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diff --git a/42552.txt b/42552.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 77e8ef6..0000000 --- a/42552.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,19792 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 17, Slice 7, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 17, Slice 7 - "Mars" to "Matteawan" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: April 16, 2013 [EBook #42552] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - -Transcriber's notes: - -(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally - printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an - underscore, like C_n. - -(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. - -(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective - paragraphs. - -(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not - inserted. - -(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek - letters. - -(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: - - ARTICLE MARSHALLTOWN: "The city is situated in a rich agricultural - region, and is a market for grain, meat cattle, horses and swine." - 'meat' amended from 'neat'. - - ARTICLE MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI: "His knowledge of the middle ages - is inadequate, and his criticisms are not discriminating." 'middle' - amended from 'mddile'. - - ARTICLE MARTIN, SIR THEODORE: "Then came translations of the Vita - Nuova of Dante, and the first part of Goethe's Faust." 'Then' - amended from 'The'. - - ARTICLE MARVELL, ANDREW: "Marvell's connexion with Hull had been - strengthened by the marriages of his sisters with persons of local - importance ..." 'been' amended from 'heen'. - - ARTICLE MARX, HEINRICH KARL: "This average rate of profits, added - to the actual cost price of a given commodity ..." 'of' amended - from 'or'. - - ARTICLE MARX, HEINRICH KARL: "... see J. Stammhammer, Bibliographie - des Sozialismus und Kommunismus (Jena, 1893) ..." 'Sozialismus' - amended from 'Soziatismus'. - - ARTICLE MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS: "On the 28th of November she was - removed to Sheffield Castle, where she remained for the next - fourteen years in charge of the earl of Shrewsbury." 'fourteen' - amended from 'fourteeen'. - - ARTICLE MASULIPATAM: "During the wars of the Carnatic, the English - were temporarily expelled from the town, which was held by the - French for some years." added 'from'. - - - - - ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA - - A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE - AND GENERAL INFORMATION - - ELEVENTH EDITION - - - VOLUME XVII, SLICE VII - - Mars to Matteawan - - - - -ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: - - - MARS MASAI - MARSALA MASANIELLO - MARSDEN, WILLIAM MASAYA - MARSEILLES MASCAGNI, PIETRO - MARSH, ADAM MASCARA - MARSH, GEORGE PERKINS MASCARENE ISLANDS - MARSH, HERBERT MASCARON, JULES - MARSH, NARCISSUS MASCHERONI, LORENZO - MARSH, OTHNIEL CHARLES MASCOT - MARSH MASDEU, JUAN FRANCISCO - MARSHAL MASERU - MARSHALL, ALFRED MASHAM, ABIGAIL - MARSHALL, JOHN (American jurist) MASHAM, SAMUEL CUNLIFFE LISTER - MARSHALL, JOHN (British surgeon) MASHONA - MARSHALL, STEPHEN MASK - MARSHALL (Missouri, U.S.A.) MASKELYNE, NEVIL - MARSHALL (Texas, U.S.A.) MASOLINO DA PANICALE - MARSHALL ISLANDS MASON, FRANCIS - MARSHALLTOWN MASON, GEORGE - MARSHALSEA MASON, GEORGE HEMMING - MARSHBUCK MASON, JAMES MURRAY - MARSHFIELD MASON, SIR JOHN - MARSH GAS MASON, JOHN - MARSHMAN, JOSHUA MASON, JOHN YOUNG - MARSI MASON, SIR JOSIAH - MARSIGLI, LUIGI FERDINANDO MASON, LOWELL - MARSILIUS OF PADUA MASON, WILLIAM - MARSIVAN MASON AND DIXON LINE - MARS-LA-TOUR MASON CITY - MARSTON, JOHN MASONRY - MARSTON, PHILIP BOURKE MASPERO, GASTON CAMILLE CHARLES - MARSTON MOOR, BATTLE OF MASS - MARSUPIALIA MASSA - MARSUPIAL MOLE MASSACHUSETTS - MARSUS, DOMITIUS MASSACRE - MARSYAS MASSAGE - MARTABAN MASSAGETAE - MARTELLO TOWER MASSA MARITTIMA - MARTEN, HENRY MASSAWA - MARTEN MASSENA, ANDRE - MARTENS, FREDERIC FROMMHOLD DE MASSENBACH, CHRISTIAN KARL VON - MARTENS, GEORG FRIEDRICH VON MASSENET, JULES EMILE FREDERIC - MARTENSEN, HANS LASSEN MASSEREENE, JOHN CLOTWORTHY - MARTHA'S VINEYARD MASSEY, SIR EDWARD - MARTI, JUAN JOSE MASSEY, GERALD - MARTIAL MASSICUS, MONS - MARTIALIS, QUINTUS GARGILIUS MASSIF - MARTIAL LAW MASSILLON, JEAN BAPTISTE - MARTIGNAC, JEAN BAPTISTE GAY MASSILLON - MARTIGUES MASSIMO - MARTIN, ST MASSINGER, PHILIP - MARTIN (several popes) MASSINISSA - MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI MASSON, DAVID - MARTIN, CLAUD MASSON, LOUIS CLAUDE FREDERIC - MARTIN, FRANCOIS XAVIER MAST - MARTIN, HOMER DODGE MASTABA - MARTIN, JOHN MASTER - MARTIN, LUTHER MASTER AND SERVANT - MARTIN, SIR THEODORE MASTER OF THE HORSE - MARTIN, WILLIAM MASTER OF THE ROLLS - MARTIN, SIR WILLIAM FANSHAWE MASTIC - MARTIN OF TROPPAU MASTIGOPHORA - MARTIN (bird) MASTODON - MARTINEAU, HARRIET MAS'UDI - MARTINEAU, JAMES MASULIPATAM - MARTINET MAT - MARTINEZ DE LA ROSA, DE PAULA MATABELE - MARTINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA MATACHINES - MARTINI, SIMONE MATADOR - MARTINIQUE MATAMOROS - MARTINSBURG MATANZAS - MARTINS FERRY MATARO - MARTINUZZI, GEORGE MATCH - MARTIUS, CARL FRIEDRICH VON MATE (companion) - MARTOS, CHRISTINO MATE (shrub) - MARTOS MATERA - MARTYN, HENRY MATERIALISM - MARTYN, JOHN MATER MATUTA - MARTYR MATHEMATICS - MARTYROLOGY MATHER, COTTON - MARULLUS, MICHAEL TARCHANIOTA MATHER, INCREASE - MARUM, MARTIN VAN MATHER, RICHARD - MARUTS MATHERAN - MARVELL, ANDREW MATHESON, GEORGE - MARX, HEINRICH KARL MATHEW, THEOBALD - MARY (the mother of Jesus) MATHEWS, CHARLES - MARY (Magdalene) MATHEWS, THOMAS - MARY I. MATHY, KARL - MARY II. MATILDA (queen of England) - MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS MATILDA (countess of Tuscany) - MARY (duchess of Burgundy) MATINS - MARY (queen of France) MATLOCK - MARY OF LORRAINE MATOS FRAGOSO, JUAN DE - MARY OF MODENA MATRASS - MARY OF ORANGE MATRIARCHATE - MARYBOROUGH (Ireland) MATRIMONY - MARYBOROUGH (Queensland) MATRIX - MARYBOROUGH (Victoria, Australia) MATROSS - MARYLAND MATSUKATA - MARYPORT MATSYS, QUINTIN - MARZABOTTO MATTEAWAN - MASACCIO - - - - -MARS, in astronomy, the fourth planet in the order of distance from the -sun, and the next outside the earth. To the naked eye it appears as a -bright star of a decidedly reddish or lurid tint, which contrasts -strongly with the whiteness of Venus and Jupiter. At opposition it is -brighter than a first magnitude star, sometimes outshining even Sirius. -It is by virtue of its position the most favourably situated of all the -planets for observation from the earth. The eccentricity of its orbit, -0.0933, is greater than that of any other major planet except Mercury. -The result is that at an opposition near perihelion Mars is markedly -nearer to the earth than at an opposition near aphelion, the one -distance being about 35 million miles; the other 63 million. These -numbers express only the minimum distances at or near opposition, and -not the distance at other times. The time of revolution of Mars is -686.98 days. The mean interval between oppositions is 2 years 49(1/2) -days, but, owing to the eccentricity of the orbit, the actual excess -over two years ranges from 36 days to more than 2(1/2) months. Its -period of rotation is 24 h. 37 m. 22.66 s. (H. G. Bakhuyzen). - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Orbits of Mars and the Earth, showing aspects of -the planet relative to the earth and sun.] - -_Motions._--The accompanying diagram will convey a notion of the varied -aspects presented by the planet, of the cycles of change through which -they go, and of the order in which the oppositions follow each other. -The outer circle represents the orbit of Mars, the inner one that of the -earth. AE is the line of the equinoxes from which longitudes are -counted. The perihelion of Mars is in longitude 335 deg. at the point -[pi]. The ascending node [Omega] is in longitude 47 deg. The line of -nodes makes an angle of 74 deg. with the major axis, so that Mars is -south of the ecliptic near perihelion, but north of it near aphelion. -Around the inner circle, representing the earth's orbit, are marked the -months during which the earth passes through the different parts of the -orbit. It will be seen that the distance of Mars at the time of any -opposition depends upon the month in which opposition occurs. The least -possible distance would occur in an opposition about the end of August, -a little before Mars reached the perihelion, because the eccentricity of -the earth's orbit throws our planet a little farther from the sun and -nearer the orbit of Mars in July than it does in August. The opposition -of 1909 occurred on the 24th of September, at a point marked by the year -near the equinox, and the month and years of the oppositions following, -up to 1941, are also shown in the same way. Tracing them around, it will -be seen that the points of opposition travel around the orbit in about -16 years, so that oppositions near perihelion, when Mars is therefore -nearest the earth, occur at intervals of 15 or 17 years. - -The axis of rotation of the planet is inclined between 23 deg. and 24 -deg. to the orbit, and the equator of the planet has the same -inclination to the plane of the orbit. The north pole is directed toward -a point in longitude 355 deg., in consequence of which the projection of -the planet's axis upon the plane of the ecliptic is nearly parallel to -the line of our equinoxes. This projection is shown by the dotted line -SP-NP, which corresponds closely to the line of the Martian solstices. -It will be seen that at a September opposition the north pole of the -planet is turned away from the sun, so that only the southern hemisphere -is presented to us, and only the south pole can be seen from the earth. -The Martian vernal equinox is near Q and the northern solstice near A. -Here at the point S.P. the northern hemisphere is turned toward the sun. -It will be seen that the aspect of the planet at opposition, especially -the hemisphere which is visible, varies with the month of opposition, -the general rule being that the northern hemisphere of the planet is -entirely seen only near aphelion oppositions, and therefore when -farthest from us, while the southern hemisphere is best seen near -perihelion oppositions. The distances of the planet from the sun at -aphelion and at perihelion are nearly in the ratio 6:5. The intensity of -the sun's radiation on the planet is as the inverse square of this -ratio. It is therefore more than 40% greater near perihelion than near -aphelion. It follows from all this that the southern hemisphere is -subjected to a more intense solar heat than the northern, and must -therefore have a warmer summer season. But the length of the seasons is -the inverse of this, the summer of the northern hemisphere being longer -and the heat of the southern hemisphere shorter in proportion. - -_Surface Features._--The surface features of the planet will be better -understood by first considering what is known of its atmosphere and of -the temperature which probably prevails on its surface. One method of -detecting an atmosphere is through its absorption of the different rays -in the spectrum of the sunlight reflected from the planet. Several -observers have thought that they saw fairly distinct evidence of such -absorption when the planet was examined with the spectroscope. But the -observations were not conclusive; and with the view of setting the -question at rest if possible, W. W. Campbell at the Lick Observatory -instituted a very careful series of spectroscopic observations.[1] To -reduce the chances of error to a minimum the spectrum of Mars was -compared with that of the moon when the two bodies were near each other. -Not the slightest difference could be seen between any of the lines in -the two spectra. It being certain that the spectrum of the moon is not -affected by absorption, it followed that any absorption produced by the -atmosphere of Mars is below the limit of perception. It was considered -by Campbell that if the atmosphere of Mars were 1/4 that of the earth in -density, the absorption would have been visible. Consequently the -atmosphere of Mars would be of a density less than 1/4 that of the -earth.[2] - -Closely related to the question of an atmosphere is that of possible -clouds above the surface of the planet, the existence of which, if real, -would necessarily imply an atmosphere of a density approaching the limit -set by Campbell's observations. The most favourable opportunity for -seeing clouds would be when they are formed above a region of the planet -upon which the sun is about to rise, or from which it has just been -setting. The cloud will then be illuminated by the sun's rays while the -surface below it is in darkness, and will appear to an observer on the -earth as a spot of light outside the terminator, or visible edge of the -illuminated part of the disk. It is noticeable that phenomena more or -less of this character, though by no means common, have been noted by -observers on several occasions. Among these have been the Mt Hamilton -and Lowell observers, and W. H. Pickering at Arequipa. Campbell has -shown that many of them may be accounted for by supposing the presence -of mountains not more than two miles in height, which may well exist on -the planet. While this hypothesis will serve to explain several of these -appearances, this can scarcely be said of a detached spot observed on -the evening of the 26th of May 1903, at the Lowell Observatory.[3] Dr -Slipher, who first saw it, was so struck by the appearance of the -projection from the terminator upon the dark side of the disk that he -called the other observers to witness it. Micrometric measures showed -that it was some 300 miles in length, and that its highest point stood -some 17 miles above the surface of the planet. That a cloud should be -formed at such a height in so rare an atmosphere seems difficult to -account for except on the principle that the rate of diminution of the -density of an atmosphere with its height is proportional to the -intensity of gravity, which is smaller on Mars than on the earth. The -colour was not white, but tawny, of the tint exhibited by a cloud of -dust. Percival Lowell therefore suggests that this and other appearances -of the same kind seen from time to time are probably dust clouds, -travelling over the desert, as they sometimes do on the earth, and -settling slowly again to the ground. - -_Temperature._--Up to a recent time all that could be said of the -probable temperature of Mars was that, being more distant from the sun -than the earth, and having a rarer atmosphere, it had a general mean -temperature probably below that of the earth. Greater precision can now -be given to this theoretical conclusion by recent determination of the -law of radiation of heat by bodies at different temperatures. Regarding -it as fairly well established that at ordinary temperatures the -radiation varies directly as the fourth power of the absolute -temperature, it is possible when the "solar constant" is known to -compute the temperature of a non-coloured body at the distance of Mars -which presents every part of its surface in rapid succession to the -sun's rays in the absence of atmosphere only. This has been elaborately -done for the major planets by J. H. Poynting,[4] who computes that the -mean temperature of Mars is far below the freezing point of water. On -the other hand an investigation made by Lowell in 1907,[5] taking into -account the effect of the rare atmosphere on the heat lost by -reflection, and of several other factors in the problem hitherto -overlooked, led him to the conclusion that the mean temperature is about -48 deg. Fahr.[6] But the temperature may rise much above the mean on -those regions of the surface exposed to a nearly vertical noon-day sun. -The diurnal changes of temperature, being diminished by an atmosphere, -must be greater on Mars than on the earth, so that the vicissitudes of -temperature are there very great, but cannot be exactly determined, -because they must depend upon the conductivity and thermal capacity of -the matter composing the surface of the planet. What we can say with -confidence is that, during the Martian winter of between eight and -twelve of our months, the regions around either pole must fall to a -temperature nearer the absolute zero than any known on this planet. In -fact the climatic conditions in all but the equatorial regions are -probably of the same nature as those which prevail on the tops of our -highest mountains, except that the cold is more intense.[7] - -Having these preliminary considerations in mind, we may now study the -features presented to our view by the surface of the planet. These have -a permanence and invariability which markedly differentiate them from -the ever varying surfaces of Jupiter and Saturn, and show that what we -see is a solid surface, like that of our earth. They were observed and -delineated by the leading astronomers of the 16th century, especially -Huygens, Cassini and Hooke. These observers could only distinguish the -different regions upon the planet as bright or dark. Reasoning as they -did in the case of the moon, it was naturally supposed that the brighter -regions were land and the darker ones seas. The observers of our time -find that the darker regions have a slightly blue-green aspect, which -might suggest the idea of water, but are variegated in a way to show -that they must be composed of a solid crust, like the brighter regions. -The latter have a decidedly warm red or ochre tint, which gives the -characteristic colour to the planet as seen by the naked eye. The -regions in equatorial and middle latitudes, which are those best seen -from our planet, show a surface of which the general aspect is not -dissimilar to that which would be presented by the deserts of our earth -when seen from the moon. With each improvement in the telescope the -numerous drawings of the planet show more definiteness and certainty in -details. About 1830 a fairly good map was made by W. Beer and J. H. -Madler, a work which has been repeated by a number of observers since -that time. The volume of literature on the subject, illustrated by -drawings and maps, has become so great that it is impossible here to -present even an abstract of it; and it would not be practicable, even -were it instructive, to enter upon any detailed description of Martian -topography. A few great and well-marked features were depicted by the -earliest observers, who saw them so plainly that they may be recognized -by their drawings at the present time. There is also a general agreement -among nearly all observers with good instruments as to the general -features of the planet, but even in the latest drawings there is a -marked divergence as to the minuter details. This is especially true of -the boundaries of the more ill-defined regions, and of the faint and -difficult markings of various kinds which are very numerous on every -part of the planet. There is not even a close agreement between the -drawings by the same observer at different oppositions; but this may be -largely due to seasonal and other changes. - -The most striking feature, and one which shows the greatest resemblance -to a familiar terrestrial process, is that when either polar region -comes into view after being turned nearly a year away from the sun, it -is found to be covered with a white cap. This gradually contracts in -extent as the sun shines upon it during the remaining half of the -Martian year, sometimes nearly disappearing. That this change is due to -the precipitation of watery vapour in the form of ice, snow or frost -during the winter, and its melting or evaporation when exposed to the -sun's rays, is so obvious a conclusion that it has never been seriously -questioned. It has indeed been suggested that the deposit may be frozen -carbonic acid. While we cannot pronounce this out of the question, the -probabilities seem in favour of the deposit being due to the -precipitation of aqueous vapour in a frozen form. At a temperature of --50 deg. C., which is far above what we can suppose to prevail in the -polar regions during the winter, the tension of aqueous vapour is 0.034 -mm. On the other hand Faraday found the tension of carbonic acid to be -still an entire atmosphere at as low a temperature as -80 deg. C. -Numerically exact statements are impossible owing to our want of -knowledge of the actual temperature, which must depend partly upon air -currents between the equator and the poles of Mars. It can, however, be -said, in a general way, that a proportion of aqueous vapour in the rare -atmosphere of Mars, far smaller than that which prevails on the earth, -would suffice to explain the observed formation and disappearances of -the polar caps. Since every improvement in the telescope and in the -conditions of observation must enable modern observers to see all that -their predecessors did and yet more, we shall confine our statements to -the latest results. These may be derived from the work of Professor -Lowell of Boston, who in 1894 founded an observatory at Flagstaff, -Arizona, 7250 ft. above sea-level, and supplied it with a 24" telescope, -of which the main purpose was the study of Mars. This work has been -continued with such care and assiduity that its results must take -precedence of all others in everything that relates to our present -subject.[8] - -Among the more probable conclusions to be drawn from Lowell's -observations, the following are of most interest. The darker areas are -all seamed by lines and dots darker than themselves, which are permanent -in position, so that there can be no bodies of water on the planet. On -the other hand, their colour, blue-green, is that of vegetation. This -fades out as vegetation would at certain seasons to faint blue-green, -but in some places to a tawny brown. Each hemisphere undergoes these -changes in its turn, the changes being opposite in opposite -hemispheres. The changes in the dark areas follow some time after the -melting of the polar caps. The aspect of these areas suggests old sea -bottoms, and when on the terminator appear as depressions, though this -may be only apparent and due to the dark colour. The smoothness and soft -outline of the terminator shows that there are no mountains on Mars -comparable with ours, but that the surface is surprisingly flat. White -spots are occasionally visible in the tropical and temperate regions, -which are perhaps due to the condensation of frost or snow, or to saline -exudation such as seasonally occurs in India (Lowell). Moreover in -winter the temperate zones are more or less covered by a whitish veil, -which may be either hoar frost or cloud. A spring haze seems to surround -the north polar cap during its most extensive melting; otherwise the -Martian sky is quite clear, like that of a dry desert land. When either -polar cap is melting it is bordered by a bluish area, which Lowell -attributes to the water produced by the melting. But the obliquity at -which the sun's rays strike the surface as the cap is melting away is so -great that it would seem to preclude the possibility of a temperature -high enough to melt the snow into water. Under the low barometric -pressure prevailing on the planet, snow would evaporate under the -influence of the sun's rays without changing into water. It is also -contended that what looks like such a bluish border may be formed around -a bright area by the secondary aberration of a refracting telescope.[9] - -The modern studies of Mars which have aroused so much public interest -began with the work of Schiaparelli in 1877. Accepting the term "ocean," -used by the older observers, to designate the widely extended darker -regions on the planet, and holding that they were really bodies of -water, he found that they were connected by comparatively narrow -streaks. (Schiaparelli considered them really water until after the -Lowell observations.) In accordance with the adopted system of -nomenclature, he termed these streaks _canale_, a word of which the -proper rendering into English would be _channels_. But the word was -actually translated into both English and French as canal, thus -connoting artificiality in the supposed waterways, which were attributed -to the inhabitants of the planet. The fact that they were many miles in -breadth, and that it was therefore absurd to call them canals, did not -prevent this term from being so extensively used that it is now scarcely -possible to do away with it. A second series of observations was made by -Schiaparelli at the opposition of 1879, when the planet was farther -away, but was better situated as to altitude above the horizon. He now -found a number of additional channels, which were much finer than those -he had previously drawn. The great interest attaching to their seemingly -artificial character gave an impetus to telescopic study of the planet -which has continued to the present time. New canals were added, -especially at the Lowell Observatory, until the entire number listed in -1908 amounted to more than 585. The general character of this complex -system of lines is described by Lowell as a network covering the whole -face of the planet, light and dark regions alike, and connecting at -either end with the respective polar caps there. At their junctions are -small dark pinheads of spots. The lines vary in size between themselves, -but each maintains its own width throughout. But the more difficult of -these objects are only seen occasionally and are variable in -definiteness. Of two canals equally well situated for seeing, only one -may be visible at one time and only the other at other times. If this -variability of aspect among different canals is true as they are seen -from the Lowell Observatory, we find it true to a much greater extent -when we compare descriptions by different observers. At Flagstaff, the -most favourably situated of all the points of observation, they are seen -as fine sharp lines, sometimes as well marked as if drawn with a pencil. -But other observers see them with varying degrees of breadth and -diffuseness. - -One remarkable feature of these objects is their occasional -"gemination," some of the canals appearing as if doubled. This was -first noticed by Schiaparelli, and has been confirmed, so far as -observations can confirm it, by other observers. Different explanations -of this phenomenon have been suggested, but the descriptions of it are -not sufficiently definite to render any explanation worthy of entire -confidence possible. Indeed the more cautious astronomers, who have not -specially devoted themselves to the particular phenomena, reserve a -doubt as to how far the apparent phenomena of the finer canals are real, -and what the markings which give rise to their appearance might prove to -be if a better and nearer view of the planet than is now possible could -be obtained. Of the reality of the better marked ones there can be no -doubt, as they have been seen repeatedly by many observers, including -those at the Lick Observatory, and have actually been photographed at -the Lowell Observatory. The doubt is therefore confined to the vast -network of lines so fine that they never certainly have been seen -elsewhere than at Flagstaff. The difficulty of pronouncing upon their -reality arises from the fact that we have to do mainly with objects not -plainly visible (or, as Lowell contends, not plainly visible elsewhere). -The question therefore becomes one of psychological optics rather than -of astronomy. When the question is considered from this point of view it -is found that combinations of light and shaded areas very different from -continuous lines, will, under certain conditions, be interpreted by the -eye as such lines; and when such is the case, long practice by an -observer, however carefully conducted, may confirm him in this -interpretation. To give a single example of the principles involved; it -is found by experiment that if, through a long line so fine as to -approach the limit of visibility, segments not too near each other, or -so short that they would not be visible by themselves, be taken out, -their absence from the line will not be noticed, and the latter will -still seem continuous.[10] In other words we do not change the aspect of -the line by taking away from it a part which by itself would be -invisible. This act of the eye, in interpreting a discontinuous series -of very faint patches as a continuous line, is not, properly speaking, -an optical illusion, but rather a habit. The arguments for the reality -of all the phenomena associated with the canals, while cogent, have not -sufficed to bring about a general consensus of opinion among critics -beyond the limit already mentioned. - -Accepting the view that the dark lines on Mars are objectively real and -continuous, and are features as definite in reality as they appear in -the telescope, Professor Lowell has put forth an explanation of -sufficient interest to be mentioned here. His first proposition is that -lines frequently thousands of miles long, each following closely a great -circle, must be the product of design rather than of natural causes. His -explanation is that they indicate the existence of irrigating canals -which carry the water produced annually by the melting of the polar -snows to every part of the planet. The actual canals are too minute to -be visible to us. What we really see as dark lines are broad strips of -vegetation, produced by artificial cultivation extending along each -border of the irrigating streams. On the other hand, in the view of his -critics, the quantity of ice or snow which the sun's rays could melt -around the poles of Mars, the rate of flow and evaporation as the water -is carried toward the equator, and several other of the conditions -involved, require investigation before the theory can be -established.