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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42696 ***
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+ file which includes the more than 270 original
+ illustrations, some in color.
+ See 42696-h.htm or 42696-h.zip:
+ (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42696/42696-h/42696-h.htm)
+ or
+ (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42696/42696-h.zip)
+
+
+ Images of the original pages are available through
+ Internet Archive. See
+ https://archive.org/details/fieldwoodlandpla00furn
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+ Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+ The oe_ligature has been replaced by [oe].
+
+
+
+
+
+FIELD AND WOODLAND PLANTS
+
+ * * * * *
+
+THE OUTDOOR WORLD SERIES.
+
+
+THE OUTDOOR WORLD; or, the Young Collector's Handbook. By W. S. FURNEAUX.
+With 18 Plates (16 of which are coloured), and 549 Illustrations in the
+Text. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6_s._ net.
+
+BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS (BRITISH). By W. S. FURNEAUX. With 12 coloured
+Plates and 241 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6_s._
+net.
+
+LIFE IN PONDS AND STREAMS. By W. S. FURNEAUX. With 8 coloured Plates and
+331 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6_s._ net.
+
+FIELD AND WOODLAND PLANTS. By W. S. FURNEAUX. With 8 Coloured Plates and
+numerous Illustrations from Drawings by PATTEN WILSON and from
+Photographs. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6_s._ net.
+
+THE SEA SHORE. By W. S. FURNEAUX. With 8 Plates in colour and over 300
+Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6_s._ net.
+
+BRITISH BIRDS. By W.H. HUDSON. With a Chapter on Structure and
+Classification by FRANK E. BEDDARD, F.R.S. With 16 Plates (8 of which
+are coloured), and over 100 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8 vo. gilt
+edges, 6_s._ net.
+
+COUNTRY PASTIMES FOR BOYS. By P. ANDERSON GRAHAM. With 252 Illustrations
+from Drawings and Photographs. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 3_s._ net.
+
+
+LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO. 39 Paternoster Row, London,
+New York, Bombay, and Calcutta.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+[Illustration: _Plate I._
+SPRING FLOWERS OF THE WOODS.
+1. Green Hellebore. 2. Plantain-leaved Leopard's-bane. 3. Lady's
+Slipper. 4. Sand Garlic. 5. Wild Hyacinth. 6. Wood Melic Grass.]
+
+
+FIELD AND WOODLAND PLANTS
+
+by
+
+W. S. FURNEAUX
+
+Author of
+'The Outdoor World' 'British Butterflies and Moths'
+'Life in Ponds and Streams' 'The Sea Shore' etc.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+With Eight Plates in Colour, and
+Numerous Illustrations by Patten Wilson, and
+Photographs from Nature by the Author
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Longmans, Green, and Co.
+39 Paternoster Row, London
+New York, Bombay, and Calcutta
+1909
+
+All rights reserved
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+This additional volume to the young naturalist's 'Outdoor World Series'
+is an attempt to provide a guide to the study of our wild plants, shrubs
+and trees--a guide which, though comparatively free from technical terms
+and expressions, shall yet be strictly correct and scientific.
+
+The leading feature of the book is the arrangement of the plants and
+trees according to their seasons, habitats and habits; an arrangement
+which will undoubtedly be of the greatest assistance to the lover of
+wild flowers during his work in the field, and also while examining and
+identifying his gathered specimens at home.
+
+A large portion of the space has necessarily been allotted to the
+descriptions of plants, several hundreds of which have been included,
+and a large proportion of these illustrated; but not a little has been
+devoted to an attempt to create an interest in some of those wonderful
+habits which lead us to look upon plants as living beings with
+attractions even more engrossing than their beautiful forms and colours.
+
+It has been thought advisable to give but little attention to aquatic
+plants and to the flowers which are to be found only on the coast, these
+having been previously included in former volumes of this series
+dealing, respectively, with pond life and the sea shore.
+
+The thanks of the author are due to his friend, G. Du Heaume, Esq., for
+his valuable assistance in collecting many of the flowers required for
+description and illustration.
+
+ W. S. F.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+ CHAP. PAGE
+
+ I. INTRODUCTION--GENERAL CHARACTERS OF PLANTS AND THE
+ IDENTIFICATION OF FLOWERS 1
+
+ II. THE POLLINATION AND FERTILISATION OF FLOWERS 25
+
+ III. CLIMBING PLANTS 30
+
+ IV. EARLY SPRING 39
+
+ V. WOODS AND THICKETS IN SPRING 48
+
+ VI. THE SPRING-FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS OF WOODS, THICKETS,
+ AND HEDGEROWS 61
+
+ VII. WAYSIDES AND WASTES IN SPRING 81
+
+ VIII. MEADOWS, FIELDS, AND PASTURES--SPRING 108
+
+ IX. BOGS, MARSHES, AND WET PLACES IN SPRING 123
+
+ X. WOODS AND THICKETS IN SUMMER 130
+
+ XI. WASTES AND WAYSIDES IN SUMMER 151
+
+ XII. WASTES AND WAYSIDES IN SUMMER--COMPOSITE FLOWERS 175
+
+ XIII. WASTES AND WAYSIDES IN SUMMER--_continued_ 190
+
+ XIV. MEADOWS, FIELDS, AND PASTURES--SUMMER 211
+
+ XV. BOGS, MARSHES, AND WET PLACES--SUMMER 236
+
+ XVI. ON HEATH, DOWN, AND MOOR 257
+
+ XVII. IN THE CORN FIELD 281
+
+ XVIII. ON THE CHALK 296
+
+ XIX. BY THE RIVER SIDE 312
+
+ XX. ON WALLS, ROCKS, AND STONY PLACES 318
+
+ XXI. FIELD AND WAYSIDE IN AUTUMN 328
+
+ XXII. AUTUMN IN THE WOODS 331
+
+ XXIII. PARASITIC PLANTS 340
+
+ XXIV. CARNIVOROUS PLANTS 350
+
+ LIST OF FLOWERS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR HABITATS
+ AND HABITS 359
+
+ LIST OF FLOWERS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR ORDERS
+ AND GENERA 373
+
+ GLOSSARIAL INDEX 381
+
+
+
+
+COLOURED PLATES
+
+
+ I. SPRING FLOWERS OF THE WOODS _Frontispiece_
+
+ 1. Green Hellebore
+
+ 2. Plantain-leaved Leopard's-Bane
+
+ 3. Lady's Slipper
+
+ 4. Sand Garlic
+
+ 5. Wild Hyacinth
+
+ 6. Wood Melic Grass
+
+ II. FLOWERS OF THE WOODS _To face p._ 130
+
+ 1. Great Valerian
+
+ 2. Foxglove
+
+ 3. Succory-leaved Hawk's-beard
+
+ 4. Nettle-leaved Bell-flower
+
+ 5. Broad-leaved Helleborine
+
+ 6. Hairy Brome-grass
+
+ III. FLOWERS OF THE WAYSIDE _To face p._ 150
+
+ 1. Round-leaved Crane's-bill
+
+ 2. Black Horehound
+
+ 3. Evergreen Alkanet
+
+ 4. Bristly Ox-tongue
+
+ 5. Red Bartsia
+
+ 6. Annual Meadow Grass
+
+ 7. Hemlock Stork's-bill
+
+ IV. FLOWERS OF THE FIELD _To face p._ 210
+
+ 1. Rough Cock's-foot Grass
+
+ 2. Lucerne
+
+ 3. Crimson Clover
+
+ 4. Blue-Bottle
+
+ 5. Common Vetch
+
+ 6. Meadow Clary
+
+ V. FLOWERS OF BOGS AND MARSHES _To face p._ 236
+
+ 1. Marsh Gentian
+
+ 2. Marsh Marigold
+
+ 3. Marsh Orchis
+
+ 4. Marsh Mallow
+
+ 5. Marsh Vetchling
+
+ 6. Marsh St. John's-wort
+
+ 7. Bog Pimpernel
+
+ VI. FLOWERS OF DOWN, HEATH, AND MOOR _To face p._ 256
+
+ 1. Musk Thistle
+
+ 2. Clustered Bell-flower
+
+ 3. Spiny Rest Harrow
+
+ 4. Hairy Hawkbit
+
+ 5. Sheep's-bit
+
+ 6. Spotted Orchis
+
+ 7. Heath Rush
+
+ VII. FLOWERS OF THE CORN-FIELD _To face p._ 280
+
+ 1. Long Smooth-headed Poppy
+
+ 2. Field Scabious
+
+ 3. Corn Cockle
+
+ 4. Corn Marigold
+
+ 5. Flax
+
+ 6. Corn Pheasant's-eye
+
+ VIII. FLOWERS OF CHALKY SOILS _To face p._ 296
+
+ 1. Red Valerian
+
+ 2. Narrow-leaved Flax
+
+ 3. Tufted Horse-shoe Vetch
+
+ 4. Spiked Speedwell
+
+ 5. Pasque Flower
+
+ 6. Bee Orchis
+
+ 7. Yellow Oat Grass
+
+_Erratum._--On Plate VI, _for_ 'Spring Rest Harrow' _read_ 'Spiny Rest
+Harrow.'
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+GENERAL CHARACTERS OF PLANTS
+
+ PAGE
+
+ Forms of Roots 2
+
+ Running underground stem of Solomon's Seal 4
+
+ Arrangement of Leaves 5
+
+ Leaf of Pansy with two large Stipules 5
+
+ Margins of Leaves 6
+
+ Various Forms of Simple Leaves 7
+
+ Forms of Compound Leaves 7
+
+ Forms of Inflorescence 8
+
+ Longitudinal Section through the flower of the Buttercup 10
+
+ Inferior and Superior Ovary 11
+
+ Unisexual Flowers of the Nettle 11
+
+ Dehiscent Fruits 12
+
+
+ THE POLLINATION AND FERTILISATION OF FLOWERS
+
+
+ Pollen Cells throwing out their Tubes 25
+
+
+ CLIMBING PLANTS
+
+
+ Prickles of the Wild Rose 31
+
+ Ivy, showing the Rootlets or Suckers 32
+
+ Stem of the Bindweed, twining to the left 34
+
+ Stem of the Hop, twining to the right 35
+
+
+ EARLY SPRING
+
+
+ Trees in Winter or Early Spring
+
+ 1. Hazel; 2. Ash; 3. Oak; 4. Lime 41
+
+ 5. Birch; 6. Poplar; 7. Beech; 8. Alder 43
+
+ Twig of Lime in Spring, showing the Deciduous, Scaly Stipules 45
+
+ Seedling of the Beech 46
+
+
+ WOODS AND THICKETS IN SPRING
+
+ The Daffodil 48
+
+ The Wood Anemone 49
+
+ The Goldilocks 50
+
+ The Wild Columbine 51
+
+ The Dog Violet 52
+
+ The Wood Sorrel 53
+
+ The Sweet Woodruff 54
+
+ The Lesser Periwinkle 55
+
+ The Bugle 56
+
+ The Broad-leaved Garlic 57
+
+ The Star of Bethlehem 58
+
+ The Hairy Sedge 59
+
+
+ SPRING-FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS
+
+ The Barberry 62
+
+ The Spindle Tree 63
+
+ The Wild Cherry 65
+
+ The Crab Apple 67
+
+ The Mountain Ash 68
+
+ The Spurge Laurel 70
+
+ The Elm in Flower 71
+
+ The Oak in Flower 72
+
+ The Beech in Fruit 73
+
+ The Scots Pine, with Cones 78
+
+ The Yew in Fruit 79
+
+
+ WAYSIDES AND WASTES IN SPRING
+
+ The Shepherd's Purse 82
+
+ The Scurvy Grass 83
+
+ The Common Whitlow Grass 83
+
+ The Yellow Rocket 84
+
+ The Procumbent Pearlwort 86
+
+ The Greater Stitchwort 87
+
+ The Chickweed 88
+
+ The Broad-leaved Mouse-ear Chickweed 89
+
+ The Dove's-foot Crane's-bill 90
+
+ The Jagged-leaved Crane's-bill 91
+
+ The Herb Robert 92
+
+ The Grass Vetchling 93
+
+ The Strawberry-leaved Cinquefoil 94
+
+ The Moschatel 95
+
+ The White Bryony 96
+
+ The Wild Beaked Parsley 97
+
+ The Garden Beaked Parsley 98
+
+ The Goutweed 99
+
+ The Crosswort 100
+
+ The Colt's-foot in Early Spring 101
+
+ The Germander Speedwell 101
+
+ The White Dead Nettle 102
+
+ The Yellow Pimpernel 103
+
+ The Dog's Mercury 104
+
+ The Black Bryony 105
+
+ The Wild Arum 106
+
+
+ MEADOWS, FIELDS, AND PASTURES--SPRING
+
+ The Field Pennycress 109
+
+ The Wild Pansy 110
+
+ The Ragged Robin 111
+
+ The Purple Clover 114
+
+ The Daisy 115
+
+ The Butterbur 117
+
+ The Yellow Rattle 118
+
+ The Henbit Dead Nettle 119
+
+ The Cowslip 120
+
+ The Fox-tail Grass 121
+
+
+ BOGS, MARSHES, AND WET PLACES IN SPRING
+
+ The Marsh Potentil 124
+
+ The Golden Saxifrage 125
+
+ The Marsh Valerian 126
+
+ The Marsh Trefoil 127
+
+ The Marsh Lousewort 127
+
+ The Yellow Flag 128
+
+
+ WOODS AND THICKETS IN SUMMER
+
+ The Large-flowered St. John's-wort 131
+
+ The Common St. John's-wort 132
+
+ The Dyer's Greenweed 133
+
+ The Sweet Milk Vetch 134
+
+ The Wild Raspberry 135
+
+ The Rose Bay Willow Herb 136
+
+ The Dogwood 137
+
+ The Wood Sanicle 138
+
+ The Alexanders 139
+
+ The Elder 140
+
+ The Guelder Rose 141
+
+ The Saw-wort 143
+
+ The Ivy-leaved Bell-flower 145
+
+ Twigs of Holly 146
+
+ The Privet 147
+
+ The Millet Grass 148
+
+ The Bearded Wheat 148
+
+ The Slender False Brome 149
+
+
+ WASTES AND WAYSIDES IN SUMMER
+
+ The Wild Clematis 152
+
+ The Hedge Mustard 152
+
+ The Felix Weed 153
+
+ The Dyer's Weed 154
+
+ The Deptford Pink 155
+
+ The Red Campion 156
+
+ The Common Mallow 157
+
+ The Musk Mallow 158
+
+ The Bloody Crane's-bill 159
+
+ The Fruit of the Stork's-bill 160
+
+ The Hemlock Stork's-bill 161
+
+ The Bird's-foot Trefoil 162
+
+ The Herb Bennet or Geum 163
+
+ The Dog Rose 164
+
+ The Silver Weed 164
+
+ The Agrimony 165
+
+ The Orpine or Livelong 167
+
+ The Fool's Parsley 168
+
+ The Wild Parsnip 169
+
+ The Cow Parsnip or Hogweed 170
+
+ The Honeysuckle 171
+
+ The Great Hedge Bedstraw 172
+
+ The Teasel 173
+
+ Teasel Heads 174
+
+ Flower Head of the Marigold 176
+
+ Florets of a Composite Flower 176
+
+ The Yellow Goat's-beard 177
+
+ The Hawkweed Picris 178
+
+ The Prickly Lettuce 179
+
+ The Sharp-fringed Sow-Thistle 180
+
+ The Smooth Hawk's-beard 181
+
+ The Nipplewort 182
+
+ The Burdock 183
+
+ The Spear Thistle 184
+
+ The Creeping Thistle 185
+
+ The Tansy 186
+
+ The Wormwood 187
+
+ The Ragwort 188
+
+ The Scentless Mayweed 189
+
+ The Yarrow or Milfoil 189
+
+ The Rampion Bell-flower 191
+
+ The Great Bindweed 192
+
+ The Henbane 193
+
+ The Woody Nightshade or Bittersweet 194
+
+ The Deadly Nightshade 195
+
+ The Yellow Toadflax 196
+
+ The Vervein 197
+
+ The Balm 198
+
+ The Hedge Woundwort 199
+
+ The Gromwell 201
+
+ The Hound's-tongue 202
+
+ The White Goosefoot 203
+
+ The Spotted Persicaria 205
+
+ The Curled Dock 207
+
+ The Great Nettle 208
+
+ The Canary Grass 209
+
+
+ MEADOWS, FIELDS, AND PASTURES--SUMMER
+
+ The Gold of Pleasure 212
+
+ The Bladder Campion 213
+
+ The White Campion 214
+
+ The Kidney Vetch 215
+
+ The Common Melilot 216
+
+ The Lady's Mantle 217
+
+ The Meadow Sweet 219
+
+ The Burnet Saxifrage 220
+
+ The Wild Carrot 221
+
+ The Devil's-bit Scabious 222
+
+ The Rough Hawkbit 223
+
+ The Autumnal Hawkbit 224
+
+ The Meadow Thistle 225
+
+ The Black Knapweed 226
+
+ The Great Knapweed 226
+
+ The Common Fleabane 227
+
+ The Ox-eye Daisy 228
+
+ The Sneezewort 229
+
+ The Small Bindweed 230
+
+ Section of the Flower of Salvia 231
+
+ The Self-heal 231
+
+ The Ribwort Plantain 232
+
+ The Butterfly Orchis 233
+
+ The Cat's-tail Grass 233
+
+ The Meadow Barley 233
+
+ The Rye Grass or Darnel 234
+
+ The Sheep's Fescue 234
+
+
+ BOGS, MARSHES, AND WET PLACES--SUMMER
+
+ The Lesser Spearwort 237
+
+ The Great Hairy Willow Herb 238
+
+ The Purple Loosestrife 239
+
+ The Water Hemlock 241
+
+ The Common Water Dropwort 242
+
+ The Marsh Thistle 243
+
+ The Brooklime 244
+
+ The Water Figwort 245
+
+ The Gipsy wort 246
+
+ The Round-leaved Mint 247
+
+ The Forget-me-not 248
+
+ The Water Pepper or Biting Persicaria 249
+
+ The Bog Asphodel 251
+
+ The Common Rush 252
+
+ The Shining-fruited Jointed Rush 253
+
+ The Common Sedge 254
+
+ The Marsh Sedge 255
+
+
+ HEATH, DOWN, AND MOOR
+
+ The Milkwort 258
+
+ The Broom 259
+
+ The Furze or Gorse 260
+
+ The Tormentil 261
+
+ The Smooth Heath Bedstraw 264
+
+ The Dwarf Thistle 265
+
+ The Carline Thistle 267
+
+ The Common Chamomile 268
+
+ The Harebell 269
+
+ The Cross-leaved Heath 270
+
+ The Bell Heather or Fine-leaved Heath 271
+
+ The Eyebright 273
+
+ The Wild Thyme 275
+
+ The Autumnal Lady's Tresses 276
+
+ The Butcher's Broom 277
+
+ The Common Quaking Grass 278
+
+ The Common Mat Grass 279
+
+
+ IN THE CORN FIELD
+
+ The Mousetail 282
+
+ The Common Red Poppy 284
+
+ The White or Opium Poppy 285
+
+ The Fumitory 287
+
+ The Black Mustard 288
+
+ The Corn Spurrey 289
+
+ The Shepherd's Needle or Venus's Comb 290
+
+ The Venus's Looking Glass or Corn Bell-flower 291
+
+ The Scarlet Pimpernel 292
+
+ The Climbing Bistort 293
+
+ The Dwarf Spurge 294
+
+
+ ON THE CHALK
+
+ The Rock Rose 297
+
+ The Sainfoin 300
+
+ The Salad Burnet 301
+
+ The Field Gentian 302
+
+ The Yellow-wort 303
+
+ The Great Mullein 304
+
+ The Red Hemp Nettle 305
+
+ An Orchis Flower 307
+
+ The Sweet-scented Orchis 309
+
+
+ BY THE RIVER SIDE
+
+ The Common Meadow Rue 313
+
+ The Hemp Agrimony 314
+
+ The Common Skull-cap 315
+
+ The Comfrey 316
+
+
+ ON WALLS, ROCKS AND STONY PLACES
+
+ The Biting Stonecrop or Wall Pepper 321
+
+ The Wall Pennywort or Navelwort 322
+
+ The London Pride 323
+
+ The Mossy Saxifrage 324
+
+ The Ivy-leaved Toadflax 325
+
+ The Wall Pellitory 326
+
+
+ AUTUMN IN THE WOODS
+
+ The Alder in Autumn 333
+
+ The Ash in Autumn 336
+
+ The Maple in Fruit 337
+
+ The Wayfaring Tree in Fruit 338
+
+ The Strawberry Tree 339
+
+
+ PARASITIC PLANTS
+
+ The Greater Dodder 342
+
+ The Clover Dodder 343
+
+ The Great Broomrape 345
+
+ The Mistletoe 347
+
+ A Young Mistletoe Plant 348
+
+
+ CARNIVOROUS PLANTS
+
+ The Greater Bladder-wort 351
+
+ Longitudinal section through the leaf of the Toothwort 352
+
+ The Common Butterwort 353
+
+ The Round-leaved Sundew 355
+
+
+
+
+FIELD
+
+AND
+
+WOODLAND PLANTS
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+GENERAL CHARACTERS OF PLANTS AND THE IDENTIFICATION OF FLOWERS
+
+
+The beginner will often find it difficult, and sometimes quite
+impossible, to identify some of the flowers seen or gathered during a
+country ramble; and he will hardly be surprised to experience many
+disappointments in his attempts to do this when he realises the large
+number of species among our flowering plants, and the very close
+resemblance that allied species frequently bear to one another. But
+there are right and wrong methods of setting to work for the purpose of
+determining the identity of a plant, and the object of this chapter is
+to put the beginner on the right track. He must remember, however, that
+the aid given here is intended to assist him principally in the
+identification of the commoner species, though it may, at the same time,
+help him to determine the natural affinities or relationships of other
+flowers that fall in his way.
+
+The directions we are about to give the reader regarding this portion of
+his work will be understood by him only if he is fairly well acquainted
+with the general characters of a flowering plant and with the structure
+of flowers; and as it would hardly be advisable to assume such
+knowledge, we shall give a brief outline of this part of the subject,
+dealing only with those points that are essential to our purpose, and
+explaining the meaning of those terms which are commonly employed in the
+description of plants and their flowers.
+
+
+THE ROOT
+
+The root is that portion of the plant which descends into the soil for
+the absorption of the mineral food required. It really serves a double
+purpose, for, in addition to the function just mentioned, it fixes the
+plant in its place, thus forming a basis of support for the stem and its
+appendages.
+
+[Illustration: FORMS OF ROOTS 1. Simple fibrous. 2. Branched fibrous. 3.
+Tap root. 4. Tuberous root.]
+
+Roots are capable of absorbing liquids only, and all fertile soils
+contain more or less soluble mineral matter which is dissolved by the
+moisture present. This matter is absorbed mainly by the minute
+root-hairs--outgrowths of the superficial cells--which are to be found
+on the rootlets or small branches that are given off from the main
+descending axis.
+
+The principal forms of roots occurring in our flowering plants are:--
+
+1. The _simple fibrous root_, consisting of unbranched fibres such as we
+see in the Bulbous Buttercup and the Common Daisy.
+
+2. The _branched fibrous root_, as that of the Chickweed and Grasses.
+
+3. The _tap root_, which is thick above and tapers downwards, like the
+roots of the Dandelion, Carrot and Wild Parsnip.
+
+4. The _tuberous root_, common among the Orchids.
+
+5. The _creeping root_, possessed by some Grasses in addition to their
+fibrous roots.
+
+Besides these common forms there are roots of a somewhat exceptional
+character, such as the _aerial roots_ or _suckers_ which grow from the
+stem of the Ivy and serve to support the plant; and the roots of the
+Mistletoe, which, instead of penetrating the soil, force their way into
+the substance of certain trees, from which they derive the necessary
+nourishment.
+
+The student of plant life must always be careful to distinguish between
+roots and underground stems, for there are many examples of creeping and
+tuberous stems which resemble certain roots in general appearance. A
+true root bears no buds, and, therefore, is not capable of producing new
+plants. If a root creeps under the ground, as does the root of the
+Barley Grass, it merely serves the purpose of collecting nourishment
+from a wider area--a matter of considerable importance when the soil is
+dry and deficient in suitable mineral food. A creeping stem, on the
+other hand, developes buds as it proceeds, each bud giving rise to a new
+plant; and the creeping itself is the result of the growth of a
+permanent terminal bud.
+
+Again, when studying plants for the purpose of identification, it is
+often important to note whether the root is _annual_, _biennial_, or
+_perennial_; that is, whether the root lives for one season only, lives
+throughout the winter, and supports the plant for a second season, or
+retains its life for an indefinite number of years.
+
+Most of the roots that live over one season are of a fleshy nature,
+thick and tapering, or tuberous, and contain more or less stored
+nourishment which assists the new growths that are called forth by the
+warmth and light of the early spring sun.
+
+
+THE STEM
+
+The stems of plants exhibit a much greater variety of structure and
+habit than do the roots. Their chief functions are to support the leaves
+and flowers, and to arrange these parts in such a manner that they
+obtain the maximum of light and air; also to form a means of
+communication by which the sap may pass in either direction. Stems also
+frequently help to protect the plant, either by the development of
+thorns or prickles, or by producing hairs which prevent snails and slugs
+from reaching and devouring the leaves and flowers.
+
+The character of the stem is often of some importance in determining the
+species, so we must now note the principal features that should receive
+our attention.
+
+As regards surface, the stem may be _smooth_ or _hairy_. In general
+form, as seen in transverse section, it may be _round_, _flattened_,
+_triangular_, _square_, or traversed longitudinally by ridges and
+furrows more or less distinct. Flattened stems are sometimes more or
+less _winged_ with leaf-like extensions, as in the Everlasting Pea, in
+which case the wings perform the functions of foliage leaves. It should
+also be noted whether the stems are _herbaceous_, or _woody_, and
+whether they are _hollow_, or _jointed_.
+
+In some plants the stem is so short that the leaves appear to start
+direct from the root, as in the Dandelion and Primrose. Such stems are
+said to be _inconspicuous_.
+
+[Illustration: RUNNING UNDERGROUND STEM OF SOLOMON'S SEAL
+
+_a_, Terminal bud from which the next year's stem is developed; _b_,
+Stem of the present year; _c_, and _d_, Scars of the stems of previous
+years.]
+
+The longer and conspicuous stems are either _simple_ or _branched_, and
+they may be _erect_, _prostrate_, _trailing_, _climbing_, or _running_.
+In the case of climbing stems it should be noted whether the necessary
+support is obtained by means of tendrils, rootlets, or suckers, or by
+the twining of the stem itself.
+
+Running stems are those which run along the surface of the ground by the
+continued growth of a terminal bud, and produce new plants at intervals,
+as in the case of the Wild Strawberry. Many stems, however, creep under
+the ground, and these should always be distinguished from running roots,
+from which they may be known by the production of buds that develop into
+new plants, as in the Iris and Solomon's Seal.
+
+
+THE LEAF
+
+The arrangement of the leaves on the stem is a matter of great
+importance for purposes of identification. Especially should it be noted
+whether the leaves are _opposite_, _alternate_, _whorled_ (arranged in
+circles round the stem), or _radical_ (apparently starting direct from
+the root).
+
+Some leaves have smaller leaves or scales at their bases, that is, at
+the points where they are attached to the stem of the plant. Such leaves
+or scales are termed _stipules_. They are often so well developed that
+they are as conspicuous as the ordinary foliage leaves, and in such
+instances they perform the functions of the latter. The presence and
+character of the stipules should always be noted. A leaf without
+stipules is said to be _exstipulate_.
+
+[Illustration: ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES
+1. Opposite. 2. Alternate. 3. Whorled.]
+
+A leaf usually consists of two distinct parts--the _petiole_ or stalk,
+and the _lamina_ or blade. Some, however, have no petiole, but the blade
+is in direct contact with the stem. These leaves are said to be
+_sessile_, and some of them clasp the stem, or even extend downwards on
+the stem, forming a wing or a sheath.
+
+[Illustration: LEAF OF THE PANSY WITH TWO LARGE STIPULES.]
+
+A leaf is said to be _simple_ when the blade is in one continuous whole,
+even though it may be very deeply divided; but when the blade is cut
+into distinct parts by incisions that extend quite into the midrib (the
+continuation of the stalk to the tip of the leaf), the leaf is
+_compound_.
+
+The student must be careful to distinguish between compound leaves and
+little branches or twigs bearing several simple leaves, for they are
+often very similar in general appearance. The compound leaf may always
+be known by the total absence of buds, and often by the presence of one
+or more stipules at the base of its stalk; while a branch bearing a
+similar appearance usually has a terminal bud, also buds in the exils of
+its leaves, and never any stipules at the point where it originates. The
+distinct parts of compound leaves are termed _leaflets_.
+
+Attention to the form and character of the leaf is often of as much
+importance as the observation of the flower in the determination of
+species. Not only should we note the general shape of the leaf, but also
+the character of its surface, its margin, and its apex. The surface may
+be _smooth_, _hairy_, _downy_, _velvety_, _shaggy_, _rough_, _wrinkled_
+or _dotted_. The margin is said to be _entire_ when it is not broken by
+incisions of any kind. If not entire it may be _toothed_, _serrate_
+(sawlike), _crenate_ or _wavy_. Sometimes it happens that the teeth bear
+still smaller teeth, in which case the margin is said to be _doubly
+toothed_; or, if the teeth are sawlike, it is _doubly serrate_. As
+regards the apex, it is generally sufficient to note whether it is
+_acute_ (sharp), _obtuse_ (blunt), or _bifid_ (divided into two).
+
+[Illustration: MARGINS OF LEAVES
+1. Entire. 2. Serrate or sawlike. 3. Doubly serrate. 4. Dentate or
+toothed. 5. Crenate. 6. Doubly crenate. 7. Sinuate or wavy.]
+
+It is not necessary to describe separately all the principal forms of
+simple and compound leaves. These are illustrated, and the student
+should either make himself acquainted with the terms applied to the
+different shapes, or refer, as occasion requires, to the illustrations.
+Concerning the compound leaves, however, their segments are themselves
+sometimes divided after the manner of the whole, and even the secondary
+segments may be similarly cut. Thus, if the segments of a pinnate leaf
+are themselves pinnately compound, the leaf is said to be _bi-pinnate_;
+and, if the secondary segments are also compound, it is a _tri-pinnate_
+leaf.
+
+
+INFLORESCENCE
+
+We must now turn our attention to the different kinds of _inflorescence_
+or arrangement of flowers. Flowers are commonly mounted on stalks
+(_peduncles_), but in many cases they have no stalks, being attached
+directly to the stem of the plant, and therefore said to be _sessile_.
+Whether stalked or sessile, if they arise from the axils of the
+leaves--the angles formed by the leafstalks and the stem--they are said
+to be axillary. When only one flower grows on a stalk it is said to be
+_solitary_; but in many cases we find a number of flowers on one
+peduncle, in which instances, should each flower of the cluster have a
+separate stalk of its own, the main stalk only is called the peduncle,
+and the lesser stalks bearing the individual flowers are the
+_pedicels_.
+
+ [Illustration: VARIOUS FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES
+ 1. Oval or elliptical.
+ 2. Ovate.
+ 3. Obovate.
+ 4. Orbicular.
+ 5. Lanceolate.
+ 6. Linear.
+ 7. Cordate (heart-shaped).
+ 8. Obcordate.
+ 9. Reniform (kidney-shaped).
+ 10. Sagittate (Arrow-shaped).
+ 11. Rhomboidal.
+ 12. Spathulate (spoon-shaped).
+ 13. Peltate (stalk fixed to the centre).
+ 14. Oblique.
+ 15. Runcinate (lobes pointing more or less downwards).
+ 16. Hastate (halberd-shaped).
+ 17. Angled.
+ 18. Palmate.
+ 19. Pinnatifid.]
+
+[Illustration: FORMS OF COMPOUND LEAVES
+1. Binate. 2. Ternate. 3. Digitate. 4. Pinnate.]
+
+[Illustration: FORMS OF INFLORESCENCE
+1. Spike. 2. Raceme. 3. Corymb. 4. Umbel. 5. Cyme. 6. Compound Raceme or
+Panicle. 7. Capitulum or Head. 8. Compound Umbel.]
+
+It is often convenient to make use of certain terms to denote the
+various arrangements of flower-clusters, and the principal of these are
+as follows:--
+
+1. _Spike._--Sessile flowers arranged along a common axis.
+
+2. _Raceme._--Flowers stalked along a common axis.
+
+3. _Corymb._--Flowers stalked along a common axis, but the lengths of
+the pedicels varying in such a manner as to bring all the flowers to the
+same level.
+
+4. _Umbel._--The pedicels all start from the same level on the peduncle.
+
+5. _Cyme._--An arrangement in which the flower directly at the end of
+the peduncle opens first, followed by those on the branching pedicels.
+
+6. _Panicle._--A compound raceme--a raceme the pedicels of which are
+themselves branched.
+
+7. _Capitulum_ or _Flower-head_.--A dense cluster of flowers, all
+attached to a common broad disc or receptacle.
+
+Other forms of inflorescence may also be compound. Thus, a _compound
+umbel_ is produced when the pedicels of an umbel are themselves
+umbellate.
+
+
+THE FLOWER
+
+A flower, if complete in all its parts, consists of modified leaves
+arranged in four distinct whorls, the parts being directly or indirectly
+attached to a receptacle.
+
+The outer whorl is the _calyx_, and is composed of parts called
+_sepals_, which may be either united or distinct. The calyx is usually
+green; but, in some cases, is more or less highly coloured. Sometimes
+the calyx is quite free from the pistil or central part of the flower,
+the sides of which are thus left naked, and the calyx is then said to be
+_inferior_. If, however, it is united to the surface of the pistil it is
+_superior_. When it remains after other parts of the flower have
+decayed, it is said to be _persistent_.
+
+The second whorl--the _corolla_--is usually the whorl that gives most
+beauty to the flower. It is composed of parts, united or distinct,
+called _petals_.
+
+Both calyx and corolla vary very considerably in shape. They may be
+cup-shaped, tubular, bell-shaped, spreading, funnel-shaped, lipped, &c.
+If the sepals and petals are arranged symmetrically round a common
+centre, the calyx and corolla, respectively, are said to be _regular_;
+if otherwise, they are _irregular_.
+
+The third whorl consists of the _stamens_, each of which, in its most
+perfect form, is made up of a _filament_ or stalk, and an _anther_
+which, when mature, splits and sets free the _pollen_ that is formed
+within it. Sometimes the stamen has no filament, and the anther is then
+said to be sessile.
+
+The mode of attachment of the stamens is very variable. They may grow
+from immediately below the pistil, or from its summit; or they may be
+attached to either the petals or the sepals. The filaments are usually
+distinct, but sometimes they are united in such a manner as to form a
+tube, or grow into two or more bundles. The anthers are usually
+distinct, even when the filaments are united; but these sometimes grow
+together.
+
+[Illustration: LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH THE FLOWER OF THE BUTTERCUP
+Showing the calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistil. The pistil consists of
+several distinct carpels, one of which is represented in section to show
+its single ovule.]
+
+The central part of the flower is the _pistil_, and this is made up of
+one or more parts called _carpels_. Each carpel, when distinct, is a
+hollow case or _ovary_, prolonged above into one or more stalks or
+_styles_, tipped by a viscid secreting surface called the _stigma_. The
+ovary contains the _ovules_, attached to a surface called the
+_placenta_; and these ovules, after having been impregnated by the
+pollen, develop into seeds which are plants in embryo. The ovary may
+have no style, and the stigma is then sessile.
+
+Where the pistil consists of more than one carpel, these carpels may
+unite in such a manner as to form a single cell, or an ovary of two or
+more cells. In other cases the carpels remain quite distinct, thus
+forming a number of distinct ovaries, each with its own stigma. For
+purposes of identification it is often necessary to note the position of
+the placenta. This may be at the side of the ovary, in which case it is
+said to be _parietal_; or it may stand up in the centre of the ovary,
+without any attachment to the sides, when it is described as _free
+central_. If, however, it occupies the centre of the ovary, but is
+attached by means of radiating partitions to the sides, it is termed
+_axile_.
+
+If the ovary is quite free in the centre of the flower, the surrounding
+parts being attached below it, it is said to be _superior_; but if the
+perianth (p. 11) adheres to it, it is _inferior_.
+
+A leaf or scale will often be observed at the foot of a flower stalk or
+at the base of a sessile flower. This is termed a _bract_, and a flower
+possessing a bract is said to be _bracteate_. The bract is sometimes so
+large that it almost completely encloses the flower, or even a cluster
+of flowers.
+
+[Illustration: INFERIOR (1) AND SUPERIOR (2)OVARY.]
+
+The flower is the reproductive part of the plant, being concerned in the
+production of the seeds; but the organs directly connected with the
+seed-formation are the pistil and the stamens, the former containing the
+ovules, and the latter producing the pollen cells by means of which the
+ovules are impregnated. Thus the stamens and the pistil are the
+_essential_ parts of the flower, though the corolla and the calyx may
+perform some subsidiary function in connexion with the reproduction of
+the species.
+
+This being the case, a flower may be described as _perfect_ if it
+consists of stamens and pistil only, without any surrounding calyx or
+corolla; and _imperfect_ if it possesses no pistil _or_ no stamens,
+regardless of the presence or absence of calyx and corolla.
+
+[Illustration: UNISEX FLOWERS OF THE NETTLE
+1. Pistillate. 2. Staminate.]
+
+The two outer whorls of a well-developed perfect flower (calyx and
+corolla) together form the _perianth_. Some flowers, however have only
+one whorl outside the anthers, representing both the calyx and corolla
+of the more highly organised flower. This one whorl, therefore, is the
+perianth, and its parts are not correctly termed either petals or
+sepals, since they represent both.
+
+A perfect flower is sometimes spoken of as _bisexual_, for it includes
+the two sexual organs of the plant--the ovary or female part, producing
+the ovules; and the stamens or male part, which is concerned in the
+impregnation or fertilisation of the ovules.
+
+Many plants produce only _unisexual_ (and therefore imperfect) flowers,
+which contain either no stamens or no pistil. If such possess stamens
+and no pistil, they are called _staminate_ or _male_ flowers; and if
+pistil and no stamens, _pistillate_ or _female_ flowers. These two kinds
+are sometimes borne on the same plant, when they are said to be
+_monoecious_; but often on separate plants (_dioecious_), as in some
+of the Nettleworts and the Willow Tree. Spikes of unisexual flowers,
+such as are common among our forest trees, are called _catkins_.
+
+
+THE FRUIT AND SEED
+
+[Illustration: DEHISCENT FRUITS
+1. Pod. 2. Siliqua. 3. Silicula. 4. Follicles (cluster of three). 5.
+Capsule splitting longitudinally. 6. Capsule splitting transversely. 7.
+Capsule splitting by pores.]
+
+After the ovules have been impregnated by the pollen they develop into
+seeds, each of which consists of or contains an embryo plant; and, at
+the same time, the ovary itself enlarges, changing its character more or
+less, till it becomes a ripened _fruit_.
+
+Fruits vary very considerably in their general characters, but may be
+divided into two main groups--those that split when ripe (_dehiscent
+fruits_) and those which do not split (_indehiscent fruits_).
+
+The principal forms of dehiscent fruits are:--
+
+1. The _pod_ or _legume_, which splits into two valves, with placenta on
+one side.
+
+2. The _siliqua_, a long, narrow fruit that splits into two valves which
+separate from a membrane with placenta on both sides.
+
+3. The _silicula_, of the same nature as the siliqua, but about as broad
+as it is long.
+
+4. The _follicle_, which splits on one side only, through the placenta.
+
+5. All other fruits that split are termed _capsules_. Some of these
+split longitudinally, some transversely, and others by forming pores for
+the escape of the seeds.
+
+The chief kinds of indehiscent fruits are:--
+
+1. The _drupe_ or stone-fruit, which consists of a hard stone surrounded
+by a fleshy covering, as the plum and the cherry.
+
+2. The _berry_, which is soft and fleshy, and contains several seeds,
+like the currant and the grape.
+
+3. The _nut_ or _achene_--a fruit with hard and dry walls, as the
+filbert and the acorn.
+
+4. The _samara_ or winged fruit, like that of the sycamore.
+
+Various modifications of these indehiscent fruits are to be met with;
+thus, the blackberry is not really a berry, but a cluster of little
+drupes formed from a single pistil of many carpels. A berry, too, may be
+made up of many parts, as is the case with the orange. The apple and
+similar fruits consist of a core (the true fruit) surrounded by a fleshy
+mass that is produced from the receptacle of the flower; and the
+strawberry is a succulent, enlarged receptacle of the flower, with a
+number of little achenes (the true fruits) on its surface.
+
+The seed, as we have already observed, is the embryo plant. It consists
+of one or more seed-leaves or _cotyledons_, a _radicle_ or young root,
+and a _plumule_ or young bud. In many cases the skin of the seed
+encloses nothing more than the three parts of the embryo, as named
+above; but it sometimes contains, in addition, a quantity of nutrient
+matter in the form of albumen, starch, oil, gum, or other substance.
+
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF FLOWERING PLANTS
+
+Our flowering plants are divided into two main groups, the
+_dicotyledons_ and the _monocotyledons_. These terms suggest that the
+division is based on the nature of the seed, which is really the case,
+but the groups are characterised by differences in other parts. Thus,
+the plants which produce seeds with two cotyledons may be known by the
+nature of the stem, which consists of a central pith, surrounded by wood
+arranged in one or more rings, and the whole enclosed in an outer
+epidermis or in a bark. These plants also bear leaves with netted veins,
+and the parts of the flower are usually in whorls of four or five or
+multiples of four or five. Those plants whose seeds have only one
+cotyledon may be known by the absence of a central pith and true bark in
+the stem, while the wood is arranged in scattered bundles instead of in
+a ring or rings. They have also, generally, leaves with parallel veins;
+and the parts of the flower are usually in threes or multiples of three.
+The following table shows these features at a glance:--
+
+ _Dicotyledons_ _Monocotyledons_
+
+ Embryo with two cotyledons. Embryo with one cotyledon.
+
+ Stem with central pith, wood in Stem with no central pith, no true
+ rings or rings, and bark. bark, and wood not in rings.
+
+ Leaves with netted veins. Leaves with parallel veins.
+
+ Parts of flower usually in fours Parts of flower arranged in threes
+ or fives. or multiples of three.
+
+These two great divisions or _classes_ are split up into _sub-classes_,
+each embracing a large number of plants with common characters; and the
+sub-classes are again divided into _orders_, and the orders into
+_genera_.
+
+The student should always endeavour to determine the order to which any
+flower he finds belongs; and, if possible, the genus and the species. It
+is certainly a pleasure to be able to call flowers by their names, but
+at the same time it must be remembered that a vast deal of pleasure may
+be gained by the study of flowers--their peculiar structure, habits and
+habitats--even though their names are unknown; and the student who has
+learnt to recognise these characters, and to discover the relationships
+that exist between certain flowers of different species, is certainly
+much more fortunate than the one who knows abundance of names with only
+a meagre acquaintance with the flowers themselves.
+
+Our table of classification gives the most important distinguishing
+characters of the classes, sub-classes, and orders, of a very large
+proportion of our wild flowers, and will enable the reader to determine
+the natural order of almost every one he sees. In order to show how this
+table is to be used we will take an imaginary example.
+
+Let us suppose that we find a plant with a square stem; opposite, simple
+leaves with netted veins; flowers apparently in whorls, in the axils of
+the leaves; persistent calyx of five united sepals; a lipped corolla, of
+five united petals, two forming the lower, and three the upper lip; four
+stamens, attached to the corolla, two longer than the others; a
+superior, four-lobed ovary; and a fruit of four little nuts; then we
+proceed to determine the natural order to which it belongs as follows:--
+
+The netted veins of the leaves, and the arrangement of the parts of
+the flower in whorls of four and five, show us at once that the plant
+is a _dicotyledon_. Then, the presence of both calyx and corolla
+enables us to decide that the plant belongs to Division I. of the
+dicotyledons--that it belongs to one of the orders 1 to 59. Noting, now,
+that the corolla is composed of united petals, we are enabled to fix its
+position in the subdivision I.B, among orders 37 to 59. Next, the
+superior ovary shows that it must be located in the group I.B 2--orders
+44 to 59; and as the stamens are attached to the corolla, we see at once
+that it is not a member of order 44. Turning now to the Synopsis of the
+Natural Orders (p. 17), we find that the irregular flowers of
+this group of orders occur only in 51, 52, 53, 54, and 56. Finally, the
+square stem, opposite leaves, and character of the fruit, show us that
+the plant must belong to the order _Labiatæ_.
+
+The student should, as far as possible, deal with all flowers in this
+manner, assigning each one to its proper order; and, if he preserves his
+specimens for future observation, the names of the orders should always
+be attached, and the plants arranged accordingly.
+
+Again, should the reader meet with a common flower the name of which was
+previously known, while he is as yet ignorant as to the order to which
+it belongs; or, should he find a flower that he can at once identify by
+means of one of our illustrations; he should not rest satisfied on
+seeing that the name of the order is given beside the name of the plant,
+but turn to the synopsis, and note the distinguishing characters which
+determine the natural position of the plant. In this way he will
+cultivate the habit of careful observation; will make much more rapid
+progress in forming an acquaintance with plants in general, and will
+soon become familiar with those natural affinities which mark, more or
+less distinctly, a cousinship among the flowers.
+
+To aid the reader in this part of his work we have given the name of the
+natural order with the name of every plant described; and, where
+difficulties are likely to occur in the identification of similar common
+species of the same genus, though perhaps only one member of the genus
+has been selected for description, a few notes are often included with
+the object of assisting in the identification of the others.
+
+In our descriptions of wild flowers we do not always repeat those
+features which are common to the species of their respective orders.
+These features are, however, of the greatest importance; and thus it is
+essential that the reader makes himself acquainted with them, by
+referring to the synopsis of the orders, before noting those characters
+which are given as being more directly concerned in the determination of
+the species themselves. Thus, when we describe the Pasque Flower (p.
+297) we do not refer to those general characters that apply to
+all the _Ranunculaceæ_ or Buttercup family, and which may be seen at
+once by referring to p. 17, but give all those details that are
+necessary to enable one to distinguish between the Pasque Flower and the
+other members of the same order.
+
+
+_Dicotyledons_
+
+(Leaves with netted veins. Parts of flower generally in fours or fives
+or multiples of four or five)
+
+I. Flowers with both calyx and corolla.
+
+ A. Corolla composed of free and separate petals.
+
+ 1. Stamens attached to base of flower, beneath the pistil--Orders
+ 1-22.
+
+ 2. Stamens attached above or around the pistil--Orders
+ 23-36.
+
+ B. Corolla of united petals.
+
+ 1. Ovary inferior.
+
+ _a._ Stamens on the corolla--Orders 37-41.
+
+ _b._ Stamens on the ovary--Orders 42-43.
+
+ 2. Ovary superior.
+
+ _a._ Stamens free from the corolla--Order 44.
+
+ _b._ Stamens on the corolla--Orders 45-59.
+
+II. Flowers with calyx or corolla or both absent.
+
+ A. Flowers with corolla absent, and, generally, with stamens
+ and pistil in the same flower.
+
+ 1. Ovary superior--Orders 60-64.
+
+ 2. Ovary inferior--Orders 65-67.
+
+ B. Corolla and calyx usually absent. Stamens and pistil
+ usually in separate flowers.
+
+ 1. Flowers not in catkins--Orders 68-71.
+
+ 2. Flowers in catkins--Orders 72-76.
+
+
+_Monocotyledons_
+
+(Leaves usually with parallel veins. Parts of flower in
+threes or multiples of three)
+
+ I. Perianth (see p. 11), coloured or petal-like, not scaly. (Sometimes
+absent.)
+
+ A. Ovary inferior.
+
+ 1. Leaves with parallel veins--Orders 77-80.
+
+ 2. Leaves with netted veins--Order 81.
+
+ B. Ovary superior--Orders 82-88.
+
+II. Flowers without perianth, enclosed in scales or husks.
+
+ A. Grassy herbs, with solid stems; leaves forming unsplit
+ sheaths round the stem; flowers in spikelets, with one
+ to three stamens--Order 89.
+
+ B. Grassy herbs, with hollow stems; leaves generally forming
+ split sheaths round the stem; flowers generally
+ perfect, with three stamens--Order 90.
+
+SYNOPSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS
+
+1. RANUNCULACEÆ.--Herbs mostly with alternate leaves and regular
+flowers. Sepals generally 5, distinct. Petals 5 or more. Stamens 12 or
+more. Pistil of many distinct carpels. Fruit of many one-seeded achenes.
+(The Buttercup Family.)
+
+2. BERBERIDACEÆ.--Shrub with compound spines; alternate, spiny leaves;
+and pendulous flowers. Sepals 6. Petals 6. Stamens 6. Fruit a berry.
+(The Berberry Family.)
+
+3. NYMPHÆACEÆ.--Aquatic plants with floating leaves and solitary
+flowers. Petals numerous, gradually passing into sepals outwards, and
+into stamens inwards. Ovary of many cells, with many seeds. (The
+Water-lily Family.)
+
+4. PAPAVERACEÆ.--Herbs with a milky sap; alternate leaves without
+stipules; and regular (generally nodding) flowers. Sepals 2, deciduous.
+Fruit a capsule. Petals 4. Stamens many. Ovary one-celled, but with many
+membranous, incomplete partitions. (The Poppy Family.)
+
+5. FUMARIACEÆ.--Herbs with much divided, exstipulate leaves; and racemes
+of small irregular, bracteate flowers. Sepals 2 or 0, deciduous. Petals
+4, irregular. Stamens 6, in two bundles. Ovary of two carpels,
+one-celled. (The Fumitory Family.)
+
+6. CRUCIFERÆ.--Herbs with alternate, exstipulate leaves, and racemes of
+regular flowers. Sepals 4. Petals 4, cruciform. Stamens 6, four longer
+and two shorter. Ovary one-or two-celled. Fruit a siliqua. (The Cabbage
+Family.)
+
+7. RESEDACEÆ.--Herbs or shrubs with alternate, exstipulate leaves; and
+spikes of irregular, greenish flowers. Sepals 4 or 5, persistent. Petals
+4 to 7, irregular. Stamens many. Ovary of 3 lobes, one-celled. (The
+Mignonette Family.)
+
+8. CISTACEÆ.--Herbs or undershrubs with entire, opposite leaves; and
+conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals 3 to 5. Petals 5, twisted in the
+bud. Stamens many. Ovary of 3 carpels, one-chambered. (The Rock-rose
+Family.)
+
+9. VIOLACEÆ.--Herbs with alternate, stipuled leaves; and axillary,
+irregular flowers. Sepals 5, persistent. Petals 5, unequal, the lower
+one prolonged into a spur. Stamens 5. Ovary of three carpels,
+one-celled. (The Violet Family.)
+
+10. DROSERACEÆ.--Small marsh plants with radical, glandular leaves; and
+cymes of small, white, regular flowers. Sepals 5. Petals 5. Stamens 5 or
+10. Ovary of 3 to 5 carpels, one-celled. (The Sundew Family.)
+
+11. POLYGALACEÆ.--Herbs with alternate, scattered, exstipulate, simple
+leaves; and racemes of irregular flowers. Sepals 5, the inner ones
+resembling petals. Petals 3 to 5, unequal. Stamens 8, in two bundles.
+Ovary two-celled. Fruit a capsule. (The Milkwort Family.)
+
+12. FRANKENIACEÆ.--Herb with opposite, exstipulate leaves; and small,
+axillary, red, regular flowers. Sepals 4 to 6, united into a tube.
+Petals 4 to 6. Stamens 4 to 6. Ovary of 2 to 5 carpels, one-celled. (The
+Sea Heath.)
+
+13. ELATINACEÆ.--Small aquatic herbs, with opposite, stipulate,
+spathulate leaves; and minute, axillary, red flowers. Sepals, petals and
+stamens 2 to 5. Fruit a capsule with 2 to 5 valves. (The Waterwort
+Family.)
+
+14. CARYOPHYLLACEÆ.--Herbs mostly with jointed stems; opposite, simple
+leaves; and red or white, regular flowers. Sepals 4 or 5. Petals 4 or 5.
+Stamens 8 or 10. Styles 2 to 5. Fruit a one-celled capsule, opening at
+top by teeth. (The Pink Family.)
+
+15. LINACEÆ.--Herbs with slender stems; narrow, simple, entire,
+exstipulate leaves; and cymes of regular flowers. Sepals, petals,
+stamens, and carpels 4 or 5. Petals twisted in the bud, fugacious
+(falling early). Carpels each with two ovules. Fruit a capsule of 3 to 5
+cells. (The Flax Family.)
+
+16. MALVACEÆ.--Herbs or shrubs with alternate, stipuled leaves; and
+conspicuous, axillary, regular flowers. Sepals 5. Petals 5, twisted in
+the bud. Stamens many, united into a tube. Carpels many, each with one
+ovule. (The Mallow Family.)
+
+17. TILIACEÆ.--Trees with alternate, stipuled, oblique, serrate leaves;
+a large bract adherent to the flower stalk; and cymes of greenish,
+regular flowers. Sepals and petals 5. Stamens many. Carpels 5, each with
+two ovules. (The Linden Family.)
+
+18. HYPERICACEÆ.--Herbs or shrubs with opposite, simple, exstipulate
+leaves, often dotted with glands; and cymes of conspicuous yellow,
+regular flowers. Sepals 4 or 5, with glandular dots. Petals 4 or 5,
+twisted in the bud. Stamens many, united into several bundles. Carpels 3
+to 5, with many ovules. Fruit a capsule with 3 to 5 cells. (The St.
+John's-wort Family.)
+
+19. ACERACEÆ.--Trees with opposite, palmately-lobed leaves; and small,
+green, regular flowers. Sepals and petals 4 to 9. Stamens 8, on the
+disc. Fruit a samara. (The Maple Family.)
+
+20. GERANIACEÆ.--Herbs with lobed, generally stipulate leaves; and
+conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals 3 to 5, persistent. Petals 3 to 5.
+Stamens 5 to 10. Carpels 3 to 5, surrounding a long beak. (The
+Crane's-bill Family.)
+
+21. BALSAMINACEÆ.--Herbs with simple, alternate leaves; and axillary,
+irregular, yellow flowers. Sepals 3 or 5, one forming a wide-mouthed
+spur. Petals 5, four of which are united in pairs. Stamens 5. Fruit a
+capsule with five elastic valves. (The Balsam Family.)
+
+22. OXALIDACEÆ.--Low herbs, with radical, generally trifoliate leaves;
+and axillary, regular flowers. Sepals 5. Petals 5, united at the base.
+Stamens 10. Ovary five-celled, with many ovules. (The Wood Sorrel
+Family.)
+
+ * * * * *
+
+23. CELASTRACEÆ.--Trees or shrubs, with opposite leaves; and small,
+regular flowers in axillary cymes. Sepals and petals usually 4. Stamens
+usually 4, alternating with the petals. Carpels 4. Fruit a fleshy
+capsule. (Spindle Tree.)
+
+24. RHAMNACEÆ.--Shrubs with simple leaves; small, greenish flowers; and
+berry-like fruit. Sepals, petals, and stamens 4 or 5. Stamens opposite
+the petals. Ovary superior, three-celled, with one ovule in each cell.
+(The Buckthorn Family.)
+
+25. LEGUMINOSÆ.--Herbs or shrubs with alternate, stipuled leaves,
+generally pinnate or ternate, often tendrilled; and papilionaceous
+(butterfly-like) flowers. Sepals 5, combined. Petals 5, irregular.
+Stamens generally 10, all, or nine of them united. Ovary superior. Fruit
+a pod. (The Pea Family.)
+
+26. ROSACEÆ.--Trees, shrubs, or herbs with alternate, stipuled leaves;
+and conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals 4 or 5. Petals 4 or 5. Stamens
+many. Carpels 1, 2, 5, or many. (The Rose Family.)
+
+27. ONAGRACEÆ.--Herbs with mostly entire, simple, exstipulate leaves;
+and conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals 2 to 4. Petals 2 to 4, twisted
+in the bud, or absent. Stamens 2 to 4, or 8. Ovary inferior, with
+carpels 1 to 6 (usually 4), many-seeded. (The Willow-herb Family.)
+
+28. HALORAGIACEÆ.--Aquatic herbs with whorled leaves and minute flowers.
+Sepals 2 to 4 or absent. Petals 2 to 4 or absent. Stamens 1, 2, 4, or 8.
+Ovary inferior. Carpels 1 to 4. (The Mare's-tail Family.)
+
+29. LYTHRACEÆ.--Herbs with opposite or whorled, entire leaves; and
+conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals, and petals 3 to 6. Stamens
+generally twice as many as petals. Ovary superior. Carpels 2 to 6. Fruit
+a many-seeded capsule. (The Loosestrife Family.)
+
+30. TAMARISCACEÆ.--Shrub with minute, scale-like leaves; and lateral
+spikes of small, regular flowers. Sepals and petals 4 or 5. Stamens 4 to
+10, on the disc. Styles 3. (The Tamarisk.)
+
+31. CUCURBITACEÆ.--Rough, climbing herb, with tendrilled,
+palmately-lobed leaves; greenish, dioecious flowers in axillary
+racemes; and scarlet berries. Sepals and petals 5, united. Stamens 3.
+Ovary inferior. Carpels 3. (The White Bryony.)
+
+32. SAXIFRAGACEÆ.--Shrubs and herbs with regular flowers. Sepals and
+petals 4 or 5. Stamens 4 or 10. Carpels 2 or 4, united. (The Saxifrage
+Family.)
+
+33. CRASSULACEÆ.--Succulent herbs with simple leaves; and small,
+regular, starry flowers. Sepals, petals, and carpels 3 to 20, usually 5.
+Stamens twice as many as the petals. Carpels superior, forming
+follicles. (The Stonecrop Family.)
+
+34. ARALIACEÆ.--Climbing shrub with clinging rootlets, evergreen leaves,
+umbels of yellowish flowers, and black berries. Sepals, petals, stamens,
+carpels, and seeds 5 each. Ovary inferior. (The Ivy.)
+
+35. CORNACEÆ.--Herbs and shrubs with opposite leaves, small flowers, and
+berry-like fruits. Sepals, petals, and stamens 4 or 5. Ovary inferior.
+Carpels 2, each with one ovule. (The Dogwood Family.)
+
+36. UMBELLIFERÆ.--Herbs with mostly compound, pinnate leaves, sheathing
+at the base; and compound umbels of small, white flowers. Sepals,
+petals, and stamens 5. Ovary inferior. Fruit of two adhering carpels.
+(The Parsley Family.)
+
+ * * * * *
+
+37. CAPRIFOLIACEÆ.--Shrubs and herbs with opposite leaves, and
+conspicuous (sometimes irregular) flowers. Sepals and petals 3 to 5.
+Stamens 4 to 10. Fruit a berry. (The Honeysuckle Family.)
+
+38. RUBIACEÆ.--Herbs with whorled leaves; and small, regular flowers.
+Sepals, petals, and stamens 4 to 6. Carpels 2. (The Bedstraw Family.)
+
+39. VALERIANACEÆ.--Herbs with opposite leaves and small (sometimes
+irregular) flowers. Sepals 3 to 5, often downy. Petals 3 to 5. Stamens 1
+or 3. Ovary of three carpels, one-celled. (The Valerian Family.)
+
+40. DIPSACEÆ.--Herbs with opposite leaves; and heads of small flowers,
+mostly blue. Calyx enclosed in a whorl of scaly bracts. Petals 4 or 5.
+Stamens 4, free. Ovary one-celled and one-seeded. (The Teasel Family.)
+
+41. COMPOSITÆ.--Herbs with heads of small flowers with tubular or
+strap-shaped corollas. Calyx absent or represented by a whorl of silky
+hairs (pappus). Stamens 4 or 5, anthers generally united. (The Daisy
+Family.)
+
+ * * * * *
+
+42. CAMPANULACEÆ.--Herbs with milky sap; alternate, entire, scattered
+leaves; and usually conspicuous, blue, regular flowers. Sepals, petals,
+and stamens 5. Ovary of 2 to 8 carpels. (The Bellflower Family.)
+
+43. VACCINIACEÆ.--Low (mostly mountainous) shrubs, with scattered,
+simple, alternate leaves; small drooping, reddish or pink, regular
+flowers; and edible berries. Sepals, petals, and carpels 4 or 5. Stamens
+8 or 10. (The Cranberry Family.)
+
+ * * * * *
+
+44. ERICACEÆ.--Shrubs or herbs with opposite or whorled, evergreen
+leaves; and small conspicuous, regular, flowers. Sepals, petals, and
+carpels 4 or 5. Stamens 5 to 10. (The Heath Family.)
+
+ * * * * *
+
+45. AQUIFOLIACEÆ.--Shrub with evergreen, spiny leaves; and small,
+greenish, regular flowers. Sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels 4 or 5.
+Fruit berry-like, with one-seeded stones. (The Holly.)
+
+46. OLEACEÆ.--Trees or shrubs with opposite leaves; and small, regular
+flowers. Sepals and petals 4, sometimes absent. Stamens 2. Fruit a berry
+or a samara. (The Olive Family.)
+
+47. APOCYNACEÆ.--Slender, prostrate shrubs, with milky sap; opposite,
+evergreen, entire leaves; and conspicuous, regular, purple flowers.
+Sepals, petals, and stamens 5. Corolla salver-shaped. (The Periwinkle
+Family.)
+
+48. GENTIANACEÆ.--Bitter herbs with opposite, simple, entire leaves; and
+regular, conspicuous flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 4 to 10.
+Carpels 2. Fruit a capsule. (The Gentian Family.)
+
+49. CONVOLVULACEÆ.--Herbs, generally twining, with alternate, simple
+leaves (sometimes absent); and mostly conspicuous, regular flowers.
+Sepals, petals, and stamens 4 or 5. Ovary two-or four-celled. Fruit a
+four-seeded capsule. (The Bindweed Family.)
+
+50. SOLANACEÆ.--Herbs or shrubs with alternate leaves, and axillary
+cymes of regular flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 5. Ovary
+two-celled. Fruit berry-like or a capsule, many seeded. (The Nightshade
+Family.)
+
+51. SCROPHULARIACEÆ.--Herbs with mostly irregular, lipped flowers.
+Sepals and petals 4 or 5. Stamens 2, or 4, two longer than the others.
+Carpels 2. Fruit a many-seeded capsule. (The Figwort Family.)
+
+52. OROBANCHACEÆ.--Fleshy, brown, parasitic plants, with scattered
+scale-leaves; and mostly brownish, irregular flowers. Sepals 4 or 5.
+Petals 5, lipped. Stamens 4, two longer than the others. Carpels 2.
+Fruit a one-chambered, many-seeded capsule. (The Broom-rape Family.)
+
+53. VERBENACEÆ.--An erect, branched herb, with opposite leaves; and a
+compound spike of small, irregular flowers. Sepals and petals 5. Corolla
+lipped. Stamens 4, two longer than the others. Ovary four-celled. Fruit
+of 4 nutlets. (The Vervain.)
+
+54. LABIATÆ.--Herbs, mostly aromatic, with square stems, opposite
+leaves, and whorls or cymes of irregular flowers. Sepals and petals 5.
+Corolla usually lipped. Stamens 4 (rarely 2), two longer than the
+others. Fruit of 4 one-seeded nutlets. (The Dead Nettle Family.)
+
+55. BORAGINACEÆ.--Herbs, mostly rough, with alternate, simple leaves;
+and spikes of conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens
+5. Carpels 2. Fruit of 4 one-seeded nutlets. (The Borage Family.)
+
+56. LENTIBULARIACEÆ.--Insectivorous, marsh herbs, with radical, entire
+leaves, or much-divided floating leaves with bladders; and conspicuous,
+irregular flowers. Sepals and petals 5. Corolla usually lipped. Stamens
+2. Fruit a one-chambered, many-seeded capsule. (The Butterwort Family.)
+
+57. PRIMULACEÆ.--Herbs, mostly with radical leaves; and conspicuous,
+regular flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 4 to 9. Stamens opposite
+the petals. Ovary one-celled, with free central placenta. Fruit a
+many-seeded capsule. (The Primrose Family.)
+
+58. PLUMBAGINACEÆ.--Herbs, mostly maritime, with radical or alternate
+leaves; and mostly blue, regular flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 5.
+Stamens opposite the petals, and usually free. Carpels 3 to 5. Ovary
+one-celled and one-seeded. (The Thrift Family.)
+
+59. PLANTAGINACEÆ.--Herbs with (generally) simple, entire, radical
+leaves; and spikes of greenish flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 4.
+Corolla scaly. Carpels usually 2 or 4. Fruit a one-to four-chambered
+capsule. (The Plantain Family.)
+
+_Note._--_Plants in which calyx or corolla are, or appear to be, absent
+occur in orders_ 1, 6, 14, 26, 27, 28, 29, and 32.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+60. AMARANTHACEÆ.--A smooth, prostrate herb, with scattered, stalked,
+exstipulate, simple leaves; and small, axillary, green, monoecious
+flowers. Sepals and stamens 3 to 5. (The Amaranth.)
+
+61. CHENOPODIACEÆ.--Herbs with simple, exstipulate leaves, or leafless,
+jointed stems; and small green flowers. Sepals 3 to 5, persistent.
+Stamens 1 to 5, opposite the sepals. Fruit indehiscent. (The Goosefoot
+Family.)
+
+62. POLYGONACEÆ.--Herbs with sheathing stipules; alternate, simple
+leaves; and small flowers. Sepals 3 to 6, green or coloured, usually
+persistent. Stamens 5 to 8. Fruit indehiscent. (The Dock Family.)
+
+63. ELEAGNACEÆ.--A shrub with silvery scales; alternate, entire,
+exstipulate leaves; and inconspicuous, dioecious flowers. Sepals 2 to
+4, persistent. Stamens 4. Fruit berry-like. (The Sea Buckthorn.)
+
+64. THYMELACEÆ.--Shrubs with tough inner bark; simple, entire,
+exstipulate leaves; and conspicuous, perfect, sweet-scented flowers.
+Sepals 4. Stamens 8. Fruit berry-like. (The Spurge Laurel Family.)
+
+ * * * * *
+
+65. LORANTHACEÆ.--A green, parasitic, much branched shrub, with
+opposite, simple, entire leaves; inconspicuous, dioecious flowers; and
+whitish viscid berries. Sepals and stamens 4. Ovary one-chambered. Berry
+one-seeded. (The Mistletoe.)
+
+66. ARISTOLOCHIACEÆ.--Herbs and climbing shrubs, with alternate leaves
+and perfect flowers. Sepals 2 or 3, sometimes coloured, sometimes
+lipped. Ovary with 4 to 6 chambers, containing many ovules. (The
+Birthwort Family.)
+
+67. SANTALACEÆ.--A slender, prostrate, root-parasite, with alternate,
+linear leaves; and inconspicuous, perfect flowers. Sepals and stamens 4
+or 5. Ovary one-celled. Fruit dry, one-seeded. (The Bastard Toad-flax.)
+
+ * * * * *
+
+68. EMPETRACEÆ.--A mountain, evergreen, resinous shrub, with alternate,
+narrow leaves; and inconspicuous, dioecious flowers. Perianth of 6
+scales. Stamens 3. Ovary of 3 to 9 cells, with one ovule in each cell.
+(The Crowberry.)
+
+69. EUPHORBIACEÆ.--Trees, shrubs, or herbs, generally with a milky sap;
+simple, entire leaves; and small, inconspicuous flowers, sometimes
+enclosed in calyx-like bracts. Perianth of 3 or 4 parts, or absent.
+Stamens 1 or many. Fruit separating into 2 or 3 carpels elastically.
+(The Spurge Family.)
+
+70. URTICACEÆ.--Herbs, often with simple, stinging leaves; and small,
+green, clustered, unisexual flowers. Stamens 4 or 5, opposite the
+sepals. Ovary superior, one-celled. Fruit indehiscent. (The Nettle
+Family.)
+
+71. ULMACEÆ.--Trees with alternate, distichous leaves, and perfect
+flowers. Perianth of 4 or 5 parts, bell-shaped. Stamens 4 or 5. Ovary
+superior, with one or two cells. Fruit a thin, one-seeded samara. (The
+Elm Family.)
+
+ * * * * *
+
+72. CUPULIFERÆ.--Trees or shrubs with alternate, stipuled, simple
+leaves; and small, green flowers. Perianth of 5 or 6 parts. Stamens 5 to
+20. Fruit a nut, enclosed in a tough cupule. (The Oak Family.)
+
+73. BETULACEÆ.--Trees or shrubs with alternate leaves and small flowers.
+Stamens 1 or more. Fruit small, indehiscent, winged, not enclosed in a
+cup. (The Birch Family.)
+
+74. SALICACEÆ.--Trees with alternate, simple leaves; and flowers which
+generally appear before the leaves. Stamens one or more to each scale.
+Fruit many-seeded, not enclosed in a cup. (The Willow Family.)
+
+75. MYRICACEÆ.--A small aromatic shrub, with alternate, simple leaves;
+and inconspicuous flowers. Stamens 4 to 8. Fruit a drupe. (The Bog
+Myrtle.)
+
+76. CONIFERÆ.[1]--Shrubs or trees with rigid evergreen, linear leaves;
+and resinous juices. Male flowers in catkins. Female flowers generally
+in cones. Seeds not enclosed in an ovary. (The Pine Family.)
+
+
+[1] The members of the Pine family do not really belong to the
+Dicotyledons, although their stems increase in thickness in the same way
+as those of our other trees and shrubs. They belong to the _Gymnosperms_
+(naked-seeded group), in which the seeds are not produced in ovaries;
+but it is more convenient, for our present purpose, to place them near
+our other forest trees.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+77. ORCHIDACEÆ.--Herbs mostly with tuberous roots, and conspicuous,
+irregular, perfect flowers in spikes or racemes. Sepals, petals, and
+carpels 3. Stamens 1 or 2, united to the style. (The Orchid Family.)
+
+78. IRIDACEÆ.--Herbs with fleshy, underground stems; narrow leaves; and
+handsome, irregular, perfect flowers. Perianth of 6 parts. Stamens and
+carpels 3. Ovary 3-celled. Fruit a many-seeded capsule with three
+valves. (The Iris Family.)
+
+79. AMARYLLIDACEÆ.--Herbs with bulbs, narrow leaves, and handsome,
+regular, perfect flowers. Perianth of 6 parts. Stamens 6. Ovary
+3-celled. Fruit a 3-valved capsule. (The Narcissus Family.)
+
+80. HYDROCHARIDACEÆ.--Aquatic herbs, with floating or submerged leaves;
+and conspicuous, regular, dioecious flowers. Sepals and petals 3.
+Stamens 3 to 12. Carpels 3 or 6. Fruit a berry. (The Frog-bit Family.)
+
+ * * * * *
+
+81. DIOSCORIACEÆ.--A climbing herb, with broad, glossy leaves; and
+small, monoecious flowers. Sepals, petals, and carpels 3. Stamens 6.
+Ovary 3-celled. Fruit a berry. Seeds 6. (The Black Bryony.)
+
+ * * * * *
+
+82. LILIACEÆ.--Herbs with mostly narrow leaves, and conspicuous,
+regular, perfect flowers. Perianth of 6 parts, Stamens 6. Ovary
+3-celled. Fruit a berry or capsule. (The Lily Family.)
+
+83. ALISMACEÆ.--Aquatic plants with radical, net-veined leaves; and
+conspicuous, white, perfect flowers. Perianth of 6 parts. Stamens 6 or
+more. Carpels numerous, and distinct or nearly so. (The Water-plantain
+Family.)
+
+84. NAIDACEÆ.--Aquatic plants with mostly floating or submerged leaves;
+and inconspicuous flowers. Perianth of 4 to 6 scales, or absent. Stamens
+and carpels 1 to 6. (The Pond-weed Family.)
+
+85. LEMNACEÆ.--Minute floating plants, with green, cellular fronds,
+rarely flowering. Flowers very small, enclosed in a bract. Stamen 1.
+Ovary one-celled. Ovules 1 to 7. (The Duckweed Family.)
+
+86. ARACEÆ.--Herbs with net-veined, radical leaves; and small flowers on
+a fleshy spadix enclosed in a leafy sheath. Perianth of 6 parts, or
+absent. Stamens 1 to 6. Ovary of one to three cells. Fruit berry-like.
+(The Cuckoo Pint Family.)
+
+87. TYPHACEÆ.--Erect marsh plants, with long, narrow leaves; and small
+monoecious flowers in conspicuous spikes or heads. Perianth absent.
+Stamens many. Fruit a one-seeded drupe. (The Reed-mace Family.)
+
+88. JUNCACEÆ.--Rush-like herbs, with cylindrical or narrow leaves, and
+small, brown flowers. Perianth membranous, of 6 parts. Stamens 6.
+Carpels 3. Fruit a 3-valved capsule. (The Rush Family.)
+
+ * * * * *
+
+89. CYPERACEÆ.--Grassy herbs, with usually solid, triangular stems; and
+linear leaves, with tubular sheaths. Flowers in spikelets, unisexual or
+perfect. Stamens 1 to 3. Carpels and stigmas 2 or 3. (The Sedge Family.)
+
+90. GRAMINEÆ.--Grassy herbs, with hollow stems; and linear leaves, with
+split sheaths. Flowers usually perfect. Stamens usually 3. Stigmas 1 or
+2. (The Grass Family.)
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+THE POLLINATION AND FERTILISATION OF FLOWERS
+
+
+Since flowers are the reproductive organs of the plant it seems only
+natural to suppose that the wonderful variety of colour and form which
+they exhibit might have some connexion with the processes concerned in
+the propagation of their respective species, and the more we study the
+nature of the flowers and observe the methods by which pollen is
+transferred from stamens to stigmas, the stronger becomes our conviction
+that the diversities mentioned are all more or less connected with the
+one great function of reproduction.
+
+This being the case, we propose to devote a short chapter to a simple
+account of the uses of the parts of a flower, and to the various
+contrivances on the part of the plant to secure the surest and best
+means of perpetuating the species.
+
+It has already been stated that the stamens produce pollen cells, and
+that the ovary contains one or more ovules. As soon as the anthers are
+mature, they open and set free the pollen cells they contained. A stigma
+is said to be mature when it exposes a sticky surface to which pollen
+cells may adhere, and on which these cells will grow. When a pollen cell
+has been transferred to such a stigma, it is nourished by the fluid
+secreted by the latter, and sends out a slender, hollow filament (the
+pollen tube) which immediately begins to descend through the stigma, and
+through the style, if any, till it reaches the ovary.
+
+[Illustration: POLLEN CELLS THROWING OUT THEIR TUBES]
+
+Should the reader desire to watch the growth of the pollen tubes, he can
+easily do so by shaking some pollen cells (preferably large ones, such
+as those of some lilies) on to a solution of sugar, and watching them at
+intervals with the aid of a lens. In the course of a few hours the
+pollen tubes will be seen to protrude, and these eventually grow to a
+considerable length.
+
+In order that the ovules of a flower may develop into seeds, it is
+necessary that they become impregnated by pollen from the anthers of the
+same species, and this is brought about in the following manner: The
+pollen cells having been transferred by some means to the mature stigma,
+they adhere to the surface of the latter, and, deriving their
+nourishment from the secretion of the stigmatic cells, as above
+described, proceed to throw out their tubes. These tubes force their way
+between the cells of the stigma and style, and enter the ovary. Each
+tube then finds its way to one of the ovules, which it enters by means
+of a minute opening in its double coat called the micropyle, penetrates
+the embryo-sac, and reaches the ovum or egg-cell. The ovule is now
+impregnated or fertilised, and the result is that the ovum divides and
+subdivides into more and more cells till at last an embryo plant is
+built up. The ovule has thus become a seed, and its further development
+into a mature plant depends on its being transferred to a suitable soil,
+with proper conditions as to heat and moisture.
+
+If the flower concerned is a perfect one, and the ovules are impregnated
+by pollen from its own anthers, it is said to be self-fertilised; but if
+the pollen cells that fertilise the ovules have been transferred from a
+distinct flower, it is said to be cross-fertilised.
+
+Now, it has been observed that although self-fertilisation will give
+rise to satisfactory results in some instances, producing seeds which
+develop into strong offspring, cross-fertilisation will, as a rule,
+produce better seeds. In fact, self-fertilisation is not at all common
+among flowers, and the pollen has frequently no effect unless it has
+been transferred from another flower. In a few cases it has been found
+that the pollen even acts as a poison when it is deposited on the stigma
+of the same flower, causing it to shrivel up and die. In many instances
+the structure and growth of the flower is such that self-pollination is
+absolutely impossible; and where it is possible the seedlings resulting
+from the process are often very weak.
+
+It has already been hinted that the wonderful variety of form and colour
+exhibited by flowers has some connexion with this important matter of
+the transfer of pollen, and the reader who is really interested in the
+investigation of the significance of this great diversity will find it a
+most charming study to search into the advantages (to the flower) of
+the different peculiarities presented, especially if he endeavours to
+confirm his conclusions by direct observations of the methods by which
+the pollen cells are distributed to the stigmas.
+
+Pollen cells are usually distributed either by the agency of the wind or
+by insects; and it is generally easy to determine, by the nature of the
+flower itself, which is the method peculiar to its species.
+
+A wind-pollinated flower is generally very inconspicuous. It produces no
+nectar, which forms the food of such a large number of insects, and has
+no gaudy perianth, nor does it emit any odour such as would be likely to
+attract these winged creatures. Its anthers generally shed an abundance
+of pollen, to compensate for the enormous loss naturally entailed in the
+wasteful process of wind-distribution, and the pollen is so loosely
+attached that it is carried away by the lightest breeze. Further, the
+anthers are never protected from the wind, but protrude well out of the
+flower; and the stigma or stigmas, which are also exposed, have a
+comparatively large area of sticky surface, and are often hairy or
+plumed in such a manner that they form effectual traps for the capture
+of the floating pollen cells.
+
+An insect-pollinated flower, on the other hand, has glands (_nectaries_)
+for the production of nectar, and its perianth is usually of such a
+conspicuous nature that it serves as a signal to attract the insects to
+the feast. (In some instances the individual flowers are very small, but
+these are generally produced in such clusters that they become
+conspicuous through their number.) Often it emits a scent which assists
+in guiding the insects to their food. Its stamens are generally so well
+protected by the perianth that the pollen is not likely to be removed
+except by the insects that enter the flower; and the supply of pollen is
+usually not so abundant as in the wind-pollinated species, for the
+insects, travelling direct from flower to flower, convey the cells with
+greater economy. The stigmas, too, are generally smaller, and are
+situated in such a position that, when mature, they are rubbed by that
+portion of the insect's body which is already dusted with pollen.
+
+As we watch the nectar-feeding insects at work, we not only observe that
+the flowers they visit possess the general characters given above as
+common to the insect-pollinated species, but also that, in many
+instances, the structure of the flower is such that the transfer of
+pollen from anthers to stigma could only be accomplished by the
+particular kind of insect which it feeds. Various contrivances are also
+adopted by many flowers to attract the insects which are most useful to
+them, and to exclude those species which would deprive them of nectar
+and pollen without aiding in the work of pollination. Thus, some flowers
+are best pollinated by the aid of certain nocturnal insects, which they
+attract at night by the expansion of their pale-coloured corollas and by
+the emission of fragrant perfumes. These close their petals by day in
+order to economise their stores and protect their parts from injury
+while their helpers are at rest. Others require the help of day-flying
+insects: these are expanded while their fertilisers are on the wing, and
+sleep throughout the night.
