is from April to June. - -[Illustration: THE GARDEN BEAKED PARSLEY.] - -Composite flowers (Order _Compositĉ_) are mostly summer-bloomers, but -three at least are very common by waysides in spring. One of these is -the Mouse-ear Hawkweed (_Hieracium Pilosella_), a slender plant with -leafy runners, rendered silky in appearance by long, soft hairs. The -stem is almost leafless, but there are elliptical-lanceolate, entire, -radical leaves covered, especially on the under side, by starlike hairs. -The yellow heads are solitary, on stalks varying from two to ten inches -long. This species flowers from May to August. - -The second species is the Common Groundsel (_Senecio vulgaris_), which -may be seen in bloom throughout the year. Though so well known, we think -it advisable to call attention to one or two of its characteristic -features. The leaves are smooth, deeply cut, toothed, and half clasp the -stem. The flower-heads have no ray florets; and the outer bracts are -very short, with black tips. - -From March to April almost all damp places are more or less thickly -dotted with the bright yellow flowers of the Colt's-foot (_Tussilago -Farfara_); and later, after all the flowers have ceased to bloom, the -same places are covered with the large, heart-shaped, angular leaves, -four or five inches wide, thickly clothed beneath with a loose, cottony -down which is also sparingly scattered over the upper surface. The early -flowering stems are rather thick and fleshy, about six inches high, and -downy. They bear a number of small, narrow, erect, scale-like leaves, -and, at the top, a single flower-head, surrounded by a whorl of narrow -bracts, and a few smaller outer bracts. The inflorescence consists of -several whorls of narrow, strap-shaped, outer florets, with no stamens; -and a few central, tubular, perfect florets. The fruits are cylindrical, -with a tuft of long, simple hairs. - -[Illustration: THE GOUTWEED.] - -The Speedwells (_Veronica_) belong to the order _Scrophulariaceĉ_. They -are all herbs, with simple leaves; slightly irregular flowers with an -unequally four-cleft, spreading corolla, the lower lobe of which is -smallest; and only two stamens. At least six species of this genus may -be found by waysides, in flower during the spring months. - -One of these--the Thyme-leaved Speedwell (_Veronica serpyllifolia_), is -common in most waste places. It is a small plant, with a downy, -prostrate stem from three to ten inches long. The leaves are broadly -elliptical, slightly crenate, blunt, and somewhat leathery in nature. -The flowers are about a quarter of an inch across, of a light blue or -lilac colour, striped with dark blue veins; and appear from May to July. -They are arranged in several spike-like, many-flowered racemes. The -corolla tube is very short; the style long and persistent; and the -fruits are inversely-cordate capsules. - -[Illustration: THE CROSSWORT.] - -The Common Speedwell (_V. officinalis_) is a small plant, with hairy, -prostrate stems from two to ten inches in length. It is common in dry -places. The leaves are opposite, elliptical, serrate, with short stalks. -The pale blue flowers, which are only about a sixth of an inch in -diameter, are in many-flowered, axillary, spike-like racemes. The -capsules are of the same form as in the last species, but are deeply -notched. This species flowers from May to July. - -The Germander Speedwell (_Veronica Chamĉdrys_) is one of our most -beautiful and most abundant spring flowers. It is very common on banks -and by roadsides, flowering during May and June. Its stem is weak, -decumbent, rooting at the base, often considerably more than a foot in -length, and remarkable for the line of hairs that changes to alternate -sides at each node. A raceme of flowers, much longer than the leaves, -arises from several of the nodes. The flowers are bright blue, about -half an inch in diameter, with a four-cleft calyx; a deeply four-cleft -corolla, the lower lobe of which is narrowest; and two prominent -stamens. The fruit is a very broad, flat capsule, notched at the top, -narrowed towards the base, splitting into two valves when ripe. - -[Illustration: THE COLT'S-FOOT IN EARLY SPRING.] - -[Illustration: THE GERMANDER SPEEDWELL.] - -A fourth species, the Wall Speedwell (_V. arvensis_), is abundant on -walls and dry roadsides. It is a prostrate, downy plant, generally more -or less thickly covered with dust, flowering from April to about the end -of summer. The stem is from four inches to a foot in length, and two -lines of hairs run along the branches. The leaves are oval-cordate, -crenate, and slightly stalked. The flowers are very small and -inconspicuous, and are frequently almost completely hidden by the -crowded upper leaves. They have very short corolla-tubes, and are -arranged in loose, terminal, spikelike racemes. - -The Grey Field Speedwell (_V. polita_) is common in waste places and -rough fields, flowering from April to September. Its flowers are bright -blue, about a quarter of an inch across, solitary, axillary, on stalks -which are longer than the leaves. The sepals are broadly oval and -pointed, and the petals are all of the same colour. The leaves of this -plant are stalked, cordate, and irregularly toothed. - -Our last example of the order is the Green Field Speedwell (_V. -agrestis_), also common in fields and by the roadside. It has several -prostrate stems, from four to eight inches long; and stalked, cordate -leaves with irregularly serrate margins. The flowers are small, about a -fifth of an inch across, solitary, axillary, on stalks shorter than the -leaves. The sepals are narrow, oblong, and blunt; and the lower petal is -white. This species flowers from April to the end of the summer. - -[Illustration: THE WHITE DEAD NETTLE.] - -The Dead Nettles (genus _Lamium_, of the order _Labiatĉ_) may be readily -distinguished from the Stinging Nettles, with which they are often -confused, by their square stems, and whorls of showy, lipped flowers. -Further, these flowers may be recognised from among the others of their -own order by the ten-ribbed, bell-shaped calyx; and by the one or two -teeth on each side of the lower lip of the corolla. - -Three of this group are very common wayside spring flowers. One is the -White Dead Nettle (_Lamium album_), with large, white flowers forming -whorls in the axils of the leaves. The leaves of this plant are all -stalked, cordate, with a very sharp point, deeply serrate, and often -marked with white blotches. The teeth of the calyx are narrow, as long -as the tube, with long slender points; and the tube of the corolla is -curved, longer than the calyx, gradually widening from below upwards. -The two lower stamens are longer than the upper pair, and the anthers -are black. The plant varies from six to eighteen inches in height, and -flowers from April to September. - -The Red Dead Nettle (_L. purpureum_) grows to the same height, but has -much smaller cordate or kidney-shaped leaves, with blunt apices and -crenate edges. The upper ones are very crowded, and often tinged with -red; and all the leaves are stalked. The flowers are small, of a -red-purple colour (rarely white), in crowded whorls in the axils of the -upper leaves. The tube of the corolla is straight, longer than the -calyx; and the calyx teeth are spreading. - -[Illustration: THE YELLOW PIMPERNEL.] - -The third species--the Cut-leaved Dead Nettle (_L. incisum_ or _L. -hybridum_)--is not so abundant as the other two, but moderately common -on waste land. Its leaves, which are all stalked, are very deeply cut -in a serrate manner; the lower ones being cordate, while the upper are -more triangular. The flowers are of a rose-red colour, in crowded whorls -near the top of the stem. The tube of the corolla is _shorter_ than the -calyx, and straight; and the teeth of the calyx are about as long as its -tube. The plant grows from six to eighteen inches in height, and flowers -throughout the whole of spring and summer. - -Another common Labiate--the Ground Ivy (_Nepeta Glechoma_)--may be seen -almost everywhere in the spring, in bloom from March to May. It has a -procumbent, creeping stem, and deeply-crenate, kidney-shaped leaves. The -flowers are of a blue-purple colour, arranged in whorls of three or four -in the axils of the leaves. The calyx has five teeth and fifteen ribs; -and the two front stamens are shorter. - -[Illustration: THE DOG'S MERCURY.] - -The Early Field Scorpion Grass (_Myosotis collina_) belongs to the order -_Boraginaceĉ_--a family of (usually) hairy herbs with alternate leaves -and one-sided spikes or racemes of showy flowers. The flowers have a -five-lobed calyx and corolla, five stamens, and a fruit of four nutlets. -It is in the same genus as the familiar Forget-me-not, and, in fact, -somewhat closely resembles that plant, which is often confused with -certain species of Scorpion Grass. It is a slender, more or less -prostrate herb, with blunt oblong leaves; and minute, bright blue -flowers which are at first hidden among the leaves, but afterwards -exposed by the lengthening of the stem. The flowers have very short -pedicels; and are in long, slender, leafless, spikelike racemes, with a -single flower some distance down, in the axil of the highest leaf. The -popular name of Scorpion Grass has been given on account of the -characteristic arrangement of the flowers when in the bud, these being -then tightly coiled in a scorpoid fashion. In order that the present -species might be distinguished from allied plants, we should note that -the pedicels are shorter than the calyx; that the calyx is furnished -with hooked bristles, and is open and swollen when the fruits are -formed; also that the tube of the corolla is very short. The Early Field -Scorpion Grass is very common on dry banks. Its stems vary from about -four to ten inches long, and the flowers appear during April and May. - -[Illustration: THE BLACK BRYONY IN FRUIT.] - -The Wood Loosestrife or Yellow Pimpernel (_Lysimachia nemorum_) of shady -waysides and woods is a member of the _Primulaceĉ_ or Primrose family. -It is altogether a pretty little plant, much like the Scarlet Pimpernel -in general appearance, but somewhat larger and more glossy. It has a -prostrate, spreading stem, often tinged with red; and opposite, oval, -acute leaves with short stalks. The flowers are yellow, usually a little -more than half an inch in diameter, with a spreading corolla. They are -axillary, placed singly on very slender peduncles, and have very narrow -sepals. This species flowers from May to August. - -The Perennial or Dog's Mercury (_Mercurialis perennis_), of the -_Euphorbiaceĉ_ or Spurge family, is one of our earliest spring flowers, -and may be seen in abundance on almost all shady waysides, in bloom from -March to May, and growing from six to eighteen inches high. The minute -green flowers, which have three sepals and no petals, are in racemes or -spikes that grow from the axils of the upper leaves. They are unisexual; -the staminate flowers in slender racemes, with several erect stamens; -and the pistillate ones in short, few-flowered spikes, with a two-celled -ovary, two styles, and a few imperfectly formed stamens. - -The Black Bryony (_Tamus communis_)--order _Dioscoriaceĉ_--is a pretty -climbing plant, the slender stem of which twines for several feet among -the hedgerow trees and shrubs. Its leaves are cordate and acute, and -change either to a bright yellow or a beautiful bronze colour in the -autumn. The flowers, which appear in May and June, are yellowish green, -in small clusters; and the fruits are oblong berries, turning to a -bright scarlet as the leaves assume their autumn tints. - -[Illustration: THE WILD ARUM.] - -Our next flower is the peculiar and interesting Wild Arum (_Arum -maculatum_), of the order _Araceĉ_, also known as Lords and Ladies, -Cuckoo Pint, and Wake Robin. It is a very common flower of shady -waysides, blooming during April and May. The plant is succulent, with a -short, fleshy rhizome; and large, smooth, sagittate leaves that are -often spotted with purple. The floral stalk is thick and fleshy, and -supports numerous unisexual flowers which are clustered round a central -axis or _spadix_ that is prolonged above into a club-shaped appendage. -The whole of the spadix is surrounded by a large bract or _spathe_ which -is contracted a little distance above its base. The portion of the -spathe below the constriction encloses the flowers, and remains -permanently closed as long as they are in bloom; but the upper part -opens on one side, just before the flowers begin to mature, exposing -the club of the spathe. The club is thick and fleshy, and coloured -either dull purple, bright red, pink, or yellow. The pistillate flowers -are clustered round the bottom of the spadix, and consist of a number of -sessile ovaries. Above them is a ring of imperfect flowers consisting of -styles only, and above these again is the cluster of staminate flowers, -with some aborted stamens at the top. After fertilisation has taken -place the spathe and the spadix soon wither away, and the ovaries -develop into a cluster of large berry-like fruits, each containing a few -seeds. These fruits, mounted on the summit of the lengthened, fleshy -peduncle, are very conspicuous objects in the autumn hedgerows. - -The contrivance by which cross-fertilisation is secured in these flowers -is particularly interesting:--Numbers of little insects (midges) are -attracted by the brightly coloured club, and, possibly, also by the -foetid odour of the flowers. These creep down the spadix, passing -through the narrow neck into the closed compartment below. The neck is -more or less obstructed by the upper, abortive, staminate flowers, which -consist merely of a few whorls of bristles. Since, however, many of -these bristles point downwards, they offer but little obstruction to -insects as they enter; but prevent their escape. Thus, on cutting open -the lower part of the spathe, we may frequently find quite a number of -midges that have been imprisoned, their bodies covered with pollen that -has probably been carried from another Arum previously visited. The -pistillate flowers are mature first, and thus the imprisoned insects, -creeping about in their cell during this early stage of the flower, are -sure to bring pollen cells in contact with some of the ripened stigmas. - -After the work of fertilisation has been accomplished, the anthers -ripen, setting free abundance of pollen which now covers the bodies of -the insects in the place of that which has been rubbed on to the -stigmas. Then the abortive stamens, which prevented the escape of the -insects, wither; and, at the same time, the neck of the spathe relaxes. -Thus the prisoners are again set free, and possibly a large proportion -of them enter another flower and repeat the process of -cross-pollination. - -The commonest of the early-flowering Grasses of the wayside is the -Annual Meadow Grass (_Poa annua_)--a small tufted species, varying from -a few inches to nearly a foot in height. It commences to flower in -March, and remains in bloom till the end of the summer. It is -represented on Plate III. - - - - -VIII - -MEADOWS, FIELDS AND PASTURES--SPRING - - -It is, of course, impossible to draw a hard and fast line between the -flowers of spring and those of summer, for not only does each individual -species vary in the time of its first appearance, according to the -nature of the season, but many of the spring and summer flowers overlap -in such a manner that it is difficult to decide which season has the -greater claim to each one. In the present chapter, however, we shall -include those flowers of our fields and meadows which usually _commence_ -to bloom before the beginning of June, even though they may continue to -produce blossoms well into the summer. - -One of the most conspicuous features of the meadows in spring is -certainly the abundance of those bright yellow flowers known -collectively as the Buttercups. But the name of Buttercup, standing -alone, has no definite, scientific meaning, the name being applied to -quite a number of flowers of the _Ranunculus_ genus of the order -_Ranunculaceĉ_. - -The earliest of these is undoubtedly the Pilewort or Lesser Celandine -(_Ranunculus Ficaria_), which appears early in April, and often in such -abundance as to cover the ground with its leaves and flowers. This -flower is not confined to fields and meadows, but often covers large -patches of bank and hedgerow, where, together with the Greater -Stitchwort, it produces a most brilliant show of white and yellow stars. - -The plant has a small rootstock, with a number of little oblong tubers -which are renewed every year, and sometimes a branched, creeping stem. -Its leaves usually all grow direct from the rootstock, and are stalked, -heart-shaped, glossy, with crenate or angled margins. The flower-stalks -bear a few small leaves, and a single flower with three sepals, and -about eight glossy, oblong, yellow petals. The cluster of carpels in -the middle of the flower form a large, globular head. - -A little later in the season our pastures are bountifully bedecked by -two of the most familiar Buttercups--the Creeping Buttercup (_R. -repens_) and the Bulbous Buttercup (_R. bulbosus_), both of which appear -early in May. - -[Illustration: THE FIELD PENNY CRESS.] - -The former grows from six inches to a foot in height, and may be easily -distinguished by its creeping stems, which give off root fibres and -produce new plants at every node. The flowering stems of this species -are clothed with long hairs, and the leaves are divided into three -stalked segments which are lobed and toothed, the middle segment -projecting much beyond the other two. The flowers are in loose panicles, -on long, furrowed stalks, with five yellowish-green, concave, spreading -sepals that are shorter than the petals. The carpels are ovate in form, -somewhat flattened, arranged in a globular head; and the fruits are -smooth. This plant is abundant almost everywhere, and continues to -flower till the end of the summer. - -The Bulbous Buttercup is very similar to the last species, but may be -known at once by its swollen, bulbous root. Its leaves are divided into -three segments which are more or less toothed and lobed, and the sepals -bend backwards on the peduncle as soon as the flower opens. Its carpels -are smooth, and form a globular head; and the ripened achenes are also -smooth. The plant is very abundant. It flowers from May to August. - -[Illustration: THE WILD PANSY.] - -Coming now to the Crucifers, we have first to note the Field Pennycress -(_Thlaspi arvense_), which may be recognised at once by reference to our -illustration. It is an erect, smooth, plant, from six to twenty inches -in height, a common weed in cultivated ground, flowering from May to -July. Its radical leaves are stalked, and wither early; and the small -white flowers are soon followed by round siliquas, about half an inch -in diameter, with a broad wing notched at the top. - -The same order includes the Cuckoo Flower, Lady's Smock, or Meadow -Bittercress (_Cardamine pratensis_), which is certainly one of our -prettiest spring flowers, growing in abundance in most moist meadows, -and flowering from April to June. It has a short rootstock, with small, -fleshy scales, often so much swollen as to resemble tubers; and the stem -is erect, either simple or branched, and a foot or more in height. The -leaves are pinnately divided, the leaflets of the lower ones being ovate -or round, and those of the upper ones very narrow. The flowers are -rather large, white or lilac in colour, with stamens about half as long -as the petals, and yellow anthers. The fruits are usually more than an -inch in length. - -[Illustration: THE RAGGED ROBIN.] - -One of the common weeds of cultivated fields is the pretty Wild Pansy or -Heartsease (_Viola tricolor_), of the order _Violaceĉ_. The plant may be -easily recognised by its resemblance to the Garden Pansy, which is a -variety of the same species. It is very variable, both in regard to its -general build, and to the colour and size of the flowers. The plant is -either smooth or slightly downy, and its branching stem varies from four -to ten inches in length. The leaves are oblong or cordate, with crenate -edges; and each one has a large, leafy stipule which is divided into -oblong or very narrow lobes. The flowers are coloured with varied -proportions of yellow, white, and purple; and the lower petal, which is -the broadest, is usually purple at the base. This species flowers from -May to the end of the summer. - -In damp meadows, and especially near ditches and in marshy ground, we -meet with the Ragged Robin (_Lychnis Flos-cuculi_ of the order -_Caryophyllaceĉ_). This is an erect plant, from one to two feet high, -with a viscid stem that is slightly downy and never much branched. The -leaves are few and small, the upper ones sessile and the lower stalked. -The pretty red or rose-coloured flowers are arranged in a very loose -terminal panicle, and have no scent. The petals are each divided into -four very narrow lobes, of which the two middle ones are longest; and -the fruit is a broad oval capsule, which opens, when ripe, by five -teeth. The flowers appear first in May, and continue to bloom till the -end of June or the beginning of July. - -Several spring-flowering leguminous plants (order _Leguminosĉ_) are to -be found in fields and meadows, and of these we will first notice the -Spotted Medick (_Medicago maculata_), generally easily distinguished by -the dark spot in the centre of the leaflets of its trifoliate leaves. It -is a smooth plant, with procumbent, branching stems varying from six -inches to two feet in length. There are fine, spreading hairs on the -leafstalks, and the leaflets are obcordate and toothed. At the base of -each leafstalk there is a pair of toothed stipules. The small, yellow -flowers are in short, dense racemes, only a few in each cluster; and the -pods are little compact spirals, almost globular in general form, with -three or four ridges, and a central furrow broken by a number of fine, -curved prickles. The plant is abundant in the southern counties of -England and Ireland, where it grows on pasture-land, flowering from May -to near the end of the summer. - -The Netted Medick (_M. denticulata_), of the same genus, is a similar -plant, flowering during the same period, and often seen in the southern -and eastern counties of England, especially in fields near the coast. -Its prostrate stems are of the same length as those of the Spotted -Medick; and its leaves are also very similar, but the stipules are -bordered with very fine teeth. The flowers are in small, yellow heads; -and the pod forms a loose, flat spiral of two or three coils, deeply -netted on the surface, and bordered with curved prickles. - -We have next to note several species of Trefoils (genus _Trifolium_), -all distinguished by trifoliate, compound leaves, so familiar to us in -the clovers; and stipules which adhere to the leafstalks. Their flowers -are in dense clusters, and each one has a five-toothed calyx, and an -irregular corolla of narrow petals which usually remains, in a withered -condition, around the ripening pod. There are ten stamens, the upper one -free, while the remaining nine, united by their filaments, form a split -tube round the ovary. The pod sometimes contains only one seed, and -never more than four. - -The Subterranean Trefoil (_T. subterraneum_), which is abundant on the -dry pastures of South England, is characterised by a stem, from six to -eighteen inches long, which is underground for the greater part. The -visible portion of the plant is small, and more or less covered with -long, spreading hairs. The leaves are on long stalks, with obovate -leaflets, and broad stipules. The flowers vary in colour from white to -pink or crimson, and are usually in hairy clusters of from two to four. -As the fruit ripens, the peduncle lengthens and bends downward. At the -same time the calyx turns back on the stalk, exposing short fibres, each -with five spreading teeth which fold over the fruit. The flowers appear -during May and June. - -The Dutch Clover or White Clover (_T. repens_) is one of the most -familiar of the Trefoils. It is very abundant in English pastures, and -has been introduced into Ireland, where it is now often selected as the -national emblem in the place of the Wood Sorrel (p. 52), which -is regarded by many as the original 'true Shamrock.' The whole plant is -smooth or slightly hairy; and its creeping stem, from two to twenty -inches in length, sends down root-fibres from its nodes. The leaves have -long stalks, with stipules at the base; and the leaflets are broadly -oval or obovate, finely toothed, and have usually a lighter, -crescent-shaped mark near the middle. The flower-stalks are long, -growing from the axils of the leaves; and each one bears a globular head -of white or pinkish flowers. The plant flowers from April to the end of -the summer. - -A very similar species--_T. hybridum_--has been introduced into our -country, and has now become established in many places where it was -formerly cultivated. Its stipules are larger than those of the Dutch -Clover; the pod contains only two seeds; and the flowers are usually -pinkish. - -The Common Purple Clover (_T. pratense_) is also largely cultivated for -fodder, but it is indigenous, and grows abundantly in most parts as a -wild plant. It is very similar to the Dutch Clover in general build, -but its stem is more or less erect, the flowers are purple, and the -whole plant is generally more hairy. The stipules are ovate, larger, -veined, and have long points; and each flower-head has a pair of -trifoliate leaves at its base. The individual flowers are about half an -inch long; and the hairy calyx has the lower tooth longer than the -others. The pod contains only one seed, and is surrounded by the brown, -withered corolla, as well as by the calyx, which remains erect while the -fruit ripens. This species also flowers from May to the end of the -summer. - -[Illustration: THE PURPLE CLOVER.] - -Two of the Vetches (_Vicia_--of the order _Leguminosĉ_) are also to be -included among our spring-flowering field-plants. One of these is the -Spring Vetch (_V. lathyroides_), which may be found in flower from April -to June on dry pastures. It is a small plant, with a hairy stem that -gives off spreading branches, from six to eight inches long, at the -base. The leaves are pinnate, with two or three pairs of leaflets, -rounded and notched at the apex, and no tendrils. The flowers are small, -solitary, of a rich purple colour, situated in the axils of the leaves. -The pods are smooth and usually less than an inch long. - -The other species--the Common Vetch (_V. sativa_)--is a very similar -plant, but its trailing stems grow to a length of from one to two feet. -Its leaves have from four to seven pairs of leaflets, varying in form -from linear to obovate or obcordate, and have branched tendrils. At the -base of each leaf is a toothed stipule with, usually, a dark spot in the -centre. The flowers are axillary and sessile, either solitary or in -pairs, rather large, and of a pale purple colour. The pods are narrow, -smooth, from one to two inches long, and contain about twelve smooth -seeds. The plant is common in fields, and flowers during May and June. -It is represented in Fig. 5 of Plate IV. - -[Illustration: THE DAISY.] - -The very pretty Meadow Saxifrage (_Saxifraga granulata_), of the order -_Saxifragaceĉ_, is very abundant in the meadows of some parts of England -and Scotland, and may sometimes be seen on grassy roadsides. It varies -from six to about ten inches high, and flowers during May and June. The -stem is erect, simple or slightly branched, and covered with spreading -hairs; and the lower leaves are kidney-shaped, either crenate or lobed, -having long stalks, while the upper ones are smaller, and either entire -or sharply lobed. The rather large white flowers are in terminal cymes -of from three to six. The calyx adheres to the ovary, and has blunt -segments; the five petals are about twice as long as the sepals; and -both petals and stamens are inserted into the bases of the segments of -the calyx. The stamens are ten in number, and the ovary is two-celled, -with two styles. - -The principal spring-flowering umbelliferous plant of pastures is the -common Earthnut or Pignut (_Bunium flexuosum_ or _Conopodium -denudatum_). This plant has a smooth, slender, stem, with a few forked -branches, and is usually leafless at the base on account of the early -decay of the lower leaves. Its popular names are due to the large, -tuberous rootstock, which has somewhat the appearance of a chestnut, and -is often eaten by country folk, and dug out of the ground by pigs. The -lower leaves have three stalked segments, each divided pinnately into -narrow lobes which are themselves divided; and the upper leaves, which -are smaller, are cut into very narrow lobes, the middle one much longer -than the others. The small, white flowers are arranged in umbels of from -six to ten rays, with a few very narrow bracts or none at all. The -umbels are usually terminal, and droop before the flowers are open. The -fruit is oval or oblong, slightly flattened, with slightly-spreading -styles, and ribs scarcely visible. The plant grows from one to three -feet high, and flowers from May to July. - -Dealing next with a few composite flowers (order _Compositĉ_), we first -call attention to the leading characters of the Common Daisy (_Bellis -perennis_), which is abundant in fields and meadows almost everywhere, -and flowers practically all the year round. It has a tufted, perennial -rootstock, from which grows a cluster of obovate leaves, usually smooth, -and slightly toothed. The leafless peduncles also start direct from the -stock, each one bearing a solitary flower-head with an outer whorl of -nearly smooth bracts; a ray of strap-shaped, white or pinkish florets; -and a disc of numerous little yellow, tubular florets. - -The Dandelion (_Taraxacum Dens-leonis_ or _T. officinale_) is equally -familiar as a meadow and wayside plant, commencing to flower in March, -and continuing in bloom till October. It has a thick tap-root, with a -very bitter taste; and direct from the crown of this grow the spreading -leaves and the hollow stalks of the solitary flower-heads. The former -vary very considerably in shape, but are usually long and narrow, -broader at the apex, and cut into triangular lobes which generally point -backwards. Sometimes, however, the leaves are almost entire; and they -also vary in colour, from a bright to a very dull green. The peduncles -vary from two to eight inches in length; and the florets of the head, -which are all yellow, are surrounded by an inner whorl of narrow, erect -bracts, and outer bracts which either overlap or are turned back on the -stalk. The little fruits have projecting points towards the top, and are -provided with a slender beak, three or four times as long as the achene -itself, at the summit of which is a tuft of silky hairs. - -[Illustration: THE BUTTERBUR.] - -Our last example of the composite flowers is the Butterbur, variously -named _Tussilago vulgaris_, _Petasites vulgaris_, and _Tussilago -Petasites_. It resembles the Common Colt's-foot (_Tussilago Farfara_) in -several respects; and, as will be seen from the above names, is -sometimes included in the same genus. Its leaves are very large, and -very similar to those of the Colt's-foot, being cordate and toothed, -and appearing after the flowers. The flowering stems each bear a dense -cluster of dull pink or purple heads, forming a raceme from four inches -to a foot in height. The pistillate and staminate flowers grow almost -exclusively on separate plants. In the former case the heads are larger -and densely clustered, each one consisting of filiform, pistillate -florets only, or almost entirely of these with a few tubular, staminate -florets in the centre. On other plants the flower-heads are smaller and -not so densely clustered; and each head consists entirely of tubular, -male flowers, or has a few filiform, female florets round the outside. -The plant is common in many parts of Britain. It grows in damp meadows, -especially along the banks of streams and ditches, flowering from March -to May. - -[Illustration: THE YELLOW RATTLE.] - -The Yellow Rattle (_Rhinanthus Crista-galli_), of the order -_Scrophulariaceĉ_, is abundant in damp pastures, flowering from May to -July. It is a parasitic species, deriving a portion of its food, in the -form of ready-made organic compounds, from the roots of surrounding -grasses, and its parasitic habits are referred to in Chapter XXIII. Its -stem is erect, from six to eighteen inches high; and the leaves are -sessile, opposite, lanceolate, and coarsely toothed. The calyx is almost -globular, slightly flattened, with four small teeth. The yellow corolla -has a tube longer than the calyx, and terminates in two lips, one or -both of which have often a purple spot. The stamens are in two pairs; -and the fruit is an almost globular capsule, containing a few large, -flat seeds. - -In similar situations we may find the Field Louse-wort (_Pedicularis -sylvatica_) of the same order, also a parasitic species, extracting -nourishment from the roots of grasses. It has spreading branches from -three to ten inches long, more or less recumbent. Its leaves are -alternately arranged, and pinnately cut into small, toothed segments. -The flowers are sessile in the axils of the upper leaves, and vary in -colour from rose to white. The calyx is broadly oblong, with five -unequal lobes. The tube of the corolla is considerably longer than the -calyx; and its upper lip has a very small tooth on each side, just under -the tip. The plant flowers from April to July. - -[Illustration: THE HENBIT DEAD NETTLE.] - -The only common spring labiate flower (order _Labiatĉ_) of fields is the -Henbit Dead Nettle (_Lamium amplexicaule_), which is frequently met with -on sandy soils, flowering from April to the end of the summer. It is a -low plant, seldom reaching a foot in height, with a branching stem that -is too weak to stand erect. The upper leaves are sessile, round, much -wrinkled, and deeply crenate; while the lower ones, of the same form, -are on long petioles. The flowers are arranged in a few compact whorls, -in the axils of the upper leaves. The calyx is much shorter than the -tube of the corolla; and its five, pointed teeth, which are as long as -the tube, bend together as the fruit ripens. The lipped corolla is of a -rose or purple-red colour, about half an inch long, with a comparatively -long, straight tube. - -In damp meadows we frequently see the changing Scorpion-Grass (_Myosotis -versicolor_), also known as the Yellow and Blue Scorpion Grass, deriving -its name from the fact that the corolla is yellow at first, and -afterwards changes to a dull blue. It is a hairy plant, with an erect -stem, from four to ten inches high, slightly branched. The leaves are -oval or ovate, narrow, and sessile; the lower ones forming a spreading -tuft at the base, while the others, few in number, are erect on the -stem. The flowers are very small, almost sessile, and arranged in a -one-sided, curved raceme. The calyx is deeply cleft into five parts -which close quite over the ripening fruit; and the small corolla has a -comparatively long tube and five spreading lobes. The plant flowers from -April to June. It belongs to the order _Boraginaceĉ_. - -The Cowslip (_Primula veris_--order _Primulaceĉ_) is common in pastures -in many parts of Britain. It usually grows from six to ten inches high, -and flowers during May and June. The whole plant is clothed with soft, -downy hairs; and its leaves are all radical, obovate, narrowed towards -the base, and much wrinkled like those of the Primrose. The flowers are -arranged in a drooping umbel, on a long stalk. The calyx is tubular, -with five broad, blunt teeth; and the corolla has a long, narrow tube, -with five spreading lobes that form a shallow cup. - -[Illustration: THE COWSLIP.] - -Two species of Sorrel are very common in meadows and pastures during the -spring. They are plants very much resembling the docks; in fact, they -belong to the same genus (_Rumex_) of the order _Polygonaceĉ_. Both have -erect, leafy stems, with sheathing stipules; and numerous, small, green -flowers which soon turn red. The latter are imperfect, with a -deeply-cleft perianth of six lobes. The male flowers have six stamens; -and the females have three styles. The fruits are little triangular -nuts, more or less enclosed in the segments of the perianth. - -One of these--the Common Sorrel (_Rumex Acetosa_)--is very abundant in -damp meadows and pastures all over Britain. It varies from one to two -feet in height, with a stem that is usually unbranched, and flowers from -May to July. The leaves have a very acid juice, and are often used as a -salad. The radical ones are oblong, arrow-shaped at the base, with -pointed lobes, and have rather long stalks; the stem-leaves are -smaller, few in number, with shorter stalks. Sometimes both male and -female flowers grow on the same plant, but often the plant produces the -one kind only. They are arranged in long, leafless panicles; and the -outer lobes of the perianth of the female flowers are turned back on the -peduncle, while the inner are enlarged and swollen, and close over the -fruit. - -The other species--the Sheep's Sorrel (_R. Acetosella_)--is a much -smaller plant, seldom reaching a foot in height, and often only three or -four inches. It grows abundantly in dry pastures and on heaths, -flowering from May to July. It is much more slender than the Common -Sorrel; and its leaves, which are also acid, are all very narrow, and -generally either arrow-shaped or spear-shaped at the base. The flowers -are in very slender, terminal panicles, the males and the females always -on separate plants; and the latter differ from those of the last species -in that all the segments of the perianth close over the fruit. - -[Illustration: FOX-TAIL GRASS.] - -Coming now to the monocotyledonous plants, we have first to note three -flowers of the order _Orchidaceĉ_, the general features of which are -described in Chapter XVIII; and the reader is advised to refer -to this short account of the leading characteristics of the group before -attempting to identify the present species. - -The first is the Twayblade (_Listera ovata_), frequently seen in moist -pastures, as well as in woods, flowering from May to July. The stem of -this plant is usually from one to two feet high, with a few sheathing -scales at the base; and the species can be recognised at once by its two -broad oval leaves, almost exactly opposite one another, from two to four -inches long, and about six inches from the ground. The flowers are of a -yellowish-green colour, in a long slender raceme; and each one has a -long lip, divided into two very narrow lobes. - -The other two belong to the genus _Orchis_. They are the Green-winged -Meadow Orchis (_O. Morio_), and the Early Purple Orchis (_O. mascula_), -and may be distinguished by the following summary of their -characteristics: - -The Green-winged Orchis.--Root with two undivided tubers, and stem from -six to twelve inches high. Leaves few, narrow, at the base of the stem -only; but a few, loose, sheathing scales above them. Flowers usually -about eight in number, forming a loose spike. Bracts thin, pink, about -the same length as the ovary. Sepals purplish, arching over the smaller -petals. Lip longer than the sepals, and divided into three short lobes. -Spur a little shorter than the ovary, and very blunt. The plant is -abundant in the South of England and in South Ireland, but less common -in the North. The flowers appear during May and June. - -The Early Purple Orchis.--Root with two undivided tubers. Stem from six -to eighteen inches high, including the loose spike of flowers. Leaves -broad, and often spotted. Flowers numerous, usually purple, but -sometimes pink or even white. Bracts coloured, nearly as long as the -ovary. Upper sepals and petals arched over the ovary; lateral sepals -acute, and turned upwards and backwards. Lip about the same length as -the sepals, divided into three short lobes, the middle one notched, and -the lateral ones turned backward. Spur as long as the ovary, obtuse. The -plant is generally distributed, growing in moist meadows and in woods, -flowering from April to June. - -Finally, we have to note two early-flowering grasses of pastures. One of -these is the Fox-tail Grass (_Alopecurus pratensis_), which grows from -one to two feet high, and may be identified with the aid of our -illustration. The other is the Slender Fox-tail (_A. agrestis_), a very -similar plant, but its spike of flowers is narrower, especially towards -the top, and the sheaths of its leaves are not so loose as in the -former. - - - - -IX - -BOGS, MARSHES AND WET PLACES IN SPRING - - -The cold soils of bogs, marshes, and other wet places do not produce a -very great variety of flowers during the spring months; but some there -are which appear in great profusion; and others, though less -conspicuous, are sufficiently abundant and interesting to be included in -our list. - -Our first is the beautiful Marsh Marigold (_Caltha palustris_) of the -Buttercup family (_Ranunculaceĉ_), which is exceedingly abundant in -marshes and by the sides of muddy ditches in most parts of Britain, -flowering from March to June. It is represented on Plate V, and -may be distinguished at once from the other members of its family by its -glossy leaves, and its large flowers, varying from one to near two -inches in diameter. - -A little later in the season we may meet with the pale blue or lilac -flowers of the Marsh Violet (_Viola palustris_--order _Violaceĉ_), which -generally make their first appearance in April, and continue until June -or July. The plant is much like the well-known Sweet Violet in general -appearance, but is smaller, with a creeping stock; and the whole is -smooth with the exception of a few scattered hairs on the flower-stalks. -Its leaves are either round, heart-shaped, or kidney-shaped, with -slightly-waved edges, and often of a purplish hue beneath. The flowers -are smaller than those of the Sweet Violet, scentless, with pale petals; -and the spur of the corolla is very short and blunt. The plant is rather -local in the southern counties of England, but is decidedly abundant in -the bogs and marshes of North Britain. - -Few of the spring bog-flowers are more interesting than the pretty -little Sundews (_Drosera_), so remarkable on account of their -carnivorous nature. A description of the three British species will be -found in Chapter XXIV, which contains also an account of their peculiar -habits. - -Coming next to the order _Caryophyllaceĉ_ we have to note two of the -Stitchworts or Starworts (_Stellaria_)--slender plants distinguished by -their opposite, pointed leaves; jointed stems; and little, white, -star-like flowers. They have five sepals; five petals, deeply divided -into two lobes; ten stamens; three styles; and a capsular fruit that -splits longitudinally, with many seeds. - -One of these is the Glaucous or Marsh Stitchwort (_Stellaria glauca_ or -_S. palustris_), which is widely distributed though not very common. The -whole plant is slender, with a four-angled stem from six to eighteen -inches high; and narrow, sessile, undivided leaves that taper to a -point. Its flowers are solitary on axillary peduncles, from half to -three-quarters of an inch in diameter, with petals much longer than the -three-veined sepals. They first appear in April, and continue to bloom -until August. - -[Illustration: THE MARSH POTENTIL.] - -The other is the Bog Stitchwort (_S. uliginosa_)--a smooth, slender -plant, with a spreading, four-angled stem, and narrow-ovate leaves that -terminate in a stiff point. In marshy or boggy ground its stems are -straggling, and often near a foot in length; but on drier soils they are -much shorter, and the plant more tufted. The flowers are much -smaller--only about a quarter of an inch in diameter, and are arranged -in loose, terminal cymes. Their petals are shorter than the sepals, and -are very deeply divided into two narrow spreading lobes. This species -flowers during May and June. - -The Rose family (_Rosaceĉ_) includes the Purple Marsh Cinquefoil or -Marsh Potentil (_Comarum palustre_ or _Potentilla palustris_)--a stout -plant, varying from six to eighteen inches high, the whole generally -more or less tinged with purple. The flowers are of a dull purple-brown -colour, in loose clusters, and bloom from May to July. The sepals, which -are longer than the petals, have narrow outer segments, and longer, -broad, inner segments with long, sharp points. This species is widely -distributed, but is very local in the southern counties of England. - -[Illustration: THE GOLDEN SAXIFRAGE.] - -In shady marshes we may often meet with one or other of the two pretty -little Golden Saxifrages (order _Saxifragaceĉ_), and sometimes the both -growing together. One of them--the Common Golden Saxifrage -(_Chrysosplenium oppositifolium_), is very abundant, often covering -large patches of marsh with its golden leaves and flowers. It is a -tender, succulent plant; with a decumbent stem, either simple, or -branched near the top, and rooting at the base. The leaves are opposite, -almost round, about half an inch in diameter, with wavy margins, and a -few scattered hairs on the upper side. The lower ones are shortly -stalked, and the upper generally of a golden colour. The flowers are -very small, in little, crowded, terminal clusters, surrounded by the -upper leaves. They have a calyx of four spreading sepals; no petals; -eight stamens joined to the base of the sepals; and an inferior ovary -divided above into two conical lobes. - -The other species is the Alternate-leaved Golden Saxifrage (_C. -alternifolium_)--a very similar plant, but generally of a lighter -colour, and its leaves are always alternately arranged. Both species -have yellow flowers which bloom from April to July; and both grow to a -height of from two to five inches. The latter is much less common than -the former, but is very widely distributed. - -The Marsh Pennywort or White Rot (_Hydrocotyle vulgaris_) is a peculiar -umbelliferous plant, common in marshes and bogs, with a slender stem -that creeps in the mud, rooting at every joint; and tufts of -long-stalked leaves which rise above the surface of the water. The -latter are round, with waved margins, about an inch in diameter, glossy, -and stalked in the centre. The minute white flowers are collected into -little five-flowered umbels, on stalks much shorter than those of the -leaves, each individual flower having a very short pedicel, and five -spreading petals. This plant flowers from May to August. - -[Illustration: THE MARSH VALERIAN.] - -In the marshes of South Britain we may often meet with the pretty Marsh -Valerian (_Valeriana dioica_) of the _Valerianaceĉ_. It grows from six -to eight inches high, and its flowers, which bloom during May and June, -are of a pale rose colour, in a terminal corymb. They are mostly -unisexual, the male and female flowers growing on different plants. All -have a tubular corolla, pouched at the base, with five spreading lobes; -but the female blooms are more densely crowded than the males, and are -of a deeper colour. The former have an inferior ovary, with a slender -style and a lobed stigma; and the latter have three stamens on the -corolla. - -The _Gentianaceĉ_ is represented in bogs by the common Buckbean or Marsh -Trefoil (_Menyanthes trifoliata_), the only member of its family with -trifoliate leaves. This plant has a creeping stock; and its flowers, -which are pink in the bud and pinkish white when expanded, are in -handsome racemes on stalks from six inches to a foot in length. The -calyx has five short lobes; and the bell-shaped, fleshly corolla is -deeply cut into five lobes which are beautifully fringed above with -delicate filaments. The time of flowering is May to July. - -[Illustration: THE MARSH TREFOIL.] - -[Illustration: THE MARSH LOUSEWORT.] - -In the marshes, ditches, and wet meadows of most parts we may see the -Red Rattle or Marsh Lousewort (_Pedicularis palustris_) which belongs to -the order _Scrophulariaceĉ_. It has an erect stem, from six to eighteen -inches high, with reddish branches; and pinnate leaves with many oval -segments more or less deeply cut. Its rather large crimson flowers are -on very short stalks in the axils of the upper leaves, forming together -a leafy raceme. The calyx is a broad, hairy tube, with two -irregularly-toothed lips; and the corolla is much longer than the calyx, -with two lips, the upper of which has four minute teeth. After flowering -the calyx becomes much swollen; and the superior ovary ripens into a -capsule with a few rather large seeds. This plant flowers from May to -September. - -Most wet places are characterised by the presence of one or more species -of Willows--those water-loving trees and shrubs which constitute the -genus _Salix_ of the order _Salicaceĉ_. Some of them almost invariably -establish themselves along the banks of rivers and streams, and may -often be seen in long tortuous lines which mark the positions and -courses of streams that no longer exist; while others thrive best in the -standing water and sodden soils of marshes and bogs. One species in -particular, the Osier, is largely cultivated for its long, slender -twigs, so useful in the manufacture of baskets and other wicker-work; -but two or three others are valued for the same purpose, and are either -specially cultivated, or pollarded with the object of securing suitable -twigs for this work. - -[Illustration: THE YELLOW FLAG.] - -Nearly all the species have very narrow leaves, with prominent stipules -at the base; and their flowers grow in erect or horizontal catkins with -undivided scales. The flowers are always unisexual, the male and female -blossoms being produced on separate trees. The former have from two to -five stamens; and the latter a one-celled ovary that ripens to a capsule -containing many seeds, each with a tuft of silky hairs. A few of these -trees are common in marshes and bogs, but they are so similar in their -general features that the identification of species is somewhat -difficult for a beginner. - -Some of our marshes and boggy pools are beautifully decorated from May -to July by the large, bright flowers of the Yellow Iris or Flag (_Iris -Pseudacorus_), which belongs to the order _Iridaceĉ_. This plant has a -thick rhizome which creeps horizontally below the ground, and a round -stem from one to three feet high. Two or three flowers grow on the stem, -each with a sheathing bract at the base of its stalk. The perianth -consists of six segments, the outer three broadly ovate at the top, and -spreading; and the inner three narrower, shorter, and erect. There are -three stamens; and an inferior ovary with three large petal-like -stigmas, longer than the inner segments of the perianth, divided into -two at the tip. The fruit is a large capsule, two or three inches long, -containing many brownish-yellow seeds. - - - - -X - -WOODS AND THICKETS IN SUMMER - - -A large number of the flowers that grow in woods bloom early in the -spring, before the buds of the trees have expanded, or, at least, before -the foliage is sufficiently dense to cover the ground with its shadow. -Some, however, are not so dependent on the direct rays of the sun, but -thrive even better in the shaded, moist atmosphere of wooded ground. -Others there are which seem grateful for the warm rays of the summer -sun, but grow to their greatest luxuriance in the moist and -partially-shaded ground of underwood and thicket, trusting to the -rigidity of their own erect stems, or to the climbing habit which they -have acquired, to bring their leaves and blossoms in full view of the -sun during some part of the day. - -Plants such as these are selected for description in this chapter; and -although we may speak of their flowers as the summer blossoms of woods, -thickets and copses, we must be prepared to meet with several of them -outside these habitats, particularly in damp places that are more or -less protected from the heat of the sun. - -Our first in this series is the Lime Tree (_Tilia europĉa_) of the order -_Tiliaceĉ_, which grows wild in many of our woods, but has been planted -to such an extent that it may be found in almost every cultivated -district except in the extreme North. Its leaves are stalked, alternate, -heart-shaped or broadly ovate, very pointed, serrate, smooth above, and -slightly downy below. The flowers, which appear during June and July, -are of a pale yellowish green colour, and are arranged in cymes, on -axillary, drooping peduncles that are attached for nearly half their -length to a long, leafy bract. There are five sepals, which fall early; -five petals; and many stamens that are united at their bases into -clusters. The blossoms have a very sweet scent, and produce such an -abundance of nectar that they are very attractive to bees and other -insects. The fruit is a woody nut, globular or more or less angled, -five-celled, with two seeds in each cell. - -[Illustration: _Plate II._ FLOWERS OF THE WOODS. -1. Great Valerian. 2. Foxglove. 3. Succory-leaved Hawk's-beard. 4. -Nettle-leaved Bell-flower. 5. Broad-leaved Helleborine. 6. Hairy -Brome-grass.] - -A small-leaved variety, sometimes regarded as a distinct species (_Tilia -parvifolia_), has a thin, angular fruit; and another, known as _Tilia -grandifolia_, has very large, broad leaves, downy on both sides, and a -downy fruit with from three to five prominent ribs. - -[Illustration: THE LARGE-FLOWERED ST. JOHN'S WORT.] - -Several species of St. John's-wort (order _Hypericaceĉ_) grow in -thickets and other wooded spots. They vary considerably in size, as well -as in general appearance, but all agree in the following features: Their -leaves are opposite, entire, without stipules, and either sessile or -very shortly stalked. The flowers are regular, with five sepals; five -petals, often oblique at the tip; numerous stamens, united or clustered -into three or five sets; and a superior ovary that ripens to a capsule -with many seeds. No less than four species of the genus (_Hypericum_) -come within the province of the present chapter. They are:-- - -1. The Tutsan (_H. Androsĉmum_).--An erect, shrubby plant, from one to -three feet high, flowering from June to August, common in the thickets -of most of the western and southern counties of Britain. It has several -erect, slightly-flattened stems; and large, blunt, ovate leaves, two or -three inches long, with very small, transparent dots that are easily -seen when the leaves are held up to the light. The flowers are yellow, -about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and form a compact, -terminal corymb. The sepals are broad, about a third of an inch long; -the petals a little longer, and oblique; and the stamens are in five -sets, connected at the base. - -[Illustration: THE COMMON ST. JOHN'S WORT.] - -2. The Large-flowered St. John's-Wort or Rose of Sharon (_H. -calycinum_).--A shrubby plant, from ten to eighteen inches high, with a -creeping, woody stock, flowering from July to September. It is not -indigenous, but has been largely introduced into parks and gardens, and -now grows wild in many parts. This species may be distinguished from all -other members of the genus by its large, yellow flowers, from one and a -half to three inches in diameter. - -3. The Common St. John's-Wort (_H. perforatum_).--A very common plant in -woods and thickets, growing from one to two feet high, and flowering -from July to September. It has short, underground stems, or barren -shoots that lie on the ground and root at the nodes, in addition to the -erect, flowering stems, which are either round or two-edged, and -branched towards the top. The leaves are half an inch long, with opaque -veins, many transparent dots, and sometimes a few black dots on the -under side. The yellow flowers form a terminal corymb. Their sepals are -narrow, about half the length of the petals. The stamens are in three -sets, united at the base; and both petals and anthers are marked with -black dots. - -4. The Hairy St. John's-Wort (_H. hirsutum_).