[11] - -The accompanying illustrations of Mars and its canals are those of -Lowell, and represent the planet as seen by the Flagstaff observers. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.] - -_Satellites and Pole of Mars._--At the opposition of Mars which occurred -in August 1877 the planet was unusually near the earth. Asaph Hall, then -in charge of the 26" telescope at the Naval Observatory in Washington, -took advantage of this favourable circumstance to make a careful search -for a visible satellite of the planet. On the night of the 11th of -August he found a faint object near the planet. Cloudy weather -intervened, and the object was not again seen until the 16th, when it -was found to be moving with the planet, leaving no doubt as to its being -a satellite. On the night following an inner satellite much nearer the -planet was observed. This discovery, apart from its intrinsic interest, -is also noteworthy as the first of a series of discoveries of satellites -of the outer planets. The satellites of Mars are difficult to observe, -on account not merely of their faintness, but of their proximity to the -planet, the light of which is so bright as to nearly blot out that of -the satellite. Intrinsically the inner satellite is brighter than the -outer one, but for the reason just mentioned it is more difficult to -observe. The names given them by Hall were Deimos for the outer -satellite and Phobos for the inner one, derived from the mythological -horses that drew the chariot of the god Mars. A remarkable feature of -the orbit of Phobos is that it is so near the planet as to perform a -revolution in less than one-third that of the diurnal rotation of Mars. -The result is that to an inhabitant of Mars this satellite would rise in -the west and set in the east, making two apparent diurnal revolutions -every day. The period of Deimos is only six days greater than that of a -Martian day; consequently its apparent motion around the planet would be -so slow that more than two days elapse between rising and setting, and -again between setting and rising. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.] - -Owing to the minuteness of these bodies it is impossible to make any -measures of their diameters. These can be inferred only from their -brightness. Assuming them to be of the same colour as Mars, Lowell -estimates them to be about ten miles for Deimos and somewhat more for -Phobos. But these estimates are uncertain, not only from the somewhat -hypothetical character of the data on which they rest, but from the -difficulty of accurately estimating the brightness of such an object in -the glare of the planet. - -A long and careful series of observations was made upon these bodies by -other observers. Later, especially at the very favourable oppositions of -1892 and 1894, observations were made by Hermann Struve at Poulkova, who -subjected all the observations up to 1898 to a very careful discussion. -He showed that the inclination of the planes of the orbits to the -equator of the planet is quite small, thus making it certain that these -two planes can never wander far from each other. In the following -statement of the numerical elements of the entire system, Struve's -results are given for the satellites, while those of Lowell are adopted -for the position of the plane of the equator. - -The relations of the several planes can be best conceived by considering -the points at which lines perpendicular to them, or their poles, meet -the celestial sphere. By theory, the pole of the orbital plane of each -satellite revolves round the pole of a certain fixed plane, differing -less from the plane of the equator of Mars the nearer the satellite is -to Mars. Lowell from a combination of his own observations with those -of Schiaparelli, Lohse and Cerulli, found for the pole of the axis of -rotation of Mars[12]:-- - - R.A. = 317.5 deg.; Dec. = +54.5 deg.; Epoch, 1905. - -Tilt[13] of Martian Equator to Martian ecliptic, 23 deg. 59'. Hermann -Struve, from the observations of the satellites, found theoretically the -following positions of this pole, and of those of the fixed planes of -the satellite orbits for 1900:-- - - Pole of Mars: R.A. = 317.25 deg. Dec. = 52.63 deg. - Pole of fixed plane for Phobos = 317.24 deg. = 52.64 deg. - Pole of fixed plane for Deimos = 316.20 deg. = 53.37 deg. - -Lowell's position of the pole is that now adopted by the British -Nautical Almanac. - -The actual positions of the poles of the satellite--orbits revolve -around these poles of the two fixed planes in circles. Putting N for the -right-ascensions of their nodes on the plane of the terrestrial equator, -and J for their angular distance from the north terrestrial pole, N, and -J, for the corresponding poles of the fixed planes, and t for the time -in years after 1900, Struve's results are:-- - - Deimos. - - N1 = 46 deg.12' + 0.463' t; J =36 deg.42' - 0.24' t - (N - N1) sin J = 97.6' sin (356.8 deg. - 6.375 deg. t) - J - J1 = 97.6 cos (356.8 deg. - 6.375 deg. t) - - Phobos. - - N1 = 47 deg. 14.3' + 0.46' t; J1 = 37 deg. 21.9' - 0.24' t - (N - N1) sin J = 53.1' sin (257 deg.1' - 158.0 deg. t) - J - J1 = 53.1' cos (257 deg.1' - 158.0 t) - -The other elements are:-- - - Deimos. Phobos. - - Mean long. 1894, Oct. o.o G.M.T 186.25 deg. 296.13 deg. - Mean daily motion (tropical) 285.16198 deg. 1128.84396 deg. - Mean distance ([Delta] = 1) 32.373" 12.938" - Long. of pericentre, ([pi] + N) 264 deg. + 6.375 deg.t 14 deg. + 158.0 deg.t - Eccentricity of orbit 0.0031 0.0217 - Epoch for t 1900.0 1900.0 - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Flammarion, _La Planete Mars et ses conditions - d'habitilite_ (Paris, 1892), embodies so copious a _resume_ of all the - publications and drawings relating to Mars up to 1891 that there is - little occasion for reference in detail to early publications. Among - the principal sources may be mentioned the _Monthly Notices_ and - _Memoirs_ of the Royal Astronomical Society, the publications of the - Astronomical Society of the Pacific, especially vols. vi., viii. and - ix., containing observations and discussions by the Mt Hamilton - astronomers, and the journals, _Sidereal Messenger, Astronomy_ and - _Astrophysics_ and _Astrophysical Journal_. Schiaparelli's extended - memoirs appeared under the general title _Osservazioni astronomiche e - fisiche sull' asse di rotazione e sulla topografia del pianeta Marte_, - and were published in different volumes of the _Memoirs_ of the _Reale - Accademia dei Lincei_ of Rome. The observations and drawings of Lowell - are found _in extenso_ in _Annals_ of the Lowell Observatory. Lowell's - conclusions are summarized in _Mars and its Canals_, by Percival - Lowell (1906), and _Mars as the Abode of Life_ (1909). In connexion - with his work may be mentioned _Mars and its Mystery_, by Edward S. - Morse (Boston, 1906), the work of a naturalist who made studies of the - planet at the Lowell Observatory in 1905. Brief discussions and - notices will also be found in the Lowell Observatory _Bulletins_. The - optical principles involved in the interpretations of the canals are - discussed in recent volumes of the _Monthly Notices, R.A.S_., and in - the _Astrophysical Journal_. In 1907 the veteran A. R. Wallace - disputed Lowell's views vigorously in his _Is Mars Habitable?_ and was - briefly answered by Lowell in _Nature_, who contended that Wallace's - theory was not in accord with celestial mechanics. (S. N.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] _Astronomy and Astrophysics_, iii. 752, and _Astron. Soc. of the - Pacific, Publications_, vi. 273 and ix. 109. - - [2] According to Percival Lowell these results were, however, - inconclusive because the strong atmospheric lines lie redwards beyond - the part of the spectrum then possible to observe. Subsequently, by - experimenting with sensitizing dyes, Dr Slipher of the Lowell - Observatory succeeded in 1908 in photographing the spectrum far into - the red. Comparison spectrograms of Mars and the Moon, taken by him - at equal altitudes on such plates, eight in all, show the "a" band, - the great band of water-vapour was distinctly stronger in the - spectrum of Mars, thus affording what appeared decisive evidence of - water vapour in the atmosphere of the planet. - - [3] Lowell, _Mars and its Canals_, p. 101. - - [4] _Phil. Trans._, vol. 202 A, p. 525. - - [5] _Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences_, vol. xlii. No. 25. - - [6] Professor F. W. Very concurs with Lowell (_Phil. Mag._, 1908). - - [7] According to Lowell, the climatic conditions are proportionally - warm in summer. - - [8] The great space penetration of the Lowell Observatory is shown in - the case of stars. More stars have been mapped there in a given space - than at the Lick, and Mr Ritchey of the Yerkes Observatory found - stars easily visible there which were only just perceptible at - Yerkes. - - [9] As against this, Lowell's answer is that the effect is not - optical; for the belt surrounds the _melting_, not the _making_ cap. - - [10] For limits of this theory and Lowell's view of its - inapplicability to Mars, see _Astrophys. Jour._, Sept. 1907. - - [11] Prof. Lowell's theory is supported by so much evidence of - different kinds that his own exposition should be read _in extenso_ - in _Mars and its canals_ and _Mars as the abode of life_. In order, - however, that his views may be adequately presented here, he has - kindly supplied the following summary in his own words:-- - - "Owing to inadequate atmospheric advantages generally, much - misapprehension exists as to the definiteness with which the surface - of Mars is seen under good conditions. In steady air the canals are - perfectly distinct lines, not unlike the Fraunhofer ones of the - Spectrum, pencil lines or gossamer filaments according to size. All - the observers at Flagstaff concur in this. The photographs of them - taken there also confirm it up to the limit of their ability. - Careful experiments by the same observers on artificial lines show - that if the canals had breaks amounting to 16 m. across, such breaks - would be visible. None are; while the lines themselves are thousands - of miles long and perfectly straight (_Astrophys. Journ._, Sept. - 1907). Between expert observers representing the planet at the same - epoch the accordance is striking; differences in drawings are - differences of time and are due to seasonal and secular changes in - the planet itself. These seasonal changes have been carefully - followed at Flagstaff, and the law governing them detected. They are - found to depend upon the melting of the polar caps. After the - melting is under way the canals next the cap proceed to darken, and - the darkening thence progresses regularly down the latitudes. Twice - this happens every Martian year, first from one cap and then six - Martian months later from the other. The action reminds one of the - quickening of the Nile valley after the melting of the snows in - Abyssinia; only with planet-wide rhythm. Some of the canals are - paired. The phenomenon is peculiar to certain canals, for only about - one-tenth of the whole number, 56 out of 585, ever show double and - these do so regularly. Each double has its special width; this width - between the pair being 400 m. in some cases, only 75 in others. - Careful plotting has disclosed the fact that the doubles cluster - round the planet's equator, rarely pass 40 deg. Lat., and never - occur at the poles, though the planet's axial tilt reveals all its - latitudes to us in turn. They are thus features of those latitudes - where the surface is greatest compared with the area of the polar - cap, which is suggestive. Space precludes mention of many other - equally striking peculiarities of the canals' positioning and - development. At the junctions of the canals are small, dark round - spots, which also wax and wane with the seasons. These facts and a - host of others of like significance have led Lowell to the - conclusion that the whole canal system is of artificial origin, - first because of each appearance and secondly because of the laws - governing its development. Every opposition has added to the - assurance that the canals are artificial; both by disclosing their - peculiarities better and better and by removing generic doubts as to - the planet's habitability. The warmer temperature disclosed from - Lowell's investigation on the subject, and the spectrographic - detection by Slipher of water-vapour in the Martian air, are among - the latest of these confirmations."--[ED.] - - [12] _Bulletin Lowell Obsy., Monthly Notices, R.A.S._ (1905), 66, p. - 51. - - [13] _St Petersburg Memoirs_, series viii., Phys. Mars-classe, vol. - viii. - - - - -MARSALA, a seaport of Sicily, in the province of Trapani, 19 m. by rail -S. of Trapani. Pop. (1881), 19,732; (1901), 57,567. The low coast on -which it is situated is the westernmost point of the island. The town is -the seat of a bishop, and the cathedral contains 16 grey marble columns, -which are said to have been intended for Canterbury Cathedral in -England, the vessel conveying them having been wrecked here. The town -owes its importance mainly to the trade in Marsala wine. - -Marsala occupies the site of _Lilybaeum_, the principal stronghold of -the Carthaginians in Sicily, founded by Himilco after the abandonment of -_Motya_. Neither Pyrrhus nor the Romans were able to reduce it by siege, -but it was surrendered to the latter in 241 B.C. at the end of the First -Punic War. In the later wars it was a starting point for the Roman -expeditions against Carthage; and under Roman rule it enjoyed -considerable prosperity (_C.I.L._ x. p. 742). It obtained municipal -rights from Augustus and became a colony under Pertinax or Septimus -Severus. The Saracens gave it its present name, _Marsa Ali_, port of -Ali. The harbour, which lay on the north-east, was destroyed by Charles -V. to prevent its occupation by pirates. The modern harbour lies to the -south-east. In 1860 Garibaldi landed at Marsala with 1000 men and began -his campaign in Sicily. Scanty remains of the ancient _Lilybaeum_ -(fragments of the city walls, of squared stones, and some foundations of -buildings between the walls and the sea) are visible; and the so-called -grotto and spring of the Sibyl may be mentioned. To the east of the town -is a great fosse which defended it on the land side, and beyond this -again are quarries like those of Syracuse on a small scale. The modern -town takes the shape of the Roman camp within the earlier city, one of -the gates of which still existed in 1887. The main street (the Cassaro) -perpetuates the name _castrum_. - - - - -MARSDEN, WILLIAM (1754-1836), English orientalist, the son of a Dublin -merchant, was born at Verval, Co. Wicklow on the 16th of November 1754. -He was educated in Dublin, and having obtained an appointment in the -civil service of the East India Company arrived at Benkulen, Sumatra, in -1771. There he soon rose to the office of principal secretary to the -government, and acquired a knowledge of the Malay language and country. -Returning to England in 1779 with a pension, he wrote his _History of -Sumatra_, published in 1783. Marsden was appointed in 1795 second -secretary and afterwards first secretary to the admiralty. In 1807 he -retired and published in 1812 his _Grammar and Dictionary of the Malay -Language_, and in 1818 his translation of the _Travels of Marco Polo_. -He was a member of many learned societies, and treasurer and -vice-president of the Royal Society. In 1834 he presented his collection -of oriental coins to the British Museum, and his library of books and -Oriental MSS. to King's College, London. He died on the 6th of October -1836. - - Marsden's other works are: _Numismata orientalia_ (London, 1823-1825); - _Catalogue of Dictionaries, Vocabularies, Grammars and Alphabets_ - (1796); and several papers on Eastern topics in the _Philosophical - Transactions_ and the _Archaelogia_. - - - - -MARSEILLES, a city of southern France, chief seaport of France and of -the Mediterranean, 219 m. S. by E. of Lyons and 534 m. S.S.E. of Paris, -by the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee railway. Pop. (1906), commune 517,498; -town 421,116. Marseilles is situated on the Golfe du Lion on the eastern -shore of a bay protected to the south by Cape Croisette but open towards -the west; to the east the horizon is bounded by an amphitheatre of -hills, those in the foreground clothed with vegetation while the more -distant eminences are bare and rugged. The city is built on undulating -ground and the south-western and most aristocratic quarter covers the -slopes of the ridge crowned by a fort and the church of Notre-Dame de la -Garde and projecting westward into the bay to form a protection for the -harbour. The newest and most pleasant portion lies on the south-eastern -slope of the ridge, between the southern end of the Rue Paradis and the -Prado avenues, which is better protected than most other quarters from -the mistral that blows down the Rhone valley, and where in summer the -temperature is always a little lower than in the centre of the town. The -old harbour of Marseilles opens on the west to the Golfe du Lion, the -famous Rue Cannebiere[1] prolonged by the Rue Noailles leading E.N.E. -from its inner end. These two streets are the centre of the life of the -city. Continued in the Allees de Meilhan and the Boulevard de la -Madeleine, they form one of its main arteries. The other, at right -angles with the first, connects the Place d'Aix with the spacious and -fashionable Promenade du Prado, by way of the Cours Belsunce and the Rue -de Rome. Other fine streets--the Rue St Ferreol, the Rue Paradis and the -Rue Breteuil are to the south of the Cannebiere running parallel with -the Rue de Rome. To these must be added the neighbouring avenue of -Pierre Puget named after the sculptor whose statue stands in the Borely -Park. The Prado, with its avenues of trees and fine houses, runs to -within a quarter of a mile of the Huveaune, a stream that borders the -city on the south-east, then turns off at right angles and extends to -the sea, coming to an end close to the Borely Park and the race-course. -From its extremity the Chemin de la Corniche runs northwards along the -coast, fringed by villas and bathing establishments, to the Anse des -Catalans, a distance of 4(1/2) miles. - -The old town of Marseilles is bounded W. by the Joliette basin and the -sea, E. by the Cours Belsunce, S. by the northern quay of the old port, -and N. by the Boulevard des Dames. It consists of a labyrinth of steep, -dark and narrow streets inhabited by a seafaring population. Through its -centre runs the broad Rue de la Republique, extending from the -Cannebiere to the Place de la Joliette. The entrance to the old harbour -is defended by Fort St Jean on the north and Fort St Nicolas on the -south. Behind the latter is the Anse (Creek) de la Reserve. Beyond this -again, situated in succession along the shore, come the Chateau du -Pharo, given by the empress Eugenie to the town, the Anse du Pharo, the -military exercising ground, and the Anse des Catalans. To the old -harbour, which covers only 70 acres with a mean depth of 19(1/2) ft. and -is now used by sailing vessels, the basin of La Joliette (55 acres) with -an entrance harbour was added in 1853. Communicating with the old -harbour by a channel which passes behind Fort St Jean, this dock opens -on the south into the outer harbour, opposite the palace and the Anse du -Pharo. A series of similar basins separated from the roadstead by a -jetty 2(1/2) m. long was subsequently added along the shore to the -north, viz. the basins of Lazaret and Arenc, bordered by the harbour -railway station and the extensive warehouses of the Compagnie des Docks -et Entrepots, the Bassin de la Gare Maritime with the warehouses of the -chamber of commerce; the Bassin National with the refitting basin, -comprising six dry docks behind it; and the Bassin de la Pinede entered -from the northern outer harbour. These new docks have a water area of -414 acres and over 11 m. of quays, and are commodious and deep enough -for the largest vessels to manoeuvre easily. - -In the roads to the south-west of the port lie the islands of Ratonneau -and Pomegue, united by a jetty forming a quarantine port. Between them -and the mainland is the islet of Chateau d'If, in which the scene of -part of Dumas' _Monte Cristo_ is laid. - -Marseilles possesses few remains of either the Greek or Roman periods of -occupation, and is poor in medieval buildings. The old cathedral of la -Major (Sainte-Marie-Majeure), dating chiefly from the 12th century and -built on the ruins of a temple of Diana, is in bad preservation. The -chapel of St Lazare (late 15th century) in the left aisle is in the -earliest Renaissance style, and a bas-relief of white porcelain by Lucca -della Robbia is of artistic value. Beside this church and alongside the -Joliette basin is a modern building begun in 1852, opened for worship in -1893 and recognized as the finest modern cathedral in France. It is a -Byzantine basilica, in the form of a Latin cross, 460 ft. long, built in -green Florentine stone blended with white stone from the neighbourhood -of Arles. The four towers which surmount it--two at the west front, one -over the crossing, one at the east end--are roofed with cupolas. Near -the cathedral stands the bishop's palace, and the Place de la Major, -which they overlook, is embellished with the statue of Bishop Belsunce, -who displayed great devotion during the plague of 1720-1721. The -celebrated Notre-Dame de la Garde, the steeple of which, surmounted by a -gilded statue of the Virgin, 30 ft. in height, rises 150 ft. above the -summit of the hill on which it stands, commands a view of the whole port -and town, as well as of the surrounding mountains and the neighbouring -sea. The present chapel is modern and occupies the site of one built in -1214. - -On the south side of the old harbour near the Fort St Nicolas stands the -church of St Victor, built in the 13th century and once attached to an -abbey founded early in the 4th century. With its lofty crenellated walls -and square towers built of large blocks of uncemented stone, it -resembles a fortress. St Victor is built above crypts dating mainly -from the 11th century but also embodying architecture of the Carolingian -period and of the early centuries of the Christian era. Tradition -relates that St Lazarus inhabited the catacombs under St Victor; and the -black image of the Virgin, still preserved there, is popularly -attributed to St Luke. The spire, which is the only relic of the ancient -church of Accoules, marks the centre of Old Marseilles. At its foot are -a "calvary" and a curious underground chapel in rock work, both modern. -Notre-Dame du Mont Carmel, also in the old town, occupies the place of -what was the citadel of the Massaliots when they were besieged by Julius -Caesar. - -Of the civil buildings of the city, the prefecture, one of the finest in -France, the Palais de Justice, in front of which is the statue of the -advocate Antoine Berryer (1790-1868) and the Exchange, all date from the -latter half of the 19th century. The Exchange, built at the expense of -the Chamber of Commerce, includes the spacious hall of that institution -with its fine mural paintings and gilding. The hotel-de-ville (17th -century) stands on the northern quay of the old harbour. All these -buildings are surpassed by the Palais Longchamp (1862-1870), situated in -the north-east of the town at the end of the Boulevard Longchamp. The -centre of the building is occupied by a monumental _chateau d'eau_ -(reservoir). Colonnades branch off from this, uniting it on the left to -the picture gallery, with a fine collection of ancient and modern works, -and on the right to the natural history museum, remarkable for its -conchological department and collection of ammonites. In front are -ornamental grounds; behind are extensive zoological gardens, with the -astronomical observatory. The museum of antiquities is established in -the Chateau Borely (1766-1778) in a fine park at the end of the Prado. -It includes a Phoenician collection (containing the remains that support -the hypothesis of the Phoenician origin of Marseilles), an Egyptian -collection, numerous Greek, Latin, and Christian inscriptions in stone, -&c. A special building within the city contains the school of art with a -valuable library and a collection of medals and coins annexed to it. The -city also has a colonial museum and a laboratory of marine zoology. The -triumphal arch of Aix, originally dedicated to the victors of the -Trocadero, was in 1830 appropriated to the conquests of the empire. - -The canal de Marseille, constructed from 1837 to 1848, which has -metamorphosed the town and its arid surroundings by bringing to them the -waters of the Durance, leaves the river opposite Pertuis. It has a -length of 97 miles (including its four main branches) of which 13 are -underground, and irrigates some 7500 acres. After crossing the valley of -the Arc, between Aix and Rognac, by the magnificent aqueduct of -Roquefavour, it purifies its waters, charged with ooze, in the basins of -Realtort. It draws about 2200 gallons of water per second from the -Durance, supplies 2450 horse-power to works in the vicinity of -Marseilles, and ensures a good water-supply and efficient sanitation to -the city. - -Marseilles is the headquarters of the XV. army corps and the seat of a -bishop and a prefect. It has tribunals of first instance and of -commerce, a chamber of commerce, a board of trade arbitration, and a -branch of the Bank of France. The educational institutions include a -faculty of science, a school of medicine and pharmacy, and a faculty -(_faculte libre_) of law, these three forming part of the university of -Aix-Marseille; lycees for boys and girls, a conservatoire of music, a -school of fine art, a higher school of commerce, a school for ships' -boys, a school of navigation and industrial schools for both sexes. - - _Trade and Industry._--Marseilles is the western emporium for the - Levant trade and the French gate of the Far East. It suffers, however, - from the competition of Genoa, which is linked with the Rhine basin by - the Simplon and St Gotthard railway routes, and from lack of - communication with the inland waterways of France. In January 1902 the - chamber of deputies voted L3,656,000 for the construction of a canal - from Marseilles to the Rhone at Arles. This scheme was designed to - overcome the difficulties of egress from the Rhone and to make the - city the natural outlet of the rich Rhone basin. Much of the activity - of the port is due to the demand for raw material created by the - industries of Marseilles itself. The imports include raw silk, sesame, - ground-nuts and other oil-producing fruits and seeds largely used in - the soap manufacture, cereals and flour, wool, hides and skins, olive - and other oils, raw cotton, sheep and other livestock, woven goods, - table fruit, wine, potatoes and dry vegetables, lead, cocoon silk, - coffee, coal, timber. The total value of imports was L64,189,000 in - 1907, an increase of L18,000,000 in the preceding decade. The exports, - of which the total value was L52,901,000 (an increase of L21,000,000 - in the decade) included cotton fabrics, silk fabrics, cereals and - flour, hides and skins, wool fabrics, worked skins, olive and other - oils, chemical products, wine, refined sugar, raw cotton, wool, coal, - building-material, machinery and pottery. - - The port is the centre for numerous lines of steamers, of which the - chief are the Messageries Maritimes, which ply to the eastern - Mediterranean, the east coast of Africa, Australia, India, Indo-China, - Havre and London, and the Compagnie Generale Transatlantique, whose - vessels run to Algiers, Tunis, Malta, Corsica, Morocco and the - Antilles. In addition many important foreign lines call at the port, - among them being the P. and O., the Orient, the North German Lloyd, - and the German East Africa lines. - - Marseilles has five chief railway stations, two of which serve the new - harbours, while one is alongside the old port; the city is on the main - line of the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee railway from the Riviera and - Toulon to Paris via Arles, Avignon and Lyons, another less important - line connecting it with Aix. - - Soap-making, introduced in antiquity from Savona and Genoa, is carried - on in upwards of fifty factories. These utilize the products of the - oil-distilleries and of the chemical works, the latter being also an - important adjunct to the manufacture of candles, another leading - industry. A large quantity of iron, copper and other ores is smelted - in the blast-furnaces of Saint Louis in the vicinity and in other - foundries, and the Mediterranean Engineering Company and other - companies have large workshops for the construction or repair of - marine steam-engines and every branch of iron shipbuilding. To these - industries must be added flour-milling, the manufacture of semolina - and other farinaceous foods and of biscuits, bricks and tiles, rope, - casks, capsules for bottles and other tin-goods, tanning, distilling, - brewing and sulphur- and sugar-refining. There are state