+
+We do not propose to give detailed accounts of the various stratagems by
+which flowers secure the aid of insects in this short chapter. Several
+examples are given in connexion with the descriptions of flowers in
+subsequent pages, but a few typical instances, briefly outlined here,
+will give the reader some idea of features which should be observed as
+flowers are being examined.
+
+In many flowers the anthers and the stigma are not mature at the same
+time, and consequently self-pollination is quite impossible. With these
+it often happens that the anthers and stigma alternately occupy the same
+position, so that the same part of the body of an insect which becomes
+dusted with pollen in one flower rubs against the stigma of another.
+
+Other flowers, such as the Forget-me-not, in which both stamens and
+stigma are ripe together, project their stigmas above the stamens at
+first, in order that an insect from another flower might touch the
+stigma before it reaches the stamens, and thus cross-pollinate them; and
+their stamens are afterwards raised by the lengthening of the corolla
+until they touch the stigma. Thus the flowers attempt to secure
+cross-pollination; but, failing this, pollinate themselves.
+
+In the Common Arum or Cuckoo Pint, described on p. 106, we have
+an example of a flower of peculiar construction, surrounded by a very
+large bract in which insects are imprisoned and fed until the anthers
+are mature, and then set free in order that they might carry the pollen
+to another flower of which the stigmas are ripe.
+
+Sometimes the flowers of the same species assume two or three different
+forms as far as the lengths of the stamens and pistils are concerned,
+the anthers of one being of just the same height as the stigma of
+another, so that the pollen from the former will dust that portion of
+the body of the insect which rubs against the latter Examples are to be
+found among the Primulas, and in the Purple Loosestrife, both of which
+are described in their place.
+
+In some flowers the stamens are irritable, rising in such a manner as to
+strike the insects that visit them; and in these cases the anthers
+almost invariably deposit pollen on that portion of the insect's body
+which is most likely to come in contact with the stigma of the next
+flower visited. Again, in Sages, the anthers are so arranged that they
+are made to swing, as on a see-saw, to exactly the same end.
+
+These few examples will suffice to show that the structure and
+conformation of flowers are subservient to the one great purpose of
+securing the most suitable means of the distribution of pollen, and the
+student who recognises and studies the various forms of flowers in this
+connexion will find his work in the field doubly interesting.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+CLIMBING PLANTS
+
+
+Many plants have stems which grow to a considerable length, and which
+are at the same time too weak to support the plants in the erect
+position. A considerable number of these show no tendency to assume an
+upward direction, but simply trail along the surface of the ground,
+often producing root fibres at their nodes to give them a firmer hold on
+the soil and to absorb additional supplies of water and mineral food.
+Some, however, grow in the midst of the shrubs and tall herbage of
+thickets and hedgerows, or in some other position in which it becomes
+necessary to strive for a due proportion of light, and such plants would
+stand but a small chance in the struggle for existence if they did not
+develop some means of securing a favourable position among their
+competitors.
+
+These latter are collectively spoken of as climbing plants; but it is
+interesting to note that in their seedling stage they are all erect, and
+it is only after they reach a certain height that they commence to
+assume some definite habit by which they obtain the necessary support,
+or to develop special organs by which they can cling to objects near
+them.
+
+Some climbers produce no special organs for the purpose of fastening
+themselves to surrounding objects, but trust entirely to the wandering
+and more or less zig-zag nature of their feeble stems, and thus reach
+the open light merely by a process of interweaving, as in the case of
+the Hedge Bedstraw (_Galium mollugo_). Others adopt this same method of
+interweaving, but at the same time develop some kind of appendages to
+give them additional support. Thus, the Rough Water Bedstraw (_G.
+uliginosum_), which sometimes reaches a height of four or five feet, has
+recurved bristles all along its slender stem, and these serve as so many
+little hooks, holding the plant securely on to the neighbouring rank
+herbage of the marsh or swamp in which it grows, while the rigid leaves
+further assist by catching in the angles of surrounding stems.
+
+Another good example is to be seen in the common Goose-grass or Cleavers
+(_G. aparine_) of our hedgerows, which also reaches a height of four or
+five feet, and clings very effectually by means of the hooked bristles
+of its stems and leaves.
+
+The Marsh Speedwell (_Veronica scutellata_), though it grows to a height
+of only one foot, is too weak to stand erect without support, and it has
+quite a novel method of securing the aid of the plants among which it
+grows. Its two topmost leaves at first stand erect over the terminal
+bud, so that they are easily pushed through the spaces in the
+surrounding herbage as the stem lengthens. They then diverge, and even
+turn slightly downwards, thus forming two supporting arms, the holding
+power of which is further increased by the down-turned teeth of their
+margins. This process is repeated by the new pairs of leaves formed at
+the growing summit of the stem, with the result that the plant easily
+retains the erect position.
+
+[Illustration: PRICKLES OF THE WILD ROSE.]
+
+The Wild Roses and Brambles growing in the hedgerows support themselves
+among the other shrubby growths by the interlacing of their stems, but
+are also greatly aided by the abundance of prickles with which these
+stems are armed. The prickles, even if erect, would afford considerable
+assistance in this respect; but it may be observed that they are
+generally directed downwards, and often very distinctly curved in this
+direction, and so serve to suspend the weak stems at numerous points.
+
+We often find the Bramble growing in abundance on heaths and downs, in
+situations where suitable props do not exist. In this case the younger
+shrubs simply trail along the ground, or form low arches as the weight
+of the stems and their appendages cause the apex to bend to the ground.
+Yet if we turn to the older shrubs of several years' growth we find that
+they have succeeded in reaching a height of some feet. The first stems
+of these shrubs formed low arches as we have just described, and then
+they gave rise to branches which were first erect, but were afterwards
+bent downwards in the same manner, forming arches rising higher than
+their predecessors. This continued, year after year, till at last a long
+series of stems, forming arch above arch, reached the present height,
+the older stems, at the bottom, now dead, serving to support the whole
+mass above.
+
+[Illustration: IVY, SHOWING THE ROOTLETS OR SUCKERS.]
+
+Some climbing stems produce little roots by means of which they can
+cling firmly to available supports. Such are very common among tropical
+plants, but our Ivy affords a splendid example. The roots so formed may
+appear in clusters at special points of the stem, or in long lines
+running longitudinally on it, and they are produced on trailers as well
+as on climbers. In fact, we can draw no fine distinction between the
+former and the latter in this respect, and even the Ivy will sometimes
+trail along the ground after the manner of the Periwinkle, which roots
+itself at several points as it proceeds.
+
+The rootlets of the Ivy and other climbers of the same habit always
+avoid the light; and if they are not originally formed on the side of
+the stem facing the supporting surface, they soon turn towards the
+latter, and give rise to little clinging suckers that firmly adhere. If
+they come in contact with a bare rock, or with a surface from which no
+nutriment can be derived, they serve the one purpose of clinging only;
+but if they reach even a small amount of nutritive soil, they produce
+absorbent fibres that are capable of extracting food.
+
+The ivy usually clings to the bark of trees or to old walls, the
+crevices of which often contain some small amount of transported soil,
+or more or less organic soil formed by the growth and decay of low forms
+of vegetable life; and thus the tree is enabled to obtain a little food
+from the objects that give it the necessary mechanical support.
+
+The well-known Virginian Creeper (_Ampelopsis_) produces rootlets by
+means of which it can cling to very smooth surfaces. Its light-avoiding
+'tendrils' always turn to the wall or other supporting body; and, on
+coming in contact with it, give off little branches which diverge like
+the toes of the tree-frog, and produce little adhesive discs which hold
+on firmly by the aid of a sticky secretion.
+
+Perhaps the most interesting of all climbing plants are those which
+twine their stems around the props afforded by the neighbouring growths.
+As before stated, the stems of these plants are erect when very young;
+but after they have reached a certain height the top of the stem bends
+to one side, and then, as the growth proceeds, it turns slowly round and
+round, describing a circle in the horizontal plane, thus seeking some
+support round which it can twine.
+
+The rate at which the top of the stem revolves varies in different
+plants, and also in the same plant according to the temperature and
+other conditions affecting the growth. In some species the upper portion
+describes a complete circle in less than two hours during warm weather,
+while in others a single revolution may occupy one or two days.
+
+It will be seen, from the nature of these movements, that the revolving
+stem is far more likely to come in contact with erect, rather than with
+horizontal supports, and observations made on twining stems will show
+that they seldom fix themselves round supports which are placed
+horizontally or only on a slight incline. In fact, some of these stems
+seem quite unable to twist themselves spirally except round an axis
+that is either erect or forms a very large angle with the horizontal
+plane.
+
+Should the twining stem succeed in reaching a favourable prop, it
+immediately commences to bend itself round and round, forming a more or
+less compact spiral; and it is probable that the slight pressure, caused
+by the contact, acts as a stimulus which incites the peculiar mode of
+growth.
+
+The direction which the spiral takes is not always the same. In the Hop,
+Honeysuckle, and the Climbing Buckwheat or Black Bindweed, the direction
+is always the same as that of the hands of a clock; while in the
+Bindweeds the spiral is invariably contra-clockwise. Further, it is not
+possible to compel any species to turn in a direction opposite to that
+which it naturally follows. Its stem may be forcibly twined in the wrong
+direction any number of times, but the free end will always follow its
+natural course as soon as it is left undisturbed.
+
+[Illustration: STEM OF THE BINDWEED, TWINING TO THE LEFT.]
+
+Should the stem of a young twining plant fail to reach a suitable
+support, it bends over, not being sufficiently rigid to support itself,
+and at last the apex reaches the ground. Then, starting afresh from this
+second position of rest, it begins to ascend, and its upper end again
+commences to revolve as before. The chances are that it will, from this
+second position, find something round which it can twine; but failing
+this its summit may again and again bend to the ground, thus renewing
+its attempts from various positions more or less distant from one
+another, and in each effort so made the revolving upper end of the stem
+gradually lengthens, and describes a larger and larger circle in search
+for a favourable prop.
+
+A twining stem sometimes has the advantage of additional support
+afforded by the stiff nature of the base of the stem, which is often
+rendered still more rigid by a twist or torsion resembling that of the
+strands of a rope. Such advantage is often still further increased by
+the presence of longitudinal ridges of the stem, frequently bearing rows
+of hooked prickles or hairs that hold on to any object touched. Again,
+the base of the stem, even though it reaches nothing round which it can
+twine, sometimes takes the form of a spiral, thus forming a good
+foundation for the upper portion as it seeks out a convenient prop. Yet
+another contrivance to secure the same end may be observed in the
+Greater Bindweed and some other plants. The stems, failing to secure a
+favourable hold, twine round one another, thus producing a kind of rigid
+cable for the support of the upper extremities as they revolve in order
+to find stems round which to form their spirals.
+
+Should all the methods and contrivances of the twining plant fail it in
+its attempts to secure an uppermost place among the surrounding herbage
+or shrubs, it is compelled to trail along the ground. But such a
+position is most disadvantageous and unnatural to it, and usually
+results in a stunted and sickly plant that may produce no flowers.
+
+Most of the twining plants of our country are of short duration. Many,
+like the Climbing Buckwheat, are annuals; while others, as the Hop and
+the Bindweeds, though they have perennial roots, produce fresh stems
+each season. The Honeysuckle and the Bittersweet, however, have
+perennial, woody stems which increase in thickness year by year, though
+the latter does not twine very much, and seems to take an intermediate
+place between the typical twiners and the plants which support
+themselves by merely interlacing their stems with the neighbouring
+plants or shrubs.
+
+[Illustration: STEM OF THE HOP, TWINING TO THE RIGHT.]
+
+Some twining stems are unable to form their spirals round thick
+supports, and after making some attempt to do so grow off at a tangent
+to seek some less bulky prop. It has been observed, for instance, that
+the Hop cannot grasp a pole that is more than four inches in diameter.
+
+In many cases, too, the spirals of the twining stem increase in diameter
+after they are first formed, and can thus adapt themselves to the
+increasing size of a living stem round which they have grown. The
+spirals of the Honeysuckle, however, do not increase in this way; and
+consequently, when they surround the trunk or branch of a young tree,
+the latter is constricted, often to such an extent that it is strangled
+and becomes stunted in its growth.
+
+Another class of climbing plants cling to their surroundings by means of
+tendrils, which are modifications of leaves or shoots that grow spirally
+like the stems we have been considering.
+
+Whatever be the origin of a tendril, it generally grows straight until
+it has reached some favourable support, and in order to obtain such
+support it performs circular movements similar to those of the tips of
+twining stems. Like these stems, too, the tendril is always sensitive,
+and forms a close spiral round the object it touches.
+
+Some tendrils will grow spirally without ever touching a support, but
+these often become stunted and wither, while those which reach and
+embrace a stem or other structure are apparently incited to a luxuriant
+growth by the stimulating effect of the pressure produced.
+
+When the tip of a tendril is successful in gripping a stem firmly, the
+portion behind it often takes part in the spiral movement, thus becoming
+shorter, and pulling the support towards its own plant in such a manner
+as to bring it within the reach of additional tendrils.
+
+Of course the tendrilled plants have a much better chance of securing a
+suitable support than the twiners, for the latter have to depend on the
+searching and clinging powers of but one structure, while the tendrils
+are usually very numerous on the same plant, and throw themselves out in
+all directions in search of the required aid. The production of tendrils
+as a means of support is also much more economical than the method of
+clinging by a twining stem, for the former are usually very slender,
+while the latter must necessarily be sufficiently thick to convey the
+nutritive requirements of the whole plant; and thus the process of
+clinging by tendrils is more in accordance with the usual economy of
+Nature.
+
+We have observed that twining stems can, as a rule, twine round only
+those supports which are erect or nearly so. This is not the case with
+tendrils, which are better adapted for twisting round horizontal stems
+and leafstalks. Often, too, they pass from one branch or leaf to
+another, and so secure the plant to which they belong by fastenings both
+above and below. Further, while the clasping part of a tendril often
+becomes hard and rigid, the portion between this and the plant may
+remain green and flexible. This latter portion also frequently forms a
+new spiral in the opposite direction, thus rendering the connexion
+between the plant and its support so supple and elastic that no damage
+is likely to accrue from the motions caused by the wind.
+
+The tendrils which form long spirals are generally modified stems or
+leaves, or they may be elongated leaflets of a compound leaf. Those
+which are modified stems may be distinguished by their growth from the
+axils of the leaves, denoting that they had their origin in axillary
+buds after the manner of branches generally; and also, sometimes, by the
+fact that they bear imperfect leaves in the form of little scales. The
+tendrils of the Common or White Bryony (p. 96) are of this
+nature; while those of the Grape Vine are either modified floral stems
+or altered flower-stalks.
+
+In some cases the entire leaf may be changed into a tendril, in which
+instance its true nature is revealed by the presence of a bud in its
+axil, as in many ordinary foliage leaves. More frequently, however, the
+'leaf-tendril' is an altered leaflet of a compound leaf, such as we see
+in the Peas and Vetches; and it is interesting to note in such cases
+that the loss entailed by the conversion of leaflets into tendrils is
+often compensated for by the formation of leaf-like stipules which are
+capable of performing the function of leaves. In fact, we often find
+that the size of the stipules is proportional to the number of tendrils
+produced; and that when the leaflets are considerably reduced in number
+by their conversion into tendrils, not only are the stipules large and
+leafy, but the stem itself may be extended laterally into broad
+wing-like expansions which do the work of foliage leaves.
+
+Interesting illustrations of this are to be found in the Yellow Vetch--a
+rather rare plant sometimes seen in sandy fields--in which all the
+leaves are converted entirely into tendrils, and their function
+performed by very large leafy stipules; also in the Narrow-leaved
+Everlasting Pea of bushy places, in which the leaflets of the compound
+leaves are all converted into tendrils with the exception of two, the
+work of which is aided by the stipules and by the 'wings' of the stem
+and petioles. In the Rough-podded Vetch, too, the stems and petioles are
+winged to serve the same end; and other British members of this genus
+have either large stipules or winged stems, or both, to compensate for
+the loss of leaflets that have been modified into tendrils.
+
+In other climbers the blade of the leaf is not reduced in size, even
+though the leaf serves the purpose of a tendril, the function of
+clinging being assigned exclusively to the petiole or leaf-stalk. This
+may be observed in the Wild Clematis and the Bryony, in both of which
+the petiole forms a ring round any branch or stem with which it comes in
+contact. These petioles are apparently equally sensitive on all sides,
+and are therefore ready to cling to any available support, whether above
+or below. In the Clematis the leaves are at first at right angles to the
+stem of the plant, but they afterwards turn downwards, and thus
+transform themselves into so many anchors which give additional aid in
+supporting the climber among the other hedgerow plants and shrubs.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+EARLY SPRING
+
+
+The work of the botanist is light during the early spring, especially if
+his attention is directed only to plants and trees in their flowering
+stages; but, to one whose ambition is to study Nature in all her varied
+phases, this season of the bursting of the bud, when all things are
+awakening into new life, is full of interest, and demands no small
+amount of time.
+
+The first flowers observed in the spring are mainly those hardy weeds
+which may be seen in bloom almost through the year, such as the
+Shepherd's Purse, Chickweed, Groundsel, White Dead Nettle, Red Dead
+Nettle, and Henbit Dead Nettle. These are soon followed by the Furze,
+Strawberry-leaved Cinquefoil, Snowdrop, Hazel, Common Whitlow-grass, and
+other flowers that are truly blossoms of the spring. All these will be
+described in turn, according to their various habitats; the object of
+the present short chapter being to note those signs of early spring
+which demand the attention of the lover of Nature while flowers are as
+yet few and inconspicuous.
+
+A ramble over bleak downs and moors during the cold days of early spring
+will probably reveal but little of interest in the way of vegetable
+life, but in sheltered vales and woods, copses, and protected waysides,
+there is much to be observed. Here it is that we find the hardy weeds
+which have continued to bloom throughout the winter months; the earliest
+of the spring flowers; the fresh green foliage of herbs and shrubs that,
+in more exposed situations, have been completely denuded; the first
+tender seedlings appearing above the ground long before the frosts are
+over; and the expanding 'leaf-buds' showing their green while elsewhere
+all life seems dormant.
+
+This is the season when the young botanist requires his notebook more
+than the collecting-book or vasculum; for his records of early flowers,
+and of the times of the appearance of the leaf in our trees and shrubs,
+will prove of great interest when compared with the corresponding events
+and times of other years. Not only do our spring seasons vary
+considerably from year to year in such a manner as to alter the general
+times of appearance of leaf and flower, but the vicissitudes of our
+climate even change the order in which these events occur.
+
+The general study of the buds of trees should commence before they begin
+to burst. We commonly speak of the buds as winter buds, but it should be
+known that they were formed in the preceding summer or autumn, and have
+remained dormant throughout the winter. There is usually a _terminal
+bud_ at the tip of each twig, and _lateral buds_ at the sides. If we
+examine a lateral bud we find immediately beneath it a more or less
+distinct scar, denoting the position of a leaf that fell in the autumn,
+thus showing that the bud in question was formed in the axil or angle of
+the leaf. These observations should be verified by examining the trees
+in autumn, while the leaves still exist.
+
+It is not sufficient that we are able to recognise trees when in leaf;
+they should be known equally or almost as well during the winter and
+early spring while the branches are bare, and this is usually easily
+accomplished by making ourselves acquainted with the general form of
+each tree as viewed from a distance, and, on closer inspection, with the
+nature of the bark and the character of the buds.
+
+All our forest trees are of the exogenous type; that is, their stems
+increase in thickness by the addition of new wood formed outside the
+older wood and underneath the bark. Thus the bark, which is composed of
+a layer or mass of dead, sapless cells, is gradually pushed outward as
+the stem thickens. The result is that the bark is either more or less
+fractured, as in the Elm and the Oak, or it flakes off and falls to the
+ground, as is the case with the Plane and the Birch. A new layer of bark
+is always formed during each summer, and this, in turn, either cracks or
+peels away; but while, in the former instance, the accumulated bark
+presents a very rugged appearance, and becomes very thick, in the latter
+case it remains smooth, and is always thin.
+
+Then again, how are we to account for the great variety in the general
+forms of our different trees--the irregular, crooked nature of the Oak;
+the slender, but denser branching of the airy Birch; and the tall,
+pyramidal form of the Lombardy Poplar? All this is easily understood if
+we carefully observe the positions of the buds as seen during the winter
+months; and watch the development of these buds during early spring.
+
+[Illustration: TREES IN WINTER OR EARLY SPRING
+1. Hazel, with catkins. 2. Ash. 3. Oak. 4. Lime, with remains of the
+last season's fruits.]
+
+If the buds are irregularly scattered on the twigs, the lateral buds
+being as strongly developed as the terminal ones, while, in the spring,
+as is often the case, certain only of the buds develop into new twigs,
+the others remaining dormant, then the branches assume that irregular,
+crooked appearance so characteristic of the Oak. If, on the other hand,
+all the terminal buds are well developed, and the lateral buds are
+weaker and more regularly distributed, but farther apart, then the tree
+grows more rapidly in height than in breadth, and assumes more nearly
+the character of the Pyramidal Poplar. It will thus be seen that the
+study of trees in their winter condition is not altogether lacking in
+interest.
+
+Referring once more, but briefly, to the matter of dormant buds, we
+recommend the reader not only to observe that some buds do not expand
+with the others during the spring, but to make them the subject of
+experiment. Thus, when the Horsechestnut is well in leaf, dormant buds
+will usually be seen on the sides of the twigs, sheltered by the
+spreading leaves produced at the tips. Now remove the whole cluster of
+leaves formed by the terminal bud, together with the bud itself, and the
+hitherto dormant laterals, under the influence of increased light and
+warmth, and supplied with sap that is now directed into new channels,
+will speedily show signs of growth. Similarly, the fruit-gardener will
+remove the tips of the branches of his fruit trees, which often bear
+buds that are destined to produce leafy twigs only, and thus encourage
+the growth of the fruiting buds that are situated lower on the twigs.
+
+Let us now briefly consider the structure of buds and the manner in
+which they are protected. Most buds are surrounded by brownish scales
+which are impervious to water, and thus prevent a loss by evaporation at
+a season when the activity of the roots in absorbing moisture from the
+soil is suspended. Such loss is still further insured in some cases by a
+covering of natural varnish. On removing this protective coat we find a
+dense cluster of closely-packed leaves, variously folded or crumpled in
+different species, and often, in the centre, a cluster of flowers.
+
+What, then, is the true definition of a bud? It is a young branch, and
+may give rise to a mature branch bearing foliage leaves only, floral
+leaves only, or a combination of both. A transverse section of a bud,
+examined, if necessary, with the aid of the microscope, will show the
+nature of the branch it was destined to produce; and, in the case of
+buds which represent, in embryo, branches bearing flowers, or both
+leaves and flowers, it is often an easy matter to see the whorls of the
+future flowers, and even the pollen cells in the anthers and the ovules
+in the ovary.
+
+[Illustration: TREES IN WINTER OR EARLY SPRING
+5. Birch, with catkins. 7. Beech. 6. Poplar. 8. Alder, with catkins, and
+the old fruit 'cones' of the previous season.]
+
+Interesting as it is to study the structure of buds in their dormant
+condition during winter and early spring, even more fascinating is the
+watching of the gradual expansion of the bud and the unfolding of the
+young leaves. And it is not always necessary to make frequent visits to
+the woods in order to carry out such observations, for a large number of
+buds will develop almost equally well, at any rate through their earlier
+stages, if the twigs bearing them be placed in vessels of water either
+in or out of doors; and in many cases all the stages from dormant bud to
+perfect leaves and fully-expanded flowers may be watched in this way.
+
+We have spoken of the protection afforded to the dormant bud during the
+winter period, but it is interesting to note that protection is
+necessary for the young leaves even after they have forced themselves
+well out into the light and air. The reason for this is that the
+epidermis or outer skin of the young leaf is not properly developed. It
+is not yet water-tight, and, consequently, the sap of the tender leaves
+would rapidly evaporate, so that they would soon become dry and
+shrivelled.
+
+The means by which the young leaves are protected will be readily seen
+if we watch the gradual development of the bud. In many cases these
+leaves remain folded long after they have left the shelter of the
+original bud-scales, the manner of folding being the same as that which
+obtained while within the bud. Sometimes they are folded like a fan, or
+like the leaves of a book; sometimes rolled one within the other, or
+irregularly crumpled in such a manner that nothing is exposed to the air
+except the edges of the leaves and the surfaces of the veins.
+
+In addition to the protection from evaporation afforded by the folding
+of the young leaves, many are covered with a dense coat of "wool." Young
+leaves of the Horsechestnut are very thickly covered with such a coat,
+of which only the slightest traces are to be seen in the fully-grown
+leaf. The young leaves of the Beech are folded like a fan for some time
+after they have left the enclosure of the bud, and the folding is such
+that the only parts exposed are the margins, the midrib, and the
+strongly-marked parallel veins. But since all these parts are provided
+with hairs, the young leaf, as long as it is folded, is surrounded by a
+complete protective covering. As the epidermis develops, and the danger
+of loss by evaporation thus reduced, the leaf straightens itself out,
+and the hairs either fall or become shrivelled. The leaf of the
+Wayfaring Tree is protected, while young, by a complete covering of
+starlike hairs which form a fine felted coat over the whole surface; and
+when the epidermis is properly formed, the hairs are all shed.
+
+Some young leaves are preserved by scaly stipules which surround them
+after they have emerged from the bud; and as soon as the epidermis is
+sufficiently impermeable the stipules, having done their work, fall to
+the ground. So great is the shower of these transient structures, in the
+case of the Oak, Elm, and Lime trees, that the ground is almost
+completely covered by them.
+
+[Illustration: TWIG OF THE LIMB IN SPRING, SHOWING THE DECIDUOUS, SCALY
+STIPULES.]
+
+Young leaves have yet another way of preventing the evaporation of their
+sap, and that is by turning themselves into the erect position so that
+the warmth of the spring sun has but little effect on them. The young
+leaves of various grasses turn their apices upwards; while those of the
+Horsechestnut, after having lost the protection afforded by the woolly
+covering and the original folding, turn themselves with their points
+downwards. Later, when the epidermis is well formed, and the leaves are
+so far developed that they are capable of utilising the energy of the
+sun in the performance of their functions, they take up the horizontal
+position.
+
+Another interesting matter for spring observation is the relative times
+of the bursting of the flowering buds and the leafing buds on the same
+species of tree or shrub. In many cases the former are fully developed
+before the latter show any signs of active growth, or while the foliage
+is as yet only passing through its earliest stages. The Hazel catkins
+shed their abundance of pollen before the foliage buds show the
+slightest signs of green. The Blackthorn is white with snowy blossoms
+before a leaf appears. The upper twigs of the Elm appear fluffy in the
+distance through the formation of its flowers while the foliage buds are
+still dormant; and the Alder, Willow, Poplar and Aspen likewise produce
+full-blown catkins while their branches are otherwise bare. Of the trees
+above named, the Hazel, Elm, Alder, Poplar, and Aspen are dependent on
+the spring winds for the transfer of the pollen, but the pollination of
+the Willow and the Blackthorn is brought about by the agency of early
+insects which visit the flowers for the nectar they provide.
+
+[Illustration: SEEDLING OF THE BEECH, SHOWING THE COTYLEDONS AND THE
+FIRST FOLIAGE LEAVES.]
+
+The same spring sun which calls forth the new leaves and early flowers
+exerts its vivifying influence on the seeds that fell to the ground
+before the winter's frosts set in, and in sheltered places myriads of
+young seedlings of plants and trees may be found in their first stages
+of growth. The early history of a plant is as interesting a study as
+that of the mature specimen, and the young botanist will do well if he
+seeks out the germinating seeds and watches their development. This part
+of botanical study may, perhaps, be carried on more conveniently at home
+than in the field, for the seedlings may be grown in soil, wet sawdust,
+or in water alone, and the stages closely observed.
+
+The seed is a plant in embryo. It consists of a young root, a bud, and
+one or two seed-leaves or cotyledons. Some seeds contain nothing but the
+parts just named, and when this is the case the cotyledons contain a
+reserve of food material sufficient to maintain the developing plant
+until the root is enabled to absorb sufficient nutriment from the soil,
+and the first foliage leaves are so far advanced that they can absorb
+carbonic acid gas from the air, and build up with the aid of this gas,
+together with the food obtained from the soil, the compounds required by
+the growing plant.
+
+Other seeds contain, in addition to the embryo, a reserve of nutrient
+material quite distinct from it; and in such instances the cotyledons
+have the power of taking up this reserve, changing it to a condition
+suitable to the requirements of the plant, and then distributing it to
+the growing parts.
+
+In some seedlings the cotyledons will remain for some time within, or
+partially within the seed, in order that they may continue the
+absorption of this reserve; and while this process is going on the seed
+may remain below the surface of the soil, or it may be lifted into the
+air by the upward growth of the cotyledons themselves.
+
+In cases where the cotyledons contain the food reserve for the seedling
+they sometimes remain under the soil, but in many instances they are
+pushed into the air by the upward growth of that portion of the plant
+axis immediately below them. In either case they decay as soon as their
+work is accomplished. This often happens as soon as they have delivered
+up to the seedling their reserve of food, but frequently the cotyledons
+which ascend into the air expand, becoming really leaflike in general
+appearance, assuming a green colour through the development of
+chlorophyll (the green colouring matter of plants), and then perform all
+the functions of the ordinary foliage leaves of the plant. Such
+cotyledons often continue to exist long after the first foliage leaves
+have appeared from the bud, for, although the original food reserve has
+been exhausted, they are now in a position to manufacture, under the
+combined influence of the sun's warmth and light, compounds essential
+for their own growth as well as that of the other parts of the seedling.
+These cotyledons, however, are never of the same form as the true
+foliage leaves.
+
+The student should obtain a variety of seeds or seedlings of our wild
+plants and forest trees in order to study these interesting early
+stages. Such employment will prove very valuable at a season when there
+is but little call for outdoor work.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+WOODS AND THICKETS IN SPRING
+
+
+One of our earliest spring flowers of the wood is the lovely Daffodil or
+Lent Lily (_Narcissus Pseudo-narcissus_) of the order _Amaryllidaceæ_.
+This plant develops from a bulb--an underground bud formed of thick,
+fleshy leaves; and the flowers appear during March and April. The
+perianth is composed of a tube and six spreading limbs of a delicate
+yellow colour; and a deep, bell-shaped, golden coronet, beautifully
+notched and curled at the rim.
+
+[Illustration: THE DAFFODIL.]
+
+During April and May we meet with the beautiful little Wood Anemone
+(_Anemone nemorosa_--order _Ranunculaceæ_), often in such abundance that
+the ground beneath the trees is completely covered by its graceful
+leaves and flowers. The leaves are radical, stalked, and deeply lobed,
+springing from an underground stem. On the flower stalk, some distance
+below the flower, is a whorl of stalked bracts of the same form as the
+radical leaves. The flower has six spreading sepals, resembling petals,
+usually white, but often tinged with a delicate pink, or, more rarely,
+with blue. The fruit consists of a number of downy achenes.
+
+[Illustration: THE WOOD ANEMONE]
+
+Belonging to the same order (_Ranunculaceæ_) we have two species of
+Hellebore--the Green Hellebore (_Helleborus viridis_) and the Stinking
+Hellebore (_H. foetidus_), both found in woods on chalk or limestone
+during April and May. The former, also known in parts as the Bear's-foot
+(Plate I, Fig. 1), has leaves palmately lobed, consisting of
+five or seven parts; and the flowers, which are more than an inch
+across, have spreading green sepals, and small tubular petals which
+contain nectar that is supposed to be poisonous on account of the small
+dead flies that are commonly found sticking to it. The Stinking
+Hellebore, or Setterwort, has evergreen, radical leaves, the lobes of
+which do not radiate from a common centre; and the flowers, of which
+there are many on each peduncle, have erect sepals.
+
+The Goldilocks or Wood Ranunculus (_Ranunculus auricomus_) is a flower
+very much like the Upright Meadow Buttercup (p. 211), though not
+nearly so tall, being only from six to ten inches high. It grows chiefly
+in thickets and copses, and flowers from April to July. Its root is
+fibrous; the stem erect, slender, and branched; the radical leaves
+long-stalked, round or kidney-shaped, divided into three, five, or seven
+lobes; and the stem leaves few, sessile, and palmately divided to the
+base into very narrow segments. The calyx is downy, consisting of
+spreading, yellow sepals; and the petals are often partially or entirely
+wanting. This plant is widely distributed, but is most frequent in the
+centre and south of England.
+
+[Illustration: THE GOLDILOCKS.]
+
+The Columbine (_Aquilegia vulgaris_), also one of the _Ranunculaceæ_, so
+well known as a garden flower, grows wild in the thickets and copses of
+several parts, blooming from May to July. Its branched stem grows to a
+height of one or two feet; and the leaves are stalked, with three broad,
+stalked, three-lobed segments. The pretty, drooping flowers are usually
+over an inch in diameter, of a white, blue, or purple colour, in a
+loose, leafy panicle. They have five coloured, deciduous sepals; five
+petals, each with a curved spur that projects below the base of the
+calyx; numerous stamens; and an ovary of five carpels which ripen into
+as many follicles.
+
+The Dog Violet (_Viola canina_--Order _Violaceæ_) is probably too well
+known to need description, seeing that it is easily distinguished from
+the other species of the same genus by the absence of scent and by the
+presence of running stems. It is, however, very variable, both in its
+habits and habitats, so much so, indeed, that some botanists regard the
+varieties as distinct species under the titles of Wood Violet, Dark Wood
+Violet, Pale Wood Violet, Hill Violet, Bog Violet, &c. These different
+forms are distinguished by the shape of the leaves, which may be
+broadly-cordate, narrow-cordate, or lanceolate; and also by the nature
+of the stem and the form and colour of the spur of the corolla. In some
+the main stem is flowerless, but flowering stems proceed from the axils
+of its leaves; in others the main stem is long and branched, bearing
+flowers. The narrow-leaved and branched varieties occur principally on
+heaths, while the broad-leaved forms, in which the main stem is
+flowerless, are found chiefly in woods. The student will do well to
+compare as many forms as possible as an interesting study in variation.
+
+[Illustration: THE WILD COLUMBINE.]
+
+The flowers have five sepals; and five unequal petals, usually of a
+bluish-purple colour, the lower one prolonged backward into a blunt
+spur. Five stamens closely surround the ovary, which is composed of
+three carpels, but is one-celled.
+
+The mode of the dispersion of the seeds is particularly interesting in
+this instance. When the seeds are ripe the ovary splits into three
+valves which spread out till they are at right angles to their former
+position. Each valve is closely packed with smooth, oval seeds; and, as
+the carpels dry, their sides, originally convex, become gradually
+straightened so that they press on the seeds. The result is that the
+seeds are detached from the placenta, one by one, and suddenly shot out
+to a distance sometimes exceeding a yard. The whole process may be
+observed by placing some ripe fruits on a large sheet of paper spread in
+a warm, airy room.
+
+Another peculiarity of the violet is to be seen in its production of two
+distinct kinds of flowers. The spring flowers, which we know so well,
+are conspicuous, and are visited and pollinated by insects, but they
+produce few or no seeds. In the autumn another kind of flower is formed,
+inconspicuous ones that often possess no petals, and which do not open.
+These are fertilised by their own pollen, and produce abundance of seed.
+
+[Illustration: THE DOG VIOLET.]
+
+Soon after the appearance of the Dog Violet--usually early in May--we
+meet with the flowers of the Wood Sorrel or Alleluia (_Oxalis
+Acetosella_), a plant which is often included with the Crane's-bills in
+the order _Geraniaceæ_, but sometimes placed in a separate small order
+(_Oxalidaceæ_) containing only three British species. It is a very
+pretty little plant, of an acid nature, springing from a creeping
+rhizome. The leaves are radical, ternate, hairy, and sensitive, folding
+vertically at night in such a manner that the lower surfaces, containing
+the stomata, are completely covered, and thus loss by evaporation
+prevented. The flowers are usually solitary and axillary, and the
+peduncle has two small bracts about half way up. There are five sepals,
+united below; five white or pinkish petals; and ten stamens, all united
+into one bundle, but five shorter than the others. The ovary is
+five-chambered, and the fruit is a capsule.
+
+Like the Violet, this flower is particularly interesting both as to the
+nature of its flowers, and to the manner in which it scatters its seeds.
+It bears two kinds of flowers--the delicate spring flowers just
+described, which are barren; and the later inconspicuous blooms, without
+petals, and which do not open, but produce seeds. The latter kind of
+flower may be seen up to August and September.
+
+[Illustration: THE WOOD SORREL.]
+
+When the ovary is ripe it splits longitudinally along five seams, but
+the seeds remain attached to the placenta. Now, the seed coat is made up
+of layers, one of the inner of which becomes highly strained as the
+ripening proceeds, while the outer coat is not so strained. When the
+seed is quite ripe the cell-walls of the deeper layer swell, thus
+exerting a pressure on the outer layer, which is at last rent. The edges
+of the slit formed suddenly roll back, and the seed is violently jerked
+out through the opening of the capsule immediately in front of it.
+
+In April, and from this month to about the end of July, the Wood
+Strawberry (_Fragaria vesca_--order _Rosaceæ_) is in flower. There is no
+mistaking this species when in fruit, but at other times the Barren
+Strawberry (_Potentilla Fragariastrum_), also called the
+Strawberry-leaved Cinquefoil, is often confused with it. The latter may
+be known by the absence of runners.
+
+The chief distinguishing features of the Wood Strawberry are the running
+stem; ternate leaves, with sessile, hairy, serrate leaflets; hairy,
+erect peduncles; and white flowers, about half an inch in diameter, on
+pedicels which droop when in fruit.
+
+In shady woods grows the Sweet Woodruff (_Asperula odorata_--order
+_Rubiaceæ_)--a small, erect and smooth plant, seldom exceeding eight
+inches in height. The leaves are six to nine in each whorl, lanceolate,
+with small prickles on the margins. The flowers are white, in terminal
+panicles, and the fruit is rough with hooked hairs. The herb emits, when
+dry, a pleasant odour resembling that of new hay.
+
+[Illustration: THE SWEET WOODRUFF.]
+
+There are two Periwinkles (order _Apocynaceæ_), both of which have been
+introduced into Britain as garden flowers, but have become established
+as wild flowers in several parts. One of these--the Lesser Periwinkle
+(_Vinca minor_)--is moderately common, especially in the West, where it
+is often seen in thickets and other shady places, flowering during April
+and May. It has a trailing stem, from one to two feet long, rooting at
+the nodes; and short, erect, leafy, flowering branches. The leaves are
+opposite, narrow-elliptical, entire, and quite smooth; and the blue or
+violet flowers, which are about an inch in diameter, are solitary on
+short, erect stalks. The calyx is free, and deeply divided into five
+narrow segments; the corolla has a narrow tube, and five broad,
+spreading parts; there are five stamens, enclosed in the tube of the
+corolla; and the carpels are distinct at the base, but connected at the
+top by the single style.
+
+The other species--the Greater Periwinkle (_Vinca major_)--is a very
+similar plant, but its leaves are broader, with minute hairs on the
+margin; the calyx segments are also hairy at the edges; and the corolla
+is larger, with a broad tube.
+
+The Tooth-wort (_Lathræa squamaria_--order _Orobanchaceæ_) is a
+peculiar, fleshy, pinkish plant, to be found among decaying vegetable
+matter or at the roots of the Hazel, Elm and a few other trees. It is
+partly parasitic, deriving its nourishment from the roots of the trees
+to which it is attached, or sometimes obtaining its food partly or
+entirely from decaying leaves and stems. Its upright stem, which reaches
+a height of from five to ten inches, is covered with tooth-like, hollow
+scales, and bears a one-sided raceme of purple-brown flowers. This
+peculiar plant is not only a parasite on trees, but is also a
+carnivorous species, provided with the means of capturing and digesting
+very small animals, and a more detailed account of its form and habits
+will be found in our short chapter devoted especially to carnivorous
+plants.
+
+The Bugle (_Ajuga reptans_, of the order _Labiatæ_), is a very abundant
+flower in moist woods and pastures, blooming in May and June. It has a
+short root-stock, generally with creeping runners; and erect, smooth
+flowering stems from three to twelve inches high. At the base is a tuft
+of obovate, radical leaves, from one to two inches long, gradually
+narrowed into the stalk, with wavy margins; and on the stem are shorter
+leaves, with very short stalks, the upper ones often deeply tinged with
+blue or purple. The flowers are blue (occasionally pink or white), and
+are arranged in whorls of from six to ten in the axils of the upper
+leaves, the whole forming a leafy spike. They have a five-cleft calyx; a
+corolla with a short, erect, notched, upper lip; and a longer lower lip
+with three spreading lobes, the middle one of which is broader and
+notched.
+
+[Illustration: THE LESSER PERIWINKLE.]
+
+The stamens, of which there are two pairs, project beyond the upper lip
+of the corolla; and the four nutlets of the fruit are rough and united.
+
+The Yellow Dead Nettle, Weasel-snout, or Archangel (_Galeobdolon lutea_
+or _Lamium Galeobdolon_) of the same order is very much like the White
+Dead Nettle (p. 102) in habit, but is rather more slender, and
+less branched. It is not a very common plant, but is abundant in certain
+localities, forming one of the conspicuous flowers of thickets, copses
+and shady hedgerows during May and June. Its leaves are opposite,
+stalked, ovate, acute, and coarsely toothed; and the handsome large
+yellow flowers are in dense whorls of from six to ten in the axils of
+the upper leaves. The calyx has five short teeth; and the corolla has a
+short tube, not much longer than the calyx, and two lips, the upper of
+which is arched, while the lower is spotted with red, and has three
+lobes.
+
+Our next example, the lovely Primrose (_Primula vulgaris_ or _P.
+acaulis_--order _Primulaceæ_), which so beautifully bedecks our woods
+and banks in April and May, is so well known that a description for
+purposes of identification is quite unnecessary.
+
+There are two distinct forms of the primrose flower, often called the
+pin-eyed and the thrum-eyed, the two forms growing on different plants.
+The former has its stamens at a contracted portion of the tube, about
+half way down, and a style so long that the stigma is visible at the top
+of the tube. The latter has its stamens at the contracted throat of the
+tube, while the style is so short that the stigma is half-way down.
+
+[Illustration: THE BUGLE.]
+
+These two forms may be termed the long-styled and the short-styled
+primrose, respectively, and the difference is of great importance,
+inasmuch as it helps to bring about the cross-fertilisation of the
+flower.
+
+[Illustration: THE BROAD-LEAVED GARLIC.]
+
+The principal agents concerned in the transfer of pollen from one flower
+to another are the wind and insects, but it is evident that the work is
+done, in the case of the primrose, by insects; for not only do we find
+that the anthers and the stigma are protected from the wind, being more
+or less hidden in the tube of the corolla, but the showy corolla, the
+delicate scent emitted by the flower, and the nectar produced at the
+base of the tube all combine to encourage nectar-loving insects whose
+proboscis is long enough to reach the sweets.
+
+While such an insect is sucking the nectar from a short-styled primrose,
+the base of its proboscis is rubbing pollen from the anthers at the top
+of the tube, and the removal of the pollen is assisted by the contracted
+throat of the corolla in this kind of flower. Should that insect then
+visit a long-styled flower, the base of the proboscis, now dusted with
+pollen, will transfer some of the pollen cells to the stigma. In the
+same way pollen will be transferred from the anthers of the long-styled
+to the short-styled flower, since the stamens and stigma respectively
+occupy corresponding positions in the tubes of the corollas.
+
+[Illustration: THE STAR OF BETHLEHEM.]
+
+On Plate I (Fig. 3) we represent the Lady's Slipper
+(_Cypripedium Calceolus_)--a rare and beautiful orchis found in some of
+the limestone woods of North England. Its stem is downy and leafy,
+reaching a height of about one foot. The leaves, of which there are
+three or four, are oblong and ribbed; and the one or two large flowers
+are brownish with the exception of the lip, which is yellow and
+inflated.
+
+Two species of Garlic (order _Liliaceæ_) are also to be found in woods
+early in the season. They are both strong-smelling plants with bulbous
+roots, radical leaves, and flowers arranged in an umbel with membranous
+spathes. One--the broad-leaved Garlic or Ramsons (_Allium ursinum_)--is
+very common, grows to a height of from six to twelve inches, and flowers
+from April to June. The stem is bluntly triangular and leafless; and the
+broad, radical leaves are much like those of the Lily of the Valley. The
+flowers are white, and form a flat umbel with two sharply-pointed bracts
+at its base.
+
+The second species--the Sand Leek or Sand Garlic (_A.
+Scorodoprasum_)--grows to two or three feet, and is found almost
+exclusively in sandy woods of North England, where it flowers a little
+later than the Ramsons. The stem-leaves are linear, and form two-edged
+sheaths; and the flowers, which are reddish-purple, are in a loose
+umbel. (Plate I, Fig. 4.)
+
+[Illustration: THE HAIRY SEDGE.]
+
+The Star of Bethlehem (_Ornithogalum umbellatum_) is a pretty flower
+that was originally introduced for cultivation, but has now become well
+established as a wild flower in many parts of Britain. It is found
+chiefly in copses and thickets, especially in the neighbourhood of towns
+and villages, and flowers in April and May. It has an oval bulb
+containing an abundance of viscid sap; long narrow, limp, radical
+leaves; and a flowering stem from six to twelve inches high. The flowers
+are white, from six to ten in number, arranged in a raceme the lower
+stalks of which are lengthened in such a manner as to bring all the
+flowers to a level, thus giving the general appearance of an umbel.
+There is a membranous bract at the base of each pedicel; and each flower
+has a perianth of six free, spreading, persistent segments, marked
+outside with a central, green line, and having a nectary at the base.
+
+The same order includes the well-known Blue-bell or Wild Hyacinth
+(_Hyacinthus nonscriptus_ or _Scilla festalis_), which is occasionally
+confused with the Harebell of the order _Campanulaceæ_. The leaves of
+this plant are linear and channelled, and the drooping flowers form a
+raceme of from six to twelve blooms. The perianth is bell-shaped,
+composed of six united parts, usually blue, but rarely pink or white.
+The anthers are yellow, and as with all the plants of this order, the
+ovary is superior. (See Plate I, Fig. 5.)
+
+In damp woods we often meet with the Hairy Sedge (_Carex hirta_), which
+grows from one to two feet high; and in similar situations, the
+Pendulous Wood Sedge (_C. sylvatica_)--a tufted species, with a weak,
+leafy stem, from two to three feet high, and flaccid leaves. The latter
+has a single terminal, male spikelet, of about an inch long; and
+slender, drooping female spikelets, of about the same length, on long
+stalks.
+
+On Plate I, we also represent the Wood Melic Grass (_Melica uniflora_),
+a slender, graceful species which may be seen in woods, often in bloom
+as early as the beginning of May.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+THE SPRING-FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS OF WOODS, THICKETS, AND HEDGEROWS
+
+
+Having considered the principal low-growing flowers of the woods, we
+must now give some attention to the trees and shrubs of the same
+localities.
+
+This portion of the field-naturalist's work will be found at least as
+fascinating as the observation of the herbaceous plants, for although
+the flowers of trees are often small and very inconspicuous, many are
+really beautiful blossoms, and all present features of more or less
+interest to the botanist. Moreover, the observations of these flowers
+will always be coupled with those of the appearance and expansion of the
+leaves, for while some trees produce their flowers shortly before their
+leaves, and others after, leaves and flowers often come about the same
+time, and the period of the year covered by the present chapter--from
+about March to April or early June--will include the bursting of the
+leaf-buds and the expansion of the leaves of all our deciduous trees and
+shrubs. Opportunities should be made at this season to observe not only
+the parts of the trees just named, but to note all other characters
+presented by the trees, such as the nature of the trunk and its bark,
+the mode of branching, the appearance of the young twigs, and the nature
+of the soil and situation in which each species is found.
+
+Our first example is the Barberry (_Berberis vulgaris_)--the only
+British representative of its order (_Berberaceæ_)--a smooth, pale-green
+shrub, from four to seven feet high, often seen in woods, thickets, and
+hedgerows, flowering in May and June. Its branches generally droop at
+the tips, and have triple spines at the base of each leaf or cluster of
+leaves. The latter are obovate, sharply toothed or even prickly, and
+often reduced to a cluster of spines. The flowers are pale yellow, in
+hanging racemes. Each has several yellow sepals, the outer of which are
+very small; six petals, in two whorls, with nectaries at their bases;
+and six stamens. The stamens at first lie on the petals; but they are
+very sensitive, and when the filaments are touched by an insect as it
+seeks the nectar at their bases, the stamens immediately spring upward,
+throwing off their pollen, and often depositing some on the insect's
+back. It is thus possible that the cross-pollination of the flowers is
+greatly aided by the insect, especially as it will often happen that the
+same part of its back which has been touched by the elastic stamen will
+come in contact with the stigma of another flower.
+
+[Illustration: THE BARBERRY.]
+
+The Sycamore, also called the Great Maple and the False Plane (_Acer
+pseudo-platanus_--order _Aceraceæ_), although not really a British tree,
+has probably found a home here for nearly five centuries. It has been
+named the False Plane on account of its having been mistaken for, and
+called, the Plane, which tree it somewhat resembles in the form of the
+leaf, as well as in the character of the smooth, thin bark that peels
+off, giving the tree a patchy appearance. It should be noted, however,
+that the leaves of the Plane are arranged alternately, while those of
+the Sycamore are in opposite pairs; also that the fruits of the former
+are in pendulous balls while those of the latter are winged, and
+generally in two parts.
+
+[Illustration: THE SPINDLE TREE.]
+
+The Sycamore grows to a height of from forty to fifty feet and flowers
+in May or early June, some time after the appearance of the leaves. The
+leaves are simple and cut into five lobes, with a palmate venation and
+irregularly toothed margins. The flowers are small, yellowish green, and
+produced in graceful, pendulous racemes. Each one is about a quarter of
+an inch in diameter, with five narrow sepals, five narrower petals,
+eight stamens, and a two-lobed, flattened, hairy ovary which develops
+into a pair of 'keys' or samaras, with wings about an inch and a half
+long.
+
+The Maple (_Acer campestre_) is a much smaller tree, with a very
+rugged, corky bark. In woods it often reaches a height of fifteen to
+twenty feet, though it produces flowers and fruit long before it is
+fully grown; and it is often seen, more or less trimmed and stunted,
+among hedgerow shrubs. Its leaves are opposite, two to four inches wide,
+on slender stalks, palmately veined, and divided to about the middle
+into five obtuse, entire or crenate lobes. The greenish flowers are much
+like those of the Sycamore, and appear at the same time, but grow in
+loose, erect, axillary racemes; and the wings of the fruit always spread
+horizontally in a straight line. On p. 337 is a photograph of a
+twig of this tree in fruit.
+
+The Spindle Tree (_Euonymus europæus_), the only British member of the
+order _Celastraceæ_, is a moderately common wood and hedgerow shrub
+which is usually from four to ten feet high, when untrimmed, bearing
+yellowish-green flowers during May and June. Its branches are smooth,
+green and angular; and its leaves are opposite, shortly-stalked, oval,
+acute, finely toothed, with a shining surface. The flowers are usually
+from three to five together in loose axillary clusters. They have a
+small, flat calyx of four short sepals; four spreading petals, about a
+sixth of an inch long; four stamens, about half the length of the
+petals; and an ovary of from three to five cells embedded in the fleshy
+disc. The fruits are very pretty, and often form a conspicuous feature
+of the hedgerow during late summer. They are lobed capsules which open
+at the angles, exposing the bright orange mace that encloses the seeds.
+
+Several of the prettiest of our trees and shrubs belong to the order
+_Rosaceæ_, and among these we may name the Dwarf Cherry, Bird Cherry,
+Gean, Sloe, Bullace, Hawthorn, Wild Pear, Crab Apple, Service Tree,
+White Beam Tree, and Mountain Ash. The first of these, known variously
+as the Wild Cherry, Dwarf Cherry, and Red Cherry (_Prunus Cerasus_),
+grows from four to eight feet high, and bears white flowers, in almost
+sessile umbels, during May and early June. Its bark is of a reddish
+colour, and numerous suckers arise from its root. The leaves are
+oval-oblong, smooth, firm, and nearly erect; and the fruit is round,
+juicy, and red. Although in the wild state the fruit is very acid, this
+is the tree from which our sweet, cultivated cherries have been derived.
+In order to distinguish this from other similar species, it should be
+noted that the tube of the calyx is _not_ contracted at its mouth.
+
+The Bird Cherry (_P. Padus_) is found principally in North England,
+where it is moderately common in parts. It is larger than the last,
+often reaching a height of fifteen feet. Its leaves are narrow,
+somewhat egg-shaped, smooth, with a doubly-serrate margin. The flowers,
+which appear in May or June, are white, and arranged in pendulous
+racemes; and the fruit is oval, almost black, and bitter.
+
+[Illustration: THE WILD CHERRY.]
+
+Another wild cherry, generally known as the Gean (_P. Avium_), is still
+larger, sometimes reaching a height of thirty feet, and is not uncommon
+in woods and hedges. The bark is smooth; the leaves abruptly pointed,
+soft, drooping, and downy beneath; and the beautiful white flowers are
+in almost sessile umbels. The calyx-tube of this species is contracted
+at the mouth, and the fruit is either red or black, heart-shaped, and
+bitter. The leaves turn to a deep red colour in the autumn.
+
+Among the earliest flowers of Spring are the white blossoms of the Sloe
+or Blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_), which appear in March and April, some
+time before the leaves. The shrub grows from four to eight feet high,
+has a blackish bark, and numerous branches, the smallest of which
+terminate in hard, rigid thorns. The leaves are ovate, finely-toothed,
+smooth, stalked, with small, free stipules. The flowers are small,
+shortly-stalked, with a free, deciduous calyx of five lobes; five
+spreading petals; from fifteen to twenty stamens; and an ovary which
+ripens to an almost black, juicy, acrid drupe, about half an inch in
+diameter, containing a hard stone, and covered with a bluish bloom. This
+shrub is very common in thickets and hedgerows.
+
+The Bullace (_Prunus insititia_), sometimes regarded as a variety of _P.
+spinosa_, is a very similar bush, growing in similar situations, and
+flowering at the same time; but its bark is brown, and the branches less
+spiny. Its leaves, also, are downy beneath; and the flowers, which
+appear at the same time as the leaves, are in pairs, on downy stalks.
+The fruit is about double the size of that of the last species, either
+dark or yellow in colour, less acrid, and drooping.
+
+The above two species are the origins of the damsons and plums of our
+fruit gardens.
+
+The May or Hawthorn (_Cratægus Oxyacantha_) is so well known that there
+would be no necessity to describe it, were it not for the fact that,
+being so familiar, its distinguishing characters are liable to be
+overlooked. It is a much-branched shrub, with many of the branches
+modified into protective spines. The leaves are simple, smooth,
+deeply-lobed and obtuse, have deciduous stipules, and appear before the
+flowers. The flowers are generally white, sweetly-scented, and arranged
+in corymbs. There are five sepals and five petals, and the numerous
+stamens have pink anthers producing brown pollen. The carpels, one to
+three in number, are enclosed in the calyx-tube; and the fruit is a
+bright red pome with a bony core.
+
+The Wild Pear (_Pyrus communis_) is occasionally met with in woods and
+hedgerows, where its white flowers may be seen in April or May. The
+leaves of this tree are simple, elliptical, and serrate; and the smaller
+branches often terminate in a spine. The flowers are about an inch in
+diameter, and arranged in corymbs. They have distinct styles--a feature
+which serves to distinguish the blossom from that of the Wild Apple; and
+the fruit, which tapers towards the base, is a five-chambered, woody
+pome, with a horny core. Two varieties of this species occur, one with
+the base of the fruit conical, and the other with the base rounded.
+
+The Crab Apple (_P. Malus_) is very similar in general appearance, but
+has no spines; and the flowers, which are in sessile umbels, are white,
+with delicate shades of pink. The styles, also, are united below; and
+the fruit is globular, yellow or reddish, concave at the insertion of
+the stalk, very acid, and five-chambered. This tree is common in
+hedgerows as well as in woods, and flowers during May or early June.
+
+[Illustration: THE CRAB APPLE.]
+
+In the woods and hedges of South England we commonly meet with the
+Service Tree (_P. torminalis_)--a small tree with downy twigs, and
+smooth leaves with from six to ten triangular, serrate lobes. Its
+flowers are small, white, and arranged in compound cymes. They bloom in
+April and May; and in the autumn their place is occupied by small,
+green fruits, spotted with brown, with a two-chambered, brittle core.
+
+The White Beam (_P. aria_) is a small tree, commonly found on the
+outskirts of woods on chalky or limestone soils, which might be confused
+with the last species. It has large, irregularly-lobed leaves, white and
+downy beneath, with serrate edges. The general form of the leaf is
+egg-shaped, while that of the Service Tree is cordate. The corymbs of
+white flowers bloom in April; and the fruit, though much like that of
+_P. torminalis_, is spotted with _red_. There are no less than four
+varieties of this tree, distinguished mainly by the forms of the leaves,
+the serration of their edges, and the number of lateral veins.
+
+[Illustration: THE MOUNTAIN ASH.]
+
+We have yet another representative of the Rose order in the Mountain
+Ash, Rowan, or Fowler's Service Tree (_P. Aucuparia_), which is common
+in mountainous woods, and supplies an edible fruit. It is a very
+graceful and beautiful tree, with a smooth greyish bark; and pinnate
+leaves with from thirteen to seventeen serrate leaflets, downy on the
+under side. The flowers are small, of a creamy white colour, in large
+corymbs. They bloom in May and June; and later in the year their place
+is occupied by the scarlet globular fruits, with a yellow pulp,
+enclosing from two to four chambers.
+
+The Black Currant (_Ribes nigrum_), of the order _Grossulariaceæ_, or
+sometimes included in the _Saxifragaceæ_, is sometimes found wild in
+moist woods, flowering in April or May. It is well known as a garden
+shrub, and may be easily recognised by the characteristic odour emitted
+from its stems and leaves when bruised. In some northern woods the Red
+Currant (_R. rubrum_) is also found wild.
+
+The Wayfaring Tree or Mealy Guelder Rose (_Viburnum Lantana_--order
+_Caprifoliaceæ_) is moderately common in the woods and hedges of dry
+districts, especially on calcareous soils. It grows from ten to twenty
+feet high, and flowers during May and June. Its young shoots are covered
+with star-like hairs, which give them a characteristic mealy or downy
+appearance. The leaves are simple, elliptical-cordate, serrate, without
+stipules, and are downy beneath. The flowers are small, white, perfect,
+and arranged in terminal cymes. In late summer the tree is rendered
+conspicuous by its _flattened_ berries, which become scarlet as they
+ripen and afterwards turn black. A photograph of a twig in fruit is
+given on p. 338.
+
+The Ash Tree (_Fraxinus excelsior_--order _Oleaceæ_) is easily
+recognised at a distance, either in summer or winter, by the graceful
+curves of the lower branches, which droop, and then bend upward at their
+extremities; also, on a closer inspection, by the light ashy colour of
+the smooth bark of the twigs, and the large, black, triangular, terminal
+buds. The leaves are pinnate, with from nine to seventeen
+oblong-lanceolate, sessile, serrate leaflets. The flowers appear before
+the leaves in April and May, in dense clusters. They have no perianth:
+some consist only of an ovary, some only of two dark purple stamens,
+while others are perfect flowers with both ovary and stamens. Some trees
+have male blossoms only, and therefore produce no fruit; others bear
+dense tufts of pendulous, winged fruits which are ripe in October (p.
+336), but often remain on the tree till the following spring.
+The wing of the fruit is slightly twisted, and thus, when the fruit is
+detached, it falls with a slow, spinning motion that allows it to be
+carried some distance by the wind, reaching the ground with its seed-end
+downwards. The seed does not germinate until the second spring. A
+variety of the Ash occurs with simple leaves.
+
+Very early in the Spring--February to April--we may often see the
+Spurge Laurel (_Daphne Laureola_) in flower in woods and copses. This is
+an erect, smooth shrub, from two to four feet high, with a few erect
+branches bearing at their summits crowded clusters of thick, glossy,
+narrow, evergreen leaves. Its flowers, of a yellowish green colour, are
+in drooping, axillary clusters among the leaves. They have a tubular,
+inferior perianth, with four spreading lobes; eight stamens inserted in
+the top of the tube; and a free ovary of one cell, containing a single
+ovule. The perianth falls early; and the ovary afterwards becomes a
+berry-like fruit with a single stone.
+
+[Illustration: THE SPURGE LAUREL.]
+
+Another similar shrub, known as the Mezereon (_Daphne Mezereum_), is
+found in similar situations, and flowers at the same time, but it may be
+known by its deciduous leaves, and by its pale red flowers arranged in
+threes on the side of the stem. These two species are the only British
+representatives of the order _Thymelaceæ_.
+
+Two species of Elm are common in our woods and hedgerows. The
+small-leaved or Common Elm (_Ulmus campestris_), and the Wych Elm (_U.
+montana_). Both are distinguished by their thick, furrowed, corky bark;
+and their rough oval-cordate leaves with unequal sides. They are often
+placed in the same order (_Urticaceæ_) as the well-known Stinging
+Nettles, but some authorities form a distinct order for these two
+species alone, under the name of _Ulmaceæ_.
+
+The Common Elm is not indigenous, but was introduced into our country by
+the Romans. It is, however, one of our commonest trees, and is
+especially abundant in the South. The midrib of the leaf is covered
+below with irritating, glandular hairs, somewhat resembling those of
+nettles in structure and function; and the stipules are deciduous,
+falling early in the season. The flowers are perfect, appearing before
+the leaves in March and April, and are in small, dense clusters,
+principally on the topmost branches. Each flower has a little,
+bell-shaped, persistent perianth; a superior ovary with two styles; and
+four or five stamens with black anthers. The fruits are very thin oval
+samaras with the seeds above the centre, but they seldom ripen in our
+country. They are produced in such abundance that the ground is often
+almost completely covered with them when they fall. Botanists recognise
+several varieties of this species, but these differ so slightly from one
+another that they are barely distinguishable. The Common Elm throws off
+a large number of suckers from its roots, often producing a dense
+undergrowth round its bole.
+
+[Illustration: THE ELM IN FLOWER.]
+
+The Wych Elm is a native of our country, and is also very common, but it
+occurs principally in the woods of the North. It is very similar in
+general appearance to the last species, which it also resembles in
+having several barely distinguishable varieties; but it generally
+attains a much greater girth, and does not throw off such an abundance
+of suckers from its roots. Its twigs are downy; and the leaves, which
+are larger than those of _U. campestris_, are irregularly doubly
+serrate, with hairs on the prominent ribs of the under side, and are
+arranged in two straight rows, one on each side of the twig. The flowers
+are very similar to those of the Common Elm; and the fruit is a broad
+oblong or almost round samara, with the seed in the _centre_. Both
+species are pollinated by the wind; and, as is the case with
+wind-pollinated flowers generally, the stamens protrude well out of the
+flower, and produce abundance of pollen.
+
+[Illustration: THE OAK IN FLOWER.]
+
+Four of our forest trees belong to the order _Cupuliferæ_; these are the
+Oak, Beech, Hornbeam and Hazel. The first of them--the Oak (_Quercus
+Robur_)--is easily recognised in the winter by its deeply-furrowed,
+corky bark, its zigzag, spreading branches, and the clusters of oval
+buds at the tips of the twigs. In summer it may be known at once by the
+oval, sinuate leaves with blunt lobes. The flowers of the Oak appear
+with the leaves in April or May; they are imperfect, but both male and
+female blossoms appear on the same tree. The former are in slender,
+drooping, interrupted catkins; and each flower has ten stamens. The
+latter are in clusters of a few only, and each separate flower is
+enclosed in a cupule of overlapping scales. The ovary has three cells,
+and contains six ovules; but, as a rule, only one ovule of each flower
+is fertilised. Sometimes, however, two, three, or more of the ovules
+become fertilised, thus producing an acorn which will give rise to as
+many separate seedling trees. At times we meet with an Oak nearly every
+acorn of which contains two or more ovules. This tree is remarkable for
+the number of insects which feed on its leaves, and also for the number
+of different species of gall-flies which produce galls on its leaves and
+stems. Two well-marked varieties occur: one--_pedunculata_--with sessile
+leaves and long flower stalks; and the other--_sessiliflora_--with
+stalked leaves and short flower-stalks.
+
+[Illustration: THE BEECH IN FRUIT.]
+
+The Beech (_Fagus sylvatica_) is readily recognised during winter and
+early spring by its smooth, thin, olive-grey bark, and its long
+tapering, pointed, brown buds. The expanding buds have already been
+mentioned (p. 44) as of special interest as regards the fan-like
+folding of the young leaves, and the arrangement for preventing undue
+loss of moisture while the epidermis is as yet very thin and permeable.
+The leaves of this tree are ovate, smooth and glossy, with
+strongly-marked parallel veins branching from the midrib. When young
+they are very silky, but later the fine, silky hairs are seen only on
+the slightly-toothed margin, and even these disappear as the season
+advances. The flowers are imperfect, and appear in April or early May.
+The staminate catkins are of a dark purple-brown colour, rounded and
+pendulous, with from eight to forty slender stamens having exposed,
+yellow anthers. The pistillate flowers are grouped in little clusters of
+from two to four, each one having three stigmas, and being surrounded by
+a four-lobed prickly cupule which afterwards forms a closed case. The
+fruits are three-cornered nuts, enclosed in the hardened cupules which
+split longitudinally, when ripe, into four valves that are lined with
+soft, silky hairs.
+
+The Hornbeam (_Carpinus Betulus_) is a much smaller tree, more or less
+abundant in the damp, clayey woods of the South. Its bark is smooth or
+slightly furrowed, of a light greyish colour, and its leaves are
+elliptical-ovate, with a doubly-serrate margin and acute point. The
+arrangement of the principal veins is the same as that of the Beech, and
+the young leaves are similarly plaited in the bud, but the expanded
+leaves are broader at the base than those of the Beech, are rougher, and
+are permanently hairy on the under surface. As with the Beech, the
+leaves assume very pleasing tints in the autumn, turning first yellow,
+and then through shades of orange to brown; and, in sheltered woods,
+many of them remain on the tree throughout the winter. The flowers
+appear in May and early June, and are imperfect, male and female flowers
+being in separate catkins, but on the same tree. The staminate catkins
+are pendulous and leafy, each flower having oval, acute bracts, and from
+three to twelve stamens with forked filaments and hairy anthers. The
+pistillate flowers are in erect catkins and are arranged in pairs. Their
+outer bracts are shed early, but the inner bracts or _bracteoles_, which
+are three-lobed, grow very large as the fruits ripen, at which time,
+also, the whole catkin becomes pendulous. Each flower has a
+two-chambered ovary, and two styles; but only one cell develops, and
+thus the fruits, each with only one seed, lie on the bases of the leafy
+bracteoles which aid in their dispersion by the wind.
+
+Our last example of the _Cupuliferæ_ is the well-known Hazel (_Corylus
+Avellana_), which is generally found in trimmed hedges and among the
+undergrowth of woods. Its bark on the trunk and larger branches is grey;
+but brown, hairy, and dotted with glands, on the young shoots. The
+leaves are roundish, slightly cordate and unsymmetrical, with a sharp
+apex and an irregularly-serrate edge; and, when young, are
+longitudinally plaited in the bud. The flowers appear before the leaves,
+and are mature in March or early April, but the early stages of the
+catkins may be observed on the tree throughout the winter, and even in
+the preceding autumn. The staminate catkins are pendulous, from one to
+two inches in length when in full bloom, and are commonly known to
+country children as 'lambs-tails.' They are of a bright yellow colour,
+and each flower has from four to eight stamens, with hairy anthers that
+produce abundance of pollen. The pistillate catkins are small, oval, and
+sessile, hardly to be distinguished from the foliage buds until they
+protrude their bright crimson stigmas. The minute flowers are enclosed
+in overlapping bracts which afterwards form the leafy cupules of the
+large woody nuts; and each one has a two-celled ovary and two styles.
+
+Our forest trees include three representatives of the order
+_Betulaceæ_--the Common Birch, the Dwarf Birch, and the Alder. The first
+of these, the Common Birch, Silver Birch, or Lady of the Woods (_Betula
+alba_), is at once recognised by its smooth, silver-white bark, which
+peels off in horizontal strips; its copper-brown branches; and its very
+slender, drooping twigs. The leaves are small, rhomboid or triangular,
+with an irregularly doubly-serrate margin, a sharp apex, and veins very
+prominent on the under side. They are also provided with long stalks
+which, together with the slender character of the weeping twigs, allow
+them to be moved by the slightest breeze. The male and female flowers
+are in separate catkins, the former of which may be seen on the tree
+throughout the winter, but do not bloom until April or May. Both are at
+first erect, but the staminate catkins droop as they mature, and shed
+abundance of yellow pollen. The flowers have three-lobed, deciduous,
+scale-like bracts; the male ones consist of two stamens with forked
+filaments; and the females of a flattened, two-celled ovary. The female
+catkins droop as they ripen, each one producing a large number of
+minute, one-seeded and broadly-winged fruits which are easily dispersed
+by the wind. Two varieties of this tree occur, one with the leaves and
+twigs covered with downy hairs, and the other with leaves of an
+oval-cordate form.
+
+The Dwarf Birch (_B. nana_) is a mere shrub, seldom exceeding two feet
+in height, and is to be found only in some of the mountainous districts
+of Scotland. It has rounded, crenate leaves, with short stalks; and the
+wings of the fruit are very narrow.
+
+The Alder (_Alnus glutinosa_) is common in wet woods, and especially
+along the banks of streams in wooded valleys. Some of the mountain
+streams of the West of England, Wales, and Scotland, are bordered with
+almost continuous lines of Alder for miles together. This tree has a
+very dark grey bark, and the young branches are more or less triangular
+in form. The leaves are round, with a wedge-shaped base, and are green
+on both sides. They have very short stalks, are very blunt, and have a
+wavy, serrate margin. When very young they are hairy and sticky to the
+touch; hence the specific name of _glutinosa_. The catkins appear before
+the leaves, and are mature in March or April. The staminate catkins are
+pendulous, and much like those of the Birch; but the flowers have red
+scales and four stamens. The pistillate catkins are short and erect, and
+each flower has a fleshy scale within a reddish-brown, woody bract. The
+fruits are shed in the autumn, but the thickened woody bracts of the
+female catkin remain on the tree till, and even after, the flowers of
+the following spring are in bloom.
+
+Coming now to the order _Salicaceæ_, we have to deal with the Poplars,
+of which we have several species, all more or less common, and largely
+planted in cultivated ground. Our first example is the White Poplar
+(_Populus alba_), a large tree frequently seen in abundance in most
+woods. It has a smooth, grey bark, spreading branches, downy shoots and
+buds, and it throws off many suckers from its roots. The leaves are
+roundish, approaching a heart-shape, except those of the young shoots,
+which are divided more or less deeply into five lobes; and they are
+covered below by a white cottony down. The flowers are imperfect, and
+the male and female catkins, produced on different trees, are mature in
+March or April. The male catkins are three or four inches long, and each
+flower has from six to ten stamens, with red anthers. The female catkins
+are much shorter, and its flowers have divided stigmas, with long,
+narrow, yellow segments arranged like a cross. The ovaries ripen into
+capsules which split open in July, setting free seeds which are provided
+with cottony filaments; and the seeds often fall in such abundance as to
+almost completely cover the ground beneath the tree.
+
+The Grey Poplar (_P. canescens_) grows in similar situations, and
+flowers at the same time. Its leaves are roundish, with a waved and
+toothed margin, and are covered beneath with a slight coating of grey
+down. Those of the youngest shoots are more or less lobed. In this
+species the two stigmas are purple, wedge-shaped, and divided into from
+two to four lobes.
+
+A third species--the Aspen (_P. tremula_) receives its specific name
+from the tremulous movements of its leaves, which swing with a rotary
+movement when disturbed even by the slightest breeze. This
+characteristic is common, to a greater or lesser degree, to all the
+species of this genus, and is due to the peculiar nature of the
+leafstalks, which are long, and flattened in a plane at right angles to
+that of the blade of the leaf. The Aspen has a grey bark, spreading
+branches, and downy shoots. The leaves are nearly round, with a sharp
+point and a serrate margin. When young they are downy above and beneath,
+but become smooth later. The catkins are very dense, and the flowers of
+the female tree have two divided stigmas.
+
+The Black Poplar (_P. nigra_) and the Lombardy Poplar (_P. fastigiata_),
+though very common, are not natives of this country. The former is a
+large, spreading tree, and the latter is readily distinguished by its
+tall, pyramidal form, with all its branches directed upward. Although
+these two trees are so very unlike in general appearance, yet they
+resemble one another so closely in the form of the leaves and the
+character of the flowers that they are sometimes regarded as two
+varieties of the same species. In both the leaves are very variable in
+form, being either triangular, rhombic, or nearly circular, with rounded
+teeth. Both have smooth shoots, and sticky buds; and their catkins are
+not so dense as in the other members of the genus. The leaves also are
+smooth on both surfaces except when young, at which stage they are
+slightly downy beneath. The male catkins are two or three inches long,
+of a deep red colour; and, since they appear before the leaves, are very
+conspicuous. The female catkins are much shorter and erect, and the ripe
+capsular fruits burst in June, setting free seeds which are covered with
+a cottony down. _P. nigra_ has a furrowed grey bark, rendered still more
+irregular by prominent swellings, and it rarely produces suckers. _P.
+fastigiata_, on the other hand, often produces numerous suckers, and its
+trunk generally has a rough, furrowed, and twisted appearance. It is
+interesting to note that the female of the latter does not occur in our
+country. The tree was introduced by means of suckers, and it appears
+certain that suckers of the male tree only were brought over for this
+purpose.
+
+We conclude this chapter by a brief description of the two native
+conifers of our woods--the Scotch Fir or Scots Pine (_Pinus sylvestris_)
+and the Yew (_Taxus baccata_). The former is very well known, for while
+its real home is the elevated parts of the North, it has been planted
+more or less in most southern districts; and it is readily distinguished
+from other forest trees by its general form, as well as by the nature of
+its leaves, and by its 'cones.' It should be noted, however, that
+several similar species, which may be confused with the Scots Pine, have
+been introduced into our country, but descriptions of these can hardly
+be included here.
+
+[Illustration: THE SCOTS PINE WITH THE CONES OF TWO SEASONS.]
+
+The bark of the Scots Pine is rough, of a reddish-brown colour, and
+peels off in thick scales. Its trunk reaches a diameter of three or four
+feet, and it often grows to a height of over one hundred feet. The
+leaves are long, slender, rigid, grooved above, and always arranged in
+pairs. When young they are of a bright green colour, but turn to a dark
+green later, and remain on the tree for two years or more. The male and
+female flowers grow on the same tree, and are mature in May or June. The
+male catkins are only about a quarter of an inch in diameter, but are
+collected into conspicuous spikes, and shed an abundance of pale yellow
+pollen. The female catkins are in the form of egg-shaped cones, tapering
+to a point. The carpels of the flowers do not enclose the seeds, but are
+thick scales beneath which the seeds lie. The cone is two or three
+inches in length, and takes about eighteen months to ripen, so that the
+cones of two successive years will generally be found on the tree at the
+same time. When ripe, the scales are woody and very hard, and as they
+separate, the winged, naked seeds are set free and dispersed by the
+wind. The tree has usually a very weather-beaten appearance, due to the
+fact that the lower branches die as the height increases, and are then
+more easily detached in stormy weather.
+
+[Illustration: THE YEW IN FRUIT.]
+
+The Yew is a native of mountainous woods, but has been planted largely
+in other situations. It is an evergreen tree, with a dark brown, fibrous
+bark; and although it never grows to any great height--seldom exceeding
+fifty feet, it often has a girth of from twenty to thirty feet, and
+reaches an age of fifteen hundred or two thousand years. The leaves are
+very crowded, about one inch in length, and arranged in two rows along
+the stem. They are linear, pointed, of a dark glossy green above, and
+lighter below. The flowers are small, sessile, situated in the axils of
+the leaves, and appear in March or April. The male flower consists of
+from five to eight anthers, below which is a whorl of overlapping
+scales. The female is much smaller, and is composed of a fleshy disc
+with a small ovule at the top and scales below. After fertilisation the
+ovule enlarges into a green seed, and the disc, which almost completely
+surrounds it, develops into a roundish, sweet, fleshy cup, about half an
+inch in diameter, of a bright rose-red colour and of a beautiful waxy
+appearance. The leaves of the Yew are poisonous, but the fruits are
+quite harmless. A variety of this tree occurs of a pyramidal form, with
+scattered leaves and an oblong fruit. It should be noted that while the
+male and female flowers of the Yew generally grow on separate trees, the
+both are occasionally found on the same tree.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+WAYSIDES AND WASTES IN SPRING
+
+
+In the present chapter we shall consider a number of wild flowers that
+are to be found by the waysides, including banks and hedgerows, and in
+waste places, during the spring months.
+
+Our first example is the Celandine (_Chelidonium majus_), of the Poppy
+family (order _Papaveraceæ_), generally spoken of as the _Greater_
+Celandine in order to distinguish it from the Lesser Celandine (p. 108),
+which belongs to the _Ranunculaceæ_. This plant is moderately common in
+shady hedgerows and waste places, grows to a height of from one to two
+feet, and flowers from May to July or August. It has a yellow, pungent,
+poisonous sap. The leaves are pinnate, with an odd leaflet at the tip,
+of a glaucous green colour; and all the leaflets are bluntly lobed. The
+flowers are yellow, from three-quarters to an inch in diameter, and are
+arranged in long-stalked umbels. As in the poppies, there are two sepals
+which fall early, and four petals which are crumpled in the bud. There
+are numerous stamens, attached below the superior ovary; and the latter
+ripens into a pod-like capsule of one chamber, about an inch and a half
+in length, which splits, when ripe, into two valves.
+
+The Order _Cruciferæ_ is well represented by the wayside and on waste
+ground during the spring months, and the reader will do well to note the
+general characters of the flowers of this order (p. 17), unless
+already acquainted with them, before attempting to identify the species
+here described. Our first example--the Shepherd's Purse (_Capsella
+Bursa-pastoris_) is a well-known weed, often troublesome in our gardens,
+and may be seen in bloom from February to October. It is an erect herb,
+from six to eighteen inches high, which may be identified at once by
+reference to our illustration. The small white flowers are in
+lengthening racemes, and are often made less conspicuous by the
+conversion of the four petals into stamens. This weed is easily
+distinguished from all the other plants of the order by the form of the
+fruit, which is triangular and inversely heart-shaped. When ripe, it
+splits into two boat-shaped, keeled valves, which separate from a
+central membrane to which the seeds are attached.
+
+[Illustration: THE SHEPHERD'S PURSE.]
+
+The Common Scurvy Grass (_Cochlearia officinalis_) is to be found
+chiefly on the sea shore, but it often extends for miles inland,
+especially along the banks of the estuaries of rivers. It is a smooth,
+succulent plant, from four to eight inches high. The little white
+flowers have spreading petals, and are arranged in a short raceme; and
+the fruit is globular or oval, nearly a quarter of an inch long, pointed
+at the top, with several seeds in each cell. This plant commences to
+flower in May, and continues in bloom until August.
