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diff --git a/42682-0.txt b/42682-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f02dd36 --- /dev/null +++ b/42682-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11675 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42682 *** + + THE HERITAGE OF DRESS + + + + + [Illustration: VERY EARLY MAN IN JAVA. (_Chapter II._) + + _PLATE I._] + + + + + THE HERITAGE + OF DRESS + + BEING NOTES ON THE HISTORY + AND EVOLUTION OF CLOTHES + + BY + WILFRED MARK WEBB + + FELLOW OF THE LINNEAN SOCIETY OF LONDON + CURATOR OF ETON COLLEGE MUSEUM + + WITH ELEVEN PLATES + AND ONE HUNDRED AND SIXTY-NINE FIGURES IN THE TEXT + + LONDON + E. GRANT RICHARDS + 1907 + + + + + TO MY WIFE + HILDA E. WEBB + + + + +PREFACE + + +It would be difficult to find a subject of more universal interest than +that of dress, and hosts of books have been written which deal with the +attire that has been adopted at different times and by various nations +or social classes. The ornamental and artistic sides of the question +have also received much consideration, but the volumes that have +appeared serve chiefly as works of reference. The present book aims at +being of more immediate interest and usefulness; it starts with things +as they are, and is really a popular contribution to the natural history +of man. + +On all sides the advantages of observation and the need for the +nature-study method in education are being rightly urged, but there is +a tendency to narrow the purview. Anything in our environment is worthy +of notice, and though attention is well directed towards that which is +least artificial, we should not leave man and his works altogether on +one side. There is material for observation, research, and deduction, +even in a bowler hat and a cut-away coat. + +One of the pleasantest features in connection with the making of this +book has been the kind and ready help which I have received from all +sides. Here and there throughout the text the names of friends and +correspondents who have given their assistance have been mentioned. To +these I offer my hearty thanks, as well as to the following, who with +suggestions, information, or with material for illustrations, have +contributed in no small way to the interest of the book: Messrs. Fownes +Brothers & Company, Mr. Allan A. Hooke, Mr. W. S. Ward, Mr. Karl, of +Messrs. Nathan & Company, Messrs. Tress & Company, Messrs. Lincoln & +Bennett, Mr. M. D. Hill, the Rev. A. W. Upcott, Head Master of Christ's +Hospital, Miss Clark, Miss Hodgson, the Rev. R. Ashington Bullen, Mr. +Henry Miller, of the Church Association, Mr. Ravenscroft, of Messrs. Ede +Sons & Ravenscroft, Mr. Paley Baildon, Mr. George Hertslet, of the Lord +Chamberlain's Office, Messrs. Wilkinson & Company, Mr. C. M. Mühlberg, +Mr. W. S. Parker, of Messrs. Debenhams, Ltd., Capt. H. Trench, Major +J. W. Mallet, of the _Army and Navy Gazette_, Mr. Basil White, of +Messrs. Hawkes & Company, Mr. W. H. Jesson, Messrs. Souter & Company, +Mr. William Lawrence, Mr. Heather Bigg, Dr. J. Cantlie, and the Rt. Hon. +Viscountess Harberton. + +A glance at the bibliography, which is given on pages 363-7, will show +the principal books and papers to which reference has been made. + +In connection with the illustrations, special thanks must be given to +Monsieur Maurice Sand, the Editor of the _Review of the University of +Brussels_, for his kind permission to reproduce a number of the figures +used to illustrate a translation of Sir George Darwin's article. These +are Figures 14, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 26, 27, 30, 31, 33, 46, 48, 62, +63, and 82. Acknowledgments are due to Mr. St. John Hope for Figures +86-8, to Messrs. A. & C. Black for Figures 123 and 124 and 132 and 133, +and to Messrs. Prewett & Co. for Figures 111 and 112. + +For the original of Plate II, I am indebted to the kindness of Captain +R. Ford, of Plate III to Mr. Henry Stevens; Plate IV has been taken from +a brass rubbing in Rugby School Museum, through the kind offices of Mr. +J. M. Hardwich. I have to thank Mr. R. Bamber for the original of Plate +VIII, which was obtained through his instrumentality. Figure B of Plate +IX was kindly contributed by the Rev. A. W. Upcott, Head Master of +Christ's Hospital, and Figures B and C on Plate X were copied from +Moseley's "Voyage of the 'Challenger,'" by the kind permission of Mr. +John Murray, while Figure D is due to the courtesy of General Robley. +Plate XI is reprinted from _The Reliquary_, by the kind permission of +Messrs. Bemrose and Sons, and the source of other illustrations is +acknowledged beneath them, while the classic collection of pictures +which were brought together by the late Mr. F. W. Fairholt to illustrate +his "Costume in England" has proved, as will be seen, of the utmost +service. + +In conclusion, I have much pleasure in calling attention to the time and +care which Mr. W. J. Webb has expended upon the figures, which are a +feature of the book; and I must mention the willing help which I have +been afforded in a number of details by Miss Amy Astbury and Mr. Bernard +Weaver. + + WILFRED MARK WEBB. + + ODSTOCK, HANWELL, + _November, 1907_. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + I + THE THRALL OF DRESS PAGE + The principles of evolution applied to clothes 1 + + II + THE ORIGIN OF DRESS 6 + + III + DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN COAT + The ancestral shawl--Problematical buttons 15 + + IV + BUTTONS AS CHRONICLES + Episodes in the later history of the coat and cuffs 25 + + V + COLLARS AND BANDS + Nicks in coat lapels--The why and wherefore of the white shirt + front 41 + + VI + VESTIGES IN THE HAT + How hats were evolved--Why plumes are on the left side--The + growth of the busby--Helmets and cocked hats 49 + + VII + SHOES AND STOCKINGS + Early foot-gear--The origin of the clock--A modern imitation of + tattooing--Gaily coloured garters 62 + + VIII + PETTICOATS AND TROUSERS + The belted plaid and kilt--Early skirts--The antiquity of + trousers--Trouser stripes 72 + + IX + COATS OF ARMS + Signet rings--Armorial bearings--Escutcheons--Crests--Badges 83 + + X + GLOVES AND MITTENS + Origin of the baby's glove--Fourchettes--The "points" on the + backs of gloves 94 + + XI + TAGS, PINS, AND BALDRICS + Laces--The evolution and vagaries of the safety-pin--Primitive + methods of carrying burdens as illustrated by muff-chains, + baldrics, and yokes 100 + + XII + ORNAMENTS + Primitive necklaces--Finger rings--The origin of the hair + comb--Buttons--Studs--Flowers--Feathers--Amulets 111 + + XIII + HAIR DRESSING + Head shaving--Wigs that are still worn--Roman curls and fringes 126 + + XIV + SPECIAL DRESSES + Fashions kept up by ceremonies--Survivals in special + costume--Flowing garments 135 + + XV + SERVANTS' DRESS + The prototypes of liveries--Reminiscences of George II and + George III--Origin of the page-boy's buttons--The jockey + cap--Aprons 139 + + XVI + COCKADES + The cockade a degenerated chaperon--The varieties of the + cockade--Cockade wearers 152 + + XVII + CHILDREN'S DRESS + Survivals in children's dress--Special school costumes--The + blue-coat boy--Public school boys--Adoption of special dress + at girls' schools 162 + + XVIII + WEDDING GARMENTS + The veil--Bridesmaids and bribery--Old shoes--Orange blossom 175 + + XIX + MOURNING + Colours associated with mourning--Widows' weeds--Perennial + mourning 181 + + XX + COSTUME CONNECTED WITH RELIGION + The surplice and "the cloth"--The civil origin of + vestments--Fine vestments--Processional vestments, so + called--Nuns' dress--The choker 184 + + XXI + SUNDAY CLOTHES + The significance of Sunday clothes--The wearing of hats in + church by ladies 205 + + XXII + ACADEMICAL DRESS + Gowns and hanging sleeves--The forerunner of the hood--The + origin of the doctor's hat--The evolution of the mortar-board 208 + + XXIII + LEGAL DRESS + Vestiges of the coif--Hoods and gowns--Signs of mourning 215 + + XXIV + STATE AND COURT ATTIRE + Coronation dress--Parliamentary robes--Mistakes in Court + dress--Vestiges of the wig and of the chaperon--Court cards 221 + + XXV + SURVIVALS IN MILITARY UNIFORMS + Armour--Prickers for flint locks--Forage cords--Reminiscences + of gallantry--Regimental badges--Courtship colours 233 + + XXVI + NAVAL UNIFORM + Supposed survivals--Petticoats and wide breeches 251 + + XXVII + THE COSTUME OF PUPPETS + Punch and Judy--Fashion dolls--Dolls in swaddling clothes--The + Egyptian "shabbies" 253 + + XXVIII + THE CLOWN AND PAINTING THE BODY + The clown's dress--Savage painting and survivals of + it--Tattooing--Patches and false complexions--Masks 269 + + XXIX + STAGE COSTUMES + The harlequin, pantaloon, columbine, and acrobat 282 + + XXX + NIGHTDRESS + Bands on nightgowns--Nightcaps--Night attire worn in the + streets 287 + + XXXI + THE DRESS OF ANIMALS + Natural representatives of clothes--Horse trappings--Amulets on + harness--Dogs' disguises--Fashions in the form of animals 291 + + XXXII + COLOUR + Importance of colour--Instinctive love of bright + hues--Desirability of coloured clothes and gay scenes--Colour + and complexion 305 + + XXXIII + PATTERNS + Ancient designs--Checks and tartans--Parti-coloured + clothes--Evolution of ornamentation 311 + + XXXIV + IMPRESSIONS TO BE GAINED FROM DRESS + Clues from clothes--Individuality not disguised by them--Modern + dress of other countries--Significance of clothes 315 + + XXXV + THE EFFECT OF CLOTHES UPON THE INDIVIDUAL + The origin of stays--Tight lacing no new thing--Its + effects--Mr. Heather Bigg on the need for support--The ideal + foot--Skull deformities--Padding 322 + + XXXVI + FURTHER EFFECTS OF CLOTHES ON THE INDIVIDUAL + Mental effects of different clothes--Preferences of girls for + certain articles of dress--Movements that depend upon the + presence or absence of clothes 339 + + XXXVII + THE RISE AND FALL OF FASHIONS + Reason why fashions are followed--Gay clothes seen when periods + of depression are over--Condemnation of fashions by the + clergy--Quakers--Sumptuary laws--The killing of fashions 343 + + XXXVIII + DRESS REFORM + Clothes to be avoided--Need for warmer garments--"Rational" + dress for women 354 + + CONCLUSION 362 + + BIBLIOGRAPHY 363 + + INDEX 369 + + + + +LIST OF PLATES + + + PLATE FACING PAGE + I. Very early man in Java. Illustrating the remarks in Chapter + II, pages 6 and 7 _Frontispiece_ + + II. A woman and a witch-doctor of Central Africa, showing the + part that ornaments may play even when clothing is of + the scantiest. (From a photograph by Captain Ford) 9 + + III. The silk vest worn by Charles I on the scaffold. + Illustrating the sleeved tunic opening for a short + distance down the front. (From a photograph by Mr. + Henry Stevens) 18 + + IV. Reproduction of a brass to John Brandon and his two wives + in the Church of St. Mary, King's Lynn. Date, 1364. On + the male figure, continuous rows of buttons run from + the wrist to the elbow of the under-vest. The women + wear the wimple and gorget or throat cloth 38 + + V. A Siamese Princess wearing trousers 81 + + VI. Two Padaung women, showing the numerous metal collars + which they wear round their necks 114 + + VII. Methods of hairdressing, illustrated by Romano-Egyptian + portrait models in the Myers Collection, Eton College + Museum. (From photographs by Wilfred Mark Webb) 129 + + VIII. A barge girl, showing the costume worn on the canals. + (From a photograph by Wakefield Brentford) 150 + + IX. Fig. A. The cap worn by the scholars of Christ's Hospital + until the middle of the nineteenth century. + + Fig. B. A scholar of Christ's Hospital. (By the courtesy + of the Rev. A. W. Upcott, M.A., Head Master of Christ's + Hospital) 167 + + X. Fig. A. The head of a clown, showing the painted face, the + ruff, and the Elizabethan method of doing the hair. + + Fig. B. The face of a Japanese actor (after Moseley, by + the courtesy of Mr. John Murray). + + Fig. C. The painted face of a paper figure which is burned + at Chinese funerals (after Moseley, by the courtesy of + Mr. John Murray). + + Fig. D. The tattooed head of a Moorish chief. (By the + courtesy of General Robley) 270 + + XI. Wooden stay busks. These incidentally show survivals of + primitive ornament. From _The Reliquary_, by kind + permission of Messrs. Bemrose & Sons, Ltd. 326 + + + + +LIST OF FIGURES + + + FIG. PAGE + + 1. Drawing of a woman engraved by a cave man 9 + + 2. Sketch showing the development of the tunic. In this stage + it has no arms 17 + + 3. Diagram showing the way in which a sleeved tunic is derived + from the shawl 18 + + 4. A smock frock 19 + + 5. Jacket of a woman, made in one piece. Bronze stage of + culture (after Worsaae) 19 + + 6. Man's dress showing buttons on the right side 20 + + 7. Woman's dress showing buttons on the left side 21 + + 8. Diagram showing how a man does up a button. First stage 23 + + 9. Diagram showing how a man does up a button. Second stage 23 + + 10. Diagram showing how a woman does up a button. First stage 23 + + 11. Diagram showing how a woman does up a button. Second stage 23 + + 12. The buttons on the back of a policeman's great-coat 26 + + 13. The buttons that close the slit up the back of an ulster 27 + + 14. A back view of a seventeenth-century coat showing the + buttons and buttonholes 28 + + 15. The tab and buttons on the back of a soldier's great-coat + which make a temporary waist 29 + + 16. The buttons and tab on a tramway driver's coat 31 + + 17. An eighteenth-century coat with side buttons and tab 31 + + 18. Side tabs and buttons at the back (after Racinet) 31 + + 19. A coat worn at the end of the seventeenth century (after H. + Bonnart) 32 + + 20. A modern coat with side pockets 32 + + 21. A footman's coat, modern, with vestigial pocket flaps 33 + + 22. Coat skirts buttoned back (after Hogarth) 33 + + 23. A coat with the skirts buttoned back and showing the lining 34 + + 24. A dress coat with skirts cut away 34 + + 25. A modern coat cuff with buttons 35 + + 26. Turned-back cuff, end of seventeenth century (after + Bonnart) 35 + + 27. A coat sleeve (after Hogarth) with horizontal row of + buttons 36 + + 28. Sleeve of a coat of the seventeenth century, reputed to + have been worn by Charles I 36 + + 29. The turned-back cuff of an overcoat, modern 37 + + 30. A sleeve with vertical buttons and a turned-back cuff as + well (from a uniform, after Hogarth) 37 + + 31. The uniform of a coastguard officer of 1775 (after Racinet) 39 + + 32. The nicks in the coat and waistcoat 41 + + 33. A stage when the nick was useful (Lucien Bonaparte, after + Paul Lacroix) 42 + + 34. The "toothpick" on a dress coat 43 + + 35. Modern bands 45 + + 36. A blue-coat boy's bands 45 + + 37. A chorister of Jesus College, Cambridge, showing the collar + worn until recently. (From a photograph, by the courtesy + of Mr. H. Austin Wheaton) 45 + + 38. A stage in the reduction of bands (portrait of Jan Steen + from the _Illustrated Magazine of Art_) 46 + + 39. Full-sized bands (portrait of John Pym from the + _Illustrated Magazine of Art_) 46 + + 40. A modern bandbox, now used for hats 47 + + 41. Bands that survive at the present day 47 + + 42. The turban of a Jewish priest (after Kitto) compared with + the dome of the Mosque of Omar 50 + + 43. A Siamese head-dress and a Pra Pang or votive spire (after + P. A. Thompson) 51 + + 44. A Gothic spire (St. Stephens, Caen) compared with the + hennin (the latter after Fairholt) 51 + + 45. Band with streamers fastening on the head-dress of an + Egyptian woman. From a figure of the Sixth Dynasty, + 3500 B.C. 52 + + 46. A lady's head-dress confined with a fillet, fourteenth + century (after Viollet le Duc) 52 + + 47. A sailor hat with band and streamers 53 + + 48. A twelfth-century head-dress with streamers, from a MS. + (after Viollet le Duc) 53 + + 49. A modern Scotch cap with streamers 54 + + 50. A mitre of the See of Durham showing the strings (after + Millington) 54 + + 51. Small vestigial bow of ribbon in a modern hat 55 + + 52. A hat with the remains of lacing 55 + + 53. A hunting hat with complete lacing inside 56 + + 54. A disc of leather 57 + + 55. The disc perforated and the lace inserted 57 + + 56. The lace tightened to form a crown 57 + + 57. The ends of the lace tied as a bow inside 57 + + 58. A bow fastened to the lining of a lady's hat 58 + + 59. Plumes on the left side 58 + + 60. The red Hungarian cap, which was the forerunner of the + busby 59 + + 61. A busby (of the Hon. Artillery Company) in which the cap is + a vestige only 59 + + 62. A fireman's helmet (of the ancient Greek type) 60 + + 63. Buttons so arranged that the broad brim of a hat can be + fastened to the crown, thus forming a temporary "cock" + (Hudibras, after Hogarth) 60 + + 64. A modern boot decorated with perforations made in the + leather 63 + + 65. An ornamented Roman shoe, of two thicknesses 63 + + 66. A Roman shoe of open-work leather 63 + + 67. A hide shoe of pre-Roman type from Ireland (after Fairholt) 64 + + 68. The original top boot with the upper part temporarily + turned down 65 + + 69. The modern top boot in which the upper part can no longer + be turned up 66 + + 70. Puttees 66 + + 71. Leg bandages of a royal personage at the end of the tenth + century (after Fairholt) 67 + + 72. A stocking with clocks 68 + + 73. An embroidered stocking showing the further evolution of + the clock (date 1900) 69 + + 74. An open-work stocking of 1905 69 + + 75. A shawl used as a kilt by a chieftain of Denmark in the + bronze stage of culture (after Worsaae) 73 + + 76. A simple dress in the form of a petticoat from an Egyptian + figure of the Sixth Dynasty (3500 B.C.), from the Myers + collection in Eton College Museum 74 + + 77. A Korean servant (after Hough) 75 + + 78. A short kilt 76 + + 79. A barbarian soldier wearing characteristic trousers (from a + diptych of St. Paul, after Marriott) 78 + + 80. A Saxon military man wearing wide trousers (from the + Harleian MS., No. 603, after Fairholt) 79 + + 81. A peasant woman of Champéry wearing trousers 80 + + 82. A German Hussar of 1808 81 + + 83. The crest on a modern signet ring 85 + + 84. Sir Geoffrey Loutterell and the ladies of his family, + showing the extent to which armorial bearings were worn + in the middle of the fourteenth century. From a psalter, + made for Sir Geoffrey (after Fairholt) 85 + + 85. The crest and surcoat of Henry, first Duke of Lancaster, + A.D. 1347. From the brass to Sir Hugh Hasting at Elsyng, + Norfolk (after Charles Boutell) 86 + + 86. The helmet and crest of the Black Prince. From "Vetusta + Monumenta" (after St. John Hope) 88 + + 87. The shield of the Black Prince. From "Vetusta Monumenta" + (after St. John Hope) 89 + + 88. The surcoat or jupon of the Black Prince. From "Vetusta + Monumenta" (after St. John Hope) 89 + + 89. The postilion of a Lord Mayor of London, wearing a crest + upon his cap, and a coat of arms upon his sleeve (copied + by permission from a plate published by the John + Williamson Co., Ltd.) 92 + + 90. A baby's glove without separate fingers 95 + + 91. The back of a woollen glove showing the three vestiges + known as "points" 96 + + 92. A modern kid glove showing the fourchettes or pieces + between the fingers, which form three pointed V's 97 + + 93. Queen Elizabeth's coronation glove, showing the stitching + carried down on to the back. (From a photograph by the + courtesy of Messrs. Fownes Brothers and Co.) 97 + + 94. The glove of Anne, Queen Consort of James I, showing the + embroidery on the fingers, which is the ancestor of the + modern "points." (From a photograph, by the courtesy of + Messrs. Fownes Brothers and Co.) 99 + + 95. A silk lace with simple metal tags 101 + + 96. Ornamental metal tags on a velvet neck ribbon 101 + + 97. A simple safety-pin 102 + + 98. An Etruscan brooch or fibula, resembling a safety-pin. (In + the collection of Major W. J. Myers in Eton College + Museum) 103 + + 99. The safety-pin in the waistband 103 + + 100. The safety-pin grown larger and used for fastening on a + hat 104 + + 101. A muff-chain 105 + + 102. A hawker, illustrating the primitive way of carrying a + burden 107 + + 103. A courier-bag supported by a baldric 107 + + 104. An ornamental baldric of the early fifteenth century. + (Royal MS. 15, D. 5, after Fairholt) 108 + + 105. A lady's dress, showing the part which is called a yoke, + and recalls a primitive method of carrying burdens 109 + + 106. A loom comb found in the Glastonbury lake dwellings (after + Boyd Dawkins) 118 + + 107. A modern comb for the hair 118 + + 108. Two studs of bronze, seen from above and from the side, + later Bronze Age (after Worsaae) 119 + + 109. The "flash" of five black ribbons on the collar of the + Welsh Fusiliers. A survival from the days of the pigtail 134 + + 110. The modern groom, showing the belt to which ladies clung + when riding on a pillion 140 + + 111. A footman in plush breeches and with powdered hair. His + "pouter" coat dates from the reign of George III. By the + courtesy of Messrs. F. T. Prewett and Co. 141 + + 112. A sheriff's coachman with the full-skirted coat of the + time of George II. By the courtesy of Messrs. Prewett and + Co. 142 + + 113. The wig-bag (a survival of the bag-wig) now seen on the + back of the collar of the Lord Mayor's coachman 143 + + 114. A modern page-boy's livery 145 + + 115. The Dutch skeleton dress, fashionable for boys in 1826 145 + + 116. The cockade known as the "large treble," representing a + survival of the chaperon 152 + + 117. A "treble cockade" covered with black cloth for mourning. + The concentric circles would appear to represent the + twisted liripipe of the chaperon 154 + + 118. Treble cockade used by Chelsea pensioners 155 + + 119. The Regent cockade 155 + + 120. Royal cockade for state occasions 155 + + 121. Ordinary Royal cockade 155 + + 122.{Two stages in the evolution of the chaperon. Combined + { hood and cape 156 + { + 123.{Enlargement of the peak of the hood to form the liripipe. + { (After Calthrop, by kind permission of Messrs. A. and + { C. Black) 156 + + 124.{Further development of the chaperon. Cape and liripipe + { made into a head-dress that can be altered at will 157 + { + 125.{A chaperon ready made up, in order to save trouble. + { (After Calthrop, by kind permission of Messrs. A. and + { C. Black) 157 + + 126. Dress worn by the girls at Coombe Hill School, Westerham. + It is a modification of the Dervish Djibah 172 + + 127. Dress worn by the girls at the Croft School, Betley, when + at work 173 + + 128. St. Gregory the Great with his father Gordianus, who was a + senator, on his right, and his mother Sylvia on his left. + This shows the similarity between ecclesiastical and + civil costume in early times. From an authentic picture + (after Marriott) 188 + + 129. A priest in the vestments now worn at the celebration of + the Eucharist 194 + + 130. The coat of arms of Thomas à Becket, showing an + archbishop's pall 198 + + 131. The head-dress of a nun showing the veil and breast-cloth + derived from the wimple, the cap which represents the + chin-cloth, together with the frontal and the hood 203 + + 132. The head-dress of a lady of the time of Henry II. The + wimple is shown covering the chin and head-bands (after + Calthrop) 203 + + 133. The chin-band and forehead strap after the wimple has been + removed (after Calthrop) 203 + + 134. Hanging sleeve of the fifteenth century 209 + + 135. The hanging sleeve of a Chancellor of Oxford University 211 + + 136. A college cap or trencher 214 + + 137. Cranmer's hat, illustrating a stage in the evolution of a + mortar-board (after Fairholt) 214 + + 138. The hat of a bishop of the Stuart Period showing a stage + at which the stiffening now seen in the mortar-board was + becoming necessary (after Fairholt) 214 + + 139. The wig of a modern judge 216 + + 140. The vestige of the coif from the wig of a serjeant-at-law 217 + + 141. A barrister's gown showing the vestigial hood and its + streamer. The buttons and braid which once temporarily + looped up the sleeves now fix it permanently 219 + + 142. A Yeoman of the Guard of the present reign 224 + + 143. The wig-bag or "flash" from a Court suit, showing the + rosette held away and displaying the black silk bag. At + the lower corners of the latter loops are seen, which are + probably the remains of those through which a ribbon was + passed, which went round the neck and fastened on the + breast by a brooch 229 + + 144. The hood from the mantle of a Knight of the Garter, + showing the survival of the chaperon and its liripipe 230 + + 145. Relic of chain mail on the shoulder of an Imperial Yeoman 233 + + 146. Chain mail illustrated by the brass of Sir Richard de + Trumpington, A.D. 1289 234 + + 147. A reversion in military equipment. One of Cromwell's + Ironsides (1679), from a print. A Cavalryman sketched at + Aldershot in 1901. Copied, by permission, from the _Daily + Mail_ 237 + + 148. The prickers on the shoulder-belt of a Hussar, which + survive from the time of flint-lock muskets 239 + + 149. The Oscan Pulicinella of 1731, without a long nose. The + dress is very similar to that figured in 1630 (after + Riccoboni) 256 + + 150. The Calabrian Giangurgolo of 1731, with the long nose. The + dress is very similar to that figured in 1630 (after + Riccoboni) 257 + + 151. An ancient bronze statuette with the face and features of + Punch (after Ficorroni) 258 + + 152. A fourteenth-century puppet-show (from the MS. of the + "Roman d'Alexandre") 259 + + 153. Punch, from the Punch and Judy Show, showing the ruff and + other details of Elizabethan costume 263 + + 154. Judy, from the Punch and Judy Show, with ruff, mob cap, + and apron 263 + + 155. The Beadle, from the Punch and Judy Show 264 + + 156. The Doctor, from the Punch and Judy Show, with wig and + white tie 264 + + 157. A clown, showing a survival of an Elizabethan costume 270 + + 158. The dress of a modern harlequin 284 + + 159. A pantaloon, showing an Elizabethan costume of which + Venetian breeches form part 285 + + 160. The bands that survive on a lady's nightdress 289 + + 161. A woman's nightcap, still worn in Wiltshire 289 + + 162. A man's nightcap, from Oxfordshire 290 + + 163. An English horse amulet in the form of a crescent. The + flat places near the tips of the horns are evidence that + the form is derived from two boars' tusks 294 + + 164. An English horse amulet showing both the heart and the sun 296 + + 165. The cowry-shell ornaments on the head of an officer's + charger of the 10th Hussars. The pendant recalls that on + mules in Palestine 298 + + 166. Cowry shells on an Eastern mule, hanging like the pendant + of the 10th Hussars 299 + + 167. Cowry shells on the head-stall of a camel from Palestine 299 + + 168. A Merveilleuse (after A. Robida) 345 + + 169. A modern family, consisting of the average-sized mother, + the taller daughter, and the puny boy (from a drawing by + Miss Audrey Watson in "Physical Efficiency," by Dr. + Cantlie, by kind permission of Messrs. Putnam's Sons) 357 + + + + +I + +THE THRALL OF DRESS + +THE PRINCIPLES OF EVOLUTION APPLIED TO CLOTHES + +_The numbers in the text refer to a bibliography at the end of the book_ + + +Unluckily, perhaps, we are born naked and helpless, but no sooner do we +come into the world than we are provided with body-guards in the shape +of clothes. In consequence, our social position is made manifest. Our +vanity is flattered at the same time that our modesty is assured. On the +other hand, however, our skin may be chafed, our hair worn away, and, +should our equipment strictly follow the dictates of the Goddess +Fashion, our bodies may even be deformed and our lives shortened. +Moreover, there are other penalties to be paid; we are kept warm in +summer as well as in winter, the purchase of our attire may entail +the spending of much money, while the mere donning and doffing of our +clothes gives rise to a prodigious waste of time. + +Even tramps have at intervals to replace the rags which cover them, and +while, for all practical purposes, every one else takes off his clothes +when going to bed and puts them on again when getting up, many of those +who are at work in the daytime "dress for dinner" in the evening. +Moreover, Society may demand a further expenditure of time on the part +of its members, and the rule may be laid down that the higher the +standing of a civilized individual, the more often does he change his +garments. In fact, more than one monarch, from the way in which he +appears in different uniforms at various functions which follow one +another in quick succession, has been likened to the now familiar +"lightning change artist" of the music-hall stage. + +It is thus quite clear that all of us are more or less under the thrall +of dress. Those, therefore, who find the position irksome, will gain +solace from the interesting investigations which can be made into the +origin and development of costume. Others, again, whose clothes already +find favour in their eyes, will enjoy looking at them from a different +point of view. + +As a matter of fact, our artificial coverings have become so much a part +of our life that one may perhaps be allowed to apply the methods of the +naturalist to their consideration, and deal with them as if they were +part and parcel of the creature which wears them. + +Darwin established beyond a doubt[1] that the plants and animals of +to-day are the direct descendants of older and often very different +forms, and it is the task and delight of the naturalist to trace their +genealogies. Most useful suggestions may be obtained from the small +vestiges that remain in the bodies of present-day creatures, of +structures which in early times were important and useful organs. + +For instance, if the skin be lifted from the head of a "slow worm" we +find a third eye, which tells us that once its ancestors, like the giant +Cyclops, were able to look out from the middle of their faces. + +Again, to take a case which applies to ourselves, and has a melancholy +interest for us, one might mention the vermiform appendix. This is a +remnant of a great sac which once was useful when our ancestors were +vegetarians; now it is worse than useless, for it is very liable to +become irritated and give rise to what is known as appendicitis. + +So long as a quarter of a century ago Sir George Darwin pointed out[2] +that the great theory of evolution established by his father could be +applied with much advantage to the study of dress, and it will be seen +as we proceed that not the least fascinating part of the subject are +vestiges similar to those which we have just described, and which have +often survived solely for ornamental reasons. + +Many of these are so familiar, that in running the eye in the ordinary +way over a man's usual costume, attention would not be drawn to them. +There is the band round the outside of his hat and the little bow +inside; the nick in the collar of his coat and the more or less useless +buttons on his sleeves and back; while we must not forget the curious +ornamentation on the toes of his boots, nor the crest on his signet +ring. + +When, however, an indication is given of the times and peoples to which +these trivialities can be made to carry us back, interest is aroused to +a remarkable degree. It can also be well maintained, for other clothes +present similar quaint survivals for investigation, while the evolution +of many individual garments is worth following, and special costumes +have been handed down to the present day, practically unchanged. + +Fortunately, the student of dress is in a much better position than +the naturalist proper. The evidence available when the history of an +organism in past ages is being unravelled, is very scanty in many cases. +Sometimes the fossil remains recovered from the earth are very perfect +and follow one another in unbroken succession, but they usually consist +merely of the hard parts of the creatures. The individual development of +an organism is also a help, but when the changes which have taken untold +ages to perfect, are repeated, as in the case of the chicken in the egg, +within the space of a few short weeks, it is not surprising that much is +left out and obscured. + +Man has existed in a civilized condition for a comparatively short time, +and there remain all kinds of records and illustrations, not to mention +actual clothes themselves, which can be consulted or examined. +Moreover, primitive men in almost every stage of culture are, or were +till quite lately, to be found somewhere in the world, and much can be +gleaned from them as to the origin and uses of costume. + +There is a point that may be borne in mind when seeking for curiosities +of clothing, and it is that the more special or ceremonial the occasion, +the more ancient or more primitive the costume which is worn. In this +connection also it may be mentioned that the dress of the master of one +generation may survive as that of the servant in another. + + + + +II + +THE ORIGIN OF DRESS + + Both he and his people were black as sloes + For the region they lived in was torrid, + And their principal clothes were a ring through the nose + And a patch of red paint on the forehead. + THOMAS HOOD THE YOUNGER. + + +In seeking the origin of dress we necessarily assume that once upon +a time our primitive ancestors did not wear any clothes at all. Even +nowadays, in our own country, at sports, in the ball-room, and on the +stage, the garments worn, or some of them, may be reduced to the minimum +that the rules of Society appear to demand. There are, moreover, two +reasons why very early man did not trouble to dress: first of all, he +was covered with hair like the majority of mammals; and, secondly, it is +more than probable that his home was within the tropics. (See Plate I., +Frontispiece.) The two ideas are quite compatible, for all the great +apes--chimpanzee, orang-utan, and gorilla--which are the nearest +relatives of man, have been found in the warmer regions of the world, +and are well supplied with hair. + +It has long been thought that the cradle of mankind is to be looked for +in the south of Asia, and it is a striking fact that of recent years the +bones of the earliest known creature that can with certainty be called +a man (_Pithecanthropus erectus_) were discovered in Java.[3] At the +same time it appears that _Pithecanthropus_, although it walked erect, +approximated more closely to the apes than does any more recent human +being, and in making a restoration of the type in question, one would +feel bound to endow it with a coat of hair. This has since been lost, +and, according to Darwin, owing to æsthetic reasons, the members of one +sex having chosen as mates those of the other who were the least hairy. + +Man also has found his way into most parts of the globe, but he has not +always acted with regard to dress in the same way in similar climates. +The problem, therefore, which we have set ourselves to solve, proves to +be less simple than it appeared at the outset, for great use may be made +of clothes in one cold country and not in another, while they may be +unknown in certain parts of the tropics, and adopted elsewhere within +their radius. + +Very often when it is sought to explain a matter, it is found that this +can be done in two or three different ways, and it is quite possible +that all of them may be correct. This fact may with advantage be borne +in mind when seeking for the reasons which lead to the adoption of +dress, for the first time, by any particular race. + +Perhaps it will help us if we pause for a moment to consider why clothes +are worn at the present day. There is no doubt but that in the case of +many garments their ornamental character, real or supposed, is the first +consideration. Others are chosen chiefly for protection and warmth, +while, as already indicated, the rest suffice to satisfy the claims of +modesty. Although the three reasons are now intimately combined, it is +practically certain that any one of them is sufficient to have led to +the adoption of clothes in the first place, and as if these were not +enough there may be other contributing, if not actual causes. + +We may now consider these matters in detail. It would seem from the +study of modern peoples, who are still in a very simple state of +civilization, as well as from one of the earliest drawings scratched +by the cave-men who were contemporary with the mammoth in France, that +ornaments are the most primitive part of dress. (See Figure 1 and Plate +II.) + +[Illustration: A WOMAN AND A WITCH DOCTOR OF CENTRAL AFRICA, SHEWING THE +PART THAT ORNAMENTS MAY PLAY EVEN WHEN CLOTHING IS OF THE SCANTIEST. + +(_From a photograph by Captain Ford._) + + _PLATE II._] + +Generally speaking, the more simple the race, the greater is its love of +ornament. The cave-man's sketch shows a woman who is devoid of clothing, +but who wears bracelets, while it is said that in the original a +necklace can be traced, though owing to an injury to the fragment of +bone on which the drawing was made, the head of the figure has been +lost. + +On the West Coast of Africa, where clothes are not a necessity owing +to the heat, bracelets are worn in such numbers by the native belles as +to cover a large part of the forearm, while anklets rise in succession +nearly to the knee. (See Plate II.) Again, in New Guinea the women of +some tribes who do not indulge in a single scrap of clothing, still wear +ornaments on their heads and round their necks. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 1.--Drawing of a woman engraved by a cave-man. + +(Modified from Wilson.)] + +There is, however, something to be advanced on behalf of savages that +cannot be said for white people who bedizen themselves with jewellery, +or bedeck themselves with the feathers of rare and beautiful birds. +Uncivilized people have no pockets nor safes in which to keep their +valuables, and it comes about that these take a form which permits them +to be worn on the person, so that many of the objects which take the +place of ornaments--such as teeth, shells, and beads--serve as the +currencies of their owners. Even now there are individuals of whom it is +said that they "put all their money on their backs," but, unfortunately +for them, it depreciates sadly in value, and cannot be turned to account +at a moment's notice. Furthermore, one naked warrior is very much like +another, and chiefs, in order that they may easily be identified, have +come to wear certain ornaments just as at the other extreme with regard +to covering, knights in full armour carried crests on their helmets and +other devices on their surcoats and shields. + +Clothes proper are of later origin, and, as we have already mentioned, +would only be adopted for protective purposes after man had lost the +greater part of his hairy covering. + +It is probable that this had happened before the earliest settlers +arrived in this country, although the cave-men made their drawings of +themselves in the nude, and it is contended that the marks on their +bodies are similar to those in the drawings of animals and are not mere +attempts at shading, but indicate the presence of hair. + +In the first place, man was a hunter pure and simple, and his clothes +were made from the hairy skins of his quarry. At the present time the +Eskimos are clothed in this way, and there is little doubt but that they +are the descendants of the cave-men, who made the striking drawings to +which we have already alluded. Their implements, stature, and so forth, +all point this way, and the fact that their clothes are merely adopted +as a protection against the weather, is shown by the fact that they +remove them altogether when in their huts. + +We have already said that it does not always follow that even when +the climate is cold, complete dress is brought into use. When H.M.S. +_Beagle_ visited South America, some of the Tierra del Fuegians +wore only an otter skin or some small scrap about as large as a +pocket-handkerchief. It was laced across the breast by strings, and +was shifted from side to side according to the direction of the wind. +Others, both men and women, wore nothing. One of the latter, who was +suckling a recently born child, came alongside the vessel in a canoe, +and stayed there, out of pure curiosity, while the sleet fell and thawed +on her naked bosom and on the bare body of her baby.[4] + +Some races can make very passable clothes by hammering the fibres from +the bark of trees into a kind of cloth, while when men took to husbandry +and cultivated plants that produce fibres, they learned also to spin and +weave materials from which to make their garments. The use of furs has +always survived to a greater or less extent, but it is interesting to +note that motoring has caused a return to primitive dress as regards +external garments, for in order to withstand the air which is met when +the car is in rapid movement, fur clothes and leather suits have been +introduced, the latter of course being not quite so old in type as the +former. It must not be forgotten at this point that climate is not the +only enemy that man has had to face, and that armour was a development +of dress, intended to preserve him from the onslaughts of his own +species. + +We have now noticed two ways in which clothes must have been brought +into use, namely, as adornments and for protection. We have still to +consider the third of the obvious reasons. Modesty is a habit, or one +might perhaps call it equally well a fashion, which is so widespread +that some have characterized it as being an instinct, and have stated +quite wrongly that it is universal. The most curious point with regard +to the matter is that very different ideas of modesty prevail in various +regions of the world, one part of the body being covered by some people +and another by others. Besides, it by no means follows that a naked race +is less chaste than one which is clothed. + +Although at the present day races exist where only the men cover +themselves, it is very likely that clothes worthy of the name were first +worn by women, for keen observers have pointed out that men dependent on +their skill and speed in the chase would hardly encumber themselves with +clothes, though having comely wives they might deem it advisable for +them to be protected from the public gaze. This idea is still carried +out in Eastern countries, where women cover even the greater part of +their faces, and are usually secluded in a harem. As bearing out, +however, what we have just said with regard to modesty, it may be +mentioned that the peasant women in Egypt are perfectly happy so long +as their faces and the backs of their heads are covered, and it is +considered even more shameful to expose the latter than the former. The +objection made not long ago to the appearance of English women in church +without hats may be remembered in this connection. + +Painting may often replace clothing, and members of races accustomed to +decorate their bodies in this way, are much ashamed if they are seen +unpainted. Tattooing also does away to a great extent with bareness, and +it is obvious that unclothed black men and women never present such a +naked appearance as do lighter-coloured races. In fact, a white man +who bathed with a number of coloured people likened himself and his +companions to an artificial, blanched, and sickly plant among its +healthy dark green fellows. + +Doubtless the hair of original man was coloured so as to match his +surroundings, and it seems likely that the tint of his skin was reddish. +We have now no need for protective colouration (except in war time), and +as we do not live in the tropics, we should gain no advantage from being +black; therefore pigment is but little developed in our skins, and it +has been suggested that clothes sometimes have been adopted by white +races for æsthetic reasons apart from their development from ordinary +ornaments. + +It seems possible, too, that man, upon realizing that he differed from +other animals in having no natural covering, set about to provide +himself with one. + +There is, however, another contributing cause which may have led to the +adoption of dress, and this depends on the action of women themselves. +They may put on clothes for reasons of coquetry just as on occasion they +may modify or discard them. For instance, fashion at a moment's notice +may obscure one part of the body that hitherto was obvious, and at the +same time emphasize the natural outlines of others which before were +hidden. Again, the bare necks and arms displayed in our ball-rooms +afford another case in point. + + + + +III + +DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN COAT + +THE ANCESTRAL SHAWL--PROBLEMATICAL BUTTONS + + +Now that we have considered the origin of dress as a whole, we may turn +with advantage to the evolution of individual garments. People are very +often pleased to allude to what are called the vagaries of fashion, but +it is curious to notice how little real change is made in costume at the +present time. The really useful characters are always retained, and our +modern clothes can be reduced to a very few types. A skirt is a skirt +whether it falls naturally, is held out all round with a hoop, or +crinoline, or is only supported behind by what at one time was known as +an "improver." And in the same way it may be said that trousers remain +trousers whether they have bell bottoms or are peg tops. + +Even types which we recognize as being quite distinct, are often so +closely related as to cause surprise when their family history is made +known. Although it constantly alters as regards details, which from a +constructional point of view are quite unimportant, woman's dress does +not seem to have varied to any very great extent. Consequently, there +are not quite so many curious features to be seen as in the ordinary +clothes or uniforms of men. On the other hand, however, we may with +greater reason hope to find that some primitive characters have survived +until the present day. + +No article of clothing could well be simpler than the shawl, and though +there is an art in its arrangement, the only point in its structure that +would appear to invite attention is the presence of a fringe on only two +sides. This seems to be a small matter, but it takes us straight back +to the time when men had ceased to be hunters merely, and having become +agriculturists had learned, as we have already indicated, to weave +fibres with the help of simple looms. From the cloth thus made clothes +were constructed, though skins continued to be used as outer mantles. +When the stuff was taken from these early looms, the threads of the warp +were left hanging from two opposite edges, and the fringe that we have +now on our shawls is a direct survival of this accidental occurrence. + +There seems not the slightest doubt but that we can trace the coat from +the shawl. A simple improvement in the latter is to join two edges of +the shawl together and make a tunic. Such a tubular garment was used in +Greece, and, with some slight modifications, is worn by Egyptian women +to-day. It came up to the armpits, was gathered up on to each shoulder +and fastened with two brooches. (Figure 2.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Sketch showing the development of the tunic. In +this stage it has no arms.] + +The next stage in development would be a sleeved tunic, and how easily +this could be derived from a shawl can be seen by putting a narrow one +over the shoulders and lifting up the arms as shown in Figure 3. The +material has only to be sewn together under the arms, and if necessary +cut into shape. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Diagram showing the way in which a sleeved tunic +is derived from the shawl.] + +If the front be not sewn up, we get the coat as we know it; if the edges +be joined along half their length or more, then we have a sleeved tunic, +a shirt, or vest (see Plate III). The smock-frock (see Figure 4) and +gown are more voluminous, while the jersey is short again, and has only +a small opening at the neck. An interesting garment is found among the +costumes of the Bronze Age chieftains of Denmark and their wives, +which have been preserved in the oak coffins of these people, owing to +the action of tannin from the wood which has preserved the woven +material.[5] The article in question belonged to one of the women, +and though the front edges are joined for a short distance, it is +practically a jacket. The sleeves are made all in one piece, and the +garment is very nearly as highly evolved as the Cardigan jacket, which +it very much resembles. (See Figure 5.) + +[Illustration: THE SILK VEST WORN BY CHARLES I ON THE SCAFFOLD. +ILLUSTRATING THE SLEEVED TUNIC OPENING FOR A SHORT DISTANCE DOWN THE +FRONT. + +(_From a photograph by Mr. Henry Stevens._) + + _PLATE III._] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--A smock frock.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Jacket of a woman, made in one piece. Bronze +stage of culture (after Worsaae).] + +It is by this time clear, that several important garments are the +descendants of the shawl, which is still used by men in the British +Isles under the title of the plaid, or maud. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Man's dress showing buttons on the right side.] + +Though differing, of course, in detail, the upper garments of men and +women agree in general construction. One of the points alluded to is +worthy of mention, namely, that the buttons on a man's coat are on +the right side and the buttonholes on his left, while in the case of +women's attire the exact opposite is found--at least, so far as one can +ascertain--in European countries. In the East, the little knobs which +are passed through loops and take the place of buttons, may in the +women's dress be on the right side, and in other Asiatic costumes the +same thing holds good. In connection with this peculiarity, it may be +pointed out that men and women have different ways of doing up buttons. +The man takes hold of the button with his right hand, puts his left +thumb into the buttonhole and pushes the button against it. Then he +pulls the stuff over with his right forefinger and pushes the button +through with his right thumb while he guides it with his left. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Woman's dress showing buttons on the left side.] + +The woman, on the other hand, puts her right thumb through the +buttonhole, takes hold of the button with the fingers of the same hand, +and finally, if the other hand is at liberty, brings it up to finish the +process. (See Figures 6 to 11.) + +To explain the difference in the position of the buttons is not by any +means easy. In the correspondence which has arisen out of lectures which +the writer has given on the evolution of dress, it has, in the first +place, been suggested that the arrangement of his clothing permitted a +man to thrust his right and fighting arm into his jacket in order to +keep it warm. This explanation, of course, does not account for the +variation in the case of women. + +Dr. Lyman, of Baltimore, has submitted the theory that a man wearing +a loose cloak, toga, or plaid, would grasp it with the left hand and +thrust the left side over the right so as to leave the right-hand free +in order to hold a weapon or implement. A woman would grasp her attire +with her right hand, and push it over the left side and leave her left +arm unencumbered, wherewith to carry a child. It would, however, seem +more natural for the right side to be pulled over the left, but it is +unlikely that a man would fight in a loose cloak, and the toga was only +worn in times of peace. Moreover, the jacket, as we have seen, was +developed from the cloak through the tunic. A tunic was worn under the +toga, and as the only loose edge of the latter lies in the same way as +the buttonhole side of a man's coat, it is feasible that the edges of +the tunic beneath would for convenience be made to lap the same way. + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.--First stage. FIG. 9.--Second stage. + + Diagrams showing how a man does up a button.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--First stage. FIG. 11.--Second stage. + + Diagrams showing how a woman does up a button.] + +To turn to women's dress, it is customary, as Dr. Lyman says, to carry +children on the left arm, and they are allowed to suck the left breast +to a greater extent than the other. The left side of a bodice could, if +the right lapped over it, be pulled back without exposing so much of the +person as if the reverse held good, and in the case of tightly-fitting +clothing, if the buttons have to be done up with the right hand alone, +the task is made easier. Another interesting little point of difference +between the clothes of the two sexes is, that while the buttons on a +man's wristbands are on the thumb side, those of a woman are on that +which corresponds with the little finger. This arrangement is no doubt +correlated with that previously discussed, but the reason for it is not +obvious. + + + + +IV + +BUTTONS AS CHRONICLES + +EPISODES IN THE LATER HISTORY OF THE COAT AND CUFFS + + +We have gained some insight into the development of garments as a whole, +and no doubt it is now obvious that the little details of construction +will prove by no means the least attractive part of our subject. It +has become customary to refer to a button as typifying something of +specially small account, though very often much may depend in practice +upon one of these despised articles. + +We have already shown that the mere position of a few buttons that are +still useful, may raise most curious points, and in the present chapter +we shall proceed to investigate some episodes in the later history of +the coat which have left their mark upon it, to a great extent in the +shape of useless buttons. This topic will be dealt with in some detail, +so that it may serve as a guide to those of our readers who may be +induced to undertake the fascinating study of survivals in dress. +Afterwards, the general survey of modern clothes will be continued, and +here and there lines of research will be indicated, while some problems +will be left for our readers to solve. In the second part of the book, +it is intended to deal with a certain number of costumes which have been +handed down to us as they are. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.--The buttons on the back of a policeman's great +coat.] + +At the present time there are usually to be seen two buttons on the +back of civilians' coats, except in the case of lounge suits and dinner +jackets, and there may be four or more on the great coats of policemen +(see Figure 12) and on the tunics of some soldiers. The first question +which we will endeavour to answer is, Why are they there? The two upper +buttons in the case of uniforms are now used to support a belt, and +at first sight it looks as if they were originally intended for this +purpose. Their adoption in other cases might then be put down as a +survival from a time when civilians carried swords. Unfortunately for +this theory, it can be shown that the sword-belt was not necessarily +worn outside the coat (see Figures 18 and 19). + +We must therefore look round for further evidence, and we find that +those coats which bear the pair of buttons, have a slit up the middle +which gives rise to the skirts or tails. This arrangement carries us +back to the time when there were no railways and few conveyances; when +men commonly travelled on horseback and their whole attire was adapted +to this end, so that they were ready for the saddle at a moment's +notice. The division in the coat which we are considering, allowed one +tail to fall conveniently on each side of the horse after its rider had +mounted it. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.--The buttons that close the slit up the back of +an ulster.] + +In long overcoats of to-day we find only a short slit, left for +convenience in walking (see Figure 13); but it has a special interest +for us, as in connection with it there are two or three buttons and +buttonholes, usually hidden, which allow of the opening being closed +up. + +Here, then, we have buttons on the back of the coat still serving a +useful purpose, and it is not at all difficult to trace the series of +fastenings back to a much longer one, which in the seventeenth century +was quite obvious. (See Figure 14.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.--A back view of a seventeenth-century coat +showing the buttons and buttonholes.] + +Each button and buttonhole was placed in the middle of similar pieces +of lace or embroidery, so that the sides of the coat were made to look +symmetrical. The object in view was the keeping of the skirts of the +coat together when the wearer was not on horseback. At the present day +the buttons have been duplicated and are on both sides of the coat, and +they are still sewn to ornamental pieces in the uniform of the Grenadier +Guards. The presence of the lower buttons on uniforms and coats is +therefore explained. It might be assumed that the topmost button had +also been doubled and raised above the slit, and that in this way we +have obtained the two ornaments on the back of our coats. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.--The tab and buttons on the back of a soldier's +great coat which make a temporary waist.] + +Before accepting such a solution of the problem, however, it may be well +to see if the buttons may not have had another origin; and on looking +for some clue we find that two folds take their rise from the point +where the buttons are situated. These may be expected to throw some +light upon the question. The folds are now permanent, but on a +voluminous coat, such as still used by horse soldiers, they can be +produced temporarily (see Figure 15) by setting the two buttons further +apart and running a tab from one to the other. Sir George Darwin has +attempted to carry the history of these two buttons still further +back.[6] He has expressed the opinion that each is one of a pair that +originally kept in place a small tab at the side of the coat, and so +helped to produce a waist when required. (See Figures 17 and 18.) + +In some drawings of coats (see Figure 18) the side tabs and their +corresponding buttons are shown in addition to those on the back of the +coat. + +There is, however, evidence to show that the buttons were originally +on the sides of the coat, for they are so wide apart as to be to all +intents and purposes in that position, on the uniform overcoats of the +London Electric Tramway drivers. (See Figure 16.) + +They may well represent the topmost buttons of the lateral series, still +found on the overcoat of the members of the Corps of Commissionaires. In +this case there are three buttons on each side, of which the middle one +is used for fastening the side-pocket. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.--The buttons and tab on a tramway driver's +coat.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.--An eighteenth-century coat with side buttons +and tab.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Side tabs and buttons at the back (after +Racinet).] + +It is worth while to consider side-pockets, which in their turn are +remnants of lateral openings which were made in coats at the end of +the seventeenth and the beginning of the following centuries. The +sword-handle conveniently protruded through the left-hand slit, which, +like its fellow, ran from the waist to the lower margin of the coat +or stopped half-way. (See Figures 18 and 19.) In the latter case, the +arrangement very much resembles the vertical pocket which has become +common again of recent years. (See Figure 20.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 19.--A coat worn at the end of the +seventeenth-century (after H. Bonnart).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 20.--A modern coat with side pockets.] + +Occasionally a tab, such as that to which reference has been made, +kept the parts of the coat together; but often there were buttons and +buttonholes, at least at the upper end of the openings. These survive +in several cases, such as in the overcoat of the commissionaire, while +the pocket is sometimes represented by a mere flap (see Figure 21) +ornamented with buttons as on the livery of certain footmen. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.--A footman's coat, modern, with vestigial pocket +flaps.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Coat skirts buttoned back (after Hogarth).] + +To sum up the matter, the topmost pair of buttons has come from the +fastenings of the side slit and the lower ones from those of the back +slit. Buttons on the skirt behind have in the meantime had a very +intimate connection with the evolution of the "swallow-tail" coat +(see Figure 24). They were used to fasten the corners of the ordinary +riding-coat together, so that the linings should not be injured by the +sweat of the horses. (See Figure 22.) + +Mr. Deane Butcher tells me that he can remember this buttoning back +being done in the case of his uncle, when the latter rode to market or +to church; but in this case it was the two uppermost buttons which +were again brought into use. At dances the coats were also subjected +to similar treatment, and what at first was a temporary condition +afterwards became a permanent one. It is obvious that the turned-back +lining would often be of a different colour from the outside of the +coat, and facings on old uniforms, and in that of the present dress of +a lord-lieutenant (see Figure 23) are derived from the practice of +fastening the corners of the coat together. In the "swallow-tail" the +outer corners have been cut right away. (See Figure 24.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 23.--A coat with the skirts buttoned back and +showing the lining.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 24.--A dress coat with skirts cut away.] + +The buttons, in the interesting cases which we have described, have +been allowed to remain as part and parcel of our costume on account of +their decorative character, and in a great measure the same is true of +those on coat cuffs (see Figure 25). In many cases there are proper +buttonholes, and it is possible to undo the sleeve buttons; but +occasionally the arrangement has degenerated and the buttonholes are +imitations or only the buttons remain. + +[Illustration: FIG. 25.--A modern coat cuff with buttons.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Turned-back cuff, end of seventeenth century +(after Bonnart).] + +To find an explanation of this feature we shall have to go back again to +the seventeenth century, when so much was expended upon coats that it +became advisable to turn back the cuffs out of harm's way. To hold them +in position, series of buttons and buttonholes were devised, and just +as the turning back of the skirts was at first temporary and afterwards +came to be done once for all when the coat was made, so the turned-back +cuff grew into a permanent institution. In Figure 26 the buttons are one +above the other as in modern dress, but in the next two Figures (27 and +28) they are horizontal. + +[Illustration: FIG. 27.--A coat sleeve (after Hogarth) with a horizontal +row of buttons.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Sleeve of a coat of the seventeenth century, +reputed to have been worn by Charles I.] + +A survival of this arrangement can still be seen in the coat sleeves of +the higher clergy. In ordinary dress, the turned-back edge of the cuff +may now only be represented by a band of braid or a row of stitches; but +in soldiers' uniforms, an ornamented cuff persists which represents +in reality the lining of the sleeve. Again, the turned-back cuff is +actually present in the clothes of costermongers, and has been revived +on overcoats to a considerable extent during the last few years. (See +Figure 29.) + +As a rule, too, the vertical pocket already described accompanies the +turned-back cuff, as it did some centuries ago. (See Figure 20.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 29.--The turned-back cuff on an overcoat, modern.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 30.