--A stiff, erect plant, -from one to three feet high, common in the woods and thickets of most -parts of Britain, flowering in July and August. The stem is round, and -clothed with soft hairs. The leaves are ovate, oblong or elliptical, -tapering at the base into a short stalk, about an inch long, with many -transparent dots, and downy along the veins on the under side. The -sepals are narrow, acute, about half the length of the yellow petals, -and fringed with stalked glands. The stamens are in three sets. - -[Illustration: THE DYER'S GREEN-WEED.] - -The Wood Crane's-bill (_Geranium sylvaticum_--order _Geraniaceĉ_), one -of the most handsome of our Wild Geraniums, is not found in the South, -but is moderately common in parts of North Britain, including North -Ireland. Its stem is erect, from one to two feet high, and branched -towards the top. In general form the leaves are heart-shaped or -shield-shaped, but they are very deeply divided into five or seven -radiating, cut, and toothed lobes. The lower ones are on long stalks; -but the upper are shortly stalked or sessile, and less divided. The -flowers are of a bluish-purple or rose colour, about an inch in -diameter, arranged in a loose panicle with two flowers on each pedicel. -The five sepals are about half the length of the petals, and terminate -in a very fine point; and the petals are obovate and slightly notched. -The plant flowers during June and July. - -[Illustration: THE SWEET MILK VETCH.] - -Passing now to the order _Leguminosĉ_ we note first the Dyer's -Green-weed (_Genista tinctoria_)--a shrubby plant, common in the -thickets and bushy places of South Britain, flowering from July to -September. The stem is woody and stiff, but green; its base rests on the -ground, but it sends up erect flowering branches from one to two feet -high. The yellow flowers are arranged in terminal racemes, each flower -having a lanceolate bract at the base of its short stalk, and very small -bracts at the base of the calyx. The calyx has five teeth, the three -lower ones much narrower than the other two, all terminating in a sharp -point; the corolla is much longer than the calyx, with an oblong -standard or upper petal; the stamens are all united by their filaments, -forming a complete sheath round the ovary; and the pods are smooth, -about an inch long, and compressed. - -In the thickets of most parts of Britain, but more especially those of -the eastern counties, we may often meet with the Sweet Milk Vetch -(_Astragalus glycyphyllos_) of the same order. It is a prostrate plant, -with pale yellow or cream-coloured flowers that bloom from June to -August. The flowers are about half an inch long, in short, dense, -shortly-stalked racemes. The calyx has five teeth; the upper stamen is -free from the other nine, which form a divided sheath round the ovary; -and the pod is smooth, round, curved, over an inch long, and divided by -a double membrane into two cells, each of which contains about seven -seeds. - -[Illustration: THE WILD RASPBERRY.] - -In the same order are two species of Everlasting Pea (_Lathyrus_), both -of which grow in thickets and other bushy places. One is the Tuberous -Everlasting Pea or Tuberous Bitter Vetch (_L. macrorrhizus_), an erect -plant, from six inches to a foot in height, flowering from May to July. -Its rootstock has small tubers, and the stem is winged. The leaves are -pinnate, with from two to four pairs of narrow leaflets and half -arrow-shaped stipules; they have no tendrils, but the leafstalk -terminates in a fine point. The flowers are of a red-purple colour, -changing to greenish blue as they fade; and are in loose racemes of from -two to four. - -The other is the Narrow-leaved Everlasting Pea (_L. sylvestris_), a -straggling plant, from two to six feet long, flowering from June to -August. It is not so common as the last, but may be found in similar -situations. Its stem has very narrow wings; and the leaves have very -narrow leaflets, flattened stalks, branched tendrils, and half -arrow-shaped stipules. The flowers are rather large, of a pale purple -colour, with a greenish keel, and a green spot on the large upper petal. -They are arranged in loose racemes. - -[Illustration: THE ROSE BAY WILLOW HERB.] - -The Wild Raspberry (_Rubus Idĉus_--order _Rosaceĉ_) is to be found in -the woods and thickets of most parts of Britain. It may be easily -distinguished from other species of its genus by the following -description:--Rootstock creeping, with many suckers. Stems round, erect, -with a soft down and numerous weak prickles. Leaves pinnate, with three -or five ovate, pointed, toothed leaflets, pale green above, and white -and hoary beneath. Stipules small, very narrow and pointed, usually -attached part way up to the leafstalk. Flowers white, in long, terminal, -drooping panicles. Calyx five-lobed; petals five, short and narrow; -stamens numerous; and fruit consisting of a globular cluster of red or -yellow, hoary, one-seeded, succulent carpels which usually separate from -the conical receptacle when ripe. The bush grows from three to five feet -high, and flowers from June to August. - -Two species of Willow Herb (order _Onagraceĉ_) grow in copses and -thickets, and are easily recognised by their rose-coloured flowers with -very long, inferior ovaries. One is the beautiful French Willow or Rose -Bay Willow Herb (_Epilobium angustifolium_), an erect plant, varying -from two to six feet in height, widely distributed, though not very -common, flowering during July and August. Its leaves are alternate, -narrow-elliptical, entire or with very small teeth, and very shortly -stalked. The flowers are about an inch in diameter, numerous, forming a -very long, loose, terminal, tapering raceme, with a narrow bract at the -base of each pedicel. The calyx is tubular, four-cleft, attached to the -top of the long ovary; the corolla consists of four entire, nearly -equal, spreading petals; the stamens, eight in number, all bend -downwards; and the stigma is deeply divided into four lobes, on a long -style which also bends downward. The fruit is a four-celled capsule, two -or three inches long, which splits when ripe, its valves curling -downwards and exposing numerous minute seeds, each of which has a silky -tuft of fine hairs that enables it to be dispersed by the wind. The -plant is most frequently seen in damp copses, and among the undergrowth -of damp woods. - -[Illustration: THE DOGWOOD.] - -The second species is the Pale Smooth-leaved Willow Herb (_E. roseum_), -an erect plant, seldom more than two feet high, found principally in the -damp copses of the southern counties, flowering in July and August. Its -stem is four-angled, two opposite angles being much more prominent than -the other two; and its leaves are opposite, with longer stalks, -lanceolate or elliptical, pointed, toothed, smooth, usually about two -inches long. The flowers are not nearly so numerous as those of the last -species, are only a little over a third of an inch in diameter, and in a -short, leafy panicle, drooping while in the bud. The calyx is deeply -divided into four sepals about a sixth of an inch long; the corolla -consists of four notched petals, a little longer than the sepals; the -stamens, ovary, fruit, and seeds correspond in number and character with -those of the last species; but the stigma is either entire or divided -into four very short lobes. - -In the same order we have the Enchanter's Nightshade (_Circĉa -lutetiana_), distinguished at once from the Willow Herbs by having only -two sepals, two petals, and two stamens. It is an erect, hairy plant, -from one to two feet high, flowering from June to August. Its stem is -slender; and the leaves are opposite, long-stalked, ovate and coarsely -toothed. The flowers are very small, white, in terminal, leafless -racemes, with deeply-notched petals, and pink stamens. The fruit is a -little two-lobed capsule with stiff, hooked hairs. - -[Illustration: THE WOOD SANICLE.] - -The Cornel or Dogwood (_Cornus sanguinea_), of the order _Cornaceĉ_, is -a common shrub in woods and thickets, and is often employed in the -making of hedgerows. It grows from five to eight feet high, and flowers -during June and July. Its leaves are covered, when young, with fine, -silky hairs that lie close on the surface, but these almost entirely -disappear later; and towards the end of the summer the leaves assume a -deep crimson or purple colour. The flowers are very abundant, of a -yellowish white colour, and are arranged in dense cymes, about two -inches across, without bracts. The four-toothed calyx and the peduncle -are both clothed with a mealy down; and the four petals, about a quarter -of an inch long, are narrow and pointed. The fruit is a purple-black, -globular, berry-like drupe, containing a stone with one or two seeds. - -In very dense woods, where the light is so much reduced that but few -flowers will grow, we may generally find the Wood Sanicle (_Sanicula -europĉa_), a smooth umbelliferous plant with a short, hard rootstock, -and a simple stem from one to two feet high. The leaves, which are all -radical, are on long stalks, and are palmately divided into three or -five shining lobes that are themselves cut and sharply toothed. The -flowers are sessile, in little rounded heads; the whole inflorescence -forming an irregular umbel or a loose panicle. They are very minute, of -a pinkish white colour; and the outer ones of each head usually have no -pistil. They bloom during June and July, and are followed later by -little prickly fruits about a sixth of an inch long. - -[Illustration: THE ALEXANDERS.] - -In damp woods we commonly meet with the tall, stout, branching Angelica -(_Angelica sylvestris_) of the same order (_Umbelliferĉ_), with a thick, -furrowed stem, two to four feet high, downy above, and usually more or -less shaded with purple. Its lower leaves are very large, with stalked, -ovate leaflets, from one to two inches long, often three-lobed, and -always sharply toothed. The upper leaves are much smaller, with fewer -leaflets, and often consist only of a broad sheath with a few small -leaflets at its summit. The flowers are white, generally tinged with -pink, and form a large terminal umbel of from sixteen to forty rays, -with two or three narrow primary bracts, and several fine secondary -ones. They bloom during July and August, and are succeeded by flattened -fruits with three ribs on the back of each of the two carpels. The -carpels are also broadly winged; and, as the wings do not adhere, each -fruit is surrounded by a double wing. - -[Illustration: THE ELDER.] - -The order _Caprifoliaceĉ_ includes the Common Elder (_Sambucus nigra_), -the white or cream-coloured flowers of which are so conspicuous in our -woods and hedgerows in June. This tree grows to a height of fifteen or -twenty feet, and its young branches are remarkable for the large -quantity of pith they contain. The general form of the leaves and the -arrangement of the flowers are seen in our illustration. Each flower has -a calyx with five small teeth; a corolla with a short tube and five -spreading limbs; five stamens attached to the base of the corolla; and -an inferior ovary. The fruit is a black, berry-like drupe containing -(usually) eight little, seedlike stones. - -[Illustration: THE GUELDER ROSE.] - -The Guelder Rose or Water Elder (_Viburnum Opulus_), of the same order, -is a flowering shrub, usually six or eight feet high, moderately common -in moist woods and copses, especially in the South, bearing showy cymes -of white blossoms in June and July. The cymes are flat-topped, -consisting of numerous flowers, the outer of which are much larger, -often nearly an inch in diameter, but without stamens or styles, while -the others are perfect, with five stamens and three sessile styles. The -fruit is a blackish-red, almost globular, slightly-flattened berry, -containing a single seed. The cultivated variety of this shrub, known as -the Snowball Tree, has large, globular cymes of flowers, all of which -are large and barren. - -The Great Valerian or All-heal (_Valeriana officinalis_--order -_Valerianaceĉ_) is moderately common in moist woods, and is rather -widely distributed. It is an erect plant, from two to four feet high, -flowering from June to August. There seems to be two distinct varieties -of this plant, one with from four to six pairs of leaflets, and the -other with from six to ten pairs, in addition to the terminal leaflet in -each case. The flowers are small, flesh-coloured or nearly white, in -terminal and axillary corymbs. The little inferior ovary is surmounted -by a calyx which is compactly rolled in at first, but which expands into -a spreading, feathery pappus as the fruit ripens. The corolla is -tubular, with five short, equal, spreading lobes. It is not spurred as -in the case of the Red Valerian (p. 302), but the base of the -tube is pouched on one side. This plant is shown on Plate II, Fig. -1. - -We have now to note some composite flowers (order _Compositĉ_) of wooded -and shaded ground. Of these we will first take the Blunt-leaved or -Succory-leaved Hawk's-beard (_Crepis succisĉfolia_ or _C. hieracoides_), -which is moderately common in the woods of North England and Scotland, -but does not occur in the South. It is an erect plant, varying from one -to three feet in height, smooth or slightly hairy, flowering during July -and August. The fruits (achenes) are marked by many fine, longitudinal -ridges, and are surmounted by a dense pappus of soft, white hairs which -are a little longer than the fruits themselves. This flower is -represented in Plate II, Fig. 3. - -In the woods and thickets of nearly all parts of Britain we may see the -Saw-wort (_Serratula tinctoria_), a stiff, erect, smooth plant, from one -to three feet high, flowering in August and September. The flower-heads -are purple or crimson, forming a loose, terminal corymb; and the -florets, all of which are tubular, are imperfect, the males and females -being generally on different plants. The involucre is oblong in form, -more than half an inch long, consisting of many pointed, closely-placed -bracts, of which the inner are usually tipped with red; and that of the -male heads is somewhat broader than the involucre of the females. The -pappus consists of a tuft of simple hairs, most of which are longer than -the achene. - -The Golden Rod (_Solidago Virga-aurea_) is another abundant flower, -found in dry woods and thickets in all parts. It is a tufted plant, with -stiff, erect, angular, slightly-branched stems, varying from six inches -to two feet in height; and narrow-elliptical leaves, entire or slightly -toothed, the lower ones stalked. The flowers are very numerous, of a -bright golden yellow-colour, forming a dense, terminal panicle. The -heads are not large, and each consists of about twenty tubular -disc-florets; half the number of strap-shaped ray-florets; and an -involucre of many overlapping bracts. The pappus consists of many simple -hairs. This species flowers from July to September. - -Two species of Leopard's Bane (_Doronicum_) are occasionally to be seen -in damp woods and thickets, especially near villages. They are not -indigenous, only occurring as escapes from gardens, but they have now -become well established as wild flowers in many parts of Britain. Both -are tall, erect plants, from two to three feet high, with large yellow -heads surrounded by two or three rows of narrow, acute bracts. Except in -colour the heads much resemble the Ox-eye Daisy. In both species the -achenes of the ray have no pappus, but those of the disc have a pappus -of stiff hairs in several rows. They flower from May to July. - -[Illustration: THE SAW-WORT.] - -The Great Leopard's Bane (_D. Pardalianches_) has a creeping rootstock -and a hollow stem. Its radical leaves are broadly heart-shaped, slightly -toothed, on long stalks; and the stem leaves are narrower, entire or -toothed, the upper ones small, sessile, embracing the stem; and the -lower ones stalked, with a broad expansion at the base of the stalk -which clasps the stem. The heads are usually three or four in number, on -long leafless peduncles. - -The other species, the Plantain-leaved Leopard's Bane (_D. -plantagineum_), has, as its name denotes, leaves similar to those of the -Plantain. It usually has solitary flower-heads, and is represented on -Plate I. - -Passing now to the favourite Bell-flowers (Order _Campanulaceĉ_), we -have to notice four species that are to be found in woods and other -shady spots during the summer months. The features common to the four -species are:--Leaves alternate. Calyx adhering to the ovary, with a -border of five lobes or teeth. Corolla bell-shaped, with five lobes. -Stamens five, attached to the corolla by the broad bases of the -filaments. Ovary inferior, ripening to a capsule that opens by -longitudinal clefts. The species referred to are: - -1. The Giant Bell-flower (_Campanula latifolia_). A stout plant, from -three to five feet high; with an unbranched, leafy stem; and a leafy -raceme of large, deep blue or white flowers that bloom in July and -August. Its leaves are large, ovate to lanceolate, acute, doubly -serrate, the lower ones stalked and the upper sessile. Each axillary -peduncle bears only one flower, the calyx of which has long, narrow -segments, and the corolla is hairy within. The capsule is short, opening -by slits near the base. This flower is found principally in the North. - -2. The Creeping Bell-flower (_C. Rapunculoides_).--A downy plant, with a -creeping rootstock; an erect, simple or slightly-branched stem from one -to two feet high; and a one-sided raceme of drooping, deep blue flowers -that appear in July and August. The leaves are rough and doubly toothed, -the lower ones stalked and heart-shaped, and the upper narrow and -sessile. The segments of the calyx are long and narrow, and the capsule -is globular, opening by small slits near the base. This species is -widely distributed, but not very common. - -3. The Nettle-leaved Bell-flower (_C. Trachelium_).--A very rough plant, -with an angled stem, from one to three feet high, bearing a leafy raceme -of large blue flowers from July to October. Its leaves are much like -those of the Stinging Nettle, being very rough, bristly, and coarsely -toothed. The segments of the calyx are rather broad, and very rough with -stiff hairs. This species is very abundant in some localities, and is -widely distributed. (See Plate II, Fig. 4.) - -4. The Ivy-leaved Bell-flower (_C. hederacea_).--A pretty little -creeping plant that grows in moist woods, flowering during July and -August. It is very widely distributed, and is a common flower in many -parts of Great Britain, more especially in the southern counties. Its -prostrate stem is very slender; and the leaves are small, stalked, very -broad, and palmately divided into angular lobes. The flowers are of a -pale blue colour, solitary on long, threadlike peduncles; and the -capsule is globular, opening by three valves at the top. - -From May to August is the best season to study the Holly (_Ilex -aquifolium_--order _Aquifoliaceĉ_). We are all acquainted with this tree -in its winter condition, with its bright red or yellow 'berries,' but -during the months above named the less familiar flowers are in bloom. -The tree is common in the woods of all parts of Britain, and is easily -distinguished at all times by its smooth, grey bark, as well as by its -thick, glossy, spiny, evergreen leaves, which are placed alternately on -the branches, attached by very short stalks. As a rule the leaves have -waved margins, and are armed with several very strong spines; but -commonly the spines of the upper leaves are much fewer, and are -sometimes reduced to a single one at the apex. The little white flowers -form dense clusters in the axils of the leaves. Generally they contain -both stamens and pistil, but often they are imperfect, the pistillate -flowers predominating on some trees and the staminate ones on others. -Their parts are arranged in fours, the calyx having four small teeth, -and the corolla four spreading lobes, while four stamens are attached to -the latter, and the ovary has the same number of cells, and the style -terminates in an equal number of small stigmas. The fruits are not -really berries, but little, poisonous drupes containing four one-seeded -stones. - -[Illustration: THE IVY-LEAVED BELL FLOWER.] - -The Privet (_Ligustrum vulgare_), which forms, together with the Ash, -the whole of the order _Oleaceĉ_, as far as British species are -concerned, is very common in the southern counties, where it is often an -escape from gardens, the bush being so largely employed in the formation -of hedges; but it is truly wild, and very plentiful on the chalky soils -of the south and east of England. Except during very severe winters the -old leaves remain until the early spring leaves are well formed, so that -the bush is always green. The flowers are white, with a very -characteristic odour, and are arranged in dense, terminal, conical -panicles. The calyx forms a little cup with four teeth, but soon falls; -and the corolla is funnel-shaped, with four spreading lobes at the top -of its tube. The stamens are short, attached to the corolla; and the -superior ovary ripens to a black, globular berry containing two or four -seeds. The bushes are in bloom during June and July. - -[Illustration: TWO TWIGS OF HOLLY -One from a lower, and one from the topmost branch of the same tree, the -former in fruit.] - -Three species of Cow Wheat (_Melampyrum_) are to be found in copses and -woods during the summer. They belong to the order _Scrophulariaceĉ_; -and, like other allied plants of this group, are partial parasites (See -page 349), deriving a portion of their food from the roots of -grasses by means of suckers. They have the following features in -common:--Leaves opposite. Calyx tubular, with four narrow teeth. Corolla -much longer than the calyx, consisting of a very long tube and two lips, -the upper lip undivided, with its sides turned back, and the lower with -three spreading lobes. A kind of 'palate' also closes the mouth of the -tube. The fruit is an ovate capsule, containing from one to four seeds. -The three species referred to are:-- - -1. The Common Cow Wheat (_M. pratense_).--A smooth, erect plant, from -six to eighteen inches high, with spreading, opposite branches; and -sessile, narrow leaves, often coarsely toothed at the base. The flowers -are pale yellow, over half an inch long, arranged in pairs in the axils -of the upper leaves, and all turned towards one side of the stem. The -corolla is three or four times the length of the calyx. This plant is -very common in moist copses and thickets, and flowers from June to -August. - -[Illustration: THE PRIVET.] - -2. The Crested Cow Wheat (_M. cristatum_).--A widely-distributed plant, -found principally in the copses and thickets of the eastern and southern -counties. Its stem is from six to twenty inches in height; and the -leaves are very narrow, and generally entire except in the case of a few -of the upper ones, which are slightly toothed at the base. The flowers -are yellow, more or less variegated with purple, about half an inch -long, and they closely overlap one another in a dense, four-sided spike -over an inch in length. Under each flower is a broad, heart-shaped, -strongly-toothed, rose-coloured bract. The plant blooms during July. - -3. The Wood or Yellow Cow Wheat (_M. sylvaticum_), sometimes known as -the Small-flowered Cow Wheat. This is a much rarer plant, and seems to -be found only in the hilly woods of Scotland and North England. It is -very much like the Common Cow Wheat, but its flowers are of a deep -yellow colour, less than half an inch long, with entire bracts, and -equal, open lips. The corolla is only twice the length of the calyx, and -the lanceolate leaves are very seldom toothed. - -[Illustration: MILLET GRASS.] - -[Illustration: BEARDED WHEAT.] - -The same order (_Scrophulariaceĉ_) contains the handsome and favourite -Foxglove (_Digitalis purpurea_), which grows abundantly in most dry -woods and shady wastes, flowering from June to August. Its stout, -unbranched stem varies from two to six feet in height, a large -proportion being the axis of a long one-sided raceme of beautiful, -drooping, purple or, occasionally, white flowers. The fruit is an -ovate, pointed capsule that splits into two valves and contains many -seeds. It is remarkable that this plant does not grow freely on chalk -and limestone soils, yet it will often make a sudden appearance in great -profusion as we pass over the edge of a calcareous district. The flower -is shown on Plate II, Fig. 2. - -Of the order _Labiatĉ_ we shall note one species only, and that is the -pretty Wood Betony (_Stachys Betonica_), a very common plant in the -woods and thickets of the south of Britain. It is a hairy species, with -a slender, simple or slightly-branched stem from one to two feet high; -and deeply-crenate, oblong leaves. The lower leaves have long stalks, -and are heart-shaped at the base; but those of the stem are narrower, -sessile or shortly stalked, tapering at the base. The flowers, which -bloom from June to August, vary much in colour, ranging from a deep -purple or crimson to a rose-pink or (rarely) white; and they form a -dense oblong, terminal spike, consisting of whorls of six or more, with -a bract at the base of each calyx, and a pair of sessile leaves just -below the lowest whorl. The calyx is ribbed, with five very sharp teeth; -and the corolla, which is much longer than the sepals, has an erect, -oval, upper lip, and a spreading, three-lobed, lower lip. The stamens -are in two pairs, immediately under the upper lip; and the fruit -consists of four little rounded nuts. - -[Illustration: SLENDER FALSE BROME.] - -In the dry woods of South Britain we occasionally meet with the Wood -Scorpion-grass or Wood Forget-me-not (_Myosotis sylvatica_), of the -order _Boraginaceĉ_. This plant is very much like the favourite Water -Forget-me-not, and has equally large flowers, but it is much more hairy. -Its stem is erect, without runners; and the blue flowers form a -one-sided raceme without bracts. As the flowers expand the stalk -lengthens considerably, with the result that the fruits are very -distant. Among other features by which we may distinguish between the -Wood Forget-me-not and the commoner Water Forget-me-not we may mention -that the corolla of the former is flatter; and the calyx, cleft to its -base into narrow segments, is very rounded below, and covered with -stiff, hooked bristles. The plant flowers from June to August. - -We conclude this chapter with the names of four species of Grasses that -are partial to wooded districts, and which flower during the summer -months. They are the Millet Grass (_Milium effusum_), the Bearded Wheat -(_Triticum caninum_), the Slender False Brome (_Brachypodium -sylvaticum_), and the Hairy Brome Grass (_Bromus asper_). The first -three of these are represented on pages 148 and 149, and the fourth is -shown on Plate II. - -[Illustration: _Plate III._ -FLOWERS OF THE WAYSIDE. -1. Round-leaved Crane's-bill. 2. Black Horehound. 3. Evergreen Alkanet. -4. Bristly Ox-tongue. 5. Red Bartsia. 6. Annual Meadow Grass. 7. Hemlock -Stork's-bill.] - - - - -XI - -WASTES AND WAYSIDES IN SUMMER - - -It will probably have been noticed that several of the spring flowers of -our waysides and waste places continue to bloom into the summer. -Descriptions of these will, of course, not be repeated here, but, for -the convenience of those who are endeavouring to identify flowers which -have been gathered during the summer months, we append a list of the -species referred to: - -PLANTS OF THE WAYSIDE AND WASTE GROUND THAT BLOOM DURING BOTH SPRING -AND SUMMER - - Greater Celandine. - Shepherd's Purse. - Yellow Rocket. - Early Winter Cress. - Thale Cress. - Wild Turnip. - Procumbent Pearlwort. - Lesser Stitchwort. - Mouse-ear Chickweed. - Dove's-foot Crane's-bill. - Jagged-leaved Crane's-bill. - Herb Robert. - Black Medick. - Bird's-foot. - Bush Vetch. - Chervil. - Mouse-ear Hawkweed. - Groundsel. - Common Speedwell. - Wall Speedwell. - Field Speedwell. - Gray Field Speedwell. - White Dead Nettle. - Red Dead Nettle. - Cut-leaved Dead Nettle. - Yellow Pimpernel. - Annual Meadow Grass. - -The flowers described in the present chapter are those which do not, as -a rule, bloom before the month of June. - -Our first example is the Wild Clematis, Traveller's Joy, or Old Man's -Beard (_Clematis Vitalba_), of the order _Ranunculaceĉ_--a climbing -shrub, very common in the hedgerows of the south and centre of England, -producing a profusion of white, scented flowers during July and August, -and rendered even more conspicuous in the autumn and winter by the dense -clusters of feathered fruits. Its stem is woody and often very thick at -the base; and the annual branches climb over the neighbouring plants, -clinging by means of the twisted leafstalks. The leaves are opposite, -pinnate, with three or five stalked, ovate or cordate leaflets; and the -flowers are in loose, axillary or terminal panicles. The latter have -four greenish-white sepals; no petals; numerous stamens; and many -one-seeded carpels, each of which, when ripe, is tipped by the -persistent style that has become very long and feathered. - -[Illustration: THE WILD CLEMATIS.] - -The Common Hedge Mustard (_Sisymbrium officinale_--order _Cruciferĉ_) is -a very common roadside plant, with stems and leaves so closely set with -hairs that they effectually hold the dust. It bears small, yellow -flowers, which appear during June and July; and it may be easily -distinguished from allied plants by its long and narrow, downy, tapering -pods, which lie close against the stem. Its stem grows from one to two -feet high, and is freely branched. - -[Illustration: THE HEDGE MUSTARD.] - -The Felix Weed (_S. Sophia_) of the same genus is moderately common, -grows to about the same height, and bears small, greenish-yellow flowers -from June to August. The stem of this plant is only slightly hairy, -slender, erect, and branched; and the leaves are divided in a pinnate -manner, with long, narrow segments similarly cut. In this genus the -sepals are longer than the petals; and the narrow, tapering fruits are -constricted between the numerous seeds. - -The Dyer's Weed, also known as the Dyer's Rocket and the Yellow Weed -(_Reseda luteola_), is a plant of a habit similar to that of the Wild -Mignonette, and belongs to the same order (_Resedaceĉ_), but may be -distinguished from the latter by its four sepals and four petals. It -owes its popular names to the fact that it was formerly employed for the -purpose of dyeing woollen fabrics. This is a common wayside plant, -especially in calcareous districts, and often reaches a height of three -feet, flowering during July and August. - -Passing to the order _Caryophyllaceĉ_, we note the Deptford Pink -(_Dianthus Armeria_)--a downy plant, a foot or more in height, with an -erect, slightly-branched stem; and very narrow, opposite leaves, from -one to three inches long, joined together at the base, and mostly acute -at the tip. The flowers, which bloom in July and August, are -rose-coloured with white spots, and are grouped in terminal clusters, -with a very narrow, pointed bract below each calyx, usually as long as -the calyx itself. This plant is to be found principally on dry banks and -on waste ground, but it is not common. - -[Illustration: THE FELIX WEED.] - -The Red Campion (_Lychnis diurna_) is common on the banks of wayside -ditches, as well as in copses and other moist and shady places. It has a -hairy stem, from one to two feet high; hairy, ovate leaves in pairs; and -red (rarely white), unisexual flowers which close at night. The male and -female flowers are on separate plants. The former have ten stamens; and -the latter a superior ovary which ripens to a globular capsule with five -teeth that spread horizontally or even curve downwards. In both the -calyx is tubular, with five triangular teeth; and the petals have -spreading, deeply-notched limbs. The plant flowers during June and July. - -[Illustration: THE DYER'S WEED.] - -Three species of Mallow (order _Malvaceĉ_) are more or less common by -waysides and on waste ground. They are all interesting plants, with -large, regular, attractive flowers; and stipuled leaves which are -palmately lobed and veined. The flowers have five sepals and five -petals, the latter being very curiously twisted in the bud. The stamens, -five in number, are freely branched, and are also raised on a tubular -structure as the flower matures, so that they appear like a large number -of stamens with united filaments. The ovary consists of many carpels, -with as many styles; and the fruit splits into a number of one-seeded -parts arranged radially. - -The Common Mallow (_Malva sylvestris_) is a strong, erect, downy plant, -from two to three feet high, with branched stem. The flowers are -axillary, large and showy, of a pale purple or a lilac colour, marked -with crimson veins; and the fruit is smooth. - -[Illustration: THE DEPTFORD PINK.] - -The Dwarf Mallow (_M. rotundifolia_) is about as common, and grows in -similar situations, but it is a smaller plant, with prostrate stems from -six inches to a foot long. The leaves are cordate or almost round, -divided into five or seven shallow, crenate lobes. The flowers are -smaller than those of _M. sylvestris_, being generally less than an inch -in diameter, of a pale lilac colour; and the fruit is hairy. Both -species flower from June to September. - -It is interesting to note that these two flowers, which frequently grow -together on the same waste ground, and consequently have to compete with -one another in the general struggle for existence, are pollinated in -totally different ways, the one (_M. sylvestris_) by the aid of insects, -and the other (_M. rotundifolia_) probably almost always -self-pollinated. In both these flowers the stamens are mounted on the -top of a tube as above described; and in both the stamens are crowded -round the numerous styles while the flower is yet young, so that insects -which visit the flower for nectar can hardly fail to dust themselves -with pollen. In _M. sylvestris_, however, the stamens are mature before -the stigmas, and the former droop, thus bringing the anthers below the -level of the stigmas, so that the flower could hardly fertilise itself -even if anthers and stigmas matured simultaneously. But later the styles -bend downwards, thus bringing the stigmas to the position of the -withered stamens in order to catch the pollen brought by insects from -other flowers. Further, the pollen cells of this species are covered -with minute hooks by means of which they attach themselves to the hairy -legs of bees. - -[Illustration: THE RED CAMPION.] - -The anthers and stigmas of _M. rotundifolia_ are both matured together; -and the styles lengthen, and bend downwards, causing the stigmas to -twine themselves among the numerous stamens in such a manner that the -flower can hardly fail to fertilise itself. Further, if we watch the -flowers of these two species on a sunny day, we find that insects visit -the flowers of _M. sylvestris_ freely, while they are seldom attracted -to the smaller and less conspicuous blooms of _M. rotundifolia_. - -The third species referred to is the Musk Mallow (_M. moschata_), so -called from the musky odour given off from all parts of the plant, -especially when rubbed or crushed. It is often seen in hedgerows, but is -not so common as the other two just described, and seems to be rather -partial to gravelly soils. The plant is hairy, of a pale green colour, -with an erect stem from two to three feet high. The flowers are large -and beautiful, of a rich rose colour, and crowded towards the top of the -stem. The fruit is hairy. A white variety is occasionally seen, and this -is not uncommonly grown as a garden flower. The time of flowering is -July and August. - -[Illustration: THE COMMON MALLOW.] - -Some three species of Geranium (order _Geraniaceĉ_) have already been -described among the spring wayside flowers, and these were listed at the -commencement of the present chapter as continuing to bloom during the -summer; but now we have to note other interesting flowers of this and -an allied genus as essentially summer bloomers. - -The first of these is the Round-leaved Crane's-bill (_Geranium -rotundifolium_), which rather closely resembles the Dove's-foot -Crane's-bill, but is not nearly so plentiful. It is a downy plant, -growing from six to twelve inches high, and flowering in June and July. -The flowers are usually nearly half an inch across, of a pink colour; -and the petals are _not_ notched. This species is represented on Plate -III, Fig. 1. - -In dry pastures and on stony wastes we may see the Bloody Crane's-bill -(_Geranium sanguineum_), which, though not common, is very widely -distributed in Britain. It has a thick, woody stock; numerous more or -less decumbent stems, from one to two feet long, clothed with spreading -hairs; and round leaves, divided quite to the base into five or seven -deeply-cut segments. The flowers are solitary, dark crimson -(occasionally pink) in colour, with hairy sepals terminating in fine -points; slightly notched petals about twice as long as the sepals; and -ten stamens, five of which are larger, and glandular at the base. This -species flowers during July and August. - -[Illustration: THE MUSK MALLOW.] - -The Small-flowered Crane's-bill (_G. pusillum_) also resembles the -Dove's-foot Crane's-bill, but its flowers are usually smaller--about a -third of an inch in diameter--and of a pale lilac colour. The stems are -prostrate and downy, from six to eighteen inches long; and the leaves -roundish and deeply lobed. The sepals terminate in a sharp point, and -the petals are notched. This is a very common species, which flowers -throughout the summer. - -British wild flowers of the Geranium family are divided into two groups, -known popularly as the Crane's-bills and the Stork's-bills, the former -constituting the genus _Geranium_, of which several flowers have been -described; and the latter forming the genus _Erodium_. These two groups -are sometimes confused by young botanists, but may be easily -distinguished by the aid of the following notes:--The flowers of the -Crane's-bills are symmetrical, while the petals of the Stork's-bills are -rather unequal in size and sometimes deficient. In the former there are -ten stamens, five of which are alternately larger, as previously -mentioned; while the latter have five perfect stamens, glandular at -their bases, and five alternating, abortive ones. Further, in the genus -_Geranium_ the persistent styles are straight, while in the -Stork's-bills they are twisted spirally. - -[Illustration: THE BLOODY CRANE'S-BILL.] - -The manner in which the seeds of Stork's-bills are dispersed is -particularly interesting:--When the fruit is ripe the carpels separate, -and the twisted styles are gradually released from one another, from -below upwards, till the fruit is finally set free and blown away by the -wind. The carpels thus detached are each furnished with a long style, -the lower portion of which is coiled like a corkscrew, while the upper -part is straighter but bent to one side. Now, these styles are -hygroscopic--that is, they are influenced by changes in the condition of -the atmosphere as regards moisture. This may easily be shown by placing -the fruit in an upright position on a piece of white card, and fixing it -so with a little spot of glue or gum, so that the bent upper end of the -style is free and serves as a little pointer. If now the open mouth be -placed close over the carpel, and moist air be breathed upon it, the -corkscrew will partially uncoil, causing the pointer to turn; and as -the carpel dries again the pointer will resume its former position. - -Again, if the carpel be placed horizontally on a sheet of rough paper -(not fixed), and then alternately treated with moist and drier air, the -successive uncoiling and coiling of the spiral, together with the aid of -the bent tip and the hairs which give the carpel a hold, will cause it -to travel along. Thus, in its natural condition, and influenced by the -varying state of the atmosphere as regards moisture, the carpels of the -Stork's-bill will not only travel some distance from the parent plant, -but the seed end will even be thrust between the particles of soil, and -the seed thus naturally buried. - -There are three British Stork's-bills, of which only one may be -described as common. This is the Hemlock Stork's-bill (_Erodium -cicutarium_), a very variable plant as regards the form of the leaves -and the size and number of flowers, often plentiful in waste places, -especially near the sea. Its stems are prostrate and hairy, growing from -six to eighteen inches in length; and the flowers, which may be seen -throughout the summer, are rose-coloured, or, sometimes, white. The -petals are not divided or notched, and they soon fall. - -Passing now to the order _Leguminosĉ_, we deal first with the -exceedingly pretty and common Bird's-foot Trefoil (_Lotus -corniculatus_), that derives its popular name from the arrangement of -the cylindrical seed-pods, which spread in such a manner as to resemble -the toes of a bird. Its stems are partially prostrate; and its compound -leaves are not composed of three leaflets, as the term _trefoil_ -suggests, but of five, two of which occupy such a position that they -might be mistaken for stipules. The flowers, which bloom in July and -August, are of a bright yellow or orange colour, often tinged with red. -They are arranged in umbels of from three to ten, with long peduncles -and short pedicels. - -[Illustration: THE FRUIT OF THE STORK'S-BILL.] - -The genus _Vicia_, of the same order, includes the plants commonly known -as Tares. These are climbing plants which cling by means of tendrils at -the tips of their pinnate leaves, and have their flowers in axillary -clusters. Their styles are threadlike, with a ring or a tuft of downy -hairs near the extremity; and the pods are flattened. - -Two species may be included among our summer wayside flowers, one of -which--the Hairy Tare (_Vicia hirsuta_)--is very common in fields and -hedges, flowering from June to August. The stems of this plant are -slender, hairy, and are so much branched that they form tangled masses, -often mixed up in a confused manner with neighbouring plants. The leaves -have from six to eight pairs of leaflets; and the minute, pale blue -flowers, in clusters of from one to six, are on long peduncles. The pods -have only two seeds, and are hairy and sessile. - -[Illustration: THE HEMLOCK STORK'S-BILL.] - -The other Tare referred to is the Slender Tare (_V. tetrasperma_), found -principally in the South of England. It owes its specific name to the -fact that its pods usually contain four seeds. It is more slender and -much less branched than the Hairy Tare, and its leaves have generally -only from three to five pairs of leaflets. The flowers are pale blue, -appearing from June to August, and are generally solitary or in pairs, -on peduncles which are about as long as the leaves. The pods are smooth. - -[Illustration: THE BIRD'S-FOOT TREFOIL.] - -The same genus includes the Tufted Vetch (_Vicia Cracca_)--a very common -plant on hedgerows and bushy waysides, where it climbs over the -neighbouring plants and shrubs, covering them with its dense racemes of -bluish-purple flowers from June to August. Its climbing stem is very -weak, but it often grows to a length of six feet or more, supporting -itself by means of the branched tendrils at the tips of its leaves. The -leaves are pinnate, with about ten pairs of narrow, pointed, silky -leaflets, usually from half an inch to three-quarters in length; and at -the base of each leaf-stalk is a pair of narrow, half arrow-shaped -stipules. The racemes are one-sided, on rather long stalks, with from -ten to thirty flowers, each nearly half an inch long. The pods are -smooth, flattened, about an inch long, containing from six to eight -seeds. - -[Illustration: THE HERB BENNET OR GEUM.] - -Of the order _Rosaceĉ_ we have several summer wayside flowers, our first -example being the Common Avens, also called the Wood Avens and the Herb -Bennet (_Geum urbanum_), which is common on banks and hedgerows. This is -an erect, hairy plant, from one to two feet high, with yellow flowers, -from a half to three-quarters of an inch across, on erect stalks. The -numerous carpels ripen into a head of one-seeded achenes, on each of -which the persistent style forms a curved, hooked awn that readily -clings to the hair or wool of animals, thus providing an effectual means -by which the seeds are distributed. A variety of the Common Avens occurs -with drooping flowers. - -[Illustration: THE DOG ROSE.] - -[Illustration: THE SILVER WEED.] - -The Dog Rose (_Rosa canina_) is one of the prettiest and most abundant -flowers of our hedgerows, and may be seen in bloom throughout June and -July. The bush has a thick, woody stock; and weak, straggling stems, -often reaching a height of six or eight feet, armed with equal, curved -prickles. The flowers are pink or white, with a calyx consisting of a -globular tube, contracted at the top, and five spreading segments; a -corolla of five petals; numerous stamens; and an ovary of several -one-seeded carpels with free styles. The carpels are very hairy, and are -enclosed within the tube of the calyx, which becomes red and succulent -as the fruit ripens; but the calyx segments usually fall before the -ripening is complete. - -[Illustration: THE AGRIMONY.] - -The Silver Weed (_Potentilla anserina_), of the same order, is one of -the commonest of our roadside flowers, rendered more conspicuous by its -pretty, silvery leaves than by its solitary, yellow flowers. It has a -creeping stem, from six to twelve inches long, which bears pinnate -leaves. The leaflets are deeply serrated, and densely covered beneath -(and sometimes also above) with soft, silky hairs. - -Two of the Cinquefoils are very common by roadsides. These are the Hoary -Cinquefoil (_Potentilla argentea_), and the Creeping Cinquefoil -(_Potentilla reptans_). The first of these is a partially prostrate -plant, with stem from six to eighteen inches long; and digitate leaves -with five, wedge-shaped leaflets. The leaflets are rendered white -beneath by woolly hairs that lie close against the surface, and their -edges are curled backwards. The flowers, which bloom in June and July, -are yellow, small, and clustered. - -The Creeping Cinquefoil has a slender stem that creeps on the ground and -forms new roots at the nodes. Its leaves are digitate and long-stalked, -with five obovate, serrate, hairy leaflets. The flowers are yellow, -solitary, nearly an inch in diameter, with five sepals and five petals. - -On banks we frequently meet with the Agrimony (_Agrimonia Eupatoria_), a -slender plant, from one to two feet high, covered with soft hairs, and -bearing long, tapering, spikelike racemes of small, scattered, yellow -flowers during June and July. This plant may be readily identified by -means of our illustration. - -One of the Willow Herbs--the Broad Smooth-leaved Willow Herb (_Epilobium -montanum_)--is common on roadside banks, flowering during June and July. -Its stems are slender, downy, and generally unbranched; and the leaves -are opposite, stalked (the lower ones almost stalkless), ovate, acute, -with serrate edges, and smooth except along the margins and the -principal veins, which are more or less downy. The plant grows to a -height of one or two feet, and bears small, pale-purple flowers which -droop when in the bud. It belongs to the order _Onagraceĉ_; and, like -the others of its genus, has four sepals, four petals, eight stamens, -and a long inferior ovary which splits into four valves, setting free a -large number of little, tufted seeds. - -The order _Crassulaceĉ_ contains a number of low, succulent plants, with -small, regular, star-like flowers. Some of them are well known as -Stonecrops and House-leeks. Those of the Stonecrop group usually have -cymes of flowers with perianth leaves in whorls of five, and stamens in -two whorls. - -One member of this group--the Orpine or Livelong (_Sedum Telephium_)--is -not uncommonly found on shady wayside banks, especially near villages -and on the outskirts of towns, where it is probably an escape from -gardens. Its leaves are large, flat, oval or oblong, with serrate -edges. The flowers have five sepals and five petals, are of a purple or -crimson colour, and are clustered in close cymes. - -We have now to consider several species of the order _Umbelliferĉ_--a -group of flowers which contains so many species, with often such close -resemblances in general appearance, that it is always more or less -puzzling to the beginner, especially as it is frequently necessary to -note minute details of structure in order to determine a species. - -The leading characteristic of the order is that denoted by its name; for -the flowers, which are generally very small and white, are arranged in -umbels. In a few instances these umbels are simple; but in most they are -compound--that is, the stalks which radiate from the same point on the -main peduncle, and thus form the _primary umbel_, give rise to the -lesser stalks of the _secondary umbels_, which are similarly arranged -and bear the flowers. There are often bracts at the base of the primary -umbel, in which case they are termed the _primary bracts_; and there are -frequently _secondary bracts_ or _involucels_ at the bases of the -secondary umbels. - -[Illustration: THE ORPINE OR LIVELONG.] - -The flowers have a superior calyx; with five teeth; but this is often so -inconspicuous that it appears like a mere rim round the top of the -ovary. There are also five petals, which generally have their points -turned inwards; and five stamens. The inferior ovary consists of two -united carpels, surmounted by a fleshy disc that supports the petals and -the stamens, and bears two styles. - -Special attention must be given to the structure of the fruits of -umbellifers, for a close examination of these is often necessary for -purposes of identification. The two carpels are close together, with -their adjacent surfaces flattened, and are fixed to a central axis -called the _carpophore_. As the fruit ripens, the carpophore often -divides, from above downwards, becoming Y-shaped; and the carpels, thus -separated, are for a time suspended on its two arms. Each carpel is -marked by vertical ridges, generally nine in number, five of them -(_primary ridges_) being more prominent than the four intermediate or -_secondary ridges_. The ridge on each side of the carpel, nearest to the -fissure that divides the fruit into two parts, is often extended so as -to form wings by means of which wind-distribution is greatly -facilitated; and between the various ridges are the _furrows_ of the -fruit. In addition to these features, there are often narrow, -light-coloured streaks running parallel with the ridges, in the walls of -the fruit. There are usually six of these in each carpel, sometimes more -than one in the same furrow, and they mark the positions of narrow -oil-sacs or _vittĉ_. Each carpel contains only one seed. - -[Illustration: THE FOOL'S PARSLEY.] - -As to the general characters of the plants, it may also be noted that -the stems of the _Umbelliferĉ_ are jointed, and frequently hollow; also -that the leaves are pinnately divided, and often _decompound_ (compound, -with compound leaflets). - -[Illustration: THE WILD PARSNIP.] - -Our first example of this family is the common Hemlock (_Conium -maculatum_) of hedges and waste ground--a very graceful plant, with a -much-branched stem that grows from two to six or more feet in height. It -is distinguished by a foetid odour and poisonous properties. Its stem -is slender in proportion to the height, furrowed, smooth, and spotted -with purple or red. The flowers are white, with hardly a trace of a -calyx, and arranged in compound umbels, with three small bracts _on one -side_ of the secondary umbels. The fruit is short, swollen, and slightly -flattened laterally; and the carpels, without vittĉ, have each five -thick, waved ridges. The Hemlock flowers during June and July. - -[Illustration: THE COW PARSNIP OR HOGWEED.] - -Several of the common umbelliferous plants are called the Fool's Parsley -by those who are unable to distinguish between species, but this name is -correctly applied only to _Ĉthusa cynapium_, a smooth, leafy plant, with -an unpleasant odour and poisonous properties. The plant grows from a -foot to eighteen inches high, flowers during July and August, and is -common in cultivated ground as well as in wastes and by waysides. It may -be recognised at once by the help of our illustration; but we call -special attention to the three, long, drooping bracts on the outer side -of each secondary umbel. - -On roadside banks, particularly in chalky districts, we may often meet -with the Wild Parsnip (_Pastinaca sativa_). This is an erect, downy -plant, with a tap root; and angular, hollow stem from two to three feet -high. Its leaves are pinnate, glossy above and downy beneath, with five -or seven ovate, sessile, cut and serrate leaflets, and sheathing -petioles. The umbels are terminal, without primary or secondary bracts; -and the flowers are small, of a bright yellow colour, producing -flattened, winged fruits. The flowers bloom during July and August. - -The Cow Parsnip or Hogweed (_Heracleum Sphondylium_) is somewhat similar -in general appearance, but is much stouter, and grows to a height of -four or five feet. Its stem is hairy and channelled; and the leaves have -a few broad, lobed, serrate leaflets with a rough, hairy surface. The -flowers, which bloom during July and August, are of a reddish white -colour, and have unequal petals. - -The Upright Hedge Parsley (_Torilis Anthriscus_ or _Caucalis -Anthriscus_) is a slender plant, with an erect, solid, rough stem, from -two to three feet high. Its leaves are hairy, bipinnate, with lobed and -toothed, ovate or oblong leaflets. The white or pale pink flowers are -arranged in long-stalked, terminal umbels of from about six to twelve -rays, with several primary and secondary bracts. The fruits are armed -with bristles which, though not hooked, are slightly bent inwards. This -is a very common hedgerow plant, flowering from July to September. - -[Illustration: THE HONEYSUCKLE.] - -Our last example of the _Umbelliferĉ_ is the Rough Chervil -(_Chĉrophyllum temulum_), which is very common in hedgerows, among the -undergrowth of woods, and in other shady places. It has a slender stem, -from one to three feet high, swollen at the joints, spotted with purple, -and rendered rough by short hairs. The leaves, which are also rough and -spotted, are bipinnate, with ovate leaflets that are cut into segments -terminating abruptly in a sharp point; and they assume a rich purple -tint that makes the plant a conspicuous object in the autumn. The -flowers are white, in terminal compound umbels which droop in the bud. -The bracts are few in number or altogether absent, but there are several -secondary bracts which are fringed and bent downwards. - -Passing now to the order _Caprifoliaceĉ_, we have to deal with the -well-known and favourite Honeysuckle or Woodbine (_Lonicera -periclymenum_), so highly prized on account of its lovely fragrant -flowers. It is a climbing plant, often reaching a height of ten or -twelve feet, supporting itself by twining its woody stem round -surrounding shrubs and trees in hedges and the open spaces of woods. The -beautiful flowers, which are yellow within, and more or less tinged with -red outside, are arranged in terminal, stalked heads; and the united -petals form widely-gaping lips. The plant blooms from June to September, -and displays its crimson berries in the autumn. - -Two other species of Honeysuckle occur in our hedges, but neither of -these is common. One is the Upright Honeysuckle, which has an erect -stem; downy, stalked leaves; and pale yellow, scentless flowers that -grow in pairs in the axils of the leaves. The other is the Perfoliate -Honeysuckle, so called because its upper leaves are united at their -bases, with the stem running through them. In this one the flower-heads -have no stalks. - -[Illustration: THE GREAT HEDGE BEDSTRAW.] - -In the Bedstraw family (order _Rubiaceĉ_) we have two very common, -hedgerow plants--the Great Hedge Bedstraw (_Galium Mollugo_) and the -Goose-grass or Cleavers (_G. Aparine_). The first is a very straggling -plant, with a square stem, thickened at the joints, that often reaches a -length of four or five feet. Its leaves are elliptical, with apex -terminating suddenly in a bristle-like point, and margins roughened by -prickles that are either at right angles or pointing more or less -forward. They are arranged in whorls, usually of eight, but sometimes -six. The little white flowers, which bloom during July and August, are -arranged in panicles with spreading branches, the lower of which are -either horizontal or bent downward. The fruit is smooth. - -The Goose Grass is so named because it is eaten by geese; and it is also -known as the Cleavers because its fruits, which are covered with hooked -bristles, cling tenaciously to our clothing and to the covering of -animals. Its straggling stem often reaches a length of four or five -feet, and forms tangled masses with the stems and leaves of other -hedgerow plants. The leaves are narrow and keeled; and the small, white -flowers are arranged in small axillary clusters of two or three. The -whole plant is rough with hooked bristles. - -[Illustration: THE TEASEL.] - -We conclude this chapter with a description of the common Teasel -(_Dipsacus sylvestris_) of the order _Dipsaceĉ_. This is really a very -graceful plant, rarely less than three or four feet high, and sometimes -reaching six feet or more. Its stem is very stout and prickly; and its -large bright green leaves are simple, sessile, and arranged in opposite -pairs. They are prickly beneath, and the two leaves of each pair are -united at their bases in such a manner that they form hollows in which -the rain-water collects. The reservoirs so formed often contain drowned -insects which have flown or fallen into the water, or which have been -washed down the stem by the rain. Their dead bodies decompose, giving -rise to nitrogenous and other products of decay which generally -discolour the water. These products are valuable as plant food, and it -has been said that they are absorbed by the leaves. The flowers of the -Teasel are collected in large heads, covered with straight, stiff -bristles, and have an involucre of bracts which curve upwards. The -flowers are of a pale purple colour. They commence to open near the -middle of the head, forming a horizontal circle; and then they expand -both upwards and downwards from this level. The flowers are not -conspicuous individually, nor does each individual flower produce much -pollen; but the large heads of bloom attract numerous insects which -climb about among the flowers in search of nectar, covering their bodies -with pollen, and thus aiding the process of fertilisation. - -[Illustration: TEASEL-HEADS. -1, 2, and 3 are successive flowering stages. 