+
+The Common Whitlow Grass (_Draba verna_) is a very small and
+inconspicuous plant, abundant on banks and hedgerows, bearing minute,
+white flowers in April and May. It has a cluster of narrow, toothed,
+hairy, radical leaves, from a quarter to half an inch long, that spread
+horizontally close to the ground; and a leafless stem, from one to four
+inches long, bearing a raceme of flowers on slender pedicels. The petals
+of the flowers are deeply notched; and the fruits are oblong, about a
+quarter of an inch long and half that width, containing many seeds.
+
+[Illustration: THE SCURVY GRASS.]
+
+[Illustration: THE COMMON WHITLOW GRASS.]
+
+Two species of Winter Cress (genus _Barbarea_) are common in waste
+land--the Common Winter Cress or Yellow Rocket (_B. vulgaris_), and the
+Early Winter Cress or American Cress (_B. præcox_). The former is an
+erect plant, from one to two feet high, with numerous, small, yellow
+flowers in a loose raceme, blooming from May to August. The radical
+leaves are pinnately divided, with a large, rounded, terminal lobe, and
+side lobes becoming smaller towards the base; and the upper leaves are
+oval and irregularly toothed. All the leaves are smooth and glossy, and
+of a deep green colour. The fruits are short, and thicker than the
+pedicels. A double variety of this flower is commonly cultivated in
+flower gardens.
+
+[Illustration: THE YELLOW ROCKET.]
+
+The Early Winter Cress is a very similar plant, flowering at the same
+time, but is of a more slender habit, and has narrower leaves, the upper
+of which are pinnately divided. The flowers are also larger, and
+arranged in a closer raceme; and the fruit is longer, but not thicker
+than the pedicel. This species is cultivated as a salad, and frequently
+occurs as a garden escape.
+
+Two species of _Sisymbrium_ are also very common--the Garlic Mustard
+(_S. alliaria_), also known as Sauce Alone and Jack-by-the-Hedge; and
+the Thale Cress or Wall Cress (_S. Thaliana_). The first named is one of
+the commonest of our hedgerow flowers. It grows to a height of one or
+two feet, and bears, from April to June, a corymbose cluster of pure
+white flowers, each about a quarter of an inch in diameter. The stem and
+leaves, when crushed, emit a distinct odour of garlic. The former is
+slightly branched; and the leaves are large, stalked, broadly cordate,
+with many prominent veins, coarsely toothed, and of a delicate green
+colour. The fruits are erect, about two inches long, on short pedicels.
+
+The Thale Cress grows on dry banks and walls, and displays its minute
+white flowers from April to the end of the summer. The stem is erect,
+slender and branched, from six to ten inches in height; and the leaves,
+which are nearly all radical, are simple, oblong-lanceolate, toothed
+and downy. The fruits of this species are erect, narrow, with four
+obscure angles, and about twice as long as their stalks.
+
+The Rape or Cole-seed (_Brassica napus_) is a cruciferous weed commonly
+occurring in cultivated ground, and often cultivated for its seeds. It
+grows from one to two feet high, and bears corymbose clusters of yellow
+flowers during May and June. Its root is fusiform (spindle-shaped), and
+all its leaves are smooth and of a sea-green colour. The lower leaves
+are lyrately pinnate, with toothed edges; and the stem leaves are
+ovate-lanceolate, acute, embracing the stem. The pods spread as they
+ripen.
+
+The Wild Turnip (_Brassica Rapa_) is a very similar plant, producing its
+yellow flowers from April to July. Its root is tuberous and fleshy. The
+lower leaves are hairy and rough, and not of the glaucous green
+characterising the last species, while the upper leaves are glaucous and
+smooth.
+
+The Sweet Violet (_Viola odorata_)--the favourite flower of wayside
+banks--is common in many parts, and is generally very easily
+distinguished from other similar species of the order (_Violaceæ_) by
+its pleasing fragrance. It has a short root-stock, and, usually, long
+creeping runners. At the top of the stock is a cluster of long-stalked
+leaves, broadly heart-shaped in form, blunt, with crenate margins and a
+slightly downy surface. At the base of the leafstalks are very narrow,
+entire stipules; and from among these arise the slender flower-stalks,
+of about the same length as those bearing the leaves, with a pair of
+small bracts a little above the middle. The flowers are solitary,
+drooping, of a violet, lilac, or white colour, with obtuse sepals; a
+short, blunt, straight spur to the lower petal; and a hooked, pointed
+stigma. The conspicuous, scented flowers with which we are so well
+acquainted, bloom from March to April; but all through the summer the
+plant bears small petalless flowers that produce the seeds.
+
+Of the order _Caryophyllaceæ_ our first example is the Ciliated
+Pearlwort (_Sagina ciliata_), a small, creeping plant, flowering in May
+and June in dry places. The leaves are very small, narrow, ciliated,
+terminating abruptly in a sharp point; and the two of each pair are
+united at their bases. The flowers are very small and stalked; and the
+petals are either very minute or absent. The sepals, stamens, styles,
+and valves of the capsule, are each four; and the sepals lie close
+against the capsule.
+
+The Procumbent Pearlwort (_S. procumbens_), also found in dry places,
+is a similar little plant, smooth and prostrate, with very small white
+flowers that appear in May and bloom till the end of the summer. The
+peduncles of this species curve backward just after flowering, but
+become erect afterwards; and the sepals, which are sometimes five in
+number, are not close against the fruit, as in the last, but spreading.
+
+[Illustration: THE PROCUMBENT PEARLWORT.]
+
+The genus _Stellaria_ includes some plants with pretty, white, star-like
+flowers, some of which adorn our hedgerows in early spring. The most
+conspicuous of these is the Greater Stitchwort or Satin Flower (_S.
+Holostea_), the flowers of which are three-quarters of an inch in
+diameter, and are arranged in loose, leafy cymes. The sepals have no
+veins, and are about half as long as the petals, which are so deeply
+cleft that the flower, at first sight, appears to possess ten instead of
+five.
+
+The Lesser Stitchwort (_S. graminea_) is a very similar flower, common
+in dry places, blooming from May to August. The plant is smooth, and
+does not possess the glaucous hue of the last species. The stem is very
+straggling and slender, from one to three feet long; and the leaves are
+grass-like, sessile, and acute. The flowers are very similar to those of
+the Greater Stitchwort, but are smaller. The sepals have each three
+veins, and are as long as the petals.
+
+[Illustration: THE GREATER STITCHWORT.]
+
+The Little Chickweed (_S. media_), so troublesome in our gardens,
+belongs to the same genus. Its decumbent, branching stem has a
+longitudinal line of hairs placed alternately on opposite sides from
+joint to joint; and its ovate, smooth, succulent leaves are shortly
+pointed, the lower ones having hairy stalks. The little star-like, white
+flowers grow from the axils of the leaves, and have each five hairy
+sepals, as long as the deeply-cleft petals, with narrow, membranous
+margins.
+
+These three species of _Stellaria_, and, in fact, all the species of the
+genus, are distinguished by their divided petals and the presence of
+three styles; but there is another group of flowers in the same order
+known as the Mouse-ear Chickweeds (_Cerastium_), also with divided
+petals, but having either four or five styles.
+
+[Illustration: THE CHICKWEED.]
+
+Three of the species of this group may be included among the spring
+flowers of waysides. One of these is the Broad-leaved or Clustered
+Mouse-ear Chickweed (_Cerastium glomeratum_), which flowers from April
+to the end of the summer. It has an erect, sticky, hairy stem; and pale
+green ovate leaves. The little white flowers are tufted, on short
+stalks, with sepals and petals of equal length. A second--the
+Narrow-leaved Mouse-ear Chickweed (_C. triviale_)--has a similar but
+spreading stem; and the leaves are narrow, and of a deep green colour.
+In this one, too, the sepals and petals are equal; but the former are
+hairy, and the flower-stalks are longer. The other is the Field
+Mouse-ear Chickweed (_C. arvense_), which has numerous white flowers,
+in forked cymes, blooming from April to August. Its stem is hairy,
+prostrate, from six to ten inches long; the leaves very narrow; and the
+sepals only about half as long as the petals.
+
+[Illustration: THE BROAD-LEAVED MOUSE-EAR CHICKWEED.]
+
+The pretty Wild Geraniums, of which there are several species, often
+form a very attractive feature of the wayside. They are readily
+recognised as a group by the swollen joints of their stems; the simple,
+stipuled, lobed leaves; the axillary flowers; and the fruit composed of
+five distinct carpels, with their five long styles adhering to a long
+central beak. The flowers have five distinct petals and sepals, and ten
+stamens, five of which become alternately larger. When the fruit is ripe
+the five carpels separate, and are raised by the curving of the smooth
+styles which remain for a time attached to the beak.
+
+In early April, and from then to August or September, the Dove's-foot
+Crane's-bill (_Geranium molle_) may be seen in flower by the wayside.
+The plant is prostrate, soft and downy, with rounded leaves lobed and
+cut. The pretty pink or lilac flowers are from a third to half an inch
+in diameter, with abruptly-pointed sepals and notched petals. This
+species may be readily distinguished from similar plants of the same
+genus by the smooth, wrinkled capsules, and smooth seeds.
+
+A second species--the Jagged-leaved Crane's-bill (_G. dissectum_)--is
+also very common in wastes and by waysides. It is a hairy, rather than
+a downy plant, with spreading stems from one to two feet long; and
+displays its bright red, shortly-stalked flowers from April to August.
+The flowers, which vary from a quarter to half an inch in diameter, have
+long-pointed sepals and notched petals.
+
+[Illustration: THE DOVE'S-FOOT CRANE'S-BILL.]
+
+A third species, also very common, is the Herb Robert (_G.
+Robertianum_), characterised by a strong odour, and red, hairy,
+spreading, succulent stems one or two feet long. The leaves are
+compound, with three or five deeply-divided leaflets, and turn to a
+bright crimson colour in late summer. The flowers are half an inch or
+more in diameter, with ovate entire petals, of a pink colour and
+beautifully veined. The sepals have long points, and are rendered very
+viscid by glandular hairs. A white-flowered variety of this geranium is
+occasionally seen.
+
+We have now to note four of the spring leguminous plants (order
+_Leguminosæ_)--plants belonging to the Pea family, distinguished by
+their butterfly-like flowers, and, usually, by compound, stipuled
+leaves. Our first example is the Black Medick or Non-such (_Medicago
+lupulina_) which is common in wastes, by the waysides and in pastures.
+This is a procumbent, spreading plant, with stems from six inches to two
+feet in length, and leaflets inversely egg-shaped, with finely-toothed
+edges. The flowers, which appear in April, and continue to bloom till
+near the end of the summer, are small, yellow, and arranged in dense
+oblong spikes. The calyx has five teeth, and the pods are kidney-shaped,
+each with only one seed.
+
+[Illustration: THE JAGGED-LEAVED CRANE'S-BILL.]
+
+In shady grassy or bushy places we may see the Crimson Vetch or Grass
+Vetchling (_Lathyrus Nissolia_) which, although not common, is rather
+frequent in the midland and southern counties of England. It is a very
+slender plant, from one to two feet high, bearing crimson flowers in May
+and June, and may be identified at once by reference to our
+illustration.
+
+[Illustration: THE HERB ROBERT.]
+
+The pretty Bird's-foot (_Ornithopus perpusillus_) is commonly found on
+waste ground, more particularly on sandy soils. It has a spreading,
+prostrate stem, from six to eighteen inches long, and pinnate leaves
+with from about fifteen to twenty-five elliptical, downy leaflets. The
+flowers appear to be pink when viewed from a distance; but, when
+examined closely, are seen to have cream coloured petals that are veined
+with crimson. They are arranged in heads, of a few flowers each, on long
+stalks, with a leaf immediately below each head. The pods are curved,
+and made up of from seven to nine oval, one-seeded joints, with a
+terminal beak resembling the claw of a bird, so that each cluster of
+pods has much the appearance of a bird's foot. This plant flowers from
+April to July.
+
+Our other example of leguminous flowers is the Bush Vetch (_Vicia
+sepium_)--a climbing plant with stem two or three feet long, very common
+in hedges, flowering from April to August. The leaves are pinnate, with
+from twelve to eighteen oval, blunt leaflets which increase in size
+towards the base. The flowers are pale purple, and are arranged in
+axillary racemes of from four to six, on very short peduncles. The style
+is tufted on one side, and the pods are smooth and erect.
+
+We have now to note a flower of the Rose order (_Rosaceæ_), but since it
+is common for a beginner to be confused by the general resemblance of
+some of the flowers of this group to some of the _Ranunculaceæ_, it may
+be well to point out that in the latter the stamens are united to the
+receptacle of the flower, below the carpels, while in the rose order the
+stamens are attached around or on the ovary itself.
+
+[Illustration: THE GRASS VETCHLING.]
+
+The Strawberry-leaved Cinquefoil or Barren Strawberry (_Potentilla
+Fragariastrum_) is very similar to the Wild Strawberry, with which it is
+often confused; but no difficulty will arise if it be noted that the
+species we are now considering produces no running stems. The Barren
+Strawberry is a silky little plant, with a thick, prostrate stem; and,
+as one of its popular names implies, a ternate leaf resembling that of
+the Wild Strawberry. The flowers are white, half an inch or less in
+diameter, on slender peduncles, with notched petals. This is one of our
+earliest spring flowers, blooming from February or early March to about
+the end of May; and is very common on banks, in hedgerows, and in weedy
+wastes.
+
+The Tuberous Moschatel (_Adoxa Moschatellina_) is a very inconspicuous
+but an interesting little plant. It is sometimes placed in the same
+order (_Araliaceæ_) as the Ivy, while some botanists regard it as
+belonging to the Honeysuckle family (order _Caprifoliaceæ_). It has a
+scaly, creeping, thick, underground stem or rhizome, and a four-angled
+aerial stem; and the whole plant emits the scent of musk. The flowers
+are small, of a yellowish-green colour, and are clustered together into
+five-flowered, terminal heads. The petals are spreading, the stamens
+four or five in number, and the fruit is berry-like, with one-seeded
+chambers. The plant is only four or five inches in height, and though
+not common, may be found in shady places in many parts. It flowers
+during April and May.
+
+[Illustration: THE STRAWBERRY-LEAVED CINQUEFOIL.]
+
+The White or Red-berried Bryony (_Bryonia dioica_) is a very common
+hedgerow climber, the only British representative of its order
+(_Cucurbitaceæ_). It has a very thick rootstock; a slender stem, that
+often reaches a length of ten feet or more; large, bright green, palmate
+leaves with three, five or seven angular, coarsely-toothed lobes; and
+long simple or branched tendrils. The flowers are imperfect, the males
+and females growing on separate plants. The former are of a pale yellow
+colour, in stalked clusters, each one consisting of a spreading,
+five-lobed corolla, about half an inch in diameter, and five stamens,
+one of which is free, while the other four are united in pairs: the
+females are smaller, generally in pairs, each consisting of a globular
+ovary with three stigmas, and a superior, five-lobed corolla. The fruit
+is a scarlet or orange-coloured berry, about a third of an inch in
+diameter, containing several seeds. The whole plant is clothed with
+small, white hairs, and contains an acrid sap. Time of flowering--May to
+September.
+
+[Illustration: THE MOSCHATEL.]
+
+The Common Beaked Parsley (_Anthriscus vulgaris_), of the order
+_Umbelliferæ_, is very common by waysides, flowering during May and
+June. The stem of this plant is smooth and shining, from two to three
+feet high, slightly swollen at the nodes. The leaves are tri-pinnate,
+with blunt segments, and slightly hairy on the under side. The white
+flowers are arranged in compound umbels with short stalks, and the
+umbels droop before the flowers open. There are no bracts at the base of
+the main pedicels, but five or six _bracteoles_, with fringed edges, lie
+at the foot of the secondary pedicels. The fruits are short, ovate, with
+short beaks and hooked bristles. As with the other members of this
+genus, the petals have an inflexed lip.
+
+This genus includes the Chervil or Wild Beaked Parsley (_A.
+sylvestris_), which is very common in hedges and waysides, flowering
+from April to June. It grows from three to four feet high, and has
+tri-pinnate leaves with coarsely-serrated edges. The umbels are
+terminal, on long stalks. There are no bracts, but about five narrow,
+ovate bracteoles with fringed edges. The flowers are white; and the
+fruits are long and narrow, smooth, with short beaks.
+
+[Illustration: THE WHITE BRYONY, CLIMBING OVER A BED OF NETTLES.]
+
+The Garden Beaked Parsley (_A. cerefolium_) is very similar to the last
+species, but has only three bracteoles in a whorl, and the umbels are
+lateral and shortly stalked. Also, the fruit, which is of the same form,
+has a longer beak. This species is not a native, but is often found as a
+garden escape. It grows to a height of about eighteen inches, and
+flowers from May to July.
+
+Our last example of the _Umbelliferæ_ is the Goutweed, Bishop-weed or
+Herb Gerard (_Ægopodium Podagraria_), a rather coarse, erect, smooth
+plant, from one to two feet high, commonly seen in wayside ditches and
+other damp places. It was formerly cultivated largely for medicinal
+purposes, consequently it is to be found chiefly near towns and
+villages, where it occurs as a garden escape. It has a creeping,
+aromatic stock; a hollow, grooved stem; large long-stalked, biternate
+radical leaves, with ovate or narrow, toothed segments, two or three
+inches long; and smaller stem-leaves with fewer segments. The flowers
+are greenish white, in umbels of many rays, with few or no primary or
+secondary bracts; and the fruits are oblong, about a sixth of an inch
+long, with the two diverging styles curved downward. The plant flowers
+from May to August.
+
+[Illustration: THE WILD BEAKED PARSLEY.]
+
+On dry banks by the wayside we may commonly meet with the Crosswort or
+Mugwort (_Galium Cruciatum_) of the Bed-straw Family (_Rubiaceæ_). It is
+a prostrate plant, with stem from six to eighteen inches long; and
+soft, downy, elliptical leaves arranged crosswise in whorls of four. Its
+fragrant little yellow flowers are in whorled, axillary cymes, each
+cluster having from six to eight blossoms. The lower flowers have
+stamens and no pistil, and the upper ones pistil only. The fruits are
+smooth. The time of flowering is from April to June.
+
+[Illustration: THE GARDEN BEAKED PARSLEY.]
+
+Composite flowers (Order _Compositæ_) are mostly summer-bloomers, but
+three at least are very common by waysides in spring. One of these is
+the Mouse-ear Hawkweed (_Hieracium Pilosella_), a slender plant with
+leafy runners, rendered silky in appearance by long, soft hairs. The
+stem is almost leafless, but there are elliptical-lanceolate, entire,
+radical leaves covered, especially on the under side, by starlike hairs.
+The yellow heads are solitary, on stalks varying from two to ten inches
+long. This species flowers from May to August.
+
+The second species is the Common Groundsel (_Senecio vulgaris_), which
+may be seen in bloom throughout the year. Though so well known, we think
+it advisable to call attention to one or two of its characteristic
+features. The leaves are smooth, deeply cut, toothed, and half clasp the
+stem. The flower-heads have no ray florets; and the outer bracts are
+very short, with black tips.
+
+From March to April almost all damp places are more or less thickly
+dotted with the bright yellow flowers of the Colt's-foot (_Tussilago
+Farfara_); and later, after all the flowers have ceased to bloom, the
+same places are covered with the large, heart-shaped, angular leaves,
+four or five inches wide, thickly clothed beneath with a loose, cottony
+down which is also sparingly scattered over the upper surface. The early
+flowering stems are rather thick and fleshy, about six inches high, and
+downy. They bear a number of small, narrow, erect, scale-like leaves,
+and, at the top, a single flower-head, surrounded by a whorl of narrow
+bracts, and a few smaller outer bracts. The inflorescence consists of
+several whorls of narrow, strap-shaped, outer florets, with no stamens;
+and a few central, tubular, perfect florets. The fruits are cylindrical,
+with a tuft of long, simple hairs.
+
+[Illustration: THE GOUTWEED.]
+
+The Speedwells (_Veronica_) belong to the order _Scrophulariaceæ_. They
+are all herbs, with simple leaves; slightly irregular flowers with an
+unequally four-cleft, spreading corolla, the lower lobe of which is
+smallest; and only two stamens. At least six species of this genus may
+be found by waysides, in flower during the spring months.
+
+One of these--the Thyme-leaved Speedwell (_Veronica serpyllifolia_), is
+common in most waste places. It is a small plant, with a downy,
+prostrate stem from three to ten inches long. The leaves are broadly
+elliptical, slightly crenate, blunt, and somewhat leathery in nature.
+The flowers are about a quarter of an inch across, of a light blue or
+lilac colour, striped with dark blue veins; and appear from May to July.
+They are arranged in several spike-like, many-flowered racemes. The
+corolla tube is very short; the style long and persistent; and the
+fruits are inversely-cordate capsules.
+
+[Illustration: THE CROSSWORT.]
+
+The Common Speedwell (_V. officinalis_) is a small plant, with hairy,
+prostrate stems from two to ten inches in length. It is common in dry
+places. The leaves are opposite, elliptical, serrate, with short stalks.
+The pale blue flowers, which are only about a sixth of an inch in
+diameter, are in many-flowered, axillary, spike-like racemes. The
+capsules are of the same form as in the last species, but are deeply
+notched. This species flowers from May to July.
+
+The Germander Speedwell (_Veronica Chamædrys_) is one of our most
+beautiful and most abundant spring flowers. It is very common on banks
+and by roadsides, flowering during May and June. Its stem is weak,
+decumbent, rooting at the base, often considerably more than a foot in
+length, and remarkable for the line of hairs that changes to alternate
+sides at each node. A raceme of flowers, much longer than the leaves,
+arises from several of the nodes. The flowers are bright blue, about
+half an inch in diameter, with a four-cleft calyx; a deeply four-cleft
+corolla, the lower lobe of which is narrowest; and two prominent
+stamens. The fruit is a very broad, flat capsule, notched at the top,
+narrowed towards the base, splitting into two valves when ripe.
+
+[Illustration: THE COLT'S-FOOT IN EARLY SPRING.]
+
+[Illustration: THE GERMANDER SPEEDWELL.]
+
+A fourth species, the Wall Speedwell (_V. arvensis_), is abundant on
+walls and dry roadsides. It is a prostrate, downy plant, generally more
+or less thickly covered with dust, flowering from April to about the end
+of summer. The stem is from four inches to a foot in length, and two
+lines of hairs run along the branches. The leaves are oval-cordate,
+crenate, and slightly stalked. The flowers are very small and
+inconspicuous, and are frequently almost completely hidden by the
+crowded upper leaves. They have very short corolla-tubes, and are
+arranged in loose, terminal, spikelike racemes.
+
+The Grey Field Speedwell (_V. polita_) is common in waste places and
+rough fields, flowering from April to September. Its flowers are bright
+blue, about a quarter of an inch across, solitary, axillary, on stalks
+which are longer than the leaves. The sepals are broadly oval and
+pointed, and the petals are all of the same colour. The leaves of this
+plant are stalked, cordate, and irregularly toothed.
+
+Our last example of the order is the Green Field Speedwell (_V.
+agrestis_), also common in fields and by the roadside. It has several
+prostrate stems, from four to eight inches long; and stalked, cordate
+leaves with irregularly serrate margins. The flowers are small, about a
+fifth of an inch across, solitary, axillary, on stalks shorter than the
+leaves. The sepals are narrow, oblong, and blunt; and the lower petal is
+white. This species flowers from April to the end of the summer.
+
+[Illustration: THE WHITE DEAD NETTLE.]
+
+The Dead Nettles (genus _Lamium_, of the order _Labiatæ_) may be readily
+distinguished from the Stinging Nettles, with which they are often
+confused, by their square stems, and whorls of showy, lipped flowers.
+Further, these flowers may be recognised from among the others of their
+own order by the ten-ribbed, bell-shaped calyx; and by the one or two
+teeth on each side of the lower lip of the corolla.
+
+Three of this group are very common wayside spring flowers. One is the
+White Dead Nettle (_Lamium album_), with large, white flowers forming
+whorls in the axils of the leaves. The leaves of this plant are all
+stalked, cordate, with a very sharp point, deeply serrate, and often
+marked with white blotches. The teeth of the calyx are narrow, as long
+as the tube, with long slender points; and the tube of the corolla is
+curved, longer than the calyx, gradually widening from below upwards.
+The two lower stamens are longer than the upper pair, and the anthers
+are black. The plant varies from six to eighteen inches in height, and
+flowers from April to September.
+
+The Red Dead Nettle (_L. purpureum_) grows to the same height, but has
+much smaller cordate or kidney-shaped leaves, with blunt apices and
+crenate edges. The upper ones are very crowded, and often tinged with
+red; and all the leaves are stalked. The flowers are small, of a
+red-purple colour (rarely white), in crowded whorls in the axils of the
+upper leaves. The tube of the corolla is straight, longer than the
+calyx; and the calyx teeth are spreading.
+
+[Illustration: THE YELLOW PIMPERNEL.]
+
+The third species--the Cut-leaved Dead Nettle (_L. incisum_ or _L.
+hybridum_)--is not so abundant as the other two, but moderately common
+on waste land. Its leaves, which are all stalked, are very deeply cut
+in a serrate manner; the lower ones being cordate, while the upper are
+more triangular. The flowers are of a rose-red colour, in crowded whorls
+near the top of the stem. The tube of the corolla is _shorter_ than the
+calyx, and straight; and the teeth of the calyx are about as long as its
+tube. The plant grows from six to eighteen inches in height, and flowers
+throughout the whole of spring and summer.
+
+Another common Labiate--the Ground Ivy (_Nepeta Glechoma_)--may be seen
+almost everywhere in the spring, in bloom from March to May. It has a
+procumbent, creeping stem, and deeply-crenate, kidney-shaped leaves. The
+flowers are of a blue-purple colour, arranged in whorls of three or four
+in the axils of the leaves. The calyx has five teeth and fifteen ribs;
+and the two front stamens are shorter.
+
+[Illustration: THE DOG'S MERCURY.]
+
+The Early Field Scorpion Grass (_Myosotis collina_) belongs to the order
+_Boraginaceæ_--a family of (usually) hairy herbs with alternate leaves
+and one-sided spikes or racemes of showy flowers. The flowers have a
+five-lobed calyx and corolla, five stamens, and a fruit of four nutlets.
+It is in the same genus as the familiar Forget-me-not, and, in fact,
+somewhat closely resembles that plant, which is often confused with
+certain species of Scorpion Grass. It is a slender, more or less
+prostrate herb, with blunt oblong leaves; and minute, bright blue
+flowers which are at first hidden among the leaves, but afterwards
+exposed by the lengthening of the stem. The flowers have very short
+pedicels; and are in long, slender, leafless, spikelike racemes, with a
+single flower some distance down, in the axil of the highest leaf. The
+popular name of Scorpion Grass has been given on account of the
+characteristic arrangement of the flowers when in the bud, these being
+then tightly coiled in a scorpoid fashion. In order that the present
+species might be distinguished from allied plants, we should note that
+the pedicels are shorter than the calyx; that the calyx is furnished
+with hooked bristles, and is open and swollen when the fruits are
+formed; also that the tube of the corolla is very short. The Early Field
+Scorpion Grass is very common on dry banks. Its stems vary from about
+four to ten inches long, and the flowers appear during April and May.
+
+[Illustration: THE BLACK BRYONY IN FRUIT.]
+
+The Wood Loosestrife or Yellow Pimpernel (_Lysimachia nemorum_) of shady
+waysides and woods is a member of the _Primulaceæ_ or Primrose family.
+It is altogether a pretty little plant, much like the Scarlet Pimpernel
+in general appearance, but somewhat larger and more glossy. It has a
+prostrate, spreading stem, often tinged with red; and opposite, oval,
+acute leaves with short stalks. The flowers are yellow, usually a little
+more than half an inch in diameter, with a spreading corolla. They are
+axillary, placed singly on very slender peduncles, and have very narrow
+sepals. This species flowers from May to August.
+
+The Perennial or Dog's Mercury (_Mercurialis perennis_), of the
+_Euphorbiaceæ_ or Spurge family, is one of our earliest spring flowers,
+and may be seen in abundance on almost all shady waysides, in bloom from
+March to May, and growing from six to eighteen inches high. The minute
+green flowers, which have three sepals and no petals, are in racemes or
+spikes that grow from the axils of the upper leaves. They are unisexual;
+the staminate flowers in slender racemes, with several erect stamens;
+and the pistillate ones in short, few-flowered spikes, with a two-celled
+ovary, two styles, and a few imperfectly formed stamens.
+
+The Black Bryony (_Tamus communis_)--order _Dioscoriaceæ_--is a pretty
+climbing plant, the slender stem of which twines for several feet among
+the hedgerow trees and shrubs. Its leaves are cordate and acute, and
+change either to a bright yellow or a beautiful bronze colour in the
+autumn. The flowers, which appear in May and June, are yellowish green,
+in small clusters; and the fruits are oblong berries, turning to a
+bright scarlet as the leaves assume their autumn tints.
+
+[Illustration: THE WILD ARUM.]
+
+Our next flower is the peculiar and interesting Wild Arum (_Arum
+maculatum_), of the order _Araceæ_, also known as Lords and Ladies,
+Cuckoo Pint, and Wake Robin. It is a very common flower of shady
+waysides, blooming during April and May. The plant is succulent, with a
+short, fleshy rhizome; and large, smooth, sagittate leaves that are
+often spotted with purple. The floral stalk is thick and fleshy, and
+supports numerous unisexual flowers which are clustered round a central
+axis or _spadix_ that is prolonged above into a club-shaped appendage.
+The whole of the spadix is surrounded by a large bract or _spathe_ which
+is contracted a little distance above its base. The portion of the
+spathe below the constriction encloses the flowers, and remains
+permanently closed as long as they are in bloom; but the upper part
+opens on one side, just before the flowers begin to mature, exposing
+the club of the spathe. The club is thick and fleshy, and coloured
+either dull purple, bright red, pink, or yellow. The pistillate flowers
+are clustered round the bottom of the spadix, and consist of a number of
+sessile ovaries. Above them is a ring of imperfect flowers consisting of
+styles only, and above these again is the cluster of staminate flowers,
+with some aborted stamens at the top. After fertilisation has taken
+place the spathe and the spadix soon wither away, and the ovaries
+develop into a cluster of large berry-like fruits, each containing a few
+seeds. These fruits, mounted on the summit of the lengthened, fleshy
+peduncle, are very conspicuous objects in the autumn hedgerows.
+
+The contrivance by which cross-fertilisation is secured in these flowers
+is particularly interesting:--Numbers of little insects (midges) are
+attracted by the brightly coloured club, and, possibly, also by the
+foetid odour of the flowers. These creep down the spadix, passing
+through the narrow neck into the closed compartment below. The neck is
+more or less obstructed by the upper, abortive, staminate flowers, which
+consist merely of a few whorls of bristles. Since, however, many of
+these bristles point downwards, they offer but little obstruction to
+insects as they enter; but prevent their escape. Thus, on cutting open
+the lower part of the spathe, we may frequently find quite a number of
+midges that have been imprisoned, their bodies covered with pollen that
+has probably been carried from another Arum previously visited. The
+pistillate flowers are mature first, and thus the imprisoned insects,
+creeping about in their cell during this early stage of the flower, are
+sure to bring pollen cells in contact with some of the ripened stigmas.
+
+After the work of fertilisation has been accomplished, the anthers
+ripen, setting free abundance of pollen which now covers the bodies of
+the insects in the place of that which has been rubbed on to the
+stigmas. Then the abortive stamens, which prevented the escape of the
+insects, wither; and, at the same time, the neck of the spathe relaxes.
+Thus the prisoners are again set free, and possibly a large proportion
+of them enter another flower and repeat the process of
+cross-pollination.
+
+The commonest of the early-flowering Grasses of the wayside is the
+Annual Meadow Grass (_Poa annua_)--a small tufted species, varying from
+a few inches to nearly a foot in height. It commences to flower in
+March, and remains in bloom till the end of the summer. It is
+represented on Plate III.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+MEADOWS, FIELDS AND PASTURES--SPRING
+
+
+It is, of course, impossible to draw a hard and fast line between the
+flowers of spring and those of summer, for not only does each individual
+species vary in the time of its first appearance, according to the
+nature of the season, but many of the spring and summer flowers overlap
+in such a manner that it is difficult to decide which season has the
+greater claim to each one. In the present chapter, however, we shall
+include those flowers of our fields and meadows which usually _commence_
+to bloom before the beginning of June, even though they may continue to
+produce blossoms well into the summer.
+
+One of the most conspicuous features of the meadows in spring is
+certainly the abundance of those bright yellow flowers known
+collectively as the Buttercups. But the name of Buttercup, standing
+alone, has no definite, scientific meaning, the name being applied to
+quite a number of flowers of the _Ranunculus_ genus of the order
+_Ranunculaceæ_.
+
+The earliest of these is undoubtedly the Pilewort or Lesser Celandine
+(_Ranunculus Ficaria_), which appears early in April, and often in such
+abundance as to cover the ground with its leaves and flowers. This
+flower is not confined to fields and meadows, but often covers large
+patches of bank and hedgerow, where, together with the Greater
+Stitchwort, it produces a most brilliant show of white and yellow stars.
+
+The plant has a small rootstock, with a number of little oblong tubers
+which are renewed every year, and sometimes a branched, creeping stem.
+Its leaves usually all grow direct from the rootstock, and are stalked,
+heart-shaped, glossy, with crenate or angled margins. The flower-stalks
+bear a few small leaves, and a single flower with three sepals, and
+about eight glossy, oblong, yellow petals. The cluster of carpels in
+the middle of the flower form a large, globular head.
+
+A little later in the season our pastures are bountifully bedecked by
+two of the most familiar Buttercups--the Creeping Buttercup (_R.
+repens_) and the Bulbous Buttercup (_R. bulbosus_), both of which appear
+early in May.
+
+[Illustration: THE FIELD PENNY CRESS.]
+
+The former grows from six inches to a foot in height, and may be easily
+distinguished by its creeping stems, which give off root fibres and
+produce new plants at every node. The flowering stems of this species
+are clothed with long hairs, and the leaves are divided into three
+stalked segments which are lobed and toothed, the middle segment
+projecting much beyond the other two. The flowers are in loose panicles,
+on long, furrowed stalks, with five yellowish-green, concave, spreading
+sepals that are shorter than the petals. The carpels are ovate in form,
+somewhat flattened, arranged in a globular head; and the fruits are
+smooth. This plant is abundant almost everywhere, and continues to
+flower till the end of the summer.
+
+The Bulbous Buttercup is very similar to the last species, but may be
+known at once by its swollen, bulbous root. Its leaves are divided into
+three segments which are more or less toothed and lobed, and the sepals
+bend backwards on the peduncle as soon as the flower opens. Its carpels
+are smooth, and form a globular head; and the ripened achenes are also
+smooth. The plant is very abundant. It flowers from May to August.
+
+[Illustration: THE WILD PANSY.]
+
+Coming now to the Crucifers, we have first to note the Field Pennycress
+(_Thlaspi arvense_), which may be recognised at once by reference to our
+illustration. It is an erect, smooth, plant, from six to twenty inches
+in height, a common weed in cultivated ground, flowering from May to
+July. Its radical leaves are stalked, and wither early; and the small
+white flowers are soon followed by round siliquas, about half an inch
+in diameter, with a broad wing notched at the top.
+
+The same order includes the Cuckoo Flower, Lady's Smock, or Meadow
+Bittercress (_Cardamine pratensis_), which is certainly one of our
+prettiest spring flowers, growing in abundance in most moist meadows,
+and flowering from April to June. It has a short rootstock, with small,
+fleshy scales, often so much swollen as to resemble tubers; and the stem
+is erect, either simple or branched, and a foot or more in height. The
+leaves are pinnately divided, the leaflets of the lower ones being ovate
+or round, and those of the upper ones very narrow. The flowers are
+rather large, white or lilac in colour, with stamens about half as long
+as the petals, and yellow anthers. The fruits are usually more than an
+inch in length.
+
+[Illustration: THE RAGGED ROBIN.]
+
+One of the common weeds of cultivated fields is the pretty Wild Pansy or
+Heartsease (_Viola tricolor_), of the order _Violaceæ_. The plant may be
+easily recognised by its resemblance to the Garden Pansy, which is a
+variety of the same species. It is very variable, both in regard to its
+general build, and to the colour and size of the flowers. The plant is
+either smooth or slightly downy, and its branching stem varies from four
+to ten inches in length. The leaves are oblong or cordate, with crenate
+edges; and each one has a large, leafy stipule which is divided into
+oblong or very narrow lobes. The flowers are coloured with varied
+proportions of yellow, white, and purple; and the lower petal, which is
+the broadest, is usually purple at the base. This species flowers from
+May to the end of the summer.
+
+In damp meadows, and especially near ditches and in marshy ground, we
+meet with the Ragged Robin (_Lychnis Flos-cuculi_ of the order
+_Caryophyllaceæ_). This is an erect plant, from one to two feet high,
+with a viscid stem that is slightly downy and never much branched. The
+leaves are few and small, the upper ones sessile and the lower stalked.
+The pretty red or rose-coloured flowers are arranged in a very loose
+terminal panicle, and have no scent. The petals are each divided into
+four very narrow lobes, of which the two middle ones are longest; and
+the fruit is a broad oval capsule, which opens, when ripe, by five
+teeth. The flowers appear first in May, and continue to bloom till the
+end of June or the beginning of July.
+
+Several spring-flowering leguminous plants (order _Leguminosæ_) are to
+be found in fields and meadows, and of these we will first notice the
+Spotted Medick (_Medicago maculata_), generally easily distinguished by
+the dark spot in the centre of the leaflets of its trifoliate leaves. It
+is a smooth plant, with procumbent, branching stems varying from six
+inches to two feet in length. There are fine, spreading hairs on the
+leafstalks, and the leaflets are obcordate and toothed. At the base of
+each leafstalk there is a pair of toothed stipules. The small, yellow
+flowers are in short, dense racemes, only a few in each cluster; and the
+pods are little compact spirals, almost globular in general form, with
+three or four ridges, and a central furrow broken by a number of fine,
+curved prickles. The plant is abundant in the southern counties of
+England and Ireland, where it grows on pasture-land, flowering from May
+to near the end of the summer.
+
+The Netted Medick (_M. denticulata_), of the same genus, is a similar
+plant, flowering during the same period, and often seen in the southern
+and eastern counties of England, especially in fields near the coast.
+Its prostrate stems are of the same length as those of the Spotted
+Medick; and its leaves are also very similar, but the stipules are
+bordered with very fine teeth. The flowers are in small, yellow heads;
+and the pod forms a loose, flat spiral of two or three coils, deeply
+netted on the surface, and bordered with curved prickles.
+
+We have next to note several species of Trefoils (genus _Trifolium_),
+all distinguished by trifoliate, compound leaves, so familiar to us in
+the clovers; and stipules which adhere to the leafstalks. Their flowers
+are in dense clusters, and each one has a five-toothed calyx, and an
+irregular corolla of narrow petals which usually remains, in a withered
+condition, around the ripening pod. There are ten stamens, the upper one
+free, while the remaining nine, united by their filaments, form a split
+tube round the ovary. The pod sometimes contains only one seed, and
+never more than four.
+
+The Subterranean Trefoil (_T. subterraneum_), which is abundant on the
+dry pastures of South England, is characterised by a stem, from six to
+eighteen inches long, which is underground for the greater part. The
+visible portion of the plant is small, and more or less covered with
+long, spreading hairs. The leaves are on long stalks, with obovate
+leaflets, and broad stipules. The flowers vary in colour from white to
+pink or crimson, and are usually in hairy clusters of from two to four.
+As the fruit ripens, the peduncle lengthens and bends downward. At the
+same time the calyx turns back on the stalk, exposing short fibres, each
+with five spreading teeth which fold over the fruit. The flowers appear
+during May and June.
+
+The Dutch Clover or White Clover (_T. repens_) is one of the most
+familiar of the Trefoils. It is very abundant in English pastures, and
+has been introduced into Ireland, where it is now often selected as the
+national emblem in the place of the Wood Sorrel (p. 52), which
+is regarded by many as the original 'true Shamrock.' The whole plant is
+smooth or slightly hairy; and its creeping stem, from two to twenty
+inches in length, sends down root-fibres from its nodes. The leaves have
+long stalks, with stipules at the base; and the leaflets are broadly
+oval or obovate, finely toothed, and have usually a lighter,
+crescent-shaped mark near the middle. The flower-stalks are long,
+growing from the axils of the leaves; and each one bears a globular head
+of white or pinkish flowers. The plant flowers from April to the end of
+the summer.
+
+A very similar species--_T. hybridum_--has been introduced into our
+country, and has now become established in many places where it was
+formerly cultivated. Its stipules are larger than those of the Dutch
+Clover; the pod contains only two seeds; and the flowers are usually
+pinkish.
+
+The Common Purple Clover (_T. pratense_) is also largely cultivated for
+fodder, but it is indigenous, and grows abundantly in most parts as a
+wild plant. It is very similar to the Dutch Clover in general build,
+but its stem is more or less erect, the flowers are purple, and the
+whole plant is generally more hairy. The stipules are ovate, larger,
+veined, and have long points; and each flower-head has a pair of
+trifoliate leaves at its base. The individual flowers are about half an
+inch long; and the hairy calyx has the lower tooth longer than the
+others. The pod contains only one seed, and is surrounded by the brown,
+withered corolla, as well as by the calyx, which remains erect while the
+fruit ripens. This species also flowers from May to the end of the
+summer.
+
+[Illustration: THE PURPLE CLOVER.]
+
+Two of the Vetches (_Vicia_--of the order _Leguminosæ_) are also to be
+included among our spring-flowering field-plants. One of these is the
+Spring Vetch (_V. lathyroides_), which may be found in flower from April
+to June on dry pastures. It is a small plant, with a hairy stem that
+gives off spreading branches, from six to eight inches long, at the
+base. The leaves are pinnate, with two or three pairs of leaflets,
+rounded and notched at the apex, and no tendrils. The flowers are small,
+solitary, of a rich purple colour, situated in the axils of the leaves.
+The pods are smooth and usually less than an inch long.
+
+The other species--the Common Vetch (_V. sativa_)--is a very similar
+plant, but its trailing stems grow to a length of from one to two feet.
+Its leaves have from four to seven pairs of leaflets, varying in form
+from linear to obovate or obcordate, and have branched tendrils. At the
+base of each leaf is a toothed stipule with, usually, a dark spot in the
+centre. The flowers are axillary and sessile, either solitary or in
+pairs, rather large, and of a pale purple colour. The pods are narrow,
+smooth, from one to two inches long, and contain about twelve smooth
+seeds. The plant is common in fields, and flowers during May and June.
+It is represented in Fig. 5 of Plate IV.
+
+[Illustration: THE DAISY.]
+
+The very pretty Meadow Saxifrage (_Saxifraga granulata_), of the order
+_Saxifragaceæ_, is very abundant in the meadows of some parts of England
+and Scotland, and may sometimes be seen on grassy roadsides. It varies
+from six to about ten inches high, and flowers during May and June. The
+stem is erect, simple or slightly branched, and covered with spreading
+hairs; and the lower leaves are kidney-shaped, either crenate or lobed,
+having long stalks, while the upper ones are smaller, and either entire
+or sharply lobed. The rather large white flowers are in terminal cymes
+of from three to six. The calyx adheres to the ovary, and has blunt
+segments; the five petals are about twice as long as the sepals; and
+both petals and stamens are inserted into the bases of the segments of
+the calyx. The stamens are ten in number, and the ovary is two-celled,
+with two styles.
+
+The principal spring-flowering umbelliferous plant of pastures is the
+common Earthnut or Pignut (_Bunium flexuosum_ or _Conopodium
+denudatum_). This plant has a smooth, slender, stem, with a few forked
+branches, and is usually leafless at the base on account of the early
+decay of the lower leaves. Its popular names are due to the large,
+tuberous rootstock, which has somewhat the appearance of a chestnut, and
+is often eaten by country folk, and dug out of the ground by pigs. The
+lower leaves have three stalked segments, each divided pinnately into
+narrow lobes which are themselves divided; and the upper leaves, which
+are smaller, are cut into very narrow lobes, the middle one much longer
+than the others. The small, white flowers are arranged in umbels of from
+six to ten rays, with a few very narrow bracts or none at all. The
+umbels are usually terminal, and droop before the flowers are open. The
+fruit is oval or oblong, slightly flattened, with slightly-spreading
+styles, and ribs scarcely visible. The plant grows from one to three
+feet high, and flowers from May to July.
+
+Dealing next with a few composite flowers (order _Compositæ_), we first
+call attention to the leading characters of the Common Daisy (_Bellis
+perennis_), which is abundant in fields and meadows almost everywhere,
+and flowers practically all the year round. It has a tufted, perennial
+rootstock, from which grows a cluster of obovate leaves, usually smooth,
+and slightly toothed. The leafless peduncles also start direct from the
+stock, each one bearing a solitary flower-head with an outer whorl of
+nearly smooth bracts; a ray of strap-shaped, white or pinkish florets;
+and a disc of numerous little yellow, tubular florets.
+
+The Dandelion (_Taraxacum Dens-leonis_ or _T. officinale_) is equally
+familiar as a meadow and wayside plant, commencing to flower in March,
+and continuing in bloom till October. It has a thick tap-root, with a
+very bitter taste; and direct from the crown of this grow the spreading
+leaves and the hollow stalks of the solitary flower-heads. The former
+vary very considerably in shape, but are usually long and narrow,
+broader at the apex, and cut into triangular lobes which generally point
+backwards. Sometimes, however, the leaves are almost entire; and they
+also vary in colour, from a bright to a very dull green. The peduncles
+vary from two to eight inches in length; and the florets of the head,
+which are all yellow, are surrounded by an inner whorl of narrow, erect
+bracts, and outer bracts which either overlap or are turned back on the
+stalk. The little fruits have projecting points towards the top, and are
+provided with a slender beak, three or four times as long as the achene
+itself, at the summit of which is a tuft of silky hairs.
+
+[Illustration: THE BUTTERBUR.]
+
+Our last example of the composite flowers is the Butterbur, variously
+named _Tussilago vulgaris_, _Petasites vulgaris_, and _Tussilago
+Petasites_. It resembles the Common Colt's-foot (_Tussilago Farfara_) in
+several respects; and, as will be seen from the above names, is
+sometimes included in the same genus. Its leaves are very large, and
+very similar to those of the Colt's-foot, being cordate and toothed,
+and appearing after the flowers. The flowering stems each bear a dense
+cluster of dull pink or purple heads, forming a raceme from four inches
+to a foot in height. The pistillate and staminate flowers grow almost
+exclusively on separate plants. In the former case the heads are larger
+and densely clustered, each one consisting of filiform, pistillate
+florets only, or almost entirely of these with a few tubular, staminate
+florets in the centre. On other plants the flower-heads are smaller and
+not so densely clustered; and each head consists entirely of tubular,
+male flowers, or has a few filiform, female florets round the outside.
+The plant is common in many parts of Britain. It grows in damp meadows,
+especially along the banks of streams and ditches, flowering from March
+to May.
+
+[Illustration: THE YELLOW RATTLE.]
+
+The Yellow Rattle (_Rhinanthus Crista-galli_), of the order
+_Scrophulariaceæ_, is abundant in damp pastures, flowering from May to
+July. It is a parasitic species, deriving a portion of its food, in the
+form of ready-made organic compounds, from the roots of surrounding
+grasses, and its parasitic habits are referred to in Chapter XXIII. Its
+stem is erect, from six to eighteen inches high; and the leaves are
+sessile, opposite, lanceolate, and coarsely toothed. The calyx is almost
+globular, slightly flattened, with four small teeth. The yellow corolla
+has a tube longer than the calyx, and terminates in two lips, one or
+both of which have often a purple spot. The stamens are in two pairs;
+and the fruit is an almost globular capsule, containing a few large,
+flat seeds.
+
+In similar situations we may find the Field Louse-wort (_Pedicularis
+sylvatica_) of the same order, also a parasitic species, extracting
+nourishment from the roots of grasses. It has spreading branches from
+three to ten inches long, more or less recumbent. Its leaves are
+alternately arranged, and pinnately cut into small, toothed segments.
+The flowers are sessile in the axils of the upper leaves, and vary in
+colour from rose to white. The calyx is broadly oblong, with five
+unequal lobes. The tube of the corolla is considerably longer than the
+calyx; and its upper lip has a very small tooth on each side, just under
+the tip. The plant flowers from April to July.
+
+[Illustration: THE HENBIT DEAD NETTLE.]
+
+The only common spring labiate flower (order _Labiatæ_) of fields is the
+Henbit Dead Nettle (_Lamium amplexicaule_), which is frequently met with
+on sandy soils, flowering from April to the end of the summer. It is a
+low plant, seldom reaching a foot in height, with a branching stem that
+is too weak to stand erect. The upper leaves are sessile, round, much
+wrinkled, and deeply crenate; while the lower ones, of the same form,
+are on long petioles. The flowers are arranged in a few compact whorls,
+in the axils of the upper leaves. The calyx is much shorter than the
+tube of the corolla; and its five, pointed teeth, which are as long as
+the tube, bend together as the fruit ripens. The lipped corolla is of a
+rose or purple-red colour, about half an inch long, with a comparatively
+long, straight tube.
+
+In damp meadows we frequently see the changing Scorpion-Grass (_Myosotis
+versicolor_), also known as the Yellow and Blue Scorpion Grass, deriving
+its name from the fact that the corolla is yellow at first, and
+afterwards changes to a dull blue. It is a hairy plant, with an erect
+stem, from four to ten inches high, slightly branched. The leaves are
+oval or ovate, narrow, and sessile; the lower ones forming a spreading
+tuft at the base, while the others, few in number, are erect on the
+stem. The flowers are very small, almost sessile, and arranged in a
+one-sided, curved raceme. The calyx is deeply cleft into five parts
+which close quite over the ripening fruit; and the small corolla has a
+comparatively long tube and five spreading lobes. The plant flowers from
+April to June. It belongs to the order _Boraginaceæ_.
+
+The Cowslip (_Primula veris_--order _Primulaceæ_) is common in pastures
+in many parts of Britain. It usually grows from six to ten inches high,
+and flowers during May and June. The whole plant is clothed with soft,
+downy hairs; and its leaves are all radical, obovate, narrowed towards
+the base, and much wrinkled like those of the Primrose. The flowers are
+arranged in a drooping umbel, on a long stalk. The calyx is tubular,
+with five broad, blunt teeth; and the corolla has a long, narrow tube,
+with five spreading lobes that form a shallow cup.
+
+[Illustration: THE COWSLIP.]
+
+Two species of Sorrel are very common in meadows and pastures during the
+spring. They are plants very much resembling the docks; in fact, they
+belong to the same genus (_Rumex_) of the order _Polygonaceæ_. Both have
+erect, leafy stems, with sheathing stipules; and numerous, small, green
+flowers which soon turn red. The latter are imperfect, with a
+deeply-cleft perianth of six lobes. The male flowers have six stamens;
+and the females have three styles. The fruits are little triangular
+nuts, more or less enclosed in the segments of the perianth.
+
+One of these--the Common Sorrel (_Rumex Acetosa_)--is very abundant in
+damp meadows and pastures all over Britain. It varies from one to two
+feet in height, with a stem that is usually unbranched, and flowers from
+May to July. The leaves have a very acid juice, and are often used as a
+salad. The radical ones are oblong, arrow-shaped at the base, with
+pointed lobes, and have rather long stalks; the stem-leaves are
+smaller, few in number, with shorter stalks. Sometimes both male and
+female flowers grow on the same plant, but often the plant produces the
+one kind only. They are arranged in long, leafless panicles; and the
+outer lobes of the perianth of the female flowers are turned back on the
+peduncle, while the inner are enlarged and swollen, and close over the
+fruit.
+
+The other species--the Sheep's Sorrel (_R. Acetosella_)--is a much
+smaller plant, seldom reaching a foot in height, and often only three or
+four inches. It grows abundantly in dry pastures and on heaths,
+flowering from May to July. It is much more slender than the Common
+Sorrel; and its leaves, which are also acid, are all very narrow, and
+generally either arrow-shaped or spear-shaped at the base. The flowers
+are in very slender, terminal panicles, the males and the females always
+on separate plants; and the latter differ from those of the last species
+in that all the segments of the perianth close over the fruit.
+
+[Illustration: FOX-TAIL GRASS.]
+
+Coming now to the monocotyledonous plants, we have first to note three
+flowers of the order _Orchidaceæ_, the general features of which are
+described in Chapter XVIII; and the reader is advised to refer
+to this short account of the leading characteristics of the group before
+attempting to identify the present species.
+
+The first is the Twayblade (_Listera ovata_), frequently seen in moist
+pastures, as well as in woods, flowering from May to July. The stem of
+this plant is usually from one to two feet high, with a few sheathing
+scales at the base; and the species can be recognised at once by its two
+broad oval leaves, almost exactly opposite one another, from two to four
+inches long, and about six inches from the ground. The flowers are of a
+yellowish-green colour, in a long slender raceme; and each one has a
+long lip, divided into two very narrow lobes.
+
+The other two belong to the genus _Orchis_. They are the Green-winged
+Meadow Orchis (_O. Morio_), and the Early Purple Orchis (_O. mascula_),
+and may be distinguished by the following summary of their
+characteristics:
+
+The Green-winged Orchis.--Root with two undivided tubers, and stem from
+six to twelve inches high. Leaves few, narrow, at the base of the stem
+only; but a few, loose, sheathing scales above them. Flowers usually
+about eight in number, forming a loose spike. Bracts thin, pink, about
+the same length as the ovary. Sepals purplish, arching over the smaller
+petals. Lip longer than the sepals, and divided into three short lobes.
+Spur a little shorter than the ovary, and very blunt. The plant is
+abundant in the South of England and in South Ireland, but less common
+in the North. The flowers appear during May and June.
+
+The Early Purple Orchis.--Root with two undivided tubers. Stem from six
+to eighteen inches high, including the loose spike of flowers. Leaves
+broad, and often spotted. Flowers numerous, usually purple, but
+sometimes pink or even white. Bracts coloured, nearly as long as the
+ovary. Upper sepals and petals arched over the ovary; lateral sepals
+acute, and turned upwards and backwards. Lip about the same length as
+the sepals, divided into three short lobes, the middle one notched, and
+the lateral ones turned backward. Spur as long as the ovary, obtuse. The
+plant is generally distributed, growing in moist meadows and in woods,
+flowering from April to June.
+
+Finally, we have to note two early-flowering grasses of pastures. One of
+these is the Fox-tail Grass (_Alopecurus pratensis_), which grows from
+one to two feet high, and may be identified with the aid of our
+illustration. The other is the Slender Fox-tail (_A. agrestis_), a very
+similar plant, but its spike of flowers is narrower, especially towards
+the top, and the sheaths of its leaves are not so loose as in the
+former.
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+BOGS, MARSHES AND WET PLACES IN SPRING
+
+
+The cold soils of bogs, marshes, and other wet places do not produce a
+very great variety of flowers during the spring months; but some there
+are which appear in great profusion; and others, though less
+conspicuous, are sufficiently abundant and interesting to be included in
+our list.
+
+Our first is the beautiful Marsh Marigold (_Caltha palustris_) of the
+Buttercup family (_Ranunculaceæ_), which is exceedingly abundant in
+marshes and by the sides of muddy ditches in most parts of Britain,
+flowering from March to June. It is represented on Plate V, and
+may be distinguished at once from the other members of its family by its
+glossy leaves, and its large flowers, varying from one to near two
+inches in diameter.
+
+A little later in the season we may meet with the pale blue or lilac
+flowers of the Marsh Violet (_Viola palustris_--order _Violaceæ_), which
+generally make their first appearance in April, and continue until June
+or July. The plant is much like the well-known Sweet Violet in general
+appearance, but is smaller, with a creeping stock; and the whole is
+smooth with the exception of a few scattered hairs on the flower-stalks.
+Its leaves are either round, heart-shaped, or kidney-shaped, with
+slightly-waved edges, and often of a purplish hue beneath. The flowers
+are smaller than those of the Sweet Violet, scentless, with pale petals;
+and the spur of the corolla is very short and blunt. The plant is rather
+local in the southern counties of England, but is decidedly abundant in
+the bogs and marshes of North Britain.
+
+Few of the spring bog-flowers are more interesting than the pretty
+little Sundews (_Drosera_), so remarkable on account of their
+carnivorous nature. A description of the three British species will be
+found in Chapter XXIV, which contains also an account of their peculiar
+habits.
+
+Coming next to the order _Caryophyllaceæ_ we have to note two of the
+Stitchworts or Starworts (_Stellaria_)--slender plants distinguished by
+their opposite, pointed leaves; jointed stems; and little, white,
+star-like flowers. They have five sepals; five petals, deeply divided
+into two lobes; ten stamens; three styles; and a capsular fruit that
+splits longitudinally, with many seeds.
+
+One of these is the Glaucous or Marsh Stitchwort (_Stellaria glauca_ or
+_S. palustris_), which is widely distributed though not very common. The
+whole plant is slender, with a four-angled stem from six to eighteen
+inches high; and narrow, sessile, undivided leaves that taper to a
+point. Its flowers are solitary on axillary peduncles, from half to
+three-quarters of an inch in diameter, with petals much longer than the
+three-veined sepals. They first appear in April, and continue to bloom
+until August.
+
+[Illustration: THE MARSH POTENTIL.]
+
+The other is the Bog Stitchwort (_S. uliginosa_)--a smooth, slender
+plant, with a spreading, four-angled stem, and narrow-ovate leaves that
+terminate in a stiff point. In marshy or boggy ground its stems are
+straggling, and often near a foot in length; but on drier soils they are
+much shorter, and the plant more tufted. The flowers are much
+smaller--only about a quarter of an inch in diameter, and are arranged
+in loose, terminal cymes. Their petals are shorter than the sepals, and
+are very deeply divided into two narrow spreading lobes. This species
+flowers during May and June.
+
+The Rose family (_Rosaceæ_) includes the Purple Marsh Cinquefoil or
+Marsh Potentil (_Comarum palustre_ or _Potentilla palustris_)--a stout
+plant, varying from six to eighteen inches high, the whole generally
+more or less tinged with purple. The flowers are of a dull purple-brown
+colour, in loose clusters, and bloom from May to July. The sepals, which
+are longer than the petals, have narrow outer segments, and longer,
+broad, inner segments with long, sharp points. This species is widely
+distributed, but is very local in the southern counties of England.
+
+[Illustration: THE GOLDEN SAXIFRAGE.]
+
+In shady marshes we may often meet with one or other of the two pretty
+little Golden Saxifrages (order _Saxifragaceæ_), and sometimes the both
+growing together. One of them--the Common Golden Saxifrage
+(_Chrysosplenium oppositifolium_), is very abundant, often covering
+large patches of marsh with its golden leaves and flowers. It is a
+tender, succulent plant; with a decumbent stem, either simple, or
+branched near the top, and rooting at the base. The leaves are opposite,
+almost round, about half an inch in diameter, with wavy margins, and a
+few scattered hairs on the upper side. The lower ones are shortly
+stalked, and the upper generally of a golden colour. The flowers are
+very small, in little, crowded, terminal clusters, surrounded by the
+upper leaves. They have a calyx of four spreading sepals; no petals;
+eight stamens joined to the base of the sepals; and an inferior ovary
+divided above into two conical lobes.
+
+The other species is the Alternate-leaved Golden Saxifrage (_C.
+alternifolium_)--a very similar plant, but generally of a lighter
+colour, and its leaves are always alternately arranged. Both species
+have yellow flowers which bloom from April to July; and both grow to a
+height of from two to five inches. The latter is much less common than
+the former, but is very widely distributed.
+
+The Marsh Pennywort or White Rot (_Hydrocotyle vulgaris_) is a peculiar
+umbelliferous plant, common in marshes and bogs, with a slender stem
+that creeps in the mud, rooting at every joint; and tufts of
+long-stalked leaves which rise above the surface of the water. The
+latter are round, with waved margins, about an inch in diameter, glossy,
+and stalked in the centre. The minute white flowers are collected into
+little five-flowered umbels, on stalks much shorter than those of the
+leaves, each individual flower having a very short pedicel, and five
+spreading petals. This plant flowers from May to August.
+
+[Illustration: THE MARSH VALERIAN.]
+
+In the marshes of South Britain we may often meet with the pretty Marsh
+Valerian (_Valeriana dioica_) of the _Valerianaceæ_. It grows from six
+to eight inches high, and its flowers, which bloom during May and June,
+are of a pale rose colour, in a terminal corymb. They are mostly
+unisexual, the male and female flowers growing on different plants. All
+have a tubular corolla, pouched at the base, with five spreading lobes;
+but the female blooms are more densely crowded than the males, and are
+of a deeper colour. The former have an inferior ovary, with a slender
+style and a lobed stigma; and the latter have three stamens on the
+corolla.
+
+The _Gentianaceæ_ is represented in bogs by the common Buckbean or Marsh
+Trefoil (_Menyanthes trifoliata_), the only member of its family with
+trifoliate leaves. This plant has a creeping stock; and its flowers,
+which are pink in the bud and pinkish white when expanded, are in
+handsome racemes on stalks from six inches to a foot in length. The
+calyx has five short lobes; and the bell-shaped, fleshly corolla is
+deeply cut into five lobes which are beautifully fringed above with
+delicate filaments. The time of flowering is May to July.
+
+[Illustration: THE MARSH TREFOIL.]
+
+[Illustration: THE MARSH LOUSEWORT.]
+
+In the marshes, ditches, and wet meadows of most parts we may see the
+Red Rattle or Marsh Lousewort (_Pedicularis palustris_) which belongs to
+the order _Scrophulariaceæ_. It has an erect stem, from six to eighteen
+inches high, with reddish branches; and pinnate leaves with many oval
+segments more or less deeply cut. Its rather large crimson flowers are
+on very short stalks in the axils of the upper leaves, forming together
+a leafy raceme. The calyx is a broad, hairy tube, with two
+irregularly-toothed lips; and the corolla is much longer than the calyx,
+with two lips, the upper of which has four minute teeth. After flowering
+the calyx becomes much swollen; and the superior ovary ripens into a
+capsule with a few rather large seeds. This plant flowers from May to
+September.
+
+Most wet places are characterised by the presence of one or more species
+of Willows--those water-loving trees and shrubs which constitute the
+genus _Salix_ of the order _Salicaceæ_. Some of them almost invariably
+establish themselves along the banks of rivers and streams, and may
+often be seen in long tortuous lines which mark the positions and
+courses of streams that no longer exist; while others thrive best in the
+standing water and sodden soils of marshes and bogs. One species in
+particular, the Osier, is largely cultivated for its long, slender
+twigs, so useful in the manufacture of baskets and other wicker-work;
+but two or three others are valued for the same purpose, and are either
+specially cultivated, or pollarded with the object of securing suitable
+twigs for this work.
+
+[Illustration: THE YELLOW FLAG.]
+
+Nearly all the species have very narrow leaves, with prominent stipules
+at the base; and their flowers grow in erect or horizontal catkins with
+undivided scales. The flowers are always unisexual, the male and female
+blossoms being produced on separate trees. The former have from two to
+five stamens; and the latter a one-celled ovary that ripens to a capsule
+containing many seeds, each with a tuft of silky hairs. A few of these
+trees are common in marshes and bogs, but they are so similar in their
+general features that the identification of species is somewhat
+difficult for a beginner.
+
+Some of our marshes and boggy pools are beautifully decorated from May
+to July by the large, bright flowers of the Yellow Iris or Flag (_Iris
+Pseudacorus_), which belongs to the order _Iridaceæ_. This plant has a
+thick rhizome which creeps horizontally below the ground, and a round
+stem from one to three feet high. Two or three flowers grow on the stem,
+each with a sheathing bract at the base of its stalk. The perianth
+consists of six segments, the outer three broadly ovate at the top, and
+spreading; and the inner three narrower, shorter, and erect. There are
+three stamens; and an inferior ovary with three large petal-like
+stigmas, longer than the inner segments of the perianth, divided into
+two at the tip. The fruit is a large capsule, two or three inches long,
+containing many brownish-yellow seeds.
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+WOODS AND THICKETS IN SUMMER
+
+
+A large number of the flowers that grow in woods bloom early in the
+spring, before the buds of the trees have expanded, or, at least, before
+the foliage is sufficiently dense to cover the ground with its shadow.
+Some, however, are not so dependent on the direct rays of the sun, but
+thrive even better in the shaded, moist atmosphere of wooded ground.
+Others there are which seem grateful for the warm rays of the summer
+sun, but grow to their greatest luxuriance in the moist and
+partially-shaded ground of underwood and thicket, trusting to the
+rigidity of their own erect stems, or to the climbing habit which they
+have acquired, to bring their leaves and blossoms in full view of the
+sun during some part of the day.
+
+Plants such as these are selected for description in this chapter; and
+although we may speak of their flowers as the summer blossoms of woods,
+thickets and copses, we must be prepared to meet with several of them
+outside these habitats, particularly in damp places that are more or
+less protected from the heat of the sun.
+
+Our first in this series is the Lime Tree (_Tilia europæa_) of the order
+_Tiliaceæ_, which grows wild in many of our woods, but has been planted
+to such an extent that it may be found in almost every cultivated
+district except in the extreme North. Its leaves are stalked, alternate,
+heart-shaped or broadly ovate, very pointed, serrate, smooth above, and
+slightly downy below. The flowers, which appear during June and July,
+are of a pale yellowish green colour, and are arranged in cymes, on
+axillary, drooping peduncles that are attached for nearly half their
+length to a long, leafy bract. There are five sepals, which fall early;
+five petals; and many stamens that are united at their bases into
+clusters. The blossoms have a very sweet scent, and produce such an
+abundance of nectar that they are very attractive to bees and other
+insects. The fruit is a woody nut, globular or more or less angled,
+five-celled, with two seeds in each cell.
+
+[Illustration: _Plate II._ FLOWERS OF THE WOODS.
+1. Great Valerian. 2. Foxglove. 3. Succory-leaved Hawk's-beard. 4.
+Nettle-leaved Bell-flower. 5. Broad-leaved Helleborine. 6. Hairy
+Brome-grass.]
+
+A small-leaved variety, sometimes regarded as a distinct species (_Tilia
+parvifolia_), has a thin, angular fruit; and another, known as _Tilia
+grandifolia_, has very large, broad leaves, downy on both sides, and a
+downy fruit with from three to five prominent ribs.
+
+[Illustration: THE LARGE-FLOWERED ST. JOHN'S WORT.]
+
+Several species of St. John's-wort (order _Hypericaceæ_) grow in
+thickets and other wooded spots. They vary considerably in size, as well
+as in general appearance, but all agree in the following features: Their
+leaves are opposite, entire, without stipules, and either sessile or
+very shortly stalked. The flowers are regular, with five sepals; five
+petals, often oblique at the tip; numerous stamens, united or clustered
+into three or five sets; and a superior ovary that ripens to a capsule
+with many seeds. No less than four species of the genus (_Hypericum_)
+come within the province of the present chapter. They are:--
+
+1. The Tutsan (_H. Androsæmum_).--An erect, shrubby plant, from one to
+three feet high, flowering from June to August, common in the thickets
+of most of the western and southern counties of Britain. It has several
+erect, slightly-flattened stems; and large, blunt, ovate leaves, two or
+three inches long, with very small, transparent dots that are easily
+seen when the leaves are held up to the light. The flowers are yellow,
+about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and form a compact,
+terminal corymb. The sepals are broad, about a third of an inch long;
+the petals a little longer, and oblique; and the stamens are in five
+sets, connected at the base.
+
+[Illustration: THE COMMON ST. JOHN'S WORT.]
+
+2. The Large-flowered St. John's-Wort or Rose of Sharon (_H.
+calycinum_).--A shrubby plant, from ten to eighteen inches high, with a
+creeping, woody stock, flowering from July to September. It is not
+indigenous, but has been largely introduced into parks and gardens, and
+now grows wild in many parts. This species may be distinguished from all
+other members of the genus by its large, yellow flowers, from one and a
+half to three inches in diameter.
+
+3. The Common St. John's-Wort (_H. perforatum_).--A very common plant in
+woods and thickets, growing from one to two feet high, and flowering
+from July to September. It has short, underground stems, or barren
+shoots that lie on the ground and root at the nodes, in addition to the
+erect, flowering stems, which are either round or two-edged, and
+branched towards the top. The leaves are half an inch long, with opaque
+veins, many transparent dots, and sometimes a few black dots on the
+under side. The yellow flowers form a terminal corymb. Their sepals are
+narrow, about half the length of the petals. The stamens are in three
+sets, united at the base; and both petals and anthers are marked with
+black dots.
+
+4. The Hairy St. John's-Wort (_H. hirsutum_).--A stiff, erect plant,
+from one to three feet high, common in the woods and thickets of most
+parts of Britain, flowering in July and August. The stem is round, and
+clothed with soft hairs. The leaves are ovate, oblong or elliptical,
+tapering at the base into a short stalk, about an inch long, with many
+transparent dots, and downy along the veins on the under side. The
+sepals are narrow, acute, about half the length of the yellow petals,
+and fringed with stalked glands. The stamens are in three sets.
+
+[Illustration: THE DYER'S GREEN-WEED.]
+
+The Wood Crane's-bill (_Geranium sylvaticum_--order _Geraniaceæ_), one
+of the most handsome of our Wild Geraniums, is not found in the South,
+but is moderately common in parts of North Britain, including North
+Ireland. Its stem is erect, from one to two feet high, and branched
+towards the top. In general form the leaves are heart-shaped or
+shield-shaped, but they are very deeply divided into five or seven
+radiating, cut, and toothed lobes. The lower ones are on long stalks;
+but the upper are shortly stalked or sessile, and less divided. The
+flowers are of a bluish-purple or rose colour, about an inch in
+diameter, arranged in a loose panicle with two flowers on each pedicel.
+The five sepals are about half the length of the petals, and terminate
+in a very fine point; and the petals are obovate and slightly notched.
+The plant flowers during June and July.
+
+[Illustration: THE SWEET MILK VETCH.]
+
+Passing now to the order _Leguminosæ_ we note first the Dyer's
+Green-weed (_Genista tinctoria_)--a shrubby plant, common in the
+thickets and bushy places of South Britain, flowering from July to
+September. The stem is woody and stiff, but green; its base rests on the
+ground, but it sends up erect flowering branches from one to two feet
+high. The yellow flowers are arranged in terminal racemes, each flower
+having a lanceolate bract at the base of its short stalk, and very small
+bracts at the base of the calyx. The calyx has five teeth, the three
+lower ones much narrower than the other two, all terminating in a sharp
+point; the corolla is much longer than the calyx, with an oblong
+standard or upper petal; the stamens are all united by their filaments,
+forming a complete sheath round the ovary; and the pods are smooth,
+about an inch long, and compressed.
+
+In the thickets of most parts of Britain, but more especially those of
+the eastern counties, we may often meet with the Sweet Milk Vetch
+(_Astragalus glycyphyllos_) of the same order. It is a prostrate plant,
+with pale yellow or cream-coloured flowers that bloom from June to
+August. The flowers are about half an inch long, in short, dense,
+shortly-stalked racemes. The calyx has five teeth; the upper stamen is
+free from the other nine, which form a divided sheath round the ovary;
+and the pod is smooth, round, curved, over an inch long, and divided by
+a double membrane into two cells, each of which contains about seven
+seeds.
+
+[Illustration: THE WILD RASPBERRY.]
+
+In the same order are two species of Everlasting Pea (_Lathyrus_), both
+of which grow in thickets and other bushy places. One is the Tuberous
+Everlasting Pea or Tuberous Bitter Vetch (_L. macrorrhizus_), an erect
+plant, from six inches to a foot in height, flowering from May to July.
+Its rootstock has small tubers, and the stem is winged. The leaves are
+pinnate, with from two to four pairs of narrow leaflets and half
+arrow-shaped stipules; they have no tendrils, but the leafstalk
+terminates in a fine point. The flowers are of a red-purple colour,
+changing to greenish blue as they fade; and are in loose racemes of from
+two to four.
+
+The other is the Narrow-leaved Everlasting Pea (_L. sylvestris_), a
+straggling plant, from two to six feet long, flowering from June to
+August. It is not so common as the last, but may be found in similar
+situations. Its stem has very narrow wings; and the leaves have very
+narrow leaflets, flattened stalks, branched tendrils, and half
+arrow-shaped stipules. The flowers are rather large, of a pale purple
+colour, with a greenish keel, and a green spot on the large upper petal.
+They are arranged in loose racemes.
+
+[Illustration: THE ROSE BAY WILLOW HERB.]
+
+The Wild Raspberry (_Rubus Idæus_--order _Rosaceæ_) is to be found in
+the woods and thickets of most parts of Britain. It may be easily
+distinguished from other species of its genus by the following
+description:--Rootstock creeping, with many suckers. Stems round, erect,
+with a soft down and numerous weak prickles. Leaves pinnate, with three
+or five ovate, pointed, toothed leaflets, pale green above, and white
+and hoary beneath. Stipules small, very narrow and pointed, usually
+attached part way up to the leafstalk. Flowers white, in long, terminal,
+drooping panicles. Calyx five-lobed; petals five, short and narrow;
+stamens numerous; and fruit consisting of a globular cluster of red or
+yellow, hoary, one-seeded, succulent carpels which usually separate from
+the conical receptacle when ripe. The bush grows from three to five feet
+high, and flowers from June to August.
+
+Two species of Willow Herb (order _Onagraceæ_) grow in copses and
+thickets, and are easily recognised by their rose-coloured flowers with
+very long, inferior ovaries. One is the beautiful French Willow or Rose
+Bay Willow Herb (_Epilobium angustifolium_), an erect plant, varying
+from two to six feet in height, widely distributed, though not very
+common, flowering during July and August. Its leaves are alternate,
+narrow-elliptical, entire or with very small teeth, and very shortly
+stalked. The flowers are about an inch in diameter, numerous, forming a
+very long, loose, terminal, tapering raceme, with a narrow bract at the
+base of each pedicel. The calyx is tubular, four-cleft, attached to the
+top of the long ovary; the corolla consists of four entire, nearly
+equal, spreading petals; the stamens, eight in number, all bend
+downwards; and the stigma is deeply divided into four lobes, on a long
+style which also bends downward. The fruit is a four-celled capsule, two
+or three inches long, which splits when ripe, its valves curling
+downwards and exposing numerous minute seeds, each of which has a silky
+tuft of fine hairs that enables it to be dispersed by the wind. The
+plant is most frequently seen in damp copses, and among the undergrowth
+of damp woods.
+
+[Illustration: THE DOGWOOD.]
+
+The second species is the Pale Smooth-leaved Willow Herb (_E. roseum_),
+an erect plant, seldom more than two feet high, found principally in the
+damp copses of the southern counties, flowering in July and August. Its
+stem is four-angled, two opposite angles being much more prominent than
+the other two; and its leaves are opposite, with longer stalks,
+lanceolate or elliptical, pointed, toothed, smooth, usually about two
+inches long. The flowers are not nearly so numerous as those of the last
+species, are only a little over a third of an inch in diameter, and in a
+short, leafy panicle, drooping while in the bud. The calyx is deeply
+divided into four sepals about a sixth of an inch long; the corolla
+consists of four notched petals, a little longer than the sepals; the
+stamens, ovary, fruit, and seeds correspond in number and character with
+those of the last species; but the stigma is either entire or divided
+into four very short lobes.
+
+In the same order we have the Enchanter's Nightshade (_Circæa
+lutetiana_), distinguished at once from the Willow Herbs by having only
+two sepals, two petals, and two stamens. It is an erect, hairy plant,
+from one to two feet high, flowering from June to August. Its stem is
+slender; and the leaves are opposite, long-stalked, ovate and coarsely
+toothed. The flowers are very small, white, in terminal, leafless
+racemes, with deeply-notched petals, and pink stamens. The fruit is a
+little two-lobed capsule with stiff, hooked hairs.
+
+[Illustration: THE WOOD SANICLE.]
+
+The Cornel or Dogwood (_Cornus sanguinea_), of the order _Cornaceæ_, is
+a common shrub in woods and thickets, and is often employed in the
+making of hedgerows. It grows from five to eight feet high, and flowers
+during June and July. Its leaves are covered, when young, with fine,
+silky hairs that lie close on the surface, but these almost entirely
+disappear later; and towards the end of the summer the leaves assume a
+deep crimson or purple colour. The flowers are very abundant, of a
+yellowish white colour, and are arranged in dense cymes, about two
+inches across, without bracts. The four-toothed calyx and the peduncle
+are both clothed with a mealy down; and the four petals, about a quarter
+of an inch long, are narrow and pointed. The fruit is a purple-black,
+globular, berry-like drupe, containing a stone with one or two seeds.
+
+In very dense woods, where the light is so much reduced that but few
+flowers will grow, we may generally find the Wood Sanicle (_Sanicula
+europæa_), a smooth umbelliferous plant with a short, hard rootstock,
+and a simple stem from one to two feet high. The leaves, which are all
+radical, are on long stalks, and are palmately divided into three or
+five shining lobes that are themselves cut and sharply toothed. The
+flowers are sessile, in little rounded heads; the whole inflorescence
+forming an irregular umbel or a loose panicle. They are very minute, of
+a pinkish white colour; and the outer ones of each head usually have no
+pistil. They bloom during June and July, and are followed later by
+little prickly fruits about a sixth of an inch long.
+
+[Illustration: THE ALEXANDERS.]
+
+In damp woods we commonly meet with the tall, stout, branching Angelica
+(_Angelica sylvestris_) of the same order (_Umbelliferæ_), with a thick,
+furrowed stem, two to four feet high, downy above, and usually more or
+less shaded with purple. Its lower leaves are very large, with stalked,
+ovate leaflets, from one to two inches long, often three-lobed, and
+always sharply toothed. The upper leaves are much smaller, with fewer
+leaflets, and often consist only of a broad sheath with a few small
+leaflets at its summit. The flowers are white, generally tinged with
+pink, and form a large terminal umbel of from sixteen to forty rays,
+with two or three narrow primary bracts, and several fine secondary
+ones. They bloom during July and August, and are succeeded by flattened
+fruits with three ribs on the back of each of the two carpels. The
+carpels are also broadly winged; and, as the wings do not adhere, each
+fruit is surrounded by a double wing.
+
+[Illustration: THE ELDER.]
+
+The order _Caprifoliaceæ_ includes the Common Elder (_Sambucus nigra_),
+the white or cream-coloured flowers of which are so conspicuous in our
+woods and hedgerows in June. This tree grows to a height of fifteen or
+twenty feet, and its young branches are remarkable for the large
+quantity of pith they contain. The general form of the leaves and the
+arrangement of the flowers are seen in our illustration. Each flower has
+a calyx with five small teeth; a corolla with a short tube and five
+spreading limbs; five stamens attached to the base of the corolla; and
+an inferior ovary. The fruit is a black, berry-like drupe containing
+(usually) eight little, seedlike stones.
+
+[Illustration: THE GUELDER ROSE.]
+
+The Guelder Rose or Water Elder (_Viburnum Opulus_), of the same order,
+is a flowering shrub, usually six or eight feet high, moderately common
+in moist woods and copses, especially in the South, bearing showy cymes
+of white blossoms in June and July. The cymes are flat-topped,
+consisting of numerous flowers, the outer of which are much larger,
+often nearly an inch in diameter, but without stamens or styles, while
+the others are perfect, with five stamens and three sessile styles. The
+fruit is a blackish-red, almost globular, slightly-flattened berry,
+containing a single seed. The cultivated variety of this shrub, known as
+the Snowball Tree, has large, globular cymes of flowers, all of which
+are large and barren.