--A sleeve with vertical buttons and a +turned-back cuff as well (from a uniform, after Hogarth).] + +It must not be forgotten that buttons have long been used on narrow +sleeves. They are undone when the hand is to be pushed through the +cuff, and afterwards fastened for the sake of warmth or to give a neat +appearance. It is therefore possible that the ring of buttons is more +properly a survival of the time when cuffs were turned back to preserve +them, and that the vertical row is really of earlier origin. A uniform +represented by Hogarth (Figure 30) shows both the row of buttons and the +turned-back cuff, which seems to be quite independent of them. + +In this instance we may have the degenerated turned-back cuff and one +revived, shown together. Such a case, we need scarcely point out, could +hardly occur in the case of an animal structure, for if by a "throw +back" or "reversion to type" we get a vestigial character once more +fully reproduced, we cannot expect the original structure and the +vestige to be shown at the same time. + +The adoption of buttons more or less for ornament has long been +practised. John Brandon, who died in the year 1364, is shown on his +brass (in the church of St. Mary, King's Lynn) with no less than forty +buttons on the sleeves of his undervest, which has embroidered cuffs +and is buttoned to the elbow (see Plate IV). We shall, however, have +something more to say with regard to buttons from this and other points +of view as we proceed. + +[Illustration: REPRODUCTION OF A BRASS TO JOHN BRANDON AND HIS TWO +WIVES, IN THE CHURCH OF ST. MARY, KING'S LYNN. DATE 1364. ON THE MALE +FIGURE A CONTINUOUS ROW OF BUTTONS RUNS FROM THE WRIST TO THE ELBOW OF +THE UNDER VEST. THE WOMEN WEAR THE WIMPLE AND THE GORGET OR THROAT +CLOTH. + + _PLATE IV._] + +An interesting case of superfluous buttons on the front of clothes is to +be seen in the case of the short jackets of the postilions, belonging to +His Majesty the King. There is a useful row down the middle which closes +the garment, and two ornamental rows which start from each shoulder and +curve downwards towards the middle row. These are probably vestiges of +buttons that were once of use, and to seek an explanation it might be +well to study some uniforms of the past. We shall find that in the +eighteenth century it was customary to button back the revers of the +uniform coat, as in the case of the French coast-guard officer of 1775. +(See Figure 31.) + +Fashion afterwards decreed that the coats should be fastened again with +hooks, but the two rows of buttons remained. + +[Illustration: FIG. 31.--The uniform of a coast-guard officer of 1775 +(after Racinet).] + +In the coat of the postilion there is no trace of the revers which +showed the lining, and were consequently of a different colour from +the rest of the coat. We find, however, in the peculiar uniform of +the Lancers that there are the two side rows of buttons, to which is +fastened a red front. This appears to represent the two revers combined. +In the present year, 1907, a number of ladies' dresses are to be seen in +which the revers trimmed with a different material from the dress are +buttoned back against the latter. + +In some ceremonial dresses and uniforms there are cross stripes on the +breast (see Figure 61) which, it has been pointed out, represent series +of buttonholes which have become hypertrophied, and are now exaggerated +beyond recognition. The braid on the cuff of the London Scottish +Volunteers seems also to represent buttonholes. + +Such features as turned-back cuffs occur in women's clothes, and, as +we have seen, the arrangement of buttons may be copied from masculine +attire. In other cases buttons seem to appear which have, it would seem, +no hereditary right to their position; but it may be well, before +dismissing them, to see whether they have not a pedigree. We might cite +the case of the buttons that are sewn on to the frocks a little below +the knee. They are often at the head of a plait, and it would be worth +while to look into their history. + + + + +V + +COLLARS AND BANDS + +NICKS IN COAT LAPELS--THE WHY AND WHEREFORE OF THE WHITE SHIRT FRONT + + +Let us carry on our work of dissecting the clothes of a modern man, and +as we once more survey our subject, we may glance a little higher than +heretofore, until our eyes rest upon the collar of his coat. This +structure passes into the lapels, and at the point of junction there is +a curious nick which is repeated in the waistcoat if this be similarly +provided with lapels. (See Figure 32.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 32.--The nicks in the coat and waistcoat.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 33.--A stage when the nick was useful (Lucien +Bonaparte, after Paul Lacroix).] + +There is always a temptation to invent some interesting theory in order +to explain the origin of vestiges, and a penny paper, which hardly +boasts of scientific accuracy, not long ago informed its readers that +the slit in the coat lapel is the outcome of a "unique and beautiful +custom among the orthodox Jews," for in former days, when death visited +a Jew's household, he cut the lapel of his coat. It was undoubtedly a +custom of the Jews to rend their garments, but it does not, on the +face of it, seem likely that the practice would have influenced modern +costume. It would appear, however, that the slit in the lapel has a +much more prosaic origin, and owes its existence rather to a practical +requirement than to a sentimental observance. When the collar of a coat +is made to stand up, it is absolutely necessary that a piece should be +cut out of the cloth, or the lapel will not lie down. In the exaggerated +garment of which we give an illustration (see Figure 33) this need is +most manifest; but a moment's thought will show that the provision +must be made, even if the collar be small. A trifling experiment will +indicate that at the present day the cut is not usually made deep enough +to allow of the collar being turned up without disturbing the lapels. + +[Illustration: FIG. 34.--The "toothpick" on a dress coat.] + +Another remarkable variation is to be found in the collars of some dress +suits. A little point is left on the collar known to tailors as the +"toothpick," which runs across the nick into the lapel (see Figure 34). +This structure is probably a survival of some particular kind of collar. + +It might be pointed out here that the facings and collar that are of +silk or velvet represent the lining of the coat which came into view +when the collar was turned down and the lapels turned back. The case +is quite similar to that of the cuffs on uniforms, and to be quite +consistent, the whole coat should be lined with what is usually used now +only as a kind of trimming. + +It is but a short step from the features that we have been discussing, +to the linen collar and the shirt front. The cutting away of the outer +garment to bring the shirt into view is a relic of the time when only +those who were very well to do could afford to wear linen, and they +showed it, in order to indicate their social position, or at any rate +their financial resources. At the same time, the women cut their dresses +low so as to show their underlinen; and not content with this, they +further, at the end of the thirteenth century, slit their gowns from the +armpits to the hips. The openings thus made were laced across, so that +the linen garments beneath could easily be seen. + +The white shirt has long survived, and in spite of its depreciated value +has up to quite recently posed as a badge of respectability. Now at last +there are signs that its sway is over, and that soon it will come to be +only a garment of ceremony. + +The linen collar of to-day is quite a small affair compared with some of +its forerunners. An interesting relic is to be seen in the two little +linen flaps which we call bands (see Figure 35). These are still worn +by preachers in conjunction with the Geneva gown, by barristers, and +by Blue-coat boys (see Figure 36), and we can easily trace their +relationship to the collar. Until a few years ago the choristers at +Jesus College, Cambridge, wore a peculiar collar which ended in two +flaps much resembling bands, and the descent of this from the large +structures which were called falling bands is not difficult to trace. + +[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Modern bands.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 36.--A blue-coat boy's bands.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 37.--A chorister of Jesus College, Cambridge, +showing the collar worn until recently. + +(From a photograph by the courtesy of Mr. H. Austin Wheaton.)] + +The portrait of Jan Steen, which we reproduce, shows bands which are +less stiff and formal, but of ampler proportions. (See Figure 38.) + +Going a little further back, we find the collar that covered the +shoulders, such as Milton wore, and which is shown in our picture of +John Pym. (See Figure 39.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 38.--A stage in the reduction of the bands (portrait +of Jan Steen from the _Illustrated Magazine of Art_).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Full-sized bands (portrait of John Pym from the +_Illustrated Magazine of Art_).] + +At this point we may pause to recall a simple article which is known +as a bandbox, but which has been diverted from its original purpose of +holding bands, and is now commonly used as a receptacle for hats. Though +not itself part of dress, the bandbox furnishes an interesting instance +of adaptation to circumstances. It was well suited to contain articles +of dress other than those for which it was primarily intended, and +hence it has survived in the struggle for existence. (See Figure 40.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 40.--A modern bandbox, now used for hats.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Bands that survive at the present day.] + +We must not, however, jump to the conclusion that bands are now only +represented by vestiges, for they are still to be seen in their full +glory on very small boys (see Figure 41), and the writer recalls a lad +of fourteen or so who had reached the dignity of trousers who wore the +same kind of collar. As he also had a trencher, or in common parlance, a +"mortar-board," it is possible that he was not an isolated survival, but +belonged to some school which adopted a special costume. + +As linen collars are one of the articles of dress in regard to which +the wearer is allowed in a great measure to follow his own taste, it +is not surprising that a great many forms have from time to time been +invented. Quite a number are still to be seen here and there, while the +development of the more fashionable shapes one from the other would, in +itself, form a chapter in the Evolution of Dress. The clerical collar +may be singled out, as it fastens behind like the bands, though the +reason for this is not at all obvious. + +In recalling the great ruffs and expanded collars of Queen Elizabeth's +reign, one may be inclined to smile at the lengths to which a fad may be +carried, and the curious, not to say monstrous, structures that are its +culminations. These, like the huge creatures of bygone ages, die out, +but differ in this respect that they sometimes revive for a time. For +instance, only a few years have passed since the collars of ladies' +mantles stood up round the back of their heads; but as the collars +usually lacked the decoration and colour of the Elizabethan period, they +appeared as if they were intended merely to keep the draught from the +necks of their wearers, and they did not last for long. + + + + +VI + +VESTIGES IN THE HAT + +HOW HATS WERE EVOLVED--WHY PLUMES ARE ON THE LEFT SIDE--THE GROWTH OF +THE BUSBY--HELMETS AND COCKED HATS + + +Those who have written upon dress from an artistic point of view have +recognized that costume and architecture are affected by the same +influences. When we come to the hat, we find that its name is connected +with a building of a primitive character, namely, a hut. Mr. Allan +Poe Newcombe, an architect, some years ago pointed out the curious +resemblance which has existed, and is still to be found in many +countries, between headgear and habitations or other buildings.[7] +It may be that the cases which have been collected together are mere +coincidences, though it must be allowed that they are both numerous and +striking. It may be that the same taste, or lack of it, has given rise +to the similarity of style, or in the beginning, the designer of the hat +may have taken the hut as a model. + +In the Hawaiian Islands, long before the inhabitants troubled about +clothes, they built themselves grass houses, and at the present time the +characteristic Hawaiian hat is remarkably like the hut. The turbans of +Eastern Church dignitaries are still of the same shape as those worn +by the high priests among the Jews, and are remarkably like the +characteristic dome which surmounts a mosque. (See Figure 42.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 42.--The turban of a Jewish priest (after Kitto) +compared with the dome of the Mosque of Omar.] + +Looking about in other countries we shall find further instances that +support Mr. Newcombe's contention; our illustration of a Siamese +head-dress and building is a case in point. (See Figure 43.) + +Again going back into European history, we find that the high pointed +spires of Gothic churches were cotemporaneous with the high horn-like +head-dress known as the hennin (see Figure 44). It is claimed, moreover, +that like results will be found after a comparison of other styles of +architecture with the costume of the period in which they flourished. + +[Illustration: FIG. 43.--A Siamese head-dress and a Pra Pang or Votive +spire (after P.A. Thompson).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 44.--A Gothic spire (St. Stephen's, Caen) compared +with the hennin (the latter after Fairholt).] + +Leaving this suggestive line of research, and coming to hats as we have +them at the present day, we find that they offer several remarkable +vestiges for our consideration. First of all there is the hat-band +outside, which sometimes ends in two tails or streamers that hang from +the back of the hat (see Figure 47). From the bow usually present it +is evident that the hat-band was tied, and the streamers represent the +loose ends. As a matter of fact, primitively, a head-dress was made from +a piece of cloth, round which a fillet was tied so that it fitted the +head. In this connexion Figure 45 is most interesting. It represents +the back view of the head of the Egyptian woman of the Sixth Dynasty, +who is seen in Figure 76, and shows a head-dress which is confined with +a fillet that is tied at the back so as to make two tails. + +[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Band with streamers fastening on the head-dress +of an Egyptian woman. From a figure of the Sixth Dynasty, B.C. 3500.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 46.--A lady's head-dress confined with a fillet, +fourteenth century (after Viollet le Duc).] + +The modern Arab fastens his kefiyeh with a twist of camel's hair without +streamers, and the lady of the fourteenth century, shown in Figure 46, +has also an ordinary band. + +The child's sailor hat and the Scotch cap are among the modern head +coverings which retain the strings (Figure 49). A twelfth-century +head-dress shown in a manuscript (Figure 48) has a great similarity to +the Scotch cap, as the band forms a kind of binding to the article in +both cases, and there are streamers to both. + +[Illustration: FIG. 47.--A sailor hat with band and streamers.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 48.--A twelfth-century head-dress with streamers +from a MS. (after Viollet le Duc).] + +The strings or streamers are to be found in many other head coverings, +including the mitres of bishops (see Figure 50). The particular mitre +illustrated is that of the See of Durham, which is distinguished from +others in being plumed. + +[Illustration: FIG. 49.--A modern Scotch cap with streamers.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 50.--A mitre of the See of Durham showing the +strings (after Millington).] + +An interesting suggestion as to the origin of the slit in the top of the +mitre may be mentioned here. Head-dresses were used in very early times +which were in the form of a fish's head, and it has been thought that +the slit in the mitre, so distinctly shown in chess-men, represents the +fish's mouth. + +On looking at the inside of a modern hat, a little bow of silk ribbon +will usually be found at the back where the two edges of the leather +lining meet. Here, again, is a vestige. (See Figure 51.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Small vestigial bow of ribbon in a modern hat.] + +In some hats the ribbon does not simply make the bow, but it is threaded +through a greater or less number of holes in the leather, though now +fulfilling no useful purpose. (See Figure 52.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 52.--A hat with the remains of lacing.] + +In a hunting hat, however (see Figure 53), the lacing is continuous +round the hat, and the lining can be made to fit the wearer. It helps to +form a buffer, should the huntsman unfortunately fall on his head, and +it is claimed that many lives have been saved by this small detail. + +[Illustration: FIG. 53.--A hunting hat with complete lacing inside.] + +It may be gathered from the description that in times when hats could +not easily be got to fit their wearers, the lacing inside would be most +useful, as it ensured that the size could be adjusted. + +It is possible also that in the lacing we have a means by which a hat +was originally shaped, and that the lace is really a hat-band threaded +through the material of the head-dress instead of being tied round +outside. The first diagram on page 57 shows a flat piece of leather +cut into a circular form; the next shows it perforated and a lace put +through the openings; the third indicates how by tightening the string a +crown could be made to the hat. + +[Illustration: FIG. 54.--A disc of leather.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 55.--The disc perforated and the lace inserted.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 56.--The lace tightened to form a crown.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 57.--The ends of the lace tied as a bow inside.] + +In time, when the crown was made in different ways, it would be easy to +transfer the lacing to the lining as seen already in the hunting hat +(Figure 53). + +It is interesting to note that a small bow is also found inside ladies' +hats, and often used as a place on which to put the name of the maker. +(See Figure 58.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 58.--A bow fastened to the lining of a lady's hat.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Plumes on the left side.] + +Sir George Darwin has shown why plumes are, and used to be, on the left +side of a hat only. In the days when the feathers were particularly long +there was also plenty of fighting, and it only needs the attention to +be drawn to the point, to make one realize that if the plume had been +on the right side, it might often have got in the way of a sword and +thereby caused the overthrow or even death of its wearer. At the present +day in the army (see Figure 59), the plumes will be found on the left +side as in the days of cavaliers. + +Sir George Darwin[8] has traced the origin of the busby, and has +shown that the little red flap that hangs on the left side as a +useless appendage is really the original cap. Busbies were the special +attributes of the Hussars, who were originally Hungarian soldiers. It +is the peasant's cap of Hungary that is the forerunner of the military +head-dress which we are considering, and it consisted of a red cap of +cloth with a band of fur round the edge. As time went on, the fur on the +cap, which was adopted in the end by various regiments, became wider and +wider, and the original red cap got smaller and smaller until the form +of the modern busby was reached. In some cases even the flap already +mentioned has gone, though the fact that the top of the busby is made of +cloth instead of fur still points to its origin. (See Figures 60 and +61.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 60.--The red Hungarian cap, which was the forerunner +of the busby.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 61.--A busby (of the Honourable Artillery Company) +in which the cap is a vestige only.] + +Though we are not discussing armour at the moment, we may say while +speaking of military head-dresses that metal helmets are still in use in +a few regiments. The helmet also of the fireman deserves attention, as +it is practically of the same type as that worn by the ancient Greeks. +(See Figure 62.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 62.--A fireman's helmet (of the ancient Greek +type).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 63.--Buttons so arranged that the broad brim of a +hat can be fastened to the crown, thus forming a temporary "cock" +(Hudibras after Hogarth).] + +The cocked hat should also claim our attention, and it gives us +another instance of temporary alterations which have ultimately become +permanent. The picture of Hudibras shows an early stage in the history +of cocking. The strings which connect the brim of a bishop's tall hat +to the crown are evidently connected with this practice. In the modern +cocked hat more of the right side is turned up than of the left. +A little careful examination will render its development from the +broad-brimmed hat easily understood, while the representatives of the +hat-band and the details of the cocking will be soon discovered. + +The cock of the hat formed a convenient spot in which to fix an +ornament, and the name cockade has come to be applied to such an +addition, borne on the hat, as a mark to distinguish the wearer. + +The part which cockades have played in history is considerable, but as +they are now chiefly associated with the liveries of men-servants they +will be considered later on in the book. Before, however, we leave, for +the present, the subject of head coverings, we ought to mention that a +piece of woven material as primitively used without even a restraining +band, still survives in the shape of the small shawl which north-country +girls and women very generally wear over their heads. The head-dress of +the nun is another case in point, and recalls that in vogue in Tudor +times, while the sun-bonnet of the barge and market women, though more +highly developed, still consists to a considerable extent of simple +drapery. + + + + +VII + +SHOES AND STOCKINGS + +EARLY FOOT-GEAR--THE ORIGIN OF THE CLOCK--A MODERN IMITATION OF +TATTOOING--GAILY COLOURED GARTERS + + +Many persons still go barefoot, so that ancient as foot-gear may be, the +stage preceding its adoption is even now represented. Moreover, sandals, +which are very primitive, have been much in use of recent years, and +have especially been worn by children. + +If we turn to ordinary boots and shoes we shall not find many obvious +points about them which lead up to their history. Still we shall see in +the case of a large number that in places where one piece of leather +laps over another, it is perforated with rows of holes which form a kind +of simple ornamentation. (See Figure 64.) + +The perforations do not go through the boot or shoe, and in a Roman +example in the British Museum, which is much more highly decorated, +there are two thicknesses of leather, of which the outer one only is +pierced. (See Figure 65.) + +In many cases, however, the Roman shoe was truly of open work. It +consisted of but one thickness of leather, and from this, large pieces +were cut out so as to make a kind of lattice. Several examples of +this kind of shoe are exhibited at the British Museum, and we give an +illustration of one of these, which is in a very fair state of +preservation. (See Figure 66.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 64.--A modern boot decorated with perforations made +in the leather.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 65.--An ornamented Roman shoe, of two thicknesses.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 66.--A Roman shoe of open-work leather.] + +It seems very probable that the ornamentation on our modern shoes is +a survival of the open work which was in favour with the Romans, +especially as even then the apertures did not always expose the foot. In +pre-Roman times in this country there were perforations in some of the +shoes which were useful rather than ornamental, and one type (of which a +specimen figured by Fairholt is preserved by the Royal Irish Academy) +has survived until recently, if it is not to be found to-day, in +Scotland and Ireland. This shoe was made of raw hide (see Figure 67), +and the holes, it is said, were intended to allow the water to pass +through when the wearer was crossing morasses. An examination of the +figure will, however, show that the holes are really slits, and it would +appear that however useful they may have proved in the way described, +they were originally made for quite a different reason. + +[Illustration: FIG. 67.--A hide shoe of pre-Roman type from Ireland +(after Fairholt).] + +The most primitive kind of shoe would doubtless be a piece of hide +placed under the foot and brought up over the toes and round the heel. +It would make a rather unprepossessing bundle, and there would be +awkward puckers where the hide was gathered up. If the superfluous +material at the toe were cut away, we should have a slit in every case +where there had previously been a fold. This state of affairs is exactly +what is to be seen in the Irish shoe, where the strips of leather that +are left are held in place by a thong. In an ingenious way, apparently +with the help of the same lace, the difficulty of securing a fit at the +heel has also been got over. The result is a very neat shoe indeed, +though in reality it is only the original flat piece of hide. + +[Illustration: FIG. 68.--The original top boot with the upper part +temporarily turned down.] + +One of the most perfect instances of vestiges, as Sir George Darwin +points out, is afforded by top boots. In their original form, still to +be seen in our streets on sewer men, the boots were made to come above +the knee, but fashion decreed that the top should be turned back (see +Figure 68), and so it came about that the inside became visible, as did +also the tags, with the help of which the boots were pulled on. When the +outside of the boots was blacked it would form a distinct contrast to +the inside, which remained brown, and in modern top boots the difference +in colour has been in many cases greatly accentuated. Indeed, the upper +parts are made of different leather, and as ordinary coat cuffs are now +incapable of being turned down, the tops of the boots are immovable and +cannot be turned up. It is curious, however, that the tags at the sides +are still represented and sewn to the boot so as to be quite useless, +while new tags placed inside the boot now do their duty. (See Figure +69.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 69.--A modern top boot in which the upper part can +no longer be turned up.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 70.--Puttees.] + +Socks and stockings are, at the present time, the most usual coverings +for the lower parts of the legs, and there is at least one vestige which +remains in their structure that has an interest for us. Before we +consider this, however, we may look at another means of protecting the +lower extremities which tells of more primitive conditions. The leg +bandages so commonly worn by our regular soldiers and volunteers are the +case in point. (See Figure 70.) These appear to have been immediately +derived from the Indian Army, and their name--"puttees"--is evidence +of this; but such an arrangement is very widespread, and was that +generally adopted in this country in Anglo-Saxon times. Our illustration +is taken from an illuminated manuscript prepared for St. Aethelwold for +use at Winchester, which was completed between the years 963 and 964 +A.D. Bandaged stockings are common on representations of Anglo-Saxons, +but according to Fairholt the example given shows them to greater +advantage than does any other known. The figure in question is dressed +in royal costume, and the bandages, which are of gold, are fastened just +below the knee with a knot from which hang tassels. (See Figure 71.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 71.--Leg bandages of a royal personage at the end of +the tenth century (after Fairholt).] + +It has been thought that leg bandages were originally derived from the +haybands which peasants wrap round their legs, and the writer has seen +it stated that ostlers in this country still perpetuate the Anglo-Saxon +fashion, though he has never met with an actual instance. The pfiferari +who some years ago used to play on bagpipes and other primitive +instruments in our streets, wore leg bandages or loose linen stockings, +and these were cross-gartered with bands which held in place a simple +sandal made of a piece of leather. + +[Illustration: FIG. 72.--A stocking with clocks.] + +The vestige in modern stockings to which allusion has been made is very +often present, and takes the form of the ornament which we know as a +"clock." The name signifies a gusset, and in modern socks and so on, +which are woven or knitted all in one piece, no such arrangement is +to be found. Stockings, however, like those at first worn by Queen +Elizabeth, and used at least by American settlers until the year 1675, +were made up from pieces of cloth. In these there would be seams down +the sides, and it is possible that where the ornamental lines meet in +Figure 72 there may have been a gusset. In any case, it is evident that +the intention of the clock was to hide the side seams. + +Of recent years, when ladies have most sensibly adopted short skirts, +the clock has developed into a series of embroidered patterns which +cover the front of the foot and ankle. The parentage of these is quite +evident from the shape, which is shown in Figure 73. + +[Illustration: FIG. 73.--An embroidered stocking showing the further +evolution of the clock (date 1900).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 74.--An open-work stocking of 1905.] + +This ornamentation has been carried still further, though it is not +produced in the same way. The patterns, instead of being embroidered, +are the result of perforations, or, in more technical language, +"open-work," and the background which shows up the design is no longer +the material of the stockings, but the skin of their fair wearers. (See +Figure 74.) + +In many cases the stockings are dark in colour, and the effect of +tattooing is produced without the preliminary pain and inconvenience. We +have here an instance of the way in which the specially human instinct +of decorating the body persists, and at the same time a development of +the fashion for displaying, in the daytime under a thin veil of gauze or +lace, the necks and arms which since the time of our grandmothers have +only been allowed to appear uncovered in the evening. + +Leather stockings were once worn, for example, by William Penn, and they +and the leggings of to-day may be a direct survival from the time when +our ancestors, though still wearing skins, had learnt to dress them. +Leggings, as such, are possibly connected more closely with the +protection of man against man than with that of man against the weather, +and in that case their history is bound up with that of armour. Gaiters, +under the name of spatter-dashes, were originally part of a soldier's +uniform. To-day, when worn by civilians in ordinary dress, they are +quite short, and go by the contracted name of "spats." Pedestrians still +wear the full-sized gaiters in conjunction with knickerbockers, and +white gaiters are a feature of Highland regiments. + +Long Florentine hose, which practically took the place of trousers and +stockings together, are now represented by what are called "tights," +and are to be seen in the dress of acrobats. We shall allude to these +again. + +Garters when visible on men's legs become very ornamental, and one in +use now, merely as a decoration, gave its name to the celebrated Order +of Knighthood, among the insignia of which it is still to be found. +At the present day garters are hidden, and there is a tendency for +them to be replaced by more comfortable straps or "suspenders," but +those which ladies wear still retain their gaudy character. In this +connection an interesting ceremony may be mentioned, which is carried +in Haute-Vienne on the day of St. Eutropius. All the girls of the +neighbourhood troop to the church dedicated to the saint at St. +Junien-les-Gombes, and each damsel hangs her left garter on the cross +hard by, which becomes so smothered with garters of different colours +that when seen from a short distance it looks as if it were covered +with flowers. + + + + +VIII + +PETTICOATS AND TROUSERS + +THE BELTED PLAID AND KILT--EARLY SKIRTS--THE ANTIQUITY OF +TROUSERS--TROUSER STRIPES + + +We were at some pains to trace the evolution of the coat from the shawl, +and it is possible also to show that the petticoat, and through this +even trousers, have equal claims to the same ancestry. + +The plaid as we saw it in Chapter III is only a shawl, and at one time +in Scotland it was used as a covering for practically the whole of the +person. It was ingeniously disposed, and part of it was fastened by a +belt round the waist so as to form a kind of kilt or petticoat. Hence +arose the name of belted plaid. It seems to have needed a considerable +amount of practice to put on this garment properly, and the method +customarily adopted by the wearer was to spread the plaid on the ground +and, after duly arranging it in its proper folds, to lie down upon it +and fix it with the belt. Some races seem to have recognized very much +earlier that it would be more convenient to separate the kilt from the +upper garment. In fact, if we examine the woven garments which the +Danish chieftain wore under his deer-skin cloak, at a time before the +use of iron had spread to Western Europe, we find that round his loins +he had a small shawl held in place by a girdle. (See Figure 75.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 75.--A shawl used as a kilt by a chieftain of +Denmark in the bronze stage of culture (after Worsaae).] + +The next stage in the evolution of the petticoat would be characterized +by the permanent joining of the edges of the cloth, so that a garment +would be formed which resembled the lower part of the tubular tunic +which played its part in the evolution of the shirt or coat. Such a +state of affairs is to be seen in the simple skirt of the Danish +chieftainess whose bodice we have already described. (See page 18.) +Here the petticoat was not shaped in any way at the top, but was +gathered in round the waist and fastened as in the case of the man with +a girdle. + +[Illustration: FIG. 76.--A simple dress in the form of a petticoat from +an Egyptian figure of the Sixth Dynasty (3500 B.C.), from the Myers +collection in Eton College Museum.] + +In a warm climate it would be easy to dispense with a covering for the +upper part of the body, and one of the simplest dresses imaginable was +adopted in ancient Egypt. This costume is to be seen on the figure of a +woman belonging to the Sixth Dynasty (3500 B.C.), which we have already +mentioned when tracing the development of the hat-band and ribbons. (See +Figure 45.) In this instance there is a simple tight-fitting skirt +reaching to the waist or a little above it, which is supported by two +straps passing between the bare breasts and over the otherwise naked +shoulders. (See Figure 76.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 77.--A Korean servant (after Hough).] + +It seems certain, as in the original carving the woman is shown with a +burden on her head and in the act of driving a calf before her, that she +is a representative of the peasant class. In the Korea at the present +day, women of the lower orders, although they adopt a jacket which +covers their arms and shoulders, wear so short an one that as there is +no garment beneath it leaves their breasts quite bare. (See Figure 77.) +Such an arrangement would obviously facilitate the nursing of children, +and this fact has been advanced as the reason for its adoption. Still +it may be merely a fashion such as some women, at the other end of the +social scale, once adopted in our non-tropical country. In the time of +James I of England, the noble ladies, while they wore an exaggerated +ruff round their necks, nevertheless had their dresses cut away from +just below it almost to their waists. + +[Illustration: FIG. 78.--A short kilt.] + +The short kilt now worn in Scotland represents the lower part of the +belted plaid, and is in fact a petticoat and specially interesting, +seeing that it is a survival of this type as a man's garment. Of the +origin of the sporran which is worn in front of the kilt, little seems +to be known, and though it recalls to mind the time when men were +clothed in skins, it forms a pouch as well as an ornament, and possibly +also may have been useful as a protection. (See Figure 78.) + +Having once derived the petticoat, however, from the ancestral shawl, it +is a very simple matter to proceed and evolve a pair of trousers. As a +matter of fact, the Eastern women, when they fasten their petticoats +between their ankles for convenience in walking, demonstrate the first +stage in the production of bifurcated garments. + +A single row of stitches will give rise to a kind of divided skirt, +while two seams and a single cut made between, and parallel, to them, +will produce a pair of trousers. + +It would be strange if so simple a process, which under many conditions +results in such a great improvement, had not been put into practice +in very early times, and trousers, although they seem to typify the +ugliness of modern costume, are in reality surrounded by a halo +of antiquity. It is only right, however, to point out that these +tubular garments were in olden days not associated with the highest +civilization. The Romans, for instance, did not wear trousers, though +the nations whom they were pleased to call barbarians, did. Some of the +enemies of Rome are shown on Trajan's column wearing nether garments of +the kind most familiar to us, and our illustration is taken from the +representation of a barbarian soldier carved on an ivory diptych of St. +Paul. (See Figure 79.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 79.--A barbarian soldier wearing characteristic +trousers (from a diptych of St. Paul, after Marriott).] + +The kilt is sometimes called the garb of old Gaul, but one province of +the latter owes its name--Gallia Braccata--to the custom among its +inhabitants of wearing braccæ or breeches. In our own country trousers +were in vogue before the advent of the Roman conquerors, and though +for a time the dress of the invaders was adopted by those who followed +their fashions, we find that in the time of the Saxons and Normans the +barbarian style found favour once more. + +In the picture of a Saxon fighting man (see Figure 80), we see that he +wears trousers that somewhat recall those of the modern sailor, and +there seem to have been many different styles even in those early days. + +[Illustration: FIG. 80.--A Saxon military man wearing wide trousers +(from the Harleian MS., No. 603, after Fairholt).] + +During the course of our history, long trousers went out of fashion +for a very considerable period, though knee-breeches of various kinds +flourished from time to time, until recently, when the original and less +elegant garment once more triumphed and became part of the everyday +dress of men. Boys still wear knickerbockers in one stage of their +development, intermediate between the doffing of the petticoat and the +donning of the trouser, and there is a tendency, that does not diminish, +for the shorter garments to be used by men of all ages when they are not +occupied with formal business. + +[Illustration: FIG. 81.--A peasant woman of Champéry wearing trousers.] + +Trousers are often wrongly thought to be a modern invention, and it is +easy to go away with the idea that they are exclusively the attributes +of men. This is far from being the case, and as in Scotland we find the +petticoat still in use by men, so in France and Switzerland (see Figure +81) we see the peasant woman wearing trousers of the ordinary type, to +say nothing of Oriental countries like Persia and Siam (see Plate V), +where trousers form part of the dress of women even of the highest rank. + +[Illustration: A SIAMESE PRINCESS, SHEWING THE TROUSERS WORN BY WOMEN OF +HIGH RANK. + + _PLATE V._] + +We must not forget the energetic crusade which is being carried on in +this country in favour of "rational dress" for women, on lines which are +more sensible than those laid down by Mrs. Bloomer, whose name has been +immortalized in connection with divided garments for women. It is not +intended, at the moment, to enter into a discussion of the advantages +that may be gained by banishing the skirt, as we shall consider clothes, +from the point of view of their effect upon the body, in a later +chapter. Suffice it to say that the ugly clothes worn a few years ago +by lady bicyclists who, while adopting divided garments, tried to +make them look like a skirt, did much to hinder the "rational dress" +movement. + +[Illustration: FIG. 82.--A German Hussar of 1808.] + +There is one vestige in connection with trousers that we may mention +before leaving this subject, and that is the stripes which are to be +seen on many official dresses, and which have been adopted by some men +in their evening dress of recent years. It seems that this takes us back +to a row of buttons which were once used along the whole length of the +breeches when these were too tight for the foot to be put through them, +and in consequence they had to be undone and done up again along the +side of the leg. (See Figure 82.) + +There is little doubt but that the stripe represents a fold of cloth +that in some cases covered up these buttons. Just a few of such buttons +are still to be seen on riding breeches and those worn by liveried +servants. + + + + +IX + +COATS OF ARMS + +SIGNET RINGS--ARMORIAL BEARINGS--ESCUTCHEONS--CRESTS--BADGES + + +Before we deal with coverings for the hand, it will not be amiss to +consider something else which is worn on the fingers. Strictly speaking, +of course, rings should be reckoned as ornaments, but signet rings very +often bear upon them the crest or coat of arms of their wearer, and thus +we have still carried on the person at the present day, a small and +inconspicuous vestige of what were once most important articles of +costume. In fact, they had a significance as great if not greater than +any others, for when the face of their wearer was hidden by his helmet, +they told to those well versed in heraldry not only his name but his +lineage. + +The crest was worn on the helmet, and might or might not be one of the +devices or charges embroidered on the surcoat,--which was worn over the +armour--and emblazoned on the shield and elsewhere. + +At the present day, except in the case of ceremonial dress such as the +tabards of heralds, the only survivals are the crest and shield. The +devices on the latter are now called a coat of arms, as in olden times +they were, as already indicated, merely a repetition of those actually +worn on the dress or coat armour. + +Let us compare for a moment the first two figures which illustrate this +chapter. In the first (see Figure 83) we have a tiny device engraved on +a ring that is worn on the little finger of the left hand. In the second +(see Figure 84) we have Sir Geoffrey Loutterell mounted on his charger +in the act of receiving his helmet and shield from some of the ladies +belonging to his family. All of the figures and the horse are decorated +with armorial bearings. We wonder whether there could be a greater +contrast. The knight has what is really his surcoat on his back +displaying six martlets with a bend between them. The charges are +repeated on a small square shield on his shoulder called an ailette, +which was used apparently more as an ornament than as a protection, +though it is said that ailettes were originally intended as a defence +for the neck. Sir Geoffrey holds his helmet, on which, in the place of +the crest, we again see his armorial bearings. They appear again on the +pavon or small flag held by one of the ladies, and on the shield which +the other carries. We find the same devices repeated five times on the +trappings of his charger; and as if this were not enough, the ladies +also have the bearings on their dresses. In the case of Lady Loutterell, +who was the daughter of Sir Richard Sutton, there is shown also the +lion rampant borne by her father. + +[Illustration: FIG. 83.--The crest on a modern signet ring.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 84.--Sir Geoffrey Loutterell and the ladies of his +family, showing the extent to which armorial bearings were worn in the +middle of the fourteenth century. From a psalter, made for Sir Geoffrey +(after Fairholt).] + +We give another illustration taken from the effigy of Henry, the first +Duke of Lancaster, on a brass at Elsyng, in Norfolk. (See Figure 85.) +On this figure the surcoat is very well shown, and on it are emblazoned +the three lions (or leopards) of the Royal Arms of England. It is +interesting, too, owing to the label which differences the arms and +shows that the wearer was not the king himself. The label takes the form +of three vertical bars joined by a horizontal one, and is like that +which may be seen to-day on the Prince of Wales's banner in St. George's +Chapel at Windsor. In this illustration, too (Figure 85), the crest is +very well shown. + +[Illustration: FIG. 85.--The crest and surcoat of Henry, first Duke of +Lancaster, A.D. 1347. From the brass to Sir Hugh Hasting at Elsyng, +Norfolk (after Charles Boutell).] + +Armorial bearings are still used to a considerable extent in +architecture, but otherwise they are chiefly confined to notepaper, +carriage panels, and harness. Occasionally hatchments, or more properly +achievements, are put upon the fronts of the houses of important people +on the death of a member of the family, and afterwards transferred to +the church in which the body is buried. The hatchment consists of the +arms of the deceased person, painted on a lozenge-shaped field, which is +surrounded by a black frame, and if it indicates the death of a husband, +the right half of the field is sable (black), the left, argent (silver). +If it is a wife that is dead, the colours on the field are reversed. +When a widower, widow, or unmarried person dies, the whole of the field +is made black. + +In olden times the actual helmet, surcoat, and shield were carried at +the funeral, and in some instances these were deposited over the tomb of +the deceased. Examples survive to the present day, and one of the most +interesting cases is to be found in Canterbury Cathedral, where the +shield, helmet, and surcoat of Edward the Black Prince are still to +be seen. (See Figures 86, 87, and 88.) The Black Prince left most +careful instructions in his will with regard to his funeral, and the +accoutrements which we are able to figure through the kindness of the +Society of Antiquaries, were the "arms of war," as he called them, that +were to be carried at the ceremony. His "arms of peace" consisted of his +ostrich feather badge, of which we shall again speak. There are traces +on the crest and surcoat of a label to distinguish them, but this is +absent from the shield, though it occurs on the arms many times repeated +on the tomb, alternately with the feather badge already mentioned. + +[Illustration: FIG. 86.--The helmet and crest of the Black Prince. From +"Vetusta Monumenta" (after St. John Hope).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 87.--The shield of the Black Prince. From "Vetusta +Monumenta" (after St. John Hope).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 88.--The surcoat or jupon of the Black Prince. From +"Vetusta Monumenta" (after St. John Hope).] + +With the exception of the signet rings and the ceremonial dress, which +were alluded to at the beginning of the chapter, there are now but +few cases where armorial bearings are worn on the person. School and +college arms are embroidered on the breast pockets of blazers and on the +fronts of caps, while perhaps the most common instances are the devices +which we see on the buttons of servants. Whole coats of arms may appear, +but usually it is the crest of the master, which has now taken the place +of the household badge which the retainers wore in olden times. + +There is a difference generally between a crest and a badge, though in +some cases the badge was really a crest. This was so before armorial +bearings became hereditary, for the badge which the knight wore on his +helmet formed its crest. Afterwards the same device was handed down to +generation from generation. Individuals, possibly with a view of hiding +their identity, sometimes wore a special badge instead of their family +crest; but the badge as generally understood was, as has already been +indicated, worn by the retainers and was usually chosen by each head +of the family. The matter is further complicated, because badges were +sometimes hereditary and occasionally identical with the crest proper. + +It is of course only the hereditary badges which have survived to the +present day, and in only one or two cases are they apparently still used +as such, though occasionally they survive for other purposes. The Prince +of Wales's feathers we have already mentioned. They were not adopted by +the Black Prince for the reasons usually given in history, as there is +nothing to show that the King of the Bohemians ever wore them, and long +before his time an ostrich feather was often used as a royal badge in +England. + +On his carriage, the Marquis of Abergavenny wears his badges, a rose and +a portcullis, one on each side of his crest, and there are interesting +cases here and there of badges worn as part of a livery. The porters of +the Inner Temple wear the pascal lamb in silver. Watermen still have +badges on their arms, and not very long ago the private firemen of the +insurance companies wore badges bearing the sign of the company. When +speaking of signs, it is worthy of note that very many royal badges have +furnished signs for inns. We cannot go into details, but we may mention +the White Hart of Richard II, the Falcon and Fetterlock of Henry VII, +now degenerated into the hawk and buckle, and the Rose and Crown also +used by the Tudors. + +Those who chance to see the dress of our convicts will hardly be +inclined to associate it in any way with that of royalty. Yet it is +true, nevertheless, that the broad arrow which marks--we can hardly say +adorns--the garments of the penitentiary, is in reality a royal badge. +The broad arrow can be traced to an ancient symbol consisting of three +converging rods or rays of light used by the Druids, and it was adopted +by Edward III as his badge. The symbol was also worn by the Black +Prince and other Princes of Wales. As early as the year 1386 the broad +arrow was used in the Royal household, and from the beginning of the +eighteenth century onwards it was adopted as a mark for distinguishing +Government stores. + +[Illustration: FIG. 89.--The postilion of a Lord Mayor of London, +wearing a crest upon his cap, and a coat of arms upon his sleeve. +(Copied by permission from a plate published by the John Williamson Co., +Ltd.)] + +We may conclude our remarks upon this fascinating subject by alluding to +a case in which a crest is actually borne on the head. It will be seen +on looking at Figure 89, which represents the postilion of a Lord Mayor +of London, that he wears upon his jockey cap the actual crest of his +master, in the same way that in the days of chivalry the knights wore +their crests upon their helmets. On his sleeve also there is a full coat +of arms with helmet and crest, which takes the place of the badge, and +is similar to the instances which we have mentioned just above. + + + + +X + +GLOVES AND MITTENS + +ORIGIN OF THE BABY'S GLOVE--FOURCHETTES--THE "POINTS" ON THE BACKS OF +GLOVES + + +Gloves play a considerable part in our everyday life, and now exercise +a kind of mild tyranny over us. It is perhaps not to be wondered at, +seeing the importance which has been attached to these protectors of the +hand in the past. + +Records show that in the earliest gloves there were no divisions between +the fingers, and only the thumbs had a separate covering. This is what +one might have expected to be the case, and if we look at the gloves +which tiny babies wear (see Figure 90), we shall find a similar state of +affairs, so that here we have a direct survival from very early times. + +Such a case is on all fours with that of young animals which belong to +species that originally were spotted like the leopard, but which in +the course of their evolution have changed their spots, and are now, +like the lion, self-coloured. Among other animals which are spotted +when immature may be mentioned the wild boar and the tapir (see +Frontispiece). While these young ones are protected by their parents, +their primitive colouring is no detriment to them, but when they go out +into the world for themselves it would be disadvantageous under existing +conditions for them to retain their aboriginal markings. In a similar +way the baby wears the primitive glove, which its ancestors made shift +to use for purposes of warmth or protection, and the child continues to +do so until it is necessary or convenient for it to use its fingers to +help itself without removing its gloves. + +[Illustration: FIG. 90.--A baby's glove without separate fingers.] + +There is little doubt but that gloves are the products of a cold +climate, and it is interesting to note that in Iceland, where in order +that gloves may be put on quickly and easily they are made without +fingers; and what is more, so that no time shall be wasted in choosing +right or left-hand gloves, they are provided with two thumbs, one of +which is in use while the other remains idle. + +Of vestiges, gloves offer a very curious instance. There are on the +backs of most of them, at the present day, three lines of raised +embroidery or fancy stitching, which run almost parallel with one +another, though they converge slightly as they approach the wrist. When +these are worked in black on the back of a white woollen glove, for +instance, they are very conspicuous, and to explain their origin may +well seem puzzling. (See Figure 91.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 91.--The back of a woollen glove showing the three +vestiges known as "points."] + +Inquiry into the history of these most persistent ornaments is apt to +produce a fine crop of speculations. One explanation that may be offered +is that the lines are vestiges that date from the time when gloves were +so ill-fitting that they had to be laced up the back with the help of a +string which was passed through eyelet holes. On hearing this one might +be tempted to ask why there should be three ornaments and not one. +Another guess which can be more easily shown to be wrong is that we are +dealing with the remains of ventilation holes. We say "more easily" +because an examination of the facts will show that openings through +which air was intended to enter were made in the palm of the glove. + +[Illustration: FIG. 92.--A modern kid glove showing the fourchettes or +pieces between the fingers, which form three pointed V's.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 93.--Queen Elizabeth's coronation glove showing +the stitching carried down on to the back. (From a photograph by the +courtesy of Messrs. Fownes Brothers and Co.)] + +A third suggestion which may occur, is that the ornamentation is a +survival from the time when great men, particularly prelates, had +various devices and even jewels fixed to the back of their gloves. Once +more, however, we meet with the difficulty in the shape of the point +that there are always three of the marks. + +In making a careful investigation into the true origin of the vestiges +we can, on the one side, endeavour to see whether there is anything in +the form of the hand which can have given rise to the number three, +that is so constant; and on the other, whether the glove-makers have any +particular name for the marks which may throw some light upon them. In +connection with the first line of research, it will be seen on spreading +out the fingers that there are, if we ignore the thumb which has its +insertion lower down in the hand, three "V"-shaped openings between +them, and we find on taking up our second clue that the ornaments are +called "points." Now there is a point at the bottom of a "V," and this +is well seen in looking at a glove where the pieces or fourchettes which +form the insides of the fingers meet (see Figure 92); but if this is +evident in a modern glove, it is very much more so in old gloves. (See +Figure 93.) + +A result of this fact was that the stitching which made the fingers was +carried down for some distance on to the back of the glove, as seen in +Queen Elizabeth's coronation glove. (See Figure 93.) + +This stitching was and is often somewhat elaborate, and in some cases a +line of embroidery covered it. This is well seen in the glove of Anne, +the Queen Consort of James I (see Figure 94); and here it is noticeable +that the two lines of embroidery at the points of the three "V's" run +parallel and touching each other, so that we get a beginning of the +three "points" as we know them. With improvements in the making of the +fourchettes, the stitching terminated more abruptly, and the embroidery +was allowed to remain on the back of the glove, where it is still to be +seen. + +[Illustration: FIG. 94.--The glove of Anne, Queen Consort of James I, +showing the embroidery on the fingers, which is the ancestor of modern +"points." (From a photograph, by the courtesy of Messrs. Fownes Brothers +and Co.)] + +Some mention should perhaps be made of mittens. When they are used for +the purpose of keeping the hands warm, they are usually on the principle +of a baby's glove, but with the end of the thumb and part of the bag for +the fingers cut off. Otherwise, when these articles are used merely to +cover part of the hands, or for ornament, they are more elaborate, and +divisions are introduced for some distance between the fingers. In the +construction of these, as in that of stockings and other garments, we +meet with the modern tendency towards transparency. Often also the +patterns are dependent upon the skin showing through, and we are once +more reminded of tattooing. + + + + +XI + +TAGS, PINS, AND BALDRICS + + LACES--THE EVOLUTION AND VAGARIES OF THE SAFETY-PIN--PRIMITIVE + METHODS OF CARRYING BURDENS AS ILLUSTRATED BY MUFF-CHAINS, + BALDRICS, AND YOKES + + +During the course of their evolution many little appurtenances in +connection with dress go through a number of changes. Some of them, +which at first are useful, afterwards become ornamental. Others, which +have reached a stage in which they are both necessary and decorative, +may for a time be simplified and retain a practical importance only, +while at a later period they resume their ornamental character once +more. + +We have at the present day various laces which are provided with simple +metal tags, and which are as primitive as they very well can be. (See +Figure 95.) + +If we examine the dresses of both sexes in the sixteenth and seventeenth +centuries, we shall find that ties were used to a great extent instead +of buttons, and they were provided with metal tags of an ornamental +character called aiglets, or, more properly, aiguillettes. In many +cases the chief object of the ribbons which they adorned was that of +embellishment, for as many as a dozen or more might be found round one +knee. Sometimes the tags were in the form of little figures, and in the +"Taming of the Shrew" it is said of Petruchio that if you gave him gold +enough any one "might marry him to a puppet or an aglet-baby." + +[Illustration: FIG. 95.--A silk lace with simple metal tags.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 96.--Ornamental metal tags on a velvet neck ribbon.] + +Of recent years the velvet ribbons which ladies have worn round their +necks have been provided in like manner with little tags (see Figure +96), though the fashion does not seem to have developed again to any +very great extent. + +The safety-pin is an object which may well occupy our attention for a +moment. As we knew it when we were children, it was merely a piece of +wire that had been pointed at one end and bent into the required shape. +(See Figure 97.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 97.--A simple safety-pin.] + +The point was protected in a very simple manner, and the safety-pins +used for fastening hooks to curtains are still constructed in the same +way. Occasionally gold safety-pins of a plain and even ornamental +character were made and used as brooches by ladies for fastening +lace, or by men for securing their ties in the place of the straight +scarf-pins. It would seem therefore that a brooch is a development of +the safety-pin rather than the reverse; but if we study the brooches +or fibulæ of the Romans, we shall find that the pin, instead of being +hinged, was often made in one piece with the rest of the structure. +A coil or two in the metal acted as a spring, as in the case of the +safety-pin, and prevented breakage. We may even find an Etruscan fibula +of such simple construction (see Figure 98) that it is to all intents +and purposes a safety-pin. All sorts of devices have been invented for +the better protection of the points in modern safety-pins, as well +as for rendering the opening and closing more easy; but this is the +development which has taken place along practical lines. Such pins are +for use only, and are not intended to be seen. When, on the other hand, +safety-pins are not hidden, they retain their more simple character +as regards their fastenings, though they themselves again become +decorative, and are ornamented in various ways. We have therefore a very +good illustration of the evolution of one thing along two different +lines, and of the survival of the fittest types in each case. + +[Illustration: FIG. 98.--An Etruscan brooch or fibula, resembling a +safety-pin. (In the collection of Major W. J. Myers in Eton College +Museum.)] + +The ornamental safety-pin in recent years has changed its habits, and it +is interesting to note its vagaries. A little while ago its sphere of +action was extended, and instead of figuring under the chins of ladies +it took up a position in the back of their waistbands (see Figure 99), +where it occupied itself with the duty of keeping blouse and skirt +together. Then, as if this situation were not important enough, the +safety-pin migrated to the head and usurped the place of the straight +hat-pin (see Figure 100), just as in the case of men it has sometimes +ousted the tie-pin proper. + +[Illustration: FIG. 99.--The safety-pin in the waistband.] + +During the process which we have described the safety-pin has become +stronger and larger, until in the last stage it has grown almost out of +recognition. + +[Illustration: FIG. 100.--The safety-pin grown larger and used for +fastening on a hat.] + +Straight pins have developed along the same two lines, and we have the +strictly useful pin and tie- or hat-pins, which are often quite as +important as fastenings, but which may also be highly ornamental. These +small articles have a special claim to our attention, as they have been +taken as being emblematical of clothes, or at least of female attire. +Even now the allowance which a lady is given for dress is called +"pin-money." Moreover, it is possible to illustrate by means of pins +the various phases of culture through which mankind has passed in the +process of civilization. We meet with pins of bone, in the stage of +stone, before metals were used. In the stage characterized by bronze we +have pins made of this alloy. Such pins occurred in Egypt before the +historic period, and they have been found in the Swiss lake dwellings as +well as in our own country. + +[Illustration: FIG. 101.--A muff-chain.] + +Although we now live in the iron, or perhaps more correctly steel, stage +of culture, the familiar pin of to-day is still usually made of brass; +but nevertheless we find steel pins of the ordinary form which are +plated with brass, and glass-headed steel pins are very common. In early +times also gold, silver, and precious stones were pressed into service +for making ornamental pins, and very handsome pins are represented on +effigies of the fourteenth century in Westminster Abbey. These, no +doubt, have for their descendants the scarf-pins of to-day. + +[Illustration: FIG. 102.--A hawker, illustrating the primitive way of +carrying a burden.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 103.