tobacco and - match factories. - -_History._--The Greek colony of Massalia (Lat. _Massilia_) was founded -by the mariners of Phocaea in Asia Minor, about 600 B.C. The settlement -of the Greeks in waters which the Carthaginians reserved for their own -commerce was not effected without a naval conflict; it is not improbable -that the Phoenicians were settled at Marseilles before the Greek period, -and that the name of the town is the Phoenician for "settlement." -Whether the judges (_sophetim_, "suffetes") of the Phoenician -sacrificial tablet of Marseilles were the rulers of a city existing -before the advent of the Phocaeans, or were consuls for Punic residents -in the Greek period, is disputed. In 542 B.C. the fall of the Phocaean -cities before the Persians probably sent new settlers to the Ligurian -coast and cut off the remote city of Massalia from close connexion with -the mother country. Isolated amid alien populations, the Massaliots made -their way by prudence in dealing with the inland tribes, by vigilant -administration of their oligarchical government, and by frugality united -to remarkable commercial and naval enterprise. Their colonies spread -east and west along the coast from Monaco to Cape St Martin in Spain, -carrying with them the worship of Artemis; the inland trade, in which -wine was an important element, can be traced by finds of Massalian coins -across Gaul and through the Alps as far as Tirol. In the 4th century -B.C. the Massaliot Pytheas visited the coasts of Gaul, Britain and -Germany, and Euthymenes is said to have sailed down the west coast of -Africa as far as Senegal. The great rival of Massalian trade was -Carthage, and in the Punic Wars the city took the side of Rome, and was -rewarded by Roman assistance in the subjugation of the native tribes of -Liguria. In the war between Caesar and Pompey Massilia took Pompey's -side and in A.D. 49 offered a vain resistance to Caesar's lieutenant -Trebonius. In memory of its ancient services the city, "without which," -as Cicero says, "Rome had never triumphed over the Transalpine nations," -was left as a _civitas libera_, but her power was broken and most of her -dependencies taken from her. From this time Massilia has little place in -Roman history; it became for a time an important school of letters and -medicine, but its commercial and intellectual importance declined. The -town appears to have been christianized before the end of the 3rd -century, and at the beginning of the 4th century was the scene of the -martyrdom of St Victor. Its reputation partly revived through the names -of Gennadius and Cassian, which give it prominence in the history of -Semi-Pelagianism and the foundation of western monachism. - -After the ravages of successive invaders, Marseilles was repeopled in -the 10th century under the protection of its viscounts. The town -gradually bought up their rights, and at the beginning of the 13th -century was formed into a republic, governed by a _podestat_, who was -appointed for life, and exercised his office in conjunction with 3 -notables, and a municipal council, composed of 80 citizens, 3 clerics, -and 6 principal tradesmen. During the rest of the middle ages, however, -the higher town was governed by the bishop, and had its harbour at the -creek of La Joliette which at that period ran inland to the north of the -old town. The southern suburb was governed by the abbot of St Victor, -and owned the Port des Catalans. Situated between the two, the lower -town, the republic, retained the old harbour, and was the most powerful -of the three divisions. The period of the crusades brought prosperity to -Marseilles, though throughout the middle ages it suffered from the -competition of Pisa, Genoa and Venice. In 1245 and 1256 Charles of -Anjou, count of Provence, whose predecessors had left the citizens a -large measure of independence, established his authority above that of -the republic. In 1423 Alphonso V. of Aragon sacked the town. King Rene, -who had made it his winter residence, however, caused trade, arts and -manufactures again to flourish. On the embodiment of Provence in the -kingdom of France in 1481, Marseilles preserved a separate -administration directed by royal officials. Under Francis I. the -disaffected constable Charles de Bourbon vainly besieged the town with -the imperial forces in 1524. During the wars of religion, Marseilles -took part against the Protestants, and long refused to acknowledge Henry -IV. The loss of the ancient liberties of the town brought new -disturbances under the Fronde, which Louis XIV. came in person to -suppress. He entered the town by a breach in the walls and afterwards -had Fort St Nicolas constructed. Marseilles repeatedly suffered from the -plague, notably from May 1720 to May 1721. - -During the Revolution the people rose against the aristocracy, who up to -that time had governed the commune. In the Terror they rebelled against -the Convention, but were promptly subdued by General Carteaux. The wars -of the empire, by dealing a blow to their maritime commerce, excited the -hatred of the inhabitants against Napoleon, and they hailed the return -of the Bourbons and the defeat of Waterloo. The news of the latter -provoked a bloody reaction in the town against those suspected of -imperialism. The prosperity of the city received a considerable impulse -from the conquest of Algeria and from the opening of the Suez Canal. - - See P. Castanier, _Histoire de la Provence dans l'antiquite_, vol. ii. - (Paris, 1896); E. Caman, _Marseille au XX^me siecle_ (Paris, 1905); P. - Joanne, _Marseille et ses environs_. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] From the Latin _cannabis_, Provencal _cannebe_, "hemp," in - allusion to the rope-walks formerly occupying its site. - - - - -MARSH, ADAM (ADAM DE MARISCO) (d. c. 1258), English Franciscan, scholar -and theologian, was born about 1200 in the diocese of Bath, and educated -at Oxford under the famous Grosseteste. Before 1226 Adam received the -benefice of Wearmouth from his uncle, Richard Marsh, bishop of Durham; -but between that year and 1230 he entered the Franciscan order. About -1238 he became the lecturer of the Franciscan house at Oxford, and -within a few years was regarded by the English province of that order as -an intellectual and spiritual leader. Roger Bacon, his pupil, speaks -highly of his attainments in theology and mathematics. His fame, -however, rests upon the influence which he exercised over the statesmen -of his day. Consulted as a friend by Grosseteste, as a spiritual -director by Simon de Montfort, the countess of Leicester and the queen, -as an expert lawyer and theologian by the primate, Boniface of Savoy, he -did much to guide the policy both of the opposition and of the court -party in all matters affecting the interests of the Church. He shrank -from office, and never became provincial minister of the English -Franciscans, though constantly charged with responsible commissions. -Henry III. and Archbishop Boniface unsuccessfully endeavoured to secure -for him the see of Ely in 1256. In 1257 Adam's health was failing, and -he appears to have died in the following year. To judge from his -correspondence he took no interest in secular politics. He sympathized -with Montfort as with a friend of the Church and an unjustly treated -man; but on the eve of the baronial revolution he was on friendly terms -with the king. Faithful to the traditions of his order, he made it his -ambition to be a mediator. He rebuked both parties in the state for -their shortcomings, but he did not break with either. - - See his correspondence, with J. S. Brewer's introduction, in - _Monumenta franciscana_, vol. i. (Rolls ser., 1858); the biographical - notice in A. G. Little's Grey _Friars in Oxford_ (Oxford, 1892), where - all the references are collected. On Marsh's relations with - Grosseteste, see _Roberti Grosseteste epistolae_, ed. H. R. Luard - (Rolls ed., 1861), and F. S. Stevenson, _Robert Grosseteste_ (London, - 1809). (H. W. C. D.) - - - - -MARSH, GEORGE PERKINS (1801-1882), American diplomatist and philologist, -was born at Woodstock, Vermont, on the 15th of March 1801. He graduated -at Dartmouth College in 1820, was admitted to the bar in 1825, and -practised law at Burlington, Vermont, devoting himself also with ardour -to philological studies. In 1835 he was a member of the Supreme -Executive Council of Vermont, and from 1843 to 1849 a Whig -representative in Congress. In 1849 he was appointed United States -minister resident in Turkey, and in 1852-1853 discharged a mission to -Greece in connexion with the imprisonment by the authorities of that -country of an American missionary, Dr Jonas King (1792-1869). He -returned to Vermont in 1854, and in 1857 was a member of the state -railway commission. In 1861 he became the first United States minister -to the kingdom of Italy, and died in that office at Vallombrosa on the -23rd of July 1882. He was buried in a Protestant cemetery in Rome. Marsh -was an able linguist, writing and speaking with ease the Scandinavian -and half a dozen other European languages, a remarkable philologist for -his day, and a scholar of great breadth, knowing much of military -science, engraving and physics, as well as of Icelandic, which was his -specialty. He wrote many articles for Johnson's _Universal Cyclopaedia_, -and contributed many reviews and letters to the _Nation_. His chief -published works are: _A Compendious Grammar of the Old Northern or -Icelandic Language_ (1838), compiled and translated from the grammars of -Rask; _The Camel, his Organization, Habits, and Uses, with Reference to -his Introduction into the United States_ (1856); _Lectures on the -English Language_ (1860); _The Origin and History of the English -Language_ (1862; revised ed., 1885); and _Man and Nature_ (1865). The -last-named work was translated into Italian in 1872, and, largely -rewritten, was issued in 1874 under the title _The Earth as Modified by -Human Action_; a revised edition was published in 1885. He also -published a work on _Mediaeval and Modern Saints and Miracles_ (1876). -His valuable library was presented in 1883 by Frederick Billings to the -university of Vermont. His second wife, CAROLINE (CRANE) MARSH -(1816-1901), whom he married in 1839, published _Wolfe of the Knoll and -other Poems_ (1860), and the _Life and Letters of George Perkins Marsh_ -(New York, 1888). This last work was left incomplete, the second volume -never having been published. She also translated from the German of -Johann C. Biernatzki (1795-1840), _The Hallig; or the Sheepfold in the -Waters_ (1856). - - - - -MARSH, HERBERT (1757-1839), English divine, was born at Faversham, Kent, -on the 10th of December 1757, and was educated at St John's College, -Cambridge, where he was elected fellow in 1782, having been second -wrangler and second Smith's prizeman. For some years he studied at -Leipzig, and between 1793 and 1801 published in four volumes a -translation of J. D. Michaelis's _Introduction to the New Testament_, -with notes of his own, in which he may be said to have introduced German -methods of research into English biblical scholarship. His _History of -the Politics of Great Britain and France_ (1799) brought him much notice -and a pension from William Pitt. In 1807 he was appointed Lady Margaret -professor of divinity at Cambridge, and lectured to large audiences on -biblical criticism, substituting English for the traditional Latin. Both -here, and afterwards as bishop of Llandaff (1816) and of Peterborough -(1819), he stoutly opposed hymn-singing, Calvinism, Roman Catholicism, -and the Evangelical movement as represented by Charles Simeon and the -Bible Society. Among his writings are _Lectures on the Criticism and -Interpretation of the Bible_ (1828), _A Comparative View of the Churches -of England and Rome_ (1814), and _Horae Pelasgicae_ (1815). He died at -Peterborough on the 1st of May 1839. - - - - -MARSH, NARCISSUS (1638-1713), archbishop of Dublin and Armagh, was born -at Hannington, Wiltshire, and educated at Oxford. He became a fellow of -Exeter College, Oxford, in 1658. In 1662 he was ordained, and presented -to the living of Swindon, which he resigned in the following year. After -acting as chaplain to Seth Ward, bishop of Exeter and Salisbury, and -Lord Chancellor Clarendon, he was elected principal of St Alban Hall, -Oxford, in 1673. In 1679 he was appointed provost of Trinity College, -Dublin, where he did much to encourage the study of the Irish language. -He helped to found the Royal Dublin Society, and contributed to it a -paper entitled "Introductory Essay to the Doctrine of Sounds" (printed -in _Philosophical Transactions_, No. 156, Oxford, 1684). In 1683 he was -consecrated bishop of Ferns and Leighlin, but after the accession of -James II. he was compelled by the turbulent soldiery to flee to England -(1689), where he became vicar of Gresford, Flint, and canon of St Asaph. -Returning to Ireland in 1691 after the battle of the Boyne, he was made -archbishop of Cashel, and three years later he became archbishop of -Dublin. About this time he founded the Marsh Library in Dublin. He -became archbishop of Armagh in 1703. Between 1699 and 1711 he was six -times a lord justice of Ireland. He died on the 2nd of November 1713. - - - - -MARSH, OTHNIEL CHARLES (1831-1899), American palaeontologist, was born -in Lockport, New York, on the 29th of October 1831. He graduated at Yale -College in 1860, and studied geology and mineralogy in the Sheffield -scientific school, New Haven, and afterwards palaeontology and anatomy -in Berlin, Heidelberg and Breslau. Returning to America in 1866 he was -appointed professor of vertebrate palaeontology at Yale College, and -there began the researches of the fossil vertebrata of the western -states, whereby he established his reputation. He was aided by a private -fortune from his uncle, George Peabody, whom he induced to establish the -Peabody Museum of Natural History (especially devoted to zoology, -geology and mineralogy) in the college. In May 1871 he discovered the -first pterodactyl remains found in America, and in subsequent years he -brought to light from Wyoming and other regions many new genera and -families, and some entirely new orders of extinct vertebrata, which he -described in monographs or periodical articles. These included remains -of the Cretaceous toothed birds _Hesperornis_ and _Ichthyornis_, the -Cretaceous flying-reptiles (_Pteranodon_), the swimming reptiles or -Mosasauria, and the Cretaceous and Jurassic land reptiles (_Dinosauria_) -among which were the _Brontosaurus_ and _Atlantosaurus_. The remarkable -mammals which he termed Brontotheria (now grouped as Titanotheriidae), -and the huge Dinocerata, one being the _Uintatherium_, were also brought -to light by him. Among his later discoveries were remains of early -ancestors of horses in America. On becoming vice-president of the -American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1875 he gave an -address on the "Introduction and Succession of Vertebrate Life in -America," summarizing his conclusions to that date. He repeatedly -organized and often accompanied scientific exploring expeditions in the -Rocky Mountains, and their results tended in an important degree to -support the doctrines of natural selection and evolution. He published -many papers on these, and found time--besides that necessarily given to -the accumulation and care of the most extensive collection of fossils in -the world--to write _Odontornithes: A Monograph on the Extinct Toothed -Birds of North America_ (1880); _Dinocerata: A Monograph on an Extinct -Order of Gigantic Mammals_ (1884); and _The Dinosaurs of North America_ -(1896). His work is full of accurately recorded facts of permanent -value. He was long in charge of the division of vertebrate palaeontology -in the United States Geological Survey, and received many scientific -honours, medals and degrees, American and foreign. He died in New Haven -on the 18th of March 1899. - - See obituary by Dr Henry Woodward (with portrait) in _Geol. Mag._ - (1899), p. 237. - - - - -MARSH (O. F. _mersc_, for _merisc_, a place full of "meres" or pools; -cf. Ger. _Meer_, sea, Lat. _mare_), an area of low-lying watery land. -The significance of a marsh area is not so much in the manner of its -formation as in the peculiar chemical and physical results that -accompany it, and its relation to the ecology of plant and animal life. -Chemically it is productive of such gases as arise from decomposing -vegetation and are transitory in their effects, and in the production of -hydrated iron oxide, which may be seen floating as an iridescent scum at -the edge of rusty, marshy pools. This sinks into the soil and forms a -powerful iron cement to many sandstones, binding them into a hard local -mass, while the surrounding sandstones are loose and friable. A curious -morphological inversion follows in a later geological period, the marsh -area forming the hard cap of a hill (see MESA) while the surrounding -sandstones are weathered away. Salt marshes are a feature of many -low-lying sea-coasts and areas of inland drainage. - - - - -MARSHAL (med. Lat. _marescalcus_, from O.H.Ger. _marah_, horse, and -_scalc_, servant), a title given in various countries to certain -military and civil officers, usually of high rank. The origin and -development of the meaning of the designation is closely analogous with -that of constable (q.v.). Just as the title of constable, in all its -medieval and modern uses, is traceable to the style and functions of the -Byzantine count of the stable, so that of marshal was evolved from the -title of the _marescalci_, or masters of the horse, of the early -Frankish kings. In this original sense the word survived down to the -close of the Holy Roman empire in the titular office of _Erz-Marschalk_ -(arch-marshal), borne by the electors of Saxony. Elsewhere the meaning -of office and title was modified. The importance of cavalry in medieval -warfare led to the marshalship being associated with military command; -this again led to the duty of keeping order in court and camp, of -deciding questions of chivalry, and to the assumption of judicial and -executive functions. The marshal, as a military leader, was originally a -subordinate officer, the chief command under the king being held by the -constable; but in the 12th century, though still nominally second to the -constable, the marshal has come to the forefront as commander of the -royal forces and a great officer of state. In England after the Conquest -the marshalship was hereditary in the family which derived its surname -from the office, and the hereditary title of earl-marshal originated in -the marriage of William Marshal with the heiress of the earldom of -Pembroke (see EARL MARSHAL). Similarly, in Scotland, the office of -marischal (from the French _marechal_), probably introduced under David -I., became in the 14th century hereditary in the house of Keith. In 1485 -the Scottish marischal became an earl under the designation of -earl-marischal, the dignity coming to an end by the attainder of George, -10th earl-marischal, in 1716. In France, on the other hand, though under -Philip Augustus the marshal of France (_marescalcus Franciae_) appears -as commander-in-chief of the forces, care was taken not to allow the -office to become descendible; under Francis I. the number of marshals of -France was raised to two, under Henry III. to four, and under Louis XIV. -to twenty. Revived by Napoleon, the title fell into abeyance with the -downfall of the Second empire. - -In England the use of the word marshal in the sense of commander of an -army appears very early; so Matthew Paris records that in 1214 King John -constituted William, earl of Salisbury, _marescalcus_ of his forces. The -modern military title of field marshal, imported from Germany by King -George II. in 1736, is derived from the high dignity of the -_marescalcus_ in a roundabout way. The _marescalcus campi_, or _marechal -des champs_, was originally one of a number of officials to whom the -name, with certain of the functions, of the marshal was given. The -marshal, being responsible for order in court and camp, had to employ -subordinates, who developed into officials often but nominally dependent -upon him. On military expeditions it was usual for two such marshals to -precede the army, select the site of the camp and assign to the lords -and knights their places in it. In time of peace they preceded the king -on a journey and arranged for his lodging and maintenance. In France -_marechal des logis_ is the title of superior non-commissioned officers -in the cavalry. - -Similarly at the king's court the _marescalcus aulae_ or _intrinsecus_ -was responsible for order, the admission or exclusion of those seeking -access, ceremonial arrangements, &c. Such "marshals" were maintained, -not only by the king, but by great lords and ecclesiastics. The more -dignified of their functions, together with the title, survive in the -various German courts, where the court marshal (_Hofmarschall_) is -equivalent to the English lord chamberlain. Just as the _marescalcus -intrinsecus_ acted as the vicar of the marshal for duties "within" the -court, so the _marescalcus forinsecus_ was deputed to perform those acts -of serjeanty due from the marshal to the Crown "without." Similarly -there appears in the statute 5 Edw. III. cap. 8, a _marescalcus banci -regii_ (_marechal du Banc du Roy_), or marshal of the king's bench, who -presided over the Marshalsea Court, and was responsible for the safe -custody of prisoners, who were bestowed in the _mareschalcia_, or -Marshalsea prison. The office of marshal of the queen's bench survived -till 1849 (see LORD STEWARD; and MARSHALSEA). The official known as a -judge's marshal, whose office is of considerable antiquity, and whose -duties consisted of making abstracts of indictments and pleadings for -the use of the judge, still survives, but no longer exercises the above -functions. He accompanies a judge of assize on circuit and is appointed -by him at the beginning of each circuit. His travelling and other -expenses are paid by the judge, and he receives an allowance of two -guineas a day, which is paid through the Treasury. He introduces the -high sheriff of the county to the judge of assize on his arrival, and -swears in the grand jury. For the French _marechaussee_ see FRANCE: S -_Law and Institutions_. - -In the sense of executive legal officer the title marshal survives in -the United States of America in two senses. The United States marshal is -the executive officer of the Federal courts, one being appointed for -each district, or exceptionally, one for two districts. His duties are -to open and close the sessions of the district and circuit courts, serve -warrants, and execute throughout the district the orders of the court. -There are United States marshals also in Alaska, Hawaii, Porto Rico and -the Philippines. They are appointed by the President, with the advice -and consent of the Senate, for a term of four years, and, besides their -duties in connexion with the courts, are employed in the service of the -internal revenue, public lands, post office, &c. The temporary police -sworn in to maintain order in times of disturbance, known in England as -special constables, are also termed marshals in the United States. In -some of the southern and western states of the Union the title marshal -has sunk to that of the village policeman, as distinct from the county -officers known as sheriffs and those of the justices' courts called -constables. - -In England the title of marshal, as applied to an executive officer, -survives only in the army, where the provost marshal is chief of the -military police in large garrisons and in field forces. Office and title -were borrowed from the French _prevot des marechaux_, the modern -equivalent of the medieval _praepositus marescalcorum_ or _guerrarum_. - - - - -MARSHALL, ALFRED (1842- ), English economist, was born in London on -the 26th of July 1842. He was educated at the Merchant Taylors' School -and St John's College, Cambridge, being second wrangler in 1865, and in -the same year becoming fellow of his college. He became principal of -University College, Bristol, in 1877, and was lecturer and fellow of -Balliol College, Oxford in 1883-1884. He was professor of political -economy at Cambridge University from 1885 to 1908, and was a member of -the Royal Commission on Labour in 1891. He became a fellow of the -British Academy in 1902. He wrote (in conjunction with his wife) -_Economics of Industry_ (1879), whilst his _Principles of Economics_ -(1st ed., 1890) is a standard English treatise. - - - - -MARSHALL, JOHN (1755-1835), American jurist, chief-justice of the U.S. -Supreme Court, was born on the 24th of September 1755 at Germantown (now -Midland), in what four years later became Fauquier county, Virginia. He -was of English descent, the son of Thomas Marshall (1732-1806) and his -wife Mary Isham Keith. Marshall served first as lieutenant and after -July 1778 as captain in the Continental Army during the War of -Independence. He resigned his commission early in 1781; was admitted to -the bar after a brief course of study, first practised in Fauquier -county; and after two years began to practise in Richmond. In 1786 we -find him counsel in a case of great importance, _Hite_ v. _Fairfax_, -involving the original title of Lord Fairfax to that large tract of -country between the headwaters of the Potomac and Rappahannock, known as -the northern neck of Virginia. Marshall represented tenants of Lord -Fairfax and won his case. From this time, as is shown by an examination -of Call's _Virginia Reports_ which cover the period, he maintained the -leadership of the bar of Virginia. He was a member of the Virginia -Assembly in 1782-1791 and again in 1795-1797; and in 1788, he took a -leading part in the Virginia Convention called to act on the proposed -constitution for the United States, with Madison ably urging the -ratification of that instrument. In 1795 Washington offered him the -attorney-generalship, and in 1796, after the retirement of James Monroe, -the position of minister to France. Marshall declined both offers -because his situation at the bar appeared to him "to be more independent -and not less honourable than any other," and his "preference for it was -decided." He spent the autumn and winter of 1797-1798 in France as one -of the three commissioners appointed by President John Adams to adjust -the differences between the young republic and the directory. The -commission failed, but the course pursued by Marshall was approved in -America, and with the resentment felt because of the way in which the -commission had been treated in France, made him, on his return, -exceedingly popular. To this popularity, as well as to the earnest -advocacy of Patrick Henry, he owed his election as a Federalist to the -National House of Representatives in the spring of 1799, though the -feeling in Richmond was overwhelmingly in favour of the opposition or -Republican party. His most notable service in Congress was his speech on -the case of Thomas Nash, alias Jonathan Robbins, in which he showed that -there is nothing in the constitution of the United States which prevents -the Federal government from carrying out an extradition treaty. He was -secretary of state under President Adams from the 6th of June 1800 to -the 4th of March 1801. In the meantime he had been appointed -chief-justice of the Supreme Court, his commission bearing date the 31st -of January. Thus while still secretary he presided as chief-justice. - -At the time of Marshall's appointment it was generally considered that -the Supreme Court was the one department of the new government which had -failed in its purpose. John Jay, the first chief-justice, who had -resigned in 1795, had just declined a reappointment to the -chief-justiceship on the ground that he had left the bench perfectly -convinced that the court would never acquire proper weight and dignity, -its organization being fatally defective. The advent of the new -chief-justice was marked by a change in the conduct of business in the -court. Since its organization, following the prevailing English custom, -the judges had pronounced their opinions seriatim. But beginning with -the December term 1801, the chief-justice became practically the sole -mouthpiece of the court. For eleven years the opinions are almost -exclusively his, and there are few recorded dissents. The change was -admirably adapted to strengthen the power and dignity of the court. The -chief-justice embodied the majesty of the judicial department of the -government almost as fully as the president stood for the power of the -executive. That this change was acquiesced in by his associates without -diminishing their goodwill towards their new chief is testimony to the -persuasive force of Marshall's personality; for his associates were not -men of mediocre ability. After the advent of Mr Justice Joseph Story the -practice was abandoned. Marshall, however, still delivered the opinion -in the great majority of cases, and in practically all cases of any -importance involving the interpretation of the Constitution. During the -course of his judicial life his associates were as a rule men of -learning and ability. During most of the time the majority were the -appointees of Democratic presidents, and before their elevation to the -bench supposed to be out of sympathy with the federalistic ideas of the -chief-justice. Yet in matters pertaining to constitutional construction, -they seem to have had hardly