+
+The Great Valerian or All-heal (_Valeriana officinalis_--order
+_Valerianaceæ_) is moderately common in moist woods, and is rather
+widely distributed. It is an erect plant, from two to four feet high,
+flowering from June to August. There seems to be two distinct varieties
+of this plant, one with from four to six pairs of leaflets, and the
+other with from six to ten pairs, in addition to the terminal leaflet in
+each case. The flowers are small, flesh-coloured or nearly white, in
+terminal and axillary corymbs. The little inferior ovary is surmounted
+by a calyx which is compactly rolled in at first, but which expands into
+a spreading, feathery pappus as the fruit ripens. The corolla is
+tubular, with five short, equal, spreading lobes. It is not spurred as
+in the case of the Red Valerian (p. 302), but the base of the
+tube is pouched on one side. This plant is shown on Plate II, Fig.
+1.
+
+We have now to note some composite flowers (order _Compositæ_) of wooded
+and shaded ground. Of these we will first take the Blunt-leaved or
+Succory-leaved Hawk's-beard (_Crepis succisæfolia_ or _C. hieracoides_),
+which is moderately common in the woods of North England and Scotland,
+but does not occur in the South. It is an erect plant, varying from one
+to three feet in height, smooth or slightly hairy, flowering during July
+and August. The fruits (achenes) are marked by many fine, longitudinal
+ridges, and are surmounted by a dense pappus of soft, white hairs which
+are a little longer than the fruits themselves. This flower is
+represented in Plate II, Fig. 3.
+
+In the woods and thickets of nearly all parts of Britain we may see the
+Saw-wort (_Serratula tinctoria_), a stiff, erect, smooth plant, from one
+to three feet high, flowering in August and September. The flower-heads
+are purple or crimson, forming a loose, terminal corymb; and the
+florets, all of which are tubular, are imperfect, the males and females
+being generally on different plants. The involucre is oblong in form,
+more than half an inch long, consisting of many pointed, closely-placed
+bracts, of which the inner are usually tipped with red; and that of the
+male heads is somewhat broader than the involucre of the females. The
+pappus consists of a tuft of simple hairs, most of which are longer than
+the achene.
+
+The Golden Rod (_Solidago Virga-aurea_) is another abundant flower,
+found in dry woods and thickets in all parts. It is a tufted plant, with
+stiff, erect, angular, slightly-branched stems, varying from six inches
+to two feet in height; and narrow-elliptical leaves, entire or slightly
+toothed, the lower ones stalked. The flowers are very numerous, of a
+bright golden yellow-colour, forming a dense, terminal panicle. The
+heads are not large, and each consists of about twenty tubular
+disc-florets; half the number of strap-shaped ray-florets; and an
+involucre of many overlapping bracts. The pappus consists of many simple
+hairs. This species flowers from July to September.
+
+Two species of Leopard's Bane (_Doronicum_) are occasionally to be seen
+in damp woods and thickets, especially near villages. They are not
+indigenous, only occurring as escapes from gardens, but they have now
+become well established as wild flowers in many parts of Britain. Both
+are tall, erect plants, from two to three feet high, with large yellow
+heads surrounded by two or three rows of narrow, acute bracts. Except in
+colour the heads much resemble the Ox-eye Daisy. In both species the
+achenes of the ray have no pappus, but those of the disc have a pappus
+of stiff hairs in several rows. They flower from May to July.
+
+[Illustration: THE SAW-WORT.]
+
+The Great Leopard's Bane (_D. Pardalianches_) has a creeping rootstock
+and a hollow stem. Its radical leaves are broadly heart-shaped, slightly
+toothed, on long stalks; and the stem leaves are narrower, entire or
+toothed, the upper ones small, sessile, embracing the stem; and the
+lower ones stalked, with a broad expansion at the base of the stalk
+which clasps the stem. The heads are usually three or four in number, on
+long leafless peduncles.
+
+The other species, the Plantain-leaved Leopard's Bane (_D.
+plantagineum_), has, as its name denotes, leaves similar to those of the
+Plantain. It usually has solitary flower-heads, and is represented on
+Plate I.
+
+Passing now to the favourite Bell-flowers (Order _Campanulaceæ_), we
+have to notice four species that are to be found in woods and other
+shady spots during the summer months. The features common to the four
+species are:--Leaves alternate. Calyx adhering to the ovary, with a
+border of five lobes or teeth. Corolla bell-shaped, with five lobes.
+Stamens five, attached to the corolla by the broad bases of the
+filaments. Ovary inferior, ripening to a capsule that opens by
+longitudinal clefts. The species referred to are:
+
+1. The Giant Bell-flower (_Campanula latifolia_). A stout plant, from
+three to five feet high; with an unbranched, leafy stem; and a leafy
+raceme of large, deep blue or white flowers that bloom in July and
+August. Its leaves are large, ovate to lanceolate, acute, doubly
+serrate, the lower ones stalked and the upper sessile. Each axillary
+peduncle bears only one flower, the calyx of which has long, narrow
+segments, and the corolla is hairy within. The capsule is short, opening
+by slits near the base. This flower is found principally in the North.
+
+2. The Creeping Bell-flower (_C. Rapunculoides_).--A downy plant, with a
+creeping rootstock; an erect, simple or slightly-branched stem from one
+to two feet high; and a one-sided raceme of drooping, deep blue flowers
+that appear in July and August. The leaves are rough and doubly toothed,
+the lower ones stalked and heart-shaped, and the upper narrow and
+sessile. The segments of the calyx are long and narrow, and the capsule
+is globular, opening by small slits near the base. This species is
+widely distributed, but not very common.
+
+3. The Nettle-leaved Bell-flower (_C. Trachelium_).--A very rough plant,
+with an angled stem, from one to three feet high, bearing a leafy raceme
+of large blue flowers from July to October. Its leaves are much like
+those of the Stinging Nettle, being very rough, bristly, and coarsely
+toothed. The segments of the calyx are rather broad, and very rough with
+stiff hairs. This species is very abundant in some localities, and is
+widely distributed. (See Plate II, Fig. 4.)
+
+4. The Ivy-leaved Bell-flower (_C. hederacea_).--A pretty little
+creeping plant that grows in moist woods, flowering during July and
+August. It is very widely distributed, and is a common flower in many
+parts of Great Britain, more especially in the southern counties. Its
+prostrate stem is very slender; and the leaves are small, stalked, very
+broad, and palmately divided into angular lobes. The flowers are of a
+pale blue colour, solitary on long, threadlike peduncles; and the
+capsule is globular, opening by three valves at the top.
+
+From May to August is the best season to study the Holly (_Ilex
+aquifolium_--order _Aquifoliaceæ_). We are all acquainted with this tree
+in its winter condition, with its bright red or yellow 'berries,' but
+during the months above named the less familiar flowers are in bloom.
+The tree is common in the woods of all parts of Britain, and is easily
+distinguished at all times by its smooth, grey bark, as well as by its
+thick, glossy, spiny, evergreen leaves, which are placed alternately on
+the branches, attached by very short stalks. As a rule the leaves have
+waved margins, and are armed with several very strong spines; but
+commonly the spines of the upper leaves are much fewer, and are
+sometimes reduced to a single one at the apex. The little white flowers
+form dense clusters in the axils of the leaves. Generally they contain
+both stamens and pistil, but often they are imperfect, the pistillate
+flowers predominating on some trees and the staminate ones on others.
+Their parts are arranged in fours, the calyx having four small teeth,
+and the corolla four spreading lobes, while four stamens are attached to
+the latter, and the ovary has the same number of cells, and the style
+terminates in an equal number of small stigmas. The fruits are not
+really berries, but little, poisonous drupes containing four one-seeded
+stones.
+
+[Illustration: THE IVY-LEAVED BELL FLOWER.]
+
+The Privet (_Ligustrum vulgare_), which forms, together with the Ash,
+the whole of the order _Oleaceæ_, as far as British species are
+concerned, is very common in the southern counties, where it is often an
+escape from gardens, the bush being so largely employed in the formation
+of hedges; but it is truly wild, and very plentiful on the chalky soils
+of the south and east of England. Except during very severe winters the
+old leaves remain until the early spring leaves are well formed, so that
+the bush is always green. The flowers are white, with a very
+characteristic odour, and are arranged in dense, terminal, conical
+panicles. The calyx forms a little cup with four teeth, but soon falls;
+and the corolla is funnel-shaped, with four spreading lobes at the top
+of its tube. The stamens are short, attached to the corolla; and the
+superior ovary ripens to a black, globular berry containing two or four
+seeds. The bushes are in bloom during June and July.
+
+[Illustration: TWO TWIGS OF HOLLY
+One from a lower, and one from the topmost branch of the same tree, the
+former in fruit.]
+
+Three species of Cow Wheat (_Melampyrum_) are to be found in copses and
+woods during the summer. They belong to the order _Scrophulariaceæ_;
+and, like other allied plants of this group, are partial parasites (See
+page 349), deriving a portion of their food from the roots of
+grasses by means of suckers. They have the following features in
+common:--Leaves opposite. Calyx tubular, with four narrow teeth. Corolla
+much longer than the calyx, consisting of a very long tube and two lips,
+the upper lip undivided, with its sides turned back, and the lower with
+three spreading lobes. A kind of 'palate' also closes the mouth of the
+tube. The fruit is an ovate capsule, containing from one to four seeds.
+The three species referred to are:--
+
+1. The Common Cow Wheat (_M. pratense_).--A smooth, erect plant, from
+six to eighteen inches high, with spreading, opposite branches; and
+sessile, narrow leaves, often coarsely toothed at the base. The flowers
+are pale yellow, over half an inch long, arranged in pairs in the axils
+of the upper leaves, and all turned towards one side of the stem. The
+corolla is three or four times the length of the calyx. This plant is
+very common in moist copses and thickets, and flowers from June to
+August.
+
+[Illustration: THE PRIVET.]
+
+2. The Crested Cow Wheat (_M. cristatum_).--A widely-distributed plant,
+found principally in the copses and thickets of the eastern and southern
+counties. Its stem is from six to twenty inches in height; and the
+leaves are very narrow, and generally entire except in the case of a few
+of the upper ones, which are slightly toothed at the base. The flowers
+are yellow, more or less variegated with purple, about half an inch
+long, and they closely overlap one another in a dense, four-sided spike
+over an inch in length. Under each flower is a broad, heart-shaped,
+strongly-toothed, rose-coloured bract. The plant blooms during July.
+
+3. The Wood or Yellow Cow Wheat (_M. sylvaticum_), sometimes known as
+the Small-flowered Cow Wheat. This is a much rarer plant, and seems to
+be found only in the hilly woods of Scotland and North England. It is
+very much like the Common Cow Wheat, but its flowers are of a deep
+yellow colour, less than half an inch long, with entire bracts, and
+equal, open lips. The corolla is only twice the length of the calyx, and
+the lanceolate leaves are very seldom toothed.
+
+[Illustration: MILLET GRASS.]
+
+[Illustration: BEARDED WHEAT.]
+
+The same order (_Scrophulariaceæ_) contains the handsome and favourite
+Foxglove (_Digitalis purpurea_), which grows abundantly in most dry
+woods and shady wastes, flowering from June to August. Its stout,
+unbranched stem varies from two to six feet in height, a large
+proportion being the axis of a long one-sided raceme of beautiful,
+drooping, purple or, occasionally, white flowers. The fruit is an
+ovate, pointed capsule that splits into two valves and contains many
+seeds. It is remarkable that this plant does not grow freely on chalk
+and limestone soils, yet it will often make a sudden appearance in great
+profusion as we pass over the edge of a calcareous district. The flower
+is shown on Plate II, Fig. 2.
+
+Of the order _Labiatæ_ we shall note one species only, and that is the
+pretty Wood Betony (_Stachys Betonica_), a very common plant in the
+woods and thickets of the south of Britain. It is a hairy species, with
+a slender, simple or slightly-branched stem from one to two feet high;
+and deeply-crenate, oblong leaves. The lower leaves have long stalks,
+and are heart-shaped at the base; but those of the stem are narrower,
+sessile or shortly stalked, tapering at the base. The flowers, which
+bloom from June to August, vary much in colour, ranging from a deep
+purple or crimson to a rose-pink or (rarely) white; and they form a
+dense oblong, terminal spike, consisting of whorls of six or more, with
+a bract at the base of each calyx, and a pair of sessile leaves just
+below the lowest whorl. The calyx is ribbed, with five very sharp teeth;
+and the corolla, which is much longer than the sepals, has an erect,
+oval, upper lip, and a spreading, three-lobed, lower lip. The stamens
+are in two pairs, immediately under the upper lip; and the fruit
+consists of four little rounded nuts.
+
+[Illustration: SLENDER FALSE BROME.]
+
+In the dry woods of South Britain we occasionally meet with the Wood
+Scorpion-grass or Wood Forget-me-not (_Myosotis sylvatica_), of the
+order _Boraginaceæ_. This plant is very much like the favourite Water
+Forget-me-not, and has equally large flowers, but it is much more hairy.
+Its stem is erect, without runners; and the blue flowers form a
+one-sided raceme without bracts. As the flowers expand the stalk
+lengthens considerably, with the result that the fruits are very
+distant. Among other features by which we may distinguish between the
+Wood Forget-me-not and the commoner Water Forget-me-not we may mention
+that the corolla of the former is flatter; and the calyx, cleft to its
+base into narrow segments, is very rounded below, and covered with
+stiff, hooked bristles. The plant flowers from June to August.
+
+We conclude this chapter with the names of four species of Grasses that
+are partial to wooded districts, and which flower during the summer
+months. They are the Millet Grass (_Milium effusum_), the Bearded Wheat
+(_Triticum caninum_), the Slender False Brome (_Brachypodium
+sylvaticum_), and the Hairy Brome Grass (_Bromus asper_). The first
+three of these are represented on pages 148 and 149, and the fourth is
+shown on Plate II.
+
+[Illustration: _Plate III._
+FLOWERS OF THE WAYSIDE.
+1. Round-leaved Crane's-bill. 2. Black Horehound. 3. Evergreen Alkanet.
+4. Bristly Ox-tongue. 5. Red Bartsia. 6. Annual Meadow Grass. 7. Hemlock
+Stork's-bill.]
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+WASTES AND WAYSIDES IN SUMMER
+
+
+It will probably have been noticed that several of the spring flowers of
+our waysides and waste places continue to bloom into the summer.
+Descriptions of these will, of course, not be repeated here, but, for
+the convenience of those who are endeavouring to identify flowers which
+have been gathered during the summer months, we append a list of the
+species referred to:
+
+PLANTS OF THE WAYSIDE AND WASTE GROUND THAT BLOOM DURING BOTH SPRING
+AND SUMMER
+
+ Greater Celandine.
+ Shepherd's Purse.
+ Yellow Rocket.
+ Early Winter Cress.
+ Thale Cress.
+ Wild Turnip.
+ Procumbent Pearlwort.
+ Lesser Stitchwort.
+ Mouse-ear Chickweed.
+ Dove's-foot Crane's-bill.
+ Jagged-leaved Crane's-bill.
+ Herb Robert.
+ Black Medick.
+ Bird's-foot.
+ Bush Vetch.
+ Chervil.
+ Mouse-ear Hawkweed.
+ Groundsel.
+ Common Speedwell.
+ Wall Speedwell.
+ Field Speedwell.
+ Gray Field Speedwell.
+ White Dead Nettle.
+ Red Dead Nettle.
+ Cut-leaved Dead Nettle.
+ Yellow Pimpernel.
+ Annual Meadow Grass.
+
+The flowers described in the present chapter are those which do not, as
+a rule, bloom before the month of June.
+
+Our first example is the Wild Clematis, Traveller's Joy, or Old Man's
+Beard (_Clematis Vitalba_), of the order _Ranunculaceæ_--a climbing
+shrub, very common in the hedgerows of the south and centre of England,
+producing a profusion of white, scented flowers during July and August,
+and rendered even more conspicuous in the autumn and winter by the dense
+clusters of feathered fruits. Its stem is woody and often very thick at
+the base; and the annual branches climb over the neighbouring plants,
+clinging by means of the twisted leafstalks. The leaves are opposite,
+pinnate, with three or five stalked, ovate or cordate leaflets; and the
+flowers are in loose, axillary or terminal panicles. The latter have
+four greenish-white sepals; no petals; numerous stamens; and many
+one-seeded carpels, each of which, when ripe, is tipped by the
+persistent style that has become very long and feathered.
+
+[Illustration: THE WILD CLEMATIS.]
+
+The Common Hedge Mustard (_Sisymbrium officinale_--order _Cruciferæ_) is
+a very common roadside plant, with stems and leaves so closely set with
+hairs that they effectually hold the dust. It bears small, yellow
+flowers, which appear during June and July; and it may be easily
+distinguished from allied plants by its long and narrow, downy, tapering
+pods, which lie close against the stem. Its stem grows from one to two
+feet high, and is freely branched.
+
+[Illustration: THE HEDGE MUSTARD.]
+
+The Felix Weed (_S. Sophia_) of the same genus is moderately common,
+grows to about the same height, and bears small, greenish-yellow flowers
+from June to August. The stem of this plant is only slightly hairy,
+slender, erect, and branched; and the leaves are divided in a pinnate
+manner, with long, narrow segments similarly cut. In this genus the
+sepals are longer than the petals; and the narrow, tapering fruits are
+constricted between the numerous seeds.
+
+The Dyer's Weed, also known as the Dyer's Rocket and the Yellow Weed
+(_Reseda luteola_), is a plant of a habit similar to that of the Wild
+Mignonette, and belongs to the same order (_Resedaceæ_), but may be
+distinguished from the latter by its four sepals and four petals. It
+owes its popular names to the fact that it was formerly employed for the
+purpose of dyeing woollen fabrics. This is a common wayside plant,
+especially in calcareous districts, and often reaches a height of three
+feet, flowering during July and August.
+
+Passing to the order _Caryophyllaceæ_, we note the Deptford Pink
+(_Dianthus Armeria_)--a downy plant, a foot or more in height, with an
+erect, slightly-branched stem; and very narrow, opposite leaves, from
+one to three inches long, joined together at the base, and mostly acute
+at the tip. The flowers, which bloom in July and August, are
+rose-coloured with white spots, and are grouped in terminal clusters,
+with a very narrow, pointed bract below each calyx, usually as long as
+the calyx itself. This plant is to be found principally on dry banks and
+on waste ground, but it is not common.
+
+[Illustration: THE FELIX WEED.]
+
+The Red Campion (_Lychnis diurna_) is common on the banks of wayside
+ditches, as well as in copses and other moist and shady places. It has a
+hairy stem, from one to two feet high; hairy, ovate leaves in pairs; and
+red (rarely white), unisexual flowers which close at night. The male and
+female flowers are on separate plants. The former have ten stamens; and
+the latter a superior ovary which ripens to a globular capsule with five
+teeth that spread horizontally or even curve downwards. In both the
+calyx is tubular, with five triangular teeth; and the petals have
+spreading, deeply-notched limbs. The plant flowers during June and July.
+
+[Illustration: THE DYER'S WEED.]
+
+Three species of Mallow (order _Malvaceæ_) are more or less common by
+waysides and on waste ground. They are all interesting plants, with
+large, regular, attractive flowers; and stipuled leaves which are
+palmately lobed and veined. The flowers have five sepals and five
+petals, the latter being very curiously twisted in the bud. The stamens,
+five in number, are freely branched, and are also raised on a tubular
+structure as the flower matures, so that they appear like a large number
+of stamens with united filaments. The ovary consists of many carpels,
+with as many styles; and the fruit splits into a number of one-seeded
+parts arranged radially.
+
+The Common Mallow (_Malva sylvestris_) is a strong, erect, downy plant,
+from two to three feet high, with branched stem. The flowers are
+axillary, large and showy, of a pale purple or a lilac colour, marked
+with crimson veins; and the fruit is smooth.
+
+[Illustration: THE DEPTFORD PINK.]
+
+The Dwarf Mallow (_M. rotundifolia_) is about as common, and grows in
+similar situations, but it is a smaller plant, with prostrate stems from
+six inches to a foot long. The leaves are cordate or almost round,
+divided into five or seven shallow, crenate lobes. The flowers are
+smaller than those of _M. sylvestris_, being generally less than an inch
+in diameter, of a pale lilac colour; and the fruit is hairy. Both
+species flower from June to September.
+
+It is interesting to note that these two flowers, which frequently grow
+together on the same waste ground, and consequently have to compete with
+one another in the general struggle for existence, are pollinated in
+totally different ways, the one (_M. sylvestris_) by the aid of insects,
+and the other (_M. rotundifolia_) probably almost always
+self-pollinated. In both these flowers the stamens are mounted on the
+top of a tube as above described; and in both the stamens are crowded
+round the numerous styles while the flower is yet young, so that insects
+which visit the flower for nectar can hardly fail to dust themselves
+with pollen. In _M. sylvestris_, however, the stamens are mature before
+the stigmas, and the former droop, thus bringing the anthers below the
+level of the stigmas, so that the flower could hardly fertilise itself
+even if anthers and stigmas matured simultaneously. But later the styles
+bend downwards, thus bringing the stigmas to the position of the
+withered stamens in order to catch the pollen brought by insects from
+other flowers. Further, the pollen cells of this species are covered
+with minute hooks by means of which they attach themselves to the hairy
+legs of bees.
+
+[Illustration: THE RED CAMPION.]
+
+The anthers and stigmas of _M. rotundifolia_ are both matured together;
+and the styles lengthen, and bend downwards, causing the stigmas to
+twine themselves among the numerous stamens in such a manner that the
+flower can hardly fail to fertilise itself. Further, if we watch the
+flowers of these two species on a sunny day, we find that insects visit
+the flowers of _M. sylvestris_ freely, while they are seldom attracted
+to the smaller and less conspicuous blooms of _M. rotundifolia_.
+
+The third species referred to is the Musk Mallow (_M. moschata_), so
+called from the musky odour given off from all parts of the plant,
+especially when rubbed or crushed. It is often seen in hedgerows, but is
+not so common as the other two just described, and seems to be rather
+partial to gravelly soils. The plant is hairy, of a pale green colour,
+with an erect stem from two to three feet high. The flowers are large
+and beautiful, of a rich rose colour, and crowded towards the top of the
+stem. The fruit is hairy. A white variety is occasionally seen, and this
+is not uncommonly grown as a garden flower. The time of flowering is
+July and August.
+
+[Illustration: THE COMMON MALLOW.]
+
+Some three species of Geranium (order _Geraniaceæ_) have already been
+described among the spring wayside flowers, and these were listed at the
+commencement of the present chapter as continuing to bloom during the
+summer; but now we have to note other interesting flowers of this and
+an allied genus as essentially summer bloomers.
+
+The first of these is the Round-leaved Crane's-bill (_Geranium
+rotundifolium_), which rather closely resembles the Dove's-foot
+Crane's-bill, but is not nearly so plentiful. It is a downy plant,
+growing from six to twelve inches high, and flowering in June and July.
+The flowers are usually nearly half an inch across, of a pink colour;
+and the petals are _not_ notched. This species is represented on Plate
+III, Fig. 1.
+
+In dry pastures and on stony wastes we may see the Bloody Crane's-bill
+(_Geranium sanguineum_), which, though not common, is very widely
+distributed in Britain. It has a thick, woody stock; numerous more or
+less decumbent stems, from one to two feet long, clothed with spreading
+hairs; and round leaves, divided quite to the base into five or seven
+deeply-cut segments. The flowers are solitary, dark crimson
+(occasionally pink) in colour, with hairy sepals terminating in fine
+points; slightly notched petals about twice as long as the sepals; and
+ten stamens, five of which are larger, and glandular at the base. This
+species flowers during July and August.
+
+[Illustration: THE MUSK MALLOW.]
+
+The Small-flowered Crane's-bill (_G. pusillum_) also resembles the
+Dove's-foot Crane's-bill, but its flowers are usually smaller--about a
+third of an inch in diameter--and of a pale lilac colour. The stems are
+prostrate and downy, from six to eighteen inches long; and the leaves
+roundish and deeply lobed. The sepals terminate in a sharp point, and
+the petals are notched. This is a very common species, which flowers
+throughout the summer.
+
+British wild flowers of the Geranium family are divided into two groups,
+known popularly as the Crane's-bills and the Stork's-bills, the former
+constituting the genus _Geranium_, of which several flowers have been
+described; and the latter forming the genus _Erodium_. These two groups
+are sometimes confused by young botanists, but may be easily
+distinguished by the aid of the following notes:--The flowers of the
+Crane's-bills are symmetrical, while the petals of the Stork's-bills are
+rather unequal in size and sometimes deficient. In the former there are
+ten stamens, five of which are alternately larger, as previously
+mentioned; while the latter have five perfect stamens, glandular at
+their bases, and five alternating, abortive ones. Further, in the genus
+_Geranium_ the persistent styles are straight, while in the
+Stork's-bills they are twisted spirally.
+
+[Illustration: THE BLOODY CRANE'S-BILL.]
+
+The manner in which the seeds of Stork's-bills are dispersed is
+particularly interesting:--When the fruit is ripe the carpels separate,
+and the twisted styles are gradually released from one another, from
+below upwards, till the fruit is finally set free and blown away by the
+wind. The carpels thus detached are each furnished with a long style,
+the lower portion of which is coiled like a corkscrew, while the upper
+part is straighter but bent to one side. Now, these styles are
+hygroscopic--that is, they are influenced by changes in the condition of
+the atmosphere as regards moisture. This may easily be shown by placing
+the fruit in an upright position on a piece of white card, and fixing it
+so with a little spot of glue or gum, so that the bent upper end of the
+style is free and serves as a little pointer. If now the open mouth be
+placed close over the carpel, and moist air be breathed upon it, the
+corkscrew will partially uncoil, causing the pointer to turn; and as
+the carpel dries again the pointer will resume its former position.
+
+Again, if the carpel be placed horizontally on a sheet of rough paper
+(not fixed), and then alternately treated with moist and drier air, the
+successive uncoiling and coiling of the spiral, together with the aid of
+the bent tip and the hairs which give the carpel a hold, will cause it
+to travel along. Thus, in its natural condition, and influenced by the
+varying state of the atmosphere as regards moisture, the carpels of the
+Stork's-bill will not only travel some distance from the parent plant,
+but the seed end will even be thrust between the particles of soil, and
+the seed thus naturally buried.
+
+There are three British Stork's-bills, of which only one may be
+described as common. This is the Hemlock Stork's-bill (_Erodium
+cicutarium_), a very variable plant as regards the form of the leaves
+and the size and number of flowers, often plentiful in waste places,
+especially near the sea. Its stems are prostrate and hairy, growing from
+six to eighteen inches in length; and the flowers, which may be seen
+throughout the summer, are rose-coloured, or, sometimes, white. The
+petals are not divided or notched, and they soon fall.
+
+Passing now to the order _Leguminosæ_, we deal first with the
+exceedingly pretty and common Bird's-foot Trefoil (_Lotus
+corniculatus_), that derives its popular name from the arrangement of
+the cylindrical seed-pods, which spread in such a manner as to resemble
+the toes of a bird. Its stems are partially prostrate; and its compound
+leaves are not composed of three leaflets, as the term _trefoil_
+suggests, but of five, two of which occupy such a position that they
+might be mistaken for stipules. The flowers, which bloom in July and
+August, are of a bright yellow or orange colour, often tinged with red.
+They are arranged in umbels of from three to ten, with long peduncles
+and short pedicels.
+
+[Illustration: THE FRUIT OF THE STORK'S-BILL.]
+
+The genus _Vicia_, of the same order, includes the plants commonly known
+as Tares. These are climbing plants which cling by means of tendrils at
+the tips of their pinnate leaves, and have their flowers in axillary
+clusters. Their styles are threadlike, with a ring or a tuft of downy
+hairs near the extremity; and the pods are flattened.
+
+Two species may be included among our summer wayside flowers, one of
+which--the Hairy Tare (_Vicia hirsuta_)--is very common in fields and
+hedges, flowering from June to August. The stems of this plant are
+slender, hairy, and are so much branched that they form tangled masses,
+often mixed up in a confused manner with neighbouring plants. The leaves
+have from six to eight pairs of leaflets; and the minute, pale blue
+flowers, in clusters of from one to six, are on long peduncles. The pods
+have only two seeds, and are hairy and sessile.
+
+[Illustration: THE HEMLOCK STORK'S-BILL.]
+
+The other Tare referred to is the Slender Tare (_V. tetrasperma_), found
+principally in the South of England. It owes its specific name to the
+fact that its pods usually contain four seeds. It is more slender and
+much less branched than the Hairy Tare, and its leaves have generally
+only from three to five pairs of leaflets. The flowers are pale blue,
+appearing from June to August, and are generally solitary or in pairs,
+on peduncles which are about as long as the leaves. The pods are smooth.
+
+[Illustration: THE BIRD'S-FOOT TREFOIL.]
+
+The same genus includes the Tufted Vetch (_Vicia Cracca_)--a very common
+plant on hedgerows and bushy waysides, where it climbs over the
+neighbouring plants and shrubs, covering them with its dense racemes of
+bluish-purple flowers from June to August. Its climbing stem is very
+weak, but it often grows to a length of six feet or more, supporting
+itself by means of the branched tendrils at the tips of its leaves. The
+leaves are pinnate, with about ten pairs of narrow, pointed, silky
+leaflets, usually from half an inch to three-quarters in length; and at
+the base of each leaf-stalk is a pair of narrow, half arrow-shaped
+stipules. The racemes are one-sided, on rather long stalks, with from
+ten to thirty flowers, each nearly half an inch long. The pods are
+smooth, flattened, about an inch long, containing from six to eight
+seeds.
+
+[Illustration: THE HERB BENNET OR GEUM.]
+
+Of the order _Rosaceæ_ we have several summer wayside flowers, our first
+example being the Common Avens, also called the Wood Avens and the Herb
+Bennet (_Geum urbanum_), which is common on banks and hedgerows. This is
+an erect, hairy plant, from one to two feet high, with yellow flowers,
+from a half to three-quarters of an inch across, on erect stalks. The
+numerous carpels ripen into a head of one-seeded achenes, on each of
+which the persistent style forms a curved, hooked awn that readily
+clings to the hair or wool of animals, thus providing an effectual means
+by which the seeds are distributed. A variety of the Common Avens occurs
+with drooping flowers.
+
+[Illustration: THE DOG ROSE.]
+
+[Illustration: THE SILVER WEED.]
+
+The Dog Rose (_Rosa canina_) is one of the prettiest and most abundant
+flowers of our hedgerows, and may be seen in bloom throughout June and
+July. The bush has a thick, woody stock; and weak, straggling stems,
+often reaching a height of six or eight feet, armed with equal, curved
+prickles. The flowers are pink or white, with a calyx consisting of a
+globular tube, contracted at the top, and five spreading segments; a
+corolla of five petals; numerous stamens; and an ovary of several
+one-seeded carpels with free styles. The carpels are very hairy, and are
+enclosed within the tube of the calyx, which becomes red and succulent
+as the fruit ripens; but the calyx segments usually fall before the
+ripening is complete.
+
+[Illustration: THE AGRIMONY.]
+
+The Silver Weed (_Potentilla anserina_), of the same order, is one of
+the commonest of our roadside flowers, rendered more conspicuous by its
+pretty, silvery leaves than by its solitary, yellow flowers. It has a
+creeping stem, from six to twelve inches long, which bears pinnate
+leaves. The leaflets are deeply serrated, and densely covered beneath
+(and sometimes also above) with soft, silky hairs.
+
+Two of the Cinquefoils are very common by roadsides. These are the Hoary
+Cinquefoil (_Potentilla argentea_), and the Creeping Cinquefoil
+(_Potentilla reptans_). The first of these is a partially prostrate
+plant, with stem from six to eighteen inches long; and digitate leaves
+with five, wedge-shaped leaflets. The leaflets are rendered white
+beneath by woolly hairs that lie close against the surface, and their
+edges are curled backwards. The flowers, which bloom in June and July,
+are yellow, small, and clustered.
+
+The Creeping Cinquefoil has a slender stem that creeps on the ground and
+forms new roots at the nodes. Its leaves are digitate and long-stalked,
+with five obovate, serrate, hairy leaflets. The flowers are yellow,
+solitary, nearly an inch in diameter, with five sepals and five petals.
+
+On banks we frequently meet with the Agrimony (_Agrimonia Eupatoria_), a
+slender plant, from one to two feet high, covered with soft hairs, and
+bearing long, tapering, spikelike racemes of small, scattered, yellow
+flowers during June and July. This plant may be readily identified by
+means of our illustration.
+
+One of the Willow Herbs--the Broad Smooth-leaved Willow Herb (_Epilobium
+montanum_)--is common on roadside banks, flowering during June and July.
+Its stems are slender, downy, and generally unbranched; and the leaves
+are opposite, stalked (the lower ones almost stalkless), ovate, acute,
+with serrate edges, and smooth except along the margins and the
+principal veins, which are more or less downy. The plant grows to a
+height of one or two feet, and bears small, pale-purple flowers which
+droop when in the bud. It belongs to the order _Onagraceæ_; and, like
+the others of its genus, has four sepals, four petals, eight stamens,
+and a long inferior ovary which splits into four valves, setting free a
+large number of little, tufted seeds.
+
+The order _Crassulaceæ_ contains a number of low, succulent plants, with
+small, regular, star-like flowers. Some of them are well known as
+Stonecrops and House-leeks. Those of the Stonecrop group usually have
+cymes of flowers with perianth leaves in whorls of five, and stamens in
+two whorls.
+
+One member of this group--the Orpine or Livelong (_Sedum Telephium_)--is
+not uncommonly found on shady wayside banks, especially near villages
+and on the outskirts of towns, where it is probably an escape from
+gardens. Its leaves are large, flat, oval or oblong, with serrate
+edges. The flowers have five sepals and five petals, are of a purple or
+crimson colour, and are clustered in close cymes.
+
+We have now to consider several species of the order _Umbelliferæ_--a
+group of flowers which contains so many species, with often such close
+resemblances in general appearance, that it is always more or less
+puzzling to the beginner, especially as it is frequently necessary to
+note minute details of structure in order to determine a species.
+
+The leading characteristic of the order is that denoted by its name; for
+the flowers, which are generally very small and white, are arranged in
+umbels. In a few instances these umbels are simple; but in most they are
+compound--that is, the stalks which radiate from the same point on the
+main peduncle, and thus form the _primary umbel_, give rise to the
+lesser stalks of the _secondary umbels_, which are similarly arranged
+and bear the flowers. There are often bracts at the base of the primary
+umbel, in which case they are termed the _primary bracts_; and there are
+frequently _secondary bracts_ or _involucels_ at the bases of the
+secondary umbels.
+
+[Illustration: THE ORPINE OR LIVELONG.]
+
+The flowers have a superior calyx; with five teeth; but this is often so
+inconspicuous that it appears like a mere rim round the top of the
+ovary. There are also five petals, which generally have their points
+turned inwards; and five stamens. The inferior ovary consists of two
+united carpels, surmounted by a fleshy disc that supports the petals and
+the stamens, and bears two styles.
+
+Special attention must be given to the structure of the fruits of
+umbellifers, for a close examination of these is often necessary for
+purposes of identification. The two carpels are close together, with
+their adjacent surfaces flattened, and are fixed to a central axis
+called the _carpophore_. As the fruit ripens, the carpophore often
+divides, from above downwards, becoming Y-shaped; and the carpels, thus
+separated, are for a time suspended on its two arms. Each carpel is
+marked by vertical ridges, generally nine in number, five of them
+(_primary ridges_) being more prominent than the four intermediate or
+_secondary ridges_. The ridge on each side of the carpel, nearest to the
+fissure that divides the fruit into two parts, is often extended so as
+to form wings by means of which wind-distribution is greatly
+facilitated; and between the various ridges are the _furrows_ of the
+fruit. In addition to these features, there are often narrow,
+light-coloured streaks running parallel with the ridges, in the walls of
+the fruit. There are usually six of these in each carpel, sometimes more
+than one in the same furrow, and they mark the positions of narrow
+oil-sacs or _vittæ_. Each carpel contains only one seed.
+
+[Illustration: THE FOOL'S PARSLEY.]
+
+As to the general characters of the plants, it may also be noted that
+the stems of the _Umbelliferæ_ are jointed, and frequently hollow; also
+that the leaves are pinnately divided, and often _decompound_ (compound,
+with compound leaflets).
+
+[Illustration: THE WILD PARSNIP.]
+
+Our first example of this family is the common Hemlock (_Conium
+maculatum_) of hedges and waste ground--a very graceful plant, with a
+much-branched stem that grows from two to six or more feet in height. It
+is distinguished by a foetid odour and poisonous properties. Its stem
+is slender in proportion to the height, furrowed, smooth, and spotted
+with purple or red. The flowers are white, with hardly a trace of a
+calyx, and arranged in compound umbels, with three small bracts _on one
+side_ of the secondary umbels. The fruit is short, swollen, and slightly
+flattened laterally; and the carpels, without vittæ, have each five
+thick, waved ridges. The Hemlock flowers during June and July.
+
+[Illustration: THE COW PARSNIP OR HOGWEED.]
+
+Several of the common umbelliferous plants are called the Fool's Parsley
+by those who are unable to distinguish between species, but this name is
+correctly applied only to _Æthusa cynapium_, a smooth, leafy plant, with
+an unpleasant odour and poisonous properties. The plant grows from a
+foot to eighteen inches high, flowers during July and August, and is
+common in cultivated ground as well as in wastes and by waysides. It may
+be recognised at once by the help of our illustration; but we call
+special attention to the three, long, drooping bracts on the outer side
+of each secondary umbel.
+
+On roadside banks, particularly in chalky districts, we may often meet
+with the Wild Parsnip (_Pastinaca sativa_). This is an erect, downy
+plant, with a tap root; and angular, hollow stem from two to three feet
+high. Its leaves are pinnate, glossy above and downy beneath, with five
+or seven ovate, sessile, cut and serrate leaflets, and sheathing
+petioles. The umbels are terminal, without primary or secondary bracts;
+and the flowers are small, of a bright yellow colour, producing
+flattened, winged fruits. The flowers bloom during July and August.
+
+The Cow Parsnip or Hogweed (_Heracleum Sphondylium_) is somewhat similar
+in general appearance, but is much stouter, and grows to a height of
+four or five feet. Its stem is hairy and channelled; and the leaves have
+a few broad, lobed, serrate leaflets with a rough, hairy surface. The
+flowers, which bloom during July and August, are of a reddish white
+colour, and have unequal petals.
+
+The Upright Hedge Parsley (_Torilis Anthriscus_ or _Caucalis
+Anthriscus_) is a slender plant, with an erect, solid, rough stem, from
+two to three feet high. Its leaves are hairy, bipinnate, with lobed and
+toothed, ovate or oblong leaflets. The white or pale pink flowers are
+arranged in long-stalked, terminal umbels of from about six to twelve
+rays, with several primary and secondary bracts. The fruits are armed
+with bristles which, though not hooked, are slightly bent inwards. This
+is a very common hedgerow plant, flowering from July to September.
+
+[Illustration: THE HONEYSUCKLE.]
+
+Our last example of the _Umbelliferæ_ is the Rough Chervil
+(_Chærophyllum temulum_), which is very common in hedgerows, among the
+undergrowth of woods, and in other shady places. It has a slender stem,
+from one to three feet high, swollen at the joints, spotted with purple,
+and rendered rough by short hairs. The leaves, which are also rough and
+spotted, are bipinnate, with ovate leaflets that are cut into segments
+terminating abruptly in a sharp point; and they assume a rich purple
+tint that makes the plant a conspicuous object in the autumn. The
+flowers are white, in terminal compound umbels which droop in the bud.
+The bracts are few in number or altogether absent, but there are several
+secondary bracts which are fringed and bent downwards.
+
+Passing now to the order _Caprifoliaceæ_, we have to deal with the
+well-known and favourite Honeysuckle or Woodbine (_Lonicera
+periclymenum_), so highly prized on account of its lovely fragrant
+flowers. It is a climbing plant, often reaching a height of ten or
+twelve feet, supporting itself by twining its woody stem round
+surrounding shrubs and trees in hedges and the open spaces of woods. The
+beautiful flowers, which are yellow within, and more or less tinged with
+red outside, are arranged in terminal, stalked heads; and the united
+petals form widely-gaping lips. The plant blooms from June to September,
+and displays its crimson berries in the autumn.
+
+Two other species of Honeysuckle occur in our hedges, but neither of
+these is common. One is the Upright Honeysuckle, which has an erect
+stem; downy, stalked leaves; and pale yellow, scentless flowers that
+grow in pairs in the axils of the leaves. The other is the Perfoliate
+Honeysuckle, so called because its upper leaves are united at their
+bases, with the stem running through them. In this one the flower-heads
+have no stalks.
+
+[Illustration: THE GREAT HEDGE BEDSTRAW.]
+
+In the Bedstraw family (order _Rubiaceæ_) we have two very common,
+hedgerow plants--the Great Hedge Bedstraw (_Galium Mollugo_) and the
+Goose-grass or Cleavers (_G. Aparine_). The first is a very straggling
+plant, with a square stem, thickened at the joints, that often reaches a
+length of four or five feet. Its leaves are elliptical, with apex
+terminating suddenly in a bristle-like point, and margins roughened by
+prickles that are either at right angles or pointing more or less
+forward. They are arranged in whorls, usually of eight, but sometimes
+six. The little white flowers, which bloom during July and August, are
+arranged in panicles with spreading branches, the lower of which are
+either horizontal or bent downward. The fruit is smooth.
+
+The Goose Grass is so named because it is eaten by geese; and it is also
+known as the Cleavers because its fruits, which are covered with hooked
+bristles, cling tenaciously to our clothing and to the covering of
+animals. Its straggling stem often reaches a length of four or five
+feet, and forms tangled masses with the stems and leaves of other
+hedgerow plants. The leaves are narrow and keeled; and the small, white
+flowers are arranged in small axillary clusters of two or three. The
+whole plant is rough with hooked bristles.
+
+[Illustration: THE TEASEL.]
+
+We conclude this chapter with a description of the common Teasel
+(_Dipsacus sylvestris_) of the order _Dipsaceæ_. This is really a very
+graceful plant, rarely less than three or four feet high, and sometimes
+reaching six feet or more. Its stem is very stout and prickly; and its
+large bright green leaves are simple, sessile, and arranged in opposite
+pairs. They are prickly beneath, and the two leaves of each pair are
+united at their bases in such a manner that they form hollows in which
+the rain-water collects. The reservoirs so formed often contain drowned
+insects which have flown or fallen into the water, or which have been
+washed down the stem by the rain. Their dead bodies decompose, giving
+rise to nitrogenous and other products of decay which generally
+discolour the water. These products are valuable as plant food, and it
+has been said that they are absorbed by the leaves. The flowers of the
+Teasel are collected in large heads, covered with straight, stiff
+bristles, and have an involucre of bracts which curve upwards. The
+flowers are of a pale purple colour. They commence to open near the
+middle of the head, forming a horizontal circle; and then they expand
+both upwards and downwards from this level. The flowers are not
+conspicuous individually, nor does each individual flower produce much
+pollen; but the large heads of bloom attract numerous insects which
+climb about among the flowers in search of nectar, covering their bodies
+with pollen, and thus aiding the process of fertilisation.
+
+[Illustration: TEASEL-HEADS.
+1, 2, and 3 are successive flowering stages. 4, The elongated head in
+fruit.]
+
+
+
+
+XII
+
+WAYSIDES AND WASTES IN SUMMER (_Continued_)
+
+COMPOSITE FLOWERS
+
+
+There are so many flowers of the order _Compositæ_ in bloom by the
+wayside and on waste ground during the summer months that we devote a
+chapter entirely to them.
+
+This group is the largest of the natural orders, and is computed to
+contain about a tenth of all the known flowering plants. The chief
+distinguishing characteristic of the order is the arrangement of the
+flowers into crowded heads, each consisting of a number of little
+flowers or _florets_ that are sessile on a common _receptacle_, as in
+the case of the Daisy, the Dandelion, and the Thistles.
+
+The florets of each head or _capitulum_ are generally arranged into two
+well-defined sets--the florets of the disc, occupying the centre; and
+the florets of the ray, spreading more or less in a radial manner from
+the edge of the disc. These two sets are often of different colours, as
+in the Daisy, where the disc florets are of a deep yellow, while the ray
+florets are white or pink.
+
+In some of the Composites all the florets of each head are perfect,
+while in others some are perfect and some imperfect. Then, as regards
+the latter, they may be staminate or male florets, with no pistil;
+pistillate or female flowers, with no stamens; or neuter florets,
+possessing neither stamens nor pistil. In some few cases all the florets
+of one head are staminate, while the pistillate florets alone form other
+heads; and in these instances the two kinds of heads may be found on one
+plant, or only one kind may exist on the same plant. In all cases the
+capitulum is surrounded by one or more whorls of bracts which are often
+closely overlapping.
+
+The florets seldom possess a distinguishable calyx, but there is
+sometimes an indication of the presence of five sepals; in many,
+however, the calyx is represented by a whorl of hairs on the summit of
+the ovary. Such a whorl is known as the _pappus_, and it frequently
+enlarges as the fruit ripens, forming a kind of parachute that allows
+the fruit to be carried great distances by the wind. The hairs of the
+pappus are often sessile on the fruit, but sometimes mounted on the
+summit of a slender stalk, as in the Dandelion. Further, the hairs which
+constitute the pappus may be simple or feathered.
+
+[Illustration: CAPITULUM OR FLOWER-HEAD OF THE MARIGOLD, showing the
+_involucre_ or whorl of overlapping bracts.]
+
+The corolla frequently consists of five petals, united into a tube with
+as many teeth; but it is often _ligulate_ or strap-shaped, in which case
+the presence of five petals is often denoted by five minute teeth at the
+tip.
+
+Where stamens exist they are five in number, attached to the petals, and
+the anthers are generally united in such a manner that they form a tube
+within the tube of the corolla.
+
+[Illustration: FLORETS OF A COMPOSITE FLOWER. In fig. 1 the corolla is
+strap-shaped; in fig. 2 it is tubular.]
+
+Fertilisation is brought about much in the same way in many of the
+composite flowers:--The anthers open inwards, discharging their pollen
+within the tube formed by themselves, and just above the stigma which,
+as yet, is immature. The style then lengthens, pushing its way up
+through the anther-tube, and brushing up the pollen by means of the
+tufts of hairs on its surface. At this stage a dense cluster of pollen
+cells, completely covering the top of the style, may be seen projecting
+above the tube of the corolla, and the pollen is sooner or later
+scattered, the distribution being aided greatly by the various insects
+which visit the flowers. The upper part of the style now divides into
+two parts, and the branches diverge, exposing the stigmatic surfaces
+which form the inner sides of the fork. It will thus be seen that the
+florets are not self-pollinated, since the stigma is generally mature
+after the pollen has all been removed from the same flower.
+
+Our first example of this order is the Yellow Goat's-beard (_Tragopogon
+pratensis_), also known as Jack-go-to-bed-at-noon. This is a common
+wayside plant, of a glaucous green colour, with a milky sap. Its stem is
+erect, from one to two feet high, and the whole plant is smooth. The
+flower-heads are solitary, large, yellow, and surrounded by a single row
+of narrow bracts that are united below; and the peduncle is thickened at
+the top. The bracts are generally as long as the florets, and the latter
+usually close about the middle of the day. The fruit is long and narrow,
+with longitudinal ridges; and the pappus consists of rows of feathery
+hairs which interlock and form a very shallow cup. The flowers bloom
+during June and July.
+
+[Illustration: THE YELLOW GOAT'S-BEARD.]
+
+The Bristly Ox-tongue (_Helminthia echioides_ or _Picris echioides_),
+also a common plant, is more or less covered with rigid, hooked
+bristles, each of which arises from a swollen, white base; and it has a
+milky sap. The stem is stout, branched, very bristly, and grows from two
+to three feet high. The leaves are simple and toothed, the upper ones
+cordate and embracing the stem, and the lower ones _auricled_ or eared.
+The heads are terminal, consisting of yellow, ligulate florets,
+surrounded by five large cordate bracts. The fruit is brown, curved,
+with transverse ridges and a stalked pappus of feathery hairs. This
+species flowers from June to September. It is shown on Plate
+III.
+
+In the same genus we have the Hawkweed Picris (_P. hieracoides_) which
+bears yellow flowers from June to September. Its stem, more slender than
+that of the last species, is from two to three feet high, branched
+towards the top, and rough with hooked bristles; and the leaves are
+lanceolate and toothed. There are numerous heads of flowers, about an
+inch in diameter, usually arranged in a corymb, but sometimes in an
+umbel, and there are bracts on the peduncles.
+
+[Illustration: THE HAWKWEED PICRIS.]
+
+The Strong-scented or Acrid Lettuce (_Lactuca virosa_) is moderately
+common on dry wastes. It is an acrid, glaucous, leafy and prickly plant,
+with a milky juice. Its erect stem grows to a height of three or four
+feet. Its leaves are spreading, obovate in form, with toothed margins,
+and bristly hairs on the under side of the midrib. The lower leaves are
+frequently marked with dark spots, and the upper ones have pointed
+auricles which clasp the stem. The heads of flowers are small, pale
+yellow, and arranged in a loose, spreading panicle. The bracts overlap,
+the outer ones being shorter, and the receptacle is flat. Each head
+contains only a few florets. The fruit is flattened, black, with a beak
+as long as itself and a pappus of many simple hairs. The flowers appear
+during July and August.
+
+Another Lettuce, known as the Prickly Lettuce (_L. Scariola_), is
+somewhat rare. It is really less prickly than the last species, but is
+equally tall, and flowers during the same months. Its leaves are erect,
+lanceolate, sagittate, with a wavy margin; and the upper ones clasp the
+stem. The fruit of this species is of a greyish colour, and has a beak
+of the same length.
+
+Two species of Sow-thistle (genus _Sonchus_) are included among our
+wayside Composites. They are erect, succulent plants, from two to three
+feet in height, with a milky juice, and either toothed or pinnatifid
+leaves. Their flower-heads are yellow, arranged in a corymb, and bloom
+during the whole of the summer. Each head is surrounded by several rows
+of overlapping bracts, and the receptacle is flat and pitted. The fruits
+are considerably flattened, without beaks; and the pappus consists of
+several rows of fine, silky, unbranched hairs.
+
+[Illustration: THE PRICKLY LETTUCE.]
+
+One species is known as the Sharp-fringed Sow-thistle or the Common
+Milk-thistle (_S. oleraceus_). Its leaves are sometimes deeply divided,
+but always more or less toothed; and the teeth often terminate in sharp
+prickles. The upper ones clasp the stem, and have spreading,
+arrow-shaped ears. The stem is branched and hollow; and the fruit is
+ribbed and transversely wrinkled.
+
+The second is the Common Sow-thistle (_S. asper_)--a very similar plant,
+but may be distinguished by its leaves, which are more spinously
+toothed, with _rounded_ ears. In this one the fruits are also ribbed,
+but they are not wrinkled transversely.
+
+The Smooth Hawk's-beard (_Crepis virens_) has a furrowed, branched stem,
+from a few inches to three feet in height. Its spreading radical leaves
+are deeply toothed, and narrower towards the base; and the stem leaves
+are narrow and sagittate. The numerous small heads of yellow flowers are
+panicled, and the outer florets are often tinged with red. The heads are
+surrounded by two rows of bracts, the outer of which are shorter and
+narrower, and the whole involucre assumes a conical form after
+flowering. The fruit is shorter than the pappus; tapering, but not
+beaked; and the pappus consists of several rows of unbranched, silky
+hairs. This plant flowers during July and August. It is very common on
+waste land, and may be frequently seen growing on old walls, and even on
+the roofs of country cottages and out-houses.
+
+[Illustration: THE SHARP-FRINGED SOW-THISTLE.]
+
+The genus _Hieracium_ (Hawkweeds) is a puzzle not only to the beginner,
+but also to experienced botanists, who have not yet agreed as to its
+division into species. According to some authorities these latter amount
+to seven, but they, or rather some of them, are so variable, and present
+so many intermediate characters, that some botanists divide the British
+members into no less than thirty-three species.
+
+All the plants of the group agree in the following particulars:--They
+have a milky sap. The leaves are nearly all radical. The flower-heads
+are either yellow or orange, surrounded by several rows of overlapping
+bracts. The receptacle is pitted. The fruit is not beaked, and its
+pappus consists of a single row of rigid, brittle, brownish hairs, which
+are simple and of unequal lengths.
+
+One species at least is a common wayside flower, and this is the Shrubby
+Hawkweed (_H. boreale_). It grows from two to four feet high, and bears
+a corymb of many yellow heads, from July to September. Its stem is hairy
+below, downy with fine branched hairs above, and bears rigid, erect
+branches which are leafy, and often of a reddish colour. This species
+has no radical leaves. The stem leaves are ovate or lanceolate and
+toothed, the upper ones broad and slightly clasping the stem. The
+peduncle is scaly or woolly, and the involucre bracts are of a blackish
+green colour.
+
+[Illustration: THE SMOOTH HAWK'S-BEARD.]
+
+The Nipplewort (_Lapsana communis_) is another very common Composite of
+waysides and wastes. Its stem is erect, from one to two feet high,
+branched, armed with scanty stiff hairs below, and smooth above. The
+leaves are thin and usually hairy, the lower ones ovate, pinnatifid or
+coarsely-toothed, with a few smaller lobes along the stalks, and the
+upper ones small, and entire or only slightly toothed. The flower-heads
+are small, yellow, in a loose panicle with long slender stalks. The
+involucre consists of about eight glaucous scales, about a quarter of an
+inch in length, and a whorl of small outer ones. The fruits are
+flattened, with many longitudinal nervures, and have no pappus. The
+flowers may be seen from July to September.
+
+The Chicory or Succory (_Cichorium Intybus_) is a local plant, but often
+very abundant where it exists. It has a long tap root; and a strong,
+erect, bristly and sticky stem. The lower leaves are spreading and
+hairy, deeply divided, with a large terminal lobe, and smaller lateral
+lobes which are pointed and coarsely toothed. The upper leaves are
+lanceolate, clasping the stem, with pointed auricles. The flower-heads
+are of a bright blue colour, large and conspicuous, mostly in sessile
+clusters of two or three along the rigid, spreading branches, but a few
+are terminal. The involucre consists of about eight inner bracts, and a
+whorl of outer ones that are much shorter. The florets are large; and
+the fruits are smooth, or nearly so, and closely enveloped in the lower
+part of the involucre. The time of flowering is from July to October.
+
+[Illustration: THE NIPPLEWORT.]
+
+Our next species is the Burdock (_Arctium Lappa_), familiar as a wayside
+plant not only on account of its abundance and its large size, but also
+on account of its globular flower-heads which cling so tenaciously to
+our clothing by means of the hooked points of the inner involucre
+bracts. It is a very stout, branching plant, varying from two to six
+feet in height, with very large, stalked, cordate lower leaves that
+often exceed a foot in length. The upper leaves are smaller, and broadly
+ovate; and both these and the lower ones are smooth or nearly so on the
+upper surface, but often covered with a short white down beneath. All
+the leaves are also finely toothed, but bear no prickles. The
+flower-heads are in terminal panicles, and are surrounded by many bracts
+which are either quite smooth or covered with a white, woolly down. The
+florets are purple, and all equal in size. The fruits are large, and
+bear a short pappus of stiff hairs.
+
+We now come to the interesting group of Thistles, all distinguished by
+their very hard stems; their cut or toothed leaves, which are generally
+very prickly; and their round or oval heads of flowers, surrounded by
+many whorls of overlapping, and usually prickly, bracts. There are no
+ray florets, but all are tubular and approximately equal in length.
+
+Our first example is the Welted Thistle (_Carduus crispus_ or _Carduus
+acanthoides_), which is a common plant in the South of England, but much
+less abundant in the North. In general appearance it closely resembles
+the Musk Thistle (p. 266), but is usually taller. The stem is
+covered with prickles which run downwards in lines from the bases of the
+leaves. The flowers are purple, in small, globular, clustered heads,
+which droop slightly; and the numerous bracts of the involucre are
+narrow, more or less erect, and terminate in a spreading or hooked
+prickle. The pappus consists of rough, unbranched hairs. The above is
+the description of the commonest form of this thistle, but it is a very
+variable species. The plants vary from one to three feet in height, and
+flower from June to August.
+
+[Illustration: THE BURDOCK.]
+
+Throughout the summer we may meet with the Spear Thistle (_C.
+lanceolatus_), a very abundant species which grows on almost all waste
+places. The plant is a stout one, varying from about one to five feet in
+height, with a winged, prickly stem. The leaves are cut into short,
+narrow lobes, with a long and pointed terminal one. They are covered
+above with stiff hairs, and below with a white down; and all the lobes
+terminate in stiff spines. The involucre is oval in form, covered with
+cottony down; and its bracts are lanceolate, terminating with a stiff,
+spreading spine. The flower-heads are few in number, with purple
+florets, and measure about an inch and a quarter in diameter.
+
+[Illustration: THE SPEAR THISTLE.]
+
+Another common species is the Creeping Thistle (_C. arvensis_), which
+has a perennial, creeping rootstock that gives off erect annual stems
+from two to four feet in height. The stem is not winged, but the prickly
+leaves clasp it, and sometimes extend a little way down at their bases.
+The leaves are narrow, smooth, with edges turned inwards, very prickly,
+and cut into numerous narrow lobes. The flower-heads are small,
+arranged in loose terminal clusters, and are surrounded by numerous,
+closely-placed bracts with small, sharp points. The flowers are always
+imperfect, and the male and female blooms always occur on separate
+plants. The heads of the male plants are globular in form, with
+spreading purple florets; while those of the female plant are longer and
+almost cylindrical in form, with longer bracts and shorter florets. The
+pappus consists of numerous feathery hairs which grow very long as the
+fruit ripens. This species flowers during July and August.
+
+The Tansy (_Tanacetum vulgare_) is common in the hedgerows of most
+localities, and is easily recognised by the powerful odour and bitter
+taste of its leaves and flowers. It has a creeping root; an erect,
+strong stem, which is either quite smooth or (generally) slightly downy;
+and large, pinnate leaves, with narrow, deeply-toothed or pinnatifid
+segments. There are a large number of flower-heads, nearly half an inch
+in diameter, of a bright yellow colour, and arranged in large
+flat-topped corymbs. This plant is common in most parts of Britain,
+grows to a height of about three feet, and flowers during August and
+September.
+
+[Illustration: THE CREEPING THISTLE.]
+
+The Mugwort (_Artemisia vulgaris_) is a very common roadside plant in
+most districts, valued by many villagers as a remedy for rheumatism. It
+has a short, woody rootstock; and erect, branching stems varying from
+two to four feet in height. The leaves are deeply cut into narrow, acute
+segments which are either coarsely serrate or lobed. They are green and
+smooth above, but very white with a woolly down below. The flower-heads
+are very numerous, erect, and arranged in a somewhat crowded, long,
+terminal panicle. Each head is surrounded by a woolly involucre, and
+consists of from fifteen to over twenty florets, either all perfect or
+including a few without stamens. They are oval in form, and of a reddish
+or yellowish-brown colour. The plant blooms throughout the summer.
+
+[Illustration: THE TANSY.]
+
+In the same genus is the Absinth or Wormwood (_A. Absinthium_), which is
+not so tall or so slender as the last species, from which it may
+readily be distinguished by its powerful aroma and bitter taste. The
+whole of the plant is whitish with a close, fine down; and the erect
+stems, from one to two feet high, are stiff and hard. The leaves are
+very similar to those of the Mugwort, but are much broader, are silky on
+both sides, and the narrow lobes of the leaves are blunt at the tips.
+The flower-heads are also similarly arranged, but they are almost
+globular in form, very silky, and more or less drooping. The florets are
+numerous, and of a dull yellow colour, the central ones being mostly
+fertile, while the outer, without stamens, are small, and often barren.
+The plant flowers during August and September, is not so common as the
+last species, but is abundant in districts near the sea.
+
+One of the most conspicuous flowers of the summer is the Common Ragwort
+(_Senecio Jacobæa_). It belongs to the same genus as the Groundsel, but
+differs in having very showy, terminal corymbs of large, bright yellow
+flowers with spreading rays. Its erect stem does not branch, as a rule,
+except near the top, and reaches a height of from one to three or four
+feet. The outer bracts of the involucre are small and few in number, and
+both these and the inner ones are generally tipped with black.
+Occasionally we may meet with plants of this species in which the
+flower-heads have no ray, but in general the ray is well-formed, and
+consists of about twelve narrow or oblong florets.
+
+[Illustration: THE WORMWOOD.]
+
+The Common Feverfew (_Matricaria Parthenium_ or _Chrysanthemum
+Parthenium_) is a very abundant wayside flower, of which a double
+variety is commonly grown in gardens. The plant reaches a foot or more
+in height, and flowers freely from July to September. The stems are
+erect and branched; and the leaves are stalked and pinnately divided
+into ovate or oblong, lobed, toothed segments. The numerous flower-heads
+are arranged in a corymb, and are about half an inch in diameter, with
+white ray and yellow disc. The plant may be distinguished from similar
+species of the same genus by the little toothed border on the summit of
+the ripe fruits, and by the strong and somewhat pleasant odour of all
+its parts.
+
+[Illustration: THE RAGWORT.]
+
+Even more common, in most places, is the Corn Feverfew or Scentless
+Mayweed (_M. inodora_), which flowers from June to the end of the
+summer. Its stem is erect, with spreading branches; and the sessile
+leaves are two or three times divided into narrow, almost hair-like
+segments. The flower-heads are much larger than those of the last
+species, sometimes reaching a diameter of about two inches, and are
+solitary. The involucre is brown, with a membranous edge; the ray
+white, and the disc yellow. It is sometimes confused with the Wild
+Chamomile, but may be distinguished by the shape of the receptacle,
+which is hemispherical, and not so conical as in _Chamomilla_.
+
+[Illustration: THE SCENTLESS MAYWEED.]
+
+[Illustration: THE YARROW OR MILFOIL.]
+
+Our last example of the Composites of the wayside is the Yarrow or
+Milfoil (_Achillea millefolium_)--a plant that might be mistaken by the
+beginner for one of the Umbellifers when seen at a distance; but a
+closer examination will show not only that the level-topped
+inflorescence is a dense, terminal corymb, but also that the flowers are
+collected into little heads, each of which consists of a few white or
+pink, pistillate ray-florets, surrounding a little cluster of tubular,
+perfect, yellow florets of the disc. The leaves are narrow oblong, and
+very finely cut into many hair-like, branching segments. The whole plant
+has a strong and rather pleasant odour. It grows from six to eighteen
+inches high, and flowers from June to September.
+
+
+
+
+XIII
+
+WASTES AND WAYSIDES IN SUMMER (_Continued_)
+
+
+Continuing our list of the numerous wayside flowers of the summer
+months, we take first the Rampion Bellflower or Ramps (_Campanula
+Rapunculus_), of the order _Campanulaceæ_. The flowers of this order are
+usually easily distinguished by their bell-shaped corolla, mounted on an
+inferior ovary, and by their general resemblance to the Canterbury Bells
+so familiar to us as favourite garden flowers. The Rampion is to be seen
+on some of the sandy or gravelly wastes of the South of England during
+July and August, but is rather local in its distribution. It has an
+angled, erect stem, from two to three feet high, rough with stiff, white
+hairs. The stem leaves are narrow, pointed, and usually entire; but the
+lower leaves are broader, with slightly-scalloped edges, on long stalks.
+The blue flowers are arranged in erect terminal racemes, either simple
+or branched, each flower having a short stalk. In order to distinguish
+between this and other species of the same genus we should note that the
+segments of its calyx are narrow and entire; and that the corolla is
+divided deeply into five narrow, pointed segments.
+
+The Great Bindweed (_Convolvulus sepium_) of the order _Convolvulaceæ_,
+is very conspicuous in most hedgerows, and is probably so well known
+that a description need hardly be given for purposes of identification,
+but we must call attention to a few interesting features that might be
+overlooked. It is both a creeper and a climber, for it has a creeping
+rootstock that enables it to travel considerable distances below the
+surface of the ground, and a twining stem, usually four or five feet
+long, by which it climbs over the surrounding plants or shrubs. The
+large, white flowers, which bloom from June to August, are arranged
+singly on short stalks. Each has a pair of rather large bracts which
+completely hide the calyx, and which might at first be mistaken for the
+calyx itself.
+
+The Small Bindweed is, perhaps, more commonly seen in fields than in
+hedgerows, and is included among the field flowers on p. 228;
+and the Dodders, belonging to the same order, are described with the
+other parasitic plants in Chapter XXIII.
+
+[Illustration: THE RAMPION BELLFLOWER.]
+
+The four British plants of the order _Solanaceæ_ are all wayside
+species, flowering from June onwards, and may be considered together
+here. They possess the following features in common:--The leaves are
+alternately arranged, without stipules. The flowers are regular, with a
+five-toothed or five-lobed calyx, and a corolla of (usually) five united
+petals which are folded in the bud. The number of stamens correspond
+with that of the lobes of the corolla, and the ovary, which is
+two-celled, ripens into a berry containing several seeds, except in the
+Henbane, where it forms a capsule.
+
+The Henbane (_Hyoscyamus niger_) is an erect plant, with a branching
+stem from one to two feet high, and the whole is more or less coarse and
+hairy, with a viscid touch and an unpleasant odour. The flowers are of a
+dingy yellow colour, and are arranged, with very short stalks, in
+one-sided, leafy spikes which are curved backwards before the flowers
+are open. The calyx is at first short, but grows longer, as the fruits
+ripen, until it is about an inch long. It has prominent veins, and its
+five lobes are stiff and bristly. The dingy corolla also reaches a
+length of an inch or more, and is distinctly marked with dark bluish
+veins. This plant flowers from June to September, and is moderately
+common in waste places, especially near houses.
+
+The other three flowers of this order referred to are all known as
+Nightshades, and two of them belong to the genus _Solanum_, in which the
+flowers are arranged in few-flowered terminal or lateral cymes, on short
+stalks. The corolla has scarcely any tube, and the flowers are easily
+distinguished by the peculiar arrangement of the five anthers, which are
+on very short filaments, and are placed close against the style in such
+a manner as to form a compact cone in the centre of the flower.
+
+[Illustration: THE GREAT BINDWEED.]
+
+One species--the Black Nightshade (_S. nigrum_)--is rather local in its
+distribution, but often very abundant where it occurs, appearing as a
+common weed on cultivated soils. It is an erect, spreading herb, either
+quite smooth or slightly hairy, growing from six inches to two feet
+high, with swollen angles on its branching stem. Its leaves are stalked,
+ovate, more or less wavy, with large angular teeth; and the small, white
+flowers are on short lateral stalks. The fruit is a small, round, black
+or scarlet berry. This species may be seen in flower from June almost to
+the end of the year.
+
+[Illustration: THE HENBANE.]
+
+The other species--the Woody Nightshade or Bittersweet (_S.
+Dulcamara_)--is much more common, and may be seen straggling among the
+hedgerow shrubs almost everywhere. It is a woody climber that supports
+itself by means of its zig-zag stem, and often reaches a height of six
+feet or more. The flower seems to be very well known, but is often, if
+not generally, spoken of as the Deadly Nightshade, which is a much rarer
+species with quite a different habit and appearance. The leaves are
+stalked, and usually more or less heart-shaped. Sometimes they are
+entire, but frequently there is a small lobe on each side of the base.
+The flowers, though rather small, are very pretty, the conspicuous cone
+of yellow anthers forming a bright centre to the spreading purple
+corolla. They bloom from June to September; and towards the end of the
+season the bright red fruits may be seen in abundance while the flowers
+are still appearing.
+
+[Illustration: THE WOODY NIGHTSHADE OR BITTERSWEET.]
+
+The true Deadly Nightshade or Dwale (_Atropa belladonna_), of the same
+order, is a very local plant, occurring principally in waste places in
+the South of England. It is an erect, branching herb, either smooth or
+slightly downy, reaching a height of two or three feet, and flowering
+from June to September. The leaves are large stalked, ovate, and entire;
+and each one has, usually, a smaller leaf, growing from the same point
+on the stem and looking like a stipule. The flowers are very different
+in general appearance from those of the other nightshades. They are
+large--about an inch long, and solitary, on short stalks, in the axils
+of the leaves or in the forks of the stem. The calyx is a broad bell,
+deeply cut into five lobes; and the corolla is a deep, regular bell, of
+a pale purple colour, with five short, broad lobes. The fruit is a
+large, poisonous berry, almost globular, but flattened above.
+
+[Illustration: THE DEADLY NIGHTSHADE.]
+
+On waysides and in neglected fields we meet with the very common Red
+Bartsia (_Bartsia Odontites_) of the order _Scrophulariaceæ_. This is a
+small, tough plant (see Plate III), from six inches to a foot or
+more in height, rather downy, with spreading branches. It may be readily
+recognised by its several one-sided spikes of numerous purple-red
+flowers, with a bell-shaped, four-pointed calyx, and a corolla that is
+divided into a longer upper, and a shorter lower, lip. The leaves are
+long and narrow, with a few teeth; and the fruit is an oblong capsule.
+The above description applies to the most usual form of this plant, but
+it is a very variable species, especially as regards the form of the
+leaves and the branching of the stem.
+
+The Yellow Toadflax (_Linaria vulgaris_), of the same order, is a very
+pretty plant, from one to three feet high, exceedingly common on banks,
+hedges, and the borders of fields, bearing dense, terminal racemes of
+yellow flowers from June to October. Its calyx is small, and deeply
+divided into five segments; and the corolla, which has a long pointed
+spur at the base, is closed above by the bright orange 'palate' of the
+lower lip.
+
+[Illustration: THE YELLOW TOADFLAX.]
+
+In the order _Verbenaceæ_ we have the common Vervein (_Verbena
+officinalis_), a common plant in the dry wastes of the South of England,
+and moderately frequent in some other parts. This is a smooth, erect
+plant, with long, spreading, wiry, four-angled stems; and small, lilac
+flowers in long, slender spikes. There are but few leaves towards the
+top of the plant, and these are narrow and sessile, while the lower
+leaves are broader, stalked, and coarsely toothed. When the flowers
+first appear they are close together, but the spike increases in length
+as the flowering proceeds, so that the lower flowers and fruits become
+more distant. Each flower has a five-toothed calyx, and an irregular
+corolla with a short tube and five unequal lobes. The Vervein grows from
+one to two feet high, and flowers from July to September.
+
+[Illustration: THE VERVEIN.]
+
+Passing now to the Labiates, we deal first with two species of Calamints
+(genus _Calamintha_), which are to be distinguished from the other
+genera of the order by their axillary cymes of flowers, with calyx and
+corolla both lipped, and the upper lip of the latter erect and flat.
+
+One of these, the common Calamint (_Calamintha officinalis_), is a hairy
+plant, with an erect, branched stem, one or two feet high, and stalked,
+ovate, toothed leaves. The whorls of flowers are compound, in forked,
+axillary cymes. The calyx is tubular, with thirteen ribs and five
+pointed teeth. The three upper teeth are united at their base to form
+the upper lip, while the other two, longer and narrower, form the lower.
+The corolla is almost twice as long as the calyx, with an upper, erect
+lip, and a lower lip with three broad lobes. The stamens are four in
+number, in pairs, under the upper lip.
+
+The Lesser Calamint (_C. Nepeta_) is a very similar plant, by some held
+to be merely a variety of _C. officinalis_. Its leaves are shortly
+stalked, but slightly toothed, and only about half an inch in length.
+The flowers are about as long as the leaves, arranged in whorls of eight
+or ten, with corolla about half as long again as the calyx. In both
+species the mouth of the calyx is hairy, but the hairs are much more
+prominent in the Lesser Calamint than in the last. Both plants are
+frequently seen on sunny waysides, flowering during July and August.
+
+[Illustration: THE BALM.]
+
+The Balm (_Melissa officinalis_) is a common garden herb in some parts,
+and in the South of England it is now fairly established as a wild
+flower, though, at present, it is not often found very far from the
+habitations of man. It is a hairy plant, much like a Calamint in
+general appearance, growing from one to three feet high, and bearing
+white flowers in July and August. Its leaves are stalked, ovate, acute,
+toothed or crenate, of a pale green below; and the flowers are
+shortly-stalked, in few-flowered, axillary whorls.
+
+The Black Horehound (_Ballota nigra_), shown on Plate III, Fig.
+2, is a coarse, hairy plant, with an unpleasant odour, commonly
+seen on roadsides and wastes, flowering continuously from the beginning
+of June to September or October. Its erect stem often exceeds three feet
+in height, and branches more or less freely. The purple flowers are in
+dense clusters in the axils of the leaves, and beneath them are several
+narrow, stiff bracts. The calyx is about a third of an inch long, green
+or purple-green in colour, with ten prominent ribs, and five broad teeth
+which usually terminate abruptly in a fine, stiff point. The corolla is
+of a purple colour, twice as long as the calyx, with an arched, oval
+upper lip; and a slightly longer lower lip of three segments, the middle
+one of which is the largest.
+
+THE HEDGE WOUNDWORT.
+
+Our last example of the wayside Labiates is the Hedge Woundwort
+(_Stachys sylvatica_)--a very abundant and pretty plant that grows most
+luxuriantly in damp, shady places, such as the borders of ditches, the
+edges of woods, and shady banks and hedgerows. Its square stem is solid
+and stout, straight and erect, and more or less branched. All the leaves
+are stalked, the upper ones being narrow and entire, while the lower are
+large, ovate or cordate, with a crenate or toothed edge and a very
+pointed apex. The flowers, which bloom from July to September, are in
+distant whorls of from six to ten, in the axils of the upper leaves,
+forming long spikes. The calyx is bell-shaped, with ten ribs, and five
+spreading teeth which are pointed, but not stiff; and the corolla, the
+tube of which is longer than the calyx, is of a dark, red-purple colour,
+prettily variegated with white on the lower lip. This plant varies from
+one to three feet in height and has a very unpleasant odour.
+
+We next take a few examples of the Borage family (order _Boraginaceæ_),
+all of which are herbs more or less rough with coarse hairs, having
+alternate, simple leaves, and flowers in one-sided spikes or racemes
+which are rolled back while in bud. In all of them the calyx has five
+divisions or teeth, and the corolla consists of five united petals of
+equal or nearly equal size. There are five stamens within the tube of
+the corolla, and the fruit consists of four nutlets enclosed in the
+persistent calyx.
+
+One of these--the Field Scorpion Grass (_Myosotis arvensis_)--is often
+called the Forget-me-not, but it usually grows in dry waste places,
+while the true Forget-me-not is found in wet situations. The flowers of
+this species are also very much smaller. The stem of the plant is thin,
+and bears small, oval, hairy leaves. The small blue corolla has short,
+spreading, concave segments, and is surrounded by a calyx that is cleft
+to the middle, and covered with hooked hairs. The sepals spread while
+the flower is open, but assume an erect position when in fruit. As a
+further means of distinguishing between this and other similar species
+of the same genus we should note that the peduncle is longer than the
+calyx, and that the style is very short. The plant varies from six to
+eighteen inches in height, and flowers throughout the summer.
+
+The Gromwell or Grey Millet (_Lithospermum officinale_) is a stout plant
+with several erect, branched stems. The flowers are small, of a pale
+yellow colour, in leafy racemes. The calyx is hairy and very deeply
+cleft into five segments; and the corolla, which is about the same
+length as the calyx, is funnel-shaped, with small scales in the throat
+of its tube. This plant derives its generic name of _Lithospermum_ from
+the nature of its fruit, which consists of white, stony nutlets with a
+smooth and polished surface. Its height is from twelve to eighteen
+inches; and the flowers appear during June and July.
+
+Our next species--the Borage (_Borago officinalis_)--is not indigenous,
+but is found wild in many parts, frequently in great abundance. It is a
+very bristly plant, from one to two feet high, bearing bright blue
+flowers from June to August. Its stem has spreading branches, and the
+leaves are obovate, narrowing at the base into the stalk. The upper
+leaves are narrower than the lower ones, and have shorter petioles. The
+flowers are of a blue colour, or sometimes almost white, and are
+drooping on rather long pedicels. The segments of the corolla are
+spreading and very pointed; and the dark anthers are very conspicuous in
+the centre of the flower.
+
+The two British Alkanets (_Anchusa_) are interesting plants, though not
+very common. They are coarse and hairy, and bear large, blue, bracteate
+flowers, distinguished by a deeply five-cleft calyx; a corolla with five
+spreading lobes, and a straight tube closed at the mouth by blunt, hairy
+scales; and five stamens included within the tube. The fruit consists of
+rather large wrinkled nuts.
+
+One species, though generally known as the Common Alkanet (_Anchusa
+officinalis_), is really a rare plant, occurring only as an escape from
+cultivation in the neighbourhood of towns and villages. It has an
+angular stem; narrow leaves--the lower ones very long, on long stalks,
+and the upper ones smaller; and forked, one-sided, spikes of sessile or
+shortly-stalked flowers of a rich blue colour. The calyx is bristly,
+longer than the corolla, and cleft into narrow divisions. This plant
+grows from one to two feet high, and flowers during June and July.
+
+[Illustration: THE GROMWELL.]
+
+The other species--the Evergreen Alkanet (_Anchusa sempervirens_)--is
+not uncommon in some southern and south-western districts. It is a
+stout, very bristly plant, from one to two feet high, with rather large,
+blue flowers in short, opposite spikes. It is shown on Plate
+III.
+
+Our last flower of the Borage family is the Hound's-tongue
+(_Cynoglossum officinale_), which is moderately common on waste ground,
+flowering during June and July. This is an erect plant, from one to two
+feet high, with a very unpleasant odour. Its stem is stout, branched and
+hairy; and the leaves are thickly covered with soft down. The lowest
+leaves are oval, with long stalks, often ten or twelve inches in length;
+but the upper ones become smaller and narrower, with shorter stalks,
+till towards the top they are very narrow, sessile, and clasp the stem.
+The flowers are in racemes, with short pedicels, and have no bracts. The
+segments of the calyx are narrow and pointed; and the small corolla is
+of a reddish purple colour. The fruit is covered with little spines and
+is about a quarter of an inch in diameter.
+
+On dry waysides the Buck's-horn Plantain (_Plantago Coronopus_--order
+_Plantaginaceæ_) is common. It may be readily distinguished as a
+plantain by its slender, cylindrical spikes of small flowers, and its
+spreading tuft of radical leaves. This species has a thick rootstock,
+and its leaves are either linear and undivided, or, more commonly, cut
+into very narrow segments. The flowers are green, with broad, hairy
+sepals, the whole spike measuring from one to two inches in length. They
+bloom during June and July.
+
+[Illustration: THE HOUND'S-TONGUE.]