--A courier-bag supported by a baldric.] + +A muff-chain is a thing which is very often seen at the present day, and +this simple arrangement, coupled with the way in which it is worn (see +Figure 101), may lead us along a very interesting line of research, +which we may follow for a short time. If we look once again at the muff, +we shall see that it is supported by a chain which goes round the back +of the neck, allowing the muff to rest against the front of the body. +This is a primitive method of carrying a burden. Pedlars of old made use +of it, and it is still adopted by the hawker (see Figure 102), because, +if necessary, the hands can remain free, while a modification of the +same principle is seen when the strap takes the form of a baldric, and +passes over one shoulder and under the arm on the other side. In this +way travellers carry their courier-bags (see Figure 103), the school-boy +or girl supports his or her satchel, the fisherman his creel, and +the sportsman his field-glasses. To a baldric also was attached the +quiver of the archer, and sometimes such a band was merely worn as a +decoration. (See Figure 104.) In the illustration which we give, and +which is of the time of Henry V, the baldric is hung with bells like +those which were worn by horses. Possibly a survival of the ornamental +use of the baldric is to be seen in the ribbons of various orders and in +military sashes, though no doubt the bandoleer which carries the pouch +or cartridges of a modern soldier represents the useful baldric. It is +of interest to note that the red or blue cord worn over the cross-belts +of the Life Guards and Horse Guards is a survival of a cord by which the +horn containing powder for priming muskets used to be suspended. In this +connection we might also mention the leather sling of a rifle and the +strap by which the itinerant harpist, in common with the organ-grinder, +carries his instrument. + +[Illustration: FIG. 104.--An ornamental baldric of the early fifteenth +century. (Royal MSS. 15 D. 5, after Fairholt.)] + +The ordinary belt should not be overlooked, as from it many things, such +as weapons, may be suspended, not to mention pouches, which may carry +ammunition, flint and steel, and so on. + +[Illustration: FIG. 105.--A lady's dress, showing the part which is +called a yoke, and recalls a primitive method of carrying burdens.] + +Even more intimately connected with dress are pockets, and they may be +touched upon here, for they are intended for carrying small objects. We +have seen how the flaps of pockets which have become ornamental survive +after the pockets themselves have disappeared (see Figure 21), and it is +worthy of note that clothes in various countries lend themselves to the +transportation of commodities. It has been pointed out by Mr. Otis T. +Mason[9] that the Oriental, especially the Korean, has pockets in his +sleeves having the capacity of half a bushel; while the Turk and Arab +can stow an equal amount in the ample folds of their robes. The writer +also remembers hearing the account of a journey in Asia from a traveller +who, when riding in wide trousers fastened at the ankle, used to keep +all his clean linen in one trouser-leg and his dirty clothes in the +other. + +We are reminded by the name given to the upper part of a lady's dress, +namely, the yoke (see Figure 105), of another means of carrying burdens, +which still survives in London, where a few milk-women even now carry +round their pails on a yoke. Their costume, which includes a small shawl +and an apron, can be compared with that of the barge-girl, though the +picturesque sun-bonnet of the latter is lacking. + + + + +XII + +ORNAMENTS + + PRIMITIVE NECKLACES--FINGER-RINGS--THE ORIGIN OF THE HAIR + COMB--BUTTONS--STUDS--FLOWERS--FEATHERS--AMULETS + + +We have touched upon one or two objects which may have a decorative +character, but we now come to a consideration of ornaments themselves. +Roughly speaking, they owe their survival to one of two reasons: either +the deep-rooted instinct which exists in even the lowest races for +adorning their person, or, secondly, the adoption of various objects +which have been worn as charms or amulets. + +Dr. E. B. Tylor[10] has pointed out the tendency of higher civilization +to give up savage ornaments. Not the most primitive possibly, but +seemingly the most barbarous, are the ornaments which are fastened into +the body in special orifices which are pierced to receive them. It is +true that in this country we do not make holes in our lips for the +insertion of wooden plugs two or three inches across, and the only nose +ornaments which we see are on the faces of the Hindu ayahs who have come +over from India with their white nurselings; but still many among the +population pierce their ears for the reception of earrings. In the +higher social ranks ear-drops are now worn which do not require the ear +to be perforated for their reception; but among the lower orders--as, +for instance, those who live in canal-boats--the ears of men, women, and +children are still pierced. + +Of ornaments which can be attached to the person without injuring it +there are more in use, but they are practically confined in civilized +countries to the neck, arms, and head. Of those which are fastened to +clothes we will not for the moment speak. Beads, which at the moment of +writing seem to be greatly in fashion, or their representatives, take us +back to the very earliest men of whose work we have any knowledge. In +the caves where the Stone Age men of the mammoth period lived there have +been found periwinkle shells, which were bored to form bracelets or +necklaces, just as nowadays native tribes and æsthetic ladies still make +use of the more ornamental and beautiful exotic shells. The prehistoric +Egyptians who, it has been calculated, flourished about 6000 B.C., had +necklaces of beads cut out from pieces of shell, and others made of many +different materials. Among the earliest remains in our own country beads +are found, and throughout the historic period everywhere they seem to +have held their sway. + +We have already mentioned how easy it is for ornaments to be used as +currencies, owing to the facility with which they may be carried on the +person, and beads for many centuries have been used--as in Africa for +instance--in the place of money. There are on the west coast of that +continent still to be seen "aggries" similar to those which the Arab +traders brought with them from Egypt as early as the seventeenth +dynasty. At the present day beads of various kinds--for only particular +varieties will buy certain commodities--are made and exported to Africa +to be used in trading. + +While speaking of Egyptian beads, it might be said that, as in other +matters of art, the Egyptians excelled in the making of beads. +Some--known as blue popo beads, which found their way to West +Africa--are worth more than their weight in gold at the present day, and +the most skilful of the Venetian beadmakers are unable to imitate them +sufficiently well to induce the natives to accept them. + +Chains for the neck in our time do not assume very massive proportions, +except those which are used as symbols of office in the case of mayors +and by the members of various knightly orders. These take us back to the +time of Richard II, when such ornaments came into vogue. + +Among savage races metal rings find much favour as ornaments, and they +illustrate the fact that the lady who wears the minimum of clothes will +put up with the height of inconvenience, not to say pain, just as her +over-dressed and more civilized white sister will do, in order to be in +the height of fashion. The Padaung women put metal collars round their +necks when they are young children till these number between twenty +and thirty, and the necks of the wearers are stretched out in the most +grotesque and uncomfortable fashion. (See Plate VI.) African belles will +wear great copper rings on their limbs, which get so hot in the sun that +an attendant has to carry water with which to occasionally cool them +down. The wearing of armlets and bracelets has never been confined to +women. Men among the Greeks did not wear them, but among the Romans they +did. Armlets were conferred on soldiers for heroic deeds, and even +now the rank of non-commissioned officers in the army is indicated by +stripes on their sleeves. + +[Illustration: TWO PADAUNG WOMEN, SHOWING THE NUMEROUS METAL COLLARS +WHICH THEY WEAR ROUND THEIR NECKS. + + (_See page 114._) + + _PLATE VI._] + +Dr. Tylor hints that ordinary finger-rings have originated from those +used as signets in Egypt and Babylon. In this case the modern signet +ring, which we have already discussed in connection with heraldic +devices, is a survival from the earliest times. Most rings are now +merely ornamental, though a few are symbolical--the episcopal ring of +the bishop, the engagement ring of the betrothed damsel, and the wedding +ring of the wife. + +As early as the seventh century a ring was among the distinctive +insignia of a bishop, and one was found on the finger of Bishop Agilbert +of Paris (who lived at this time) when his coffin was opened. The ring +was of gold and, as is usual, had a jewel set in it, on which, in the +particular case mentioned, was a likeness of Christ and of St. Jerome. +The origin is no doubt to be found in the fact that in Roman times rings +were used as an insignia of rank. + +The episcopal ring proper was only one of many other rings which a +bishop might wear as ornaments. It was borne on the third finger of the +right hand, above the second joint, and was usually kept in place with a +plain guard ring. + +The Greeks and Romans used betrothal rings as pledges, but not wedding +rings. There is a good deal of interesting symbolism in connection with +rings, and it is said that the third finger of the left hand was chosen +because in old times it was thought that a vein came to that finger +direct from the heart. The practical point is that the finger in +question is not very much used, and on it the rings would not be so +liable to be worn out as on some of the others. + +It is also supposed that the left hand was chosen as it was the less +important, and the wearing of a ring on this hand signified servitude. +An interesting form of early wedding rings was that called the gimmal +ring, which consisted of two links, each having a hand upon it, which +when brought together formed a single ring with the hands clasped +together. The ring was used at betrothal, and the man and woman each +kept a half until their wedding day. Perhaps the old custom of breaking +a coin upon engagement so that each of the contracting parties may have +half, is a relic of the same custom. In Ireland the peasantry still use +a ring, though a solid one, bearing clasped hands. We have possibly a +survival of the interesting posey rings in those which bear the word +Mizpah. This originally signified "a watch-tower," but it is now taken +as expressing the following sentiment: "God watch over thee and me when +we are apart." In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the couplet +or line was, as in the case mentioned, put on the outside of the ring, +while later, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the words were +engraved inside the ring. Occasionally we see a necktie held in place +with a ring, and this may well be connected with the custom of wearing +rings round the neck on a ribbon. It is recorded that the Duke of +Burgundy, who died in 1476, carried his signet ring in this way. + +A custom is still sometimes followed which dates back to the sixteenth +century. It is that of choosing stones on account of the first letters +of their names and setting them in a ring in such an order that the +initials spell a word or words. For instance, the following--Ruby, +Emerald, Garnet, Amethyst, Ruby, and Diamond, indicate REGARD; while a +lover's exhortation is produced by such a combination as Lapis-lazuli, +Opal, Verdi-antique, Emerald, Malachite, Emerald. + +Many of the Egyptian rings are made of blue pottery or faïence, and some +of them show highly ornamental and pierced work. The lotus flowers and +other figures upon them point to their being symbolical. Others bear the +sacred eye in the place where the seal would be in a signet ring, and +were probably used as amulets; but of ornaments worn on account of their +supposed virtues we will speak in a moment. + +An ornament for the head, with which we will deal, is the crown. Mr. +Elworthy, in a paper to the British Association at Ipswich in 1895, +derived the crown from horns of honour. He maintained that the symbols +found on the head of the god Serapis were the elements from which were +formed the composite head-dress called the crown, into which horns +entered to a very great extent. The panache in heraldry is derived from +the horn, and it may be recalled that the deer-skin cloaks worn by the +Bronze Age people over the woven dresses that have been described on +pages 18 and 73, bore the horns of the animal from which they were +taken. + +Though the comb used as an ornament in the hair is also worn on +the head, it is on a very much lower plane than the crown, and has +presumably a very much less exalted origin. Professor Boyd Dawkins[11] +has expressed the opinion that the old loom comb (see Fig. 106), such as +one found in the prehistoric lake dwellings which have been excavated +at Glastonbury, is the ancestor of the comb worn as a head-dress at the +present day (see Fig. 107). Combs were used to push down the weft on +a hand loom, the warp being kept taut by means of weights. The long +hair-combs used by the natives of the West Carolines are also of very +much the same shape as the old loom combs. + +[Illustration: FIG. 106.--A loom comb found in the Glastonbury lake +dwellings (after Boyd Dawkins).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 107.--A modern comb for the hair.] + +Already in the safety-pin and scarf-pin we have had instances of +fastenings which at times are ornamental. The button and its relative +the stud afford another case in point. A stud is in reality a button +which appears on both sides of the stuff through which it is put. It +is obvious that it is most convenient to use when the material to be +fastened is of a stiff texture. At present we use studs in our starched +linen, and they are also adopted for fastening parts of leather +accoutrements, as they evidently were in the times of the later bronze +folk. This will be seen from Figure 108. One of these is adorned with +the triskele, which is allied to the swastika, and no doubt gave rise to +the three-legged charge on the coat of arms of the Isle of Man and of +Sicily. + +[Illustration: FIG. 108.--Two studs of bronze, seen from above and from +the side. Later Bronze Age (after Worsaae).] + +Buttons have from time to time done a great deal in the way of +decorating clothes, in addition to the part which they have played as +fastenings. We saw in an earlier chapter how many of our buttons, which +are now only ornamental, were once of use, and any history of costume +which goes into details will show how largely, superfluous buttons have +figured as ornaments. The older Quakers, of course, refused to wear any +buttons that were not needful, and brought down upon them the criticisms +of Cobbett, who referred to other things which they lacked besides +buttons. Although at the present time we may be inclined to appreciate +some of our purposeless buttons, on account of their historic +associations, we cannot say the same for many of those which now appear +on ladies' dresses. There is little sense in having on the front of a +bodice a series of buttons of which the first member is very large and +the last very small, with the others graduated in size between them, +while there seems to be no rhyme nor reason in many other individual +buttons or patches of them which are dotted here and there over the +costume. It is not as if these additions were really handsome. Not long +ago they looked as if the wearer had saved up all her old glove buttons, +and then had sewed them to her frock, for they were quite tiny and made +of brass. Now, though they are larger, they are merely covered with the +cloth of which the dress is made and are usually quite plain. + +In some cases buttons show great beauty of design, and for this reason, +if not on account of the material of which they are made, may be +exceedingly valuable. + +Bearing on the antiquity of buttons, we may say that they are found +among prehistoric remains in this country, and though they were foreign +to the ancient Egyptians, we learn (through the kindness of Professor +Flinders Petrie) that engraved buttons or seals were usual from the +sixth to the nineteenth dynasty, probably among foreign immigrants, +for the designs are never true Egyptian. In the present year, 1907, +Professor Petrie found a cornelian button with a copper shank which +belongs to the twelfth dynasty. + +The use of flowers, whether artificial or natural, on the person, and +more particularly the wearing of feathers, also takes us back to the +primitive instinct of early or uncivilized man. + +In our own country the custom of wearing feathers is an exceedingly +old one. The single upright specimens worn by the knights of the +fourteenth century have been characterized as being preposterous in +size. The plumes afterwards worn in helmets in the fifteenth and +sixteenth centuries were also immense. In 1606, according to Nichol's +"Progresses," on the occasion of the visit of Christian IV, some of +the knights "wore strange feathers of rich and great esteem which they +called Birdes of Paradice," and, unfortunately, ladies of the present +day wear them still. In the reign of Edward IV, we learn, only men, +practically speaking, wore feathers. They still survive in the army, +but otherwise in the twentieth century, with the exception of an +occasional small and modest instance amongst civilians, the wearing of +plumes is confined to ladies. + +Many flowers and feathers are exceedingly beautiful, and from an +artistic point of view there seems little reason why we should allow +civilization to sweep them away. We are quiet and colourless in our +clothing, and if we are not careful the same element of dulness may +creep into our lives. At the same time, however, to wear feathers which +can only be obtained at the cost of cruelty or of depriving others of +the sight of beautiful birds, or, again, of bringing any species to +extinction, savours too much of barbarousness and thoughtlessness to be +in any way condoned. + +Ostriches are reared for their feathers, and the plumage of many birds +that are killed for food is always at hand. + +Men have much less opportunity now of showing any great individuality in +their dress than heretofore, but sometimes they may be known by always +wearing a buttonhole, even if that does not always consist of the same +kind of bloom. The language of flowers, though now seemingly considered +to be a dead letter, was hardly invented for nothing. + +Of the brooch and its connection with the safety-pin we have already +spoken. In many ornaments we find remnants of religious ideas; for +instance, all brooches showing a crescent pattern or bearing the design +of a hand are connected with the old phallic worship. The cross, it may +be mentioned, is of much more ancient origin than Christianity, and is +connected intimately with the swastika or fylfot. + +The locket and other pendant ornaments must in many, if not all, cases +be the descendants of amulets. The Arab women at the present day wear +a little metal box containing a written talisman. An ancient Egyptian +buried, with his mummies, many amulets and charms so that the soul, in +obedience to various precepts, might enter into complete union with Ra, +the solar god, and so accompany him on his journey round the world, and +secure his everlasting protection. + +It is due to these ideas that we owe the beautifully modelled figures +of glazed pottery found in the Egyptian tombs. Many of them depict the +various gods and goddesses acknowledged in Egypt, and they are usually +pierced for attachment to the person. These were also carried on the +person during life, and children especially were accustomed to wear +them. + +Old religious beliefs and superstitions that have not yet died out, have +elsewhere given rise to the wearing of charms, and it is interesting to +note that flint arrow-heads, under the name of "elves' arrows," were +made into pendants by races who had reached the metal stage of culture. + +Precious stones, upon which a word may be said here, no doubt at first +were prized for their beauty alone, and then imagination gradually +endowed many of them with fictitious properties and virtues, though +doubtless the supposed attributes of some and the value and beauty of +others have kept many precious stones in favour until the present day. +Fashion is now particularly fickle as regards them, and craftsmen who +deal with gems, feel her decrees[12] more keenly perhaps than any +one else. Some half-dozen kinds of stones--such as diamonds, rubies, +emeralds, sapphires, opals, and turquoises--never go completely out of +fashion, but even among these, one or other becomes paramount from time +to time. + +The topaz and chrysolite were reported to lose their brilliancy when +placed in liquid that contains poison. To the amethyst was attributed +the power of warding off the effects of drunkenness. The diamond, it +was believed, gave to the wearers magnanimity, virtue, and courage. The +ancients supposed that the opal shared the charm of every stone of +which it reflected the colour, but when it was stolen, the thief became +invisible, and was allowed to escape scot free. Mr. Claremont[13] has +made an interesting suggestion as to the reason why the opal has been +considered unlucky. The notion, he says, is not nearly so ancient as +many of the superstitions relating to other stones, and probably does +not date further back than the Middle Ages. The old name "ophal" was +used as late as the time of Queen Elizabeth, and came from the Greek for +"eye"-stone, and as eyes are unlucky even in peacocks' feathers, perhaps +the explanation of the superstition lies in the name of the stone. + +Such walking-sticks as those garnished with "sylver" and "golde," which +are described as being at the Royal Palace at Greenwich in the reign of +Henry VIII, may well be considered as ornaments. The same may be said of +the be-ribboned canes of the exquisites of Charles II's and later times. +We mention them because, within the last two or three years, there +has been a talk of seeing "the nice conduct of a clouded cane" more +generally considered, and some men have appeared at the theatre with +long, gold-knobbed and tasselled canes. + +The buckle, which may be ornamental or useful, or both, is well worthy +of our attention. It consists in its simple form of a ring and a pin, +and the latter is hinged on to the former. It is, in fact, much like +a brooch, but without a hasp, and used in a different way. There are +brooches, however, at the present day, which are even simpler in +construction than the buckle, and they are used[14] even now by +blacksmiths in Kirkudbrightshire, in the form of the iron ring and a +horseshoe nail, with which they fasten their aprons. Similar pin-ring +brooches were used in Ireland until quite recently and are known from +early times. Mr. Edward Lovett[15] thinks that such a fastening may well +have been derived from two bones of the sheep or deer, the garment being +pulled through the ring formed by half the hip girdle, and speared +through with the pointed heel bone. + +A still more primitive pin was no doubt a thorn, and fish-hooks are to +this day used on the coasts of Essex, which are made from the same +natural object. + + + + +XIII + +HAIR DRESSING + +HEAD SHAVING--WIGS THAT ARE STILL WORN--ROMAN CURLS AND FRINGES + + +The styles in which hair is dressed are so intimately connected +with fashions in costume that no excuse is needed for dealing with +the question here. Moreover, there are certain vestiges in costume +occasionally to be met with which owe their origin to the way in which +hair was once arranged. Hair can be treated in all sorts of manners +without injuring the person in any way, and usually without causing +pain, though some fashions in hair arrangement had results that were far +from pleasant, and must have caused considerable discomfort. + +In addition to the styles in which hair is allowed to grow, there are +others which lead to its removal from one or more of the places which it +normally covers, and almost every change that could be rung is met with. +In addition to the hair on the head, women have only their eyebrows +and eyelashes to consider, though it is the fashion to remove any +"superfluous" hair from their faces and arms. Men have also to consider +moustaches, whiskers, and beard. Nowadays it is decreed that women's +hair should be long and that men's should be short; but even now men +with long hair do not necessarily look effeminate, as is shown by the +cowboys from the Wild West who have taken part in various exhibitions in +this country, and whose hair reaches on to their shoulders. The shaving +of the whole head is carried out by many savage nations, and this is +perhaps surprising, seeing that the process cannot but be laborious and +even painful when carried out with flint knives or pieces of shell. The +Chinese leave the hair that grows from one small spot in order to make +their pigtail. + +In this country it might be thought that the tonsure of priests was the +only remnant of shaving the head; but we need go no farther than the +East End of London to find Jewesses who upon marriage shave their head +and put on wigs. It appears that the custom is still universal in the +remote villages of Russia, where every Jewess on her marriage shaves her +head. The wig that is worn is of a very plain pattern, and the hair of +which it is composed is parted down the middle. The object which seems +to underlie the custom is the destruction of the charm of the women when +once they have found husbands. In London the younger women do not seem +to be keeping up the practice, and it is mostly in the case of those who +are over forty years of age that shaved heads and wigs are to be found. + +There may be, however, another explanation. In many countries where +great value was attached to a profuse head of hair a variety of +superstitions arose, and emblematic observances were followed with +regard to it. Parents dedicated the hair of their infants to gods, as +did young women theirs at their marriage, warriors after a successful +campaign, and sailors after deliverance from a storm. The Egyptians of +all classes, as well as their slaves, shaved their heads and wore wigs. +By this habit they ensured greater cleanliness, and the structure of the +wig not only allowed the heat from the head to escape, but protected the +latter effectively from the sun. + +It does not happen that both sexes always follow the practice of shaving +their heads, for, contrary to what prevails amongst civilized nations, +Fijian women are usually closely cropped, while the men spend much time +and attention on cultivating and elaborately arranging a luxuriant mass +of hair. + +The tendency nowadays is to cultivate eyebrows and eyelashes, but if we +go back in our history to the reign of Richard II we find that it was +thought necessary to pull out the eyebrows, and at the present day in +some parts of Africa it is one of the requirements of female beauty to +eradicate the eyebrows. Special pinchers for this purpose are to be +found among the appliances of the native toilet. A man may of course +remove all the hair, speaking in the ordinary way, from his face, or +he may retain only his moustache or his whiskers or his beard, or a +combination of any two of these. At the present day we meet with all +sorts of styles, though one may be the fashion for the moment among the +younger generation or those who wish to be considered smart. One cannot +alter the disposition of one's hair as easily as one can change one's +clothes, and this, perhaps, taken in conjunction with the objection to +change on the part of a man and his relatives, gives the variety that +has been mentioned. For instance, if it were customary when a man was +young for his fellows to wear beards or only a moustache, then he +continues to wear a beard or only a moustache. + +Perhaps no other fashions come round again more regularly than those +which govern the amount of hair on a man's face, and it may be +interesting to indicate very briefly some of the changes which have +taken place during the last two thousand years or so in this country. + + [Illustration: FIG. A. FIG. B. + FIG. C. FIG. D. + FIG. E. FIG. F. + +METHODS OF HAIRDRESSING ILLUSTRATED BY ROMANO-EGYPTIAN PORTRAIT MODELS +IN THE MYERS COLLECTION, ETON COLLEGE MUSEUM. + +(_Photographs by Wilfred Mark Webb_.) + + (_See pages 129 and 133._) + + _PLATE VII._] + +The inhabitants of England at the time of the Roman invasion either did +not shave at all or wore only a moustache. The Romans often cut their +beards (see Plate VII, Figure F.), and the Saxons parted their beards +into double locks or neatly trimmed them. When the Normans came into +this country they were closely shaved, but afterwards they went to the +opposite extreme. + +In the fourteenth century old men wore beards and the younger generation +shaved. Edward III had a long beard, Edward II two small tufts on his +chin, and in Edward IV's time the beard was closely shaven. Afterwards +we find that a tax was put on beards, and once more, in Elizabeth's and +the following reigns, we have a number of extraordinary fashions in +connection with the hair on the chin. When we get to 1798, among the +upper classes beards were again no longer worn, and there have been +several changes since that time. + +Apart from the prevailing fashion, there is, under the conditions which +we have seen to govern the matter, considerable scope for the indulgence +of individual taste, and often an effect is produced which is much +more striking than otherwise would be the case. A man may choose, for +instance, to grow a large pair of bushy whiskers, and he may thereby +give character and importance to his face, which without them would be +very insignificant. Curly hair is effective and has its advantages, +therefore we find that it is carefully imitated both in the case of real +hair and of wigs. The effect is now usually produced artificially only +in connection with ladies' hair. When dealing with this branch of the +subject, once more we might allude to the monstrous toilets which have +been built up in defiance of all laws of proportion and, we might add, +of comfort and cleanliness also. + +To utilize the hair from the heads of others is an ancient practice +still to be met with, and all sorts of means for making the most of +one's own hair in the shape of pads and so on are still adopted. + +When speaking of footmen, we shall find that those who dress in the +costume that was in fashion when hair powder was in vogue still wear it, +and the custom has been traced to the days of Rome, when gold dust was +put upon the head. It has been suggested that our Saxon forerunners used +coloured hair powder or else dyed their hair, but the evidence comes +from Saxon drawings in which the hair is often painted blue, and this +may be due merely to the caprice of the artist. It is well to be wary +also in studying the colour of clothes at early periods, by looking at +pictures, to remember that the illuminators may have followed their own +fancy, and made garments of such colours as fitted in with their own +ideas of ornament. + +Though the use of wigs is extremely ancient, the origin, which is +customarily ascribed to the peruke, is interesting. Many curious +fashions have arisen through royal peculiarities or temporary +indispositions, the courtiers having imitated their royal master or +mistress, out of compliment. Louis XIV had, when a child, remarkably +beautiful hair, which fell in curls on to his shoulders, and to imitate +this, his courtiers put on false hair, while later in life the king +himself adopted the fashion which they had set. + +The obvious use of artificial additions to the hair has now been +discontinued for very many years except in a few cases. Judges and +barristers with a few Parliamentary and other officials still wear wigs, +as do also certain coachmen and footmen, but these we shall consider +elsewhere. + +It will prove of no small interest after recalling the various modes +of doing the hair which ladies have adopted during the last twenty or +thirty years, to compare them with the fashions in Egypt in Roman times +about two hundred years before the Christian era. + +The reason why we can do this so well is that the Romano-Egyptians put +on the top of their coffins a model of the head of the person who was +buried in it. Professor Flinders Petrie has shown that the effigies were +really portraits, and even a glance at some of them would go far to +prove the statement. Professor Petrie made composite photographs of the +face on the outside of the coffin and of the skull within, and both in +the profile as well as in the full-face pictures it was seen that the +plaster model clothed the skull, as it were, with flesh. + +To return to the question of hair dressing, if one examines Plate VII +we shall see first of all a lady with corkscrew curls, which were more +prevalent in the last century than they are now, though they have not +yet died out. Then we have a lady with a very elaborate fringe, another +who allows her hair to fall in waves on her forehead, and it forms a +chignon at the back. Lastly (Plate VII, Figure B) a little girl with a +small bun on the top of her head. Another specimen, not figured here, +and also contained in the celebrated Myers Collection, shows the bun +exactly as it was worn at the end of the last century. + +We have included two heads (Plate VII, Figures A and F), one of a boy +and the other of a man, showing the great likeness that exists between +the way in which hair was done more than two thousand years ago and at +the present day. + +Besides the methods of hair arrangement which have survived or been +revived, there are certain little features still to be seen here and +there in modern dress which owe their origin to the ways in which hair +or wigs were dressed. + +A remnant of the bag-wig, with its great bow of black ribbon, we may +find in the army. For a long time on the backs of the collars of the +officers and staff-sergeants of the Welsh Fusiliers there have been +fixed some ribbons which hang down their back. These, which are few in +number, are called the "flash," and are said to represent the bow which +used to ornament the bag-wig. A hundred years ago the officers of the +regiment wore their hair turned up behind, and it was then tied with a +bow. This is in keeping with another explanation which Mr. R. Simkin has +given us, which is that the flash is the survival of a bunch of ribbons +that were sewn on the back of the coat-collar to protect it from the +pomatum and powder of the "clubbed" or "queued" hair. The privilege +of wearing the "flash" has recently been extended to all ranks of the +regiment (see Figure 109). + +[Illustration: FIG. 109.--The "flash" of five black ribbons on the +collar of the Welsh Fusiliers. A survival from the days of the pigtail.] + +A survival of the same kind, which takes us back to the time of wigs, +is to be seen on the backs of the collars of several court dresses, +and it is known technically as the "wig-bag." It is also, as we have +had occasion to mention, to be seen on the back of the collar of the +liveries of some servants whose dress is in the old style, and here, +as in the case of the Lord Mayor's coachman, it looks as if it had +originated in a bow (see Figure 113). + + + + +XIV + +SPECIAL DRESSES + +FASHIONS KEPT UP BY CEREMONIES--SURVIVALS IN SPECIAL COSTUME--FLOWING +GARMENTS + + +In the foregoing pages we have been concerned chiefly with individual +parts of costume, and while showing how various garments have reached +their present form, we have busied ourselves with discovering the origin +of many important survivals. We have not however hesitated, in dealing +with these details, to touch on all kinds of costumes, and here and +there we have left civilians' dress for a moment to take an illustration +from that of the soldier or the member of some other profession. + +At the same time, we have indicated that on occasions of ceremony, +whether religious or otherwise, the dress adopted is, as a rule, more +primitive or older in style than that which is customarily worn. This +is what might be expected, as, on the one hand, innate conservatism and +objection to change come into play, and, on the other, ordinary everyday +practical matters being for the time put on one side, it is possible to +wear clothes which otherwise would be inconvenient and liable to get +damaged. + +When we ourselves dress for dinner we go back nearly a century, but +nothing could be more primitive than the Court etiquette of certain +tribes,[16] where the subjects of the king may only approach him when +entirely unclothed. Livingstone was received by the Queen of the Balonde +Negroes in South Africa when she was in a state of complete nudity. The +women of neighbouring tribes and members of other races, for instance +those in Australia, entirely remove their clothing on festive occasions. + +Among some black races, also, the girls who are sent as official +messengers to important persons are not clothed. There are still certain +tribes of "leaf wearers" in India, while at a yearly festival in Madras +the whole low-caste population throw off their ordinary clothing and put +on aprons of leafy twigs. Another case in point is that of the priests +who conducted the sacrifices in ancient Italy and Greece, for they are +often represented on monuments as being naked, while the rest of those +present at the ceremony are fully clothed. + +In taking up the question of ceremonial dress among civilized peoples, +we find that we have a very wide field in which to wander. We have the +Court, which might alone occupy our whole attention; we have naval, +military, ecclesiastical, and legal dress, the garb of the universities, +the costume of pantomime characters, of the acrobat, of the athlete, +and the liveries of servants, besides the costumes adopted for special +ceremonies and in connection with particular institutions. In treating +of survivals in the case of the army, where the variety in uniform--if +we may use this paradoxical expression--is so great, we may content +ourselves with discussing matters in a way similar to that which we have +adopted before. On the other hand, we may also describe and illustrate +particular costumes, as a whole, while showing how far their history may +carry us back. + +In addition to the clothes actually worn by persons, there are those +which are found on dolls. These may be on the representations of +personages such as St. Nicholas, on the Continent and elsewhere, and +they are interesting because in many cases they may show a national +costume which is no longer worn. In the same way, puppets such as are +used in the play which we know as Punch and Judy, and their dresses, +like others which we have studied, may bring to our notice chapters of +history in a way that is exceedingly attractive. + +There is no doubt but that long flowing garments produce a more elegant +effect, and give rise to a more stately appearance than those which are +short or tight fitting. In the case of men, such garments would now be +too much in the way on ordinary occasions, or when any physical exertion +is required. The king and noblemen on state occasions wear robes, as do +also the members of City companies and borough councillors when they +assemble together. The case of the clergy will occur to every one, and +legal and academical dress may also be mentioned. + +In the privacy of the home it is possible for every man to wear a +dressing-gown, and pyjamas have not in all cases superseded the more +primitive nightshirt. In the case of ladies, we find that they cling +lovingly to long dresses, though, as we know, there is much effort being +made to dispense with skirts under ordinary conditions, and the fact +that short skirts have for some years been fashionable for outdoor use +looks as if some progress were being made. + + + + +XV + +SERVANTS' DRESS + + THE PROTOTYPES OF LIVERIES--REMINISCENCES OF GEORGE II AND + GEORGE III--ORIGIN OF THE PAGE-BOY'S BUTTONS--THE JOCKEY + CAP--APRONS + + +In taking up the question of special costumes, we may perhaps begin with +those which we see most commonly, and for that reason we may turn our +attention, in the first place, to the liveries and dress of servants. + +We have laid down a sort of rule that the costume of servants is that of +the master of an earlier generation, and we will now bring forward some +evidence in support of it. + +Modern coachmen and outdoor footmen wear the tall hat, the bright +buttons, doeskin breeches and the top boots characteristic of the +outdoor and riding dress of the gentlemen at the beginning of the +nineteenth century. The groom, it will be noticed (see Figure 110), +wears in addition a leather belt, and the reason for this will not +perhaps strike the inquirer straight away. Our grandmothers and +great-grandmothers did not always drive in carriages, and it was +customary for them, when riding on horseback, to sit on a pillion +behind a gentleman or a servant. The belt which we now see round the +waist of a groom afforded a hold to which they had to cling, in order to +prevent themselves from falling off the horse. + +[Illustration: FIG. 110.--The modern groom, showing the belt to which +ladies clung when riding on a pillion.] + +Such a livery as we have described is also adopted by the general run of +well-to-do people. The aristocracy, however, are more inclined to stand +upon ceremony, and through it to make more show. Their footmen, who go +by the generic name of "Jeames," wear plush breeches, silk stockings, +and powdered hair. (See Figure 111.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 111.--A footman in plush breeches and with powdered +hair. His "pouter" coat dates from the reign of George III. (By the +courtesy of Messrs. F. T. Prewett and Co.)] + +A little inquiry will soon show that these peculiarities of dress were +those which it pleased the gentlemen of George III's time to adopt. Some +flunkeys belonging to the nobility have their breasts ornamented with +cords known as aiguillettes, and these give them somewhat of a military +appearance, besides reminding us of the old retainers. The coats that go +with the plush breeches and are cut away so as to recall the wings +of a pigeon--hence the name "pouter" coat--are a special feature of +George III's reign. The coachman's coat is usually a little fuller in +the skirt, and carries us back to the time of George II. In another way +this costume is a little older in its style than that of the footman who +powders his own hair instead of wearing a wig like his colleague. (See +Figure 112.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 112.--A sheriff's coachman with the full-skirted +coat of the time of George II. (By the courtesy of Messrs. F. T. Prewett +and Co.)] + +In connection with the Lord Mayor more ceremony still is maintained. +His coachmen and footmen appear in all the glory of three-cornered +hats, which are decorated with feathers, and their coats are highly +ornamented. They are representatives of the very fine gentlemen of +George III's time. + +On the back of the collar of the Lord Mayor's coachman, we find an +arrangement that looks like an elaborately made rosette of black ribbon +(see Figure 113). This is a survival of the bag-wig, of which we shall +have occasion to speak again when dealing with Court and military dress, +so that we need not go into further details here with regard to this +curious vestige. (See page 229, Figure 143.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 113.--The wig-bag (a survival of the bag-wig) now +seen on the back of the collar of the Lord Mayor's coachman.] + +This is a progressive age, in spite of the many survivals which still +flourish, and when we come to consider the costume of the modern +manservant who attends at table, or the waiter in the restaurant, we +find that he has come out of his generation, as it were, and has adopted +the dress of his masters before they have themselves discarded it. +Confusion has arisen through this before now, and it has been suggested +that if ornamental buttons were worn by the man who serves, the +difficulty would be overcome. + +The writer well remembers being amused when standing in a room at a +well-known restaurant, where a private dinner was to be given, to notice +the change which suddenly came over the dress of the waiters. When the +latter first arrived they had black cloth buttons on their coats, while +in a few minutes' time, these same garments were adorned with brass +buttons bearing the initials of the firm that provided the dinner. +Inquiry soon elicited the fact that the men carried with them small +brass cases which were sprung on to their ordinary buttons, and at once +gave them the appearance of being on the staff, and showed that they +were waiters. + +The almost overwhelming number of buttons which are worn by page-boys +must have been a source of wonder to many. They run from neck to waist +of a tight-fitting jacket in such a crowded line that the pages usually +go by the name of "Buttons." Occasionally we see the livery ornamented +by two other rows of buttons which are useless, and run from the +shoulder towards the waist (see Figure 114) in a way similar to that +described as being the case on the coats of His Majesty's postilions. On +looking at an old book[17] of fashions we find that a costume called the +"Dutch Skeleton Dress" was very fashionable for young boys in 1826 (see +Figure 115). In this we find that there were brass buttons arranged in +three rows, similar to those we have just described. It is difficult +even in the modern page-boy's dress to see the lower edge of his coat, +but in the case of the small boy of 1826 it was impossible, because his +trousers were buttoned on to the outside of it. + +[Illustration: FIG. 114.--A modern page-boy's livery.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 115.--The Dutch skeleton dress, fashionable for boys +in 1826.] + +The name of the skeleton dress is interesting, because it points to the +buttons marking out the position of the breast bone, and it recalls +the story that the lacing on the breast of Hussars, which we have +interpreted as representing enlarged buttonholes, was intended to give +the appearance of ribs. This would be in keeping with the figure of a +skull that was worn by some of them on their head-dress. We may imagine +that in the page-boys, with the superabundance of buttons in one row, +that the other two series have migrated and joined with those which +originally fastened the coat. + +On special occasions such as weddings and coronations, the nobility and +members of old families dress their servants in state liveries, and some +very interesting costumes appear for the time. For instance, at the +wedding of the Duke of Norfolk in 1877, some of the coachmen and footmen +appeared wearing on the shoulder of their livery a "manche" or large +hanging sleeve, which is familiar to students of heraldry and may be the +origin of the sign usually called the "Crooked Billet." + +An interesting little survival is sometimes seen on livery collars. +It is a little patch of lace, and is an imitation of the knotched +buttonhole or laced hole which was commonly made on elaborate dresses. + +We get a survival of a livery cap, which was worn by servants generally +in the middle of the eighteenth century, in the black cap worn by the +drum-major of the Foot Guards and the bands of the Household Cavalry. We +find that it is also adopted by huntsmen and postilions (see Figure +89), while jockey caps are of a similar shape. + +The costume of jockeys is an instance of parti-coloured dress which, +apart from the Stage, is now chiefly worn in connection with sports +such as football and racing. Some parti-coloured garments made their +appearance early in English history, as we shall see when dealing with +the subject of patterns. + +The cockade is now a particular feature of the liveried servant, and as +the story of its evolution is of a particularly striking nature, we will +consider it in a special chapter. + +Here and there we find survivals of the old beadle, with his +three-cornered hat and his long gown with its curious capes and its +bright edging. To find the original wearer of such garments we shall +have to look about at the end of the seventeenth century. The watch then +wore very large coats with many capes, and from these was developed that +of the beadle. No doubt colours and other ornamentation were produced so +as to bring the dress of the beadle more into the line with liveries and +to give him a more ornamental and imposing appearance. + +We might also mention that the beadle, to whom we shall once more +allude, still makes his appearance and plays his part in the Punch and +Judy show. + +When we recall the many and varied liveries which the porters belonging +to the various places of amusement and business establishments now wear, +we cannot help drawing attention to the magnitude of the problem which +would confront any one who desired to trace the origin of their clothes. +In one detail or another we see the remains of an old livery, while +turning from these we find a gaily coloured plastron borrowed from a +Hussar uniform, and besides the cap there are a host of other features +which have been taken from military and civilian dress. + +Railway porters if not menials are the servants of the companies which +employ them, and there is one feature of their dress which is worthy of +note. It will be seen that their waistcoats, although generally built +on the same plan as that of the ordinary individual and having a linen +back, are provided with sleeves. It is truly a coat which comes to the +waist, such as we shall speak of when dealing with the dress of the +Guards and other regiments, and it is usually the outermost garment of +the porter. + +If we now turn to the costume of the gentleman, we shall find a very +good instance of what Mr. Paley Baildon claims to be done whenever a +new garment is adopted. He says that it is always put on over all the +others. In the case of the ordinary civilian we have the waistcoat, +which was originally an outer garment. Then comes the frock-coat or +surtout, which at the beginning of the nineteenth century was an +overcoat, and over this again in cold weather the modern ulster or +top-coat is put. + +No consideration of servants' dress would be complete without an +allusion to the cap and apron of the house- or parlour-maid. To begin +with, we see in these a survival of the special dresses which were once +adopted by particular trades. The fact that the cap is white points to +a connection with the early head-dresses of women which we see now +perpetuated by the nuns, and which are relics of the time when it was +customary to have linen caps and hoods. Perhaps there is some connection +between the cap of the servant and the custom which condemns women to +wear their hats in church and makes them feel desirous of keeping them +on their heads at all kinds of public entertainments. On this question, +however, we shall have a word to say later. + +Sometimes servants' caps have strings which, like those that are +customarily found on bonnets and on mitres (see page 54), are the +survival of the ends of a head fillet. The latest development in this +direction is a scarf which is allowed to hang down from the backs of +ladies' hats, and which may be of so substantial a nature that it looks +very much like a fringed towel. + +The apron can claim a long history, and just as the plush and powder of +the footman were once worn by his master, so we may easily discover that +the apron was not always the special attribute of those who work or +serve. Towards the end of the seventeenth century aprons were considered +an almost essential part of a fine lady's costume. A little later on, +Queen Anne made and wore them herself, and very gaily ornamented +garments they were. + +In the case of the lower classes, aprons were--as they still often +are--provided with bibs. The old name for them was barme-cloth, and +under this title Chaucer refers to the apron of Carpenter's wife as +being as white as the morning milk. Unless the article of dress which +we are discussing was of considerable age, we should hardly have the +proverbial expression which defines a man who is always at home as being +tied to his wife's apron-strings. + +Another name for an apron with a bib which was pinned to the front of +the dress was "pinner," which gives us the word pinafore, which refers +now to a kind of overall rather than to an apron. + +In the costumes of the barge-women and milk-women, where we get a slight +survival of characteristic country dress, we have seen that in both +cases the apron is always adopted as part of the outfit. (See Plate +VIII.) + +[Illustration: A BARGE GIRL WITH THE CHARACTERISTIC BONNET AND APRON. +SHE IS NOT WEARING HER SMALL PLAID SHAWL. + +(_From a photograph by Wakefield, Brentford._) + + _PLATE VIII._] + +The uniform of the hospital nurse partakes somewhat of that of the +nun, but at the same time the apron is often one of its most important +features. We mention this uniform here because it has become customary +of recent years for the nurses who look after the children of well-to-do +families to assume the bonnet and veil and severely cut collars and +cuffs of the hospital nurse. + +Here again we get a case on all fours with the adoption of evening dress +by waiters, and the gradual assumption by the lower classes of the dress +of their social superiors. + + + + +XVI + +COCKADES + +THE COCKADE A DEGENERATED CHAPERON--THE VARIETIES OF THE +COCKADE--COCKADE WEARERS + + +The cockade as we know it (see Figure 116) is now commonly worn by +servants, but, like their clothes generally, it was once used by their +masters. The books of an old-established firm of hat manufacturers show +that as late as 1789 cockades were worn by gentlemen themselves. +Apparently in the beginning, the sporting of a black cockade meant +allegiance to the House of Hanover. Now the use of the ornaments is +supposed to be confined to the servants of Royalty and of those in the +Royal service, though this does not seem to be actually the case. In a +letter to the _Morning Post_[18] Messrs. André and Co. say that "the +practice has long been regarded as a convenient and fitting sign of +social distinction, and that only such persons should assume the cockade +as enjoy hereditary rank or else some position of importance in the +State, including all officers, military and civil." Yet they can find no +trace of the question even having been dealt with by any authority, nor +have the classes of persons privileged to display the cockade been at +any time accurately defined. + +[Illustration: FIG. 116.--The cockade, known as the "large treble," +representing a survival of the chaperon.] + +Sir Alfred Scott Gatty, Garter King-at-Arms, points out that the matter +is really outside the College of Arms, and it does not come under +the jurisdiction of the Lord Chamberlain's department, which usually +arranges all matters connected with official dress. + +Before, however, we touch on the various kinds of cockades, and mention +those by whom the different types are at present worn, it will be well +to deal with the construction and evolution of the cockade, and we +shall be able to show that it has considerable claims to be considered +something more than a mere conventional rosette. As regards actual +material, the basis of the cockade consists of leather, which is +japanned, while a certain amount of ribbon may also be used. In the case +of mourning, we find that the cockade should properly be covered with +black cloth (see Figure 117), but nowadays a piece of crape is often +twisted round the one generally worn. The ribbon is usually merely a +small bow tied in the middle of the rosette (see Figure 116), but the +centre of the latter may be covered with ribbon and the bow replaced by +a button. + +[Illustration: FIG. 117.--A "treble cockade" covered with black cloth +for mourning. The concentric circles would appear to represent the +twisted liripipe of the chaperon.] + +The cockades worn by the Royal servants on the front of their +three-cornered hats on state occasions (see Figure 120) are large. +The rosette has points, while the upper part, or fan, shows them in +profusion, and there is no silk bow. The Royal cockade for semi-state +has a simple fan, while that worn on the silk hat at ordinary times (see +Figure 121) has no fan, but the edges are cut into points and there is a +bow of ribbon in the centre. + +[Illustration: FIG. 118.--Treble cockade used by Chelsea pensioners.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 119.--The Regent cockade.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 120.--Royal cockade for state occasions.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 121.--Ordinary Royal cockade.] + +The ordinary fan cockade is used in various sizes, and is shown in +Figure 116. This is called the "treble," and has a bow of ribbon as a +rule. A curious variety worn by the Chelsea Pensioners has no ribbon, +while a segment is cut from the lower part of the rosette (see Figure +118). The only other variety with regard to shape that we have now to +mention is the "regent" cockade, which is exactly like the treble, but +without the fan. (See Figure 119.) + +[Illustration: Two stages in the evolution of the chaperon. + +FIG. 122.--Combined hood and cape. + +FIG. 123.--Enlargement of the peak of the hood to form the liripipe. + +(After Calthrop, by kind permission of Messrs. A. and C. Black.)] + +It appears that the cockade can lay claim to have been descended from a +very ancient and curious form of head-dress, and Mr. Calthrop[19] has +traced in a very interesting way the development of this, as well as of +the cockade which is a survival of it in miniature. The head-dress in +question was called a chaperon, and came into favour in the time of +Richard II. It was itself derived from a hood and a cape which were +originally worn separately, but afterwards the two were joined together +for convenience, so that they could both be donned at the same time. +Fashion lengthened out the peak of the hood extravagantly until it +reached nearly to the ground, and then the prolongation was called a +liripipe. Next it was ordained that the whole arrangement should be +twisted up round the head, so that what was in the beginning a cape +with jagged edges stuck out on one side like a cock's comb. + +[Illustration: Further development of the chaperon. + +FIG. 124.--Cape and liripipe made into a head-dress that can be altered +at will. + +FIG. 125.--A chaperon ready made up, in order to save trouble. + +(After Calthrop, by kind permission of Messrs. A. and C. Black.)] + +It will be noticed that the modern cockade shows the jagged edges +sticking up, and it would appear that the rosette represents a coiled-up +liripipe. Even to-day cockades are of various colours, and, as Mr. +Calthrop points out, the servant's chaperon from which it was derived +used to bear the colours of the master's livery. The chaperon is also to +be seen on the robes of the Knights of the Garter at the present day, +where it is fixed on the right shoulder as a kind of cape. (See Figure +144.) Mr. Calthrop also points out that the present head-dress of the +French lawyer is another descendant of the chaperon, and that the +buttons worn by the members of the Legion of Honour and other foreign +Orders are connected with the same idea. + +A writer in the _Sketch_[20] sees in the rosette and fan of the treble +cockade the remnants of the crown and star which we see on military +uniforms. He says that the earlier forms seem to have been made of +metal, which must surely be a mistake, though the cock of the hat was, +as we know, sometimes fastened up with a brooch. The example which he +figures, however, and uses in support of his theory, is evidently a +helmet plate which displays the star, garter, and St. George's Cross, +the whole being surmounted by a crown, and in the cockade he claims to +see all these elements in a modified condition. If this derivation of +the cockade were correct, it would be in keeping with the quotation +which the same writer gives from Cussan's "Handbook of Heraldry," that +the privilege of wearing a cockade is confined to the servants of +officers in the King's service, or those who by courtesy may be regarded +as such. The theory is that the servant is a private soldier who when +not wearing his uniform retains this badge as a mark of his profession. +We cannot help thinking that Mr. Calthrop's derivation of the cockade is +more feasible, though it is not easy to see the remains of the coiled-up +liripipe of the chaperon in the way which Mr. Calthrop represents it in +his sketch.