any other function than to add the weight -of their silent concurrence to the decision of their great chief. Thus -the task of expounding the constitution during the most critical period -of its history was his, and it was given to him to preside over the -Supreme Court when it was called upon to decide four cases of vital -importance: _Marbury_ v. _Madison_, _M'Culloch_ v. _Maryland_, _Cohens_ -v. _Virginia_ and _Gibbons_ v. _Ogden_. In each of these cases it is -Marshall who writes the opinion of the court; in each the continued -existence of the peculiar Federal system established by the Constitution -depended on the action of the court, and in each the court adopted a -principle which is now generally perceived to be essential to the -preservation of the United States as a federal state. - - In _Marbury_ v. _Madison_, which was decided two years after his - elevation to the bench, he decided that it was the duty of the court - to disregard any act of Congress, and, therefore, a fortiori any act - of a legislature of one of the states, which the court thought - contrary to the Federal Constitution. - - In _Cohens_ v. _Virginia_, in spite of the contention of Jefferson and - the then prevalent school of political thought that it was contrary to - the Constitution for a person to bring one of the states of the United - States, though only as an appellee, into a court of justice, he held - that Congress could lawfully pass an act which permitted a person who - was convicted in a state court, to appeal to the Supreme Court of the - United States, if he alleged that the state act under which he was - convicted conflicted with the Federal Constitution or with an act of - Congress. - - In _M'Culloch_ v. _Maryland_, though admitting that the Federal - government is one of delegated powers and cannot exercise any power - not expressly given in the Constitution, he laid down the rule that - Congress in the exercise of a delegated power has a wide latitude in - the choice of means, not being confined in its choice of means to - those which must be used if the power is to be exercised at all. - - Lastly, in _Gibbons_ v. _Ogden_, he held that when the power to - regulate interstate and foreign commerce was conferred by the - Constitution on the Federal government, the word "commerce" included - not only the exchange of commodities, but the means by which - interstate and foreign intercourse was carried on, and therefore that - Congress had the power to license vessels to carry goods and - passengers between the states, and an act of one of the states making - a regulation which interfered with such regulation of Congress was, - _pro tanto_, of no effect. It will be seen that in the first two cases - he established the Supreme Court as the final interpreter of the - Constitution. - - The decision in _M'Culloch_ v. _Maryland_, by leaving Congress - unhampered in the choice of means to execute its delegated powers, - made it possible for the Federal government to accomplish the ends of - its existence. "Let the end be legitimate," said Marshall in the - course of its opinion, "let it be within the scope of the - Constitution, and all means which are appropriate, which are plainly - adapted to that end, which are not prohibited, but consist with the - letter and spirit of the Constitution, are constitutional." - - If the decision in _M'Culloch_ v. _Maryland_ gave vigour to all - Federal power, the decision in _Gibbons_ v. _Ogden_, by giving the - Federal government control over the means by which interstate and - foreign commerce is carried on, preserved the material prosperity of - the country. The decision recognizes what the framers of the - Constitution recognized, namely that the United States is an economic - union, and that business which is national should be under national, - not state, control. - -Though for the reasons stated, the four cases mentioned are the most -important of his decisions, the value of his work as an expounder of the -Constitution of the United States is not to be measured by these cases -alone. In all he decided forty-four cases involving constitutional -questions. Nearly every important part of the Constitution of the United -States as it existed before the amendments which were adopted after the -Civil War, is treated in one or more of them. The Constitution in its -most important aspects is the Constitution as he interpreted it. He did -not work out completely the position of the states in the Federal -system, but he did grasp and establish the position of the Federal -legislature and the Federal judiciary. To appreciate his work, however, -it is necessary to see that it was the work not of a statesman but of a -judge. Had Marshall been merely a far-seeing statesman, while most of -his important cases would have been decided as he decided them, his -life-work would have been a failure. It was not only necessary that he -should decide great constitutional questions properly, but also that the -people of the United States should be convinced of the correctness of -his interpretation of the Constitution. His opinions, therefore, had to -carry to those who studied them a conviction that the constitution as -written had been interpreted according to its evident meaning. They -fulfilled this prime requisite. Their chief characteristic is the -cumulative force of the argument. The ground for the premiss is -carefully prepared, the premiss itself is clearly stated; nearly every -possible objection is examined and answered; and then comes the -conclusion. There is little or no repetition, but there is a wealth of -illustration, a completeness of analysis, that convinces the reader, not -only that the subject has been adequately treated, but that it has been -exhausted. His style, reflecting his character, suits perfectly the -subject matter. Simple in the best sense of the word, his intellectual -processes were so clear that he never doubted the correctness of the -conclusion to which they led him. Apparently from his own point of view, -he merely indicated the question at issue, and the inexorable rules of -logic did the rest. Thus his opinions are simple, clear, dignified. -Intensely interesting, the interest is in the argument, not in its -expression. He had, in a wonderful degree, the power of phrase. He -expressed important principles of law in language which tersely yet -clearly conveyed his exact meaning. Not only is the Constitution -interpreted largely as he taught the people of the United States to -interpret it, but when they wish to express important constitutional -principles which he enunciated they use his exact words. Again, his -opinions show that he adhered closely to the words of the Constitution; -indeed no one who has attempted to expound that instrument has confined -himself more strictly to an examination of the text. In the proper, -though not in the historical, sense he was the strictest of strict -constructionalists, and as a result his opinions are practically devoid -of theories of government, sovereignty and the rights of man. - - A single illustration of his avoidance of all theory and his adherence - to the words of the Constitution will suffice. In the case of the - _United States_ v. _Fisher_ the constitutional question involved was - the power of Congress to give to the United States a preference over - all other creditors in the distribution of the assets of a bankrupt. - Such an act can be upheld on the ground that all governments have - necessarily the right to give themselves priority. Not so Marshall. To - him the act must be supported, if supported at all, not on any theory - of the innate nature of the government, national or otherwise, but as - a reasonable means of carrying out one of the express powers conferred - by the Constitution on the Federal government. Thus, he upholds the - act in question because of the power expressly conferred on the - Federal government to pay the debts of the union, and as a necessary - consequence of this power the right to make remittances by bills or - otherwise and to take precautions which will render the transactions - safe. - -It is important to emphasize the fact that Marshall adhered in his -opinions to the Constitution as written, not only because it is a fact -which must be recognized if we are to understand the correct value of -his work in the field of constitutional law, but also because there -exists to-day a popular impression that by implication he stretched to -the utmost the powers of the Federal government. This impression is due -primarily to the ignorance of many of those who have undertaken to -praise him. During his life he was charged by followers of the States -Rights School of political thought with upholding Federal power in cases -not warranted by the constitution. Later, however, those who admired a -strong national government, without taking the trouble to ascertain -whether the old criticism by members of the States Rights Party was -just, regarded the assumption on which it was founded as Marshall's best -claim to his country's gratitude. - -As a constitutional lawyer, Marshall stands without a rival. His work on -international law and admiralty is of first rank. But though a good, he -was not a great, common law or equity lawyer. In these fields he did not -make new law nor clarify what was obscure, and his constitutional -opinions which to-day are found least satisfactory are those in which -the question to be solved necessarily involves the discussion of some -common-law conception, especially those cases in which he was required -to construe the restriction imposed by the Constitution on any state -impairing the obligation of contracts. His decision in the celebrated -case of _Dartmouth College_ v. _Woodward_, in which he held that a state -could not repeal a charter of a private corporation, because a charter -is a contract which a subsequent act of the state repealing the charter -impairs, though of great economic importance, does not touch any -fundamental question of constitutional law. The argument which he -advances lacks the clearness and finality for which most of his opinions -are celebrated. It is not certain with whom he thought the contract was -made: with the corporation created by the charter, with the trustees of -the corporation, or with those who had contributed money to its objects. - -Of the wonderful persuasive force of Marshall's personality there is -abundant evidence. His influence over his associates, already referred -to, is but one example though a most impressive one. From the moment he -delivered the opinion in _Marbury_ v. _Madison_ the legal profession -knew that he was a great judge. Each year added to his reputation and -made for a better appreciation of his intellectual and moral qualities. -The bar of the Supreme Court during his chief-justiceship was the most -brilliant which the United States has ever known. Leaders, not only of -legal, but political thought were among its members; one, Webster, was a -man of genius and commanding position. To a very great degree Marshall -impressed on the members of this bar and on the profession generally his -own ideas of the correct interpretation of the Constitution and his own -love for the union. He did this, not merely by his arguments but by the -influence which was his by right of his strong, sweet nature. Statesmen -and politicians, great and small, were at this time, almost without -exception, members of the bar. To influence the political thought of the -bar was to a great extent to influence the political thought of the -people. - -In 1782 he married Mary Willis Ambler, the daughter of the then -treasurer of Virginia. They had ten children, six of whom grew to full -age. For the greater part of the forty-eight years of their married life -Mrs Marshall suffered intensely from a nervous affliction. Her condition -called out the love and sympathy of her husband's deep and affectionate -nature. Judge Story tells us: "That which, in a just sense, was his -highest glory, was the purity, affectionateness, liberality and -devotedness of his domestic life." For the first thirty years of his -chief-justiceship his life was a singularly happy one. He never had to -remain in Washington for more than three months. During the rest of the -year, with the exception of a visit to Raleigh, which his duties as -circuit judge required him to make, and a visit to his old home in -Fauquier county, he lived in Richmond. His house on Shockhoe Hill is -still standing. - -On Christmas Day 1831 his wife died. He never was quite the same again. -On returning from Washington in the spring of 1835 he suffered severe -contusions, from an accident to the stage coach in which he was riding. -His health, which had not been good, now rapidly declined and in June he -returned to Philadelphia for medical attendance. There he died on the -6th of July. His body, which was taken to Richmond, lies in Shockhoe -Hill Cemetery under a plain marble slab, on which is a simple -inscription written by himself. In addition to his decisions Marshall -wrote a famous biography of George Washington (5 vols., 1804-1807; 2nd -ed., 2 vols., 1832), which though prepared hastily contains much -material of value. - - The principal sources of information are: an essay by James B. Thayer - (Boston and New York, 1904); _Great American Lawyers_ (Philadelphia, - 1908), ii. 313-408, an essay by Wm. Draper Lewis; and Allan B. - Magruder, _John Marshall_ (Boston, 1885), in the "American Statesmen - Series." The addresses delivered on Marshall Day, the 4th of February - 1901, are collected by John F. Dillon (Chicago, 1903). In the - "Appendix" to Dillon's collection will be found the "Discourse" by - Joseph Story and the "Eulogy" by Horace Binney, both delivered soon - after Marshall's death. For a study of Marshall's decisions, the - _Constitutional Decisions of John Marshall_, edited by Joseph P. - Collon, Jr. (New York and London, 1905), is of value. (W. D. L.) - - - - - -MARSHALL, JOHN (1818-1891), British surgeon and physiologist, was born -at Ely, on the 11th of September 1818, his father being a lawyer of that -city. He entered University College, London, in 1838, and in 1847 he was -appointed assistant-surgeon at the hospital, becoming in 1866 surgeon -and professor of surgery. He was professor of anatomy at the Royal -Academy from 1873 till his death. In 1883 he was president of the -College of Surgeons, also Bradshaw lecturer (on "Nerve-stretching for -the relief or cure of pain"), Hunterian orator in 1885, and Morton -lecturer in 1889. In 1867 he published his well-known textbook _The -Outlines of Physiology_ in two volumes. He died on the 1st of January -1891. "Marshall's fame," wrote Sir W. MacCormac in his volume on the -_Centenary of the College of Surgeons_ (1900), "rests on the great -ability with which he taught anatomy in relation to art, on the -introduction into modern surgery of the galvano-cautery, and on the -operation for the excision of varicose veins. He was one of the first to -show that cholera might be spread by means of drinking water, and issued -a report on the outbreak of cholera in Broad Street, St James's, 1854. -He also invented the system of circular wards for hospitals, and to him -are largely owing the details of the modern medical student's -education." - - - - -MARSHALL, STEPHEN (c. 1594-1655), English Nonconformist divine, was born -at Godmanchester in Huntingdonshire, and was educated at Emmanuel -College, Cambridge (M.A. 1622, B.D. 1629). After holding the living of -Wethersfield in Essex he became vicar of Finchingfield in the same -county, and in 1636 was reported for "want of conformity." He was a -preacher of great power, and influenced the elections for the Short -Parliament of 1640. Clarendon esteemed his influence on the -parliamentary side greater than that of Laud on the royalist. In 1642 he -was appointed lecturer at St Margaret's, Westminster, and delivered a -series of addresses to the Commons in which he advocated episcopal and -liturgical reform. He had a share in writing _Smectymnuus_, was -appointed chaplain to the earl of Essex's regiment in 1642, and a member -of the Westminster Assembly in 1643. He represented the English -Parliament in Scotland in 1643, and attended the parliamentary -commissions at the Uxbridge Conference in 1645. He waited on Archbishop -Laud before his execution, and was chaplain to Charles I. at Holmby -House and at Carisbrooke. A moderate and judicious presbyterian, he -prepared with others the "Shorter Catechism" in 1647, and was one of the -"Triers," 1654. He died in November 1655 and was buried in Westminster -Abbey, but his body was exhumed and maltreated at the Restoration. His -sermons, especially that on the death of John Pym in 1643, reveal -eloquence and fervour. The only "systematic" work he published was _A -Defence of Infant Baptism_, against John Tombes (London, 1646). - - - - -MARSHALL, a city and the county-seat of Saline county, Missouri, U.S.A., -situated a little W. of the centre of the state, near the Salt Fork of -the La Mine River. Pop. (1890), 4297; (1900), 5086 (208 being -foreign-born and 98 negroes); (1910) 4869. It is served by the Missouri -Pacific and the Chicago & Alton railways. The city is laid out regularly -on a high, undulating prairie. It is the seat of Missouri Valley College -(opened 1889; co-educational), which was established by the Cumberland -Presbyterian church, and includes a preparatory department and a -conservatory of music. The court-house (1883), a Roman Catholic convent -and a high school (1907) are the principal buildings. The Missouri -colony for the feeble-minded and epileptic (1899) is at Marshall. The -principal trade is with the surrounding farming country. The -municipality owns and operates the waterworks. Marshall was first -settled and was made the county seat in 1839; it became a town in 1866 -(re-incorporated 1870) and a city in 1878. - - - - -MARSHALL, a city and the county-seat of Harrison county, Texas, U.S.A., -about 145 m. E. by S. of Dallas. Pop. (1890), 7207; (1900) 7855 (3769 -negroes); (1910) 11,452. Marshall is served by the Texas & Pacific and -the Marshall & East Texas railways, which have large shops here. Wiley -University was founded in 1873 by the Freedman's Aid Society of the -Methodist Episcopal Church, and Bishop College, was founded in 1881 by -the American Baptist Home Mission Society and incorporated in 1885. -Marshall is situated in a region growing cotton and Indian corn, -vegetables, small fruits and sugar-cane; in the surrounding country -there are valuable forests of pine, oak and gum. In the vicinity of the -city there are several lakes (including Caddo Lake) and springs -(including Hynson and Rosborough springs). The city has a cotton -compress, and among its manufactures are cotton-seed oil, lumber, ice, -foundry products and canned goods. The municipality owns and operates -the waterworks. Marshall was first settled in 1842, was incorporated in -1843, and received a city charter in 1848; in 1909 it adopted the -commission form of government. - - - - -MARSHALL ISLANDS, an island group in the western Pacific Ocean -(Micronesia) belonging to Germany. The group consists of a number of -atolls ranged in two almost parallel lines, which run from N.W. to S.E. -between 4 deg. and 15 deg. N. and 161 deg. and 174 deg. E. The -north-east line, with fifteen islands, is called Ratak, the other, -numbering eighteen, Ralik. These atolls are of coralline formation and -of irregular shape. They rise but little above high-water mark. The -highest elevation occurs on the island of Likieb, but is only 33 ft. The -lagoon is scarcely more than 150 ft. deep and is accessible through -numerous breaks in the reef. On the outward side the shore sinks rapidly -to a great depth. The surface of the atolls is covered with sand, except -in a few places where it has been turned into soil through the admixture -of decayed vegetation. The reef in scarcely any instance exceeds 600 ft. -in width. - -The climate is moist and hot, the mean temperature being 80.50 deg. F. -Easterly winds prevail all the year round. There is no difference -between the seasons, which, though the islands belong to the northern -hemisphere, have the highest temperature in January and the lowest in -July. Vegetation, on the whole, is very poor. There are many coco-nut -palms, bread-fruit trees (_Artocarpus incisa_), various kinds of -bananas, yams and taro, and pandanus, of which the natives eat the -seeds. From the bark of another plant they manufacture mats. There are -few animals. Cattle do not thrive, and even poultry are scarce. Pigs, -cats, dogs and rats have been imported. There are a few pigeons and -aquatic birds, butterflies and beetles. Crustacea and fish abound on the -reefs. - -The natives are Micronesians of a dark brown colour, though lighter -shades occur. Their hair is not woolly but straight and long. They -practise tattooing, and show Papuan influence by distending the -ear-lobes by the insertion of wooden disks. They are expert navigators, -and construct curious charts of thin strips of wood tied together with -fibres, some giving the position of the islands and some the direction -of the prevailing winds. Their canoes carry sails and are made of the -trunk of the bread-fruit tree. The people are divided into four classes, -of which only two are allowed to own land. The islands lie entirely -within the German sphere of interest, and the boundaries were agreed -upon between Great Britain and Germany on the 10th of April 1889. Their -area is estimated at 160 sq. m., with 15,000 inhabitants, who are -apparently increasing, though the contrary was long believed. All but -about 250 are natives. The administrator of the islands is the governor -of German New Guinea, but a number of officials reside on the islands. -There is no military force, the natives being of peaceful disposition. -The chief island and seat of government is Jaluit. The most populous -island is Majeru, with 1600 inhabitants. The natives are generally -pagans, but a Roman Catholic mission has been established, and the -American Mission Board maintains coloured teachers on many of the -islands. There is communication with Sydney by private steamer, and a -steamer sails between Jaluit and Ponape to connect with the French boats -for Singapore. The chief products for export are copra, tortoise-shell, -mother-of-pearl, sharks' fins and trepang. The natives are clever -boat-builders, and find a market for their canoes on neighbouring -islands. They have made such progress in their art that they have even -built seaworthy little schooners of 30 to 40 tons. The only other -articles they make are a few shell ornaments. - -The Marshall Islands may have been visited by Alvaro de Saavedra in -1529, Captain Wallis touched at the group in 1767, and in 1788 Captains -Marshall and Gilbert explored it. The Germans made a treaty with the -chieftains of Jaluit in 1878 and annexed the group in 1885-1886. - - See C. Hager, _Die Marshall-Inseln_ (Leipzig, 1886); Steinbach and - Grosser, _Worterbuch der Marshall-Sprache_ (Hamburg, 1902). - - - - -MARSHALLTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Marshall county, Iowa, -U.S.A., near the Iowa River and about 60 m. N.E. of Des Moines. Pop. -(1890), 8914; (1900), 11,544, of whom 1590 were foreign-born; (1910 -census) 13,374. Marshalltown is served by the Chicago & North-Western, -the Chicago Great Western, and the Iowa Central railways, the last of -which has machine shops here. At Marshalltown are the Iowa soldiers' -home, supported in part by the Federal Government, and St. Mary's -institute, a Roman Catholic commercial and business school. The city is -situated in a rich agricultural region, and is a market for grain, meat -cattle, horses and swine. There are miscellaneous manufactures, and in -1905 the factory product was valued at $3,090,312. The municipality owns -and operates its waterworks and its electric-lighting plant. -Marshalltown, named in honour of Chief Justice John Marshall, was laid -out in 1853, and became the county-seat in 1860. It was incorporated as -a town in 1863, and was chartered as a city in 1868. - - - - -MARSHALSEA, a prison formerly existing in Southwark, London. It was -attached to the court of that name held by the steward and marshal of -the king's house (see LORD STEWARD and MARSHAL). The date of its first -establishment is unknown, but it existed as early as the reign of Edward -III. It was consolidated in 1842 with the queen's bench and the Fleet, -and was then described as "a prison for debtors and for persons charged -with contempt of Her Majesty's courts of the Marshalsea, the court of -the queen's palace of Westminster, and the high court of admiralty, and -also for admiralty prisoners under sentence of courts martial." It was -abolished in 1849. The Marshalsea Prison is described in Charles -Dickens' _Little Dorrit_. - - - - -MARSHBUCK, a book-name proposed for such of the African bushbucks or -harnessed antelopes as have abnormally long hoofs to support them in -walking on marshy or swampy ground. (See BUSHBUCK and ANTELOPE.) - - - - -MARSHFIELD, a city of Wood county, Wisconsin, about 165 m. N.W. of -Milwaukee. Pop. (1890), 3450; (1900), 5240, of whom 1161 were -foreign-born; (1905) 6036; (1910) 5783. It is served by the Chicago & -North-Western, the Chicago, St Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha, and the -Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie railways. It contains the -mother-house of the Sisters of the Sorrowful Mother. Lumbering is the -most important industry, and there are various manufactures. The city is -situated in a clover region, in which dairying is important, and -Guernsey and Holstein-Friesland cattle are raised. The municipality owns -and operates the waterworks and the electric-lighting plant. The site of -Marshfield was part of a tract granted by the Federal government to the -Fox River Improvement Company, organized to construct a waterway between -the Mississippi river and Green Bay, and among the original owners of -the town site were Samuel Marsh of Massachusetts (in whose honour the -place was named) and Horatio Seymour, Ezra Cornell, Erastus Corning, and -William A. Butler of New York. Marshfield was settled about 1870, and -was first chartered as a city in 1883. - - - - -MARSH GAS (methane), CH4, the first member of the series of paraffin -hydrocarbons. It occurs as a constituent of the "fire-damp" of -coal-mines, in the gases evolved from volcanoes, and in the gases which -arise in marshy districts (due to the decomposition of vegetable matter -under the surface of water). It is found associated with petroleum and -also in human intestinal gases. It is a product of the destructive -distillation of complex organic matter (wood, coal, bituminous shale, -&c.), forming in this way from 30 to 40% of ordinary illuminating gas. -It may be synthetically obtained by passing a mixture of the vapour of -carbon bisulphide with sulphuretted hydrogen over red-hot copper (M. -Berthelot, _Comptes rendus_, 1856, 43, p. 236), CS2 + 2H2S + 8Cu = 4Cu2S -+ CH4; by passing a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide over reduced -nickel at 200-250 deg. C., or hydrogen and carbon dioxide at 230-300 -deg. C. (P. Sabatier and J. B. Senderens, _Comptes rendus_, 1902, 134, -pp. 514, 689); by the decomposition of aluminium carbide with water [H. -Moissan, _Bull. Soc. Chim._, 1894, (3) 11, p. 1012]; and by heating -phosphonium iodide with carbon bisulphide in a sealed tube to 120-140 -deg. C. (H. Jahn, _Ber._, 1880, 13, p. 127). It is also obtained by the -reduction of many methyl compounds with nascent hydrogen; thus methyl -iodide dissolved in methyl alcohol readily yields methane when acted on -by the zinc-copper couple (J. H. Gladstone and A. Tribe, _Jour. Chem. -Soc._, 1884, 45, p. 156) or by the aluminium-mercury couple. It may be -obtained in an indirect manner from methyl iodide by conversion of this -compound into zinc methyl, or into magnesium methyl iodide (formed by -the action of magnesium on methyl iodide dissolved in anhydrous ether), -and decomposing these latter substances with water (E. Frankland, 1856; -V. Grignard, 1900), - - Zn(CH4)2 + H2O = 2CH4 + ZnO; 2CH3MgI + H2O = 2CH4 + MgI2 + MgO. - -In the laboratory it is usually prepared by J. B. A. Dumas' method -(_Ann._, 1840, 33, p. 181), which consists in heating anhydrous sodium -acetate with soda lime, CH3CO2Na + NaOH = Na2CO3 + CH4. The product -obtained by this method is not pure, containing generally more or less -ethylene and hydrogen. - -Methane is a colourless gas of specific gravity 0.559 (air = 1). It may -be condensed to a colourless liquid at -155 deg. to -160 deg. C. under -atmospheric pressure (S. Wroblewsky, _Comptes rendus_, 1884, 99, p. -136). It boils at -162 deg. C. and freezes at -186 deg. C. Its critical -temperature is -99.5 deg. C. (J. Dewar). The gas is almost insoluble in -water, but is slightly soluble in alcohol. It decomposes into its -constituents when passed through a red-hot tube, small quantities of -other hydrocarbons (ethane, ethylene, acetylene, benzene, &c.) being -formed at the same time. It burns with a pale flame, and when mixed with -air or oxygen forms a highly explosive mixture. W. A. Bone (_Jour. Chem. -Soc._, 1902, 81, p. 535; 1903, 83, p. 1074) has shown that in the -oxidation of methane by oxygen at 450-500 deg. C. formaldehyde (or -possibly methyl alcohol) is formed as an intermediate product, and is -ultimately oxidized to carbon dioxide. Methane is an exceedingly stable -gas, being unaffected by the action of chromic acid, nitric