+
+The plants which form the genus _Chenopodium_, of the order
+_Chenopodiaceæ_, are essentially plants of the wayside and waste ground,
+and of these we shall have to note several species. Most of them are
+distinguished by the dusty mealiness of their leaves, though a few do
+not possess this feature. In general they are characterised by
+alternate, flat leaves; and small, green flowers in little sessile
+clusters, forming spikes in the axils of the upper leaves. The little
+flowers usually have a perianth of five segments which more or less
+enclose the fruit; also five stamens, and two or three styles. The
+following summary of the characters of these plants will enable the
+reader to identify them:--
+
+1. Stinking Goose-foot (_Chenopodium olidum_ or _C. Vulvaria_.)--A
+procumbent or spreading plant, with a granular, mealy surface and a
+nauseous odour resembling that of stale fish, especially when rubbed or
+bruised. Stems from six inches to a foot or more in length, and much
+branched. Leaves stalked, small, ovate, and entire. Flowers in dense,
+leafless, axillary and terminal spikes which are shorter than the
+leaves. Moderately common in many parts, especially in the eastern
+counties. Time of flowering--August and September.
+
+[Illustration: THE WHITE GOOSE-FOOT.]
+
+2. Many-seeded Goose-foot (_C. polyspermum_).--A procumbent or erect,
+spreading plant, without mealiness or nauseous odour. Stem much
+branched. Leaves ovate or elliptical, entire, green, less than two
+inches long. Flowers in axillary and terminal, leafless spikes, with a
+calyx that does not cover the fruit. Common in parts of England,
+flowering during August and September.
+
+3. Upright Goose-foot (_C. urbicum_).--An erect plant, with a stout stem
+and few branches. Leaves green on both sides. Lower leaves on long
+stalks, broad, ovate or triangular, with bases narrowed towards the
+stalk in such a manner as to approach a rhomboidal form, two or three
+inches long, and irregularly toothed or lobed. Upper leaves narrower,
+nearly entire, and acute. Flowers in small, dense clusters, forming
+rather long, erect spikes. The green perianth does not completely cover
+the fruit. Common on roadsides and waste ground, flowering in August and
+September.
+
+4. White Goose-foot (_C. album_).--A very common plant, varying in
+colour from a pale green to a mealy white. Stem stout, erect, from one
+to three feet high. Lower leaves stalked, ovate or rhomboid, more or
+less toothed or angular, but entire at the base. Upper leaves
+lanceolate, entire. Spikes of flowers irregularly clustered, leafy, and
+usually branched; the upper ones forming a long panicle, intermixed with
+the upper leaves. Perianth entirely covering the fruit.
+
+5. Fig-leaved Goose-foot (_C. ficifolium_).--by some regarded as a
+distinct species, but by others included among the varieties of _C.
+album_. It closely resembles the latter in general appearance, but its
+lower leaves are divided into three unequal lobes, and are somewhat
+spear-shaped.
+
+6. Red Goose-foot (_C. rubrum_).--An erect plant, from one to three feet
+high, with smooth, triangular, irregularly-toothed leaves, resembling
+those of the Upright Goose-foot. The spikes, also, closely resemble
+those of the same plant, but the flowers have generally only two or
+three segments to the perianth, and these often turn red as the fruit
+ripens. The flowers appear during August and September. This species is
+moderately common in most parts, and especially near the sea, where it
+may be seen growing on the shingle very close to the water's edge.
+
+7. Mercury Goose-foot, Allgood, or Good King Henry (_C.
+Bonus-Henricus_).--An erect plant, from one to three feet high, growing
+from a thick, fleshy root like that of the Dock. Leaves stalked,
+triangular, acute, wavy or toothed, of a dark green colour. Upper leaves
+smaller, and almost sessile. Flowers in clustered, compound spikes,
+forming a terminal panicle, leafy below. Fruit completely enclosed in
+the perianth. This plant was formerly cultivated as a potherb, and is
+now commonly found on waste ground near villages. Time of
+flowering--June to August.
+
+In the same order we have the Common Orache (_Atriplex patula_)--a very
+variable plant, from a few inches to three feet in height, with erect or
+prostrate stem, and more or less mealy in appearance. Lower leaves
+triangular, with spreading lobes at the base. Upper leaves narrower, and
+entire or slightly toothed. Flowers in simple spikes, forming leafy,
+terminal panicles. They are of two kinds--male and female, either
+mixed, or collected in separate clusters. Segments of the perianth
+united, pointed, sometimes toothed, and spotted above. The plant flowers
+from July to September, and is abundant in most parts, especially near
+the sea.
+
+The order _Polygonaceæ_ also includes several wayside plants which may
+be easily distinguished as a group by the following characters:--At the
+bases of the alternate leaves are membranous stipules that form a sheath
+round the stem. The flowers are small, arranged in clusters in the axils
+of the leaves, or in terminal spikes or racemes. The fruit is a small
+nut, enclosed more or less in the persistent perianth.
+
+Three of the plants to which we refer belong to the genus _Polygonum_,
+in which the sheathing stipule is usually fringed at the edge; and the
+small flowers are either green or red, with a perianth of five segments,
+and stamens not exceeding eight in number. The little nuts, too, are
+either flattened or triangular. The three species may be identified by
+the following summary of their leading features:
+
+[Illustration: THE SPOTTED PERSICARIA.]
+
+1. The Spotted Persicaria (_Polygonum Persicaria_).--A very common
+wayside plant, and a weed of almost all cultivated soils, growing from
+one to two feet high, and flowering from July to October. The leaves
+have, usually, a dark-coloured patch in the centre; and the stipules
+are fringed at the top with fine, stiff hairs. The flowers are
+rose-coloured, with more or less green, arranged in short axillary or
+terminal spikes without any leaves; and the nuts are rather thick, but
+flattened, smooth, and glossy.
+
+2. Pale-flowered Persicaria (_P. lapathifolium_).--Very similar to the
+Spotted Persicaria, and sometimes regarded as a variety of that species;
+but it differs in that its leaves are never spotted, and the lower
+stipules are not fringed with hairs. The peduncle and perianth, which
+are smooth in _P. persicaria_, are here rough, being dotted with small,
+projecting glands; and the styles, which are united to about half way up
+in the last species, are quite free in the present one. The flowers are
+pink, with more or less green, and do not usually bloom after August;
+and the plant often attains a length of three or four feet.
+
+3. Knot-grass or Knot-weed (_P. aviculare_).--A very common procumbent
+weed, with wiry stems from one to two or three feet long. The leaves,
+seldom as much as an inch in length, are narrow, oblong, and flat; and
+the stipules are white, membranous, more or less cut at the edges, with
+a few veins. The flowers are small, very variable in colour, arranged in
+short-stalked clusters of about three or four in the axils of nearly all
+the leaves; and the fruit is a triangular nut, shorter than the segments
+of the perianth. This plant flowers from July to September. An erect
+variety, growing to a height of two feet or more, may be seen in
+cornfields.
+
+The same order includes the well-known Docks (_Rumex_), which differ
+from _Persicaria_ as follows:--The root is very thick, and grows to a
+great depth; the stems are erect and furrowed; and the thin membranous
+stipules, though never fringed with hairs, often become more or less
+torn. The flowers are small, green, in axillary clusters or terminal
+racemes, often turning red as the fruit ripens. The perianth is deeply
+divided into five segments, three of which become enlarged and close
+over the triangular nut. Two species of this genus are abundant on
+waysides. They are:--
+
+1. The Broad-leaved Dock (_Rumex obtusifolius_).--A stout plant, two or
+three feet high, and slightly branched. The lower leaves are ovate,
+cordate at the base, blunt, often eight or nine inches long; and the
+upper ones narrow and pointed. The flowers are perfect, reddish green,
+in distant whorls, forming a terminal raceme which is leafless above.
+The inner segment of the perianth is enlarged, ovate, distinctly
+toothed, with a long point. Time of flowering--July to September.
+
+2. The Curled Dock (_R. crispus_).--Very similar to the Broad-leaved
+Dock in size and habit, but flowering somewhat earlier. The lower leaves
+are much narrower, six to eight inches long, lanceolate, pointed, and
+wavy at the edges. The upper leaves are small and narrower, passing
+gradually into still smaller bracts towards the lower flowers. The
+flowers are in crowded whorls, on slender pedicels which are longer than
+the perianths; and the inner segment of the perianth is enlarged,
+cordate, but not toothed.
+
+[Illustration: THE CURLED DOCK.]
+
+We have now to note two species of Spurge (_Euphorbia_) that grow by the
+wayside; but before doing so it will be well to make ourselves
+acquainted with the general characters of the interesting group to which
+they belong. The Spurges are herbs with a milky juice, and a stem which
+is usually unbranched below, bearing alternate leaves. The flowering
+branches, towards the top of the plant, generally radiate from one
+point, forming an umbel of from two to five or more rays that proceed
+from the axil of one or more leaves. Each ray is usually forked, and
+sometimes repeatedly so, with a pair of leaves at each angle, and a
+little head of yellowish-green flowers between the branches. Each
+flower-head is surrounded by a small cup of united bracts, inside which
+is a whorl of little yellow or brownish glands, placed horizontally. In
+the centre of the head is a single female flower, consisting of a
+three-celled ovary, with a three-cleft style, mounted on a stalk of such
+a length that the flower droops over the edge of the cup. Around this
+female flower are from ten to fifteen little male flowers, each
+consisting of a single stamen with a minute scale at its base. The fruit
+contains three seeds, one in each carpel.
+
+The Sun Spurge (_Euphorbia Helioscopia_) is a common species, varying
+from six to eighteen inches high, flowering from June to October. Its
+stem is generally simple, but sometimes branched at the base; and the
+leaves are obovate or broadly oblong, without stipules, serrate, and
+narrowed down at the base to a short stalk. The floral leaves are very
+broad--almost round--and edged with very small teeth. The umbel consists
+of five rays, each of which is forked, with very short branches; and the
+glands within the cup are nearly round. The fruits are quite smooth, and
+the seeds have a netted surface.
+
+The other species--the Petty Spurge (_E. Peplus_)--is a smaller plant,
+seldom exceeding a foot in length, with an erect or decumbent stem
+branching at the bottom. The stem-leaves are oval or obovate, entire,
+shortly-stalked and placed alternately; and the floral leaves are
+cordate or broadly ovate. The flower-heads are small, surrounded by
+crescent-shaped glands with long points; and the carpels of the fruit
+have rough keels or wings.
+
+[Illustration: THE GREAT NETTLE.]
+
+Passing to the Stinging Nettles (order _Urticaceæ_), we have to deal
+with three herbs that are remarkable for the stinging hairs which clothe
+both leaves and stem. The leaves of all are opposite, and the flowers
+imperfect. The male flowers have four stamens, and a small, green
+perianth of four segments; while the females consist of an ovary with a
+tufted stigma, surrounded by a perianth of four segments the two inner
+of which are larger, or of two segments only. The fruit is a small,
+flattened nut, enclosed in the persistent perianth. The distinguishing
+characters of the three species are as follows:
+
+1. The Small Nettle (_Urtica urens_).--An erect herb, from one to two
+feet high, with leaves and stem smooth with the exception of the stiff,
+stinging hairs. The leaves are thin, elliptical, deeply and regularly
+toothed; and the flowers are in unbranched axillary spikes which are
+shorter than the petioles, the males and females being intermixed. This
+is a common species, flowering from June to September.
+
+2. The Great Nettle (_U. dioica_).--A dark green herb, from one to four
+feet high, more or less clothed with soft downy hairs in addition to the
+stiff, stinging ones. The lower leaves are ovate or cordate, coarsely
+toothed; and the upper ones narrower. The spikes of flowers are
+branched, longer than the petioles, in the axils of the leaves. The
+flowers are very similar to those of the Small Nettle, but the males and
+females are usually on separate plants. This is a very common species,
+flowering from June to September.
+
+[Illustration: CANARY GRASS.]
+
+3. The Roman Nettle (_U. pilulifera_).--A coarse, erect plant, from one
+to two feet high, with stinging hairs more powerful than those of the
+other species. The leaves are ovate or cordate, deeply and regularly
+toothed. The male flowers are in clusters along the peduncles, which are
+often as long as the leaves; and the females are in globular heads at
+the top of stalks from half an inch to an inch in length. The heads of
+fruits are about a third of an inch in diameter, thickly covered with
+stinging hairs. This plant flowers from June to September. It is not so
+abundant as the other nettles, and is found principally in the
+neighbourhood of villages, especially in the eastern counties of
+England.
+
+Although the Hop (_Humulus Lupulus_) does not sting, the whole plant is
+rough with stiff hairs resembling those of the nettles, and it is placed
+in the same order. It is a climber, and clings to the hedgerow shrubs by
+twining its long stems, which always turn in the same direction as the
+sun. Its leaves are opposite, stalked, broadly heart-shaped in general
+form, but cut into three or five sharply-toothed lobes. The flowers,
+like those of the nettles, are imperfect, and the male and female
+blossoms grow on separate plants. The former are in lax panicles, in the
+axils of the upper leaves: they are small, of a yellowish green colour,
+each consisting of five stamens surrounded by a perianth of five
+segments. The females are arranged in rounded heads or spikes on short
+stalks in the axils of the leaves. The heads are made up of a number of
+closely-placed bracts, each with two little flowers at its base; and
+each flower consists of an ovary, enclosed in a scale, with two long,
+narrow stigmas. After fertilisation the scales of the head grow very
+large, forming very conspicuous 'cones' in which the little fruits lie
+concealed. The Hop flowers from July to September, and is common in
+hedgerows and thickets.
+
+Of the several wayside Grasses we have space for the mention of but one
+species--the interesting Canary Grass (_Phalaris canariensis_). It is a
+native of South Europe, introduced into this country and cultivated for
+its seed (canary seed), but is now often seen growing wild in waste
+places. It is represented on p. 209.
+
+[Illustration: _Plate IV._
+FLOWERS OF THE FIELD.
+1. Rough Cock's-foot Grass. 2. Lucerne. 3. Crimson Clover. 4. Blue
+Bottle. 5. Common Vetch. 6. Meadow Clary.]
+
+
+
+
+XIV
+
+MEADOWS, FIELDS AND PASTURES--SUMMER
+
+
+In the present chapter we shall briefly describe a considerable number
+of flowers which are to be seen in fields and pastures during the summer
+months; but we must remind the reader that many of the species
+previously mentioned in Chapter VIII as flowering in similar situations
+in the spring, continue to bloom during the whole or a portion of the
+summer. A list of these is given below; and it should be noted that the
+flowers described in this chapter are those which do not generally
+commence to bloom till the month of June.
+
+SPRING FLOWERS OF MEADOWS, FIELDS AND PASTURES WHICH CONTINUE TO BLOOM
+IN THE SUMMER.
+
+ Creeping Buttercup.
+ Bulbous Buttercup.
+ Field Penny Cress.
+ Wild Pansy.
+ Ragged Robin.
+ Spotted Medick.
+ Netted Medick.
+ White Clover.
+ Purple Clover.
+ Earthnut.
+ Daisy.
+ Dandelion.
+ Yellow Rattle.
+ Field Louse-wort.
+ Henbit Dead Nettle.
+ Common Sorrel.
+ Sheep's Sorrel.
+ Twayblade.
+
+The Upright Buttercup or Meadow Crowfoot (_Ranunculus acris_) is often
+confused with the two similar species (_R. repens_ and _R. bulbosus_)
+already described in Chapter VIII, but it may be easily distinguished
+from the former by the absence of creeping stems, and from the latter by
+the spreading calyx and by the fibrous root without any bulbous
+swelling. The whole plant is covered with soft hairs more or less
+spreading; and it varies in height from six inches to three feet
+according to the nature of the soil in which it grows. Its leaves are
+all stalked with the exception of the few upper ones, and are very
+deeply divided into three, five, or seven radiating segments which are
+again cut into three lobes with acute divisions. The flowers are rather
+large, on long terminal stalks, with a calyx of five yellowish-green,
+concave sepals; and a very bright yellow corolla. The carpels are ovate,
+slightly flattened, smooth, arranged in a globular head; and the fruits
+are also smooth. The plant flowers during June and July.
+
+Another 'Buttercup'--the Pale Hairy Crowfoot (_R. hirsutus_) is to be
+seen in our pastures; and though not so common as the three just
+mentioned, it is very generally distributed in England and the South of
+Scotland. It seldom exceeds a foot in height, and flowers from June to
+the end of the summer. Its stem is erect, hairy, and freely branched;
+and its leaves are much like those of the Bulbous Buttercup (p.
+110). The flowers, however, are smaller and more numerous than
+those of the latter, and are of a paler yellow colour; but the sepals
+are bent back on the flower-stalk as in this species. The fruits are
+rough when quite ripe, with little tubercles along the margins.
+
+[Illustration: THE GOLD OF PLEASURE.]
+
+Cruciferous flowers are not at all abundant in fields and meadows during
+the summer months, but one species--the Gold of Pleasure (_Camelina
+sativa_)--may be seen in the flax-fields of South Britain and Ireland
+during June and July. The plant has a simple or slightly branched stem,
+from one to three feet high; and its leaves are all sessile, narrow,
+arrow-shaped, either entire or slightly toothed, with pointed lobes at
+the base. The flowers are small, yellow, arranged in a long, loose
+raceme; and the fruits are oval siliquas, with convex valves, a distinct
+central vein, and edges flattened into a narrow wing.
+
+[Illustration: THE BLADDER CAMPION.]
+
+The order _Caryophyllaceæ_ is represented in pastures by the Bladder
+Campion (_Silene inflata_ or _S. cucubalis_)--a flower that is easily
+recognised among the Campions and the Catchflys by the globular calyx.
+The stem of the plant is semi-erect, branched below, and from two to
+three feet high. The leaves are sessile, smooth, oblong, usually acute,
+and placed in pairs on the jointed stem. The flowers are rather large,
+arranged in lax, terminal panicles, and often droop slightly. The calyx
+is globular, veined, and about half an inch or more in diameter; and the
+five petals, which are deeply cleft into two lobes, have each a scale at
+the base of the spreading limb. The plant is very widely distributed
+over Britain, and is very common in some districts, flowering during
+June and July.
+
+The same order contains the White Campion (_Lychnis vespertina_)--a
+hairy plant, with a branched stem from one to two feet high, and rather
+large white or very pale pink flowers that open in the evening. It is
+abundant in most parts of Britain, and flowers during June and July.
+Its leaves are oval or oblong, usually pointed, and tapering towards the
+base. The flowers are in loose cymes, and imperfect; the staminate and
+the pistillate ones being usually on different plants. The calyx is
+generally more than half an inch long, hairy, with ten ribs and five
+narrow teeth. It is tubular at first, but becomes broadly oval, with a
+contracted mouth, as the fruit ripens. The five limbs of the corolla are
+spreading and rather deeply cleft into two parts; and the fruit is a
+capsule that splits at the top by ten teeth which remain erect or curve
+only slightly outwards. The plant is found principally in fields and in
+open waste ground.
+
+[Illustration: THE WHITE CAMPION.]
+
+Our fields and pastures are particularly rich in flowers of the Pea
+family (order _Leguminosæ_) during the summer months; and of these we
+shall first note the pretty Kidney Vetch or Lady's Fingers (_Anthyllis
+Vulneraria_), which is common in the dry pastures of most parts of
+Britain. The whole plant is covered with short silky hairs which lie
+close against the surface; and the stem, from six inches to over a foot
+in length, is either erect or spreading. The leaves are pinnately
+divided into several entire leaflets which are half an inch or more in
+length, the terminal leaflet of the lower leaves being generally much
+larger than the others. The flowers, which bloom from June to August,
+are usually clustered into two dense heads at the tip of each stalk,
+with a deeply-divided bract at the base of each head. The calyx is
+densely covered with silky hairs; and the small corolla varies in colour
+from pale yellow to red.
+
+In the neighbourhood of cultivated fields we may frequently meet with
+the Lucerne or Purple Medick (_Medicago sativa_). This is not a British
+plant, but it has been introduced and largely cultivated, and is
+commonly found as an escape. It has an erect stem, from one to two feet
+high; and the flowers bloom during June and July, followed by smooth,
+spirally-twisted pods of two or three coils. This plant appears on Plate
+IV, Fig. 2.
+
+In the genus _Melilotus_, of the same order, we have to note three
+species, all of which agree in the following particulars:--They have
+trifoliate leaves; and small, white or yellow flowers in long racemes on
+axillary peduncles. The calyx has five teeth, and the corolla falls
+after it fades. The stamens are ten in number, the upper one quite free,
+while the filaments of the other nine are united into a split tube that
+surrounds the ovary. The pod is only a little longer than the calyx,
+rather thick in proportion to its length, with only one or two seeds,
+and it does not split when ripe. The three species referred to may be
+identified by the following descriptions:--
+
+[Illustration: THE KIDNEY VETCH.]
+
+The Common Melilot (_Melilotus officinalis_) is a smooth plant, with a
+branched stem from two to four feet high; and long-stalked leaves with
+roundish or oval leaflets, and narrow, pointed stipules. The flowers are
+very numerous, yellow, about a quarter of an inch long, in long
+racemes. The petals are equal; and the hairy pods are only about a sixth
+of an inch long.
+
+The Field Melilot (_M. arvensis_) is very similar, but not so tall, and
+the flowers are less numerous. The 'keel' is shorter than the other
+petals; and the pods are ribbed and blunt. The third species--the White
+Melilot (_M. alba_)--is also very similar, but it has white flowers, in
+which the 'standard' or upper petal is the longest. All three species
+flower from June to August, but only the first may be described as
+common.
+
+The genus _Trifolium_, containing the Clovers and Trefoils, resembles
+_Melilotus_ in its trifoliate leaves, five-toothed calyx, and in the
+arrangement of the stamens; but it differs in that the stipules adhere
+to the leaf stalks, and the corolla often persists round the ripened
+fruit. Several species of this group are common in fields and pastures.
+
+[Illustration: THE COMMON MELILOT.]
+
+One of these is the Clustered Clover or Smooth Round-headed-Trefoil
+(_Trifolium glomeratum_)--a smooth plant, with purple or pink flowers,
+found principally in the dry pastures of South and East England,
+flowering during June and July. Its spreading stems are from six to
+twelve inches long; and the heads of flowers are small, sessile,
+globular, and either axillary or terminal. The calyx is ten-veined,
+shorter than the corolla, with five pointed teeth which bend outwards as
+the fruit ripens.
+
+The Strawberry Trefoil (_T. fragiferum_) has long-stalked, axillary
+heads of rose-coloured flowers which become very compact and
+strawberry-like when fruiting, at which time they are half an inch or
+more in diameter. Its creeping stem roots at the nodes; and the leaves
+are long-stalked, with toothed leaflets. Each head is surrounded below
+by a whorl of lobed bracts about as long as the calyces which become
+swollen after flowering. This is common in England, and flowers during
+July and August.
+
+The Hare's-foot Trefoil (_T. arvense_) is a slender, erect or sub-erect
+plant, covered with short, soft hairs, flowering from June to the end of
+the summer. Its stem is branched, from six inches to a foot in length;
+and the heads of flowers, on long, terminal or axillary stalks, are at
+first nearly globular, but afterwards cylindrical and about three
+quarters of an inch long. The flowers are small, pink, with corolla
+shorter than the calyx. The latter has five very long, feathery teeth,
+giving the whole head of flowers a soft and feathery appearance. The
+plant is abundant, especially in the southern counties of England.
+
+The Crimson Clover (_T. incarnatum_) was introduced into England and
+cultivated as fodder, but it is often found wild as an escape from
+cultivation. The plant is erect, varying from six inches to two feet in
+height, and is covered with soft, silky hairs. It flowers in June and
+July. The corolla, which is much longer than the calyx, is sometimes
+almost white. This flower is shown on Plate IV.
+
+[Illustration: THE LADY'S MANTLE.]
+
+One of the commonest flowers of this genus is the Hop Trefoil (_T.
+procumbens_)--a slender plant, with erect or sub-erect stem much
+branched below. Its leaflets are obovate or obcordate, and toothed; and
+the flower-heads are dense, globular, on long axillary stalks, each
+consisting of about forty bright yellow flowers. When fruiting the heads
+are turned downwards, and the pods are then covered by the persistent,
+brown corollas. This species flowers from June to August.
+
+The Lesser Yellow Trefoil (_T. minus_) is very much like the last, and
+flowers at the same time, but is more slender and more procumbent; and
+its flower-heads, which consist of from ten to twenty pale yellow
+flowers, are on stiff peduncles.
+
+Our last example of the _Leguminosæ_ is the Meadow Pea or Meadow
+Vetchling (_Lathyrus pratensis_), which is a very common flower of moist
+pastures. The plant is straggling, with a weak, angled stem that
+supports itself by interlacing with the surrounding herbage, aided by
+its branched tendrils. Its stipules are large, narrow-oval in form, with
+an arrow-shaped base. The compound leaf has only one pair of lanceolate
+leaflets, the remaining leaflets having been modified into tendrils for
+the support of the plant. The long axillary peduncles each bear a
+one-sided raceme of from six to ten yellow flowers, which are followed
+by rather large, smooth pods. The plant flowers from June to September.
+
+The order _Rosaceæ_ contains the Great Burnet (_Sanguisorba
+officinalis_), the only British representative of its genus. It is very
+much like the Lesser Burnet (p. 301) in general appearance, but
+much taller and larger. It is a smooth plant, with an erect stem from
+one to two feet high, the upper part of which is almost leafless. The
+leaves are mostly radical or on the lower part of the stem, and are
+pinnate, with from seven to thirteen oval or oblong, toothed leaflets.
+The long peduncles each bear an oval head of crowded flowers of a dark
+purple colour. Each flower has a calyx of four coloured lobes, enclosed
+within bracts; and four stamens. There are no petals. The plant is
+moderately common in the damp meadows of England and South Scotland, and
+flowers from June to August.
+
+The Lady's Mantle (_Alchemilla vulgaris_) is a common plant in the hilly
+pastures of North England, but is much less frequent in the South. It
+varies from six to eighteen inches in height, and bears loose, terminal
+clusters of small yellowish-green flowers from June to August. The
+little flowers have a free calyx of eight segments in two whorls of
+four, the outer ones smaller than the inner; no petals; a few stamens;
+and an ovary of one or two one-seeded carpels enclosed in the tube of
+the calyx.
+
+In moist meadows and other damp places we commonly see the fragrant
+Meadow Sweet or Queen of the Meadows (_Spiræa Ulmaria_), of the same
+order. This is an erect plant, from two to four feet high, bearing
+densely-crowded cymes of small, creamy-white flowers from June to
+August. Its stem is rather thick, often reddish in colour; and the
+leaves are large, pinnate, with from five to nine ovate,
+irregularly-toothed leaflets, two or three inches long, and also several
+smaller leaflets at the base of the stalk or between the larger ones.
+Each of the little flowers has a five-lobed, free calyx; five petals;
+numerous stamens; and an ovary that ripens into from five to eight
+little twisted capsules.
+
+[Illustration: THE MEADOW SWEET.]
+
+The Burnet Saxifrage (_Pimpinella Saxifraga_), of the order
+_Umbelliferæ_, is a common plant in dry pastures, and is very generally
+distributed. Its stem is from one to two feet high, and but little
+branched; and the leaves are very variable in form--the radical ones
+usually pinnate, with from three to nine oval or round leaflets that are
+either lobed or deeply toothed; and the upper also pinnate, with the
+segments of the leaflets few and very narrow. The umbels are terminal,
+with from eight to sixteen slender rays, and no bracts. The flowers are
+small and white, and appear from July to September.
+
+The Wild Carrot (_Daucus Carota_) of the same order is also common in
+pastures. It is an erect plant, with a tap root, and a branching stem
+from one to two feet high. The lower leaves are two or three times
+pinnate, with segments pinnately divided into narrow lobes. The upper
+leaves are much smaller, with narrower divisions. The umbels are large
+and terminal, on long stalks. The rays are numerous and crowded; the
+middle ones being shorter, with pale purple flowers; and the outer ones
+longer, with white flowers. After flowering the rays close together,
+forming a dense, globular mass, or an inverted cone, concave at the top,
+thus more or less covering the fruits, in which they are aided by the
+long, narrow lobes of both the primary and secondary bracts. The fruits
+are covered with little hooked prickles.
+
+[Illustration: THE BURNET SAXIFRAGE.]
+
+The Devil's-bit Scabious (_Scabiosa succisa_--order _Dipsaceæ_) is very
+common in the pastures of almost all parts of Britain, and much
+resembles the Field Scabious (p. 290) in general habit. Its stem
+is erect, branching, from one to two feet high. The radical leaves are
+stalked, ovate or oblong, and generally quite entire; and the
+stem-leaves, which are few, are of the same general form, but are
+sessile, and sometimes slightly toothed. The heads of purple-blue
+flowers are on long peduncles, and each one is surrounded at the base
+by about three whorls of bracts which decrease in length inwards, the
+outer and longest being about as long as the flowers. The flowers of the
+head are all nearly of the same size and form. Each one is enclosed in a
+tubular whorl of united bracts with small teeth. This whorl might easily
+be mistaken for a calyx by those who are not acquainted with the general
+features of the flowers of this order, but the calyx is really combined
+with the ovary, its four bristly teeth being very conspicuous round the
+top of the fruit. The corolla is tubular, deeply cleft into four lobes;
+and four stamens are inserted into its tube. The fruit is small and
+seedlike, and does not split. This plant flowers from July to September
+or October.
+
+[Illustration: THE WILD CARROT.]
+
+Coming now to the _Compositæ_, we have a considerable number of meadow
+flowers to describe; and we assume that the reader has already made
+himself acquainted with the nature of the flowers of this order as given
+on p. 175. If such is not the case, we advise him to refresh his
+memory with regard to them, in order that the terms used in the
+following descriptions may be thoroughly understood.
+
+[Illustration: THE DEVIL'S-BIT SCABIOUS.]
+
+Our first species is the Rough Hawkbit (_Leontodon hispidus_), which is
+very abundant in all parts of Britain except the extreme north, its
+rather large, yellow flower-heads being often mistaken for those of the
+Dandelion that are frequently seen in company with them on pasture land.
+Its specific name is due to the short, stiff hairs, often more or less
+branched, that clothe all parts of the plant. The leaves are all
+radical, long and narrow, decreasing in width towards the base, and
+either coarsely toothed or deeply cut into pointed lobes. The
+flower-stalk widens immediately below its solitary head, which is
+surrounded by hairy bracts--two or three whorls of short ones without,
+and a whorl of long ones within. All the florets are ligulate or
+strap-shaped, and yellow. The fruits are long achenes, narrower towards
+the top; and the pappus consists of a few short, outer hairs,
+surrounding about twice the number of brown, feathered ones three or
+four times as long. The flower stalks vary from a few inches to a foot
+or more in height, and the flowers bloom from June to September.
+
+[Illustration: THE ROUGH HAWKBIT.]
+
+Equally abundant is the Autumnal Hawkbit (_Leontodon autumnalis_), which
+is also found in pastures. It is a very similar plant in many respects,
+but may be easily distinguished by its smaller heads of flowers on
+branching stalks. The flowering stems are erect, from six to eighteen
+inches high, each with one or two branches bearing a few small scales
+and a single head of flowers. The involucre consists of several rows of
+smooth, closely-overlapping bracts, and is narrowed at the base into the
+enlarged upper part of the stalk. The florets are all ligulate, as in
+the last species; and the pappus consists of brown, feathery hairs, all
+of the same length. The flowers appear during August and September.
+
+The Meadow Thistle (_Carduus pratensis_) is abundant in some of the
+southern counties of Britain and Ireland, but is rarely seen in the
+north. Nearly all the leaves of this plant are radical, and these are
+long, narrow, and covered with cottony hairs. The few leaves of the stem
+are narrow, with short teeth that are only slightly prickly. The stem
+itself grows from twelve to eighteen inches high, and is usually
+unbranched, with a single head of flowers; sometimes, however, it has
+one or two branches, each terminating in a flower-head. The involucre is
+globular in form, covered with cottony hairs, and composed of
+closely-placed bracts. The flowers are purple. The plant grows chiefly
+in moist pastures, and flowers from June to August.
+
+[Illustration: THE AUTUMNAL HAWKBIT.]
+
+The Black Knapweed or Hardhead (_Centaurea nigra_) is a very common
+flower of meadows and pastures, flowering from June to September. Its
+stem is erect, tough, branched, from a few inches to three feet in
+height. The leaves are long and narrow; the upper ones entire or nearly
+so, and clasping the stem; and the lower coarsely toothed or divided
+into lobes. The flower-head has somewhat the appearance of a purple
+thistle, but the involucre is not prickly. The latter consists of an
+almost globular mass of closely-overlapping bracts, the visible
+portions of which are dark brown or black fringes. The florets are
+generally all equal, but the outer ones are sometimes larger than the
+others, and sterile.
+
+[Illustration: THE MEADOW THISTLE.]
+
+The Great Knapweed (_Centaurea Scabiosa_) is a somewhat similar plant,
+but usually larger, its stout, branched stem being generally two or
+three feet high. It may be easily distinguished by its larger
+flower-heads, the outer, neuter florets of which are considerably
+enlarged. As a rule the florets are all purple, but occasionally all are
+white, or the outer ones white and the others purple. The bracts of the
+involucre are broad, with a green centre and a dark, downy margin. The
+fruit is surmounted by a pappus of stiff, bristly hairs of about its own
+length. This plant is common in the south of Britain, and flowers during
+July and August.
+
+Two species of Fleabane have to be noticed. They belong to the genus
+_Inula_, and are distinguished by a distinct division of the flower-head
+into disc and ray, and also by two minute 'tails' at the bottom of the
+anthers.
+
+One of these is the Common Fleabane (_I. dysenterica_)--a woolly plant,
+abundant in the moist pastures of the southern counties, flowering from
+July to September. Its erect stem is loosely branched, from six inches
+to two feet high. The leaves are oblong and wavy--the lower ones
+stalked, and the upper clasping the stem with rounded lobes at the base.
+The flower-heads are yellow, about three-quarters of an inch in
+diameter, arranged singly on the tips of the branches, or on stalks
+arising from the axils of the upper leaves. The florets of the ray are
+spreading, and much longer than those of the disc; and the fruits have a
+minute cup at the top, from the inside of which spring the hairs of the
+pappus. The smoke arising from the burning Fleabanes was supposed to
+kill fleas and other vermin; and the specific name _dysenterica_ is due
+to the fact that this species has been used as a medicine in cases of
+dysentery.
+
+[Illustration: THE BLACK KNAPWEED.]
+
+[Illustration: THE GREAT KNAPWEED.]
+
+The Small Fleabane (_I. Pulicaria_) is a similar plant, but smaller
+(from six to twelve inches high) and less woolly. Its flower-heads are
+yellow, much smaller, on terminal and axillary stalks; and the florets
+of the ray are only slightly longer than those of the disc. The hairs of
+the pappus are not surrounded at the base by a little cup, but by a few
+minute and distinct scales. This species grows in the south-eastern
+counties of England, and flowers during August and September.
+
+The White Ox-eye Daisy (_Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum_) is one of the
+largest and most conspicuous of our composite flowers, and is abundant
+in dry pastures all over Britain. The plant is generally smooth; and its
+erect stem, either simple or slightly branched, is from one to two feet
+high. The lower leaves are obovate, coarsely toothed, on long stalks;
+and the upper ones are narrow and sessile, with a few teeth. The
+flower-heads are large, and placed singly on long, terminal stalks. The
+bracts are closely overlapping, with narrow, brown margins; the ray
+florets white, strap-shaped, over half an inch long; and the disc
+florets numerous and tubular. The flowers bloom from June to August.
+
+[Illustration: THE COMMON FLEABANE.]
+
+Our last composite flower is the Sneezewort (_Achillea Ptarmica_), which
+is common in the hilly pastures and meadows of most parts of Britain. It
+has an erect stem, one to two feet high. The leaves are sessile, narrow,
+with fine, regular teeth, and a smooth surface. The flower-heads are
+arranged in a loose, terminal, flat-topped corymb. Each is surrounded by
+an involucre of overlapping bracts; and consists of numerous little
+disc-florets, intermixed with small scales, and about twelve short,
+broad, white florets of the ray. The time of flowering is July and
+August.
+
+The Common Centaury (_Erythræa Centaurium_), of the order
+_Gentianaceæ_, is a very common plant in dry pastures. Its stem is
+erect, simple below, freely branched towards the top, from six to
+eighteen inches high; and the leaves are ovate, spreading and closely
+placed below, narrow and more distant above. The flowers are rose-red or
+pink, in a dense corymb, with a calyx of five very narrow segments, and
+a corolla consisting of a narrow tube and five spreading lobes.
+
+[Illustration: THE OX-EYE DAISY.]
+
+Of the order _Convolvulaceæ_ we shall note one species--the Small
+Bindweed (_Convolvulus arvensis_), so well known as a troublesome weed
+in cultivated fields. It has a creeping rootstock, and a twining stem,
+from a few inches to two feet in length, that sometimes climbs, but
+more commonly trails along the ground and over low-growing plants. The
+leaves are stalked, arrow-shaped, about an inch and a half long, with
+sharp, spreading lobes at the base. The axillary peduncles are usually
+forked, with a single flower on each of the two branches; and there are
+two small bracts at the angle of the fork, and another one or a pair
+above these, but some distance below the flower, on each branch. The
+calyx is very small, but the salver-shaped corolla is usually over an
+inch in diameter, either pink or pinkish white. The plant flowers from
+June to August.
+
+[Illustration: THE SNEEZE-WORT.]
+
+The Meadow Clary (_Salvia pratensis_--order _Labiatæ_), shown on Plate
+IV, Fig. 6, is a rather rare plant, apparently to be seen only
+in the dry fields of Oxfordshire, Kent, Surrey, and the extreme
+south-west of England; but it is one of the most handsome of the
+Labiates. Its stem is erect, from one to two feet high. The radical
+leaves are large, stalked, ovate or cordate, toothed, and much wrinkled;
+and the stem-leaves few, ovate or lanceolate, acute, the upper ones
+sessile. The flowers are arranged in whorls of from four to six at
+regular distances, the whole forming a long, simple or branched spike.
+The calyx is divided into two lips, the upper of which has often three
+small teeth, while the lower is divided into two lobes; and the corolla
+is of a bright blue colour, about three times as long as the calyx, with
+a long, arched upper lip and a three-lobed lower lip. There are two
+stamens, each with a fertile and an abortive anther connected by a thin
+stalk which is fastened to the short filament in such a manner that it
+rocks. This plant flowers from June to August.
+
+[Illustration: THE SMALL BINDWEED.]
+
+The peculiar arrangement of the stamens above described is sufficient in
+itself to distinguish the genus _Salvia_ from all the other Labiates,
+and the importance of the peculiarity in connexion with the pollination
+of the flower is so interesting that we may well spend a few minutes in
+studying it before passing on to other species. In the first place it
+should be mentioned that the stamens of _Salvia_ are mature before the
+stigma, and that, as a consequence, self-pollination is impossible. The
+lower, abortive anthers of the two stamens are joined together and form
+a little valve which closes the throat of the corolla tube. Each one,
+however, has a notch in its inner side, and the two notches, meeting in
+the middle, form a little hole. When a bee visits the flower, it alights
+on the lower lip of the corolla, and thrusts its tongue through the
+hole to reach the nectar at the base of the tube. In doing this it
+pushes the abortive anthers backwards, and the upper, fertile anther
+cells, which rest under the arched upper lip, are thus made to swing
+downwards and forwards so that they touch the bee's back; and, if they
+are ripe, to deposit some pollen. After the pollen has been thus
+removed, the style lengthens and curves downward, bringing the stigma,
+which is now mature, to the position previously occupied by the fertile
+anther cells at the time they were made to swing downwards by the bee.
+Thus, if a bee which has previously visited a flower with mature anthers
+now comes to one in which the stigma is ripe, the pollen dusted on its
+back by the former is rubbed against the stigma of the latter, and
+cross-fertilisation is the result.
+
+[Illustration: SECTION OF THE FLOWER OF _Salvia_.
+1. Stigma--not yet mature. 2. Stamen.]
+
+[Illustration: THE SELF-HEAL.]
+
+The Common Marjoram (_Origanum vulgare_) is an aromatic plant that often
+grows in great abundance on dry hilly pastures, especially in limestone
+and chalky districts. Its stem is thin and hairy, a foot or more in
+height; and the leaves are stalked, ovate, blunt, slightly toothed,
+downy, and about an inch in length. The flowers, which bloom from July
+to September, are of a rosy purple colour, in numerous globular
+clusters, the whole inflorescence forming a leafy panicle. The
+overlapping bracts are about as long as the calyx, and usually tinged
+with red or purple; the calyx has five, short, equal teeth, and is very
+hairy in the throat; the corolla is about twice the length of the
+calyx, and has four lobes, the upper of which is a little broader than
+the others; and the stamens are in two pairs, one pair longer than the
+other. It will be noticed that some of the flowers are larger than
+others, and that these are perfect, while the smaller ones have no
+stamens.
+
+In the same order (_Labiatæ_) there is the Self-Heal (_Prunella
+vulgaris_), a very common plant in moist meadows, flowering from July to
+the end of the summer. The lower portion of the stem of this plant
+usually rests on the ground and roots at the nodes, but from this arises
+the erect branches, four to ten inches high, bearing pairs of oval or
+oblong, slightly-toothed leaves; and a dense terminal spike of whorled
+flowers immediately above the last pair. The lipped corolla is of a
+violet or purple colour, usually about half an inch long. During the
+flowering stage the spike is very short, but as the fruits ripen it
+lengthens out to about an inch and a half or two inches.
+
+[Illustration: THE RIBWORT PLANTAIN.]
+
+Coming now to the Plantains (order _Plantaginaceæ_) we have two species
+to note, both of which are very abundant on pasture land. One is the
+Greater Plantain (_Plantago major_)--a very low plant, with a short,
+thick rootstock, and a radical cluster of spreading or ascending leaves
+with grooved stalks. These leaves are ovate, nearly as broad as long,
+and traversed by five, seven, or nine strong parallel veins which
+converge into the stalk at the base. Each little flower of the long,
+slender spike has four sepals; a corolla with a tube and four spreading
+lobes; and four stamens that project beyond the corolla. The fruit is a
+small capsule which splits transversely when ripe. The plant flowers
+from June to August.
+
+The other is the Ribwort Plantain (_P. lanceolata_), a somewhat similar
+plant, the leaves of which are narrow, tapering at both ends, with three
+or five strong, parallel ribs. Each flower-stalk bears a globular or
+oval spike from half an inch to an inch in length. This species also
+flowers from June to August.
+
+[Illustration: THE BUTTERFLY ORCHIS.]
+
+[Illustration: 1. CAT'S-TAIL GRASS. 2. MEADOW BARLEY.]
+
+There are a few summer-flowering species of Orchids that are more or
+less common in fields and pastures. One of these is the Marsh Orchis
+(_Orchis latifolia_), a plant so closely resembling the Spotted Orchis
+(p. 277) that it is sometimes regarded as a variety of the
+latter. Its tubers are palmately divided; and its stem, which is hollow,
+is usually from twelve to eighteen inches high. The leaves are large,
+sometimes spotted; and the spike of flowers is large, with leafy bracts
+longer than the ovaries. The flowers vary in colour from white to a
+deep purple, have a spur usually thicker than that of the Spotted
+Orchis, and a lip indistinctly divided into three lobes, with its sides
+curved backwards. The flower, which is represented on Plate VI,
+grows in moist meadows, marshes, and on moors, flowering during June and
+July.
+
+[Illustration: RYE GRASS OR DARNEL.]
+
+[Illustration: SHEEP'S FESCUE.]
+
+Another species--the Butterfly Orchis (_Habenaria bifolia_)--has
+(usually) undivided tubers; a stem from six to twelve inches high with
+two broad leaves near the base, and surrounded below by a few sheathing
+scales; and a rather loose spike of white or greenish flowers with
+narrow bracts about as long as the ovaries. The petals and upper sepals
+are arched, the lateral sepals spreading, the lip narrow and undivided,
+and the spur about twice as long as the ovary. This flower is not
+uncommon in moist meadows, where it blooms from June to August. A large
+variety, with greener flowers, is sometimes known as the Great Butterfly
+Orchis.
+
+A considerable number of summer-flowering grasses are more or less
+common in fields and meadows. We have not space for the descriptions of
+these, but introduce illustrations of a few, including the Cock's-foot
+Grass (_Dactylis glomerata_) which appears on Plate IV.
+
+
+
+
+XV
+
+BOGS, MARSHES AND WET PLACES--SUMMER
+
+
+The Crowfoot group of the _Ranunculaceæ_ contains two bog-plants
+popularly known as Spearworts on account of their spear-like leaves. One
+of these--the Lesser Spearwort (_Ranunculus Flammula_)--is abundant in
+wet places, especially the edges of muddy pools and ditches, where its
+buttercup-like flowers may be seen from June to September. It is a
+slender, smooth plant, with a branched stem, more or less decumbent at
+the base, from four to twelve inches high. Its leaves are narrow-oval in
+form, stalked, and either slightly toothed or quite entire; and the
+yellow flowers are about half an inch in diameter, on long peduncles.
+
+The other is the Greater Spearwort (_R. Lingua_), a much larger species,
+varying from two to four feet in height, and flowering during the same
+months. It has stout, hollow, erect stems which throw off whorls of root
+fibres from the lowest joints; and the glossy, yellow flowers vary from
+one to one and a half inches in diameter. This species is not nearly so
+common as the other, but occurs more or less in most parts of Britain.
+
+Taking next the cruciferous plants (_Cruciferæ_), we have first to note
+a few species of the _Nasturtium_ genus, including the Water-cress and
+the Yellow-cress. These are all smooth plants, with small yellow or
+white flowers. They may be distinguished from other crucifers by their
+loose calyx; simple, rounded stigma on a very short style; and their
+oblong or narrow pods with the seeds arranged in two rows on each side
+of the membranous partition. The species with which we are at present
+concerned are:--
+
+1. The Water-cress (_Nasturtium officinale_).--A succulent plant, with a
+branched stem rooting at the base, growing freely in ditches, shallow
+streams and muddy places, and flowering from May or June to the end of
+the summer. Its leaves are pinnately divided into from seven to eleven
+wavy or slightly-toothed segments, the terminal one of which is usually
+larger than the others and nearly round. The flowers are small, white,
+in short, crowded racemes; and the pods are spreading, more than half an
+inch long.
+
+[Illustration: _Plate V._
+FLOWERS OF BOGS AND MARSHES.
+1. Marsh Gentian. 2. Marsh Marigold. 3. Marsh Orchis. 4. Marsh Mallow.
+5. Marsh Vetchling. 6. The Marsh St. John's-wort. 7. Bog Pimpernel.]
+
+[Illustration: THE LESSER SPEARWORT.]
+
+2. The Marsh Yellow Cress (_N. palustre_), common in muddy places.--A
+slender plant with a fibrous root, and pinnate leaves with
+irregularly-toothed segments which are smaller towards the base. The
+flowers are yellow, about an eighth of an inch in diameter, with petals
+no longer than the sepals. They bloom from June to September. The pods
+are oblong, swollen, slightly curved, a quarter of an inch long.
+
+3. The Amphibious Yellow Cress (_N. amphibium_).--An erect plant, two or
+three feet high, with fibrous root and creeping runners, flowering from
+June to September, moderately common on the banks of muddy streams. Its
+leaves are narrow-oblong, three or four inches long, deeply toothed, or
+cut into narrow lobes; and the flowers are yellow, similar to those of
+the other species, and similarly arranged, but with petals twice as long
+as the sepals. The pods are broad, only about a sixth of an inch long,
+with a rather long style.
+
+In the marshes of the South of England we may often see the Marsh Mallow
+(_Malva officinalis_ or _Althæa officinalis_), of the order _Malvaceæ_,
+flowering during August and September. Its stem is hairy, with erect
+flowering branches two or three feet high; and the leaves are shortly
+stalked, thick, velvety, broadly ovate, and sometimes divided into three
+or five lobes. The flowers are shortly stalked in the axils of the upper
+leaves, or sometimes collected into a terminal raceme. Round each one is
+a whorl of several narrow bracts, shorter than the calyx, and united at
+their bases. The calyx is five-lobed; and the corolla consists of five
+broad, rose-coloured petals. This plant is shown on Plate V, Fig. 4.
+
+[Illustration: THE GREAT HAIRY WILLOW-HERB.]
+
+The Marsh St. John's-wort (_Hypericum Elodes_--order _Hypericaceæ_) is a
+somewhat shaggy little plant, common in the bogs of many parts of
+Britain, more especially in West England and Ireland. It varies from a
+few inches to a foot in length; with prostrate stems rooting at the
+base; and rounded, opposite leaves without stipules. Both stem and
+leaves are clothed with white, woolly hairs, the latter on both
+surfaces. The flowers, which bloom during July and August, are of a pale
+yellow colour, and form a few-flowered, terminal panicle. They have five
+small, oval sepals, fringed with little red-stalked glands; five
+petals, about three times as long as the sepals; and many stamens,
+united to more than half way up into three bundles. (See Plate V, Fig.
+6.)
+
+The Blue Marsh Vetchling or Marsh Pea (_Lathyrus palustris_--order
+_Leguminosæ_) is occasionally to be met with in boggy places, flowering
+from June to August. It is a smooth plant, with a weak, winged stem, two
+or three feet long; and pinnate leaves consisting of from two to four
+pairs of narrow, sharp leaflets, and terminating in a branched tendril.
+At the base of each leafstalk are two narrow, half arrow-shaped
+stipules. The flowers are of a bluish purple colour, and are arranged in
+one-sided racemes, of from two to six flowers on long stalks. The pods
+are smooth and about an inch in length. This plant is represented on
+Plate V, Fig. 5.
+
+[Illustration: THE PURPLE LOOSESTRIFE.]
+
+Some of the Willow-herbs (_Onagraceæ_) are very partial to wet and boggy
+places. A few species of other habitats are described in Chapters X and
+XI, and these, together with the members that come within the range of
+the present chapter, are readily distinguished by their willow-like
+leaves and the very long inferior ovaries of their flowers. We shall
+here note three species--
+
+1. The Great Hairy Willow-herb or Codlins and Cream (_Epilobium
+hirsutum_).--A large, erect, hairy plant, from three to six feet high,
+with numerous underground suckers, and a stout, round, branched stem.
+Its leaves are opposite, sessile, often clasping the stem, narrow, and
+finely toothed. The flowers are nearly an inch in diameter, of a deep
+rose colour, arranged in terminal, leafy racemes. They have four broad,
+notched, spreading petals; eight erect stamens; and a four-lobed stigma.
+The plant is common in wet places, and flowers during July and August.
+
+2. The Narrow-leaved or Marsh Willow-herb (_E. palustre_).--A smaller
+plant, seldom exceeding eighteen inches in height, frequent in bogs and
+marshes, flowering during June and July. Its stem is round, with two
+lines of downy hairs on opposite sides; and its leaves are sessile,
+opposite, very narrow, tapering towards the base, and sometimes slightly
+toothed. The flowers are small, pink, nodding when in bud, arranged in a
+terminal raceme. Both flowers and fruit resemble those of the last
+species except that the stigmas of the former are not divided.
+
+3. The Square-stalked Willow-herb (_E. tetragonum_ or _E. adnatum_).--A
+similar plant, from one to two feet high, common in bogs and ditches,
+and easily distinguished from other species of the genus by the four
+angles of the stem formed by the downward continuation of the margins of
+the leaves. The flowers are small, in terminal, leafy racemes, and erect
+when in bud. The petals are of a rose-pink colour, deeply notched; and
+the stigma is not divided. This species flowers in July and August.
+
+Our next flower is the beautiful Purple Loosestrife (_Lythrum
+Salicaria_--order _Lythraceæ_), which is abundant in the marshes,
+ditches, and wet places of most parts of Great Britain. It has a
+creeping rootstock; a stout, erect, slightly-branched, four-angled stem,
+from two to four feet high; and sessile, narrow, clasping, entire, acute
+leaves, two or three inches long, arranged in opposite pairs or in
+whorls of three or four. The flowers are of a reddish purple or pink
+colour, nearly an inch across, arranged in whorls on a long, tapering,
+leafy spike. They have a toothed and ribbed, tubular calyx, with broad
+inner, and narrow outer segments; oblong, wavy, wrinkled petals; twelve
+stamens in two whorls of different lengths; and a superior ovary. The
+time of flowering of this species is July to September.
+
+We have now to note several species of umbelliferous plants that grow in
+bogs and other wet places. The general features of the order
+(_Umbelliferæ_) will be found on p. 167, and the reader should
+refer to these, if necessary, before attempting to identify the
+following:--
+
+The Procumbent Marsh-wort (_Helosciadium nodiflorum_ or _Apium
+nodiflorum_) is a creeping plant, abundant in ditches and other wet
+places, rooting at the base, with erect flowering stems that are
+sometimes very short, but often reach a height of three feet. The whole
+plant is smooth, with hollow stems; pinnate leaves with from three to
+nine or more pairs of ovate, bluntly-toothed leaflets; and almost
+sessile umbels of small, white flowers either opposite the leaves or in
+the angles of the upper branches. These umbels are compound, with about
+five or six rays, usually without primary bracts, but with several,
+narrow, secondary ones. The petals have their points turned inwards; and
+the carpels are oval, each with five narrow ribs. This plant is commonly
+seen growing in company with the Water-cress and the Brooklime, and
+blooms in July and August.
+
+[Illustration: THE WATER HEMLOCK.]
+
+In ditches we occasionally meet with the Water Hemlock or Cowbane
+(_Cicuta virosa_)--a tall plant, from three to four feet high, bearing
+large, flat umbels of small, white flowers from June to August. Its stem
+is hollow, furrowed, and branched; and the leaves are large, twice
+pinnate or ternate, with lanceolate, acute leaflets, generally over an
+inch in length, the margins serrate or (sometimes) doubly serrate.
+Comparing this plant with the Common Hemlock (p. 169), we should
+note that the secondary bracts of the latter are three in number, almost
+invariably turned to the outside; and that its calyx teeth are very
+indistinct, while in the present species they are prominent above the
+ovary.
+
+Next follow three species of Water Dropwort (genus _[OE]nanthe_)--smooth
+plants, with much-divided leaves and compound umbels of white flowers,
+with secondary, and sometimes also primary, narrow bracts. In all three
+species the central flowers of each secondary umbel are perfect and
+shortly stalked, while the outer ones are on longer stalks, and usually
+staminate. The petals are notched, with points turned inwards; and the
+fruits have two rather long styles, are crowned by the five minute teeth
+of the calyx, and their carpels have each five blunt ribs. The three
+species referred to are:--
+
+[Illustration: THE COMMON WATER DROPWORT.]
+
+1. The Common Water Dropwort (_[OE]. fistulosa_).--An erect plant, from
+two to three feet high, with a fleshy, fibrous root; creeping runners;
+and a thick, hollow, slightly-branched stem. Its radical leaves are
+bipinnate, with segments cut into three or five narrow lobes; and the
+stem leaves have long, hollow stalks, with a few narrow segments at the
+top. The umbels have from three to five rays, usually with no primary
+bracts, and a few, narrow secondary ones.
+
+2. The Hemlock Water Dropwort (_[OE]. crocata_) is a larger plant, from
+two to five feet high, with a tuberous root and a thick, branched stem.
+Its leaves are bipinnate, with stalked, shining leaflets that are
+irregularly cut. The umbels are on long stalks, and have nearly twenty
+rays, several narrow secondary bracts, and sometimes a few primary ones.
+The middle flowers of each secondary umbel are perfect and almost
+sessile, but the outer ones are stalked and staminate.
+
+3. The Fine-leaved Water Dropwort (_[OE]. Phellandrium_) grows from one
+to four feet high, and has an erect, creeping or floating stem with
+runners at the base. The upper leaves are bipinnate, with small, cut
+segments; and the submerged ones are deeply cut into very narrow, almost
+hair-like lobes. The umbels are small, on short stalks in the angles of
+the branches or opposite the leaves. They have about ten rays, narrow
+secondary bracts, but no primary ones.
+
+[Illustration: THE MARSH THISTLE.]
+
+All three of the above species flower from July to September.
+
+Next follow a few composite flowers (order _Compositæ_), the first of
+which is the Marsh Thistle (_Carduus palustris_) that varies from two to
+eight feet in height, and bears dense clusters of purple (occasionally
+white) heads during July and August. Its stem is stiff, hollow, slightly
+branched, and thickly covered with very prickly wings that are
+continuous with the margins of leaves above them. The leaves are narrow,
+wavy, deeply divided into prickly lobes, with scattered hairs on both
+surfaces; the lower ones often seven or eight inches long; and the upper
+much smaller and narrower. The flower-heads are ovoid, surrounded by an
+involucre of many closely-overlapping bracts with prickly tips.
+
+The two Bur Marigolds (_Bidens_) are more or less common in marshes and
+other wet places. They are both smooth plants with opposite leaves, and
+hemispherical heads of yellowish flowers surrounded by two or three rows
+of bracts, the outer of which are spreading. The receptacle is flat,
+with membranous scales between the florets; and the fruits are crowned
+by from two to five stiff, prickly bristles. The more abundant of these
+is the Nodding Bur Marigold (_B. cernua_), a stout plant, from one to
+two feet high, distinguished by its narrow, entire, sessile leaves, and
+its drooping flower-heads. The other--the Trifid Bur Marigold (_B.
+tripartita_)--has three-cleft, stalked leaves, and heads erect or only
+slightly drooping.
+
+[Illustration: THE BROOKLIME.]
+
+The Common Ragwort of waste places, described on p. 187, is
+represented in marshes and wet places by a very similar plant called the
+Marsh Ragwort (_Senecio aquaticus_), which varies from one to three feet
+in height, and flowers in July and August. Its stem is more slender than
+that of _S. Jacobæa_, and is usually more branched. The leaves are
+either deeply toothed, or pinnately cut into segments which decrease in
+size towards the base. The yellow flower-heads are not so densely
+crowded as in the Common Ragwort, and have longer stalks.
+
+The _Scrophulariaceæ_ contains three common plants of the _Veronica_
+genus that grow in wet places. All three are similar in that they have
+opposite leaves; a corolla with a short tube, and four spreading limbs,
+of which the lowest is narrowest; two stamens; and a capsular fruit,
+flattened at right angles to its partition, opening by two valves, and
+containing a few seeds.
+
+One of these is the Marsh Speedwell (_Veronica scutellata_), abundant in
+the marshes and ditches of most parts of Britain. It has a weak,
+straggling stem, from four to eight inches high, with creeping runners
+at the base; narrow, smooth, sessile leaves, either uncut or only
+slightly toothed; and slender racemes of pale pink or white flowers on
+axillary peduncles arranged alternately, there being only one raceme at
+each node.
+
+The second is the Water Speedwell (_V. Anagallis_), a smooth plant,
+varying from six inches to two feet high, abundant in marshes and
+ditches, bearing small lilac or white flowers in July and August. Its
+stem is stout, succulent, hollow, erect, and slightly branched; the
+leaves narrow, acute, toothed, sessile, sometimes clasping the stem; and
+the racemes axillary and opposite. The flowers are only a fifth of an
+inch across.
+
+[Illustration: THE WATER FIGWORT.]
+
+The third is the Brooklime (_V. Beccabunga_), a very abundant plant
+commonly seen growing in ditches in company with the Water Cress and the
+Marsh-wort. It is a smooth plant, with a stem from one to two feet long,
+procumbent at the base and rooting at the joints; erect, succulent
+flowering branches; thick, elliptical, blunt, slightly-toothed leaves on
+short stalks; and opposite, axillary racemes of blue (occasionally pink)
+flowers about a third of an inch across.
+
+Two of the Figworts, belonging to the same order (_Scrophulariaceæ_),
+are abundant in wet places all over Britain. They are both tall erect
+plants, with opposite leaves, and peculiar greenish brown or dull purple
+flowers. In both the corolla is almost spherical and shortly lipped. Two
+of the five lobes form the upper lip; two are at the sides; and the
+other, forming the lower lip, is turned down. There are five stamens,
+four of which are fertile and turned down, while the fifth is barren and
+scale-like, under the upper lip of the corolla.
+
+[Illustration: THE GIPSY-WORT.]
+
+One species--the Water Figwort (_Scrophularia aquatica_)--grows in
+marshes and on the banks of ditches and streams. It has a stout, angular
+stem, the angles of which are drawn out into narrow wings; smooth,
+opposite, blunt leaves, cordate at the base, with crenate or toothed
+margins; and long, narrow panicles of flowers with blunt bracts. The
+five lobes of the calyx are fringed with a conspicuous, transparent,
+membranous border.
+
+The other is the Knotted Figwort (_S. nodosa_), which is much like the
+last, but emits a disagreeable odour, and may be further distinguished
+by the little green, fleshy knots of its rhizome. Its stem is sharply
+four-angled, but not winged; its leaves are acute, and doubly toothed;
+and the panicle has small, narrow, sharp bracts.
+
+Passing now to the order _Labiatæ_, we come first to the Gipsy-wort
+(_Lycopus europæus_), an erect, branched, slightly hairy plant, from one
+to three feet high, bearing dense whorls of small, white, sessile
+flowers from June to September. The calyx has five equal teeth with
+stiff points; and the corolla, which is only slightly longer than the
+calyx, has four nearly equal lobes. This plant is abundant in most parts
+of Britain, and is generally seen on the banks of ditches.
+
+[Illustration: THE ROUND-LEAVED MINT.]
+
+In the same order we have the Mints (genus _Mentha_)--strongly-scented
+plants with creeping rootstocks and runners; and small flowers in dense,
+axillary whorls, or in terminal spikes or clusters. In all the calyx has
+five equal teeth; and the corolla is bell-shaped, with a short tube, and
+four lobes of which the upper is broader. There are four erect, equal
+stamens; and the fruit consists of four small, smooth nuts. Three
+species, more or less abundant, occur in marshy or other wet places.
+They are:--
+
+1. The Round-leaved Mint (_Mentha rotundifolia_).--A moderately common,
+erect, hairy plant, from one to three feet high, with a powerful but
+hardly agreeable odour. Its stem is green, hairy, and branched; and the
+leaves are sessile, broadly ovate or round, blunt, wrinkled, green
+above, and whitish and shaggy beneath. The flowers are small, lilac
+(occasionally white), in dense, cylindrical, leafy spikes from one to
+two inches long. The bracts are rather narrow and sharply pointed, and
+the corolla is hairy. The time of flowering is August and September.
+
+2. The Water Mint (_M. aquatica_).--An abundant marsh plant, from one to
+three feet high, flowering from July to September, possessing a strong,
+pleasant odour. Its stem is much branched, generally clothed with soft
+hairs; and its leaves are stalked, ovate, serrate, the upper ones
+passing into bracts which are shorter than the flowers. The latter are
+lilac, and form dense, terminal, oblong or globular clusters, with,
+frequently, two or three dense, axillary whorls beneath. The calyx is
+tubular, about an eighth of an inch long, with very sharp teeth.
+
+3. The Marsh Whorled Mint (_M. sativa_).--A very similar plant, common
+in wet places, flowering during July and August. It grows from two to
+five feet high; and its elliptical, toothed leaves are hairy on both
+sides. The flowers are lilac, in dense, axillary whorls, without any
+terminal cluster.
+
+There is yet another marsh plant of the _Labiatæ_ to be considered, and
+that is the Marsh Woundwort (_Stachys palustris_), which is very much
+like the Hedge Woundwort described on p. 199. It has a stout,
+hollow, hairy stem, from one to three feet high; and narrow,
+coarsely-toothed leaves, from two to four inches long, the upper ones
+sessile and the lower shortly stalked. The flowers are pale purple or
+dull, light red, arranged in whorls of from six to ten in the axils of
+the upper leaves. The calyx is bell-shaped, with ten ribs and five long,
+acute teeth; and the lower lip of the corolla has its side lobes turned
+back.
+
+[Illustration: THE FORGET-ME-NOT.]
+
+We now reach the interesting _Myosotis_ genus of the _Boraginaceæ_,
+containing the favourite Forget-me-not and the similar Scorpion-grasses.
+They are all rather low and weak plants, with small, sessile, narrow
+leaves; and small flowers in one-sided, curved racemes without bracts.
+The calyx is cleft into five; and the corolla has a short tube,
+partially closed by five little scales, and five spreading or concave
+lobes. The stamens are enclosed in the tubes of the flower. Three
+species are common in wet places. They are--
+
+1. The Forget-me-not (_Myosotis palustris_).--An abundant plant, growing
+to a foot or more in height, and bearing, from June to August, bright
+blue flowers, nearly half an inch across, with a yellow centre. It has a
+creeping rootstock, with runners, and rather weak ascending stems
+clothed with spreading hairs. The leaves are blunt, and often covered
+with hairs that lie close against the surface. The calyx is divided to
+about a third of its length into short, triangular teeth, and is covered
+with closely-pressed hairs.
+
+[Illustration: THE WATER PEPPER OR BITING PERSICARIA.]
+
+2. The Creeping Water Scorpion-grass (_M. repens_).--A very similar
+plant, sometimes regarded as a variety of the last. Its stock emits
+leafy runners above the ground, and the stem is more hairy. The flowers,
+too, are of about the same size, but of a sky-blue colour, and their
+stalks are longer, bending downwards when in fruit. The calyx is divided
+to about the middle into narrow teeth.
+
+3. The Tufted Water Scorpion-grass (_M. cæspitosa_).--Also a similar
+plant, often regarded as a variety of _M. palustris_; but its flowers
+are only about half the size, of a sky-blue colour, with narrow calyx
+teeth almost as long as the corolla. It is of a paler green colour, and
+the stems are tufted by a free branching at the base.
+
+All three of these flower at the same time, and grow in similar
+situations. Several intermediate forms occur, and thus it is often a
+difficult matter to distinguish between them.
+
+We must here mention the Butterwort (_Pinguicula_) as a summer-flowering
+plant of marshy places; but this is a carnivorous species; and as such
+is described, together with other plants of similar habits, in Chapter
+XXIV.
+
+In most parts of Britain we may meet with the pretty little Bog
+Pimpernel (_Anagallis tenella_) of the _Primulaceæ_. It is a delicate,
+creeping plant (see Plate V, Fig. 7), only about three or four
+inches long, with a slender, decumbent stem; and very small, opposite,
+rounded leaves on short stalks. Its flowers are funnel-shaped, of a pale
+pink colour, on long, slender, erect, axillary peduncles. The calyx is
+cut into five pointed lobes; and the corolla is deeply cleft into five
+segments which are much longer than the calyx. The fruit is a globular
+capsule that splits transversely into two hemispheres, like that of the
+Scarlet Pimpernel.
+
+Ditches are frequently quite overgrown with the Water Pepper or Biting
+Persicaria (_Polygonum Hydropiper_), which is very much like the Spotted
+Persicaria (p. 205) of the same order (_Polygonaceæ_), but is
+much more slender, is creeping and rooting at the base, and more or less
+biting to the taste. Its stem is freely branched, from one to three feet
+high; its leaves narrow and wavy, with membranous stipules much fringed
+at the top; and the little pinkish-green flowers are in slender,
+drooping, interrupted spikes, leafy at the base.
+
+Of the _Orchidaceæ_ we shall note here but one species--the Marsh
+Helleborine (_Epipactis palustris_), which is widely distributed, and
+really abundant in places, flowering during July and August. It is very
+much like the Broad-leaved Helleborine described on p. 308, and
+represented on Plate II, but is not so tall, being only about a
+foot high, and its leaves are narrow. The flowers, too, are fewer than
+in the Broad-leaved Helleborine, and the raceme is not one-sided. The
+sepals are narrow, of a pale green colour, striped with red or purple;
+and the petals are white, striped with red at the base. The lower lobe
+of the lip is blunt and thick; and the bracts are shorter than the
+flowers.
+
+Rushes and Sedges are so abundant in marshes and other wet places that
+they form quite a characteristic feature of these localities; and the
+number of common species is so large that we must necessarily confine
+our attention to a very small proportion.
+
+The Rushes, which constitute the order _Juncaceæ_, are stiff, smooth
+plants, often of such social habits that they cover large patches of wet
+or watery soil. Their stems are usually erect, and seldom branched; and
+their stiff, smooth leaves are frequently cylindrical, like the stems,
+with a soft, pith-like tissue within, but occasionally flat and narrow
+like those of grasses. The flowers are perfect, with a regular, inferior
+perianth of six dry segments; and they have generally six stamens, a
+three-celled ovary, and three slender stigmas. They are very small,
+either separate or in clusters; and each flower or cluster has a dry,
+sheathing bract at its base.
+
+[Illustration: THE BOG ASPHODEL.]
+
+The pretty little Bog Asphodel (_Narthecium ossifragum_) shall first
+receive our attention because botanists are not yet in agreement as to
+its correct position among the monocotyledonous plants. It is certainly
+allied to the rushes, but on account of its larger and more succulent
+flowers it is often included among the lilies. It has a creeping
+rootstock, and stiff, erect stems from six to ten inches high. Its
+bright yellow, starlike flowers form a stiff, terminal raceme, with a
+bract at the base, and another one above the middle of each pedicel. The
+segments of the perianth are about a third of an inch long, yellow above
+and greenish below. The stamens are a little shorter than the perianth
+segments; and their filaments are clothed with white woolly hairs. This
+plant is common on wet moors and in mountain bogs, flowering from June
+to August.
+
+[Illustration: THE COMMON RUSH.]
+
+The Common Rush (_Juncus communis_) is a very abundant species, to be
+found in almost all wet and marshy places, flowering during July and
+August. Its stems are round, leafless, soft, faintly furrowed, solid,
+with a continuous pith. They are from one to three feet high, and are
+sheathed at the base by a few brownish scales, but the plant has no true
+leaves. Most of the stems bear a panicled cluster of green or brown
+flowers about six inches from the top. These panicles are very variable
+in form and size, being either loose or dense, and varying from one to
+three inches in diameter.
+
+The Hard Rush (_Juncus glaucus_) is a very similar plant, flowering at
+the same time; but its stem is slender, rigid, deeply furrowed, with the
+pith interrupted by air spaces. It is generally from one to two feet
+high; and, like the last species, has no true leaves. The panicle is
+looser than that of _J. communis_, with fewer and larger flowers; and it
+is never more than two or three inches below the top of the stem.
+
+A few of the Rushes form a group known collectively as the Jointed
+Rushes, because their cylindrical or slightly-flattened, hollow leaves
+are divided within by transverse partitions of pith which give them a
+jointed appearance, especially when they are dried. Two or three of the
+species referred to are very common in wet places. They are very similar
+in general appearance, and one of them--the Shining-fruited Jointed Rush
+(_Juncus lamprocarpus_) is selected for illustration.
+
+Another species is the little pale-coloured Toad Rush (_J. bufonis_),
+which grows to a height of only a few inches. It has tufted stems that
+branch from near the base; and its flowers are either solitary or in
+clusters of two or three.
+
+As regards the Sedges (order _Cyperaceæ_), the species are so numerous
+that it is impossible to do them justice in a work of this nature.
+
+[Illustration: THE SHINING-FRUITED JOINTED RUSH.]
+
+Their stems are solid, usually more or less triangular, not swollen at
+the nodes as in grasses; and the sheaths of the leaves which surround
+the stems are not split. The flowers are in little green or brown
+spikelets that are either solitary at the top of the stem, or collected
+into a cluster, spike, panicle, or umbel. Each spikelet is in the axil
+of a scaly or leafy outer bract, and consists of several scales or
+glumes, each with a single sessile flower in its axil. The flowers have
+no perianth, but there are often a few very small scales or bristles at
+their base. They have two or (generally) three stamens; a one-celled
+ovary; and a style that is more or less deeply cleft into two or three
+slender stigmas. The fruit is a small, one-seeded nut, usually flattened
+in the species which have two stigmas, and triangular where the stigmas
+are three.
+
+[Illustration: THE COMMON SEDGE.]
+
+The reader should make himself thoroughly acquainted with the above
+features of the sedges, in order to avoid any confusion with the rushes,
+on the one hand, and with the grasses on the other; and he must not be
+led astray by the fact that some of the sedge family are popularly known
+as rushes.
+
+Of this order the pretty Cotton Grasses (_Eriophorum_) often form a very
+conspicuous feature of marshes and other wet places. They are tufted or
+creeping plants with terminal spikelets, very much like those of the
+other sedges, but their flowers are perfect, and the bristles which
+represent the perianth grow to a considerable length as the flowering
+advances, protruding far beyond the overlapping glumes, and at last
+forming dense tufts of fine cottony hairs.
+
+Two species are decidedly common and widely distributed, more especially
+the Common Cotton Grass (_Eriophorum polystachyon_), which is often so
+abundant as to give a general whitish appearance to whole patches of
+boggy land. It is a creeping plant, with solid, rigid, solitary stems,
+from six inches to over a foot in height; a few shorter, radical leaves;
+and a few leaves on the stem. Its spikelets, three to twelve in number,
+form a terminal cluster, the inner ones sessile, or nearly so, and the
+outer stalked and more or less drooping. They are at first oval or
+oblong, about half an inch long; but in fruit, usually in the month of
+June, they form dense cottony tufts from one to two inches in length.
+
+[Illustration: THE MARSH SEDGE.]
+
+The other is the Hare's-tail or Sheathing Cotton Grass (_E.
+vaginatum_)--a tufted species, common on boggy moors, with many stems
+which are round below and triangular above, at first about six or eight
+inches high, but lengthening as the flowering advances. At the top of
+each stem is a solitary oval spikelet, of a dark brownish-green colour,
+over half an inch long, with many straight bristles that eventually form
+a dense, globular, cottony tuft about an inch in diameter. This is an
+earlier species, flowering during April and May.
+
+The large genus _Carex_ contains many common sedges with grass-like
+leaves springing from the base or the lower part of the stem. Some of
+them have a solitary spikelet; others have several spikelets in a
+terminal cluster or spike, with, sometimes, stalked spikelets below; or
+they are arranged in a compound spike or panicle. The flowers are all
+imperfect, without perianth; and the male and female flowers are either
+in separate spikelets or in different parts of the same one. The glumes
+overlap all round the axis of the spikelet; there are generally three
+stamens; and the ovary is enclosed in a little vase-shaped covering with
+a little hole at the top through which the two or three stigmas
+protrude.
+
+We give illustrations of two of the commonest species; the Common Sedge
+(_Carex vulgaris_), which flowers from June to August; and the Marsh
+Sedge (_C. paludosa_), that flowers in May and June. The former grows to
+a height varying from six inches to two feet; and the latter to from two
+to three feet.
+
+[Illustration: _Plate VI._
+FLOWERS OF DOWN, HEATH AND MOOR.
+1. Musk Thistle. 2. Clustered Bell-flower. 3. Spiny Rest Harrow. 4.
+Hairy Hawkbit. 5. Sheep's-bit. 6. Spotted Orchis. 7. Heath Rush.]
+
+
+
+
+XVI
+
+ON HEATH, DOWN AND MOOR
+
+
+On the exposed and more or less bleak heath, down and moor we do not
+meet with many species of spring flowers, and for this reason we have
+included both spring and summer blossoms in the same chapter.
+
+It must not be supposed, however, from the above statement, that we
+regard these exposed situations as devoid of interest, or even lacking
+in flowers, for the small number of species flowering early in the
+season is often compensated for by the profusion in which their blossoms
+are produced.
+
+The golden blaze of the Furze or Gorse, aided more or less by the
+similar flowers of its little relative--the Petty Whin, is alone
+sufficient to add a charm to the scene, while the large yellow blossoms
+of the Broom often take the place of, or add to, the glorious display,
+which is frequently varied by the globular flowers of the Whortle, and
+the catkins and early leaves of the Dwarf Willow. Occasionally the scene
+is still further varied by the evergreen, needle-like foliage of the
+Juniper, intermixed with the little axillary catkins; while among the
+surrounding grass we see the pretty flowers of the little Eyebright; the
+brown flowers and hairy leaves of the Field Woodrush, often growing as
+thickly as the grass itself; and the short, stiff leaves and sessile
+spikelets of the Spring Sedge.
+
+Among the more gaudy flowers we may note the large purple heads of the
+Musk Thistle, a common plant on the heaths of some southern counties;
+and in boggy districts we may see the abundant white, silky tufts of the
+Hare's-tail Cotton Grass; and the flower-clusters of the Yellow Sedge.
+
+These and the few other spring flowers of heaths and moors are
+described, in their order, among the summer flowers of the present
+chapter. Some of them are exclusively spring blossoms, and are to be
+seen only in their fruiting stages during the summer months, but a few
+continue to bloom after spring has ended, and even far into the summer.
+The Furze, which often commences to flower during the first few weeks of
+the year, may be seen, still in bloom, during July and early August; and
+the Eyebright may be found in flower even to the beginning of autumn.
+The Musk Thistle, too, though its first flower-heads may be observed in
+May, or, sometimes, even in April, will continue producing new flowers
+well into October.
+
+[Illustration: THE MILKWORT.]
+
+A good many species are included in the present chapter, and most of
+these, at least, will be easily identified by the descriptions given.
+
+On almost all heaths and downs we may see the pretty little Milkwort
+(_Polygala vulgaris_)--the only British representative of its order
+(_Polygalaceæ_), unless we regard some varieties of this variable plant
+as distinct species, according to the opinions of some authorities. It
+is a smooth or slightly hairy plant, with a woody stem that gives off
+several spreading branches varying from two to nine inches in length.
+The nature of the leaves and the arrangement of the flowers are shown in
+our illustration. The latter are very variable in colour, ranging from a
+pure white to lilac and a deep, rich blue; and each has five sepals, of
+which the two inner ones are wing-shaped, persistent, and coloured like
+the corolla; and at its base are three bracts, the middle and largest of
+which is as long as the short pedicel. The petals, three to five in
+number, are united, smaller than the wing-sepals, and the lowest is
+keel-shaped. The plant blooms from June to August; and the drooping
+flowers, though small, are often so abundant as to distinctly modify the
+general colouring of patches of heath and moor.
+
+[Illustration: THE BROOM.]
+
+Two small species of St. John's Wort (order _Hypericaceæ_) are
+moderately abundant on downs and commons, especially in South Britain.
+The flowers of this order are all yellow, and may be easily recognised
+by their stamens, three or five in number, which are so much branched
+that they give the appearance of a large number of stamens arranged in
+three or five clusters. In the two species we have to consider these
+stamens are three in number. One is the Trailing St. John's Wort
+(_Hypericum humifusum_), a little tufted, prostrate plant, with small
+oblong leaves marked by minute transparent spots, and by black dots
+under the margins; and flowers with unequal sepals. The other is the
+Small St. John's Wort (_H. pulchrum_) which is erect, from one to two
+feet high, with cordate leaves that embrace the stem, and panicled
+flowers which are tipped with red when in the bud. Both species flower
+during July and August.
+
+Passing now to the _Leguminosæ_, we take first the Broom (_Sarothamus
+scoparius_ or _Cytisus scoparius_)--a smooth or slightly hairy shrub,
+from two to six feet high, bearing large, yellow flowers during May and
+June. Its branches are long, erect, angular and green; and the leaves
+are small, ternate, with obovate, silky leaflets, or sometimes reduced
+to a single leaflet. The large flowers are either solitary or in pairs,
+shortly stalked, and arranged in the axils of the leaves of the previous
+summer. The fruits are black pods, usually more than an inch long, hairy
+round the edges of the valves, and surmounted at first by a
+spirally-curved style.
+
+[Illustration: THE FURZE OR GORSE.]
+
+The Furze, Gorse, or Whin (_Ulex europæus_) is a bush of about the same
+size, with more or less erect branches that all terminate in a sharp,
+rigid point. Sometimes little lanceolate leaves may be seen near the
+bases of the short branches, but normally all the leaves are reduced to
+sharp, green spines, about half an inch long. The flowers, usually more
+than half an inch long, are placed singly in the axils of the thorny
+leaves of the previous season, and are often so abundant as to form
+dense, showy clusters. The Furze is abundant in all parts of Great
+Britain with the exception of North Scotland, and may be seen in flower
+from February (or even January if the weather is mild) to July.