[21] In the majority of the cockades there is no trace of +a spiral such as he indicates in his figure, though in the mourning +cockade, concentric rings are very clearly shown. A word may now be said +as to those whose coachmen and footmen wear cockades. + +The Royal cockade is used by the servants of the King, and by those +belonging to members of the Royal Household. It is large and circular, +as we have seen, and half the disk projects above the top of the hat. +The regent cockade, which has no fan, is worn by the servants of naval +officers, and no part of it is allowed to project above the hat. The +servants of the officers in the Army, Yeomanry, Militia, and Volunteers +wear the treble cockade with the fan, as do also the Lords Lieutenant +and their deputies, as well as the servants of the members of the +Diplomatic Corps. Besides this, it appears that the same kind of cockade +is worn by the servants of the following: All peers and their sons +and daughters, baronets, knights, and sheriffs, judges, justices, and +magistrates; members and high officers of Parliament and of the Civil +Service; dignitaries of the Church, King's Counsel, and law officers of +the Crown. + +English ambassadors have the fan painted with three stripes of red, +white, and blue, and while the edge of the rosette is red, the next +part is white, and the centre blue. In this case also the ribbon in +the centre shows the same three colours. The cockade of the Danish +ambassador is of ordinary black leather, but the centre is covered with +a rosette of ribbon, red at the edge, with a circle of white next to +it, and green in the centre, while the whole is finished off with an +ornamental black button or knob. Other foreign ambassadors have their +cockades coloured upon the same principle as the English; but in some +the colours are shown on the fan in bands instead of in stripes, and the +centre of the rosette may have segments of different colours instead of +rings. In the case of the French ambassador the colours on the fan are +in stripes, while those of the rosette are in segments. + +Of recent years cockades have been reduced in size until they have +become mere pigmies in connection with the uniform of "chauffeurs," or +motorcar drivers. The latter customarily wear a military kind of hat +with a mushroom top, and as a cockade fastened on the side of one of +these would not look elegant, a very small cockade is now made and +fixed in the front of the cap just above the peak. Would not one of the +wearers of the old cock's-comb turbans be amazed if he could see the +most recent outcome of his head-dress in its modern surroundings? + +There seems to be little doubt but that the "cockade" forms part of the +livery of many who have no recognized right to it. Perhaps the ease with +which it can be assumed is shown by the price lists of jobmasters, in +which we find, after the charge for the hire of broughams and victorias, +a footnote to the effect that cockades are "6d. extra if required." + + + + +XVII + +CHILDREN'S DRESS + + SURVIVALS IN CHILDREN'S DRESS--SPECIAL SCHOOL COSTUMES--THE + BLUE-COAT BOY--PUBLIC SCHOOL BOYS--ADOPTION OF A SPECIAL DRESS + AT GIRLS' SCHOOLS + + +Children's costume, though characteristic, is in some instances +connected with ceremonies, and in others with particular institutions; +it may therefore with advantage be considered at this point. + +We find that for very many centuries in this country, children, except +when small babies and in their early years, were dressed practically +in the same way as their parents, and looked like men and women in +miniature. + +The ludicrous effect that was sometimes produced is well seen in +Hogarth's engravings, which date from the time when infants were +powdered and patched as well as dressed in a way that made them truly +grotesque. + +A relic of this custom is still to be seen in certain costumes which it +is now fashionable for children to wear. Possibly the sailor's suit +takes the most prominent place, and the Highland dress is also a +favourite. It is perhaps not very strange that we do not see little boys +going about in the uniform of policemen, and until the South African +war occupied the attention of this country, boys were seldom if ever +seriously dressed as soldiers, but during the struggle to which allusion +has been made, it was not an uncommon sight to see small boys in the +khaki uniform and slouch hats which were adopted by the troops in +Africa. Now, of course, the knickerbockers of the small boy, and the +short skirts of his little sisters, though not absolutely characteristic +of extreme youth, are recognized features of children's costume. + +As regards small infants, it is still customary for some time after +they are born to wrap more or less of a bandage round them in order to +protect their tender bodies from injury. The modern "binder" is, of +course, a relic of swaddling clothes, or those which consisted of a +profusion of bandages. These still survive in the Holy Land. It may here +be said that we meet in the word "pupa," which is the scientific term +that we apply to a chrysalis, with the old Greek name for a baby in +swaddling clothes. It is used now because the wings and legs of the +future flying insect are hidden in something the same way as are the +legs and arms of the much trussed-up baby. From the same word we get the +name "puppet" and the French word "poupée," meaning a doll. + +In Roman Catholic churches at the time of baptism it is still the +custom to place on the head of the baby a white cloth. It is now too +small to cover the body, and it is called the chrysome, or chrism cloth, +and with it once the newly-baptized infant was swathed. This was worn +for a month by the child, and if the latter died within that time the +cloth was used as a shroud. The chrysome is really the remains of a +series of vestments which in the sixth or seventh century were worn by +the newly baptized. The most important part of the costume was the albe, +which was probably similar to that worn by the clergy, and a chaplet of +flowers was also used to crown the child after baptism. + +There are in this country still a few monumental brasses called chrysom +brasses showing babies in their baptismal robes. A case where the child +is swathed up even more rigidly than was customary in the old world is +to be seen in the case of the North American Indian papoose, which is +fastened down to a cradle of board or basket work, and at first is so +fixed by the swaddling process that only its head is movable. In some +instances several months elapse before even the arms are allowed to be +free, and these are fastened up again at night. + +It is probably owing to deformities that were at first accidentally +caused by this bandaging process, that the fashions arose which demand +that the shape of the skull in certain races shall be intentionally and +artificially altered. To this subject, however, we shall refer again +when dealing with the question of the effects of clothes upon the body. + +As might well be imagined, the petticoats of small boys are a survival, +and one which is to be commended in every way. The putting of infants at +an early age into jersey knickerbocker suits cannot but be bad for them +physically, and it makes them look for all the world like little woollen +monkeys. Mr. Druitt[22] has described as many as seven brasses of +various dates between the years 1585 and 1642, which show boys dressed +in petticoats. + +Dr. Alice Vickery thinks that it would be well if infant boys and girls +were dressed exactly alike, say up to the age of five or seven. She says +it is difficult to judge the extent to which sex bias is imbibed in the +earliest years, and we should do our best to postpone it as long as +possible. She continues[23]:--"If boys and girls were dressed alike, +taught together and played together, this would do much to direct +attention away from, instead of towards, sex distinction. The longer +such a system could be maintained the longer would be the period during +which rewards and punishments, praise and blame, would attach to actions +and conduct, to the exercise of self-control, kindliness and generosity, +efficiency, industry and alertness, quite apart from all intrusions of +sex idea, and its possibilities of subjection and predominance. That +would in itself be a great gain." + +"The best school for the training of life and conduct is the school of +equality, where privilege and subjection are alike unknown, and the +co-education of the sexes is a step in the direction of justice and +fraternity." + +"There is one point more on which I will add a few words. I have always +been a great sceptic as to the essential physical inferiority of the +feminine. It is true that in the aggregate that inferiority does exist, +but where can we find a place, a people among whom the development of +girlhood has had full and free scope?" + +The custom for young girls to wear their hair down is also an old +one, though married ladies of the fifteenth century are occasionally +represented with flowing tresses. + +At the present day, as a rule, when a girl puts up her hair her +petticoats are usually lengthened simultaneously. The age at which these +important changes are made varies. For instance, if a girl has a number +of unmarried sisters older than herself, the time is often put off. +Sometimes the term "old-fashioned" is synonymous with "sensible," and +people with such ideas very often keep their girls in short frocks until +they are really grown up. + +The two changes in the girls' method of dressing are not, however, +always made at the same time. In the upper classes we find a tendency +for the long dress to come first. Girls, on the other hand, who have +to go out into the world as nursemaids and kitchenmaids, may, in order +to make themselves look older and more sedate, put up their hair while +they are still in short frocks, though it must be said that the effect +is not quite pleasing if it is business-like. + +In the bib of the infant we find a relative of that part of the apron or +the more voluminous pinafore which covers the chest. Although grown-up +women sometimes wear pinafores, these, like the bibs, must now be +considered as part of children's dress, though no doubt in the beginning +they were derived from the costume of grown-up people. + +[Illustration: FIG. A. + +THE CAP WORN BY THE SCHOLARS OF CHRIST'S HOSPITAL UNTIL THE MIDDLE OF +THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. + +FIG. B. + +A SCHOLAR OF CHRIST'S HOSPITAL. + +(_By the courtesy of the Rev. A. W. Upcott, M.A., Headmaster of Christ's +Hospital._) + + _PLATE IX._] + +The next subject that we may appropriately consider here is that of the +characteristic costumes which are worn in certain schools. In connection +with boys, the first case which immediately comes to mind is that of the +Blue-coat boys, as the scholars of Christ's Hospital, which was founded +in 1552, have come to be called. Their blue coat is part of the ordinary +dress of the citizen of the reign of Edward VI, and the scholarly man +at this time had the skirts of his blue coat long, while in other cases +they were cut off at the knee. Instead of trunks, however, the Blue-coat +boy wears more modern knickerbockers, but he clings to his yellow +stockings. (See Plate IX, Figure B.) + +The scholars of Christ's Hospital have discarded caps (see Plate IX, +Figure A), but the one which should go with their dress is flat, like +the one which came into fashion in the reign just mentioned. It was the +one afterwards called the statute cap, when Elizabeth for the good of +trade ordered that "one cap of wool, knitted thick and dressed in +England," was to be worn "by all over six years of age except such +persons as had twenty marks a year in land and their heirs and such as +have borne office of worship." A cap of the same kind was worn by +Edward VI, and is still part of the dress of Beef-eaters at the Tower +of London. + +The blue coat afterwards came to be the ordinary livery of serving-men +in the sixteenth and early part of the seventeenth centuries, and blue +is still a popular colour for coachmen's liveries at the present day. + +In a similar way we find that certain schools are called grey-coat or +green-coat schools, and we have blue schools--for instance, one for boys +and another for girls at Wells. + +Then there is the Red Maid School, which was established in 1627 at +Bristol, and in accordance with the founder's will the girls are dressed +in red frocks, with white aprons and tippets and plain straw bonnets, +trimmed with blue ribbon. In connection with this foundation it may be +said that £50 is set on one side each year for the award of marriage +portions to girls who have left the school. + +Our public schools afford us very interesting cases of special dresses. +Perhaps no other coat which a boy wears is so well known as the Eton +jacket. This is accompanied by a tall silk hat. + +King's scholars who are on the foundation and live "in College" also +wear an academical gown of fairly ample proportions. The Eton jacket was +not always black, and originally the head-dress was a mortar-board, and +there was a broad lace collar or bands round the neck (see page 47). +The black coats and top hats were introduced in 1820 as mourning for +King George III, and have been worn ever since. The broad collar which +takes its name from Eton is probably a survival of lace bands, and is +worn over the jacket in the same way. + +Very similar coats are also worn by the younger boys at Westminster and +at Harrow. In the latter case the jacket finishes off in a small point +at the back, whereas the jacket worn at Eton is cut straight. The older +boys at Eton wear a morning coat, a stick-up collar, and a white tie. +This white tie is also worn by the masters, whether they be clerks in +holy orders or not, and it seems to be a survival of a white choker +which was wound round and round the stick-up collar, though, on the +other hand, it may represent academical bands. + +At Winchester the scholars wear bands, and this is no doubt connected +with the use of academical dress, for it is usual for the boys on the +foundation of public schools, as we have seen to be the case at Eton, to +wear gowns. + +The upper boys at Harrow, on the other hand, wear dress-coats with +swallow tails; but should, however, a lower boy outgrow his short +jacket, he is given what is called "charity" tails. + +When speeches are made at Eton, those who take part in the performance +wear dress-coats, knee-breeches, silk stockings, and buckled shoes. + +Some costumes have probably been in existence since the foundation and +endowment of the schools, and we can find parallel cases in the dress +of some almshouses and hospitals for pensioners. Probably the idea +originally underlying the wearing of a special dress is the same as +is to be seen in modern charity schools, where all the boys or girls +are dressed alike. It must simplify the tailoring and dressmaking +arrangements, but at the same time it intentionally or unintentionally +brands the children. Nevertheless, we see that the boys at most +aristocratic and celebrated schools are in very much the same kind of +boat. + +To return to Eton again, we might mention one or two fashions in the +ordinary dress which are curious. It is ordained that the lowest button +of the waistcoat should be left unbuttoned and the bottom of the +trousers should be turned up, while it is part of the performance to +thrust the hands deeply into the trouser pockets. If a boy elects to +wear an overcoat, and he does not occupy a certain definite position or +status in the school, public opinion forces him to keep the collar of +his top coat turned up. Of course, schools generally, and sometimes the +various houses in important schools, make a particular point of school +or house colours. + +At Eton, on the Fourth of June, in connection with the boating there +are interesting ornamentations added to the straw hats in the shape +of flowers, and three boys who act as coxswains wear the uniform of +an admiral and carry bouquets. The Fourth of June celebrations were +instituted to take the place of the festival known as the Eton Montem. +The ceremony consisted of a procession to a little hill near Slough, +when many old and interesting costumes were worn. + +The custom came to an end in the early years of Queen Victoria's reign, +and its immediate object was the collecting of money with which to send +the head boy of the year to the University. It seems, however, to have +originated in a piece of folk-lore, probably connected with the old +tree worship, but sanctioned by the early Christian authorities as a +semi-religious function. In this connection it is pleasant to think that +flowers seen in the hats on the Fourth of June are a survival of the +green branches and garlands that were once brought back each year from +the Montem expedition. + +When dealing with children's dress we ought not to forget the special +costumes that have been adopted in some private girls' schools, nor how +much is being done in them towards disseminating ideas on the subject +of dress reform. For, after all, it is to the women of the future that +we must look if any alteration is to be generally made. The introduction +of exercises in the gymnasium has necessitated the adoption of a +drilling dress in very many cases, but there are schools where such a +costume is generally worn at all times, and others where it forms the +working dress, while long skirts are only put on when no active exertion +is expected. + +[Illustration: FIG. 126.--Dress worn by the girls at Coombe Hill School, +Westerham. It is a modification of the Dervish Djibah.] + +At Coombe Hill School, Westerham, in Kent, the dress takes the form of a +tunic with wide sleeves which come to the elbow (see Figure 126). It is +put over the head and has no fastenings. It is modelled upon the Djibah +of the Dervishes, and is made of soft woollen material of a fawn colour. +The yoke is of green embroidery and the underslip is tussore. Under the +tunic a blouse of white silk is worn, and the sleeves, of course, show +from the elbow downwards. The rest of the costume consists of cloth +knickerbockers and stockings, with sandals or shoes that are made to the +shape of the foot. This dress is worn on all occasions at school, and +the girls are very proud of it. + +[Illustration: FIG. 127.--Dress worn by the girls at the Croft School, +Betley, when at work.] + +At the Croft School, Betley, in school and when any basket-making, +book-binding, drilling, or Morris-dancing is going on, a special costume +is brought into use. In this case it consists of a tunic without +sleeves, of red material with a velvet yoke, and shoulder straps (see +Figure 127). As a finishing touch there is a girdle tied loosely in a +bow. It is not placed round the waist proper, but drops towards the left +knee as did the sword-belts which the knights in olden times wore over +their armour. A white silk blouse shows above the yoke round the neck +and has full sleeves. The knickerbockers in this case are made of +red knitted stockinette instead of cloth. The whole costume has been +carefully worked out, and Miss Hodgson, one of the principals of the +school, has an interesting doll which is dressed exactly like the girls. +It should be said that all the girls wear this dress whether they are +nine or nineteen years old, and as it is much appreciated by them there +is no doubt but that when they come to have girls of their own they +will support any movement in favour of the more general adoption of a +sensible costume. + + + + +XVIII + +WEDDING GARMENTS + +THE VEIL--BRIDESMAIDS AND BRIBERY--OLD SHOES--ORANGE BLOSSOM + + +Weddings are ceremonies in connection with which we may look for some +points of interest, as customs in connection with them change but +slowly. In this country, if convention be followed, the bride's dress is +of white. + +The veil that is worn recalls the primitive head-dress that was bound +by a fillet, and, like that of the nun, may well be derived from the +wimple, though it is said to represent the canopy which in many +countries, and by the Jews in our own, is held over, or erected above, +the bride and bridegroom. Flowers take a part in the adornment of the +bride, and the special use of orange blossom will be dealt with when +discussing wedding crowns. + +It is customary for the bridesmaids to be dressed alike, and they often +wear some ornament which has been presented to them by the bridegroom. +It may be that this is a survival like many other wedding customs of the +old marriage by capture, for in some countries the girl friends of the +bride will not allow her to be approached by the bridegroom until he +has given them presents, or in reality bribed them. Now, like tipping, +it is merely a custom that must be followed, but originally no doubt the +bridegroom and his accomplice, the best man, might have found that what +they could not do by force they might encompass by bribery. + +The expression "to tie the nuptial knot" takes its origin from the fact +that, among the Babylonians, the priest who conducted the wedding used +to take a thread from the garment of the bride and another from that of +the bridegroom. These he tied together into a knot and presented to the +bride as a symbol of the binding nature of the union between her and her +husband. + +There is an article of dress which often plays a part at weddings, for +old shoes are usually thrown after the newly-married pair, while boots, +with a hole in them, filled with rice, are hung from the backs of +carriages, and satin slippers have on occasion been fastened to the +carriage door handle of the railway train which speeds the pair on their +honeymoon. + +We all know that the throwing of old slippers is intended to bring luck +to the bride and bridegroom, but it is not apparent what particular +form it is intended that the blessing should take, and the origin of +the custom is difficult to determine. Mr. James E. Crombie,[24] after +carefully considering the various superstitions connected with weddings +and shoes, has come to the conclusion that the intention is to ensure +that the young couple shall be blessed with children, and that old +shoes are thrown because of the idea that the essence or life of the +individual that wore them remains in them, and makes them powerful +talismans. + +In this connection it may be well to consider the importance which shoes +have assumed at various times in connection with weddings and otherwise. +So long ago as the year 1291, a law in Hamburg ordered that the +bridegroom should give his bride a pair of shoes, and it is still a +custom in Transylvania for the bridegroom to make a similar present on +his wedding morning. In Greece the best man puts a new pair of boots, +supplied by the bridegroom, on to the feet of the bride when she leaves +her father's house. In Bulgaria, a money present which the bridegroom +makes to the relatives of the bride is called shoe money, and with it +the father of the family buys shoes for it. This money is said to be +a relic of the price that was paid to the clan from which a wife was +taken. + +Shoes have figured as part of wages, and they were thrown over the heads +of the O'Neils by the O'Cahans when the former were chosen chiefs. This +was done to symbolize the superiority of the throwers. In Russia, the +wives as part of the wedding festivities remove their husband's boots in +order to show their subjection to him, though while the bride dutifully +takes off her lord and master's boots as a sign of subserviency, she +always hits him on the head with one of them to show that she is not one +whit inferior to him. It is said that the Hebrew word for shoe and wife +are identical, and a Bedouin form of divorce is "She is my slipper, I +have cast her off." The casting of a shoe over land, as mentioned in the +Bible, was symbolical of conquering it. + +As regards fruitfulness, the Eskimo women carry a piece of an old shoe +which has once been worn by European sailors, to make them prolific +mothers. Women who are blessed with families in China present shoes to +the "Mother goddess," and those who wish for children borrow these shoes +and vow that if the desired result is effected they will present another +one to the divinity when the borrowed shoe is returned. + +Mr. Crombie gives a number of instances to show that there is still a +belief that the soul of persons may live in their shoes. In the Museum +of Northern Antiquities at Copenhagen is a mummified corpse of a +woman who was intentionally drowned in a bog, and from her body, after +the murder, a shoe had been removed. During the Arran murder case at +Edinburgh, in 1889, it transpired that the boots of the murdered man had +been removed by the local constable, who had buried them on the seashore +between high and low water marks. No explanation was forthcoming, though +the man admitted that it was by the orders of his senior officer that +he put them out of sight. There is no doubt but that the idea underlying +the action was that of preventing the ghost of the murdered man from +walking. + +It must not be forgotten that shoes used to be thrown after anybody +when he or she was starting on a journey, which in old days was a risky +business, and Ben Jonson wrote, "Would I had Kemp's shoes to throw +after you." This has been interpreted as meaning that Kemp was a lucky +individual, and that something of him and his good fortune remained +in his shoes. Summing up his remarks, Mr. Crombie says with regard to +throwing shoes at weddings that by doing so "we should be doing for the +young couple, in a more pleasant way, exactly the same as the relatives +of the Galla bride did for her when they anointed her from top to toe +with bullock's blood. We should be doing for them with shoes what our +Aryan ancestors did for their cattle with the sacred parna rod, and what +the herdsmen of Sweden and The Mark do to this day, when on the 1st +of May they watch on which branch of the mountain ash the sun first +strikes, and then, cutting it down, beat the yearling heifers with it on +the loins and haunches, repeating at each stroke a verse in which they +pray that as sap comes into the birch so may milk fill the cow's udder. +We should be doing with shoes what the Romans did in ancient Rome at +the festival of the Lupercalia, when the boys, armed with strips of the +skin of the slaughtered goats, used to rush through the city striking +all they met, and where women, particularly those who desired to be made +fruitful, placed themselves naked in the way, and received the blows of +the Luperci on their palms." + +At a wedding sometimes the priest's vestments play a part. It is +customary in some continental countries for the priest to wrap the hands +of the bride and bridegroom in his stole, and even in some of our +English churches the contracting parties are instructed to take hold of +the stole by the officiating clergyman. We might mention that in many +countries the bridal dresses are very beautiful, and are often survivals +of very old-fashioned costumes. The Norwegian bridal dress is an +instance of this. The wearing of a bridal crown is also a custom in +Scandinavia, where it is said that every parish possesses its special +crown which is the property of the church, but the use of it is only +sanctioned when the bride bears an irreproachable character. + +The wearing of orange blossom has apparently the same meaning, and it +may be mentioned that on funeral monuments or brasses the wearing of a +garland by the effigy of a girl means that she died a virgin. + + + + +XIX + +MOURNING + +COLOURS ASSOCIATED WITH MOURNING--WIDOWS' WEEDS--PERENNIAL MOURNING + + +The ceremonies connected with death and burial are no exception to the +rule which we have laid down, that on solemn and important occasions +primitive customs and costumes are most commonly to be met with. The +making of clothes from bark has come to have a special significance +in the case of races which no longer adopt this in everyday life. The +Kayans of Borneo now ordinarily wear smart foreign stuffs which they +get from traders; but when they go into mourning they discard these +garments, and return once more to the old native garment of bark +cloth. The putting on of sackcloth is no doubt a similar custom, and +dishevelling of locks is also in keeping with it. + +Among the many curious customs connected with funeral rites which +survive in civilized countries, the adoption of some kind of mourning +dress is very general. Sombre black has come to be associated in our +minds with mourning, but other colours are used among other nations, +and even in this country. The drapery with which the hats of the hired +mourners at a child's funeral are veiled are white instead of black. +White ostrich feathers may appear on the horses' heads, and white adorns +their trappings. Royalty is still privileged to have a special mourning +colour--purple is used at state funerals, and grey is looked upon as +half-mourning. + +In China white is the colour used instead of black, and other Oriental +nations wear yellow. In modern Egypt, at a funeral, the women, whether +relatives or servants of the deceased, are distinguished by a strip of +linen or muslin bound round the head and tied in a single knot behind. +This stuff is usually of a blue colour. The women of ancient Egypt, as +shown on the walls of tombs, wore a similar bandage round their head. +Excessive mourning is now becoming a thing of the past, and there is no +need now for such laws as were made at the end of the fifteenth century +to restrict extravagance in mourning attire. Nowadays men may follow the +custom observed by those in the army and those who wear Highland dress +of putting a black band round their arm. At the most they wear black +clothes and put a wider band round their hats. Among women it is only +widows who wear a special costume. It is not a becoming one, though +sometimes a smartness is imparted to it that is a little out of keeping +with the idea of mourning. Now a widow's dress is called weeds, though +this term at one time signified the whole of any woman's costume. + +For the origin of the widow's veil we must go back to mediæval times, +when the dress of widow ladies was similar to that of the convent. It +was the custom of elderly ladies whose husbands had died to become what +is called vowesses, and to go into seclusion. A relic perhaps of the +practice is to be found in the kind of prejudice which still exists in +the minds of some people against second marriages. The white cuffs of +the widow recall those of the nurse, and similar ones are used by some +members of the legal profession as part of their mourning. + +When dealing with military costume we shall find that signs of mourning, +when once adopted, have in some cases never been wholly abandoned. There +are similar vestiges like those found in the dress of public schools, +and there has been a suggestion of the same thing happening in the Navy. + +In connection with the hired mourners or mutes at funerals, now so +solemnly habited in black, it may be interesting to recall that the old +Roman mimes, of whom we have seen that Punch was originally one, were +employed at funerals to imitate the language and manners of the +deceased. + + + + +XX + +COSTUME CONNECTED WITH THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION + + THE SURPLICE AND "THE CLOTH"--THE CIVIL ORIGIN OF + VESTMENTS--SPECIAL VESTMENTS--PROCESSIONAL VESTMENTS, SO + CALLED--NUNS' DRESS--THE CHOKER + + +The dress worn by clergy when conducting religious ceremonies offers +many opportunities for studying the development of garments, and +illustrates at the same time how the dress used by a special class may +evolve more slowly and on different lines from the same clothes that may +be worn by the people at large. The case is similar to that of animals +or plants which are isolated from the other members of their species, +and in course of time come to differ very markedly from their far-away +relatives who flourish in the old home. + +We shall see that many of the ecclesiastical vestments can be traced to +civil dress; but for the moment we may discuss those which are in use at +the present time, and which afford additional evidence in support of our +statement that the more important the ceremonial, the more ancient the +costume. At the present day we find that the clergy of the Church of +England preach either in a white surplice or in a black gown. We can +trace the black gown to an order made by James I, but at the present day +the vestments worn by the clergy of the Presbyterian Churches are rather +professional, or academical like a barrister's gown, than properly +ecclesiastical. We have already mentioned the bands (see p. 44) which +are worn with the black gown, and here we might mention that when the +preacher ministers to a recognized congregation he wears them, though if +he is ordained but is conducting an occasional service he does not. + +Charles I gave instructions that the surplice should be worn, and had an +Act passed giving him power to regulate clerical costume. But the clergy +sent in a petition that matters should be left as they were, and this +request seems to have been granted, as some of the ministers at the time +expressed the fear that His Majesty would order them to wear hoods and +bells. Mr. Macalister[25] says that the surplice was originally invented +to take the place of the albe, which was made so small that it was +difficult to put it over the cassock when the latter garment was thick +and lined with fur. + +Originally the surplice was put on over the head, in the same way as the +albe, the place of which it took, but some two hundred years ago the +surplice was made open in front and fastened at the neck with a button. +The reason for this is that in this way the surplice could be put on +without disarranging the enormous wigs which were worn during the +seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The cassock, to which we have +already alluded, was a long, loose coat or gown, which was worn by both +sexes from the eleventh century onwards. The name was applied to the +coat adopted by foot soldiers in the time of Elizabeth. In the case of +the laity, it was abandoned in favour of the shorter and more convenient +coat. + +The black coat of the modern clergy, whom we term "the cloth," no doubt +represents it, while it is of course worn ordinarily by many Roman +Catholic clergy, and some High Churchmen, as an everyday garment, for +which it was originally intended. The row of buttons which now fasten +the long cassocks from neck to the foot have been humorously compared by +Lord Grimthorpe to the close row of rivets on a boiler. + +With regard to the development of the more ornamental dress of the +clergy there is a great deal to be said. In the past, two separate +origins for it have been suggested, and to pursue either of these would +be to take us far back into history. It has been claimed, in the first +place, that modern church vestments have been derived from those of the +Levitical priesthood. The other idea is that the ceremonial dress of the +clergy was derived from the civil costume of the Romans. It appears, +however, that careful researches have shown that the decorations +which have given ecclesiastical vestments their highly ornamented +character--in which they resemble certainly those used by the Jews in +Temple worship--have been gradually acquired. + +The dress of the ancient Christians was simple, and it seems likely that +owing to the poverty of the early Church rich clothing could hardly have +been adopted. Besides, for many centuries there is no mention of such +vestments as we are considering, and no records as to their having been +derived from Jewish models. On the other hand, everything points to a +more natural origin of the raiment concerned. Flowing garments, as +we have already seen, give dignity, and we find that among the Romans +such were used in dignified leisure or on occasions of state, in +contradistinction to the dress of active existence, which consisted of a +short tunic or chiton. It is with the first kind of dress that we have +to deal. + +It consisted of a tunic either short or long, over which was worn the +toga which was capable of the same variety of arrangement as the plaid +which still survives. Even when the toga was given up by the people +generally, on the founding of the Roman Empire, it continued to be used +in certain cases. + +It was etiquette to wear a toga when dining with the Emperor or going +to court; advocates wore it, as did clients when they visited their +patrons, and it was also adopted at funerals and when sacrifices were +being made. + +On the face of it, it would appear likely that those who ministered to +the early Christian Church would follow the general custom. Nothing, +perhaps, affords better evidence of this having taken place than an +illustration which is considered authentic of St. Gregory the Great with +his father and mother. As Mr. Marriott[26] points out, if it were not +for the Papal pallium--that is to say, the band round his shoulders--on +which crosses are embroidered, and the book of the Gospels which he +holds in his hand, it would be hard to distinguish which was the bishop +and which the senator. (See Figure 128.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 128.--St. Gregory the Great with his father +Gordianus, who was a senator, on his right, and his mother Sylvia on his +left. This shows the similarity between ecclesiastical and civil costume +in early times. From an authentic picture (after Marriott).] + +From this dress it is claimed, by those who have carefully gone into +the question, that ecclesiastical vestments have been developed. In +connection with this, Mr. Macalister[27] makes the following remarks: +"Fashion in dress or ornaments is subject to constant changes, which, +though perhaps individually trifling, in time amount to complete +revolutions; but the devotees of any religion, true or false, are by +nature conservative of its doctrines or observances. At first the early +Christians wore the same costume both at worship and at home. Fashion," +Mr. Macalister continues, "would slowly change unchecked from year to +year, while ecclesiastical conservatism would retard such changes as +far as they concern the dress worn at divine service; small differences +would spring into existence between everyday dress and the dress of +the worshipper. These differences, at first hardly perceptible, would +increase as the process went on, until the two styles of costume became +sharply distinguished from one another." In this connection it will be +interesting to mention those vestments which antiquarians have traced to +Roman costume. + +The albe takes its name from the _tunica alba_, which was used as a +purely secular garment until the ninth century. It was worn by all the +ministers and deacons, but as the latter had no vestment above the albe, +it came to be the special characteristic of the deacons. Usually, as the +name implies, the albe was white, but in this country coloured albes +were sometimes used. + +We have already seen that the surplice was derived from the albe, and +Mr. Marriott has brought forward all the evidence that he can to show +that white was the colour of the vestments at the earliest times in +the history of the Church. His arguments, however, do not seem to +be conclusive, and his inferences do not commend themselves to Mr. +Macalister. The latter thinks, however, that the view that white was the +colour appropriated in primitive times to the dress of the Christian +ministry is preferable to the theory that the early vestments were of +the same elaborate description as their mediæval successors. He is of +opinion, nevertheless, that the passages upon which Mr. Marriott bases +his arguments are quite consistent with a third alternative, namely, +that no distinctive vestments were set apart for the exclusive use of +the Christian minister during the first four centuries of the Christian +era. + +The dalmatic was a wide gown or tunic with long full sleeves, which was +derived apparently from the albe and used by persons in high secular +positions before it was adopted by the Church. In the mediæval period +the dalmatic was slit for a short distance up either side and fringes +were added to decorate the slits, the hems, and the ends of the sleeves. +In this style the garment was worn by a bishop. There were, however, +only fringes on the left sleeves and along the left side in the form of +this vestment which was appropriated to a deacon. + +Most elaborate explanations were offered by mediæval writers for this +difference, which seems merely to be a matter of convenience for the +deacon, who served at the altar. It was important that he should have +his right side free, and the heavy fringes would have got into his way. +One of the ideas with regard to the fringe was that the absence from the +right side symbolizes our freedom from care in the world to come; but +why, Mr. Macalister asks, was not the bishop to be exempt from care +in the future world? In connection with the coronation of English +sovereigns the dalmatic is still used, as well as representatives of +other ecclesiastical vestments, but to these we shall refer again. + +It is not at all unlikely that the stole which a clergyman wears after +the fashion of an untied tie, and which hangs from his neck nearly to +the ground, is really the same thing as our handkerchief, and it is +certain that it was employed originally as a scarf or _orarium_. In many +Roman monuments which are not of an ecclesiastical character, scarves +are worn over the rest of the dress. They pass over the left shoulder, +diagonally, towards the right side, and are fastened under the right +arm. They are not to be confounded with the two bands of purple (or +_clavi_) which on the tunics of senators and other important men ran +round the sides of the neck openings and down to the lower hem. + +It is probable that the scarves were used in the same way as favours and +"colours" among ourselves. It is recorded that Aurelian was the first +emperor who distributed "oraria" as presents to the people to be worn as +favours. In this connection we must not forget the ribbons of the +Knightly Orders, which we have already mentioned when speaking of the +baldric. + +The Fourth Council of Toledo enacted that deacons should wear their +stoles over their left shoulder so that their right arm might be free to +facilitate the execution of their duties in divine service. An English +church vestment actually goes by the name of the scarf, and is a broad +black band of silk worn in the same way as the stole. It is probably a +modification of some article of university costume, possibly the tippet +(see p. 212), and is worn by Doctors of Divinity and the clerical +authorities of Collegiate and Cathedral bodies. + +The outdoor garment which replaced the toga took several forms. One of +these had already been in use for some time as part of the dress of the +lower classes and of slaves. Speaking briefly, it rose in the world, and +emperors even wore it when they were travelling. One form, called the +casula, is of interest to us because it is the forerunner of the +chasuble. + +So much attention has been drawn to ecclesiastical vestments of recent +years, owing to the adoption by English High Church clergy of those in +which Roman Catholic priests celebrate Mass, that it may be perhaps +of interest, even at the risk of recapitulation, to consider them. It +should be said at the outset that the stripes of embroidery, which are +often very elaborate and enriched with jewels, which appear on vestments +such as the amice and albe, are called apparels. + +To garments which are white and have at times to be washed, these +ornaments are sewn or otherwise attached, so that they can be removed +when it is necessary and replaced. The amice we have not yet mentioned, +as it is of mediæval origin and did not come into our consideration of +the evolution of modern vestments from Roman dress. It was a rectangular +piece of linen, about thirty-six inches by twenty-five inches, with an +apparel sewn along one edge and a cross embroidered in the centre. This +the priest at the present time wears round his neck. The outer garment +or chasuble, which is richly ornamented, we have traced to the garment +which replaced the Roman toga, and as it is without sleeves and has +become heavier, it has been found necessary to slit up the sides. Under +this the stole is worn over the albe, and only its ends appear beneath +the chasuble. (See Figure 129.) There is ornamentation on the sleeves +of the albe, where they show, and on the back and front of it where it +shows below the chasuble. + +[Illustration: FIG. 129.--A priest in the vestments now worn at the +celebration of the Eucharist.] + +The apparels, according to Druitt, are possibly the remains of the +purple bands and other ornamentations of the Roman tunic, from which +we have seen that the albe was derived. Over the left arm the priest +carries a maniple which is something like a stole. This was originally +made of linen, and worn over the fingers of the left hand. There +is no doubt but that it was once a napkin and, according to Mr. +G. C. Coulton,[28] originally used in the fashion of a modern +pocket-handkerchief. That it was a napkin is shown by quotations from +ancient writers, and there seems no doubt also that many refinements of +Roman civilization, of which the pocket handkerchief was one, were lost +in the later Middle Ages. In fact, the handkerchief only began to come +into general use in polite society about Henry VIII's reign, and the +maniple of the ministrant at the altar must have lost its original use, +or Bernard would not have twice warned him against blowing his nose on +his chasuble or surplice. + +When speaking of the handkerchief, there is another use which we may +mention. It was often employed for ceremonial purposes in connection +with the giving of presents, and this idea seems to have come from +Eastern lands, where gifts are wrapped in highly ornamental covers. In +the parable of the talents, one of them, it will be remembered, was +wrapped in a napkin, and even to-day the labourer has his dinner taken +to him in a brightly coloured cotton handkerchief. + +Among the special vestments of bishops are the dalmatic, which we have +already described, and the tunicle, which originally did not differ from +it, and began to be worn beneath it about the twelfth century. Others +are the buskins or stockings (which were originally reserved for the +pope), sandals, ring, gloves, and mitre, together with a pastoral staff +adapted from the shepherd's crook. + +Archbishops have a cross staff and a pallium or pall which is probably +derived from the same ancestor as the stole, namely the orarium, which, +we have seen, was a favour or distinction granted by the Roman Emperor. + +The word pallium has been applied to a number of garments in the past, +many of which were of a flowing character, and some writers have seen +in the archbishop's pall a small vestige of what was once an ample +vestment. Early pictures, however, show the pall looped round the +shoulders with one end hanging in front of the body and one behind. Mr. +Macalister says that it was difficult sometimes to distinguish between +it and the stole, and that the next step in its evolution was to knot +the free ends to the loops as shown in the eighth, ninth, and tenth +centuries. From this it was but an easy step to the final form which +consists of an oval loop with a long tail pendent from each of its ends, +so that when it is worn on the person it makes a capital "Y" on the back +and another on the chest. It should be pointed out that the pall must +not be confounded with the apparel of the chasuble called the orphrey, +which also has a "Y" shape. + +In connection with the manufacture of the pall there are some +interesting proceedings. It is made from the wool of two lambs, and they +are solemnly blessed on Saint Agnes's day in the church dedicated in +the name of that saint at Rome. The animals are chosen with special +reference to their whiteness and goodness, and are carried into Rome in +separate baskets, which are slung over a horse's back. + +On the way to the church the Pope makes the sign of the cross from a +window over the lambs, and they, after Mass has been celebrated and they +have been blessed by the celebrant, go back to the Pope, who sends them +to a nunnery, where they are shorn and the wool made into palls by the +nuns. + +The modern pall has six black crosses on it, but previous to the eighth +century it had sometimes four, sometimes eight, worked in purple. + +At first the pall was fastened by gold pins to the chasuble to keep it +in place, but just as ladies now use little lead weights to keep parts +of their dress in position, so lead was used to hold the archbishop's +pall in place. The effigy of Albrect von Brandenburg in 1555, at +Mayence, shows two palls, which probably indicate that he was Archbishop +of Magdeburg as well as of Mayence. This repetition can hardly be +strictly correct, as the pall could only be worn within the Archbishop's +province. + +Archbishops in olden days appeared to have had no authority to act +until they received their pall from the Pope. The honour was, however, +bestowed occasionally on bishops. The pall is generally shown on the +coats of arms of archbishops. (See Figure 130.) + +The cope is one of the so-called processional vestments. It does not +appear before the ninth century, and is apparently connected with Roman +dress. It was an outer cloak without sleeves, and originally was used +as a protection from the weather at open-air processions in Rome, its +ancestor probably being the lacerna. In a similar way the almuce was a +hood to protect the head, and such articles, as Mr. Macalister says, the +clergy would continue to adopt in their cold and draughty churches or in +open-air processions. + +[Illustration: FIG. 130.--The coat of arms of Thomas à Becket. Showing +an archbishop's pall.] + +Of monastic habits the earliest was the Benedictine, consisting of a +cassock over which was worn the cowl--a large, loose gown, with hanging +sleeves and a hood attached to it. In the old times the costume of +abbesses and nuns resembled the mourning habit of widows, who often +retired to end their days in a convent. When the English Church was +reformed, the Mass vestments practically disappeared. The first Prayer +Book of Edward VI prescribed for the Holy Communion a white albe, +without any apparels, with a vestment or cope, while the assistant +priest or deacons were to wear albes with tunicles. The cope was also +to be worn with a plain albe or surplice on Wednesdays and Fridays when +there was no communion. The bishop was to wear a rochet, a surplice or +albe, and a cope or vestment. The second Prayer Book prohibited the use +of the albe, vestment, or cope to the minister, allowing him only a +surplice, while the archbishop or bishop was allowed a rochet. The Act +of Uniformity upheld the ornaments rubric of the first Prayer Book of +Edward VI, and this has never been superseded. + +The lawn sleeves of the modern bishop developed from the rochet, which +was a kind of modified albe, which at first had a kind of tight-fitting +sleeves or none at all. Over this rochet is worn a black satin chimere, +and as it was difficult to get this over the bishop's sleeves, they were +removed from the rochet and are now fastened to the chimere. The black +scarf we have already considered. + +It is customary at the present day for clergy of the English Church to +wear the academical hood of their university degree over their +surplices. This is ordained by the fifty-eighth canon, but ministers who +are not graduates are permitted to wear, instead of hoods, "some decent +tippet of black, be it not silk." It appears that in the time of +Elizabeth, in everyday dress, ministers wore a gown and some of them a +silk hood. The tippet is a survival of the almuce, which we mentioned +in connection with the cope, and is one of the so-called processional +dresses. It must therefore not be confounded with the amice, which is a +truly ecclesiastical vestment. + +As bearing on the conservatism of the Church in matters of dress, we +may mention that in Holland, until recent times, the clergy wore a +very old-fashioned dress, or perhaps it may better be described as a +picturesque uniform, consisting of an old three-cornered hat, and a coat +resembling the ordinary evening dress-coat, having a long pleated strip +called "the mantle" hooked on the neck, and obviously being a survival +from an early and more ample gown of some kind. They wore knee-breeches +buckled at the knees, and buckled shoes, but this costume was only used +when the minister was officiating at service. + +Some of the heads of the churches in Scotland still adopt a kind of +Court dress. + +In turning for a moment again to the everyday dress of the clergy, the +method of fastening the characteristic white choker at the back seems +to have come from the bands. Thackeray in "The Newcomes" uses the name +choker as meaning a white necktie, and it was also applied to the old +leather stocks which the clerical collar, in its stiffness, resembles. +The bishop's hat we have already alluded to, as showing the stage in a +process of cocking, the brim being tied to the crown by strings. The +clerical gaiters we can derive from the old episcopal buskins, while the +apron appears to be a vestige of the cassock to which we have before +referred. + +The dress of monks usually consists of a tunic or closed gown and +scapular, while there may be one or more open gowns with a hood at the +back. + +Nuns or Sisters of Mercy are so commonly seen in our streets, and +they do so much for the benefit of the poor, and take such a part in +educational matters, that their dress is very familiar to us. It is +difficult to say how old it may not be, and though stiff hoods similar +to those which are now in use by nuns were adopted by women generally +in Tudor times, we find in the head-dress of Henry II's reign the +counterpart of the linen bands which surround the face and hide +the hair. The other garments of nuns may have the same origin as +ecclesiastical vestments, for the dress of the Roman women was very +much like that of the men. (See Figures 128 and 131-133.) + +There are, of course, many orders, congregations, and communities of +nuns, but we may describe the dress of one of the latter, and then make +a few additional remarks. In the case of the Kilburn Sisters of the +Church, who are English Catholics--but who have dedicated their lives to +religion in the same way as the Roman Catholic nuns--the indoor dress +consists of a white cap, the descendant of the Norman chin-band, which +fits tightly round the head--as the hair of all nuns is, of course, cut +close--and it is gathered round the face with a string. This cap, if +it comes down low on the forehead, correspondingly covers the chin, +but in many cases the latter is free. Over the white cap in indoor +dress a black veil is worn in the case of professed nuns, a blue veil +by novices, while postulants, who may be taken as corresponding to +probationers in a hospital, wear only a cap, though in chapel they have +a white veil as well. Round the neck of the Sister is a white collar, +which in this case is separate from the cap and buttons on to it at one +side. + +This collar, which like the veil may be traced to the wimple of Norman +and later ladies, is also called a breast cloth or a gremial, and may +be, as we have indicated, made in one piece with the cap. + +In outdoor dress a stiff white hood is placed over the indoor +head-dress, and over that again comes the outdoor black veil. + +It should be mentioned that the Kilburn Sisters now pin their veils to +the sides of their linen caps in exactly the same way that the dame in +the time of the early Plantagenets did her wimple to the sides of her +chin-band. + +For working Sisters, the rest of the costume is a habit with skin-tight +sleeves, though there are also most voluminous outer sleeves which are +detachable and can be removed. A small cape is buttoned across the +chest, and the number of buttons corresponds with the letters in the +word "Obedience." An apron is also worn and a thick girdle, to one of +the hanging ends of which a cross is attached. Other Sisters wear a +scapular with shoulder-straps, over a white cape. Nuns are not allowed +to wear gloves, and some orders use sandals, though absolutely +barefooted orders exist. + +[Illustration: FIG. 131.--The head-dress of a nun showing the veil and +breast-cloth derived from the wimple, the cap which represents the +chin-cloth, together with the frontal and the hood.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 132.--The head-dress of a lady of the time of +Henry II. The wimple is shown covering the chin- and head-bands (after +Calthrop).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 133.--The chin-band and forehead strap after the +wimple has been removed (after Calthrop).] + +The lay sisters of the community under consideration wear a blue habit +and a white cap with flaps. Some orders, in addition to the white cap, +wear a plain band round the forehead over it, which is called a frontal, +and is seen in the dress of Henry II's time. (See Figures 131 and 133.) + +Professed sisters wear a wedding ring on the third finger of their right +hand. The white outdoor stiffened hoods often stand right up from the +head in a very striking way, and sometimes no veils are worn. Some of +the caps, which are made in one piece with the collar, are fastened +under the chin by two strings, and the goffered edges of the collar +recall the bands of the Stuart period. + + + + +XXI + +SUNDAY CLOTHES + +THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SUNDAY CLOTHES--THE WEARING OF HATS IN CHURCH BY +LADIES + + +Sunday clothes are a time-honoured institution, though it is a sign of +the times that many now make no difference between their weekday costume +and that which they wear on the day of rest, or if they do, they only +put on garments which are appropriate to the relaxations in which they +are accustomed to indulge. St. Jerome and St. Clement both exhorted the +early Christian worshippers to wear a special dress for worship, and the +Jews in their synagogues put on a vestment called a talith, which is +used by the whole of the congregation as well as by the officiating +minister. + +We quote the following passage from St. Clement[29] because it deals +with the question of women having their heads covered while at church: +"The wife and the husband should take their way unto the church, in +seemly apparel, with unaffected gait, and speech refrained; having love +unfeigned; pure in body and pure in heart; fitly decked for prayer to +God. And this further let the woman have: let her wholly cover her head +(unless perchance she be at home), for so dressed she will have respect +and be withdrawn from gazing eyes. And if thus with modesty, and with a +veil, she covereth her own eyes, she shall neither be misled herself, +nor shall she draw others, by the exposure of her face, into the +dangerous path of sin. For this willeth the Word; seeing that it is meet +for the woman that she pray with covered head.... But then so as they, +who are joined to Christ, adorn themselves, in a more solemn fashion, +for assemblies of the church, even such should they ever be, even so be +fashioned, all the days of their life. 'To be, not seem to be,' let that +be their watchword; gentle, reverent, full of holy love, at one time not +less than at another. + +"But it is not so, indeed. Somehow doth it come about, that, with change +of place, they change both their habit and their manners; even as the +polypus is said to change each one his colour to the semblance of the +rock whereby he dwells." + +It will be remembered that not long ago objection was taken by a +minister to women appearing in his church without any hats. It would +appear that the whole custom is a relic of that still observed in +eastern countries, where women cover not only their heads, but also +their faces, though, as pointed out in an earlier chapter (see page +13), in some places it is still considered more immodest to uncover the +back of the head than to expose any other part of the person; and in +Egypt, for instance, an Arab woman disturbed when drawing water will +throw her single garment over her head in order to hide it. + +One is rather afraid that those ladies who follow the lines laid down +by St. Clement as to covering their heads in church sometimes obey his +injunctions in the letter rather than in the spirit. For scoffers have +been found who say that one of the reasons why fashionable ladies go +to church is to show their own new hats and gowns and to look at those +belonging to their neighbours. The question of covering the head was +touched upon when dealing with servants' dress in connection with the +cap of the housemaid. (See page 149.) + +The greatest contrast between Sunday and weekday clothes is to be looked +for in the country among agricultural labourers, as the cessation of +labour gives an opportunity for discarding the rough and heavy garments +of the field in favour of something lighter and of better quality, and +this quite apart from the religious idea which no doubt first led to +the practice. Probably the custom of putting on Sunday clothes in the +country will survive until the rural exodus, which has unfortunately +begun, has led to the complete depopulation of our villages. + + + + +XXII + +ACADEMICAL DRESS + + GOWNS AND HANGING SLEEVES--THE FORERUNNER OF THE HOOD--THE ORIGIN + OF THE DOCTOR'S HAT--THE EVOLUTION OF THE MORTAR-BOARD + + +Many complaints have been very justly made against the solemnity, if +not the ugliness, of men's modern evening dress. On important occasions +it may be more or less enlivened by the ribbons and stars of various +orders, but we really get a return to something of mediæval brightness +at those functions connected with the universities at which academical +dress is worn. Then the black coats and trousers are practically hidden, +in many cases by scarlet, by purple, and other coloured gowns. +Occasionally there are combinations of colours which are trying to the +eyes of many, but on the whole the effect is one that is pleasing and +worthy of repetition. Academical dress is in itself a survival, and the +gay colours are almost enough to tell us this. Records exist which show +that in the fifteenth century they were already adopted by the graduates +of our universities. + +The evidence which has been brought forward as to the origin of academic +costume points to its having been derived from that of the clergy; but +there are interesting connections with civil dress, as we shall see. One +of the special features of many academic gowns is their long hanging +sleeves, and we shall find that so long ago as the time of William Rufus +sleeves had grown so long that it had become convenient to make a hole +through them through which the hand and forearm could be protruded. (See +Figure 134.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 134.--Hanging sleeve of the fifteenth century.] + +These sleeves took upon themselves all sorts of forms, and they were +made so long and narrow that they resembled very much the elongation +of the hood which was called a liripipe. Occasionally it was found +necessary to knot them so that they should not trail upon the ground. +Very few parts of dress have varied so much as sleeves, and it is +said that any costume can be dated by an examination of the sleeves. +Nowadays, as in the past, the length of the sleeve and of the gown +itself indicates the status of the member of the university. At Oxford, +for instance, the undergraduate's gown is so short that it is hardly +worthy of the name, and it is without sleeves that act as such. The +scholar's gown is more voluminous, and the gowns of the bachelors and +masters of arts are more important again, while the sleeves belonging to +the latter reach nearly to the ground. + +When we come, however, to the robes of the Chancellor, which are made +of stiffer material, we find that the ancient character of the hanging +sleeves is much more marked (see Figure 135), and there is a train so +long that small pages are told off to support it. In the old days, the +material of which the gowns were made, and their trimmings indicated the +rank of the wearers; and, as Mr. Druitt[30] points out, the bachelor, +for instance, was unable to use fur of so costly a kind as that worn +by his academical superiors. Stuff or silk gowns still have their +significance, and in the hoods which are the survival of a part of +dress which was once useful and worn by graduates and undergraduates +alike, we find great diversity in the case of the various degrees of +different universities. + +[Illustration: FIG. 135.--The hanging sleeve of a Chancellor of Oxford +University.] + +As a head covering, the cap took the place of a hood, and the latter +fell down behind like that often seen on a modern ulster. We have +already noticed (p. 157) how this peak of the hood was exaggerated, and +in old times the liripipe was longer in the case of undergraduates. The +modern hood of the universities has grown in size, but it has lost its +long streamer. Examples are, of course, most commonly seen in churches, +as it is a custom of the clergy to wear their academical hoods over +their white surplices. The colour of the hood and of its lining +indicates, to the initiated, the university to which the wearer belongs, +and the degree which he has taken. + +In early times a tippet or cape made of fur or cloth edged or lined with +fur, according to the degree, was also worn. To this we have alluded +when speaking of the surplice (see page 199). It seems also to have +originally been a kind of hood which developed first into the almuce, +one of the processional vestments of the priesthood. This was covered by +the ecclesiastical cope, but was worn outside the academical gown. +Doctors of Divinity were allowed to wear scarlet tippets, and the colour +survives now in their academical hood, and the ordinary black almuce +with its fur lining has not been greatly changed in becoming the hood of +the Bachelor of Arts. + +Sometimes the tippet and sometimes the hood was worn (if we may judge +from monumental brasses), but also they were both put on at the same +time. The figure of a doctor embroidered on a fifteenth-century cope +belonging to the Pro-Cathedral of the Apostles at Clifton, depicts him +wearing a tippet edged with white, a red hood, and a red cap. His gown, +which is worked in gold thread, is shown with a blue lining. + +Perhaps no form of head-dress is more strange than the college cap or +mortar-board, or, in technical language, _pileus quadratus_, or cater +cap. This skull-cap, with its curious square top, is not the only kind +of academical head-dress. There is the round cap which is especially +that of the doctor, while the mortar-board or trencher already mentioned +is used by masters and bachelors, as well as by undergraduates and +scholars. The former head-dress seems to have been very little altered, +and was developed somewhere about the fourteenth century or earlier from +the ecclesiastical skull-cap, which was something like an old-fashioned +man's nightcap, with a tuft. The square cap is an undoubted descendant +of the ecclesiastical cap of dignity, and in England this also came +from the skull-cap already mentioned. Towards the end of the fifteenth +century, while still used by ecclesiastics, it began to assume a square +or cusped shape. Prof. E. C. Clark[31] agrees with the opinion expressed +to him by the late Dr. Littledale, that folds were introduced into the +soft material in order to make the cap easier to hold, for by them it +was stiffened. The folds became four wings, and so converted the +round top into a square. From this it was but a short step to the +ecclesiastical biretta of the present day. Any further exaggeration +of its top would cause the cap to fall down on the face, and would +naturally suggest the insertion of something to stiffen it and hold it +out, and in the end the square top of the cap was made of cardboard +covered with cloth, and a skull-cap was fixed to it underneath. (See +Figure 136.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 136.--A college cap or trencher.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 137.--Cranmer's hat, illustrating a stage in the +evolution of a mortar-board (after Fairholt).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 138.