acid, or a -mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids. Chlorine and bromine, however, -react with methane, gradually replacing hydrogen and forming chlor- and -brom-substitution products. - - - - -MARSHMAN, JOSHUA (1768-1837), English Baptist missionary and -orientalist, was born on the 20th of April 1768, at Westbury Leigh, in -Wiltshire. He followed the occupation of a weaver until 1794, but having -meanwhile devoted himself to study he removed to Broadmead, Bristol, to -take charge of a small school. In 1799 he was sent by the Baptist -Missionary Society to join their mission at Serampur. Here, in addition -to his more special duties, he studied Bengali and Sanskrit, and -afterwards Chinese. He translated the Bible into various dialects, and, -aided by his son, established newspapers and founded Serampur College. -He received the degree of D.D. from Brown University, U.S.A., in 1810. -He died at Serampur on the 5th of December 1837. His son, John Clark -Marshman (1704-1877), was official Bengali translator; he published a -_Guide to the Civil Law_ which, before the work of Macaulay, was the -civil code of India, and wrote a _History of India_ (1842). - - Marshman translated into Chinese the book of Genesis, the Gospels, and - the Epistles of Paul to the Romans and the Corinthians; in 1811 he - published _The Works of Confucius, containing the Original Text, with - a Translation_, and in 1814 his _Clavis Sinica_. He was also the - author of _Elements of Chinese Grammar, with Preliminary Dissertation - on the Characters and Colloquial Mediums of the Chinese_, and was - associated with W. Carey in the preparation of a Sanskrit grammar and - of a Bengali-English dictionary. - - See J. C. Marshman, _Life and Times of Carey, Marshman and Ward_ (2 - vols., 1859). - - - - -MARSI, an ancient people of Italy, whose chief centre was Marruvium, on -the eastern shore of Lake Fucinus. They are first mentioned as members -of a confederacy with the Vestini, Paeligni and Marrucini (Liv. viii. -29, cf. viii. 6, and Polyb. ii. 24, 12). They joined the Samnites in 308 -B.C. (Liv. ix. 41), and on their submission became allies of Rome in 304 -B.C. (Liv. ix. 45). After a short-lived revolt two years later, for -which they were punished by loss of territory (Liv. x. 3), they were -readmitted to the Roman alliance and remained faithful down to the -social war, their contingent (e.g. Liv. xliv. 46) being always regarded -as the flower of the Italian forces (e.g. Hor. _Od._ ii. 20, 18). In -this war, which, owing to the prominence of the Marsian rebels is often -known as the Marsic War, they fought bravely against odds under their -leader Q. Pompaedius Silo, and, though they were frequently defeated, -the result of the war was the enfranchisement of the allies (see ROME: -_History_, "The Republic"). The Marsi were a hardy mountain people, -famed for their simple habits and indomitable courage. It was said that -the Romans had never triumphed over them or without them (Appian). They -were also renowned for their magicians, who had strange remedies for -various diseases. - -The Latin colony of Alba Fucens near the north-west corner of the lake -was founded in the adjoining Aequian territory in 303, so that from the -beginning of the 3rd century the Marsians were in touch with a -Latin-speaking community, to say nothing of the Latin colony of Carsioli -(298 B.C.) farther west. The earliest pure Latin inscriptions of the -district seem to be _C.I.L._ ix. 3827 and 3848 from the neighbourhood of -Supinum; its character generally is of the Gracchan period, though it -might be somewhat earlier. - -Mommsen (_Unteritalische Dialekten_, p. 345) pointed out that in the -social war all the coins of Pompaedius Silo have the Latin legend -"Italia," while the other leaders in all but one case used Oscan. - -The chief record of the dialect or patois we owe to the goddess Angitia, -whose chief temple and grove stood at the south-west corner of Lake -Fucinus, near the inlet to the _emissarius_ of Claudius (restored by -Prince Torlonia), and the modern village of Luco. She (or they, for the -name is in the plural in the Latin inscription next cited) was widely -worshipped in the central highlands (Sulmo, _C.I.L._ ix. 3074, Furfo -Vestinorum, ibid. 3515) as a goddess of healing, especially skilled to -cure serpent bites by charms and the herbs of the Marsian woods. Her -worshippers naturally practised the same arts--as their descendants do -(see A. de Nino's charming collection of _Usi e costumi abruzzesi_), -their country being in Rome counted the home of witchcraft; see Hor. -_Sal._ 1, 9, 29, _Epod._ 17, 28, &c. - -The earliest local inscriptions date from about 300 to 150 B.C. and -include the interesting and difficult bronze of Lake Fucinus, which -seems to record a votive offering to Angitia, if _A(n)ctia_, as is -probable, was the local form of her name. Their language differs very -slightly from Roman Latin of that date; for apparently contracted forms -like _Fougno_ instead of _Fucino_ may really only be a matter of -spelling. In final syllables the diphthongs _ai_, _ei_, _oi_, all appear -as _e_. On the other hand, the older form of the name of the tribe (dat. -plur. _Martses_ = Lat. _Martiis_) shows its derivation and exhibits the -assibilation of _-tio-_ into _-tso-_ proper to many Oscan dialects (see -OSCA LINGUA) but strange to classical Latin. - - See R. S. Conway, _The Italic Dialects_, pp. 290 seq. (from which some - portions of this article are taken by permission of the syndics of the - Camb. Univ. Press); on the Fucino-Bronze, ib. p. 294. (R. S. C.) - - - - -MARSIGLI [Latinized MARSILIUS], LUIGI FERDINANDO, Count (1658-1730), -Italian soldier and scientific writer, was born at Bologna on the 10th -of July 1658. After a course of scientific studies in his native city he -travelled through Turkey collecting data on the military organization of -that empire, as well as on its natural history. On his return he entered -the service of the emperor Leopold (1682) and fought with distinction -against the Turks, by whom he was wounded and captured in an action on -the river Raab, and sold to a pasha whom he accompanied to the siege of -Vienna. His release was purchased in 1684, and he afterwards took part -in the war of the Spanish succession. In 1703 he was appointed second in -command under Count Arco in the defence of Alt-Breisach. The fortress -surrendered to the duke of Burgundy, and both Arco and Marsigli were -court martialled; the former was condemned to death and the latter -cashiered, although acquitted of blame by public opinion. Having thus -been forced to give up soldiering, he devoted the rest of his life to -scientific investigations, in the pursuit of which he made many journeys -through Europe, spending a considerable time at Marseilles to study the -nature of the sea. In 1712 he presented his collections to his native -city, where they formed the nucleus of the Bologna Institute of Science -and Art. He died at Bologna on the 1st of November 1730. Marsigli was a -fellow of the London Royal Society and a member of the Paris Academy of -Science. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A list of his works, over twenty in number, is given in - Niceron's _Memoirs_; his _Breve ristretto del saggio fisico intorno - alla storia del mare_ was published at Venice in 1711, and again at - Amsterdam (in French) in 1725; the _Stato militare dell' impero - ottomano_ was published at Amsterdam and the Hague in Italian and - French (1732), the _Osservazioni intorno al Bosforo Tracio_ in Rome - (1681) and the _Danubius pannonico-mysicus_, a large work in six - volumes containing much valuable historic and scientific information - on the Danubian countries, at the Hague (1725). See Fontenelle, - "Eloge" in the _Mem. de l'acad. des sciences_ (Paris, 1730); Quincy, - _Memoires sur la vie de M. le comte Marsigli_ (Zurich, 1741), and - Fantuzzi's biography of Marsigli (Bologna, 1770). - - - - -MARSILIUS OF PADUA [MARSIGLIO MAINARDINO] (1270-1342), Italian medieval -scholar, was born at Padua, and at first studied medicine in his own -country. After practising various professions, among others that of a -soldier, he went to Paris about 1311. The reputation which he had gained -in the physical sciences soon caused him to be raised to the position of -rector of the university (for the first term of the year 1313). While -still practising medicine he entered into relations with another master -of Paris, the philosopher John of Jandun, who collaborated with him in -the composition of the famous _Defensor pacis_ (1324), one of the most -extraordinary political and religious works which appeared during the -14th century. A violent struggle had just broken out between pope John -XXII. and Louis of Bavaria, king of the Romans, and the latter, on being -excommunicated and called upon to give up the empire, only replied to -the pope's threats with fresh provocations. Marsilius of Padua and John -of Jandun, though they had both reason to be grateful for the benefits -of John XXII., chose this moment to demonstrate, by plausible arguments, -the supremacy of the Empire, its independence of the Holy See, and the -emptiness of the prerogatives "usurped" by the sovereign pontiffs--a -demonstration naturally calculated to give them a claim on the gratitude -of the German sovereign. - -The _Defensor pacis_, as its name implies, is a work intended to restore -peace, as the most indispensable benefit of human society. The author of -the law is the people, i.e. the whole body, or at least the most -important part (_valentior_) of the citizens; the people should -themselves elect, or at least appoint, the head of the government, who, -lest he should be tempted to put himself above the scope of the laws, -should have at his disposal only a limited armed force. This chief is -responsible to the people for his breaches of the law, and in serious -cases they can condemn him to death. The real cause of the trouble which -prevails among men is the papacy, a "fictitious" power, the development -of which is the result of a series of usurpations. Marsilius denies, not -only to the pope, but to the bishops and clergy, any coercive -jurisdiction or any right to pronounce on their own authority -excommunications and interdicts, or in any way to impose the observation -of the divine law. He is not opposed to penalties against heretics, but -he would have them pronounced only by civil tribunals. Desiring to see -the clergy practise a holy poverty, he proposes the suppression of -tithes and the seizure by the secular power of the greater part of the -property of the church. The clergy, thus deprived of its wealth, -privileges and jurisdiction, is further to be deprived of independence, -for the civil power is to have the right of appointing to benefices, -&c. The supreme authority in the church is to be the council, but a -council summoned by the emperor. The pope, no longer possessing any more -power than other bishops (though Marsilius recognizes that the supremacy -of the Church of Rome goes back to the earliest times of Christianity), -is to content himself with a pre-eminence mainly of an honorary kind, -without claiming to interpret the Holy Scriptures, define dogmas or -distribute benefices; moreover, he is to be elected by the Christian -people, or by the delegates of the people, i.e. the princes, or by the -council, and these are also to have the power to punish, suspend or -depose him. Such is this famous work, full of obscurities, redundancies -and contradictions, in which the thread of the argument is sometimes -lost in a labyrinth of reasonings and citations, both sacred and -profane, but which nevertheless expresses, both in religion and -politics, such audacious and novel ideas that it has been possible to -trace in it, as it were, a rough sketch of the doctrines developed -during the periods of the Reformation and of the French Revolution. The -theory was purely democratic, but was all ready to be transformed, by -means of a series of fictions and implications, into an imperialist -doctrine; and in like manner it contained a visionary plan of -reformation which ended, not in the separation of the church from the -state, but in the subjection of the church to the state. To overthrow -the ecclesiastical hierarchy, to deprive the clergy of all their -privileges, to reduce the pope to the rank of a kind of president of a -Christian republic, which governs itself, or rather submits to the -government of Caesar--such is the dream formed in 1324 by two masters of -the university of Paris. - -When in 1326 Louis of Bavaria saw the arrival in Nuremberg of the two -authors of the book dedicated to him, startled by the boldness of their -political and religious theories, he was at first inclined to treat them -as heretics. He soon changed his mind, however, and, admitting them to -the circle of his intimates, loaded them with favours. Having become one -of the chief inspirers of the imperial policy, Marsilius accompanied -Louis of Bavaria to Italy, where he preached or circulated written -attacks against the pope, especially at Milan, and where he came within -the sight of the realization of his wildest utopias. To see a king of -the Romans crowned emperor at Rome, not by the pope, but by those who -claimed to be the delegates of the people (Jan. 17, 1328), to see John -XXII. deposed by the head of the Empire (April 18), and a mendicant -friar, Pietro de Corbara, raised by an imperial decree to the throne of -St Peter (as Nicholas V.) after a sham of a popular election (May 12), -all this was merely the application of principles laid down in the -_Defensor pacis_. The two authors of this book played a most active part -in the Roman Revolution. Marsilius, appointed imperial vicar, abused his -power to persecute the clergy who had remained faithful to John XXII. In -recompense for his services, he seems to have been appointed archbishop -of Milan, while his collaborator, John of Jandun, obtained from Louis of -Bavaria the bishopric of Ferrara. - -Marsilius of Padua also composed a treatise _De translatione imperii -romani_, which is merely a rearrangement of a work of Landolfo Colonna, -_De jurisdictione imperatoris in causa matrimoniali_, intended to prove -the exclusive jurisdiction of the emperor in matrimonial affairs, or -rather, to justify the intervention of Louis of Bavaria, who, in the -interests of his policy, had just annulled the marriage of the son of -the king of Bohemia and the countess of Tirol. But, above all, in an -unpublished work preserved at Oxford, the _Defensor minor_, Marsilius -completed and elaborated in a curious manner certain points in the -doctrine laid down in the _Defensor pacis_. In it he deals with -ecclesiastical jurisdiction, penances, indulgences, crusades and -pilgrimages, vows, excommunication, the pope and the council, marriage -and divorce. Here his democratic theory still more clearly leads up to a -proclamation of the imperial omnipotence. - -Marsilius of Padua does not seem to have lived long after 1342. But the -scandal provoked by his _Defensor pacis_, condemned by the court of -Avignon in 1326, lasted much longer. Benedict XII. and Clement VI. -censured it in turn; Louis of Bavaria disowned it. Translated into -French, then into Italian (14th century) and into English (16th -century), it was known by Wycliffe and Luther, and was not without an -influence on the Reform movement. - - See J. Sullivan, _American Historical Review_, vol. ii. (1896-1897), - and _English Historical Review_ for April 1905; _Histoire litteraire - de la France_ (1906), xxxiii. 528-623; Sigmund Riezler, _Die - literarischen Widersacher der Papste zur Zeit Ludwig des Baiers_ - (Leipzig, 1874). - - There are numerous manuscripts of the _Defensor pacis_ extant. We will - here mention only one edition, that given by Goldast, in 1614, in vol. - i. of his _Monarchia sacri imperii_; an unpublished last chapter was - published by Karl Muller, in 1883, in the _Gottingische gelehrte - Anzeigen_, pp. 923-925. - - Count Lutzow in _The Life and Times of Master John Hus_ (London and - New York, 1909), pp. 5-9, gives a good abstract of the Defensor pacis - and the relations of Marsilius to other precursors of the Reformation. - (N. V.) - - - - -MARSIVAN, or MERZIFUN (anc. _Phazemon?_), a town in the Amasia sanjak of -the Sivas vilayet of Asia Minor, situated at the foot of the Tavshan -Dagh. Pop. about 20,000, two-thirds Mussulman. It is a centre of -American missionary and educational enterprise, and the seat of Anatolia -College, a theological seminary, and schools which were partly destroyed -in the anti-Armenian riots of 1893 and 1895. There is also a Jesuit -school. Marsivan is an unusually European place both in its aspect and -the commodities procurable in the bazaar. - - - - -MARS-LA-TOUR, a village of Lorraine, between Metz and the French -frontier, which formed part of the battlefield of the 16th of August -1870. The battle is often called the battle of Mars-la-Tour, though it -is more usually named after Vionville. (See METZ; and FRANCO-GERMAN -WAR.) At Mars-la-Tour occurred the destruction of the German 38th -brigade. - - - - -MARSTON, JOHN (c. 1575-1634), English dramatist and satirist, eldest son -of John Marston of Coventry, at one time lecturer of the Middle Temple, -was born in 1575, or early in 1576. Swinburne notes his affinities with -Italian literature, which may be partially explained by his parentage, -for his mother was the daughter of an Italian physician, Andrew Guarsi. -He entered Brasenose College, Oxford, in 1592, taking his B.A. degree in -1594. The elder Marston in his will expresses regret that his son, to -whom he left his law-books and the furniture of his rooms in the Temple, -had not been willing to follow his profession. John Marston married Mary -Wilkes, daughter of one of the royal chaplains, and Ben Jonson said that -"Marston wrote his father-in-law's preachings, and his father-in-law his -sermons." His first work was _The Metamorphosis of Pigmalions Image, and -certaine Satyres_ (1598). "Pigmalion" is an erotic poem in the metre of -_Venus and Adonis_, and Joseph Hall attached a rather clumsy epigram to -every copy that was exposed for sale in Cambridge. In the same year -Marston published, under the pseudonym of W. Kinsayder, already employed -in the earlier volume, his _Scourge of Villanie_, eleven satires, in the -sixth of which he asserted that Pigmalion was intended to parody the -amorous poetry of the time. Both this volume and its predecessor were -burnt by order of the archbishop of Canterbury. The satires, in which -Marston avowedly took Persius as his model, are coarse and vigorous. In -addition to a general attack on the vices of his age he avenges himself -on Joseph Hall who had assailed him in _Virgidemiae_. He had a great -reputation among his contemporaries. John Weever couples his name with -Ben Jonson's in an epigram; Francis Meres in _Palladis tamia_ (1598) -mentions him among the satirists; a long passage is devoted to "Monsieur -Kinsayder" in the _Return from Parnassus_ (1606), and Dr Brinsley -Nicholson has suggested that _Furor poeticus_ in that piece may be a -satirical portrait of him. But his invective by its general tone, goes -far to justify Mr W. J. Courthope's[1] judgment that "it is likely -enough that in seeming to satirize the world without him, he is usually -holding up the mirror to his own prurient mind." - -On the 28th of September 1599 Henslowe notices in his diary that he lent -"unto Mr Maxton, the new poete, the sum of forty shillings," as an -advance on a play which is not named. Another hand has amended "Maxton" -to "Mastone." The earliest plays to which Marston's name is attached are -_The History of Antonio and Mellida. The First Part_; and _Antonio's -Revenge. The Second Part_ (both entered at Stationers' Hall in 1601 and -printed 1602). The second part is preceded by a prologue which, in its -gloomy forecast of the play, moved the admiration of Charles Lamb, who -also compares the situation of Andrugio and Lucia to Lear and Kent, but -the scene which he quotes gives a misleading idea of the play and of the -general tenor of Marston's work. - -The melodrama and the exaggerated expression of these two plays offered -an opportunity to Ben Jonson, who had already twice ridiculed Marston, -and now pilloried him as Crispinus in _The Poetaster_ (1601). The -quarrel was patched up, for Marston dedicated his _Malcontent_ (1604) to -Jonson, and in the next year he prefixed commendatory verses to -_Sejanus_. Far greater restraint is shown in _The Malcontent_ than in -the earlier plays. It was printed twice in 1604, the second time with -additions by John Webster. _The Dutch Courtezan_ (1605) and -_Parasitaster, or the Fawne_ (1606) followed. In 1605 _Eastward Hoe_,[2] -a gay comedy of London life, which gave offence to the king's Scottish -friends, caused the playwrights concerned in its production--Marston, -Chapman and Jonson--to be imprisoned at the instance of Sir James -Murray. _The Wonder of Women, or the Tragedie of Sophonisba_ (1606), -seems to have been put forward by Marston as a model of what could be -accomplished in tragedy. In the preface he mocks at those authors who -make a parade of their authorities and their learning, and the next -play, _What you Will_ (printed 1607; but probably written much earlier), -contains a further attack on Jonson. The tragedy of _The Insatiate -Countesse_ was printed in 1613, and again, this time anonymously, in -1616. It was not included in the collected edition of Marston's plays in -1633, and in the Duke of Devonshire's library there is a copy bearing -the name of William Barksteed, the author of the poems, _Myrrha, the -Mother of Adonis_ (1607), and _Hiren and the Fair Greek_ (1611). The -piece contains many passages superior to anything to be found in -Marston's well-authenticated plays, and Mr A. H. Bullen suggests that it -may be Barksteed's version of an earlier one drafted by Marston. The -character and history of Isabella are taken chiefly from "The Disordered -Lyfe of the Countess of Celant" in William Paynter's _Palace of -Pleasure_, derived eventually from Bandello. There is no certain -evidence of Marston's authorship in _Histriomastix_ (printed 1610, but -probably produced before 1599), or in _Jacke Drums Entertainement, or -the Comedie of Pasquil and Katherine_ (1616), though he probably had a -hand in both. Mr R. Boyle (_Englische Studien_, vol. xxx., 1901), in a -critical study of Shakespeare's _Troilus and Cressida_, assigns to -Marston's hand the whole of the action dealing with Hector, with the -prologue and epilogue, and attributes to him the bombast and coarseness -in the last scenes of the play. It will be seen that his undoubted -dramatic work was completed in 1607. It is uncertain at what time he -exchanged professions, but in 1616 he was presented to the living of -Christchurch, Hampshire. He formally resigned his charge in 1631, and -when his works were collected in 1633 the publisher, William Sheares, -stated that the author "in his autumn and declining age" was living "far -distant from this place." Nevertheless he died in London, in the parish -of Aldermanbury, on the 25th of June 1634. He was buried in the Temple -Church. - - Marston's works were first published in 1633, once anonymously as - _Tragedies and Comedies_, and then in the same year as _Workes of Mr - John Marston_. _The Works of John Marston_ (3 vols.) were reprinted by - Mr J. O. Halliwell (Phillipps) in 1856, and again by Mr. A. H. Bullen - (3 vols.) in 1887. His _Poems_ (2 vols.) were edited by Dr A. B. - Grosart in 1879. The British Museum Catalogue tentatively assigns to - Marston _The Whipper of the Satyre his pennance in a white sheete; or, - the Beadle's Confutation_ (1601), a pamphlet in answer to _The - Whipping of the Satyre_. For an account of the quarrel of Dekker and - Marston with Ben Jonson see Dr R. A. Small, _The Stage Quarrel - between Ben Jonson and the so-called Poetasters_; in E. Koelbing, - _Forschungen zur englischen Sprache und Litteratur_, pt. i. (1899). - See also three articles _John Marston als Dramatiker_, by Ph. - Aronstein in _Englische Studien_ (vols. xx. and xxi., 1895), and - "Quellenstudien zu den Dramen Ben Jonsons, John Marstons ..." by Emil - Koeppel (_Munchener Beitrage zur roman. und engl. Philologie_, pt. xi. - 1895). - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] _Hist. of Eng. Poetry_, iii. 70. - - [2] Revived at Drury Lane (1751) as _The Prentices_, in 1775 as _Old - City Manners_, and said to have suggested Hogarth's "Industrious and - Idle Prentices." - - - - -MARSTON, PHILIP BOURKE (1850-1887), English poet, was born in London on -the 13th of August 1850. His father, JOHN WESTLAND MARSTON (1819-1890), -of Lincolnshire origin, the friend of Dickens, Macready and Charles -Kean, was the author of a series of metrical dramas which held the stage -in succession to the ambitious efforts of John Tobin, Talfourd, Bulwer -and Sheridan Knowles. His chief plays were _The Patrician's Daughter_ -(1841), _Strathmore_ (1849), _A Hard Struggle_ (1858) and _Donna Diana_ -(1863). He was looked up to as the upholder of the outworn tradition of -the acted poetic drama, but his plays showed little vitality, and -Marston's reviews for the _Athenaeum_, including one of Swinburne's -_Atalanta in Calydon_, and his dramatic criticisms embodied in _Our -Recent Actors_ (1888) will probably claim a more enduring reputation. -His _Dramatic and Poetical Works_ were collected in 1876. The son, -Philip Bourke, was born in a literary atmosphere. His sponsors were -Philip James Bailey and Dinah Mulock (Mrs Craik). At his father's house -near Chalk Farm he met authors and actors of his father's generation, -and subsequently the Rossettis, Swinburne, Arthur O'Shaughnessy and -Irving. From his earliest years his literary precocity was overshadowed -by misfortunes. In his fourth year, in part owing to an accident, his -sight began to decay, and he gradually became almost totally blind. His -mother died in 1870. His _fiancee_, Mary Nesbit, died in 1871; his -closest friend, Oliver Madox Brown, in 1874; his sister Cicely, his -amanuensis, in 1878; in 1879 his remaining sister, Eleanor, who was -followed to the grave after a brief interval by her husband, the poet -O'Shaughnessy, and her two children. In 1882 the death of his chief -poetic ally and inspirer, Rossetti, was followed closely by the tragedy -of another kindred spirit, the sympathetic pessimist, James Thomson ("B. -V."), who was carried dying from his blind friend's rooms, where he had -sought refuge from his latest miseries early in June of the same year. -It is said that Marston came to dread making new friendships, for fear -of evil coming to the recipients of his affection. In the face of such -calamities it is not surprising that Marston's verse became more and -more sorrowful and melancholy. The idylls of flower-life, such as the -early and very beautiful "The Rose and the Wind" were succeeded by -dreams of sleep and the repose of death. These qualities and gradations -of feeling, reflecting the poet's successive ideals of action and -quiescence, are traceable through his three published collections, -_Songtide_ (1871), _All in All_ (1875) and _Wind Voices_ (1883). The -first and third, containing his best work, went out of print, but -Marston's verse was collected in 1892 by Mrs Louise Chandler Moulton, a -loyal and devoted friend, and herself a poet. Marston read little else -but poetry; and of poetic values, especially of the intenser order, his -judgment could not be surpassed in sensitiveness. He was saturated with -Rossetti and Swinburne, and his imitative power was remarkable. In his -later years he endeavoured to make money by writing short stories in -_Home Chimes_ and other American magazines, through the agency of Mrs -Chandler Moulton. His popularity in America far exceeded that in his own -country. His health showed signs of collapse from 1883; in January 1887 -he lost his voice, and suffered intensely from the failure to make -himself understood. He died on the 13th of February 1887. - - He was commemorated in Dr Gordon Hake's "Blind Boy," and in a fine - sonnet by Swinburne, beginning "The days of a man are threescore years - and ten." There is an intimate sketch of the blind poet by a friend, - Mr Coulson Kernahan, in _Sorrow and Song_ (1894), p. 127. (T. Se.) - - - - -MARSTON MOOR, BATTLE OF, was fought on the 2nd of July 1644 on a moor -(now enclosed) seven miles west of York, between the Royalist army under -Prince Rupert and the Parliamentary and Scottish armies under the earl -of Manchester, Lord Fairfax and Lord Leven. For the operations that -preceded the battle see GREAT REBELLION. Rupert had relieved York and -joined forces with the marquess of Newcastle's army that had defended -that city, and the Parliamentarians and Scots who had besieged it had -drawn off south-westward followed by the Royalists. On the morning of -the 2nd of July, however, Rupert's attack on their rearguard forced them -to halt and deploy on rising ground on the south edge of the moor, their -position being defined on the right and left by Long Marston and -Tockwith and divided from the Royalist army on the moor by a lane -connecting these two villages. The respective forces were--Royalists -about 18,000, Parliamentarians and Scots about 27,000. The armies stood -front to front. On the Royalist right was half the cavalry under Rupert; -the infantry was in the centre in two lines and the left wing of cavalry -was under General (Lord) Goring. The lane along the front was held by -skirmishers. On the other side the cavalry of the Eastern Association -under Lieut.