+
+[Illustration: THE TOREMENTIL.]
+
+The Dwarf Furze (_Ulex nanus_), also abundant on the heaths of most
+parts of Britain, commences to flower in July--just about the time that
+the last species ceases to produce its blossoms, and continues in bloom
+almost to the end of the year. It is a much smaller shrub, usually from
+one to two feet high, of a deeper green colour. Its stem is usually
+procumbent; its spines weaker, and generally turned downward; and its
+flowers smaller, and of a deeper, golden yellow.
+
+On heaths and downs of most parts of England and Scotland we may meet
+with the Needle Green-weed, Needle Whin, or Petty Whin (_Genista
+anglica_)--a little spiny shrub, varying from a few inches to two feet
+in height, with erect stem and spreading branches. Its lower branches
+are simple, or are reduced to branched thorns, while the upper are
+compound, bearing small ovate or narrow leaves; and solitary, axillary,
+pale yellow flowers in short, leafy clusters. This species flowers
+during May and June.
+
+In the same order (_Leguminosæ_) are two species of Rest Harrow, common
+on heaths and stony banks. One of these--the Common Rest Harrow (_Ononis
+arvensis_)--is a very variable plant, with pink or rose-coloured flowers
+that bloom from June to September. Its stem is sometimes procumbent and
+rooting at the base, sometimes ascending or nearly erect, and is thinly
+clothed on all sides by soft, spreading hairs. The leaves are usually
+trifoliate, with obovate or oblong, toothed leaflets, but the lateral
+leaflets are often very small or altogether wanting. The flowers are
+solitary, sessile or shortly-stalked, on short, lateral branches; and
+the standard (upper petal) is streaked with a darker colour.
+
+The other species, shown on Plate VI, Fig. 3, is the Spiny Rest
+Harrow (_O. spinosa_), which, however, is sometimes regarded as a
+variety of the last. Its flowers are very similar in form and colour,
+and appear during the same time; but the stem is erect, spiny, without
+runners, seldom more than a foot high, and has two longitudinal rows of
+hairs.
+
+Passing next to the order _Rosaceæ_, we first note the Dropwort (_Spiræa
+Filipendula_), of the same genus as the Meadow Sweet, frequently met
+with on the downs and dry pastures of England and Scotland. Its leaves
+are mostly radical, three or four inches long, interruptedly pinnate,
+with many oval or narrow segments which are themselves pinnately lobed
+or deeply toothed. At the base of each is a pair of stipules which are
+attached to the leaf-stalk throughout their length. The flowers, which
+appear during June and July, are white, and very much like those of the
+Meadow Sweet (p. 219), but are larger, without scent, and
+generally pink when in the bud. The height of the plant is usually from
+twelve to eighteen inches.
+
+In the same order we have the Tormentil (_Potentilla Tormentilla_),
+which is very abundant on heaths, dry pastures and stony banks,
+flowering from June to August. This plant has a prostrate (rarely
+erect) stem, from six to ten inches long, repeatedly forked, and clothed
+with silky hairs. The leaves are compound, with three or five
+deeply-toothed leaflets; the lower ones sometimes shortly stalked, but
+the upper always sessile. The flowers are rather small, yellow,
+generally with four petals, on slender peduncles arising from the axils
+of the leaves or from the forks of the stem.
+
+Our last example of the _Rosaceæ_ is the Blackberry (_Rubus
+fruticosus_); but it should be mentioned at once that the popular name
+of Blackberry embraces quite a number of shrubs, often estimated at some
+scores of species and varieties. We cannot here, however, attempt to
+divide and classify the group; but we shall simply point out the
+features by which the shrubs in question may be distinguished,
+collectively, from allied shrubs that are not properly included under
+the same popular name. The stem of the Blackberry grows to from three to
+twelve feet long, and has stiff or downy hairs in addition to the
+prickles. It is sometimes quite prostrate, sometimes erect, but more
+commonly arched, and rooting at the tips as they bend to the ground. The
+leaves are very variable, but usually consist of three or five large,
+ovate leaflets, with toothed edges, more or less downy, having curved
+prickles along the midrib and stalks. The flowers are white or pink, in
+terminal panicles, with five free sepals, five distinct petals, and many
+stamens. The fruit is black, and consists of several one-seeded carpels
+which do not readily separate from the receptacle when ripe; and the
+persistent sepals are usually bent downward below it.
+
+Coming now to the _Rubiaceæ_, we have to note four species, all
+characterised by whorled leaves; a corolla of four, united petals;
+stamens attached to the corolla; and an inferior ovary, of two carpels,
+that ripens to a dry fruit. Three of the four belong to the Bedstraw
+genus (_Galium_), in which the corolla is wheel-shaped. They are:--
+
+1. The Yellow or Ladies' Bedstraw (_G. verum_), very abundant on downs
+and dry banks, flowering from June to September. It has a prostrate or
+semi-erect, smooth stem, from six inches to two feet in length; and
+small, narrow leaves, six to eight in a whorl, generally slightly rough
+on the edges. The flowers are pale yellow, golden yellow, or greenish,
+arranged in dense, terminal and axillary panicles. The fruit is small
+and smooth.
+
+2. The Smooth Heath Bedstraw (_G. saxatile_).--Abundant on downs,
+flowering from June to August. Its stem is prostrate, smooth, from four
+to six inches long; and the leaves are generally in whorls of five or
+six. The flower-stalks are numerous, erect, weak, angled, smooth, each
+bearing a terminal panicle of many small, white flowers. The fruit is
+small, with a granulated surface.
+
+3. The Upright Bedstraw (_G. erectum_).--Not so common as the preceding,
+but often found on downs and hilly pastures, flowering from June to
+August. It is sometimes regarded as a variety of the Great Hedge
+Bedstraw (_G. Mollugo_), described on p. 172. Its stem is erect,
+from one to two feet high; and the leaves, six to eight in a whorl, are
+very narrow, with marginal prickles pointing forwards. The flowers are
+white, in a panicle with slender, erect branches; and the fruit is
+smooth.
+
+[Illustration: THE SMOOTH HEATH BEDSTRAW.]
+
+The remaining plant of this order is the Small Woodruff or
+Squinancy-wort (_Asperula cynanchica_), which is common in many parts of
+England and Ireland. Its stem is smooth, sometimes erect with scattered
+leaves, and sometimes prostrate, leafy and tufted. It varies in length
+from six to ten inches. The leaves are very narrow, usually four in a
+whorl, and very unequal. At the upper nodes two of each whorl are often
+reduced to mere scales, or are absent altogether. The flowers, which
+appear during June and July, are white or pinkish, and are clustered at
+the tips of the erect stems. The fruit is small, with a granulated
+surface.
+
+[Illustration: THE DWARF THISTLE.]
+
+The Small Scabious (_Scabiosa Columbaria_), of the order _Dipsaceæ_, is
+common on the dry heaths of England, and is readily distinguished from
+the Devil's-bit Scabious, which it somewhat resembles, by its
+deeply-divided leaves and pale purple or lilac flowers. Its stem is
+erect, from one to two feet high. The lower leaves are rather crowded,
+and usually have a large, oval or oblong, terminal segment, deeply
+toothed or lobed, and some smaller ones below it. The stem leaves are
+cut into very narrow segments which are either entire or pinnately
+lobed. The flowers are in dense, terminal heads, surrounded by a whorl
+of short bracts, and intermixed with the little, narrow scales of the
+receptacle, the outer flowers of each head being larger than the others,
+and very irregular. This plant flowers during July and August.
+
+Of the _Compositæ_ we shall first take the Hairy Hawkbit (_Leontodon
+hirtus_), which is very common on moors in most parts of Great Britain,
+flowering during July and August. Although known as the _Hairy_ Hawkbit,
+this plant is sometimes quite smooth; more commonly, however, the leaves
+and peduncles are clothed with thinly-scattered, stiff, forked hairs.
+Its leaves are all radical, either oblong or very narrow, with
+coarsely-toothed or wavy margins. The flower-heads are solitary, on
+peduncles from three to eight inches long, and of a bright yellow
+colour. Each head is surrounded by a whorl of about a dozen green,
+smooth bracts, outside which are several shorter ones. All the florets
+are strap-shaped and perfect; and the fruits, which taper at the top,
+are mostly crowned by a pappus of feathery hairs as long as the achene
+itself, with a few shorter ones outside. This species appears on Plate
+VI, Fig. 4.
+
+We have next to note a few thistles that are more or less common on
+downs and moors, the first being the Musk Thistle (_Carduus nutans_),
+common in the South of England, but much less frequent in the North. It
+is a stout plant, usually scantily covered with a loose, cottony down,
+with a furrowed stem from one to three feet high. The leaves are very
+deeply divided pinnately, very prickly, and extend down the stem in the
+form of narrow, prickly wings. The flower-heads are very large, of a
+purple or crimson colour, drooping, usually solitary, but sometimes in
+loose clusters of from two to four. Each head is surrounded by numerous
+very narrow, stiff bracts, more or less covered with cottony down. All
+of these terminate in a sharp prickle which is erect on the inner
+bracts, but spreading or turned backward in the case of the outer ones.
+This thistle may be seen in flower from May to October. It appears on
+Plate VI, Fig. 1.
+
+The next species--the Dwarf Thistle (_Carduus acaulis_)--is found only
+in the southern and midland counties of England, but is very common on
+some of the elevated downs of the South-East, especially on chalky
+soils. It has a very thick and hard rootstock, but hardly any trace of a
+stem, so that its spreading tuft of radical leaves lie close on the
+ground, around the large, purple, stemless, and, usually, solitary
+flower-head. The plant flowers from July to September.
+
+[Illustration: THE CARLINE THISTLE.]
+
+The Carline Thistle (_Carlina vulgaris_), as its name shows, does not
+belong to the same genus as the others, from which it differs
+principally in having its inner bracts coloured and spreading. It is an
+erect plant, with a stiff stem, usually branching, from six to eighteen
+inches high. Its leaves are very prickly, and do not form wings down the
+stem. The flower-heads are particularly interesting, having much the
+appearance of everlasting flowers. In fact, the whole plant is of such a
+stiff and dry nature that it undergoes but little change in appearance
+when cut and preserved. The outer bracts are leafy and spreading, with
+strong, prickly teeth or lobes; and the inner ones are very narrow,
+entire, white or pale yellow, of a chaffy nature and very glossy. The
+latter are very sensitive to atmospheric conditions, spreading
+horizontally when the air is dry, and closing over the florets in humid
+air; and they respond so readily to the changed conditions that their
+movements may be watched as they are transferred from warm, dry air to a
+moist chamber, or _vice versa_. This plant is common on the downs of
+England and Ireland, and flowers from July to September.
+
+[Illustration: THE COMMON CHAMOMILE.]
+
+Our last Composite flower is the Common Chamomile (_Anthemis nobilis_),
+which is abundant on the downs of the southern counties of England,
+flowering from July to September. It is an aromatic herb, with a
+procumbent stem, from six to twelve inches long, and ascending, leafy,
+flowering branches. The leaves are bipinnate, slightly downy, with very
+fine, almost hairlike, segments. The flower-heads are terminal, with a
+white ray and yellow disc, surrounded by blunt bracts the inner of which
+have membranous tips. On the receptacle are little broad scales, nearly
+as long as the disc florets.
+
+On heaths almost everywhere we may see the pretty Roundleaved
+Bell-flower or Harebell (_Campanula rotundifolia_), which displays its
+gracefully drooping bells from July to September. It has a slender,
+smooth, erect or ascending stem, from six to twenty inches high, which
+is usually branched. Its popular and scientific names both appear to be
+inappropriate if we examine the plant during its flowering season, for
+the only leaves then usually observable are the very narrow ones,
+generally quite entire, attached to the stem; earlier in the year,
+however, it has a few round or heart-shaped leaves, with long stalks,
+close to the base of the stem; but these commonly die about the time
+that the flowers commence to appear. The flowers are sometimes solitary,
+but often form a loose raceme of several bells.
+
+[Illustration: THE HAREBELL.]
+
+The Clustered Bell-flower (_Campanula glomerata_) is common on the downs
+of most parts of England, and often very abundant in the South. It has a
+stiff, hairy, erect, angular, unbranched stem, from three to eighteen
+inches high. On some of the dry, chalky downs of the South the plant is
+often very dwarfed, being scarcely noticeable among the rather
+closely-cropped grass. The leaves are oblong or lanceolate, with crenate
+margins, rough and hairy, the lower ones stalked, but the upper sessile
+and clasping the stem. The flowers are about three-quarters of an inch
+in diameter, and form a dense cluster among the upper leaves. The
+corolla is blue, bell-shaped, with five spreading lobes; and the fruit
+is a short, broad capsule, surmounted by the teeth of the calyx, and
+opens, when ripe, by slits near the base. This species flowers during
+July and August. It may be identified by reference to Fig. 2 of Plate
+VI.
+
+The same order includes the Sheep's-bit (_Jasione montana_), also known
+as the Sheep's Scabious. It certainly resembles a Scabious in general
+appearance (see Fig. 5 of Plate VI), with its dense clusters of blue or
+deep lilac flowers, but may be readily distinguished from it by the
+united anthers of its five stamens, and by the absence of the involucel
+that surrounds the individual flowers of the Scabious flower-head. The
+dense cluster of flowers, surrounded by a whorl of many ovate bracts,
+might also be mistaken for that of a Composite at first sight; but here
+again we find exclusive distinguishing features, for the flowers of the
+cluster are not sessile on a common receptacle; and the fruits, instead
+of being one-seeded achenes, are two-chambered capsules. The plant is
+from six to twelve inches high; and its leaves are oblong or very
+narrow, wavy, blunt, and hairy. The flower-heads are hemispherical,
+about half an inch in diameter. Both calyx and corolla have five narrow,
+spreading lobes. The plant is common on heaths, and flowers from June to
+September.
+
+[Illustration: THE CROSS-LEAVED HEATH.]
+
+We now come to those interesting plants known collectively as Heaths,
+and which add so much beauty to our heaths and moors. They belong to the
+order _Ericaceæ_, and are all readily distinguished by their bushy
+appearance, hard woody stems, and small, simple leaves arranged in pairs
+or whorls. The flowers, too, are very characteristic, each one having an
+inferior calyx of four sepals; a bell-shaped or pitcher-shaped,
+persistent corolla, with five lobes; eight stamens free from the
+corolla; and a four-chambered ovary that ripens to a capsule.
+
+The Cross-leaved Heath (_Erica Tetralix_) is common all over Britain,
+especially so in the West. It is a wiry little shrub, from a foot to
+eighteen inches high, much branched at the base. Its leaves are short,
+narrow, downy above, fringed with stiff hairs, and arranged in whorls
+of four, each whorl forming a cross. The drooping flowers, which appear
+during July and August, are usually rose-coloured, occasionally white,
+and are arranged in close, terminal, one-sided clusters.
+
+The Ciliated Heath (_Erica ciliaris_), perhaps the most beautiful of the
+British species, is found only in the West of England, but is really
+abundant on some of the Devon and Cornwall moorlands. It is of a
+somewhat straggling nature, and its ovate leaves, which are downy above,
+and fringed with stiff hairs, are in whorls of three or four. The
+flowers are sometimes nearly half an inch long, of a bright rose or
+crimson colour, and are arranged in broken, one-sided racemes. The
+corolla is pitcher-shaped, with four lobes round the narrow mouth. The
+plant reaches a length of from twelve to eighteen inches, and flowers
+from June to September.
+
+[Illustration: THE BELL HEATHER OR FINE-LEAVED HEATH.]
+
+Our last example of this genus--the Bell Heather or Fine-leaved Heath
+(_E. cinerea_)--is, perhaps, the commonest of all, for it abounds on the
+moors and heaths of nearly all parts of Britain. It is a very tough and
+wiry shrub, from one to two feet high, with narrow leaves in whorls of
+three or four, and smaller leaves in their axils. The flowers vary in
+colour, being either purple, crimson, rose, or occasionally white. They
+are in dense, leafy racemes, not one-sided, but rather regularly
+whorled. The time of flowering is from July to September.
+
+In the same order is the Common Ling (_Calluna vulgaris_)--a straggling
+shrub, from one to three feet high, bearing rose-coloured, lilac or
+white flowers from July to September. This shrub may be identified at
+once by its leaves, which are very small, and closely overlapping in
+four rows. Its flowers are small, drooping, shortly stalked, each with
+two pairs of small bracts at its base; and are arranged in irregular,
+leafy racemes on the topmost branches.
+
+Still in the same order (_Ericaceæ_), but quite distinct from the
+Heaths, are a few moorland shrubs the berries of which are largely eaten
+by the country-folk. They belong to the genus _Vaccinium_, and have
+scattered, deciduous or evergreen leaves. We have noticed that in the
+heaths the ovary is superior, but in the present genus it is inferior;
+that is, it is situated below the calyx and corolla, which parts are
+attached to its upper border. The calyx has four or five lobes; and the
+corolla, which is bell-shaped or pitcher-shaped, has the same number of
+lobes or teeth. The stamens, eight or ten in number, are usually
+rendered peculiar by the tubular bristles that extend upwards from the
+anther cells. The berries are globular or nearly so, and contain several
+seeds. Some species of this genus are rare, but three, at least, may be
+included here. They are--
+
+1. The Whortleberry or Bilberry (_Vaccinium Myrtillus_).--A smooth
+shrub, from six to eighteen inches high, common everywhere except in
+some of the eastern counties, flowering from April to June. Its stem is
+erect or spreading, branched, green, and sharply angular. The leaves are
+shortly stalked, ovate, serrate, seldom more than an inch long; and the
+flowers are nearly globular, with small teeth, drooping on short stalks,
+and placed singly in the axils of the leaves. They are of a greenish
+rose or flesh-colour, often tinged with red, and have a very waxy
+appearance.
+
+2. The Great Bilberry or Bog Whortleberry (_Vaccinium uliginosum_).--A
+smaller and more woody shrub, from six to ten inches high, growing only
+in the moorland bogs of North Britain. Its stem and branches are round
+or scarcely angular, and usually procumbent and crooked. The leaves are
+small, obovate or round, entire, thin, deciduous, with the veins
+strongly marked on the under side; and the flowers are globular, of a
+pale pink colour, smaller than those of the last species. This species
+flowers during May and June.
+
+3. The Red Whortleberry or Cowberry (_V. Vitis-idæa_).--A straggling,
+much branched, and woody shrub, from six to eighteen inches high, found
+chiefly on the mountainous heaths of the North. Its leaves are
+evergreen, obovate, dotted beneath, with the margins slightly rolled
+back; and the flowers are bell-shaped, of a pale pink or flesh-colour,
+arranged in rather dense, drooping clusters. The latter, which bloom
+from June to August, are followed by red, globular berries.
+
+On wet, marshy heaths we occasionally meet with the Marsh Gentian
+(_Gentiana Pneumonanthe_). It is a very local plant, growing chiefly,
+though not exclusively, in the northern and midland counties of England.
+Its stem is erect, stiff, leafy and unbranched, usually from six to ten
+inches high; and its leaves are sessile, linear, obtuse, rather thick,
+the lower ones broader than the upper. The flowers, which bloom during
+August and September, are represented on Plate V.
+
+[Illustration: THE EYEBRIGHT.]
+
+In the same order (_Gentianaceæ_) is the Autumn or Small-flowered
+Gentian (_Gentiana Amarella_)--a little erect plant, from three to
+twelve inches high, common on dry heaths and stony pastures. Its stem is
+square, very leafy, simple or branched, often of a blue-green or purple
+colour; and the leaves are sessile, opposite, ovate or lanceolate. The
+flowers are of a pale purple colour, from half to three-quarters of an
+inch long, arranged in an oblong, leafy cluster. The calyx is divided
+quite half way down into five unequal, narrow segments; and the corolla
+has a broad tube with four or five ovate lobes that spread only in the
+direct rays of the sun. The time of flowering is August and September.
+
+One of the Dodders--the Lesser Dodder (_Cuscuta Epithymum_)--is
+essentially a plant of heaths and moors, where it is parasitic on
+Heaths, Thyme, and other shrubby plants. It is described in Chapter
+XXIII, where will also be found a short account of its growth and
+parasitic habits.
+
+Our only example of the _Scrophulariaceæ_ as far as this chapter is
+concerned--the Eyebright (_Euphrasia officinalis_)--is also a partial
+parasite, and is referred to, with other plants of the same nature, in
+Chapter XXIII. It is a little plant, the general appearance of which is
+shown in our illustration. It varies from one to eight inches high, and
+bears little lilac, lipped flowers, streaked with purple, with a rather
+large yellow spot at the base of the lower lip.
+
+One of the Mints--_Mentha Pulegium_ (order _Labiatæ_)--well-known as a
+garden herb under the name of Pennyroyal, is to be found on damp heaths.
+Though not very common, it is widely distributed, occurring in nearly
+all parts of Great Britain. It is very aromatic, and is largely
+cultivated for use as a remedy for colds. The flowers are of a lilac
+colour, arranged in dense, distant whorls in the axils of the upper
+leaves. The calyx is downy without, hairy at the throat within; and the
+corolla has almost equal lobes, the upper of which is notched. The plant
+flowers in August and September.
+
+In the same order is the Wild Thyme (_Thymus Serpyllum_)--a little,
+wiry, prostrate plant, with an aromatic odour, very abundant on the dry
+heaths of most parts of Britain, flowering from June to August. Its stem
+is thin but hard, and much branched, the numerous flowerless branches
+usually forming a dense tuft close to the ground. The flowers are
+purple, in whorls of five or six in the axils of the upper leaves. The
+calyx is lipped, of a deep red colour, and its mouth is closed with
+hairs after the corolla is shed. The corolla is of a paler colour, and
+indistinctly divided into two lips, the upper of which is erect and
+notched, while the lower is cleft into three lobes. The time of
+flowering is from June to August.
+
+The Wood Sage or Wood Germander (_Teucrium Scorodonia_) is very abundant
+on damp heaths, and is also commonly seen in hedgerows and on banks,
+especially in hilly and heathy districts. It is an erect plant, from one
+to two feet high, with a hard, hairy, slightly-branched stem. Its paired
+leaves are stalked, ovate or cordate, toothed, downy, and much wrinkled
+like the leaves of the true Sages. The flowers are yellowish white,
+arranged in pairs on terminal and axillary racemes, with a small bract
+at the foot of each short flower-stalk. Although not very conspicuous,
+they are very attractive to bees, providing abundance of nectar. There
+is no true upper lip to the corolla, the upper part being deeply cleft,
+with a small lobe on each side; and the stamens and stigma project
+beyond the petals. This plant flowers during July and August.
+
+[Illustration: THE WILD THYME.]
+
+On moist heaths, especially in the west of Britain, we commonly meet
+with the Lesser Skull-cap (_Scutellaria minor_), another of the
+Labiates. It is a little plant, seldom more than six inches high, with
+pale pink flowers that bloom from July to October. The stem is rather
+slender, and branched; and the paired leaves are broadly ovate below,
+narrower above, obtuse, very shortly stalked, and either entire or
+slightly toothed. The flowers are only a quarter of an inch long,
+shortly stalked, and usually placed singly in the axils of the leaves.
+The calyx has two lips, the upper of which bears, on the middle of its
+back, a prominent hollow scale; and the corolla has a long tube with two
+small lips, the lower of which is divided into three lobes.
+
+[Illustration: THE AUTUMNAL LADY'S TRESSES.]
+
+The Dwarf Silky Willow (_Salix repens_--order _Salicaceæ_) is very
+common on heaths. It is a small, straggling shrub, from one to three
+feet high, sometimes erect, but more commonly procumbent and rooting at
+the base, with slender branches. Its leaves are often less than an inch
+in length, oblong or narrow, with recurved margins, shining above and
+silky below. When young, the leaves are silky on both sides; and the
+young twigs and the buds are also clothed with a silky down. The flowers
+are imperfect, and are in short, sessile, erect, oblong catkins, which
+appear in April and early May, before the leaves. The male and female
+flowers grow on different shrubs; but in both cases the catkins are
+about half an inch long, with a few leafy bracts at the base, and the
+flowers are intermixed with silky scales. The capsules split when ripe,
+liberating numerous minute seeds that are tufted with long, white, silky
+hairs.
+
+The Juniper (_Juniperus communis_), one of the few British conifers, is
+not uncommon on dry, gravelly or chalky downs, more especially in the
+North. It is a profusely-branched, evergreen shrub, either erect or
+procumbent, and usually from one to five feet high. Its leaves are very
+narrow, half an inch or less in length, concave above, terminating in a
+very sharp point, and arranged three in a whorl. The male and female
+flowers grow on separate shrubs, and are clustered in minute catkins,
+about a twelfth of an inch long, sessile in the axils of the leaves. The
+fruit is a bluish-black, berrylike cone, about a third of an inch in
+diameter. The Juniper flowers during May and June.
+
+[Illustration: THE BUTCHER'S BROOM, IN FRUIT.]
+
+Passing now to the _Orchidaceæ_ we have to note two species, the first
+of which is the Autumnal Lady's Tresses (_Spiranthes autumnalis_), a
+moderately common plant on the dry downs of South Britain, flowering
+from August to October. It has two or three thick, oval tubers; and a
+slender stem, from four to eight inches high, with sheathing, acute
+scales. The radical leaves, four or five in number, are about an inch
+long, ovate, sharp, and form a tuft by the side of the stem. The flowers
+are small, white, scented, and form a single, spiral line on the stem;
+but while each flower is turned to one side, its bract is erect on the
+other side of the stem. The sepals and petals are much alike. The upper
+sepals are joined to the petals, and the lateral ones curve over the
+base of the lip of the corolla.
+
+The other plant of this order is the very common Spotted Palmate Orchis
+(_Orchis maculata_), abundant on the moist heaths and commons of most
+parts of Britain, flowering from June to August. Its root has two or
+three flattened tubers with long, finger-like lobes; and the stem is
+solid, erect, from six inches to more than a foot high. The leaves are
+ovate below, narrow above, and usually marked with many dark spots. The
+spike of flowers is dense, oblong or pyramidal in form, and two or three
+inches long. At the base of each flower is a bract usually shorter than
+the ovary. The flowers are pale purple, lilac, or (occasionally) white,
+and are generally conspicuously marked with irregular lines and spots of
+a deeper tint. The sepals are spreading, about a quarter of an inch
+long; and the petals are arched over the column. The lip is broad,
+deeply three-lobed, more or less toothed, either flat or with the
+lateral lobes slightly turned back. The spur is slender and a little
+shorter than the ovary. This Orchis is represented on Fig. 6 of Plate
+VI.
+
+[Illustration: THE COMMON QUAKING GRASS.]
+
+Our single example of the _Liliaceæ_ is the Butcher's Broom (_Ruscus
+aculeatus_), the only British monocotyledonous shrub. It is of a very
+dark green colour, varies from one to four feet in height, and is
+occasionally met with on the wooded heaths of the southern counties. Its
+rigid, evergreen, leaflike appendages, which are ovate in form,
+terminating in a sharp spine, are not really leaves, but leaflike
+branches or _cladodes_; for, it will be observed, they bear the flowers
+and fruits, which are attached to their centres. The only leaves
+possessed by the plant are the minute, deciduous scales, from the axils
+of which the cladodes grow. The flowers are white, very small, with a
+deeply six-cleft, persistent perianth, each one attached to the centre
+of a cladode by a very minute stalk. They are always on the upper side
+of the cladode, though it generally happens that they are turned
+downwards by a twisting of the base of the leaflike branch. The flowers
+are always imperfect, the male and female blossoms growing on separate
+shrubs, and both have a small bract at the base. The ovary of the latter
+develops into a rather large, scarlet, berry-like fruit containing one
+or two seeds. The flowers appear during March and April.
+
+[Illustration: THE COMMON MAT GRASS.]
+
+Two of the Rushes (order _Juncaceæ_) are very common on heaths and
+moors. One of these is the Heath Rush (_Juncus squarrosus_), which
+appears on Plate VI. This is a rigid Rush, varying from four to
+ten inches high, flowering in June and July. Its stems are stout, solid,
+and generally leafless; and the leaves are narrow, grooved, usually less
+than half the length of the stem. The flowers are brown, either distinct
+or in clusters of two or three, arranged in a compound raceme, with a
+perianth of shining segments membranous at the margins, and about a
+sixth of an inch long. The capsules are blunt, but terminate in a
+pointed bristle.
+
+The other is the Field Woodrush (_Luzula campestris_), a small plant,
+usually from four to six inches high, flowering from March to June, and
+often very abundant among the grass of hilly pastures and heaths. Its
+leaves are fringed with long, soft, white hairs; and the flowers, which
+are of a very dark brown colour, are arranged in three or four round or
+oval spikes. The segments of the perianth are very sharp, about an
+eighth of an inch long, with membranous margins; and the capsules are
+blunt.
+
+We conclude this chapter with a brief notice of two of the Grasses of
+heaths and downs. One of these is the Common Quaking Grass or Totter
+Grass (_Briza media_).--A very pretty, erect grass, rather rigid, from
+six to eighteen inches high, common on dry downs except in the extreme
+North of Britain, flowering during June and July. Its stems are tufted,
+or sometimes slightly creeping; and its leaves are narrow and flat. The
+spikelets are round or broadly ovate, nearly a quarter of an inch long,
+more or less tinged with purple, on the long, slender branches of a
+loose, spreading panicle three or four inches long. The broad glumes are
+all similar in shape, but decrease in size upwards, and are not
+bristled.
+
+The other is the Common Mat Grass (_Nardus stricta_), a densely tufted,
+wiry grass, from four inches to a foot in height, common on heaths and
+moors, flowering in June and July. The leaves are very fine and stiff,
+quite bristle-like. The flowers are in a one-sided spike, from one to
+three inches long, the one-flowered spikelets being placed alternately
+in two rows, in the notches of the central axis. The spikelets are often
+of a reddish or purplish colour, and each has a single, narrow, pointed
+glume, about a third of an inch long, an inner glume with a short
+bristle, three stamens, and a single style.
+
+[Illustration: _Plate VII._
+FLOWERS OF THE CORNFIELD.
+1. Long Smooth-headed Poppy. 2. Field Scabious. 3. Corn Cockle. 4. Corn
+Marigold. 5. Flax. 6. Corn Pheasant's-eye.]
+
+
+
+
+XVII
+
+IN THE CORN FIELD
+
+
+The flowers included in the present chapter are to be found principally
+in cultivated fields; but since they are more particularly associated
+with corn crops, or occur so commonly in those fields in which grain is
+one of the products included in the rotation adopted, we separate them
+from the other flowers of the field, and consider them under the above
+head.
+
+It will be observed that the majority of the flowers thus dealt with are
+summer-bloomers that flower while the ears of corn are filling out, and
+consequently are in fruit at the time of harvest. Hence, when the corn
+is cut, their seeds are shaken from the ripe fruits, or the fruits are
+themselves levelled to the ground, with the result that those which are
+not ploughed too deeply into the soil spring up almost in the same
+position in the following season.
+
+Starting with the species of the Buttercup family (order
+_Ranunculaceæ_), we take first the beautiful Pheasant's Eye (_Adonis
+autumnalis_), which is sometimes seen among the corn, especially in the
+fields of the southern counties. The plant is not a native, but has
+become well established as a wild flower in several parts, though it is
+common in only a few localities. It is erect, from six to twelve inches
+high, and flowers in summer and autumn. The coloured illustration on
+Plate VII, Fig. 6, renders a written description unnecessary.
+
+The little Mouse-tail (_Myosurus minimus_) of the same order is a very
+different kind of plant. It seldom exceeds a height of five or six
+inches, and is commonly only two inches high. Its leaves are all
+radical, very narrow, fleshy, and measure only from one to three inches,
+including the stalk; and the little yellowish-green flowers, which bloom
+from April to June, are solitary on radical stalks. Each flower has five
+spreading sepals which are prolonged downward at the base into a short
+spur; five very narrow, tubular petals; a few stamens; and a spike-like
+cluster of many carpels in the centre. As the fruit ripens the cluster
+of carpels lengthens into a slender spike from an inch to an inch and a
+half long. This species is rather common in the South and South-East of
+England, and is to be seen most frequently in moist fields.
+
+The Corn Crowfoot (_R. arvensis_) is a slightly hairy plant, with a
+branched stem from six to eighteen inches in height. The whole is of a
+pale green colour, and the leaves are deeply cut into narrow, lobed
+segments. The flowers are pale yellow, about half an inch in diameter,
+with spreading sepals; and are usually placed opposite the leaves. Their
+carpels are few in number, comparatively large, flattened, and covered
+with hooked spines. This is an abundant species, especially in the
+southern counties, and is most common in weedy fields in which
+corn-crops have been previously raised. It flowers from May to July.
+
+[Illustration: THE MOUSE-TAIL.]
+
+The same order (_Ranunculaceæ_) includes the Field Larkspur (_Delphinium
+Ajacis_) which sometimes grows wild in corn-fields. It is not
+indigenous, but has been introduced from South Europe; and the wild
+plants are probably escapes from cultivation. The stem is from nine to
+eighteen inches high, with a few spreading branches; and the leaves are
+all deeply cut into very narrow segments. The flowers are blue, pink or
+white, and are arranged in a long, terminal raceme. The five sepals are
+coloured, the posterior one prolonged into a narrow, hollow spur about
+half an inch long. There are only two petals, and these are united into
+a narrow spur which lies within that of the calyx. The fruit consists of
+a single, downy follicle that contains several seeds. This plant flowers
+during June and July.
+
+We have now to notice a few of the favourite Poppies (order
+_Papaveraceæ_); and although these are generally easily distinguished,
+even by the tyro, from the flowers of other orders, we think it
+advisable to call attention to the leading features of the group. These
+plants have a milky sap, and leaves without stipules. Their flowers are
+large, regular, on long stalks, and droop when in the bud. There are
+only two sepals, and they generally drop very early. The petals, four in
+number, are very thin and delicate, crumpled in the bud; and the stamens
+are numerous. The ovary is peculiar, consisting of one cell that is
+partially divided by a number of membranes (_placentas_) which pass from
+the wall towards the centre. It is surmounted by a disc on which are
+several radiating stigmas, corresponding in number with the membranes
+within. The fruit opens when ripe by the formation of pores just under
+the edge of the disc.
+
+The most abundant species is undoubtedly the Common Red Poppy (_Papaver
+Rhæas_), which is to be found in almost every corn-field, as well as in
+other fields and waste places in cultivated districts, flowering from
+May to July. It is from one to two feet high, covered with rather stiff
+spreading hairs; and its leaves are pinnately divided into narrow,
+pointed lobes which are themselves more or less cut. The beautiful, rich
+scarlet flowers are about three inches in diameter, often with a black
+patch at the base of each petal, and are solitary on long peduncles that
+are covered with hairs. The fruit is almost globular, tapering towards
+the bottom; and on its disc are from eight to twelve radiating stigmas.
+
+The Long-headed Poppy (_P. dubium_) is a very similar plant, but is
+generally rather more slender, with hairs that do not spread so much;
+and its leaves are often more deeply cut into narrower lobes. Its
+flowers are a little smaller, with two opposite petals larger than the
+other two; and the hairs of the peduncles lie close against the surface.
+The fruit is oblong, tapering towards the bottom, the length being
+nearly three times the greatest width. This poppy also flowers from May
+to July. It is represented in Fig. 1. of Plate VII.
+
+A third species--the Long Prickly-headed Poppy (_P. Argemone_), also
+known as the Pale Poppy, is a small, weak plant, seldom exceeding nine
+inches in height, with leaves divided into a few narrow segments. The
+flowers are of a pale red colour, usually less than two inches in
+diameter; and, like those of the commonest species, have usually a dark
+patch at the base of each petal. The fruit is narrow-oblong, tapering
+below, in fact, almost club-shaped, and is clothed with a few stiff,
+bristly hairs. The time of flowering is the same as that of the
+preceding species.
+
+[Illustration: THE COMMON RED POPPY.]
+
+In the corn-fields of several parts of England we may meet with the
+White or Opium Poppy (_P. somniferum_) which is largely grown in warmer
+countries for the opium it produces, and which was probably introduced
+into Britain from the Mediterranean region. It is generally about two
+feet in height, and quite smooth with the exception of a few spreading,
+stiff hairs on the flower stalks. The whole plant is of a glaucous green
+colour. The flowers are large, generally of a bluish white colour, often
+with a purple patch at the base of each petal; and the fruit is large,
+globular and smooth. This species flowers from June to August.
+
+[Illustration: THE WHITE OR OPIUM POPPY.]
+
+The pretty little Fumitory (_Fumaria officinalis_--order _Fumariaceæ_)
+is abundant in most of the cornfields and other cultivated places of
+most parts of Britain, flowering from June to September. It is a very
+variable plant, quite smooth, and of a delicate, pale green colour. Its
+stem varies from six inches to over two feet in length, sometimes erect,
+with spreading branches, but often climbing among the neighbouring
+vegetation, supported by the twisted leafstalks. The leaves are
+pinnately divided into stalked leaflets which are further cut into
+three-lobed segments; and the flowers are in racemes that are either
+terminal or opposite the leaves. At first the racemes are short, but
+they lengthen out considerably as upper flowers open and the lower ones
+fruit. Each flower has a short pedicel that arises from the axil of a
+whitish or coloured bract; and the two small sepals are either white or
+coloured like the bracts. The corolla is oblong, tubular, formed of four
+petals in two pairs, with a short, blunt spur at the base; and its
+colour is very variable--usually cream-coloured or pink, and often
+tipped with crimson.
+
+Some of the Mustards are very common weeds in corn-fields. They belong
+to the genus _Brassica_, of the order _Cruciferæ_, and are distinguished
+by their long siliquas, almost cylindrical in form, terminating in a
+'beak' which is formed entirely of the persistent style, or of this
+together with a modified portion of the fruit containing one or more
+seeds.
+
+One of the commonest of these is the Wild Mustard or Charlock (_Brassica
+arvensis_ or _B. Sinapis_), a very abundant weed in most cultivated
+fields, probably introduced originally from South Europe. It is a very
+coarse plant, with scattered, bristly, spreading hairs, growing from one
+to two feet high, and bearing racemes of yellow flowers that generally
+exceed a diameter of half an inch. The leaves are ovate, with short,
+stiff hairs; all are pinnately lobed, and the lower ones have generally
+a large oval lobe, with coarsely-toothed segments, and a few narrower
+segments along the stalk. The fruits are spreading, many-angled pods,
+usually about an inch in length, constricted between the seeds when
+ripe, with a beak about a third the length of the whole pod enclosing a
+single seed at its base. The plant flowers from May to August.
+
+The White Mustard (_Brassica alba_ or _Sinapis alba_) is not so common;
+but it is somewhat largely cultivated for its seedlings, which are used,
+with those of cress, as salad; and the plant is not unfrequently found
+as a weed in corn-fields and on other cultivated ground. The whole plant
+is clothed with rather stiff hairs that are directed downwards, and its
+height varies from one to two feet. Its leaves are pinnately divided
+into ovate, coarsely-toothed segments, the terminal one largest. The
+flowers are bright yellow, about half an inch in diameter, in racemes.
+The pods are usually near an inch long, on spreading stalks; with a
+stout, flattened beak, longer than the pod itself, containing a single
+seed. They are constricted between the seeds, and both valves and beak
+are clothed with stiff, whitish hairs. The plant flowers during June and
+July.
+
+[Illustration: THE FUMITORY.]
+
+A third member of the same genus--the Black Mustard (_Brassica nigra_ or
+_Sinapis nigra_)--is also cultivated for its seeds, which are used in
+the preparation of table mustard, and it is also a moderately common
+weed of cultivation in many parts. It is a hairy plant, from one to
+three feet high. Its lower leaves are rough, and deeply divided into a
+large terminal and small lateral lobes; and the upper ones are small,
+very narrow, smooth and undivided. The flowers are yellow, usually less
+than half an inch across, in long, narrow racemes; and the
+shortly-stalked pods are four-angled, smooth, and about half an inch
+long. They do not spread much, and the short beak consists only of the
+narrow style. This species flowers from June to August.
+
+[Illustration: THE BLACK MUSTARD.]
+
+The Wild Radish or White Charlock (_Raphanus Raphanistrum_) is a common
+corn-field weed, somewhat resembling the mustards just described in
+general appearance, but its pods are distinctly constricted between the
+seeds, and often split when ripe into from three to seven one-seeded
+joints. The plant is bristly, and grows from one to two feet high,
+flowering from May to September. The petals are either white with
+purplish veins, or pale yellow, or lilac; and the pods, over an inch
+long, are tipped by the conical style, which is about twice as long as
+the last joint.
+
+Coming now to the order _Caryophyllaceæ_ we have to note the pretty Corn
+Cockle (_Lychnis Githago_), which is commonly seen in the midst of the
+corn, often growing so tall that its pale purple flowers peep above the
+ears. Its stem is clothed with long, soft, white hairs; and the leaves
+are all long, narrow and entire. The flowers, which appear during July
+and August, are usually over an inch in diameter, and are solitary on
+long, leafless peduncles. This flower appears on Plate VII.
+
+[Illustration: THE CORN SPURREY.]
+
+The same order includes the Corn Spurrey (_Spergula arvensis_), a low,
+procumbent plant, with small, white flowers that bloom from June to
+August. Its slender stem varies from six to eighteen inches long, and
+the narrow, whorled leaves from one to two inches. The flowers are only
+a quarter of an inch in diameter, with sepals usually a little shorter
+than the petals.
+
+In the order _Linaceæ_ we have the Common Flax or Linseed (_Linum
+usitatissimum_), which is cultivated in some districts, and often
+appears as a weed in fields. It is an erect, smooth plant, with a
+slender stem about a foot high, and very narrow, entire, acute leaves,
+about an inch long. The flowers are in a loose, terminal corymb, and
+have five acute sepals; five bright blue petals over half an inch long,
+which fall early; five perfect and five imperfect stamens; and an ovary
+with five styles. It flowers during July. (See Plate VII.)
+
+The Shepherd's Needle or Venus's Comb (_Scandix Pecten-Veneris_) of the
+order _Umbelliferæ_ derives its name from the long, flat, needle-like
+beaks of the fruits that are placed almost parallel like the teeth of a
+coarse comb. The plant is erect, branched, from three to twelve inches
+high; and the general character of its leaves and inflorescence may be
+gathered from our illustration. The flowers are small, white, with
+larger outer petals; and the carpels of the fruit are cylindrical, about
+a third of an inch long, with beaks about an inch and a half. The plant
+flowers from June to September.
+
+[Illustration: THE SHEPHERD'S NEEDLE OR VENUS'S COMB.]
+
+Of the order _Rubiaceæ_ we shall include the common Field Madder
+(_Sherardia arvensis_), a little plant, varying from five to ten inches
+high, the minute lilac flowers of which may be seen from April to
+October. Its branched stems are often decumbent; and the little, narrow,
+sharply-pointed leaves, rough on the edges, are placed in whorls of from
+four to six. The umbels are very small, terminal, and surrounded by a
+leafy involucre that is divided into several lobes longer than the
+flowers. The corolla consists of an exceedingly slender tube, at the top
+of which are four spreading lobes; and the fruit is crowned by the five
+or six teeth of the calyx, which enlarges as the former ripens.
+
+The Field Knautia or Field Scabious (_Knautia arvensis_ or _Scabiosa
+arvensis_), shown on Plate VII, is very common on cultivated
+ground, particularly in corn-growing districts. It is a
+slightly-branched plant, from one to four feet high, clothed with stiff,
+bristly hairs. Its lower leaves are stalked, simple, narrow, and usually
+but little cut; and the upper ones sessile, broader at the base, and
+either coarsely toothed or deeply cut. The flower-heads are large,
+lilac, on long peduncles. The outer florets are much larger than the
+inner, and all have four-lobed corollas. The fruit is angular, and is
+surmounted by the eight or ten bristles of the calyx. This plant flowers
+from June to August.
+
+[Illustration: THE VENUS'S LOOKING-GLASS OR CORN BELLFLOWER.]
+
+Two of the Sow Thistles (order _Compositæ_) have already been noticed
+among the flowers of waste places (p. 179), and a third, known
+as the Corn Sow-Thistle (_Sonchus arvensis_), falls within the range of
+the present chapter, being a very common corn-field weed. It is an erect
+plant, from one to four feet high, with a hollow, angular stem, branched
+only towards the top. Its lower leaves are large, stalked, more or less
+divided into triangular, sharply-toothed lobes that are curved
+downwards; and the upper ones are sessile, less divided, with broad
+lobes which clasp the stem. The flower-heads are bright yellow, large,
+and arranged in a loose, terminal corymb. Their stalks and bracts are
+rough with stiff brown or black hairs; and the pappus of the wrinkled
+fruits consists of a dense mass of white, silky hairs. The plant blooms
+during August and September.
+
+The Bluebottle or Cornflower (_Centaurea Cyanus_) is a pretty cornfield
+Composite, not uncommon in many parts, blooming from June to August. The
+plant, represented on Plate IV, is covered with loose, cottony
+hairs, and grows from one to two feet high. The heads of flowers are
+about an inch in diameter, solitary on long, terminal stalks, surrounded
+by an oval involucre of closely-overlapping bracts with sharp points and
+toothed, membranous margins. The receptacle is flat, with silvery
+bristles between the florets. All the florets are tubular; the central
+ones of a bluish-purple colour, with purple anthers; and the outer ones
+much larger, curved, irregular, and bright blue. The fruit is surmounted
+by a pappus of short, simple hairs.
+
+One of the most beautiful of the corn-field flowers is the Corn Marigold
+or Yellow Ox-eye Daisy (_Chrysanthemum segetum_), easily distinguished
+by its rather large flower-heads, solitary on terminal peduncles, with
+bright golden-yellow ray and disc. It grows from twelve to eighteen
+inches high, and flowers from May to July. It may be identified by the
+aid of the coloured illustration on Plate VII.
+
+[Illustration: THE SCARLET PIMPERNEL.]
+
+The Corn Chamomile (_Anthemis arvensis_), of the same order, is not
+unfrequently seen in corn fields, flowering from June to August. It is
+much like the Scentless Mayweed (p. 188) and the Common Chamomile (p.
+268) in general appearance, but may be easily distinguished with a
+little care. It is a rather coarse plant, more or less clothed with a
+silky down; and its freely-branched stem is usually erect, and from one
+to two feet high. The leaves are pinnate, with leaflets divided into
+very narrow, almost hairlike segments; and the flower-heads are rather
+large, with white ray and yellow disc, solitary on the tops of leafy
+stalks. The involucre bracts are acute; the receptacle conical; and ray
+florets always possess a style.
+
+[Illustration: THE CLIMBING BISTORT.]
+
+The Stinking Chamomile or Stinking Mayweed (_Anthemis Cotula_) is
+another similar corn-field plant, but it may be readily recognised by
+the minute glands dotted over its surface, the acrid secretion of which
+emits a f[oe]tid odour when rubbed, and often blisters the hand. The
+plant is generally smooth, with an erect, branched stem, from nine to
+fifteen inches high; and pinnate leaves with leaflets divided into
+short, narrow, pointed lobes. The flowers are similar to those of the
+previous species, on the tops of long, leafy stalks; but the receptacle,
+at first convex, lengthens to a tall cone; and the white ray-florets
+have no style. The involucre bracts are also very narrow, bristly at the
+top; and the fruits are rendered rough by numerous little glandular
+projections. This plant flowers from June to September.
+
+The Corn Bellflower or Wild Venus's Looking-glass (_Campanula hybrida_),
+of the order _Campanulaceæ_, is not uncommon in the cornfields of the
+chalky districts of South and East England. It is an erect plant, from
+six to ten inches high, bearing purple, blue, or (occasionally) white
+flowers from July to September. In addition to the general features
+shown in our illustration we may note that its long, inferior ovary is
+three-angled; and that the fruit splits, when ripe, by the formation of
+slits near the top.
+
+In the order _Boraginaceæ_ we have the Small Bugloss (_Lycopsis
+arvensis_), a branched plant, from six inches to two feet in height,
+covered all over with stiff bristles that are swollen at the base. Its
+leaves are oblong or very narrow, wavy, and sometimes toothed; the upper
+ones sessile and often clasping the stem; and the lower frequently
+shortly stalked. The flowers are small, pale blue, in simple or
+branched, one-sided spikes. They have a deeply-cleft calyx of five
+segments; and the species may be distinguished from other, somewhat
+similar plants of the same order by the form of the tube of the corolla,
+which is always bent in the middle. This plant is very common in the
+corn fields of most parts; and flowers during June and July.
+
+[Illustration: THE DWARF SPURGE.]
+
+Our next flower is the pretty little Scarlet Pimpernel or Poor Man's
+Weather Glass (_Anagallis arvensis_) of the Primrose order
+(_Primulaceæ_), which is very common in cornfields and on other
+cultivated ground, flowering from May to very late in the autumn. The
+stem of this plant is procumbent and much branched, the branches
+sometimes reaching a length of considerably more than a foot; and its
+leaves are opposite, sessile, broadly ovate, undivided, and dotted
+beneath. The little flowers are solitary in the axils of the leaves, on
+long, slender peduncles that are always curved backwards as the fruits
+ripen. The calyx is deeply cleft into five pointed segments; and the
+bright scarlet (occasionally pink or white) corolla, fringed with minute
+hairs, spreads its five lobes only in sunny weather. The fruit is a
+little globular capsule, enclosed in the persistent calyx, splitting
+transversely into two hemispheres when ripe.
+
+The Climbing Bistort (_Polygonum convolvulus_--order _Polygonaceæ_),
+also known as the Climbing Buckwheat, Climbing Persicaria, and Black
+Bindweed, is a very troublesome corn-field weed, with the climbing habit
+of the Convolvulus, often strangling the plants round which it twines
+its angular stem. It varies from one to four feet in height; and its
+alternate leaves are heart-shaped or arrow-shaped, pointed, with short
+membranous stipules at the base of the stalk. The flowers are small,
+pale green, in little loose clusters of from four to twelve. The lower
+clusters are stalked in the axils of the leaves, and the upper ones form
+irregular, terminal racemes. The five segments of the calyx are bluntly
+keeled, and occasionally winged; and the three outer ones closely
+envelop the fruit--a triangular nut. The plant flowers from July to
+September.
+
+At least two or three of the Spurges (_Euphorbiaceæ_) are commonly seen
+in cultivated fields, but one in particular--the Dwarf Spurge
+(_Euphorbia exigua_)--is common in corn fields. It is a slender, smooth
+plant, usually from two to ten inches high, with several ascending stems
+diverging from near the base. The little yellow flowers are in terminal
+umbels of from three to five rays, sometimes very much contracted; and
+their glands (see p. 207) are crescent-shaped, with their fine
+points turned outwards. The time of flowering is July to October.
+
+Our last example of the corn-field plants is the Wild Oat Grass or
+Havers (_Avena fatua_)--an erect grass, two or three feet high, with
+rough leaves, and stem hairy at the joints. Its flowers form a loose,
+spreading panicle, from six to nine inches long; with three-flowered
+spikelets, about an inch long, on very slender stalks, erect at first
+but afterwards drooping. The outer glumes are about three quarters of an
+inch long, tapering to a bristly point, often tinged with purple; and
+the inner ones, two or three in number, are a little shorter, cleft at
+the top into pointed lobes, and covered outside with yellowish-brown
+hairs. The awn is about twice as long as the spikelet, twisted at the
+base, and usually bent near the middle. This grass flowers during June
+and July.
+
+
+
+
+XVIII
+
+ON THE CHALK
+
+
+While some flowers are so universally distributed that they may be
+described as existing almost everywhere, others are restricted to
+certain kinds of localities, outside which they seldom occur. This
+restriction is sometimes merely one of light and shade, the same species
+growing almost equally luxuriantly in open spaces, or, in shady places,
+regardless of other conditions. Some plants, however, are particularly
+partial to certain conditions of soil, situation, or climate, and are
+consequently more strictly confined to limited districts.
+
+We have already referred to several species which are essentially
+flowers of the woods, but even these are not distributed evenly in
+wooded districts; for while some seem to be more universally scattered
+throughout our wooded parts, others show a decided partiality to
+particular soils, being found exclusively, or almost so, either in sandy
+woods, clayey woods, or woods in limestone districts, &c. In fact, the
+nature of the soil is such an important factor in determining plant
+distribution that we naturally associate many species with the
+particular rock strata on which we almost invariably find them.
+
+So intimately is the distribution of plants connected with that of the
+geological strata that when, in the course of a day's ramble, we find a
+more or less sudden change in the nature of the flora, we may be almost
+sure that there is a corresponding change in the nature of the rocks or
+soil over which we have strayed; and the young botanist will find much
+to interest him in the study of this relation between vegetable life and
+geological structure. Of course we do not mean that the botanist must
+necessarily be also a geologist, but that he should, at least, be always
+ready to observe the nature of the habitats of the flowers he finds,
+noting particularly the kind of soil on which they grow.
+
+[Illustration: _Plate VIII._
+FLOWERS OF CHALKY SOILS.
+1. Red Valerian. 2. Narrow-leaved Flax. 3. Tufted Horse-shoe Vetch. 4.
+Spiked Speedwell. 5. Pasque Flower. 6. Bee Orchis. 7. Yellow Oat
+Grass.]
+
+Chalky districts are notably attractive to the lover of flowers; for,
+not only do they yield a number of species that are almost essentially
+the offspring of calcareous soils, but also produce other blossoms,
+often in rich profusion, that are less restricted in their habitats.
+
+[Illustration: THE ROCK ROSE.]
+
+In the present chapter we shall note the principal flowers that grow
+principally or entirely in calcareous districts, the first being the
+Pasque Flower (_Anemone Pulsatilla_--order _Ranunculaceæ_), rare, it is
+true, but too beautiful to be omitted from our selection. This flower,
+shown on Plate VIII, Fig. 5, may be seen on some chalky hills during May
+and June. It is of a silky nature, and the lovely purple blossoms often
+reach a diameter of an inch and a half. The leaves are doubly or trebly
+pinnate, with very narrow segments which increase in length after the
+flowers have faded. The bracts, which are some distance below the
+flower, have also linear segments; and the flowers droop while still in
+the bud, but the peduncle becomes erect as they expand. The stamens are
+yellow, and the fruits are provided with feathered hairs.
+
+On chalky, sandy, and other dry soils we may meet with the Round
+Prickly-headed Poppy (_Papaver hybridum_--order _Papaveraceæ_), very
+much like the Common Poppy in general appearance, but readily
+distinguished by its general hairy character, and, more especially, by
+the globular, furrowed fruit covered with spreading bristles. The
+flowers vary from one to two inches in diameter, and the crimson or deep
+scarlet petals are often black at the base.
+
+The Bitter Candytuft (_Iberis amara_--order _Cruciferæ_), which is so
+well known as a border-flower of our gardens, grows freely in some of
+the chalk districts of the South and East of England. Unlike most of the
+Crucifers, the flowers are not symmetrical, the two outer petals being
+much larger than the others. The inflorescence is a raceme, which, like
+that of the Wallflower, becomes longer as the flowering proceeds; and
+the colour of the petals is white, lilac or red. The height of this
+plant varies from six to nine inches, and the flowers bloom during July
+and August.
+
+The Wild Mignonette (_Reseda lutea_--order _Resedaceæ_) is very common
+in some chalky districts, generally in fields and other open ground, and
+may be easily recognised by its close resemblance to the well-known
+Sweet Mignonette (_R. odorata_), which is so highly valued as a garden
+flower on account of its pleasant perfume. It is of a shrubby nature,
+from one to two feet high, with scattered, stipuled leaves, the lower of
+which are pinnate, while the upper are three-lobed. The flowers are
+irregular, yellow, and arranged in short, conical racemes. The six
+sepals are unequal and linear; and the petals, also six in number, are
+very unequal, while the posterior one is divided into many parts. The
+flowers bloom throughout the summer.
+
+One of the most characteristic flowers of the chalk is the pretty Rock
+Rose (_Helianthemum vulgare_--order _Cistaceæ_), which is often so
+abundant that it completely covers large patches of banks and
+pasture-land. The plant is of a procumbent nature, with woody stems, and
+opposite, flat, oval or oblong leaves, green above and hoary beneath.
+The yellow flowers are from three-quarters to an inch in diameter, and
+are arranged in racemes. There are five sepals, two of which are very
+small; and the numerous stamens are sensitive, spreading out and lying
+on the petals when the flower is squeezed. The time of flowering is from
+June to September.
+
+An allied species--the Hoary Rock Rose (_H. canum_ or _H.
+marifolium_)--may be found in the limestone districts of the West of
+England, flowering from May to July. The plant is very similar to the
+last, but the leaves are not stipuled, are smooth or hairy above, and
+very hoary beneath. The flowers, too, are much smaller.
+
+A species of Violet--the Hairy Violet (_Viola hirta_--order
+_Violaceæ_)--may be found in some limestone and chalk districts, and
+also on some dry soils removed from calcareous rocks. It has no runners
+like those of other species, and its cordate leaves are very hairy, on
+petioles covered with spreading hairs. The flowers are scentless, pale
+violet or white, with bracts below the middle of the peduncle; and the
+spur of the corolla is long, blunt, flattened, and hooked.
+
+Two species of Flax (order _Linaceæ_) are to be found on chalky soils.
+One--the Perennial Flax (_Linum perenne_)--grows in hilly districts, but
+is not at all common. It is a slender plant, with numerous wiry stems
+from one to two feet high; and sessile, linear, acute leaves. The petals
+are of a beautiful sky-blue colour, but so lightly attached that it is
+difficult to secure a perfect specimen. The other species--the
+Narrow-leaved Flax (_L. angustifolium_)--is moderately common on
+calcareous hills of the South and West of England. It is very similar to
+the last, and grows to about the same height, but its many stems are
+more irregularly branched, and the alternate leaves are
+linear-lanceolate. The corolla is of a lighter lilac-blue colour. _L.
+perenne_ blooms during June and July, and the narrow-leaved species from
+June to September. The latter is shown on Plate VIII.
+
+Quite a number of species of leguminous plants (order _Leguminosæ_),
+may, as a rule, be met with on dry soils, but only two common ones may
+be described as particularly partial to chalk and limestone localities.
+These are the Tufted Horse-shoe Vetch (_Hippocrepis comosa_) and the
+Sainfoin or Cock's-head (_Onobrychis sativa_). The former, represented
+on Plate VIII, is a low, smooth, prostrate plant, six to eighteen inches
+long, with yellow flowers that bloom from May to August. This plant is
+sometimes confused with the Bird's-foot Trefoil, which it rather closely
+resembles in general appearance, but it may be readily distinguished by
+the pinnate leaves and the peculiar form of the pods. The latter are
+flattened, and break up, when ripe, into from three to six one-seeded,
+horse-shoe-shaped segments--a feature which has given rise to the
+popular name.
+
+The Sainfoin is often cultivated in the South-East of England as fodder
+for cattle, but may frequently be found growing wild. It is a very
+pretty, erect plant, from one to two feet high, with dense racemes of
+rosy-red flowers beautifully striped with a darker tint. The stem is
+stout and downy, and the pinnate leaves have membranous stipules and
+numerous oblong leaflets which terminate abruptly in a point. The pod
+is compressed, semicircular in form, indehiscent, and toothed along the
+lower edge. This species flowers during June and July.
+
+[Illustration: THE SAINFOIN.]
+
+On some chalky heaths the True Sweet-briar (_Rosa rubiginosa_--order
+_Rosaceæ_) is a common shrub, growing from three to six feet high, and
+flowering during June and July. It is an erect and compact bush, with
+numerous prickles of varying shapes--the larger ones being hooked, while
+the smaller are straight and very unequal. The leaves are compound and
+stipuled, and the leaflets are rounded at the base, downy, and doubly
+serrate. The flowers often grow singly, but more commonly from two to
+four together; they are of a deep rose colour, and the persistent sepals
+are pinnately divided. The fruit is at first pear-shaped, but afterwards
+becomes almost globular, and turns red when ripe.
+
+[Illustration: THE SALAD BURNET.]
+
+In similar situations we may find the Lesser Burnet or Salad Burnet
+(_Poterium Sanguisorba_) of the same order. This plant is so different
+in general appearance from the majority of the Rose family that the
+amateur would hardly associate it with the others. The flowers are
+small, and collected together in dense, purple cymes on the top of long,
+angular stalks. They have no petals, and the four overlapping sepals are
+usually deciduous. The stamens, five to thirty in number, are pendulous
+on long, slender filaments; and the upper flowers display their crimson
+stigmas before the lower ones produce their stamens. The stem is erect,
+from six to eighteen inches in height; and the pinnate leaves have many
+small, sessile, oblong leaflets with coarsely-serrate edges. This plant
+flowers during June, July, and August.
+
+[Illustration: THE FIELD GENTIAN.]
+
+The Bedstraw Family (order _Rubiaceæ_) is represented on the chalk by
+the Rough-fruited Corn Bedstraw (_Galium tricorne_), which is common in
+fields. It is a spreading plant, with procumbent stems, one to three
+feet long; and small, long, narrow leaves, rough with recurved prickles,
+arranged in whorls of from six to eight. The flowers are small and
+white, grouped in little cymes of three. The fruit is comparatively
+large, and granulated, but not bristly, and it droops by the bending of
+the pedicel. The plant flowers from June to October.
+
+The Red Spur Valerian (_Centranthus ruber_--order _Valerianaceæ_) is a
+glaucous, leafy plant (see Plate VIII), sometimes growing to a
+height of two feet or more, often to be seen in chalk-pits and limestone
+quarries, and frequently on old walls. It is not indigenous, but is
+cultivated largely as a garden flower, and has now become naturalised.
+Its corolla, which is sometimes white, has five unequal lobes, a long,
+flattened tube, and a slender spur. The plant flowers from June to
+September.
+
+Of the Composite flowers we shall note two species, the first being the
+Woolly-headed Plume-thistle (_Carduus eriophorus_), common in chalky
+fields, where it throws up its large, cottony heads to a height of from
+three to five feet during July and August. In order to distinguish it
+from other similar thistles we must note that its stem is not winged,
+and that the deeply-divided leaves, with bifid lobes, half clasp the
+stem at the base; also that the involucre bracts are lanceolate, with
+long, reflexed spines. The heads of this thistle are of a pale purple
+colour, of a globular form, two to three inches in diameter, and covered
+with a thick, cottony growth.
+
+[Illustration: THE YELLOW-WORT.]
+
+Our other example of the Composite flowers is the Ploughman's Spikenard
+(_Inula Conyza_), which is common on chalky banks and pastures,
+flowering from July to September. It is an erect, downy plant, from two
+to five feet high, with oval, lanceolate, downy leaves of a dull green
+colour. The upper leaves are entire and sessile, while the lower are
+toothed and stalked. The numerous flower heads are of a dull yellow
+colour, with leaflike bracts, arranged in a branched corymb. The
+involucre bracts are linear and reflexed, and the ray florets are
+inconspicuous.
+
+Two representatives of the order _Gentianaceæ_ are commonly found on
+chalk hills and pastures; they are the Field Gentian (_Gentiana
+campestris_), and the Perfoliate Yellow-wort (_Chlora perfoliata_, or
+_Blackstonia perfoliata_). The former is an erect plant, from four to
+ten inches high, with a branched stem; opposite, sessile leaves; and
+conspicuous, bluish-purple flowers, blooming in August and September.
+The calyx is cleft into four, the two outer segments being large and
+ovate. The corolla is also four-cleft, and salver-shaped.
+
+[Illustration: THE GREAT MULLEIN.]
+
+The Yellow-wort is an erect, glaucous plant, with an unbranched stem
+from six to eighteen inches in height, and beautiful yellow flowers,
+from four to nine in number, arranged in a cyme. The leaves are in
+widely-separated pairs, united at their bases, so that the stem
+penetrates them. The calyx is deeply divided, and the limbs of the
+corolla are spreading. This plant flowers from June to September.
+
+Some species of Mullein (_Verbascum_) are particularly partial to chalk
+and limestone districts. They are handsome plants, belonging to the
+order _Scrophulariaceæ_, rendered conspicuous by their woolly leaves and
+spikes of yellow or white flowers. The Great Mullein (_V. Thapsus_) is
+common on banks and roadsides, and flowers from June to August. Its stem
+is stout, erect, very woolly, and varies from two to five feet in
+height. The leaves are very large and thick, and are so woolly on both
+sides that they resemble flannel. The flowers form a large, dense,
+club-shaped spike. Each has a corolla with five spreading lobes; and
+five stamens, with white hairs on their filaments, two longer than the
+other three. The fruit is a capsule containing many seeds and splitting
+longitudinally.
+
+The White Mullein (_V. Lychnitis_) is not at all common, but may be
+found in similar situations. Its stem is angular, seldom more than three
+feet high, the leaves nearly smooth above, and the flowers white or
+cream, blooming from June to August.
+
+A third species--the Yellow Hoary Mullein (_V. pulverulentum_)--grows on
+banks, chiefly in Norfolk and Suffolk, flowering during July and August.
+It is about three feet in height; the stem is round, with a mealy
+surface; and the leaves, which are not continued down the stem, are
+covered both above and below with starlike hairs that give them a mealy
+appearance. The flowers form a pyramidal panicle, and are of a bright
+yellow colour, with scarlet stamens covered with white hairs.
+
+[Illustration: THE RED HEMP-NETTLE.]
+
+There is yet another species to be found on chalky soils, more
+especially in hedges and on banks and roadsides. It is the Dark Mullein
+(_V. nigrum_), so called on account of the darker hue of the stem and
+leaves. It grows to a height of about three feet and flowers from June
+to September. It is a beautiful plant, not so strong in build as the
+Great Mullein, with an angular stem, and oblong heart-shaped leaves,
+nearly smooth above, and covered with starlike hairs which give it a
+downy appearance, especially on the under surface. The leaves are not
+continued down the stem, and the lower ones have long stalks. The
+flowers are bright yellow, very numerous, and form a spike-like panicle.
+The stamens are covered with purple hairs.
+
+The Spiked Speedwell (_Veronica spicata_), of the same order, neither
+common nor widely distributed, is to be found chiefly in the chalk and
+limestone districts of the South and West of England, flowering during
+July and August. It has a long, dense, terminal spike of blue or pink
+flowers about a quarter of an inch in diameter. The corolla has a long
+tube, and unequal, narrow lobes; and the flattened capsules split into
+two valves when ripe. A large variety of this species, known as the Tall
+Spiked Speedwell, occurs in limestone districts of the West. The normal
+form is shown in Fig. 4, of Plate VIII.
+
+Of the Labiates perhaps the one most partial to the chalk is the Wild
+Sage or Clary (_Salvia Verbenaca_); and even this is not confined to
+calcareous soils, but thrives in dry pastures in many parts of the
+country, particularly near the sea. It is an aromatic herb, from one to
+two feet in height, with long spikes of bluish purple flowers that bloom
+from May to September. The leaves, which are not numerous, are
+oblong-cordate (the upper ones broadly cordate), blunt, coarsely
+toothed, and wrinkled. Other Labiates are very similar to this species,
+but the Clary may be distinguished by its two ovate, cordate bracts at
+the base of each flower, and by its narrow corolla, which is a little
+shorter than the calyx.
+
+The Red Hemp-nettle (_Galeopsis Ladanum_), of the same order, is common
+in chalky fields. It is about a foot in height, and displays its
+_rose-coloured_ flowers from July to October. The plant is covered with
+very soft hairs, and the stem is not swollen at the joints. These two
+features serve to distinguish the species from the Common Hemp-nettle
+(_G. tetrahit_) and the Large-flowered Hemp-nettle (_G. versicolor_) of
+the same genus. It should also be noted that the corolla is not really
+red, as the common name suggests, but rose-coloured, while in _G.
+tetrahit_ it is purple or white, and in _G. versicolor_ it is yellow.
+The upper lip of the flower, too, is only slightly notched.
+
+The Viper's Bugloss (_Echium vulgare_--order _Boraginaceæ_) is common on
+dry soils, especially in calcareous districts, where it is often found
+close to the sea, even on the beach very near high-water level. It is a
+very peculiar plant, both stem and leaves being thickly covered with
+stiff, sharp bristles. The stem is unbranched, from two to three feet
+high; and the leaves are lanceolate. The flowers are of a bright
+rose-colour when they first open, and afterwards change to a bright
+purple-blue; they are arranged in short, lateral, curved, one-sided
+spikes. Both leaves and flowers droop very rapidly after they have been
+gathered. This plant flowers from June to August.
+
+Another species of the same genus, known as the Purple Viper's Bugloss
+(_E. Plantagineum_), is common in the Channel Islands. It may be
+distinguished by its branched stem and longer spikes of flowers. The
+lower leaves, too, are oblong and stalked, while the upper ones are
+cordate and half clasp the stem.
+
+No doubt the reader is already acquainted with the commoner Plantains
+(order _Plantaginaceæ_), so easily distinguished by their spreading
+radical leaves, with prominent, parallel ribs, and their dense spikes of
+greenish flowers. There are five British species, one of which--the
+Hoary Plantain or Lamb's-tongue (_Plantago media_) is particularly
+partial to chalky districts, where it grows in pastures and on dry
+banks. Its flowering stems grow from three inches to a foot in height,
+and the flowers bloom from June to September. The leaves are elliptical,
+either sessile or shortly stalked, and have from five to nine ribs. They
+lie so closely on the soil that nothing can grow beneath them, and even
+present the appearance of having been pressed against the ground. They
+also have a downy surface; and the stalk, where it exists, is flattened.
+The flowering stem is round, and the spike cylindrical. The calyx is
+cleft into four, with its segments turned backward; and the sepals are
+not keeled as they are in some other species. The corolla is tubular,
+with four spreading limbs; and the cream-coloured anthers are displayed
+on the tips of long filaments.
+
+[Illustration: AN ORCHIS FLOWER.
+
+S, sepals. P, petals. L, lip. C, spur. A, pollen masses. B, stigma.]
+
+We have now to consider several representatives of the _Orchidaceæ_, and
+it will be well here to note the general characters of this remarkable
+order as a whole. The Orchids have rounded or palmate tuberous roots, a
+few glossy leaves which sheath the stem, and simple spikes or racemes of
+flowers, the prevailing colours of which are red, pink, green and white.
+The sepals, three in number, often partake more of the nature of petals.
+There are three petals, the lowest one, forming the lower lip of the
+flower, often prolonged into a spur, and frequently assuming a
+remarkable form resembling an insect or some other member of the animal
+creation. The stamens are united to the style, and form with it a solid
+_column_, but usually only one produces pollen, and this one commonly
+consists of one or two club-shaped masses. The ovary is inferior, often
+twisted so as to invert the flower, and sometimes so long as to be
+mistaken for a flower stalk. The stigma is hollow, sticky, and situated
+just in front of the column above mentioned. The fruit is a three-valved
+capsule, containing many seeds.
+
+Orchids are generally scented flowers, and produce nectar which is
+stored either in the cavity of the spur, or within the tissue of the
+same. In the latter case it cannot be obtained by insects unless they
+bore into the substance of the spur, and the delay caused renders the
+removal of the pollen more certain. While the nectar is being withdrawn,
+the head of the insect is pressed against a sticky disc at the base of
+the pollen masses, with the result that both disc and pollen masses are
+bodily removed, and the insect leaves the flower with the whole attached
+to its head. It often happens, too, that the pollen masses bend forward
+as the insect flies through the air, and thus they are more likely to be
+pressed against the stigma when another flower is visited. Here, then,
+is another wonderful contrivance for the purpose of securing
+cross-fertilisation, and the whole process may be imitated by thrusting
+the point of a pencil into the spur of a flower which has not been
+previously visited by an insect, and then inserting the point into the
+spur of a second flower. It should be noted, also, that the pollen is
+not all removed by contact with the sticky surface of a stigma against
+which the pollen masses are pressed, and thus the pollen obtained from
+one flower will often fertilise several others.
+
+Our first species--the Broad-leaved Helleborine (_Epipactis latifolia_),
+is common in hilly woods, where it flowers during July and August. Its
+single stem grows from one to three feet high, and the leaves are
+broadly ovate and ribbed. The flowers are greenish, with reddish-purple
+lips, and are arranged in a long, loose, one-sided raceme. The sepals
+are ovate, longer than the acute lower lobe of the lip; and the bracts
+are generally longer than the flowers. The ovary is downy, and not so
+long as the bracts. (Plate II, Fig. 5.)
+
+The somewhat similar Large White Helleborine (_Cephalanthera
+grandiflora_), which bears creamy white flowers in May and June, is also
+common in some of the woods on calcareous soils.
+
+The Pyramidal Orchis (_O. pyramidalis_) grows in limestone pastures,
+flowering during July and August. This species varies from six to
+eighteen inches in height, and has linear, acute leaves. The spike of
+flowers is very dense, of a pyramidal form, and the individual blooms
+are small, usually of a rose colour, but occasionally white or nearly
+so. The sepals are spreading, and the lip of the flower has three equal
+lobes which are oblong and abruptly cut at the tips. The spur is slender
+and longer than the ovary.
+
+The Fragrant Gymnadenia or Sweet-scented Orchis (_Habenaria conopsea_ or
+_Gymnadenia conopsea_) is common on chalky heaths and hilly pastures. It
+grows from twelve to eighteen inches high, has palmate, tuberous roots,
+and oblong-lanceolate, acute, keeled leaves. The flowers appear from
+June to August, and are in a dense, elongated spike. The buds are of a
+deep rose colour, and the open flowers are very fragrant, of a lighter
+colour, and not spotted. The bracts have three veins; the lateral sepals
+are spreading; the spur long and slender, much longer than the ovary;
+and the lip of the flower has three, equal, undivided lobes.
+
+[Illustration: THE SWEET-SCENTED ORCHIS.]
+
+The Green Man Orchis (_Aceras anthropophora_), though rather rare, and
+confined to the dry, chalky pastures of East England, is too interesting
+to be omitted from our selection. The plant is from six to twelve inches
+high, with palmate tubers, and mostly radical leaves. The flowers are
+sessile, forming a loose spike, and are strange caricatures of the human
+figure. Each has a comparatively large green hood, a slender yellowish
+lip with two lateral lobes to represent the arms, and two similar
+terminal lobes for the legs. The lateral sepals are green, ovate and
+convergent; and the flower has no spur. The time of flowering is June
+and July.
+
+The Green Musk Orchis (_Herminium Monorchis_), also rather rare, is to
+be found in chalky pastures of the South, flowering in June and July. It
+has oval, stalked tubers; two lanceolate, radical leaves, and generally
+only one leaf on the slender stem. The spike is loose and slender; and
+the flowers, which are small and green, are sessile, and emit a musky
+odour during the night. The sepals are broad ovate; the petals narrower;
+and the lip is three-lobed, pouch-like at the base, with terminal lobe
+longer than the other two.
+
+One of the most remarkable, and, at the same time, one of the most
+beautiful of Orchids is the Bee Orchis (_Ophrys apifera_). Although not
+to be described as common, it is frequently to be seen in moderate
+numbers on banks and in open ground in calcareous districts. Its height
+is from six to twelve inches, and it flowers during June and July. The
+leaves are short, oblong, and mostly radical; the bracts large and
+leafy; and the flowers, numbering from two to six, are arranged in a lax
+spike, and very closely resemble certain species of bees. The sepals are
+spreading, oval, and pink inside; and the petals are linear and downy.
+The lip of the flower is swollen and broad, very velvety, and of a rich
+brown colour variegated with yellow. It is not longer than the sepals,
+and has four lobes, the two lower of which are hairy, while the other
+two are bent under. There is also a sharp, reflexed appendage in the
+notch. The flower is shown on Plate VIII.
+
+A rare variety, very much like the commoner type just described, is
+occasionally seen in Kent and Surrey. It is called the Late Spider
+Orchis (variety _arachnites_), and is supposed to resemble a spider more
+than a bee. The petals are more triangular than in the Bee Orchis, and
+the lip is longer than the sepals. It may also be distinguished by the
+appendage in the notch, which is cordate in form, and flat.
+
+Another rare plant--the Spider Orchis (_Ophrys aranifera_) is to be
+found in chalky pastures of the South-East. Its flowers are smaller, and
+generally fewer in number. The sepals are yellowish-green inside, and
+the petals smooth and linear. The lip is swollen and four-lobed, but
+without any appendage in the notch, and is of a deep purple-brown, with
+yellowish markings. This is an earlier species, flowering during April
+and May.
+
+Our last example of this order is the pretty little Fly Orchis (_Ophrys
+muscifera_). It is a slender plant, with a few oblong leaves, and
+usually from two to ten flowers arranged in a loose spike. The sepals
+are yellowish-green, and the very slender petals resemble the antennæ of
+an insect. The lip of the flower is of a brownish purple colour, with a
+blue blotch in the middle; and is oblong, with three lobes, the middle
+of which is divided into two. This species grows from six inches to a
+foot in height, and flowers from May to July. It is moderately common in
+the open spaces and on the banks of some calcareous districts.
+
+Although a great variety of Grasses (order _Gramineæ_) are to be found
+on calcareous soils, there are two common species which are almost
+exclusively confined to dry, chalky pastures. One is the Downy Oat Grass
+(_Avena pubescens_), which flowers in June and July. It has a creeping
+stem, and grows from one to two feet high. The radical leaves are short,
+hairy, with sharply-pointed ligules, and terminate abruptly in a sharp
+point. The flowers are arranged in a nearly simple panicle, with erect
+spikelets of five or six flowers. The glumes are nearly equal, the inner
+one with three ribs. The flowering glume is divided at the tip, and
+provided with a long, bent, twisted bristle.
+
+The other, numbered 7 on Plate VIII, is the Yellow Oat Grass
+(_A. flavescens_), which grows to about the same height, and flowers at
+the same time. In this species the radical leaves are hairy, and also
+terminate suddenly in a sharp point. The panicle is much branched, with
+erect spikelets of five or six flowers. In this one, too, the inner
+glumes have three ribs, but it may be distinguished from the last by the
+two terminal bristles of the inner scales, and by the blunt ligules
+(appendages at the base) of the sheathing leaves.
+
+
+
+
+XIX
+
+BY THE RIVER SIDE
+
+
+We have already dealt with flowers that grow in various damp situations,
+as moist meadows, woods, &c.; but there are a few such which seem to be
+particularly partial to the banks of rivers, streams, and ditches: short
+descriptions of these will be placed separately in the present chapter.
+
+It will be understood from the foregoing remark that the species taken
+here form only a small proportion of the flowers that actually grow by
+the river side; for although the numerous species commonly seen in moist
+fields and meadows may flourish quite to the water's edge, yet there are
+not many which require the extreme wetness of soil that restricts them
+to the sodden banks of rivers and streams.
+
+Our first example is the Common Meadow Rue (_Thalictrum flavum_). It
+belongs to the order _Ranunculaceæ_, but its pale yellow flowers do not,
+at first sight, suggest a resemblance to the buttercups, anemones, and
+other favourite flowers of this group, for they have no petals, very
+small sepals, and are rendered conspicuous only by their
+densely-clustered stamens, with their long, projecting, bright yellow
+anthers. The plant is erect, from two to four feet high; and flowers
+during July and August.