--The hat of a bishop of the Stuart Period +showing a stage at which the stiffening now seen in the mortar-board was +becoming necessary (after Fairholt).] + +There is a likeness between the round hat of the doctor and the Tudor +flat cap, and Fairholt would derive the mortar-board from the same +head-dress; and as illustrating the story of its evolution, he compares +the cap shown in the portrait of Cranmer (see Figure 137) in the British +Museum with that of a bishop of the time of Charles I (see Figure 138); +and here again the need for stiffening is obvious, if the enlargement of +the crown of the cap be carried any further. + + + + +XXIII + +LEGAL DRESS + +VESTIGES OF THE COIF--HOODS AND GOWNS--SIGNS OF MOURNING + + +It would be strange if the majesty of the law did not depend to some +extent upon dress, and there is no doubt but that an impressiveness +which would otherwise be absent from our courts is given by wigs and +gowns. The wigs themselves are an interesting survival, and presumably +are not more uncomfortable to the few who now wear them than they were +to many in times gone by. We will describe here a few interesting +vestiges among those which are to be met with in legal costume. + +Any one who has an opportunity of looking on to the top of a judge's wig +will notice a small circular depression about three inches across. (See +Figure 139.) This has a very interesting history, and in order to trace +it we shall have to look at the long wigs of the serjeants-at-law, +from whose ranks in the past most of the judges used to come. On the +serjeant's wig we shall find that there is a similar depression, and +that it is filled with a circular white patch, having a black centre, +and reminding one of two large pieces of court plaster, one stuck over +the other. (See Figure 140.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 139.--The wig of a modern judge.] + +The white piece represents the coif, or close-fitting cap of white +lawn or silk which resembles that of a nun, and with which the +serjeants-at-law on their creation were decked. From this cap, the body +to which the serjeants-at-law belonged was called the Order of the +Coif. It seems that the origin of this head-dress cannot definitely be +settled. Mr. Druitt[32] and Mr. Paley Baildon are content to consider it +as part of the insignia of the serjeants-at-law, in the same way that +the round cap indicates the possessor of a doctor's degree, and they are +not inclined to give credence to the suggestion that the coif was to +hide the tonsure or to prevent its absence from being noticed. The black +patch represents a black skull-cap that was worn over the coif. + +[Illustration: FIG. 140.--The vestige of the coif from the wig of a +serjeant-at-law.] + +After having been in existence for many hundreds of years, the order +of serjeants-at-law was abolished by Mr. Gladstone. Lord Lindley, we +believe, is the last member who survives. A black skull-cap is also worn +by a judge, but it is not to be confounded with the cap of dignity which +is used by him when pronouncing sentence, and which was ordered to be +worn in church when on circuit. Ordinarily, the judge does not wear his +scarlet gown, but a black one, the girdle of which has grown to a very +great width. + +The drab colour of the trimmings, which does not harmonize well with the +rest of the gown, has recently begun to give way to primrose, and the +change is due to the initiative of the late Lord Coleridge. + +It is said that black gowns which are worn by the King's Counsel and +other barristers superseded the coloured ones on the death of Queen +Mary II, and in reality were intended as mourning which has never been +discarded. Legal gowns have come down with very little change from the +Middle Ages, and are doubtless derived from ecclesiastical through +academical costume. The original robes of the serjeants-at-law were +somewhat striking in colour, for taking a line down the centre of the +black, one half was of a mustard colour and the other red, while the +latter was further ornamented with green stripes. The robe of the Barons +of the Exchequer was of a beautiful heliotrope tint. + +The material of the gown of the King's Counsel is indicated by the +phrase "taking silk." One peculiarity of the garment is that it has a +large collar resembling that of court-ushers and of vergers in churches. +The ordinary dress of the King's Counsel which he wears in court is +interesting on account of the ornamental cuffs and the escalloped flaps +of the pockets of the coat and waistcoat, which resemble those of Court +dress. + +[Illustration: FIG. 141.--A barrister's gown showing the vestigial hood +and its streamer. The buttons and braid which once temporarily looped up +the sleeves now fix it permanently.] + +On the barrister's gown there is a tiny hood on the left shoulder +resembling that from which the chaperon was developed, and from the +vestige runs a streamer which comes over the left shoulder and hangs +down in front of the gown. (See Figure 141.) There is also a series of +buttons as well as pieces of braid on the sleeves which are survivals, +and we have not the hanging sleeves of the King's Counsel, which are +comparable to those seen in many academic gowns. Small falling bands +are of course generally worn by members of the legal profession, and +barristers and King's Counsel when in mourning have a little pleat down +the middle of each band. Perhaps the most curious additions to legal +costume used in order to indicate mourning are the little white lawn or +muslin cuffs, like those of widows, which the King's Counsel wear on +their sleeves when the Court is in mourning, or when they themselves +have suffered bereavement. + + + + +XXIV + +STATE AND COURT ATTIRE + + CORONATION DRESS--PARLIAMENTARY ROBES--MISTAKES IN COURT + DRESS--VESTIGES OF THE WIG AND OF THE CHAPERON--COURT CARDS + + +The English sovereigns are heads of the Church as well as of the State, +and in connection with their coronation dress there are, as might be +expected, many survivals from the past. The vestments used on the +occasion in question agree almost entirely with those which we have +described as being worn by a bishop at mass. We may except, however, the +amice and the maniple, while the sceptre and crown take the place of the +crosier and the mitre. The first vestment to be put on is of linen, and +is an albe or rochet, and up to the time of James II it was provided +with sleeves--it is known as the _Colobium sindonis_. Over this is +placed the tunicle or dalmatic. This is made of silk, and across it is +worn the stole in the same way as deacons were ordered to do in the year +561. The custom is still followed in Greece and Rome, whereas priests +generally put on the stole immediately after the albe. + +Over the dalmatic comes the imperial mantle which seems to have been +originally a chasuble, but is now slit up in front. This garment, which +is of cloth of gold, is embroidered with eagles, that are interesting as +probably representing the claim of the King of England to be Emperor of +Britain and Lord Paramount over all the Islands of the West. In +Charles II's reign further ornaments occurred in the shape of roses and +fleur-de-lys, and on Queen Victoria's mantle there were roses, half red +and half white, as well as thistles, shamrocks, and fleur-de-lys, while +the eagles were embroidered in silver. + +At the coronation of King Edward VII the vestments which we have +described were all used with the exception of the albe, and to the other +devices on the imperial mantle the lotus flower was added as a symbol +for India, as the King was the first sovereign to be crowned as Emperor +of India. + +The robe which the King wears at the opening of Parliament has a cape +of ermine made up in miniver style, and it is lined throughout with the +same fur. We might here say that ordinary ermine is decorated with the +tails of the stoat, which remain black when this animal puts on its +winter dress, whereas in the case of miniver the fur is spotted all over +with little black pieces made from the skin of some other animal. This +has not always been the same, but at the present time Persian lamb is +used. + +The magnificence of the King's parliamentary robe and its train of +crimson velvet may be gathered from the fact that in the making of the +miniver, upwards of ten thousand pieces of black fur were used. In a +portrait of the King, taken when wearing this robe, he is shown in the +uniform of a Field Marshal, and holds in his hand the Field Marshal's +baton. The latter originally was a box in which the general carried the +orders of his sovereign, and it is rather curious that what was once the +emblem of the servant should come to be used by a crowned head himself. + +The rank of noblemen is indicated on their parliamentary robes by the +number of bands of ermine with which they are decorated. A Baron has +two, a Viscount two and a half, an Earl three, a Marquis three and a +half, and a Duke four, whereas on their coronation robes the same effect +is gained by a similar number of rows of black spots on the miniver, +which forms a kind of cape. + +As in connection with life at Court there are a number of special +uniforms and official dresses which are carefully prescribed, it is +likely that we should find among the dress of those surrounding the +sovereign, many and excellent examples of survivals. There is, indeed, +one uniform which has come down to us practically unaltered from the +year 1485. This is the dress worn by the Yeomen of the Guard, who may be +looked upon as the King's Retainers. (See Figure 142.) + +It is an obvious example of the point that we have dwelt upon in +connection with badges and liveries, for borne on the back and chest are +the royal crown and initials. Of course, the latter have altered from +time to time, and when the King came to the throne the Tudor crown, +which had been superseded by that of St. Edward, was replaced. + +[Illustration: FIG. 142.--A Yeoman of the Guard of the present reign.] + +The development of the badges on the coat is interesting. In Henry VII's +reign there was the crown and the red and white rose. In the time of +Anne the thistle was added, and the rose was placed upon a stalk. The +Tudor crown was also replaced, for during the Stuart period, St. +Edward's crown had appeared, and the royal motto was added. In the +Georgian period St. Edward's crown again was made use of, while +George III added the shamrock. Now, in King Edward VII's time, we have +the Tudor crown, the rose, thistle, and shamrock, the motto "Dieu et mon +droit," and the initials "E.R." + +What the original uniform was, is not quite certain, but practically the +same kind of coat was worn in Henry VIII's reign that appears now. The +ruff would appear to be Elizabethan, though the hat is earlier. The +officers used to wear a similar but more gorgeous uniform, but when +William IV commanded that only officers of the army should be given +commissions in the Guard, the present dress, which is that of a field +officer of the Peninsular period, was introduced. When King Edward VII +came to the throne he left the decision as to whether they should wear +the old Tudor dress, to the officers themselves, and they decided in +favour of the more modern military one. We might mention the halberds +that are carried by the Yeomen, and also allude to some of the duties +which they have carried out, from the making of the King's bed in early +times to searching the Houses of Parliament before the session opens, +which is a memory of Guy Fawkes, and of attending, as they have done for +centuries, at the giving of alms by the sovereign in Westminster Abbey +on Maundy Thursday. + +Very many uniforms seen at Court show the turned-back edges and +the lining of the tails, described when we were dealing with the +evolution of the coat (see p. 34)--for instance, in the case of the +gentlemen-at-arms, and of several officials. We may mention also the +Scottish Archers who wear a green coat with a turned-back part--which +represents the lining--of red velvet. + +The style of Court dress which may be worn to-day by civilians has +become somewhat simpler, though ruffles and frills are still to be found +in connection, and may be worn with, what is known as old-style dress +that is always adopted by the legal profession. The knee-breeches come +from the time of William III, and the coat in its original form dates +back to the time of Napoleon. The sides of the coat have, however, been +cut away, and this was done during the last reign, when the alteration +was made for the convenience of those who were not accustomed to wear a +sword. + +The more recent simplification of Court dress has, however, provided +pitfalls for the unwary, and all sorts of curious mistakes in small +details are made. To show how easy it is to put a button too many here, +or too few there, we may describe the differences between the old and +new styles. On the old there are seven buttons up the front of the coat +and three on the cuffs. In the new, there are but six in the first case +and none in the second. Again, in the simplified coat there are no +buttons below the flaps (which represent pockets), and but four buttons +behind on the tails. In the old style there are three buttons below the +flaps--while there are similar ornaments on the waistcoat, which is +skirted--and there are six buttons on the tails. Then in addition there +is the wig-bag, to which we shall refer in a moment, at the back of the +coat collar, as well as the frills and ruffles. Although on the lace of +these as much may be spent as on the rest of the costume, the cost of +the simpler dress is really not much less than that of the other. A +survival is, of course, to be seen in the sword and in the simplified +costume, it is worn in a frog instead of on a sling. + +We have made it evident how much a man now depends upon his tailor for +correctness in the detail of his Court dress, and it is amusing to find +that wig-bags are put on to modern-style coats, and that the number of +buttons is often quite wrong; but if these are the faults of the tailor, +it is the man himself who is responsible who goes to Court with his +sword hanging at his right side. We have not heard of military men +making such a mistake, but officers have been known to appear with their +cross-belts over the wrong shoulder. It is a good thing for some that +Court etiquette is not so strict as it has been in the past. + +A curious survival is found in connection with old-style dress and some +of the uniforms which are worn by officials, and we have had to mention +similar vestiges when speaking of the Lord Mayor's coachman and of the +Welsh Fusiliers. This is what is known as a wig-bag (see Figures 109 and +113), though in the Lord Chamberlain's descriptions it is now referred +to by the same name as the ornament of somewhat similar origin of the +Welsh Fusiliers, namely, the "flash." It consists of a small bag of +silk, at the bottom corners of which little satin ribbon loops are +fixed, while the whole is covered by an elaborate rosette of satin +ribbon, and is suspended from the back of the coat collar. The bag +represents the old bag in which the bob of the wig was placed, and the +loops no doubt are those through which a ribbon was passed, which went +round the neck of those who wore wigs, and was secured by a jewel on the +breast. This was to provide against the wig being lost, should it fall +from the head of its wearer, for these curious replacements of natural +hair were of considerable value, costing twenty, thirty, sixty or even +more guineas. The rosette of ribbon is the modern representative of the +bow that tied the wig. (See Figure 143.) + +We have already traced the connection which Mr. Calthrop has shown +between the cockade and the chaperon, and we might mention again that +this ancient form of head-dress survives in connection with the hood +of the mantle of the Knights of the Garter and of other Orders, for +instance, those of St. Patrick and of the Thistle. (See Figure 144.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 143.--The wig-bag or "flash" from a Court suit, +showing the rosette held away and displaying the black silk bag. At +the lower corners of the latter loops are seen, which are probably the +remains of those through which a ribbon was passed, which went round the +neck and fastened on the breast by a brooch.] + +In the case of the Knight of the Garter, the hood consists of a flat +piece of crimson velvet about three-quarters of a yard across, slightly +oval in shape, and at a spot a little on one side of the centre is to +be found the remains of the turban of the chaperon. It is a thick ring +covered outside with crimson velvet, and inside with white silk. To +one side of this is fastened a long band of crimson velvet one and +three-quarter times as long as the hood is wide. This represents, +of course, the liripipe of the chaperon. (See page 166 and Figures +122-125.) The edges of the velvet in all cases are ornamented with a +white silk piping. The hood is fixed on the right shoulder, and the band +representing the liripipe is brought across the breast of the wearer. +In addition there are some wide loops and ends of ribbon called the +streamer, and narrow ribbons with which to fasten the structure to the +mantle. + +[Illustration: FIG. 144.--The hood from the mantle of a Knight of the +Garter, showing the survival of the chaperon and its liripipe.] + +The hoods of the Orders of the Thistle and of St. Patrick are similar +in construction, and in the case of the former the velvet of which they +are made is blue in colour. On the mantles of other Orders only the +streamer remains. On the left shoulder of the Knights of the Bath and +of St. Michael and St. George there is a small vestige of aiguillettes. +This is of silk cord in the former case, and of gold cord in the second. +The under-dress, which is not commonly worn now, is furnished with trunk +hose and silk tights, and from its appearance is known as the silver +dress. Much the same style was carried out in all the Orders that we +have up to the present had occasion to mention. In the more modern +Orders there is, of course, no such ancient under-dress. + +If we have Kings and Queens at Court, we also have Kings and Queens and +Knaves among our playing-cards, and the costumes which survive on the +curious pictures which represent them in double, but without their lower +limbs, are worthy of some little attention. As a matter of fact, they +are Tudor dresses, slightly modified perhaps of recent years, but +nevertheless, a common and widespread relic of the fashions which were +in vogue when Henry VIII was going through his matrimonial troubles, and +shaking this country clear from its allegiance to the Pope. + +There are two series of ceremonial dresses not immediately connected +with the State which it may be worth while to investigate. They are, in +the first place, the liveries of the City Companies, and in the second +the insignia of Masons. In the first case, on some of the gowns we find +again the chaperon appearing as a hood on the shoulder, and many of +the caps that are worn have survived for some centuries. A few of the +companies still possess their ancient embroidered hearse cloths, which +recall the early semi-religious and provident purposes of the guilds out +of which the great City Companies have developed. + +There seems no doubt, too, but that the apron of the Masons is actually +derived from that worn by the craftsmen when at work, and in some +countries it is still of the same circular form as those which were used +by the English masons of the eighteenth century. Other parts of the +clothing of Masons are no doubt derived from the old guild liveries, and +in the fact that some high officials wear gauntlets we have a reminder +of the knights' armour, and possibly a survival from the time when high +officials were knights. + + + + +XXV + +SURVIVALS IN MILITARY UNIFORMS + + ARMOUR--PRICKERS FOR FLINT-LOCKS--FORAGE CORDS--REMINISCENCES OF + GALLANTRY--REGIMENTAL BADGES--COURTSHIP COLOURS + + +The cuirass of the Household troops which they wear on important +occasions, as well as the metal helmets of various regiments, are +survivals from the time when armour was of use, and if we examine the +shoulders of certain soldiers, we shall find that there are vestiges of +chain mail, though now this only takes the place of epaulettes. (See +Figure 145.) To see chain mail in its perfection we must go back to the +time of Edward I, and if we look, for instance, at the brass of Sir +John D'Aubernoun (who died in the year 1277) or of Sir Richard de +Trumpington, A.D. 1289 (see Figure 146), which are the earliest +remaining in this country, we shall find that the chain mail now +represented by a little patch on the shoulder then covered the head and +neck, arms and hands, body, feet and legs. + +[Illustration: FIG. 145.--Relic of chain mail on the shoulder of an +Imperial Yeoman.] + +As time went on, plate armour was mixed with the mail, until at last, in +the time of Henry IV, we get the complete plate period in which there +was a breastplate and a corresponding back plate, which had already +appeared in the period of transition of chain mail to plate armour. From +thence onward the development of armour progressed until it gradually +disappeared. In Stuart times, jack boots and spur leathers took the +place of the armour on the legs, and a buff coat that on the body, with +the exception of a gorget. This came to be in the early part of the +nineteenth century, merely a small badge of the officer on duty, and in +a still more diminished form is to be seen in some foreign armies. + +[Illustration: FIG. 146.--Chain mail illustrated by the brass of Sir +Richard de Trumpington, A.D. 1289.] + +In the earlier part of the book it was made evident that military +uniforms afford a fine field for research, though apart from the remains +of armour, however, they are comparatively modern. It was not, indeed, +until the reign of Charles II that we meet with uniforms regularly +adopted by the Army; and the red coat which has given its name to +the soldier, though many regiments are dressed in other colours, was +previous to that time merely a best coat. We see it now on fox-hunters +and golfers, though a long coat of this colour is still worn by the +King's footmen and coachmen. A writer in the _Spectator_, No. 129, says, +when speaking of Cornwall: "Here we fancied ourselves in Charles II's +reign, people having made little variation in their dress since that +time. The smartest of the country squires appear still in the Monmouth +cock; when they go a-wooing (whether they have any post in the militia +or not) they put on a red coat." + +There had previous to the Restoration been some attempt to introduce +uniform dress for soldiers quite apart from the sovereign's special +guards, who, after the fashion of retainers, wore his livery. For +instance, the Duke of Norfolk, in the reign of Henry VIII, issued +instructions that every soldier should wear a blue coat guarded with +red, the right hose to be red, the left blue, and a red stripe three +fingers broad down the outside of each leg. The archers are described as +wearing white gaberdines, at one time in this reign, while in 1576 those +belonging to Ireland had a cassock of blue cloth with two small white +guards. Red coats as well as others of blue or white were worn by the +English troops in Turenne's army in 1657, and examples of the last two +colours are by no means extinct in the army to-day. Red, blue, grey, +and green, it may be added, were all worn during the Civil War on both +sides. + +It must not be forgotten, however, that gay uniforms are now only used +at home in times of peace, for we have learnt a lesson from the lower +animals, many of which are protectively coloured, and the service +uniform to-day is one calculated to render its wearer as inconspicuous +as possible. Before the time of firearms which could be used with +precision, and when hand-to-hand combats played a great part in war, it +was necessary for two adversaries to be able to see one another, but +now each tries to hide himself. + +[Illustration: FIG. 147.--A reversion in military equipment. + +One of Cromwell's Ironsides (1679), from a print. + +A Cavalryman sketched at Aldershot in 1901. + +Copied, by permission, from the _Daily Mail_.] + +Some years ago a sketch, which was made from a cavalry man at Aldershot, +was given in the _Daily Mail_; side by side was shown another taken +from a print representing one of Cromwell's Ironsides, and the likeness +between the two is almost exact. (See Figure 147.) + +Ornamental epaulettes may also be looked upon as the last remnant of +armour, though the modern kind probably came from a shoulder-knot of +Charles II's time, as they were originally intended to protect the +shoulders from sword-thrusts. At the present day, though they are +worn in the English Navy and are common on the Continent, they have +practically disappeared from the Army. + +The officers of the Yeomen of the Guard, whose uniform is that which was +worn in the Peninsular War, still wear epaulettes, as do the +Gentlemen-at-Arms and the Lords-Lieutenant of Counties. As we have said, +there is a fine field for the study of survivals in uniforms proper, and +from time to time many of these have attracted the notice of popular +writers.[35 & 36] + +Additional interest is given to this subject by the fact that besides +the variations which have gradually evolved, there are special features +which have suddenly appeared often in connection with some important +battle, which we might liken to the curious sports and freaks which +sometimes occur in the natural history world. + +When, in 1881, the old regimental facings were abolished, many +distinctions vanished, still there are more curious details left than +we shall be able to describe. We have already seen how the busby was +derived from the Hungarian cap, and quite a number of other features +have been introduced from foreign countries. The square cap of the +Lancer is the national head-dress of the Poles, who call it a shapka, +and the uniform itself came from Poland. The sling jacket or dolman of +the Hussars (see Figure 82), which is now extinct in our army, was also +an introduction, but still on the pouch-belt of Light Cavalry officers +are the prickers fastened with silver chains, which were used with old +flint-lock muzzle-loaders. (See Figure 148.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 148.--The prickers on the shoulder-belt of a Hussar, +which survive from the time of flint-lock muskets.] + +Some of these interesting but useless instruments are furnished +with plain round knobs, but others made as if they were arrows with +feathered shafts. Mr. Caton Woodville gives the following explanation of +the aiguillettes worn by aides-de-camp. He says that "they date from the +days when the war-horses, or chargers, were of solid build and slow of +movement, and when only the adjutants were mounted on fleet steeds. Then +the head-dress was a heavy three-cornered hat perched on a wig that was +itself often not too securely fastened to its wearer's head. He needed, +therefore, a cord with metal tags passing round the brim and under the +loops which upheld its three sides. It was fastened to the officer's +shoulder, as the weight of the felt hat, with its bars of steel as a +protection against sword cuts, was considerable, and it was enough +to choke a man if it should happen to dangle from his throat, so the +aiguillettes have become the distinguished mark of the assistant to the +general commanding in the field or garrison." + +It should, however, be mentioned also that these ornaments are worn in +the Household Cavalry by non-commissioned officers, and are a relic +there of the days when these soldiers were gentlemen of the Royal Life +Guards, who had the right to a commission in a line regiment after a +certain number of years' service. Other soldiers carry them, as do also +the footmen of the nobility. Horse soldiers have also an ornamental cord +to their head-dresses, and it seems likely that the aiguillettes had +another origin, and that prickers or some other instruments were at one +time attached to them. + +In the Lancers there is a very long cap-line, which has been mixed up, +we are told by Mr. P. W. Reynolds, with a very interesting survival. +This is the remains of a cord used for binding up grass and other forage +into bundles, worn for convenience round the body, and over one shoulder +by cavalry men, when it was not in use. It is known to the French as a +"fourragère." In the Lancers the cap-line passes round the cap and +is brought under the right shoulder-strap. So far it is the original +cap-line; then it passes twice round the body, under the left arm, and +under the right shoulder-strap, and ends, in a festoon and a couple of +acorns, which remind one of aiguillettes, on the left breast. The part +that goes round the body is the old forage cord. + +The sergeants' sashes, it is said, were originally intended to make +slings so that the wounded could be carried out of action with the help +of pikes, and the drum-major's baton is the survival of a cane which the +drill-sergeant sometimes used on the backs of the recruits. The "flash" +of the Welsh Fusiliers, as we have seen, is a survival from the times +when wigs were worn. Here and there we find old head-dresses once nearly +universal, such as the shako which is now confined to the Highland Light +Infantry and the Scottish Rifles. Other regiments, such as those of the +Rifle Brigade, which have been at times used as cavalry, retain certain +features of the horse soldier's uniform. For instance, the Rifle Brigade +has a head-dress which resembles the Hussars' busby, and instead of a +sash the officers wear a cross-belt. + +The officers of the Somersetshire Light Infantry, which on one occasion +was turned into cavalry at a moment's notice, wear a mess jacket of the +cavalry pattern; they have also a black worm in their lace, like +the East Yorkshire and North Lancashire regiments, which is usually +explained as being mourning for Sir John Moore in the first case, and +for General Wolfe in the two others. Before turning to peculiarities +which were granted for special services, we may mention the black tunics +and black plumes of the farriers belonging to the Life Guards, who carry +a great axe with which to kill horses that are wounded in battle, and +the state trumpeters also of the Household Cavalry, who wear a highly +ornamental uniform which has persisted for nearly two centuries. + +There still remain relics of the time when commanding officers had a +great deal to say in connection with the uniforms of their regiments. +When the Cameron Highlanders were first raised in 1794, Colonel Cameron +did not adopt the Cameron tartan, because he did not think it would go +well with a scarlet tunic, and he introduced one which had been designed +by his mother, called the "Cameron Erracht," which has been worn +ever since. The White Horse of Hanover appears as a badge on several +regiments, and it is recorded that George I, objecting to the private +crests of the commanding officers, replaced them in many cases with the +Hanoverian device. Even now, in spite of the minute regulations of the +War Office, which are continually being altered, the uniforms are not +always made absolutely as they are prescribed. Little details may be +added, and colonels still seem to exercise some influence in the matter. +The red puggaree of the Duke of Cornwall's Light Infantry is not +obtained from the regimental tailor who supplies the uniform. + +The white jackets of the Guards and Highland corps which are worn in +undress are still called "waistcoats," and, according to Mr. Walter +Wood, are a relic of the white waistcoat which was worn under the +tunic by the British soldiers down to the time of William IV. It must, +however, be remembered that a waistcoat was originally an outer garment, +as indicated on page 148. + +An exceedingly curious privilege is that which has been accorded to the +non-commissioned officers and men of the Royal Marines, who for many +years have been allowed when in mourning, to cover one button of their +tunics with crape. The Eighth Hussars wear their sword-belts over their +shoulders, and the tradition is that at the battle of Saragossa they +behaved so gallantly that they totally destroyed a corps of Spanish +cavalry and took possession of their adversaries' belts. + +Perhaps the most curious mark of distinction is the extra drummer of +the Third Hussars, who enjoys special pay and is permitted to wear a +sergeant's uniform. This privilege was granted by George III when it +was brought to his notice that the regiment possessed some silver +kettledrums which they had captured. The request for this honour was +made in 1778 by General Fitzroy, and his wife presented a silver collar +for the use of the additional drummer which is still worn to-day. It is +handsomely engraved with military devices, and fits closely round the +throat. In full dress the Eleventh Hussars wear an ivory-hilted sword +made on the model of one picked up at Bhurtpore. The Fifteenth Hussars +wear the Austrian Imperial lace on account of their gallantry at +Villiers-en-Couche, which prevented the Emperor of Austria from falling +a prisoner to the French. + +The Scots Greys were given Grenadier caps, which are not worn by other +cavalry regiments, for their bravery at Ramillies. The Northumberland +Fusiliers have red and white hackle feathers--that is to say, that +the upper part of their plume is red, and the lower part white. It is +recorded that at Wilhelmstahl, and also when in St. Lucia, this regiment +was victorious after great struggles, and took from the caps of the +French Grenadiers who were slain, enough white feathers to fit up +the whole regiment with plumes, the use of which afterwards received +official sanction. When, however, an order was made in 1829 that white +plumes should be generally worn, the Fusiliers complained that they +would lose the distinction which they enjoyed, and by a compromise they +were allowed to have a plume which was half red and half white. The +Northumberland Fusiliers share with one or two other regiments, that +distinguished themselves at the battle of Minden, the privilege of +wearing roses in their caps on St. George's Day. + +We might spend a considerable time in dealing with the badges of +various regiments, for often the history of the latter is bound up with +them. They figure on the collar and other parts of the uniform, and +occasionally, as badges might be expected to do, they appear on the +buttons. We have touched upon this subject in connection with George I. +The Scots Greys have as a badge an eagle with outstretched wings. It +commemorates the capture of a French eagle at Waterloo by Sergeant +Ewart, who was given a commission for his bravery. + +The Gloucestershire Regiment has a badge in front and another on the +back of the helmets, because on one occasion, in Egypt, when it was +attacked in the rear as well as in front by large bodies of French +cavalry, and there was no time to form a square, the commanding officer +gave the order, "Rear rank, right about face, fire!" The result was +that the enemy was beaten off. In connection with this achievement the +second badge was given. + +An interesting tale is told with regard to the formation of the Guards +by Charles II after the Restoration. There were three regiments present, +and they were commanded to take up arms as the First, Second, and Third +Guards, but while the first and third obeyed the order, General Monk's +regiment stood still. The King, who was surprised at the apparent +insubordination, asked Monk for the reason. Whereupon he said that his +regiment declined to be considered second to any other. As a result, +Charles is said to have answered, "Very well, they shall be my +Coldstream Regiment of Foot Guards, and second to none." From this comes +their motto, "Nulli secundus." It may be mentioned, also, that this +regiment has a distinction which is absolutely unique in the Army, as it +bears on the King's colour a small Union Jack, which commemorates the +fact that Monk was an Admiral of the Fleet as well as a General. + +It is only about a hundred years since the pretensions of the English +sovereigns to the throne of France ceased to be evident, for it was not +until the end of George III's reign that the French fleur-de-lys were +removed from the Royal Arms and disappeared from our coins. There is +still, however, a survival of the lilies of France on the braid of the +drummers in the Guards. White lace with red crowns is what is almost +universally worn by drummers in the Army, but the crown is replaced in +the case mentioned by the fleur-de-lys. Whilst speaking of the Guards, +one may recall that not very long ago a uniform was used by the +solicitor with which these soldiers were, and in the case of the +Coldstream Guards are still, provided. The solicitor, like the medical +officer, wore the cocked hat that is now dying out in the Army, though +generals and aides-de-camp still adopt this most curious outcome of the +Cavalier's beaver. Here and there, as in the case of the surgeon and +veterinary surgeon of the Life Guards, and the medical officers of some +Volunteer regiments, we still see the cocked hat. It flourishes also in +Court dress, it adorns the Lords-Lieutenant and their deputies, besides +maintaining its position among the officers of the Navy. + +Fur, the material of which the first clothes of our ancestors were made, +is still seen to a considerable extent in the Army, and is chiefly used +for the construction of busbies. So important was the trade in furs +for military purposes at one time, that bear-skins were classified as +follows: "Officers," or first grade; "Grenadiers," or second grade; and +"unfit for the Army," or third grade. Like all features of dress which +are exaggerated, the big busbies of the Guards have on more than one +occasion afforded material for the caricaturist. Leech depicted the +soldiers of the Brigade of Guards warming their hands and feet in their +busbies, which they used as muffs; and an amusing series of sketches +for the amusement of the young people was published not long ago, in +which the soldier disappeared almost entirely into his busby and became +a sort of Humpty-Dumpty. + +Tall hats of the type of our modern silk hats were not unknown in the +Army. Perhaps it may come as a shock to some that Lord Howard of +Effingham is shown in a portrait as wearing a top hat, in shape very +similar to the modern form, but ornamented with a plume of ostrich +feathers. There is, we believe, however, still one top hat which is +served out by the War Office at the present day, and this is worn by the +Chapel Keeper at Wellington Barracks. + +Of buttons we have already spoken times out of number, and it may be +interesting to mention here that the various regiments of the Brigade of +Guards may be told by the arrangement of buttons on the tunic. They are +arranged at even distances apart in the Grenadiers, in twos on the +Coldstreams, and in threes on the Scots Guards, and in fours on the +Irish Guards, which were created of recent years. + +We find plenty of survivals in the Army of buttons which are seen in +similar places to those on civilians' clothes. Mr. P. W. Reynolds has +pointed out another, which is found in connection with a cord loop on +the collars of the officers of the Oxfordshire Light Infantry. This is a +survival of a fashion once universal in the British Infantry, though the +loop often consisted of half-inch lace instead of cord. The button was +originally on a turned-down collar, and previous to that was on the +coat, coming through a hole in the collar with a view to holding the +latter properly in place. + +If officers and sergeants were seen together it would probably be +noticed that the former wear their sashes over the left shoulder, whilst +the latter wear theirs over the right. To this a single exception can, +however, be found. In the Twenty-ninth Foot the sergeants and officers +both wear their sashes over the left shoulder, and this custom has been +traced back to the battle of Culloden, where so many officers were slain +that the sergeants had to take their places. + +The drummers of the Leicestershire Regiment on state occasions wear +tiger-skin aprons instead of the usual ones of pipeclayed leather. This +is connected, as is also their badge, with their services in India. + +A point that is perhaps not generally known is that officers going on +voyages in hot climates are allowed to substitute the kamarband for the +mess waistcoat, various colours being adopted by various regiments. + +We have seen the origin of the red coat so far as it affects the modern +army. Under these circumstances it is hardly necessary to say that it +is not intended to prevent the soldier from seeing his blood when he is +wounded, as has sometimes been suggested. It might be taken as acting +as a warning colour like that of the wasp or hornet, but we have also +noticed the way in which conspicuous dress is replaced by protectively +coloured uniforms when the soldiers are upon active service. + +We cannot help mentioning, however, one case in which the ornamental +garb of peace proves useful to its wearer. We find in the animal kingdom +that, whatever may happen in modern times in our own case, the males +are as a rule the more brightly coloured, and we have come to call the +brilliant hues with which they are endowed "courtship colours." The +charm which our gallant soldiers seem to have for the fair sex surely +entitles us to reckon the gay uniforms of our Army as coming into the +category of "courtship colours." + + + + +XXVI + +NAVAL UNIFORMS + +SUPPOSED SURVIVALS--PETTICOATS AND WIDE BREECHES + + +If we had headed this chapter "survivals in naval dress," we should have +been in the historic predicament of the writer who took as his topic the +snakes of Iceland, and afterwards had to own that there were none. It +would be better, however, if we were to say that there are no survivals +of a strictly naval kind, as then we should be nearer the truth. There +are, of course, in the uniform of both officers and men, plenty of +survivals from civilian costume, such as we have spent much time in +describing. Though the crews of the galleys, which are the boats +reserved for the captain's use, had, in the case of the smart ships, +long been dressed in a uniform manner, the actual uniforms of the Navy +only date from a little before the year 1767. + +The colours, blue and white, so tradition says, were due to an +inspiration which George II received, while the subject was under +discussion, on seeing the Duchess of Bedford riding in a new habit which +was of blue faced with white. + +There are two points in the dress of the ordinary sailor which are +commonly supposed to be interesting survivals, and indeed they appear on +the surface to have all the makings of such. It has been thought that +the black silk handkerchief which a sailor wears round his neck was +first put on as mourning for the death of Nelson. The other matter is +the blue jean collar which covers the similar-shaped one which is made +of the same material as the sailor's jumper. This would no doubt have +protected its fellow from the grease of the pigtail which sailors wore +once; but Commander Robinson, who has gone into the question, says that +pigtails were discarded before the blue jean collar came into existence, +and at the same time tells us that black silk handkerchiefs were adopted +previous to the time of Nelson. It is not perhaps very widely known that +sailors at one time wore a kind of kilt or petticoat, and this no longer +ago than the year 1779. + +Some thirty or forty years earlier there were in vogue loose slops like +the petticoat breeches of the reign of Charles II, and the collar of the +coat, which was open at the neck, turned back on to the shoulders. + +The trousers, however, that are now adopted are tight round the body and +thighs, but remain very loose round the legs, and are therefore somewhat +curious. The method of buttoning is one which they share with the +gentlemen of George II's time, the old-fashioned labourer, and, we +believe, the bishop. + + + + +XXVII + +THE COSTUME OF PUPPETS + +PUNCH AND JUDY--FASHION DOLLS--DOLLS IN SWADDLING CLOTHES--THE EGYPTIAN +"SHABBIES" + + +By way of a change let us turn from people to their images--in fact, to +puppets and dolls--for these semblances and caricatures of human forms +are generally clothed, and at times may present to us very curious +survivals. Let us begin with Punch and Judy, and in this connection we +must not forget the dog Toby, for the ruff which he wears round his neck +is a reminiscence of Queen Elizabeth's reign. Punch himself, however, is +very much older than his clothes, though to find the explanation of the +hump in front we must examine the clothes of the time of Henry III of +France, when the men's busked doublets came down low to a strap-shaped +point, and had a great padded punch-like protuberance.[37] + +For other peculiarities that we see we may have to go to the times of +Henry IV of France, but the character is very many centuries older; and +the careful investigations made by a friend of the present writer, Mr. +George Heppel,[38] into the history of Punch have shown why his present +costume was adopted and what was his prototype. + +As might be expected, the original Punch was a man--not Pontius Pilate, +as has sometimes been suggested owing to the connection of Punch with +miracle plays, but a character in the old Italian farces, which go +back to the early days of Rome. The town most celebrated for such +entertainments was Atella, situated not very far from Naples. The +farcical plays were full of buffoonery, and Punch or Pulicinella was one +of the stock characters, represented by a live actor, as were also the +originals of the Harlequin, Pantaloon, and Scaramouch, among others. + +It appears that the plays were not written as we understand a play to be +written, but as a rule the plot of them was known, and a great deal of +the dialogue was left to the actors themselves. From this it will be +seen that the art of gagging can hardly be considered to be modern. The +Italian, though by no means great as a dramatic author, was, as he is +now, exceedingly good as an actor. It is said[39] that for genuine fun +no dramatist can beat the Neapolitan, no actor can surpass him. He +writes or acts without the least effort; it is born in him, and he +cannot help it. The very beggar-boy who hunts one along the street is a +consummate actor; his gestures are prolific, easy, and natural; he is a +facial artist without knowing it, and he has a power of elocution and +expression which are only acquired by experienced performers after many +years of study. + +It may perhaps come as a surprise to many, seeing how long Punch has +persisted, to learn that in Italy he was not one of the important +characters in the original plays, but his choice as the hero of the +puppet-show depended rather on the fact that he had not so much to do as +some of the others--the harlequin, for instance. Therefore his character +could be better portrayed under the restricted conditions that prevailed +in such an entertainment as the Punch and Judy show. It will be obvious +also that only two characters can be acting at one time, as the showman +has only two hands. Mr. Heppel could only trace one instance of Punch +figures being worked by wires like other marionettes. This is a figure +in a little book no larger than a playing-card, entitled "Scènes de +Polichinelle," in the Art Library at the South Kensington Museum. + +The showman in the case of the French Punch on occasion makes a virtue +of necessity, and when the hero of the puppet-show is about to be tried +for murder, the performance is interrupted in order that the following +apology may be made:--"The scene which we are about to have the honour +to put before you requires a tolerably large number of characters. It +is, indeed, impossible to suppose that so important a prisoner as +Guignol should be tried without due ceremony and by a single judge, but +as the director of this theatre, like the generality of mankind, has +but two hands, the actors in this scene will most of them remain quite +still. This need not in the least interfere with the truth of the +representation, for this stillness gives the administration of justice +an additional solemnity. We may suppose that the judges are asleep, +which will enable them to decide free from passion, and that the +officials of the court are paralysed by the majesty of the court and the +magnitude of the issues to be determined." + +[Illustration: FIG. 149.--The Oscan Pulicinella of 1731, without a long +nose. The dress is very similar to that figured in 1630 (after +Riccoboni).] + +The Punch and Judy show went on in Italy side by side with the farces +that were represented by living actors, but the idea of puppet-shows is +very much more ancient than this. + +The clothes of Punch were plain, and illustrations made in 1630 are +similar to others made a hundred years later (see Figures 149 and 150). + +[Illustration: FIG. 150.--The Calabrian Giangurgolo of 1731, with the +long nose. The dress is very similar to that figured in 1630 (after +Riccoboni).] + +Originally, also, Punch does not seem to have had a long nose. The +exaggerated nose is, however, found on the representative of Punch which +flourished in Calabria, and which went by the name of "Giangurgolo" (see +Figure 150). + +The French Punch is called Guignol, of which the derivation cannot be +directly traced, but Mr. Heppel has made an interesting suggestion that +in the name of this character is to be found that of Giangurgolo in a +contracted form. + +As may have been surmised, we got our Punch and Judy by way of France, +but as a human actor Punch himself came direct to England. + +[Illustration: FIG. 151.--An ancient bronze statuette with the face and +features of Punch (after Ficorroni).] + +An ancient statuette which is figured by Ficorroni (see Figure 151) is +supposed by antiquarians to represent Punch, and if the individual whom +it represents did not go by that name, he must certainly have been one +of Punch's ancestors, for the likeness to our modern hero is exceedingly +great. References are made by a number of classical authors to +puppet-shows, and these were also known in China as long ago as a +thousand years before the Christian era. + +[Illustration: FIG. 152.--A fourteenth-century puppet-show (from the MS. +of the "Roman d'Alexandre").] + +The method also of exhibiting the puppets is not very modern, for a very +interesting figure of a show embellishes the celebrated MS. of the +"Roman d'Alexandre" (see Figure 152) which is preserved in the Bodleian +Library at Oxford, and was executed between the years 1338 and 1344. The +figures were evidently worked by the hands as in Punch and Judy, and +that it was intended to amuse children is shown by three little girls +who are represented as looking on. + +Though sticks are not strictly a part of dress, unless we consider the +canes of the dandies as being so, yet their usefulness in puppet-shows +is so great that we are tempted to digress for a moment to give the +comments of M. Lemercier de Neuville on the subject:-- + +"The stick! that is the great argument of Guignol, as well as of +Polichinelle. The stick settles everything. It puts an end to disputes, +it pays debts, it sends away troublesome people, it disciplines wives, +it takes vengeance on men, it is the 'Deus ex machina' of all this +Lilliputian world. What a marvellous dramatic resource it is. If a +situation becomes difficult to manage, settle it with a blow of the +stick. If a _dénouement_ seems to hang fire, hasten its progress by +a thrashing. The stick is above all criticism; it checkmates it, it +destroys it, for it is in the right, in spite of everybody, because it +is the strongest. The stick has no respect of persons. With it Guignol +beats his creditors, his friends, his wife, the constable, the judge, +the hangman, and the more he strikes the more he makes people laugh. +There is no spoken joke that is as good as this. And yet the stick is +not beautiful, nor is it new. One sees that it has done duty for a long +time, for it is worn out and cracked." + +We have, in fact, a record of Italian players coming to act their farces +in this country in 1577, but as Punch in the capacity of a person is +now obsolete with us, we shall only incidentally refer to him as a +living actor, though perhaps we might recall the fact that Molière +introduced him into his play _Le Malade Imaginaire_. + +We have spoken already of Punch's hump in front, and it may be +interesting in this connection to give the opinion of a Frenchman on +the subject of Punch's bodily characteristics. M. Magnin says that with +a sufficient amount of exaggeration and caricature to set aside the +suspicion of disloyalty, the Punch figure recalls the appearance of some +Gascon officer imitating the walk and demeanour of Henri IV in the Guard +Chamber of St. Germain or in the Louvre. The hump in front, he says, was +derived from the protuberance of the heavy cuirass. This is much the +same explanation as that which we have already given, though the cuirass +probably stuck out in front of its wearer even more than did the +doublet. + +There is no doubt but that the French like gayer dresses than the +Italians, and we have seen that even in 1630 the clothes of Harlequin, +Pantaloon, and Scaramouch in Italy were, like those of Punch, plain +and simple; but in order to be popular in France the Pulicinella had +to dress in a new style, and it is known that already in 1649 the +puppet-show of which he is the hero had set up on the left bank of the +Seine, opposite the Louvre. When Punch got to England it was at a time +when gay clothes were worn, and some relics of these he has retained to +the present day. + +Red and yellow play a considerable part in the dress of the Punch +figures used by Mr. W. H. Jesson, the members of whose family have for +generations been performers of Punch and Judy, and who is one of the few +that are still left. Punch has a very high cap of antique appearance, +with turned-up brim and a bow of ribbon on the top. The hump on his back +is almost horn-like, and forms a complete circle. It seems unlikely +that this appendage was developed from any part of costume unless +it were perhaps the liripipe; but we may rather imagine that in the +past Pulicinella may have been represented as being a hunchback, and +certainly Figure 151, taken from the statuette mentioned previously, +suggests an individual suffering from such a deformity. + +Punch also wears a ruff (see Figure 153), though it is not a separate +part of his costume, as in Judy's case, where it is of lace and its +character is well shown, as it consists of more than one thickness. +Judy's head-dress is the mob cap which was fashionable in the time of +George III. (See Figure 154.) + +The beadle, with his three-cornered hat and his brightly trimmed coat +and cape, has survived for a century or so after his clothes first +became fashionable, and no doubt in the puppet-show he will persist for +many years when every living representative of his kind has passed away. +(See Figure 155.) Of two more characters we have a word to say,--in +the first place, of the doctor, who is brought before us in clothes of +almost clerical cut, which remind us of the fact that the members of the +medical profession were once more easily recognized by their dress +than they are now (see Figure 156); in the second, of Toby, whose sole +costume consists of a ruff, that once more takes us back to the time of +Good Queen Bess. + +[Illustration: FIG. 153.--Punch, from the Punch and Judy Show, showing +the ruff and other details of Elizabethan costume.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 154.--Judy, from the Punch and Judy Show, with ruff, +mob cap, and apron.] + +Though Punch has donned new clothes and altered his habits to suit not +only the countries in which he sojourned, but the times in which he has +performed, yet despite these and other changes that have gone on since +he set foot on these islands, there is one thing that has always been +his special characteristic. This is his squeaky voice, which he retained +even in Molière's play, and it is from the peculiarity of his voice that +he gained his name. Pulicinella means a "hen-chicken," which might well +be expected to have a squeaky voice. + +[Illustration: FIG. 155.--The Beadle, from the Punch and Judy Show.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 156.--The Doctor, from the Punch and Judy Show, with +wig and white tie.] + +With regard to the changes in Punch's behaviour we have a word to say. +Originally he was somewhat of a composite character, the constituent +elements being derived from several of the personages of the larger +theatre. At first, to the amorous and intriguing ways of Pulicinella +there was added the roguery of Scaramouch, as well as the dash and +braggadocio of the Spanish captain who was a member of the comedy +company, akin to the Miles Gloriosus of Plautus and the Bobadil of Ben +Jonson. + +As time went on there was less love-making and trickery and more +knocking about, but Mr. Heppel will not allow that the French writers +are right in ascribing the whole of this to English influence. For the +fact that the puppets are not alive gives an opportunity for dealing +blows with a reality that could not be tolerated if the actors were +living, and when we remember the way in which dog Toby seizes Punch by +the nose, we cannot help feeling that the effect could hardly be so +realistically produced on the actual stage. + +In France, Punch is a bachelor, or if he is married he is not very much +married, while in England Punch always runs in double harness. Another +alteration has taken place. Polly, who was one of the characters that +have disappeared, has departed for the reasons put into the showman's +mouth by Mr. Henry Mayhew in 1861. "Miss Polly was left out, because it +wasn't exactly moral. Opinions has changed. We ain't better, I fancy. +Such things goes on, but people don't like to let it be seen now; that's +the difference. Judy's dress, you see, is far different, bless you, than +Miss Polly's. Judy's, you see, is bed-furniture stuff, and Polly's is +all silk and satin. Yes, that's the way of the world; the wife comes off +second best." + +As in old times, there was much buffoonery introduced even into +religious plays, and the characters which have been separated from the +other performers to take part in the special harlequinade of the modern +pantomime used, together with Punch, to appear side by side with those +who took the part of religious personages. To uneducated people there +seemed nothing profane about this; but as time went on men and women +came to look at matters in a different light. For reasons somewhat +similar, the devil and the ghost are now left out, and in the +performances that are given in drawing-rooms even the coffin, in some +cases. + +The connection, however, of Punch with religious plays probably accounts +for the name by which his wife now goes. Those who mistakenly supposed +that the word Punch was derived from Pontius Pilate looked upon Judy as +representing Judas Iscariot. We have already pointed out the origin of +the former appellation, which ante-dates the Christian era, while a +difficulty is met with in the fact that the wife of Punch for many years +was known as Joan. Mr. Heppel says that of the miracle plays some of the +most popular were taken from the Apocrypha, and a very favourite subject +was the tale of Judith and Holofernes. If we cannot find an instance +recorded of Punch furnishing the amusement in this story, we can, at +any rate, find an advertisement of a play in which Harlequin and Judith +were together, and the comic business was sometimes entrusted to Punch +and sometimes to Harlequin. Hence Punch and Judy may not improbably have +come from Punch and Judith, while Toby naturally suggests the dog in the +book of Tobit. + +With regard to Toby, it may be said that he is represented in France +by a cat, and that until the nineteenth century he was only a stuffed +figure. In China, where Punch beats his wife to the music of the +clarionette instead of Pandæan pipes held in a muffler, Toby is replaced +by a wooden dragon with jaws that snap, and this figure is also now +introduced in England. Hector the horse has quite disappeared. We might +mention here that in the English version a clown is brought in with very +considerable effect. + +There is another connection of dolls with costume rather than of costume +with dolls which we may mention at this point. In the fourteenth +century, when there were no fashion plates, and written descriptions +would hardly do their duty effectively, model costumes were put upon +dolls and sent from country to country. It is, moreover, a curious and +interesting fact that it was principally from Paris that these fashions +were sent out. + +Examples of national costumes sometimes survive on the bodies of dolls. +The figure of St. Nicholas, in Belgium, shows an old dress, and the +costume dolls of Holland, France, and Switzerland are excellent records +of native dress now seldom seen in everyday life. Mr. Edward Lovett +bought a little doll in Lucerne which is in a cradle, and shows +excellently well the swaddling clothes that were formerly in use. +Ancient Greek and Roman dolls, taken from children's graves, were +similarly dressed, and a modern Russian doll, which is also in +possession of Mr. Lovett, is shown with the swathing band _in situ_. The +only dolls that are to be found in Malta represent ancient saints, and +it is said that they are dressed as such. + +The long garments of Noah and his sons in the toy Noah's Ark are worthy +of mention and are an interesting survival. + +The wrappings that were placed round mummies in ancient Egypt are shown +on figures which were found in the tombs, and which are often seen as +curiosities in this country. They were carved out of wood or modelled +out of clay, while some of them were made out of the well-known glazed +faïence. They were put into the tombs in order that they might do the +work of the deceased in his after life, and their origin is exceedingly +interesting. Many barbarous nations have in the past sacrificed the +servants of a chief at his funeral, and the Egyptians, who were humane +people, contented themselves with a make-believe, and replaced the +actual persons with the figures that we call "ushabti," or, in modern +parlance, "shabbies." + + + + +XXVIII + +THE CLOWN AND PAINTING THE BODY + + THE CLOWN'S DRESS--SAVAGE PAINTING AND SURVIVALS OF + IT--TATTOOING--PATCHES AND FALSE COMPLEXIONS--MASKS + + +No costume is perhaps more characteristic or better known than that +of the clown; and it is of special interest, for while the hat was +fashionable at the beginning of the fifteenth century, the dress, +generally speaking, is a caricature of that which was in vogue in +the time of Queen Elizabeth. The same remarks apply to the method of +hair-dressing, and we shall see, when dealing with the other characters +that appear in the harlequinade, that the pantaloon in his dress +illustrates that of the same time in our history. + +Unlike the other heroes of the pantomime, the clown is essentially +English, and he is to be found also in the circus of to-day, at all +times of the year, as well as on the stage at Christmas. + +As to the clown's clothes, first of all there is the ruff, which is, +however, not stiffened out. He has trunk hose or wide breeches which do +not reach to his knee, his stockings are well ornamented with clocks; +and lastly, there is the paint on his face, which brings us to a custom +that seems nearly as old as man himself. (See Figure 157 and Plate X, +Figure A.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 157.--A clown, showing a survival of an Elizabethan +costume.] + +Among the relics of the ancient cave men of Europe are found hollowed +stones, and these were used as mortars in which ochre and other colours +were ground for painting the body. + +[Illustration: FIG. A. + +THE HEAD OF A CLOWN, SHOWING THE PAINTED FACE, THE RUFF AND THE +ELIZABETHAN METHOD OF DOING THE HAIR. + + +FIG. B. + +THE FACE OF A JAPANESE ACTOR. + +(_After Moseley, by the courtesy of Mr. John Murray._) + + +FIG. C. + +THE PAINTED FACE OF A PAPER FIGURE WHICH IS BURNED AT CHINESE FUNERALS. + +(_After Moseley, by the courtesy of Mr. John Murray.)