-General Cromwell and that of the Scots under Major-General -Leslie (Lord Newark) formed the left, the infantry of the Eastern -Association under Major-General Crawford, of the Scots under Lord Leven, -and of the Yorkshire Parliamentarians under Lord Fairfax was in the -centre and the Yorkshire cavalry under Sir Thomas Fairfax was on the -right wing. - -During the afternoon there was a desultory cannonade, but neither side -advanced. At last, concluding from movements in the enemy's lines that -there would be no fighting that day, Rupert and Newcastle strolled away -to their coaches and their soldiers dismounted and lay down to rest. But -seeing this Cromwell instantly advanced his wing to the attack (5 p.m.). -His dragoons drove away the skirmishers along the lane, and the line -cavalry crossed into the moor. The general forward movement spread along -the Parliamentary line from left to right, the Eastern Association -infantry being the first to cross the road. In Rupert's momentary -absence, the surprised Royalist cavalry could make no head against -Cromwell's charge, although the latter was only made piecemeal as each -unit crossed the lane and formed to the front. Rupert soon galloped up -with his fresh second line and drove back Cromwell's men, Cromwell -himself being wounded, but Leslie and the Scots Cavalry, taking ground -to their left, swung in upon Rupert's flank, and after a hard struggle -the hitherto unconquered cavalry of the prince was broken and routed. -Then, being unlike other cavalry of the time, a thoroughly disciplined -force, the Eastern Association cavalry rallied, leaving the pursuit to -the Scots light horse. On the Parliamentary right, Goring had swept away -the Yorkshire horse, and although most of his troopers had followed in -disorderly pursuit, Sir Charles Lucas with some squadrons was attacking -the exposed right of Leven's infantry. At the same time the -Parliamentary infantry had mostly crossed the lane and was fighting at -close quarters and suffering severely, Newcastle's north-country -"White-Coat" brigade driving back and finally penetrating their centre. -Lord Leven gave up the battle as lost and rode away to Tadcaster. But -the Scots on the right of the foot held firm against Lucas's attacks, -and Cromwell and Leslie with their cavalry passed along the rear of the -Royal army, guided by Sir Thomas Fairfax (who though wounded in the rout -of his Yorkshire horse had made his way to the other flank). Then, on -the ground where Goring had routed Fairfax, Cromwell and Leslie won an -easy victory over Goring's scattered and disordered horsemen. The -Eastern Association infantry had followed the horse and was now in rear -of the Royalists. The original Parliamentary centre of foot, a remnant, -but one containing only the bravest and steadiest men, held fast, and -soon the Royalist infantry was broken up into isolated regiments and -surrounded by the victorious horse and foot of the enemy. The -White-Coats retreated into an enclosure and there defended themselves to -the last man. The rest were cut down on the field or scattered in the -pursuit and at nightfall the Royalist army had ceased to exist. Some of -Rupert's foot regiments made their way to York, but the dispirited -garrison only held out for a fortnight. Rupert rallied some six thousand -of the men and escaped over the hills into Lancashire, thence rejoining -King Charles in the south. But the Northern army, the main hope of the -Royalist cause, was destroyed. - - - - -MARSUPIALIA (from Lat. _marsupium_, a "pouch," or "bag"), the group of -mammals in which the young are usually carried for some time after birth -in a pouch on the under-surface of the body of the female. The group, -which has also the alternative title of Didelphia, is by some -authorities regarded as a sub-class of the mammalia of equal rank with -the Monotremata, while by others it is brigaded with the placentals, so -that the two together form a sub-class of equal grade with the one -represented by the monotremes. There is much to be urged in favour of -either view; and in adopting the former alternative, it must be borne in -mind that the difference between monotremes and marsupials is vastly -greater than that which separates the latter from placentals. In -elevating the marsupials to the rank of a sub-class the name Metatheria -has been suggested as the title for the higher grade, with Marsupialia -as the designation for the single order by which they are now -represented. It is, however, less liable to cause confusion, and in many -other ways more convenient to employ the better known term Marsupialia -in both senses. - -Marsupials may be defined as viviparous (that is non-egg-laying) -mammals, in which the young are born in an imperfect condition, and -almost immediately attached to the teats of the mammary glands; the -latter being generally enclosed in a pouch, and the front edge of the -pelvis being always furnished with epipubic or "marsupial" bones. As a -rule there is no allantoic placenta forming the means of communication -between the blood of the parent and the foetus, and when such a -structure does occur its development is incomplete. In all cases a more -or less full series of teeth is developed, these being differentiated -into incisors, canines, premolars and molars, when all are present; but -only a single pair of teeth in each jaw has deciduous predecessors. - -The pouch from which the marsupials take their name is supported by the -two epipubic bones, but does not correspond to the temporary -breeding-pouch of the monotremes. It may open either forward or -backwards; and although present in the great majority of the species, -and enclosing the teats, it may, as in many of the opossums, be -completely absent, when the teats extend in two rows along the whole -length of the under-surface of the body. Whether a pouch is present or -not, the young are born in an exceedingly imperfect state of -development, after a very short period of gestation, and are immediately -transferred by the female parent to the teats, where they remain firmly -attached for a considerable time; the milk being injected into their -mouths at intervals by means of a special muscle which compresses the -glands. In the case of the great grey kangaroo, for instance, the period -of gestation is less than forty days, and the newly-born embryo, which -is blind, naked, and unable to use its bud-like limbs, is little more -than an inch in length. - - As additional features of the sub-class may be mentioned the absence - of a corpus callosum connecting the right and left hemispheres of the - brain,[1] and of a fossa in the septum between the two auricles of the - heart. In the skull there are always vacuities, or unossified spaces - in the bones of the palate, while the "angle," or lower hind extremity - of each half of the lower jaw is strongly bent inwards so as to form a - kind of shelf, and the alisphenoid bone takes a share in the formation - of the tympanum, or auditory bladder, or bulla. Didelphia, the - alternative name of the group was given in allusion to the - circumstance that the uterus has two separate openings; while other - features are the inclusion of the openings of the alimentary canal and - the urino-genital sinus in a common sphincter muscle, and the position - of the scrotum in advance of the penis. The bandicoots alone possess a - placenta. Lastly the number of trunk-vertebrae is always nineteen, - while there are generally thirteen pairs of ribs. - - As regards the teeth, in all cases except the wombats the number of - upper incisors differs from that of the corresponding lower teeth. As - already stated, there is no vertical displacement and succession of - the functional teeth except in the case of a single tooth on each side - of each jaw, which is the third of the premolar series, and is - preceded by a tooth having more or less of the characters of a molar - (see fig. 1). In some cases (as in rat-kangaroos) this tooth retains - its place and function until the animal has nearly, if not quite, - attained its full stature, and is not shed and replaced by its - successor until after all the other teeth, including the molars, are - in place and use. In others, as the thylacine, it is rudimentary, - being shed or absorbed before any of the other teeth have cut the gum, - and therefore functionless. It may be added that there are some - marsupials, such as the wombat, koala, marsupial ant-eater and the - dasyures, in which no such deciduous tooth, even in a rudimentary - state, has been discovered. In addition to this replacement of a - single pair of functional teeth in each jaw, it has been discovered - that marsupials possess rudimentary tooth-germs which never cut the - gum. According to one theory, these rudimentary teeth, together with - the one pair of functional teeth in each jaw that has vertical - successors, represent the milk-teeth of placental mammals. On the - other hand, there are those who believe that the functional dentition - (other than the replacing premolar and the molars) correspond to the - milk-dentition of placentals, and that the rudimentary tooth-germs - represent a "prelacteal" dentition. The question, however, is of - academic rather than of practical interest, and whichever way it is - answered does not affect our general conception of the nature and - relationships of the group. - - [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Teeth of Upper Jaw of Opossum (_Didelphys - marsupialis_), all of which are unchanged, except the third premolar, - the place of which is occupied in the young animal by a molariform - tooth, represented in the figure below the line of the other teeth.] - - Unfortunately the homology of the functional series does not by any - means end the uncertainty connected with the marsupial dentition; as - there is also a difference of opinion with regard to the serial - homology of some of the cheek-teeth. For instance, according to the - older view, the dental formula in the thylacine or Tasmanian wolf is - i. 4/3, c, 1/1 p. 3/3, m. 4/4 = 46. On the other hand, in the opinion - of the present writer, this formula, so far as the cheek-teeth are - concerned, should be altered to p. 4/4, m. 3/3, thus bringing it in - accord, so far as these teeth are concerned, with the placental - formula, and making the single pair of replacing teeth the third - premolars. It may be added that the formula given above shows that the - marsupial dentition may comprise more teeth than the 44 which form the - normal full placental complement. - -As regards geographical distribution, existing marsupials, with the -exception of two families, _Didelphyidae_ and _Epanorthidae_, are mainly -limited to the Australian region, forming the chief mammalian fauna of -Australia, New Guinea, and some of the adjacent islands. The -_Didelphyidae_ are almost exclusively Central and South American, only -one or two species ranging into North America. Fossil remains of members -of this family have also been found in Europe in strata of the Oligocene -period. - -_History._--The origin and evolution of the Australian marsupials have -been discussed by Mr B. A. Bensley. In broad contrast to the views of Dr -A. R. Wallace, this author is of opinion that marsupials did not effect -an entrance into Australia till about the middle of the Tertiary period, -their ancestors being probably opossums of the American type. They were -then arboreal; but they speedily entered upon a rapid, although -short-lived, course of evolution, during which leaping terrestrial forms -like the kangaroos were developed. The short period of this evolution is -at least one factor in the primitive grade of even the most specialized -members of the group. In the advance of their molar teeth from a -tritubercular to a grinding type, the author traces a curious -parallelism between marsupials and placentals. Taking opossums to have -been the ancestors of the group, the author considers that the present -writer may be right in his view that marsupials entered Australia from -Asia by way of New Guinea. On the other hand there is nothing absolutely -decisive against their origin being southern. - -Again, taking as a text Mr L. Dollo's view that marsupials were -originally arboreal, that, on account of their foot-structure, they -could not have been the ancestors of placentals, and that they -themselves are degenerate placentals, Mr Bensley contrasts this with -Huxley's scheme of mammalian evolution. According to the latter, the -early monotremes which became specialized into modern monotremes, gave -rise to the ancestors of the modern marsupials; while the modern -placentals are likewise an offshoot from the ancestral marsupial stock. -This phylogeny, the author thinks, is the most probable of all. It is -urged that the imperfect placenta of the bandicoots instead of being -vestigial, may be an instance of parallelism, and that in marsupials -generally the allantois failed to form a placental connexion. Owing to -the antiquity of both placentals and marsupials, the arboreal character -of the feet of the modern forms of the latter is of little importance. -Further, it is considered that too much weight has been assigned to the -characters distinguishing monotremes from other mammals, foetal -marsupials showing a monotreme type of coracoid, while it is probable -that in the long run it will be found impossible to maintain the -essential dissimilarity between the milk-glands of monotremes and other -mammals. - -Another view is to regard both marsupials and placentals as derivates -from implacental ancestors more or less nearly related to the creodont -carnivora, or possibly as independently descended from anomodont -reptiles (see CREODONTA). Finally, there is the hypothesis that -marsupials are the descendants of placentals, in which case, as was -suggested by its discoverer, the placenta of the bandicoots would be a -true vestigial structure. - - -_Classification._ - -Existing marsupials may be divided into three main divisions or -sub-orders, of which the first, or Polyprotodontia, is common to America -and Australasia; the second, or Paucituberculata, is exclusively South -American; while the third, or Diprotodonts, is as solely Australasian -inclusive of a few in the eastern Austro-Malayan islands. - - 1. _Polyprotodonts._--The Polyprotodonts are characterized by their - numerous, small, sub-equal incisors, of which there are either five or - four pairs in the upper and always three in the lower jaw, (fig. 2) - and the generally strong and large canines, as well as by the presence - of from four to five sharp cusps or tubercles on the crown of the - molars. The pouch is often absent, and may open backwards. For the - most part the species are carnivorous or insectivorous. - - [Illustration: From Flower, _Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc._ - - FIG. 2.--Front View of Skull of the Tasmanian Devil (_Sarcophilus - ursinus_) to exhibit polyprotodont type of dentition.] - - The first family is that of the true or American - opossums--_Didelphyidae_, in which there are five pairs of upper - incisors, while the feet are of the presumed primitive arboreal type, - the hind foot having the four outer toes sub-equal and separate, with - the first opposable to them all. With the exception of the - water-opossum, forming the genus _Chironectes_, all the living members - of the family may be included in the genus _Didelphys_. The latter - may, however, be split up into several sub-generic groups, such as - _Metachirus_, _Philander_, _Marmosa_ (_Micoureus_ or _Grymaeomys_), - _Peramys_, _Dromiciops_, &c. The small South American forms included - in _Marmosa_, which lack the pouch, and have numerous teats, and molar - teeth of a primitive type, are doubtless the most generalized - representatives of the group (see OPOSSUM; and WATER-OPOSSUM). - - Nearly allied is the Australian family _Dasyuridae_, characterized by - the presence of only four pairs of upper incisors, the generally small - and rudimentary condition of the first hind toe, which can but seldom - be opposed to the rest, and the absence of prehensile power in the - tail; the pouch being either present or absent, and the fore feet - always five-toed. The stomach is simple, and there is no caecum to the - intestine, although this is present in the opossums. - - The largest representative of the family is the Tasmanian wolf, or - thylacine, alone representing the genus _Thylacinus_, in which the - dentition numbers i. 4/3, c. 1/1, p. 4/4, m. 3/3 = 46; with the - incisors small and vertical, the outer one in the upper jaw being - larger than the others. Summits of the lower incisors, before they are - worn, with a deep transverse groove, dividing it into an anterior and - a posterior cusp. Canines long, strong and conical. Premolars with - compressed crowns, increasing in size from before backwards. Molars in - general characters resembling those of _Sarcophilus_, but of more - simple form, the cusps being less distinct and not so sharply pointed. - Deciduous molar very small, and shed before the animal leaves the - mother's pouch. General form dog-like, with the head elongated, the - muzzle pointed, and the ears moderate, erect and triangular. Fur short - and closely applied to the skin. Tail of moderate length, thick at the - base and tapering towards the apex, clothed with short hair. First - hind toe (including the metacarpal bone) absent. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. - 13, L. 6, S. 2, Ca. 23. Marsupial bones unossified. The gradual - passage of the thick root of the tail into the body is a character - common to the Tasmanian wolf and the aard-vark, and may be directly - inherited from reptilian ancestors (see THYLACINE). - - [Illustration: FIG. 3.--The Tasmanian Wolf, or Thylacine (_Thylacinus - cynocephalus_).] - - The next genus is represented solely by the Tasmanian devil, - _Sarcophilus_ (or _Diabolus_) _ursinus_, a medium-sized animal with a - dental formula similar to that of the dasyures, but with teeth (fig. - 2) approximating to those of the thylacine, though markedly different - in details. The first hind toe is absent. - - In the "native cats," or dasyures, constituting the genus _Dasyurus_, - the dental formula is i. 4/3, c. 1/1, p. 3/3, m. 3/3: total 42. The - upper incisors are nearly equal and vertical, with the first slightly - longer, narrower, and separated from the rest. Lower incisors sloping - forward and upward. Canines large and sharply pointed. First two - premolars with compressed and sharp-pointed crowns, and slightly - developed anterior and posterior accessory basal cusps. Molars with - numerous sharp-pointed cusps. In the upper jaw the first two with - crowns having a triangular free surface; the last small, simple, - narrow and placed transversely. In the lower jaw the molars more - compressed, with longer cusps; the last not notably smaller than the - others. Ears of moderate size, prominent and obtusely pointed. First - hind toe rudimentary, clawless or absent; its metatarsal bone always - present. Tail generally long and well clothed with hair. Vertebrae: C. - 7, D. 13, L. 6, S. 2, Ca. 18-20 (see DASYURE). - - The genus _Phascologale_ comprises a number of small marsupials, none - exceeding a rat in size, differing from the dasyures in possessing an - additional premolar--the dentition being i. 4/3, c. 1/1, p. 4/4, m. - 3/3: total 46--and in having the teeth generally developed upon an - insectivorous rather than a carnivorous pattern, the upper middle - incisors being larger and inclined forward, the canines relatively - smaller, and the molars with broad crowns, armed with prickly - tubercles. The muzzle is pointed. Ears moderately rounded, and nearly - naked. Fore feet with five sub-equal toes, with compressed, slightly - curved pointed claws. Hind feet with the four outer toes sub-equal, - with claws similar to those in the fore feet; the first toe almost - always distinct and partially opposable, though small and nailless, - sometimes absent. - - In some respects intermediate between the preceding and the next genus - is _Dasyuroides byrnei_, of Central Australia, an animal of the size - of a rat, with one lower premolar less than in _Phascologale_, without - the first hind toe, and with a somewhat thickened tail. The pouch is - incomplete, with two lateral folds, and the number of teats six. - - _Sminthopsis_ includes several very small species, with the same - dental formula as _Phascologale_, but distinguished from that genus by - the narrowness of the hind foot, in which the first toe is present, - and the granulated or hairy (in place of broad, smooth and naked) - soles. A pouch is present, and there are eight or ten teats. Nearly - allied is the jumping _Antechinomys laniger_, of East Central - Australia, an elegant mouse-like creature, with large oval ears, - elongated limbs, a long and tufted tail and no first hind toe. In - connexion with the large size of the ears is the excessive inflation - of the auditory bulla of the skull. - - From all other members of the family the marsupial, or banded, - ant-eater (_Myrmecobius fasciatus_) differs by the presence of more - than seven pairs of cheek-teeth in each jaw, as well as by the - exceedingly long and protrusile tongue. Hence it is made the type of a - distinct sub-family, the _Myrmecobiinae_, as distinct from the - _Dasyurinae_, which includes all the other members of the family. From - the number of its cheek-teeth, the banded ant-eater has been regarded - as related to some of the primitive Jurassic mammals; but this view is - disputed by Mr Bensley, who regards this multiplicity of teeth as a - degenerate feature. On the other hand, it is noteworthy that this - marsupial retains in its lower jaw the so-called mylo-hyoid groove, - which is found in the aforesaid Jurassic mammals. _Myrmecobius_ has a - total of 52 or 54 teeth, which may be classed as i. 4/3, c. 1/1, p. + - m. (8 or 9)/(8 or 9). The teeth are all small and (except the four - posterior inferior molars) separated from each other by an interval. - Head elongated, but broad behind; muzzle long and pointed; ears of - moderate size, ovate and rather pointed. Fore-feet with five toes, all - having strong pointed, compressed claws, the second, third and fourth - nearly equal, the fifth somewhat and the first considerably shorter. - Hind-feet with no trace of first toe externally, but the metatarsal - bone is present. Tail long, clothed with long hairs. Fur rather harsh - and bristly. Female without pouch, the young when attached to the - nipples being concealed by the long hair of the abdomen. Vertebrae: C. - 7, D. 13, L. 6, S. 3, Ca. 23. The single species, which is a native of - western and southern Australia, is about the size of an English - squirrel, to which its long bushy tail gives it some resemblance; but - it lives entirely on the ground, especially in sterile sandy - districts, feeding on ants. Its prevailing colour is chestnut-red, but - the hinder part of the back is marked with broad, white, transverse - bands on a dark ground. - - [Illustration: From Gould. - - FIG. 4.--The Marsupial or Banded Ant-eater (_Myrmecobius fasciatus_).] - - With the bandicoots, or _Peramelidae_, we come to a family of - polyprotodonts which resemble the diprotodonts in the peculiarly - specialized structure of their hind limbs; an adaptation which we must - apparently regard as having been independently acquired in the two - groups. The dentition is i. 5/3, c. 1/1, p. 4/4, m. 3/3; total, 48; - the upper incisors being small, with short, broad crowns; the lower - incisors moderate, narrow, proclivous; canines well developed. - Premolars compressed, pointed; and the molars with quadrate - tuberculated crowns. Deciduous premolar preceded by a minute - molariform tooth, which remains in place until the animal is nearly - full grown. Fore feet with two or three of the middle toes of nearly - equal size, and provided with strong, sharp, slightly curved claws, - the other toes rudimentary. Hind feet long and narrow; the first toe - rudimentary or absent; the second and third very slender and united in - a common integument; the fourth very large, with a stout elongated - conical claw; the fifth smaller than the fourth (see fig. 6). The - terminal phalanges of the large toes of both feet cleft at their - extremities. Head elongated, with the muzzle long, narrow and pointed. - Stomach simple. Caecum of moderate size. Pouch complete, generally - opening backwards. Alone among marsupials bandicoots have no - clavicles. More remarkable still is the development of a small - allantoic placenta. - - [Illustration: From Gould. - - FIG. 5.--Gunn's Bandicoot (_Perameles gunni_).] - - In the true bandicoots of the genus _Perameles_ (fig. 5) the fore-feet - have the three middle toes well developed, the third slightly larger - than the second, the fourth somewhat shorter, provided with long, - strong, slightly curved, pointed claws. First and fifth toes very - short and without claws. Hind feet with one or two phalanges, in the - first toe forming a distinct tubercle visible externally; the second - and third toes very slender, of equal length, joined as far as the - terminal phalange, but with distinct claws; the fifth intermediate in - length between these and the largely developed fourth toe. Ears of - moderate or small size, ovate, pointed. Tail rather short, clothed - with short depressed hairs. Fur short and harsh. Pouch opening - backwards. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13, L. 6, S. 1, Ca. 17. (see - BANDICOOT.) - - [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Skeleton of Hind Foot of _Choeropus - castanotis_. - - c, calcanium; a, astralagus; cb, cuboid; n. navicular; c^3, - ectocuneiform; II. and III. the conjoined second and third digits; IV. - the large and only functional digit; V. the rudimentary fifth digit.] - - The rabbit-bandicoot, _Peragale_ (or _Thylacomys_) represents a genus - in which the cheek-teeth are curved, with longer crowns and shorter - roots than in the last. Hind extremities proportionally longer with - inner toe represented only by a small metatarsal bone. Muzzle much - elongated and narrow. Fur soft and silky. Ears very large, long and - pointed. Tail long, its apical half-clothed on the dorsal surface with - long hairs. Pouch opening forwards. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13, L. 6, S. - 2, Ca. 23. - - The one species, from Western Australia, is the largest member of the - family, being about the size of a rabbit, to which it bears sufficient - superficial resemblance to have acquired the name of "native rabbit" - from the colonists. It burrows in the ground, but in other respects - resembles bandicoots in habits. - - In the pig-footed bandicoot (_Choeropus castanotis_) the dentition - generally resembles that of _Perameles_, but the canines are less - developed, and in the upper jaw two-rooted. Limbs very slender; - posterior nearly twice the length of the anterior. Fore feet with the - functional toes reduced to two, the second and third, of equal length, - with closely united metacarpals and short, sharp, slightly curved, - compressed claws. First toe represented by a minute rudiment of a - metacarpal bone; the fourth by a metacarpal and two small phalanges - without a claw, and not reaching the middle of the metacarpal of the - third; fifth entirely absent. Hind foot long and narrow, mainly - composed of the strongly developed fourth toe, terminating in a - conical pointed nail, with a strong pad behind it; the first toe - represented by a rudimentary metatarsal; the remaining toes completely - developed, with claws, but exceedingly slender; the united second and - third reaching a little way beyond the metatarso-phalangeal - articulation of the fourth; the fifth somewhat shorter. Tail not quite - so long as the body, and covered with short hairs. Ears large and - pointed, and folded down when the animal is at rest. Fur soft and - loose. Pouch opening backwards. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13, L. 6, S. 1, - Ca. 20. - - The only species of this genus is about the size of a small rat, found - in the interior of Australia. Its general habits and food appear to - resemble those of other bandicoots. A separate family, _Notoryctidae_, - is represented by the marsupial mole (_Notoryctes typhlops_), of the - deserts of south Central Australia, a silky, golden-haired, burrowing - creature, with a curious leathery muzzle, and a short, naked stumpy - tail. The limbs are five-toed, with the third and fourth toes of the - front pair armed with enormous digging claws; there are no external - ear-conchs; and the dentition includes four pairs of upper, and three - of lower, incisors, and distinctly tritubercular cheek-teeth. The - small pouch, supported by the usual epipubic bones, opens backwards. - In correlation with its burrowing habits, some of the vertebrae of the - neck and of the loins are respectively welded together. The eyes have - degenerated to a greater extent than those of any other burrowing - mammal, the retina being reduced to a mass of simple cells, and the - cornea and sclerotic ("white") to a pear-shaped fibrous capsule - enclosing a ball of pigment. The reason for this extreme degeneration - is probably to be found in the sandy nature of the soil in which the - creature burrows, a substance which would evidently irritate and - inflame any functional remnant of an eye. The portion of the lachrymal - duct communicating with the cavity of the nose has, on the other hand, - been abnormally developed, apparently for the purpose of cleansing - that chamber from particles of sand which may obtain an entrance while - the animal is burrowing. (See MARSUPIAL MOLE.) - - [Illustration: From Gould. - - FIG. 7.