4, The elongated head in -fruit.] - - - - -XII - -WAYSIDES AND WASTES IN SUMMER (_Continued_) - -COMPOSITE FLOWERS - - -There are so many flowers of the order _Compositĉ_ in bloom by the -wayside and on waste ground during the summer months that we devote a -chapter entirely to them. - -This group is the largest of the natural orders, and is computed to -contain about a tenth of all the known flowering plants. The chief -distinguishing characteristic of the order is the arrangement of the -flowers into crowded heads, each consisting of a number of little -flowers or _florets_ that are sessile on a common _receptacle_, as in -the case of the Daisy, the Dandelion, and the Thistles. - -The florets of each head or _capitulum_ are generally arranged into two -well-defined sets--the florets of the disc, occupying the centre; and -the florets of the ray, spreading more or less in a radial manner from -the edge of the disc. These two sets are often of different colours, as -in the Daisy, where the disc florets are of a deep yellow, while the ray -florets are white or pink. - -In some of the Composites all the florets of each head are perfect, -while in others some are perfect and some imperfect. Then, as regards -the latter, they may be staminate or male florets, with no pistil; -pistillate or female flowers, with no stamens; or neuter florets, -possessing neither stamens nor pistil. In some few cases all the florets -of one head are staminate, while the pistillate florets alone form other -heads; and in these instances the two kinds of heads may be found on one -plant, or only one kind may exist on the same plant. In all cases the -capitulum is surrounded by one or more whorls of bracts which are often -closely overlapping. - -The florets seldom possess a distinguishable calyx, but there is -sometimes an indication of the presence of five sepals; in many, -however, the calyx is represented by a whorl of hairs on the summit of -the ovary. Such a whorl is known as the _pappus_, and it frequently -enlarges as the fruit ripens, forming a kind of parachute that allows -the fruit to be carried great distances by the wind. The hairs of the -pappus are often sessile on the fruit, but sometimes mounted on the -summit of a slender stalk, as in the Dandelion. Further, the hairs which -constitute the pappus may be simple or feathered. - -[Illustration: CAPITULUM OR FLOWER-HEAD OF THE MARIGOLD, showing the -_involucre_ or whorl of overlapping bracts.] - -The corolla frequently consists of five petals, united into a tube with -as many teeth; but it is often _ligulate_ or strap-shaped, in which case -the presence of five petals is often denoted by five minute teeth at the -tip. - -Where stamens exist they are five in number, attached to the petals, and -the anthers are generally united in such a manner that they form a tube -within the tube of the corolla. - -[Illustration: FLORETS OF A COMPOSITE FLOWER. In fig. 1 the corolla is -strap-shaped; in fig. 2 it is tubular.] - -Fertilisation is brought about much in the same way in many of the -composite flowers:--The anthers open inwards, discharging their pollen -within the tube formed by themselves, and just above the stigma which, -as yet, is immature. The style then lengthens, pushing its way up -through the anther-tube, and brushing up the pollen by means of the -tufts of hairs on its surface. At this stage a dense cluster of pollen -cells, completely covering the top of the style, may be seen projecting -above the tube of the corolla, and the pollen is sooner or later -scattered, the distribution being aided greatly by the various insects -which visit the flowers. The upper part of the style now divides into -two parts, and the branches diverge, exposing the stigmatic surfaces -which form the inner sides of the fork. It will thus be seen that the -florets are not self-pollinated, since the stigma is generally mature -after the pollen has all been removed from the same flower. - -Our first example of this order is the Yellow Goat's-beard (_Tragopogon -pratensis_), also known as Jack-go-to-bed-at-noon. This is a common -wayside plant, of a glaucous green colour, with a milky sap. Its stem is -erect, from one to two feet high, and the whole plant is smooth. The -flower-heads are solitary, large, yellow, and surrounded by a single row -of narrow bracts that are united below; and the peduncle is thickened at -the top. The bracts are generally as long as the florets, and the latter -usually close about the middle of the day. The fruit is long and narrow, -with longitudinal ridges; and the pappus consists of rows of feathery -hairs which interlock and form a very shallow cup. The flowers bloom -during June and July. - -[Illustration: THE YELLOW GOAT'S-BEARD.] - -The Bristly Ox-tongue (_Helminthia echioides_ or _Picris echioides_), -also a common plant, is more or less covered with rigid, hooked -bristles, each of which arises from a swollen, white base; and it has a -milky sap. The stem is stout, branched, very bristly, and grows from two -to three feet high. The leaves are simple and toothed, the upper ones -cordate and embracing the stem, and the lower ones _auricled_ or eared. -The heads are terminal, consisting of yellow, ligulate florets, -surrounded by five large cordate bracts. The fruit is brown, curved, -with transverse ridges and a stalked pappus of feathery hairs. This -species flowers from June to September. It is shown on Plate -III. - -In the same genus we have the Hawkweed Picris (_P. hieracoides_) which -bears yellow flowers from June to September. Its stem, more slender than -that of the last species, is from two to three feet high, branched -towards the top, and rough with hooked bristles; and the leaves are -lanceolate and toothed. There are numerous heads of flowers, about an -inch in diameter, usually arranged in a corymb, but sometimes in an -umbel, and there are bracts on the peduncles. - -[Illustration: THE HAWKWEED PICRIS.] - -The Strong-scented or Acrid Lettuce (_Lactuca virosa_) is moderately -common on dry wastes. It is an acrid, glaucous, leafy and prickly plant, -with a milky juice. Its erect stem grows to a height of three or four -feet. Its leaves are spreading, obovate in form, with toothed margins, -and bristly hairs on the under side of the midrib. The lower leaves are -frequently marked with dark spots, and the upper ones have pointed -auricles which clasp the stem. The heads of flowers are small, pale -yellow, and arranged in a loose, spreading panicle. The bracts overlap, -the outer ones being shorter, and the receptacle is flat. Each head -contains only a few florets. The fruit is flattened, black, with a beak -as long as itself and a pappus of many simple hairs. The flowers appear -during July and August. - -Another Lettuce, known as the Prickly Lettuce (_L. Scariola_), is -somewhat rare. It is really less prickly than the last species, but is -equally tall, and flowers during the same months. Its leaves are erect, -lanceolate, sagittate, with a wavy margin; and the upper ones clasp the -stem. The fruit of this species is of a greyish colour, and has a beak -of the same length. - -Two species of Sow-thistle (genus _Sonchus_) are included among our -wayside Composites. They are erect, succulent plants, from two to three -feet in height, with a milky juice, and either toothed or pinnatifid -leaves. Their flower-heads are yellow, arranged in a corymb, and bloom -during the whole of the summer. Each head is surrounded by several rows -of overlapping bracts, and the receptacle is flat and pitted. The fruits -are considerably flattened, without beaks; and the pappus consists of -several rows of fine, silky, unbranched hairs. - -[Illustration: THE PRICKLY LETTUCE.] - -One species is known as the Sharp-fringed Sow-thistle or the Common -Milk-thistle (_S. oleraceus_). Its leaves are sometimes deeply divided, -but always more or less toothed; and the teeth often terminate in sharp -prickles. The upper ones clasp the stem, and have spreading, -arrow-shaped ears. The stem is branched and hollow; and the fruit is -ribbed and transversely wrinkled. - -The second is the Common Sow-thistle (_S. asper_)--a very similar plant, -but may be distinguished by its leaves, which are more spinously -toothed, with _rounded_ ears. In this one the fruits are also ribbed, -but they are not wrinkled transversely. - -The Smooth Hawk's-beard (_Crepis virens_) has a furrowed, branched stem, -from a few inches to three feet in height. Its spreading radical leaves -are deeply toothed, and narrower towards the base; and the stem leaves -are narrow and sagittate. The numerous small heads of yellow flowers are -panicled, and the outer florets are often tinged with red. The heads are -surrounded by two rows of bracts, the outer of which are shorter and -narrower, and the whole involucre assumes a conical form after -flowering. The fruit is shorter than the pappus; tapering, but not -beaked; and the pappus consists of several rows of unbranched, silky -hairs. This plant flowers during July and August. It is very common on -waste land, and may be frequently seen growing on old walls, and even on -the roofs of country cottages and out-houses. - -[Illustration: THE SHARP-FRINGED SOW-THISTLE.] - -The genus _Hieracium_ (Hawkweeds) is a puzzle not only to the beginner, -but also to experienced botanists, who have not yet agreed as to its -division into species. According to some authorities these latter amount -to seven, but they, or rather some of them, are so variable, and present -so many intermediate characters, that some botanists divide the British -members into no less than thirty-three species. - -All the plants of the group agree in the following particulars:--They -have a milky sap. The leaves are nearly all radical. The flower-heads -are either yellow or orange, surrounded by several rows of overlapping -bracts. The receptacle is pitted. The fruit is not beaked, and its -pappus consists of a single row of rigid, brittle, brownish hairs, which -are simple and of unequal lengths. - -One species at least is a common wayside flower, and this is the Shrubby -Hawkweed (_H. boreale_). It grows from two to four feet high, and bears -a corymb of many yellow heads, from July to September. Its stem is hairy -below, downy with fine branched hairs above, and bears rigid, erect -branches which are leafy, and often of a reddish colour. This species -has no radical leaves. The stem leaves are ovate or lanceolate and -toothed, the upper ones broad and slightly clasping the stem. The -peduncle is scaly or woolly, and the involucre bracts are of a blackish -green colour. - -[Illustration: THE SMOOTH HAWK'S-BEARD.] - -The Nipplewort (_Lapsana communis_) is another very common Composite of -waysides and wastes. Its stem is erect, from one to two feet high, -branched, armed with scanty stiff hairs below, and smooth above. The -leaves are thin and usually hairy, the lower ones ovate, pinnatifid or -coarsely-toothed, with a few smaller lobes along the stalks, and the -upper ones small, and entire or only slightly toothed. The flower-heads -are small, yellow, in a loose panicle with long slender stalks. The -involucre consists of about eight glaucous scales, about a quarter of an -inch in length, and a whorl of small outer ones. The fruits are -flattened, with many longitudinal nervures, and have no pappus. The -flowers may be seen from July to September. - -The Chicory or Succory (_Cichorium Intybus_) is a local plant, but often -very abundant where it exists. It has a long tap root; and a strong, -erect, bristly and sticky stem. The lower leaves are spreading and -hairy, deeply divided, with a large terminal lobe, and smaller lateral -lobes which are pointed and coarsely toothed. The upper leaves are -lanceolate, clasping the stem, with pointed auricles. The flower-heads -are of a bright blue colour, large and conspicuous, mostly in sessile -clusters of two or three along the rigid, spreading branches, but a few -are terminal. The involucre consists of about eight inner bracts, and a -whorl of outer ones that are much shorter. The florets are large; and -the fruits are smooth, or nearly so, and closely enveloped in the lower -part of the involucre. The time of flowering is from July to October. - -[Illustration: THE NIPPLEWORT.] - -Our next species is the Burdock (_Arctium Lappa_), familiar as a wayside -plant not only on account of its abundance and its large size, but also -on account of its globular flower-heads which cling so tenaciously to -our clothing by means of the hooked points of the inner involucre -bracts. It is a very stout, branching plant, varying from two to six -feet in height, with very large, stalked, cordate lower leaves that -often exceed a foot in length. The upper leaves are smaller, and broadly -ovate; and both these and the lower ones are smooth or nearly so on the -upper surface, but often covered with a short white down beneath. All -the leaves are also finely toothed, but bear no prickles. The -flower-heads are in terminal panicles, and are surrounded by many bracts -which are either quite smooth or covered with a white, woolly down. The -florets are purple, and all equal in size. The fruits are large, and -bear a short pappus of stiff hairs. - -We now come to the interesting group of Thistles, all distinguished by -their very hard stems; their cut or toothed leaves, which are generally -very prickly; and their round or oval heads of flowers, surrounded by -many whorls of overlapping, and usually prickly, bracts. There are no -ray florets, but all are tubular and approximately equal in length. - -Our first example is the Welted Thistle (_Carduus crispus_ or _Carduus -acanthoides_), which is a common plant in the South of England, but much -less abundant in the North. In general appearance it closely resembles -the Musk Thistle (p. 266), but is usually taller. The stem is -covered with prickles which run downwards in lines from the bases of the -leaves. The flowers are purple, in small, globular, clustered heads, -which droop slightly; and the numerous bracts of the involucre are -narrow, more or less erect, and terminate in a spreading or hooked -prickle. The pappus consists of rough, unbranched hairs. The above is -the description of the commonest form of this thistle, but it is a very -variable species. The plants vary from one to three feet in height, and -flower from June to August. - -[Illustration: THE BURDOCK.] - -Throughout the summer we may meet with the Spear Thistle (_C. -lanceolatus_), a very abundant species which grows on almost all waste -places. The plant is a stout one, varying from about one to five feet in -height, with a winged, prickly stem. The leaves are cut into short, -narrow lobes, with a long and pointed terminal one. They are covered -above with stiff hairs, and below with a white down; and all the lobes -terminate in stiff spines. The involucre is oval in form, covered with -cottony down; and its bracts are lanceolate, terminating with a stiff, -spreading spine. The flower-heads are few in number, with purple -florets, and measure about an inch and a quarter in diameter. - -[Illustration: THE SPEAR THISTLE.] - -Another common species is the Creeping Thistle (_C. arvensis_), which -has a perennial, creeping rootstock that gives off erect annual stems -from two to four feet in height. The stem is not winged, but the prickly -leaves clasp it, and sometimes extend a little way down at their bases. -The leaves are narrow, smooth, with edges turned inwards, very prickly, -and cut into numerous narrow lobes. The flower-heads are small, -arranged in loose terminal clusters, and are surrounded by numerous, -closely-placed bracts with small, sharp points. The flowers are always -imperfect, and the male and female blooms always occur on separate -plants. The heads of the male plants are globular in form, with -spreading purple florets; while those of the female plant are longer and -almost cylindrical in form, with longer bracts and shorter florets. The -pappus consists of numerous feathery hairs which grow very long as the -fruit ripens. This species flowers during July and August. - -The Tansy (_Tanacetum vulgare_) is common in the hedgerows of most -localities, and is easily recognised by the powerful odour and bitter -taste of its leaves and flowers. It has a creeping root; an erect, -strong stem, which is either quite smooth or (generally) slightly downy; -and large, pinnate leaves, with narrow, deeply-toothed or pinnatifid -segments. There are a large number of flower-heads, nearly half an inch -in diameter, of a bright yellow colour, and arranged in large -flat-topped corymbs. This plant is common in most parts of Britain, -grows to a height of about three feet, and flowers during August and -September. - -[Illustration: THE CREEPING THISTLE.] - -The Mugwort (_Artemisia vulgaris_) is a very common roadside plant in -most districts, valued by many villagers as a remedy for rheumatism. It -has a short, woody rootstock; and erect, branching stems varying from -two to four feet in height. The leaves are deeply cut into narrow, acute -segments which are either coarsely serrate or lobed. They are green and -smooth above, but very white with a woolly down below. The flower-heads -are very numerous, erect, and arranged in a somewhat crowded, long, -terminal panicle. Each head is surrounded by a woolly involucre, and -consists of from fifteen to over twenty florets, either all perfect or -including a few without stamens. They are oval in form, and of a reddish -or yellowish-brown colour. The plant blooms throughout the summer. - -[Illustration: THE TANSY.] - -In the same genus is the Absinth or Wormwood (_A. Absinthium_), which is -not so tall or so slender as the last species, from which it may -readily be distinguished by its powerful aroma and bitter taste. The -whole of the plant is whitish with a close, fine down; and the erect -stems, from one to two feet high, are stiff and hard. The leaves are -very similar to those of the Mugwort, but are much broader, are silky on -both sides, and the narrow lobes of the leaves are blunt at the tips. -The flower-heads are also similarly arranged, but they are almost -globular in form, very silky, and more or less drooping. The florets are -numerous, and of a dull yellow colour, the central ones being mostly -fertile, while the outer, without stamens, are small, and often barren. -The plant flowers during August and September, is not so common as the -last species, but is abundant in districts near the sea. - -One of the most conspicuous flowers of the summer is the Common Ragwort -(_Senecio Jacobĉa_). It belongs to the same genus as the Groundsel, but -differs in having very showy, terminal corymbs of large, bright yellow -flowers with spreading rays. Its erect stem does not branch, as a rule, -except near the top, and reaches a height of from one to three or four -feet. The outer bracts of the involucre are small and few in number, and -both these and the inner ones are generally tipped with black. -Occasionally we may meet with plants of this species in which the -flower-heads have no ray, but in general the ray is well-formed, and -consists of about twelve narrow or oblong florets. - -[Illustration: THE WORMWOOD.] - -The Common Feverfew (_Matricaria Parthenium_ or _Chrysanthemum -Parthenium_) is a very abundant wayside flower, of which a double -variety is commonly grown in gardens. The plant reaches a foot or more -in height, and flowers freely from July to September. The stems are -erect and branched; and the leaves are stalked and pinnately divided -into ovate or oblong, lobed, toothed segments. The numerous flower-heads -are arranged in a corymb, and are about half an inch in diameter, with -white ray and yellow disc. The plant may be distinguished from similar -species of the same genus by the little toothed border on the summit of -the ripe fruits, and by the strong and somewhat pleasant odour of all -its parts. - -[Illustration: THE RAGWORT.] - -Even more common, in most places, is the Corn Feverfew or Scentless -Mayweed (_M. inodora_), which flowers from June to the end of the -summer. Its stem is erect, with spreading branches; and the sessile -leaves are two or three times divided into narrow, almost hair-like -segments. The flower-heads are much larger than those of the last -species, sometimes reaching a diameter of about two inches, and are -solitary. The involucre is brown, with a membranous edge; the ray -white, and the disc yellow. It is sometimes confused with the Wild -Chamomile, but may be distinguished by the shape of the receptacle, -which is hemispherical, and not so conical as in _Chamomilla_. - -[Illustration: THE SCENTLESS MAYWEED.] - -[Illustration: THE YARROW OR MILFOIL.] - -Our last example of the Composites of the wayside is the Yarrow or -Milfoil (_Achillea millefolium_)--a plant that might be mistaken by the -beginner for one of the Umbellifers when seen at a distance; but a -closer examination will show not only that the level-topped -inflorescence is a dense, terminal corymb, but also that the flowers are -collected into little heads, each of which consists of a few white or -pink, pistillate ray-florets, surrounding a little cluster of tubular, -perfect, yellow florets of the disc. The leaves are narrow oblong, and -very finely cut into many hair-like, branching segments. The whole plant -has a strong and rather pleasant odour. It grows from six to eighteen -inches high, and flowers from June to September. - - - - -XIII - -WASTES AND WAYSIDES IN SUMMER (_Continued_) - - -Continuing our list of the numerous wayside flowers of the summer -months, we take first the Rampion Bellflower or Ramps (_Campanula -Rapunculus_), of the order _Campanulaceĉ_. The flowers of this order are -usually easily distinguished by their bell-shaped corolla, mounted on an -inferior ovary, and by their general resemblance to the Canterbury Bells -so familiar to us as favourite garden flowers. The Rampion is to be seen -on some of the sandy or gravelly wastes of the South of England during -July and August, but is rather local in its distribution. It has an -angled, erect stem, from two to three feet high, rough with stiff, white -hairs. The stem leaves are narrow, pointed, and usually entire; but the -lower leaves are broader, with slightly-scalloped edges, on long stalks. -The blue flowers are arranged in erect terminal racemes, either simple -or branched, each flower having a short stalk. In order to distinguish -between this and other species of the same genus we should note that the -segments of its calyx are narrow and entire; and that the corolla is -divided deeply into five narrow, pointed segments. - -The Great Bindweed (_Convolvulus sepium_) of the order _Convolvulaceĉ_, -is very conspicuous in most hedgerows, and is probably so well known -that a description need hardly be given for purposes of identification, -but we must call attention to a few interesting features that might be -overlooked. It is both a creeper and a climber, for it has a creeping -rootstock that enables it to travel considerable distances below the -surface of the ground, and a twining stem, usually four or five feet -long, by which it climbs over the surrounding plants or shrubs. The -large, white flowers, which bloom from June to August, are arranged -singly on short stalks. Each has a pair of rather large bracts which -completely hide the calyx, and which might at first be mistaken for the -calyx itself. - -The Small Bindweed is, perhaps, more commonly seen in fields than in -hedgerows, and is included among the field flowers on p. 228; -and the Dodders, belonging to the same order, are described with the -other parasitic plants in Chapter XXIII. - -[Illustration: THE RAMPION BELLFLOWER.] - -The four British plants of the order _Solanaceĉ_ are all wayside -species, flowering from June onwards, and may be considered together -here. They possess the following features in common:--The leaves are -alternately arranged, without stipules. The flowers are regular, with a -five-toothed or five-lobed calyx, and a corolla of (usually) five united -petals which are folded in the bud. The number of stamens correspond -with that of the lobes of the corolla, and the ovary, which is -two-celled, ripens into a berry containing several seeds, except in the -Henbane, where it forms a capsule. - -The Henbane (_Hyoscyamus niger_) is an erect plant, with a branching -stem from one to two feet high, and the whole is more or less coarse and -hairy, with a viscid touch and an unpleasant odour. The flowers are of a -dingy yellow colour, and are arranged, with very short stalks, in -one-sided, leafy spikes which are curved backwards before the flowers -are open. The calyx is at first short, but grows longer, as the fruits -ripen, until it is about an inch long. It has prominent veins, and its -five lobes are stiff and bristly. The dingy corolla also reaches a -length of an inch or more, and is distinctly marked with dark bluish -veins. This plant flowers from June to September, and is moderately -common in waste places, especially near houses. - -The other three flowers of this order referred to are all known as -Nightshades, and two of them belong to the genus _Solanum_, in which the -flowers are arranged in few-flowered terminal or lateral cymes, on short -stalks. The corolla has scarcely any tube, and the flowers are easily -distinguished by the peculiar arrangement of the five anthers, which are -on very short filaments, and are placed close against the style in such -a manner as to form a compact cone in the centre of the flower. - -[Illustration: THE GREAT BINDWEED.] - -One species--the Black Nightshade (_S. nigrum_)--is rather local in its -distribution, but often very abundant where it occurs, appearing as a -common weed on cultivated soils. It is an erect, spreading herb, either -quite smooth or slightly hairy, growing from six inches to two feet -high, with swollen angles on its branching stem. Its leaves are stalked, -ovate, more or less wavy, with large angular teeth; and the small, white -flowers are on short lateral stalks. The fruit is a small, round, black -or scarlet berry. This species may be seen in flower from June almost to -the end of the year. - -[Illustration: THE HENBANE.] - -The other species--the Woody Nightshade or Bittersweet (_S. -Dulcamara_)--is much more common, and may be seen straggling among the -hedgerow shrubs almost everywhere. It is a woody climber that supports -itself by means of its zig-zag stem, and often reaches a height of six -feet or more. The flower seems to be very well known, but is often, if -not generally, spoken of as the Deadly Nightshade, which is a much rarer -species with quite a different habit and appearance. The leaves are -stalked, and usually more or less heart-shaped. Sometimes they are -entire, but frequently there is a small lobe on each side of the base. -The flowers, though rather small, are very pretty, the conspicuous cone -of yellow anthers forming a bright centre to the spreading purple -corolla. They bloom from June to September; and towards the end of the -season the bright red fruits may be seen in abundance while the flowers -are still appearing. - -[Illustration: THE WOODY NIGHTSHADE OR BITTERSWEET.] - -The true Deadly Nightshade or Dwale (_Atropa belladonna_), of the same -order, is a very local plant, occurring principally in waste places in -the South of England. It is an erect, branching herb, either smooth or -slightly downy, reaching a height of two or three feet, and flowering -from June to September. The leaves are large stalked, ovate, and entire; -and each one has, usually, a smaller leaf, growing from the same point -on the stem and looking like a stipule. The flowers are very different -in general appearance from those of the other nightshades. They are -large--about an inch long, and solitary, on short stalks, in the axils -of the leaves or in the forks of the stem. The calyx is a broad bell, -deeply cut into five lobes; and the corolla is a deep, regular bell, of -a pale purple colour, with five short, broad lobes. The fruit is a -large, poisonous berry, almost globular, but flattened above. - -[Illustration: THE DEADLY NIGHTSHADE.] - -On waysides and in neglected fields we meet with the very common Red -Bartsia (_Bartsia Odontites_) of the order _Scrophulariaceĉ_. This is a -small, tough plant (see Plate III), from six inches to a foot or -more in height, rather downy, with spreading branches. It may be readily -recognised by its several one-sided spikes of numerous purple-red -flowers, with a bell-shaped, four-pointed calyx, and a corolla that is -divided into a longer upper, and a shorter lower, lip. The leaves are -long and narrow, with a few teeth; and the fruit is an oblong capsule. -The above description applies to the most usual form of this plant, but -it is a very variable species, especially as regards the form of the -leaves and the branching of the stem. - -The Yellow Toadflax (_Linaria vulgaris_), of the same order, is a very -pretty plant, from one to three feet high, exceedingly common on banks, -hedges, and the borders of fields, bearing dense, terminal racemes of -yellow flowers from June to October. Its calyx is small, and deeply -divided into five segments; and the corolla, which has a long pointed -spur at the base, is closed above by the bright orange 'palate' of the -lower lip. - -[Illustration: THE YELLOW TOADFLAX.] - -In the order _Verbenaceĉ_ we have the common Vervein (_Verbena -officinalis_), a common plant in the dry wastes of the South of England, -and moderately frequent in some other parts. This is a smooth, erect -plant, with long, spreading, wiry, four-angled stems; and small, lilac -flowers in long, slender spikes. There are but few leaves towards the -top of the plant, and these are narrow and sessile, while the lower -leaves are broader, stalked, and coarsely toothed. When the flowers -first appear they are close together, but the spike increases in length -as the flowering proceeds, so that the lower flowers and fruits become -more distant. Each flower has a five-toothed calyx, and an irregular -corolla with a short tube and five unequal lobes. The Vervein grows from -one to two feet high, and flowers from July to September. - -[Illustration: THE VERVEIN.] - -Passing now to the Labiates, we deal first with two species of Calamints -(genus _Calamintha_), which are to be distinguished from the other -genera of the order by their axillary cymes of flowers, with calyx and -corolla both lipped, and the upper lip of the latter erect and flat. - -One of these, the common Calamint (_Calamintha officinalis_), is a hairy -plant, with an erect, branched stem, one or two feet high, and stalked, -ovate, toothed leaves. The whorls of flowers are compound, in forked, -axillary cymes. The calyx is tubular, with thirteen ribs and five -pointed teeth. The three upper teeth are united at their base to form -the upper lip, while the other two, longer and narrower, form the lower. -The corolla is almost twice as long as the calyx, with an upper, erect -lip, and a lower lip with three broad lobes. The stamens are four in -number, in pairs, under the upper lip. - -The Lesser Calamint (_C. Nepeta_) is a very similar plant, by some held -to be merely a variety of _C. officinalis_. Its leaves are shortly -stalked, but slightly toothed, and only about half an inch in length. -The flowers are about as long as the leaves, arranged in whorls of eight -or ten, with corolla about half as long again as the calyx. In both -species the mouth of the calyx is hairy, but the hairs are much more -prominent in the Lesser Calamint than in the last. Both plants are -frequently seen on sunny waysides, flowering during July and August. - -[Illustration: THE BALM.] - -The Balm (_Melissa officinalis_) is a common garden herb in some parts, -and in the South of England it is now fairly established as a wild -flower, though, at present, it is not often found very far from the -habitations of man. It is a hairy plant, much like a Calamint in -general appearance, growing from one to three feet high, and bearing -white flowers in July and August. Its leaves are stalked, ovate, acute, -toothed or crenate, of a pale green below; and the flowers are -shortly-stalked, in few-flowered, axillary whorls. - -The Black Horehound (_Ballota nigra_), shown on Plate III, Fig. -2, is a coarse, hairy plant, with an unpleasant odour, commonly -seen on roadsides and wastes, flowering continuously from the beginning -of June to September or October. Its erect stem often exceeds three feet -in height, and branches more or less freely. The purple flowers are in -dense clusters in the axils of the leaves, and beneath them are several -narrow, stiff bracts. The calyx is about a third of an inch long, green -or purple-green in colour, with ten prominent ribs, and five broad teeth -which usually terminate abruptly in a fine, stiff point. The corolla is -of a purple colour, twice as long as the calyx, with an arched, oval -upper lip; and a slightly longer lower lip of three segments, the middle -one of which is the largest. - -THE HEDGE WOUNDWORT. - -Our last example of the wayside Labiates is the Hedge Woundwort -(_Stachys sylvatica_)--a very abundant and pretty plant that grows most -luxuriantly in damp, shady places, such as the borders of ditches, the -edges of woods, and shady banks and hedgerows. Its square stem is solid -and stout, straight and erect, and more or less branched. All the leaves -are stalked, the upper ones being narrow and entire, while the lower are -large, ovate or cordate, with a crenate or toothed edge and a very -pointed apex. The flowers, which bloom from July to September, are in -distant whorls of from six to ten, in the axils of the upper leaves, -forming long spikes. The calyx is bell-shaped, with ten ribs, and five -spreading teeth which are pointed, but not stiff; and the corolla, the -tube of which is longer than the calyx, is of a dark, red-purple colour, -prettily variegated with white on the lower lip. This plant varies from -one to three feet in height and has a very unpleasant odour. - -We next take a few examples of the Borage family (order _Boraginaceĉ_), -all of which are herbs more or less rough with coarse hairs, having -alternate, simple leaves, and flowers in one-sided spikes or racemes -which are rolled back while in bud. In all of them the calyx has five -divisions or teeth, and the corolla consists of five united petals of -equal or nearly equal size. There are five stamens within the tube of -the corolla, and the fruit consists of four nutlets enclosed in the -persistent calyx. - -One of these--the Field Scorpion Grass (_Myosotis arvensis_)--is often -called the Forget-me-not, but it usually grows in dry waste places, -while the true Forget-me-not is found in wet situations. The flowers of -this species are also very much smaller. The stem of the plant is thin, -and bears small, oval, hairy leaves. The small blue corolla has short, -spreading, concave segments, and is surrounded by a calyx that is cleft -to the middle, and covered with hooked hairs. The sepals spread while -the flower is open, but assume an erect position when in fruit. As a -further means of distinguishing between this and other similar species -of the same genus we should note that the peduncle is longer than the -calyx, and that the style is very short. The plant varies from six to -eighteen inches in height, and flowers throughout the summer. - -The Gromwell or Grey Millet (_Lithospermum officinale_) is a stout plant -with several erect, branched stems. The flowers are small, of a pale -yellow colour, in leafy racemes. The calyx is hairy and very deeply -cleft into five segments; and the corolla, which is about the same -length as the calyx, is funnel-shaped, with small scales in the throat -of its tube. This plant derives its generic name of _Lithospermum_ from -the nature of its fruit, which consists of white, stony nutlets with a -smooth and polished surface. Its height is from twelve to eighteen -inches; and the flowers appear during June and July. - -Our next species--the Borage (_Borago officinalis_)--is not indigenous, -but is found wild in many parts, frequently in great abundance. It is a -very bristly plant, from one to two feet high, bearing bright blue -flowers from June to August. Its stem has spreading branches, and the -leaves are obovate, narrowing at the base into the stalk. The upper -leaves are narrower than the lower ones, and have shorter petioles. The -flowers are of a blue colour, or sometimes almost white, and are -drooping on rather long pedicels. The segments of the corolla are -spreading and very pointed; and the dark anthers are very conspicuous in -the centre of the flower. - -The two British Alkanets (_Anchusa_) are interesting plants, though not -very common. They are coarse and hairy, and bear large, blue, bracteate -flowers, distinguished by a deeply five-cleft calyx; a corolla with five -spreading lobes, and a straight tube closed at the mouth by blunt, hairy -scales; and five stamens included within the tube. The fruit consists of -rather large wrinkled nuts. - -One species, though generally known as the Common Alkanet (_Anchusa -officinalis_), is really a rare plant, occurring only as an escape from -cultivation in the neighbourhood of towns and villages. It has an -angular stem; narrow leaves--the lower ones very long, on long stalks, -and the upper ones smaller; and forked, one-sided, spikes of sessile or -shortly-stalked flowers of a rich blue colour. The calyx is bristly, -longer than the corolla, and cleft into narrow divisions. This plant -grows from one to two feet high, and flowers during June and July. - -[Illustration: THE GROMWELL.] - -The other species--the Evergreen Alkanet (_Anchusa sempervirens_)--is -not uncommon in some southern and south-western districts. It is a -stout, very bristly plant, from one to two feet high, with rather large, -blue flowers in short, opposite spikes. It is shown on Plate -III. - -Our last flower of the Borage family is the Hound's-tongue -(_Cynoglossum officinale_), which is moderately common on waste ground, -flowering during June and July. This is an erect plant, from one to two -feet high, with a very unpleasant odour. Its stem is stout, branched and -hairy; and the leaves are thickly covered with soft down. The lowest -leaves are oval, with long stalks, often ten or twelve inches in length; -but the upper ones become smaller and narrower, with shorter stalks, -till towards the top they are very narrow, sessile, and clasp the stem. -The flowers are in racemes, with short pedicels, and have no bracts. The -segments of the calyx are narrow and pointed; and the small corolla is -of a reddish purple colour. The fruit is covered with little spines and -is about a quarter of an inch in diameter. - -On dry waysides the Buck's-horn Plantain (_Plantago Coronopus_--order -_Plantaginaceĉ_) is common. It may be readily distinguished as a -plantain by its slender, cylindrical spikes of small flowers, and its -spreading tuft of radical leaves. This species has a thick rootstock, -and its leaves are either linear and undivided, or, more commonly, cut -into very narrow segments. The flowers are green, with broad, hairy -sepals, the whole spike measuring from one to two inches in length. They -bloom during June and July. - -[Illustration: THE HOUND'S-TONGUE.] - -The plants which form the genus _Chenopodium_, of the order -_Chenopodiaceĉ_, are essentially plants of the wayside and waste ground, -and of these we shall have to note several species. Most of them are -distinguished by the dusty mealiness of their leaves, though a few do -not possess this feature. In general they are characterised by -alternate, flat leaves; and small, green flowers in little sessile -clusters, forming spikes in the axils of the upper leaves. The little -flowers usually have a perianth of five segments which more or less -enclose the fruit; also five stamens, and two or three styles. The -following summary of the characters of these plants will enable the -reader to identify them:-- - -1. Stinking Goose-foot (_Chenopodium olidum_ or _C. Vulvaria_.)--A -procumbent or spreading plant, with a granular, mealy surface and a -nauseous odour resembling that of stale fish, especially when rubbed or -bruised. Stems from six inches to a foot or more in length, and much -branched. Leaves stalked, small, ovate, and entire. Flowers in dense, -leafless, axillary and terminal spikes which are shorter than the -leaves. Moderately common in many parts, especially in the eastern -counties. Time of flowering--August and September. - -[Illustration: THE WHITE GOOSE-FOOT.] - -2. Many-seeded Goose-foot (_C. polyspermum_).--A procumbent or erect, -spreading plant, without mealiness or nauseous odour. Stem much -branched. Leaves ovate or elliptical, entire, green, less than two -inches long. Flowers in axillary and terminal, leafless spikes, with a -calyx that does not cover the fruit. Common in parts of England, -flowering during August and September. - -3. Upright Goose-foot (_C. urbicum_).--An erect plant, with a stout stem -and few branches. Leaves green on both sides. Lower leaves on long -stalks, broad, ovate or triangular, with bases narrowed towards the -stalk in such a manner as to approach a rhomboidal form, two or three -inches long, and irregularly toothed or lobed. Upper leaves narrower, -nearly entire, and acute. Flowers in small, dense clusters, forming -rather long, erect spikes. The green perianth does not completely cover -the fruit. Common on roadsides and waste ground, flowering in August and -September. - -4. White Goose-foot (_C. album_).--A very common plant, varying in -colour from a pale green to a mealy white. Stem stout, erect, from one -to three feet high. Lower leaves stalked, ovate or rhomboid, more or -less toothed or angular, but entire at the base. Upper leaves -lanceolate, entire. Spikes of flowers irregularly clustered, leafy, and -usually branched; the upper ones forming a long panicle, intermixed with -the upper leaves. Perianth entirely covering the fruit. - -5. Fig-leaved Goose-foot (_C. ficifolium_).--by some regarded as a -distinct species, but by others included among the varieties of _C. -album_. It closely resembles the latter in general appearance, but its -lower leaves are divided into three unequal lobes, and are somewhat -spear-shaped. - -6. Red Goose-foot (_C. rubrum_).--An erect plant, from one to three feet -high, with smooth, triangular, irregularly-toothed leaves, resembling -those of the Upright Goose-foot. The spikes, also, closely resemble -those of the same plant, but the flowers have generally only two or -three segments to the perianth, and these often turn red as the fruit -ripens. The flowers appear during August and September. This species is -moderately common in most parts, and especially near the sea, where it -may be seen growing on the shingle very close to the water's edge. - -7. Mercury Goose-foot, Allgood, or Good King Henry (_C. -Bonus-Henricus_).--An erect plant, from one to three feet high, growing -from a thick, fleshy root like that of the Dock. Leaves stalked, -triangular, acute, wavy or toothed, of a dark green colour. Upper leaves -smaller, and almost sessile. Flowers in clustered, compound spikes, -forming a terminal panicle, leafy below. Fruit completely enclosed in -the perianth. This plant was formerly cultivated as a potherb, and is -now commonly found on waste ground near villages. Time of -flowering--June to August. - -In the same order we have the Common Orache (_Atriplex patula_)--a very -variable plant, from a few inches to three feet in height, with erect or -prostrate stem, and more or less mealy in appearance. Lower leaves -triangular, with spreading lobes at the base. Upper leaves narrower, and -entire or slightly toothed. Flowers in simple spikes, forming leafy, -terminal panicles. They are of two kinds--male and female, either -mixed, or collected in separate clusters. Segments of the perianth -united, pointed, sometimes toothed, and spotted above. The plant flowers -from July to September, and is abundant in most parts, especially near -the sea. - -The order _Polygonaceĉ_ also includes several wayside plants which may -be easily distinguished as a group by the following characters:--At the -bases of the alternate leaves are membranous stipules that form a sheath -round the stem. The flowers are small, arranged in clusters in the axils -of the leaves, or in terminal spikes or racemes. The fruit is a small -nut, enclosed more or less in the persistent perianth. - -Three of the plants to which we refer belong to the genus _Polygonum_, -in which the sheathing stipule is usually fringed at the edge; and the -small flowers are either green or red, with a perianth of five segments, -and stamens not exceeding eight in number. The little nuts, too, are -either flattened or triangular. The three species may be identified by -the following summary of their leading features: - -[Illustration: THE SPOTTED PERSICARIA.] - -1. The Spotted Persicaria (_Polygonum Persicaria_).--A very common -wayside plant, and a weed of almost all cultivated soils, growing from -one to two feet high, and flowering from July to October. The leaves -have, usually, a dark-coloured patch in the centre; and the stipules -are fringed at the top with fine, stiff hairs. The flowers are -rose-coloured, with more or less green, arranged in short axillary or -terminal spikes without any leaves; and the nuts are rather thick, but -flattened, smooth, and glossy. - -2. Pale-flowered Persicaria (_P. lapathifolium_).--Very similar to the -Spotted Persicaria, and sometimes regarded as a variety of that species; -but it differs in that its leaves are never spotted, and the lower -stipules are not fringed with hairs. The peduncle and perianth, which -are smooth in _P. persicaria_, are here rough, being dotted with small, -projecting glands; and the styles, which are united to about half way up -in the last species, are quite free in the present one. The flowers are -pink, with more or less green, and do not usually bloom after August; -and the plant often attains a length of three or four feet. - -3. Knot-grass or Knot-weed (_P. aviculare_).--A very common procumbent -weed, with wiry stems from one to two or three feet long. The leaves, -seldom as much as an inch in length, are narrow, oblong, and flat; and -the stipules are white, membranous, more or less cut at the edges, with -a few veins. The flowers are small, very variable in colour, arranged in -short-stalked clusters of about three or four in the axils of nearly all -the leaves; and the fruit is a triangular nut, shorter than the segments -of the perianth. This plant flowers from July to September. An erect -variety, growing to a height of two feet or more, may be seen in -cornfields. - -The same order includes the well-known Docks (_Rumex_), which differ -from _Persicaria_ as follows:--The root is very thick, and grows to a -great depth; the stems are erect and furrowed; and the thin membranous -stipules, though never fringed with hairs, often become more or less -torn. The flowers are small, green, in axillary clusters or terminal -racemes, often turning red as the fruit ripens. The perianth is deeply -divided into five segments, three of which become enlarged and close -over the triangular nut. Two species of this genus are abundant on -waysides. They are:-- - -1. The Broad-leaved Dock (_Rumex obtusifolius_).--A stout plant, two or -three feet high, and slightly branched. The lower leaves are ovate, -cordate at the base, blunt, often eight or nine inches long; and the -upper ones narrow and pointed. The flowers are perfect, reddish green, -in distant whorls, forming a terminal raceme which is leafless above. -The inner segment of the perianth is enlarged, ovate, distinctly -toothed, with a long point. Time of flowering--July to September. - -2. The Curled Dock (_R. crispus_).--Very similar to the Broad-leaved -Dock in size and habit, but flowering somewhat earlier. The lower leaves -are much narrower, six to eight inches long, lanceolate, pointed, and -wavy at the edges. The upper leaves are small and narrower, passing -gradually into still smaller bracts towards the lower flowers. The -flowers are in crowded whorls, on slender pedicels which are longer than -the perianths; and the inner segment of the perianth is enlarged, -cordate, but not toothed. - -[Illustration: THE CURLED DOCK.] - -We have now to note two species of Spurge (_Euphorbia_) that grow by the -wayside; but before doing so it will be well to make ourselves -acquainted with the general characters of the interesting group to which -they belong. The Spurges are herbs with a milky juice, and a stem which -is usually unbranched below, bearing alternate leaves. The flowering -branches, towards the top of the plant, generally radiate from one -point, forming an umbel of from two to five or more rays that proceed -from the axil of one or more leaves. Each ray is usually forked, and -sometimes repeatedly so, with a pair of leaves at each angle, and a -little head of yellowish-green flowers between the branches. Each -flower-head is surrounded by a small cup of united bracts, inside which -is a whorl of little yellow or brownish glands, placed horizontally. In -the centre of the head is a single female flower, consisting of a -three-celled ovary, with a three-cleft style, mounted on a stalk of such -a length that the flower droops over the edge of the cup. Around this -female flower are from ten to fifteen little male flowers, each -consisting of a single stamen with a minute scale at its base. The fruit -contains three seeds, one in each carpel. - -The Sun Spurge (_Euphorbia Helioscopia_) is a common species, varying -from six to eighteen inches high, flowering from June to October. Its -stem is generally simple, but sometimes branched at the base; and the -leaves are obovate or broadly oblong, without stipules, serrate, and -narrowed down at the base to a short stalk. The floral leaves are very -broad--almost round--and edged with very small teeth. The umbel consists -of five rays, each of which is forked, with very short branches; and the -glands within the cup are nearly round. The fruits are quite smooth, and -the seeds have a netted surface. - -The other species--the Petty Spurge (_E. Peplus_)--is a smaller plant, -seldom exceeding a foot in length, with an erect or decumbent stem -branching at the bottom. The stem-leaves are oval or obovate, entire, -shortly-stalked and placed alternately; and the floral leaves are -cordate or broadly ovate. The flower-heads are small, surrounded by -crescent-shaped glands with long points; and the carpels of the fruit -have rough keels or wings. - -[Illustration: THE GREAT NETTLE.] - -Passing to the Stinging Nettles (order _Urticaceĉ_), we have to deal -with three herbs that are remarkable for the stinging hairs which clothe -both leaves and stem. The leaves of all are opposite, and the flowers -imperfect. The male flowers have four stamens, and a small, green -perianth of four segments; while the females consist of an ovary with a -tufted stigma, surrounded by a perianth of four segments the two inner -of which are larger, or of two segments only. The fruit is a small, -flattened nut, enclosed in the persistent perianth. The distinguishing -characters of the three species are as follows: - -1. The Small Nettle (_Urtica urens_).--An erect herb, from one to two -feet high, with leaves and stem smooth with the exception of the stiff, -stinging hairs. The leaves are thin, elliptical, deeply and regularly -toothed; and the flowers are in unbranched axillary spikes which are -shorter than the petioles, the males and females being intermixed. This -is a common species, flowering from June to September. - -2. The Great Nettle (_U. dioica_).--A dark green herb, from one to four -feet high, more or less clothed with soft downy hairs in addition to the -stiff, stinging ones. The lower leaves are ovate or cordate, coarsely -toothed; and the upper ones narrower. The spikes of flowers are -branched, longer than the petioles, in the axils of the leaves. The -flowers are very similar to those of the Small Nettle, but the males and -females are usually on separate plants. This is a very common species, -flowering from June to September. - -[Illustration: CANARY GRASS.] - -3. The Roman Nettle (_U. pilulifera_).--A coarse, erect plant, from one -to two feet high, with stinging hairs more powerful than those of the -other species. The leaves are ovate or cordate, deeply and regularly -toothed. The male flowers are in clusters along the peduncles, which are -often as long as the leaves; and the females are in globular heads at -the top of stalks from half an inch to an inch in length. The heads of -fruits are about a third of an inch in diameter, thickly covered with -stinging hairs. This plant flowers from June to September. It is not so -abundant as the other nettles, and is found principally in the -neighbourhood of villages, especially in the eastern counties of -England. - -Although the Hop (_Humulus Lupulus_) does not sting, the whole plant is -rough with stiff hairs resembling those of the nettles, and it is placed -in the same order. It is a climber, and clings to the hedgerow shrubs by -twining its long stems, which always turn in the same direction as the -sun. Its leaves are opposite, stalked, broadly heart-shaped in general -form, but cut into three or five sharply-toothed lobes. The flowers, -like those of the nettles, are imperfect, and the male and female -blossoms grow on separate plants. The former are in lax panicles, in the -axils of the upper leaves: they are small, of a yellowish green colour, -each consisting of five stamens surrounded by a perianth of five -segments. The females are arranged in rounded heads or spikes on short -stalks in the axils of the leaves. The heads are made up of a number of -closely-placed bracts, each with two little flowers at its base; and -each flower consists of an ovary, enclosed in a scale, with two long, -narrow stigmas. After fertilisation the scales of the head grow very -large, forming very conspicuous 'cones' in which the little fruits lie -concealed. The Hop flowers from July to September, and is common in -hedgerows and thickets. - -Of the several wayside Grasses we have space for the mention of but one -species--the interesting Canary Grass (_Phalaris canariensis_). It is a -native of South Europe, introduced into this country and cultivated for -its seed (canary seed), but is now often seen growing wild in waste -places. It is represented on p. 209. - -[Illustration: _Plate IV._ -FLOWERS OF THE FIELD. -1. Rough Cock's-foot Grass. 2. Lucerne. 3. Crimson Clover. 4. Blue -Bottle. 5. Common Vetch. 