_ + + +FIG. D. + +THE TATTOOED HEAD OF A MAORI CHIEF. + +(_By the courtesy of General Robley._) + + _PLATE X._] + +The Egyptians still follow the practice of blackening the edge of the +eyelid, both below and above the eye, with a black powder called kohl. +The material is prepared either from burning an aromatic resin or the +shells of almonds. The custom prevailed among both sexes in Egypt far +back in its history, and long before the historic period, painting the +eyes was already practised by the people whom Professor Petrie called +the "New Race" (until he determined that they preceded the dynastic +Egyptians). + +It may be well to point out that these prehistoric people lived about +6000 years B.C.: they had little or no metal, though they made most +beautiful flint knives and stone vases. They buried their dead lying on +one side with the knees towards the chin, instead of making mummies. +Among the contents of their tombs have been found curious slate palettes +of all shapes and sizes, similar to some which had previously been known +for many years, but the origin of which was undetermined. It has been +shown that these palettes were used for grinding up malachite to form a +green colour with which to paint the eye. The idea was, it is supposed, +to mitigate the glare of the sun, and is similar to that which leads +Anglo-Indians to have the under sides of the brims of their hats +coloured green. + +Another kind of temporary ornamentation is produced in Egypt to-day by +staining the feet and hands with the juice of the leaves of henna. The +result is that the part to which it is applied becomes a yellowish red +or deep orange colour. The most common practice is to dye the tips of +the fingers and toes so far as the first joint, the whole of the inside +of the hand and the sole of the foot, and there are other and more +fanciful modes of applying the henna, which is said to have an agreeable +effect upon the skin, particularly in the way of preventing it from +becoming too tender. The dyeing has to be renewed every fortnight or +three weeks, and the stain is brighter and more permanent on the nails +than on the fingers. + +Among many native races in a low stage of civilization there are few who +do not decorate their body by painting it in some way. We have already +mentioned that painting takes away the appearance of nakedness, and that +many nations would be as much ashamed to be seen without their paint, +as Europeans would be to walk about without their clothes. On special +occasions, however, particularly striking colours are put on--for +instance, by the Australians when about to dance a corroboree, and +Professor Moseley[40] has pointed out that they have breast stripes and +leg stripes such as those which are seen on European uniforms. At first +sight these, as Professor Moseley, indeed, points out, would appear +to have quite a different origin, but it will be remembered that when +speaking of the Hussar uniform and the Dutch skeleton dress (see pages +145-6) it was suggested that the ornamentation might be intended to +follow the lines of the chief bones of the body, and it is possible that +the same idea may have underlain the painting carried out by savages. + +In this case what in one instance was effected by paint was in the other +done by means of trimmings. + +Paint plays a great part in savage warfare, and no doubt the intention +very often was to terrify the adversary. It is apparently this idea +which actuated the old inhabitants of this country, who, as Cæsar says, +stained themselves with woad in order to be of horrider aspect in +battle; but Dr. Tylor has pointed out the error into which many +historians have fallen through considering as savages races who, while +having attained to considerable civilization, still kept up the practice +of colouring their bodies in time of war. To the instances which we have +mentioned of modern races staining themselves, we may add that of the +Hindu women in India, who colour their teeth black and paint their feet +scarlet. Japanese women blacken their teeth upon marriage. + +In certain Japanese plays the actors have bright streaks of red paint +made on their faces, usually on each side of the eyes (see Plate X, +Figure B). + +Professor Moseley[41] records that the same form of painting is to be +seen in the case of Japanese children on festive occasions, for after +they have been elaborately dressed by their parents they are further +adorned with one or two transverse and narrow streaks of bright red +paint, leading outwards from the outer corners of their eyes, or placed +near to that position. The style is the same as that which survives in +the case of adults on the stage. Professor Moseley brings forward a +further case showing that such a form of painting possibly existed in +ancient times in China. When a man of distinction died in China in +former times, a certain number of servants were sacrificed at his +burial. Now, figures made of pasteboard and paper, about three feet or +so high, are burnt instead at the funeral service in small furnaces +provided for the purpose in the temples, together with cartloads of +similar pasteboard gifts which are sent by the survivors for the use of +the dead in the next world. Earthenware figures were similarly buried +with great men in old times in Japan, and we may compare with these +customs that of the Egyptians who buried models of servants, as +mentioned on page 268, in the graves of their dead. + +The pasteboard heads of these funeral servants and retainers are painted +with streaks, some of which are put on in almost exactly the same style, +at the angles of the eyes, as those of modern Japanese actors. It seems +a fair conjecture that the streaks on these heads are a direct survival +of an actual former savage form of painting which was once in vogue in +China, and probably used to make fighting men hideous. + +It is well known that primitive customs survive in connection with +funerals all over the world with extreme tenacity. The numerous +interesting survivals existing in the case of English funerals are +familiar. + +We give a figure taken from the head of a Chinese servant, which +Professor Moseley bought at a manufactory of funeral properties in Hong +Kong. (See Plate X, Figure C.) + +With regard to the ordinary use of paint by women in China and Japan, +Professor Moseley points out that it is entirely different in principle +from that in vogue in Europe. He says: "The use of paint as an ornament +in China and Japan seems to me to be of considerable interest. In both +countries the women regularly paint their faces when in full dress, of +which the paint is a necessary part. + +"The paint is not put on with any idea of simulating a beauty of +complexion, which might be present naturally, or which has been lost by +age. The painted face is utterly unlike the appearance of any natural +beauty. + +"An even layer of white is put on over the whole face and neck, with the +exception, in Japan, of two or three angular points of natural brown +skin, which are left bare at the back of the neck as a contrast. After +the face is whitened, a dab of red is rubbed in on the cheeks, below +each eye. The lips are then coloured pink with magenta, and in Japan +this colour is put on so thickly that it ceases to appear red, but takes +on the iridescent metallic green tint of the crystallized aniline +colour. + +"In modern Japanese picture books, the lips of girls may sometimes be +seen to be represented thus green. I suppose the idea is that such +application of paint shows a meritorious disregard for expense. It is +curious that the use of aniline colour should have so rapidly spread in +China and Japan. In China, at least, such was not to be expected; but it +seems to have supplanted the old rouge, and it is sold spread on folding +cards, with Chinese characters on them, at Canton and in Japan. This +form of painting the face seems to be exactly of the same nature as +savage painting." + +The likeness of this painting to that of our clowns is of course quite +obvious. + +Sometimes the painting of the body has a practical advantage. The +Andaman Islanders plaster themselves with a mixture of lard and coloured +earth, which protects their skin from the heat and mosquitoes; but, as +Dr. Tylor points out, they go off into love of display when they proceed +to draw lines on the paint with their fingers, or when a dandy will +colour one side of his face red and the other olive-green, and make an +ornamental border-line where the two colours meet down his chest and +abdomen. + +Fashions in paint were quite as slavishly followed as any other, and, +as we see, have died hard. It is not a very far cry from painting to +tattooing. Of savages, Théophile Gautier has said that, having no +clothes to embroider, they embroider themselves. Scar tattooing is +connected with various rites such as are followed when a brave arrives +at manhood, and certainly tattooing serves to indicate the family or +tribe to which the ornamented person belongs. There is no doubt, +however, that the intention of much tattooing is to increase individual +beauty. Excellent examples of this are to be found in the case of the +Maoris, whose faces were most elaborately covered with designs. We are +kindly permitted to reproduce some of the drawings which General Robley +has made from specimens in his magnificent collection (see Plate X, +Figure D). The practice now, however, is dying out. Of the Formosans it +is said that their skins are covered with flower patterns until they +look like damask. + +Tattooing was practised by the old inhabitants of this country, by the +Jews and the earliest Egyptians: it is still carried on in modern Egypt, +chiefly on the chin, on the back of the hands, the arms and feet, the +middle of the bosom, and the forehead. It survives principally in the +case of the women of the lower classes and in the country. Among +European sailors and among the lower classes, and even occasionally +those up in high social scale, we find tattooing carried on, though the +original idea of ornamentation is lost when the decoration is covered by +clothing. + +We have seen occasionally at shows--such as that organized by +Barnum--white people who have been tattooed to a very great extent, and +even in the case of Europeans the patterns tend to take off the bare +look even of the white skin. No doubt the desire to make permanent such +ornamentation as that obtained by painting, led to the introduction of +tattooing, and just as some marks suggest that they are copied from +amulets, so some amulets show traces of having been derived from tattoo +patterns. Mr. Lovett has pointed out to us that possibly the floral +designs worked on the backs of the bodices of the women of Marken, in +Holland, may have originated from tattooing, but no doubt careful +research would show some other and undoubted instances. + +The painting of the face, which is intended to heighten its beauty and +hide the ravages of time, is quite another matter. It survives to the +present day, but luckily it is much less common in this country than +it was a few years ago. It does not, however, seem to have been at all +in vogue in England until the Middle Ages, though cosmetics and false +complexions were made use of by ladies in Roman times. + +Fairholt[42] quotes from an old French poem of the thirteenth century +which describes the wares of a mercer who declares, "I have cotton with +which they rouge, and whitening with which they whiten themselves." The +cotton took the place of the hare's foot that is now used in making up, +to rub colour on the cheeks. + +At this point we might consider patches, the use of which made it +possible to ornament the skin with patterns that could be removed at +will. These patches came into fashion in Charles I's reign, but were +banned by the Puritans. As soon, however, as Charles II came into his +own again, they made their appearance once more, and took various +fantastic shapes: owls, rings, crescents, and crowns; a coach and horses +was particularly fashionable, and in the time of Queen Anne it was +possible to tell the political views of fashionable ladies by their +faces and their fans. Party feeling ran very high at this time, and +those who were neutral wore patches on both cheeks, a Whig lady on the +right side only, while a High Church Tory dame only adorned the left, +and she wore suspended from her wrist a fan on which was depicted a +scene from the trial of Dr. Sacheverell at Westminster Hall. + +Red and white paint was at the same time universally employed by women +of fashion, who, as Miss Helen Gordon[43] says, had perforce to keep +their lovers at a respectful distance, lest a kiss "snatched by a +forward one might transfer the complexion of the mistress to the +admirer." The untimely decease of more than one famous beauty was +attributed to the paint with which she besmeared her countenance, a +notable instance being the death of Lady Coventry, whose husband had +been wont to chase her round the dinner-table in his determined efforts +to remove the deleterious compound from her face with his serviette. +According to Walpole, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu used the cheapest white +paint obtainable, and left it so long on her skin that it had literally +to be scraped off. It may be inferred that these fine ladies rarely +washed; but "the age was careless in that respect, personal cleanliness +at a discount, and the essence pot consequently in great demand." + +We spoke just now of fans, which can, perhaps, be considered an article +of dress as they are very often fastened to the person. There seems no +doubt but that at first fans did not close, and were made of feathers +like those still in use in the East from whence they are derived. +Probably in the beginning, leaves were used as fans, and palm-leaf fans +are still to be seen. Fans were in general use in the sixteenth century, +and the folding one appeared in the next. + +Sometimes, as at the end of the eighteenth century, large green fans, +called sunshades, were used out of doors in the same way as a modern +parasol now is. There is another use of the fan still to be noted in +China, namely, for blowing up a fire, and from this we no doubt get the +expression of "fanning the flame." + +Painting apparently was not only practised by women, for male courtiers +at the end of the sixteenth century occasionally coloured their faces. +If we are to believe some of the writers in the newspapers of to-day, +men of leisure are not a whit better nor less foolish now. + +Of masks as an ordinary everyday addition to costume we have no +survivals, except in connection with some balls and an occasional +burglary; but masks such as we see on the 5th of November will remind +us, like the face of the clown, of primitive face-painting, and also of +the many curious head-dresses and masks which savages wear at certain +ceremonies and dances. It is easy to produce grotesque effects by means +of masks, and the discomfort that would arise from the paint is thereby +avoided. + +The practice of wearing masks, and indeed dominoes, by private +individuals came from Venice. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries +masks made of black satin and velvet often formed part of the toilet of +society ladies. At one period the wearing of them was restricted to the +times of carnivals; at another, the nobility alone were allowed to use +them, and now we only see masks at fancy-dress balls. Of the unwritten +laws that rule the wearing of the mask, Mrs. Aria says[44]: "Whether +worn privately or in public, its disguise has at all times and in +all countries been respected as inviolably sacred. To the masked the +greatest extravagance of language and gesture is permitted. He is +allowed to indulge in acrid personalities and proclaim scathing truths, +which, even if addressed to the monarch himself, go unrebuked. To strike +a mask is a serious offence, while in no class of society, however +degraded, would any one dare to unmask a woman. Yet another prerogative +entitles the masked to invite any woman present, whether masked or not, +to dance with him, etiquette decreeing that the queen of the land may +not claim exemption from this rule. Dear to romance is the masked +highwayman, who flourished until the advent of railways robbed him of +his occupation; and a grim figure is ever the masked headsman." + + + + +XXIX + +STAGE COSTUMES + +THE HARLEQUIN, PANTALOON, COLUMBINE, AND ACROBAT + + +While Punch has left the stage and is now a puppet, some of his +coadjutors are with us, for the harlequinade is still introduced into +many pantomimes at Christmas, and special plays have been written in +which these characters appear. The harlequin, who gives his name to what +is now an interlude, was some thousand or two years back one of the +important personages in the old Italian comedy which gave us Punch, and +which we have already mentioned in a previous chapter. + +Harlequin was versatile and many-sided, and he still keeps up his +slap-dash character. It is true that harlequin does not now speak, any +more than does the columbine, and we may trace the evolution of the +Italian Mimi, or buffoons, into the Pantomimi, who were tragic actors. +They, by means of certain well-understood signs and gestures, were able +to play tragedies in the open air under conditions which would have +prevented their voices from being heard. In some theatres also the +actors were not allowed by the authorities to speak. Originally the +harlequin was a mime. He had a shaven head, a sooty face--for the mimi +blackened their faces like our modern niggers--he had flat, unshod feet +and a patched coat of many colours which he derived from the ancient +peasants of Italy. + +Some have seen in the wand of the harlequin a descendant of the rod of +Mercury, and have sought for a prototype of the modern pantomime in +pagan mysteries. In England, however, we have turned the harlequin into +a magician, and his wand is perhaps the gilt wooden sword which belonged +to the clown or fool all the world over. Now also we have the character +in what Mr. Calthrop terms his tight-fitting lizard-skin of flashing +golden colours, for the patches on his rags have now given place to a +symmetrical pattern (see Figure 158). + +There have been many celebrated harlequins who have devoted their lives +to the development of this character, and there is an interesting case +which Disraeli[45] gives in his "Curiosities of Literature," in which, +as part of a quit-rent or feudal tenure--whenever the Abbot of Figéac +entered this town--the Lord of Montbron, dressed in a harlequin's coat, +with one of his legs bare, has to lead the prelate's horse by its bridle +to the abbey. + +[Illustration: FIG. 158.--The dress of a modern harlequin.] + +In the clown and the pantaloon we still have the dress of Elizabethan +times (see Figures 157 and 159). The paint on the former, as we have +seen, will carry us back to times of remote antiquity. His hat is of a +shape well known in early English history, and he himself is English +all through. The pantaloon, again, is Italian. Both he and his Venetian +breeches get their names from St. Pantaleone, one of the patron saints +of Venice. Pantaleone was by no means an uncommon patronymic in that +place. In order to reconcile the statements that the dress of the +pantaloon is Elizabethan and his nether garments are Venetian, which +might appear to be mutually contradictory, it must be pointed out +that the Venetian breeches had been introduced in the days of earlier +Tudors, and were still in vogue when Elizabeth was on the throne. The +pantaloon's red and green colours and his red heels are also, as we have +indicated, Elizabethan. + +[Illustration: FIG. 159.--A pantaloon, showing an Elizabethan costume of +which Venetian breeches form part.] + +The columbine, who, like the harlequin, does not speak, and so keeps +up the pantomime character, wears the ballet dress of early Victorian +times. Originally she was a female harlequin, or harlequinne, and her +dress of spangles is still sometimes used in fancy-dress dances. Of the +other characters, who once assisted those that we have described, we +have none left. Scaramouch persisted for some time, and was, like the +harlequin and columbine, a pantomimist. He has gone even from Punch and +Judy, though the doctor still remains. + +Though not strictly a theatrical performer, but seen in the circus, +the music-hall, and still also as a wandering mountebank, we have the +acrobat. His dress is simple and eminently suitable for the work which +he has to do; it consists of a vest, of very short trunk hose or +breeches, and long Florentine hose, or, as we now call them, tights. +Though such a costume was worn in the reigns of the early Tudors, in +detail the breeches are very much like those which were worn by Lord +Darnley, the husband of Mary Queen of Scots. Doubtless also in the +tights which are so familiar on the stage we have a survival similar +to that seen in the acrobat, the clown, and the knights of the older +orders. + + + + +XXX + +NIGHTDRESS + +BANDS ON NIGHTGOWNS--NIGHTCAPS--NIGHT ATTIRE WORN IN THE STREET + + +Going to bed can hardly be called a ceremony; but the dress in which the +bulk of humanity now sleeps can claim to be a special one. There are, of +course, many people, who are not mere casual tramps, who sleep in their +everyday clothes. Drovers who have to go to out-of-the-way places with +cattle, where they can never be sure of getting a lodging, will sleep +possibly after merely removing their outer coat, and it stands to reason +that men engaged in this business can hardly be bothered to carry +luggage with them. Any survivals that we may have to deal with in the +case of our airiest dresses will not take us very far back into history, +because our ancestors, from all accounts, went to an extreme which is +the opposite to that which we have just been mentioning, and instead of +keeping on all their clothes at night, they took them all off and put +on no others. Mr. Calthrop[46] graphically describes a scene which he +supposes to be taking place in the reign of William Rufus. A lady is +disturbed while getting ready for bed by a cry of "sanctuary," and +watches from her window until the fugitive is let into the church by the +monks. In concluding his story, Mr. Calthrop says, "The night is cold. +The lady pulls a curtain across the window, and then, stripping herself +of her chemise, she gets into bed." + +A man's nightshirt is severe in cut like that which he wears in the day, +and the sides are slit up in both garments as they are in the dalmatic +and the tunics worn by the Anglo-Saxons, which were like a day shirt, +longer behind than in front. A survival of the latter as an outer +garment is to be seen in the short smocks worn by labourers who dig +drains and do similar work. The lady's nightgown may be elegantly +ornamented with lace in the same way as are the linen garments which she +wears in the daytime; but very often we find a large collar edged with +lace, which recalls the falling band which we have had so often to +mention. (See Figure 160.) + +To a great extent sleeping suits of a coat and trousers, which are known +by the name of pyjamas, have taken the place of the man's nightshirt. +These have the merit of making a man look more presentable if called up +on an emergency. We shall see, if we contrast male and female fashions, +that it has always been customary for the costume of women to follow +that of men, though most ladies draw the line at adopting trousers. We +have heard, however, of one young lady at least who does by night what +she will not do by day, for she has given up her nightgown in favour of +pyjamas. + +[Illustration: FIG. 160.--The bands that survive on a lady's +nightdress.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 161.--A woman's nightcap, still worn in Wiltshire.] + +Here and there we find that nightcaps are still worn. That belonging to +an old lady, which we figure (see Figure 161), came from the village of +Bishopstone in Wiltshire, where no fewer than twelve old ladies, all of +them over eighty, still wear such a head-dress at night. Nightcaps were +worn by men in the time of the Tudors, and that of Queen Elizabeth, as +is shown by the following extract from a bill of 1547: "Pd. for two +nyght caps of vellvet for them, 8s. 0d."[47] + +They were very elaborately embroidered at this time, and in Mary's +reign were mentioned in a sumptuary law. Old men still wear nightcaps, +and the one we figure was used until lately at South Stoke in +Oxfordshire. It is of the familiar style that we associate with such a +head-dress, and has a tassel on the top. (See Figure 162.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 162.--A man's nightcap, from Oxfordshire.] + +In the time of Queen Anne ladies wore their nightdresses, or night-rails +as they were called, in the streets, and the fashion seems to have +been in vogue at later times, though every means were taken to try and +abolish it. It was not until a murderess was persuaded to appear at her +execution in a bedgown that the fad was relinquished. + + + + +XXXI + +THE DRESS OF ANIMALS + + NATURAL REPRESENTATIVES OF CLOTHES--HORSE TRAPPINGS--AMULETS ON + HARNESS--DOGS' DISGUISES--FASHIONS IN THE FORM OF ANIMALS + + +Here and there in the animal kingdom we find that creatures protect +themselves from injury by building up cases and coverings from +extraneous materials, and these may very well be compared with the +armour and clothes of mankind. Protection may be gained by merely +securing something ready made to take the place of a coat, as is done in +the case of the hermit-crab or "soldier," which covers itself with the +shell of some dead mollusc. The caddis worm, or larva of the caddis +fly, builds its home of sticks and stones or twigs, and thereby not +only preserves its soft body from injury, but also harmonizes with its +surroundings, in the same way as does the soldier on active service in +time of war. + +To gain protection, also, some molluscs when building their shells +introduce stones and other shells and corals into the edifice, so that +they become indistinguishable from the sea-bottom on which they lie. +Many caterpillars cover themselves with bits of leaves, and even with +the help of silk make spiral shells that might easily be mistaken for +those of snails. The silk also, from which many of our gay clothes are +made, is spun by the silkworm, which, like the larva of many moths, +produces it in order to protect the chrysalis while it rests. + +We are occupied here, however, with the coverings of animals that they +owe to man, and first and foremost of those creatures which have come in +for his polite attentions is the horse. + +We may recall the armour by which the chargers of the old knights were +protected, and the trappings or emblazoned coverings that were put over +this in the same way as the surcoat was made to cover the armour of the +knights. (See Figure 84.) The trappings were often made of coloured +satin, and were embroidered with gold and silver, and at the exhibition +held by the Burlington Fine Arts Society in 1905 a chasuble of red +velvet was shown, embroidered with the arms of England in gold, which +was apparently made from a horse-trapper of the fourteenth century. +Figure 84 well shows how the horses carried the armorial bearings of +their masters. + +In the ostrich-feather ornaments and the velvet trappings of modern +funeral horses, we still have some remnants of the days of chivalry. + +To-day horse clothing, though not intended to be of an ornamental +character, we should imagine, is still often decorated with a monogram +of the horse's owner. + +Perhaps one of the most interesting survivals in connection with horses +is to be found in the brasses which decorate those used for carts and +waggons. Dr. Plowright[48] has shown that many of these ornaments, which +are really amulets put on to the harness with a view to protecting the +horses against the evil eye, are of Moorish origin. He contrasts their +style with the ornamental details shown in the Alhambra, and he figures +a number which take the form of a crescent, or a crescent enclosing +an eight-rayed star, and others in which the ornament shows eyes and +eyebrows conventionalized. In other cases we get the fleur-de-lys +treated in an arabesque way, the escallop shell and the mystic +interlaced triangles (which were considered the talisman of talismans, +and are known as the seal of Solomon or the shield of David), with +a crescent in the centre. Miss Lina Eckenstein[49] figures many +other horse brasses which can be compared with those worn by Roman +cart-horses. Among them is the crescent, which was also worn by women +carved in ivory, and by certain senators as ornaments on their shoes. + +The crescent is made from a thin plate of metal, and is worn by children +on the west coast of India, with the points upwards, as a protection +against the evil eye, and gold ornaments of similar shape are among +those which were worn in ancient Peru. + +The moon, from times of remote antiquity, has been represented by a ring +for the full moon and a half-ring or sickle for the crescent. Miss +Eckenstein does not, however, carry the origin of the horse amulets back +to the stone stage of civilization, but she thinks that the crescent +represents two boars' tusks joined together by a thong, and the +horse-amulet now worn in Italy shows the thinness and sharpness of curve +that would be evident in one which was made out of boars' tusks. + +[Illustration: FIG. 163.--An English horse amulet in the form of a +crescent. The flat places near the tips of the horns are evidence that +the form is derived from two boars' tusks.] + +We may point out that in some English crescents the hollows which one +tusk makes by wearing against its fellow are represented by little flat +places on the horns of the crescent near their tips. (See Figure 163.) + +The brasses seen in England to-day are worn on the face-plate, +breast-plate, and martingale. On grand occasions, such as May Day +celebrations, and the cart-horse parade of Whit Monday, brasses are +specially put on, though there is a tendency now for them to be stamped +out of thin metal instead of being cast, with the result that they soon +wear out. German horses wear the crescent on a strap which dangles below +the right ear. + +The English crescent from harness will be found to match those which are +represented on the horses on Trajan's column and other monuments. The +same design is to be seen also on the harness of camels and elephants. +The most important symbol besides the moon is that of the sun, which is +worn on the top of the head between the ears. + +Heraldic brasses are not uncommon, and the heart-shaped amulet is also +seen; it is possible, too, that this form may be connected with that +of the flint arrows, which we have already mentioned as being worn as +amulets. In Egypt, an amulet hung on a cow is said to protect the woman +who owns it, and Miss Eckenstein suggests a similar origin in the case +of the heart worn by horses. A brass showing a horse rampant, came from +the estate of the Duke of Norfolk at Arundel, and it will be seen on +looking at the arms of the nobleman in question that this device forms +one of the supporters of his shield. + +In prehistoric Egypt the slate palettes on which malachite was ground +for face painting were often in the form of two birds, with their bodies +put back to back, and their heads fully shown, and when this form +degenerates it becomes a kind of heart-shaped shield. Professor Petrie +has pointed out that when this decoration is used, as on coffins and +elsewhere, it is often thought to be merely a shield. Possibly the +heart-shaped amulet may have some connection with this. + +[Illustration: FIG. 164.--An English horse amulet showing both the heart +and the sun.] + +An amulet found by Professor Vellucci in Umbria consisted of an +arrow-head sewn upon a piece of scarlet cloth, which was of a heart +shape, and was intended doubtless to emphasize the heart significance. +Another horse amulet, obtained by Miss Eckenstein from Sicily, also +consists of a piece of scarlet cloth cut into the shape of a heart and +decorated with tinsel. + +An English horse brass seen in Figure 164 shows both the heart and the +sun. + +While on the subject of horses, one might allude to the wisps of straw +which are twisted in the mane and tail of cart-horses when they are for +sale at markets and fairs. Horses were sacrificed in the old days; and +as the slaying of domestic animals was supposed to secure fruitfulness, +the horse became identified as a corn spirit, and the killing of horses +formed a necessary incident of the harvest. The deity Demeter took upon +himself the semblance of a mare, and the word mare is applied in the +Midlands to the last uncut ears of corn, at which the sickles are thrown +in order to bring them down. It is possible that the wisps of straw worn +by horses are connected with these ideas. + +A very curious and interesting custom is represented on the trappings of +the horses ridden by the officers of the 10th Hussars. These trappings +are ornamented on full-dress occasions with cowry shells; and to find a +parallel to this we have to go to the East, where the head-stalls of the +camels and mules are covered with the shells, while round their necks +and those of donkeys there may hang an ornament or bell on a band which +is similarly decorated. It will be noted that there is a pendant from +the head of the Hussar horse which resembles that of the mule of the +Holy Land. There is no doubt but that originally these ornaments were +really amulets, and it is said that they are a survival of ancient +phallic worship. (See Figures 165-7.) + +Cowry shells were once generally used by the Hussars, and were revived +in the case of the 10th Hussars in connection with service in India. + +[Illustration: FIG. 165.--The cowry-shell ornaments on the head of an +officer's charger of the 10th Hussars. The pendant recalls that on mules +in Palestine.] + +Toby, as we have seen, is decorated with an Elizabethan ruff, but the +wearing of collars and bells by pet animals is a remnant of a very old +custom, and on early mediæval brasses in this country, dogs are often +seen decorated with collars--sometimes bearing their actual names--and +with bells. Now the wearing of a collar is enforced by law as a means +of identification. All dogs found without collars may be considered as +strays, and the regulation followed, as is well known, upon the muzzling +order by which hydrophobia was practically stamped out. + +[Illustration: FIG. 166.--Cowry shells on an Eastern mule, hanging like +the pendant of the 10th Hussars.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 167.--Cowry shells on the head-stall of a camel from +Palestine.] + +Mr. C. J. Cornish[50] once considered the subject of animals' clothes, +and made some interesting remarks on horses' hats and sun-bonnets. He +described the following sight, met with in Kensington Gore: First came +a costermonger with his horse duly "hatted" and the hat trimmed with +ribbon; next came a lady wearing a hat, in a victoria. Her horse also +had a hat, and both hats had pink flowers in them. + +In Holland, cows wear rain-proof jackets all the winter, and coats for +show cattle are quite the fashion in England. Mr. Cornish says that a +really smart Jersey cow would not like to be seen at a show without her +luggage--"a chest containing, not only her sleeping jacket, but her +brushes and combs, cosmetics and horn protectors. She puts on, or +has put on, a smarter jacket in the daytime if she has to stand in a +draughty place; if she is not sleeping out it does not so much matter. +There are many ladies who would almost go without a jacket themselves +rather than see their best animals go to a show without proper clothes." + +In the North lambs are provided with waterproof coats when going on to +the hills. These garments are called "brats," and the name has been +transferred not only to the young sheep themselves, but also to human +babies. We are all familiar with the clothes which monkeys wear when +they go about with organs, and the big apes which are exhibited at +shows are sometimes even clothed in the dress suit of conventionality. +Johanna, the chimpanzee which was at Barnum's exhibition, looked +very effective in her petticoats, and the penguins at the Zoo, when +performing tricks, wear coats, while animal actors are often dressed to +suit their parts. + +There is one case at least in which animals are disguised by dressing +them up. There was a duck-decoy dog which was known to Mr. Cornish, +which, in the first instance, grew as much like a fox as it was possible +for a dog to be. This proved exceedingly attractive to the ducks, which +seem to have an irresistible impulse to swim after a fox in order to +see what he is about. In a short time, however, they get used to a +particular dog, and their curiosity dies away. Then the dog's master +supplies him with a disguise in the shape of a jacket made of sheepskin. +Furthermore, when this palls a rough woollen jacket of a black colour is +brought into requisition, and the dog apparently knows the meaning of +the whole performance. In other cases the disguise of a decoy dog takes +the shape of a foxskin with its brush. + +Racing dogs, prize dogs, and pet dogs also have their coats, and we have +heard even of bracelets for poodles, while there are fashions which +regulate the way in which the hair of these dogs should be cut. Just as +men and women deform themselves, so they mutilate their animals by the +clipping of their ears and the shortening of their tails--practices +which are worse than the dubbing of the birds' combs in the old days +of cock-fighting, for the infliction of one slight injury probably +prevented many. + +This deforming of animals is a savage custom, for Hottentots twist the +horns of their cattle and sheep, while a number of horns are produced in +Africa by splitting the budding horns of the young animals. Though not +obviously causing any deformity, there is one fashion which, though +condemned by most people, is still followed by otherwise cultured and +humane people. We refer to the bearing-rein with which horses' heads are +kept in unnatural, uncomfortable, and constrained positions. + +If, however, we consider animal fashions as a whole, and bring under +discussion the colours and peculiarities of the fur or feathers that +cover their bodies, we shall find that men from quite early times have +amused themselves with producing all manner of curious and striking +appearances. The fact is, that the ordinary conditions and dangers +of life in the open, which would soon eliminate any creatures out of +harmony with their surroundings, do not act in the case of domesticated +animals very much; and this has been a help. We have, therefore, white +rats, piebald mice, gold fishes--some even with several tails--yellow +canaries, frizzled bantams, hairless dogs, hornless cattle, booted +bantams, and top-knotted fowls, as well as hosts of patterns and forms +that are hardly to be numbered. There is an adage that "like produces +like," but the student of heredity has recently become aware of the fact +that animals of a certain colour may not always produce offspring +which resemble them in this respect; but that in order to get the tint +required for show purposes, parents of some particular but unfashionable +colour should be chosen. + +The colour of animals is taken into consideration in connection with +ceremonies. White elephants have to be treated as if they were gods, +and proverbially cost much to keep. Black horses are usually used at +funerals; white or grey horses, which are much decorated with the badges +and insignia of the regiments, carry the kettledrums of the cavalry. The +Scots Greys take their name from their horses, which are all grey, like +those with which, it is said, they were supplied by William III in +Flanders. Spotted Dalmatian hounds are those which are chosen to run +by the side of carriages, while circus horses exhibit much variety of +colouring. + +Whips are perhaps a little beside the subject, though there are fashions +with regard to them. Not long ago it was customary for the whip stick in +connection with a smart turn-out to have a bend in it. In various parts +of the East the camel driver carries in a graceful manner a red forked +stick, and one of this form was used as a sceptre in ancient Egypt from +5000 B.C. downwards, so that we meet with a very interesting, if humble, +survival of what was once a royal ornament. + + + + +XXXII + +COLOUR + + IMPORTANCE OF COLOUR--INSTINCTIVE LOVE OF BRIGHT + HUES--DESIRABILITY OF COLOURED CLOTHES AND GAY SCENES--COLOUR + AND COMPLEXION + + +It has been apparent throughout this book, as it is in everyday life, +that colour plays a tremendous part. Not only has it often a great +significance, but its presence or absence must also have a considerable +effect upon the minds of the people at large. One cannot help thinking +that if women were to dress as a whole in the same quiet, or let us say +solemn, tints which are characteristic of men in their everyday life, +how much we should lose. Yet that there is a craving for bright colours +is shown in every direction, and that they are attractive to those who +do not themselves have an opportunity of wearing them is also obvious. +The High Church clergy in this country make use of the coloured +vestments that had developed in the Roman Catholic Church previous to +the Reformation, and which have been proclaimed illegal. + +The new universities vie with the older seats of learning in the colours +which they choose for gowns and hoods. It is merely a question of +expense which prevents the fancy-dress dance from being more common +than it is. The pageants which have been held in various parts of this +country, and the profits which have been made in many cases, bear out +what we have said. Men, as shown by the red coats which they don for +hunting and golfing, the colours in which they ride steeplechases or +play hockey, or the dresses in which they bathe, seek as far as possible +during their leisure hour pursuits to go back to bright array. + +Plays also are popular which are cast in the times when picturesque +attire flourished or which borrow it from Oriental countries. The +significance of colour is exceedingly far reaching. The ordinary +liveries of Royalty in this country are red; the red shirt of the +followers of Garibaldi, the red cap of Liberty in the French Revolution, +the red rose of Lancaster, call to mind great struggles. The platelayer, +it is said, is instructed to wear a red tie so that on emergency it may +be used as a danger signal. A red ribbon worn in the hair of a girl in +some places on the Continent shows that she is engaged to be married, +and it is with a red rag that the chulos in the bull fight enrage the +bull. The term "born in the purple" alludes to this colour having been +that adopted by emperors and kings in the past. Yellow is a favourite +colour with gipsies; the women wear yellow kerchiefs and yellow beads, +while the men favour yellow neckties. Mr. Yoxall[51] points out that +this colour was worn by mediæval Jews, and had a contemptuous or +degrading significance. We have seen that yellow has been chosen as a +mourning colour in Oriental countries, and possibly it was adopted on +some particular occasion by gipsies like the black worms that we have +mentioned in the lace of military uniforms, and has never been entirely +left off since. + +Among savages, yellow comes next in popularity to red, and it is said +that young children are also fond of red, but are inclined to prefer +yellow. The latter colour is not so stimulating as red, and this is well +shown by the fact that the red light used in photographic works was +found to cause so much mental irritation on the part of the workers that +it has been abandoned in many cases in favour of orange. As regards the +preference of older persons, it has been found that schoolgirls are more +precocious than boys in the discrimination of colours, and never prefer +orange to any other colour, yet they choose yellow rather than green, +and usually than violet, but never prefer it to red or blue. + +As age goes on, male students shift their liking towards the violet end +of the spectrum which is the favourite one with men, while women keep +to the red. Blue is associated in this country with the boat race held +between representatives of the two old Universities of Oxford and +Cambridge, and blue is usually taken to represent the Liberal side in +political elections. The blue blouse of the butcher is characteristic, +and, as we have found, is a still better instance of the survival of a +trade costume than that seen in the case of servants. The colour, it is +said, was chosen, as blood stains are not so noticeable upon it as upon +other tints. A black habit is that which the clergy adopt when not +engaged in religious duties, while white has for centuries been used by +them when conducting services. The same two colours, if we can so call +them, are to be found in mourning, and to them a man is now restricted +when he appears in ordinary Court or evening dress. The use of colour +merely as a distinguishing mark without any deeper origin or special +significance is so general that we shall touch upon it, and recall one +or two instances with which we have previously met. + +The gorgeous dresses of the Masons and the bright green scarfs of their +humbler brethren, the Foresters, are further evidences of the love which +civilized man still retains of dressing himself up. It is only but +little less strongly developed apparently in him than it is in his +children and in savage people. + +We pointed out that red, although a special character of the British +Army, is very far from being the universal colour of the uniform. We +have had to deal with blue, buff, white, and black among the other +colours that are to be seen adorning the bodies of our soldiers. The +colours of heraldry no longer appear on our persons, except when we wear +favours such as ribbons of red, white, and blue that come from national +flags, and here we may recall that the standards of our regiments are +called their "colours," and illustrate not only regimental but national +history. The part that colour plays in the hoods and gowns of academical +dress has on more than one occasion occupied our attention. Various +coloured veils serve to differentiate the sisters of a religious order, +while the ribbons and mantles of the knightly orders serve a similar +purpose. It seems a great pity that at the present day the chapters or +meetings of these Orders are seldom if ever held, and it would surely be +interesting and useful, as well as enlivening, for certain occasions to +be created on which the public might have an opportunity of seeing more +of the dresses which have been handed down to our own times. + +It is true that the King has of recent years opened Parliament in +person, and glimpses may have been had of him in his state robes by a +privileged few, but surely some opportunity should be found of having +more pageants which are real and where there is no need for any +make-believe. Besides having the advantages which we have urged would +accrue from the bringing of a little more colour into our lives, such +meetings would also have a practical result, and be exceedingly good for +trade. + +It is obvious that certain costumes, particularly the gay peasant +dresses of the Continent, suit the style, complexion, and colouring of +those who wear them. In races like our own, where we have all kinds of +stages between the very fair blonde and the very dark brunette, the +question of the choice of colours from an artistic point of view is +important. There is also the question of surroundings to be considered, +though nowadays it is not every one who can afford the time, as the late +Mrs. Haweis did, to visit the rooms in which she was invited to spend +an evening, so that the colours of her costume might be arranged to +harmonize with her temporary surroundings. + + + + +XXXIII + +PATTERNS + +ANCIENT DESIGNS--CHECKS AND TARTANS--PARTI-COLOURED CLOTHES--EVOLUTION +OF ORNAMENTATION + + +The subject of patterns is a very wide one, and we shall content +ourselves with mentioning a few to show how these have survived. When +speaking of studs, we had occasion to mention the swastika or fylfot, +which is probably the earliest known symbol. It is the forerunner of +the cross, and it occurs on ecclesiastical vestments as well as civil +clothes, and the well-known key pattern was derived from it. On Plate +VII, Figure F, it may be seen on the shoulder of the Romano-Egyptian +man, and its use seems to be almost universal. The pine pattern which we +see on shawls is of Eastern origin, and it is said that it originally +was taken from a map of some rivers in Cashmere. + +Checks and plaids are among the commonest of our present-day designs, +and the Gauls and those of our forerunners, who flourished at the time +of Cæsar, wore breeches of chequered patterns. In fact, the very name of +breeches is derived from "breac," which means striped or spotted, and in +Gaelic also signifies the trout, which is speckled. Usually the ancient +breeches showed a number of colours, in which, according to Diodorus, +red predominated. Queen Boadicea wore a tunic apparently of plaid, +the colours of which had a mixture of blue, red, and yellow. The real +shepherd's plaid of Scotland is of a plainer character, being merely +black and white, but it is in the special tartans of the Scotch clans +that we find the system of coloured lines and squares carried to great +perfection. + +These tartans, as we may judge, date back to times of which we have no +record, but they have been used continuously in historic times. In the +accounts of King James III of Scotland, in 1471, there are several +entries with regard to money spent on tartans. The tartans, of course, +were a distinguishing mark of the various Scottish clans, but sometimes, +when attempts have been made to identify the patterns, confusion has +arisen owing to the fact that many clans had more than one tartan; in +fact, there may be the common clan tartan; that which was worn only +by the chief and his heir; a dress tartan; a fourth for hunting, and +a fifth for mourning. For instance, while the dress tartan of the +MacPhersons consists chiefly of black and white, with thin lines of red +and yellow, the hunting tartan of the same clan is black and buff, with +lines of blue and red. Similarly, in the Royal Stuart tartans, we find +that the ordinary Royal Stuart has large red squares, the hunting +tartan is mostly green and blue, while the dress Stuart has a large +amount of white in its composition. There was, of course, a wonderful +variety in colours, and it is interesting to note that all the dyes +required were obtained from common native plants. + +In England, after the Norman Conquest, there seems to have been little +pattern used up to the time of Henry II, when diaper began to appear. +Just as damask takes its name from Damascus, so diaper originally +was derived from D'Ypres, meaning "of Ypres," a town which was noted +for rich stuffs and fine linen. In Edward II's time pied cloth and +parti-coloured silks came into vogue, while costumes of a parti-coloured +character, which developed in the following reign to such an extent, +were seen for the first time. Sometimes the whole dress would be +symmetrically divided, so that half was of one colour and half of +another. Again, the clothes would be striped in various directions, or +one would find the right arm and left leg coloured blue, while the other +two limbs were red. We get something of the same kind of ornamentation +nowadays, as already noticed, in the dress of jockeys and the colours of +athletic clubs. + +In studying decorative patterns, the way in which some natural object +has often become conventionalized is very interesting to trace, and if +this is so in the case of art of civilized people, it is still more +true of savage decoration. Our object is not, however, to deal with the +evolution of ornamentation pure and simple, though we commend its study +to our readers. + +Turning to the Jews for a moment, we may recall that part of the +adornment of the High Priests consisted of pomegranates and bells. The +connection does not seem at all obvious, and Mrs. Finn has suggested +that the bells are probably the flowers of the pomegranate which have +been conventionalized. + + + + +XXXIV + +IMPRESSIONS TO BE GAINED FROM DRESS + + CLUES FROM CLOTHES--INDIVIDUALITY NOT DISGUISED BY THEM--MODERN + DRESS OF OTHER COUNTRIES--SIGNIFICANCE OF CLOTHES + + +If we turn our attention once more to clothes and their effect upon the +outsider, there are questions to consider with regard to what may be +judged from dress. First of all, as to the matter of social status, it +must be confessed that it is very much more difficult nowadays than it +was years ago to make any pronouncements from clothes, though it must be +pointed out that there is a way of wearing clothes, quite irrespective +of their kind, that will help us considerably in making a judgment. + +The reason for the levelling up or down as the case may be, is due, of +course, to the standard of luxury having been raised and the price of +materials for clothing having been lowered. As regards the determination +of the profession of the wearer from his or her dress, it must be +said that often we remain quite at a loss in the matter. Bearing and +expression and general action may again afford a clue. + +Characteristic costumes are now rare. We can tell the cleric as a rule, +though some, especially those who have belonged to some other profession +previously, will not adopt the collarless coat of black, the choker, or +the white tie. + +Servants' liveries may be left out of consideration here, but the man +that has to do with horses proverbially looks "horsey." To the list of +uniforms to which we are accustomed there has been added of recent +years that of the hospital nurse. The garb of various sisterhoods +still catches our eye, and there are certain points which may help us +occasionally in identifying a doctor, a lawyer, a schoolmaster, and an +actor. According to a recent article by a detective in one of the daily +papers,[52] the characteristics and individuality of a man will show +through his clothes, and the writer alluded to, suggests the putting +of a clergyman into a soldier's or a sailor's uniform, or again, the +dressing of a valet in his master's clothes. "He will look quite +different. He will give a fresh character to the clothes, and you will +realize at once that he is a second-hand copy." + +Mr. Chevasse says that if you walk down Oxford Street, Piccadilly, or +through the City, you may pick out the ex-army officer, in his mufti +tweed, for his instinct for dress is so ingrained that it is easy to +recognize him. Mr. Chevasse would tell the fashionable physician from +the following signs. His frock coat, scrupulously cut, his silk hat +correctly quiet, which fit in with his sleek manners and the sang-froid +of his superior knowledge. The dress dummy is another type--the man with +the airs of a peacock, whose every article of dress is meant to attract +attention. Of the actor whom one meets in the Strand, it is said that +the odds and ends which he wears are typical of the parts he plays, but +that his real individual character is not disguised as sometimes he +might wish it to be. + +In similar fashion we are given the points of the modern solicitor, of +whom there are, we are told, two classes. The first type is dressed to +exhale prosperity, and to convince the litigant that he is a safe man, +but the character of his waistcoat will tell you more often than not +that he robs Peter to pay Paul. The dress of other solicitors beams out +sincerity, truth, reliability; the cloth is good and plain, and is well +fitted to inspire trust and confidence. + +At the present time so many visitors from other countries, who are +sojourning here for a while or have come to stay, are to be seen in our +streets, that it may be of interest to see what the Editor of the +_Tailor and Cutter_[53] has to say upon the subject of their dress, or +so far as that of the men goes. He says that, as a rule, in the case of +the members of the aristocracy of all nations, their garments give +the impression of having been made in London, and are free from the +peculiarities which characterize those of other countries. Generally +speaking, however, it is not difficult to tell the nationality of a man +by his clothes. The American's garments are usually made two sizes too +large for him. The collar of his coat is very narrow, and the shoulders +and back, on the other hand, exceedingly wide. His jackets are often +extremely long, his trousers are peg-tops, finished with raised seams. + +In some ways the German is a modified American, though often there is +to be found a seam up the front of his coat from the waist, as he likes +plenty of room about his chest, of which he makes much. While the +American, however, often has his coat finished in some extraordinary way +which he fancies to be original, there is a lack of personality about +the German, and the uniformity of his garments would appear to be the +result of his military training. The American likes a lounge suit, and +the German the same, or a morning coat, while the Frenchman favours +the latter or a frock coat, which he has finished off with as much +ornamentation as possible in the way of silk facings, braided edges, +and fantastic flaps. His garments are close-fitting, and the waist is +emphasized. + +The Spaniard is like the Frenchman with modifications, for his garments +are tasteful and neat, with few peculiarities. In warm weather he wears +no vest, and his jackets are close-fitting and finished with a low roll. +In Austrian and Hungarian clothes French and German ideas seem to be +skilfully blended, while Italian dress has more of the French than of +the German characters. Norwegians and Danes are like Englishmen, though +there is perhaps a little more preciseness and stiffness about their +clothes. The colonial has no desire for show, and his tweed lounge suit +is cut for comfort and made up for strength. + +The impressions to be gained from dress that we have hitherto mentioned +in this chapter are chiefly those which are unintentionally given to +us by their wearers. The significances which it is meant that clothes +should bear are still most numerous and important. + +To-day, on ordinary occasions, rank is not shown by any special dress, +which those in high stations themselves wear, though the case of their +servants is different. In earlier times in our history, especially under +the earlier Tudors, rank was indicated in civilian dress. Now the frock +coat worn by King and Peer is considered just as necessary in many +businesses, and is characteristic of the shop-walker. Men of assured +position can even afford to dress badly, though the poor man cannot. + +Here and there we have met with survivals of class costumes (see pages +150 and 308), and to these we may add that of the costermongers, for +in the dress of both men and women there are peculiarities which single +them out. + +In the same way we find remnants here and there of special dresses that +are characteristic of trades. The blue blouse of the butcher, the white +clothes of the butterman or man cook, and the white cap of the latter +are cases in point; and in connection with certain duties and modern +manufactures we have special dresses. We might allude to the overalls +of furriers, feather merchants, and stationers. Divers, sewage men, and +miners have special dresses, and boiler cleaners have a curious dress of +coat and trousers made in one, which recalls one form of the military +tunic used by the Norman soldiers, which sometimes ended in closely +fitting trousers. It was first drawn on the legs, and the arms were +then put through the sleeves. Such combination garments are shown in +contemporary drawings, and it has been questioned whether these were +really made in one piece, but the artist, though he might not indicate +with certainty the openings through which they were put on, is hardly +likely to have left out the lines which would have made clear a division +at the waist. + +At the present time in England there are very little differences in the +costume of single and married women, though it was once compulsory for +them to dress differently. The remains, however, of the custom are to be +found in plenty in foreign countries. + +In many professions rank is indicated by the dress or its +ornamentations. In the Army and Navy, the Church, the legal profession, +such points are obvious. We have had occasion to deal with academical +costume, and in the knightly orders the same holds good. Just as an +undergraduate has a stuff gown, while a graduate may have a silk one, a +Proctor is given velvet sleeves and the Chancellor of the University an +embroidered gown and train, so, for instance, in the order of Knights +of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem, the Knight of Grace has a stuff +gown, the Knight of Justice a silk one, while the Grand Prior is habited +in velvet. + + + + +XXXV + +THE EFFECT OF CLOTHES UPON THE INDIVIDUAL + + THE ORIGIN OF STAYS--TIGHT LACING NO NEW THING--ITS EFFECTS--MR. + HEATHER BIGG ON THE NEED FOR SUPPORT--THE IDEAL FOOT--SKULL + DEFORMITIES--PADDING + + +We have already seen (page 111) that the human form may be directly +mutilated in connection with the wearing of ornaments and in order to +produce scars or tattoo marks which are considered to be embellishments +and often in a way take the place of clothes, in so much as they do away +with the appearance of nakedness. Now we may consider the distortions +which are actually caused by clothes and bandages. There are cases for +which, as a rule, we have to look outside the confines of Europe in +which special contrivances are worn for a time in order to permanently +alter the shape of some part of the body. Then, again, we meet among the +races which claim to be most highly civilized instances which are not +one whit less barbaric, but in which some article of dress is intended +to cause or allowed to produce distortions, which satisfy the dictates +of some particular fashion. It may be that an appearance of elegance or +smartness is aimed at which may be the natural attribute of some persons +and the envy of others, or a false idea of symmetry may lead to the same +thing. + +The idea of altering bodily conformation is very ancient, but following +our usual plan we will touch, first of all, on the modern examples of +the custom before tracing the older ones. Not very long ago, and not for +the first time in history, a great many women became imbued with the +notion that there was nothing more desirable in this world than a +wasp-like waist; and there are rumours, not to say signs, even in the +twentieth century, when it might be supposed that we were getting more +sensible, that a similar madness is again to overtake the gentler sex. + +Now we may discuss the apparatus which has been degraded into carrying +out the painful duty of producing an attenuated figure. The name stays +indicates exactly the original intention of the clothing to which it is +applied; but unfortunately something more than mere support has been +sought after at various times since the classic period to which the +beginnings of stays may be traced. The pair of stays which together form +the modern corset--sometimes ignorantly and by false analogy supplied +with an extra "s"--is what is now used for purposes of compression. +Proximately the idea is that of improving the figure, as it is called, +and ensuring that it can be covered with garments of a fashionable +shape. The ultimate results are about as bad as they can be, and it is +not a question of opinion in this case, for the evil effects can be +easily demonstrated. Sir William Flower[54] refers to the practice as +being "one of the most remarkable of all the artificial deformities +produced by adherents to a conventional standard, in defiance of the +dictates of Nature and of reason." He points out that in the process of +deforming the skull, to which we shall allude later, the latter being a +solid case with tolerably uniform walls, its capacity remains the same +whatever alterations may be made in the shape, but in the case of the +body it is quite another matter. It can, in fact, be well likened to a +cylinder of fixed length which is closed above and below by a framework +of bone, and circular compression must actually diminish the area which +has to be occupied by some of the most vital organs. He goes on to +say that the framework of the chest is a most admirable and complex +arrangement of numerous pieces of solid bone and elastic cartilage +joined together in such a manner as to allow of expansion and +contraction for the purposes of respiration--expansion and contraction +which, if a function so essential to the preservation of life and health +is to be performed in an efficient manner, should be perfectly free +and capable of variation under different circumstances. So, indeed, it +has been allowed to be in all parts of the world and in all ages with +one exception. It was reserved for mediæval civilized Europe to have +invented the system of squeezing together, rendering immobile, and +actually deforming the most important part of the human frame; and +the custom has been handed down to, and flourishes in, our day, +notwithstanding all our professed admiration for the models of classical +antiquity, and our awakened attention to the laws of health. + +The crusade against corsets is by no means confined to this country; +even the educational authorities in America and on the continent of +Europe have dealt pretty drastically with the matter. It is said, +moreover, that the Queen of Portugal has brought before the ladies of +her Court the evils of tight lacing, by means of radiographs. There +have been other times when even laws have been made with regard to the +corset, which, it appears, was first employed for a wrong purpose in +mediæval times. It is said of the time of Henry III of France that the +corset was no longer the simple basquine that was inoffensive enough at +first.