+
+Passing over the Monk's-hood (_Aconitum Napellus_), so well known as a
+garden flower, which is occasionally seen wild near the banks of streams
+and ditches, we come to the Blue Meadow Crane's-bill (_Geranium
+pratense_)--one of the several species of pretty Wild Geraniums (order
+_Geraniaceæ_). It is a downy plant, varying from one to four feet high,
+with an erect stem, swollen at the nodes; and opposite, roundish leaves,
+deeply divided into five or seven lobes with sharp segments. The flowers
+are of a bluish purple colour, an inch or more in diameter, usually
+arranged two on a stalk, the two pedicels spreading while in flower,
+but turned downwards when in fruit. The five sepals have long points,
+and the five petals are slightly notched. As in other species of the
+genus there are ten stamens, five shorter than the other five; and a
+five-lobed ovary, with an equal number of long styles, all attached to a
+long, central beak. The five carpels separate when ripe, and are raised
+by the curling of their styles. This flower is common in wet meadows,
+especially in the southern counties, and is usually more frequent along
+the banks of rivers and ditches, but it is sometimes also seen in wet
+thickets. It flowers in June and July.
+
+[Illustration: THE COMMON MEADOW RUE.]
+
+The Hemp Agrimony (_Eupatorium cannabinum_), of the order _Compositæ_,
+is very common along the banks of streams and on the borders of wayside
+ditches all over Britain. It would hardly be taken for a composite
+flower by those who are acquainted only with the more typical members of
+the order, but an examination of its rather dull lilac blossoms will
+soon reveal its affinity to the other members of the group, for the
+compact, terminal corymb is formed of numerous small heads, each
+consisting of about five tubular, perfect florets of equal size,
+surrounded by an involucre of a few overlapping bracts, and remarkable
+on account of their projecting styles, which are deeply divided into
+club-shaped branches. The plant is a large one, with erect, reddish
+stems, varying from two to six feet in height; and it flowers from July
+to September.
+
+[Illustration: THE HEMP AGRIMONY.]
+
+We have already noticed the Lesser Skull-cap (p. 275), which is
+rather common on damp heaths, and there is another British member of the
+same genus--the Common Skull-cap (_Scutellaria galericulata_)--that is
+frequently seen on the banks of streams and in other wet places. The
+latter is a slightly downy plant, with a creeping stock, and a slender,
+branched stem from eight to sixteen inches high. Its leaves are
+opposite, as in other plants of the same order (_Labiatæ_), with very
+short stalks, and crenate or slightly-toothed edges. The flowers are in
+pairs in the axils of the leaves, almost sessile, and all turned towards
+the same side of the stem. On the back of the two-lipped calyx is a
+hollow, scale-like projection which gave rise to the popular name, for
+when the corolla falls, the lips of the calyx close over the ripening
+fruit, and the projection above mentioned then presents somewhat the
+appearance of a cap. The corolla is over half an inch long, of a dull
+blue colour without, but much paler inside. This plant flowers from
+July to September.
+
+On the banks of streams and ditches we may often meet with the Comfrey
+(_Symphytum officinale_)--a coarse and rough but pretty plant belonging
+to the _Boraginaceæ_. It has a stout, branching stem, two or three feet
+high; and the stem-leaves extend downward on its surface forming
+wing-like ridges. The lower leaves are stalked, broader than the upper
+ones, generally from six to eight inches long; and all the leaves are
+rough with bristly hairs. The flowers are of a yellowish white or,
+sometimes, of a purple colour, and are arranged in forked, drooping,
+one-sided racemes. The calyx is deeply cleft into five lobes; and the
+corolla consists of a tubular portion, the top of which is closed by
+five narrow, fringed scales; and, above this, a wider bell-shaped part,
+of about the same length, with five small, reflexed teeth. This plant
+blooms during May and June.
+
+[Illustration: THE COMMON SKULL-CAP.]
+
+The Yellow Loosestrife (_Lysimachia vulgaris_), of the order
+_Primulaceæ_ is a beautiful river-side plant, common in most parts,
+flowering during July and August. Its stem is stout, erect, branched,
+slightly downy, from two to three feet high; and its leaves are ovate or
+lanceolate, sessile, and arranged in opposite pairs or in whorls of
+three or four. The flowers are rather large, of a bright yellow colour,
+dotted with orange, and arranged in a large, pyramidal, leafy panicle.
+The calyx is deeply cleft into five pointed segments with hairy margins;
+and the broadly bell-shaped corolla is deeply divided into five wide
+lobes. All the five stamens are united by their filaments, forming a
+kind of cup around the ovary.
+
+[Illustration: THE COMFREY.]
+
+There is another beautiful Loosestrife--the Purple Loosestrife--that is
+often seen on river-banks; but as it is not particularly partial to this
+habitat, but rather grows in marshes and wet places generally, it is
+described in another chapter (XV). It should be noted, however, that the
+two plants are not so nearly allied as the popular names suggest; for
+while the one described above is of the Primrose family, the latter is a
+member of the _Lythraceæ_, and differs in having a corolla of free
+petals.
+
+Passing now to the order _Polygonaceæ_ we have to note the Great Water
+Dock (_Rumex Hydrolapathum_)--a smooth plant, varying from three to six
+feet in height, much resembling other Common Docks in general
+appearance, but found almost always on the borders of streams and ponds.
+Its leaves are lanceolate in form, usually pointed, and either flat or
+slightly curled at the margins. The upper ones taper down into the
+stalk; but the lower ones, which are from one to two feet long, are
+often heart-shaped at the base. The reddish-green flowers are
+closely-whorled, and form long panicles. The perianth is cleft into six
+parts, of which the three outer are smaller and covered with little
+tubercles, while the inner become enlarged and close over the triangular
+fruit. Each flower has six stamens and three very short styles. This
+plant is in flower during July and August.
+
+A few species of Willows and Sallows that grow on the banks of streams
+belong to the order _Salicaceæ_, and have the following features in
+common:--Their leaves are simple, stipulate, and deciduous. The flowers
+are imperfect, in erect catkins with small scales at the base, the male
+and the female flowers being produced on separate trees or shrubs. Each
+male flower consists only of a small scale and two or more stamens; and
+the female of a similar scale, and a conical ovary of one cell with a
+forked style. The fruit is a conical capsule of two valves, containing
+several seeds that are covered with white, silky hairs. The species
+referred to are the Almond-leaved and the Bay-leaved Willows, the
+Dark-leaved Sallow, and the Purple Osier, but we refrain from
+introducing descriptions since the identification of these trees is
+somewhat difficult for a beginner.
+
+
+
+
+XX
+
+ON WALLS, ROCKS, AND STONY PLACES
+
+
+Several of our flowering plants are to be seen most frequently on walls
+and rocks, or in other situations where there is hardly a trace of soil
+of any kind. Some of these thrive in such dry spots, with often such
+free exposure to the rays of the spring or summer sun, that it is
+difficult to understand how they manage to survive the periods of
+drought through which they live until we become acquainted with certain
+peculiarities of their form and structure.
+
+In the first place we must recall the fact that plants lose a
+considerable amount of moisture by evaporation from the transpirating
+surfaces of their leaves, and that this loss must necessarily be
+greatest when the air is warm and dry unless there is some means by
+which the transpiration is automatically regulated according to the
+requirements of the plant and to the varying conditions under which it
+has to exist.
+
+The leaves of plants are covered with a thin skin or _epidermis_ which
+consists of a single layer of cells, and which is practically
+impermeable to moisture. In this epidermis, however, on one or both
+sides of the leaf, are minute pores (_stomata_) through which water
+vapour is free to pass; and beneath the porous epidermis is a loose,
+cellular tissue, with air-spaces, from which the moisture can readily
+pass, in the form of vapour, to these stomata.
+
+Each of the stomata is bordered by a pair of crescent-shaped
+_guard-cells_, placed with their concave sides towards each other, and
+joined at the ends. Further, the guard-cells are capable of changing
+their form, becoming straighter, and thus reducing or even closing the
+aperture between them; and becoming again curved, opening or enlarging
+the pore. The former change takes place during darkness, thus preserving
+the plant from the cooling effects of evaporation during the chilly
+nights; and also during dry weather when the plant is in danger of
+losing much more moisture than the roots can absorb.
+
+So far, however, we have been dealing with a regulating process that is
+common to green plants in general; but we must look for some additional
+protection against loss of moisture in the plants which grow in such
+places that they have to live through longer or shorter periods during
+which the roots have little or no moisture within reach.
+
+From what has been said concerning the structure of the leaf it will be
+understood that, as a rule, the larger the surface the greater will be
+the loss of water in a given time. But when we examine the leaves of the
+plants that grow on dry walls and rocks, we frequently find that they
+are more or less thick and fleshy--that the material of the leaf is
+disposed in such a manner as to reduce the area of the surface as
+compared with other leaves made up of the same amount of tissue.
+
+In some species this diminution of surface is carried to the extreme,
+and the leaves have become very thick, assuming a cylindrical or almost
+globular form; and such leaves are capable of absorbing and retaining
+large supplies of water that serve to maintain the plant during those
+periods in which the roots have no moisture within their reach.
+
+We also find that many of the plants in question are further protected
+from a dangerous loss of moisture by the peculiar arrangement of their
+leaves, which are often so closely applied to the stem, or so closely
+overlapping one over another, that the total area of exposed surface is
+considerably reduced; and it frequently happens that the stem of the
+plant becomes thick and succulent, as well as the leaves, thus adding to
+the store of moisture kept in reserve for the rainless days.
+
+While some plants are almost invariably found in dry, stony places,
+others are very diverse in their habitats, sometimes growing in moist
+and shady places, and sometimes on cliffs or other rocky situations. In
+the latter we often find considerable modifications of size, form and
+structure, the same species being more or less luxuriant and thin-leaved
+when in damp soils, while in rocky places it becomes more or less
+stunted, with a tendency to produce thick and succulent leaves.
+
+A few of the plants that we include in the present chapter are to be
+found only on wet rocks, and are therefore of a nature very different
+from that of the species growing in dry places. They are always well
+supplied with moisture; and, being usually surrounded by a damp
+atmosphere, they lose but little water by evaporation, and thus require
+no reserves within their leaves or stems.
+
+Our first species is the well-known Wallflower (_Cheiranthus cheiri_),
+of the order _Cruciferæ_. It is a rather shrubby plant, frequent on old
+walls and ruins, where it flowers during April and May. Though too
+familiar to need any description, we may note that in the wild state it
+varies from six to twelve inches high, and bears sweetly-scented, yellow
+or orange flowers. The plant is not indigenous, but has now become
+naturalised as a wild flower in most parts of Britain.
+
+The Wall Rocket (_Diplotaxis tenuifolia_ or _Brassica tenuifolia_), of
+the same order, is a very similar plant, growing in similar situations,
+but it does not commence to flower till the summer is somewhat advanced.
+Its stem is leafy, branched, smooth, woody towards the base, but more
+slender than that of the Wallflower; and its very variable leaves are
+generally three or four inches long, deeply divided pinnately into
+narrow segments with irregularly-toothed margins, and emit a rather
+unpleasant odour when rubbed. The flowers are of a pale yellow colour,
+fragrant, about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, in terminal
+racemes, with sepals more or less spreading; and the fruits are narrow,
+flattened siliquas, with membranous valves, about an inch and a half
+long. The plant is to be found principally in the southern counties of
+England, and flowers from July to September or early October.
+
+On dry rocks, chiefly in the hilly and mountainous districts of North
+and West Britain, we meet with the Vernal Sandwort (_Arenaria verna_) of
+the order _Caryophyllaceæ_. This is a little tufted plant, only from two
+to four inches high, with branched stems more or less decumbent at the
+base; and small, sessile, opposite, very narrow leaves, each with three
+veins. The starlike, white flowers are about a third of an inch across,
+on slender stalks, and grouped in terminal, loose, few-flowered cymes.
+They have five pointed sepals, less than a quarter of an inch long, each
+with three prominent veins; five spreading petals, a little longer than
+the sepals; ten stamens; and a superior ovary with three narrow styles.
+The fruit is a short ovate capsule which opens, when ripe, by three
+valves.
+
+One of the Geraniums--the Shining Crane's-bill (_Geranium lucidum_)--is
+almost essentially a plant of walls and rocks. It is a beautiful
+species, smooth and shining in all its parts, with a tendency to turn
+red, like the Herb Robert; and, as in other plants of its order
+(_Geraniaceæ_), distinguished by the swollen joints of its stem. The
+leaves are almost round in general outline, but are deeply divided into
+five, broad, coarsely-toothed segments. The flowers are small,
+rose-coloured, and generally grow in pairs on axillary stalks. They have
+five, erect, wrinkled sepals, with long points; and five short, rather
+broad, entire petals. This species is common in most parts of Britain.
+It varies in height from six to eighteen inches, and flowers from May to
+September.
+
+[Illustration: THE BITING STONECROP OR WALL PEPPER.]
+
+We have now to consider a few species of the order _Crassulaceæ_, which
+includes some very interesting succulent plants that are peculiarly
+adapted to a life in the dryest of situations on walls, roofs, &c. In
+addition to the thick, fleshy nature of their stems and leaves, these
+plants are distinguished by terminal cymes or corymbs of flowers with
+(usually) five sepals, the same number of distinct petals, twice as many
+stamens arranged in two whorls, and carpels equal in number to the
+petals. Three of the plants referred to are known as Stonecrops, and may
+be recognised by the following descriptions:--
+
+1. The English Stonecrop (_Sedum anglicum_).--A smooth plant, two or
+three inches high, abundant in rocky and stony places, especially in the
+West and near the sea, flowering from June to August. Its stems are more
+or less decumbent, much branched and rooting at the base; and its leaves
+are small, thick, almost globular, of a pale green colour with, often,
+a tinge of red. On the small flowerless branches the leaves are very
+crowded and overlapping; but on the taller, flowering stems they are
+more scattered and placed alternately. The little starlike flowers are
+white, frequently tinged with pink or spotted with red, and arranged in
+a short, two-forked panicle. They have short, green sepals; narrow,
+sharply-pointed petals about twice the length; and stamens with bright
+red anthers.
+
+[Illustration: THE WALL PENNYWORT OR NAVELWORT.]
+
+2. The White Stonecrop (_S. album_).--A somewhat similar plant, from
+three to seven inches high, sometimes seen in large clusters on rocks,
+walls, and roofs, bearing white or pinkish flowers during July and
+August. The whole plant is smooth; and its short creeping stock gives
+rise to short barren stems with crowded leaves, and erect flowering
+stems with scattered leaves. The leaves are very thick, of a bright
+green colour, about a third of an inch long, and oblong or cylindrical
+in form. The panicles are much branched, with, usually, reddish stems;
+and each consists of numerous flowers with short, blunt sepals, and
+narrow, oblong petals about three times as long. This species is not so
+common as either the last or the following.
+
+3. The Biting Stonecrop or Wall Pepper (_S. acre_).--A smooth plant, of
+a yellowish green colour, biting to the taste, very common on rocks,
+walls and roofs, bearing golden yellow flowers during July and August.
+It has short, barren stems, covered with closely-overlapping leaves
+arranged in six rows; and erect flowering branches from two to four
+inches in height. The leaves are very small, thick, succulent, oval or
+almost globular in form. The flowers, which are in small, terminal,
+three-cleft panicles, have very short, blunt sepals; and much longer,
+narrow, pointed petals.
+
+The same order (_Crassulaceæ_) includes the House Leek (_Sempervivum
+tectorum_)--a plant which has been introduced into Britain, and is now
+commonly seen growing wild on rocks and on the roofs of country houses.
+Its spreading offsets give rise to globular tufts of flowerless shoots,
+and to thick, succulent, flowering stems that grow to a foot or more in
+height. The lower leaves are ovate, acute, thick, fleshy, edged with
+red, and arranged in a dense rosette; and the flowering stem, with its
+sessile leaves, is covered with a short, sticky down. The flowers are of
+a dull pink or purple colour, and are sessile along the spreading
+branches of the stem. They have usually about twelve short sepals; the
+same number of pointed petals, two or three times the length of the
+sepals; about twice as many stamens; and an ovary of as many carpels as
+there are petals and sepals. It is interesting to note that half the
+stamens--those forming the inner whorl--produce no pollen, and that
+their anthers are often modified into ovaries, the ovules of which,
+however, do not mature. This plant flowers in July and August.
+
+[Illustration: THE LONDON PRIDE OR ST. PATRICK'S CABBAGE.]
+
+Our last selection from this order is the Wall Pennywort or Navelwort
+(_Cotyledon umbilicus_)--a peculiar plant, common on rocks and walls in
+the South and West of England. It has a hard stock, producing an
+abundance of fleshy leaves early in the year, and flowering stems, from
+six to eighteen inches high, from June to August. The lower leaves are
+round, wavy, smooth, very succulent and brittle, and depressed in the
+centre where the long fleshy stalks are attached. Those of the stem have
+shorter stalks which are more and more removed from the centre from
+below upwards. The stem is thick and succulent, and bears a long raceme
+of pendulous yellow-green flowers on short stalks. Each flower has a
+very small calyx of five sepals; a cylindrical corolla, about a quarter
+of an inch long, with five short teeth; ten stamens, attached to the
+tube of the corolla; and a superior ovary.
+
+[Illustration: THE MOSSY SAXIFRAGE.]
+
+Several of the Saxifrages grow in rocky and stony places, and four or
+five species are sufficiently common to demand a notice here. The
+flowers of this group have a calyx of five sepals that is either quite
+free or more or less adherent to the ovary; a corolla of five petals;
+ten stamens, attached with the petals at the base of the calyx; and a
+two-celled ovary, with two distinct styles, containing several seeds.
+
+Our first species is the London Pride, None-so-Pretty, or St. Patrick's
+Cabbage (_Saxifraga umbrosa_), a native of Irish mountains which has
+been introduced into Britain as a garden flower, and has now become
+established as a wild flower in many parts. Its flowering stem grows
+from six to twelve inches high; and the small white or pink flowers
+bloom during June and July.
+
+[Illustration: THE IVY-LEAVED TOADFLAX.]
+
+The Starry Saxifrage (_S. stellaris_) is a somewhat similar plant, but
+much smaller, rarely exceeding six inches in height. It is frequent on
+wet rocks in the North, flowering in July and August. Its leaves are
+sessile, oblong or obovate, tapering towards the base, thin, and
+arranged in spreading rosettes; and the stem is leafless with the
+exception of little bracts at the base of the pedicels. The starlike
+flowers, larger than those of the last species, are white, with two
+yellow spots on each petal, and are arranged in a loose panicle on
+spreading pedicels. The calyx is adherent to the ovary only at the base,
+with its segments turned down on the pedicels; and the petals are narrow
+and spreading.
+
+Another Northern species--the Yellow Mountain Saxifrage (_S.
+aizoides_)--is abundant on the wet rocks of mountainous districts,
+flowering from June to September. It is a tufted plant, with branched,
+decumbent, leafy stems, about six inches long; and crowded, narrow,
+fleshy leaves, about half an inch long, fringed with hairs at the base.
+The flowers are yellow, in a loose panicle. The calyx is yellow, like
+the petals, but much shorter, and erect; and the ovary is adherent to
+the short tube of the calyx to about half way up.
+
+The Rue-leaved or Three-fingered Saxifrage (_S. tridactylites_) is a
+small species, rarely exceeding four or five inches in height, common on
+walls in most parts of Britain, flowering from April to July. The whole
+plant is usually more or less tinged with red, and its erect stem is
+covered with fine glandular hairs. The radical leaves are very small,
+stalked, and undivided; those of the upper part of the stem are also
+small and entire, but sessile; and the intermediate leaves, lower on the
+stem, are palmately divided into three or five narrow segments. The
+small white flowers are placed singly on rather long terminal and
+axillary stalks; and the hairy calyx, which adheres to the ovary, has
+five blunt lobes less than half the length of the petals.
+
+[Illustration: THE WALL PELLITORY.]
+
+Our last example of this order is the Cut-leaved or Mossy Saxifrage (_S.
+hypnoides_), a very variable plant, from three to ten inches high,
+rather rare in South England, but much more common in the rocky parts of
+North England and Scotland. It has numerous procumbent, barren stems
+with tufted leaves; and erect flowering stems bearing a few small leaves
+and a loose cyme of a few white flowers. Most of the leaves are narrow,
+pointed, entire, about a quarter of an inch long; but the larger ones,
+at the base of the plant, are about twice as long, and divided into
+three or five narrow lobes. The calyx adheres to the ovary to about
+two-thirds of the length of the latter, and has five lobes about
+one-third as long as the petals. This species flowers from May to July.
+
+Old walls, ruins, and limestone cliffs are frequently adorned with the
+pretty flowers of the Snapdragon (_Antirrhinum majus_--order
+_Scrophulariaceæ_) which bloom from July to September. The plant varies
+from one to two feet in height, is tufted and leafy at the base, and has
+erect stems which bear racemes of large flowers. The leaves are very
+narrow and entire; and the flowers, which are usually white, pink or
+crimson, are shortly stalked in the axils of the small upper leaves. The
+calyx is deeply divided into broad lobes very much shorter than the
+corolla; and the latter consists of a broad tube and two lips, the whole
+being over an inch in length. The mouth of the flower is closed by a
+projecting 'palate,' but is easily opened by pressing the flower at the
+sides between finger and thumb. There are four stamens on the corolla,
+two longer than the others; and the fruit is an unsymmetrical capsule
+that opens when ripe by a few holes near the top.
+
+The Ivy-leaved Toadflax or Mother of Thousands (_Linaria Cymbalaria_),
+of the same order, is a pretty little trailing plant very commonly seen
+on old walls in many parts of Britain, particularly in the South-West.
+It will grow luxuriantly in places where there is no soil other than
+that afforded by the crumbling mortar, and will often establish itself
+even on new walls so compactly built that it is difficult to see how the
+plant can find the necessary moisture or how its roots can penetrate the
+hard material to which it is attached. Its slender stems vary from a few
+inches to two feet in length, often rooting at the nodes; and its little
+leaves are smooth, with three or five lobes, and generally of a purplish
+colour on the under side. The little flowers, which bloom from May to
+September, are of a pale blue or lilac colour. The lipped corolla is
+very similar to that of the last species, with a yellowish palate
+closing the mouth, but it has a short spur at the base.
+
+The one remaining flower of this chapter is the Wall Pellitory
+(_Parietaria officinalis_), which belongs to the Nettle family
+(_Urticaceæ_). It is a somewhat bushy plant, varying from six inches to
+two feet in height, bearing axillary clusters of small, sessile, green
+flowers from June to September, and is common on walls and stony banks,
+more especially in the South of England. Most of the flowers are usually
+imperfect, and the clusters are surrounded by a whorl of a few divided
+bracts. The males are few in number, each consisting of a hairy
+perianth, and four stamens which are jointed and very elastic, springing
+suddenly and shedding their pollen when touched; the females have a
+tubular, hairy perianth of four lobes, and a single tufted stigma.
+
+
+
+
+XXI
+
+FIELD AND WAYSIDE IN AUTUMN
+
+
+From the end of September onward the number of wild flowers is rapidly
+decreasing, but still there is much to be seen that will be interesting
+to the observant student of Nature. Many of the summer flowers are quite
+over, while others continue to bloom till, at last, they succumb to the
+intensifying frosts; but hundreds of species of the summer-flowering
+plants are now in fruit, and some of these are almost as interesting in
+this stage as when in flower. Many plants will have been observed in
+flower before any of their fruits were fully formed, but autumn is the
+season when a large number of these may be seen in full fruit, and
+watched as they make arrangements for the dispersal of their seeds.
+
+We have already given (p. 12) an outline classification of the
+various kinds of fruits, and if the reader will study this during the
+autumn months, and examine the field and woodland plants that fall in
+his way, he will find abundance of work awaiting him on every country
+ramble.
+
+A large number of wind-dispersed fruits and seeds are ripe long before
+the autumn sets in, and have already been distributed by the summer
+breezes; but now, with fewer flowers to attract attention, one can give
+more time to the observations of the movements of tufted and winged
+seeds and fruits as they sail through the air. And, as we brush by the
+hedgerows and the borders of fields in search of various flowers and
+fruits, we soon become acquainted with a variety of bristled, hooked,
+and barbed fruits that are effectually dispersed by the agency of
+animals, quite a large number of these having securely fastened
+themselves to our clothing.
+
+Many fruits remain attached to their plants long after the last flowers,
+and even the leaves, have entirely disappeared. Some of these await the
+gales of late autumn and winter, and being now no longer sheltered from
+the wind, are carried to the spots where they are to produce new plants
+in the following spring; while sheep and other animals, wandering
+farther afield in search of food, carry away numerous hooked fruits in
+their woolly or hairy coats.
+
+The feathered fruits of the Wild Clematis adorn the hedgerows throughout
+the greater part of the cold season, and form a striking feature of the
+wayside until they have been dispersed by the winter storms; and the
+hips of the Wild Rose, as well as the berries and drupes of various
+shrubs, now rendered more conspicuous by their bright colouring and the
+absence of foliage, are devoured by birds which afterwards deposit the
+indigestible and, therefore, uninjured seeds, with their excrement, at
+some distant spot.
+
+Should the reader be interested in the various ways in which the
+dehiscent fruits discharge their seeds, he will do well to collect a
+number of species, as yet unopened, and expose them to the sun in a dry
+place. He will then be able to note not only the directions and extent
+of the dehiscence, but also to observe the forcible ejection of seeds by
+those which split elastically, or which, by other mechanical
+contrivances, have the power of throwing their seeds a considerable
+distance.
+
+We may find still another subject for study in the beautiful autumn
+tints assumed by the leaves of many plants. Such tints are, of course,
+most conspicuous in the foliage of our forest trees and shrubs; and,
+when speaking of these, we shall have a word or two to say with regard
+to the nature of the internal changes that give rise to the beautiful
+display of colours; but not a few of the hedgerow herbs and shrubs
+exhibit tints equally rich and varied. Note, for instance, the pretty
+Herb Robert, still in flower in sheltered places, its blossoms standing
+out beyond a background of richly-coloured leaves.
+
+The vigorous summer growth of flowery banks and hedgerows is often
+closely trimmed with the sickle for the greater convenience of
+pedestrians and vehicular traffic, all the flowers and overhanging twigs
+being closely cut, and the wayside thus destroyed from the
+Nature-student's point of view; but the ground so denuded has recovered
+itself by the autumn, and a second crop of flowers, arising from the old
+stocks, often later than their normal season, is frequently the result.
+
+A considerable number of summer flowers continue to bloom during the
+autumn months, while a few are truly autumnal, and are not to be found
+till the summer has nearly or quite passed.
+
+In corn-fields we may still meet with the beautiful Pheasant's-eye
+(_Adonis autumnalis_), and in fields the Hairy Buttercup (_Ranunculus
+hirsutus_), the Daisy (_Bellis perennis_) and the Red Hemp-nettle
+(_Galeopsis Ladanum_) are yet in flower, while the Annual Meadow Grass
+(_Poa annua_) continues to produce new flowers to the end of the year.
+
+On sunny banks in chalk districts we still see the delicate Rock Rose
+(_Helianthemum vulgare_); and on banks almost everywhere the Wild Clary
+(_Salvia Verbenaca_), and the still more hardy Milfoil (_Achillea
+millefolium_), Knapweeds (_Centaurea nigra_ and _C. Scabiosa_), Field
+Scabious (_Knautia arvensis_), Dark Mullein (_Verbascum nigrum_) and the
+Toadflax (_Linaria vulgaris_).
+
+Then, on downs and heaths we find the Yellow Bedstraw (_Galium verum_),
+the crimson flowers of the Fine-leaved Heath (_Erica cinerea_), and the
+rose-coloured or white blossoms of the Heather or Ling (_Calluna
+vulgaris_): also the Carline Thistle (_Carlina vulgaris_), with its
+inner involucral bracts broadly spreading while the sun shines, but bent
+inwards to protect the florets during dull weather when the insects are
+at rest, the lilac flower-heads of the Devil's-bit Scabious (_Scabiosa
+succisa_) and the Small Scabious (_S. Columbaria_), and the conspicuous
+flowers of the Chamomile (_Anthemis nobilis_), all standing out in bold
+relief against the background of autumnal foliage.
+
+Still more numerous are the autumn flowers of the waysides. By the dry
+and dusty roadside we see the yellow flowers and silvery leaves of the
+Silver-weed (_Potentilla anserina_), the little starlike flowers of the
+Chickweed (_Stellaria media_), the yellow flower-heads of the Dandelion
+(_Taraxacum officinale_), Sow Thistle (_Sonchus oleraceus_) and
+Groundsel (_Senecio vulgaris_), the straggling Knot-grass (_Polygonum
+aviculare_), the Spotted Persicary (_Polygonum Persicaria_), the
+Shepherd's Purse (_Capsella Bursa-pastoris_), the Scentless Mayweed
+(_Matricaria inodora_), the Chamomile (_Anthemis nobilis_), the White
+Goose-foot (_Chenopodium album_), and Oraches (_Atriplex hastata_ and
+_A. patula_). Where the soil is more generous we find the Herb Robert
+(_Geranium Robertianum_), the Fleabane (_Inula dysenterica_), Red and
+White Dead-nettles (_Lamium purpureum_ and _L. album_), and the Petty
+Spurge (_Euphorbia Peplus_); while on old walls the Pellitory
+(_Parietaria officinalis_) is still in flower.
+
+
+
+
+XXII
+
+AUTUMN IN THE WOODS
+
+
+Although several of the flowers mentioned in the last chapter as
+blooming during the present season may be seen along the borders of
+woods, yet within the wood itself we are struck by the almost total
+absence of flowers. This loss, however, is compensated for by the
+beautiful and varied tints assumed by the leaves of the trees and
+shrubs.
+
+Important changes are now taking place in these perennial members of the
+vegetable world in preparation for the coming winter. The temperature of
+the soil is becoming considerably reduced, and, as a result, the
+absorbing activity of the roots is greatly decreased, while the winter
+is coming, when the temperature will be so low at times that the
+circulation of the sap will practically cease. If the leaves remained on
+the trees, they would give off from their surfaces more water than the
+trees could obtain from the soil through their inactive roots, thus
+endangering the lives of the trees. The leaves, therefore, must be shed.
+But these leaves contain a considerable amount of nutritious material
+which they themselves have built up, and which should not be lost. They
+contain starch, albumen, and other compounds which would be entirely
+lost to the trees if the leaves were shed in their present condition,
+except that a small proportion, in the form of products of
+decomposition, might be re-absorbed.
+
+This being the case, arrangements must be made, first, for the passage
+of the nutritious material in the leaves to some other part of the tree
+where it can be stored for the winter; and, second, for the removal of
+the leaves as the roots become less active.
+
+So, before the time of leaf-fall, the nutritious substances in the
+leaves, including the _chlorophyll_ to which the leaf owes its green
+colour, become changed, and pass back to the stems or the root, where
+they can be safely stored for the winter. The leaves, thus impoverished,
+become mere skeletons--mere collections of empty, lifeless cells; and if
+no further change takes place, they assume a very pale colour, like the
+leaves of the Hornbeam, Birch, and the Willows.
+
+But the transfer of the nutrient matter from leaf to stem or root is
+accompanied by numerous chemical changes by which new compounds are
+formed. Among these new substances a dark blue compound called
+anthocyanin is produced in some plants; and where this exists in
+considerable quantities we find the leaves of a dark bluish-green
+colour, like that of the autumn foliage of the Pine.
+
+Acids are also sometimes formed as a result of the complicated chemical
+changes that take place during the transfer above described; and these
+react on the anthocyanin present, changing its colour to a tint that
+varies according to the proportion and quantity in which they exist.
+
+Thus, if anthocyanin is present, together with a small amount of acid,
+the leaves are turned violet, as in the case of the autumn leaves of the
+Dogwood and the Spindle Tree; or purple, like those of the Service Tree.
+A larger proportion of acid produces, with the anthocyanin, the brownish
+green tint of the Alder leaves; or the brownish yellow of the Oak; while
+still larger proportions will turn the anthocyanin yellow, orange, red,
+or scarlet, according to the quantity in which the latter is present.
+Thus we can account for the rich yellow of the Maple in autumn, the
+orange of the Aspen leaves, the beautiful scarlet tints of the Mountain
+Ash and the Barberry, and the grand display of varied colours exhibited
+by the autumn Beeches.
+
+Again, before the leaves are shed, the buds that are destined to produce
+the new branches of the following spring are already formed. These may
+be seen on all deciduous trees and shrubs, some of them in the axils of
+the leaves, and others at the tips of the present twigs. Each bud is the
+embryo branch of the following year. Some of them are destined to
+produce leafy branches only; some are to develop into branches bearing
+both floral leaves and flowers; while others are to produce flowers
+without floral leaves; and it is interesting to note that, even at this
+stage, sections of the buds, examined with the aid of a microscope, will
+reveal the future leaves and flowers compactly concealed within their
+scaly, protective coverings.
+
+In October we may see the well-formed catkins of the Birch that are to
+bloom in the following April, in company with the ripe fruiting catkins
+of the present year. The Alder also bears its catkins that are to flower
+five months later, together with the woody remains of the female catkins
+of the previous spring; and the Hazel may be seen with its ripe nuts and
+its future flowers both on the same twig.
+
+[Illustration: THE ALDER IN AUTUMN, WITH THE CATKINS WHICH MATURE IN THE
+FOLLOWING SPRING.]
+
+The leaves, having manufactured the materials necessary for the
+formation of the buds that are to produce the leaves and flowers of the
+following year, and then transferred their remaining store of nutrient
+matter to a suitable storehouse for the winter, are now practically
+empty and lifeless. Had they remained alive and active, they would have
+endangered the life of the tree by giving off more moisture than could
+be replaced by the inactive roots. In their present, lifeless condition
+they are useless to the tree; but by falling to the ground, and
+decomposing where they lie, they improve the soil by the addition of
+organic matter as well as of the mineral salts they contained.
+
+In countries where a moderate temperature is maintained throughout the
+year, the growth of plants and trees goes on without interruption, and
+the fall of the leaf is hardly noticeable; for the older leaves die and
+fall one by one, as they become incapable of performing their functions
+for want of light, and new ones are being continuously formed close to
+the tips of the twigs. But where the growth is interrupted, either in
+hot countries during periods of drought, or in temperate countries by
+the approach of a cold season, the whole of the foliage is shed within a
+short period, and new leaves as suddenly appear when favourable
+conditions return.
+
+In our own latitudes, as we all know, the defoliation of the trees is
+caused by the approach of cold weather, which decreases the activity of
+the roots, so that the leaves become dry and lifeless. It is very
+commonly supposed that the fall of the leaf is caused by frost; but this
+is not the case. The leaves are shed during the cool days of autumn,
+even though the temperature does not fall to freezing point; but it is
+equally certain that the leaf-fall is accelerated by the frost when it
+comes, for the little moisture remaining in the leaves is then frozen,
+rendering the structures so brittle that they are easily snapped by the
+wind.
+
+The real cause of the rupture of the leaf is the formation of what is
+called the '_separation layer_.' This consists of soft, succulent cells,
+really in several layers, which are formed across the leaf-stalk,
+usually at the base, where the bundles of vessels passing from the twig
+to the leaf are narrower. The walls of these cells are thin, and are
+easily separated; and as they extend inwards from the surface all round,
+they break through the old cells, thus weakening the junction. When the
+growth of the separation layer is complete, it requires very little
+force to break off the leaf, and the process is aided by the formation
+of certain organic acids which act on the cell-walls, causing them to
+dissolve; and when the leaf has finally separated from the twig, it will
+be found that the scar left is a clean-cut surface, such as would be
+produced by the incision of a sharp knife.
+
+The recognition of the above facts introduces to us a difficulty for
+which we can find no explanation:--If the leaf-fall is not caused by
+frost, but by certain structural alterations that take place in the tree
+itself, how are we to account for the fact that the tree produces the
+changes which are necessary for its own preservation every year, just at
+the proper season? Plants and trees do not foresee the coming period of
+cold weather that necessitates the performance of the functions which
+they execute, and yet they instinctively prepare for the winter in the
+manner described above.
+
+Our autumn observations teach us that there are interesting differences
+in the times and progress of leaf-fall of different species of trees,
+and also of trees of the same species when exposed to different external
+conditions. On open ground, where the trees are fully exposed both to
+the sun's rays and to the cool autumn breezes, the leaves lose their
+moisture and fall earlier than would the same species in more sheltered
+situations; and they retain their moisture and position latest in damp,
+shady woods. On high hills, where the exposure is extreme, the leaves,
+which, by the way, do not appear till late in the spring, fall early on
+account of the low temperature, and consequent decrease of root
+activity, in the autumn.
+
+Further, we note that while in some trees, such as the Ash, Hornbeam,
+Beech and Hazel, the leaves fall first at the tips of the branches, and
+the defoliation extends fairly regularly towards the trunk, in other
+species, including Willows, Poplars, and the Lime, the branches become
+bare first at their bases, and finally at their tips.
+
+Even during the depths of winter we may see a number of dead leaves
+still attached to the twigs of certain trees, notably the Oak and the
+Beech; but where we find practically all the foliage remaining on the
+tree or on special branches of a tree, we may generally assume that the
+tree, or the branches in question, are dead--that they died during the
+summer, before the separation layers of the leaves had been formed. We
+can also understand, from what has been said, why the dead leaves remain
+attached to a cut branch, and yet fall from the living tree from which
+it was severed.
+
+In our own country some plants and trees retain their leaves throughout
+the year, so that we speak of them as evergreens. Many of these include
+herbaceous plants of a hardy nature, some of which remain fresh and
+green even in exposed situations, while others grow in more sheltered
+places. In either case they are plants whose roots remain more or less
+active in the cold season; and some of them, especially the evergreen
+shrubs, have rather thick leaves which contain a considerable quantity
+of sap, and which are surrounded by an outer covering or epidermis that
+does not allow the water within to pass out so readily as in the case of
+the deciduous leaves.
+
+In addition to the observations previously mentioned, we should do well,
+at this season of the year, to study the autumn fruits of our trees and
+shrubs, most of which still remain attached to the twigs.
+
+[Illustration: THE ASH IN AUTUMN, WITH ITS 'KEYS.']
+
+Some of these fruits lose most of their moisture as they ripen, thus
+becoming very light, and are provided with wings that cause them to be
+dispersed more or less by the wind.
+
+The so-called 'keys' of the Ash are one-seeded fruits, extended at the
+end into a long, narrow wing with a slight twist. As a result of this
+peculiarity they usually fall less rapidly to the ground, spinning as
+they descend, and are thus carried farther than they otherwise would be
+by the wind. The fruits of the Sycamore and the Maple are somewhat
+similarly winged, and each of these consist of two carpels which
+separate sooner or later--generally after they have reached the ground.
+
+[Illustration: THE MAPLE IN FRUIT.]
+
+On the Birch trees we may now see the ripe female catkins, consisting of
+hundreds of minute fruits, closely packed together, each provided with a
+wing on either side. They are very light, and easily blown a
+considerable distance by the wind; and late in the autumn we may observe
+the stalks of the catkins, from which some of the fruits have been
+blown, still on the trees.
+
+The wings that thus aid in the dispersion of fruits are not always part
+of the fruit itself. In the Hornbeam it is a three-lobed, persistent
+bract that performs this function; and the fruits of the Lime are also
+blown away by the aid of a large bract from the middle of which the
+fruit-stalk projects.
+
+[Illustration: THE WAYFARING TREE, IN FRUIT.]
+
+Some of our trees present a glorious aspect during the autumn months,
+displaying conspicuous and more or less brightly-coloured fruits in
+combination with the varied autumn tints of their leaves. The red
+foliage of the Mountain Ash or Rowan is accompanied by the still
+brighter clusters of scarlet fruits--little apple-like pomes, about the
+size of holly 'berries'; and the Wayfaring Tree bears pretty clusters of
+flattened, oval, one-seeded berries which are first red, and then nearly
+black. The Guelder Rose, while still in full leaf, is often very heavily
+laden with its bright red, semi-transparent berries; and the violet
+foliage of the Dogwood is intermingled with clusters of little
+berry-like drupes which, at first green, have now changed to a rich
+purple-black. Then there is the Spindle Tree, with its pretty red lobed
+capsules which split, when ripe, at its angles, disclosing as many cells
+as there are lobes (usually four), each with a single seed enclosed in
+an orange jacket. Occasionally we meet with the Strawberry Tree, during
+early autumn, bearing both flower and fruit at the same time. This tree
+flowers in September and October, but the fruits which accompany the
+flowers are those of the previous year, for they require more than
+twelve months to come to maturity. The fruit is a large berry, of an
+orange-red colour, with a granulated surface that gives it somewhat the
+appearance of the strawberry. It should be mentioned that the
+Strawberry Tree is not indigenous to England, and is seldom seen outside
+parks and gardens; but it grows wild in Ireland, and is very abundant
+round Killarney and in other parts.
+
+In conclusion, we must note one autumn flower of the woods which is
+exceedingly common--that of the Ivy (_Hedera Helix_), belonging to the
+order _Araliaceæ_. The Ivy is an evergreen climber, fixing itself by
+means of little rootlike suckers attached to the main stem and its
+branches, while the lower branches trail along the ground. The leaves
+are thick and glossy, usually of a deep green colour, but often
+beautifully variegated. Those attached to the trailing and climbing
+stems have three or five lobes, are always turned with one surface
+towards the light, and are so arranged as to obtain the maximum of
+light, the less exposed leaves below catching the rays which pass
+between the lobes of those which are more favourably situated.
+
+[Illustration: THE STRAWBERRY TREE IN FLOWER, WITH THE FRUITS (ALMOST
+RIPE) OF THE PREVIOUS YEAR.]
+
+The branches of the tree do not, as a rule, produce flowers as long as
+they are able to climb; but as soon as they reach the summit of the tree
+or wall to which they cling, or reach a situation where there is a
+sufficient abundance of light and air, they change their character in a
+remarkable way. They now become bushy, cease to produce suckers, and
+give rise to undivided leaves that turn in all directions for light and
+air. At the tip of each twig is formed a cluster of yellowish-green
+flowers, arranged in a short raceme or in an umbel. These flowers have
+an inconspicuous calyx which forms a border round the middle of the
+ovary, and five short petals. There are also five stamens, and united
+styles. The fruit is a smooth, black berry, containing from two to five
+seeds.
+
+
+
+
+XXIII
+
+PARASITIC PLANTS
+
+
+A number of plants extract more or less of the organic material they
+require from other plants, and thus save themselves the labour of
+building up this material themselves. These are termed parasites; but we
+must be careful to distinguish between them and certain other plants
+which, though apparently parasitic, are not really so. One plant may
+climb on another, perhaps even producing "rootlets" by which it clings
+to its living support, and yet it may not be a parasite in the proper
+sense of the term, for it may not absorb the slightest amount of
+nutritious matter except from the soil and the air. It is not at all
+uncommon for the Honeysuckle to twine its stems round the trunk and
+branches of a young tree, with the result that the tree becomes stunted,
+and assumes a starved appearance, especially in its lower parts; and yet
+the Honeysuckle is not a parasite. It has withdrawn nothing from the
+tree which supports it, but has coiled itself so tightly round it as to
+interfere with the circulation of its sap. The lower part of the tree is
+especially affected because the strangulating coils of the climber
+prevent the downward flow of the sap contained in the vessels of the
+bast or inner bark, and this is the sap which holds the constructive
+materials that have been built up in the leaves, under the influence of
+light.
+
+Many of the parasitic plants are of microscopic dimensions, and others
+are larger species belonging to the Fungi or Mushroom group. Some,
+however, are flowering plants, and these only fall within the scope of
+our work.
+
+We shall first deal with parasites which have no green leaves or
+chlorophyll, and are therefore entirely dependent on outside sources for
+their supply of organic material, starting with the interesting Dodders
+(_Cuscuta_), which coil themselves round herbs, shrubs, or even trees,
+and produce sucking organs on their stems that come in contact with
+their host.
+
+These are all smooth plants, with globular clusters of yellowish-pink
+flowers, the calyx being of the same colour as the corolla. The former
+is deeply divided into four or five parts, and the corolla has four or
+five spreading lobes with as many scales inside its broad tube. The
+ovary has two distinct styles, and the fruit is a globular capsule. The
+following summary of distinguishing features will enable the reader to
+identify the British species of the genus:--
+
+1. The Greater Dodder (_Cuscuta europæa_).--A plant of a greenish yellow
+colour, generally more or less tinged with red, with flowers in sessile,
+globular clusters nearly half an inch in diameter, each individual
+flower being about a tenth of an inch. This species is not abundant. It
+may be met with in hop-fields, and is also parasitic on nettles, various
+shrubs, and trees, including the elder and the ash.
+
+2. The Flax Dodder (_C. Epilinum_).--Very much like _C. europæa_, but
+the flowers are fewer in number, larger, and more fleshy. The calyx is
+nearly as long as the corolla, with sharply-pointed segments; and the
+corolla tube is always globular. This species is not indigenous, but is
+sometimes met with in flax-fields.
+
+3. The Lesser Dodder (_C. Epithymum_).--A more slender plant, with
+thread-like stems, and flowers in small, compact, globular heads, with
+red calyx and cylindrical corolla. This species occurs principally on
+sunny heaths, where it is parasitic on shrubby plants, such as thyme and
+ling. It is much more common than the foregoing.
+
+4. The Clover Dodder (_C. Trifolii_).--Very much like the Lesser Dodder,
+of which it is sometimes regarded as a variety. Its calyx is of a very
+pale colour, and is almost as long as the tube of the corolla, which is
+cylindrical in form. It is rare, but sometimes appears in undesirable
+numbers in clover fields.
+
+All the species produce their flowers in August and September, but _C.
+europæa_ may often be seen in bloom very early in July.
+
+The seeds of the Dodder fall from the opened capsules during late summer
+and early autumn, alighting on the soil, or on the decomposing foliage
+that covers the ground, or on the rough barks of the tree that served as
+a host for the parasitic plant. The seeds of many other plants fall
+about the same time, but those of the Dodder do not begin to germinate
+until about a month later than the majority of these, in the following
+season, and consequently the young Dodder plants do not appear before
+their future hosts have had time to grow sufficiently large to support
+and nourish them. Perennial plants, too, which are attacked by the
+Dodder, have also produced strong shoots and leaves from their roots or
+underground stems by the time that the parasite begins its search for
+ready-made organic food; and it is clear that if the Dodder seeds
+germinated earlier in the season, the young plants would starve for want
+of suitable herbs to give them support and nourishment.
+
+[Illustration: GREATER DODDER, ON NETTLE--A COMPLETE PLANT.]
+
+When the seed germinates it sends out a filament which penetrates into
+the soil and fixes the seedling firmly. The other end grows upward,
+carrying up with it a little swollen mass of food-reserve, sufficient to
+support the growing seedling until it has had some chance of reaching a
+suitable host. The upper end of the seedling now sends out a filament
+which rapidly elongates, and, growing upward, searches for some stem on
+which to climb.
+
+All this time the little mass of food-reserve is being rapidly
+exhausted, and if the young seedling fails to reach a suitable plant on
+which to climb it soon dies, for its lower extremity is unable to absorb
+sufficient food material from the soil; and the plant itself, having no
+chlorophyll, cannot decompose carbonic acid gas and build up organic
+material to add to its substance.
+
+[Illustration: THE CLOVER DODDER, WITH A SEPARATE CLUSTER OF FLOWERS
+REPRESENTING THE NATURAL SIZE.]
+
+Again, should the young plant fail to reach a favourable support, so
+that it is of necessity compelled to trail along the ground, the
+filaments which would soon produce suckers when attached to a living
+plant have no power to form any structures capable of extracting food
+material from a damp soil.
+
+Circumstances being more favourable, however, the upper filament
+eventually finds a stem, and immediately begins to twine itself round
+it, making a few close coils in a clockwise direction. Should the
+support prove to be a dead stem, little wartlike swellings are produced
+at points where the two touch, and these serve as a means of attachment
+for the climbing filament, but no suckers are formed. If, however, the
+filament surrounds a living stem, each of the swellings gives rise to
+suckers that penetrate into the tissues of the latter, and withdraw the
+organic food necessary for the continued existence of the plant.
+
+The Dodder now grows rapidly, giving off branches which search in all
+directions for additional supports, sometimes climbing from one plant to
+another, and producing new suckers whenever a favourable situation has
+been reached. The plant has now all it requires both in the way of
+mechanical support and nourishment, and its lower part, thus rendered
+useless, soon withers, breaking all connexion with the soil on which the
+seed originally germinated. New branches continue to form, each one
+producing additional suckers for the extraction of food from the host or
+hosts, until a tangled mass of clinging stems is the result. Then the
+globular clusters of little flowers appear, followed by balls of small
+capsules which throw off their lids when ripe, allowing the seeds to be
+shaken out by the wind. The Dodder plant now withers, leaving, in the
+autumn, its dead tangles of climbing filaments still attached to the
+withered herbs on which it fed, or to the branches of the tree which
+served as its host.
+
+Other parasitic plants possessing no chlorophyll, and therefore
+incapable of building up organic compounds for themselves, derive their
+food from the roots of trees and shrubs.
+
+Among these is the Toothwort (_Lathræa_), which is carnivorous as well
+as parasitic, and is described in our chapter (XXIV) dealing with
+carnivorous plants, so that we need only refer here to its habit as a
+parasite.
+
+The seed of this plant germinates on the damp ground to which it falls
+in early summer. The young root penetrates into the soil, deriving its
+nourishment entirely from the food reserve that was stored up in the
+seed, and soon sends out lateral branches in search of the roots of a
+suitable host. If it fails to attain this end by the time that the
+reserve is exhausted, it dies; but if it succeeds in reaching the root
+of an Elm, Hazel, Hornbeam, Ash, Poplar, or other tree, it fastens
+itself to it, and develops suckers which penetrate into the substance of
+the root to extract its sap. The parasite now grows very rapidly,
+producing its underground stems, with their fleshy, overlapping scales,
+as described on p. 352.
+
+The Broomrapes of the same order (_Orobanchaceæ_) are very similar in
+their parasitic habits to the Toothwort, and, like the latter, they
+possess no chlorophyll. The seeds germinate on the damp soil, producing
+a long, narrow embryo that grows downward into the ground until it
+reaches the root of some herb or shrub. It then gives off suckers which
+penetrate into the root, and, with the aid of the organic food thus
+obtained, forms a tuberous swelling on its surface. Flowering stems are
+afterwards produced, and these, rising above the soil, bear terminal
+spikes of lipped flowers, followed by capsules containing many seeds.
+
+[Illustration: THE GREAT BROOMRAPE.]
+
+There are several British species of this genus (_Orobanche_), and their
+flowering stems, which are usually unbranched, produce scale-like leaves
+of the same colour as themselves. Each flower of the spike is in the
+axil of a bract resembling the scales of the lower part of the stem; and
+in some species there is a pair of smaller bracts close to the base of
+the calyx. The corolla is either tubular or bell-shaped, and more or
+less distinctly lipped. Each flower has four stamens, arranged in pairs,
+and a two-lobed stigma. The following outline of leading features will
+serve for the identification of the common Broomrapes:--
+
+1. The Great Broomrape (_O. Rapum_).--A plant from twelve to eighteen
+inches high, of a pale yellow colour at first, but afterwards turning to
+a dull purple brown. Stem thick, especially below, and unbranched.
+Scales lanceolate. Flowers sessile, whitish, with only one bract,
+forming a spike from six to nine inches long. This species is moderately
+common, and is parasitic on the roots of Furze and Broom. Time of
+flowering--May to July.
+
+2. The Clove Broomrape (_O. caryophyllacea_).--Very similar to the Great
+Broomrape in colour, but usually smaller, and easily distinguished by
+the sweet clove-like scent of its flowers. Spike not so dense as in the
+last species, and the corolla tube not so broad. The plant is not
+uncommon in the southern counties of England. It is parasitic on the
+roots of the Great Hedge Bedstraw, and flowers from May to July.
+
+3. The Tall Broomrape (_O. elatior_).--Also much like the Great
+Broomrape, of which it is perhaps a variety. It retains its original
+yellowish colour for a longer period, and is parasitic on the Great
+Knapweed, flowering from June to August.
+
+4. The Least Broomrape (_O. minor_).--A yellow or pale brown plant, from
+six inches to over a foot in height, more slender than the preceding
+species, with smaller flowers. The flowers are whitish, but more or less
+tinged with purple, and bloom from June to October. It is parasitic on a
+number of different plants, including the Ivy, Clovers, Hawkweed, Wild
+Carrot, &c., and is found in many districts in South and Central
+England.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+We have now to consider those parasites which bear leaves possessing
+chlorophyll granules, and are therefore able to build up a portion of
+the organic compounds necessary for their development. Most of these, at
+least as far as the British flowering species are concerned, have also
+true roots which grow into the soil and absorb mineral food, like those
+of the non-parasitic plants allied to them, so that it is difficult to
+understand why they should require the additional nourishment stolen
+from the roots of neighbouring plants. One, however, the well-known
+Mistletoe, grows on trees at a distance from the ground, and therefore
+obtains the whole of its food, with the exception of carbonic acid gas,
+direct from its host.
+
+This plant--the Mistletoe (_Viscum album_), of the order
+_Loranthaceæ_--is attached to the tree on which it grows by a thick stem
+that becomes woody when old. Its branches are of a yellowish-green
+colour, and are repeatedly forked in such a manner as to form a dense
+tuft that often reaches a diameter of two feet or more. The leaves are
+of the same colour as the branches, and are rather thick and fleshy. The
+flowers grow in the forks of the branches, on very short stalks, and are
+imperfect, the males and females being on separate plants. The former
+are in clusters of about three or four, in a cuplike, fleshy bract, each
+flower having four thick, triangular petals with an anther on the
+middle. The females are either solitary or in clusters of two or three,
+with a similar bract, and very small petals. The fruit is a white,
+glutinous berry, almost transparent, with only one seed.
+
+The Mistletoe grows on a variety of trees, including the Apple, Pear,
+Black Poplar, and Oak; and thrives most luxuriantly on those which have
+a soft tissue beneath the bark. It is found principally in the southern
+and western counties of England, and flowers from March to May.
+
+[Illustration: MISTLETOE.]
+
+There is no doubt but that the seeds of the Mistletoe are distributed
+from tree to tree by the agency of birds, especially the thrushes, which
+devour the berries in large numbers. The seed of the berry is protected
+by a covering which remains quite untouched by the digestive fluids of
+the bird, and consequently it is expelled intact with the excrement, and
+frequently drops to a branch of the tree, where it lodges in a crevice
+of the bark, and is securely fixed in its place by the slimy excrement
+in which it is embedded.
+
+Here the seed germinates, sending out a little rootlet that always turns
+towards the bark on which it rests, and subsists for a time on the
+food-reserve that it contains. When the young root reaches the bark it
+becomes flattened against the surface, and spreads out, forming a disc
+that holds the seedling firmly to the tree.
+
+A projection (the _sinker_) is then sent inwards from the disc, and this
+penetrates the bark, reaching the wood beneath, but does not enter the
+latter. This terminates the growth of the seedling for the first year,
+but as soon as the warm weather of the following spring commences, the
+sinker begins to spread over the surface of the outer ring of wood,
+while at the same time a new annual ring of wood begins to form
+outside, thus surrounding and banking in the sinker. It would appear, on
+making a section of the tree, as if the sinker had actually pushed its
+growth through the outer ring of wood, whereas it does not penetrate the
+wood at all, but is only banked up by the new wood that grows round it.
+This is repeated year by year, until the sinker is at last quite deeply
+set in the branch, being surrounded by the wood of several annual rings.
+
+[Illustration: A YOUNG MISTLETOE PLANT ON THE BRANCH OF A TREE. The
+branch is cut longitudinally to show the suckers.]
+
+During the second year's growth the sinker sends out little roots which
+run up and down the stem, beneath the bark, and these give rise to new
+sinkers that grow down to the surface of the wood, and become, in turn,
+embedded in the new layers of wood that form round them. And while the
+young Mistletoe plant is thus securing a firm hold on its host, and
+withdrawing ready-made organic compounds from its sap, the outer green
+stem develops, and soon gives rise to the first pair of leaves.
+
+If food is obtained in abundance, as is the case when the host is a tree
+of a soft and sappy nature, the growth is rather rapid; but otherwise
+the development is comparatively slow. In any case the age of the
+parasite may be ascertained by counting the number of annual rings of
+wood that lie outside the deepest sinker; and by this means it has been
+found that the Mistletoe may attain an age of over thirty years.
+
+We have now to consider a group of plants, the parasitic habits of which
+would scarcely be suspected by an ordinary observer. They are green
+plants, with well-developed foliage leaves, and true roots which absorb
+mineral food from the soil. Their seedlings grow in the same way as
+those of non-parasitic species, deriving no nourishment from
+neighbouring plants, but obtaining all their food from the air and the
+soil, and building up all the organic compounds required for their
+growth by the agency of their own chlorophyll.
+
+It is difficult to understand why these plants should afterwards produce
+suckers on their roots in order to obtain nourishment from other
+species, but they do this, and experiments have proved that the food
+thus obtained is more or less essential to their development. Some of
+them die while still young if grown apart from other species, and the
+others, under similar conditions, though they reach what we may term the
+adult stage, remain somewhat weak and stunted, and produce but few
+flowers and fruits.
+
+Most of the plants referred to belong to the order _Scrophulariaceæ_,
+and among them we may mention the Eyebright (_Euphrasia_), the Yellow
+Rattle (_Rhinanthus_), the Cow-wheat (_Melampyrum_), and the Lousewort
+(_Pedicularis_). They generally appear in large numbers close together,
+often in such abundance as to determine the general colour of the ground
+on which they grow, and yet they do not apparently cause much damage to
+the grass and other plants which they rob.
+
+These green parasites are described in various chapters, according to
+their habitats and their flowering seasons; so we shall do no more here
+than to briefly refer to their parasitic habits.
+
+The Eyebright (p. 274) grows on heaths and downs, where it
+derives organic food from the roots of the neighbouring grasses. The
+Lousewort, too (p. 118), which grows in marshes and moist
+meadows, is parasitic principally on the roots of grasses, apparently
+without affecting the latter. The last-named species is a perennial, the
+roots of which have to find hosts that are capable of supporting it year
+by year. If the host of the present year should happen to die in the
+autumn, the suckers that were attached to its roots soon die, and the
+parasite has to seek a new source of supply. This it does by extending
+its roots until it reaches a new host, and then producing new suckers.
+Thus we are able to understand the origin of the long roots so often
+seen on the Lousewort, and also the reason why these roots never grow
+downwards into the soil, but always horizontally, just beneath the
+surface. Further, since the roots extend themselves in search of food at
+times when the supply is temporarily diminished or stopped, it is clear
+that some reserve is necessary for the elongation referred to. Such a
+reserve exists in the older, thick portion of the perennial root, near
+the base of the stem.
+
+In the case of the Cow-wheat (p. 146) no suckers are produced
+until the lateral branches of the root of the seedling reach a moderate
+length; but in order to increase the chances of finding a suitable host
+these branches are developed in large numbers, and extend themselves in
+all directions. The suckers produced on them cling very firmly to the
+root-fibres of the host, which they almost completely embrace.
+
+The suckers of the Yellow Rattle (p. 118) are globular, often
+nearly one-eighth of an inch in diameter, and partly surround the
+root-fibres of the plants to which they are attached.
+
+
+
+
+XXIV
+
+CARNIVOROUS PLANTS
+
+
+Quite a number of plants, belonging to different orders, are provided
+with the means of capturing small animals, and of digesting their prey
+and absorbing the nutrient matter thus obtained into their own systems.
+In this way they are enabled to obtain nitrogenous material which, in
+the ordinary way, is absorbed in the form of mineral solutions, from the
+soil, by the agency of the roots. The greater number of these
+carnivorous plants are to be found in tropical lands; but a few are
+British, and are of such an interesting nature that we propose to devote
+a short chapter to a description of their peculiar structure and habits.
+
+The plants to which we refer are often spoken of as insectivorous
+species; but although in nearly all cases the animal food consists
+almost entirely of insects, it is not entirely derived from this one
+group of animal life, and therefore the term carnivorous is rather more
+appropriate.
+
+In pools we sometimes meet with floating plants that have no true roots,
+at least at the time of flowering, but consist of a tuft of long,
+rootlike, submerged branches, bearing much-divided leaves, and sending
+leafless stalks of yellow flowers above the surface of the water. These
+plants are the Bladderworts (_Utricularia_), of the order
+_Lentibulaceæ_, and are so called because they have little air-bladders
+either attached to the leaves or supported on leafless branches.
+
+The leaves are divided into numerous very narrow segments, thus
+presenting a proportionately large amount of surface to the water for
+the absorption of dissolved gases required by the plant; and the flowers
+consist of a deeply two-lobed calyx; a spurred corolla, with its mouth
+closed or nearly closed by means of a convex 'palate'; two stamens; and
+a one-celled ovary that ripens into a globular fruit.
+
+[Illustration: THE GREATER BLADDER-WORT.]
+
+As to the little air-bladders mentioned above, they form, perhaps, the
+most interesting feature of the plant, for they are the traps by means
+of which small aquatic creatures are caught, and also the organs
+concerned in the absorption of nutritive products derived from the prey.
+Each bladder has an opening, guarded by a kind of valve which allows
+easy ingress, but no exit. It does not seem to produce any secretion
+which would hasten the death of the creatures entrapped, nor does it
+appear to produce any kind of digestive fluid, as is the case with other
+carnivorous plants; but small aquatic creatures, such as water-fleas,
+cyclops, very small larvæ, &c., entering the bladders for shelter or
+some other purpose, are securely imprisoned until they die of starvation
+or suffocation; and their bodies then decay, giving rise to soluble
+gases and other products which are absorbed into the plant by special
+cells within the bladder.
+
+There are three British species of these plants--the Greater, the
+Lesser, and the Intermediate Bladder-worts. The first of
+these--_Utricularia vulgaris_--is rather local in its distribution, and
+is easily distinguished from the other two by its superior size, having
+floating branches from a few inches to a foot in length. The second (_U.
+minor_) is much more common. Its floating branches are only two or three
+inches long at the time of flowering, but they grow longer after; and
+the flowers are pale yellow, with a short, broad spur. The third (_U.
+intermedia_), which is very local, has also pale yellow flowers, but
+with a much longer spur; and the bladders are at the ends of leafless
+branches.
+
+In the preceding chapter we gave an account of certain plants which are
+parasitic on other plants and trees, deriving more or less of their
+nutriment from their vegetable hosts. One of these--the Tooth-wort
+(_Lathræa squamaria_), of the order _Orobanchaceæ_--is not only a
+parasite, deriving nourishment from the roots of trees, but is also a
+carnivorous species, feeding on minute animals which are captured and
+digested by its peculiar leaves; and therefore it may be conveniently
+considered here.
+
+The whole plant is of a fleshy character, and lives entirely
+underground, attached to the roots of the Hazel, Elm, or other tree,
+except during April and May, when it sends up thick flowering stems,
+from four to ten inches high, bearing a few broad, fleshy scales which
+gradually pass into bracts, and a one-sided spike or raceme of flowers.
+The stem and scales above ground are of a pale rose colour, and the
+flowers are either brown, flesh-colour or slightly bluish. The latter
+are numerous, closely placed, and either sessile or shortly stalked. The
+calyx is bell-shaped, nearly half an inch long, with four broad lobes;
+and the corolla, which is about half as long again as the calyx, is
+distinctly lipped.
+
+[Illustration: LONGITUDINAL SECTION (ENLARGED) THROUGH A LEAF OF THE
+TOOTH-WORT.]
+
+The whole plant is devoid of chlorophyll, and consequently has not the
+power of building up organic compounds after the manner of green plants;
+and, being parasitic on the roots of trees, it derives but little
+organic material from its host. To compensate for this the underground
+portion is so constructed that it can capture minute animals which exist
+in the soil, and has the power of digesting them and of absorbing the
+products of digestion.
+
+The underground stems are quite white, and are thickly covered with
+broad, cordate, fleshy leaves that closely overlap one another. There
+appears to be nothing very remarkable in these underground leaves until
+one has been removed from the stem and closely examined; and then we
+find that what appears to be the apex of the leaf is really its middle;
+and that what seems to be, at first sight, the under surface, is really
+an extension of the upper side; for the leaf is bent backwards in such a
+manner as to bring its apex close to the stem, immediately below its
+base. This peculiar folding of the leaf results in the formation of an
+irregular cavity, and the tip of the leaf, brought close to its base, is
+curled upward, close to the stem, in such a way as to form a little
+canal, with several small openings by which the cavity may be reached.
+It will not be easy to make out this strange folding of the leaf by an
+examination of the exterior only, but a longitudinal section, made with
+a sharp knife or razor, will show it clearly.
+
+[Illustration: COMMON BUTTERWORT.]
+
+When minute animals enter the cavity of the leaf through the little
+openings above mentioned, they are seized by means of small filaments
+that protrude from the lining cells; and although no special digestive
+secretion has been discovered in the leaves, it appears certain that the
+creatures entrapped are really dissolved, for nothing remains of them
+after a time except the harder, indigestible portions. Also, there is
+every reason to believe that the products of digestion are absorbed,
+probably by the same filaments that are concerned in the capture of the
+microscopic prey.
+
+Perhaps the most interesting of the carnivorous plants are those which
+exhibit distinct movements in connexion with the capture of their prey,
+and among these are the British Butterworts and Sundews, which grow in
+bogs and other wet places.
+
+There are three British species of Butterwort (_Pinguicula_), similar in
+structure and habit, all growing in bogs and on wet rocks. They have
+each a rosette of entire, radical leaves, the lowest of which lie close
+against the soil or rock on which the plant grows; and violet or yellow
+flowers on leafless peduncles. The calyx has four or five teeth,
+arranged in two lips; and the corolla, which is also lipped, has a
+broad, open throat, and a spur.
+
+The commonest species is the Common Butterwort (_P. vulgaris_), which is
+found in bogs and wet places, principally in the hilly, humid districts
+of the West of Britain and Ireland, flowering from May to July. Its
+leaves are succulent and clammy, of a pale green colour, and covered all
+over with little glistening spots. The flower stems are three or four
+inches high, each bearing a single violet flower. In this species the
+throat of the corolla is bell-shaped, and the spur is as long as the
+rest of the corolla.
+
+A second species--the Alpine Butterwort (_P. alpina_)--with smaller,
+pale yellow flowers appearing in June and July, is found only in
+Scotland; while a third, known as the Pale Butterwort (_P. lusitanica_),
+also with pale yellow flowers, and a curved spur, occurs in South-West
+England as well as in the boggy districts of Ireland and the West of
+Scotland, flowering from June to October.
+
+The carnivorous habits of all species are the same. The horizontal
+leaves lie flat on the wet soil, with their margins turned upward
+forming a kind of shallow trough; and the upper surface of each is
+dotted with many hundreds of minute glands which secrete a colourless,
+sticky fluid, thus giving to the leaf its glistening and clammy
+appearance.
+
+If any mineral or other non-nutritious substance be placed on a leaf,
+the contact stimulates the little glands, causing them to discharge a
+larger quantity of fluid, but no change seems to take place in the
+character or composition of the secretion. But if any nitrogenous
+organic substance, such as an insect or a small piece of meat, be
+brought in contact with the glands, not only will the secretion increase
+in quantity, but it will also assume an acid character, and contain a
+ferment which is capable of digesting the nitrogenous material. In fact,
+the secretion produced under these circumstances possesses the same
+properties as the gastric fluid of the stomachs of animals.
+
+The animal food of the Butterworts consists of small insects and other
+little creatures. If an insect alights on the leaf, it is caught by the
+sticky secretion of the glands, and every effort to escape causes it to
+become more and more besmeared with the mucilage, till, at last, it is
+no longer able to move; and its death is probably hastened by the
+stoppage of its spiracles or breathing-holes.
+
+If the insect is a small one, and it settles near the edge of the leaf,
+the curved margin slowly bends over it until it is more or less
+enclosed, and the larger number of glands thus brought in contact with
+its body pour out their digestive secretion, which slowly dissolves the
+nourishing portions, leaving nothing but the legs, wings, and other
+indigestible parts. A larger insect, alighting similarly near the edge
+of the leaf, could hardly be enclosed by the bending of the margin near
+it; but it is pushed towards the middle as the edge curls over, and then
+the opposite side also bends over it, till the insect is more or less
+enclosed, when it is digested as mentioned above.
+
+The digestion of an insect and the absorption of nutrient matter by the
+cells of the leaf occupy from twenty to thirty hours, and when the whole
+is accomplished the leaf slowly expands, assuming its normal position,
+and exposing the indigestible residue of its prey to be blown away or
+washed off by the rain.
+
+It has been observed that the Butterworts are not exclusively animal
+feeders, for their leaves readily digest any pollen cells or the spores
+of the lower plants that are carried to them by the wind.
+
+[Illustration: THE ROUND-LEAVED SUNDEW.]
+
+Equally interesting are the habits of the Sundew (_Drosera_), of which
+there are three species, all readily distinguished from every other
+British plant by the glandular hairs that cover the long-stalked,
+radical leaves. They have leafless flower-stalks, each bearing a
+one-sided spike or raceme of white flowers. The sepals, petals, and
+stamens each number five; and the ovary, which ripens into a one-celled
+capsule of three or four valves, has three or four forked styles.
+
+The commonest species--the Round-leaved Sundew (_Drosera
+rotundifolia_)--is abundant and widely distributed, and may be seen
+among the bog-mosses, sometimes almost completely covering rather large
+patches of marshland. Its leaves are round, from a quarter of an inch to
+near half an inch in diameter, spreading in such a manner that they lie
+close to or near the ground. The flower-stems are slender, erect, from
+three to six inches long; and the white flowers, which are in a
+one-sided raceme, bloom during July and August.
+
+The Long-leaved Sundew (_D. longifolia_ or _D. intermedia_) has oval
+leaves, tapering gradually into the stalk. They are more erect than the
+leaves of the last species, and are not half so broad as they are long.
+The plant flowers at the same time as the latter, but is not nearly so
+common.
+
+The third species--the Great English Sundew (_D. anglica_)--is still
+rarer. Its leaves are still longer and narrower, being sometimes an inch
+or more in length, and more erect; and the flower-stalk sometimes
+attains a length of eight inches.
+
+The carnivorous habits of these plants are very similar to those of the
+Butterworts, but the movements connected with the capture of the prey
+are more marked in the red filaments which cover the upper surface of
+the leaves than in the leaves themselves. Those filaments which are
+situated on the margin of the leaf are longest, and spread outwards,
+while the others are erect and decrease in length from the edge towards
+the middle.
+
+Each filament is swollen at its extremity, and supports an enticing
+globule of glistening fluid which it secretes, for the enlarged
+extremity is really a minute gland. The fluid, though quite clear, is so
+viscid that it can be drawn out into threads, and it serves a purpose
+similar to that of the sticky globules on the spiral thread of a
+spider's web.
+
+If some grains of sand or other inorganic material be sprinkled on the
+leaf, the sticky secretion of the glands is appreciably increased, and
+at the same time assumes an acid character; but it contains no digestive
+ferment, nor do the filaments change their position to any considerable
+extent. When, however, a small insect alights on the leaf, attracted by
+the glistening drops which are probably mistaken for nectar, the
+secretion not only increases and becomes acid, but a digestive ferment
+is produced, and the little creature is soon besmeared with the fluid,
+its condition becoming more and more hopeless through its struggles,
+till at last further movements are impossible and it dies of
+suffocation.
+
+A few minutes later the filaments of the leaf immediately around the
+insect begin to bend towards it, and others a little farther off soon
+partake in the movement, which may finally extend more or less to all
+the filaments of the leaf, and thus a large number of glands are brought
+in contact with the prey. The process of digestion now goes on, and, in
+a day or two, all the digestible portions of the insect are dissolved
+and absorbed, and the filaments that were concerned in the work have
+resumed their original position, leaving the indigestible portions to
+dry and to be eventually blown away.
+
+The principal food of the Sundews consists of small insects such as
+ants, midges, flies, small butterflies and moths, caddis-flies, and even
+small species of dragon-flies. Some of these, more particularly the
+long-bodied dragon-flies, the smallest of which are over an inch in
+length, are much too large to be caught and devoured by a single leaf;
+and in this case it is not at all uncommon for two or more leaves to be
+concerned in the capture and digestion of a single insect, each one
+converging its filaments towards the part of the body within its reach,
+and each one digesting and absorbing the portion against which it can
+apply its glands.
+
+Insects, however, do not constitute the sole food of these plants, for
+small worms, spiders, centipedes, &c., are caught and digested in the
+manner described; and the plants may also be fed artificially on small
+pieces of meat or other nitrogenous substances, which give rise to the
+same processes and movements as we have observed in connection with the
+natural mode of feeding.
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF FLOWERS
+
+CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR HABITATS AND HABITS
+
+
+The following list of wild flowers, classified according to their habits
+and principal habitats, will assist the student in his attempts to
+identify unknown species. A general acquaintance with the chief
+distinguishing features of the orders, or, failing this, a frequent
+reference to these features as given in Chapter I, will be a valuable
+help; and, the order once determined, the few particulars added to each
+name will generally narrow the search down to one or two species,
+leaving the final decision to the more detailed description given in the
+text.
+
+The first number given after each name is the height, or, in the case of
+climbing and trailing species, the length of the plant; and this is
+followed by the colour and diameter, of the flower, or, in the case of
+the _Dipsaceæ_, _Compositæ_, and some other plants in which the flowers
+are densely clustered, the diameter of the cluster or head.
+
+Abbreviations are used as follows:--
+
+ W. = white
+ Y. = yellow
+ G. = green
+ R. = red
+ P. = pink
+ C. = crimson
+ V. = violet
+ Bl. = blue
+ Br. = brown
+ Pu. = purple
+ Cr. = cream
+ Li. = lilac
+ Ro. = rose
+ O. = orange
+ Sc. = scarlet
+ p. = pale
+ d. = dark or deep.
+
+A combination of two of the above denotes an intermediate colour.
+Thus--G.Y. denotes a greenish yellow; Pu. Br., a purple-brown, &c.
+
+
+ 1. WOODS AND THICKETS--SPRING (HERBACEOUS PLANTS).
+
+ PAGE
+
+ Wood Anemone. 4-8 ins. W. 1 in., 48
+
+ Green Hellebore. 12-20 ins. G. 1 in., 49
+
+ Stinking Hellebore. 1-2 ft. G. 1/2 in., 49
+
+ Goldilocks. 6-10 ins. Y. 5/8 in., 50
+
+ Columbine. 1-2 ft. W., Bl. or Pu. 1 in., 50
+
+ Dog Violet. 3-6 ins. Bl. or Pu. 5/8 in., 50
+
+ Wood Sorrel. 4-6 ins. W. 5/8 in., 52
+
+ Wood Strawberry. 2-6 ins. W. 1/2 in., 53
+
+ Sweet Woodruff. 8 ins. W. 1/4 in., 54
+
+ Lesser Periwinkle. 1-2 ft. Bl. 7/8 in., 54
+
+ Toothwort. 5-10 ins. Pu.Br. 3/8 in., 54
+
+ Bugle. 3-12 ins. Bl. or Pu. 3/8 in., 55
+
+ Yellow Dead Nettle. 10-18 ins. Y. 5/8 in., 55
+
+ Primrose. 4-7 ins. p.Y. 1 to 1-1/4 in., 56
+
+ Lady's Slipper. 1 ft. Br. and Y. 2 ins., 58
+
+ Broad-leaved Garlic. 6-12 ins. W. 3/4 in., 59
+
+ Sand Garlic. 2-3 ft. R.Pu. 1/4 in., 59
+
+ Star of Bethlehem. 6-12 ins. W. 1 in. or more, 59
+
+ Blue-bell. 6-18 ins. Bl. 1/2 in., 60
+
+ Daffodil. 12-18 ins. Y. 2 ins., 48
+
+ Hairy Sedge., 60
+
+ Wood Melic Grass, 60
+
+
+ 2. SPRING FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS.
+
+ Barberry. 4-7 ft. p.Y. 3/8 in., 61
+
+ Sycamore. 40-50 ft. Y.G. 1/4 in., 62
+
+ Maple. 15-20 ft. Y.G. 1/4 in., 63
+
+ Spindle Tree. 4-10 ft. Y.G. 3/8 in., 64
+
+ Wild Cherry. 4-8 ft. W. 5/8 in., 64
+
+ Bird Cherry. 12-15 ft. W. 1/2 in., 64
+
+ Gean. 12-18 ft. W. 5/8 in., 65
+
+ Sloe or Blackthorn. 4-8 ft. W. 1/2 in., 65
+
+ Bullace. 5-8 ft. W. 1/2 in., 66
+
+ Hawthorn. 12-20 ft. W. 1/2 in., 66
+
+ Wild Pear. 20-30 ft. W. 1 in., 66
+
+ Crab Apple. 10-20 ft. W. and P. 1-1/2 in., 66
+
+ Service Tree. 12-20 ft. W. 5/8 in., 67
+
+ White Beam. 10-30 ft. W. 1/2 in., 68
+
+ Mountain Ash. 10-30 ft. Cr.W. 7/16 in., 68
+
+ Black Currant. 3-5 ft. Y.G. 5/16 in., 69
+
+ Red Currant. 3-5 ft. Y.G. 1/4 in., 69
+
+ Wayfaring Tree. 10-20 ft. W. 3/16 in., 69
+
+ Ash. 40-50 ft. Br. 1/8 in., 69
+
+ Spurge Laurel. 2-4 ft. Y.G. 1/4 in., 70
+
+ Mezereon. 2-4 ft. p.R. 3/16 in., 70
+
+ Common Elm. 50-120 ft. Br. Clusters 1/2 in., 71
+
+ Wych Elm. 40-100 ft. Br. Clusters 1/2 in., 71
+
+ Oak. 40-100 ft. G., 72
+
+ Beech. 40-100 ft. G., 73
+
+ Hornbeam. 20-60 ft. G., 74
+
+ Hazel. 8-16 ft. Y.G., 74
+
+ Common Birch. 20-50 ft. G., 75
+
+ Dwarf Birch. 1-3 ft. G., 75
+
+ Alder. 20-50 ft. R.Br., 75
+
+ White Poplar. 60-100 ft. Pu.Br., 76
+
+ Grey Poplar. 60-100 ft. Pu.Br., 76
+
+ Aspen. 30-80 ft. d.Br., 76
+
+ Black Poplar. 50-60 ft. Pu.Br., 77
+
+ Scots Pine. 50-100 ft. G.Y., 77
+
+ Yew. 20-50 ft. G. 1/8 in., 78
+
+ NOTE.--The colours given above, in the case of trees bearing catkins,
+ are generally those of the more conspicuous male flowers.
+
+
+ 3. WAYSIDES AND WASTE GROUND--SPRING.