6. Meadow Clary.] - - - - -XIV - -MEADOWS, FIELDS AND PASTURES--SUMMER - - -In the present chapter we shall briefly describe a considerable number -of flowers which are to be seen in fields and pastures during the summer -months; but we must remind the reader that many of the species -previously mentioned in Chapter VIII as flowering in similar situations -in the spring, continue to bloom during the whole or a portion of the -summer. A list of these is given below; and it should be noted that the -flowers described in this chapter are those which do not generally -commence to bloom till the month of June. - -SPRING FLOWERS OF MEADOWS, FIELDS AND PASTURES WHICH CONTINUE TO BLOOM -IN THE SUMMER. - - Creeping Buttercup. - Bulbous Buttercup. - Field Penny Cress. - Wild Pansy. - Ragged Robin. - Spotted Medick. - Netted Medick. - White Clover. - Purple Clover. - Earthnut. - Daisy. - Dandelion. - Yellow Rattle. - Field Louse-wort. - Henbit Dead Nettle. - Common Sorrel. - Sheep's Sorrel. - Twayblade. - -The Upright Buttercup or Meadow Crowfoot (_Ranunculus acris_) is often -confused with the two similar species (_R. repens_ and _R. bulbosus_) -already described in Chapter VIII, but it may be easily distinguished -from the former by the absence of creeping stems, and from the latter by -the spreading calyx and by the fibrous root without any bulbous -swelling. The whole plant is covered with soft hairs more or less -spreading; and it varies in height from six inches to three feet -according to the nature of the soil in which it grows. Its leaves are -all stalked with the exception of the few upper ones, and are very -deeply divided into three, five, or seven radiating segments which are -again cut into three lobes with acute divisions. The flowers are rather -large, on long terminal stalks, with a calyx of five yellowish-green, -concave sepals; and a very bright yellow corolla. The carpels are ovate, -slightly flattened, smooth, arranged in a globular head; and the fruits -are also smooth. The plant flowers during June and July. - -Another 'Buttercup'--the Pale Hairy Crowfoot (_R. hirsutus_) is to be -seen in our pastures; and though not so common as the three just -mentioned, it is very generally distributed in England and the South of -Scotland. It seldom exceeds a foot in height, and flowers from June to -the end of the summer. Its stem is erect, hairy, and freely branched; -and its leaves are much like those of the Bulbous Buttercup (p. -110). The flowers, however, are smaller and more numerous than -those of the latter, and are of a paler yellow colour; but the sepals -are bent back on the flower-stalk as in this species. The fruits are -rough when quite ripe, with little tubercles along the margins. - -[Illustration: THE GOLD OF PLEASURE.] - -Cruciferous flowers are not at all abundant in fields and meadows during -the summer months, but one species--the Gold of Pleasure (_Camelina -sativa_)--may be seen in the flax-fields of South Britain and Ireland -during June and July. The plant has a simple or slightly branched stem, -from one to three feet high; and its leaves are all sessile, narrow, -arrow-shaped, either entire or slightly toothed, with pointed lobes at -the base. The flowers are small, yellow, arranged in a long, loose -raceme; and the fruits are oval siliquas, with convex valves, a distinct -central vein, and edges flattened into a narrow wing. - -[Illustration: THE BLADDER CAMPION.] - -The order _Caryophyllaceĉ_ is represented in pastures by the Bladder -Campion (_Silene inflata_ or _S. cucubalis_)--a flower that is easily -recognised among the Campions and the Catchflys by the globular calyx. -The stem of the plant is semi-erect, branched below, and from two to -three feet high. The leaves are sessile, smooth, oblong, usually acute, -and placed in pairs on the jointed stem. The flowers are rather large, -arranged in lax, terminal panicles, and often droop slightly. The calyx -is globular, veined, and about half an inch or more in diameter; and the -five petals, which are deeply cleft into two lobes, have each a scale at -the base of the spreading limb. The plant is very widely distributed -over Britain, and is very common in some districts, flowering during -June and July. - -The same order contains the White Campion (_Lychnis vespertina_)--a -hairy plant, with a branched stem from one to two feet high, and rather -large white or very pale pink flowers that open in the evening. It is -abundant in most parts of Britain, and flowers during June and July. -Its leaves are oval or oblong, usually pointed, and tapering towards the -base. The flowers are in loose cymes, and imperfect; the staminate and -the pistillate ones being usually on different plants. The calyx is -generally more than half an inch long, hairy, with ten ribs and five -narrow teeth. It is tubular at first, but becomes broadly oval, with a -contracted mouth, as the fruit ripens. The five limbs of the corolla are -spreading and rather deeply cleft into two parts; and the fruit is a -capsule that splits at the top by ten teeth which remain erect or curve -only slightly outwards. The plant is found principally in fields and in -open waste ground. - -[Illustration: THE WHITE CAMPION.] - -Our fields and pastures are particularly rich in flowers of the Pea -family (order _Leguminosĉ_) during the summer months; and of these we -shall first note the pretty Kidney Vetch or Lady's Fingers (_Anthyllis -Vulneraria_), which is common in the dry pastures of most parts of -Britain. The whole plant is covered with short silky hairs which lie -close against the surface; and the stem, from six inches to over a foot -in length, is either erect or spreading. The leaves are pinnately -divided into several entire leaflets which are half an inch or more in -length, the terminal leaflet of the lower leaves being generally much -larger than the others. The flowers, which bloom from June to August, -are usually clustered into two dense heads at the tip of each stalk, -with a deeply-divided bract at the base of each head. The calyx is -densely covered with silky hairs; and the small corolla varies in colour -from pale yellow to red. - -In the neighbourhood of cultivated fields we may frequently meet with -the Lucerne or Purple Medick (_Medicago sativa_). This is not a British -plant, but it has been introduced and largely cultivated, and is -commonly found as an escape. It has an erect stem, from one to two feet -high; and the flowers bloom during June and July, followed by smooth, -spirally-twisted pods of two or three coils. This plant appears on Plate -IV, Fig. 2. - -In the genus _Melilotus_, of the same order, we have to note three -species, all of which agree in the following particulars:--They have -trifoliate leaves; and small, white or yellow flowers in long racemes on -axillary peduncles. The calyx has five teeth, and the corolla falls -after it fades. The stamens are ten in number, the upper one quite free, -while the filaments of the other nine are united into a split tube that -surrounds the ovary. The pod is only a little longer than the calyx, -rather thick in proportion to its length, with only one or two seeds, -and it does not split when ripe. The three species referred to may be -identified by the following descriptions:-- - -[Illustration: THE KIDNEY VETCH.] - -The Common Melilot (_Melilotus officinalis_) is a smooth plant, with a -branched stem from two to four feet high; and long-stalked leaves with -roundish or oval leaflets, and narrow, pointed stipules. The flowers are -very numerous, yellow, about a quarter of an inch long, in long -racemes. The petals are equal; and the hairy pods are only about a sixth -of an inch long. - -The Field Melilot (_M. arvensis_) is very similar, but not so tall, and -the flowers are less numerous. The 'keel' is shorter than the other -petals; and the pods are ribbed and blunt. The third species--the White -Melilot (_M. alba_)--is also very similar, but it has white flowers, in -which the 'standard' or upper petal is the longest. All three species -flower from June to August, but only the first may be described as -common. - -The genus _Trifolium_, containing the Clovers and Trefoils, resembles -_Melilotus_ in its trifoliate leaves, five-toothed calyx, and in the -arrangement of the stamens; but it differs in that the stipules adhere -to the leaf stalks, and the corolla often persists round the ripened -fruit. Several species of this group are common in fields and pastures. - -[Illustration: THE COMMON MELILOT.] - -One of these is the Clustered Clover or Smooth Round-headed-Trefoil -(_Trifolium glomeratum_)--a smooth plant, with purple or pink flowers, -found principally in the dry pastures of South and East England, -flowering during June and July. Its spreading stems are from six to -twelve inches long; and the heads of flowers are small, sessile, -globular, and either axillary or terminal. The calyx is ten-veined, -shorter than the corolla, with five pointed teeth which bend outwards as -the fruit ripens. - -The Strawberry Trefoil (_T. fragiferum_) has long-stalked, axillary -heads of rose-coloured flowers which become very compact and -strawberry-like when fruiting, at which time they are half an inch or -more in diameter. Its creeping stem roots at the nodes; and the leaves -are long-stalked, with toothed leaflets. Each head is surrounded below -by a whorl of lobed bracts about as long as the calyces which become -swollen after flowering. This is common in England, and flowers during -July and August. - -The Hare's-foot Trefoil (_T. arvense_) is a slender, erect or sub-erect -plant, covered with short, soft hairs, flowering from June to the end of -the summer. Its stem is branched, from six inches to a foot in length; -and the heads of flowers, on long, terminal or axillary stalks, are at -first nearly globular, but afterwards cylindrical and about three -quarters of an inch long. The flowers are small, pink, with corolla -shorter than the calyx. The latter has five very long, feathery teeth, -giving the whole head of flowers a soft and feathery appearance. The -plant is abundant, especially in the southern counties of England. - -The Crimson Clover (_T. incarnatum_) was introduced into England and -cultivated as fodder, but it is often found wild as an escape from -cultivation. The plant is erect, varying from six inches to two feet in -height, and is covered with soft, silky hairs. It flowers in June and -July. The corolla, which is much longer than the calyx, is sometimes -almost white. This flower is shown on Plate IV. - -[Illustration: THE LADY'S MANTLE.] - -One of the commonest flowers of this genus is the Hop Trefoil (_T. -procumbens_)--a slender plant, with erect or sub-erect stem much -branched below. Its leaflets are obovate or obcordate, and toothed; and -the flower-heads are dense, globular, on long axillary stalks, each -consisting of about forty bright yellow flowers. When fruiting the heads -are turned downwards, and the pods are then covered by the persistent, -brown corollas. This species flowers from June to August. - -The Lesser Yellow Trefoil (_T. minus_) is very much like the last, and -flowers at the same time, but is more slender and more procumbent; and -its flower-heads, which consist of from ten to twenty pale yellow -flowers, are on stiff peduncles. - -Our last example of the _Leguminosĉ_ is the Meadow Pea or Meadow -Vetchling (_Lathyrus pratensis_), which is a very common flower of moist -pastures. The plant is straggling, with a weak, angled stem that -supports itself by interlacing with the surrounding herbage, aided by -its branched tendrils. Its stipules are large, narrow-oval in form, with -an arrow-shaped base. The compound leaf has only one pair of lanceolate -leaflets, the remaining leaflets having been modified into tendrils for -the support of the plant. The long axillary peduncles each bear a -one-sided raceme of from six to ten yellow flowers, which are followed -by rather large, smooth pods. The plant flowers from June to September. - -The order _Rosaceĉ_ contains the Great Burnet (_Sanguisorba -officinalis_), the only British representative of its genus. It is very -much like the Lesser Burnet (p. 301) in general appearance, but -much taller and larger. It is a smooth plant, with an erect stem from -one to two feet high, the upper part of which is almost leafless. The -leaves are mostly radical or on the lower part of the stem, and are -pinnate, with from seven to thirteen oval or oblong, toothed leaflets. -The long peduncles each bear an oval head of crowded flowers of a dark -purple colour. Each flower has a calyx of four coloured lobes, enclosed -within bracts; and four stamens. There are no petals. The plant is -moderately common in the damp meadows of England and South Scotland, and -flowers from June to August. - -The Lady's Mantle (_Alchemilla vulgaris_) is a common plant in the hilly -pastures of North England, but is much less frequent in the South. It -varies from six to eighteen inches in height, and bears loose, terminal -clusters of small yellowish-green flowers from June to August. The -little flowers have a free calyx of eight segments in two whorls of -four, the outer ones smaller than the inner; no petals; a few stamens; -and an ovary of one or two one-seeded carpels enclosed in the tube of -the calyx. - -In moist meadows and other damp places we commonly see the fragrant -Meadow Sweet or Queen of the Meadows (_Spirĉa Ulmaria_), of the same -order. This is an erect plant, from two to four feet high, bearing -densely-crowded cymes of small, creamy-white flowers from June to -August. Its stem is rather thick, often reddish in colour; and the -leaves are large, pinnate, with from five to nine ovate, -irregularly-toothed leaflets, two or three inches long, and also several -smaller leaflets at the base of the stalk or between the larger ones. -Each of the little flowers has a five-lobed, free calyx; five petals; -numerous stamens; and an ovary that ripens into from five to eight -little twisted capsules. - -[Illustration: THE MEADOW SWEET.] - -The Burnet Saxifrage (_Pimpinella Saxifraga_), of the order -_Umbelliferĉ_, is a common plant in dry pastures, and is very generally -distributed. Its stem is from one to two feet high, and but little -branched; and the leaves are very variable in form--the radical ones -usually pinnate, with from three to nine oval or round leaflets that are -either lobed or deeply toothed; and the upper also pinnate, with the -segments of the leaflets few and very narrow. The umbels are terminal, -with from eight to sixteen slender rays, and no bracts. The flowers are -small and white, and appear from July to September. - -The Wild Carrot (_Daucus Carota_) of the same order is also common in -pastures. It is an erect plant, with a tap root, and a branching stem -from one to two feet high. The lower leaves are two or three times -pinnate, with segments pinnately divided into narrow lobes. The upper -leaves are much smaller, with narrower divisions. The umbels are large -and terminal, on long stalks. The rays are numerous and crowded; the -middle ones being shorter, with pale purple flowers; and the outer ones -longer, with white flowers. After flowering the rays close together, -forming a dense, globular mass, or an inverted cone, concave at the top, -thus more or less covering the fruits, in which they are aided by the -long, narrow lobes of both the primary and secondary bracts. The fruits -are covered with little hooked prickles. - -[Illustration: THE BURNET SAXIFRAGE.] - -The Devil's-bit Scabious (_Scabiosa succisa_--order _Dipsaceĉ_) is very -common in the pastures of almost all parts of Britain, and much -resembles the Field Scabious (p. 290) in general habit. Its stem -is erect, branching, from one to two feet high. The radical leaves are -stalked, ovate or oblong, and generally quite entire; and the -stem-leaves, which are few, are of the same general form, but are -sessile, and sometimes slightly toothed. The heads of purple-blue -flowers are on long peduncles, and each one is surrounded at the base -by about three whorls of bracts which decrease in length inwards, the -outer and longest being about as long as the flowers. The flowers of the -head are all nearly of the same size and form. Each one is enclosed in a -tubular whorl of united bracts with small teeth. This whorl might easily -be mistaken for a calyx by those who are not acquainted with the general -features of the flowers of this order, but the calyx is really combined -with the ovary, its four bristly teeth being very conspicuous round the -top of the fruit. The corolla is tubular, deeply cleft into four lobes; -and four stamens are inserted into its tube. The fruit is small and -seedlike, and does not split. This plant flowers from July to September -or October. - -[Illustration: THE WILD CARROT.] - -Coming now to the _Compositĉ_, we have a considerable number of meadow -flowers to describe; and we assume that the reader has already made -himself acquainted with the nature of the flowers of this order as given -on p. 175. If such is not the case, we advise him to refresh his -memory with regard to them, in order that the terms used in the -following descriptions may be thoroughly understood. - -[Illustration: THE DEVIL'S-BIT SCABIOUS.] - -Our first species is the Rough Hawkbit (_Leontodon hispidus_), which is -very abundant in all parts of Britain except the extreme north, its -rather large, yellow flower-heads being often mistaken for those of the -Dandelion that are frequently seen in company with them on pasture land. -Its specific name is due to the short, stiff hairs, often more or less -branched, that clothe all parts of the plant. The leaves are all -radical, long and narrow, decreasing in width towards the base, and -either coarsely toothed or deeply cut into pointed lobes. The -flower-stalk widens immediately below its solitary head, which is -surrounded by hairy bracts--two or three whorls of short ones without, -and a whorl of long ones within. All the florets are ligulate or -strap-shaped, and yellow. The fruits are long achenes, narrower towards -the top; and the pappus consists of a few short, outer hairs, -surrounding about twice the number of brown, feathered ones three or -four times as long. The flower stalks vary from a few inches to a foot -or more in height, and the flowers bloom from June to September. - -[Illustration: THE ROUGH HAWKBIT.] - -Equally abundant is the Autumnal Hawkbit (_Leontodon autumnalis_), which -is also found in pastures. It is a very similar plant in many respects, -but may be easily distinguished by its smaller heads of flowers on -branching stalks. The flowering stems are erect, from six to eighteen -inches high, each with one or two branches bearing a few small scales -and a single head of flowers. The involucre consists of several rows of -smooth, closely-overlapping bracts, and is narrowed at the base into the -enlarged upper part of the stalk. The florets are all ligulate, as in -the last species; and the pappus consists of brown, feathery hairs, all -of the same length. The flowers appear during August and September. - -The Meadow Thistle (_Carduus pratensis_) is abundant in some of the -southern counties of Britain and Ireland, but is rarely seen in the -north. Nearly all the leaves of this plant are radical, and these are -long, narrow, and covered with cottony hairs. The few leaves of the stem -are narrow, with short teeth that are only slightly prickly. The stem -itself grows from twelve to eighteen inches high, and is usually -unbranched, with a single head of flowers; sometimes, however, it has -one or two branches, each terminating in a flower-head. The involucre is -globular in form, covered with cottony hairs, and composed of -closely-placed bracts. The flowers are purple. The plant grows chiefly -in moist pastures, and flowers from June to August. - -[Illustration: THE AUTUMNAL HAWKBIT.] - -The Black Knapweed or Hardhead (_Centaurea nigra_) is a very common -flower of meadows and pastures, flowering from June to September. Its -stem is erect, tough, branched, from a few inches to three feet in -height. The leaves are long and narrow; the upper ones entire or nearly -so, and clasping the stem; and the lower coarsely toothed or divided -into lobes. The flower-head has somewhat the appearance of a purple -thistle, but the involucre is not prickly. The latter consists of an -almost globular mass of closely-overlapping bracts, the visible -portions of which are dark brown or black fringes. The florets are -generally all equal, but the outer ones are sometimes larger than the -others, and sterile. - -[Illustration: THE MEADOW THISTLE.] - -The Great Knapweed (_Centaurea Scabiosa_) is a somewhat similar plant, -but usually larger, its stout, branched stem being generally two or -three feet high. It may be easily distinguished by its larger -flower-heads, the outer, neuter florets of which are considerably -enlarged. As a rule the florets are all purple, but occasionally all are -white, or the outer ones white and the others purple. The bracts of the -involucre are broad, with a green centre and a dark, downy margin. The -fruit is surmounted by a pappus of stiff, bristly hairs of about its own -length. This plant is common in the south of Britain, and flowers during -July and August. - -Two species of Fleabane have to be noticed. They belong to the genus -_Inula_, and are distinguished by a distinct division of the flower-head -into disc and ray, and also by two minute 'tails' at the bottom of the -anthers. - -One of these is the Common Fleabane (_I. dysenterica_)--a woolly plant, -abundant in the moist pastures of the southern counties, flowering from -July to September. Its erect stem is loosely branched, from six inches -to two feet high. The leaves are oblong and wavy--the lower ones -stalked, and the upper clasping the stem with rounded lobes at the base. -The flower-heads are yellow, about three-quarters of an inch in -diameter, arranged singly on the tips of the branches, or on stalks -arising from the axils of the upper leaves. The florets of the ray are -spreading, and much longer than those of the disc; and the fruits have a -minute cup at the top, from the inside of which spring the hairs of the -pappus. The smoke arising from the burning Fleabanes was supposed to -kill fleas and other vermin; and the specific name _dysenterica_ is due -to the fact that this species has been used as a medicine in cases of -dysentery. - -[Illustration: THE BLACK KNAPWEED.] - -[Illustration: THE GREAT KNAPWEED.] - -The Small Fleabane (_I. Pulicaria_) is a similar plant, but smaller -(from six to twelve inches high) and less woolly. Its flower-heads are -yellow, much smaller, on terminal and axillary stalks; and the florets -of the ray are only slightly longer than those of the disc. The hairs of -the pappus are not surrounded at the base by a little cup, but by a few -minute and distinct scales. This species grows in the south-eastern -counties of England, and flowers during August and September. - -The White Ox-eye Daisy (_Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum_) is one of the -largest and most conspicuous of our composite flowers, and is abundant -in dry pastures all over Britain. The plant is generally smooth; and its -erect stem, either simple or slightly branched, is from one to two feet -high. The lower leaves are obovate, coarsely toothed, on long stalks; -and the upper ones are narrow and sessile, with a few teeth. The -flower-heads are large, and placed singly on long, terminal stalks. The -bracts are closely overlapping, with narrow, brown margins; the ray -florets white, strap-shaped, over half an inch long; and the disc -florets numerous and tubular. The flowers bloom from June to August. - -[Illustration: THE COMMON FLEABANE.] - -Our last composite flower is the Sneezewort (_Achillea Ptarmica_), which -is common in the hilly pastures and meadows of most parts of Britain. It -has an erect stem, one to two feet high. The leaves are sessile, narrow, -with fine, regular teeth, and a smooth surface. The flower-heads are -arranged in a loose, terminal, flat-topped corymb. Each is surrounded by -an involucre of overlapping bracts; and consists of numerous little -disc-florets, intermixed with small scales, and about twelve short, -broad, white florets of the ray. The time of flowering is July and -August. - -The Common Centaury (_Erythrĉa Centaurium_), of the order -_Gentianaceĉ_, is a very common plant in dry pastures. Its stem is -erect, simple below, freely branched towards the top, from six to -eighteen inches high; and the leaves are ovate, spreading and closely -placed below, narrow and more distant above. The flowers are rose-red or -pink, in a dense corymb, with a calyx of five very narrow segments, and -a corolla consisting of a narrow tube and five spreading lobes. - -[Illustration: THE OX-EYE DAISY.] - -Of the order _Convolvulaceĉ_ we shall note one species--the Small -Bindweed (_Convolvulus arvensis_), so well known as a troublesome weed -in cultivated fields. It has a creeping rootstock, and a twining stem, -from a few inches to two feet in length, that sometimes climbs, but -more commonly trails along the ground and over low-growing plants. The -leaves are stalked, arrow-shaped, about an inch and a half long, with -sharp, spreading lobes at the base. The axillary peduncles are usually -forked, with a single flower on each of the two branches; and there are -two small bracts at the angle of the fork, and another one or a pair -above these, but some distance below the flower, on each branch. The -calyx is very small, but the salver-shaped corolla is usually over an -inch in diameter, either pink or pinkish white. The plant flowers from -June to August. - -[Illustration: THE SNEEZE-WORT.] - -The Meadow Clary (_Salvia pratensis_--order _Labiatĉ_), shown on Plate -IV, Fig. 6, is a rather rare plant, apparently to be seen only -in the dry fields of Oxfordshire, Kent, Surrey, and the extreme -south-west of England; but it is one of the most handsome of the -Labiates. Its stem is erect, from one to two feet high. The radical -leaves are large, stalked, ovate or cordate, toothed, and much wrinkled; -and the stem-leaves few, ovate or lanceolate, acute, the upper ones -sessile. The flowers are arranged in whorls of from four to six at -regular distances, the whole forming a long, simple or branched spike. -The calyx is divided into two lips, the upper of which has often three -small teeth, while the lower is divided into two lobes; and the corolla -is of a bright blue colour, about three times as long as the calyx, with -a long, arched upper lip and a three-lobed lower lip. There are two -stamens, each with a fertile and an abortive anther connected by a thin -stalk which is fastened to the short filament in such a manner that it -rocks. This plant flowers from June to August. - -[Illustration: THE SMALL BINDWEED.] - -The peculiar arrangement of the stamens above described is sufficient in -itself to distinguish the genus _Salvia_ from all the other Labiates, -and the importance of the peculiarity in connexion with the pollination -of the flower is so interesting that we may well spend a few minutes in -studying it before passing on to other species. In the first place it -should be mentioned that the stamens of _Salvia_ are mature before the -stigma, and that, as a consequence, self-pollination is impossible. The -lower, abortive anthers of the two stamens are joined together and form -a little valve which closes the throat of the corolla tube. Each one, -however, has a notch in its inner side, and the two notches, meeting in -the middle, form a little hole. When a bee visits the flower, it alights -on the lower lip of the corolla, and thrusts its tongue through the -hole to reach the nectar at the base of the tube. In doing this it -pushes the abortive anthers backwards, and the upper, fertile anther -cells, which rest under the arched upper lip, are thus made to swing -downwards and forwards so that they touch the bee's back; and, if they -are ripe, to deposit some pollen. After the pollen has been thus -removed, the style lengthens and curves downward, bringing the stigma, -which is now mature, to the position previously occupied by the fertile -anther cells at the time they were made to swing downwards by the bee. -Thus, if a bee which has previously visited a flower with mature anthers -now comes to one in which the stigma is ripe, the pollen dusted on its -back by the former is rubbed against the stigma of the latter, and -cross-fertilisation is the result. - -[Illustration: SECTION OF THE FLOWER OF _Salvia_. -1. Stigma--not yet mature. 2. Stamen.] - -[Illustration: THE SELF-HEAL.] - -The Common Marjoram (_Origanum vulgare_) is an aromatic plant that often -grows in great abundance on dry hilly pastures, especially in limestone -and chalky districts. Its stem is thin and hairy, a foot or more in -height; and the leaves are stalked, ovate, blunt, slightly toothed, -downy, and about an inch in length. The flowers, which bloom from July -to September, are of a rosy purple colour, in numerous globular -clusters, the whole inflorescence forming a leafy panicle. The -overlapping bracts are about as long as the calyx, and usually tinged -with red or purple; the calyx has five, short, equal teeth, and is very -hairy in the throat; the corolla is about twice the length of the -calyx, and has four lobes, the upper of which is a little broader than -the others; and the stamens are in two pairs, one pair longer than the -other. It will be noticed that some of the flowers are larger than -others, and that these are perfect, while the smaller ones have no -stamens. - -In the same order (_Labiatĉ_) there is the Self-Heal (_Prunella -vulgaris_), a very common plant in moist meadows, flowering from July to -the end of the summer. The lower portion of the stem of this plant -usually rests on the ground and roots at the nodes, but from this arises -the erect branches, four to ten inches high, bearing pairs of oval or -oblong, slightly-toothed leaves; and a dense terminal spike of whorled -flowers immediately above the last pair. The lipped corolla is of a -violet or purple colour, usually about half an inch long. During the -flowering stage the spike is very short, but as the fruits ripen it -lengthens out to about an inch and a half or two inches. - -[Illustration: THE RIBWORT PLANTAIN.] - -Coming now to the Plantains (order _Plantaginaceĉ_) we have two species -to note, both of which are very abundant on pasture land. One is the -Greater Plantain (_Plantago major_)--a very low plant, with a short, -thick rootstock, and a radical cluster of spreading or ascending leaves -with grooved stalks. These leaves are ovate, nearly as broad as long, -and traversed by five, seven, or nine strong parallel veins which -converge into the stalk at the base. Each little flower of the long, -slender spike has four sepals; a corolla with a tube and four spreading -lobes; and four stamens that project beyond the corolla. The fruit is a -small capsule which splits transversely when ripe. The plant flowers -from June to August. - -The other is the Ribwort Plantain (_P. lanceolata_), a somewhat similar -plant, the leaves of which are narrow, tapering at both ends, with three -or five strong, parallel ribs. Each flower-stalk bears a globular or -oval spike from half an inch to an inch in length. This species also -flowers from June to August. - -[Illustration: THE BUTTERFLY ORCHIS.] - -[Illustration: 1. CAT'S-TAIL GRASS. 2. MEADOW BARLEY.] - -There are a few summer-flowering species of Orchids that are more or -less common in fields and pastures. One of these is the Marsh Orchis -(_Orchis latifolia_), a plant so closely resembling the Spotted Orchis -(p. 277) that it is sometimes regarded as a variety of the -latter. Its tubers are palmately divided; and its stem, which is hollow, -is usually from twelve to eighteen inches high. The leaves are large, -sometimes spotted; and the spike of flowers is large, with leafy bracts -longer than the ovaries. The flowers vary in colour from white to a -deep purple, have a spur usually thicker than that of the Spotted -Orchis, and a lip indistinctly divided into three lobes, with its sides -curved backwards. The flower, which is represented on Plate VI, -grows in moist meadows, marshes, and on moors, flowering during June and -July. - -[Illustration: RYE GRASS OR DARNEL.] - -[Illustration: SHEEP'S FESCUE.] - -Another species--the Butterfly Orchis (_Habenaria bifolia_)--has -(usually) undivided tubers; a stem from six to twelve inches high with -two broad leaves near the base, and surrounded below by a few sheathing -scales; and a rather loose spike of white or greenish flowers with -narrow bracts about as long as the ovaries. The petals and upper sepals -are arched, the lateral sepals spreading, the lip narrow and undivided, -and the spur about twice as long as the ovary. This flower is not -uncommon in moist meadows, where it blooms from June to August. A large -variety, with greener flowers, is sometimes known as the Great Butterfly -Orchis. - -A considerable number of summer-flowering grasses are more or less -common in fields and meadows. We have not space for the descriptions of -these, but introduce illustrations of a few, including the Cock's-foot -Grass (_Dactylis glomerata_) which appears on Plate IV. - - - - -XV - -BOGS, MARSHES AND WET PLACES--SUMMER - - -The Crowfoot group of the _Ranunculaceĉ_ contains two bog-plants -popularly known as Spearworts on account of their spear-like leaves. One -of these--the Lesser Spearwort (_Ranunculus Flammula_)--is abundant in -wet places, especially the edges of muddy pools and ditches, where its -buttercup-like flowers may be seen from June to September. It is a -slender, smooth plant, with a branched stem, more or less decumbent at -the base, from four to twelve inches high. Its leaves are narrow-oval in -form, stalked, and either slightly toothed or quite entire; and the -yellow flowers are about half an inch in diameter, on long peduncles. - -The other is the Greater Spearwort (_R. Lingua_), a much larger species, -varying from two to four feet in height, and flowering during the same -months. It has stout, hollow, erect stems which throw off whorls of root -fibres from the lowest joints; and the glossy, yellow flowers vary from -one to one and a half inches in diameter. This species is not nearly so -common as the other, but occurs more or less in most parts of Britain. - -Taking next the cruciferous plants (_Cruciferĉ_), we have first to note -a few species of the _Nasturtium_ genus, including the Water-cress and -the Yellow-cress. These are all smooth plants, with small yellow or -white flowers. They may be distinguished from other crucifers by their -loose calyx; simple, rounded stigma on a very short style; and their -oblong or narrow pods with the seeds arranged in two rows on each side -of the membranous partition. The species with which we are at present -concerned are:-- - -1. The Water-cress (_Nasturtium officinale_).--A succulent plant, with a -branched stem rooting at the base, growing freely in ditches, shallow -streams and muddy places, and flowering from May or June to the end of -the summer. Its leaves are pinnately divided into from seven to eleven -wavy or slightly-toothed segments, the terminal one of which is usually -larger than the others and nearly round. The flowers are small, white, -in short, crowded racemes; and the pods are spreading, more than half an -inch long. - -[Illustration: _Plate V._ -FLOWERS OF BOGS AND MARSHES. -1. Marsh Gentian. 2. Marsh Marigold. 3. Marsh Orchis. 4. Marsh Mallow. -5. Marsh Vetchling. 6. The Marsh St. John's-wort. 7. Bog Pimpernel.] - -[Illustration: THE LESSER SPEARWORT.] - -2. The Marsh Yellow Cress (_N. palustre_), common in muddy places.--A -slender plant with a fibrous root, and pinnate leaves with -irregularly-toothed segments which are smaller towards the base. The -flowers are yellow, about an eighth of an inch in diameter, with petals -no longer than the sepals. They bloom from June to September. The pods -are oblong, swollen, slightly curved, a quarter of an inch long. - -3. The Amphibious Yellow Cress (_N. amphibium_).--An erect plant, two or -three feet high, with fibrous root and creeping runners, flowering from -June to September, moderately common on the banks of muddy streams. Its -leaves are narrow-oblong, three or four inches long, deeply toothed, or -cut into narrow lobes; and the flowers are yellow, similar to those of -the other species, and similarly arranged, but with petals twice as long -as the sepals. The pods are broad, only about a sixth of an inch long, -with a rather long style. - -In the marshes of the South of England we may often see the Marsh Mallow -(_Malva officinalis_ or _Althĉa officinalis_), of the order _Malvaceĉ_, -flowering during August and September. Its stem is hairy, with erect -flowering branches two or three feet high; and the leaves are shortly -stalked, thick, velvety, broadly ovate, and sometimes divided into three -or five lobes. The flowers are shortly stalked in the axils of the upper -leaves, or sometimes collected into a terminal raceme. Round each one is -a whorl of several narrow bracts, shorter than the calyx, and united at -their bases. The calyx is five-lobed; and the corolla consists of five -broad, rose-coloured petals. This plant is shown on Plate V, Fig. 4. - -[Illustration: THE GREAT HAIRY WILLOW-HERB.] - -The Marsh St. John's-wort (_Hypericum Elodes_--order _Hypericaceĉ_) is a -somewhat shaggy little plant, common in the bogs of many parts of -Britain, more especially in West England and Ireland. It varies from a -few inches to a foot in length; with prostrate stems rooting at the -base; and rounded, opposite leaves without stipules. Both stem and -leaves are clothed with white, woolly hairs, the latter on both -surfaces. The flowers, which bloom during July and August, are of a pale -yellow colour, and form a few-flowered, terminal panicle. They have five -small, oval sepals, fringed with little red-stalked glands; five -petals, about three times as long as the sepals; and many stamens, -united to more than half way up into three bundles. (See Plate V, Fig. -6.) - -The Blue Marsh Vetchling or Marsh Pea (_Lathyrus palustris_--order -_Leguminosĉ_) is occasionally to be met with in boggy places, flowering -from June to August. It is a smooth plant, with a weak, winged stem, two -or three feet long; and pinnate leaves consisting of from two to four -pairs of narrow, sharp leaflets, and terminating in a branched tendril. -At the base of each leafstalk are two narrow, half arrow-shaped -stipules. The flowers are of a bluish purple colour, and are arranged in -one-sided racemes, of from two to six flowers on long stalks. The pods -are smooth and about an inch in length. This plant is represented on -Plate V, Fig. 5. - -[Illustration: THE PURPLE LOOSESTRIFE.] - -Some of the Willow-herbs (_Onagraceĉ_) are very partial to wet and boggy -places. A few species of other habitats are described in Chapters X and -XI, and these, together with the members that come within the range of -the present chapter, are readily distinguished by their willow-like -leaves and the very long inferior ovaries of their flowers. We shall -here note three species-- - -1. The Great Hairy Willow-herb or Codlins and Cream (_Epilobium -hirsutum_).--A large, erect, hairy plant, from three to six feet high, -with numerous underground suckers, and a stout, round, branched stem. -Its leaves are opposite, sessile, often clasping the stem, narrow, and -finely toothed. The flowers are nearly an inch in diameter, of a deep -rose colour, arranged in terminal, leafy racemes. They have four broad, -notched, spreading petals; eight erect stamens; and a four-lobed stigma. -The plant is common in wet places, and flowers during July and August. - -2. The Narrow-leaved or Marsh Willow-herb (_E. palustre_).--A smaller -plant, seldom exceeding eighteen inches in height, frequent in bogs and -marshes, flowering during June and July. Its stem is round, with two -lines of downy hairs on opposite sides; and its leaves are sessile, -opposite, very narrow, tapering towards the base, and sometimes slightly -toothed. The flowers are small, pink, nodding when in bud, arranged in a -terminal raceme. Both flowers and fruit resemble those of the last -species except that the stigmas of the former are not divided. - -3. The Square-stalked Willow-herb (_E. tetragonum_ or _E. adnatum_).--A -similar plant, from one to two feet high, common in bogs and ditches, -and easily distinguished from other species of the genus by the four -angles of the stem formed by the downward continuation of the margins of -the leaves. The flowers are small, in terminal, leafy racemes, and erect -when in bud. The petals are of a rose-pink colour, deeply notched; and -the stigma is not divided. This species flowers in July and August. - -Our next flower is the beautiful Purple Loosestrife (_Lythrum -Salicaria_--order _Lythraceĉ_), which is abundant in the marshes, -ditches, and wet places of most parts of Great Britain. It has a -creeping rootstock; a stout, erect, slightly-branched, four-angled stem, -from two to four feet high; and sessile, narrow, clasping, entire, acute -leaves, two or three inches long, arranged in opposite pairs or in -whorls of three or four. The flowers are of a reddish purple or pink -colour, nearly an inch across, arranged in whorls on a long, tapering, -leafy spike. They have a toothed and ribbed, tubular calyx, with broad -inner, and narrow outer segments; oblong, wavy, wrinkled petals; twelve -stamens in two whorls of different lengths; and a superior ovary. The -time of flowering of this species is July to September. - -We have now to note several species of umbelliferous plants that grow in -bogs and other wet places. The general features of the order -(_Umbelliferĉ_) will be found on p. 167, and the reader should -refer to these, if necessary, before attempting to identify the -following:-- - -The Procumbent Marsh-wort (_Helosciadium nodiflorum_ or _Apium -nodiflorum_) is a creeping plant, abundant in ditches and other wet -places, rooting at the base, with erect flowering stems that are -sometimes very short, but often reach a height of three feet. The whole -plant is smooth, with hollow stems; pinnate leaves with from three to -nine or more pairs of ovate, bluntly-toothed leaflets; and almost -sessile umbels of small, white flowers either opposite the leaves or in -the angles of the upper branches. These umbels are compound, with about -five or six rays, usually without primary bracts, but with several, -narrow, secondary ones. The petals have their points turned inwards; and -the carpels are oval, each with five narrow ribs. This plant is commonly -seen growing in company with the Water-cress and the Brooklime, and -blooms in July and August. - -[Illustration: THE WATER HEMLOCK.] - -In ditches we occasionally meet with the Water Hemlock or Cowbane -(_Cicuta virosa_)--a tall plant, from three to four feet high, bearing -large, flat umbels of small, white flowers from June to August. Its stem -is hollow, furrowed, and branched; and the leaves are large, twice -pinnate or ternate, with lanceolate, acute leaflets, generally over an -inch in length, the margins serrate or (sometimes) doubly serrate. -Comparing this plant with the Common Hemlock (p. 169), we should -note that the secondary bracts of the latter are three in number, almost -invariably turned to the outside; and that its calyx teeth are very -indistinct, while in the present species they are prominent above the -ovary. - -Next follow three species of Water Dropwort (genus _[OE]nanthe_)--smooth -plants, with much-divided leaves and compound umbels of white flowers, -with secondary, and sometimes also primary, narrow bracts. In all three -species the central flowers of each secondary umbel are perfect and -shortly stalked, while the outer ones are on longer stalks, and usually -staminate. The petals are notched, with points turned inwards; and the -fruits have two rather long styles, are crowned by the five minute teeth -of the calyx, and their carpels have each five blunt ribs. The three -species referred to are:-- - -[Illustration: THE COMMON WATER DROPWORT.] - -1. The Common Water Dropwort (_[OE]. fistulosa_).--An erect plant, from -two to three feet high, with a fleshy, fibrous root; creeping runners; -and a thick, hollow, slightly-branched stem. Its radical leaves are -bipinnate, with segments cut into three or five narrow lobes; and the -stem leaves have long, hollow stalks, with a few narrow segments at the -top. The umbels have from three to five rays, usually with no primary -bracts, and a few, narrow secondary ones. - -2. The Hemlock Water Dropwort (_[OE]. crocata_) is a larger plant, from -two to five feet high, with a tuberous root and a thick, branched stem. -Its leaves are bipinnate, with stalked, shining leaflets that are -irregularly cut. The umbels are on long stalks, and have nearly twenty -rays, several narrow secondary bracts, and sometimes a few primary ones. -The middle flowers of each secondary umbel are perfect and almost -sessile, but the outer ones are stalked and staminate. - -3. The Fine-leaved Water Dropwort (_[OE]. Phellandrium_) grows from one -to four feet high, and has an erect, creeping or floating stem with -runners at the base. The upper leaves are bipinnate, with small, cut -segments; and the submerged ones are deeply cut into very narrow, almost -hair-like lobes. The umbels are small, on short stalks in the angles of -the branches or opposite the leaves. They have about ten rays, narrow -secondary bracts, but no primary ones. - -[Illustration: THE MARSH THISTLE.] - -All three of the above species flower from July to September. - -Next follow a few composite flowers (order _Compositĉ_), the first of -which is the Marsh Thistle (_Carduus palustris_) that varies from two to -eight feet in height, and bears dense clusters of purple (occasionally -white) heads during July and August. Its stem is stiff, hollow, slightly -branched, and thickly covered with very prickly wings that are -continuous with the margins of leaves above them. The leaves are narrow, -wavy, deeply divided into prickly lobes, with scattered hairs on both -surfaces; the lower ones often seven or eight inches long; and the upper -much smaller and narrower. The flower-heads are ovoid, surrounded by an -involucre of many closely-overlapping bracts with prickly tips. - -The two Bur Marigolds (_Bidens_) are more or less common in marshes and -other wet places. They are both smooth plants with opposite leaves, and -hemispherical heads of yellowish flowers surrounded by two or three rows -of bracts, the outer of which are spreading. The receptacle is flat, -with membranous scales between the florets; and the fruits are crowned -by from two to five stiff, prickly bristles. The more abundant of these -is the Nodding Bur Marigold (_B. cernua_), a stout plant, from one to -two feet high, distinguished by its narrow, entire, sessile leaves, and -its drooping flower-heads. The other--the Trifid Bur Marigold (_B. -tripartita_)--has three-cleft, stalked leaves, and heads erect or only -slightly drooping. - -[Illustration: THE BROOKLIME.] - -The Common Ragwort of waste places, described on p. 187, is -represented in marshes and wet places by a very similar plant called the -Marsh Ragwort (_Senecio aquaticus_), which varies from one to three feet -in height, and flowers in July and August. Its stem is more slender than -that of _S. Jacobĉa_, and is usually more branched. The leaves are -either deeply toothed, or pinnately cut into segments which decrease in -size towards the base. The yellow flower-heads are not so densely -crowded as in the Common Ragwort, and have longer stalks. - -The _Scrophulariaceĉ_ contains three common plants of the _Veronica_ -genus that grow in wet places. All three are similar in that they have -opposite leaves; a corolla with a short tube, and four spreading limbs, -of which the lowest is narrowest; two stamens; and a capsular fruit, -flattened at right angles to its partition, opening by two valves, and -containing a few seeds. - -One of these is the Marsh Speedwell (_Veronica scutellata_), abundant in -the marshes and ditches of most parts of Britain. It has a weak, -straggling stem, from four to eight inches high, with creeping runners -at the base; narrow, smooth, sessile leaves, either uncut or only -slightly toothed; and slender racemes of pale pink or white flowers on -axillary peduncles arranged alternately, there being only one raceme at -each node. - -The second is the Water Speedwell (_V. Anagallis_), a smooth plant, -varying from six inches to two feet high, abundant in marshes and -ditches, bearing small lilac or white flowers in July and August. Its -stem is stout, succulent, hollow, erect, and slightly branched; the -leaves narrow, acute, toothed, sessile, sometimes clasping the stem; and -the racemes axillary and opposite. The flowers are only a fifth of an -inch across. - -[Illustration: THE WATER FIGWORT.] - -The third is the Brooklime (_V. Beccabunga_), a very abundant plant -commonly seen growing in ditches in company with the Water Cress and the -Marsh-wort. It is a smooth plant, with a stem from one to two feet long, -procumbent at the base and rooting at the joints; erect, succulent -flowering branches; thick, elliptical, blunt, slightly-toothed leaves on -short stalks; and opposite, axillary racemes of blue (occasionally pink) -flowers about a third of an inch across. - -Two of the Figworts, belonging to the same order (_Scrophulariaceĉ_), -are abundant in wet places all over Britain. They are both tall erect -plants, with opposite leaves, and peculiar greenish brown or dull purple -flowers. In both the corolla is almost spherical and shortly lipped. Two -of the five lobes form the upper lip; two are at the sides; and the -other, forming the lower lip, is turned down. There are five stamens, -four of which are fertile and turned down, while the fifth is barren and -scale-like, under the upper lip of the corolla. - -[Illustration: THE GIPSY-WORT.] - -One species--the Water Figwort (_Scrophularia aquatica_)--grows in -marshes and on the banks of ditches and streams. It has a stout, angular -stem, the angles of which are drawn out into narrow wings; smooth, -opposite, blunt leaves, cordate at the base, with crenate or toothed -margins; and long, narrow panicles of flowers with blunt bracts. The -five lobes of the calyx are fringed with a conspicuous, transparent, -membranous border. - -The other is the Knotted Figwort (_S. nodosa_), which is much like the -last, but emits a disagreeable odour, and may be further distinguished -by the little green, fleshy knots of its rhizome. Its stem is sharply -four-angled, but not winged; its leaves are acute, and doubly toothed; -and the panicle has small, narrow, sharp bracts. - -Passing now to the order _Labiatĉ_, we come first to the Gipsy-wort -(_Lycopus europĉus_), an erect, branched, slightly hairy plant, from one -to three feet high, bearing dense whorls of small, white, sessile -flowers from June to September. The calyx has five equal teeth with -stiff points; and the corolla, which is only slightly longer than the -calyx, has four nearly equal lobes. This plant is abundant in most parts -of Britain, and is generally seen on the banks of ditches. - -[Illustration: THE ROUND-LEAVED MINT.] - -In the same order we have the Mints (genus _Mentha_)--strongly-scented -plants with creeping rootstocks and runners; and small flowers in dense, -axillary whorls, or in terminal spikes or clusters. In all the calyx has -five equal teeth; and the corolla is bell-shaped, with a short tube, and -four lobes of which the upper is broader. There are four erect, equal -stamens; and the fruit consists of four small, smooth nuts. Three -species, more or less abundant, occur in marshy or other wet places. -They are:-- - -1. The Round-leaved Mint (_Mentha rotundifolia_).--A moderately common, -erect, hairy plant, from one to three feet high, with a powerful but -hardly agreeable odour. Its stem is green, hairy, and branched; and the -leaves are sessile, broadly ovate or round, blunt, wrinkled, green -above, and whitish and shaggy beneath. The flowers are small, lilac -(occasionally white), in dense, cylindrical, leafy spikes from one to -two inches long. The bracts are rather narrow and sharply pointed, and -the corolla is hairy. The time of flowering is August and September. - -2. The Water Mint (_M. aquatica_).--An abundant marsh plant, from one to -three feet high, flowering from July to September, possessing a strong, -pleasant odour. Its stem is much branched, generally clothed with soft -hairs; and its leaves are stalked, ovate, serrate, the upper ones -passing into bracts which are shorter than the flowers. The latter are -lilac, and form dense, terminal, oblong or globular clusters, with, -frequently, two or three dense, axillary whorls beneath. The calyx is -tubular, about an eighth of an inch long, with very sharp teeth. - -3. The Marsh Whorled Mint (_M. sativa_).--A very similar plant, common -in wet places, flowering during July and August. It grows from two to -five feet high; and its elliptical, toothed leaves are hairy on both -sides. The flowers are lilac, in dense, axillary whorls, without any -terminal cluster. - -There is yet another marsh plant of the _Labiatĉ_ to be considered, and -that is the Marsh Woundwort (_Stachys palustris_), which is very much -like the Hedge Woundwort described on p. 199. It has a stout, -hollow, hairy stem, from one to three feet high; and narrow, -coarsely-toothed leaves, from two to four inches long, the upper ones -sessile and the lower shortly stalked. The flowers are pale purple or -dull, light red, arranged in whorls of from six to ten in the axils of -the upper leaves. The calyx is bell-shaped, with ten ribs and five long, -acute teeth; and the lower lip of the corolla has its side lobes turned -back. - -[Illustration: THE FORGET-ME-NOT.] - -We now reach the interesting _Myosotis_ genus of the _Boraginaceĉ_, -containing the favourite Forget-me-not and the similar Scorpion-grasses. -They are all rather low and weak plants, with small, sessile, narrow -leaves; and small flowers in one-sided, curved racemes without bracts. -The calyx is cleft into five; and the corolla has a short tube, -partially closed by five little scales, and five spreading or concave -lobes. The stamens are enclosed in the tubes of the flower. Three -species are common in wet places. They are-- - -1. The Forget-me-not (_Myosotis palustris_).--An abundant plant, growing -to a foot or more in height, and bearing, from June to August, bright -blue flowers, nearly half an inch across, with a yellow centre. It has a -creeping rootstock, with runners, and rather weak ascending stems -clothed with spreading hairs. The leaves are blunt, and often covered -with hairs that lie close against the surface. The calyx is divided to -about a third of its length into short, triangular teeth, and is covered -with closely-pressed hairs. - -[Illustration: THE WATER PEPPER OR BITING PERSICARIA.] - -2. The Creeping Water Scorpion-grass (_M. repens_).--A very similar -plant, sometimes regarded as a variety of the last. Its stock emits -leafy runners above the ground, and the stem is more hairy. The flowers, -too, are of about the same size, but of a sky-blue colour, and their -stalks are longer, bending downwards when in fruit. The calyx is divided -to about the middle into narrow teeth. - -3. The Tufted Water Scorpion-grass (_M. cĉspitosa_).--Also a similar -plant, often regarded as a variety of _M. palustris_; but its flowers -are only about half the size, of a sky-blue colour, with narrow calyx -teeth almost as long as the corolla. It is of a paler green colour, and -the stems are tufted by a free branching at the base. - -All three of these flower at the same time, and grow in similar -situations. Several intermediate forms occur, and thus it is often a -difficult matter to distinguish between them. - -We must here mention the Butterwort (_Pinguicula_) as a summer-flowering -plant of marshy places; but this is a carnivorous species; and as such -is described, together with other plants of similar habits, in Chapter -XXIV. - -In most parts of Britain we may meet with the pretty little Bog -Pimpernel (_Anagallis tenella_) of the _Primulaceĉ_. It is a delicate, -creeping plant (see Plate V, Fig. 7), only about three or four -inches long, with a slender, decumbent stem; and very small, opposite, -rounded leaves on short stalks. Its flowers are funnel-shaped, of a pale -pink colour, on long, slender, erect, axillary peduncles. The calyx is -cut into five pointed lobes; and the corolla is deeply cleft into five -segments which are much longer than the calyx. The fruit is a globular -capsule that splits transversely into two hemispheres, like that of the -Scarlet Pimpernel. - -Ditches are frequently quite overgrown with the Water Pepper or Biting -Persicaria (_Polygonum Hydropiper_), which is very much like the Spotted -Persicaria (p. 205) of the same order (_Polygonaceĉ_), but is -much more slender, is creeping and rooting at the base, and more or less -biting to the taste. Its stem is freely branched, from one to three feet -high; its leaves narrow and wavy, with membranous stipules much fringed -at the top; and the little pinkish-green flowers are in slender, -drooping, interrupted spikes, leafy at the base. - -Of the _Orchidaceĉ_ we shall note here but one species--the Marsh -Helleborine (_Epipactis palustris_), which is widely distributed, and -really abundant in places, flowering during July and August. It is very -much like the Broad-leaved Helleborine described on p. 308, and -represented on Plate II, but is not so tall, being only about a -foot high, and its leaves are narrow. The flowers, too, are fewer than -in the Broad-leaved Helleborine, and the raceme is not one-sided. The -sepals are narrow, of a pale green colour, striped with red or purple; -and the petals are white, striped with red at the base. The lower lobe -of the lip is blunt and thick; and the bracts are shorter than the -flowers. - -Rushes and Sedges are so abundant in marshes and other wet places that -they form quite a characteristic feature of these localities; and the -number of common species is so large that we must necessarily confine -our attention to a very small proportion. - -The Rushes, which constitute the order _Juncaceĉ_, are stiff, smooth -plants, often of such social habits that they cover large patches of wet -or watery soil. Their stems are usually erect, and seldom branched; and -their stiff, smooth leaves are frequently cylindrical, like the stems, -with a soft, pith-like tissue within, but occasionally flat and narrow -like those of grasses. The flowers are perfect, with a regular, inferior -perianth of six dry segments; and they have generally six stamens, a -three-celled ovary, and three slender stigmas. They are very small, -either separate or in clusters; and each flower or cluster has a dry, -sheathing bract at its base. - -[Illustration: THE BOG ASPHODEL.] - -The pretty little Bog Asphodel (_Narthecium ossifragum_) shall first -receive our attention because botanists are not yet in agreement as to -its correct position among the monocotyledonous plants. It is certainly -allied to the rushes, but on account of its larger and more succulent -flowers it is often included among the lilies. It has a creeping -rootstock, and stiff, erect stems from six to ten inches high. Its -bright yellow, starlike flowers form a stiff, terminal raceme, with a -bract at the base, and another one above the middle of each pedicel. The -segments of the perianth are about a third of an inch long, yellow above -and greenish below. The stamens are a little shorter than the perianth -segments; and their filaments are clothed with white woolly hairs. This -plant is common on wet moors and in mountain bogs, flowering from June -to August. - -[Illustration: THE COMMON RUSH.] - -The Common Rush (_Juncus communis_) is a very abundant species, to be -found in almost all wet and marshy places, flowering during July and -August. Its stems are round, leafless, soft, faintly furrowed, solid, -with a continuous pith. They are from one to three feet high, and are -sheathed at the base by a few brownish scales, but the plant has no true -leaves. Most of the stems bear a panicled cluster of green or brown -flowers about six inches from the top. These panicles are very variable -in form and size, being either loose or dense, and varying from one to -three inches in diameter. - -The Hard Rush (_Juncus glaucus_) is a very similar plant, flowering at -the same time; but its stem is slender, rigid, deeply furrowed, with the -pith interrupted by air spaces. It is generally from one to two feet -high; and, like the last species, has no true leaves. The panicle is -looser than that of _J. communis_, with fewer and larger flowers; and it -is never more than two or three inches below the top of the stem. - -A few of the Rushes form a group known collectively as the Jointed -Rushes, because their cylindrical or slightly-flattened, hollow leaves -are divided within by transverse partitions of pith which give them a -jointed appearance, especially when they are dried. Two or three of the -species referred to are very common in wet places. They are very similar -in general appearance, and one of them--the Shining-fruited Jointed Rush -(_Juncus lamprocarpus_) is selected for illustration. - -Another species is the little pale-coloured Toad Rush (_J. bufonis_), -which grows to a height of only a few inches. It has tufted stems that -branch from near the base; and its flowers are either solitary or in -clusters of two or three. - -As regards the Sedges (order _Cyperaceĉ_), the species are so numerous -that it is impossible to do them justice in a work of this nature. - -[Illustration: THE SHINING-FRUITED JOINTED RUSH.] - -Their stems are solid, usually more or less triangular, not swollen at -the nodes as in grasses; and the sheaths of the leaves which surround -the stems are not split. The flowers are in little green or brown -spikelets that are either solitary at the top of the stem, or collected -into a cluster, spike, panicle, or umbel. Each spikelet is in the axil -of a scaly or leafy outer bract, and consists of several scales or -glumes, each with a single sessile flower in its axil. The flowers have -no perianth, but there are often a few very small scales or bristles at -their base. They have two or (generally) three stamens; a one-celled -ovary; and a style that is more or less deeply cleft into two or three -slender stigmas. The fruit is a small, one-seeded nut, usually flattened -in the species which have two stigmas, and triangular where the stigmas -are three. - -[Illustration: THE COMMON SEDGE.] - -The reader should make himself thoroughly acquainted with the above -features of the sedges, in order to avoid any confusion with the rushes, -on the one hand, and with the grasses on the other; and he must not be -led astray by the fact that some of the sedge family are popularly known -as rushes. - -Of this order the pretty Cotton Grasses (_Eriophorum_) often form a very -conspicuous feature of marshes and other wet places. They are tufted or -creeping plants with terminal spikelets, very much like those of the -other sedges, but their flowers are perfect, and the bristles which -represent the perianth grow to a considerable length as the flowering -advances, protruding far beyond the overlapping glumes, and at last -forming dense tufts of fine cottony hairs. - -Two species are decidedly common and widely distributed, more especially -the Common Cotton Grass (_Eriophorum polystachyon_), which is often so -abundant as to give a general whitish appearance to whole patches of -boggy land. It is a creeping plant, with solid, rigid, solitary stems, -from six inches to over a foot in height; a few shorter, radical leaves; -and a few leaves on the stem. Its spikelets, three to twelve in number, -form a terminal cluster, the inner ones sessile, or nearly so, and the -outer stalked and more or less drooping. They are at first oval or -oblong, about half an inch long; but in fruit, usually in the month of -June, they form dense cottony tufts from one to two inches in length. - -[Illustration: THE MARSH SEDGE.] - -The other is the Hare's-tail or Sheathing Cotton Grass (_E. -vaginatum_)--a tufted species, common on boggy moors, with many stems -which are round below and triangular above, at first about six or eight -inches high, but lengthening as the flowering advances. At the top of -each stem is a solitary oval spikelet, of a dark brownish-green colour, -over half an inch long, with many straight bristles that eventually form -a dense, globular, cottony tuft about an inch in diameter. This is an -earlier species, flowering during April and May. - -The large genus _Carex_ contains many common sedges with grass-like -leaves springing from the base or the lower part of the stem. Some of -them have a solitary spikelet; others have several spikelets in a -terminal cluster or spike, with, sometimes, stalked spikelets below; or -they are arranged in a compound spike or panicle. The flowers are all -imperfect, without perianth; and the male and female flowers are either -in separate spikelets or in different parts of the same one. The glumes -overlap all round the axis of the spikelet; there are generally three -stamens; and the ovary is enclosed in a little vase-shaped covering with -a little hole at the top through which the two or three stigmas -protrude. - -We give illustrations of two of the commonest species; the Common Sedge -(_Carex vulgaris_), which flowers from June to August; and the Marsh -Sedge (_C. paludosa_), that flowers in May and June. The former grows to -a height varying from six inches to two feet; and the latter to from two -to three feet. - -[Illustration: _Plate VI._ -FLOWERS OF DOWN, HEATH AND MOOR. -1. Musk Thistle. 