[55] The corps piqué which was endured by the fair ladies of the +period was an instrument of torture. A hard solid mould into which the +wearer had to be compressed, there to remain and suffer in spite of +the splinters of wood that penetrated the flesh, took the skin off the +waist, and made the ribs ride one over the other. Montaigne and Ambrose +Paré are witnesses, and the latter must have known something about the +question. It is not, perhaps, surprising that Charles IX and Henry III +brought in stringent laws on the subject. + +We are told[56] that with Catherine de Medici's ascent to the throne the +habit became compulsory. She gave her subjects no choice, and said that +all women of good birth and breeding should wear corsets which would +reduce their waists to the abnormal size of thirteen inches. + +In our country on various occasions lacing was carried to extremes, as +in the time of Henry VIII. In Elizabeth's time, the forerunner of the +busks was not fastened to the stays, but consisted of a piece of carved +wood which was pushed down inside the bodice. (See Plate XI.) Some of +the outer bodices in the times of the early Georges seem to be as hard +and unyielding as if they were intended for armour. Tin stays were not +unheard of in the days of the earlier colonists in America. + +[Illustration: WOODEN STAY BUSKS. THESE INCIDENTALLY SHOW SURVIVALS OF +PRIMITIVE ORNAMENT. + +_From the "Reliquary," by kind permission of Messrs. Bembrose & Sons, +Ltd._ + + _PLATE XI._] + +The craze for tight lacing once more made itself felt at the beginning +of the nineteenth century, and not many years before the end one heard +from time to time of the cruelty that was practised at high-class +schools for young ladies, where the girls were made to sleep in +specially tight and rigid corsets. + +Although there is a tendency to abolish stays, it does not, of course, +prove that on occasion they may not be of use. Mr. Heather Bigg, the +well-known surgeon, who is a specialist in cases of spinal curvature, +and who adopts mechanical means of treatment,[57] is in a position to +offer an opinion on the use of corsets, as he uses special ones as +precautionary means of support and where curvatures may threaten, as +well as to be safeguards against relapse after the mechanical treatment +of a curvature has been consummated. In one of his books he has much to +offer in favour of the corset, and at the outset it may be well to say +that Mr. Heather Bigg's remarks are mainly directed against the views of +the practitioner who, from the treatment that he advises, is called a +gymnastic practitioner, and who, according to Mr. Heather Bigg, goes +further than attacking matters of treatment, and in order to popularize +his own practice endeavours to entwine with it revolutions that shall +extend even to the simplest garments. For instance, the gymnastic +practitioner maintains that corsets are detrimental to health. + +Mr. Heather Bigg's opinions practically are those with which most +sensible people would entirely agree. The arguments which he brings +forward in favour of them are not, however, very conclusive, as we hope +to show. Corsets, he says, are intended in their right and proper use +simply to stay and support the body in its natural shape, and not to +mould it into funny forms according to the vagaries of fashion. The +women of classic times did not use them for this purpose. On the +contrary, they had no reason to do so, as their flowing garments did not +permit them to display the outlines of their figures; they therefore +simply wore corsets because it had been found by centuries of experience +that they were conducive to health and serviceable in exertion. + +His description of the original corset of Greece and Rome will show +to what ancient form of stay the modern corset may be traced. The +arrangements of the ancients consisted of three pieces, and these were +worn either together or separately, as required. They consisted of +supporting bands worn round the body in a way very similar to the +"putties" worn for support round the legs by the present-day soldiery. +The main and most useful portion of the corset was a zone, or loin band. +Then there was the thoracic band, or strophion, intended to uphold the +breasts and conserve the figure. And, lastly, there was the waistband, +which filled up the space between the other two. It is from the +conjunction of these triple bands that the modern corset has been +evolved, as it is worn by women of every class throughout civilized +Europe to-day. What was made before in three pieces is now simply +manufactured in one. + +Now let us consider the reasons given by Mr. Heather Bigg as to why +"women of all dominant and civilized races always wear, and with +advantage have worn, some binder or corset"; and again, why the whole +history of the world shows that extraneous support is beneficial. In +the first place, Mr. Heather Bigg says that in primitive and aboriginal +races that practically wear no clothes, the girls may be perfect in +form when they arrive at their full growth, but that they are, as a +rule, "hideous objects of disfigurement after their first child." The +inference is that civilized women retain their beauty in later life +owing to the fact that they have worn stays. On the other hand, the fact +that the native girls lose their beauty must, according to the argument, +be because they have not worn stays; but surely this can be compared +with the fading of a flower or its changing colour after fertilization, +and is rather due to the absence of any conditions or kind of selection +which would tend to preserve the woman's youthfulness. Besides, we need +go no farther than our own country to find cases where married women +gradually lose their beauty, and the Welsh and Italian women +proverbially age rapidly. + +The wearing of belts by navvies when they are doing heavy work is +possibly a precautionary measure against strain, but it does not refer +to the race as a whole, and one would take it that when it is said that +Elijah girt his loins in order to run before the chariot of Ahab, it +simply means that he fastened up his flowing garments. To the second +question as to history showing that extraneous support is beneficial, +Mr. Heather Bigg says that the answer is simple even if Darwinian. He +may claim that the "if" saves him, though unintentionally, for in his +argument he seems to ignore the main principles of evolution. He says, +first of all, that it might just as well be asked why any clothing +whatsoever should be found requisite by civilized mankind. He claims +rightly, and so far he is in keeping with Darwinism, that man, according +to his obvious mechanism and morphology, is a creature built on the +quadruped pattern. The word is spelt "quadrupled," though presumably +this is a printer's error; but he goes on to say that this building +was done with the intent that his body should be horizontal instead of +vertical. Of course, the body of the original quadruped was horizontal; +but in the course of evolution such changes were made as enabled man +to occupy an upright position. Mr. Heather Bigg talks as if it was an +intentional act on the part of man when he says that he "managed to +rear himself in a permanently erect position, and as he has chosen the +upright position, so he has to experience some of the penalties attached +to it." + +The state of affairs is this: man became perfectly well fitted for an +upright position, and his internal organs were arranged quite properly +for progress on two legs instead of four, although Mr. Heather Bigg +claims to the contrary. What may be the case is, that natural selection +no longer acts to keep man as perfectly constructed as he was, or to +improve him, and some human beings may need support, owing to weakness +or the undue development of their bust, just as those of us who suffer +from short sight and bad teeth take advantage of eye-glasses and the +skill of the dentist. We think it hardly time yet to say that all women +need stays, any more than that we all need eye-glasses or should be +provided with false teeth at a certain age. + +Summing up the matter, when human beings take up work for which their +bodies were not specially evolved, or when they wish to do things which +at one time all human beings could do, but which, through the cessation +of the action of natural selection, they are not now able to do, then +they want help. This would explain why our soldiers when marching in +South Africa found puttees so useful, as Mr. Heather Bigg maintains. + +The case of dress brought forward by Mr. Heather Bigg is exactly a case +in point. We have seen in the opening chapters of this book that man has +lost his hairy covering, and, so far as cold climates are concerned, we +must agree with Mr. Heather Bigg that it has been found by experience +that clothing is necessary for healthful warmth. All the same, we should +like to see some experiments tried to show whether even now it might not +be quite possible to exist in this climate with little or no artificial +covering. We do not agree at all with the statement that as man "has +reared himself from four legs on to two, so he has found by similar +experience that some sort of bandaged support is required in order to +assist an abdominal mechanism that is inadequate for biped progression." + +In order to prove that the gymnastic practitioner is wrong when he says +that corsets are injurious to health, Mr. Heather Bigg brings forward +the results of experiments made by Professors Roy and Adami, which he +says scientifically prove stays to be distinctly beneficial. These +experiments were described at the British Association Meeting in 1888, +under the title of "The Physiological Bearing of Waist-belts and Stays," +and the effects of these contrivances were tried not only upon men, but +upon animals. It was shown that a gentle compression of the abdomen +caused a greater flow of blood to other parts of the body, and conduced +in consequence to an increase of mental and muscular activity. The +experimenters do not seem to have waited to see whether in the course +of time these effects were or were not obtained at the expense of the +digestive organs, but they concluded that they had directly explained +"the beneficial and extensive use of some form or other of waist-belt by +all nations that had passed beyond the stage of absolute barbarity." + +The theory has been advanced that stays are derived from swaddling +clothes, and that the custom has survived in the case of women alone, +for we may neglect the occasional use of such garments by men in the +past at the present time, for, judging from advertisements in the +papers, their use is not confined to the fair sex. There seems, however, +little evidence in support of this theory, and inquiry from a lady who +has lived a long time in Palestine has elicited the information that +while swaddling clothes are still in use in the Holy Land, stays do not +form a part of native dress. + +The other part of the body which nowadays appears to be deformed to +the greatest extent is the foot. It seems to be considered absolutely +necessary, if one is to appear elegant, for one's toes to be pointed +in such a way that the apex of the angle is in the middle of the foot +instead of on the inner side; and although the two points are probably +unconnected, we might here mention the idea that in a perfect foot the +second toe ought to be longer than the great toe. This would make the +extreme end of the foot a little nearer the middle line, and in Art +the second toe is represented as being the longest in accordance with +the Greek canon. These proportions were copied from the Egyptian +representations, and the original is probably to be found in the +negroes, according to Sir William Flower. The latter points out that +the longer our big toe is, the further we are removed from apes; and he +found, too, that amongst hundreds of bare and therefore undeformed feet +of children in Perthshire, which he examined, he was not able to find +one in which the second toe was the longest. These children would, of +course, belong to the lower classes, and it would be interesting to know +whether the same thing holds good in higher social circles when the +foot remains normal. It may be well to remember that Sir William Flower +was a surgeon, for Mr. Heather Bigg, who tilts with the gymnastic +practitioner once more on the subject of boots and stockings, expresses +somewhat different ideas upon the question. He alludes to the two +classes of people in the British Isles who habitually discard boots and +stockings--the fisher-folk and factory girls in some of the large Scotch +cities. He says that he scarcely likes to be ungallant about the latter, +but commends the adult feet of both of these classes to the inspection +of those who would draft their children into the "bare-footed brigade." +He continues as follows: The truth is that the feet of those who have +been unbooted till they have reached adult life are splayed and spread, +large-jointed, and very generally deformed from all approach to the +ideal foot as it is depicted by the greatest painters, or modelled by +the greatest sculptors. + +We have seen that the ideal foot of the sculptors is probably not a true +ideal from an evolutionary point of view, and there is no doubt but that +the ideal foot would be the one produced under natural conditions in +which we cannot include boots and stockings. We should take it, however, +that the stones of the seashore and the floor of a factory are not the +ideal surfaces on which to habitually tread. + +There is no doubt but that the deformities caused by shoes are often +very great, and Sir William Flower sums up the matter in the following +sentences:--"The English mother or nurse who thrusts the tender feet +of a young child into stiff, unyielding, pointed shoes or boots, often +regardless of the essential difference in form of right and left at +a time when freedom is especially needed for their proper growth and +development, is the exact counterpart of the Chinook Indian woman, +applying her bandages and boards to the opposite end of her baby's body, +only with considerably less excuse; for a distorted head apparently less +affects health and comfort than cramped and misshapen feet, and was also +esteemed of more vital importance to preferment in Chinook society. +Any one who recollects the boots of the late Lord Palmerston will be +reminded that a wide expanse of shoe leather is in this country, even +during the prevalence of an opposite fashion, quite compatible with the +attainment of the highest political and social eminence."[58] + +After all, it is generally what our eyes are accustomed to that we +consider to be right and fitting. The broad-toed shoes that were adopted +in the reign of Henry VIII look clumsy to us; but so did the pneumatic +tyres of bicycles after we had got used to the look of the narrow solid +ones. It is not so much the wearing of boots of course, but the kind of +boots that has to be considered. + +The high heels of shoes add to the evil effects of the pointed toes, and +a copy of a drawing from an advertisement figured by Sir William Flower +recalls strongly the stunted foot of a Chinese woman which the wearer of +the shoe would be one of the first probably to anathematize. This brings +us to the malformation which has been caused through many centuries in +a country that can claim a good deal of civilization, and is produced by +special bandages after a long and very painful course of treatment. + +There is very little evidence of alteration in the form of the head +having been practised in this country, though one or two skulls have +been found, and there is a tradition that the custom prevailed not very +long ago in Norfolk. In France, however, it was well known until recent +years, and even it may not have now become extinct. There are plenty of +records in the works of early writers with regard to the practice, and +some of the North-American Indians still follow the fashion of their +fathers. The Chinook Indians flatten the skull between boards so that +they get the name of Flat-heads, and other tribes produce an elongated +skull by constructing bandages of deer hide. Deformation of the head +seems to have little effect on the free-living American Indians, but +the same statement does not hold good among Europeans. According to the +reports of French physicians, they have traced all kinds of troubles to +the practice. + +If we have little evidence of head-deforming in this country by means +of compression, we meet occasionally with prehistoric skulls which +have been trepanned, and have had inserted into them a small piece of +extraneous bone. It is curious that such an operation could have been +successfully made when there were probably no instruments of metal +with which it could be done, and one might well ask what object could +possibly have been in view, especially as the individual so treated had +met with no accident that could have rendered the operation necessary. +It appears, however, that the piece of bone was probably that of some +dead relative, the idea being that the incorporation of it in the head +of the young man would give him the qualities of the chief who had +departed. It is this notion which probably led to cannibalism. When a +brave warrior was slain, his conqueror thought that by eating a small +piece of him he might add his adversary's prowess to his own, and no +doubt when a respected relative died it was thought that his good +qualities would pass to those who ate a portion of him. + +Besides the alterations that have been permanently made in the shape of +the body, there are many curious instances where clothes themselves have +been utilized for the purpose of apparently altering its shape. We have +seen that Punch's curious figure is due to a costume, while the stuffed +breeches adopted in the reign of James I, the great farthingale of +Elizabeth's reign, the hooped petticoat of Queen Anne's, and the +crinoline of the nineteenth century are instances of fashions that +originated with or without apparent reasons. + +Just as Mrs. Aria discovered what she terms the ancestress of the +straight-fronted specialité corset on a bas-relief of a female figure +from one of the mysterious forest cities in South America, so Mr. Rhead +has reminded us of the festal dress of Otaheite which Captain Cook +figured in his "Geography." + +Our grandmothers in their crinoline may have looked like walking +hay-cocks; but the young women of Otaheite who carry presents from one +person of rank to another look as if they were issuing from an immense +drum. It is nothing new to make up deficiencies with padding that is +intended to deceive, and while at one time our countrywomen may have +made themselves flat-chested with the help of leaden weights, some, +judging from articles which we now see displayed in the shops, are +willing to call to their aid artificial contrivances which give the +appearance of plumpness to their bust. + +When speaking of padding, one might recall the fact that the most usual +place in which it is to be found--in civilians' clothes at least--is on +the shoulder. This reminds us of the way in which sleeves were sometimes +puffed up above the shoulder. The protuberance thus formed, Dr. Meyer +tells us, was originally intended to prevent weapons from slipping +off when they were carried over the shoulder. The fashion has since, +however, been adopted in civilian costume both by men and by women. + + + + +XXXVI + +FURTHER EFFECTS OF CLOTHES ON THE INDIVIDUAL + + MENTAL EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT CLOTHES--PREFERENCES OF GIRLS FOR + CERTAIN ARTICLES OF DRESS--MOVEMENTS THAT DEPEND UPON THE + PRESENCE OR ABSENCE OF CLOTHES + + +Putting on one side the special points of detriment which clothes bring +about with regard to the body, we may turn to more general effects. Our +language is full of proverbial sayings as to the way in which clothes +may give beauty, and also as to how much we owe to fine feathers and to +our tailors. Quite apart from the results which clothes have upon other +people, there are the mental effects which are produced on ourselves. +That it is not, perhaps, comfort or discomfort altogether which +causes our body to react on the mind, is shown by the results of some +investigations made by Dr. Louis W. Flaccus among the schoolgirls of New +York.[59] + +Feelings of lightheartedness are the result of filmy clothes, and +one girl of eighteen said that whenever she had on a garment of this +consistency she always wanted to dance. The pleasant mental effects of +gauzy stuffs and laces are said by the investigator to be due not only +to their lightness, but to the mental associations with which they are +connected. Such dresses as those which we have mentioned suggest some +gay social function. Again, just as the putting on of a smoking jacket +suggests relaxation to a man, so does the assuming of evening dress +impart the idea that correct behaviour is necessary. Heavy clothes bring +about mental depression. + +"In a large, heavy hat my spirits are low," says one of the girls who +were interrogated, and Dr. Flaccus claims that the mood may change with +the hat, while that he has evidence to go upon will be seen from the +following answers: "A broad hat makes me feel jolly"; "If my hat is flat +on my forehead, I feel depressed"; "If I have a fancy hat on, I am in a +coquettish mood"; or again, "I feel brighter in a hat that rolls away +from my face." Then the effect which certain surfaces have upon various +persons has to be taken into consideration when dealing with this aspect +of the subject, for clothes are made of very different materials. +To touch a blanket will set some individuals' teeth on edge, and an +irritable mood may result when rough material rubs against the skin. +Again, while one person feels chills running down her back when she +touches velvet, another will delight to feel a velvety surface. Another +remarkable thing which Dr. Flaccus has brought before us is the striking +difference between the preferences which girls have for certain articles +of clothing. + +Most of the girls to whom the questions were addressed put shoes first; +gloves came very close, then neckwear, hats, underwear, jewellery, and +ribbons; and though this may not fit in with the ideas of the humorists +on the subject, the weakness for hats was shown to be less than +one-third that for gloves. + +Speaking of the effect that clothes may have upon the action of +people, we may recall the way in which skirts and trousers may give +rise to different habits. If one drops anything into a boy's lap he +instinctively brings his knees together to prevent the object thrown +from falling between them; whereas a girl would throw her thighs apart +in order to make a receptacle with her frock. Advantage has been taken +of this fact by those who wished to discover whether a person with whom +they were dealing was a woman, or a man masquerading in female attire. + +More than one novelist has enlarged on this theme, and Mark Twain +has used it effectively in the "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn." The +occasion is when the hero visits Mrs. Judith Loftus at St. Petersburg, +in order to find out what is going on with regard to the murder. Mrs. +Loftus, whose suspicions were aroused, got the boy who was dressed up as +a girl, to thread a needle, to throw a bit of lead at a rat, and having +gained some evidence from these two experiments, she tried a third. + +She says, "Keep your eye on the rats; you had better have the lead in +your lap handy." Huckleberry's story continues: "So she dropped the lump +into my lap just at that moment. I clapped my legs together on it, and +she went on talking, but only about a minute. Then she took off the hank +(he was holding some yarn), and looked me straight in the face, but very +pleasant, and said: + +"Come, now--what's your real name?" + +"Wh-what, mum?" + +"What's your real name? Is it Bill, or Tom, or Bob, or what is it?" + + + + +XXXVII + +THE RISE AND FALL OF FASHIONS + + REASONS WHY FASHIONS ARE FOLLOWED--GAY CLOTHES SEEN WHEN PERIODS + OF DEPRESSION ARE OVER--CONDEMNATION OF FASHIONS BY THE + CLERGY--QUAKERS--SUMPTUARY LAWS--THE KILLING OF FASHIONS + + +The rise and fall of fashions is a matter that affects every nation and +practically every individual, for savages are quite as much harassed and +tortured by them as any civilized people are. Fashions are perpetuated, +as Herbert Spencer has pointed out, by imitation, and from two motives +which are widely divergent. It may be prompted by reverence for the one +imitated, on the one hand, or by a desire to assert equality with him. +In the beginning, no doubt fashions arose with an idea to improve upon +nature, though notions as to ideals of beauty must have been hazy in +many cases. + +Fashions have been advanced as evidence in support of the proverb +that there is nothing new under the sun, and the way in which some of +them come round again goes a very long way to prove it in the case of +clothes. Luckily some enormities seem to have died out, but in the light +of past history we can never feel quite safe, and we never know, on the +other hand, where some slight change which in itself seems novel may not +lead us to ridiculous extremes. Of course, many garments and styles are +importations from other countries. The pelisse came from Persia at the +time of the Crusaders, just as the kimono was brought in recent times +from Japan. Fads and peculiarities and even deformities of Royalty, +as we saw in the case of the peruke, have introduced fashions. The +crinoline, according to all accounts, was first devised to hide the +shape of a princess. Perhaps no other contrivance has brought more +nuisance in its train or had more ridicule poured upon it; but it is +only one instance of many fashions that have been carried to excess. It +is true, as we shall have occasion to mention, that in earlier times +laws were enacted to restrict the size of ruffs and the length of the +toes of shoes, but often with little effect, and when shape and size did +not occupy attention, the costliness of the garment caused restrictions +to be made, while the clergy seem never to have ceased from inveighing +against the follies of fashions. + +In the twelfth century the devil was represented by an old illustrator +in the costume of a fine lady with the long hanging sleeves and tightly +laced bodice of the time. A hundred years later English preachers took +exception to laced openings through which ladies showed their costly +under-linen, and dignified them with the name of "gates of hell." In the +twentieth century ministers in the United States have wasted their time +in scolding the lady members of their congregations for wearing fancy +stockings. Sometimes, on the other hand, the clergy themselves have laid +themselves open to criticism with regard to the gorgeousness of their +apparel. + +[Illustration: FIG. 168.--A Merveilleuse (after A. Robida).] + +Periods of depression have been followed by fashions of the gayest. We +may recall the times of Charles II, when England breathed again after +the civil wars. After the French Revolution, when the reign of terror +was over, the Merveilleuses went back to the dresses of antiquity, such +as the Athenian costume and that of the Lacedemonian girls, whose tunics +were slit down the sides from the hips. When this was not done the +skirts were looped up on the left side above the knee with a cameo +brooch. (See Figure 168.) One writer records a wager in which a lady +betted that her dress, including trinkets, did not weigh two pounds. She +afterwards retired and took off the dress, which was weighed, and the +whole costume turned the scales at a little over a pound. One of these +dresses went by the name of the "female savage," and consisted of a +gauze chemise over pink fleshings, with golden garters. It is not +surprising that such costumes, like others before, brought down upon +them the condemnation of the Church, and the following "bull," dated at +Rome on the 16th October, 1800, is reprinted from _The Times_ of January +28th, 1801:-- + +"The Pope, so long engaged in reducing the Gallican Church within the +Catholic pale, has not been negligent of the duty of recalling the +female form within the petticoat and the handkerchief. After speaking +in appropriate terms of the present scarcity of clothing, and of the +sensations it may excite even in the withered bosom of a monk, and +quoting the authority of St. Clement of Alexandria, His Holiness +strictly enjoins his officers, civil and ecclesiastical, to repress, by +fine or corporal punishment, according to the circumstances of the case, +these crying enormities. He directs, too, that their punishment should +be extended to such damsels as though at first sight they appear +properly attired, are nevertheless decked in transparent robes, and with +a voluptuous and magnificent attire display themselves in very seductive +and tempting attitudes. Moreover, fathers, husbands, heads of families, +who weakly or negligently permit their wives, daughters, servants, etc., +to trespass against these rules, shall not escape with impunity. Also, +all taylors, haberdashers, milliners and men-milliners, hairdressers, +and others who contribute to these enormities of dress shall in no +wise pass unpunished." The bull goes on to state that "all priests, +confessors, overseers, churchwardens, and others shall in no wise admit +such delinquents to the Holy Supper; that they shall not allow women +improperly dressed to enter the church, and if they come they shall be +driven out, and if they resist, the higher powers shall be required to +lend their aid." + +It is said that a Russian nobleman who was used to judge the position of +ladies by the amount of furs and clothes that they wore, on seeing an +English lady in a costume of the merveilleuse style offered her money in +the belief that she was a beggar. + +Fashions may have a special significance, as in the case of bell-bottom +trousers of the costermonger, for it is said that by the cut of these +garments the progress of the wearer's courtship can be traced. When he +first "walks out," the bottoms of his trousers are of such an ample size +that only the toes of his boots can be seen. As matters proceed and the +wedding comes into view, the trousers assume more moderate dimensions +below the knee, and when at last the man is married he is content with a +bell of quite modest proportions, with what a writer in one of our comic +papers describes as an almost total absence of "sauciness" in the cut of +the garment. + +The lengths to which women will go in their desire to appear in the +fashion, even if they are not, is shown by the business which a lady in +New York is said to have founded. According to all accounts, she deals +in nothing but discarded Paris waistbands--that is to say, those which +bear the names of well-known dressmakers. Women in plenty in New York +will buy these little strips of silk in order to have them stitched +into their own dresses, to give their friends the impression that their +garments were made in the French capital. + +Laws intended for the good of trade have brought in fashions, as in the +case of the statute cap. The very objections made by religious sects +such as the Puritans and Quakers, who have departed from extravagance +and superfluity, have given rise to new fashions of plainness. Even +Quaker ladies must have shown their love of dress, for at a meeting in +1726 the following message was sent by some of the stronger-minded of +them to their fellow-women:-- + +"As first, that immodest fashion of hooped petticoats or the imitation, +either by something put into their petticoats to make them set full, or +any other imitation whatever, which we take to be but a branch springing +from the same corrupt root of pride. And also that none of our ffriends +accustom themselves to wear their gowns with superfluous folds behind, +but plain and decent, nor go without aprons, nor to wear superfluous +gathers or plaits in their caps or pinners, nor to wear their heads +drest high behind; neither to cut or lay their hair on their foreheads +or temples. + +"And that ffriends be careful to avoid wearing striped shoes or red and +white heeled shoes or clogs or shoes trimmed with gaudy colours. + +"And also that no ffriends use that irreverent practice of taking snuff +or handing a snuff-box one to the other in meeting. + +"Also that ffriends avoid the unnecessary use of fans in meeting, lest +it direct the mind from the more inward and spiritual exercises which +all ought to be concerned in. + +"And also that ffriends do not accustom themselves to go with bare +breasts or bare necks." + +Perhaps in a minor way superstitions also have tended to keep up +fashions. At a wedding, for instance, it is always said that a bride +should wear + + Something old and something new, + Something borrowed and something blue. + +The enactments, however, which were directed against excess in dress do +not seem to have always been so successful. The part which the law +has played with regard to dress in our own country has been very +considerable, and it may be of interest to consider briefly one or two +of the so-called sumptuary laws. + +In Edward III's reign the people were ordered to dress according to +their station, and those who were not of high rank were forbidden to +use expensive furs and ornaments. These orders were so neglected that +Henry IV revised and strengthened them. Slashed sleeves at the time of +Edward IV were prohibited to yeomen and any one below their rank. +Legislation was also introduced to lessen the preposterous length to +which the toes of shoes had grown, for it was enacted that not even the +gentlemen should have them of a greater length than two inches. + +The Recorder of Chester shows the following order made by Henry VIII: +"To distinguish the head-dresses of married women from unmarried, no +married woman to wear white or other coloured caps; and no woman to wear +any hat, unless she rides or goes abroad into the country (except sick +or aged persons), on pain of 3s. 4d." + +Another law amounted to a tax on persons who dressed elegantly, for +those who would not keep a horse and armour ready for the wars were +fined heavily if they or their wives wore fine clothes or ornaments. It +is probable, too, that Henry VIII's officers took care to collect the +fines. + +Mary brought in a law against the use of silk, and a little later on the +great ruffs claimed attention, for in 1562 it was ordered that no more +than a yard and a half of kersey should be used in making a ruff. James +I repealed all the sumptuary laws, though we have seen that he and his +successors occupied themselves somewhat with the dress of the clergy. + +In Scotland, after the rising of 1745, an Act was passed forbidding the +wearing of tartan as part of Highland dress, under the penalty of six +months' imprisonment for the first offence and transportation beyond the +seas for seven years for the second. No Highlander could receive the +benefit of the Act of Indemnity without first taking the following oath: +"I, A.B., do swear, and as I shall answer to God at the great day of +judgement, I have not, nor shall have, in my possession any gun, sword, +pistol, or arm whatsoever, and never use tartan, plaid, or any part of +the Highland garb; and if I do so, may I be cursed in my undertakings, +family, and property,--may I never see my wife and children, father, +mother, or relations,--may I be killed in battle as a coward, and lie +without Christian burial, in a strange land, far from the graves of +my forefathers and kindred; may all this come across me if I break my +oath." This severe and harsh Act caused great discontent, and was +repealed in 1772. + +As showing the hindrances caused to trade by some of the peculiar +regulations, we find that in 1565 the Recorder of London describes +an interview which he had with civic tailors, who were puzzled as to +whether they should "line a slop hose, not cut in panes, with a lining +of cotton stitched to the slop over and besydes the linen lining +straight to the leg." The Recorder, on considering the words of the +proclamation which had caused the trouble, gave it as his opinion that +they could not; but the tailors, though they went away satisfied, came +back to say that their customers had gone to other tailors outside +the City, who made their clothes for them in the way that was first +suggested. It was this contretemps which caused the Recorder to write to +a higher legal authority. + +Nowadays clothes and the law have little to do with one another, +though occasionally ladies' dresses about which there is a dispute are +seriously tried on in court, the legal luminaries meanwhile making a +studied pretence of ignorance with regard to the garments. Though there +are no statutes to curb modern fashions, yet we are reminded of the +rules that have had to be made in certain theatres on account of the +overwhelming size of the matinée hat. + +Although the law does not seem to have been able to change the fashions +to a very great extent, they have sometimes been killed suddenly. In +the days of public executions, criminals sometimes elected to wear +fashionable garments, and in consequence the demand for them ceased. +Sometimes, again, those who were interested in the suppression of the +fashion persuaded the doomed man or woman to wear a particular dress, +and a judge has been known to compass the same end by ordering the +hangman who officiated to deck himself in the objectionable garment. + +The wearing of nightgowns in the street by ladies was stopped owing to a +woman being executed in her bedgown. The use of yellow starch had its +death-blow when the hangman appeared in orange collar and cuffs. Black +satin dresses went out of fashion because Mrs. Manning was hung when +wearing one. Now, however, as there are no public executions, there is +not this opportunity of getting rid of obnoxious styles, and society +ought to look about for another means to repress them. + + + + +XXXVIII + +DRESS REFORM + +CLOTHES TO BE AVOIDED--NEED FOR WARMER GARMENTS--"RATIONAL" DRESS FOR +WOMEN + + +It is evident from what we have said about the effect of clothes upon +the body, that there is ample opportunity for improvement in our costume +as regards its shape and the methods in which it is worn. We have +already said also, when speaking of colour, that, in the case of men +at any rate, it might often be more picturesque and brighter. There +are several societies whose aim it is to bring about improvements. The +Rational Dress League has general objects in view, and it also keeps in +mind the special one of introducing bifurcated garments for women. There +is also the Healthy and Artistic Dress Union which seems to have general +objects. + +Education is needed in order that knowledge of the evil results of +wrongly shaped shoes and tight stays may be known, and what is more, +such training as will enable that strength of mind to be acquired +which will prevent the coming generation from being swayed by foolish +fashions. The origin of these it is difficult to trace, but the pioneers +of them, whether self-centred costumiers or willing victims, ought +to be punished in some way. There are points to be borne in mind in +connection with garments which have not yet been considered, and they +cause otherwise unoffending clothes to do harm. There is no doubt but +that the weight of one's dress should be suspended from the shoulders, +though the great majority of women hang much of their clothes from their +waists. A good deal of the weight could easily be taken off this part of +the body by the fastening of skirts and under garments to bodices, or by +the use of shoulder-straps and the introduction of tunics. + +Dr. Cantlie[60] has very graphically shown the common features of a +modern family, and he has given a picture (see Figure 169) of a group +consisting of the average-sized mother, the taller and larger-framed +daughter, and the insufficiently clad boy of poor physique. This author +says that the sailor suit worn at the age of two and a half or three +years is a recent innovation, and the rather puny young boy of to-day +came in with the change. Dr. Cantlie has estimated that, except in very +hot weather, children should have a pound of clothing for every stone +they weigh, for the one great secret of rendering children healthy is +to keep them warm. As a matter of fact, a girl that weighs three stone +really wears clothes that weigh three pounds; but one of the small boys +of the same weight, in a sailor suit, wears clothes that only weigh +about half as much as his sister's. + +Dr. Cantlie also objects to short jackets which do not cover the loins, +and says that the public school that will introduce the Norfolk jacket +in the place of the Eton will thrive at the expense of its neighbours. + +High collars worn by youths keep the head at the wrong angle, and also +perpetuate the deformity of the jaw which is caused by breathing through +the mouth. They also prevent the shoulders from being squared in the +attempt to get rid of round shoulders. Dr. Cantlie urges a return to +the brace worn by our fathers, and still occasionally seen, in which +the straps are not united. It is impossible for any one wearing joined +braces to stand erect with the shoulders squared, for they press on +the neck and cause the wearer to poke his head forward. Dr. Cantlie, +however, hopes that the difficulties in the way of obtaining separate +braces will not lead to the adoption of the elastic belt, for the only +place where this could be worn without bad effects is below the haunch +bones, and in ordinary dress this would bring it below the waistcoat. It +will be found also that the use of belts by labourers brings evils in +its train which were not mentioned by Mr. Heather Bigg, when speaking of +the advantages of girding up the loins. (See page 329.) + +No account of dress and its developments would be complete without a +reference to Mrs. Bloomer and the garments which now bear her name, and +are emblematical of rational costume. That women have no absolute claim +to petticoats as their own special dress has been made quite clear, and +it is equally evident that in many places they wear trousers as a matter +of course. Still, in this country there seems to be a rooted objection +on the part of the majority to doffing skirts, though this seems, +however, to be growing less day by day, in spite of the many reasons +which cause the fair sex to cling to petticoats. As we have found +before, garments which fall to the ground give dignity, and women +sacrifice their dignity with difficulty. Yet, as need hardly be +pointed out, men do not wear dressing-gowns when they are jumping, nor +fur-trimmed mantles when they go to business. Dresses with trains could +be kept for ceremonial occasions, or when there is nothing much to be +done, or again, we might add, when there is little dust to be raised. + +[Illustration: FIG. 169.--A modern family, consisting of the +average-sized mother, the taller daughter, and the puny boy (from a +drawing by Miss Audrey Watson in "Physical Efficiency," by Dr. Cantlie, +by kind permission of Messrs. Putnam's Sons).] + +Bacteriology has shown us that the long skirt disseminates germs as it +trails along the ground; in fact, it stirs them up for other people to +breathe, and the culprit herself carries off as her fair share a large +quantity which settles on her dress. In this way the germs of disease +are carried home to the dwelling-house. + +In these days also, when women even jump on and off motor omnibuses +before they are at a stand-still, it is evident that long frocks are +objectionable and dangerous. + +When lady gardeners were first employed at Kew Gardens, it was found +that their skirts got in the way, and were liable to damage the plants. +The Director ordered that the girls should wear a suitable costume, and +they adopted divided garments, though it must be said that they covered +them to some extent with an apron. In riding-dress of course ladies wear +trousers under their habits when they use a side saddle, although it has +been considered right of recent years for them to ride astride, and from +time to time we hear that it is being done. In the time of Stephen and +of Edward III women rode astride, and the ladies in Mexico and other +parts of America regularly do so at the present time. + +Chaucer described "The Wife of Bath" as wearing "on her feet a paire of +spurries sharpe." From this we may judge that she also adopted a cross +saddle, and as a matter of fact in the Elesmere MSS. we find a picture +of her, showing that she rode astride, and was dressed in a curious +garment like a divided bag. On the Continent, ladies who go shooting +very often dress like their husbands, and a year or two ago the American +newspapers were full of accounts of a lady who imitated the riding +costume of a hunting man to the smallest detail. Apropos of this, _The +Field_[61] told an amusing story of an English lady who in a measure +unintentionally forestalled our American cousins, for after she had had +the best part of her habit carried away by some aggressive brambles, she +was seen scudding after her horse in a pair of real top boots. + +Divided garments only appear unfeminine because we are unaccustomed to +see them on ladies, and it is no secret that they are worn to a very +great extent under skirts. Doubtless there may be some to whom the +very idea of such a thing is abhorrent, and possibly there are still +wardrobes like those of a good lady mentioned by Miss Alice Morse +Earle[62] in her book on the "Costume of Colonial Times." She was +the wife of a respectable and well-to-do Dutch settler in the New +Netherlands, and her name was Vrouentje Ides Stoffelsen, and she left +behind her in 1641, "a gold hoop ring, a silver medal and chain, and a +silver undergirdle to hang keys on; a damask furred jacket, two black +camlet jackets, two doublets, one iron gray, the other black; a blue, a +steel-gray lined petticoat, and a black coarse camlet-lined petticoat; +two black skirts, a new bodice, two white waistcoats, one of Harlem +stuff; a little black vest with two sleeves, a pair of damask sleeves, +a reddish mourning gown, not linen; four pair pattens, one of Spanish +leather; a purple apron and four blue aprons, nineteen cambric caps and +four linen ones; a fur cap trimmed with beaver; nine linen handkerchiefs +trimmed with lace, two pair of old stockings, and three shifts. One +disposed to be critical might note the somewhat scanty proportion of +underclothing in this wardrobe, and as Ides's husband swore 'by his +manly troth' that the list of her possessions was a true and complete +one, we are forced to believe that it was indeed all the underclothing +she possessed." + +It seems, however, as we have said before, that the actual ugliness of +many of the so-called bloomer costumes which were in vogue a few years +ago, did much to keep back progress in the direction of their adoption. +It seems as if women were frightened, as it were, to go the whole hog, +and instead of wearing neat knickerbockers they had them exceedingly +baggy and inelegant, or adopted a kind of hybrid costume, half bloomers +and half skirt. + +Let us see what the tendency now is with regard to a rational dress +for women. Mrs. Bloomer had a skirt just below the knees, and trousers +gathered in at the ankles. The modern bloomers come only to the knee, +but really, as Dr. Bernard O'Connor says when writing in the Gazette +published by the Rational Dress League,[63] "they are made too full." +Dr. O'Connor recommends for active exercise, such as cycling, something +like a sailor's jacket and sailor's trousers, but the latter should end +and be gathered in at the knees. In addition there should be long +tight stockings, and Dr. O'Connor adds that tights throughout would be +preferable to the ordinary bloomers. + +It would seem, however, that this dress for general use might be +improved as regards both form and elegance, and that a long coat or +tunic, reaching nearly to the knees, with fairly tight knickerbockers, +is the rational dress that is most to be commended for women. + + + + +CONCLUSION + + +By way of ending, we would again point out that the account which we +have given of survivals in dress and their history, shows that they in +their development are governed by the same laws as those which act on +the bodies and organs of living creatures, and we hope that what we have +gathered together may be taken as a small contribution to "the proper +study of mankind," which we have been told times out of number is +nothing more nor less than "man." + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHY + +The small numbers given in the text correspond with those printed here. + + + NO. PAGE + 1. "The Origin of Species," by Charles Darwin. (First edition + published 1859) 2 + + 2. "Development in Dress," by George H. Darwin. _Macmillan's + Magazine_, September, 1872, page 410 3 + + 3. "_Pithecanthropus erectus_, eine Menschenaehnliche + Uebergangsform aus Java," by Eug. Dubois, Batavia, 1894 7 + + 4. "Journal during the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle," by Charles + Darwin. Minerva Library, 1889, page 154 11 + + 5. "The Industrial Arts of Denmark," by J. J. A. Worsaae. + 1882, page 48 18 + + 6. See Number 2, page 412 30 + + 7. Notice of Lecture given by Mr. Allan Poe Newcombe, in the + Sandwich Islands. Quoted from the _Honolulu Commercial + Advertiser_ in _The English Mechanic_, No. 1934 49 + + 8. See Number 6 58 + + 9. "The Human Beast of Burden," by Otis T. Mason. Smithsonian + Report of the United States National Museum, 1887, page + 246 110 + + 10. "Anthropology," by Edward B. Tylor. 1892, page 236 111 + + 11. "The British Lake Dwellings near Glastonbury." 1896, + page 13 117 + + 12.} "The Gem Cutter's Craft," by Leopold Claremont. 1906, 123 + 13.} pages 75 and 87 124 + + 14.} "Some Suggestions as to the Origin of the Penannular + 15.} Brooch," by Edward Lovett. _The Reliquary_, Vol. X, + 1904, page 15 125 + + 16. "Races of Man," by Oscar Peschel. English Translation, + 1889, page 174 136 + + 17. "The Cyclopædia of the British Costumes, from the + Metropolitan Repository of Fashions." 1826, page 196 145 + + 18. A letter in _The Morning Post_ of November 12th, 1897, + from Messrs. André & Co. 153 + + 19. "English Costume," painted and described by Dion Clayton + Calthrop. 1906, page 130 156 + + 20. Article on "Cockades" in _The Sketch_ for March 9th, 1898 158 + + 21. See Number 19 159 + + 22. "Costume from Monumental Brasses," by Herbert Druitt. 1906 165 + + 23. "Rational Dress _v._ Industrialism," _The Rational Dress + Gazette_, No. 88, by Dr. Alice Vickery, page 356 165 + + 24. "Shoe-throwing at Weddings," by James E. Crombie, _Folk + Lore_, Vol. VI (1895), page 258 176 + + 25. "Ecclesiastical Vestments, their Development and History," + by R. A. S. Macalister. 1896, page 140 185 + + 26. "Vestiarium Christianium: the Origin and Gradual + Development of the Dress of the Holy Ministry in the + Church," by the Rev. Wharton D. Marriott. 1861, page 48 188 + + 27. See Number 25, page 21 189 + + 28. A letter in _The Guardian_, by G. C. Coulton, August, 1907 194 + + 29. Paedag. Lib. iii., page 300 205 + + 30. See Number 22, page 122 210 + + 31. "College Caps and Doctors' Hats," by Professor E. C. + Clark. _Archæological Journal_, Vol. LXI. 1894, page 36 213 + + 32. See Number 22, page 224 216 + + 33. "The Sacring of the English Kings," by J. Wickham Legg. + _Archæological Journal_, Vol. XLI. 1894, page 35 221 + + 34. "History of the King's Body Guard of the Yeomen of the + Guard," by Colonel Sir Reginald Hennell. 1904, plate + facing page 32 225 + + {"Uniforms of our Fighting Forces, Regimental Survivals + 35.{ and Peculiarities," by R. Caton Woodville. _Cassell's + 36.{ Magazine_, 1906, page 524; and "Peculiarities of British + { Army Dress," by Walter Wood. _Pall Mall Magazine_, Vol. + { XI. 1897, page 527 238 + + 37. "Yester Year," by A. Robida, English translation, page 83 253 + + 38. A Lecture given by Mr. George Heppel before the + Hammersmith Literary and Scientific Society 253 + + 39. "Naples in 1888," by Eustace Neville Rolffe 254 + + 40. "Notes by a Naturalist on H.M.S. Challenger," by Professor + Moseley 272 + + 41. See Number 40, page 423 273 + + 42. "Costume in England," by F. W. Fairholt. Revised Edition, + 1885, Vol. II, page 303 278 + + 43. "The Whole Stock of a Coquette," by Helen C. Gordon. + _English Illustrated Magazine_, February, 1901, page 451 279 + + 44. "Costume: Fanciful, Historical, and Theatrical," by Mrs. + Aria. 1906, page 199 281 + + 45. "Curiosities of Literature," by Disraeli. Vol. I, page 186 283 + + 46. See Number 19, page 20 287 + + 47. See Number 42, page 240 289 + + 48. "Suggested Moorish Origin of certain Amulets in use in + Great Britain," by Dr. Plowright. _The Reliquary,_ Vol. + XII, 1906, page 106 293 + + 49. "Horse Brasses," by Lina Eckenstein. _The Reliquary,_ Vol. + XII, 1906, page 251 293 + + 50. "Animal Artisans," by C. J. Cornish. 1906, page 251 300 + + 51. Article by Mr. Yoxall in _The Journal of Gipsy Lore_, new + series, Vol. I, part I, 1907 306 + + 52. Article by Mr. J. Chevasse. _Evening News_, April 5th, + 1907 316 + + 53. Article in _The Daily Mail_, September 4th, 1907 317 + + 54. "Essays on Museums and other subjects connected with + Natural History," by Sir William Flower. 1898, page 350 324 + + 55. See Number 37, page 91 325 + + 56. "The History of the Corset," by Geraldine Vane and F. Glen + Walker. _Lady's Realm_ Summer Number, 1901 326 + + 57. "Spinal Curvatures," by Heather Bigg. 1905 326 + + 58. See Number 54, page 347 335 + + 59. Article in _The Morning Leader_ of April 17th, 1906 339 + + 60. "Physical Efficiency," by James Cantlie. 1906 355 + + 61. Leaderette in _The Field_, August 29th, 1902, page 452 359 + + 62. "Costume of Colonial Times," by Alice Morse Earle, page 28 359 + + 63. "Why Won't They Alter It?" by Bernard O'Connor, _Rational + Dress Gazette_, No. 87, page 352 361 + + + + +INDEX + + +NOTE.--_The numbers in heavy type refer to the pages on which figures +will be found._ + + + Abbesses, costume of, 198 + + Abergavenny, the Marquis of, wears badges, 91 + + Academical dress, 208 + -- hoods, 210 + + Achievements, styles of, 87 + + Acrobat, dress of, 286 + -- tights of, 286 + -- trunk hose of, 286 + + Admiral, uniform of, worn by coxswains at Eton on the Fourth of + June, 171 + + Africa, the West Coast of, little clothing worn on, 8 + + Aggries, 113 + + Agilbert, Bishop of Paris, ring of, 114 + + Aiglets, 100 + + Aiguillettes, 101, =101= + -- Mr. Caton Woodville on, 240 + -- of aides-de-camp, 240 + -- -- footmen, 141, =141=, 240 + -- -- Household Cavalry, 240 + -- -- a Knight of the Bath, 231 + -- -- -- Knight of St. Michael and St. George, 231 + + Ailette, 84 + + Albe, 198, 199 + -- of James II, 221 + -- originally a secular garment, 189 + -- replaced by surplice, 185 + + Alhambra, 293 + + Almshouses, costumes of, 170 + + Almuce, 198, 199 + -- forerunner of the tippet, 212 + + Ambassadors, cockade of Danish, 160 + -- -- -- English, 160 + -- -- -- Foreign, 160 + -- -- -- French, 160 + + American, dress of the, 318 + + Amethyst, supposed powers of the, 124 + + Amice, 200, 221 + + Amulet, arrow-head, 296 + + Amulets buried with the head of ancient Egyptians, 122 + -- crescent-shaped, 293 + -- heart-shaped, 295, 296 + -- worn by Egyptian children, 123 + + Andaman Islanders, painting the body among, 276 + + André, Messrs., & Co., on cockades, 153 + + Anglo-Saxon, bandaged stocking of, 67, =67= + + Animal actors, clothes of, 301 + + Animals, colour of, in connection with ceremonials, 303 + -- curious variations of, produced under domestication, 302 + -- spotted when young, 94 + -- mutilation of, 302 + + Anklets, 9 + + Anne, apron of Queen, 150 + -- Consort of James I, glove of, 98, =99= + + Antiquities, Museum of, Copenhagen, 178 + + Apparel of chasuble called an orphrey, 196 + -- on albe, possibly remains of clavi, 193 + + Appendix, vermiform, 3 + + Apron, 149 + -- of barge-woman, milk-woman, and hospital nurse, 150 + -- -- bishop, a vestige of the cassock, 200 + -- -- housemaid, 149 + -- -- Judy, 263, =263= + -- -- masons, 232 + -- -- nuns, 202 + -- -- Queen Anne, 150 + + Aprons, tiger skin, of Leicestershire Regiment, 249 + + Arab women, 122 + -- -- ideas of modesty, 207 + + Arabs use folds of robes as pockets, 110 + + Archers, Scottish, coats of, 226 + + Aria, Mrs., on the ancestress of the straight-fronted specialité + corset, 337 + -- -- on the unwritten laws that rule the wearing of a mask, 281 + + Armlets conferred on soldiers, 114 + -- need for cooling, in some climates, 114 + + Armorial bearings on ladies' dresses, 84, =85= + + Armour, 83 + -- a development of dress, 12 + -- of chargers, 292 + + Arms, coat of, 83 + -- of England, 86 + -- -- schools and colleges, 90 + -- -- Thomas à Becket, =198= + + Arran murder case, 178 + + Arrow-head amulets, 296 + + Arrow-heads, flint, as pendants, 123 + + Arts, gown of master of, 210 + -- hood of bachelor of, 212 + + Atella, celebrated for Italian farces, 254 + + Athletic clubs, parti-coloured dress of, 313 + + Aurelian, distribution of oraria by, 192 + + Austria, Emperor of, 244 + + Austrian, dress of the, 318 + + Axe for killing wounded horses, 242 + + Ayahs, nose-rings of, 111 + + + Babylon, finger-rings in, 114 + + Baby's glove without fingers, 94, =95= + + Bachelor of Arts, hood of, 212 + + Badge and crest, difference between, 90 + -- broad arrow, 91 + -- of Black Prince, 88 + -- -- Edward III, 91 + -- -- the porters of the Inner Temple, 91 + + Badges, hereditary, 90 + -- signs derived from royal, 91 + -- regimental, 243, 245 + -- of Gloucestershire regiment, 245 + -- -- private firemen, 91 + + Badges of the Yeomen of the Guard, 224, =224= + -- -- Watermen, 91 + -- worn by the Marquis of Abergavenny, 91 + + Bag-wig, vestige of the, 133, =134=, 143, =143=, 228, =229= + + Baildon, Mr. Paley, on new garments put over old, 148 + -- -- -- -- the coif, 216 + + Baldric, 106 + -- modern use of, 106 + -- ornamented with bells, 108, =108= + + Ballrooms, bare necks in, 14 + + Band, black on arm as mourning, 182 + -- chin, 202, =203= + -- hat, 52 + + Bandaged stockings of Anglo-Saxons, 67 + + Bandages, leg, 66, =66=, =67= + + Bandbox, 46, =47= + + Bandoleer, on baldric, 108 + + Bands, 44, =45= + -- of barristers, 44 + -- -- blue-coat boys, 44, =45= + -- -- choristers at Jesus College, Cambridge, 45, =45= + -- -- Jan Steen, 46, =46= + -- -- John Pym, 46, =46= + -- -- Milton, 46 + -- -- small boys, 47, =47= + -- -- the legal profession, 219 + -- -- Winchester scholars, 169 + -- on a lady's nightgown, 288, =289= + -- worn with a black Geneva gown, 44, 185 + + Bantams, booted, 303 + -- frizzled, 303 + + Baptism, vestments used at, 164 + + Barbarians wore trousers, 77, =78= + + Barge women, apron of, 150; Plate VIII facing page 150 + -- -- costume of, 110 + -- -- sun-bonnet of, 61; Plate VIII facing page 150 + + Barme-cloth (apron), 150 + + Barons of the Exchequer, robes of, 218 + + Barristers' bands, 44 + -- gown, 218, =219= + -- wigs, 132 + + Basquine, 325 + + Baton of drum-major, 241 + -- -- Field-Marshal, 223 + + Beadle, dress of, 147, =264= + -- in Punch and Judy, 147, 262, =264= + + Beads as currencies, 113 + -- blue popo, worth their weight in gold, 113 + -- early used in England, 112 + -- from Egypt, 113 + -- of the prehistoric Egyptians, 112 + -- still fashionable, 112 + + _Beagle_, H.M.S., voyage of, 11 + + Beard of Edward II, 130 + -- -- -- III, 129 + + Beards, closely shaved by Normans, 129 + -- -- -- in Edward IV's time, 130 + -- cut by Romans, 129 + -- parted or trimmed by Saxons, 129 + + Bedford, Duchess of, riding habit of, 251 + + Bedgown, woman executed in a, 290 + + Beefeaters, cap of, 168 + + Bells as ornaments, derived from flowers, 314 + + Belt of groom, =140= + -- -- -- origin of, 139 + + Belts, Dr. Cantlie on the use of, 356 + -- worn by navvies, 329 + + Bernard, on blowing the nose on the chasuble, 195 + + Bhurtpore, battle of, 244 + + Bib, 150 + -- of infant, 167 + + Bibliography, 363-7 + + Bigg, Mr. Heather, on the erect position of man, 330, 331 + -- -- -- -- -- rapid loss of beauty in native girls, 328 + -- -- -- -- -- use of stays, 326, 327 + + Billet, sign of the Crooked, 146 + + Binder of infant, 163 + + Biretta, evolution of, 213 + + Bishop, hat of, 214, =214= + -- method of buttoning trousers, 252 + -- rochet, chimere, and lawn sleeves of, 199 + + Black as mourning, 181 + + Bloomer, Mrs., 81, 356 + -- -- dress of, 361 + + Bloomers, Dr. Bernard O'Connor on, 361 + + Blouse, blue, of the butcher, 307, 320 + + Blue blouse of butcher, 307, 320 + -- coat boys, 167 + -- -- -- bands of, 44, =45= + -- favours, 307 + + Boadicea, dress of, 312 + + Boar, wild, spotted when young, 94 + + Bohemians, the King of the, wore no ostrich feathers, 91 + + Body, clothes used to alter the shape of, 337 + + Boiler cleaners, combination garments of, 320 + + Bone inserted into prehistoric skulls, 336 + -- pin, 105 + + Boots, jack, 235 + -- of bridegrooms removed by brides in Russia, 177 + -- ornamentation of modern, 62, =63= + -- top, 65, =65= + -- -- upper parts now immovable, 66, =66= + + Borough Councillors, robes of, 138 + + Bouquets carried by coxswains on the Fourth of June at Eton, 171 + + Bows inside ladies' hats, 57, =58= + -- of silk ribbon inside hat, 54, =55= + + Boy catching an object in his lap, 341 + + Boys, blue-coat, 167 + -- colour preferences of, 307 + -- dressed as soldiers, 163 + -- petticoats of, 165 + + Brace in which the straps are not united, 356 + + Bracelets, 9 + -- need to be cooled in some climates, 114 + + Brandenburg, Albrect von, with two palls, 197 + + Brandon, John, brass to, 38 + + Brasses, 38, Plate IV, 86, =86=, 234, =234= + -- chrysome, 164 + + Brats, 300 + + Breast cloth of nun, 202, =203= + -- plate of horse, amulets on, 294 + + Breasts, bare, in Ancient Egypt, =74=, 75 + -- -- in Korea, 75, =75= + -- -- in the time of James I, 76 + + Breeches, knee, 79 + -- of Lord Darnley, 286 + -- origin of the word, 311 + -- petticoat, of sailors, 252 + -- plush, 140, =141= + -- stuffed, 337 + -- Venetian, of pantaloon, 284 + + Bridesmaids, origin of presents made to, by bridegroom, 175 + + Bristol, Red Maid School of, 168 + + Broad arrow badge, 91 + + Bronze Age chieftains, dress of, 18, =19= + -- -- people wore deerskin cloaks retaining horns, 117 + -- pins, 105 + + Brooch, 122 + -- safety-pin like an Etruscan, 102, =103= + -- the buckle, a, without hasp, 125 + + Brooches, pin ring, 125 + -- to fasten tunic, 17, =17= + + Buckle, 125 + + Bulgaria, shoe money in, 177 + + Burden, primitive method of carrying a, 106, =107= + + Busbies, caricatures of, 247, 248 + + Busby, 238 + -- development of, 59 + -- of Rifle Brigade, 242 + -- origin of the, Sir George Darwin on, 58, =59= + -- red flap on, 59, =59= + + Buskins, 195 + + Bust, padding used to improve the, 338 + + Butcher's blue blouse, 320 + + Butterman, white clothes of, 320 + + Button, 118 + -- covered with crape, 243 + -- Mr. P. W. Reynolds on the survival of a, 248 + + Buttonholes, exaggerated on uniforms, 40 + -- knotched, 146 + -- laced, 146 + -- on the backs of coats, 27, =27=, 28, =28= + + Buttons, 24, 248 + -- antiquity of, 120 + -- as chronicles, 25 + -- done up differently by men and women, 21, =23= + -- horizontal row of, on sleeve, 36, =36= + -- meaningless, on ladies' dresses, 120 + -- numerous, on sleeve of undervest, 38; Plate IV, facing page 38 + -- of brass on Dutch skeleton dress, 145, =145= + -- -- Legion of Honour, 158 + -- -- man's coat on right side, 20, =20= + -- -- page boys, 144, =145= + -- -- woman's coat on left side, 20, =21= + -- on coats of Grenadier Guards, 29 + -- -- cuffs, 35, =35= + -- -- overcoats of Commissionaires, 30 + -- -- postilion's jackets, 38 + -- -- sleeves of clergy, 36 + -- -- the back of coats, 26, =26=, =27=, =28=, =29=, =31=, =32=, + =33=, =34= + -- -- the back of tramway driver's coats, 30, =31= + -- problematical, 15 + + Buttons replaced by knobs in the East, 20 + -- vertical row on sleeve, =37= + + + Calthrop, Mr., on survivals of the chaperon, 158 + -- -- -- the costume of Harlequin, 283 + -- -- -- -- evolution of the cockade, 156 + -- -- -- -- origin of the cockade, 159 + + Camels, cowry shells on the trappings of, 297, =299= + + Cameron Erracht tartan, 242 + -- tartan, 242 + + Canaries, yellow, 303 + + Cane of drill sergeant, 241 + + Canes, be-ribboned, 124 + -- tasselled, 