+
+ Celandine. 1-2 ft. Y. 3/4 in., 81
+
+ Shepherd's Purse. 6-18 ins. W. 1/10 in., 81
+
+ Scurvy Grass. 4-8 ins. W. 1/4 in., 82
+
+ Whitlow Grass. 1-4 ins. W. 1/8 in., 82
+
+ Yellow Rocket. 1-2 ft. Y. 5/16 in., 83
+
+ Early Winter Cress. 1-2 ft. Y. 3/16 in., 84
+
+ Garlic Mustard. 1-2 ft. W. 1/4 in., 84
+
+ Thale Cress. 6-10 ins. W. 1/8 in., 84
+
+ Rape. 1-2 ft. Y. 3/8 in., 85
+
+ Wild Turnip. 1-2 ft. Y. 3/8 in., 85
+
+ Sweet Violet. 3-6 ins. V., Li. or W. 3/4 in., 85
+
+ Ciliated Pearlwort. 2-4 ins. W. 1/8 in., 85
+
+ Procumbent Pearlwort. 2-3 ins. W. 1/8 in., 85
+
+ Greater Stitchwort. 1-2 ft. W. 3/4 in., 86
+
+ Lesser Stitchwort. 1-3 ft. W. 3/16 in., 87
+
+ Chickweed. 3-12 ins. W. 3/16 in., 87
+
+ Clustered Mouse-ear Chickweed. 6-10 ins. W. 3/16 in., 88
+
+ Narrow-leaved Mouse-ear Chickweed. 6-10 ins. W. 1/4 in., 88
+
+ Dove's-foot Crane's-bill. 8-12 ins. P. 3/8 in., 89
+
+ Jagged-leaved Crane's-bill. 1-2 ft. R. 3/8 in., 89
+
+ Herb Robert. 1-2 ft. P. 1/2 in., 90
+
+ Black Medick. 1/2-2 ft. Y. Heads 1/4 in., 90
+
+ Grass Vetchling. 1-2 ft. C. 3/8 in., 92
+
+ Bird's Foot. 6-18 ins. Cr. and C. Heads 1/4 in., 92
+
+ Bush Vetch. 2-3 ft. p.Pu. 7/16 in., 92
+
+ Barren Strawberry. 2-6 ins. W. 1/2 in., 93
+
+ Moschatel. 4-6 ins. Y.G. Heads 3/8 in., 93
+
+ White Bryony. 6-12 ft. G.W. 5/8 in., 94
+
+ Common Beaked Parsley. 2-3 ft. W. 1/8 in., 95
+
+ Chervil. 3-4 ft. W. 1/8 in., 95
+
+ Garden Beaked Parsley. 18 ins. W. 1/10 in., 96
+
+ Gout-weed. 1-2 ft. G.W. 1/8 in., 96
+
+ Crosswort. 6-18 ins. Y. 1/10 in., 97
+
+ Mouse-ear Hawkweed. 2-10 ins. Y. Head 1 in., 98
+
+ Groundsel. 6-12 ins. Y. Heads 3/16 in., 98
+
+ Colt's-foot. 6 ins. Y. Heads 1 in., 98
+
+ Thyme-leaved Speedwell. 3-10 ins. Li. 1/4 in., 100
+
+ Common Speedwell. 2-10 ins. p.Bl. 1/6 in., 100
+
+ Germander Speedwell. 12-18 ins. Bl. 1/2 in., 100
+
+ Wall Speedwell. 4-12 ins. p.Bl. 3/16 in., 101
+
+ Grey Field Speedwell. 3-7 ins. Bl. 3/16 in., 101
+
+ Green Field Speedwell. 4-8 ins. Bl. 3/16 in., 102
+
+ White Dead Nettle. 6-18 ins. W. 5/8 in., 102
+
+ Red Dead Nettle. 6-18 ins. Pu. 1/4 in., 103
+
+ Cut-leaved Dead Nettle. 6-18 ins. Ro. 1/4 in., 103
+
+ Ground Ivy. 8-20 ins. Bl.Pu. 5/16 in., 104
+
+ Early Field Scorpion Grass. 4-10 ins. Bl. 1/16 in., 104
+
+ Yellow Pimpernel. 4-10 ins. Y. 1/2 in., 105
+
+ Dog's Mercury. 6-18 ins. G. 3/16 in., 105
+
+ Black Bryony. 5-10 ft. Y.G. 3/16 in., 106
+
+ Cuckoo Pint. 8-20 ins., 106
+
+ Annual Meadow Grass., 107
+
+
+ 4. MEADOWS, FIELDS AND PASTURES--SPRING.
+
+ Lesser Celandine. 3-6 ins. Y. 1 in., 108
+
+ Creeping Buttercup. 6-12 ins. Y. 7/8 in., 109
+
+ Bulbous Buttercup. 1-2 ft. Y. 1 in., 110
+
+ Field Penny Cress. 6-24 ins. W. 1/8 in., 110
+
+ Cuckoo Flower. 1-2 ft. W. or Li. 5/8 in., 111
+
+ Wild Pansy. 4-10 ins. W.Y. and Pu. 3/4 in., 111
+
+ Ragged Robin. 1-2 ft. R. or Ro. 1 in., 112
+
+ Spotted Medick. 6-24 ins. Y. 3/16 in., 112
+
+ Netted Medick. 10-20 ins. Y. 1/16 in., 112
+
+ Subterranean Trefoil. 6-18 ins. W.P. or C. 1/8 in., 113
+
+ White Clover. 2-20 ins. W. 3/16 in. Heads 7/8 in., 113
+
+ Hybrid Trefoil. 3-20 ins. W. or P. 3/16 in. Heads 7/8 in., 113
+
+ Purple Clover. 5-20 ins. Pu. 1/4 in. Heads 1-1/4 in., 113
+
+ Spring Vetch. 8 ins. Pu. 1/4 in., 114
+
+ Common Vetch. 1-2 ft. p.Pu. 3/8 in., 115
+
+ Meadow Saxifrage. 6-10 ins. W. 5/8 in., 115
+
+ Earthnut. 1-3 ft. W. 1/8 in., 116
+
+ Daisy. 2-6 ins. W. and Y. Heads 3/4 in., 116
+
+ Dandelion. 2-8 ins. Y. Head 1-1/2 in. or more, 116
+
+ Butter-bur. 4-12 ins. P. or Pu. Heads 3/8 in., 117
+
+ Yellow Rattle. 6-18 ins. Y. 1/4 in., 118
+
+ Field Louse-wort. 4-8 ins. Ro. 5/8 in., 118
+
+ Henbit Dead Nettle. 5-10 ins. Ro. or Pu. 1/4 in., 119
+
+ Changing Scorpion Grass. 4-10 ins. Y. or Bl. 1/10 in., 119
+
+ Cowslip. 6-12 ins. Y. 7/16 in., 120
+
+ Common Sorrel. 1-2 ft. R.Pu. 1/8 in., 120
+
+ Sheep's Sorrel. 3-12 ins. R.Pu. 1/8 in., 121
+
+ Twayblade. 1-2 ft. Y.G. 7/16 in., 121
+
+ Green-winged Orchis. 6-12 ins. G. and Pu. 1/2 in., 122
+
+ Early Purple Orchis. 6-18 ins. Pu.P. or W., 5/8 in., 122
+
+ Fox-tail Grass., 122
+
+
+ 5. BOGS, MARSHES AND WET PLACES--SPRING.
+
+ Marsh Marigold. 9-18 ins. Y. 1-1/4 in., 123
+
+ Marsh Violet. 2-6 ins. Li. 5/8 in., 123
+
+ Sundew. 2-6 ins. W. 3/16 in., 355
+
+ Marsh Stitchwort. 6-18 ins. W. 1/2 in., 124
+
+ Bog Stitchwort. 4-12 ins. W. 3/16 in., 124
+
+ Marsh Cinquefoil. 6-18 ins. Pu.Br. 7/8 in., 124
+
+ Common Golden Saxifrage 2-5 ins. Y. 1/8 in., 125
+
+ Alternate-leaved Golden Saxifrage. 2-5 ins. Y. 1/8 in., 125
+
+ Marsh Pennywort. Creeping. W. 1/16 in., 126
+
+ Marsh Valerian. 6-8 ins. p.Ro. 1/8 in., 126
+
+ Marsh Trefoil. 6-12 ins. P.W. 3/4 in., 127
+
+ Red Rattle. 6-18 ins. C. 5/8 in., 127
+
+ Willows., 128
+
+ Yellow Flag. 2-4 ft. Y. 3 ins., 129
+
+
+ 6. WOODS, THICKETS AND COPSES--SUMMER.
+
+ Lime Tree. 20-50 ft. Y.G. 3/8 in., 130
+
+ Tutsan. 1-3 ft. Y. 3/4 in., 132
+
+ Rose of Sharon. 10-18 ins. Y. 3 ins., 132
+
+ Common St. John's Wort. 1-2 ft. Y. 3/4 in., 132
+
+ Hairy St John's Wort. 1-3 ft. Y. 3/4 in., 133
+
+ Wood Crane's-bill. 1-2 ft. Bl.Pu. 1 in., 133
+
+ Dyer's Green-weed. 1-2 ft. Y. 5/8 in., 134
+
+ Sweet Milk Vetch. 2-3 ft. p.Y. or Cr. 1/4 in., 135
+
+ Tuberous Bitter Vetch. 6-12 ins. R.Pu. 3/8 in., 135
+
+ Narrow-leaved Everlasting Pea. 2-6 ft. p.Pu. 3/4 in., 136
+
+ Wild Raspberry. 3-5 ft. W. 7/16 in., 136
+
+ Rose Bay Willow herb. 2-6 ft. Ro. 1 in., 137
+
+ Pale Smooth-leaved Willow-herb. 1-2 ft. Ro. 3/8 in., 137
+
+ Enchanter's Nightshade. 1-2 ft. W. 1/4 in., 138
+
+ Dogwood. 5-8 ft. Y.W. 1/2 in. (Shrub), 138
+
+ Wood Sanicle. 1-2 ft. P.W. 1/16 in., 139
+
+ Angelica. 2-4 ft. W. 1/8 in., 139
+
+ Elder Tree. 12-20 ft. W. or Cr. 1/4 in., 140
+
+ Guelder Rose. 6-9 ft. W. 3/16 to 5/8 in. (Shrub)., 141
+
+ Great Valerian. 2-4 ft. P.W. 3/16 in., 142
+
+ Succory-leaved Hawk's-beard 1-3 ft. Y. Head 7/8 in., 142
+
+ Saw-wort. 1-3 ft. Pu. or C. Heads 5/16 in., 142
+
+ Golden Rod. 6-24 ins. Y. Heads 7/16 in., 142
+
+ Great Leopard's-bane. 2-3 ft. Y. 1-1/2 ins., 143
+
+ Plantain-leaved Leopard's-bane. 2-3 ft. Y. 2 ins., 143
+
+ Giant Bell-flower. 3-5 ft. Bl. 1-1/4 ins., 144
+
+ Creeping Bell-flower. 1-2 ft. Bl. 1 in., 144
+
+ Nettle-leaved Bell-flower. 1-3 ft. Bl. 1 in., 144
+
+ Ivy-leaved Bell-flower. Creeping. p.Bl. 5/16 in., 144
+
+ Holly Tree. 10-30 ft. W. 5/16 in., 145
+
+ Privet (shrub). 4-12 ft. W. 5/16 in., 145
+
+ Common Cow-wheat. 6-18 ins. p.Y. 1/4 in., 146
+
+ Crested Cow-wheat. 6-20 ins. Y. and Pu. 3/16 in., 147
+
+ Wood Cow-wheat. 6-20 ins. d. Y. 1/8-3/16 in., 147
+
+ Foxglove. 2-6 ft. Pu. or W. 7/8 in., 148
+
+ Wood Betony. 1-2 ft. Pu., C., P. or W. 3/8 in., 149
+
+ Wood Forget-me-not. 1-2 ft. Bl. 3/8 in., 150
+
+ Millet Grass., 150
+
+ Bearded Wheat., 150
+
+ Slender False Brome Grass., 150
+
+
+ 7. WAYSIDES AND WASTE GROUND--SUMMER.
+
+ Wild Clematis. 4-10 ft. W. 3/4 in., 151
+
+ Hedge Mustard. 1-2 ft. Y. 1/10 in., 152
+
+ Felix Weed. 1-2 ft. G.Y. 1/16 in., 152
+
+ Dyer's Weed. 2-3 ft. Y. 3/16 in., 153
+
+ Deptford Pink. 12-18 ins. Ro. 1/2 in., 153
+
+ Red Campion. 1-2 ft. R. 7/8 in., 153
+
+ Common Mallow. 2-3 ft. Li. 1-1/4 in., 155
+
+ Dwarf Mallow. 6-24 ins. Li. 5/8 in., 155
+
+ Musk Mallow. 2-3 ft. Ro. or W. 1-1/2 in., 156
+
+ Round-leaved Crane's-bill. 6-12 ins. P. 3/8 in., 158
+
+ Bloody Crane's-bill. 1-2 ft. C. 1 in., 158
+
+ Small-flowered Crane's-bill. 6-18 ins. Li. 1/3 in., 158
+
+ Hemlock Stork's-bill. 6-18 ins. Ro. or W. 1/2 in., 160
+
+ Bird's-foot Trefoil. 6-15 ins. Y. or O. 1/2 in., 160
+
+ Hairy Tare. 1-2 ft. p.Bl. 1/8 in., 161
+
+ Slender Tare. 1-2 ft. Bl. 1/8 in., 161
+
+ Tufted Vetch. 3-6 ft. Bl.Pu. 1/4 in., 162
+
+ Herb Bennet. 1-2 ft. Y. 5/8 in., 164
+
+ Dog Rose. 4-8 ft. P. or W. 2 ins., 164
+
+ Silver Weed. 6-12 ins. Y. 7/8 in., 165
+
+ Hoary Cinquefoil. 6-18 ins. Y. 1/2 in., 166
+
+ Creeping Cinquefoil. 6-18 ins. Y. 3/4 in., 166
+
+ Agrimony. 1-2 ft. Y. 3/8 in., 166
+
+ Broad Smooth-leaved Willow-herb. 1-2 ft. p.Pu. 3/8 in., 166
+
+ Orpine. 10-20 ins. R.Pu. 3/8 in., 166
+
+ Hemlock. 2-6 ft. W. 1/16 in., 169
+
+ Fool's Parsley. 12-18 ins. W. 1/16 in., 170
+
+ Wild Parsnip. 2-3 ft. Y. 1/10 in., 170
+
+ Cow Parsnip. 4-5 ft. R.W. Outer flowers 3/8 in., 170
+
+ Upright Hedge Parsley. 2-3 ft. W. or P. 1/8 in., 171
+
+ Rough Chervil. 1-3 ft. W. 1/8 in., 171
+
+ Honeysuckle. 10-12 ft. Y. and R. 1 in., 172
+
+ Upright Honeysuckle. 3-6 ft. p.Y. 1/4 in., 172
+
+ Perfoliate Honeysuckle. 10-12 ft. R.W. 1-1/4 in., 172
+
+ Great Hedge Bedstraw. 2-5 ft. W. 3/16 in., 172
+
+ Goose Grass. 2-5 ft. W. 1/10 in., 173
+
+ Teasel. 3-6 ft. p.Pu. Heads 2 ins., 173
+
+
+ 8. WAYSIDES AND WASTE GROUND--SUMMER.
+
+ (COMPOSITE FLOWERS ONLY.)
+
+ Yellow Goat's-beard. 1-2 ft. Y. Heads 1-1/4 in., 177
+
+ Bristly Ox-tongue. 2-3 ft. Y. Heads 7/8 in., 177
+
+ Hawkweed Picris. 2-3 ft. Y. Heads 1 in., 178
+
+ Strong-scented Lettuce. 3-4 ft. p.Y. Heads 3/8 in., 178
+
+ Prickly Lettuce. 3-4 ft. Y. Heads 1/4 in., 179
+
+ Sharp-fringed Sow Thistle. 2-3 ft. Y. Heads 3/4 in., 179
+
+ Common Sow Thistle. 2-3 ft. Y. Heads 3/4 in., 180
+
+ Smooth Hawk's-beard. 1/2-3 ft. Y. Heads 1/2 in., 180
+
+ Shrubby Hawkweed. 2-4 ft. Y. Heads 3/4 in., 181
+
+ Nipplewort. 1-2 ft. Y. Heads 3/8 in., 181
+
+ Chicory. 1-3 ft. Bl. Heads 1-1/2 in., 182
+
+ Burdock. 2-6 ft. Pu. Heads 3/4 in., 182
+
+ Welted Thistle. 1-3 ft. Pu. Heads 3/4 in., 183
+
+ Spear Thistle. 1-5 ft. Pu. Heads 1-1/4 in., 183
+
+ Creeping Thistle. 2-4 ft. Pu. Heads 3/4 in., 184
+
+ Tansy. 3 ft. Y. Heads 1/2 in., 185
+
+ Mugwort. 2-4 ft. Br.Y. Heads 1/8 in., 185
+
+ Wormwood. 1-2 ft. Y. Heads 3/16 in., 186
+
+ Common Ragwort. 1-4 ft. Y. Heads 7/8 in., 187
+
+ Feverfew. 1-2 ft. Y. and W. Heads 5/8 in., 187
+
+ Scentless Mayweed. 1-2 ft. Y. and W. Heads 1-1/4-2 in., 188
+
+ Milfoil. 6-18 ins. W. Heads 5/16 in., 189
+
+
+ 9. WAYSIDES AND WASTE GROUND--SUMMER (_continued_).
+
+ Rampion Bellflower. 2-3 ft. Bl. 5/8 in., 190
+
+ Great Bindweed. 4-6 ft. W. 2 ins., 190
+
+ Great Dodder. Parasitic. P. Heads 1/2 in., 341
+
+ Lesser Dodder. Parasitic. P. Heads 1/4 in., 341
+
+ Flax Dodder. Parasitic. P. Heads 1/2 in., 341
+
+ Clover Dodder. Parasitic. P. Heads 1/4 in., 341
+
+ Henbane. 1-2 ft. Y. 7/8 in., 191
+
+ Black Nightshade. 1/2-2 ft. W. 7/16 in., 192
+
+ Woody Nightshade. 3-6 ft. Pu. 7/16 in., 192
+
+ Deadly Nightshade. 2-3 ft. Pu. 5/8 in., 194
+
+ Red Bartsia. 6-18 ins. R. 1/4 in., 195
+
+ Yellow Toadflax. 1-3 ft. Y. 3/8 in., 195
+
+ Vervein. 1-2 ft. Li. 1/8 in., 196
+
+ Common Calamint. 1-2 ft. Pu. 1/3 in., 198
+
+ Lesser Calamint. 1-2 ft. Pu. 1/4 in., 198
+
+ Balm. 1-3 ft. W. 3/8 in., 198
+
+ Black Horehound. 2-3 ft. Pu. 1/3 in., 199
+
+ Hedge Woundwort. 1-3 ft. R.Pu. 1/3 in., 199
+
+ Field Scorpion Grass. 6-18 ins. Bl. 3/16 in., 200
+
+ Gromwell. 12-18 ins. P.Y. 3/16 in., 200
+
+ Borage. 1-2 ft. B. 7/8 in., 200
+
+ Common Alkanet. 1-2 ft. B. 7/16 in., 201
+
+ Evergreen Alkanet. 1-2 ft. B. 3/8 in., 201
+
+ Hound's-tongue. 1-2 ft. R.Pu. 3/8 in., 201
+
+ Buck's-horn Plantain. 2-9 ins. G. Spike 1-2 ins., 202
+
+ Stinking Goose-foot. 6-15 ins. G. 1/16 in., 203
+
+ Many-seeded Goose-foot. 8-20 ins. G. 1/16 in., 203
+
+ Upright Goose-foot. 1-3 ft. G. 1/10 in., 203
+
+ White Goose-foot. 1-3 ft. G. 1/10 in., 204
+
+ Fig-leaved Goose-foot. 1-2 ft. G. 1/16 in., 204
+
+ Red Goose-foot. 1-3 ft. G. 1/16 in., 204
+
+ Mercury Goose-foot. 1-3 ft. G. 1/10 in., 204
+
+ Orache. 1/2-3 ft. G. 1/16 in., 204
+
+ Spotted Persicaria. 1-2 ft. G.Ro. 1/8 in., 205
+
+ Pale Persicaria. 2-4 ft. G.P. 1/8 in., 206
+
+ Knot-grass. 2-3 ft. Variable 1/8 in., 206
+
+ Broad-leaved Dock. 2-3 ft. R.G. 1/8 in., 206
+
+ Curled Dock. 2-3 ft. R.G. 1/8 in., 207
+
+ Sun Spurge. 6-18 ins. G.Y. 1/4 in., 208
+
+ Petty Spurge. 6-12 ins. Y. 1/6 in., 208
+
+ Small Nettle. 1-2 ft. G. 1/10 in., 209
+
+ Great Nettle. 1-4 ft. G. 1/10 in., 209
+
+ Roman Nettle. 1-2 ft. G. 1/5 in., 209
+
+ Hop. 12-20 ft. G.Y. Male racemes 3-1/2 ins. long.
+ Female heads 5/8 in., 210
+
+ Canary Grass., 210
+
+
+ 10. MEADOWS, FIELDS AND PASTURES--SUMMER.
+
+ Upright Buttercup. 1/2-3 ft. Y. 7/8 in., 211
+
+ Pale Hairy Crowfoot. 1/2-1 ft. p.Y. 3/4 in., 212
+
+ Gold of Pleasure. 1-3 ft. Y. 1/8 in., 212
+
+ Bladder Campion. 2-3 ft. W. 5/8 in., 213
+
+ White Campion. 1-2 ft. W. 1 in., 213
+
+ Kidney Vetch. 6-12 ins. Y. or O. 1/4 in., 214
+
+ Lucerne. 1-2 ft. Pu. or Bl. 1/4 in., 215
+
+ Common Melilot. 2-4 ft. Y. 1/8 in., 215
+
+ Field Melilot. 1-2 ft. Y. 1/16 in., 216
+
+ White Melilot. 2-3 ft. W. 1/8 in., 216
+
+ Clustered Clover. 6-12 ins. Pu. or P. 1/8 in., 216
+
+ Strawberry Trefoil. 6-12 ins. Ro. 1/16 in. Heads 1/4 in.
+ or more., 216
+
+ Hare's-foot Trefoil. 6-12 ins. 1/16 in. Heads 3/8 in., 217
+
+ Crimson Clover. 6-16 ins. C. or P. 1/4 in. Heads 1 in.
+ or more., 217
+
+ Hop Trefoil. 6-20 ins. Y. 1/16 in. Heads 1/4 in., 217
+
+ Lesser Yellow Trefoil. 6-18 ins. p.Y. 1/10 in. Heads 1/4 in., 218
+
+ Meadow Vetchling. 1-2 ft. Y. 1/2 in., 218
+
+ Great Burnet. 1-2 ft. Pu. 1/8 in. Heads 5/8 in., 218
+
+ Lady's Mantle. 6-18 ins. Y.G. 3/16 in., 218
+
+ Meadow Sweet. 2-4 ft. Cr. W. 1/4 in., 218
+
+ Burnet Saxifrage. 1-2 ft. W. 1/16 in., 219
+
+ Wild Carrot. 1-2 ft. p.Pu. or W. 1/8 in., 220
+
+ Devil's-bit Scabious. 1-2 ft. Bl.Pu. Heads 3/4 in., 220
+
+ Rough Hawkbit. 4-12 ins. Y. Heads 1-1/4 in., 222
+
+ Autumnal Hawkbit. 6-18 ins. Y. Heads 1 in., 223
+
+ Meadow Thistle. 12-18 ins. Pu. Heads 1-1/8 in., 224
+
+ Black Knapweed. 1/2-3 ft. Pu. Heads 1-1/4 in., 224
+
+ Great Knapweed. 2-3 ft. Pu. or W. Heads 2 ins., 225
+
+ Common Fleabane. 1/2-2 ft. Y. Heads 3/4 in., 225
+
+ Small Fleabane. 6-12 ins. Y. Heads 3/8 in., 226
+
+ Ox-eye Daisy. 1-2 ft. Y. and W. 1-3/4 in., 227
+
+ Sneeze-wort. 1-2 ft. W. 1/2 in., 227
+
+ Centaury. 6-18 ins. Ro. or P. 3/8 in., 227
+
+ Small Bindweed. 1/2-2 ft. P. 1 in., 228
+
+ Meadow Clary. 1-2 ft. Bl. 5/8 in., 229
+
+ Marjoram. 9-18 ins. Ro. Pu. 3/16 in., 231
+
+ Self-heal. 4-10 ins. V. or Pu. 1/4 in., 232
+
+ Greater Plantain. 2-9 ins. G. 1/8 in. Spike 5-8 ins., 232
+
+ Ribwort Plantain. 2-10 ins. G. 1/8 in. Spike 1 in., 233
+
+ Marsh Orchis. 1-2 ft. W. to Pu. 5/8 in., 233
+
+ Butterfly Orchis. 6-14 ins. W. or G.W. 1/2-3/4 in., 234
+
+ Cat's-tail Grass., 233
+
+ Meadow Barley., 233
+
+ Sheep's Fescue Grass., 234
+
+ Rye Grass or Darnel., 234
+
+ Cock's-foot Grass., Plate IV
+
+
+ 12. BOGS, MARSHES, AND WET PLACES--SUMMER.
+
+ Lesser Spearwort. 4-12 ins. Y. 1/2 in., 236
+
+ Greater Spearwort. 2-4 ft. Y. 1 to 1-1/2 ins., 236
+
+ Water Cress. 1-3 ft. W. 1/4 in., 236
+
+ Marsh Yellow Cress. 1-2 ft. Y. 1/8 in., 237
+
+ Amphibious Yellow Cress. 2-3 ft. Y. 1/4 in., 237
+
+ Marsh Mallow. 2-3 ft. Ro. 1-3/8 in., 238
+
+ Marsh St. John's Wort. 6-12 ins. Y. 1/2 in., 238
+
+ Marsh Pea. 2-3 ft. Bl.Pu. 1/2 in., 239
+
+ Great Hairy Willow-herb. 3-6 ft. d.Ro. 7/8 in., 239
+
+ Marsh Willow-herb. 6-18 ins. P. 5/16 in., 240
+
+ Square-stalked Willow-herb. 1-2 ft. Ro. 3/8 in., 240
+
+ Purple Loosestrife. 2-4 ft. P. or Pu. 3/4 in., 240
+
+ Procumbent Marsh-wort. 2-3 ft. W. 1/16 in., 240
+
+ Water Hemlock. 3-4 ft. W. 1/16 in., 241
+
+ Common Water Dropwort. 2-3 ft. W. 3/16 in., 242
+
+ Hemlock Water Dropwort. 2-5 ft. W. 3/16 in., 242
+
+ Fine-leaved Water Dropwort. 1-4 ft. W. 1/8 in., 243
+
+ Marsh Thistle. 2-8 ft. Pu. or W. Heads 5/8 in., 243
+
+ Nodding Bur Marigold. 1-2 ft. G.Y. Heads 3/4 in., 244
+
+ Trifid Bur Marigold. 1-2 ft. G.Y. Heads 1/2 in., 244
+
+ Marsh Ragwort. 1-3 ft. Y. Heads 1 in., 244
+
+ Marsh Speedwell. 4-8 ins. p.P. or W. 5/16 in., 244
+
+ Water Speedwell. 1/2-2 ft. Li. or W. 3/16 in., 245
+
+ Brooklime. 1-2 ft. Bl. or P. 1/3 in., 245
+
+ Water Figwort. 2-4 ft. G.Br. or Pu. 1/4 in., 246
+
+ Knotted Figwort. 1-3 ft. G.Br. or Pu. 3/16 in., 246
+
+ Gipsy-wort. 1-3 ft. W. 1/8 in., 246
+
+ Round-leaved Mint. 1-3 ft. Li. 1/10 in., 247
+
+ Water Mint. 1-3 ft. Li. 1/8 in., 247
+
+ Marsh Whorled Mint. 2-5 ft. Li. 1/8 in., 248
+
+ Marsh Woundwort. 1-3 ft. p.Pu. or R. 3/8 in., 248
+
+ Forget-me-not. 12-18 ins. Bl. 3/8 in., 249
+
+ Creeping Water Scorpion-grass. 4-12 ins. Bl. 5/16 in., 249
+
+ Tufted Water Scorpion-grass. 5-18 ins. Bl. 3/16 in., 249
+
+ Bog Pimpernel. 3-4 ins. P. 3/8 in., 250
+
+ Water Pepper. 1-3 ft. P.G. 1/8 in., 250
+
+ Marsh Helleborine. 6-18 ins. W. 5/8 in., 250
+
+ Bog Asphodel. 6-10 ins. Y. 1/2 in., 251
+
+ Common Rush. 1-3 ft. Br. 1/8 in., 252
+
+ Hard Rush. 1-2 ft. Glossy Br. 1/8 in., 252
+
+ Shining-fruited Jointed Rush. 1-2 ft. Br. 1/8 in., 253
+
+ Toad Rush. 2-8 ins. Br. 1/10 in., 253
+
+ Common Cotton Grass., 254
+
+ Hare's-tail Cotton Grass., 255
+
+ Common Sedge., 256
+
+ Marsh Sedge., 256
+
+
+ 13. HEATH, DOWN AND MOOR--SPRING AND SUMMER.
+
+ Milkwort. 2-9 ins. W. Li. or Bl. 3/16 in., 259
+
+ Trailing St. John's-wort. 3-10 ins. Y. 3/8 in., 260
+
+ Small St. John's wort. 12-20 ins. Y. 1/2 in., 260
+
+ Broom. 2-6 ft. Y. 7/8 in. (Shrub), 260
+
+ Furze. 2-5 ft. Y. 5/8 in. (Shrub), 260
+
+ Dwarf Furze. 1-2 ft. Y. 1/2 in. (Shrub), 261
+
+ Needle Whin. 1/2-2 ft. Y. 3/8 in. (Shrub), 262
+
+ Common Rest Harrow. 1-2 ft. Ro. 5/8 in., 262
+
+ Spiny Rest Harrow. 6-12 ins. Ro. 5/8 in., 262
+
+ Dropwort. 12-18 ins. W. 3/8 in., 262
+
+ Tormentil. 6-10 ins. Y. 5/16 in., 262
+
+ Blackberry. 2-10 ft. W. or P. 1 in., 263
+
+ Yellow Bedstraw. 1/2-2 ft. Y. or G. 1/8 in., 263
+
+ Smooth Heath Bedstraw. 4-6 ins. W. 1/8 in., 263
+
+ Upright Bedstraw. 1-2 ft. W. 1/8 in., 264
+
+ Small Woodruff. 6-10 ins. W. or P. 3/16 in., 264
+
+ Small Scabious. 1-2 ft. p.Pu. or Li. Heads 1-1/8 ins., 265
+
+ Hairy Hawkbit. 3-8 ins. Y. Heads 3/4 in., 266
+
+ Musk Thistle. 1-3 ft. Pu. or C. Heads 1-3/4 ins., 266
+
+ Dwarf Thistle. 1-8 ins. Pu. Heads 1-1/2 ins., 266
+
+ Carline Thistle. 6-18 ins. Y. and Pu. Heads 1-1/4 in., 267
+
+ Chamomile. 6-12 ins. Y. and W. Heads 7/8 in., 268
+
+ Harebell. 6-20 ins. Bl. 3/4 in., 269
+
+ Clustered Bell-flower. 3-18 ins. Bl. 5/8 in., 269
+
+ Sheep's-bit. 6-12 ins. Bl. or Li. Heads 5/8 in., 270
+
+ Cross-leaved Heath. 12-18 ins. Ro. or W. 1/8 in., 270
+
+ Ciliated Heath. 12-18 ins. Ro. or C. 1/8 in., 271
+
+ Bell Heather. 1-2 ft. Pu., Ro. or W. 1/8 in., 271
+
+ Ling. 1-2 ft. Ro., Li. or W. 1/8 in., 271
+
+ Whortleberry. 6-18 ins. P. or G. 3/16 in., 272
+
+ Great Bilberry. 6-10 ins. p.P. 1/8 in., 272
+
+ Red Whortleberry. 6-18 ins. p.P. 3/16 in., 272
+
+ Marsh Gentian. 6-10 ins. d.B. 7/8 in., 273
+
+ Small-flowered Gentian. 3-12 ins. p.Pu. 3/8 in., 273
+
+ Lesser Dodder. Parasitic on Heaths, &c., 341
+
+ Eyebright. 1-8 ins. P. or Li. 3/8 in., 274
+
+ Pennyroyal. 2-10 ins. Li. 1/8 in., 274
+
+ Wild Thyme. 2-8 ins. Pu. 3/16 in., 274
+
+ Wood Sage. 1-2 ft. G.W. 5/16 in., 274
+
+ Lesser Skull-cap. 3-6 ins. p.P. 3/16 in., 275
+
+ Dwarf Willow. 1-3 ft. (Shrub), 276
+
+ Juniper. 1-5 ft. (Shrub), 276
+
+ Autumnal Lady's Tresses. 4-8 ins. W. 3/16 in., 277
+
+ Spotted Orchis. 6-15 ins. Pu., Li. or W. 1/2 in., 277
+
+ Butcher's Broom. (Shrub). 3-4 ft. W. 1/6 in., 278
+
+ Heath Rush. 4-10 ins., 279
+
+ Field Woodrush. 4-7 ins., 279
+
+ Quaking Grass., 280
+
+ Mat Grass., 280
+
+
+ 14. CORN FIELDS.
+
+ Pheasant's-eye. 6-12 ins. C. 5/16 in., 281
+
+ Mouse-tail. 2-6 ins. Y.G. 5/16 in., 281
+
+ Corn Crowfoot. 6-18 ins. p.Y. 3/8 in., 282
+
+ Field Larkspur. 9-18 ins. Bl., P., or W., 1 in., 282
+
+ Common Red Poppy. 1-2 ft. Sc. 2-3 ins., 283
+
+ Long-headed Poppy. 1-2 ft. Sc. 2 to 2-1/2 ins., 283
+
+ Long Prickly-headed Poppy. 6-10 ins. R. 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 ins., 283
+
+ Opium Poppy. 1-2 ft. W. or Bl. 2-1/4 to 2-1/2 ins., 284
+
+ Fumitory. 6-24 ins. P. or C. 1/16-3/16 in., 285
+
+ Wild Mustard. 1-2 ft. Y. 1/2 in., 286
+
+ White Mustard. 1-2 ft. Y. 3/8 in., 286
+
+ Black Mustard. 1-3 ft. Y. 3/8 to 1/2 in., 287
+
+ Wild Radish. 1-2 ft. W. Li., or p.Y., 3/4 in., 288
+
+ Corn Cockle. 1-3 ft. p.Pu., 1 in. or more., 289
+
+ Corn Spurrey. 6-18 ins. W. 1/4 in., 289
+
+ Common Flax. 12-18 ins. Bl. 7/8 in., 289
+
+ Shepherd's Needle. 3-12 ins. W. 1/16 in., 289
+
+ Field Madder. 5-10 ins. Li., 1/8 in., 290
+
+ Field Scabious. 1-4 ft. Li., Heads 1-1/2 in., 290
+
+ Corn Sow-thistle. 2-4 ft. Y. Heads 1-3/4 ins., 291
+
+ Corn Blue-bottle. 1-2 ft. Bl. Heads 1 in., 291
+
+ Corn Marigold. 12-18 ins. Y. Heads 1-1/4 in., 292
+
+ Corn Chamomile. 1-2 ft. Y. and W. Heads 1 in., 292
+
+ Stinking Chamomile. 9-15 ins. Y. and W. Heads 1 in., 293
+
+ Corn Bellflower. 6-10 ins. Pu.Bl. or W. 5/16 in., 293
+
+ Small Bugloss. 1/2-2 ft. p.Bl. 1/4 in., 294
+
+ Scarlet Pimpernel. 5-20 ins. Sc. 3/8 in., 294
+
+ Climbing Persicaria. 1-4 ft. p.G. 3/16 in., 295
+
+ Dwarf Spurge. 2-10 ins Y. 1/8 in., 295
+
+ Wild Oat Grass. 2-3 ft., 295
+
+
+ 15. ON THE CHALK.
+
+ Pasque Flower. 5-8 ins. Pu. 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 in., 297
+
+ Round Prickly-headed Poppy. 12-18 ins. C. 1-2 ins., 297
+
+ Bitter Candytuft. 6-9 ins. W., Li., or R., 1/4 in., 298
+
+ Wild Mignonette. 1-2 ft. Y. 3/16 in., 298
+
+ Rock Rose. 3-9 ins. Y. 3/4-1 in., 298
+
+ Hoary Rock Rose. 5-8 ins. Y. 3/8 in., 298
+
+ Hairy Violet. 3-6 ins. p.Bl., or W. 5/8 in., 298
+
+ Perennial Flax. 1-2 ft. Bl. 1 in., 299
+
+ Narrow-leaved Flax. 1-2 ft. Li. or Bl. 3/8 in., 299
+
+ Sain-foin. 1-2 ft. Ro.R. 1/2 in., 299
+
+ Tufted Horse-shoe Vetch. 5-20 ins. Y. 5/16 in., 299
+
+ Sweet Briar. 3-6 ft. Ro. 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 in., 300
+
+ Lesser Burnet. 6-18 ins. Pu. 1/8 in. Heads 1/2 in., 302
+
+ Rough-fruited Corn Bedstraw. 1-3 ft. W. 1/8 in., 302
+
+ Red Spur Valerian. 1-3 ft. Ro.R. 3/16 in., 302
+
+ Woolly-headed Plume Thistle. 3-5 ft. p.Pu. Heads 2-1/2 ins., 303
+
+ Ploughman's Spikenard. 2-5 ft. Y. Heads 3/8 in., 303
+
+ Field Gentian. 4-10 ins. Bl. Pu. 7/16 in., 304
+
+ Yellow-wort. 6-20 ins. Y. 5/8 in., 304
+
+ Great Mullein. 2-5 ft. p.Y. or W. 3/4 in., 304
+
+ White Mullein. 2-3 ft. W. or Cr. 3/8 in., 305
+
+ Yellow Hoary Mullein. 2-3 ft. Y. 5/8 in., 305
+
+ Dark Mullein. 2-3 ft. Y. 1/2 in., 305
+
+ Spiked Speedwell. 6-12 ins. Bl., or P. 5/16 in., 305
+
+ Wild Sage. 1-2 ft. Bl.Pu. 3/16 in., 306
+
+ Red Hemp Nettle. 9-12 ins. Ro. 5/16 in., 306
+
+ Viper's Bugloss. 1-3 ft. Ro. or Bl.Pu. 1/2 in., 306
+
+ Purple Viper's Bugloss. 1-3 ft. Bl. 3/8 in., 307
+
+ Lamb's-tongue. 3-12 ins. G. 1/8 in. Spikes 2-4 ins., 307
+
+ Broad-leaved Helleborine. 1-3 ft. G. and Pu. 1/4 in., 308
+
+ Large White Helleborine. 6-20 ins. Cr.W. 3/4 in., 308
+
+ Pyramidal Orchis. 6-18 ins. Ro., or W. 5/16 in., 308
+
+ Sweet-scented Orchis. 12-18 ins. Ro. 3/8 in., 309
+
+ Green Man Orchis. 6-12 ins. G.Y. 5/8 in., 309
+
+ Green Musk Orchis. 5-6 ins. G. 1/2 in., 309
+
+ Bee Orchis. 6-12 ins. Pu., Br., and P. 5/8 in., 310
+
+ Late Spider Orchis. 6-12 ins. Pu. 5/8 in., 310
+
+ Spider Orchis. 6-10 ins. Pu.Br. 3/4 in., 310
+
+ Fly Orchis. 6-12 ins. Br.Pu., and Bl. 5/8 in., 310
+
+ Downy Oat Grass. 1-2 ft., 311
+
+ Yellow Oat Grass. 1-2 ft., 311
+
+
+ 16. ON RIVER BANKS.
+
+ Common Meadow Rue. 1-4 ft. p.Y. 1/2 in., 312
+
+ Meadow Crane's-bill. 1-4 ft. Bl.Pu. 1 to 1-1/4 in., 312
+
+ Hemp Agrimony. 2-6 ft. Li. Flowers 1/8 in. in small heads., 313
+
+ Common Skull-cap. 8-16 ins. Bl. 1/4 in., 313
+
+ Comfrey. 2-3 ft. Y.W., or Pu. 3/8 in., 315
+
+ Yellow Loosestrife. 2-3 ft. Y. 5/8 in., 315
+
+ Purple Loosestrife. 2-4 ft. P. or Pu. 3/4 in., 240
+
+ Great Water Dock. 3-6 ft. R.G. 1/8 in., 317
+
+ Willows and Sallows., 317
+
+
+ 17. ON WALLS, ROOFS, AND ROCKS.
+
+ Wallflower. 6-12 ins. Y. or O. 7/8 in., 320
+
+ Wall Rocket. 1-3 ft. p.Y. 5/8 in., 320
+
+ Vernal Sandwort. 2-4 ins. W. 3/8 in., 320
+
+ Shining Crane's-bill. 6-18 ins. Ro. 1/4 in., 320
+
+ English Stonecrop. 2-3 ins. W. or P. 5/16 in., 321
+
+ White Stonecrop. 3-7 ins. W. or P. 1/4 in., 322
+
+ Biting Stonecrop. 2-4 ins. Y. 1/2 in., 322
+
+ House Leek. 9-18 ins. Pu. or P. 3/4 in., 323
+
+ Wall Pennywort. 6-18 ins. Y.G. 3/16 in., 323
+
+ London Pride. 6-12 ins. W., or P. 1/4 in., 324
+
+ Starry Saxifrage. 3-7 ins. W. 7/16 in., 325
+
+ Yellow Mountain Saxifrage. 5-6 ins. Y. 5/8 in., 325
+
+ Rue-leaved Saxifrage. 3-5 ins. W. 1/8 in., 325
+
+ Mossy Saxifrage. 3-10 ins. W. 5/8 in., 326
+
+ Snapdragon. 1-2 ft. W. to C. 3/4 in., 326
+
+ Ivy-leaved Toadflax. 3-20 ins. Li. 3/16 in., 327
+
+ Wall Pellitory. 6-24 ins. G. 1/16 in., 327
+
+
+ 18. AUTUMN FLOWERS.
+
+ (Most of the following flowers bloom during the summer, and have been
+ included in foregoing lists; but these, together with the few new
+ species named, may be seen in flower during the autumn months.)
+
+ Pheasant's-eye. 6-12 ins. C. 5/16 in. (Fields), 281
+
+ Hairy Crowfoot. 6-12 ins. Y. 3/4 in. (Fields), 212
+
+ Shepherd's Purse. 6-18 ins. W. 1/10 in. (Waysides), 81
+
+ Rock Rose. 3-9 ins. Y. 7/8 in. (Banks), 298
+
+ Chickweed. 3-12 ins. W. 3/16 in. (Waysides), 87
+
+ Herb Robert. 1-2 ft. P. 1/2 in. (Waysides), 90
+
+ Silver Weed. 6-12 ins. Y. 7/8 in. (Waysides), 165
+
+ Ivy. Climbing. p.G. 3/8 in. (Walls and Woods), 339
+
+ Yellow Bedstraw. 1/2-2 ft. Y. or G. 1/8 in. (Downs), 263
+
+ Small Scabious. 1-2 ft. Li. Heads 1-1/8 in. (Heaths), 265
+
+ Devil's-bit Scabious. 1-2 ft. Pu.Bl. Heads 3/4 in. (Pastures), 220
+
+ Field Scabious. 1-4 ft. Li. Heads 1-1/2 ins. (Fields), 290
+
+ Dandelion. 2-8 ins. Y. Heads 1-3/4 in. (Meadows, &c.), 116
+
+ Carline Thistle. 6-18 ins. Y. and Pu. Heads 1-1/4 in. (Downs), 267
+
+ Black Knapweed. 1/2-3 ft. Pu. Heads 1-1/4 in. (Meadows), 224
+
+ Great Knapweed. 2-3 ft. Pu., or W. Heads 2 in. (Fields), 225
+
+ Groundsel. 6-12 ins. Y. Heads 3/16 in. (Waysides), 98
+
+ Fleabane. 6-24 ins. Y. Heads 7/8 in. (Moist places), 225
+
+ Daisy. 2-6 ins. Y. and W. Heads 3/4 in. (Pastures), 116
+
+ Scentless Mayweed. 1-2 ft. Y., and W. Heads 1-1/4-2 ins.
+ (Waysides), 188
+
+ Chamomile. 6-12 ins. Y. and W. Heads 7/8 in. (Waysides), 268
+
+ Milfoil. 8-18 ins. W. Heads 5/16 in. (Waysides), 189
+
+ Ling. 1-2 ft. Ro. or W. 1/8 in. (Moors), 271
+
+ Fine-leaved Heath. 1-2 ft. P. or W. 1/8 in. (Moors), 271
+
+ Strawberry Tree. 8-12 ft. Cr. 3/16 in. (Woods--Ireland), 338
+
+ Dark Mullein. 2-3 ft. Y. 1/2 in. (On chalk), 305
+
+ Yellow Toadflax. 1-3 ft. Y. 3/8 in. (Waysides, fields), 195
+
+ Wild Clary or Sage. 1-2 ft. Bl.Pu. 3/16 in. (On chalk), 306
+
+ White Dead Nettle. 6-20 ins. W. 5/8 in. (Waste places), 102
+
+ Red Dead Nettle. 6-18 ins. Pu. 1/4 in. (Waste places), 103
+
+ Red Hemp Nettle. 8-12 ins. Ro. 5/16 in. (Fields, &c.), 306
+
+ White Goose-foot. 1-3 ft. G. 1/10 in. (Waste places), 204
+
+ Halberd-leaved Orache. 1/2-3 ft. G. 1/16. (Waste places), 204
+
+ Spotted Persicaria. 1-2 ft. Ro. and G. 1/8 in. (Wastes), 205
+
+ Knot-grass. 1-2 ft. Variable. 1/8 in. (Waste places), 206
+
+ Petty Spurge. 6-12 ins. Y. 1/6 in. (Waste places), 208
+
+ Wall Pellitory. 1/2-2 ft. G. 1/16 in. (Walls), 327
+
+ Annual Meadow Grass. 3-10 ins., 107
+
+
+ 19. PARASITIC PLANTS.
+
+ Greater Dodder--On Hops, Nettles, and Trees., 341
+
+ Flax Dodder--On Flax., 341
+
+ Lesser Dodder--On Thyme, Ling, &c., 341
+
+ Clover Dodder--On Clover., 341
+
+ Toothwort--On roots of Trees., 344
+
+ Great Broomrape--On roots of Furze and Broom., 345
+
+ Clove Broomrape--On roots of Bedstraw., 345
+
+ Tall Broomrape--On roots of Knapweed., 346
+
+ Least Broomrape--On various roots., 346
+
+ Mistletoe--On branches of Trees., 346
+
+ Eyebright--On roots of Grasses, &c., 349
+
+ Yellow Rattle--On roots of Grasses, &c., 349
+
+ Cow-wheat--On roots of Grasses, &c., 349
+
+ Lousewort--On roots of Grasses, &c., 349
+
+
+ 20. CARNIVOROUS PLANTS.
+
+ Bladderworts--Aquatic., 350
+
+ Tooth-wort--At roots of Trees., 351
+
+ Butterworts--Marshes., 353
+
+ Sundews--Marshes., 353
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF FLOWERS
+
+CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR ORDERS AND GENERA
+
+
+ RANUNCULACEÆ
+
+ PAGE
+ _Clematis Vitalba_, 151
+ _Thalictrum flavum_, 312
+ _Anemone Pulsatilla_, 297
+ " _nemorosa_, 48
+ _Adonis autumnalis_, 281
+ _Myosurus minimus_, 281
+ _Ranunculus Ficaria_, 108
+ " _Lingua_, 236
+ " _Flammula_, 236
+ " _auricomus_, 50
+ " _acris_, 211
+ " _repens_, 109
+ " _bulbosus_, 110
+ " _hirsutus_, 212
+ " _arvensis_, 282
+ _Caltha palustris_, 123
+ _Helleborus viridis_, 49
+ " _foetidus_, 49
+ _Aquilegia vulgaris_, 50
+ _Delphinium Ajacis_, 282
+
+
+ BERBERACEÆ
+
+ _Berberis vulgaris_, 61
+
+
+ PAPAVERACEÆ
+
+ _Papaver hybridum_, 297
+ " _Argemone_, 283
+ " _dubium_, 283
+ " _Rhoeas_, 283
+ " _somniferum_, 284
+ _Chelidonium majus_, 81
+
+
+ FUMARIACEÆ
+
+ _Fumaria officinalis_, 285
+
+
+ CRUCIFERÆ
+
+ _Thlaspi arvense_, 110
+ _Capsella Bursa-pastoris_, 81
+ _Iberis amara_, 298
+ _Cochlearia officinalis_, 82
+ _Draba verna_, 82
+ _Camelina sativa_, 212
+ _Cardamine pratensis_, 111
+ _Barbarea vulgaris_, 83
+ " _præcox_, 84
+ _Nasturtium officinale_, 236
+ " _palustre_, 237
+ " _amphibium_, 237
+ _Sisymbrium officinale_, 152
+ " _Sophia_, 152
+ " _Thaliana_, 84
+ " _alliaria_, 84
+ _Cheiranthus cheiri_, 320
+ _Brassica napus_, 85
+ " _Rapa_, 85
+ " _arvensis_, 286
+ " _alba_, 286
+ " _nigra_, 287
+ _Diplotaxis tenuifolia_, 320
+ _Raphanus Raphanistrum_, 288
+
+
+ RESEDACEÆ
+
+ _Reseda luteola_, 153
+ " _lutea_, 298
+
+
+ CISTACEÆ
+
+ _Helianthemum vulgare_, 298
+ " _canum_, 298
+
+
+ VIOLACEÆ
+
+ _Viola palustris_, 123
+ " _odorata_, 85
+ " _hirta_, 298
+ " _canina_, 50
+ " _tricolor_, 111
+
+
+ DROSERACEÆ
+
+ _Drosera rotundifolia_, 355
+ " _intermedia_, 355
+ " _anglica_, 355
+
+
+ POLYGALACEÆ
+
+ _Polygala vulgaris_, 259
+
+
+ CARYOPHYLLACEÆ
+
+ _Dianthus Armeria_, 153
+ _Silene inflata_, 213
+ _Lychnis Flos-cuculi_, 112
+ " _diurna_, 153
+ " _vespertina_, 213
+ " _Githago_, 289
+ _Sagina ciliata_, 85
+ " _procumbens_, 85
+ _Spergula arvensis_, 289
+ _Stellaria media_, 87
+ " _Holostea_, 86
+ " _glauca_, 124
+ " _graminea_, 87
+ " _uliginosa_, 124
+ _Arenaria verna_, 320
+ _Cerastium glomeratum_, 88
+ " _triviale_, 88
+
+
+ LINACEÆ
+
+
+ _Linum usitatissimum_, 289
+ " _perenne_, 299
+ " _angustifolium_, 299
+
+
+ MALVACEÆ
+
+ _Malva moschata_, 156
+ " _sylvestris_, 155
+ " _rotundifolia_, 155
+ _Althæa officinalis_, 238
+
+
+ TILIACEÆ
+
+ _Tilia vulgaris_, 130
+
+
+ HYPERICACEÆ
+
+ _Hypericum Androsæmum_, 132
+ " _calycinum_, 132
+ " _perforatum_, 132
+ " _humifusum_, 260
+ " _pulchrum_, 260
+ " _hirsutum_, 13
+ " _Elodes_, 238
+
+
+ ACERACEÆ
+
+ _Acer campestre_, 63
+ " _Pseudo-platanus_, 62
+
+
+ GERANIACEÆ
+
+ _Geranium sanguineum_, 158
+ " _sylvaticum_, 133
+ " _pratense_, 312
+ " _rotundifolium_, 158
+ " _pusillum_, 158
+ " _molle_, 89
+ " _dissectum_, 89
+ " _Robertianum_, 90
+ " _lucidum_, 320
+ _Erodium cicutarium_, 160
+
+
+ OXALIDACEÆ
+
+ _Oxalis Acetosella_, 52
+
+
+ CELASTRACEÆ
+
+ _Euonymus europæus_, 64
+
+
+ LEGUMINOSÆ
+
+ _Sarothamus scoparius_, 260
+ _Ulex europæus_, 260
+ " _nanus_, 261
+ _Genista tinctoria_, 134
+ " _anglica_, 262
+ _Ononis arvensis_, 262
+ " _spinosa_, 262
+ _Anthyllis Vulneraria_, 214
+ _Medicago sativa_, 215
+ " _lupulina_, 90
+ " _maculata_, 112
+ " _denticulata_, 112
+ _Melilotus officinalis_, 215
+ _Trifolium subterraneum_, 113
+ " _glomeratum_, 216
+ " _hybridum_, 113
+ " _repens_, 113
+ " _fragiferum_, 216
+ " _arvense_, 217
+ " _incarnatum_, 217
+ " _pratense_, 113
+ " _procumbens_, 217
+ " _minus_, 218
+ _Lotus corniculatus_, 160
+ _Astragalus glycyphyllos_, 135
+ _Ornithopus perpusillus_, 92
+ _Hippocrepis comosa_, 299
+ _Onobrychis sativa_, 299
+ _Vicia Cracca_, 162
+ " _lathyroides_, 114
+ " _sativa_, 115
+ " _sepium_, 92
+ " _hirsuta_, 161
+ " _tetrasperma_, 161
+ _Lathyrus Nissolia_, 92
+ " _pratensis_, 218
+ " _sylvestris_, 136
+ " _macrorrhizus_, 135
+ " _palustris_, 239
+
+
+ ROSACEÆ
+
+ _Prunus spinosa_, 65
+ " _insititia_, 66
+ " _Padus_, 64
+ " _Cerasus_, 64
+ " _Avium_, 65
+ _Spiræa Ulmaria_, 218
+ " _Filipendula_, 262
+ _Geum urbanum_, 164
+ _Potentilla anserina_, 165
+ " _argentea_, 166
+ " _reptans_, 166
+ " _Tormentilla_, 262
+ " _Fragariastrum_, 93
+ _Comarum palustre_, 124
+ _Fragaria vesca_, 53
+ _Rubus Idæus_, 136
+ " _fruticosus_, 263
+ _Rosa rubiginosa_, 300
+ " _canina_, 164
+ _Agrimonia Eupatoria_, 166
+ _Sanguisorba officinalis_, 218
+ _Poterium Sanguisorba_, 302
+ _Alchemilla vulgaris_, 218
+ _Cratægus Oxyacantha_, 66
+ _Pyrus communis_, 66
+ " _Malus_, 66
+ " _torminalis_, 67
+ " _Aria_, 68
+ " _Aucuparia_, 68
+
+
+ ONAGRACEÆ
+
+ _Epilobium angustifolium_, 137
+ " _hirsutum_, 239
+ " _montanum_, 166
+ " _roseum_, 137
+ " _palustre_, 240
+ " _tetragonum_, 240
+ _Circæa lutetiana_, 138
+
+
+ LYTHRACEÆ
+
+ _Lythrum Salicaria_, 240
+
+
+ CUCURBITACEÆ
+
+ _Bryonia dioica_, 94
+
+
+ GROSSULARIACEÆ
+
+ _Ribes nigrum_, 69
+ " _rubrum_, 69
+
+
+ CRASSULACEÆ
+
+ _Sedum Telephium_, 166
+ " _anglicum_, 321
+ " _album_, 322
+ " _acre_, 322
+ _Sempervivum tectorum_, 323
+ _Cotyledon umbilicus_, 323
+
+
+ SAXIFRAGACEÆ
+
+ _Saxifraga umbrosa_, 324
+ " _stellaris_, 325
+ " _aizoides_, 325
+ " _granulata_, 115
+ " _tridactylites_, 325
+ " _hypnoides_, 326
+ _Chrysosplenium oppositifolium_, 125
+ " _alternifolium_, 125
+
+
+ ARALIACEÆ
+
+ _Adoxa Moschatellina_, 93
+ _Hedera Helix_, 339
+
+
+ CORNACEÆ
+
+ _Cornus sanguinea_, 138
+
+
+ UMBELLIFERÆ
+
+ _Cicuta virosa_, 241
+ _Hydrocotyle vulgaris_, 126
+ _Sanicula europæa_, 139
+ _Conium maculatum_, 169
+ _Helosciadium nodiflorum_, 240
+ _Ægopodium Podagraria_, 96
+ _Bunium flexuosum_, 116
+ _Pimpinella Saxifraga_, 219
+ _[OE]nanthe fistulosa_, 242
+ " _crocata_, 242
+ " _Phellandrium_, 243
+ _Æthusa cynapium_, 170
+ _Angelica sylvestris_, 139
+ _Pastinaca sativa_, 170
+ _Heracleum Sphondylium_, 170
+ _Daucus Carota_, 220
+ _Torilis Anthriscus_, 171
+ _Scandix Pecten-veneris_, 289
+ _Anthriscus vulgaris_, 95
+ " _sylvestris_, 95
+ " _cerefolium_, 96
+ _Chærophyllum temulum_, 171
+
+
+ LORANTHACEÆ
+
+ _Viscum album_, 346
+
+
+ CAPRIFOLIACEÆ
+
+ _Sambucus nigra_, 140
+ _Viburnum Opulus_, 141
+ " _Lantana_, 69
+ _Lonicera Periclymenum_, 172
+ " _Caprifolium_, 172
+ " _Xylosteum_, 172
+
+
+ RUBIACEÆ
+
+ _Galium verum_, 263
+ " _Cruciatum_, 97
+ " _saxatile_, 263
+ " _erectum_, 264
+ " _Mollugo_, 172
+ " _Aparine_, 173
+ " _tricorne_, 302
+ _Sherardia arvensis_, 290
+ _Asperula odorata_, 54
+ " _cynanchica_, 265
+
+
+ VALERIANACEÆ
+
+ _Centranthus ruber_, 302
+ _Valeriana dioica_, 126
+ " _officinalis_, 142
+
+
+ DIPSACEÆ
+
+ _Dipsacus sylvestris_, 173
+ _Scabiosa succisa_, 220
+ " _Columbaria_, 265
+ _Knautia arvensis_, 290
+
+
+ COMPOSITÆ
+
+ _Tragopogon pratensis_, 177
+ _Helminthia echioides_, 177
+ _Picris hieracioides_, 178
+ _Leontodon hirtus_, 266
+ " _hispidus_, 222
+ " _autumnalis_, 223
+ _Lactuca virosa_, 178
+ " _Scariola_, 179
+ _Sonchus arvensis_, 291
+ " _asper_, 180
+ " _oleraceus_, 179
+ _Crepis virens_, 180
+ _Hieracium Pilosella_, 98
+ " _boreale_, 181
+ _Taraxacum officinale_, 116
+ _Lapsana communis_, 181
+ _Cichorium Intybus_, 182
+ _Arctium Lappa_, 182
+ _Serratula tinctoria_, 142
+ _Carduus nutans_, 266
+ " _crispus_, 183
+ " _lanceolatus_, 183
+ " _eriophorus_, 303
+ " _palustris_, 243
+ " _arvensis_, 184
+ " _pratensis_, 224
+ " _acaulis_, 266
+ _Carlina vulgaris_, 267
+ _Centaurea nigra_, 224
+ " _Cyanus_, 291
+ " _Scabiosa_, 225
+ _Bidens cernua_, 244
+ " _tripartita_, 244
+ _Eupatorium cannabinum_, 313
+ _Tanacetum vulgare_, 185
+ _Artemisia Absinthium_, 186
+ " _vulgaris_, 185
+ _Petasites vulgaris_, 117
+ _Tussilago Farfara_, 98
+ _Solidago Virga-aurea_, 142
+ _Senecio vulgaris_, 98
+ " _Jacobæa_, 187
+ " _aquaticus_, 244
+ _Doronicum Pardalianches_, 143
+ " _plantagineum_, 143
+ _Inula Conyza_, 303
+ " _dysenterica_, 225
+ " _Pulicaria_, 226
+ _Bellis perennis_, 116
+ _Chrysanthemum segetum_, 292
+ " _Leucanthemum_, 227
+ _Matricaria Parthenium_, 187
+ " _inodora_, 188
+ _Anthemis nobilis_, 268
+ " _arvensis_, 292
+ " _Cotula_, 293
+ _Achillea Ptarmica_, 227
+ " _millefolium_, 189
+
+
+ CAMPANULACEÆ
+
+ _Campanula rotundifolia_, 269
+ " _Rapunculus_, 190
+ " _latifolia_, 144
+ " _Rapunculoides_, 144
+ " _Trachelium_, 144
+ " _glomerata_, 269
+ " _hederacea_, 144
+ " _hybrida_, 293
+ _Jasione montana_, 270
+
+
+ ERICACEÆ
+
+ _Erica Tetralix_, 270
+ " _ciliaris_, 271
+ " _cinerea_, 271
+ _Calluna vulgaris_, 271
+
+
+ VACCINIACEÆ (often included in the ERICACEÆ)
+
+ _Vaccinium Myrtillus_, 272
+ " _uliginosum_, 272
+ " _Vitis-idæa_, 272
+
+
+ AQUIFOLIACEÆ
+
+ _Ilex Aquifolium_, 145
+
+
+ OLEACEÆ
+
+ _Ligustrum vulgare_, 145
+ _Fraxinus excelsior_, 69
+
+
+ APOCYNACEÆ
+
+ _Vinca minor_, 54
+ " _major_, 54
+
+
+ GENTIANACEÆ
+
+ _Gentiana Pneumonanthe_, 273
+ " _Amarella_, 273
+ " _campestris_, 304
+ _Erythræa Centaurium_, 227
+ _Chlora perfoliata_, 304
+ _Menyanthes trifoliata_, 127
+
+
+ CONVOLVULACEÆ
+
+ _Convolvulus arvensis_, 228
+ " _sepium_, 190
+ _Cuscuta europæa_, 341
+ " _Epilinum_, 341
+ " _Epithymum_, 341
+ " _Trifolii_, 341
+
+
+ SOLANACEÆ
+
+ _Hyoscyamus niger_, 191
+ _Solanum nigrum_, 192
+ " _Dulcamara_, 192
+ _Atropa belladonna_, 194
+
+
+ SCROPHULARIACEÆ
+
+ _Verbascum Thapsus_, 304
+ " _Lychnitis_, 305
+ " _pulverulentum_, 305
+ " _nigrum_, 305
+ _Veronica spicata_, 305
+ " _serpyllifolia_, 100
+ " _scutellata_, 244
+ " _Anagallis_, 245
+ " _Beccabunga_, 245
+ " _officinalis_, 100
+ " _Chamædrys_, 100
+ " _arvensis_, 101
+ " _agrestis_, 102
+ " _polita_, 101
+ _Bartsia Odontites_, 195
+ _Euphrasia officinalis_, 274, 349
+ _Rhinanthus Crista-galli_, 118, 349
+ _Melampyrum cristatum_, 147
+ " _pratense_, 146, 349
+ " _sylvaticum_, 147
+ _Pedicularis palustris_, 127
+ " _sylvatica_, 118, 349
+ _Scrophularia nodosa_, 246
+ " _aquatica_, 246
+ _Digitalis purpurea_, 148
+ _Antirrhinum majus_, 326
+ _Linaria Cymbalaria_, 327
+ " _vulgaris_, 195
+
+
+ OROBANCHACEÆ
+
+ _Orobanche Rapum_, 345
+ " _caryophyllacea_, 345
+ " _elatior_, 346
+ " _minor_, 346
+ _Lathræa squamaria_, 54, 344
+
+
+ VERBENACEÆ
+
+ _Verbena officinalis_, 196
+
+
+ LABIATÆ
+
+ _Salvia Verbenaca_, 306
+ " _pratensis_, 229
+ _Lycopus europæus_, 246
+ _Mentha rotundifolia_, 247
+ " _aquatica_, 247
+ " _sativa_, 248
+ " _Pulegium_, 274
+ _Thymus Serpyllum_, 274
+ _Origanum vulgare_, 231
+ _Calamintha officinalis_, 198
+ " _Nepeta_, 198
+ _Melissa officinalis_, 198
+ _Teucrium Scorodonia_, 274
+ _Ajuga reptans_, 55
+ _Ballota nigra_, 199
+ _Lamium album_, 102
+ " _Galeobdolon_, 55
+ " _amplexicaule_, 119
+ " _purpureum_, 103
+ " _incisum_, 103
+ _Galeopsis Ladanum_, 306
+ _Stachys Betonica_, 149
+ " _sylvatica_, 199
+ " _palustris_, 248
+ _Nepeta Glechoma_, 104
+ _Prunella vulgaris_, 232
+ _Scutellaria galericulata_, 313
+ " _minor_, 275
+
+
+ BORAGINACEÆ
+
+ _Myosotis palustris_, 249
+ " _repens_, 249
+ " _cæspitosa_, 249
+ " _sylvatica_, 150
+ " _arvensis_, 200
+ " _versicolor_, 119
+ " _collina_, 104
+ _Lithospermum officinale_, 200
+ _Symphytum officinale_, 315
+ _Borago officinalis_, 200
+ _Anchusa officinalis_, 201
+ " _sempervirens_, 201
+ _Lycopsis arvensis_, 294
+ _Cynoglossum officinale_, 201
+ _Echium vulgare_, 306
+ " _Plantagineum_, 307
+
+
+ LENTIBULACEÆ
+
+ _Pinguicula vulgaris_, 353
+ " _alpina_, 354
+ " _lusitanica_, 354
+ _Utricularia vulgaris_, 351
+ " _minor_, 351
+ " _intermedia_, 351
+
+
+ PRIMULACEÆ
+
+ _Primula vulgaris_, 56
+ " _veris_, 120
+ _Lysimachia vulgaris_, 315
+ " _nemorum_, 105
+ _Anagallis arvensis_, 294
+ " _tenella_, 250
+
+
+ PLANTAGINACEÆ
+
+ _Plantago major_, 232
+ " _media_, 307
+ " _lanceolata_, 233
+ " _Coronopus_, 202
+
+
+ CHENOPODIACEÆ
+
+ _Chenopodium olidum_, 203
+ " _polyspermum_, 203
+ " _urbicum_, 203
+ " _album_, 204
+ " _ficifolium_, 204
+ " _rubrum_, 204
+ " _Bonus-henricus_, 204
+ _Atriplex patula_, 204
+
+
+ POLYGONACEÆ
+
+ _Polygonum Persicaria_, 205
+ " _lapathifolium_, 206
+ " _Hydropiper_, 250
+ " _aviculare_, 206
+ " _Convolvulus_, 295
+ _Rumex obtusifolius_, 206
+ " _crispus_, 207
+ " _Hydrolapathum_, 317
+ " _Acetosa_, 120
+ " _Acetosella_, 121
+
+
+ THYMELACEÆ
+
+ _Daphne Laureola_, 70
+ " _Mezereum_, 70
+
+
+ EUPHORBIACEÆ
+
+ _Euphorbia Helioscopia_, 208
+ " _Peplus_, 208
+ " _exigua_, 295
+ _Mercurialis perennis_, 105
+
+
+ URTICACEÆ
+
+ _Urtica dioica_, 209
+ " _urens_, 209
+ " _pilulifera_, 209
+ _Parietaria officinalis_, 327
+ _Humulus Lupulus_, 210
+
+
+ ULMACEÆ
+
+ _Ulmus campestris_, 71
+ " _montana_, 71
+
+
+ CUPULIFERÆ
+
+ _Quercus Robur_, 72
+ _Fagus sylvatica_, 73
+ _Carpinus Betulus_, 74
+ _Corylus Avellana_, 74
+
+
+ BETULACEÆ
+
+ _Betula alba_, 75
+ " _nana_, 75
+ _Alnus glutinosa_, 75
+
+
+ SALICACEÆ
+
+ _Populus nigra_, 77
+ " _tremula_, 76
+ " _canescens_, 76
+ " _alba_, 76
+ _Salix_, (_Willows_) 28, 276, 317
+
+
+ CONIFERÆ
+
+ _Pinus sylvestris_, 77
+ _Juniperus communis_, 276
+ _Taxus baccata_, 79
+
+
+ ORCHIDACEÆ
+
+ _Spiranthes autumnalis_, 277
+ _Listera ovata_, 121
+ _Epipactis latifolia_, 308
+ " _palustris_, 250
+ _Orchis Morio_, 122
+ " _mascula_, 122
+ " _maculata_, 277
+ " _latifolia_, 233
+ " _pyramidalis_, 308
+ _Gymnadenia conopsea_, 309
+ _Habenaria bifolia_, 234
+ _Aceras anthropophora_, 309
+ _Herminium Monorchis_, 309
+ _Ophrys apifera_, 310
+ " _aranifera_, 310
+ " _muscifera_, 310
+ _Cypripedium Calceolus_, 58
+
+
+ IRIDACEÆ
+
+ _Iris Pseudacorus_, 129
+
+
+ AMARYLLIDACEÆ
+
+ _Narcissus Pseudo-narcissus_, 48
+
+
+ LILIACEÆ
+
+ _Allium Scorodoprasum_, 59
+ " _ursinum_, 59
+ _Ornithogalum umbellatum_, 59
+ _Hyacinthus nonscriptus_, 60
+ _Ruscus aculeatus_, 278
+
+
+ DIOSCOREACEÆ
+
+ _Tamus communis_, 106
+
+
+ ARACEÆ
+
+ _Arum maculatum_, 106
+
+
+ JUNCACEÆ
+
+ _Narthecium ossifragum_, 251
+ _Juncus communis_, 252
+ " _glaucus_, 252
+ " _lamprocarpus_, 253
+ " _bufonius_, 253
+ " _squarrosus_, 279
+ _Luzula campestris_, 279
+
+
+ CYPERACEÆ
+
+ _Eriophorum polystachyon_, 254
+ " _vaginatum_, 255
+ _Carex vulgaris_, 256
+ " _paludosa_, 256
+ " _hirta_, 60
+
+
+ GRAMINEÆ
+
+ _Phalaris canariensis_, 210
+ _Phleum pratense_, 233
+ _Alopecurus pratensis_, 122
+ _Milium effusum_, 150
+ _Avena fatua_, 295
+ _Melica uniflora_, 60
+ _Poa annua_, 107
+ _Briza media_, 280
+ _Festuca ovina_, 234
+ _Brachypodium sylvaticum_, 150
+ _Triticum caninum_, 150
+ _Lolium perenne_, 234
+ _Hordeum pratense_, 233
+ _Nardus stricta_, 280
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSARIAL INDEX
+
+
+ PAGE
+
+ ACHENE. A dry fruit that does not open, 13
+
+ ACUTE. Sharp.
+
+ ANTHER. The case at the top of the stamen containing
+ the pollen, 9
+
+ AXIL. The angle formed between leaf-stalk and stem.
+
+ AXILLARY. Situated in an axil, 6
+
+
+ BAST. Inner bark.
+
+ BERRY. A pulpy fruit containing several seeds, 13
+
+ BICRENATE. Doubly notched, 6
+
+ BIFID. Divided into two parts.
+
+ BISEXUAL. Including both male and female organs, 11
+
+ BRACT. A leaf or scale between flower and leaf, 10
+
+ BRACTEATE. Provided with one or more bracts, 10
+
+
+ CALYX. The outer whorl of a complete flower, 9
+
+ CAPITULUM. A head of flowers, 9, 175
+
+ CAPSULE. A term applied to some fruits which open, 13
+
+ CARPELS. Central parts of a perfect flower, 10
+
+ CATKIN. A spike of imperfect flowers, 12
+
+ CHLOROPHYLL. The green colouring matter of plants.
+
+ COMPOSITE FLOWER. A head of 'florets' all sessile
+ on a common receptacle, 175
+
+ CORDATE. Heart-shaped, 7
+
+ COROLLA. The second whorl of a complete flower, 9
+
+ CORYMB. A cluster of stalked flowers, the flowers
+ being all at one level, 8
+
+ COTYLEDONS. The lobes of the embryo plant, afterwards
+ forming the 'seed-leaves', 13, 47
+
+ CRENATE. Notched.
+
+ CUPULE. A cup, formed of bracts, surrounding a fruit.
+
+ CYME. An arrangement of stalked flowers in which the
+ terminal or central one is the first to open, 9
+
+
+ DECIDUOUS. Falling off. Applied to leaves, parts of
+ flowers, &c.
+
+ DEHISCENT. Splitting. Applied to fruits which open
+ when ripe, 12
+
+ DICOTYLEDON. A plant with two cotyledons in the embryo, 13
+
+ DIGITATE. Divided into finger-like lobes, 7
+
+ DISC. A fleshy ring or cup between the base of the
+ stamens and that of the ovary.
+
+ DRUPE. A stone-fruit, 13
+
+
+ ENTIRE. Not divided, 6
+
+ EPIDERMIS. The outer skin of a plant
+
+ EXSTIPULATE. Without stipules, 5
+
+
+ FILAMENT. The stalk which bears the anther of the stamen, 9
+
+ FOLLICLE. A fruit which opens, when ripe, on one
+ side only, 13
+
+ FRUIT. The ripened ovary of the flower, 12
+
+
+ GLUMES. The scaly bracts of sedges and grasses.
+
+
+ HERBACEOUS. Green--not woody.
+
+ HYBRID. The offspring of two different species.
+
+
+ IMPERFECT FLOWER. A flower which does not possess both
+ stamens and pistil, 12
+
+ INDEHISCENT. Not splitting. Applied to fruits that do
+ not open when ripe, 12
+
+ INFERIOR. Below. Applied to the ovary when the calyx
+ adheres to it; and to the calyx when it is free from and
+ below the ovary, 6
+
+ INFLORESCENCE. The arrangement of flowers, 10
+
+ INVOLUCRE. A whorl of bracts surrounding a single flower
+ or a flower-head.
+
+
+ LABIATE. Lipped. Applied to the calyx or the corolla of
+ a flower when it is divided into two lips.
+
+ LANCEOLATE. Long and narrow, like a lance-head, 7
+
+ LEAFLET. One of the distinct parts of a compound leaf, 5
+
+ LEAVES--COMPOUND. Leaves which are divided, quite to the
+ midrib, into distinct parts, 5
+
+ LEAVES--SIMPLE. Leaves which are not divided quite
+ to the middle, 5
+
+ LEGUME. A pod--a fruit of one cell which splits, when
+ ripe, on both sides, 12
+
+ LIGULATE. Strap-shaped, 176
+
+ LINEAR. Long and very narrow, 7
+
+ LYRATE. A term applied to a leaf which has a rounded,
+ terminal lobe and several lobes below.
+
+
+ MICROPYLE. A small opening in the ovule or seed, 26
+
+ MIDRIB. The central vein of a leaf--a continuation
+ of the stalk through the blade.
+
+ MONOCOTYLEDON. A plant which has only one cotyledon
+ in its embryo, 13
+
+
+ NECTARY. A gland that produces nectar.
+
+ NODE. The junction of leaf and stem.
+
+ NUT. A dry fruit which does not split, 13
+
+
+ OBCORDATE. Inversely heart-shaped, 7
+
+ OBOVATE. Inversely egg-shaped, 7
+
+ OBTUSE. Blunt.
+
+ ORBICULAR. Round, 7
+
+ OVARY. The part of the pistil which forms the fruit, 10
+
+ OVATE. Egg-shaped, 7
+
+ OVULE. The unripened seed within the ovary, 10
+
+
+ PALMATE. A term applied to simple leaves with spreading
+ divisions that radiate from one point, 7
+
+ PANICLE. A compound raceme, 9
+
+ PAPPUS. A hairy calyx, which often grows into a silky
+ tuft on the summit of the fruit, 176
+
+ PEDICEL. A secondary flower-stalk of a cluster of flowers, 8
+
+ PEDUNCLE. The flower-stalk, 6
+
+ PERFECT FLOWER. A flower with both stamens and pistil, 11
+
+ PERIANTH. The parts of the flower outside the stamens,
+ or outside the pistil if stamens are absent, 11
+
+ PERSISTENT. Applied to parts of a flower when they do
+ not wither and fall.
+
+ PETAL. One of the divisions of the corolla of a flower, 9
+
+ PETIOLE. The leaf-stalk, 5
+
+ PINNATE. Applied to a compound leaf when its leaflets
+ are arranged along the midrib on each side, 7
+
+ PINNATIFID. A term applied to simple leaves when they
+ are deeply divided into lateral lobes, 7
+
+ PISTIL. The inner part or whorl of a complete flower, 10
+
+ PISTILLATE. Applied to a flower when it has a pistil
+ and no stamens, 12
+
+ PLACENTA. The part of the ovary to which the ovules
+ are attached, 10
+
+ POD. _See_ LEGUME.
+
+ POLLEN. The cellular dust discharged by the anthers, 9, 25
+
+ POLLINATION. The transfer of pollen from anther
+ to stigma, 26
+
+
+ RACEME. An inflorescence in which the flowers are
+ stalked along a common axis, 8
+
+ RADICAL. Growing direct from a point near the summit
+ of the root, 4
+
+ RAY. The outer, spreading florets of a composite flower, 175
+
+ RECEPTACLE. The enlarged upper part of a flower-stalk
+ that gives attachment to the parts of the flower.
+
+
+ SAGITTATE. Arrow-shaped, 7
+
+ SAMARA. A winged fruit, 13
+
+ SEPAL. A part of the outer whorl (calyx) of a complete
+ flower, 9
+
+ SERRATE. Sawlike, 6
+
+ SESSILE. Without a stalk, 5, 6
+
+ SILICULA. A fruit resembling a siliqua, but shorter
+ and broader, 12
+
+ SILIQUA. A pod-like fruit with two valves that separate
+ from a central membrane to which the seeds are attached, 12
+
+ SOLITARY. Arranged singly, 8
+
+ SPATHULATE. Spoon-shaped, 7
+
+ SPIKE. An inflorescence in which the flowers are sessile
+ along a common axis, 8
+
+ STAMENS. The flower organs that produce the pollen, 9
+
+ STAMINATE. Applied to a flower that has stamens but
+ no pistil, 12
+
+ STIGMA. The part of the pistil which receives the pollen, 10
+
+ STIPULATE. Having stipules, 4
+
+ STIPULES. Scaly or leafy organs at the base of a leaf, 4
+
+ STOMATA. The openings in the epidermis of plants, 318
+
+ STYLE. The stalk that supports the stigma, 10
+
+ SUPERIOR. Above. Applied to the calyx when it is on
+ the ovary, and to the ovary when it is free from the
+ calyx or perianth, 10
+
+
+ TERNATE. Consisting of three parts, 7
+
+
+ UMBEL. An inflorescence in which the flower-stalks all
+ radiate from one point, 9
+
+
+ WHORL. A term applied to organs or parts arranged around
+ a common centre, 5
+
+
+THE END
+
+
+ PRINTED BY
+ SPOTTISWOODE AND CO. LTD., COLCHESTER
+ LONDON AND ETON
+
+
+
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+Inconsistent hyphenation in the original has been retained in this
+version.
+
+P. 24 "net veneid" changed to "net veined"
+
+P. 40 "Lombardy Polar" changed to Lombardy Poplar
+
+P. 75 "which peals off" changed to peels off
+
+P. 78 "and peals off" changed to peels
+
+P. 81 "of a glaucus green" changed to glaucous
+
+P. 93 "Wild Strawbery" changed to Strawberry
+
+P. 94 "Caprifoliacæ" changed to Caprifoliaceæ
+
+P. 118 "stems each bears a" changed to bear
+
+P. 119 "It leaves are" changed to Its
+
+P. 124 "Glancous" changed to Glaucous
+
+P. 207 "is usually nubranched" changed to unbranched
+
+P. 228 "Convolvulacæ" changed to Convolvulaceæ
+
+Plate VI caption. "Spring Rest Harrow" changed to "Spiny Rest Harrow"
+as detailed in the Erratum.
+
+P. 265 "which is somewhat resembles" changed to it
+
+P. 272 "Vacciniam" changed to Vaccinium
+
+P. 272 "Crowberry" changed to Cowberry
+
+P. 304 "Great Mullien" changed to Mullein
+
+P. 367 et seq. Section numbers corrected - 11 was omitted in original
+
+P. 368 Added 253 to entry "Toad Rush"
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42696 ***
generated by cgit v1.2.3 (git 2.25.1) at 2026-04-13 00:35:34 +0000