2. Clustered Bell-flower. 3. Spiny Rest Harrow. 4. -Hairy Hawkbit. 5. Sheep's-bit. 6. Spotted Orchis. 7. Heath Rush.] - - - - -XVI - -ON HEATH, DOWN AND MOOR - - -On the exposed and more or less bleak heath, down and moor we do not -meet with many species of spring flowers, and for this reason we have -included both spring and summer blossoms in the same chapter. - -It must not be supposed, however, from the above statement, that we -regard these exposed situations as devoid of interest, or even lacking -in flowers, for the small number of species flowering early in the -season is often compensated for by the profusion in which their blossoms -are produced. - -The golden blaze of the Furze or Gorse, aided more or less by the -similar flowers of its little relative--the Petty Whin, is alone -sufficient to add a charm to the scene, while the large yellow blossoms -of the Broom often take the place of, or add to, the glorious display, -which is frequently varied by the globular flowers of the Whortle, and -the catkins and early leaves of the Dwarf Willow. Occasionally the scene -is still further varied by the evergreen, needle-like foliage of the -Juniper, intermixed with the little axillary catkins; while among the -surrounding grass we see the pretty flowers of the little Eyebright; the -brown flowers and hairy leaves of the Field Woodrush, often growing as -thickly as the grass itself; and the short, stiff leaves and sessile -spikelets of the Spring Sedge. - -Among the more gaudy flowers we may note the large purple heads of the -Musk Thistle, a common plant on the heaths of some southern counties; -and in boggy districts we may see the abundant white, silky tufts of the -Hare's-tail Cotton Grass; and the flower-clusters of the Yellow Sedge. - -These and the few other spring flowers of heaths and moors are -described, in their order, among the summer flowers of the present -chapter. Some of them are exclusively spring blossoms, and are to be -seen only in their fruiting stages during the summer months, but a few -continue to bloom after spring has ended, and even far into the summer. -The Furze, which often commences to flower during the first few weeks of -the year, may be seen, still in bloom, during July and early August; and -the Eyebright may be found in flower even to the beginning of autumn. -The Musk Thistle, too, though its first flower-heads may be observed in -May, or, sometimes, even in April, will continue producing new flowers -well into October. - -[Illustration: THE MILKWORT.] - -A good many species are included in the present chapter, and most of -these, at least, will be easily identified by the descriptions given. - -On almost all heaths and downs we may see the pretty little Milkwort -(_Polygala vulgaris_)--the only British representative of its order -(_Polygalaceĉ_), unless we regard some varieties of this variable plant -as distinct species, according to the opinions of some authorities. It -is a smooth or slightly hairy plant, with a woody stem that gives off -several spreading branches varying from two to nine inches in length. -The nature of the leaves and the arrangement of the flowers are shown in -our illustration. The latter are very variable in colour, ranging from a -pure white to lilac and a deep, rich blue; and each has five sepals, of -which the two inner ones are wing-shaped, persistent, and coloured like -the corolla; and at its base are three bracts, the middle and largest of -which is as long as the short pedicel. The petals, three to five in -number, are united, smaller than the wing-sepals, and the lowest is -keel-shaped. The plant blooms from June to August; and the drooping -flowers, though small, are often so abundant as to distinctly modify the -general colouring of patches of heath and moor. - -[Illustration: THE BROOM.] - -Two small species of St. John's Wort (order _Hypericaceĉ_) are -moderately abundant on downs and commons, especially in South Britain. -The flowers of this order are all yellow, and may be easily recognised -by their stamens, three or five in number, which are so much branched -that they give the appearance of a large number of stamens arranged in -three or five clusters. In the two species we have to consider these -stamens are three in number. One is the Trailing St. John's Wort -(_Hypericum humifusum_), a little tufted, prostrate plant, with small -oblong leaves marked by minute transparent spots, and by black dots -under the margins; and flowers with unequal sepals. The other is the -Small St. John's Wort (_H. pulchrum_) which is erect, from one to two -feet high, with cordate leaves that embrace the stem, and panicled -flowers which are tipped with red when in the bud. Both species flower -during July and August. - -Passing now to the _Leguminosĉ_, we take first the Broom (_Sarothamus -scoparius_ or _Cytisus scoparius_)--a smooth or slightly hairy shrub, -from two to six feet high, bearing large, yellow flowers during May and -June. Its branches are long, erect, angular and green; and the leaves -are small, ternate, with obovate, silky leaflets, or sometimes reduced -to a single leaflet. The large flowers are either solitary or in pairs, -shortly stalked, and arranged in the axils of the leaves of the previous -summer. The fruits are black pods, usually more than an inch long, hairy -round the edges of the valves, and surmounted at first by a -spirally-curved style. - -[Illustration: THE FURZE OR GORSE.] - -The Furze, Gorse, or Whin (_Ulex europĉus_) is a bush of about the same -size, with more or less erect branches that all terminate in a sharp, -rigid point. Sometimes little lanceolate leaves may be seen near the -bases of the short branches, but normally all the leaves are reduced to -sharp, green spines, about half an inch long. The flowers, usually more -than half an inch long, are placed singly in the axils of the thorny -leaves of the previous season, and are often so abundant as to form -dense, showy clusters. The Furze is abundant in all parts of Great -Britain with the exception of North Scotland, and may be seen in flower -from February (or even January if the weather is mild) to July. - -[Illustration: THE TOREMENTIL.] - -The Dwarf Furze (_Ulex nanus_), also abundant on the heaths of most -parts of Britain, commences to flower in July--just about the time that -the last species ceases to produce its blossoms, and continues in bloom -almost to the end of the year. It is a much smaller shrub, usually from -one to two feet high, of a deeper green colour. Its stem is usually -procumbent; its spines weaker, and generally turned downward; and its -flowers smaller, and of a deeper, golden yellow. - -On heaths and downs of most parts of England and Scotland we may meet -with the Needle Green-weed, Needle Whin, or Petty Whin (_Genista -anglica_)--a little spiny shrub, varying from a few inches to two feet -in height, with erect stem and spreading branches. Its lower branches -are simple, or are reduced to branched thorns, while the upper are -compound, bearing small ovate or narrow leaves; and solitary, axillary, -pale yellow flowers in short, leafy clusters. This species flowers -during May and June. - -In the same order (_Leguminosĉ_) are two species of Rest Harrow, common -on heaths and stony banks. One of these--the Common Rest Harrow (_Ononis -arvensis_)--is a very variable plant, with pink or rose-coloured flowers -that bloom from June to September. Its stem is sometimes procumbent and -rooting at the base, sometimes ascending or nearly erect, and is thinly -clothed on all sides by soft, spreading hairs. The leaves are usually -trifoliate, with obovate or oblong, toothed leaflets, but the lateral -leaflets are often very small or altogether wanting. The flowers are -solitary, sessile or shortly-stalked, on short, lateral branches; and -the standard (upper petal) is streaked with a darker colour. - -The other species, shown on Plate VI, Fig. 3, is the Spiny Rest -Harrow (_O. spinosa_), which, however, is sometimes regarded as a -variety of the last. Its flowers are very similar in form and colour, -and appear during the same time; but the stem is erect, spiny, without -runners, seldom more than a foot high, and has two longitudinal rows of -hairs. - -Passing next to the order _Rosaceĉ_, we first note the Dropwort (_Spirĉa -Filipendula_), of the same genus as the Meadow Sweet, frequently met -with on the downs and dry pastures of England and Scotland. Its leaves -are mostly radical, three or four inches long, interruptedly pinnate, -with many oval or narrow segments which are themselves pinnately lobed -or deeply toothed. At the base of each is a pair of stipules which are -attached to the leaf-stalk throughout their length. The flowers, which -appear during June and July, are white, and very much like those of the -Meadow Sweet (p. 219), but are larger, without scent, and -generally pink when in the bud. The height of the plant is usually from -twelve to eighteen inches. - -In the same order we have the Tormentil (_Potentilla Tormentilla_), -which is very abundant on heaths, dry pastures and stony banks, -flowering from June to August. This plant has a prostrate (rarely -erect) stem, from six to ten inches long, repeatedly forked, and clothed -with silky hairs. The leaves are compound, with three or five -deeply-toothed leaflets; the lower ones sometimes shortly stalked, but -the upper always sessile. The flowers are rather small, yellow, -generally with four petals, on slender peduncles arising from the axils -of the leaves or from the forks of the stem. - -Our last example of the _Rosaceĉ_ is the Blackberry (_Rubus -fruticosus_); but it should be mentioned at once that the popular name -of Blackberry embraces quite a number of shrubs, often estimated at some -scores of species and varieties. We cannot here, however, attempt to -divide and classify the group; but we shall simply point out the -features by which the shrubs in question may be distinguished, -collectively, from allied shrubs that are not properly included under -the same popular name. The stem of the Blackberry grows to from three to -twelve feet long, and has stiff or downy hairs in addition to the -prickles. It is sometimes quite prostrate, sometimes erect, but more -commonly arched, and rooting at the tips as they bend to the ground. The -leaves are very variable, but usually consist of three or five large, -ovate leaflets, with toothed edges, more or less downy, having curved -prickles along the midrib and stalks. The flowers are white or pink, in -terminal panicles, with five free sepals, five distinct petals, and many -stamens. The fruit is black, and consists of several one-seeded carpels -which do not readily separate from the receptacle when ripe; and the -persistent sepals are usually bent downward below it. - -Coming now to the _Rubiaceĉ_, we have to note four species, all -characterised by whorled leaves; a corolla of four, united petals; -stamens attached to the corolla; and an inferior ovary, of two carpels, -that ripens to a dry fruit. Three of the four belong to the Bedstraw -genus (_Galium_), in which the corolla is wheel-shaped. They are:-- - -1. The Yellow or Ladies' Bedstraw (_G. verum_), very abundant on downs -and dry banks, flowering from June to September. It has a prostrate or -semi-erect, smooth stem, from six inches to two feet in length; and -small, narrow leaves, six to eight in a whorl, generally slightly rough -on the edges. The flowers are pale yellow, golden yellow, or greenish, -arranged in dense, terminal and axillary panicles. The fruit is small -and smooth. - -2. The Smooth Heath Bedstraw (_G. saxatile_).--Abundant on downs, -flowering from June to August. Its stem is prostrate, smooth, from four -to six inches long; and the leaves are generally in whorls of five or -six. The flower-stalks are numerous, erect, weak, angled, smooth, each -bearing a terminal panicle of many small, white flowers. The fruit is -small, with a granulated surface. - -3. The Upright Bedstraw (_G. erectum_).--Not so common as the preceding, -but often found on downs and hilly pastures, flowering from June to -August. It is sometimes regarded as a variety of the Great Hedge -Bedstraw (_G. Mollugo_), described on p. 172. Its stem is erect, -from one to two feet high; and the leaves, six to eight in a whorl, are -very narrow, with marginal prickles pointing forwards. The flowers are -white, in a panicle with slender, erect branches; and the fruit is -smooth. - -[Illustration: THE SMOOTH HEATH BEDSTRAW.] - -The remaining plant of this order is the Small Woodruff or -Squinancy-wort (_Asperula cynanchica_), which is common in many parts of -England and Ireland. Its stem is smooth, sometimes erect with scattered -leaves, and sometimes prostrate, leafy and tufted. It varies in length -from six to ten inches. The leaves are very narrow, usually four in a -whorl, and very unequal. At the upper nodes two of each whorl are often -reduced to mere scales, or are absent altogether. The flowers, which -appear during June and July, are white or pinkish, and are clustered at -the tips of the erect stems. The fruit is small, with a granulated -surface. - -[Illustration: THE DWARF THISTLE.] - -The Small Scabious (_Scabiosa Columbaria_), of the order _Dipsaceĉ_, is -common on the dry heaths of England, and is readily distinguished from -the Devil's-bit Scabious, which it somewhat resembles, by its -deeply-divided leaves and pale purple or lilac flowers. Its stem is -erect, from one to two feet high. The lower leaves are rather crowded, -and usually have a large, oval or oblong, terminal segment, deeply -toothed or lobed, and some smaller ones below it. The stem leaves are -cut into very narrow segments which are either entire or pinnately -lobed. The flowers are in dense, terminal heads, surrounded by a whorl -of short bracts, and intermixed with the little, narrow scales of the -receptacle, the outer flowers of each head being larger than the others, -and very irregular. This plant flowers during July and August. - -Of the _Compositĉ_ we shall first take the Hairy Hawkbit (_Leontodon -hirtus_), which is very common on moors in most parts of Great Britain, -flowering during July and August. Although known as the _Hairy_ Hawkbit, -this plant is sometimes quite smooth; more commonly, however, the leaves -and peduncles are clothed with thinly-scattered, stiff, forked hairs. -Its leaves are all radical, either oblong or very narrow, with -coarsely-toothed or wavy margins. The flower-heads are solitary, on -peduncles from three to eight inches long, and of a bright yellow -colour. Each head is surrounded by a whorl of about a dozen green, -smooth bracts, outside which are several shorter ones. All the florets -are strap-shaped and perfect; and the fruits, which taper at the top, -are mostly crowned by a pappus of feathery hairs as long as the achene -itself, with a few shorter ones outside. This species appears on Plate -VI, Fig. 4. - -We have next to note a few thistles that are more or less common on -downs and moors, the first being the Musk Thistle (_Carduus nutans_), -common in the South of England, but much less frequent in the North. It -is a stout plant, usually scantily covered with a loose, cottony down, -with a furrowed stem from one to three feet high. The leaves are very -deeply divided pinnately, very prickly, and extend down the stem in the -form of narrow, prickly wings. The flower-heads are very large, of a -purple or crimson colour, drooping, usually solitary, but sometimes in -loose clusters of from two to four. Each head is surrounded by numerous -very narrow, stiff bracts, more or less covered with cottony down. All -of these terminate in a sharp prickle which is erect on the inner -bracts, but spreading or turned backward in the case of the outer ones. -This thistle may be seen in flower from May to October. It appears on -Plate VI, Fig. 1. - -The next species--the Dwarf Thistle (_Carduus acaulis_)--is found only -in the southern and midland counties of England, but is very common on -some of the elevated downs of the South-East, especially on chalky -soils. It has a very thick and hard rootstock, but hardly any trace of a -stem, so that its spreading tuft of radical leaves lie close on the -ground, around the large, purple, stemless, and, usually, solitary -flower-head. The plant flowers from July to September. - -[Illustration: THE CARLINE THISTLE.] - -The Carline Thistle (_Carlina vulgaris_), as its name shows, does not -belong to the same genus as the others, from which it differs -principally in having its inner bracts coloured and spreading. It is an -erect plant, with a stiff stem, usually branching, from six to eighteen -inches high. Its leaves are very prickly, and do not form wings down the -stem. The flower-heads are particularly interesting, having much the -appearance of everlasting flowers. In fact, the whole plant is of such a -stiff and dry nature that it undergoes but little change in appearance -when cut and preserved. The outer bracts are leafy and spreading, with -strong, prickly teeth or lobes; and the inner ones are very narrow, -entire, white or pale yellow, of a chaffy nature and very glossy. The -latter are very sensitive to atmospheric conditions, spreading -horizontally when the air is dry, and closing over the florets in humid -air; and they respond so readily to the changed conditions that their -movements may be watched as they are transferred from warm, dry air to a -moist chamber, or _vice versa_. This plant is common on the downs of -England and Ireland, and flowers from July to September. - -[Illustration: THE COMMON CHAMOMILE.] - -Our last Composite flower is the Common Chamomile (_Anthemis nobilis_), -which is abundant on the downs of the southern counties of England, -flowering from July to September. It is an aromatic herb, with a -procumbent stem, from six to twelve inches long, and ascending, leafy, -flowering branches. The leaves are bipinnate, slightly downy, with very -fine, almost hairlike, segments. The flower-heads are terminal, with a -white ray and yellow disc, surrounded by blunt bracts the inner of which -have membranous tips. On the receptacle are little broad scales, nearly -as long as the disc florets. - -On heaths almost everywhere we may see the pretty Roundleaved -Bell-flower or Harebell (_Campanula rotundifolia_), which displays its -gracefully drooping bells from July to September. It has a slender, -smooth, erect or ascending stem, from six to twenty inches high, which -is usually branched. Its popular and scientific names both appear to be -inappropriate if we examine the plant during its flowering season, for -the only leaves then usually observable are the very narrow ones, -generally quite entire, attached to the stem; earlier in the year, -however, it has a few round or heart-shaped leaves, with long stalks, -close to the base of the stem; but these commonly die about the time -that the flowers commence to appear. The flowers are sometimes solitary, -but often form a loose raceme of several bells. - -[Illustration: THE HAREBELL.] - -The Clustered Bell-flower (_Campanula glomerata_) is common on the downs -of most parts of England, and often very abundant in the South. It has a -stiff, hairy, erect, angular, unbranched stem, from three to eighteen -inches high. On some of the dry, chalky downs of the South the plant is -often very dwarfed, being scarcely noticeable among the rather -closely-cropped grass. The leaves are oblong or lanceolate, with crenate -margins, rough and hairy, the lower ones stalked, but the upper sessile -and clasping the stem. The flowers are about three-quarters of an inch -in diameter, and form a dense cluster among the upper leaves. The -corolla is blue, bell-shaped, with five spreading lobes; and the fruit -is a short, broad capsule, surmounted by the teeth of the calyx, and -opens, when ripe, by slits near the base. This species flowers during -July and August. It may be identified by reference to Fig. 2 of Plate -VI. - -The same order includes the Sheep's-bit (_Jasione montana_), also known -as the Sheep's Scabious. It certainly resembles a Scabious in general -appearance (see Fig. 5 of Plate VI), with its dense clusters of blue or -deep lilac flowers, but may be readily distinguished from it by the -united anthers of its five stamens, and by the absence of the involucel -that surrounds the individual flowers of the Scabious flower-head. The -dense cluster of flowers, surrounded by a whorl of many ovate bracts, -might also be mistaken for that of a Composite at first sight; but here -again we find exclusive distinguishing features, for the flowers of the -cluster are not sessile on a common receptacle; and the fruits, instead -of being one-seeded achenes, are two-chambered capsules. The plant is -from six to twelve inches high; and its leaves are oblong or very -narrow, wavy, blunt, and hairy. The flower-heads are hemispherical, -about half an inch in diameter. Both calyx and corolla have five narrow, -spreading lobes. The plant is common on heaths, and flowers from June to -September. - -[Illustration: THE CROSS-LEAVED HEATH.] - -We now come to those interesting plants known collectively as Heaths, -and which add so much beauty to our heaths and moors. They belong to the -order _Ericaceĉ_, and are all readily distinguished by their bushy -appearance, hard woody stems, and small, simple leaves arranged in pairs -or whorls. The flowers, too, are very characteristic, each one having an -inferior calyx of four sepals; a bell-shaped or pitcher-shaped, -persistent corolla, with five lobes; eight stamens free from the -corolla; and a four-chambered ovary that ripens to a capsule. - -The Cross-leaved Heath (_Erica Tetralix_) is common all over Britain, -especially so in the West. It is a wiry little shrub, from a foot to -eighteen inches high, much branched at the base. Its leaves are short, -narrow, downy above, fringed with stiff hairs, and arranged in whorls -of four, each whorl forming a cross. The drooping flowers, which appear -during July and August, are usually rose-coloured, occasionally white, -and are arranged in close, terminal, one-sided clusters. - -The Ciliated Heath (_Erica ciliaris_), perhaps the most beautiful of the -British species, is found only in the West of England, but is really -abundant on some of the Devon and Cornwall moorlands. It is of a -somewhat straggling nature, and its ovate leaves, which are downy above, -and fringed with stiff hairs, are in whorls of three or four. The -flowers are sometimes nearly half an inch long, of a bright rose or -crimson colour, and are arranged in broken, one-sided racemes. The -corolla is pitcher-shaped, with four lobes round the narrow mouth. The -plant reaches a length of from twelve to eighteen inches, and flowers -from June to September. - -[Illustration: THE BELL HEATHER OR FINE-LEAVED HEATH.] - -Our last example of this genus--the Bell Heather or Fine-leaved Heath -(_E. cinerea_)--is, perhaps, the commonest of all, for it abounds on the -moors and heaths of nearly all parts of Britain. It is a very tough and -wiry shrub, from one to two feet high, with narrow leaves in whorls of -three or four, and smaller leaves in their axils. The flowers vary in -colour, being either purple, crimson, rose, or occasionally white. They -are in dense, leafy racemes, not one-sided, but rather regularly -whorled. The time of flowering is from July to September. - -In the same order is the Common Ling (_Calluna vulgaris_)--a straggling -shrub, from one to three feet high, bearing rose-coloured, lilac or -white flowers from July to September. This shrub may be identified at -once by its leaves, which are very small, and closely overlapping in -four rows. Its flowers are small, drooping, shortly stalked, each with -two pairs of small bracts at its base; and are arranged in irregular, -leafy racemes on the topmost branches. - -Still in the same order (_Ericaceĉ_), but quite distinct from the -Heaths, are a few moorland shrubs the berries of which are largely eaten -by the country-folk. They belong to the genus _Vaccinium_, and have -scattered, deciduous or evergreen leaves. We have noticed that in the -heaths the ovary is superior, but in the present genus it is inferior; -that is, it is situated below the calyx and corolla, which parts are -attached to its upper border. The calyx has four or five lobes; and the -corolla, which is bell-shaped or pitcher-shaped, has the same number of -lobes or teeth. The stamens, eight or ten in number, are usually -rendered peculiar by the tubular bristles that extend upwards from the -anther cells. The berries are globular or nearly so, and contain several -seeds. Some species of this genus are rare, but three, at least, may be -included here. They are-- - -1. The Whortleberry or Bilberry (_Vaccinium Myrtillus_).--A smooth -shrub, from six to eighteen inches high, common everywhere except in -some of the eastern counties, flowering from April to June. Its stem is -erect or spreading, branched, green, and sharply angular. The leaves are -shortly stalked, ovate, serrate, seldom more than an inch long; and the -flowers are nearly globular, with small teeth, drooping on short stalks, -and placed singly in the axils of the leaves. They are of a greenish -rose or flesh-colour, often tinged with red, and have a very waxy -appearance. - -2. The Great Bilberry or Bog Whortleberry (_Vaccinium uliginosum_).--A -smaller and more woody shrub, from six to ten inches high, growing only -in the moorland bogs of North Britain. Its stem and branches are round -or scarcely angular, and usually procumbent and crooked. The leaves are -small, obovate or round, entire, thin, deciduous, with the veins -strongly marked on the under side; and the flowers are globular, of a -pale pink colour, smaller than those of the last species. This species -flowers during May and June. - -3. The Red Whortleberry or Cowberry (_V. Vitis-idĉa_).--A straggling, -much branched, and woody shrub, from six to eighteen inches high, found -chiefly on the mountainous heaths of the North. Its leaves are -evergreen, obovate, dotted beneath, with the margins slightly rolled -back; and the flowers are bell-shaped, of a pale pink or flesh-colour, -arranged in rather dense, drooping clusters. The latter, which bloom -from June to August, are followed by red, globular berries. - -On wet, marshy heaths we occasionally meet with the Marsh Gentian -(_Gentiana Pneumonanthe_). It is a very local plant, growing chiefly, -though not exclusively, in the northern and midland counties of England. -Its stem is erect, stiff, leafy and unbranched, usually from six to ten -inches high; and its leaves are sessile, linear, obtuse, rather thick, -the lower ones broader than the upper. The flowers, which bloom during -August and September, are represented on Plate V. - -[Illustration: THE EYEBRIGHT.] - -In the same order (_Gentianaceĉ_) is the Autumn or Small-flowered -Gentian (_Gentiana Amarella_)--a little erect plant, from three to -twelve inches high, common on dry heaths and stony pastures. Its stem is -square, very leafy, simple or branched, often of a blue-green or purple -colour; and the leaves are sessile, opposite, ovate or lanceolate. The -flowers are of a pale purple colour, from half to three-quarters of an -inch long, arranged in an oblong, leafy cluster. The calyx is divided -quite half way down into five unequal, narrow segments; and the corolla -has a broad tube with four or five ovate lobes that spread only in the -direct rays of the sun. The time of flowering is August and September. - -One of the Dodders--the Lesser Dodder (_Cuscuta Epithymum_)--is -essentially a plant of heaths and moors, where it is parasitic on -Heaths, Thyme, and other shrubby plants. It is described in Chapter -XXIII, where will also be found a short account of its growth and -parasitic habits. - -Our only example of the _Scrophulariaceĉ_ as far as this chapter is -concerned--the Eyebright (_Euphrasia officinalis_)--is also a partial -parasite, and is referred to, with other plants of the same nature, in -Chapter XXIII. It is a little plant, the general appearance of which is -shown in our illustration. It varies from one to eight inches high, and -bears little lilac, lipped flowers, streaked with purple, with a rather -large yellow spot at the base of the lower lip. - -One of the Mints--_Mentha Pulegium_ (order _Labiatĉ_)--well-known as a -garden herb under the name of Pennyroyal, is to be found on damp heaths. -Though not very common, it is widely distributed, occurring in nearly -all parts of Great Britain. It is very aromatic, and is largely -cultivated for use as a remedy for colds. The flowers are of a lilac -colour, arranged in dense, distant whorls in the axils of the upper -leaves. The calyx is downy without, hairy at the throat within; and the -corolla has almost equal lobes, the upper of which is notched. The plant -flowers in August and September. - -In the same order is the Wild Thyme (_Thymus Serpyllum_)--a little, -wiry, prostrate plant, with an aromatic odour, very abundant on the dry -heaths of most parts of Britain, flowering from June to August. Its stem -is thin but hard, and much branched, the numerous flowerless branches -usually forming a dense tuft close to the ground. The flowers are -purple, in whorls of five or six in the axils of the upper leaves. The -calyx is lipped, of a deep red colour, and its mouth is closed with -hairs after the corolla is shed. The corolla is of a paler colour, and -indistinctly divided into two lips, the upper of which is erect and -notched, while the lower is cleft into three lobes. The time of -flowering is from June to August. - -The Wood Sage or Wood Germander (_Teucrium Scorodonia_) is very abundant -on damp heaths, and is also commonly seen in hedgerows and on banks, -especially in hilly and heathy districts. It is an erect plant, from one -to two feet high, with a hard, hairy, slightly-branched stem. Its paired -leaves are stalked, ovate or cordate, toothed, downy, and much wrinkled -like the leaves of the true Sages. The flowers are yellowish white, -arranged in pairs on terminal and axillary racemes, with a small bract -at the foot of each short flower-stalk. Although not very conspicuous, -they are very attractive to bees, providing abundance of nectar. There -is no true upper lip to the corolla, the upper part being deeply cleft, -with a small lobe on each side; and the stamens and stigma project -beyond the petals. This plant flowers during July and August. - -[Illustration: THE WILD THYME.] - -On moist heaths, especially in the west of Britain, we commonly meet -with the Lesser Skull-cap (_Scutellaria minor_), another of the -Labiates. It is a little plant, seldom more than six inches high, with -pale pink flowers that bloom from July to October. The stem is rather -slender, and branched; and the paired leaves are broadly ovate below, -narrower above, obtuse, very shortly stalked, and either entire or -slightly toothed. The flowers are only a quarter of an inch long, -shortly stalked, and usually placed singly in the axils of the leaves. -The calyx has two lips, the upper of which bears, on the middle of its -back, a prominent hollow scale; and the corolla has a long tube with two -small lips, the lower of which is divided into three lobes. - -[Illustration: THE AUTUMNAL LADY'S TRESSES.] - -The Dwarf Silky Willow (_Salix repens_--order _Salicaceĉ_) is very -common on heaths. It is a small, straggling shrub, from one to three -feet high, sometimes erect, but more commonly procumbent and rooting at -the base, with slender branches. Its leaves are often less than an inch -in length, oblong or narrow, with recurved margins, shining above and -silky below. When young, the leaves are silky on both sides; and the -young twigs and the buds are also clothed with a silky down. The flowers -are imperfect, and are in short, sessile, erect, oblong catkins, which -appear in April and early May, before the leaves. The male and female -flowers grow on different shrubs; but in both cases the catkins are -about half an inch long, with a few leafy bracts at the base, and the -flowers are intermixed with silky scales. The capsules split when ripe, -liberating numerous minute seeds that are tufted with long, white, silky -hairs. - -The Juniper (_Juniperus communis_), one of the few British conifers, is -not uncommon on dry, gravelly or chalky downs, more especially in the -North. It is a profusely-branched, evergreen shrub, either erect or -procumbent, and usually from one to five feet high. Its leaves are very -narrow, half an inch or less in length, concave above, terminating in a -very sharp point, and arranged three in a whorl. The male and female -flowers grow on separate shrubs, and are clustered in minute catkins, -about a twelfth of an inch long, sessile in the axils of the leaves. The -fruit is a bluish-black, berrylike cone, about a third of an inch in -diameter. The Juniper flowers during May and June. - -[Illustration: THE BUTCHER'S BROOM, IN FRUIT.] - -Passing now to the _Orchidaceĉ_ we have to note two species, the first -of which is the Autumnal Lady's Tresses (_Spiranthes autumnalis_), a -moderately common plant on the dry downs of South Britain, flowering -from August to October. It has two or three thick, oval tubers; and a -slender stem, from four to eight inches high, with sheathing, acute -scales. The radical leaves, four or five in number, are about an inch -long, ovate, sharp, and form a tuft by the side of the stem. The flowers -are small, white, scented, and form a single, spiral line on the stem; -but while each flower is turned to one side, its bract is erect on the -other side of the stem. The sepals and petals are much alike. The upper -sepals are joined to the petals, and the lateral ones curve over the -base of the lip of the corolla. - -The other plant of this order is the very common Spotted Palmate Orchis -(_Orchis maculata_), abundant on the moist heaths and commons of most -parts of Britain, flowering from June to August. Its root has two or -three flattened tubers with long, finger-like lobes; and the stem is -solid, erect, from six inches to more than a foot high. The leaves are -ovate below, narrow above, and usually marked with many dark spots. The -spike of flowers is dense, oblong or pyramidal in form, and two or three -inches long. At the base of each flower is a bract usually shorter than -the ovary. The flowers are pale purple, lilac, or (occasionally) white, -and are generally conspicuously marked with irregular lines and spots of -a deeper tint. The sepals are spreading, about a quarter of an inch -long; and the petals are arched over the column. The lip is broad, -deeply three-lobed, more or less toothed, either flat or with the -lateral lobes slightly turned back. The spur is slender and a little -shorter than the ovary. This Orchis is represented on Fig. 6 of Plate -VI. - -[Illustration: THE COMMON QUAKING GRASS.] - -Our single example of the _Liliaceĉ_ is the Butcher's Broom (_Ruscus -aculeatus_), the only British monocotyledonous shrub. It is of a very -dark green colour, varies from one to four feet in height, and is -occasionally met with on the wooded heaths of the southern counties. Its -rigid, evergreen, leaflike appendages, which are ovate in form, -terminating in a sharp spine, are not really leaves, but leaflike -branches or _cladodes_; for, it will be observed, they bear the flowers -and fruits, which are attached to their centres. The only leaves -possessed by the plant are the minute, deciduous scales, from the axils -of which the cladodes grow. The flowers are white, very small, with a -deeply six-cleft, persistent perianth, each one attached to the centre -of a cladode by a very minute stalk. They are always on the upper side -of the cladode, though it generally happens that they are turned -downwards by a twisting of the base of the leaflike branch. The flowers -are always imperfect, the male and female blossoms growing on separate -shrubs, and both have a small bract at the base. The ovary of the latter -develops into a rather large, scarlet, berry-like fruit containing one -or two seeds. The flowers appear during March and April. - -[Illustration: THE COMMON MAT GRASS.] - -Two of the Rushes (order _Juncaceĉ_) are very common on heaths and -moors. One of these is the Heath Rush (_Juncus squarrosus_), which -appears on Plate VI. This is a rigid Rush, varying from four to -ten inches high, flowering in June and July. Its stems are stout, solid, -and generally leafless; and the leaves are narrow, grooved, usually less -than half the length of the stem. The flowers are brown, either distinct -or in clusters of two or three, arranged in a compound raceme, with a -perianth of shining segments membranous at the margins, and about a -sixth of an inch long. The capsules are blunt, but terminate in a -pointed bristle. - -The other is the Field Woodrush (_Luzula campestris_), a small plant, -usually from four to six inches high, flowering from March to June, and -often very abundant among the grass of hilly pastures and heaths. Its -leaves are fringed with long, soft, white hairs; and the flowers, which -are of a very dark brown colour, are arranged in three or four round or -oval spikes. The segments of the perianth are very sharp, about an -eighth of an inch long, with membranous margins; and the capsules are -blunt. - -We conclude this chapter with a brief notice of two of the Grasses of -heaths and downs. One of these is the Common Quaking Grass or Totter -Grass (_Briza media_).--A very pretty, erect grass, rather rigid, from -six to eighteen inches high, common on dry downs except in the extreme -North of Britain, flowering during June and July. Its stems are tufted, -or sometimes slightly creeping; and its leaves are narrow and flat. The -spikelets are round or broadly ovate, nearly a quarter of an inch long, -more or less tinged with purple, on the long, slender branches of a -loose, spreading panicle three or four inches long. The broad glumes are -all similar in shape, but decrease in size upwards, and are not -bristled. - -The other is the Common Mat Grass (_Nardus stricta_), a densely tufted, -wiry grass, from four inches to a foot in height, common on heaths and -moors, flowering in June and July. The leaves are very fine and stiff, -quite bristle-like. The flowers are in a one-sided spike, from one to -three inches long, the one-flowered spikelets being placed alternately -in two rows, in the notches of the central axis. The spikelets are often -of a reddish or purplish colour, and each has a single, narrow, pointed -glume, about a third of an inch long, an inner glume with a short -bristle, three stamens, and a single style. - -[Illustration: _Plate VII._ -FLOWERS OF THE CORNFIELD. -1. Long Smooth-headed Poppy. 2. Field Scabious. 3. Corn Cockle. 4. Corn -Marigold. 5. Flax. 6. Corn Pheasant's-eye.] - - - - -XVII - -IN THE CORN FIELD - - -The flowers included in the present chapter are to be found principally -in cultivated fields; but since they are more particularly associated -with corn crops, or occur so commonly in those fields in which grain is -one of the products included in the rotation adopted, we separate them -from the other flowers of the field, and consider them under the above -head. - -It will be observed that the majority of the flowers thus dealt with are -summer-bloomers that flower while the ears of corn are filling out, and -consequently are in fruit at the time of harvest. Hence, when the corn -is cut, their seeds are shaken from the ripe fruits, or the fruits are -themselves levelled to the ground, with the result that those which are -not ploughed too deeply into the soil spring up almost in the same -position in the following season. - -Starting with the species of the Buttercup family (order -_Ranunculaceĉ_), we take first the beautiful Pheasant's Eye (_Adonis -autumnalis_), which is sometimes seen among the corn, especially in the -fields of the southern counties. The plant is not a native, but has -become well established as a wild flower in several parts, though it is -common in only a few localities. It is erect, from six to twelve inches -high, and flowers in summer and autumn. The coloured illustration on -Plate VII, Fig. 6, renders a written description unnecessary. - -The little Mouse-tail (_Myosurus minimus_) of the same order is a very -different kind of plant. It seldom exceeds a height of five or six -inches, and is commonly only two inches high. Its leaves are all -radical, very narrow, fleshy, and measure only from one to three inches, -including the stalk; and the little yellowish-green flowers, which bloom -from April to June, are solitary on radical stalks. Each flower has five -spreading sepals which are prolonged downward at the base into a short -spur; five very narrow, tubular petals; a few stamens; and a spike-like -cluster of many carpels in the centre. As the fruit ripens the cluster -of carpels lengthens into a slender spike from an inch to an inch and a -half long. This species is rather common in the South and South-East of -England, and is to be seen most frequently in moist fields. - -The Corn Crowfoot (_R. arvensis_) is a slightly hairy plant, with a -branched stem from six to eighteen inches in height. The whole is of a -pale green colour, and the leaves are deeply cut into narrow, lobed -segments. The flowers are pale yellow, about half an inch in diameter, -with spreading sepals; and are usually placed opposite the leaves. Their -carpels are few in number, comparatively large, flattened, and covered -with hooked spines. This is an abundant species, especially in the -southern counties, and is most common in weedy fields in which -corn-crops have been previously raised. It flowers from May to July. - -[Illustration: THE MOUSE-TAIL.] - -The same order (_Ranunculaceĉ_) includes the Field Larkspur (_Delphinium -Ajacis_) which sometimes grows wild in corn-fields. It is not -indigenous, but has been introduced from South Europe; and the wild -plants are probably escapes from cultivation. The stem is from nine to -eighteen inches high, with a few spreading branches; and the leaves are -all deeply cut into very narrow segments. The flowers are blue, pink or -white, and are arranged in a long, terminal raceme. The five sepals are -coloured, the posterior one prolonged into a narrow, hollow spur about -half an inch long. There are only two petals, and these are united into -a narrow spur which lies within that of the calyx. The fruit consists of -a single, downy follicle that contains several seeds. This plant flowers -during June and July. - -We have now to notice a few of the favourite Poppies (order -_Papaveraceĉ_); and although these are generally easily distinguished, -even by the tyro, from the flowers of other orders, we think it -advisable to call attention to the leading features of the group. These -plants have a milky sap, and leaves without stipules. Their flowers are -large, regular, on long stalks, and droop when in the bud. There are -only two sepals, and they generally drop very early. The petals, four in -number, are very thin and delicate, crumpled in the bud; and the stamens -are numerous. The ovary is peculiar, consisting of one cell that is -partially divided by a number of membranes (_placentas_) which pass from -the wall towards the centre. It is surmounted by a disc on which are -several radiating stigmas, corresponding in number with the membranes -within. The fruit opens when ripe by the formation of pores just under -the edge of the disc. - -The most abundant species is undoubtedly the Common Red Poppy (_Papaver -Rhĉas_), which is to be found in almost every corn-field, as well as in -other fields and waste places in cultivated districts, flowering from -May to July. It is from one to two feet high, covered with rather stiff -spreading hairs; and its leaves are pinnately divided into narrow, -pointed lobes which are themselves more or less cut. The beautiful, rich -scarlet flowers are about three inches in diameter, often with a black -patch at the base of each petal, and are solitary on long peduncles that -are covered with hairs. The fruit is almost globular, tapering towards -the bottom; and on its disc are from eight to twelve radiating stigmas. - -The Long-headed Poppy (_P. dubium_) is a very similar plant, but is -generally rather more slender, with hairs that do not spread so much; -and its leaves are often more deeply cut into narrower lobes. Its -flowers are a little smaller, with two opposite petals larger than the -other two; and the hairs of the peduncles lie close against the surface. -The fruit is oblong, tapering towards the bottom, the length being -nearly three times the greatest width. This poppy also flowers from May -to July. It is represented in Fig. 1. of Plate VII. - -A third species--the Long Prickly-headed Poppy (_P. Argemone_), also -known as the Pale Poppy, is a small, weak plant, seldom exceeding nine -inches in height, with leaves divided into a few narrow segments. The -flowers are of a pale red colour, usually less than two inches in -diameter; and, like those of the commonest species, have usually a dark -patch at the base of each petal. The fruit is narrow-oblong, tapering -below, in fact, almost club-shaped, and is clothed with a few stiff, -bristly hairs. The time of flowering is the same as that of the -preceding species. - -[Illustration: THE COMMON RED POPPY.] - -In the corn-fields of several parts of England we may meet with the -White or Opium Poppy (_P. somniferum_) which is largely grown in warmer -countries for the opium it produces, and which was probably introduced -into Britain from the Mediterranean region. It is generally about two -feet in height, and quite smooth with the exception of a few spreading, -stiff hairs on the flower stalks. The whole plant is of a glaucous green -colour. The flowers are large, generally of a bluish white colour, often -with a purple patch at the base of each petal; and the fruit is large, -globular and smooth. This species flowers from June to August. - -[Illustration: THE WHITE OR OPIUM POPPY.] - -The pretty little Fumitory (_Fumaria officinalis_--order _Fumariaceĉ_) -is abundant in most of the cornfields and other cultivated places of -most parts of Britain, flowering from June to September. It is a very -variable plant, quite smooth, and of a delicate, pale green colour. Its -stem varies from six inches to over two feet in length, sometimes erect, -with spreading branches, but often climbing among the neighbouring -vegetation, supported by the twisted leafstalks. The leaves are -pinnately divided into stalked leaflets which are further cut into -three-lobed segments; and the flowers are in racemes that are either -terminal or opposite the leaves. At first the racemes are short, but -they lengthen out considerably as upper flowers open and the lower ones -fruit. Each flower has a short pedicel that arises from the axil of a -whitish or coloured bract; and the two small sepals are either white or -coloured like the bracts. The corolla is oblong, tubular, formed of four -petals in two pairs, with a short, blunt spur at the base; and its -colour is very variable--usually cream-coloured or pink, and often -tipped with crimson. - -Some of the Mustards are very common weeds in corn-fields. They belong -to the genus _Brassica_, of the order _Cruciferĉ_, and are distinguished -by their long siliquas, almost cylindrical in form, terminating in a -'beak' which is formed entirely of the persistent style, or of this -together with a modified portion of the fruit containing one or more -seeds. - -One of the commonest of these is the Wild Mustard or Charlock (_Brassica -arvensis_ or _B. Sinapis_), a very abundant weed in most cultivated -fields, probably introduced originally from South Europe. It is a very -coarse plant, with scattered, bristly, spreading hairs, growing from one -to two feet high, and bearing racemes of yellow flowers that generally -exceed a diameter of half an inch. The leaves are ovate, with short, -stiff hairs; all are pinnately lobed, and the lower ones have generally -a large oval lobe, with coarsely-toothed segments, and a few narrower -segments along the stalk. The fruits are spreading, many-angled pods, -usually about an inch in length, constricted between the seeds when -ripe, with a beak about a third the length of the whole pod enclosing a -single seed at its base. The plant flowers from May to August. - -The White Mustard (_Brassica alba_ or _Sinapis alba_) is not so common; -but it is somewhat largely cultivated for its seedlings, which are used, -with those of cress, as salad; and the plant is not unfrequently found -as a weed in corn-fields and on other cultivated ground. The whole plant -is clothed with rather stiff hairs that are directed downwards, and its -height varies from one to two feet. Its leaves are pinnately divided -into ovate, coarsely-toothed segments, the terminal one largest. The -flowers are bright yellow, about half an inch in diameter, in racemes. -The pods are usually near an inch long, on spreading stalks; with a -stout, flattened beak, longer than the pod itself, containing a single -seed. They are constricted between the seeds, and both valves and beak -are clothed with stiff, whitish hairs. The plant flowers during June and -July. - -[Illustration: THE FUMITORY.] - -A third member of the same genus--the Black Mustard (_Brassica nigra_ or -_Sinapis nigra_)--is also cultivated for its seeds, which are used in -the preparation of table mustard, and it is also a moderately common -weed of cultivation in many parts. It is a hairy plant, from one to -three feet high. Its lower leaves are rough, and deeply divided into a -large terminal and small lateral lobes; and the upper ones are small, -very narrow, smooth and undivided. The flowers are yellow, usually less -than half an inch across, in long, narrow racemes; and the -shortly-stalked pods are four-angled, smooth, and about half an inch -long. They do not spread much, and the short beak consists only of the -narrow style. This species flowers from June to August. - -[Illustration: THE BLACK MUSTARD.] - -The Wild Radish or White Charlock (_Raphanus Raphanistrum_) is a common -corn-field weed, somewhat resembling the mustards just described in -general appearance, but its pods are distinctly constricted between the -seeds, and often split when ripe into from three to seven one-seeded -joints. The plant is bristly, and grows from one to two feet high, -flowering from May to September. The petals are either white with -purplish veins, or pale yellow, or lilac; and the pods, over an inch -long, are tipped by the conical style, which is about twice as long as -the last joint. - -Coming now to the order _Caryophyllaceĉ_ we have to note the pretty Corn -Cockle (_Lychnis Githago_), which is commonly seen in the midst of the -corn, often growing so tall that its pale purple flowers peep above the -ears. Its stem is clothed with long, soft, white hairs; and the leaves -are all long, narrow and entire. The flowers, which appear during July -and August, are usually over an inch in diameter, and are solitary on -long, leafless peduncles. This flower appears on Plate VII. - -[Illustration: THE CORN SPURREY.] - -The same order includes the Corn Spurrey (_Spergula arvensis_), a low, -procumbent plant, with small, white flowers that bloom from June to -August. Its slender stem varies from six to eighteen inches long, and -the narrow, whorled leaves from one to two inches. The flowers are only -a quarter of an inch in diameter, with sepals usually a little shorter -than the petals. - -In the order _Linaceĉ_ we have the Common Flax or Linseed (_Linum -usitatissimum_), which is cultivated in some districts, and often -appears as a weed in fields. It is an erect, smooth plant, with a -slender stem about a foot high, and very narrow, entire, acute leaves, -about an inch long. The flowers are in a loose, terminal corymb, and -have five acute sepals; five bright blue petals over half an inch long, -which fall early; five perfect and five imperfect stamens; and an ovary -with five styles. It flowers during July. (See Plate VII.) - -The Shepherd's Needle or Venus's Comb (_Scandix Pecten-Veneris_) of the -order _Umbelliferĉ_ derives its name from the long, flat, needle-like -beaks of the fruits that are placed almost parallel like the teeth of a -coarse comb. The plant is erect, branched, from three to twelve inches -high; and the general character of its leaves and inflorescence may be -gathered from our illustration. The flowers are small, white, with -larger outer petals; and the carpels of the fruit are cylindrical, about -a third of an inch long, with beaks about an inch and a half. The plant -flowers from June to September. - -[Illustration: THE SHEPHERD'S NEEDLE OR VENUS'S COMB.] - -Of the order _Rubiaceĉ_ we shall include the common Field Madder -(_Sherardia arvensis_), a little plant, varying from five to ten inches -high, the minute lilac flowers of which may be seen from April to -October. Its branched stems are often decumbent; and the little, narrow, -sharply-pointed leaves, rough on the edges, are placed in whorls of from -four to six. The umbels are very small, terminal, and surrounded by a -leafy involucre that is divided into several lobes longer than the -flowers. The corolla consists of an exceedingly slender tube, at the top -of which are four spreading lobes; and the fruit is crowned by the five -or six teeth of the calyx, which enlarges as the former ripens. - -The Field Knautia or Field Scabious (_Knautia arvensis_ or _Scabiosa -arvensis_), shown on Plate VII, is very common on cultivated -ground, particularly in corn-growing districts. It is a -slightly-branched plant, from one to four feet high, clothed with stiff, -bristly hairs. Its lower leaves are stalked, simple, narrow, and usually -but little cut; and the upper ones sessile, broader at the base, and -either coarsely toothed or deeply cut. The flower-heads are large, -lilac, on long peduncles. The outer florets are much larger than the -inner, and all have four-lobed corollas. The fruit is angular, and is -surmounted by the eight or ten bristles of the calyx. This plant flowers -from June to August. - -[Illustration: THE VENUS'S LOOKING-GLASS OR CORN BELLFLOWER.] - -Two of the Sow Thistles (order _Compositĉ_) have already been noticed -among the flowers of waste places (p. 179), and a third, known -as the Corn Sow-Thistle (_Sonchus arvensis_), falls within the range of -the present chapter, being a very common corn-field weed. It is an erect -plant, from one to four feet high, with a hollow, angular stem, branched -only towards the top. Its lower leaves are large, stalked, more or less -divided into triangular, sharply-toothed lobes that are curved -downwards; and the upper ones are sessile, less divided, with broad -lobes which clasp the stem. The flower-heads are bright yellow, large, -and arranged in a loose, terminal corymb. Their stalks and bracts are -rough with stiff brown or black hairs; and the pappus of the wrinkled -fruits consists of a dense mass of white, silky hairs. The plant blooms -during August and September. - -The Bluebottle or Cornflower (_Centaurea Cyanus_) is a pretty cornfield -Composite, not uncommon in many parts, blooming from June to August. The -plant, represented on Plate IV, is covered with loose, cottony -hairs, and grows from one to two feet high. The heads of flowers are -about an inch in diameter, solitary on long, terminal stalks, surrounded -by an oval involucre of closely-overlapping bracts with sharp points and -toothed, membranous margins. The receptacle is flat, with silvery -bristles between the florets. All the florets are tubular; the central -ones of a bluish-purple colour, with purple anthers; and the outer ones -much larger, curved, irregular, and bright blue. The fruit is surmounted -by a pappus of short, simple hairs. - -One of the most beautiful of the corn-field flowers is the Corn Marigold -or Yellow Ox-eye Daisy (_Chrysanthemum segetum_), easily distinguished -by its rather large flower-heads, solitary on terminal peduncles, with -bright golden-yellow ray and disc. It grows from twelve to eighteen -inches high, and flowers from May to July. It may be identified by the -aid of the coloured illustration on Plate VII. - -[Illustration: THE SCARLET PIMPERNEL.] - -The Corn Chamomile (_Anthemis arvensis_), of the same order, is not -unfrequently seen in corn fields, flowering from June to August. It is -much like the Scentless Mayweed (p. 188) and the Common Chamomile (p. -268) in general appearance, but may be easily distinguished with a -little care. It is a rather coarse plant, more or less clothed with a -silky down; and its freely-branched stem is usually erect, and from one -to two feet high. The leaves are pinnate, with leaflets divided into -very narrow, almost hairlike segments; and the flower-heads are rather -large, with white ray and yellow disc, solitary on the tops of leafy -stalks. The involucre bracts are acute; the receptacle conical; and ray -florets always possess a style. - -[Illustration: THE CLIMBING BISTORT.] - -The Stinking Chamomile or Stinking Mayweed (_Anthemis Cotula_) is -another similar corn-field plant, but it may be readily recognised by -the minute glands dotted over its surface, the acrid secretion of which -emits a f[oe]tid odour when rubbed, and often blisters the hand. The -plant is generally smooth, with an erect, branched stem, from nine to -fifteen inches high; and pinnate leaves with leaflets divided into -short, narrow, pointed lobes. The flowers are similar to those of the -previous species, on the tops of long, leafy stalks; but the receptacle, -at first convex, lengthens to a tall cone; and the white ray-florets -have no style. The involucre bracts are also very narrow, bristly at the -top; and the fruits are rendered rough by numerous little glandular -projections. This plant flowers from June to September. - -The Corn Bellflower or Wild Venus's Looking-glass (_Campanula hybrida_), -of the order _Campanulaceĉ_, is not uncommon in the cornfields of the -chalky districts of South and East England. It is an erect plant, from -six to ten inches high, bearing purple, blue, or (occasionally) white -flowers from July to September. In addition to the general features -shown in our illustration we may note that its long, inferior ovary is -three-angled; and that the fruit splits, when ripe, by the formation of -slits near the top. - -In the order _Boraginaceĉ_ we have the Small Bugloss (_Lycopsis -arvensis_), a branched plant, from six inches to two feet in height, -covered all over with stiff bristles that are swollen at the base. Its -leaves are oblong or very narrow, wavy, and sometimes toothed; the upper -ones sessile and often clasping the stem; and the lower frequently -shortly stalked. The flowers are small, pale blue, in simple or -branched, one-sided spikes. They have a deeply-cleft calyx of five -segments; and the species may be distinguished from other, somewhat -similar plants of the same order by the form of the tube of the corolla, -which is always bent in the middle. This plant is very common in the -corn fields of most parts; and flowers during June and July. - -[Illustration: THE DWARF SPURGE.] - -Our next flower is the pretty little Scarlet Pimpernel or Poor Man's -Weather Glass (_Anagallis arvensis_) of the Primrose order -(_Primulaceĉ_), which is very common in cornfields and on other -cultivated ground, flowering from May to very late in the autumn. The -stem of this plant is procumbent and much branched, the branches -sometimes reaching a length of considerably more than a foot; and its -leaves are opposite, sessile, broadly ovate, undivided, and dotted -beneath. The little flowers are solitary in the axils of the leaves, on -long, slender peduncles that are always curved backwards as the fruits -ripen. The calyx is deeply cleft into five pointed segments; and the -bright scarlet (occasionally pink or white) corolla, fringed with minute -hairs, spreads its five lobes only in sunny weather. The fruit is a -little globular capsule, enclosed in the persistent calyx, splitting -transversely into two hemispheres when ripe. - -The Climbing Bistort (_Polygonum convolvulus_--order _Polygonaceĉ_), -also known as the Climbing Buckwheat, Climbing Persicaria, and Black -Bindweed, is a very troublesome corn-field weed, with the climbing habit -of the Convolvulus, often strangling the plants round which it twines -its angular stem. It varies from one to four feet in height; and its -alternate leaves are heart-shaped or arrow-shaped, pointed, with short -membranous stipules at the base of the stalk. The flowers are small, -pale green, in little loose clusters of from four to twelve. The lower -clusters are stalked in the axils of the leaves, and the upper ones form -irregular, terminal racemes. The five segments of the calyx are bluntly -keeled, and occasionally winged; and the three outer ones closely -envelop the fruit--a triangular nut. The plant flowers from July to -September. - -At least two or three of the Spurges (_Euphorbiaceĉ_) are commonly seen -in cultivated fields, but one in particular--the Dwarf Spurge -(_Euphorbia exigua_)--is common in corn fields. It is a slender, smooth -plant, usually from two to ten inches high, with several ascending stems -diverging from near the base. The little yellow flowers are in terminal -umbels of from three to five rays, sometimes very much contracted; and -their glands (see p. 207) are crescent-shaped, with their fine -points turned outwards. The time of flowering is July to October. - -Our last example of the corn-field plants is the Wild Oat Grass or -Havers (_Avena fatua_)--an erect grass, two or three feet high, with -rough leaves, and stem hairy at the joints. Its flowers form a loose, -spreading panicle, from six to nine inches long; with three-flowered -spikelets, about an inch long, on very slender stalks, erect at first -but afterwards drooping. The outer glumes are about three quarters of an -inch long, tapering to a bristly point, often tinged with purple; and -the inner ones, two or three in number, are a little shorter, cleft at -the top into pointed lobes, and covered outside with yellowish-brown -hairs. The awn is about twice as long as the spikelet, twisted at the -base, and usually bent near the middle. This grass flowers during June -and July. - - - - -XVIII - -ON THE CHALK - - -While some flowers are so universally distributed that they may be -described as existing almost everywhere, others are restricted to -certain kinds of localities, outside which they seldom occur. This -restriction is sometimes merely one of light and shade, the same species -growing almost equally luxuriantly in open spaces, or, in shady places, -regardless of other conditions. Some plants, however, are particularly -partial to certain conditions of soil, situation, or climate, and are -consequently more strictly confined to limited districts. - -We have already referred to several species which are essentially -flowers of the woods, but even these are not distributed evenly in -wooded districts; for while some seem to be more universally scattered -throughout our wooded parts, others show a decided partiality to -particular soils, being found exclusively, or almost so, either in sandy -woods, clayey woods, or woods in limestone districts, &c. In fact, the -nature of the soil is such an important factor in determining plant -distribution that we naturally associate many species with the -particular rock strata on which we almost invariably find them. - -So intimately is the distribution of plants connected with that of the -geological strata that when, in the course of a day's ramble, we find a -more or less sudden change in the nature of the flora, we may be almost -sure that there is a corresponding change in the nature of the rocks or -soil over which we have strayed; and the young botanist will find much -to interest him in the study of this relation between vegetable life and -geological structure. Of course we do not mean that the botanist must -necessarily be also a geologist, but that he should, at least, be always -ready to observe the nature of the habitats of the flowers he finds, -noting particularly the kind of soil on which they grow. - -[Illustration: _Plate VIII._ -FLOWERS OF CHALKY SOILS. -1. Red Valerian. 