125 + + Cannibalism, probable origin of, 337 + + Canterbury Cathedral, shield, helmet, and surcoat of Black Prince + in, 87, =88=, =89= + + Cantlie, Dr., on short jackets, 356 + -- -- -- the effect of insufficient clothing, 355, =357= + -- -- -- -- use of belts, 356 + + Cap, college, 47, 169, 212, =214= + -- Hungarian, 238 + -- judge's sentence, 217 + -- line of Lancers, 241 + -- livery, 146 + -- of Beefeaters, 168 + -- -- dignity, ecclesiastical, 213 + -- -- housemaid, 149 + -- -- Hungarian peasant, 59, =59= + -- -- nuns, 201, =203=, 204 + -- -- the Lancers, a Polish head-dress, 239 + -- Scotch, streamers of, 53, =54= + -- statute, 168, 348 + -- Tudor flat, 214 + + Cape, combined with hood, =156=, 157 + + Caps not to be worn by married women, 350 + + Cards, playing, show Tudor dresses, 231 + + Carolines, haircombs of West, 118 + + Cases of brass for waiters' buttons, 144 + + Cassock, 200 + -- of Benedictines, 198 + -- once generally worn, 186 + + Casula, forerunner of the chasuble, 192 + + Cater cap, 212 + + Cattle, hornless, 303 + + Cavalryman, modern, compared with Cromwell's Ironsides, 237, =237= + + Cave men, drawings of, 8, =9=, 10 + -- -- painting of the body by, 270 + -- -- wore ornaments but no clothing, 8 + + Ceremony, primitive dress worn on occasions of, 5, 135 + + Chaco of Highland Light Infantry, 241 + -- -- Scottish Rifles, 241 + + Chain mail, 233, 234, =234= + + Chains for the neck in Richard II's time, 113 + -- of Mayors, origin of, 113 + + Chancellor of a University, robes of a, 210 + + Chapel keeper at Wellington Barracks, top hat of, 248 + + Chaperon, 152 + -- development of, =156=, 157, =157= + -- of Richard II's time, 157 + -- survival of, 228 + -- vestige on gowns of City Livery Companies, 231 + -- -- -- mantles of knights, 158, =230= + + Chaplet of flowers used after baptism, 164 + + Charles I regulates clerical costume, 185 + -- II, formation of Guards by, 246 + + Chasuble, 193, =194= + -- casula, the forerunner of, 192 + + Chauffeurs' cockades, 160 + + Checks, 311 + + Chemise, 288 + -- gauze, of Merveilleuses, 346 + + Chevasse, Mr., on individuality shown by clothes, 316 + + Children carried on the left arm, 22 + -- dressed like their parents, 162 + -- sucking the left breast, 24 + + Chimere, 199 + + Chimpanzee, hair of, 6 + + China, painted pasteboard figures burnt at funerals in, 274 + -- puppet-show in, 259 + -- the use of paint by women in, 275 + + Chin band, 201, 202, =203= + + Chinese women, stunted foot of, 335 + + Chinook Indians, deforming the heads of children, 335 + + Chiton, 187 + + Choker, 200 + + Choristers at Jesus College, Cambridge, bands of, 45, =45= + + Chrism cloth, 164 + + Christians, dress of ancient, 187 + -- early, wore the same costume at worship as at home, 189 + + Christ's Hospital, 167 + + Chrysalis, 163 + + Chrysolite as a detector of poison, 124 + + Chrysome, 164 + -- brasses, 164 + + Chulos in bull fight, red rag of, 306 + + Churches, Gothic, compared with hennin-like head-dress, 50, =51= + + Clans, tartans of Scotch, 312 + -- with several tartans, 312 + + Claremont, Mr., on opals and bad luck, 124 + + Clark, Professor E. C., on college caps, 213 + + Clavi, 191 + + Clement, St., on special dress for worship, 205 + + Clergy, adoption of vestments by English High Church, 192 + -- black habit of, 308 + -- buttons on sleeves of, 36 + -- condemnation of dress by, 344 + -- criticized for gorgeous apparel, 345 + -- in Holland, dresses of, 200 + -- wear academical hood over surplice, 199, 212 + + Cloaks, deer skin, of Bronze Age people, retaining horns, 117 + + Clock, meaning a gusset, 68, =68= + -- origin of, 68 + + Clocks of clowns, 269 + + Cloth, breast, 202, =203= + -- chrism, 164 + -- pied, 313 + -- parti-coloured, 313 + + Clothes, adopted for æsthetic reasons, 14 + -- -- -- reasons of coquetry, 14 + -- adoption of, for ornamentation, 8 + -- -- -- -- reasons of modesty, 8 + -- -- -- -- warmth, 8 + -- dispensed with on ceremonial occasions, 136 + -- distortions caused by, 322 + -- effect upon action, 341 + -- -- of, upon the outsider, 315 + -- everyday, worn at night, 287 + -- first worn by women, 12 + -- in their development subject to the same laws that act upon the + bodies of animals, 362 + -- made from the bark of trees, 11 + -- mental effect of, 339 + -- minimum of, worn at sports, 6 + -- not necessarily worn in cold climates, 11 + -- -- worn at night, 287 + -- of animal actors, 301 + -- -- dolls, 137 + -- -- monkeys, 301 + -- -- Punch, origin of, 257 + -- represented among animals, 291 + -- Sunday, 205 + -- swaddling, 163 + -- the principles of evolution applied to, 1 + -- used to alter the shape of the body, 337 + -- useful characters always retained, 15 + -- why worn, 8 + -- worn at executions, become unfashionable, 353 + (See also under the headings of _Costume_ and _Dress_) + + Clothing, not worn by cave men, 8 + -- preferences of girls for different articles of, 340, 341 + + Clown, 283 + -- clocks of, 269 + + Clowns, painting of, likened to that once in vogue in China and + Japan, 276 + -- paint of face of, 269 + + Clubbed hair, 134 + + Coachman, coat of, 142, =142= + -- Lord Mayor's, wig-bag of, 143, =143= + -- origin of dress, 139 + -- red coat of royal, 235 + -- wig of, 132, 142, =142= + + Coastguard, revers of, buttoned back, =39= + + Coat, blue in sixteenth century, 168 + -- buff, 235 + -- development of the modern, 15 + -- evolved from the shawl, 16 + -- lapels, nicks in, 41, =41=, =42= + -- patched, of harlequin, 283 + -- pouter, 141, =141= + -- red, a best, 235 + -- -- origin of, 249 + -- -- survived for a long time in Cornwall, 235 + -- skirts buttoned back for riding, =33= + -- swallow-tail, evolution of, 33, =34= + + Coats at Harrow, 169 + -- -- Westminster, 169 + -- of arms, 83 + -- -- Scottish Archers, 226 + + Coats, waterproof of, lambs, 300 + + Cobbett, criticisms on Quakers, 119 + + Cock of a hat, 61 + + Cockade, 61, 152, =152= + -- black, 153 + -- bow of ribbon on, 156 + -- evolution of, 153, =156=, =157= + -- for mourning, 154, =154=, 159 + -- jagged edges of, 158 + -- material of, 154 + -- of Chelsea pensioners, =155=, 156 + -- -- Danish ambassadors, 160 + -- -- French ambassadors, 160 + -- -- of various colours, 158 + -- regent, =155=, 156, 159 + -- royal, 154, 155, =155=, 159 + -- treble, =152=, 156 + + Cockades, not under the jurisdiction of Heralds' College or Lord + Chamberlain, 153 + -- of foreign ambassadors, 160 + -- -- chauffeurs, 160 + -- those entitled to use, 153, =159= + -- worn by gentlemen, 152 + + Cocking, 200 + + Coffins, Bronze Age, 18 + + Coif of Serjeant-at-law, 216 + -- Order of the, 215 + -- vestige of, 215, =217= + + Coin, custom of breaking, upon engagement, 115 + + Coldstream Regiment, motto of, 246 + + Collar, broad lace, at Eton, 169 + -- silver worn by additional drummer, 244 + + Collars, high, keep the head at a wrong angle, 356 + -- metal of Padaung women, =114=; Plate VI, facing page 114 + -- of Court ushers and vergers, 218 + -- -- ladies' mantles standing up, 48 + -- -- nuns, 202 + -- worn by pet animals, 298 + + _Colobium sindonis_, 221 + + Colonial, dress of the, 319 + + Colour, craving for, shown by the gorgeous dress of Masons, 308 + -- -- -- -- -- green scarfs of the Foresters, 308 + -- -- -- -- -- pageants, 306 + -- of academical dress, 309 + + Colours, 192 + -- gay uniforms come under the category of courtship, 250 + -- heraldic, derived from flags, still worn, 308 + -- house, 171 + -- of ancient drawings due to caprice of artists, 131 + -- -- Naval uniform, 251 + -- -- regiments, 309 + + Columbine, ballet dress of, 285 + + Comb as an ornament, 117, =118= + + Combs, hair, 118, =118= + -- loom, the origin of the ornamental comb, 117, =118= + + Combination garments of boiler cleaners, 320 + -- -- -- Normans, 320 + + Coombe Hill School, Westerham, dress worn by girls at, 172, =172= + + Commissionaires, buttons on overcoats of, 30 + + Companies, Livery, robes of, 138 + + Complexions, false, of Roman ladies, 278 + + Convicts' dress, 91 + + Cope, 197, 199 + -- of fifteenth century, 212 + + Cornish, Mr. C. J., on animals' clothes, 300 + + Corps piqué, Montaigne and Ambrose Paré on the suffering caused by + the, 325 + + Corroboree, paint used at a, 272 + + Corset, misspelling of the word, 323 + -- of Greece, 328 + -- -- Rome, 328 + + Corsets, crusade against, 325 + + Cosmetics used by Roman ladies, 278 + + Costermongers, dress of, 319 + -- trousers of, show progress of wearer's courtship, 347 + + Costume, clerical, regulated by Charles I, 185 + -- connected with religion, 184 + -- ecclesiastical, similar to civil in early times, =188= + -- of barge-women, 110 + -- -- the clown, Elizabethan, 269, =270= + -- -- dolls, 267 + -- -- milk-women, 110 + -- -- nuns and abbesses resembled that of widows, 198 + -- -- servants', derived from that of masters, 139 + -- indicating the profession of the wearer, 316 + + Costumes adopted in girls' schools, 171 + -- of hospitals for pensioners, 170 + -- ugliness of bloomers, 81, 360 + (See also under the headings of _Clothes_ and _Dress_) + + Coulton, Mr. G. C., on the evolution of the maniple from a + pocket-handkerchief, 194 + + Courier bags carried on a baldric, 106, =107= + + Court dress, mistakes made in, 227 + -- ushers, collars of, 218 + + Coventry, Lady, death due to painting the face, 279 + + Cowboy's long hair, 127 + + Cows, clothing of, 300 + -- rainproof jackets of, 300 + + Cradle of American Indian papoose, 164 + + Cranmer, hat of, =214= + + Crescent as an amulet among the Romans, 293 + -- made by joining two boars' tusks, 294 + -- worn on a special strap by German horses, 295 + + Crest and badge, difference between, 90 + -- -- surcoat of Henry Duke of Lancaster, 86, =86= + -- on helmet, 83 + -- -- signet ring, 85 + -- worn upon cap of Lord Mayor's postilion, 92, =92= + + Creel carried on a baldric, 106 + + Crinoline, 337 + -- devised to hide the shape of a princess, 344 + -- of the young women of Otaheite, 338 + + Croft School, Betley, dress worn by girls at, 173, =173= + + Crombie, Mr. James, on superstitions connected with weddings, 176 + + Crook, shepherd's, 195 + + Crosier, 221 + + Cross of nuns, 202 + -- older than Christianity, 122 + + Cross-belt of Rifle Brigade, 242 + + Crown, 158, 221 + -- bridal, 180 + -- Tudor, superseded that of St. Edward, 224, =224= + + Crusaders, 344 + + Cuff, turned back, 35, =36=, =37=, 38 + + Cuffs, 35 + -- of widow, 183 + -- white lawn, used as mourning by King's Counsel, 220 + -- worn by the legal profession as part of mourning, 183 + + Cuirass of Household troops, 233 + + Culloden, battle of, 249 + + Currencies carried on the person, 113 + -- ornaments as, 112 + + Cussan's "Handbook of Heraldry," 159 + + Custom of breaking a coin upon engagement, 115 + + + Dalmatic, 190, 195, 221 + -- compared with a shirt, 288 + -- of Bishop, fringes on, 190 + -- -- deacon, fringes on left side only, 191 + -- symbolism of fringes, 191 + + Damascus, damask takes its name from, 313 + + Damask takes its name from Damascus, 313 + + Dane, dress of the, 319 + + Darnley, Lord, breeches of, 286 + + Darwin, Charles, on the loss of hair by man, 7 + -- -- theory of evolution, 2 + -- Sir George, on buttons, 30 + -- -- -- -- evolution in dress, 3 + -- -- -- -- the origin of busbies, 58, =59= + -- -- -- -- top boots, 65, =65= + -- -- -- -- why plumes are on the left side, 58, =58= + + D'Aubernoun, Sir John, brass of, showing chain-mail, 234 + + David, shield of, 293 + + Dawkins, Professor Boyd, on the origin of the hair comb, 117 + + Deacons, stoles of, 192 + + Deaths due to painting the face, 279 + + Decoys, dogs dressed as duck, 301 + + Deformities caused by bandaging infants, 164 + + Demeter, 297 + + Denmark, dress of Bronze Age chieftains, 18, =19= + + Depression in a judge's wig, 215, =216= + + Diamond, supposed powers of the, 124 + + Diamonds, always fashionable, 123 + + Diaper appeared in reign of Henry II, 313 + -- derived from D'Ypres, 313 + + Dinners, handkerchief used for wrapping, 195 + + Diodorus on the plaid of, 312 + + Distortion of the head, 336 + + Divorce, Bedouin form of, 178 + + Djibah, =172=, 173 + + Doctor in the Punch and Judy show, 263, =264= + -- of Divinity, scarf of, 192 + -- round cap of, 213 + + Dogs, dress of, as duck decoys, 301 + -- hairless, 303 + + Dolls, clothes of, 137 + -- costume, 267 + -- in swaddling clothes, Mr. Edward Lovett on, 268 + + Dolman of the Hussars, =81=, 239 + + Donkeys, cowry shells on trappings of, 297 + + Drawings of cave men, 8, =9=, 10 + + Dress, academical, 208 + -- -- Druitt on, 210 + -- bridal, 175 + -- characteristic of trades, 320 + -- children's, Dr. Alice Vickery on, 165 + -- colour in academical, 309 + -- condemnation of, by the clergy, =344= + -- Court, 226 + -- -- mistakes made in, 227 + -- does not usually show rank, 319 + -- Dutch skeleton, 145, =145= + -- evening, black and white, 308 + -- -- suggests correct behaviour, 340 + -- Highland, 162 + -- League, Rational, 354 + -- monastic, 198 + -- more primitive, worn on occasions of ceremony, 135 + -- naval, supposed survivals in, 252 + -- of acrobats, 286 + -- -- ancient Christians, 187 + -- -- animals, 291 + -- -- beadles, 147, 262, =264= + -- -- coachmen, origin of, 139 + -- -- convicts, 91 + -- -- costermongers, 319 + -- -- footmen, origin of, 139 + -- -- girls at Coombe Hill School, Westerham, 171, =172= + -- -- -- -- the Croft School, Betley, 173, =173= + -- -- grooms, origin of, 139 + -- -- harlequins, 283 + -- -- heads of churches in Scotland, 200 + -- -- jockeys, coloured, 147 + -- -- King's Counsel, 218 + -- -- Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, 321 + -- -- monks, 201 + -- -- Mrs. Bloomer, 81, 361 + + Dress of Norwegian bride, 180 + -- -- nuns, 201, =203= + -- -- particular trades, 149 + -- -- peasants, gay, 309 + -- -- Punch and Judy, 137, 253 + -- -- Romans, 187 + -- -- servants, 139 + -- -- the American, 318 + -- -- -- Austrian, 318 + -- -- -- Colonial, 319 + -- -- -- Dane, 319 + -- -- -- Frenchman, 318 + -- -- -- German, 318 + -- -- -- Hungarian, 318 + -- -- -- Norwegian, 319 + -- -- -- Spaniard, 318 + -- -- St. Nicholas, 137 + -- -- soldiers previous to the Restoration, 236 + -- -- Yeomen of the Guard, 223, =225= + -- once indicated rank, 319 + -- origin of, 6 + -- parti-coloured, came into fashion in Edward II's time, 313 + -- profession often not indicated by, 315 + -- rank indicated in certain professions by, 320 + -- rational, 81, 361 + -- reform, 354 + -- simplification of Court, 226 + -- special, for worship, 205 + -- tax on elegant, 350 + -- to be according to station, 350 + -- ugliness of evening, 208 + -- Union, Healthy and Artistic, 354 + -- used in special occupations, 320 + + Dresses, bridal, often survivals, 180 + -- special school, 168 + -- with trains to be kept for ceremonial occasions, 358 + + Dressing-gowns, 138, 358 + + Drops for ears, 112 + + Druitt, Mr., on academical dress, 210 + -- -- -- boys dressed in petticoats, 165 + -- -- -- the coif, 216 + + Drummer, extra of Third Hussars, 244 + + Dutch settler's wife, Miss Alice Morse Earle on the dress of, 359 + -- skeleton dress, 145, =145=, 272 + + Dyes for tartans obtained from native plants, 313 + + + Eagles on coronation robe, 222 + + Ear drops, 112 + + Ears, perforated for rings, 112 + + Earle, Miss Alice Morse, on the costume of the wife of a Dutch + settler, 359 + + Eckenstein, Miss Lina, on horse brasses, 293 + + Edward II, beard of, 130 + -- III, badge of, 91 + -- -- beard of, 129 + -- IV, beard of, closely shaven, 130 + -- VII, robes worn at the coronation of, 222 + + Egypt, finger rings in, 114 + + Egyptian graves, models of servants put into, 268 + -- pins, 105 + -- rings of blue pottery, 116 + + Egyptians, ancient, bury amulets with their dead, 122 + -- blackening eyelids, 270 + -- early, tattooing practised by, 277 + -- modern, tattooing practised by, 277 + -- prehistoric, beads of, 112 + + Elizabeth, statute cap of, 168 + -- Queen, stocking of, 68 + + Elizabeth's coronation glove, stitching carried on to the back + of, =97=, 98 + -- reign, ruffs of, 48 + + Elsyng, brass in church at, 86, =86= + + Elves' arrows as pendants, 123 + + Elworthy, Mr., on horns of honour, 117 + + Embroidery carried on to the backs of gloves, 98, =99= + + Emeralds always fashionable, 123 + + Epaulettes, 238 + -- worn by the Gentlemen-at-Arms, 238 + -- -- -- officers of the Yeomen of the Guard, 238 + -- -- -- the Lords-Lieutenant of Counties, 238 + -- -- in the Navy, 238 + + Ermine, 222 + -- bands of, indicate rank, 223 + + Eskimos descendants of the cave men, 10 + -- shoes, piece of old, worn by, to ensure fruitfulness, 178 + + Essex, fish-hooks made of thorns in, 125 + + Eton, gowns worn by scholars at, 169 + -- jacket, 169 + -- white tie at, 169 + + Etruscan brooch, safety-pin like an, 102, =103= + + Eutropius, St., ceremony of garters, 71 + + Evolution, the principles applied to clothes, 1 + + Ewart, Sergeant, captures a French eagle, 245 + + Eyelashes, removal of, 128 + -- lid, blackening of, by Egyptians, 270 + -- sacred on rings, 117 + -- stone or opal, 124 + -- third in slow worm, 3 + + Executions, clothes worn at, become unfashionable, 353 + + + Face plate of horse, amulets on, 294 + -- sooty, of harlequin, 283 + + Facings, regimental, abolished in 1881, 238 + -- why a different colour from that of the coat, 34 + + Fairholt on bandaged stockings, 67, =67= + -- -- the origin of the mortar-board, 214 + + Fans called sunshades, 280 + -- for blowing up a fire, 280 + -- origin of, 280 + + Farces, Atella, celebrated for Italian, 254 + + Farthingale, 337 + + Fashion determines the amount of the body which is to be covered, 14 + + Fashions due to royal peculiarities, 131 + -- gay, follow periods of depression, 345 + -- in hair arrangement, 126 + -- kept up by superstitions, 349 + -- origin of, difficult to trace, 354 + -- the killing of, 352 + + Favours, 192 + + Fawkes, Guy, 225 + + Feathers, objections to the wearing of, 121 + -- of birds of paradise, 121 + -- -- ostriches, 122 + -- peacocks', unlucky because of eyes, 124 + -- wearing of, 121 + + Ficorroni, 258 + + Field-Marshal's baton, 223 + + Fillet, 175 + -- forerunner of the hatband, 52, =52= + -- head, 149 + -- vestiges of, 52, =52= + + Finn, Huckleberry, 341 + -- Mrs., on bells derived from flowers, 314 + + Fireman, helmet of, 60, =60= + -- private, badge of, 91 + + Fisher folk, barefooted, 334 + + Fish, gold, with several tails, 303 + -- hook made of a thorn in Essex, 125 + + Fitzroy, General, 244 + + Flaccus, Dr. Louis W., on the effect of clothes on the minds of + school-girls, 339, 340 + -- -- -- -- -- -- preference of girls for different articles of + clothing, 340, 341 + + Flags, heraldic colours of, still worn as favours, 308 + + Flap, red, on busby, 59, =59= + + Flash on Court dress, 228, =229= + -- of Welsh Fusiliers, 133, =134=, 241 + + Fleshings, pink, of Merveilleuses, 346 + + Fleur-de-lys, 222, 293 + -- on braid of drummers of the Guards, 246 + -- removed from royal arms, 246 + + Flower, Sir William, on deforming of the foot, 334 + -- -- -- -- injuries caused by tight lacing, 324 + -- -- -- -- the most highly evolved foot, 333 + + Flowers, chaplet of, used after baptism, 164 + -- wearing of, 121 + -- worn at Eton on Fourth of June, 171 + -- -- by a bride, 175 + + Folds of robes used as pockets by Arabs, 110 + + Foot, deforming of the, 334 + -- gear, early, 62 + -- Guards, drum-major's livery cap, 146 + -- Sir William Flower on deforming of the, 334 + -- -- -- -- -- the most highly evolved, 333 + -- stunted, of Chinese woman, 335 + -- the ideal in art, 333, 334 + + Footman, 140, =141=, 149 + -- origin of dress, 139 + + Footmen, aiguillettes worn by, 240 + -- flaps of, 32, =33= + -- wig of, 132 + -- with powdered hair, 131 + + Fourchettes of gloves, =97=, 98 + + Fourragère, 241 + + Fowls, top-knotted, 303 + + Fox-hunters, red coat of, 235 + + Frenchman, dress of, 318 + + Frills, 227 + + Fringe of a shawl, origin of, 16 + + Fringes, Mr. Macalister on symbolism of, on dalmatics, 191 + + Frock coat, 148 + + Frontal of nun, =203=, 204 + + Fruitfulness, superstitious practices to ensure, 179, 180 + + Funerals, horse trappings still used at, 292 + -- painted pasteboard figures burnt in China at, 274 + + Fur, 11 + -- use of, in the army, 247 + + Fusiliers, Welsh, flash of, 133, =134= + + Fylfot, 122; see Plate VII, Fig. F, facing page 129 + + + Gagging, art of, not modern, 254 + + Gaiters, 70 + + Garlands, wearing of, signifies virginity, 180 + + Garment, new, put on over old, 148 + + Garments, dislike of divided, 359 + -- flowing, give an elegant effect, 137, 357 + -- -- -- dignity, 187, 357 + -- long, of Noah's Ark figures, 268 + + Garter, 158 + + Garters as insignia, 71 + -- golden, of Merveilleuses, 346 + -- of girls, annual ceremony in Haute-Vienne, 71 + -- ornamental, 71 + + Gatty, Sir Alfred Scott, on cockades, 153 + + Gauntlets worn by masons, 232 + + Gentleman of George III's time, 141, 143 + + George II's reign, coachman, coat of, 142, =142= + -- -- on naval uniform, 251 + -- III, black coats at Eton, mourning for, 169 + -- -- gentleman's dress, 141, 143 + -- III's reign, the pouter coat of, 141 + + German, dress of the, 318 + + Germs of disease disseminated by trailing skirts, 358 + + Giangurgolo, Calabrian, 1731, 257, =257= + + Gimmal rings, 115 + + Girdle, 73 + -- of judge, 217 + + Girl catching an object in her lap, 341 + + Girls, colour preferences of, 307 + -- in factories, barefooted, 334 + -- wearing their hair down, 166 + + Gladstone, Mr., abolished the serjeants-at-law, 217 + + Gloucestershire regiment, badges of, 245 + + Glove of Anne, Consort of James I, 98, =99= + -- stitching carried on to the back of Elizabeth's coronation, + =97=, 98 + -- -- -- down the back of, =97=, 98 + + Gloves, 94, 195 + -- early, without fingers, 94 + -- embroidery carried on to the backs of, 98, =99= + -- fourchettes of, =97=, 98 + -- not worn by nuns, 204 + -- points on, =96=, 98 + -- with two thumbs in Iceland, 95 + + God, solar, of Egypt, 123 + + Gold dust put on the head, 131 + + Golfers, red coat of, 235 + + Gordon, Miss Helen, on painting used in the time of Queen Anne, 279 + + Gorget the badge of an officer on duty, 235 + + Gorilla, hair of, 6 + + Gown, 18 + -- black, 185 + -- Geneva, bands worn with, 44 + -- of judge, 217 + -- -- King's Counsel, 218 + -- -- Master of Arts, 210 + -- -- Oxford Undergraduates, 210 + + Gowns, black, legal mourning for Queen Mary II, 218 + -- worn by scholars at Eton, 169 + + Greek betrothal rings, 115 + + Gremial, 202 + + Grenadier, caps of Scots Greys, 244 + + Greys, Scots, 245 + + Grenadier Guards, 248 + + Groom, =140= + -- origin of belt, 139 + -- -- -- dress, 139 + + Guards, drummers of, fleur-de-lys on braid of, 246 + -- formation of, by Charles II, 246 + -- Grenadier, 248 + -- -- buttons on coats of, 29 + -- Irish, 248 + -- Life and Horse, survival of cord for priming powder horn, 108 + -- Scots, 248 + -- white jackets of, 243 + + Guignol, 255 + -- French punch, 257 + -- the name derived from Giangurgolo, 257 + + Guild liveries, 232 + + Guinea, New, women wear no clothes, 9 + + + Habit, black of clergy, 308 + + Habits, monastic, 198 + + Hackle feathers of Northumberland Fusiliers, 244 + + Hair, clubbed, 134 + -- curly, imitated, 130 + -- dedication of, 128 + -- dishevelling of, as mourning, 181 + -- down, girls wearing their, 166 + -- early man covered with, 6 + -- great value attached to a profuse head of, 128 + -- long, not necessarily effeminate, 127 + -- not correlated with cold climate, 6 + -- of women dressed differently from that of men, 128 + -- powder, 131 + -- -- coloured, 131 + -- putting up of, by girls, 166 + -- queued, 134 + -- Roman modes of doing the, 132; Plate VII, facing page 129 + -- use of others, 130 + + Halberds of Yeomen of the Guard, 225 + + Handkerchief in general use in Henry VIII's time, 195 + -- used for wrapping up dinners, 195 + -- -- -- -- -- presents, 195 + + Hanover, cockade of House of, 153 + + Harem, 13 + + Harlequin, 261, 267 + -- coat of, worn by the Lord of Montbron, 283 + -- modern dress of, 283, =284= + -- origin of the character, 282 + -- patched coat of, 283 + -- shaven head of, 283 + -- sooty face of, 283 + -- wand of, 283 + + Harlequinade, 269, 282 + + Harlequinne, 285 + + Harrow, coats at, 169 + -- swallow tails at, 170 + + Hat band, 52 + -- -- origin of, 52 + -- cocked, development of, 60, =60= + -- Cranmer's, 214, =214= + -- for hunting with lacing, 56, =56= + -- how made from a disc of material 57, =57= + -- of a bishop of the Stuart period, 214, =214= + -- sailor, streamers of, 53, =53= + -- tall, used in the Army, 248 + + Hats with the underside painted green, 271 + -- women in church without, 206 + + Haweis, Mrs., dressing to suit her surroundings, 310 + + Hawaiian Islands, hut of, 49 + + Haybands forerunners of leg bandages, 67 + + Head, distortion of, 336 + + Head-dress of French lawyer, 158 + -- -- -- Henry II's reign surviving in that of nuns, 201, =203= + -- -- shawl as a, 61 + -- -- Siamese, compared with a Votive Spire, 50, =51= + -- shaven, of harlequin, 283 + -- shaving, 127 + -- strap, =203= + + Heads, deforming of children's, by Chinook Indians, 335 + + Hearse cloths, 232 + + Heart-shaped amulets, 295, 296, =296= + + Hector the horse extinct in Punch and Judy show, 267 + + Helmet of Black Prince, 87, =88= + -- fireman's, 60, =60= + -- plate, 158 + + Helmets, metal, 60 + + Henna used for staining fingers and toes by Egyptians, 271 + + Henry VIII's reign, handkerchief came into general use in, 195 + + Heppel, Mr. George, on Punch and Judy, 253 + -- -- -- -- figures worked by wires, 255 + + Heraldry, Handbook of, by Cussan, 159 + + Heralds, tabards of, 83 + + Hereditary badges, 90 + + Hide, raw, shoe made of, 64, =64= + + Highland corps, white jackets of, 243 + -- dress, 162 + + Hindu ayahs, nose rings of, 111 + -- women, painting of the feet scarlet by, 273 + -- -- teeth blackened by, 273 + + Hodgson, Miss, uses a doll to show costume, 174 + + Hogarth's engravings of children, 162 + + Holland, dress of clergy in, 200 + + Holy Land, swaddling clothes persist in, 163, 333 + + Hood, 198 + -- academical, 210 + -- -- wearing of, by clergymen, 199, 212 + -- combined with cape, 156, =156=, 157 + -- enlargement of the peak, =156=, 157 + -- of a Knight of the Garter, 229, =230= + -- -- Bachelor of Arts, 212 + -- -- nuns, 202, =203= + -- -- the Order of the Thistle, 230 + -- -- -- -- -- St. Patrick, 230 + -- -- undergraduates, liripipe of, 211 + -- peak of prolonged, to form liripipe, 157 + -- tiny, on barrister's gown, 218, =219= + + Horn for priming powder, survival of cords for suspending, 108 + + Horns of honour, 117 + + Horse amulets, 293, 294, =294=, 295, =296= + -- clothing, 292 + -- brass, crescent shaped, derived from boar's tusks, 294, =294= + -- brasses, English, the counterpart of those shown on Trajan's + column, 295 + -- -- Dr. Plowright on the origin of some, 293 + -- -- Miss Lina Eckenstein on, 293 + -- -- heraldic, 295 + -- identified as a corn spirit, 297 + -- trappings, 292 + -- -- still used at funerals, 292 + -- white, of Hanover, 243 + + Horses, black, used at funerals, 303 + -- circus, 303 + -- grey, carry the kettledrums, 303 + -- hats of, 300 + -- killing of, at harvest time, 297 + -- sun-bonnets, 300 + -- white carry the kettledrums, 303 + + Hose, Florentine, 70, 286 + -- tights, a survival of Florentine, 286 + -- trunk, 269 + -- -- of acrobat, 286 + -- -- -- clown, 269 + -- -- -- knights, 231 + + Household cavalry, bandsmen's livery caps, 146 + + Housemaid, apron of, 149 + -- cap of, 149 + + Hounds, Dalmatian, as carriage dogs, 303 + + Howard of Effingham, hat of Lord, 248 + + Hump of Punch, back, 262, =263= + -- -- -- front, origin of, 253 + + Hungarian, dress of the, 318 + -- peasant's cap, 59, =59= + + Huntsman, livery cap of, 146 + + Hussars, 59 + -- cowry shells on trappings of horses of, 297, =298= + -- dolman of, 81, 239 + -- Eighth, wear sword-belts over their shoulders, 243 + -- Eleventh, wear ivory-hilted swords, 244 + -- Fifteenth, wear Austrian imperial lace, 244 + -- lacing of, 146 + -- prickers on shoulder belt of, 239, =239= + -- sling jacket of, 81, 239 + -- Third, extra drummer of, 244 + -- uniform of, 272 + + Hut of Hawaiian Islands, 49 + + + Iceland, glove with two thumbs, 95 + + India, lotus flowers on king's mantle, symbolical of, 222 + + Indian Army, puttees of, 66 + + Infant, bib of, 167 + -- binder of, 163 + + Infants, deformities caused by bandaging, 164 + -- powdered, 162 + -- patched, 162 + + Inner Temple, badge of the porters of, 91 + + Ireland, pin-ring brooches in, 125 + + Irish Guards, 248 + + Ironside of Cromwell compared with a modern cavalryman, 237, =237= + + Italian women age rapidly, 329 + + + Jacket, Cardigan, 18 + -- Eton, 169 + -- smoking, suggests relaxation, 340 + + Jackets, rainproof, for cows, 300 + -- white, of Guards, 243 + -- -- -- Highland corps, 243 + + Japan, use of paint by women in, 275 + + Japanese actors paint the face, 273 + -- children, painting the face of, 273 + -- women, teeth blackened by, on marriage, 273 + + Java, earliest man in, 7. See Frontispiece + + Jerome, St., on special dress for worship, 205 + + Jesson, Mr. W. H., a performer of Punch and Judy, 262 + + Jesus College, Cambridge, choristers' bands, 45, =45= + + Jewesses shave their heads, 127 + + Jews, 205 + -- rending their garments, 42 + -- tattooing practised by, 277 + + Joan the old name of Judy, 266 + + Jockey, livery cap of, 147 + -- parti-coloured dress of, 147, 313 + + Johanna, 301 + + Judge, girdle of, 217 + -- gown of, 217 + -- sentence cap of, 217 + -- wig of, 132, 216, =216= + + Judith, 267 + + Judy, dress of, =263= + -- apron of, =263= + -- mob cap of, 262, =263= + -- once known as Joan, 266 + -- origin of the name, 266 + + + Kamarband worn by officers, 249 + + Kayans of Borneo, clothes of bark worn by, as mourning, 181 + + Kefiyeh fastened with a fillet of camel's hair, 53 + + Kersey, 351 + + Kettledrums, silver, 244 + + Kilburn Sisters, 201, 202 + + Kilt of sailors, 252 + -- short, 76, =76= + + Kimono brought from Japan, 344 + + King's Counsel, dress of, 218 + -- -- gown of, 218 + -- -- white lawn cuffs used as mourning by, 220 + -- footmen, red coats of, 235 + + Kirkudbrightshire, pin-ring brooches of blacksmiths in, 125 + + Knee-breeches worn when speeches are made at Eton, 170 + + Knickerbocker suits, jersey, 165 + + Knickerbockers, 80 + -- of blue-coat boys, 167 + -- a recognized feature of children's costume, 163 + + Knights of the Garter, 229 + -- -- -- -- chaperon on robes of, 158 + -- -- St. Patrick, 229 + -- -- the Thistle, 229 + + Knobs in the East take the place of buttons, 20 + + Kohl, 271 + + + Label to difference arms, 86, =86=, 88 + + Labourers' method of buttoning trousers, 252 + + Lace, Austrian imperial, worn by Fifteenth Hussars, 244 + + Lacedæmonian girls, tunics of, slit down the sides, 346 + + Lacerna, 198 + + Laces, 100, =101= + + Lacing inside a hat, =55= + -- of Hussars, 146 + -- tight, banned by Charles IV and Henry III, 326 + -- -- in England, 326 + -- -- made compulsory by Catherine de Medici, 326 + + Ladies, armorial bearings on dresses of, 84, =85= + -- married with flowing tresses, 166 + -- wear pyjamas, 288 + + Lady gardeners at Kew wear trousers, 358 + + Lake dwellings, pins found in Swiss, 105 + + Lamb, Persian, used for making spots on miniver, 222 + + Lambs that supply the wool for the pallium, 196 + -- waterproof coats of, 300 + + Lancaster, Henry Duke of, crest and surcoat of, 86, =86= + + Lancers, 39 + + Lap, boys and girls catching objects in their, 341 + + Lawn sleeves of a bishop, 199 + + Laws for the good of trade, 348 + + Lawyer, head-dress of French, 158 + + Leech, caricatures the busbies of the Guards, 247 + + Leg bandages, 66, =66=, =67= + -- -- derived from haybands, 67 + -- -- of pfiferari, 68 + + Leggings, survival of the wearing of skins, 70 + + Legion of Honour, buttons of, 158 + + Leicestershire Regiment, tiger-skin aprons of, 249 + + Leopards on Arms of England, 86 + + Life Guards, black plumes of farriers of, 242 + -- -- -- tunics of farriers of, 242 + + Light Infantry, Duke of Cornwall's puggaree of, 243 + + Lindley, Lord, last surviving serjeant-at-law, 217 + + Linen, strip of, round head as mourning in Egypt, 182 + -- the showing of, 44 + + Lion spotted when young, 94 + + Lions on Arms of England, 86 + + Liripipe, =156=, 157, =157=, 210, 230 + -- of undergraduates' hoods, 211 + -- peak of hood prolonged to form, 156, =156= + + Lip plugs, 111 + + Liveries of the City Companies, 231 + + Livery cap, 146 + -- -- of bandsmen of the Household Cavalry, 146 + -- -- -- drum-major of the Foot Guards, 146 + -- -- -- jockeys, 147 + -- -- -- huntsmen, 146 + -- Companies, chaperon, vestige on gowns of, 231 + -- of page-boy, 145, =145= + -- -- porters, 148 + + Locket, 122 + + Loom combs, 117, =118= + + Lord Mayor's coachman, wig-bag of, 134, 143, =143= + -- -- postilion, crest worn upon cap of, 92, =92= + + Lotus flowers symbolical of India, on Edward VII's mantle, 222 + + Louis XVI, hair of, gave rise to wigs, 131 + + Louterell, Sir Geoffrey, figure showing armorial bearings, 84, =85= + + Lovett, Mr. Edward, on dolls in swaddling clothes, 268 + -- -- -- -- origin of pin-ring brooches, 125 + -- -- -- -- patterns derived from tattooing, 278 + + Lyman, Dr., explanation of buttons being differently arranged on + the clothes of the two sexes, 22 + + + Macalister, Mr., on fashions, 189 + -- -- -- symbolism of the fringes on dalmatics, 191 + -- -- -- the pallium, 196 + -- -- -- -- surplice, 185 + -- -- -- there being no distinctive garments for the ministers, + among early Christians, 190 + + Macphersons, tartan of the, 312 + + Magnin, M., on the origin of Punch's hump, 261 + + Mail, chain, vestige of, on shoulder of Imperial Yeoman, 233, =233= + -- plate, 235 + + Malachite used for painting by prehistoric Egyptians, 271 + + Man cook, white clothes of, 320 + -- Isle of, triskele in the coat-of-arms of, 119 + -- once hairy, 7. Frontispiece + -- skin of, originally reddish, 13 + -- primitive, 5 + + Manche, 146 + + Maniple, 221 + -- once a napkin, 194 + + Manning, Mrs., hung in a black satin dress, 353 + + Manservant, modern, 143 + + Mantle, imperial, 221 + -- of Edward VII, lotus flowers on, 222 + -- -- Queen Victoria, roses on, 222 + + Mantles of ladies, collars standing up, 48 + + Maoris, tattooing of, 277 + + Mare, the last uncut ears of corn, 297 + + Marken, women of, floral designs on the bodice, 278 + + Market woman, sun-bonnet of, 61 + + Marines, Royal, mourning of, 243 + + Marionettes, 255 + + Marriage by capture, 175 + + Marriott, Mr., on the colour of early vestments, 190 + + Martingale of horse, amulets on, 294 + + Mask, unwritten laws that rule the wearing of, 281 + + Masks of the 5th of November a reminder of primitive + face-painting, 280 + -- worn by savages, 280 + + Mason, Mr. Otis T., on pockets, 110 + + Masons, aprons of, 232 + -- insignia of, 231 + + Master, clothing of, becomes that of servant, 5, 152 + + Maud, 20 + + Maundy Thursday, 226 + + Mayhew, Mr. Henry, on Punch and Judy, 265 + + Medical officers, volunteer, wear cocked hats, 247 + + Men, colour preferences of, 307 + + Merveilleuses, 345, =345= + + Mess jacket of Somersetshire Light Infantry, 242 + + Meyer, Dr., on the padding of sleeves above the shoulder to + prevent weapons from slipping off, 338 + + Mice, piebald, 302 + + Milk-women, apron of, 150 + -- -- costume of, 110 + -- -- with yokes, 110 + + Milton, bands of, 46 + + Mimes, Roman, 183, 282, 283 + + Mimi, 282 + + Miniver, 222 + -- rows of black spots on, indicate rank, 223 + + Mitten, open work, 99 + + Mittens and tattooing, 99 + + Mitre, 221 + -- strings of, 54, =54= + + Mizpah rings, 116 + + Mob cap worn by Judy, 262, =263= + + Modesty a habit, 12 + -- different ideas of, in various regions, 12 + -- ideas of, Arab women, 207 + + Molière introduces Punch into _Le Malade Imaginaire_, 261 + + Monk, General, 246 + + Monkeys, clothes of, 301 + + Monk, dress of, 201 + -- scapular of, 201 + -- tunic of, 201 + + Montbron, Lord of, harlequin's coat worn by, 283 + + Montaigne on the sufferings caused by the corps piqué, 325 + + Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley, and painting, 279 + + Montem at Eton, 171 + + Moore, Sir John, black worm as mourning for, 242 + + Mortar-board, 47, 169, 212, =214= + + Moseley, Professor, on face-painting in China, 273, 274, 275; + see Plate X, fig. C facing p. 270 + -- -- -- painting the body, 272 + -- -- -- the use of paint by women in Japan, 275 + + Mosque-like turban, 50, =50= + + Mourning bands of barristers, 219 + -- black as, 181 + -- black band on arm for, 182 + -- -- worm for Sir John Moore as, 242 + -- clothes of bark worn by Kayans of Borneo as, 181 + -- cuffs worn by the legal profession as part of, 183 + -- dishevelling of hair as, 181 + -- for death of Nelson, 252 + -- -- General Wolfe, black worm as, 242 + -- of Royal Marines, 243 + -- purple as, 182 + -- sackcloth as, 181 + -- strip of linen round head in Egypt as, 182 + -- white as, 182 + -- white lawn cuffs used by King's Counsel as, 220 + -- yellow as, 182 + + Moustache, 129 + + Mules, cowry shells on trappings of, 297, =299= + + Mutes at children's funerals, 182 + + + Nail, horseshoe, as part of a pin-ring brooch, 125 + + Nakedness, effect of, destroyed by tattooing even in Europeans, 277 + + Napkin, 194, 195 + + Naval uniforms, 251 + + Navvies wear belts, 329 + + Neapolitan, the, as an actor, 254 + + Neck chains, 113 + -- -- of Richard II's time, 113 + + Nelson, mourning for death of, 252 + + Neuville, M. Lemercier de, on Punch's stick, 260 + + Newcombe, Allan Poe, on hats and habitations, 49 + + Nicks in coat lapels, 41, =41=, =42= + + Nightcap of man, 290, =290= + -- -- woman, 289, =290= + + Nightcaps, elaboration of, restricted in the reign of Mary, 290 + -- of Tudors, 289 + -- still worn, 289 + + Night-dresses worn by ladies in the street in Anne's reign, 290 + + Nightgown, the bands on a lady's, 288, =289= + + Night rails, 290 + + Nightshirt cut like a day shirt, 288 + + Noah's Ark figures, long garments of, 268 + + Norman chin-band, 201, =203= + + Normans closely shaved their beards, 129 + -- combination garments of, 320 + -- wore trousers, 79 + + Northumberland Fusiliers, hackle feathers of, 244 + -- -- wear roses, 245 + + Norwegian, dress of the, 319 + + Nose rings of Hindu ayahs, 111 + + Novice, veil of, 202 + + Nuns, 201, 203 + -- aprons of, 202 + -- breast cloth of, 202, =203= + -- cap of, 202, =203=, 204 + -- collar of, 202 + -- costume of, 198 + -- cross of, 202 + -- frontal of, =203=, 204 + -- hood of, 202, =203= + -- not allowed to wear gloves, 204 + -- scapular of, 202 + -- veil of, 202, =203= + -- wear wedding-rings, 204 + + Nurse, hospital, uniform of, 150 + + Nurses, domestic, imitating hospital nurses' dress, 150 + + + O'Connor, Dr. Bernard, on bloomers, 361 + -- -- -- -- woman's dress for active exercises, 361 + + Officers, commanding, choice of uniform, 242, 243 + -- non-commissioned, stripes on sleeves of, 114 + + Opal, supposed powers of the, 124 + + Opals, always fashionable, 123 + -- and bad luck, 124 + + Openwork mittens, 99 + -- of Roman shoe, 62, =63= + -- stocking, 69, =69= + + Ophal, 124 + + Orange blossom, 180 + + Orang-utan, hair of, 6 + + Oraria, distribution of, by Aurelian, 192 + + Orarium, 191, 195 + + Order of the Coif, 216 + + Origin of fashions difficult to trace, 354 + -- -- mayoral chains, 113 + -- -- the clock, 68 + + Ornament, love of, among simple races, 8 + + Ornamentation of modern boots, 62, =63= + -- -- -- shoes, 62 + + Ornaments as currencies, 112 + -- of Stone Age, 112 + -- serve for identification, 10 + -- shells as, 112 + -- why they survive, 111 + -- worn even if there are little clothes, 9; see Plate II, + facing page 9 + + Orphrey, the apparel of the chasuble, 196 + + Ostrich feathers, 122 + + Oxford University, Chancellor of, hanging sleeve of, 210, =211= + -- -- undergraduate's gown, 210 + + Overcoat, 149 + + + Pads in hair dressing, 131 + + Padding, 338 + + Page-boy, buttons of, 144, =145= + -- -- livery of, 145, =145= + + Pageants, success of, a sign of the craving for colour, 306 + + Paint on face of clowns, 269 + -- use of, by women in Japan, 275 + -- -- -- -- -- -- China, 275 + -- -- -- at a corroboree, 272 + -- -- -- in war to terrify, 273 + + Painted pasteboard figures burnt at funerals in China, 274 + + Painting, 13 + -- by native races, 272 + -- follows the bones of the body, 272 + -- of clowns likened to that once in vogue in China and Japan, 276 + -- -- the body by cave men, 270 + -- practised by civilized men, 280 + -- the body among Andaman Islanders, 276 + -- -- -- Professor Moseley on, 272 + -- -- eyes, practised by the prehistoric Egyptian, 6000 B.C., 271 + -- -- face to hide the ravages of time, 278 + -- -- -- -- heighten its beauty, 278 + -- -- -- deaths due to, 279 + -- -- -- of Japanese children, 273 + -- -- -- -- -- actors, 273 + -- -- feet scarlet by Hindu women, 273 + + Palettes, slate, in the form of two birds in prehistoric Egypt, 295 + -- -- of the New Race, 271 + + Pall, 197 + -- manufacture of, 196 + + Pallium, 195 + -- development of the, 196 + + Palmerston's, Lord, broad-toed shoes, 335 + + Panache derived from the horn, 117 + + Pantaloon, 254, 261, 283, 285 + -- Elizabethan costume of, 269, 285, =285= + + Pantomimes, 269, 282 + + Pantomimi, 282 + + Papoose, swathing of American Indian, 164 + + Paré, Ambrose, on the suffering caused by the corps piqué, 325 + + Paris, waistbands, trade in, discarded, 348 + + Parliamentary officials, wigs of, 132 + + Parti-coloured dress of Athletic clubs, 313 + -- -- -- jockeys, 313 + + Patches indicating political views, 279 + -- of Charles I's reign banned by the Puritans, 278 + -- reappear in Charles II's reign, 279 + + Pattern, pine, origin of, 311 + + Patterns, breeches of chequered, worn by Gauls and early + inhabitants of England, 311 + + Peasant dress, slight survivals in England, 150; Plate VII, + facing page 150 + + Pelisse obtained from Persia, 344 + + Pendants, 122 + + Pensioners, costumes of, 170 + + People, uncivilized, without pockets, 9 + + Persian women wear trousers, 81 + + Pet animals, collars worn by, 298 + + Perthshire, the bare feet of children in, 333 + + Petrie, Professor, on Romano-Egyptian portrait models, 132 + -- -- -- buttons in Egypt, 120 + -- -- -- the origin of a supposed shield-shaped ornament, 296 + + Petticoat at first not shaped, 73 + -- hooped, 337 + + Petticoats, lengthening of, 166 + -- of sailors, 252 + -- -- small boys, 165 + + Pfiferari, cross gartering of, 68 + -- leg bandages of, 68 + + Phallic worship, 122 + + Pig-tail, grease of, 252 + + _Pileus quadratus_, 212 + + Pillion, 140 + + Pin, safety, 101, 118 + -- -- in hat, 104, =104= + -- -- -- waistband, =103=, 104 + -- -- like an Etruscan brooch, 102, =103= + -- scarf, 118 + + Pinafore, 150 + + Pinafores now children's dress, 167 + + Pin-money, 105 + + Pinner, 150 + + Pins, bronze, 105 + -- Egyptian, 105 + -- found in Swiss Lake dwellings, 105 + -- gold, 197 + -- made of thorns, 125 + -- of bone, 105 + -- ornamental, 106 + -- scarf, 106 + + _Pithecanthropus erectus_, 7 + + Plaid, 20, 187 + -- belted, 72 + -- shepherd's, 312 + + Plaids, 311 + + Plastron of Hussars, 148 + + Plowright, Dr., on the Moorish origin of some horse brasses, 293 + + Plugs for lips, 111 + + Plumes, black, of farriers of Life Guards, 242 + -- why on left side, 58 + + Plush, 149 + -- breeches, 104, =141= + + Pocket flaps, vestiges of, 32, =33= + + Pockets, 109 + -- in the sleeves of a Corean, 110 + -- side, 30 + -- uncivilized people without, 9 + + Points, 98 + -- on gloves, =96=, 98 + + Policeman's coat, buttons on the back of, 26, =26= + -- uniform not worn by children, 163 + + Polly, Miss, in the Punch and Judy show, now extinct, 265 + + Polypus (= the octopus) changing colour, 206 + + Porters, livery of, 148 + -- railway, waistcoats of, 148 + + Portugal, Queen of, demonstrates the evils of tight-lacing by + means of radiographs, 325 + + Postilions, buttons on jackets of, 38 + -- coats of His Majesty's, 145 + -- of Lord Mayor, crest worn upon cap of, 92, =92= + + Postulant, veil of, 202 + + Poupée derived from pupa, 163 + + Pouter coat, 141, =141= + + Powder, 149 + -- for hair, 131 + + Prayer-book, first, of Edward V, ornaments, rubric of, upheld by + Act of Uniformity, 199 + -- -- second, of Edward VI, 199 + -- -- vestments prescribed by the, first, of Edward VI, 198 + + Prickers on the shoulder-belt of a Hussar, 239, =239= + + Priest, =194= + + Profession indicated by costumes, 316 + + Puggaree of Duke of Cornwall's Light Infantry, 243 + + Pulicinella, 254 + -- means a hen chicken, 264 + -- Oscan, of 1731, =256= + + Punch, =263= + -- a Roman mime, 183 + -- and Judy, dress of, 137 + -- -- -- show, beadle of, 147, 262, =264= + -- -- -- -- doctor of, 263 + -- -- -- -- Hector, the horse, extinct in, 267 + -- -- -- -- Miss Polly, now extinct in, 265 + -- back hump of, 262, =263= + -- bronze statuette with face and features of, 258, =258= + -- figures worked by wires, 255 + -- front hump of, 253, 261 + -- gay clothes of, in France and England, 261 + -- in religious plays, 266 + -- introduced into _Le Malade Imaginaire_, by Molière, 261 + -- origin of clothes of, 257 + -- -- --, hump of, 253, 261 + -- ruff of, 262, =263= + -- stick of, 260 + -- the behaviour of, changes, 264 + -- voice of, 264 + + Pupa, Greek name for a baby in swaddling clothes, 163 + + Puppet derived from pupa, 163 + -- show of fourteenth century, 259, =259= + -- shows in China, 259 + + Puritans and Quakers, fashions set by, 348 + + Purple as mourning, 182 + + Puttees, 66, =66=, 328 + -- of Indian Army, 66 + + Pyjamas, 128 + -- worn by ladies, 288 + + Pym, John, bands of, 46, =46= + + + Quakers refused to wear buttons, 119 + + Queued hair, 134 + + Quiver carried on a baldric, 106 + + + Ra, 122 + + Rats, white, 302 + + Rank once indicated by dress, 319 + -- indicated by dress in certain professions, 320 + -- not usually shown by dress, 319 + + Ramillies, battle of, 244 + + Red cap of liberty, 306 + -- not universal in the British Army, 308 + -- rag of chulos in the bull fight, 306 + -- ribbon of engaged girl, 306 + -- rose of Lancaster, 306 + -- shirt of the followers of Garibaldi, 306 + -- tie of platelayer, 306 + + Regimental badges, 245 + + Revers buttoned back, 38, =39= + + Reynolds, Mr. P. W., on the survival of a button, 248 + -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- forage cords, 241 + + Rhead, Mr., on the festal dress of Otaheite, 338 + + Richard II's time, chaperon of, 157 + + Rifle Brigade, busby of, 242 + -- -- cross belt of, 242 + + Ring, 195 + -- for nose of Hindu ayahs, 111 + -- in Ireland, bearing clasped hands, 116 + -- of Bishop Agilbert of Paris, 114 + + Rings, betrothal of Greeks, 115 + -- -- -- Romans, 115 + -- engagement, 114 + -- Egyptian, of blue pottery of faïence, 116 + -- Episcopal, 114 + -- finger, in Babylon, 114 + -- -- -- Egypt, 114 + -- for ears, 112 + -- gimmal, 115 + -- in which the stones stand for letters, 116 + -- sacred eye on, 117 + -- signet, 83, =85= + -- -- in Egypt, 114 + -- -- suspended from the neck, 116 + -- used as an insignia of rank by Romans, 115 + -- wedding, 114 + -- -- worn by nuns, 204 + -- why worn on third finger, 115 + + Robe, parliamentary, of the King, 222 + -- coronation, eagles on, 222 + + Robes of companies, 138 + -- -- a chancellor of a university, 210 + -- -- borough councillors, 138 + -- -- the Barons of the Exchequer, 218 + -- worn on State occasions, 137 + + Robinson, Commander, on naval uniforms, 252 + + Robley, General, collection of Maori heads, 277 + + Rochet, 199, 221 + + Roman betrothal rings, 115 + -- d'Alexandre, MS. of, 259 + + Romans cut their beards, 129 + -- did not wear trousers, 77 + -- shoes of open work of, 62, =63= + -- tunic of, 191 + -- use rings as insignia of rank, 115 + + Roses on Queen Victoria's mantle, 222 + -- worn by Northumberland Fusiliers, 245 + -- -- -- soldiers on St. George's day, 245 + + Roy and Adami, Professors, on the beneficial use of waist belts + and stays, 332 + + Royalty, fashions arising from deformities of, 344 + + Rubies always fashionable, 123 + + Ruff, Elizabethan, of Toby, 253 + -- of Toby, 263 + -- worn by Punch, 262, =263= + + Ruffles, 227 + + Ruffs of Elizabeth's reign, 48, 351 + + Russia, boots of bridegrooms removed by brides in, 177 + + + Sackcloth as mourning, 181 + + Safety-pin, 101, =102=, =103=, =104=, 118 + + Sailor suit, 162 + + Sailors, European, tattooing practised by, 277 + -- kilt of, 252 + -- petticoat breeches of, 252 + -- petticoat of, 252 + -- trousers, method of buttoning, 252 + + St. Clement on women covering their heads in church, 205, 207 + -- George, cross of, 158 + -- Gregory the Great, costume of, 188, =188= + -- John of Jerusalem, dress of Knights of, 321 + -- Lucia, 244 + -- Nicholas, dress of, 137 + -- -- figure of, shows old dress, 267 + -- Patrick, hood of the Order of, 230 + + Sapphires always fashionable, 123 + + Saragossa, battle of, 243 + + Sashes meant to be used as slings, 241 + -- of officers, 249 + -- worn over the left shoulder by sergeants of the Twenty-Ninth + Foot, 249 + + Satchel carried on a baldric, 106 + + Savage, the female--a Merveilleuse dress, 346 + + Savages, colour preferences of, 307 + + Saxons parted or trimmed their beards, 129 + -- wore trousers, 79, =79= + + Scapular of nuns, 202 + + Scaramouch, 254, 261 + -- a pantomimist, 286 + + Scarf, 191, 199 + -- on ladies' hats, 149 + -- pin, 106, 118 + + Scarves, 192 + + Sceptre, 221, 304 + + School, Blue-coat, 167 + -- Bristol Red-Maids, 168 + -- Wells Grey-Maids, 168 + + Schools, Green-coat, 168 + -- Grey-coat, 168 + + Scotland, dress of heads of churches in, 200 + + Scottish Rifles, chaco of, 241 + + Scots Greys, 245 + -- -- take their name from their horses, 303 + -- -- Grenadier, caps of, 244 + -- Guards, 248 + + Seal of Solomon, 293 + + Serapis, crown of, 117 + + Serjeant-at-law, Lord Lindley, last, 217 + -- coif of, 216 + -- robes of, 218 + -- wig of, 215 + + Sergeants of Twenty-Ninth Foot wear sashes over their left + shoulders, 249 + + Servant, clothing of master becomes that of, 5, 139 + + Servants' dress, 139 + + Sex idea, 165 + + "Shabbies," 268 + + Shamrock, 222 + + Shapka, 239 + + Shaving carried out with flint knives or pieces of shell, 127 + -- of heads by Egyptians, 128 + -- -- -- -- East End Jewesses, 127 + -- -- the whole head, 127 + + Shawl, 16 + -- as a head-dress, 61 + -- the ancestral, 15 + -- used as kilt by Danish chieftain, 72, =73= + + Shells as ornaments, 112 + -- cowry, on trappings of camels, 297, =299= + -- -- -- -- -- donkeys, 297 + -- -- -- -- -- Hussars, 297, =298= + -- -- -- -- -- mules, 297, =299= + + Shepherd, plaid of, 312 + + Shield, 83 + -- heart-shaped, derived from a double bird, 296 + -- of Black Prince, 87, =89= + -- -- David, 293 + + Shirt front, origin of the, 44 + -- survival of the, as an outer garment, 288 + + Shoe made from a flat piece of hide, 65 + -- money in Bulgaria, 177 + -- of raw hide, 64, =64= + + Shoes, broad toed, of Henry VIII's reign, 335 + -- gift of, by bridegroom to bride, 177 + -- high heels of, 335 + -- old, thrown at weddings, 176 + -- ornamentation of modern, 62 + -- part of wages, 177 + -- pieces of old, worn by Eskimos to ensure fruitfulness, 178 + -- removed from dead bodies to lay ghosts, 178 + -- with preposterously long toes, 350 + -- thrown over the heads of the O'Neils by the O'Cahans, 177 + -- -- to ensure fruitfulness, 177 + + Shoulder knot, use of, 238 + + Siamese women wear trousers, 81; see Plate V, facing p. 81 + + Sicily, triskele in the coat-of-arms of, 119 + + Sign of the "Crooked Billet," 146 + + Signs derived from Royal badges, 91 + + Silk, forbidden, 351 + -- stockings, 140, =141= + + Simkin, Mr. R., explanation of the flash, 133 + + Sisters, lay, 204 + -- Kilburn, 201, 202 + -- of Mercy, 201 + + Skeleton dress, Dutch, 145, =145= + + "Sketch, The," on cockades, 158 + + Skirt, long, dangerous nowadays, 358 + -- -- disseminates germs, 358 + + Skirts, short, a recognized feature of children's costume, 163 + -- simple, of a Danish chieftainess, 73 + -- of lady gardeners damaged the plants, 358 + + Skull on head-dress of Hussars, 146 + + Skulls, bone inserted into prehistoric, 336 + + Sleeves, costume dated by, 210 + -- detachable, of nuns, 202 + -- hanging, 209, =209= + -- hanging, of a chancellor of Oxford University, =211= + -- slashed, prohibited, 350 + -- velvet, of a Proctor, 321 + + Sling jacket of the Hussars, =81=, 239 + + Smock-frock, 18, =19= + + Socks, 66 + + Soldiers, armlets conferred on, 114 + -- boys dressed as, 163 + -- dress previous to the Restoration, 236 + + Solicitor of Guards, uniform of, 247 + -- -- -- cocked hat of, 247 + + Solomon, seal of, 293 + + Somersetshire Light Infantry, cavalry mess jacket of, 242 + + Soul remaining in shoes, 178 + + Spaniard, dress of the, 318 + + Spatterdashes, 70 + + Spencer, Herbert, on fashions, 343 + + Spire, Siamese head-dress compared with a votive, 50, =51= + + Sporran, =76=, 77 + + Spur leathers, 235 + + Staff, cross, 195 + -- pastoral, 195 + + Star, 158 + + Statuette, bronze, of Punch, 258, =258= + + Statute cap of Elizabeth, 168 + + Stays, original intention of, 323 + -- Professors Roy and Adami on the beneficial use of, 332 + -- theory that they are derived from swaddling clothes, 332 + + Steen, Jan, bands of, 46, =46= + + Stick of camel driver survival of a sceptre, 304 + + Sticks, walking, 124 + + Stitching carried down the back of gloves, =97=, 98 + + Stoat, 222 + + Stockings, 66, 195 + -- embroidered, 69, =69= + -- leather, worn by William Penn, 70 + -- of cloth, 68 + -- open work, 69, =69= + -- silk, 140, =141= + -- yellow, of blue-coat boys, 167 + + Stocks of leather, 200 + + Stole, 193, 221 + + Stoles of deacons, 192 + + Stone Age, ornaments of, 112 + + Stones, precious, fashions in, 123 + -- -- supposed attributes of, 123 + + Straps, shoulder, =74=, 75 + + Straw wisps on horses, 297 + + Streamers of sailor hat, 53, =53= + -- -- Scotch cap, 53, =54= + -- on barristers' gowns, 219 + -- -- hats, 52, =52= + -- -- head-dress of twelfth century, 53, =53= + + Strings, cap, 149 + -- on mitres, 54, =54= + + Stripe on trousers, vestige of a row of buttons, =81=, 82 + + Stripes on sleeves of non-commissioned officers, 114 + + Stud, 118, =119= + + Suit, sailor, 162 + + Sumptuary laws, 349, 350, 351 + -- -- a hindrance to trade, 351 + -- -- usually a failure, 349 + + Sun-bonnet of barge women, 61; see Plate VIII, facing p. 150 + + Sun-bonnets of horses, 300 + -- -- -- market-garden women, 61 + + Surcoat, 83 + -- of Black Prince, 87, 89 + -- -- Henry Duke of Lancaster, 86, =86= + + Surgeons of the Life Guards wear cocked hats, 247 + + Superstitions keep up fashions, 349 + + Surplice, 185, 195, 199 + -- academical hood worn by clergy on a, 212 + -- Mr. Macalister on the, 185 + -- slit in front in order to go over big wigs, 185 + + Survivals of trade costumes (butchers), 308 + -- supposed in naval dress, 252 + + Suspenders, 71 + + Surtout, 148 + + Swaddling clothes still used in the Holy Land, 333 + -- -- theory that stays are derived from, 332 + -- -- swallow-tail coat, evolution of, 33, =34= + -- tails at Harrow, 170 + + Swastika, 119, 122; see Plate VII, fig. F, facing p. 129, 311 + -- the forerunner of the cross, 311 + + Sword belt, not worn outside the coat, 26 + -- handle, opening for, in coat, 30 + -- in Court dress, 227 + -- ivory hilted, worn by Eleventh Hussars, 244 + + + Tab on soldier's coat, =29=, 30 + -- -- side of coat, =31=, 32 + + Tabards of heralds, 83 + + Tags, metal, 100, =101= + -- ornamental, 101, =101= + -- useless on top boots, 66, =66= + + _Tailor and Cutter_, Editor of, on clothes and nationality, 317 + + Talismans, wearing of, by ancient Egyptians, 122 + + Talith, 205 + + Tannin preserves woven material, 18 + + Tapir, spotted when young, 94; see Frontispiece + + Tartan, Cameron, 242 + -- wearing of, forbidden, 351 + + Tartans, Royal Stuart, 312 + -- of Scotch clans, 312 + -- dyes for, obtained from native plants, 313 + -- clans with several, 312 + + Tattooing, 13 + -- and mittens, 99 + -- destroys the effect of nakedness even in Europeans, 277 + -- effect of, produced by open-work stockings and blouses, 70 + -- of the Maoris, 277 + -- practised by early Egyptians, 277 + -- -- -- European sailors, 277 + -- -- -- modern sailors, 277 + -- -- -- Jews, 277 + -- -- -- practised by old inhabitants of this country, 277 + -- scar, as a means of recognition, 276 + + Tax on elegant dress, 350 + + Teeth blackened by Hindu women, 273 + -- -- -- Japanese women on marriage, 273 + + Thistle, hood of the Order of the, 230 + + Thistles, 222 + + Tie, white at, Eton, 169 + + Tierra del Fuegians, 11 + + Tights, 70 + -- of acrobats, 286 + -- a survival of Florentine hose, 286 + -- -- knightly orders, 231 + + Tippet, 192, 212 + + Tippets of Doctors of Divinity, scarlet, 212 + -- for ministers who are not graduates, 199 + + Tobit, dog in the Book of, suggested by Toby, 267 + + Toby, Elizabethan ruff of, 253 + -- represented in China by a dragon, 267 + -- -- -- France by a cat, 267 + -- ruff of, 263 + -- suggests the dog in the book of Tobit, 267 + + Toga, 187 + -- replacement of, 192 + -- when worn, 187 + + Toledo, Fourth Council of, 192 + + Tonsure, 217 + -- of priests, 127 + + Topaz as a detector of poison, 124 + + "Toothpick" collar of dress coat, 43, =43= + + Top-coat, 149 + + Trades, characteristic dresses of, 320 + + Trajan, trousers shown on the column of, 78 + + Tramway drivers, buttons on back of the coats of, 30, =31= + + Treble, cockade, large, =152= + + Trencher, 47, 213, =214= + + Triangles, mystic interlaced, 293 + + Trimmings of judge's gown, altered in colour by Lord Coleridge, 218 + + Triskele in the coat-of-arms of the Isle of Man, 119 + -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Sicily, 119 + + Trousers, bell-bottom, 347 + -- evolution of, 77 + -- method of buttoning bishops', 252 + -- not worn by Romans, 77 + -- of labourers, method of buttoning, 252 + -- -- sailors, method of buttoning, 252 + -- shown on Trajan's column, 78 + -- worn by barbarians, 78, =78= + -- -- -- lady gardeners at Kew, 358 + -- -- -- Normans, 79 + -- -- -- Saxons, 79, =79= + -- -- -- women in Siam, 81; see Plate V, facing p. 81 + -- -- -- -- -- Persia, 81 + -- -- in riding dress by ladies, 358 + + Trumpeters, State, uniform of, 242 + + Trumpington, Sir Richard de, brass of, showing chain mail, 234, =234= + + Trunk hose of clown, 269 + -- -- of Knightly Orders, 231 + + Tudor dresses, shown by playing cards, 231 + -- flat cap, 214 + + Tunic, 16, 17, =17=, 187 + -- developed from the shawl, 17, =18= + + Tunic, Egyptian, 16 + -- Greek, 16, =17= + -- of monks, 201 + -- sleeved, 17 + -- survival of the Anglo-Saxon, 288 + + Tunica alba, 189 + + Tunicle, 195, 221 + + Tunics, black, of farriers of Life Guards, 242 + -- of Anglo-Saxons compared with a shirt, 288 + -- -- Lacedæmonian girls slit down the side, 346 + + Turban like the dome of a mosque, 50, =50= + + Turquoises always fashionable, 123 + + Twenty-Ninth Foot, sergeants of, wear sashes over their left + shoulders, 249 + + Twain, Mark, 341 + + Tylor, Dr., on finger-rings, 114 + -- -- -- painting in war time by civilized races, 273 + -- -- -- the tendency to give up savage ornaments, 111 + + + Underclothes, lack of, 360 + + Ulster, 149 + + Uniforms, naval, 251 + -- of Hussars, 272 + -- -- Navy, date from 1767, 251 + -- -- sergeant worn by extra drummer, 244 + -- military, regular adoption of, 235 + -- -- solicitor of Guards, 247 + -- service, protectively coloured, 236 + -- gay, only used in times of peace, 236 + + Union Jack on King's colours of Coldstream Guards, 246 + + Ushabti, models of servants put into Egyptian graves, 268 + + + Veil of a bride, 175 + -- -- novice, 202 + -- -- nun, 202, =203= + -- -- postulants, 202 + + Vergers, costume of, 218 + + Vermiform appendix, 3 + + Vestments, adoption of, by English High Church clergy, 192 + -- baptismal, 164 + -- ecclesiastical, 184 + -- of High Church clergy, coloured, adopted by, 305 + -- ornaments of, gradually acquired, 187 + -- prescribed by the first Prayer Book of Edward VI, 198 + -- prohibited by second Prayer Book of Edward VI, 199 + -- of Presbyterian clergy, professional, 185 + -- worn at the celebration of the Eucharist, =194= + + Vestige of a row of buttons, stripe on trousers, =81=, 82 + -- -- the coif from wig of a sergeant-at-law, 216, =217= + + Vestiges, buttons on postilions, 38 + -- of the fillet, 52, =52= + -- in the animal kingdom, 3 + + Vickery, Dr. Alice, on children's dress, 165 + + Villiers-en-Couche, battle of, 244 + + Voice of Punch, 264 + + Vowesses, 183 + + + Waist, wasp-like, 323 + + Wales', Prince of, feathers a hereditary badge, 90 + + Waistbands, trade in discarded, in Paris, 348 + + Waistbelts, Professors Roy and Adami, on the beneficial use of, 332 + + Waistcoat, 148 + + Waiter, 144 + + Waiters, evening dress of, 144, 151 + + Wand of harlequin, 283 + + Warp, 16 + -- of hand loom, 117 + + Waterloo, battle of, 245 + + Watermen, badges of, 91 + + Wearing of talismans by ancient Egyptians, 122 + + Weddings, superstitions at, 176 + + Weights, leaden, used by women to flatten their chests, 338 + + Weeds, old meaning of the word, 182 + -- widows, 182 + + Weft of hand loom, 117 + + Wells, Blue schools at, 168 + + Welsh Fusiliers, flash of, 241 + + Westminster, coats at, 169 + + Whips, fashions in, 303 + + Whiskers, effect of bushy, 130 + + White as mourning, 182 + -- clothes of butterman, 320 + -- -- -- man cook, 320 + + Widows, costume of, 198 + + Wig of coachman, 142, =142= + -- of judge, 215, =216= + -- -- -- depression in, 215 + -- -- doctor in the Punch and Judy show, =264= + + Wig-bag of Court dress, 227, =229= + -- remnant of, 133 + -- on liveries of servants, 134, =143= + -- of Lord Mayor's coachman, 134, 143, =143= + + Wigs, barristers', 132 + -- coachmen's, 132 + -- imitating curly hair, 130 + -- footmen's, 132 + -- judges, 132 + -- legal, 215 + -- of East End Jewesses, 127 + -- -- Egyptians, 128 + -- -- Parliamentary officials, 132 + -- -- Serjeants-at-law, 215 + -- value of, 228 + + Wilhelmstahl, battle of, 244 + + William Rufus, hanging sleeves of the time of, 209 + + Wimple, 175, =203= + -- of Norman ladies, 202 + -- of the time of the Plantagenets, 202 + + Winchester scholars, bands of, 169 + + Wolfe, General, black worm worn as mourning for, 242 + + Women, Arab, 122 + -- -- ideas of modesty, 207 + -- barge, apron of, 150; see Plate VIII, facing p. 150 + -- colour preferences of, 307 + -- covering their faces, 13, 206 + -- dress of, varies little, 16 + -- in church without hats, 13, 206 + -- -- many places wear trousers, 357 + -- married, not to wear caps, 350 + -- milk, 150 + -- -- yokes of, 110 + -- Padaung, metal collars of, 114; see Plate VI, facing p. 114 + -- rational dress for, 361 + -- riding astride, 359 + -- the first to wear clothes, 12 + -- Welsh and Italian, age rapidly, 329 + + Wood, Mr. Walter, on white jackets for soldiers, 243 + + Woodville, Mr. Caton, on aiguillettes, 240 + + Worm, black, of East Yorkshire regiment, 242 + -- -- mourning for Sir John Moore, 242 + -- -- of North Lancashire regiment, 242 + -- -- of Somersetshire Light Infantry, 242 + -- -- worn as mourning for General Wolfe, 242 + -- slow, third eye in, 3 + + Wristbands, 24 + + + Yellow as mourning, 182 + -- a favourite colour of gipsies, 306 + -- mourning colour in Oriental countries, 307 + -- worn by mediæval Jews, 307 + + Yeomen of the Guard, badges of, 224, =224=, 225 + -- -- -- -- dress of, 223 + -- -- -- -- duties of, 225 + -- -- -- -- officers, dress of, 225 + -- -- -- -- -- of, wear the uniform used in the Peninsular War, 225 + -- -- -- -- original uniform of, 225 + + Yoke, =109=, 110 + -- of milk woman, 110 + + Yoxall, Mr., on wearing of yellow by Jews, 306 + + + + + PRINTED BY + WILLIAM BRENDON AND SON, LTD. + PLYMOUTH + + + + +Transcriber's note + + +Words in italics were surrounded by _underscores_ and in bold by +=signs=. + +Anchors for footnote 33 and 34 were added, after careful consideration +where they should have been. + +Some illustrations were slightly moved for reader convenience, but +the bold numbers in the index, leading to the original pages, were not +changed. + +In the Index, errors in the alphabetical order were not corrected. Also +in the Index, the item "Moseley" seemed to contain a footnote, which +has been removed because it did not refer to anything. The original +said: "see Plate X, fig. C1". + +A few punctuation errors have been corrected silently. Also the +following corrections were made, on page + + 134 "Fusillers" changed to "Fusiliers" (Fig. 109) + 145 "Sketon" changed to "Skeleton" (Dutch Skeleton Dress) + 213 "carboard" changed to "cardboard" (made of cardboard covered + with cloth) + 221 "almostly" changed to "almost" (agree almost entirely with those) + 263 "mop" changed to "mob" (Fig 154.), also in the List of + Illustrations + 278 "Markan" changed to "Marken" (the women of Marken, in Holland, + may have) + 289 "o" changed to "0" (8s. 0d.) + 309 "deferentiate" changed to "differentiate" (serve to + differentiate the sisters) + 314 "promegranate" changed to "pomegranate" (the flowers of the + pomegranate) + 329 "had" changed to "hand" (On the other hand, the fact that) + 369 "Abesses" changed to "Abbesses" (Abbesses, costume of) + 388 "oy" changed to "by" (worn by Punch). + +Otherwise the original has been preserved, including inconsistent +spelling and hyphenation. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Heritage of Dress, by Wilfred Mark Webb + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42682 *** |