2. Narrow-leaved Flax. 3. Tufted Horse-shoe Vetch. 4. -Spiked Speedwell. 5. Pasque Flower. 6. Bee Orchis. 7. Yellow Oat -Grass.] - -Chalky districts are notably attractive to the lover of flowers; for, -not only do they yield a number of species that are almost essentially -the offspring of calcareous soils, but also produce other blossoms, -often in rich profusion, that are less restricted in their habitats. - -[Illustration: THE ROCK ROSE.] - -In the present chapter we shall note the principal flowers that grow -principally or entirely in calcareous districts, the first being the -Pasque Flower (_Anemone Pulsatilla_--order _Ranunculaceĉ_), rare, it is -true, but too beautiful to be omitted from our selection. This flower, -shown on Plate VIII, Fig. 5, may be seen on some chalky hills during May -and June. It is of a silky nature, and the lovely purple blossoms often -reach a diameter of an inch and a half. The leaves are doubly or trebly -pinnate, with very narrow segments which increase in length after the -flowers have faded. The bracts, which are some distance below the -flower, have also linear segments; and the flowers droop while still in -the bud, but the peduncle becomes erect as they expand. The stamens are -yellow, and the fruits are provided with feathered hairs. - -On chalky, sandy, and other dry soils we may meet with the Round -Prickly-headed Poppy (_Papaver hybridum_--order _Papaveraceĉ_), very -much like the Common Poppy in general appearance, but readily -distinguished by its general hairy character, and, more especially, by -the globular, furrowed fruit covered with spreading bristles. The -flowers vary from one to two inches in diameter, and the crimson or deep -scarlet petals are often black at the base. - -The Bitter Candytuft (_Iberis amara_--order _Cruciferĉ_), which is so -well known as a border-flower of our gardens, grows freely in some of -the chalk districts of the South and East of England. Unlike most of the -Crucifers, the flowers are not symmetrical, the two outer petals being -much larger than the others. The inflorescence is a raceme, which, like -that of the Wallflower, becomes longer as the flowering proceeds; and -the colour of the petals is white, lilac or red. The height of this -plant varies from six to nine inches, and the flowers bloom during July -and August. - -The Wild Mignonette (_Reseda lutea_--order _Resedaceĉ_) is very common -in some chalky districts, generally in fields and other open ground, and -may be easily recognised by its close resemblance to the well-known -Sweet Mignonette (_R. odorata_), which is so highly valued as a garden -flower on account of its pleasant perfume. It is of a shrubby nature, -from one to two feet high, with scattered, stipuled leaves, the lower of -which are pinnate, while the upper are three-lobed. The flowers are -irregular, yellow, and arranged in short, conical racemes. The six -sepals are unequal and linear; and the petals, also six in number, are -very unequal, while the posterior one is divided into many parts. The -flowers bloom throughout the summer. - -One of the most characteristic flowers of the chalk is the pretty Rock -Rose (_Helianthemum vulgare_--order _Cistaceĉ_), which is often so -abundant that it completely covers large patches of banks and -pasture-land. The plant is of a procumbent nature, with woody stems, and -opposite, flat, oval or oblong leaves, green above and hoary beneath. -The yellow flowers are from three-quarters to an inch in diameter, and -are arranged in racemes. There are five sepals, two of which are very -small; and the numerous stamens are sensitive, spreading out and lying -on the petals when the flower is squeezed. The time of flowering is from -June to September. - -An allied species--the Hoary Rock Rose (_H. canum_ or _H. -marifolium_)--may be found in the limestone districts of the West of -England, flowering from May to July. The plant is very similar to the -last, but the leaves are not stipuled, are smooth or hairy above, and -very hoary beneath. The flowers, too, are much smaller. - -A species of Violet--the Hairy Violet (_Viola hirta_--order -_Violaceĉ_)--may be found in some limestone and chalk districts, and -also on some dry soils removed from calcareous rocks. It has no runners -like those of other species, and its cordate leaves are very hairy, on -petioles covered with spreading hairs. The flowers are scentless, pale -violet or white, with bracts below the middle of the peduncle; and the -spur of the corolla is long, blunt, flattened, and hooked. - -Two species of Flax (order _Linaceĉ_) are to be found on chalky soils. -One--the Perennial Flax (_Linum perenne_)--grows in hilly districts, but -is not at all common. It is a slender plant, with numerous wiry stems -from one to two feet high; and sessile, linear, acute leaves. The petals -are of a beautiful sky-blue colour, but so lightly attached that it is -difficult to secure a perfect specimen. The other species--the -Narrow-leaved Flax (_L. angustifolium_)--is moderately common on -calcareous hills of the South and West of England. It is very similar to -the last, and grows to about the same height, but its many stems are -more irregularly branched, and the alternate leaves are -linear-lanceolate. The corolla is of a lighter lilac-blue colour. _L. -perenne_ blooms during June and July, and the narrow-leaved species from -June to September. The latter is shown on Plate VIII. - -Quite a number of species of leguminous plants (order _Leguminosĉ_), -may, as a rule, be met with on dry soils, but only two common ones may -be described as particularly partial to chalk and limestone localities. -These are the Tufted Horse-shoe Vetch (_Hippocrepis comosa_) and the -Sainfoin or Cock's-head (_Onobrychis sativa_). The former, represented -on Plate VIII, is a low, smooth, prostrate plant, six to eighteen inches -long, with yellow flowers that bloom from May to August. This plant is -sometimes confused with the Bird's-foot Trefoil, which it rather closely -resembles in general appearance, but it may be readily distinguished by -the pinnate leaves and the peculiar form of the pods. The latter are -flattened, and break up, when ripe, into from three to six one-seeded, -horse-shoe-shaped segments--a feature which has given rise to the -popular name. - -The Sainfoin is often cultivated in the South-East of England as fodder -for cattle, but may frequently be found growing wild. It is a very -pretty, erect plant, from one to two feet high, with dense racemes of -rosy-red flowers beautifully striped with a darker tint. The stem is -stout and downy, and the pinnate leaves have membranous stipules and -numerous oblong leaflets which terminate abruptly in a point. The pod -is compressed, semicircular in form, indehiscent, and toothed along the -lower edge. This species flowers during June and July. - -[Illustration: THE SAINFOIN.] - -On some chalky heaths the True Sweet-briar (_Rosa rubiginosa_--order -_Rosaceĉ_) is a common shrub, growing from three to six feet high, and -flowering during June and July. It is an erect and compact bush, with -numerous prickles of varying shapes--the larger ones being hooked, while -the smaller are straight and very unequal. The leaves are compound and -stipuled, and the leaflets are rounded at the base, downy, and doubly -serrate. The flowers often grow singly, but more commonly from two to -four together; they are of a deep rose colour, and the persistent sepals -are pinnately divided. The fruit is at first pear-shaped, but afterwards -becomes almost globular, and turns red when ripe. - -[Illustration: THE SALAD BURNET.] - -In similar situations we may find the Lesser Burnet or Salad Burnet -(_Poterium Sanguisorba_) of the same order. This plant is so different -in general appearance from the majority of the Rose family that the -amateur would hardly associate it with the others. The flowers are -small, and collected together in dense, purple cymes on the top of long, -angular stalks. They have no petals, and the four overlapping sepals are -usually deciduous. The stamens, five to thirty in number, are pendulous -on long, slender filaments; and the upper flowers display their crimson -stigmas before the lower ones produce their stamens. The stem is erect, -from six to eighteen inches in height; and the pinnate leaves have many -small, sessile, oblong leaflets with coarsely-serrate edges. This plant -flowers during June, July, and August. - -[Illustration: THE FIELD GENTIAN.] - -The Bedstraw Family (order _Rubiaceĉ_) is represented on the chalk by -the Rough-fruited Corn Bedstraw (_Galium tricorne_), which is common in -fields. It is a spreading plant, with procumbent stems, one to three -feet long; and small, long, narrow leaves, rough with recurved prickles, -arranged in whorls of from six to eight. The flowers are small and -white, grouped in little cymes of three. The fruit is comparatively -large, and granulated, but not bristly, and it droops by the bending of -the pedicel. The plant flowers from June to October. - -The Red Spur Valerian (_Centranthus ruber_--order _Valerianaceĉ_) is a -glaucous, leafy plant (see Plate VIII), sometimes growing to a -height of two feet or more, often to be seen in chalk-pits and limestone -quarries, and frequently on old walls. It is not indigenous, but is -cultivated largely as a garden flower, and has now become naturalised. -Its corolla, which is sometimes white, has five unequal lobes, a long, -flattened tube, and a slender spur. The plant flowers from June to -September. - -Of the Composite flowers we shall note two species, the first being the -Woolly-headed Plume-thistle (_Carduus eriophorus_), common in chalky -fields, where it throws up its large, cottony heads to a height of from -three to five feet during July and August. In order to distinguish it -from other similar thistles we must note that its stem is not winged, -and that the deeply-divided leaves, with bifid lobes, half clasp the -stem at the base; also that the involucre bracts are lanceolate, with -long, reflexed spines. The heads of this thistle are of a pale purple -colour, of a globular form, two to three inches in diameter, and covered -with a thick, cottony growth. - -[Illustration: THE YELLOW-WORT.] - -Our other example of the Composite flowers is the Ploughman's Spikenard -(_Inula Conyza_), which is common on chalky banks and pastures, -flowering from July to September. It is an erect, downy plant, from two -to five feet high, with oval, lanceolate, downy leaves of a dull green -colour. The upper leaves are entire and sessile, while the lower are -toothed and stalked. The numerous flower heads are of a dull yellow -colour, with leaflike bracts, arranged in a branched corymb. The -involucre bracts are linear and reflexed, and the ray florets are -inconspicuous. - -Two representatives of the order _Gentianaceĉ_ are commonly found on -chalk hills and pastures; they are the Field Gentian (_Gentiana -campestris_), and the Perfoliate Yellow-wort (_Chlora perfoliata_, or -_Blackstonia perfoliata_). The former is an erect plant, from four to -ten inches high, with a branched stem; opposite, sessile leaves; and -conspicuous, bluish-purple flowers, blooming in August and September. -The calyx is cleft into four, the two outer segments being large and -ovate. The corolla is also four-cleft, and salver-shaped. - -[Illustration: THE GREAT MULLEIN.] - -The Yellow-wort is an erect, glaucous plant, with an unbranched stem -from six to eighteen inches in height, and beautiful yellow flowers, -from four to nine in number, arranged in a cyme. The leaves are in -widely-separated pairs, united at their bases, so that the stem -penetrates them. The calyx is deeply divided, and the limbs of the -corolla are spreading. This plant flowers from June to September. - -Some species of Mullein (_Verbascum_) are particularly partial to chalk -and limestone districts. They are handsome plants, belonging to the -order _Scrophulariaceĉ_, rendered conspicuous by their woolly leaves and -spikes of yellow or white flowers. The Great Mullein (_V. Thapsus_) is -common on banks and roadsides, and flowers from June to August. Its stem -is stout, erect, very woolly, and varies from two to five feet in -height. The leaves are very large and thick, and are so woolly on both -sides that they resemble flannel. The flowers form a large, dense, -club-shaped spike. Each has a corolla with five spreading lobes; and -five stamens, with white hairs on their filaments, two longer than the -other three. The fruit is a capsule containing many seeds and splitting -longitudinally. - -The White Mullein (_V. Lychnitis_) is not at all common, but may be -found in similar situations. Its stem is angular, seldom more than three -feet high, the leaves nearly smooth above, and the flowers white or -cream, blooming from June to August. - -A third species--the Yellow Hoary Mullein (_V. pulverulentum_)--grows on -banks, chiefly in Norfolk and Suffolk, flowering during July and August. -It is about three feet in height; the stem is round, with a mealy -surface; and the leaves, which are not continued down the stem, are -covered both above and below with starlike hairs that give them a mealy -appearance. The flowers form a pyramidal panicle, and are of a bright -yellow colour, with scarlet stamens covered with white hairs. - -[Illustration: THE RED HEMP-NETTLE.] - -There is yet another species to be found on chalky soils, more -especially in hedges and on banks and roadsides. It is the Dark Mullein -(_V. nigrum_), so called on account of the darker hue of the stem and -leaves. It grows to a height of about three feet and flowers from June -to September. It is a beautiful plant, not so strong in build as the -Great Mullein, with an angular stem, and oblong heart-shaped leaves, -nearly smooth above, and covered with starlike hairs which give it a -downy appearance, especially on the under surface. The leaves are not -continued down the stem, and the lower ones have long stalks. The -flowers are bright yellow, very numerous, and form a spike-like panicle. -The stamens are covered with purple hairs. - -The Spiked Speedwell (_Veronica spicata_), of the same order, neither -common nor widely distributed, is to be found chiefly in the chalk and -limestone districts of the South and West of England, flowering during -July and August. It has a long, dense, terminal spike of blue or pink -flowers about a quarter of an inch in diameter. The corolla has a long -tube, and unequal, narrow lobes; and the flattened capsules split into -two valves when ripe. A large variety of this species, known as the Tall -Spiked Speedwell, occurs in limestone districts of the West. The normal -form is shown in Fig. 4, of Plate VIII. - -Of the Labiates perhaps the one most partial to the chalk is the Wild -Sage or Clary (_Salvia Verbenaca_); and even this is not confined to -calcareous soils, but thrives in dry pastures in many parts of the -country, particularly near the sea. It is an aromatic herb, from one to -two feet in height, with long spikes of bluish purple flowers that bloom -from May to September. The leaves, which are not numerous, are -oblong-cordate (the upper ones broadly cordate), blunt, coarsely -toothed, and wrinkled. Other Labiates are very similar to this species, -but the Clary may be distinguished by its two ovate, cordate bracts at -the base of each flower, and by its narrow corolla, which is a little -shorter than the calyx. - -The Red Hemp-nettle (_Galeopsis Ladanum_), of the same order, is common -in chalky fields. It is about a foot in height, and displays its -_rose-coloured_ flowers from July to October. The plant is covered with -very soft hairs, and the stem is not swollen at the joints. These two -features serve to distinguish the species from the Common Hemp-nettle -(_G. tetrahit_) and the Large-flowered Hemp-nettle (_G. versicolor_) of -the same genus. It should also be noted that the corolla is not really -red, as the common name suggests, but rose-coloured, while in _G. -tetrahit_ it is purple or white, and in _G. versicolor_ it is yellow. -The upper lip of the flower, too, is only slightly notched. - -The Viper's Bugloss (_Echium vulgare_--order _Boraginaceĉ_) is common on -dry soils, especially in calcareous districts, where it is often found -close to the sea, even on the beach very near high-water level. It is a -very peculiar plant, both stem and leaves being thickly covered with -stiff, sharp bristles. The stem is unbranched, from two to three feet -high; and the leaves are lanceolate. The flowers are of a bright -rose-colour when they first open, and afterwards change to a bright -purple-blue; they are arranged in short, lateral, curved, one-sided -spikes. Both leaves and flowers droop very rapidly after they have been -gathered. This plant flowers from June to August. - -Another species of the same genus, known as the Purple Viper's Bugloss -(_E. Plantagineum_), is common in the Channel Islands. It may be -distinguished by its branched stem and longer spikes of flowers. The -lower leaves, too, are oblong and stalked, while the upper ones are -cordate and half clasp the stem. - -No doubt the reader is already acquainted with the commoner Plantains -(order _Plantaginaceĉ_), so easily distinguished by their spreading -radical leaves, with prominent, parallel ribs, and their dense spikes of -greenish flowers. There are five British species, one of which--the -Hoary Plantain or Lamb's-tongue (_Plantago media_) is particularly -partial to chalky districts, where it grows in pastures and on dry -banks. Its flowering stems grow from three inches to a foot in height, -and the flowers bloom from June to September. The leaves are elliptical, -either sessile or shortly stalked, and have from five to nine ribs. They -lie so closely on the soil that nothing can grow beneath them, and even -present the appearance of having been pressed against the ground. They -also have a downy surface; and the stalk, where it exists, is flattened. -The flowering stem is round, and the spike cylindrical. The calyx is -cleft into four, with its segments turned backward; and the sepals are -not keeled as they are in some other species. The corolla is tubular, -with four spreading limbs; and the cream-coloured anthers are displayed -on the tips of long filaments. - -[Illustration: AN ORCHIS FLOWER. - -S, sepals. P, petals. L, lip. C, spur. A, pollen masses. B, stigma.] - -We have now to consider several representatives of the _Orchidaceĉ_, and -it will be well here to note the general characters of this remarkable -order as a whole. The Orchids have rounded or palmate tuberous roots, a -few glossy leaves which sheath the stem, and simple spikes or racemes of -flowers, the prevailing colours of which are red, pink, green and white. -The sepals, three in number, often partake more of the nature of petals. -There are three petals, the lowest one, forming the lower lip of the -flower, often prolonged into a spur, and frequently assuming a -remarkable form resembling an insect or some other member of the animal -creation. The stamens are united to the style, and form with it a solid -_column_, but usually only one produces pollen, and this one commonly -consists of one or two club-shaped masses. The ovary is inferior, often -twisted so as to invert the flower, and sometimes so long as to be -mistaken for a flower stalk. The stigma is hollow, sticky, and situated -just in front of the column above mentioned. The fruit is a three-valved -capsule, containing many seeds. - -Orchids are generally scented flowers, and produce nectar which is -stored either in the cavity of the spur, or within the tissue of the -same. In the latter case it cannot be obtained by insects unless they -bore into the substance of the spur, and the delay caused renders the -removal of the pollen more certain. While the nectar is being withdrawn, -the head of the insect is pressed against a sticky disc at the base of -the pollen masses, with the result that both disc and pollen masses are -bodily removed, and the insect leaves the flower with the whole attached -to its head. It often happens, too, that the pollen masses bend forward -as the insect flies through the air, and thus they are more likely to be -pressed against the stigma when another flower is visited. Here, then, -is another wonderful contrivance for the purpose of securing -cross-fertilisation, and the whole process may be imitated by thrusting -the point of a pencil into the spur of a flower which has not been -previously visited by an insect, and then inserting the point into the -spur of a second flower. It should be noted, also, that the pollen is -not all removed by contact with the sticky surface of a stigma against -which the pollen masses are pressed, and thus the pollen obtained from -one flower will often fertilise several others. - -Our first species--the Broad-leaved Helleborine (_Epipactis latifolia_), -is common in hilly woods, where it flowers during July and August. Its -single stem grows from one to three feet high, and the leaves are -broadly ovate and ribbed. The flowers are greenish, with reddish-purple -lips, and are arranged in a long, loose, one-sided raceme. The sepals -are ovate, longer than the acute lower lobe of the lip; and the bracts -are generally longer than the flowers. The ovary is downy, and not so -long as the bracts. (Plate II, Fig. 5.) - -The somewhat similar Large White Helleborine (_Cephalanthera -grandiflora_), which bears creamy white flowers in May and June, is also -common in some of the woods on calcareous soils. - -The Pyramidal Orchis (_O. pyramidalis_) grows in limestone pastures, -flowering during July and August. This species varies from six to -eighteen inches in height, and has linear, acute leaves. The spike of -flowers is very dense, of a pyramidal form, and the individual blooms -are small, usually of a rose colour, but occasionally white or nearly -so. The sepals are spreading, and the lip of the flower has three equal -lobes which are oblong and abruptly cut at the tips. The spur is slender -and longer than the ovary. - -The Fragrant Gymnadenia or Sweet-scented Orchis (_Habenaria conopsea_ or -_Gymnadenia conopsea_) is common on chalky heaths and hilly pastures. It -grows from twelve to eighteen inches high, has palmate, tuberous roots, -and oblong-lanceolate, acute, keeled leaves. The flowers appear from -June to August, and are in a dense, elongated spike. The buds are of a -deep rose colour, and the open flowers are very fragrant, of a lighter -colour, and not spotted. The bracts have three veins; the lateral sepals -are spreading; the spur long and slender, much longer than the ovary; -and the lip of the flower has three, equal, undivided lobes. - -[Illustration: THE SWEET-SCENTED ORCHIS.] - -The Green Man Orchis (_Aceras anthropophora_), though rather rare, and -confined to the dry, chalky pastures of East England, is too interesting -to be omitted from our selection. The plant is from six to twelve inches -high, with palmate tubers, and mostly radical leaves. The flowers are -sessile, forming a loose spike, and are strange caricatures of the human -figure. Each has a comparatively large green hood, a slender yellowish -lip with two lateral lobes to represent the arms, and two similar -terminal lobes for the legs. The lateral sepals are green, ovate and -convergent; and the flower has no spur. The time of flowering is June -and July. - -The Green Musk Orchis (_Herminium Monorchis_), also rather rare, is to -be found in chalky pastures of the South, flowering in June and July. It -has oval, stalked tubers; two lanceolate, radical leaves, and generally -only one leaf on the slender stem. The spike is loose and slender; and -the flowers, which are small and green, are sessile, and emit a musky -odour during the night. The sepals are broad ovate; the petals narrower; -and the lip is three-lobed, pouch-like at the base, with terminal lobe -longer than the other two. - -One of the most remarkable, and, at the same time, one of the most -beautiful of Orchids is the Bee Orchis (_Ophrys apifera_). Although not -to be described as common, it is frequently to be seen in moderate -numbers on banks and in open ground in calcareous districts. Its height -is from six to twelve inches, and it flowers during June and July. The -leaves are short, oblong, and mostly radical; the bracts large and -leafy; and the flowers, numbering from two to six, are arranged in a lax -spike, and very closely resemble certain species of bees. The sepals are -spreading, oval, and pink inside; and the petals are linear and downy. -The lip of the flower is swollen and broad, very velvety, and of a rich -brown colour variegated with yellow. It is not longer than the sepals, -and has four lobes, the two lower of which are hairy, while the other -two are bent under. There is also a sharp, reflexed appendage in the -notch. The flower is shown on Plate VIII. - -A rare variety, very much like the commoner type just described, is -occasionally seen in Kent and Surrey. It is called the Late Spider -Orchis (variety _arachnites_), and is supposed to resemble a spider more -than a bee. The petals are more triangular than in the Bee Orchis, and -the lip is longer than the sepals. It may also be distinguished by the -appendage in the notch, which is cordate in form, and flat. - -Another rare plant--the Spider Orchis (_Ophrys aranifera_) is to be -found in chalky pastures of the South-East. Its flowers are smaller, and -generally fewer in number. The sepals are yellowish-green inside, and -the petals smooth and linear. The lip is swollen and four-lobed, but -without any appendage in the notch, and is of a deep purple-brown, with -yellowish markings. This is an earlier species, flowering during April -and May. - -Our last example of this order is the pretty little Fly Orchis (_Ophrys -muscifera_). It is a slender plant, with a few oblong leaves, and -usually from two to ten flowers arranged in a loose spike. The sepals -are yellowish-green, and the very slender petals resemble the antennĉ of -an insect. The lip of the flower is of a brownish purple colour, with a -blue blotch in the middle; and is oblong, with three lobes, the middle -of which is divided into two. This species grows from six inches to a -foot in height, and flowers from May to July. It is moderately common in -the open spaces and on the banks of some calcareous districts. - -Although a great variety of Grasses (order _Gramineĉ_) are to be found -on calcareous soils, there are two common species which are almost -exclusively confined to dry, chalky pastures. One is the Downy Oat Grass -(_Avena pubescens_), which flowers in June and July. It has a creeping -stem, and grows from one to two feet high. The radical leaves are short, -hairy, with sharply-pointed ligules, and terminate abruptly in a sharp -point. The flowers are arranged in a nearly simple panicle, with erect -spikelets of five or six flowers. The glumes are nearly equal, the inner -one with three ribs. The flowering glume is divided at the tip, and -provided with a long, bent, twisted bristle. - -The other, numbered 7 on Plate VIII, is the Yellow Oat Grass -(_A. flavescens_), which grows to about the same height, and flowers at -the same time. In this species the radical leaves are hairy, and also -terminate suddenly in a sharp point. The panicle is much branched, with -erect spikelets of five or six flowers. In this one, too, the inner -glumes have three ribs, but it may be distinguished from the last by the -two terminal bristles of the inner scales, and by the blunt ligules -(appendages at the base) of the sheathing leaves. - - - - -XIX - -BY THE RIVER SIDE - - -We have already dealt with flowers that grow in various damp situations, -as moist meadows, woods, &c.; but there are a few such which seem to be -particularly partial to the banks of rivers, streams, and ditches: short -descriptions of these will be placed separately in the present chapter. - -It will be understood from the foregoing remark that the species taken -here form only a small proportion of the flowers that actually grow by -the river side; for although the numerous species commonly seen in moist -fields and meadows may flourish quite to the water's edge, yet there are -not many which require the extreme wetness of soil that restricts them -to the sodden banks of rivers and streams. - -Our first example is the Common Meadow Rue (_Thalictrum flavum_). It -belongs to the order _Ranunculaceĉ_, but its pale yellow flowers do not, -at first sight, suggest a resemblance to the buttercups, anemones, and -other favourite flowers of this group, for they have no petals, very -small sepals, and are rendered conspicuous only by their -densely-clustered stamens, with their long, projecting, bright yellow -anthers. The plant is erect, from two to four feet high; and flowers -during July and August. - -Passing over the Monk's-hood (_Aconitum Napellus_), so well known as a -garden flower, which is occasionally seen wild near the banks of streams -and ditches, we come to the Blue Meadow Crane's-bill (_Geranium -pratense_)--one of the several species of pretty Wild Geraniums (order -_Geraniaceĉ_). It is a downy plant, varying from one to four feet high, -with an erect stem, swollen at the nodes; and opposite, roundish leaves, -deeply divided into five or seven lobes with sharp segments. The flowers -are of a bluish purple colour, an inch or more in diameter, usually -arranged two on a stalk, the two pedicels spreading while in flower, -but turned downwards when in fruit. The five sepals have long points, -and the five petals are slightly notched. As in other species of the -genus there are ten stamens, five shorter than the other five; and a -five-lobed ovary, with an equal number of long styles, all attached to a -long, central beak. The five carpels separate when ripe, and are raised -by the curling of their styles. This flower is common in wet meadows, -especially in the southern counties, and is usually more frequent along -the banks of rivers and ditches, but it is sometimes also seen in wet -thickets. It flowers in June and July. - -[Illustration: THE COMMON MEADOW RUE.] - -The Hemp Agrimony (_Eupatorium cannabinum_), of the order _Compositĉ_, -is very common along the banks of streams and on the borders of wayside -ditches all over Britain. It would hardly be taken for a composite -flower by those who are acquainted only with the more typical members of -the order, but an examination of its rather dull lilac blossoms will -soon reveal its affinity to the other members of the group, for the -compact, terminal corymb is formed of numerous small heads, each -consisting of about five tubular, perfect florets of equal size, -surrounded by an involucre of a few overlapping bracts, and remarkable -on account of their projecting styles, which are deeply divided into -club-shaped branches. The plant is a large one, with erect, reddish -stems, varying from two to six feet in height; and it flowers from July -to September. - -[Illustration: THE HEMP AGRIMONY.] - -We have already noticed the Lesser Skull-cap (p. 275), which is -rather common on damp heaths, and there is another British member of the -same genus--the Common Skull-cap (_Scutellaria galericulata_)--that is -frequently seen on the banks of streams and in other wet places. The -latter is a slightly downy plant, with a creeping stock, and a slender, -branched stem from eight to sixteen inches high. Its leaves are -opposite, as in other plants of the same order (_Labiatĉ_), with very -short stalks, and crenate or slightly-toothed edges. The flowers are in -pairs in the axils of the leaves, almost sessile, and all turned towards -the same side of the stem. On the back of the two-lipped calyx is a -hollow, scale-like projection which gave rise to the popular name, for -when the corolla falls, the lips of the calyx close over the ripening -fruit, and the projection above mentioned then presents somewhat the -appearance of a cap. The corolla is over half an inch long, of a dull -blue colour without, but much paler inside. This plant flowers from -July to September. - -On the banks of streams and ditches we may often meet with the Comfrey -(_Symphytum officinale_)--a coarse and rough but pretty plant belonging -to the _Boraginaceĉ_. It has a stout, branching stem, two or three feet -high; and the stem-leaves extend downward on its surface forming -wing-like ridges. The lower leaves are stalked, broader than the upper -ones, generally from six to eight inches long; and all the leaves are -rough with bristly hairs. The flowers are of a yellowish white or, -sometimes, of a purple colour, and are arranged in forked, drooping, -one-sided racemes. The calyx is deeply cleft into five lobes; and the -corolla consists of a tubular portion, the top of which is closed by -five narrow, fringed scales; and, above this, a wider bell-shaped part, -of about the same length, with five small, reflexed teeth. This plant -blooms during May and June. - -[Illustration: THE COMMON SKULL-CAP.] - -The Yellow Loosestrife (_Lysimachia vulgaris_), of the order -_Primulaceĉ_ is a beautiful river-side plant, common in most parts, -flowering during July and August. Its stem is stout, erect, branched, -slightly downy, from two to three feet high; and its leaves are ovate or -lanceolate, sessile, and arranged in opposite pairs or in whorls of -three or four. The flowers are rather large, of a bright yellow colour, -dotted with orange, and arranged in a large, pyramidal, leafy panicle. -The calyx is deeply cleft into five pointed segments with hairy margins; -and the broadly bell-shaped corolla is deeply divided into five wide -lobes. All the five stamens are united by their filaments, forming a -kind of cup around the ovary. - -[Illustration: THE COMFREY.] - -There is another beautiful Loosestrife--the Purple Loosestrife--that is -often seen on river-banks; but as it is not particularly partial to this -habitat, but rather grows in marshes and wet places generally, it is -described in another chapter (XV). It should be noted, however, that the -two plants are not so nearly allied as the popular names suggest; for -while the one described above is of the Primrose family, the latter is a -member of the _Lythraceĉ_, and differs in having a corolla of free -petals. - -Passing now to the order _Polygonaceĉ_ we have to note the Great Water -Dock (_Rumex Hydrolapathum_)--a smooth plant, varying from three to six -feet in height, much resembling other Common Docks in general -appearance, but found almost always on the borders of streams and ponds. -Its leaves are lanceolate in form, usually pointed, and either flat or -slightly curled at the margins. The upper ones taper down into the -stalk; but the lower ones, which are from one to two feet long, are -often heart-shaped at the base. The reddish-green flowers are -closely-whorled, and form long panicles. The perianth is cleft into six -parts, of which the three outer are smaller and covered with little -tubercles, while the inner become enlarged and close over the triangular -fruit. Each flower has six stamens and three very short styles. This -plant is in flower during July and August. - -A few species of Willows and Sallows that grow on the banks of streams -belong to the order _Salicaceĉ_, and have the following features in -common:--Their leaves are simple, stipulate, and deciduous. The flowers -are imperfect, in erect catkins with small scales at the base, the male -and the female flowers being produced on separate trees or shrubs. Each -male flower consists only of a small scale and two or more stamens; and -the female of a similar scale, and a conical ovary of one cell with a -forked style. The fruit is a conical capsule of two valves, containing -several seeds that are covered with white, silky hairs. The species -referred to are the Almond-leaved and the Bay-leaved Willows, the -Dark-leaved Sallow, and the Purple Osier, but we refrain from -introducing descriptions since the identification of these trees is -somewhat difficult for a beginner. - - - - -XX - -ON WALLS, ROCKS, AND STONY PLACES - - -Several of our flowering plants are to be seen most frequently on walls -and rocks, or in other situations where there is hardly a trace of soil -of any kind. Some of these thrive in such dry spots, with often such -free exposure to the rays of the spring or summer sun, that it is -difficult to understand how they manage to survive the periods of -drought through which they live until we become acquainted with certain -peculiarities of their form and structure. - -In the first place we must recall the fact that plants lose a -considerable amount of moisture by evaporation from the transpirating -surfaces of their leaves, and that this loss must necessarily be -greatest when the air is warm and dry unless there is some means by -which the transpiration is automatically regulated according to the -requirements of the plant and to the varying conditions under which it -has to exist. - -The leaves of plants are covered with a thin skin or _epidermis_ which -consists of a single layer of cells, and which is practically -impermeable to moisture. In this epidermis, however, on one or both -sides of the leaf, are minute pores (_stomata_) through which water -vapour is free to pass; and beneath the porous epidermis is a loose, -cellular tissue, with air-spaces, from which the moisture can readily -pass, in the form of vapour, to these stomata. - -Each of the stomata is bordered by a pair of crescent-shaped -_guard-cells_, placed with their concave sides towards each other, and -joined at the ends. Further, the guard-cells are capable of changing -their form, becoming straighter, and thus reducing or even closing the -aperture between them; and becoming again curved, opening or enlarging -the pore. The former change takes place during darkness, thus preserving -the plant from the cooling effects of evaporation during the chilly -nights; and also during dry weather when the plant is in danger of -losing much more moisture than the roots can absorb. - -So far, however, we have been dealing with a regulating process that is -common to green plants in general; but we must look for some additional -protection against loss of moisture in the plants which grow in such -places that they have to live through longer or shorter periods during -which the roots have little or no moisture within reach. - -From what has been said concerning the structure of the leaf it will be -understood that, as a rule, the larger the surface the greater will be -the loss of water in a given time. But when we examine the leaves of the -plants that grow on dry walls and rocks, we frequently find that they -are more or less thick and fleshy--that the material of the leaf is -disposed in such a manner as to reduce the area of the surface as -compared with other leaves made up of the same amount of tissue. - -In some species this diminution of surface is carried to the extreme, -and the leaves have become very thick, assuming a cylindrical or almost -globular form; and such leaves are capable of absorbing and retaining -large supplies of water that serve to maintain the plant during those -periods in which the roots have no moisture within their reach. - -We also find that many of the plants in question are further protected -from a dangerous loss of moisture by the peculiar arrangement of their -leaves, which are often so closely applied to the stem, or so closely -overlapping one over another, that the total area of exposed surface is -considerably reduced; and it frequently happens that the stem of the -plant becomes thick and succulent, as well as the leaves, thus adding to -the store of moisture kept in reserve for the rainless days. - -While some plants are almost invariably found in dry, stony places, -others are very diverse in their habitats, sometimes growing in moist -and shady places, and sometimes on cliffs or other rocky situations. In -the latter we often find considerable modifications of size, form and -structure, the same species being more or less luxuriant and thin-leaved -when in damp soils, while in rocky places it becomes more or less -stunted, with a tendency to produce thick and succulent leaves. - -A few of the plants that we include in the present chapter are to be -found only on wet rocks, and are therefore of a nature very different -from that of the species growing in dry places. They are always well -supplied with moisture; and, being usually surrounded by a damp -atmosphere, they lose but little water by evaporation, and thus require -no reserves within their leaves or stems. - -Our first species is the well-known Wallflower (_Cheiranthus cheiri_), -of the order _Cruciferĉ_. It is a rather shrubby plant, frequent on old -walls and ruins, where it flowers during April and May. Though too -familiar to need any description, we may note that in the wild state it -varies from six to twelve inches high, and bears sweetly-scented, yellow -or orange flowers. The plant is not indigenous, but has now become -naturalised as a wild flower in most parts of Britain. - -The Wall Rocket (_Diplotaxis tenuifolia_ or _Brassica tenuifolia_), of -the same order, is a very similar plant, growing in similar situations, -but it does not commence to flower till the summer is somewhat advanced. -Its stem is leafy, branched, smooth, woody towards the base, but more -slender than that of the Wallflower; and its very variable leaves are -generally three or four inches long, deeply divided pinnately into -narrow segments with irregularly-toothed margins, and emit a rather -unpleasant odour when rubbed. The flowers are of a pale yellow colour, -fragrant, about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, in terminal -racemes, with sepals more or less spreading; and the fruits are narrow, -flattened siliquas, with membranous valves, about an inch and a half -long. The plant is to be found principally in the southern counties of -England, and flowers from July to September or early October. - -On dry rocks, chiefly in the hilly and mountainous districts of North -and West Britain, we meet with the Vernal Sandwort (_Arenaria verna_) of -the order _Caryophyllaceĉ_. This is a little tufted plant, only from two -to four inches high, with branched stems more or less decumbent at the -base; and small, sessile, opposite, very narrow leaves, each with three -veins. The starlike, white flowers are about a third of an inch across, -on slender stalks, and grouped in terminal, loose, few-flowered cymes. -They have five pointed sepals, less than a quarter of an inch long, each -with three prominent veins; five spreading petals, a little longer than -the sepals; ten stamens; and a superior ovary with three narrow styles. -The fruit is a short ovate capsule which opens, when ripe, by three -valves. - -One of the Geraniums--the Shining Crane's-bill (_Geranium lucidum_)--is -almost essentially a plant of walls and rocks. It is a beautiful -species, smooth and shining in all its parts, with a tendency to turn -red, like the Herb Robert; and, as in other plants of its order -(_Geraniaceĉ_), distinguished by the swollen joints of its stem. The -leaves are almost round in general outline, but are deeply divided into -five, broad, coarsely-toothed segments. The flowers are small, -rose-coloured, and generally grow in pairs on axillary stalks. They have -five, erect, wrinkled sepals, with long points; and five short, rather -broad, entire petals. This species is common in most parts of Britain. -It varies in height from six to eighteen inches, and flowers from May to -September. - -[Illustration: THE BITING STONECROP OR WALL PEPPER.] - -We have now to consider a few species of the order _Crassulaceĉ_, which -includes some very interesting succulent plants that are peculiarly -adapted to a life in the dryest of situations on walls, roofs, &c. In -addition to the thick, fleshy nature of their stems and leaves, these -plants are distinguished by terminal cymes or corymbs of flowers with -(usually) five sepals, the same number of distinct petals, twice as many -stamens arranged in two whorls, and carpels equal in number to the -petals. Three of the plants referred to are known as Stonecrops, and may -be recognised by the following descriptions:-- - -1. The English Stonecrop (_Sedum anglicum_).--A smooth plant, two or -three inches high, abundant in rocky and stony places, especially in the -West and near the sea, flowering from June to August. Its stems are more -or less decumbent, much branched and rooting at the base; and its leaves -are small, thick, almost globular, of a pale green colour with, often, -a tinge of red. On the small flowerless branches the leaves are very -crowded and overlapping; but on the taller, flowering stems they are -more scattered and placed alternately. The little starlike flowers are -white, frequently tinged with pink or spotted with red, and arranged in -a short, two-forked panicle. They have short, green sepals; narrow, -sharply-pointed petals about twice the length; and stamens with bright -red anthers. - -[Illustration: THE WALL PENNYWORT OR NAVELWORT.] - -2. The White Stonecrop (_S. album_).--A somewhat similar plant, from -three to seven inches high, sometimes seen in large clusters on rocks, -walls, and roofs, bearing white or pinkish flowers during July and -August. The whole plant is smooth; and its short creeping stock gives -rise to short barren stems with crowded leaves, and erect flowering -stems with scattered leaves. The leaves are very thick, of a bright -green colour, about a third of an inch long, and oblong or cylindrical -in form. The panicles are much branched, with, usually, reddish stems; -and each consists of numerous flowers with short, blunt sepals, and -narrow, oblong petals about three times as long. This species is not so -common as either the last or the following. - -3. The Biting Stonecrop or Wall Pepper (_S. acre_).--A smooth plant, of -a yellowish green colour, biting to the taste, very common on rocks, -walls and roofs, bearing golden yellow flowers during July and August. -It has short, barren stems, covered with closely-overlapping leaves -arranged in six rows; and erect flowering branches from two to four -inches in height. The leaves are very small, thick, succulent, oval or -almost globular in form. The flowers, which are in small, terminal, -three-cleft panicles, have very short, blunt sepals; and much longer, -narrow, pointed petals. - -The same order (_Crassulaceĉ_) includes the House Leek (_Sempervivum -tectorum_)--a plant which has been introduced into Britain, and is now -commonly seen growing wild on rocks and on the roofs of country houses. -Its spreading offsets give rise to globular tufts of flowerless shoots, -and to thick, succulent, flowering stems that grow to a foot or more in -height. The lower leaves are ovate, acute, thick, fleshy, edged with -red, and arranged in a dense rosette; and the flowering stem, with its -sessile leaves, is covered with a short, sticky down. The flowers are of -a dull pink or purple colour, and are sessile along the spreading -branches of the stem. They have usually about twelve short sepals; the -same number of pointed petals, two or three times the length of the -sepals; about twice as many stamens; and an ovary of as many carpels as -there are petals and sepals. It is interesting to note that half the -stamens--those forming the inner whorl--produce no pollen, and that -their anthers are often modified into ovaries, the ovules of which, -however, do not mature. This plant flowers in July and August. - -[Illustration: THE LONDON PRIDE OR ST. PATRICK'S CABBAGE.] - -Our last selection from this order is the Wall Pennywort or Navelwort -(_Cotyledon umbilicus_)--a peculiar plant, common on rocks and walls in -the South and West of England. It has a hard stock, producing an -abundance of fleshy leaves early in the year, and flowering stems, from -six to eighteen inches high, from June to August. The lower leaves are -round, wavy, smooth, very succulent and brittle, and depressed in the -centre where the long fleshy stalks are attached. Those of the stem have -shorter stalks which are more and more removed from the centre from -below upwards. The stem is thick and succulent, and bears a long raceme -of pendulous yellow-green flowers on short stalks. Each flower has a -very small calyx of five sepals; a cylindrical corolla, about a quarter -of an inch long, with five short teeth; ten stamens, attached to the -tube of the corolla; and a superior ovary. - -[Illustration: THE MOSSY SAXIFRAGE.] - -Several of the Saxifrages grow in rocky and stony places, and four or -five species are sufficiently common to demand a notice here. The -flowers of this group have a calyx of five sepals that is either quite -free or more or less adherent to the ovary; a corolla of five petals; -ten stamens, attached with the petals at the base of the calyx; and a -two-celled ovary, with two distinct styles, containing several seeds. - -Our first species is the London Pride, None-so-Pretty, or St. Patrick's -Cabbage (_Saxifraga umbrosa_), a native of Irish mountains which has -been introduced into Britain as a garden flower, and has now become -established as a wild flower in many parts. Its flowering stem grows -from six to twelve inches high; and the small white or pink flowers -bloom during June and July. - -[Illustration: THE IVY-LEAVED TOADFLAX.] - -The Starry Saxifrage (_S. stellaris_) is a somewhat similar plant, but -much smaller, rarely exceeding six inches in height. It is frequent on -wet rocks in the North, flowering in July and August. Its leaves are -sessile, oblong or obovate, tapering towards the base, thin, and -arranged in spreading rosettes; and the stem is leafless with the -exception of little bracts at the base of the pedicels. The starlike -flowers, larger than those of the last species, are white, with two -yellow spots on each petal, and are arranged in a loose panicle on -spreading pedicels. The calyx is adherent to the ovary only at the base, -with its segments turned down on the pedicels; and the petals are narrow -and spreading. - -Another Northern species--the Yellow Mountain Saxifrage (_S. -aizoides_)--is abundant on the wet rocks of mountainous districts, -flowering from June to September. It is a tufted plant, with branched, -decumbent, leafy stems, about six inches long; and crowded, narrow, -fleshy leaves, about half an inch long, fringed with hairs at the base. -The flowers are yellow, in a loose panicle. The calyx is yellow, like -the petals, but much shorter, and erect; and the ovary is adherent to -the short tube of the calyx to about half way up. - -The Rue-leaved or Three-fingered Saxifrage (_S. tridactylites_) is a -small species, rarely exceeding four or five inches in height, common on -walls in most parts of Britain, flowering from April to July. The whole -plant is usually more or less tinged with red, and its erect stem is -covered with fine glandular hairs. The radical leaves are very small, -stalked, and undivided; those of the upper part of the stem are also -small and entire, but sessile; and the intermediate leaves, lower on the -stem, are palmately divided into three or five narrow segments. The -small white flowers are placed singly on rather long terminal and -axillary stalks; and the hairy calyx, which adheres to the ovary, has -five blunt lobes less than half the length of the petals. - -[Illustration: THE WALL PELLITORY.] - -Our last example of this order is the Cut-leaved or Mossy Saxifrage (_S. -hypnoides_), a very variable plant, from three to ten inches high, -rather rare in South England, but much more common in the rocky parts of -North England and Scotland. It has numerous procumbent, barren stems -with tufted leaves; and erect flowering stems bearing a few small leaves -and a loose cyme of a few white flowers. Most of the leaves are narrow, -pointed, entire, about a quarter of an inch long; but the larger ones, -at the base of the plant, are about twice as long, and divided into -three or five narrow lobes. The calyx adheres to the ovary to about -two-thirds of the length of the latter, and has five lobes about -one-third as long as the petals. This species flowers from May to July. - -Old walls, ruins, and limestone cliffs are frequently adorned with the -pretty flowers of the Snapdragon (_Antirrhinum majus_--order -_Scrophulariaceĉ_) which bloom from July to September. The plant varies -from one to two feet in height, is tufted and leafy at the base, and has -erect stems which bear racemes of large flowers. The leaves are very -narrow and entire; and the flowers, which are usually white, pink or -crimson, are shortly stalked in the axils of the small upper leaves. The -calyx is deeply divided into broad lobes very much shorter than the -corolla; and the latter consists of a broad tube and two lips, the whole -being over an inch in length. The mouth of the flower is closed by a -projecting 'palate,' but is easily opened by pressing the flower at the -sides between finger and thumb. There are four stamens on the corolla, -two longer than the others; and the fruit is an unsymmetrical capsule -that opens when ripe by a few holes near the top. - -The Ivy-leaved Toadflax or Mother of Thousands (_Linaria Cymbalaria_), -of the same order, is a pretty little trailing plant very commonly seen -on old walls in many parts of Britain, particularly in the South-West. -It will grow luxuriantly in places where there is no soil other than -that afforded by the crumbling mortar, and will often establish itself -even on new walls so compactly built that it is difficult to see how the -plant can find the necessary moisture or how its roots can penetrate the -hard material to which it is attached. Its slender stems vary from a few -inches to two feet in length, often rooting at the nodes; and its little -leaves are smooth, with three or five lobes, and generally of a purplish -colour on the under side. The little flowers, which bloom from May to -September, are of a pale blue or lilac colour. The lipped corolla is -very similar to that of the last species, with a yellowish palate -closing the mouth, but it has a short spur at the base. - -The one remaining flower of this chapter is the Wall Pellitory -(_Parietaria officinalis_), which belongs to the Nettle family -(_Urticaceĉ_). It is a somewhat bushy plant, varying from six inches to -two feet in height, bearing axillary clusters of small, sessile, green -flowers from June to September, and is common on walls and stony banks, -more especially in the South of England. Most of the flowers are usually -imperfect, and the clusters are surrounded by a whorl of a few divided -bracts. The males are few in number, each consisting of a hairy -perianth, and four stamens which are jointed and very elastic, springing -suddenly and shedding their pollen when touched; the females have a -tubular, hairy perianth of four lobes, and a single tufted stigma. - - - - -XXI - -FIELD AND WAYSIDE IN AUTUMN - - -From the end of September onward the number of wild flowers is rapidly -decreasing, but still there is much to be seen that will be interesting -to the observant student of Nature. Many of the summer flowers are quite -over, while others continue to bloom till, at last, they succumb to the -intensifying frosts; but hundreds of species of the summer-flowering -plants are now in fruit, and some of these are almost as interesting in -this stage as when in flower. Many plants will have been observed in -flower before any of their fruits were fully formed, but autumn is the -season when a large number of these may be seen in full fruit, and -watched as they make arrangements for the dispersal of their seeds. - -We have already given (p. 12) an outline classification of the -various kinds of fruits, and if the reader will study this during the -autumn months, and examine the field and woodland plants that fall in -his way, he will find abundance of work awaiting him on every country -ramble. - -A large number of wind-dispersed fruits and seeds are ripe long before -the autumn sets in, and have already been distributed by the summer -breezes; but now, with fewer flowers to attract attention, one can give -more time to the observations of the movements of tufted and winged -seeds and fruits as they sail through the air. And, as we brush by the -hedgerows and the borders of fields in search of various flowers and -fruits, we soon become acquainted with a variety of bristled, hooked, -and barbed fruits that are effectually dispersed by the agency of -animals, quite a large number of these having securely fastened -themselves to our clothing. - -Many fruits remain attached to their plants long after the last flowers, -and even the leaves, have entirely disappeared. Some of these await the -gales of late autumn and winter, and being now no longer sheltered from -the wind, are carried to the spots where they are to produce new plants -in the following spring; while sheep and other animals, wandering -farther afield in search of food, carry away numerous hooked fruits in -their woolly or hairy coats. - -The feathered fruits of the Wild Clematis adorn the hedgerows throughout -the greater part of the cold season, and form a striking feature of the -wayside until they have been dispersed by the winter storms; and the -hips of the Wild Rose, as well as the berries and drupes of various -shrubs, now rendered more conspicuous by their bright colouring and the -absence of foliage, are devoured by birds which afterwards deposit the -indigestible and, therefore, uninjured seeds, with their excrement, at -some distant spot. - -Should the reader be interested in the various ways in which the -dehiscent fruits discharge their seeds, he will do well to collect a -number of species, as yet unopened, and expose them to the sun in a dry -place. He will then be able to note not only the directions and extent -of the dehiscence, but also to observe the forcible ejection of seeds by -those which split elastically, or which, by other mechanical -contrivances, have the power of throwing their seeds a considerable -distance. - -We may find still another subject for study in the beautiful autumn -tints assumed by the leaves of many plants. Such tints are, of course, -most conspicuous in the foliage of our forest trees and shrubs; and, -when speaking of these, we shall have a word or two to say with regard -to the nature of the internal changes that give rise to the beautiful -display of colours; but not a few of the hedgerow herbs and shrubs -exhibit tints equally rich and varied. Note, for instance, the pretty -Herb Robert, still in flower in sheltered places, its blossoms standing -out beyond a background of richly-coloured leaves. - -The vigorous summer growth of flowery banks and hedgerows is often -closely trimmed with the sickle for the greater convenience of -pedestrians and vehicular traffic, all the flowers and overhanging twigs -being closely cut, and the wayside thus destroyed from the -Nature-student's point of view; but the ground so denuded has recovered -itself by the autumn, and a second crop of flowers, arising from the old -stocks, often later than their normal season, is frequently the result. - -A considerable number of summer flowers continue to bloom during the -autumn months, while a few are truly autumnal, and are not to be found -till the summer has nearly or quite passed. - -In corn-fields we may still meet with the beautiful Pheasant's-eye -(_Adonis autumnalis_), and in fields the Hairy Buttercup (_Ranunculus -hirsutus_), the Daisy (_Bellis perennis_) and the Red Hemp-nettle -(_Galeopsis Ladanum_) are yet in flower, while the Annual Meadow Grass -(_Poa annua_) continues to produce new flowers to the end of the year. - -On sunny banks in chalk districts we still see the delicate Rock Rose -(_Helianthemum vulgare_); and on banks almost everywhere the Wild Clary -(_Salvia Verbenaca_), and the still more hardy Milfoil (_Achillea -millefolium_), Knapweeds (_Centaurea nigra_ and _C. Scabiosa_), Field -Scabious (_Knautia arvensis_), Dark Mullein (_Verbascum nigrum_) and the -Toadflax (_Linaria vulgaris_). - -Then, on downs and heaths we find the Yellow Bedstraw (_Galium verum_), -the crimson flowers of the Fine-leaved Heath (_Erica cinerea_), and the -rose-coloured or white blossoms of the Heather or Ling (_Calluna -vulgaris_): also the Carline Thistle (_Carlina vulgaris_), with its -inner involucral bracts broadly spreading while the sun shines, but bent -inwards to protect the florets during dull weather when the insects are -at rest, the lilac flower-heads of the Devil's-bit Scabious (_Scabiosa -succisa_) and the Small Scabious (_S. Columbaria_), and the conspicuous -flowers of the Chamomile (_Anthemis nobilis_), all standing out in bold -relief against the background of autumnal foliage. - -Still more numerous are the autumn flowers of the waysides. By the dry -and dusty roadside we see the yellow flowers and silvery leaves of the -Silver-weed (_Potentilla anserina_), the little starlike flowers of the -Chickweed (_Stellaria media_), the yellow flower-heads of the Dandelion -(_Taraxacum officinale_), Sow Thistle (_Sonchus oleraceus_) and -Groundsel (_Senecio vulgaris_), the straggling Knot-grass (_Polygonum -aviculare_), the Spotted Persicary (_Polygonum Persicaria_), the -Shepherd's Purse (_Capsella Bursa-pastoris_), the Scentless Mayweed -(_Matricaria inodora_), the Chamomile (_Anthemis nobilis_), the White -Goose-foot (_Chenopodium album_), and Oraches (_Atriplex hastata_ and -_A. patula_). Where the soil is more generous we find the Herb Robert -(_Geranium Robertianum_), the Fleabane (_Inula dysenterica_), Red and -White Dead-nettles (_Lamium purpureum_ and _L. album_), and the Petty -Spurge (_Euphorbia Peplus_); while on old walls the Pellitory -(_Parietaria officinalis_) is still in flower. - - - - -XXII - -AUTUMN IN THE WOODS - - -Although several of the flowers mentioned in the last chapter as -blooming during the present season may be seen along the borders of -woods, yet within the wood itself we are struck by the almost total -absence of flowers. This loss, however, is compensated for by the -beautiful and varied tints assumed by the leaves of the trees and -shrubs. - -Important changes are now taking place in these perennial members of the -vegetable world in preparation for the coming winter. The temperature of -the soil is becoming considerably reduced, and, as a result, the -absorbing activity of the roots is greatly decreased, while the winter -is coming, when the temperature will be so low at times that the -circulation of the sap will practically cease. If the leaves remained on -the trees, they would give off from their surfaces more water than the -trees could obtain from the soil through their inactive roots, thus -endangering the lives of the trees. The leaves, therefore, must be shed. -But these leaves contain a considerable amount of nutritious material -which they themselves have built up, and which should not be lost. They -contain starch, albumen, and other compounds which would be entirely -lost to the trees if the leaves were shed in their present condition, -except that a small proportion, in the form of products of -decomposition, might be re-absorbed. - -This being the case, arrangements must be made, first, for the passage -of the nutritious material in the leaves to some other part of the tree -where it can be stored for the winter; and, second, for the removal of -the leaves as the roots become less active. - -So, before the time of leaf-fall, the nutritious substances in the -leaves, including the _chlorophyll_ to which the leaf owes its green -colour, become changed, and pass back to the stems or the root, where -they can be safely stored for the winter. The leaves, thus impoverished, -become mere skeletons--mere collections of empty, lifeless cells; and if -no further change takes place, they assume a very pale colour, like the -leaves of the Hornbeam, Birch, and the Willows. - -But the transfer of the nutrient matter from leaf to stem or root is -accompanied by numerous chemical changes by which new compounds are -formed. Among these new substances a dark blue compound called -anthocyanin is produced in some plants; and where this exists in -considerable quantities we find the leaves of a dark bluish-green -colour, like that of the autumn foliage of the Pine. - -Acids are also sometimes formed as a result of the complicated chemical -changes that take place during the transfer above described; and these -react on the anthocyanin present, changing its colour to a tint that -varies according to the proportion and quantity in which they exist. - -Thus, if anthocyanin is present, together with a small amount of acid, -the leaves are turned violet, as in the case of the autumn leaves of the -Dogwood and the Spindle Tree; or purple, like those of the Service Tree. -A larger proportion of acid produces, with the anthocyanin, the brownish -green tint of the Alder leaves; or the brownish yellow of the Oak; while -still larger proportions will turn the anthocyanin yellow, orange, red, -or scarlet, according to the quantity in which the latter is present. -Thus we can account for the rich yellow of the Maple in autumn, the -orange of the Aspen leaves, the beautiful scarlet tints of the Mountain -Ash and the Barberry, and the grand display of varied colours exhibited -by the autumn Beeches. - -Again, before the leaves are shed, the buds that are destined to produce -the new branches of the following spring are already formed. These may -be seen on all deciduous trees and shrubs, some of them in the axils of -the leaves, and others at the tips of the present twigs. Each bud is the -embryo branch of the following year. Some of them are destined to -produce leafy branches only; some are to develop into branches bearing -both floral leaves and flowers; while others are to produce flowers -without floral leaves; and it is interesting to note that, even at this -stage, sections of the buds, examined with the aid of a microscope, will -reveal the future leaves and flowers compactly concealed within their -scaly, protective coverings. - -In October we may see the well-formed catkins of the Birch that are to -bloom in the following April, in company with the ripe fruiting catkins -of the present year. The Alder also bears its catkins that are to flower -five months later, together with the woody remains of the female catkins -of the previous spring; and the Hazel may be seen with its ripe nuts and -its future flowers both on the same twig. - -[Illustration: THE ALDER IN AUTUMN, WITH THE CATKINS WHICH MATURE IN THE -FOLLOWING SPRING.] - -The leaves, having manufactured the materials necessary for the -formation of the buds that are to produce the leaves and flowers of the -following year, and then transferred their remaining store of nutrient -matter to a suitable storehouse for the winter, are now practically -empty and lifeless. Had they remained alive and active, they would have -endangered the life of the tree by giving off more moisture than could -be replaced by the inactive roots. In their present, lifeless condition -they are useless to the tree; but by falling to the ground, and -decomposing where they lie, they improve the soil by the addition of -organic matter as well as of the mineral salts they contained. - -In countries where a moderate temperature is maintained throughout the -year, the growth of plants and trees goes on without interruption, and -the fall of the leaf is hardly noticeable; for the older leaves die and -fall one by one, as they become incapable of performing their functions -for want of light, and new ones are being continuously formed close to -the tips of the twigs. But where the growth is interrupted, either in -hot countries during periods of drought, or in temperate countries by -the approach of a cold season, the whole of the foliage is shed within a -short period, and new leaves as suddenly appear when favourable -conditions return. - -In our own latitudes, as we all know, the defoliation of the trees is -caused by the approach of cold weather, which decreases the activity of -the roots, so that the leaves become dry and lifeless. It is very -commonly supposed that the fall of the leaf is caused by frost; but this -is not the case. The leaves are shed during the cool days of autumn, -even though the temperature does not fall to freezing point; but it is -equally certain that the leaf-fall is accelerated by the frost when it -comes, for the little moisture remaining in the leaves is then frozen, -rendering the structures so brittle that they are easily snapped by the -wind. - -The real cause of the rupture of the leaf is the formation of what is -called the '_separation layer_.' This consists of soft, succulent cells, -really in several layers, which are formed across the leaf-stalk, -usually at the base, where the bundles of vessels passing from the twig -to the leaf are narrower. The walls of these cells are thin, and are -easily separated; and as they extend inwards from the surface all round, -they break through the old cells, thus weakening the junction. When the -growth of the separation layer is complete, it requires very little -force to break off the leaf, and the process is aided by the formation -of certain organic acids which act on the cell-walls, causing them to -dissolve; and when the leaf has finally separated from the twig, it will -be found that the scar left is a clean-cut surface, such as would be -produced by the incision of a sharp knife. - -The recognition of the above facts introduces to us a difficulty for -which we can find no explanation:--If the leaf-fall is not caused by -frost, but by certain structural alterations that take place in the tree -itself, how are we to account for the fact that the tree produces the -changes which are necessary for its own preservation every year, just at -the proper season? Plants and trees do not foresee the coming period of -cold weather that necessitates the performance of the functions which -they execute, and yet they instinctively prepare for the winter in the -manner described above. - -Our autumn observations teach us that there are interesting differences -in the times and progress of leaf-fall of different species of trees, -and also of trees of the same species when exposed to different external -conditions. On open ground, where the trees are fully exposed both to -the sun's rays and to the cool autumn breezes, the leaves lose their -moisture and fall earlier than would the same species in more sheltered -situations; and they retain their moisture and position latest in damp, -shady woods. On high hills, where the exposure is extreme, the leaves, -which, by the way, do not appear till late in the spring, fall early on -account of the low temperature, and consequent decrease of root -activity, in the autumn. - -Further, we note that while in some trees, such as the Ash, Hornbeam, -Beech and Hazel, the leaves fall first at the tips of the branches, and -the defoliation extends fairly regularly towards the trunk, in other -species, including Willows, Poplars, and the Lime, the branches become -bare first at their bases, and finally at their tips. - -Even during the depths of winter we may see a number of dead leaves -still attached to the twigs of certain trees, notably the Oak and the -Beech; but where we find practically all the foliage remaining on the -tree or on special branches of a tree, we may generally assume that the -tree, or the branches in question, are dead--that they died during the -summer, before the separation layers of the leaves had been formed. We -can also understand, from what has been said, why the dead leaves remain -attached to a cut branch, and yet fall from the living tree from which -it was severed. - -In our own country some plants and trees retain their leaves throughout -the year, so that we speak of them as evergreens. Many of these include -herbaceous plants of a hardy nature, some of which remain fresh and -green even in exposed situations, while others grow in more sheltered -places. In either case they are plants whose roots remain more or less -active in the cold season; and some of them, especially the evergreen -shrubs, have rather thick leaves which contain a considerable quantity -of sap, and which are surrounded by an outer covering or epidermis that -does not allow the water within to pass out so readily as in the case of -the deciduous leaves. - -In addition to the observations previously mentioned, we should do well, -at this season of the year, to study the autumn fruits of our trees and -shrubs, most of which still remain attached to the twigs. - -[Illustration: THE ASH IN AUTUMN, WITH ITS 'KEYS.'] - -Some of these fruits lose most of their moisture as they ripen, thus -becoming very light, and are provided with wings that cause them to be -dispersed more or less by the wind. - -The so-called 'keys' of the Ash are one-seeded fruits, extended at the -end into a long, narrow wing with a slight twist. As a result of this -peculiarity they usually fall less rapidly to the ground, spinning as -they descend, and are thus carried farther than they otherwise would be -by the wind. The fruits of the Sycamore and the Maple are somewhat -similarly winged, and each of these consist of two carpels which -separate sooner or later--generally after they have reached the ground. - -[Illustration: THE MAPLE IN FRUIT.] - -On the Birch trees we may now see the ripe female catkins, consisting of -hundreds of minute fruits, closely packed together, each provided with a -wing on either side. They are very light, and easily blown a -considerable distance by the wind; and late in the autumn we may observe -the stalks of the catkins, from which some of the fruits have been -blown, still on the trees. - -The wings that thus aid in the dispersion of fruits are not always part -of the fruit itself. In the Hornbeam it is a three-lobed, persistent -bract that performs this function; and the fruits of the Lime are also -blown away by the aid of a large bract from the middle of which the -fruit-stalk projects. - -[Illustration: THE WAYFARING TREE, IN FRUIT.] - -Some of our trees present a glorious aspect during the autumn months, -displaying conspicuous and more or less brightly-coloured fruits in -combination with the varied autumn tints of their leaves. The red -foliage of the Mountain Ash or Rowan is accompanied by the still -brighter clusters of scarlet fruits--little apple-like pomes, about the -size of holly 'berries'; and the Wayfaring Tree bears pretty clusters of -flattened, oval, one-seeded berries which are first red, and then nearly -black. The Guelder Rose, while still in full leaf, is often very heavily -laden with its bright red, semi-transparent berries; and the violet -foliage of the Dogwood is intermingled with clusters of little -berry-like drupes which, at first green, have now changed to a rich -purple-black. Then there is the Spindle Tree, with its pretty red lobed -capsules which split, when ripe, at its angles, disclosing as many cells -as there are lobes (usually four), each with a single seed enclosed in -an orange jacket. Occasionally we meet with the Strawberry Tree, during -early autumn, bearing both flower and fruit at the same time. This tree -flowers in September and October, but the fruits which accompany the -flowers are those of the previous year, for they require more than -twelve months to come to maturity. The fruit is a large berry, of an -orange-red colour, with a granulated surface that gives it somewhat the -appearance of the strawberry. It should be mentioned that the -Strawberry Tree is not indigenous to England, and is seldom seen outside -parks and gardens; but it grows wild in Ireland, and is very abundant -round Killarney and in other parts. - -In conclusion, we must note one autumn flower of the woods which is -exceedingly common--that of the Ivy (_Hedera Helix_), belonging to the -order _Araliaceĉ_. The Ivy is an evergreen climber, fixing itself by -means of little rootlike suckers attached to the main stem and its -branches, while the lower branches trail along the ground. The leaves -are thick and glossy, usually of a deep green colour, but often -beautifully variegated. Those attached to the trailing and climbing -stems have three or five lobes, are always turned with one surface -towards the light, and are so arranged as to obtain the maximum of -light, the less exposed leaves below catching the rays which pass -between the lobes of those which are more favourably situated. - -[Illustration: THE STRAWBERRY TREE IN FLOWER, WITH THE FRUITS (ALMOST -RIPE) OF THE PREVIOUS YEAR.] - -The branches of the tree do not, as a rule, produce flowers as long as -they are able to climb; but as soon as they reach the summit of the tree -or wall to which they cling, or reach a situation where there is a -sufficient abundance of light and air, they change their character in a -remarkable way. They now become bushy, cease to produce suckers, and -give rise to undivided leaves that turn in all directions for light and -air. At the tip of each twig is formed a cluster of yellowish-green -flowers, arranged in a short raceme or in an umbel. These flowers have -an inconspicuous calyx which forms a border round the middle of the -ovary, and five short petals. There are also five stamens, and united -styles. The fruit is a smooth, black berry, containing from two to five -seeds. - - - - -XXIII - -PARASITIC PLANTS - - -A number of plants extract more or less of the organic material they -require from other plants, and thus save themselves the labour of -building up this material themselves. These are termed parasites; but we -must be careful to distinguish between them and certain other plants -which, though apparently parasitic, are not really so. One plant may -climb on another, perhaps even producing "rootlets" by which it clings -to its living support, and yet it may not be a parasite in the proper -sense of the term, for it may not absorb the slightest amount of -nutritious matter except from the soil and the air. It is not at all -uncommon for the Honeysuckle to twine its stems round the trunk and -branches of a young tree, with the result that the tree becomes stunted, -and assumes a starved appearance, especially in its lower parts; and yet -the Honeysuckle is not a parasite. It has withdrawn nothing from the -tree which supports it, but has coiled itself so tightly round it as to -interfere with the circulation of its sap. The lower part of the tree is -especially affected because the strangulating coils of the climber -prevent the downward flow of the sap contained in the vessels of the -bast or inner bark, and this is the sap which holds the constructive -materials that have been built up in the leaves, under the influence of -light. - -Many of the parasitic plants are of microscopic dimensions, and others -are larger species belonging to the Fungi or Mushroom group. Some, -however, are flowering plants, and these only fall within the scope of -our work. - -We shall first deal with parasites which have no green leaves or -chlorophyll, and are therefore entirely dependent on outside sources for -their supply of organic material, starting with the interesting Dodders -(_Cuscuta_), which coil themselves round herbs, shrubs, or even trees, -and produce sucking organs on their stems that come in contact with -their host. - -These are all smooth plants, with globular clusters of yellowish-pink -flowers, the calyx being of the same colour as the corolla. The former -is deeply divided into four or five parts, and the corolla has four or -five spreading lobes with as many scales inside its broad tube. The -ovary has two distinct styles, and the fruit is a globular capsule. The -following summary of distinguishing features will enable the reader to -identify the British species of the genus:-- - -1. The Greater Dodder (_Cuscuta europĉa_).--A plant of a greenish yellow -colour, generally more or less tinged with red, with flowers in sessile, -globular clusters nearly half an inch in diameter, each individual -flower being about a tenth of an inch. This species is not abundant. It -may be met with in hop-fields, and is also parasitic on nettles, various -shrubs, and trees, including the elder and the ash. - -2. The Flax Dodder (_C. Epilinum_).--Very much like _C. europĉa_, but -the flowers are fewer in number, larger, and more fleshy. The calyx is -nearly as long as the corolla, with sharply-pointed segments; and the -corolla tube is always globular. This species is not indigenous, but is -sometimes met with in flax-fields. - -3. The Lesser Dodder (_C. Epithymum_).--A more slender plant, with -thread-like stems, and flowers in small, compact, globular heads, with -red calyx and cylindrical corolla. This species occurs principally on -sunny heaths, where it is parasitic on shrubby plants, such as thyme and -ling. It is much more common than the foregoing. - -4. The Clover Dodder (_C. Trifolii_).--Very much like the Lesser Dodder, -of which it is sometimes regarded as a variety. Its calyx is of a very -pale colour, and is almost as long as the tube of the corolla, which is -cylindrical in form. It is rare, but sometimes appears in undesirable -numbers in clover fields. - -All the species produce their flowers in August and September, but _C. -europĉa_ may often be seen in bloom very early in July. - -The seeds of the Dodder fall from the opened capsules during late summer -and early autumn, alighting on the soil, or on the decomposing foliage -that covers the ground, or on the rough barks of the tree that served as -a host for the parasitic plant. The seeds of many other plants fall -about the same time, but those of the Dodder do not begin to germinate -until about a month later than the majority of these, in the following -season, and consequently the young Dodder plants do not appear before -their future hosts have had time to grow sufficiently large to support -and nourish them. Perennial plants, too, which are attacked by the -Dodder, have also produced strong shoots and leaves from their roots or -underground stems by the time that the parasite begins its search for -ready-made organic food; and it is clear that if the Dodder seeds -germinated earlier in the season, the young plants would starve for want -of suitable herbs to give them support and nourishment. - -[Illustration: GREATER DODDER, ON NETTLE--A COMPLETE PLANT.] - -When the seed germinates it sends out a filament which penetrates into -the soil and fixes the seedling firmly. The other end grows upward, -carrying up with it a little swollen mass of food-reserve, sufficient to -support the growing seedling until it has had some chance of reaching a -suitable host. The upper end of the seedling now sends out a filament -which rapidly elongates, and, growing upward, searches for some stem on -which to climb. - -All this time the little mass of food-reserve is being rapidly -exhausted, and if the young seedling fails to reach a suitable plant on -which to climb it soon dies, for its lower extremity is unable to absorb -sufficient food material from the soil; and the plant itself, having no -chlorophyll, cannot decompose carbonic acid gas and build up organic -material to add to its substance. - -[Illustration: THE CLOVER DODDER, WITH A SEPARATE CLUSTER OF FLOWERS -REPRESENTING THE NATURAL SIZE.] - -Again, should the young plant fail to reach a favourable support, so -that it is of necessity compelled to trail along the ground, the -filaments which would soon produce suckers when attached to a living -plant have no power to form any structures capable of extracting food -material from a damp soil. - -Circumstances being more favourable, however, the upper filament -eventually finds a stem, and immediately begins to twine itself round -it, making a few close coils in a clockwise direction. Should the -support prove to be a dead stem, little wartlike swellings are produced -at points where the two touch, and these serve as a means of attachment -for the climbing filament, but no suckers are formed. If, however, the -filament surrounds a living stem, each of the swellings gives rise to -suckers that penetrate into the tissues of the latter, and withdraw the -organic food necessary for the continued existence of the plant. - -The Dodder now grows rapidly, giving off branches which search in all -directions for additional supports, sometimes climbing from one plant to -another, and producing new suckers whenever a favourable situation has -been reached. The plant has now all it requires both in the way of -mechanical support and nourishment, and its lower part, thus rendered -useless, soon withers, breaking all connexion with the soil on which the -seed originally germinated. New branches continue to form, each one -producing additional suckers for the extraction of food from the host or -hosts, until a tangled mass of clinging stems is the result. Then the -globular clusters of little flowers appear, followed by balls of small -capsules which throw off their lids when ripe, allowing the seeds to be -shaken out by the wind. The Dodder plant now withers, leaving, in the -autumn, its dead tangles of climbing filaments still attached to the -withered herbs on which it fed, or to the branches of the tree which -served as its host. - -Other parasitic plants possessing no chlorophyll, and therefore -incapable of building up organic compounds for themselves, derive their -food from the roots of trees and shrubs. - -Among these is the Toothwort (_Lathrĉa_), which is carnivorous as well -as parasitic, and is described in our chapter (XXIV) dealing with -carnivorous plants, so that we need only refer here to its habit as a -parasite. - -The seed of this plant germinates on the damp ground to which it falls -in early summer. The young root penetrates into the soil, deriving its -nourishment entirely from the food reserve that was stored up in the -seed, and soon sends out lateral branches in search of the roots of a -suitable host. If it fails to attain this end by the time that the -reserve is exhausted, it dies; but if it succeeds in reaching the root -of an Elm, Hazel, Hornbeam, Ash, Poplar, or other tree, it fastens -itself to it, and develops suckers which penetrate into the substance of -the root to extract its sap. The parasite now grows very rapidly, -producing its underground stems, with their fleshy, overlapping scales, -as described on p. 352. - -The Broomrapes of the same order (_Orobanchaceĉ_) are very similar in -their parasitic habits to the Toothwort, and, like the latter, they -possess no chlorophyll. The seeds germinate on the damp soil, producing -a long, narrow embryo that grows downward into the ground until it -reaches the root of some herb or shrub. It then gives off suckers which -penetrate into the root, and, with the aid of the organic food thus -obtained, forms a tuberous swelling on its surface. Flowering stems are -afterwards produced, and these, rising above the soil, bear terminal -spikes of lipped flowers, followed by capsules containing many seeds. - -[Illustration: THE GREAT BROOMRAPE.] - -There are several British species of this genus (_Orobanche_), and their -flowering stems, which are usually unbranched, produce scale-like leaves -of the same colour as themselves. Each flower of the spike is in the -axil of a bract resembling the scales of the lower part of the stem; and -in some species there is a pair of smaller bracts close to the base of -the calyx. The corolla is either tubular or bell-shaped, and more or -less distinctly lipped. Each flower has four stamens, arranged in pairs, -and a two-lobed stigma. The following outline of leading features will -serve for the identification of the common Broomrapes:-- - -1. The Great Broomrape (_O. Rapum_).--A plant from twelve to eighteen -inches high, of a pale yellow colour at first, but afterwards turning to -a dull purple brown. Stem thick, especially below, and unbranched. -Scales lanceolate. Flowers sessile, whitish, with only one bract, -forming a spike from six to nine inches long. This species is moderately -common, and is parasitic on the roots of Furze and Broom. Time of -flowering--May to July. - -2. The Clove Broomrape (_O. caryophyllacea_).--Very similar to the Great -Broomrape in colour, but usually smaller, and easily distinguished by -the sweet clove-like scent of its flowers. Spike not so dense as in the -last species, and the corolla tube not so broad. The plant is not -uncommon in the southern counties of England. It is parasitic on the -roots of the Great Hedge Bedstraw, and flowers from May to July. - -3. The Tall Broomrape (_O. elatior_).--Also much like the Great -Broomrape, of which it is perhaps a variety. It retains its original -yellowish colour for a longer period, and is parasitic on the Great -Knapweed, flowering from June to August. - -4. The Least Broomrape (_O. minor_).--A yellow or pale brown plant, from -six inches to over a foot in height, more slender than the preceding -species, with smaller flowers. The flowers are whitish, but more or less -tinged with purple, and bloom from June to October. It is parasitic on a -number of different plants, including the Ivy, Clovers, Hawkweed, Wild -Carrot, &c., and is found in many districts in South and Central -England. - - * * * * * - -We have now to consider those parasites which bear leaves possessing -chlorophyll granules, and are therefore able to build up a portion of -the organic compounds necessary for their development. Most of these, at -least as far as the British flowering species are concerned, have also -true roots which grow into the soil and absorb mineral food, like those -of the non-parasitic plants allied to them, so that it is difficult to -understand why they should require the additional nourishment stolen -from the roots of neighbouring plants. One, however, the well-known -Mistletoe, grows on trees at a distance from the ground, and therefore -obtains the whole of its food, with the exception of carbonic acid gas, -direct from its host. - -This plant--the Mistletoe (_Viscum album_), of the order -_Loranthaceĉ_--is attached to the tree on which it grows by a thick stem -that becomes woody when old. Its branches are of a yellowish-green -colour, and are repeatedly forked in such a manner as to form a dense -tuft that often reaches a diameter of two feet or more. The leaves are -of the same colour as the branches, and are rather thick and fleshy. The -flowers grow in the forks of the branches, on very short stalks, and are -imperfect, the males and females being on separate plants. The former -are in clusters of about three or four, in a cuplike, fleshy bract, each -flower having four thick, triangular petals with an anther on the -middle. The females are either solitary or in clusters of two or three, -with a similar bract, and very small petals. The fruit is a white, -glutinous berry, almost transparent, with only one seed. - -The Mistletoe grows on a variety of trees, including the Apple, Pear, -Black Poplar, and Oak; and thrives most luxuriantly on those which have -a soft tissue beneath the bark. It is found principally in the southern -and western counties of England, and flowers from March to May. - -[Illustration: MISTLETOE.] - -There is no doubt but that the seeds of the Mistletoe are distributed -from tree to tree by the agency of birds, especially the thrushes, which -devour the berries in large numbers. The seed of the berry is protected -by a covering which remains quite untouched by the digestive fluids of -the bird, and consequently it is expelled intact with the excrement, and -frequently drops to a branch of the tree, where it lodges in a crevice -of the bark, and is securely fixed in its place by the slimy excrement -in which it is embedded. - -Here the seed germinates, sending out a little rootlet that always turns -towards the bark on which it rests, and subsists for a time on the -food-reserve that it contains. When the young root reaches the bark it -becomes flattened against the surface, and spreads out, forming a disc -that holds the seedling firmly to the tree. - -A projection (the _sinker_) is then sent inwards from the disc, and this -penetrates the bark, reaching the wood beneath, but does not enter the -latter. This terminates the growth of the seedling for the first year, -but as soon as the warm weather of the following spring commences, the -sinker begins to spread over the surface of the outer ring of wood, -while at the same time a new annual ring of wood begins to form -outside, thus surrounding and banking in the sinker. It would appear, on -making a section of the tree, as if the sinker had actually pushed its -growth through the outer ring of wood, whereas it does not penetrate the -wood at all, but is only banked up by the new wood that grows round it. -This is repeated year by year, until the sinker is at last quite deeply -set in the branch, being surrounded by the wood of several annual rings. - -[Illustration: A YOUNG MISTLETOE PLANT ON THE BRANCH OF A TREE. The -branch is cut longitudinally to show the suckers.] - -During the second year's growth the sinker sends out little roots which -run up and down the stem, beneath the bark, and these give rise to new -sinkers that grow down to the surface of the wood, and become, in turn, -embedded in the new layers of wood that form round them. And while the -young Mistletoe plant is thus securing a firm hold on its host, and -withdrawing ready-made organic compounds from its sap, the outer green -stem develops, and soon gives rise to the first pair of leaves. - -If food is obtained in abundance, as is the case when the host is a tree -of a soft and sappy nature, the growth is rather rapid; but otherwise -the development is comparatively slow. In any case the age of the -parasite may be ascertained by counting the number of annual rings of -wood that lie outside the deepest sinker; and by this means it has been -found that the Mistletoe may attain an age of over thirty years. - -We have now to consider a group of plants, the parasitic habits of which -would scarcely be suspected by an ordinary observer. They are green -plants, with well-developed foliage leaves, and true roots which absorb -mineral food from the soil. Their seedlings grow in the same way as -those of non-parasitic species, deriving no nourishment from -neighbouring plants, but obtaining all their food from the air and the -soil, and building up all the organic compounds required for their -growth by the agency of their own chlorophyll. - -It is difficult to understand why these plants should afterwards produce -suckers on their roots in order to obtain nourishment from other -species, but they do this, and experiments have proved that the food -thus obtained is more or less essential to their development. Some of -them die while still young if grown apart from other species, and the -others, under similar conditions, though they reach what we may term the -adult stage, remain somewhat weak and stunted, and produce but few -flowers and fruits. - -Most of the plants referred to belong to the order _Scrophulariaceĉ_, -and among them we may mention the Eyebright (_Euphrasia_), the Yellow -Rattle (_Rhinanthus_), the Cow-wheat (_Melampyrum_), and the Lousewort -(_Pedicularis_). They generally appear in large numbers close together, -often in such abundance as to determine the general colour of the ground -on which they grow, and yet they do not apparently cause much damage to -the grass and other plants which they rob. - -These green parasites are described in various chapters, according to -their habitats and their flowering seasons; so we shall do no more here -than to briefly refer to their parasitic habits. - -The Eyebright (p. 274) grows on heaths and downs, where it -derives organic food from the roots of the neighbouring grasses. The -Lousewort, too (p. 118), which grows in marshes and moist -meadows, is parasitic principally on the roots of grasses, apparently -without affecting the latter. The last-named species is a perennial, the -roots of which have to find hosts that are capable of supporting it year -by year. If the host of the present year should happen to die in the -autumn, the suckers that were attached to its roots soon die, and the -parasite has to seek a new source of supply. This it does by extending -its roots until it reaches a new host, and then producing new suckers. -Thus we are able to understand the origin of the long roots so often -seen on the Lousewort, and also the reason why these roots never grow -downwards into the soil, but always horizontally, just beneath the -surface. Further, since the roots extend themselves in search of food at -times when the supply is temporarily diminished or stopped, it is clear -that some reserve is necessary for the elongation referred to. Such a -reserve exists in the older, thick portion of the perennial root, near -the base of the stem. - -In the case of the Cow-wheat (p. 146) no suckers are produced -until the lateral branches of the root of the seedling reach a moderate -length; but in order to increase the chances of finding a suitable host -these branches are developed in large numbers, and extend themselves in -all directions. The suckers produced on them cling very firmly to the -root-fibres of the host, which they almost completely embrace. - -The suckers of the Yellow Rattle (p. 118) are globular, often -nearly one-eighth of an inch in diameter, and partly surround the -root-fibres of the plants to which they are attached. - - - - -XXIV - -CARNIVOROUS PLANTS - - -Quite a number of plants, belonging to different orders, are provided -with the means of capturing small animals, and of digesting their prey -and absorbing the nutrient matter thus obtained into their own systems. -In this way they are enabled to obtain nitrogenous material which, in -the ordinary way, is absorbed in the form of mineral solutions, from the -soil, by the agency of the roots. The greater number of these -carnivorous plants are to be found in tropical lands; but a few are -British, and are of such an interesting nature that we propose to devote -a short chapter to a description of their peculiar structure and habits. - -The plants to which we refer are often spoken of as insectivorous -species; but although in nearly all cases the animal food consists -almost entirely of insects, it is not entirely derived from this one -group of animal life, and therefore the term carnivorous is rather more -appropriate. - -In pools we sometimes meet with floating plants that have no true roots, -at least at the time of flowering, but consist of a tuft of long, -rootlike, submerged branches, bearing much-divided leaves, and sending -leafless stalks of yellow flowers above the surface of the water. These -plants are the Bladderworts (_Utricularia_), of the order -_Lentibulaceĉ_, and are so called because they have little air-bladders -either attached to the leaves or supported on leafless branches. - -The leaves are divided into numerous very narrow segments, thus -presenting a proportionately large amount of surface to the water for -the absorption of dissolved gases required by the plant; and the flowers -consist of a deeply two-lobed calyx; a spurred corolla, with its mouth -closed or nearly closed by means of a convex 'palate'; two stamens; and -a one-celled ovary that ripens into a globular fruit. - -[Illustration: THE GREATER BLADDER-WORT.] - -As to the little air-bladders mentioned above, they form, perhaps, the -most interesting feature of the plant, for they are the traps by means -of which small aquatic creatures are caught, and also the organs -concerned in the absorption of nutritive products derived from the prey. -Each bladder has an opening, guarded by a kind of valve which allows -easy ingress, but no exit. It does not seem to produce any secretion -which would hasten the death of the creatures entrapped, nor does it -appear to produce any kind of digestive fluid, as is the case with other -carnivorous plants; but small aquatic creatures, such as water-fleas, -cyclops, very small larvĉ, &c., entering the bladders for shelter or -some other purpose, are securely imprisoned until they die of starvation -or suffocation; and their bodies then decay, giving rise to soluble -gases and other products which are absorbed into the plant by special -cells within the bladder. - -There are three British species of these plants--the Greater, the -Lesser, and the Intermediate Bladder-worts. The first of -these--_Utricularia vulgaris_--is rather local in its distribution, and -is easily distinguished from the other two by its superior size, having -floating branches from a few inches to a foot in length. The second (_U. -minor_) is much more common. Its floating branches are only two or three -inches long at the time of flowering, but they grow longer after; and -the flowers are pale yellow, with a short, broad spur. The third (_U. -intermedia_), which is very local, has also pale yellow flowers, but -with a much longer spur; and the bladders are at the ends of leafless -branches. - -In the preceding chapter we gave an account of certain plants which are -parasitic on other plants and trees, deriving more or less of their -nutriment from their vegetable hosts. One of these--the Tooth-wort -(_Lathrĉa squamaria_), of the order _Orobanchaceĉ_--is not only a -parasite, deriving nourishment from the roots of trees, but is also a -carnivorous species, feeding on minute animals which are captured and -digested by its peculiar leaves; and therefore it may be conveniently -considered here. - -The whole plant is of a fleshy character, and lives entirely -underground, attached to the roots of the Hazel, Elm, or other tree, -except during April and May, when it sends up thick flowering stems, -from four to ten inches high, bearing a few broad, fleshy scales which -gradually pass into bracts, and a one-sided spike or raceme of flowers. -The stem and scales above ground are of a pale rose colour, and the -flowers are either brown, flesh-colour or slightly bluish. The latter -are numerous, closely placed, and either sessile or shortly stalked. The -calyx is bell-shaped, nearly half an inch long, with four broad lobes; -and the corolla, which is about half as long again as the calyx, is -distinctly lipped. - -[Illustration: LONGITUDINAL SECTION (ENLARGED) THROUGH A LEAF OF THE -TOOTH-WORT.] - -The whole plant is devoid of chlorophyll, and consequently has not the -power of building up organic compounds after the manner of green plants; -and, being parasitic on the roots of trees, it derives but little -organic material from its host. To compensate for this the underground -portion is so constructed that it can capture minute animals which exist -in the soil, and has the power of digesting them and of absorbing the -products of digestion. - -The underground stems are quite white, and are thickly covered with -broad, cordate, fleshy leaves that closely overlap one another. There -appears to be nothing very remarkable in these underground leaves until -one has been removed from the stem and closely examined; and then we -find that what appears to be the apex of the leaf is really its middle; -and that what seems to be, at first sight, the under surface, is really -an extension of the upper side; for the leaf is bent backwards in such a -manner as to bring its apex close to the stem, immediately below its -base. This peculiar folding of the leaf results in the formation of an -irregular cavity, and the tip of the leaf, brought close to its base, is -curled upward, close to the stem, in such a way as to form a little -canal, with several small openings by which the cavity may be reached. -It will not be easy to make out this strange folding of the leaf by an -examination of the exterior only, but a longitudinal section, made with -a sharp knife or razor, will show it clearly. - -[Illustration: COMMON BUTTERWORT.] - -When minute animals enter the cavity of the leaf through the little -openings above mentioned, they are seized by means of small filaments -that protrude from the lining cells; and although no special digestive -secretion has been discovered in the leaves, it appears certain that the -creatures entrapped are really dissolved, for nothing remains of them -after a time except the harder, indigestible portions. Also, there is -every reason to believe that the products of digestion are absorbed, -probably by the same filaments that are concerned in the capture of the -microscopic prey. - -Perhaps the most interesting of the carnivorous plants are those which -exhibit distinct movements in connexion with the capture of their prey, -and among these are the British Butterworts and Sundews, which grow in -bogs and other wet places. - -There are three British species of Butterwort (_Pinguicula_), similar in -structure and habit, all growing in bogs and on wet rocks. They have -each a rosette of entire, radical leaves, the lowest of which lie close -against the soil or rock on which the plant grows; and violet or yellow -flowers on leafless peduncles. The calyx has four or five teeth, -arranged in two lips; and the corolla, which is also lipped, has a -broad, open throat, and a spur. - -The commonest species is the Common Butterwort (_P. vulgaris_), which is -found in bogs and wet places, principally in the hilly, humid districts -of the West of Britain and Ireland, flowering from May to July. Its -leaves are succulent and clammy, of a pale green colour, and covered all -over with little glistening spots. The flower stems are three or four -inches high, each bearing a single violet flower. In this species the -throat of the corolla is bell-shaped, and the spur is as long as the -rest of the corolla. - -A second species--the Alpine Butterwort (_P. alpina_)--with smaller, -pale yellow flowers appearing in June and July, is found only in -Scotland; while a third, known as the Pale Butterwort (_P. lusitanica_), -also with pale yellow flowers, and a curved spur, occurs in South-West -England as well as in the boggy districts of Ireland and the West of -Scotland, flowering from June to October. - -The carnivorous habits of all species are the same. The horizontal -leaves lie flat on the wet soil, with their margins turned upward -forming a kind of shallow trough; and the upper surface of each is -dotted with many hundreds of minute glands which secrete a colourless, -sticky fluid, thus giving to the leaf its glistening and clammy -appearance. - -If any mineral or other non-nutritious substance be placed on a leaf, -the contact stimulates the little glands, causing them to discharge a -larger quantity of fluid, but no change seems to take place in the -character or composition of the secretion. But if any nitrogenous -organic substance, such as an insect or a small piece of meat, be -brought in contact with the glands, not only will the secretion increase -in quantity, but it will also assume an acid character, and contain a -ferment which is capable of digesting the nitrogenous material. In fact, -the secretion produced under these circumstances possesses the same -properties as the gastric fluid of the stomachs of animals. - -The animal food of the Butterworts consists of small insects and other -little creatures. If an insect alights on the leaf, it is caught by the -sticky secretion of the glands, and every effort to escape causes it to -become more and more besmeared with the mucilage, till, at last, it is -no longer able to move; and its death is probably hastened by the -stoppage of its spiracles or breathing-holes. - -If the insect is a small one, and it settles near the edge of the leaf, -the curved margin slowly bends over it until it is more or less -enclosed, and the larger number of glands thus brought in contact with -its body pour out their digestive secretion, which slowly dissolves the -nourishing portions, leaving nothing but the legs, wings, and other -indigestible parts. A larger insect, alighting similarly near the edge -of the leaf, could hardly be enclosed by the bending of the margin near -it; but it is pushed towards the middle as the edge curls over, and then -the opposite side also bends over it, till the insect is more or less -enclosed, when it is digested as mentioned above. - -The digestion of an insect and the absorption of nutrient matter by the -cells of the leaf occupy from twenty to thirty hours, and when the whole -is accomplished the leaf slowly expands, assuming its normal position, -and exposing the indigestible residue of its prey to be blown away or -washed off by the rain. - -It has been observed that the Butterworts are not exclusively animal -feeders, for their leaves readily digest any pollen cells or the spores -of the lower plants that are carried to them by the wind. - -[Illustration: THE ROUND-LEAVED SUNDEW.] - -Equally interesting are the habits of the Sundew (_Drosera_), of which -there are three species, all readily distinguished from every other -British plant by the glandular hairs that cover the long-stalked, -radical leaves. They have leafless flower-stalks, each bearing a -one-sided spike or raceme of white flowers. The sepals, petals, and -stamens each number five; and the ovary, which ripens into a one-celled -capsule of three or four valves, has three or four forked styles. - -The commonest species--the Round-leaved Sundew (_Drosera -rotundifolia_)--is abundant and widely distributed, and may be seen -among the bog-mosses, sometimes almost completely covering rather large -patches of marshland. Its leaves are round, from a quarter of an inch to -near half an inch in diameter, spreading in such a manner that they lie -close to or near the ground. The flower-stems are slender, erect, from -three to six inches long; and the white flowers, which are in a -one-sided raceme, bloom during July and August. - -The Long-leaved Sundew (_D. longifolia_ or _D. intermedia_) has oval -leaves, tapering gradually into the stalk. They are more erect than the -leaves of the last species, and are not half so broad as they are long. -The plant flowers at the same time as the latter, but is not nearly so -common. - -The third species--the Great English Sundew (_D. anglica_)--is still -rarer. Its leaves are still longer and narrower, being sometimes an inch -or more in length, and more erect; and the flower-stalk sometimes -attains a length of eight inches. - -The carnivorous habits of these plants are very similar to those of the -Butterworts, but the movements connected with the capture of the prey -are more marked in the red filaments which cover the upper surface of -the leaves than in the leaves themselves. Those filaments which are -situated on the margin of the leaf are longest, and spread outwards, -while the others are erect and decrease in length from the edge towards -the middle. - -Each filament is swollen at its extremity, and supports an enticing -globule of glistening fluid which it secretes, for the enlarged -extremity is really a minute gland. The fluid, though quite clear, is so -viscid that it can be drawn out into threads, and it serves a purpose -similar to that of the sticky globules on the spiral thread of a -spider's web. - -If some grains of sand or other inorganic material be sprinkled on the -leaf, the sticky secretion of the glands is appreciably increased, and -at the same time assumes an acid character; but it contains no digestive -ferment, nor do the filaments change their position to any considerable -extent. When, however, a small insect alights on the leaf, attracted by -the glistening drops which are probably mistaken for nectar, the -secretion not only increases and becomes acid, but a digestive ferment -is produced, and the little creature is soon besmeared with the fluid, -its condition becoming more and more hopeless through its struggles, -till at last further movements are impossible and it dies of -suffocation. - -A few minutes later the filaments of the leaf immediately around the -insect begin to bend towards it, and others a little farther off soon -partake in the movement, which may finally extend more or less to all -the filaments of the leaf, and thus a large number of glands are brought -in contact with the prey. The process of digestion now goes on, and, in -a day or two, all the digestible portions of the insect are dissolved -and absorbed, and the filaments that were concerned in the work have -resumed their original position, leaving the indigestible portions to -dry and to be eventually blown away. - -The principal food of the Sundews consists of small insects such as -ants, midges, flies, small butterflies and moths, caddis-flies, and even -small species of dragon-flies. Some of these, more particularly the -long-bodied dragon-flies, the smallest of which are over an inch in -length, are much too large to be caught and devoured by a single leaf; -and in this case it is not at all uncommon for two or more leaves to be -concerned in the capture and digestion of a single insect, each one -converging its filaments towards the part of the body within its reach, -and each one digesting and absorbing the portion against which it can -apply its glands. - -Insects, however, do not constitute the sole food of these plants, for -small worms, spiders, centipedes, &c., are caught and digested in the -manner described; and the plants may also be fed artificially on small -pieces of meat or other nitrogenous substances, which give rise to the -same processes and movements as we have observed in connection with the -natural mode of feeding. - - - - -LIST OF FLOWERS - -CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR HABITATS AND HABITS - - -The following list of wild flowers, classified according to their habits -and principal habitats, will assist the student in his attempts to -identify unknown species. A general acquaintance with the chief -distinguishing features of the orders, or, failing this, a frequent -reference to these features as given in Chapter I, will be a valuable -help; and, the order once determined, the few particulars added to each -name will generally narrow the search down to one or two species, -leaving the final decision to the more detailed description given in the -text. - -The first number given after each name is the height, or, in the case of -climbing and trailing species, the length of the plant; and this is -followed by the colour and diameter, of the flower, or, in the case of -the _Dipsaceĉ_, _Compositĉ_, and some other plants in which the flowers -are densely clustered, the diameter of the cluster or head. - -Abbreviations are used as follows:-- - - W. = white - Y. = yellow - G. = green - R. = red - P. = pink - C. = crimson - V. = violet - Bl. = blue - Br. = brown - Pu. = purple - Cr. = cream - Li. = lilac - Ro. = rose - O. = orange - Sc. = scarlet - p. = pale - d. = dark or deep. - -A combination of two of the above denotes an intermediate colour. -Thus--G.Y. denotes a greenish yellow; Pu. Br., a purple-brown, &c. - - - 1. WOODS AND THICKETS--SPRING (HERBACEOUS PLANTS). - - PAGE - - Wood Anemone. 4-8 ins. W. 1 in., 48 - - Green Hellebore. 12-20 ins. G. 1 in., 49 - - Stinking Hellebore. 1-2 ft. G. 1/2 in., 49 - - Goldilocks. 6-10 ins. Y. 5/8 in., 50 - - Columbine. 1-2 ft. W., Bl. or Pu. 1 in., 50 - - Dog Violet. 3-6 ins. Bl. or Pu. 5/8 in., 50 - - Wood Sorrel. 4-6 ins. W. 5/8 in., 52 - - Wood Strawberry. 2-6 ins. W. 1/2 in., 53 - - Sweet Woodruff. 8 ins. W. 1/4 in., 54 - - Lesser Periwinkle. 1-2 ft. Bl. 7/8 in., 54 - - Toothwort. 5-10 ins. Pu.Br. 3/8 in., 54 - - Bugle. 3-12 ins. Bl. or Pu. 3/8 in., 55 - - Yellow Dead Nettle. 10-18 ins. Y. 5/8 in., 55 - - Primrose. 4-7 ins. p.Y. 1 to 1-1/4 in., 56 - - Lady's Slipper. 1 ft. Br. and Y. 2 ins., 58 - - Broad-leaved Garlic. 6-12 ins. W. 3/4 in., 59 - - Sand Garlic. 2-3 ft. R.Pu. 1/4 in., 59 - - Star of Bethlehem. 6-12 ins. W. 1 in. or more, 59 - - Blue-bell. 6-18 ins. Bl. 1/2 in., 60 - - Daffodil. 12-18 ins. Y. 2 ins., 48 - - Hairy Sedge., 60 - - Wood Melic Grass, 60 - - - 2. SPRING FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS. - - Barberry. 4-7 ft. p.Y. 3/8 in., 61 - - Sycamore. 40-50 ft. Y.G. 1/4 in., 62 - - Maple. 15-20 ft. Y.G. 1/4 in., 63 - - Spindle Tree. 4-10 ft. Y.G. 3/8 in., 64 - - Wild Cherry. 4-8 ft. W. 5/8 in., 64 - - Bird Cherry. 12-15 ft. W. 1/2 in., 64 - - Gean. 12-18 ft. W. 5/8 in., 65 - - Sloe or Blackthorn. 4-8 ft. W. 1/2 in., 65 - - Bullace. 5-8 ft. W. 1/2 in., 66 - - Hawthorn. 12-20 ft. W. 1/2 in., 66 - - Wild Pear. 20-30 ft. W. 1 in., 66 - - Crab Apple. 10-20 ft. W. and P. 1-1/2 in., 66 - - Service Tree. 12-20 ft. W. 5/8 in., 67 - - White Beam. 10-30 ft. W. 1/2 in., 68 - - Mountain Ash. 10-30 ft. Cr.W. 7/16 in., 68 - - Black Currant. 3-5 ft. Y.G. 5/16 in., 69 - - Red Currant. 3-5 ft. Y.G. 1/4 in., 69 - - Wayfaring Tree. 10-20 ft. W. 3/16 in., 69 - - Ash. 40-50 ft. Br. 1/8 in., 69 - - Spurge Laurel. 2-4 ft. Y.G. 1/4 in., 70 - - Mezereon. 2-4 ft. p.R. 3/16 in., 70 - - Common Elm. 50-120 ft. Br. Clusters 1/2 in., 71 - - Wych Elm. 40-100 ft. Br. Clusters 1/2 in., 71 - - Oak. 40-100 ft. G., 72 - - Beech. 40-100 ft. G., 73 - - Hornbeam. 20-60 ft. G., 74 - - Hazel. 8-16 ft. Y.G., 74 - - Common Birch. 20-50 ft. G., 75 - - Dwarf Birch. 1-3 ft. G., 75 - - Alder. 20-50 ft. R.Br., 75 - - White Poplar. 60-100 ft. Pu.Br., 76 - - Grey Poplar. 60-100 ft. Pu.Br., 76 - - Aspen. 30-80 ft. d.Br., 76 - - Black Poplar. 50-60 ft. Pu.Br., 77 - - Scots Pine. 50-100 ft. G.Y., 77 - - Yew. 20-50 ft. G. 1/8 in., 78 - - NOTE.--The colours given above, in the case of trees bearing catkins, - are generally those of the more conspicuous male flowers. - - - 3. WAYSIDES AND WASTE GROUND--SPRING. - - Celandine. 1-2 ft. Y. 3/4 in., 81 - - Shepherd's Purse. 6-18 ins. W. 1/10 in., 81 - - Scurvy Grass. 4-8 ins. W. 1/4 in., 82 - - Whitlow Grass. 1-4 ins. W. 1/8 in., 82 - - Yellow Rocket. 1-2 ft. Y. 5/16 in., 83 - - Early Winter Cress. 1-2 ft. Y. 3/16 in., 84 - - Garlic Mustard. 1-2 ft. W. 1/4 in., 84 - - Thale Cress. 6-10 ins. W. 1/8 in., 84 - - Rape. 1-2 ft. Y. 3/8 in., 85 - - Wild Turnip. 1-2 ft. Y. 3/8 in., 85 - - Sweet Violet. 3-6 ins. V., Li. or W. 3/4 in., 85 - - Ciliated Pearlwort. 2-4 ins. W. 1/8 in., 85 - - Procumbent Pearlwort. 2-3 ins. W. 1/8 in., 85 - - Greater Stitchwort. 1-2 ft. W. 3/4 in., 86 - - Lesser Stitchwort. 1-3 ft. W. 3/16 in., 87 - - Chickweed. 3-12 ins. W. 3/16 in., 87 - - Clustered Mouse-ear Chickweed. 6-10 ins. W. 3/16 in., 88 - - Narrow-leaved Mouse-ear Chickweed. 6-10 ins. W. 1/4 in., 88 - - Dove's-foot Crane's-bill. 8-12 ins. P. 3/8 in., 89 - - Jagged-leaved Crane's-bill. 1-2 ft. R. 3/8 in., 89 - - Herb Robert. 1-2 ft. P. 1/2 in., 90 - - Black Medick. 1/2-2 ft. Y. Heads 1/4 in., 90 - - Grass Vetchling. 1-2 ft. C. 3/8 in., 92 - - Bird's Foot. 6-18 ins. Cr. and C. Heads 1/4 in., 92 - - Bush Vetch. 2-3 ft. p.Pu. 7/16 in., 92 - - Barren Strawberry. 2-6 ins. W. 1/2 in., 93 - - Moschatel. 4-6 ins. Y.G. Heads 3/8 in., 93 - - White Bryony. 6-12 ft. G.W. 5/8 in., 94 - - Common Beaked Parsley. 2-3 ft. W. 1/8 in., 95 - - Chervil. 3-4 ft. W. 1/8 in., 95 - - Garden Beaked Parsley. 18 ins. W. 1/10 in., 96 - - Gout-weed. 1-2 ft. G.W. 1/8 in., 96 - - Crosswort. 6-18 ins. Y. 1/10 in., 97 - - Mouse-ear Hawkweed. 2-10 ins. Y. Head 1 in., 98 - - Groundsel. 6-12 ins. Y. Heads 3/16 in., 98 - - Colt's-foot. 6 ins. Y. Heads 1 in., 98 - - Thyme-leaved Speedwell. 3-10 ins. Li. 1/4 in., 100 - - Common Speedwell. 2-10 ins. p.Bl. 1/6 in., 100 - - Germander Speedwell. 12-18 ins. Bl. 1/2 in., 100 - - Wall Speedwell. 4-12 ins. p.Bl. 3/16 in., 101 - - Grey Field Speedwell. 3-7 ins. Bl. 3/16 in., 101 - - Green Field Speedwell. 4-8 ins. Bl. 3/16 in., 102 - - White Dead Nettle. 6-18 ins. W. 5/8 in., 102 - - Red Dead Nettle. 6-18 ins. Pu. 1/4 in., 103 - - Cut-leaved Dead Nettle. 6-18 ins. Ro. 1/4 in., 103 - - Ground Ivy. 8-20 ins. Bl.Pu. 5/16 in., 104 - - Early Field Scorpion Grass. 4-10 ins. Bl. 1/16 in., 104 - - Yellow Pimpernel. 4-10 ins. Y. 1/2 in., 105 - - Dog's Mercury. 6-18 ins. G. 3/16 in., 105 - - Black Bryony. 5-10 ft. Y.G. 3/16 in., 106 - - Cuckoo Pint. 8-20 ins., 106 - - Annual Meadow Grass., 107 - - - 4. MEADOWS, FIELDS AND PASTURES--SPRING. - - Lesser Celandine. 3-6 ins. Y. 1 in., 108 - - Creeping Buttercup. 6-12 ins. Y. 7/8 in., 109 - - Bulbous Buttercup. 1-2 ft. Y. 1 in., 110 - - Field Penny Cress. 6-24 ins. W. 1/8 in., 110 - - Cuckoo Flower. 1-2 ft. W. or Li. 5/8 in., 111 - - Wild Pansy. 4-10 ins. W.Y. and Pu. 3/4 in., 111 - - Ragged Robin. 1-2 ft. R. or Ro. 1 in., 112 - - Spotted Medick. 6-24 ins. Y. 3/16 in., 112 - - Netted Medick. 10-20 ins. Y. 1/16 in., 112 - - Subterranean Trefoil. 6-18 ins. W.P. or C. 1/8 in., 113 - - White Clover. 2-20 ins. W. 3/16 in. Heads 7/8 in., 113 - - Hybrid Trefoil. 3-20 ins. W. or P. 3/16 in. Heads 7/8 in., 113 - - Purple Clover. 5-20 ins. Pu. 1/4 in. Heads 1-1/4 in., 113 - - Spring Vetch. 8 ins. Pu. 1/4 in., 114 - - Common Vetch. 1-2 ft. p.Pu. 3/8 in., 115 - - Meadow Saxifrage. 6-10 ins. W. 5/8 in., 115 - - Earthnut. 1-3 ft. W. 1/8 in., 116 - - Daisy. 2-6 ins. W. and Y. Heads 3/4 in., 116 - - Dandelion. 2-8 ins. Y. Head 1-1/2 in. or more, 116 - - Butter-bur. 4-12 ins. P. or Pu. Heads 3/8 in., 117 - - Yellow Rattle. 6-18 ins. Y. 1/4 in., 118 - - Field Louse-wort. 4-8 ins. Ro. 5/8 in., 118 - - Henbit Dead Nettle. 5-10 ins. Ro. or Pu. 1/4 in., 119 - - Changing Scorpion Grass. 4-10 ins. Y. or Bl. 1/10 in., 119 - - Cowslip. 6-12 ins. Y. 7/16 in., 120 - - Common Sorrel. 1-2 ft. R.Pu. 1/8 in., 120 - - Sheep's Sorrel. 3-12 ins. R.Pu. 1/8 in., 121 - - Twayblade. 1-2 ft. Y.G. 7/16 in., 121 - - Green-winged Orchis. 6-12 ins. G. and Pu. 1/2 in., 122 - - Early Purple Orchis. 6-18 ins. Pu.P. or W., 5/8 in., 122 - - Fox-tail Grass., 122 - - - 5. BOGS, MARSHES AND WET PLACES--SPRING. - - Marsh Marigold. 9-18 ins. Y. 1-1/4 in., 123 - - Marsh Violet. 2-6 ins. Li. 5/8 in., 123 - - Sundew. 2-6 ins. W. 3/16 in., 355 - - Marsh Stitchwort. 6-18 ins. W. 1/2 in., 124 - - Bog Stitchwort. 4-12 ins. W. 3/16 in., 124 - - Marsh Cinquefoil. 6-18 ins. Pu.Br. 7/8 in., 124 - - Common Golden Saxifrage 2-5 ins. Y. 1/8 in., 125 - - Alternate-leaved Golden Saxifrage. 2-5 ins. Y. 1/8 in., 125 - - Marsh Pennywort. Creeping. W. 1/16 in., 126 - - Marsh Valerian. 6-8 ins. p.Ro. 1/8 in., 126 - - Marsh Trefoil. 6-12 ins. P.W. 3/4 in., 127 - - Red Rattle. 6-18 ins. C. 5/8 in., 127 - - Willows., 128 - - Yellow Flag. 2-4 ft. Y. 3 ins., 129 - - - 6. WOODS, THICKETS AND COPSES--SUMMER. - - Lime Tree. 20-50 ft. Y.G. 3/8 in., 130 - - Tutsan. 1-3 ft. Y. 3/4 in., 132 - - Rose of Sharon. 10-18 ins. Y. 3 ins., 132 - - Common St. John's Wort. 1-2 ft. Y. 3/4 in., 132 - - Hairy St John's Wort. 1-3 ft. Y. 3/4 in., 133 - - Wood Crane's-bill. 1-2 ft. Bl.Pu. 1 in., 133 - - Dyer's Green-weed. 1-2 ft. Y. 5/8 in., 134 - - Sweet Milk Vetch. 2-3 ft. p.Y. or Cr. 1/4 in., 135 - - Tuberous Bitter Vetch. 6-12 ins. R.Pu. 3/8 in., 135 - - Narrow-leaved Everlasting Pea. 2-6 ft. p.Pu. 3/4 in., 136 - - Wild Raspberry. 3-5 ft. W. 7/16 in., 136 - - Rose Bay Willow herb. 2-6 ft. Ro. 1 in., 137 - - Pale Smooth-leaved Willow-herb. 1-2 ft. Ro. 3/8 in., 137 - - Enchanter's Nightshade. 1-2 ft. W. 1/4 in., 138 - - Dogwood. 5-8 ft. Y.W. 1/2 in. (Shrub), 138 - - Wood Sanicle. 1-2 ft. P.W. 1/16 in., 139 - - Angelica. 2-4 ft. W. 1/8 in., 139 - - Elder Tree. 12-20 ft. W. or Cr. 1/4 in., 140 - - Guelder Rose. 6-9 ft. W. 3/16 to 5/8 in. (Shrub)., 141 - - Great Valerian. 2-4 ft. P.W. 3/16 in., 142 - - Succory-leaved Hawk's-beard 1-3 ft. Y. Head 7/8 in., 142 - - Saw-wort. 1-3 ft. Pu. or C. Heads 5/16 in., 142 - - Golden Rod. 6-24 ins. Y. Heads 7/16 in., 142 - - Great Leopard's-bane. 2-3 ft. Y. 1-1/2 ins., 143 - - Plantain-leaved Leopard's-bane. 2-3 ft. Y. 2 ins., 143 - - Giant Bell-flower. 3-5 ft. Bl. 1-1/4 ins., 144 - - Creeping Bell-flower. 1-2 ft. Bl. 1 in., 144 - - Nettle-leaved Bell-flower. 1-3 ft. Bl. 1 in., 144 - - Ivy-leaved Bell-flower. Creeping. p.Bl. 5/16 in., 144 - - Holly Tree. 10-30 ft. W. 5/16 in., 145 - - Privet (shrub). 4-12 ft. W. 5/16 in., 145 - - Common Cow-wheat. 6-18 ins. p.Y. 1/4 in., 146 - - Crested Cow-wheat. 6-20 ins. Y. and Pu. 3/16 in., 147 - - Wood Cow-wheat. 6-20 ins. d. Y. 1/8-3/16 in., 147 - - Foxglove. 2-6 ft. Pu. or W. 7/8 in., 148 - - Wood Betony. 1-2 ft. Pu., C., P. or W. 3/8 in., 149 - - Wood Forget-me-not. 1-2 ft. Bl. 3/8 in., 150 - - Millet Grass., 150 - - Bearded Wheat., 150 - - Slender False Brome Grass., 150 - - - 7. WAYSIDES AND WASTE GROUND--SUMMER. - - Wild Clematis. 4-10 ft. W. 3/4 in., 151 - - Hedge Mustard. 1-2 ft. Y. 1/10 in., 152 - - Felix Weed. 1-2 ft. G.Y. 1/16 in., 152 - - Dyer's Weed. 2-3 ft. Y. 3/16 in., 153 - - Deptford Pink. 12-18 ins. Ro. 1/2 in., 153 - - Red Campion. 1-2 ft. R. 7/8 in., 153 - - Common Mallow. 2-3 ft. Li. 1-1/4 in., 155 - - Dwarf Mallow. 6-24 ins. Li. 5/8 in., 155 - - Musk Mallow. 2-3 ft. Ro. or W. 1-1/2 in., 156 - - Round-leaved Crane's-bill. 6-12 ins. P. 3/8 in., 158 - - Bloody Crane's-bill. 1-2 ft. C. 1 in., 158 - - Small-flowered Crane's-bill. 6-18 ins. Li. 1/3 in., 158 - - Hemlock Stork's-bill. 6-18 ins. Ro. or W. 1/2 in., 160 - - Bird's-foot Trefoil. 6-15 ins. Y. or O. 1/2 in., 160 - - Hairy Tare. 1-2 ft. p.Bl. 1/8 in., 161 - - Slender Tare. 1-2 ft. Bl. 1/8 in., 161 - - Tufted Vetch. 3-6 ft. Bl.Pu. 1/4 in., 162 - - Herb Bennet. 1-2 ft. Y. 5/8 in., 164 - - Dog Rose. 4-8 ft. P. or W. 2 ins., 164 - - Silver Weed. 6-12 ins. Y. 7/8 in., 165 - - Hoary Cinquefoil. 6-18 ins. Y. 1/2 in., 166 - - Creeping Cinquefoil. 6-18 ins. Y. 3/4 in., 166 - - Agrimony. 1-2 ft. Y. 3/8 in., 166 - - Broad Smooth-leaved Willow-herb. 1-2 ft. p.Pu. 3/8 in., 166 - - Orpine. 10-20 ins. R.Pu. 3/8 in., 166 - - Hemlock. 2-6 ft. W. 1/16 in., 169 - - Fool's Parsley. 12-18 ins. W. 1/16 in., 170 - - Wild Parsnip. 2-3 ft. Y. 1/10 in., 170 - - Cow Parsnip. 4-5 ft. R.W. Outer flowers 3/8 in., 170 - - Upright Hedge Parsley. 2-3 ft. W. or P. 1/8 in., 171 - - Rough Chervil. 1-3 ft. W. 1/8 in., 171 - - Honeysuckle. 10-12 ft. Y. and R. 1 in., 172 - - Upright Honeysuckle. 3-6 ft. p.Y. 1/4 in., 172 - - Perfoliate Honeysuckle. 10-12 ft. R.W. 1-1/4 in., 172 - - Great Hedge Bedstraw. 2-5 ft. W. 3/16 in., 172 - - Goose Grass. 2-5 ft. W. 1/10 in., 173 - - Teasel. 3-6 ft. p.Pu. Heads 2 ins., 173 - - - 8. WAYSIDES AND WASTE GROUND--SUMMER. - - (COMPOSITE FLOWERS ONLY.) - - Yellow Goat's-beard. 1-2 ft. Y. Heads 1-1/4 in., 177 - - Bristly Ox-tongue. 2-3 ft. Y. Heads 7/8 in., 177 - - Hawkweed Picris. 2-3 ft. Y. Heads 1 in., 178 - - Strong-scented Lettuce. 3-4 ft. p.Y. Heads 3/8 in., 178 - - Prickly Lettuce. 3-4 ft. Y. Heads 1/4 in., 179 - - Sharp-fringed Sow Thistle. 2-3 ft. Y. Heads 3/4 in., 179 - - Common Sow Thistle. 2-3 ft. Y. Heads 3/4 in., 180 - - Smooth Hawk's-beard. 1/2-3 ft. Y. Heads 1/2 in., 180 - - Shrubby Hawkweed. 2-4 ft. Y. Heads 3/4 in., 181 - - Nipplewort. 1-2 ft. Y. Heads 3/8 in., 181 - - Chicory. 1-3 ft. Bl. Heads 1-1/2 in., 182 - - Burdock. 2-6 ft. Pu. Heads 3/4 in., 182 - - Welted Thistle. 1-3 ft. Pu. Heads 3/4 in., 183 - - Spear Thistle. 1-5 ft. Pu. Heads 1-1/4 in., 183 - - Creeping Thistle. 2-4 ft. Pu. Heads 3/4 in., 184 - - Tansy. 3 ft. Y. Heads 1/2 in., 185 - - Mugwort. 2-4 ft. Br.Y. Heads 1/8 in., 185 - - Wormwood. 1-2 ft. Y. Heads 3/16 in., 186 - - Common Ragwort. 1-4 ft. Y. Heads 7/8 in., 187 - - Feverfew. 1-2 ft. Y. and W. Heads 5/8 in., 187 - - Scentless Mayweed. 1-2 ft. Y. and W. Heads 1-1/4-2 in., 188 - - Milfoil. 6-18 ins. W. Heads 5/16 in., 189 - - - 9. WAYSIDES AND WASTE GROUND--SUMMER (_continued_). - - Rampion Bellflower. 2-3 ft. Bl. 5/8 in., 190 - - Great Bindweed. 4-6 ft. W. 2 ins., 190 - - Great Dodder. Parasitic. P. Heads 1/2 in., 341 - - Lesser Dodder. Parasitic. P. Heads 1/4 in., 341 - - Flax Dodder. Parasitic. P. Heads 1/2 in., 341 - - Clover Dodder. Parasitic. P. Heads 1/4 in., 341 - - Henbane. 1-2 ft. Y. 7/8 in., 191 - - Black Nightshade. 1/2-2 ft. W. 7/16 in., 192 - - Woody Nightshade. 3-6 ft. Pu. 7/16 in., 192 - - Deadly Nightshade. 2-3 ft. Pu. 5/8 in., 194 - - Red Bartsia. 6-18 ins. R. 1/4 in., 195 - - Yellow Toadflax. 1-3 ft. Y. 3/8 in., 195 - - Vervein. 1-2 ft. Li. 1/8 in., 196 - - Common Calamint. 1-2 ft. Pu. 1/3 in., 198 - - Lesser Calamint. 1-2 ft. Pu. 1/4 in., 198 - - Balm. 1-3 ft. W. 3/8 in., 198 - - Black Horehound. 2-3 ft. Pu. 1/3 in., 199 - - Hedge Woundwort. 1-3 ft. R.Pu. 1/3 in., 199 - - Field Scorpion Grass. 6-18 ins. Bl. 3/16 in., 200 - - Gromwell. 12-18 ins. P.Y. 3/16 in., 200 - - Borage. 1-2 ft. B. 7/8 in., 200 - - Common Alkanet. 1-2 ft. B. 7/16 in., 201 - - Evergreen Alkanet. 1-2 ft. B. 3/8 in., 201 - - Hound's-tongue. 1-2 ft. R.Pu. 3/8 in., 201 - - Buck's-horn Plantain. 2-9 ins. G. Spike 1-2 ins., 202 - - Stinking Goose-foot. 6-15 ins. G. 1/16 in., 203 - - Many-seeded Goose-foot. 8-20 ins. G. 1/16 in., 203 - - Upright Goose-foot. 1-3 ft. G. 1/10 in., 203 - - White Goose-foot. 1-3 ft. G. 1/10 in., 204 - - Fig-leaved Goose-foot. 1-2 ft. G. 1/16 in., 204 - - Red Goose-foot. 1-3 ft. G. 1/16 in., 204 - - Mercury Goose-foot. 1-3 ft. G. 1/10 in., 204 - - Orache. 1/2-3 ft. G. 1/16 in., 204 - - Spotted Persicaria. 1-2 ft. G.Ro. 1/8 in., 205 - - Pale Persicaria. 2-4 ft. G.P. 1/8 in., 206 - - Knot-grass. 2-3 ft. Variable 1/8 in., 206 - - Broad-leaved Dock. 2-3 ft. R.G. 1/8 in., 206 - - Curled Dock. 2-3 ft. R.G. 1/8 in., 207 - - Sun Spurge. 6-18 ins. G.Y. 1/4 in., 208 - - Petty Spurge. 6-12 ins. Y. 1/6 in., 208 - - Small Nettle. 1-2 ft. G. 1/10 in., 209 - - Great Nettle. 1-4 ft. G. 1/10 in., 209 - - Roman Nettle. 1-2 ft. G. 1/5 in., 209 - - Hop. 12-20 ft. G.Y. Male racemes 3-1/2 ins. long. - Female heads 5/8 in., 210 - - Canary Grass., 210 - - - 10. MEADOWS, FIELDS AND PASTURES--SUMMER. - - Upright Buttercup. 1/2-3 ft. Y. 7/8 in., 211 - - Pale Hairy Crowfoot. 1/2-1 ft. p.Y. 3/4 in., 212 - - Gold of Pleasure. 1-3 ft. Y. 1/8 in., 212 - - Bladder Campion. 2-3 ft. W. 5/8 in., 213 - - White Campion. 1-2 ft. W. 1 in., 213 - - Kidney Vetch. 6-12 ins. Y. or O. 1/4 in., 214 - - Lucerne. 1-2 ft. Pu. or Bl. 1/4 in., 215 - - Common Melilot. 2-4 ft. Y. 1/8 in., 215 - - Field Melilot. 1-2 ft. Y. 1/16 in., 216 - - White Melilot. 2-3 ft. W. 1/8 in., 216 - - Clustered Clover. 6-12 ins. Pu. or P. 1/8 in., 216 - - Strawberry Trefoil. 6-12 ins. Ro. 1/16 in. Heads 1/4 in. - or more., 216 - - Hare's-foot Trefoil. 6-12 ins. 1/16 in. Heads 3/8 in., 217 - - Crimson Clover. 6-16 ins. C. or P. 1/4 in. Heads 1 in. - or more., 217 - - Hop Trefoil. 6-20 ins. Y. 1/16 in. Heads 1/4 in., 217 - - Lesser Yellow Trefoil. 6-18 ins. p.Y. 1/10 in. Heads 1/4 in., 218 - - Meadow Vetchling. 1-2 ft. Y. 1/2 in., 218 - - Great Burnet. 1-2 ft. Pu. 1/8 in. Heads 5/8 in., 218 - - Lady's Mantle. 6-18 ins. Y.G. 3/16 in., 218 - - Meadow Sweet. 2-4 ft. Cr. W. 1/4 in., 218 - - Burnet Saxifrage. 1-2 ft. W. 1/16 in., 219 - - Wild Carrot. 1-2 ft. p.Pu. or W. 1/8 in., 220 - - Devil's-bit Scabious. 1-2 ft. Bl.Pu. Heads 3/4 in., 220 - - Rough Hawkbit. 4-12 ins. Y. Heads 1-1/4 in., 222 - - Autumnal Hawkbit. 6-18 ins. Y. Heads 1 in., 223 - - Meadow Thistle. 12-18 ins. Pu. Heads 1-1/8 in., 224 - - Black Knapweed. 1/2-3 ft. Pu. Heads 1-1/4 in., 224 - - Great Knapweed. 2-3 ft. Pu. or W. Heads 2 ins., 225 - - Common Fleabane. 1/2-2 ft. Y. Heads 3/4 in., 225 - - Small Fleabane. 6-12 ins. Y. Heads 3/8 in., 226 - - Ox-eye Daisy. 1-2 ft. Y. and W. 1-3/4 in., 227 - - Sneeze-wort. 1-2 ft. W. 1/2 in., 227 - - Centaury. 6-18 ins. Ro. or P. 3/8 in., 227 - - Small Bindweed. 1/2-2 ft. P. 1 in., 228 - - Meadow Clary. 1-2 ft. Bl. 5/8 in., 229 - - Marjoram. 9-18 ins. Ro. Pu. 3/16 in., 231 - - Self-heal. 4-10 ins. V. or Pu. 1/4 in., 232 - - Greater Plantain. 2-9 ins. G. 1/8 in. Spike 5-8 ins., 232 - - Ribwort Plantain. 2-10 ins. G. 1/8 in. Spike 1 in., 233 - - Marsh Orchis. 1-2 ft. W. to Pu. 5/8 in., 233 - - Butterfly Orchis. 6-14 ins. W. or G.W. 1/2-3/4 in., 234 - - Cat's-tail Grass., 233 - - Meadow Barley., 233 - - Sheep's Fescue Grass., 234 - - Rye Grass or Darnel., 234 - - Cock's-foot Grass., Plate IV - - - 12. BOGS, MARSHES, AND WET PLACES--SUMMER. - - Lesser Spearwort. 4-12 ins. Y. 1/2 in., 236 - - Greater Spearwort. 2-4 ft. Y. 1 to 1-1/2 ins., 236 - - Water Cress. 1-3 ft. W. 1/4 in., 236 - - Marsh Yellow Cress. 1-2 ft. Y. 1/8 in., 237 - - Amphibious Yellow Cress. 2-3 ft. Y. 1/4 in., 237 - - Marsh Mallow. 2-3 ft. Ro. 1-3/8 in., 238 - - Marsh St. John's Wort. 6-12 ins. Y. 1/2 in., 238 - - Marsh Pea. 2-3 ft. Bl.Pu. 1/2 in., 239 - - Great Hairy Willow-herb. 3-6 ft. d.Ro. 7/8 in., 239 - - Marsh Willow-herb. 6-18 ins. P. 5/16 in., 240 - - Square-stalked Willow-herb. 1-2 ft. Ro. 3/8 in., 240 - - Purple Loosestrife. 2-4 ft. P. or Pu. 3/4 in., 240 - - Procumbent Marsh-wort. 2-3 ft. W. 1/16 in., 240 - - Water Hemlock. 3-4 ft. W. 1/16 in., 241 - - Common Water Dropwort. 2-3 ft. W. 3/16 in., 242 - - Hemlock Water Dropwort. 2-5 ft. W. 3/16 in., 242 - - Fine-leaved Water Dropwort. 1-4 ft. W. 1/8 in., 243 - - Marsh Thistle. 2-8 ft. Pu. or W. Heads 5/8 in., 243 - - Nodding Bur Marigold. 1-2 ft. G.Y. Heads 3/4 in., 244 - - Trifid Bur Marigold. 1-2 ft. G.Y. Heads 1/2 in., 244 - - Marsh Ragwort. 1-3 ft. Y. Heads 1 in., 244 - - Marsh Speedwell. 4-8 ins. p.P. or W. 5/16 in., 244 - - Water Speedwell. 1/2-2 ft. Li. or W. 3/16 in., 245 - - Brooklime. 1-2 ft. Bl. or P. 1/3 in., 245 - - Water Figwort. 2-4 ft. G.Br. or Pu. 1/4 in., 246 - - Knotted Figwort. 1-3 ft. G.Br. or Pu. 3/16 in., 246 - - Gipsy-wort. 1-3 ft. W. 1/8 in., 246 - - Round-leaved Mint. 1-3 ft. Li. 1/10 in., 247 - - Water Mint. 1-3 ft. Li. 1/8 in., 247 - - Marsh Whorled Mint. 2-5 ft. Li. 1/8 in., 248 - - Marsh Woundwort. 1-3 ft. p.Pu. or R. 3/8 in., 248 - - Forget-me-not. 12-18 ins. Bl. 3/8 in., 249 - - Creeping Water Scorpion-grass. 4-12 ins. Bl. 5/16 in., 249 - - Tufted Water Scorpion-grass. 5-18 ins. Bl. 3/16 in., 249 - - Bog Pimpernel. 3-4 ins. P. 3/8 in., 250 - - Water Pepper. 1-3 ft. P.G. 1/8 in., 250 - - Marsh Helleborine. 6-18 ins. W. 5/8 in., 250 - - Bog Asphodel. 6-10 ins. Y. 1/2 in., 251 - - Common Rush. 1-3 ft. Br. 1/8 in., 252 - - Hard Rush. 1-2 ft. Glossy Br. 1/8 in., 252 - - Shining-fruited Jointed Rush. 1-2 ft. Br. 1/8 in., 253 - - Toad Rush. 2-8 ins. Br. 1/10 in., 253 - - Common Cotton Grass., 254 - - Hare's-tail Cotton Grass., 255 - - Common Sedge., 256 - - Marsh Sedge., 256 - - - 13. HEATH, DOWN AND MOOR--SPRING AND SUMMER. - - Milkwort. 2-9 ins. W. Li. or Bl. 3/16 in., 259 - - Trailing St. John's-wort. 3-10 ins. Y. 3/8 in., 260 - - Small St. John's wort. 12-20 ins. Y. 1/2 in., 260 - - Broom. 2-6 ft. Y. 7/8 in. (Shrub), 260 - - Furze. 2-5 ft. Y. 5/8 in. (Shrub), 260 - - Dwarf Furze. 1-2 ft. Y. 1/2 in. (Shrub), 261 - - Needle Whin. 1/2-2 ft. Y. 3/8 in. (Shrub), 262 - - Common Rest Harrow. 1-2 ft. Ro. 5/8 in., 262 - - Spiny Rest Harrow. 6-12 ins. Ro. 5/8 in., 262 - - Dropwort. 12-18 ins. W. 3/8 in., 262 - - Tormentil. 6-10 ins. Y. 5/16 in., 262 - - Blackberry. 2-10 ft. W. or P. 1 in., 263 - - Yellow Bedstraw. 1/2-2 ft. Y. or G. 1/8 in., 263 - - Smooth Heath Bedstraw. 4-6 ins. W. 1/8 in., 263 - - Upright Bedstraw. 1-2 ft. W. 1/8 in., 264 - - Small Woodruff. 6-10 ins. W. or P. 3/16 in., 264 - - Small Scabious. 1-2 ft. p.Pu. or Li. Heads 1-1/8 ins., 265 - - Hairy Hawkbit. 3-8 ins. Y. Heads 3/4 in., 266 - - Musk Thistle. 1-3 ft. Pu. or C. Heads 1-3/4 ins., 266 - - Dwarf Thistle. 1-8 ins. Pu. Heads 1-1/2 ins., 266 - - Carline Thistle. 6-18 ins. Y. and Pu. Heads 1-1/4 in., 267 - - Chamomile. 6-12 ins. Y. and W. Heads 7/8 in., 268 - - Harebell. 6-20 ins. Bl. 3/4 in., 269 - - Clustered Bell-flower. 3-18 ins. Bl. 5/8 in., 269 - - Sheep's-bit. 6-12 ins. Bl. or Li. Heads 5/8 in., 270 - - Cross-leaved Heath. 12-18 ins. Ro. or W. 1/8 in., 270 - - Ciliated Heath. 12-18 ins. Ro. or C. 1/8 in., 271 - - Bell Heather. 1-2 ft. Pu., Ro. or W. 1/8 in., 271 - - Ling. 1-2 ft. Ro., Li. or W. 1/8 in., 271 - - Whortleberry. 6-18 ins. P. or G. 3/16 in., 272 - - Great Bilberry. 6-10 ins. p.P. 1/8 in., 272 - - Red Whortleberry. 6-18 ins. p.P. 3/16 in., 272 - - Marsh Gentian. 6-10 ins. d.B. 7/8 in., 273 - - Small-flowered Gentian. 3-12 ins. p.Pu. 3/8 in., 273 - - Lesser Dodder. Parasitic on Heaths, &c., 341 - - Eyebright. 1-8 ins. P. or Li. 3/8 in., 274 - - Pennyroyal. 2-10 ins. Li. 1/8 in., 274 - - Wild Thyme. 2-8 ins. Pu. 3/16 in., 274 - - Wood Sage. 1-2 ft. G.W. 5/16 in., 274 - - Lesser Skull-cap. 3-6 ins. p.P. 3/16 in., 275 - - Dwarf Willow. 1-3 ft. (Shrub), 276 - - Juniper. 1-5 ft. (Shrub), 276 - - Autumnal Lady's Tresses. 4-8 ins. W. 3/16 in., 277 - - Spotted Orchis. 6-15 ins. Pu., Li. or W. 1/2 in., 277 - - Butcher's Broom. (Shrub). 3-4 ft. W. 1/6 in., 278 - - Heath Rush. 4-10 ins., 279 - - Field Woodrush. 4-7 ins., 279 - - Quaking Grass., 280 - - Mat Grass., 280 - - - 14. CORN FIELDS. - - Pheasant's-eye. 6-12 ins. C. 5/16 in., 281 - - Mouse-tail. 2-6 ins. Y.G. 5/16 in., 281 - - Corn Crowfoot. 6-18 ins. p.Y. 3/8 in., 282 - - Field Larkspur. 9-18 ins. Bl., P., or W., 1 in., 282 - - Common Red Poppy. 1-2 ft. Sc. 2-3 ins., 283 - - Long-headed Poppy. 1-2 ft. Sc. 2 to 2-1/2 ins., 283 - - Long Prickly-headed Poppy. 6-10 ins. R. 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 ins., 283 - - Opium Poppy. 1-2 ft. W. or Bl. 2-1/4 to 2-1/2 ins., 284 - - Fumitory. 6-24 ins. P. or C. 1/16-3/16 in., 285 - - Wild Mustard. 1-2 ft. Y. 1/2 in., 286 - - White Mustard. 1-2 ft. Y. 3/8 in., 286 - - Black Mustard. 1-3 ft. Y. 3/8 to 1/2 in., 287 - - Wild Radish. 1-2 ft. W. Li., or p.Y., 3/4 in., 288 - - Corn Cockle. 1-3 ft. p.Pu., 1 in. or more., 289 - - Corn Spurrey. 6-18 ins. W. 1/4 in., 289 - - Common Flax. 12-18 ins. Bl. 7/8 in., 289 - - Shepherd's Needle. 3-12 ins. W. 1/16 in., 289 - - Field Madder. 5-10 ins. Li., 1/8 in., 290 - - Field Scabious. 1-4 ft. Li., Heads 1-1/2 in., 290 - - Corn Sow-thistle. 2-4 ft. Y. Heads 1-3/4 ins., 291 - - Corn Blue-bottle. 1-2 ft. Bl. Heads 1 in., 291 - - Corn Marigold. 12-18 ins. Y. Heads 1-1/4 in., 292 - - Corn Chamomile. 1-2 ft. Y. and W. Heads 1 in., 292 - - Stinking Chamomile. 9-15 ins. Y. and W. Heads 1 in., 293 - - Corn Bellflower. 6-10 ins. Pu.Bl. or W. 5/16 in., 293 - - Small Bugloss. 1/2-2 ft. p.Bl. 1/4 in., 294 - - Scarlet Pimpernel. 5-20 ins. Sc. 3/8 in., 294 - - Climbing Persicaria. 1-4 ft. p.G. 3/16 in., 295 - - Dwarf Spurge. 2-10 ins Y. 1/8 in., 295 - - Wild Oat Grass. 2-3 ft., 295 - - - 15. ON THE CHALK. - - Pasque Flower. 5-8 ins. Pu. 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 in., 297 - - Round Prickly-headed Poppy. 12-18 ins. C. 1-2 ins., 297 - - Bitter Candytuft. 6-9 ins. W., Li., or R., 1/4 in., 298 - - Wild Mignonette. 1-2 ft. Y. 3/16 in., 298 - - Rock Rose. 3-9 ins. Y. 3/4-1 in., 298 - - Hoary Rock Rose. 5-8 ins. Y. 3/8 in., 298 - - Hairy Violet. 3-6 ins. p.Bl., or W. 5/8 in., 298 - - Perennial Flax. 1-2 ft. Bl. 1 in., 299 - - Narrow-leaved Flax. 1-2 ft. Li. or Bl. 3/8 in., 299 - - Sain-foin. 1-2 ft. Ro.R. 1/2 in., 299 - - Tufted Horse-shoe Vetch. 5-20 ins. Y. 5/16 in., 299 - - Sweet Briar. 3-6 ft. Ro. 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 in., 300 - - Lesser Burnet. 6-18 ins. Pu. 1/8 in. Heads 1/2 in., 302 - - Rough-fruited Corn Bedstraw. 1-3 ft. W. 1/8 in., 302 - - Red Spur Valerian. 1-3 ft. Ro.R. 3/16 in., 302 - - Woolly-headed Plume Thistle. 3-5 ft. p.Pu. Heads 2-1/2 ins., 303 - - Ploughman's Spikenard. 2-5 ft. Y. Heads 3/8 in., 303 - - Field Gentian. 4-10 ins. Bl. Pu. 7/16 in., 304 - - Yellow-wort. 6-20 ins. Y. 5/8 in., 304 - - Great Mullein. 2-5 ft. p.Y. or W. 3/4 in., 304 - - White Mullein. 2-3 ft. W. or Cr. 3/8 in., 305 - - Yellow Hoary Mullein. 2-3 ft. Y. 5/8 in., 305 - - Dark Mullein. 2-3 ft. Y. 1/2 in., 305 - - Spiked Speedwell. 6-12 ins. Bl., or P. 5/16 in., 305 - - Wild Sage. 1-2 ft. Bl.Pu. 3/16 in., 306 - - Red Hemp Nettle. 9-12 ins. Ro. 5/16 in., 306 - - Viper's Bugloss. 1-3 ft. Ro. or Bl.Pu. 1/2 in., 306 - - Purple Viper's Bugloss. 1-3 ft. Bl. 3/8 in., 307 - - Lamb's-tongue. 3-12 ins. G. 1/8 in. Spikes 2-4 ins., 307 - - Broad-leaved Helleborine. 1-3 ft. G. and Pu. 1/4 in., 308 - - Large White Helleborine. 6-20 ins. Cr.W. 3/4 in., 308 - - Pyramidal Orchis. 6-18 ins. Ro., or W. 5/16 in., 308 - - Sweet-scented Orchis. 12-18 ins. Ro. 3/8 in., 309 - - Green Man Orchis. 6-12 ins. G.Y. 5/8 in., 309 - - Green Musk Orchis. 5-6 ins. G. 1/2 in., 309 - - Bee Orchis. 6-12 ins. Pu., Br., and P. 5/8 in., 310 - - Late Spider Orchis. 6-12 ins. Pu. 5/8 in., 310 - - Spider Orchis. 6-10 ins. Pu.Br. 3/4 in., 310 - - Fly Orchis. 6-12 ins. Br.Pu., and Bl. 5/8 in., 310 - - Downy Oat Grass. 1-2 ft., 311 - - Yellow Oat Grass. 1-2 ft., 311 - - - 16. ON RIVER BANKS. - - Common Meadow Rue. 1-4 ft. p.Y. 1/2 in., 312 - - Meadow Crane's-bill. 1-4 ft. Bl.Pu. 1 to 1-1/4 in., 312 - - Hemp Agrimony. 2-6 ft. Li. Flowers 1/8 in. in small heads., 313 - - Common Skull-cap. 8-16 ins. Bl. 1/4 in., 313 - - Comfrey. 2-3 ft. Y.W., or Pu. 3/8 in., 315 - - Yellow Loosestrife. 2-3 ft. Y. 5/8 in., 315 - - Purple Loosestrife. 2-4 ft. P. or Pu. 3/4 in., 240 - - Great Water Dock. 3-6 ft. R.G. 1/8 in., 317 - - Willows and Sallows., 317 - - - 17. ON WALLS, ROOFS, AND ROCKS. - - Wallflower. 6-12 ins. Y. or O. 7/8 in., 320 - - Wall Rocket. 1-3 ft. p.Y. 5/8 in., 320 - - Vernal Sandwort. 2-4 ins. W. 3/8 in., 320 - - Shining Crane's-bill. 6-18 ins. Ro. 1/4 in., 320 - - English Stonecrop. 2-3 ins. W. or P. 5/16 in., 321 - - White Stonecrop. 3-7 ins. W. or P. 1/4 in., 322 - - Biting Stonecrop. 2-4 ins. Y. 1/2 in., 322 - - House Leek. 9-18 ins. Pu. or P. 3/4 in., 323 - - Wall Pennywort. 6-18 ins. Y.G. 3/16 in., 323 - - London Pride. 6-12 ins. W., or P. 1/4 in., 324 - - Starry Saxifrage. 3-7 ins. W. 7/16 in., 325 - - Yellow Mountain Saxifrage. 5-6 ins. Y. 5/8 in., 325 - - Rue-leaved Saxifrage. 3-5 ins. W. 1/8 in., 325 - - Mossy Saxifrage. 3-10 ins. W. 5/8 in., 326 - - Snapdragon. 1-2 ft. W. to C. 3/4 in., 326 - - Ivy-leaved Toadflax. 3-20 ins. Li. 3/16 in., 327 - - Wall Pellitory. 6-24 ins. G. 1/16 in., 327 - - - 18. AUTUMN FLOWERS. - - (Most of the following flowers bloom during the summer, and have been - included in foregoing lists; but these, together with the few new - species named, may be seen in flower during the autumn months.) - - Pheasant's-eye. 6-12 ins. C. 5/16 in. (Fields), 281 - - Hairy Crowfoot. 6-12 ins. Y. 3/4 in. (Fields), 212 - - Shepherd's Purse. 6-18 ins. W. 1/10 in. (Waysides), 81 - - Rock Rose. 3-9 ins. Y. 7/8 in. (Banks), 298 - - Chickweed. 3-12 ins. W. 3/16 in. (Waysides), 87 - - Herb Robert. 1-2 ft. P. 1/2 in. (Waysides), 90 - - Silver Weed. 6-12 ins. Y. 7/8 in. (Waysides), 165 - - Ivy. Climbing. p.G. 3/8 in. (Walls and Woods), 339 - - Yellow Bedstraw. 1/2-2 ft. Y. or G. 1/8 in. (Downs), 263 - - Small Scabious. 1-2 ft. Li. Heads 1-1/8 in. (Heaths), 265 - - Devil's-bit Scabious. 1-2 ft. Pu.Bl. Heads 3/4 in. (Pastures), 220 - - Field Scabious. 1-4 ft. Li. Heads 1-1/2 ins. (Fields), 290 - - Dandelion. 2-8 ins. Y. Heads 1-3/4 in. (Meadows, &c.), 116 - - Carline Thistle. 6-18 ins. Y. and Pu. Heads 1-1/4 in. (Downs), 267 - - Black Knapweed. 1/2-3 ft. Pu. Heads 1-1/4 in. (Meadows), 224 - - Great Knapweed. 2-3 ft. Pu., or W. Heads 2 in. (Fields), 225 - - Groundsel. 6-12 ins. Y. Heads 3/16 in. (Waysides), 98 - - Fleabane. 6-24 ins. Y. Heads 7/8 in. (Moist places), 225 - - Daisy. 2-6 ins. Y. and W. Heads 3/4 in. (Pastures), 116 - - Scentless Mayweed. 1-2 ft. Y., and W. Heads 1-1/4-2 ins. - (Waysides), 188 - - Chamomile. 6-12 ins. Y. and W. Heads 7/8 in. (Waysides), 268 - - Milfoil. 8-18 ins. W. Heads 5/16 in. (Waysides), 189 - - Ling. 1-2 ft. Ro. or W. 1/8 in. (Moors), 271 - - Fine-leaved Heath. 1-2 ft. P. or W. 1/8 in. (Moors), 271 - - Strawberry Tree. 8-12 ft. Cr. 3/16 in. (Woods--Ireland), 338 - - Dark Mullein. 2-3 ft. Y. 1/2 in. (On chalk), 305 - - Yellow Toadflax. 1-3 ft. Y. 3/8 in. (Waysides, fields), 195 - - Wild Clary or Sage. 1-2 ft. Bl.Pu. 3/16 in. (On chalk), 306 - - White Dead Nettle. 6-20 ins. W. 5/8 in. (Waste places), 102 - - Red Dead Nettle. 6-18 ins. Pu. 1/4 in. (Waste places), 103 - - Red Hemp Nettle. 8-12 ins. Ro. 5/16 in. (Fields, &c.), 306 - - White Goose-foot. 1-3 ft. G. 1/10 in. (Waste places), 204 - - Halberd-leaved Orache. 1/2-3 ft. G. 1/16. (Waste places), 204 - - Spotted Persicaria. 1-2 ft. Ro. and G. 1/8 in. (Wastes), 205 - - Knot-grass. 1-2 ft. Variable. 1/8 in. (Waste places), 206 - - Petty Spurge. 6-12 ins. Y. 1/6 in. (Waste places), 208 - - Wall Pellitory. 1/2-2 ft. G. 1/16 in. (Walls), 327 - - Annual Meadow Grass. 3-10 ins., 107 - - - 19. PARASITIC PLANTS. - - Greater Dodder--On Hops, Nettles, and Trees., 341 - - Flax Dodder--On Flax., 341 - - Lesser Dodder--On Thyme, Ling, &c., 341 - - Clover Dodder--On Clover., 341 - - Toothwort--On roots of Trees., 344 - - Great Broomrape--On roots of Furze and Broom., 345 - - Clove Broomrape--On roots of Bedstraw., 345 - - Tall Broomrape--On roots of Knapweed., 346 - - Least Broomrape--On various roots., 346 - - Mistletoe--On branches of Trees., 346 - - Eyebright--On roots of Grasses, &c., 349 - - Yellow Rattle--On roots of Grasses, &c., 349 - - Cow-wheat--On roots of Grasses, &c., 349 - - Lousewort--On roots of Grasses, &c., 349 - - - 20. CARNIVOROUS PLANTS. - - Bladderworts--Aquatic., 350 - - Tooth-wort--At roots of Trees., 351 - - Butterworts--Marshes., 353 - - Sundews--Marshes., 353 - - - - -LIST OF FLOWERS - -CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR ORDERS AND GENERA - - - RANUNCULACEĈ - - PAGE - _Clematis Vitalba_, 151 - _Thalictrum flavum_, 312 - _Anemone Pulsatilla_, 297 - " _nemorosa_, 48 - _Adonis autumnalis_, 281 - _Myosurus minimus_, 281 - _Ranunculus Ficaria_, 108 - " _Lingua_, 236 - " _Flammula_, 236 - " _auricomus_, 50 - " _acris_, 211 - " _repens_, 109 - " _bulbosus_, 110 - " _hirsutus_, 212 - " _arvensis_, 282 - _Caltha palustris_, 123 - _Helleborus viridis_, 49 - " _foetidus_, 49 - _Aquilegia vulgaris_, 50 - _Delphinium Ajacis_, 282 - - - BERBERACEĈ - - _Berberis vulgaris_, 61 - - - PAPAVERACEĈ - - _Papaver hybridum_, 297 - " _Argemone_, 283 - " _dubium_, 283 - " _Rhoeas_, 283 - " _somniferum_, 284 - _Chelidonium majus_, 81 - - - FUMARIACEĈ - - _Fumaria officinalis_, 285 - - - CRUCIFERĈ - - _Thlaspi arvense_, 110 - _Capsella Bursa-pastoris_, 81 - _Iberis amara_, 298 - _Cochlearia officinalis_, 82 - _Draba verna_, 82 - _Camelina sativa_, 212 - _Cardamine pratensis_, 111 - _Barbarea vulgaris_, 83 - " _prĉcox_, 84 - _Nasturtium officinale_, 236 - " _palustre_, 237 - " _amphibium_, 237 - _Sisymbrium officinale_, 152 - " _Sophia_, 152 - " _Thaliana_, 84 - " _alliaria_, 84 - _Cheiranthus cheiri_, 320 - _Brassica napus_, 85 - " _Rapa_, 85 - " _arvensis_, 286 - " _alba_, 286 - " _nigra_, 287 - _Diplotaxis tenuifolia_, 320 - _Raphanus Raphanistrum_, 288 - - - RESEDACEĈ - - _Reseda luteola_, 153 - " _lutea_, 298 - - - CISTACEĈ - - _Helianthemum vulgare_, 298 - " _canum_, 298 - - - VIOLACEĈ - - _Viola palustris_, 123 - " _odorata_, 85 - " _hirta_, 298 - " _canina_, 50 - " _tricolor_, 111 - - - DROSERACEĈ - - _Drosera rotundifolia_, 355 - " _intermedia_, 355 - " _anglica_, 355 - - - POLYGALACEĈ - - _Polygala vulgaris_, 259 - - - CARYOPHYLLACEĈ - - _Dianthus Armeria_, 153 - _Silene inflata_, 213 - _Lychnis Flos-cuculi_, 112 - " _diurna_, 153 - " _vespertina_, 213 - " _Githago_, 289 - _Sagina ciliata_, 85 - " _procumbens_, 85 - _Spergula arvensis_, 289 - _Stellaria media_, 87 - " _Holostea_, 86 - " _glauca_, 124 - " _graminea_, 87 - " _uliginosa_, 124 - _Arenaria verna_, 320 - _Cerastium glomeratum_, 88 - " _triviale_, 88 - - - LINACEĈ - - - _Linum usitatissimum_, 289 - " _perenne_, 299 - " _angustifolium_, 299 - - - MALVACEĈ - - _Malva moschata_, 156 - " _sylvestris_, 155 - " _rotundifolia_, 155 - _Althĉa officinalis_, 238 - - - TILIACEĈ - - _Tilia vulgaris_, 130 - - - HYPERICACEĈ - - _Hypericum Androsĉmum_, 132 - " _calycinum_, 132 - " _perforatum_, 132 - " _humifusum_, 260 - " _pulchrum_, 260 - " _hirsutum_, 13 - " _Elodes_, 238 - - - ACERACEĈ - - _Acer campestre_, 63 - " _Pseudo-platanus_, 62 - - - GERANIACEĈ - - _Geranium sanguineum_, 158 - " _sylvaticum_, 133 - " _pratense_, 312 - " _rotundifolium_, 158 - " _pusillum_, 158 - " _molle_, 89 - " _dissectum_, 89 - " _Robertianum_, 90 - " _lucidum_, 320 - _Erodium cicutarium_, 160 - - - OXALIDACEĈ - - _Oxalis Acetosella_, 52 - - - CELASTRACEĈ - - _Euonymus europĉus_, 64 - - - LEGUMINOSĈ - - _Sarothamus scoparius_, 260 - _Ulex europĉus_, 260 - " _nanus_, 261 - _Genista tinctoria_, 134 - " _anglica_, 262 - _Ononis arvensis_, 262 - " _spinosa_, 262 - _Anthyllis Vulneraria_, 214 - _Medicago sativa_, 215 - " _lupulina_, 90 - " _maculata_, 112 - " _denticulata_, 112 - _Melilotus officinalis_, 215 - _Trifolium subterraneum_, 113 - " _glomeratum_, 216 - " _hybridum_, 113 - " _repens_, 113 - " _fragiferum_, 216 - " _arvense_, 217 - " _incarnatum_, 217 - " _pratense_, 113 - " _procumbens_, 217 - " _minus_, 218 - _Lotus corniculatus_, 160 - _Astragalus glycyphyllos_, 135 - _Ornithopus perpusillus_, 92 - _Hippocrepis comosa_, 299 - _Onobrychis sativa_, 299 - _Vicia Cracca_, 162 - " _lathyroides_, 114 - " _sativa_, 115 - " _sepium_, 92 - " _hirsuta_, 161 - " _tetrasperma_, 161 - _Lathyrus Nissolia_, 92 - " _pratensis_, 218 - " _sylvestris_, 136 - " _macrorrhizus_, 135 - " _palustris_, 239 - - - ROSACEĈ - - _Prunus spinosa_, 65 - " _insititia_, 66 - " _Padus_, 64 - " _Cerasus_, 64 - " _Avium_, 65 - _Spirĉa Ulmaria_, 218 - " _Filipendula_, 262 - _Geum urbanum_, 164 - _Potentilla anserina_, 165 - " _argentea_, 166 - " _reptans_, 166 - " _Tormentilla_, 262 - " _Fragariastrum_, 93 - _Comarum palustre_, 124 - _Fragaria vesca_, 53 - _Rubus Idĉus_, 136 - " _fruticosus_, 263 - _Rosa rubiginosa_, 300 - " _canina_, 164 - _Agrimonia Eupatoria_, 166 - _Sanguisorba officinalis_, 218 - _Poterium Sanguisorba_, 302 - _Alchemilla vulgaris_, 218 - _Cratĉgus Oxyacantha_, 66 - _Pyrus communis_, 66 - " _Malus_, 66 - " _torminalis_, 67 - " _Aria_, 68 - " _Aucuparia_, 68 - - - ONAGRACEĈ - - _Epilobium angustifolium_, 137 - " _hirsutum_, 239 - " _montanum_, 166 - " _roseum_, 137 - " _palustre_, 240 - " _tetragonum_, 240 - _Circĉa lutetiana_, 138 - - - LYTHRACEĈ - - _Lythrum Salicaria_, 240 - - - CUCURBITACEĈ - - _Bryonia dioica_, 94 - - - GROSSULARIACEĈ - - _Ribes nigrum_, 69 - " _rubrum_, 69 - - - CRASSULACEĈ - - _Sedum Telephium_, 166 - " _anglicum_, 321 - " _album_, 322 - " _acre_, 322 - _Sempervivum tectorum_, 323 - _Cotyledon umbilicus_, 323 - - - SAXIFRAGACEĈ - - _Saxifraga umbrosa_, 324 - " _stellaris_, 325 - " _aizoides_, 325 - " _granulata_, 115 - " _tridactylites_, 325 - " _hypnoides_, 326 - _Chrysosplenium oppositifolium_, 125 - " _alternifolium_, 125 - - - ARALIACEĈ - - _Adoxa Moschatellina_, 93 - _Hedera Helix_, 339 - - - CORNACEĈ - - _Cornus sanguinea_, 138 - - - UMBELLIFERĈ - - _Cicuta virosa_, 241 - _Hydrocotyle vulgaris_, 126 - _Sanicula europĉa_, 139 - _Conium maculatum_, 169 - _Helosciadium nodiflorum_, 240 - _Ĉgopodium Podagraria_, 96 - _Bunium flexuosum_, 116 - _Pimpinella Saxifraga_, 219 - _[OE]nanthe fistulosa_, 242 - " _crocata_, 242 - " _Phellandrium_, 243 - _Ĉthusa cynapium_, 170 - _Angelica sylvestris_, 139 - _Pastinaca sativa_, 170 - _Heracleum Sphondylium_, 170 - _Daucus Carota_, 220 - _Torilis Anthriscus_, 171 - _Scandix Pecten-veneris_, 289 - _Anthriscus vulgaris_, 95 - " _sylvestris_, 95 - " _cerefolium_, 96 - _Chĉrophyllum temulum_, 171 - - - LORANTHACEĈ - - _Viscum album_, 346 - - - CAPRIFOLIACEĈ - - _Sambucus nigra_, 140 - _Viburnum Opulus_, 141 - " _Lantana_, 69 - _Lonicera Periclymenum_, 172 - " _Caprifolium_, 172 - " _Xylosteum_, 172 - - - RUBIACEĈ - - _Galium verum_, 263 - " _Cruciatum_, 97 - " _saxatile_, 263 - " _erectum_, 264 - " _Mollugo_, 172 - " _Aparine_, 173 - " _tricorne_, 302 - _Sherardia arvensis_, 290 - _Asperula odorata_, 54 - " _cynanchica_, 265 - - - VALERIANACEĈ - - _Centranthus ruber_, 302 - _Valeriana dioica_, 126 - " _officinalis_, 142 - - - DIPSACEĈ - - _Dipsacus sylvestris_, 173 - _Scabiosa succisa_, 220 - " _Columbaria_, 265 - _Knautia arvensis_, 290 - - - COMPOSITĈ - - _Tragopogon pratensis_, 177 - _Helminthia echioides_, 177 - _Picris hieracioides_, 178 - _Leontodon hirtus_, 266 - " _hispidus_, 222 - " _autumnalis_, 223 - _Lactuca virosa_, 178 - " _Scariola_, 179 - _Sonchus arvensis_, 291 - " _asper_, 180 - " _oleraceus_, 179 - _Crepis virens_, 180 - _Hieracium Pilosella_, 98 - " _boreale_, 181 - _Taraxacum officinale_, 116 - _Lapsana communis_, 181 - _Cichorium Intybus_, 182 - _Arctium Lappa_, 182 - _Serratula tinctoria_, 142 - _Carduus nutans_, 266 - " _crispus_, 183 - " _lanceolatus_, 183 - " _eriophorus_, 303 - " _palustris_, 243 - " _arvensis_, 184 - " _pratensis_, 224 - " _acaulis_, 266 - _Carlina vulgaris_, 267 - _Centaurea nigra_, 224 - " _Cyanus_, 291 - " _Scabiosa_, 225 - _Bidens cernua_, 244 - " _tripartita_, 244 - _Eupatorium cannabinum_, 313 - _Tanacetum vulgare_, 185 - _Artemisia Absinthium_, 186 - " _vulgaris_, 185 - _Petasites vulgaris_, 117 - _Tussilago Farfara_, 98 - _Solidago Virga-aurea_, 142 - _Senecio vulgaris_, 98 - " _Jacobĉa_, 187 - " _aquaticus_, 244 - _Doronicum Pardalianches_, 143 - " _plantagineum_, 143 - _Inula Conyza_, 303 - " _dysenterica_, 225 - " _Pulicaria_, 226 - _Bellis perennis_, 116 - _Chrysanthemum segetum_, 292 - " _Leucanthemum_, 227 - _Matricaria Parthenium_, 187 - " _inodora_, 188 - _Anthemis nobilis_, 268 - " _arvensis_, 292 - " _Cotula_, 293 - _Achillea Ptarmica_, 227 - " _millefolium_, 189 - - - CAMPANULACEĈ - - _Campanula rotundifolia_, 269 - " _Rapunculus_, 190 - " _latifolia_, 144 - " _Rapunculoides_, 144 - " _Trachelium_, 144 - " _glomerata_, 269 - " _hederacea_, 144 - " _hybrida_, 293 - _Jasione montana_, 270 - - - ERICACEĈ - - _Erica Tetralix_, 270 - " _ciliaris_, 271 - " _cinerea_, 271 - _Calluna vulgaris_, 271 - - - VACCINIACEĈ (often included in the ERICACEĈ) - - _Vaccinium Myrtillus_, 272 - " _uliginosum_, 272 - " _Vitis-idĉa_, 272 - - - AQUIFOLIACEĈ - - _Ilex Aquifolium_, 145 - - - OLEACEĈ - - _Ligustrum vulgare_, 145 - _Fraxinus excelsior_, 69 - - - APOCYNACEĈ - - _Vinca minor_, 54 - " _major_, 54 - - - GENTIANACEĈ - - _Gentiana Pneumonanthe_, 273 - " _Amarella_, 273 - " _campestris_, 304 - _Erythrĉa Centaurium_, 227 - _Chlora perfoliata_, 304 - _Menyanthes trifoliata_, 127 - - - CONVOLVULACEĈ - - _Convolvulus arvensis_, 228 - " _sepium_, 190 - _Cuscuta europĉa_, 341 - " _Epilinum_, 341 - " _Epithymum_, 341 - " _Trifolii_, 341 - - - SOLANACEĈ - - _Hyoscyamus niger_, 191 - _Solanum nigrum_, 192 - " _Dulcamara_, 192 - _Atropa belladonna_, 194 - - - SCROPHULARIACEĈ - - _Verbascum Thapsus_, 304 - " _Lychnitis_, 305 - " _pulverulentum_, 305 - " _nigrum_, 305 - _Veronica spicata_, 305 - " _serpyllifolia_, 100 - " _scutellata_, 244 - " _Anagallis_, 245 - " _Beccabunga_, 245 - " _officinalis_, 100 - " _Chamĉdrys_, 100 - " _arvensis_, 101 - " _agrestis_, 102 - " _polita_, 101 - _Bartsia Odontites_, 195 - _Euphrasia officinalis_, 274, 349 - _Rhinanthus Crista-galli_, 118, 349 - _Melampyrum cristatum_, 147 - " _pratense_, 146, 349 - " _sylvaticum_, 147 - _Pedicularis palustris_, 127 - " _sylvatica_, 118, 349 - _Scrophularia nodosa_, 246 - " _aquatica_, 246 - _Digitalis purpurea_, 148 - _Antirrhinum majus_, 326 - _Linaria Cymbalaria_, 327 - " _vulgaris_, 195 - - - OROBANCHACEĈ - - _Orobanche Rapum_, 345 - " _caryophyllacea_, 345 - " _elatior_, 346 - " _minor_, 346 - _Lathrĉa squamaria_, 54, 344 - - - VERBENACEĈ - - _Verbena officinalis_, 196 - - - LABIATĈ - - _Salvia Verbenaca_, 306 - " _pratensis_, 229 - _Lycopus europĉus_, 246 - _Mentha rotundifolia_, 247 - " _aquatica_, 247 - " _sativa_, 248 - " _Pulegium_, 274 - _Thymus Serpyllum_, 274 - _Origanum vulgare_, 231 - _Calamintha officinalis_, 198 - " _Nepeta_, 198 - _Melissa officinalis_, 198 - _Teucrium Scorodonia_, 274 - _Ajuga reptans_, 55 - _Ballota nigra_, 199 - _Lamium album_, 102 - " _Galeobdolon_, 55 - " _amplexicaule_, 119 - " _purpureum_, 103 - " _incisum_, 103 - _Galeopsis Ladanum_, 306 - _Stachys Betonica_, 149 - " _sylvatica_, 199 - " _palustris_, 248 - _Nepeta Glechoma_, 104 - _Prunella vulgaris_, 232 - _Scutellaria galericulata_, 313 - " _minor_, 275 - - - BORAGINACEĈ - - _Myosotis palustris_, 249 - " _repens_, 249 - " _cĉspitosa_, 249 - " _sylvatica_, 150 - " _arvensis_, 200 - " _versicolor_, 119 - " _collina_, 104 - _Lithospermum officinale_, 200 - _Symphytum officinale_, 315 - _Borago officinalis_, 200 - _Anchusa officinalis_, 201 - " _sempervirens_, 201 - _Lycopsis arvensis_, 294 - _Cynoglossum officinale_, 201 - _Echium vulgare_, 306 - " _Plantagineum_, 307 - - - LENTIBULACEĈ - - _Pinguicula vulgaris_, 353 - " _alpina_, 354 - " _lusitanica_, 354 - _Utricularia vulgaris_, 351 - " _minor_, 351 - " _intermedia_, 351 - - - PRIMULACEĈ - - _Primula vulgaris_, 56 - " _veris_, 120 - _Lysimachia vulgaris_, 315 - " _nemorum_, 105 - _Anagallis arvensis_, 294 - " _tenella_, 250 - - - PLANTAGINACEĈ - - _Plantago major_, 232 - " _media_, 307 - " _lanceolata_, 233 - " _Coronopus_, 202 - - - CHENOPODIACEĈ - - _Chenopodium olidum_, 203 - " _polyspermum_, 203 - " _urbicum_, 203 - " _album_, 204 - " _ficifolium_, 204 - " _rubrum_, 204 - " _Bonus-henricus_, 204 - _Atriplex patula_, 204 - - - POLYGONACEĈ - - _Polygonum Persicaria_, 205 - " _lapathifolium_, 206 - " _Hydropiper_, 250 - " _aviculare_, 206 - " _Convolvulus_, 295 - _Rumex obtusifolius_, 206 - " _crispus_, 207 - " _Hydrolapathum_, 317 - " _Acetosa_, 120 - " _Acetosella_, 121 - - - THYMELACEĈ - - _Daphne Laureola_, 70 - " _Mezereum_, 70 - - - EUPHORBIACEĈ - - _Euphorbia Helioscopia_, 208 - " _Peplus_, 208 - " _exigua_, 295 - _Mercurialis perennis_, 105 - - - URTICACEĈ - - _Urtica dioica_, 209 - " _urens_, 209 - " _pilulifera_, 209 - _Parietaria officinalis_, 327 - _Humulus Lupulus_, 210 - - - ULMACEĈ - - _Ulmus campestris_, 71 - " _montana_, 71 - - - CUPULIFERĈ - - _Quercus Robur_, 72 - _Fagus sylvatica_, 73 - _Carpinus Betulus_, 74 - _Corylus Avellana_, 74 - - - BETULACEĈ - - _Betula alba_, 75 - " _nana_, 75 - _Alnus glutinosa_, 75 - - - SALICACEĈ - - _Populus nigra_, 77 - " _tremula_, 76 - " _canescens_, 76 - " _alba_, 76 - _Salix_, (_Willows_) 28, 276, 317 - - - CONIFERĈ - - _Pinus sylvestris_, 77 - _Juniperus communis_, 276 - _Taxus baccata_, 79 - - - ORCHIDACEĈ - - _Spiranthes autumnalis_, 277 - _Listera ovata_, 121 - _Epipactis latifolia_, 308 - " _palustris_, 250 - _Orchis Morio_, 122 - " _mascula_, 122 - " _maculata_, 277 - " _latifolia_, 233 - " _pyramidalis_, 308 - _Gymnadenia conopsea_, 309 - _Habenaria bifolia_, 234 - _Aceras anthropophora_, 309 - _Herminium Monorchis_, 309 - _Ophrys apifera_, 310 - " _aranifera_, 310 - " _muscifera_, 310 - _Cypripedium Calceolus_, 58 - - - IRIDACEĈ - - _Iris Pseudacorus_, 129 - - - AMARYLLIDACEĈ - - _Narcissus Pseudo-narcissus_, 48 - - - LILIACEĈ - - _Allium Scorodoprasum_, 59 - " _ursinum_, 59 - _Ornithogalum umbellatum_, 59 - _Hyacinthus nonscriptus_, 60 - _Ruscus aculeatus_, 278 - - - DIOSCOREACEĈ - - _Tamus communis_, 106 - - - ARACEĈ - - _Arum maculatum_, 106 - - - JUNCACEĈ - - _Narthecium ossifragum_, 251 - _Juncus communis_, 252 - " _glaucus_, 252 - " _lamprocarpus_, 253 - " _bufonius_, 253 - " _squarrosus_, 279 - _Luzula campestris_, 279 - - - CYPERACEĈ - - _Eriophorum polystachyon_, 254 - " _vaginatum_, 255 - _Carex vulgaris_, 256 - " _paludosa_, 256 - " _hirta_, 60 - - - GRAMINEĈ - - _Phalaris canariensis_, 210 - _Phleum pratense_, 233 - _Alopecurus pratensis_, 122 - _Milium effusum_, 150 - _Avena fatua_, 295 - _Melica uniflora_, 60 - _Poa annua_, 107 - _Briza media_, 280 - _Festuca ovina_, 234 - _Brachypodium sylvaticum_, 150 - _Triticum caninum_, 150 - _Lolium perenne_, 234 - _Hordeum pratense_, 233 - _Nardus stricta_, 280 - - - - -GLOSSARIAL INDEX - - - PAGE - - ACHENE. A dry fruit that does not open, 13 - - ACUTE. Sharp. - - ANTHER. The case at the top of the stamen containing - the pollen, 9 - - AXIL. The angle formed between leaf-stalk and stem. - - AXILLARY. Situated in an axil, 6 - - - BAST. Inner bark. - - BERRY. A pulpy fruit containing several seeds, 13 - - BICRENATE. Doubly notched, 6 - - BIFID. Divided into two parts. - - BISEXUAL. Including both male and female organs, 11 - - BRACT. A leaf or scale between flower and leaf, 10 - - BRACTEATE. Provided with one or more bracts, 10 - - - CALYX. The outer whorl of a complete flower, 9 - - CAPITULUM. A head of flowers, 9, 175 - - CAPSULE. A term applied to some fruits which open, 13 - - CARPELS. Central parts of a perfect flower, 10 - - CATKIN. A spike of imperfect flowers, 12 - - CHLOROPHYLL. The green colouring matter of plants. - - COMPOSITE FLOWER. A head of 'florets' all sessile - on a common receptacle, 175 - - CORDATE. Heart-shaped, 7 - - COROLLA. The second whorl of a complete flower, 9 - - CORYMB. A cluster of stalked flowers, the flowers - being all at one level, 8 - - COTYLEDONS. The lobes of the embryo plant, afterwards - forming the 'seed-leaves', 13, 47 - - CRENATE. Notched. - - CUPULE. A cup, formed of bracts, surrounding a fruit. - - CYME. An arrangement of stalked flowers in which the - terminal or central one is the first to open, 9 - - - DECIDUOUS. Falling off. Applied to leaves, parts of - flowers, &c. - - DEHISCENT. Splitting. Applied to fruits which open - when ripe, 12 - - DICOTYLEDON. A plant with two cotyledons in the embryo, 13 - - DIGITATE. Divided into finger-like lobes, 7 - - DISC. A fleshy ring or cup between the base of the - stamens and that of the ovary. - - DRUPE. A stone-fruit, 13 - - - ENTIRE. Not divided, 6 - - EPIDERMIS. The outer skin of a plant - - EXSTIPULATE. Without stipules, 5 - - - FILAMENT. The stalk which bears the anther of the stamen, 9 - - FOLLICLE. A fruit which opens, when ripe, on one - side only, 13 - - FRUIT. The ripened ovary of the flower, 12 - - - GLUMES. The scaly bracts of sedges and grasses. - - - HERBACEOUS. Green--not woody. - - HYBRID. The offspring of two different species. - - - IMPERFECT FLOWER. A flower which does not possess both - stamens and pistil, 12 - - INDEHISCENT. Not splitting. Applied to fruits that do - not open when ripe, 12 - - INFERIOR. Below. Applied to the ovary when the calyx - adheres to it; and to the calyx when it is free from and - below the ovary, 6 - - INFLORESCENCE. The arrangement of flowers, 10 - - INVOLUCRE. A whorl of bracts surrounding a single flower - or a flower-head. - - - LABIATE. Lipped. Applied to the calyx or the corolla of - a flower when it is divided into two lips. - - LANCEOLATE. Long and narrow, like a lance-head, 7 - - LEAFLET. One of the distinct parts of a compound leaf, 5 - - LEAVES--COMPOUND. Leaves which are divided, quite to the - midrib, into distinct parts, 5 - - LEAVES--SIMPLE. Leaves which are not divided quite - to the middle, 5 - - LEGUME. A pod--a fruit of one cell which splits, when - ripe, on both sides, 12 - - LIGULATE. Strap-shaped, 176 - - LINEAR. Long and very narrow, 7 - - LYRATE. A term applied to a leaf which has a rounded, - terminal lobe and several lobes below. - - - MICROPYLE. A small opening in the ovule or seed, 26 - - MIDRIB. The central vein of a leaf--a continuation - of the stalk through the blade. - - MONOCOTYLEDON. A plant which has only one cotyledon - in its embryo, 13 - - - NECTARY. A gland that produces nectar. - - NODE. The junction of leaf and stem. - - NUT. A dry fruit which does not split, 13 - - - OBCORDATE. Inversely heart-shaped, 7 - - OBOVATE. Inversely egg-shaped, 7 - - OBTUSE. Blunt. - - ORBICULAR. Round, 7 - - OVARY. The part of the pistil which forms the fruit, 10 - - OVATE. Egg-shaped, 7 - - OVULE. The unripened seed within the ovary, 10 - - - PALMATE. A term applied to simple leaves with spreading - divisions that radiate from one point, 7 - - PANICLE. A compound raceme, 9 - - PAPPUS. A hairy calyx, which often grows into a silky - tuft on the summit of the fruit, 176 - - PEDICEL. A secondary flower-stalk of a cluster of flowers, 8 - - PEDUNCLE. The flower-stalk, 6 - - PERFECT FLOWER. A flower with both stamens and pistil, 11 - - PERIANTH. The parts of the flower outside the stamens, - or outside the pistil if stamens are absent, 11 - - PERSISTENT. Applied to parts of a flower when they do - not wither and fall. - - PETAL. One of the divisions of the corolla of a flower, 9 - - PETIOLE. The leaf-stalk, 5 - - PINNATE. Applied to a compound leaf when its leaflets - are arranged along the midrib on each side, 7 - - PINNATIFID. A term applied to simple leaves when they - are deeply divided into lateral lobes, 7 - - PISTIL. The inner part or whorl of a complete flower, 10 - - PISTILLATE. Applied to a flower when it has a pistil - and no stamens, 12 - - PLACENTA. The part of the ovary to which the ovules - are attached, 10 - - POD. _See_ LEGUME. - - POLLEN. The cellular dust discharged by the anthers, 9, 25 - - POLLINATION. The transfer of pollen from anther - to stigma, 26 - - - RACEME. An inflorescence in which the flowers are - stalked along a common axis, 8 - - RADICAL. Growing direct from a point near the summit - of the root, 4 - - RAY. The outer, spreading florets of a composite flower, 175 - - RECEPTACLE. The enlarged upper part of a flower-stalk - that gives attachment to the parts of the flower. - - - SAGITTATE. Arrow-shaped, 7 - - SAMARA. A winged fruit, 13 - - SEPAL. A part of the outer whorl (calyx) of a complete - flower, 9 - - SERRATE. Sawlike, 6 - - SESSILE. Without a stalk, 5, 6 - - SILICULA. A fruit resembling a siliqua, but shorter - and broader, 12 - - SILIQUA. A pod-like fruit with two valves that separate - from a central membrane to which the seeds are attached, 12 - - SOLITARY. Arranged singly, 8 - - SPATHULATE. Spoon-shaped, 7 - - SPIKE. An inflorescence in which the flowers are sessile - along a common axis, 8 - - STAMENS. The flower organs that produce the pollen, 9 - - STAMINATE. Applied to a flower that has stamens but - no pistil, 12 - - STIGMA. The part of the pistil which receives the pollen, 10 - - STIPULATE. Having stipules, 4 - - STIPULES. Scaly or leafy organs at the base of a leaf, 4 - - STOMATA. The openings in the epidermis of plants, 318 - - STYLE. The stalk that supports the stigma, 10 - - SUPERIOR. Above. Applied to the calyx when it is on - the ovary, and to the ovary when it is free from the - calyx or perianth, 10 - - - TERNATE. Consisting of three parts, 7 - - - UMBEL. An inflorescence in which the flower-stalks all - radiate from one point, 9 - - - WHORL. A term applied to organs or parts arranged around - a common centre, 5 - - -THE END - - - PRINTED BY - SPOTTISWOODE AND CO. LTD., COLCHESTER - LONDON AND ETON - - - - - * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber's note: - -Inconsistent hyphenation in the original has been retained in this -version. - -P. 24 "net veneid" changed to "net veined" - -P. 40 "Lombardy Polar" changed to Lombardy Poplar - -P. 75 "which peals off" changed to peels off - -P. 78 "and peals off" changed to peels - -P. 81 "of a glaucus green" changed to glaucous - -P. 93 "Wild Strawbery" changed to Strawberry - -P. 94 "Caprifoliacĉ" changed to Caprifoliaceĉ - -P. 118 "stems each bears a" changed to bear - -P. 119 "It leaves are" changed to Its - -P. 124 "Glancous" changed to Glaucous - -P. 207 "is usually nubranched" changed to unbranched - -P. 228 "Convolvulacĉ" changed to Convolvulaceĉ - -Plate VI caption. "Spring Rest Harrow" changed to "Spiny Rest Harrow" -as detailed in the Erratum. - -P. 265 "which is somewhat resembles" changed to it - -P. 272 "Vacciniam" changed to Vaccinium - -P. 272 "Crowberry" changed to Cowberry - -P. 304 "Great Mullien" changed to Mullein - -P. 367 et seq. Section numbers corrected - 11 was omitted in original - -P. 368 Added 253 to entry "Toad Rush" - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FIELD AND WOODLAND PLANTS*** - - -******* This file should be named 42696-8.txt or 42696-8.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/2/6/9/42696 - - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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