--The Pig-footed Bandicoot (_Choeropus castanotis_).] - - [Illustration: After Thomas. - - FIG. 8.--Skull of _Caenolestes obscurus_.] - - 2. _Paucituberculates._--The second sub-order of marsupials, the - Paucituberculata, is exclusively South American, and typically - represented by the family _Epanorthidae_, the majority of the members - of which are extinct, their remains being found in the probably - Miocene Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia, although one existing genus - (_Caenolestes_) survives in Ecuador and Colombia. One of the two - living species was, indeed, described so long ago as the year 1863, - under the preoccupied name of _Hyracodon_, but attracted little or no - attention, as its affinities were not fully recognized. Externally - _Caenolestes_ has a shrew-like appearance. The elongated skull (fig. - 8) has four pairs of upper incisors and long upper canines, while in - the lower jaw there is a single pair of procumbent incisors, followed - by several small teeth representing the canine and earlier premolars. - The three pairs of molars in each jaw are, like the last premolar, - quadritubercular oblong teeth. The five-toed feet are of normal - structure, and the rat-like tail is prehensile towards the tip. The - female has a small pouch. The extinct members of the family are - represented by the genera _Epanorthus_, _Acdestis_, _Garzonia_, &c. In - a second family--_Abderitidae_--also from the Patagonian Miocene, the - penultimate premolar is developed into an enormous tooth, with a tall, - secant and grooved crown, somewhat after the fashion of the enlarged - premolar of _Plagiaulax_. From the structure of the skull, it is - thought probable that _Abderites_ had an elongated snout, like that of - many Insectivora. As a sub-order, the Paucituberculata are - characterized by the presence of four pairs of upper and three of - lower incisor teeth; the enlargement and forward inclination of the - first pair of lower incisors, and the presence of four or five sharp - cusps on the cheek-teeth, coupled with the absence of "syndactylism" - in the hind limbs. - - [Illustration: From Flower, _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ - - FIG. 9.--Front view of Skull of the Koala (Phascolarctus cinereus) to - exhibit Diprotodont type of dentition.] - - 3. _Diprotodonts._--The third and last sub-order of marsupials is the - Diprotodontia, which is exclusively Australasian and includes the - wombats, koala, cuscuses, kangaroos and their relatives. There are - never more than three pairs of upper and one of lower incisors, of - which the middle upper and the single lower pair are large and - chisel-like (fig. 9); the canines are small or absent; the cheek-teeth - have bluntly tuberculate or transversely-ridged crowns in most cases; - and the hind-feet are syndactylous. With one exception, the intestine - has a caecum, and the pouch is large and opens forwards. It should be - added that Professor Elliot Smith has pointed out a certain - peculiarity in its commissures whereby the brain of the diprotodonts - differs markedly from that of the polyprotodonts and approximates to - the placental type. Dr Einar Lonnberg has also recorded certain - adaptive peculiarities in the stomach. Most of the species, - particularly the specialized types, are more or less completely - herbivorous. - - The first family, _Phascolomyidae_, is typified by the wombats; but - according to the view adopted by Mr H. Winge, and endorsed by - Professor Max Weber, is also taken to include the koala. In this wider - sense the family may be characterized as follows. The tympanic process - of the alisphenoid bone of the skull is short, not covering the cavity - of the tympanum, nor reaching the paroccipital process. The tail is - rudimentary, the first hind-toe opposable, the first pair of upper - incisors very large, but the second and third either absent or small - and placed partially behind the larger pair; and only five pairs of - cheek-teeth in each jaw. The stomach has a cardiac gland, and the - number of teats is two. - - In the wombats (_Phascolomys_) the dentition is i. 1/1, c. 0/0, p. + - m. 5/5, total 24; all the teeth growing from persistent pulps, and the - incisors large and chisel-like, with enamel only on the front surface. - The cheek-teeth strongly curved, forming from the base to the summit - about a quarter of a circle, the concavity being directed outwards in - the upper and inwards in the lower teeth. The first of the series - (which appears to have no predecessor) single-lobed; the other four - composed of two lobes, each subtriangular in section. Limbs equal, - stout and short. Fore-feet with five distinct toes, each furnished - with a long, strong and slightly curved nail, the first and fifth - considerably shorter than the other three. Hind-feet with a very short - nailless first toe, the second, third and fourth toes partially united - by integument, of nearly equal length, the fifth distinct and rather - shorter; all four with long and curved nails. In the skeleton the - second and third toes are distinctly more slender than the fourth, - showing a tendency towards the character so marked in the following - families. Tail rudimentary. Caecum very short and wide, with a - vermiform appendage (see WOMBAT). - - In addition to remains referable to the existing genus, the - Pleistocene deposits of Australia have yielded evidence of an extinct - giant wombat constituting the genus _Phascolonus_ (_Sceparnodon_). - - The koala, or "native bear" (_Phascolarctus cinereus_), which differs - widely from the wombats in its arboreal habits, is less specialized as - regards its dentition, of which the formula is i. 3/1, c. 1/0, p. + m. - 5/5, total 30. Upper incisors crowded together, cylindroidal, the - first much larger than the others, with a bevelled cutting edge (fig. - 9). Canine very small; a considerable interval between it and the - first premolar, which is as long from before backwards but not so - broad as the molars, and has a cutting edge, with a smaller parallel - inner ridge. The molar-like teeth slightly diminishing in size from - the first to the fourth, with square crowns, each bearing four - pyramidal cusps. The lower incisors are partially inclined forwards, - compressed and tapering, bevelled at the ends. Cheek-teeth in - continuous series, as in the upper jaw. Fore-feet with the two inner - toes slightly separated from and opposable to the remaining three, all - with strong curved and much compressed claws. Hind-foot (fig. 10) with - the first toe placed far back, large and broad, the second and third - (united) toes considerably smaller than the other two; the fourth the - largest. No external tail. Fur dense and woolly. Ears of moderate - size, thickly clothed with long hair. Caecum very long and dilated, - with numerous folds. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 11, L. 8, S. 2, Ca. 8. Ribs - eleven pairs (see KOALA). - - [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Skeleton of Right Hind-Foot of Koala - (_Phascolarctus cinereus_), showing stout opposable hallux, followed - by two slender toes, which in the living animal are enclosed as far as - the nails in a common integument.] - - Here may be noticed three genera of large extinct marsupials from the - Pleistocene of Australia whose affinities appear to ally them to the - wombat-group on the one hand and to the phalangers on the other. The - longest known is _Diprotodon_, an animal of the size of a rhinoceros, - with a dental formula of i. 3/1, c. 0/0, p. 1/1, m. 4/4, total 28. The - first upper incisor very large and chisel-like, molars with prominent - transverse ridges, as in _Macropus_, but without the longitudinal - connecting ridge. Complete skeletons disinterred by Dr E. C. Stirling - indicate that in the structure of the feet this creature presents - resemblances both to the wombats and the phalangers, but is nearer to - the former than to the latter. On the other hand, the considerably - smaller _Nototherium_, characterized by its sharp and broad skull and - smaller incisors, seems to have been much more wombat-like, and may - perhaps have possessed similar burrowing habits. - - [Illustration: From Flower, Quart. _Journ. Geol. Soc._ - - FIG. 11.--Front view of Skull of _Thylacoleo carnifex_, restored.] - - The last of the three is _Thylacoleo carnifex_, so named on account of - its supposed carnivorous habits. In the adult the dentition (fig. 11) - is i. 3/1, c. 1/0, p. + m. 4/3, total 24. The first upper incisor is - much larger than the others; canine and first two premolars - rudimentary. In the lower jaw there are also one or two small and - early deciduous premolars; third premolars of both jaws formed on the - same type as that of the rat-kangaroos, but relatively much larger; - molars rudimentary, tubercular. The functional teeth are reduced to - one pair of large cutting incisors situated close to the middle line, - and one great, cutting, compressed premolar, on each side above and - below. As already mentioned, _Thylacoleo_ was originally regarded as a - carnivorous creature, but this view was subsequently disputed, and its - diet supposed to consist of soft roots, bulbs and fruits, with an - occasional small bird or mammal. Recently, however, the pendulum of - opinion has swung back towards the original view: and Dr R. Broom - believes _Thylacoleo_ to have been "a purely carnivorous animal, and - one which would be quite able to, and probably did, kill animals as - large or larger than itself." The affinities of the creature are - clearly with the phalangers. - - By means of the little musk-kangaroo, the cuscuses and phalangers - constituting the family _Phalangeridae_, are so closely connected with - the kangaroos, or _Macropodidae_, that in the opinion of some - naturalists they ought all to be included in a single family, with - three sub-families. Theoretically, no doubt, this is correct, but the - typical members of the two groups are so different from one another - that, as a matter of convenience, the retention of the two families - seems advisable. From the _Phascolomyidae_, the two families, which - may be collectively designated Phalangeroidea, differ by the - circumstance that in the skull the tympanic process of the alisphenoid - covers the tympanic cavity and reaches the paroccipital process. The - tail is long and in some cases prehensile; the first hind-toe may be - either large, small or absent; the dentition usually includes three - pairs of upper and one of lower incisors, and six or seven pairs of - cheek-teeth in each jaw; the stomach is either simple or sacculated, - without a cardiac gland; and there are four teats. - - With the exception of the aberrant long-snouted phalanger, the members - of the family _Phalangeridae_ have the normal number of functional - incisors, in addition to which there may be one or two rudimentary - pairs in the lower jaw. The first in the upper jaw is strong, curved - and cutting, the other two generally somewhat smaller; the single - lower functional incisor large, more or less inclined forwards; - canines 1/(1 or 0) upper small or moderate, conical and sharp-pointed; - lower absent or rudimentary; premolars variable; molars 3/3, or 2/2, - with four obtuse tubercles, sometimes forming crescents. Limbs - subequal. Fore-feet with five distinct subequal toes with claws. - Hind-feet short and broad, with five well-developed toes; the first - large, nailless and opposable; the second and third slender and united - by a common integument as far as the claws. Caecum present (except in - _Tarsipes_), and usually large. The lower jaw has no pocket on the - outer side. All are animals of small or moderate size and arboreal - habits, feeding on a vegetable or mixed diet, and inhabiting - Australia, Papua and the Moluccan Islands. - - [Illustration: From Gould. - - FIG. 12.--The Long-snouted Phalanger (_Tarsipes rostratus_).] - - As the first example of the group may be taken the elegant little - long-snouted phalanger (_Tarsipes rostratus_, fig. 12), a west - Australian creature of the size of a mouse, which may be regarded as - representing by itself a sub-family (_Tarsipediinae_), characterized - by the rudimentary teeth, the long and extensile tongue, and absence - of a caecum. The head is elongated, with a slender muzzle and the - mouth-opening small. The two lower incisors are long, very slender, - sharp-pointed and horizontally placed. All the other teeth are simple, - conical, minute and placed at considerable and irregular intervals - apart in the jaws, the number appearing to vary in different - individuals and even on different sides of the jaw of the same - individuals. The formula in one specimen was i.(2 - 2)/(1 - 1), c.(1 - - 1)/(0 - 0), p. + m.(3 - 4)/(2 - 3); total 20. The lower jaw is - slender, nearly straight, and without a coronoid process or inflected - angle. Fore-feet with five well-developed toes, carrying small, flat, - scale-like nails, not reaching the extremity of the digits. Hind-feet - rather long and slender, with a well-developed opposable and nailless - first toe; second and third digits united, with sharp, compressed - curved claws; the fourth and fifth free, with small flat nails. Ears - of moderate size and rounded. Tail longer than the body and head, - scantily clothed with short hairs, prehensile. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13, - L. 5, S. 3. Ca. 24. - - As indicated in the accompanying illustration, the long-snouted - phalanger is arboreal in habits, extracting honey and probably small - insects from long-tubed flowers by means of its extensile tongue. - - The remaining members of the family may be included in the sub family - _Phalangerinae_, characterized by the normal nature of the dentition - (which shows rudimentary lower canines) and tongue. Cuscuses and - phalangers form a numerous group, all the members of which are - arboreal, and some of which are provided with lateral expansions of - skin enabling them to glide from tree to tree like flying-squirrels. - The typical members of the group are the cuscuses (_Phalanger_), - ranging from the Moluccas and Celebes to New Guinea, in which the - males are often different in colour from the females. The true - phalangers, or opossums of the colonists, constitute the genus - _Trichosurus_, while the ring-tailed species are known as - _Pseudochirus_; the latter ranging to New Guinea. _Dactylopsila_ is - easily recognized by its attenuated fourth finger and parti-coloured - fur; the flying species are classed as _Petauroides_, _Petaurus_, - _Gymnobelideus_ and _Acrobates_, the last no larger than a mouse; - while Dromicia, _Distaechurus_ and _Acrobates_ are allied types - without parachutes (see PHALANGER). - - An equally brief notice must suffice of the kangaroo tribe or - _Macropodidae_, since these receive a special notice elsewhere. The - dentition is i.(3/1) c.(0 or 1)/0 p.(3/3) m.(3/3); the incisors being - sharp and cutting, and those of the lower jaw frequently having a - scissor-like action against one another. The broad molars are either - bluntly tuberculated or transversely ridged; the outer side of the - hind part of the lower jaw has a deep pocket; and the hind-limbs are - generally very long, with the structure of the foot similar to that of - the bandicoots. The family is connected with the _Phalangeridae_ by - means of the musk-kangaroo (_Hypsiprymnodon moschatus_); forming the - sub-family _Hypsiprymnodontinae_. Then come the rat-kangaroos, or - kangaroo-rats, constituting the sub-family _Potoroinae_; while the - tree-kangaroos (_Dendrolagus_), rock-wallabies (_Petrogale_), and - wallabies and kangaroos (_Macropus_) form the _Macropodinae_ (see - KANGAROO). - - _Extinct Marsupials_ - - Reference has been made to the Australasian Pleistocene genera - _Phascolonus_, _Diprotodon_, _Nototherium_ and _Thylacoleo_, whose - affinities are with the wombats and phalangers. The same deposits have - also yielded remains of extinct types of kangaroo, some of gigantic - size, constituting the genera _Sthenurus_, _Procoptodon_ and - _Palorchestes_. Numerous types more or less nearly allied to the - phalangers, such as _Burramys_ and _Triclis_ have also been described, - as well as a flying form, _Polaeopetaurus_. It is also interesting to - note that fossil remains indicate the former occurrence of thylacines - and Tasmanian devils on the Australian mainland. Of more interest is - the imperfectly known _Wynyardia_, from older Tertiary beds in - Tasmania, which apparently presents points of affinity both to - phalangers and dasyures. From the Oligocene deposits of France and - southern England have been obtained numerous remains of opossums - referable to the American family _Didelphyidae_. These ancient - opossums have been separated generically from _Didelphys_ (in its - widest sense) on account of certain differences in the relative sizes - of the lower premolars, but as nearly the whole of the species have - been formed on lower jaws, of which some hundreds have been found, it - is impossible to judge how far these differences are correlated with - other dental or osteological characters. In the opinion of Dr H. - Filhol, the fossils themselves represent two genera, _Peratherium_, - containing the greater part of the species, about twenty in number, - and _Amphiperatherium_, with three species only. All are comparatively - small animals, few of them exceeding the size of a rat. - - Besides these interesting European fossils, a certain number of - didelphian bones have been found in the caves of Brazil, but these are - either closely allied to or identical with the species now living in - the same region. - - The occurrence in the Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia of fossil - marsupials allied to the living _Caenolestes_ has been mentioned - above. The alleged occurrence in the same beds of marsupials allied to - the thylacine is based on remains now more generally regarded as - referable to the creodont carnivores (see CREODONTA). - - _Mesozoic Mammals._--Under the heading of MULTITUBERCULATA will be - found a brief account of certain extinct mammals from the Mesozoic - formations of Europe and North America which have been regarded as - more or less nearly related to the monotremes. The same deposits have - yielded remains of small mammals whose dentition approximates more - nearly to that of either polyprotodont marsupials or insectivores; and - these may be conveniently noticed here without prejudice to their true - affinities. Before proceeding further it may be mentioned that the - remains of many of these mammals are very scarce, even in formations - apparently in every way suitable to the preservation of such fossils, - and it hence seems probable that these creatures are stragglers from - a country where primitive small mammals were abundant. Not improbably - this country was either "Gondwana-land," connecting Mesozoic India - with Africa, or perhaps Africa itself. At any rate, there seems little - doubt that it was the region where creodonts and other primitive - mammals were first differentiated from their reptilian ancestors. - - [Illustration: From Owen. - - FIG. 13.--Lower Jaw of _Triconodon mordax_ (nat. size).] - - [Illustration: From Owen. - - FIG. 14.--Lower Jaw and Teeth of _Phascolotherium bucklandi_ (nat. - size in outline).] - - [Illustration: From Owen. - - FIG. 15.--Spalacotherium tricuspidens (twice nat. size), Purbeck - beds.] - - Of the Old World forms, the family _Triconodontidae_ is typified by - the genus _Triconodon_, from the English Purbeck, in which the - cheek-teeth carry three cutting cusps arranged longitudinally. There - seems to have been a replacement of some of these teeth; and it has - been suggested that this was of the marsupial type. To the same family - are referred _Phascolotherium_ (fig. 14), of the Lower Jurassic - Stonesfield slate of England, and _Spalacotherium_ (fig. 15), of the - Dorsetshire Purbeck; the latter having the three cusps of the - cheek-teeth rotated so as to assume a tritubercular type. Other genera - are _Menacodon_ and _Priacodon_, the former American, and the latter - common to Europe and North America. By one authority _Amphilestes_ - (fig. 16), of the Stonesfield Slate, is included in the same group, - while by a second it is regarded as representing a family by itself. - _Amphitherium_, of the Stonesfield Slate, typifies the family - _Amphitheriidae_, which includes the American _Dryolestes_, and in - which some would class the European Purbeck genus _Amblotherium_, - although Professor H. F. Osborn has made the last the type of a - distinct family. Yet another family, according to the palaeontologist - last named, is typified by the genus _Stylacodon_, of the English - Purbeck. To mention the other forms which have received names will be - unnecessary on this occasion. - - [Illustration: From Owen. - - FIG. 16.--Lower Jaw and Teeth of _Amphilestes broderipi_ (twice nat. - size).] - - It will be observed from the figures of the lower jaws, which are in - most cases the only parts known, that in many instances the number of - cheek-teeth exceeds that found in modern marsupials except - _Myrmecobius_. The latter has indeed been regarded as the direct - descendant of these Mesozoic forms; but as already stated, in the - opinion of Mr B. A. Bensley, this is incorrect. It may be added that - the division of these teeth into premolars and molars in figs. 14 and - 16 is based upon the view of Sir R. Owen, and is not altogether - trustworthy, while the restoration of some of the missing teeth is - more or less conjectural. As regards the affinities of the creatures - to which these jaws belonged, Professor Osborn has referred the - _Triconodontidae_ and _Amphitheriidae_, together with the - Curtodontidae (as represented by the English Purbeck _Curtodon_), to a - primitive group of marsupials, while he has assigned the - _Amblotheriidae_ and _Stylacodontidae_ to an ancestral assemblage of - Insectivora. On the other hand, in the opinion of Professor H. Winge, - a large number of these creatures are primitive monotremes. Besides - the above, in the Trias of North America we have _Dromotherium_ and - _Microconodon_, extremely primitive forms, representing the family - _Dromotheriidae_, and apparently showing decided traces of reptilian - affinity. It may be added that a few traces of mammals have been - obtained from the English Wealden, among which an incisor tooth - foreshadows the rodent type. - - AUTHORITIES.--The above article is partly based on that by Sir W. H. - Flower in the 9th edition of this work. See also O. Thomas, Catalogue - of Monotremata and Marsupialia in the British Museum (1888); "On - _Caenolestes_, a Survivor of the _Epanorthidae," Proc. Zool. Soc. - London_ (1895); J. D. Ogilby, Catalogue of Australian Mammals (Sydney, - 1895); B. A. Bensley, "A Theory of the Origin and Evolution of the - Australian Marsupialia," _American Naturalist_ (1901); "On the - Evolution of the Australian Marsupialia, &c.," _Trans. Linn. Soc._ - (vol. ix., 1903); L. Dollo, "Arboreal Ancestry of Marsupials," - _Miscell. Biologiques_ (Paris, 1899); B. Spencer, "Mammalia of the - Horn Expedition" (1896); "Wynyardia, a Fossil Marsupial from - Tasmania," _Proc. Zool. Soc. London_ (1900); J. P. Hill, - "Contributions to the Morphology of the Female Urino-genital Organs in - Marsupialia," _Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales_, vols. xxiv. and xxv.; - "Contributions to the Embryology of the Marsupialia," _Quart. Journ. - Micr. Science_, vol. xliii.; E. C. Stirling, "On _Notoryctes - typhlops_," _Proc. Zool. Soc. London_ (1891); "Fossil Remains of Lake - Cadibona," Part I. _Diprotodon, Mem. R. Soc. S. Australia_ (vol. i., - 1889); R. Broom, "On the Affinities of _Thylacoleo," Proc. Linn. Soc. - N. S. Wales_ (1898); H. F. Osborn, "Mesozoic Mammalia," _Journ. Acad. - Nat. Sci. Philadelphia_ (vol. ix., 1888); E. S. Goodrich, "On the - Fossil Mammalia from the Stonesfield Slate," _Quart. Journ. Micr. - Science_ (vol. xxxv., 1894). (R. L.*) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The presence or absence of the corpus callosum has been much - disputed; the latest researches, however, indicate its absence. - - - - -MARSUPIAL MOLE (_Noloryctes typhlops_), the "Ur-quamata" of the natives, -an aberrant polyprotodont from central South Australia, constituting a -family (_Noloryctidae_). This is a small burrowing animal, of a pale -golden-yellow colour, with long silky hair, a horny shield on the nose, -and a stumpy leathery tail. The feet are five-toed, and the third and -fourth toes of the front pair armed with enormous claws adapted for -digging. Neither ear-conches nor eyes are visible externally. There are -but three pairs of incisor teeth in each jaw, and the upper molars are -tricuspid. This animal spends most of its time burrowing in the sand in -search of insects and their larvae, but occasionally makes its -appearance on the surface. - -[Illustration: Marsupial Mole (_Notoryctes typhlops_).] - - - - -MARSUS, DOMITIUS, Latin poet, the friend of Virgil and Tibullus, and -contemporary of Horace. He survived Tibullus (d. 19 B.C.), but was no -longer alive when Ovid wrote (c. A.D. 12) the epistle from Pontus (_Ex -Ponto_, iv. 16) containing a list of poets. He was the author of a -collection of epigrams called _Cicuta_ ("hemlock")[1] from their bitter -sarcasm, and of a beautiful epitaph on the death of Tibullus; of elegiac -poems, probably of an erotic character; of an epic poem _Amazonis_; and -of a prose work on wit (_De urbanitate_). Martial often alludes to -Marsus as one of his predecessors, but he is never mentioned by Horace, -although a passage in the _Odes_ (iv. 4, 19) is supposed to be an -indirect allusion to the _Amazonis_ (M. Haupt, _Opuscula_, iii. 332). - - See J. A. Weichert, _Poetarum latinorum vitae et reliquiae_ (1830); R. - Unger, _De Dom. Marsi cicuta_ (Friedland, 1861). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] According to others, a reed-pipe made of the stalks of hemlock; - the reading _scutica_ ("whip") has also been proposed. - - - - -MARSYAS, in Greek mythology, a Phrygian god or Silenus, son of Hyagnis. -He was originally the god of the small river of the same name near -Celaenae, an old Phrygian town. He represents the art of playing the -flute as opposed to the lyre--the one the accompaniment of the worship -of Cybele, the other that of the worship of Apollo. According to the -legend, Athena, who had invented the flute, threw it away in disgust, -because it distorted the features. Marsyas found it, and having acquired -great skill in playing it, challenged Apollo to a contest with his lyre. -Midas, king of Phrygia, who had been appointed judge, declared in favour -of Marsyas, and Apollo punished Midas by changing his ears into ass's -ears. In another version, the Muses were judges and awarded the victory -to Apollo, who tied Marsyas to a tree and flayed him alive. Marsyas, as -well as Midas and Silenus, are associated in legend with Dionysus and -belong to the cycle of legends of Cybele. A statue of Marsyas was set -up in the Roman forum and colonies as a symbol of liberty. The contest -and punishment of Marsyas were favourite subjects in Greek art, both -painting and sculpture. In Florence there are several statues of Marsyas -hanging on the tree as he is going to be flayed (see GREEK ART, fig. 54, -Pl. II.); Apollo and the executioner complete the group. In the Lateran -museum at Rome there is a statue representing Marsyas in the act of -picking up the flute, a copy of a masterpiece by Myron (Hyginus, _Fab._ -167, 191; Apollodorus i. 4, 2; Ovid, _Metam._ vi. 382-400, xi. 145-193), -for which see GREEK ART, fig. 64 (Pl. III.). - - - - -MARTABAN, a town in the Thaton district of Lower Burma, on the right -bank of the Salween, opposite Moulmein. It is said to have been founded -in A.D. 573, by the first king of Pegu, and was once the capital of a -powerful Talaing kingdom; but it is now little more than a village. -Martaban is frequently mentioned by European voyagers of the 16th -century; and it has given the name of "Martavans" to a class of large -vessels of glazed pottery, also known in India as "Pegu jars." It was -twice captured by the British, in 1824 and 1852. The Bay of Martaban -receives the rivers Irrawaddy and Salween. - - - - -MARTELLO TOWER, a kind of tower formerly used in English coast defence. -The name is a corruption of Mortella. The Martello tower was introduced -in consequence of an incident of the French revolutionary wars. In -September 1793 a British squadron of three ships of the line and two -frigates was ordered to support the Corsican insurgents. It was -determined in the first place to take a tower on Cape Mortella which -commanded the only secure anchorage in the Gulf of San Fiorenzo. This -tower, according to James, was named "after its inventor"; but the real -derivation appears to be the name of a wild myrtle which grew thickly -around. The tower, which mounted one 24-pounder and two 18-pounders on -its top, was bombarded for a short time by the frigates, was then -deserted by its little garrison, and occupied by a landing party. The -tower was afterwards retaken by the French from the Corsicans. So far it -had done nothing to justify its subsequent reputation. In 1794, however, -a fresh attempt was made to support the insurgents. On the 7th of -February 1400 troops were landed, and the tower was attacked by land and -sea on the 8th. The "Fortitude" and "Juno" kept up a cannonade for 2(1/2) -hours and then hauled off, the former being on fire and having sixty-two -men killed and wounded. The fire from the batteries on shore produced no -impression until a hot shot set fire to the "bass junk with which, to -the depth of 5 ft., the immensely thick parapet was lined." The garrison -of thirty-three men then surrendered. The armament was found to consist -only of two 18-pounders and one 6-pounder. The strong resistance offered -by these three guns seems to have led to the conclusion that towers of -this description were specially formidable, and Martello towers were -built in large numbers, and at heavy expense, along the shores of -England, especially on the southern and eastern coasts, which in certain -parts are lined with these towers at short intervals. They are -structures of solid masonry, containing vaulted rooms for the garrison, -and providing a platform at the top for two or three guns, which fire -over a low masonry parapet. Access is provided by a ladder, -communicating with a door about 20 ft. above the ground. In some cases a -deep ditch is provided around the base. The chief defect of the tower -was its weakness against vertical fire; its masonry was further liable -to be cut through by breaching batteries. The French _tours modeles_ -were somewhat similar to the Martello towers; their chief use was to -serve as keeps to unrevetted works. While the Martello tower owes its -reputation and its widespread adoption in Great Britain to a single -incident of modern warfare, the round masonry structure entered by a -door raised high above the base is to be found in many lands, and is one -of the earliest types of masonry fortification. - - - - -MARTEN, HENRY (1602-1680), English regicide, was the elder son of Sir -Henry Marten, and was educated at University College, Oxford. As a -public man he first became prominent in 1639 when he refused to -contribute to a general loan, and in 1640 he entered parliament as one -of the members for Berkshire. In the House of Commons he joined the -popular party, spoke in favour of the proposed bill of attainder against -Strafford, and in 1642 was a member of the committee of safety. Some of -his language about the king was so frank that Charles demanded his -arrest and his trial for high treason. When the Great Rebellion broke -out Marten did not take the field, although he was appointed governor of -Reading, but in parliament he was very active. On one occasion his zeal -in the parliamentary cause led him to open a letter from the earl of -Northumberland to his countess, an impertinence for which, says -Clarendon, he was "cudgelled" by the earl; and in 1643, on account of -some remark about extirpating the royal family, he was expelled from -parliament and was imprisoned for a few days. In the following year, -however, he was made governor of Aylesbury, and about this time took -some small part in the war. Allowed to return to parliament in January -1646, Marten again advocated extreme views. He spoke of his desire to -prepare the king for heaven; he attacked the Presbyterians, and, -supporting the army against the parliament, he signed the agreement of -August 1647. He was closely associated with John Lilburne and the -Levellers, and was one of those who suspected the sincerity of Cromwell, -whose murder he is said personally to have contemplated. However, he -acted with Cromwell in bringing Charles I. to trial; he was one of the -most prominent of the king's judges and signed the death warrant. He was -then energetic in establishing the republic and in destroying the -remaining vestiges of the monarchical system. He was chosen a member of -the council of state in 1649, and as compensation for his losses and -reward for his services during the war, lands valued at L1000 a year -were settled upon him. In parliament he spoke often and with effect, but -he took no part in public life during the Protectorate, passing part of -this time in prison, where he was placed on account of his debts. Having -sat among the restored members of the Long Parliament in 1659, Marten -surrendered himself to the authorities as a regicide in June 1660, and -with some others he was excepted from the act of indemnity, but with a -saving clause. He behaved courageously at his trial, which took place in -October 1660, but he was found guilty of taking part in the king's -death. Through the action, or rather the inaction of the House of Lords, -he was spared the death penalty, but he remained a captive, and was in -prison at Chepstow Castle when he died on the 9th of September 1680. -Although a leading Puritan, Marten was a man of loose morals. He wrote -and published several pamphlets, and in 1662 there appeared _Henry -Marten's Familiar Letters to his Lady of Delight_, which contained -letters to his mistress, Mary Ward. - -Marten's father, Sir Henry Marten (c. 1562-1641), was born in London and -was educated at Winchester school and at New College, Oxford, becoming a -fellow of the college in 1582. Having become a barrister, he secured a -large practice and soon came to the front in public life. He was sent -abroad on some royal business, was made chancellor of the diocese of -London, was knighted, and in 1617 became a judge of the admiralty court. -Later he was appointed a member of the court of high commission and dean -of the arches. He became a member of parliament in 1625, and in 1628 -represented the university of Oxford, taking part in the debates on the -petition of right. - - See J. Forster, _Statesmen of the Commonwealth_ (1840); M. Noble, - _Lives of the English Regicides_ (1798); the article by C. H. Firth in - _Dict. Nat. Biog._ (1893); and S. R. Gardiner, _History of the Great - Civil War_ and _History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate_. - - - - -MARTEN,[1] a name originally belonging to the pine-marten (_Mustela -martes_), but now applied to all members of the same genus of -carnivorous mammals (see CARNIVORA). Martens are limited to the northern -hemisphere, ranging throughout the greater part of the northern -temperate regions of both Old and New Worlds, and southwards in America -to 35 deg. N. lat., while in Asia one species is met with in Java. - -The species appear to be similar in their habits. They live in woods and -rocky places, and spend most of their time in trees, although descending -to the ground in quest of prey. They climb with great facility, and are -agile and graceful in their movements. Some are said occasionally to -resort to berries and other fruit for food, but as a rule they are -carnivorous, feeding chiefly on birds and their eggs, small mammals, as -squirrels, hares, rabbits and moles, but chiefly mice of various kinds, -and occasionally snakes, lizards and frogs. In proportion to their size -they are among the most bloodthirsty of animals, though less so than the -weasels. The female makes her nest of moss, dried leaves and grass in -the hollow of a tree, but sometimes in a hole among rocks or ruined -buildings, and produces several young at a birth, usually from four to -six. Though wild and untameable to a great degree if captured when fully -grown, if taken young they are docile, and have frequently been made -pets, not having the strong unpleasant odour of the smaller -_Mustelidae_. The pine-marten appears to have been partially -domesticated by the Greeks and Romans, and used to keep houses clear -from rats and mice. In the same way, according to Brian Hodgson, the -yellow-bellied weasel (_Putorius kathia_) "is exceedingly prized by the -Nepalese for its service in ridding houses of rats. It is easily tamed; -and such is the dread of it common to all murine animals that not one -will approach a house where it is domiciled." It is, however, to the -great value attached to the pelts of these animals that their importance -to man is chiefly due. Though all yield fur of serviceable quality, the -commercial value varies immensely, not only according to the species -from which it is obtained, but according to individual variation, -depending upon age, sex, season, and other circumstances. The skins from -northern regions are more full and of a finer colour and gloss than -those from more temperate climates, as are those of animals killed in -winter compared to the same individuals in summer. Fashion has, -moreover, set fictitious values upon slight shades of colour. Enormous -numbers of animals are caught, chiefly in traps, to supply the demand of -the fur trade, Siberia and North America being the principal localities -from which they are obtained. - - With the exception of the pekan (_M. pennanti_), the martens are much - alike in size, general colouring and cranial and dental characters. - The following description by Dr Elliott Coues of the American marten - (_M. americana_) will apply almost equally well to most of the others. - "It is almost impossible to describe the colour of the marten, except - in general terms, without going into the details of the endless - diversities occasioned by age, sex, season, or other incidents. The - animal is 'brown,' of a shade from orange or tawny to quite blackish; - the tail and feet are ordinarily the darkest, the head lightest, often - quite whitish; the ears usually have a whitish rim, while on the - throat there is usually a large tawny-yellowish or orange-brown patch, - from the chin to the fore legs; sometimes entire, sometimes broken - into a number of smaller, irregular blotches, sometimes wanting, - sometimes prolonged on the whole under surface, when the animal is - bicolor like a stoat in summer. The general 'brown' has a greyish - cast, as far as the under fur is concerned, and is overlaid with rich - lustrous blackish-brown in places where the long bristly hairs - prevail. The claws are whitish; the naked nose pad and whiskers are - black. The tail occasionally shows interspersed white hairs, or a - white tip." - - The following are the best-known species:-- - - _Mustela foina_: the beech-marten, stone-marten or white-breasted - marten.--Distinguished from the following by the greater breadth of - the skull, and some minute but constant dental characters, by the dull - greyish-brown colour of the fur of the upper parts and the pure white - of the throat and breast. It inhabits the greater part of the - continent of Europe, but is more southern than the next in its - distribution, not being found in Sweden or Norway. - - _M. martes_, the pine-marten (see figure).--Fur rich dark brown; under - fur reddish-grey, with clear yellow tips; breast spot usually yellow, - varying from bright orange to pale cream-colour or yellowish-white. - Length of head and body 16 to 18 in., of tail (including the hair) 9 - to 12 in. This species is extensively distributed throughout northern - Europe and Asia, and was formerly common in most parts of Great - Britain and Ireland. It is still found in the northern counties of - England and North Wales, but in decreasing numbers. In Scotland it is - rare, but in Ireland may be found in almost every county occasionally. - Though commonly called "pine-marten," it does not appear to have any - special preference for coniferous trees. - - [Illustration: The Pine-Marten (_Mustela martes_).] - - Next comes _M. zibellina_, the sable (German, _Zobel_ and _Zebel_; - Swedish, _sabel_; Russian, _sobel_, a word probably of Turanian - origin), which closely resembles the last, if indeed it differs except - in the quality of the fur--the most highly valued of that of all the - group. The sable is found chiefly in eastern Siberia. - - Very distinct is the brilliantly coloured orange-and-black Indian - marten (_M. flavigula_), found from the Himalaya and Ceylon to Java. - - The North American _M. americana_ is closely allied to the pine-marten - and Asiatic sable. The importance of the fur of this animal as an - article of commerce may be judged of from the fact that 15,000 skins - were sold in one year by the Hudson's Bay Company as long ago as 1743. - It is ordinarily caught in wooden traps of simple construction, being - little enclosures of stakes or brush in which the bait is placed upon - a trigger, with a short upright stick supporting a log of wood, which - falls upon its victim on the slightest disturbance. A line of such - traps, several to a mile, often extends many miles. The bait is any - kind of meat, a mouse, squirrel, piece of fish or bird's head. It is - principally trapped during the colder months, from October to April, - when the fur is in good condition, as it is nearly valueless during - the shedding in summer. It maintains its numbers partly in consequence - of its shyness, which keeps it away from the abodes of men, and partly - because it is so prolific, bringing forth six to eight young at a - litter. Its home is sometimes a den under ground or beneath rocks, but - oftener the hollow of a tree, and it is said to take possession of a - squirrel's nest, driving off or devouring the rightful proprietor. - - The pekan or Pennant's marten, also called fisher marten, though there - appears to be nothing in its habits to justify the appellation, is the - largest of the group, the head and body measuring from 24 to 30 in., - and the tail 14 to 18 in. It is also more robust in form than the - others, its general aspect being more that of a fox than a weasel; in - fact its usual name among the American hunters is "black fox." Its - general colour is blackish, lighter by mixture of brown or grey on the - head and upper fore part of the body, with no light patch on the - throat, and unlike other martens generally darker below than above. It - was generally distributed in wooded districts throughout the greater - part of North America, as far north as Great Slave Lake, lat. 63 deg. - N., and Alaska, and extending south to the parallel of 35 deg.; but at - the present time is almost exterminated in the settled parts of the - United States east of the Mississippi. (W. H. F.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] By all old authors, as Ray, Pennant, Shaw and Fleming, the word - is written "Martin," but this form of spelling is now generally - reserved for the bird (see MARTIN). The word, as applied to the - animal here described, occurs in most Germanic and Romanic languages: - German, _marder_; Dutch, _marter_; Swedish, _mard_; Danish, _maar_; - English, _marteron_, _martern_, _marten_, _martin_ and _martlett_; - French, _marte_ and _martre_; Italian, _martora_ and _martorella_; - Spanish and Portuguese, _marta_. Its earliest known use is in the - form _martes_ (Martial, _Ep._ x. 37), but it can scarcely be an old - Latin word, as it is not found in Pliny or other classical writers, - and Martial often introduced foreign words into his Latin. Its - etymology has been connected with the German "martern," to torment. A - second Romanic name for the same animal is _fuina_, in French - _fouine_. The term "Marten Cat" is also used. - - - - -MARTENS, FREDERIC FROMMHOLD DE (1845-1909), Russian jurist, was born at -Pernau in Livonia. In 1868 he entered the Russian ministry of foreign -affairs, was admitted in 1871 as a _Dozent_ in international law in the -university of St Petersburg, and in 1871 became lecturer and then (1872) -professor of public law in the Imperial School of Law and the Imperial -Alexander Lyceum. In 1874 when Prince Gorchakov, then imperial -chancellor, needed assistance for certain kinds of special work, -Martens was chosen to afford it. His book on _The Right of Private -Property in War_ had appeared in 1869, and had been followed in 1873 by -that upon _The Office of Consul and Consular Jurisdiction in the East_, -which had been translated into German and republished at Berlin. These -were the first of a long series of studies which won for their author a -world-wide reputation, and raised the character of the Russian school of -international jurisprudence in all civilized countries. First amongst -them must be placed the great _Recueil des traites et conventions -conclus par la Russie avec les puissances etrangeres_ (13 vols., -1874-1902). This collection, published in Russian and French in parallel -columns, contains not only the texts of the treaties but valuable -introductions dealing with the diplomatic conditions of which the -treaties were the outcome. These introductions are based largely on -unpublished documents from the Russian archives. Of Martens' original -works his _International Law of Civilized Nations_ is perhaps the best -known; it was written in Russian, a German edition appearing in -1884-1885, and a French edition in 1887-1888. It displays much judgment -and acumen, though some of the doctrines which it defends by no means -command universal assent. More openly "tendencious" in character are -such treatises as _Russia and England in Central Asia_ (1879); _Russia's -Conflict with China_ (1881), _The Egyptian Question_ (1882), and _The -African Conference of Berlin and the Colonial Policy of Modern States_ -(1887). In the delicate questions raised in some of these works Martens -stated his case with learning and ability, even when it was obvious that -he was arguing as a special pleader. Martens was repeatedly chosen to -act in international arbitrations. Among the controversies which he -helped to adjust were that between Mexico and the United States--the -first case determined by the permanent tribunal of The Hague--and the -difference between Great Britain and France in regard to Newfoundland in -1891. He played an important part in the negotiations between his own -country and Japan, which led to the peace of Portsmouth (Aug. 1905) and -prepared the way for the Russo-Japanese convention. He was employed in -laying the foundations for The Hague Conferences. He was one of the -Russian plenipotentiaries at the first conference and president of the -fourth committee--that on maritime law--at the second conference. His -visits to the chief capitals of Europe in the early part of 1907 were an -important preliminary in the preparation of the programme. He was judge -of the Russian supreme prize court established to determine cases -arising during the war with Japan. He received honorary degrees from the -universities of Oxford, Cambridge and Yale; he was also awarded the -Nobel Peace Prize in 1902. In April 1907 he addressed a remarkable -letter to _The Times_ on the position of the second Duma, in which he -argued that the best remedy for the ills of Russia would be the -dissolution of that assembly and the election of another on a narrower -franchise. He died suddenly on the 20th of June 1909. - - See T. E. Holland, in _Journal of the Society of Comparative - Legislation_ for October 1909, where a list of the writings of Martens - appears. - - - - -MARTENS, GEORG FRIEDRICH VON (1756-1821), German jurist and diplomatist, -was born at Hamburg on the 22nd of February 1756. Educated at the -universities of Gottingen, Regensburg and Vienna, he became professor of -jurisprudence at Gottingen in 1783 and was ennobled in 1789. He was made -a counsellor of state by the elector of Hanover in 1808, and in 1810 was -president of the financial section of the council of state of the -kingdom of Westphalia. In 1814 he was appointed privy cabinet-councillor -(_Geheimer Kabinetsrat_) by the king of Hanover, and in 1816 went as -representative of the king to the diet of the new German Confederation -at Frankfort, where he died on the 21st of February 1821. - - Of his works the most important is the great collection of treaties - _Recueil des traites, &c._ from 1761 onwards. Of this the first seven - volumes were published at Gottingen (1791-1801), followed by four - supplementary volumes partly edited by his nephew Karl von Martens - (see below). These were followed by _Nouveau recueil_, of treaties - subsequent to 1808, in 16 vols. (Gottingen, 1817-1842), of which G. F. - von Martens edited the first four, the fifth being the work of K. von - Martens, the others (6-9) by F. Saalfeld and (10-16) F. Murhard. A - _Nouveau supplement_, in 3 vols., filling gaps in the previous - collection, was also published by Murhard (Gottingen, 1839-1842). This - was followed by _Nouveau recueil ... continuation du grand recueil de - Martens_, in 20 vols. (Gottingen, 1843-1875), edited in turn by F. - Murhard, C. Murhard, J. Pinhas, C. Samwer and J. Hopf, with a general - index of treaties from 1494 to 1874 (1876). This was followed by - _Nouveau recueil, 2me serie_ (Gottingen, 1876-1896; vols. xxii.-xxxv., - Leipzig, 1897-1908). From vol. xi. on this series was edited by Felix - Stork, professor of public law at Greifswald. In 1909 appeared vol. i. - of a further _Continuation (troisieme serie)_ under the editorship of - Professor Heinrich Triepel of Kiel University. - - Of Martens' other works the most important are the _Precis du droit - des gens modernes de l'Europe_ (1789; 3rd ed., Gottingen, 1821; new - ed., G. S. Pinheiro-Ferreira, 2 vols., 1858, 1864); _Erzahlungen - merkwurdiger Falle des neueren europaischen Volkerrechts_, 2 vols. - (Gottingen, 1800-1802); _Cours diplomatique ou tableau des relations - des puissances de l'Europe_, 3 vols. (Berlin, 1801); _Grundriss einer - diplomatischen Gesch. der europ. Staatshandel u. Friedensschlusse seit - dem Ende des 15. Jahrhunderts_ (ibid. 1807). - - His nephew KARL VON MARTENS (1790-1863), who at his death was minister - resident of the grand-duke of Weimar at Dresden, published a _Manuel - diplomatique_ (Leipzig, 1823), re-issued as _Guide diplomatique_ in - two vols. in 1832 (5th ed. by Geffcken, 1866), a valuable textbook of - the rules and customs of the diplomatic service; _Causes celebres du - droit des gens_ (2 vols., ibid., 1827) and _Nouvelles causes celebres_ - (2 vols., ibid., 1843), both republished, in 5 vols. (1858-1861); - _Recueil manuel et pratique de traites_ (7 vols., ibid., 1846-1857); - continued by Geffcken in 3 vols., (1885-1888). - - - - -MARTENSEN, HANS LASSEN (1808-1884), Danish divine, was born at Flensburg -on the 19th of August 1808. He studied in Copenhagen, and was ordained -in the Danish Church. At Copenhagen he was lektor in theology in 1838, -professor extra-ordinarius in 1840, court preacher also in 1845, and -professor ordinarius in 1850. In 1854 he was made bishop of Seeland. In -his studies he had come under the influence of Schleiermacher, Hegel and -Franz Baader; but he was a man of independent mind, and developed a -peculiar speculative theology which showed a disposition towards -mysticism and theosophy. His contributions to theological literature -included treatises on Christian ethics and dogmatics, on moral -philosophy, on baptism, and a sketch of the life of Jakob Boehme, who -exercised so marked an influence on the mind of the great English -theologian of the 18th century, William Law. Martensen was a -distinguished preacher, and his works were translated into various -languages. The "official" eulogy he pronounced upon Bishop Jakob P. -Mynster (1775-1854) in 1854, brought down upon his head the invectives -of the philosopher Soren Kierkegaard. He died at Copenhagen on the 3rd -of February 1884. - - Amongst his works are: _Grundriss des Systems der Moralphilosophie_ - (1841; 3rd ed., 1879; German, 1845), _Die christl. Taufe und die - baptistische Frage_ (2nd ed., 1847; German, 2nd ed., 1860), _Den - Christelige Dogmatik_ (4th ed., 1883; Eng. trans., 1866; German by - himself, 4th ed., 1897); _Christliche Ethik_ (1871; Eng. trans., Part - I. 1873, Part II. 1881 seq.); _Hirtenspiegel_ (1870-1872); - _Katholizismus und Protestantismus_ (1874); _Jacob Bohme_ (1882; Eng. - trans., 1885). An autobiography, _Aus meinem Leben_, appeared in 1883, - and after his death the _Briefwechsel zwischen Martensen und Dorner_ - (1888). - - - - -MARTHA'S VINEYARD, an island including the greater part of Dukes county, -Massachusetts, U.S.A., lying about 3 m. off the southern coast of that -state. Its extreme length (east to west) is about 20 m., and its extreme -width (north to south) about 9(1/2) m. Along its north-west and a -portion of its north-east shore lies Vineyard Sound. Its principal bays -are Vineyard Haven Harbor, a deep indentation at the northernmost angle -of the island; and, on the eastern coast, Edgartown Harbor and Katama -Bay, both formed by the juxtaposition of Chappaquiddick Island. The -surface is mainly flat, excepting a strip about 2 m. broad along the -north-western coast, and the two western townships (Chilmark and Gay -Head), which are hilly, with several eminences of 200 to 300 ft.--the -highest, Prospect Peak, in Chilmark township, 308 ft. Gay Head Light, a -beacon near the western extremity, stands among picturesque cliffs, 145 -ft. above the sea. Along the southern coast are many ponds, all shut off -from the ocean by a narrow strip of land, excepting Tisbury Great Pond, -which has a small outlet to the sea. Others are Sengekontacket Pond on -the eastern coast; Lagoon Pond, which is practically an arm of Vineyard -Haven Harbor; and, about a mile east of the Harbor, Chappaquonsett Pond. -Martha's Vineyard is divided into the following townships (from east to -west): Edgartown (in the south-eastern part of the island), pop. (1910), -1191; area, 29.7 sq. m.; Oak Bluffs (north-eastern portion), pop. -(1910), 1084; area, 7.9 sq. m.; Tisbury, pop. (1910), 1196; area, 7.1 -sq. m.; West Tisbury, pop. (1910), 437; area, 30.5 sq. m.; Chilmark, -pop. (1910), 282; area, 19.4 sq. m.; and Gay Head, pop. (1910), 162; -area 5.2 sq. m. The population of the county, including the Elizabeth -Ids. (Gosnold town, pop. 152), N. W. of Martha's Vineyard; -Chappaquiddick Island (Edgartown township), and No Man's Land (a small -island south-west of Martha's Vineyard), was 4561 in 1900 (of whom 645 -were foreign-born, including 79 Portuguese and 72 English-Canadians, and -154 Indians), and in 1910, 4504. The principal villages are Oak Bluffs -on the north-east coast, facing Vineyard Sound; Vineyard Haven, in -Tisbury township, beautifully situated on the west shore of Vineyard -Haven Harbor, and Edgartown on Edgartown Harbor--all summer resorts. No -Man's Land, included politically in Chilmark township, lies about 6(1/2) -m. south of Gay Head. It is about 1(1/2) m. long (east and west) and -about 1 m. wide, is composed of treeless swamps, and is used mainly for -sheep-grazing; the neighbouring waters are excellent fishing ground. -Martha's Vineyard is served by steamship lines from Wood's Hole and New -Bedford to Vineyard Haven, Oak Bluffs, and Edgartown. The Martha's -Vineyard railway (from Oak Bluffs to the south-east extremity of the -island, by way of Edgartown), opened in 1874, was not a financial -success, and had been practically abandoned in 1909, but an electric -line from Oak Bluffs to Vineyard Haven provides transit facilities for -that part of the island. - -For more than a century whale fishing was practically the sole industry -of Martha's Vineyard. It was carried on at first from the shore in small -boats; but by the first decade of the 18th century vessels especially -built for the purpose were being used, and by 1760 shore fishing had been -practically abandoned. The industry, seriously crippled by invasions of -British troops during the War of American Independence--especially by a -force which landed at Holmes's Hole (Vineyard Haven) in September -1778--and again during the War of 1812, revived and was at its height in -1840-1850, only to receive another setback during the Civil War. In the -last part of the 19th century its decline was rapid, not only because of -the increasing scarcity of whales, but because of the introduction of the -mineral oils, and by the end of the century whaling had ceased to be of -any economic importance. Herring fishing, on both the north and the south -shore, occupies a small percentage of the inhabitants, and there is also -some deep-sea fishing. Sheep-raising, especially for wool, is an industry -of considerable importance, and Dukes county is one of the three most -important counties of the state in this industry. - -Martha's Vineyard was discovered in 1602 by Captain Bartholomew Gosnold, -who landed (May 21) on the island now called No Man's Land, and named it -Martha's Vineyard,[1] which name was subsequently applied to the larger -island. Captain Gosnold rounded Gay Head, which he named Dover Cliff, -and established on what is now Cuttyhunk Island, which he called -Elizabeth Island, the first (though, as it proved, a temporary) English -settlement in New England. The entire line of sixteen islands, of which -Cuttyhunk is the westernmost of the larger ones, have since been called -the Elizabeth Islands; they form the dividing line between Buzzards Bay -and Vineyard Sound, and in 1864 were incorporated as Gosnold township -(pop. in 1905, 161) of Dukes county. - -The territory within the jurisdiction of the Council for New England was -parcelled in 1635 among the patentees in such terms--owing to -insufficient knowledge of the geography of the coast--that both William -Alexander, earl of Stirling, and Sir Ferdinando Gorges, proprietor of -Maine, claimed Martha's Vineyard. In 1641 Stirling's agent, Forrett, -sold to Thomas Mayhew (1592-1682),[2] of Watertown, Massachusetts, for -$200, the island of Nantucket, with several smaller neighbouring -islands, and also Martha's Vineyard. It seems probable that Forrett -acted without authority, and his successor, Forrester, was arrested by -the Dutch in New Amsterdam and sent to Holland before he could confirm -the transfer. In 1644 the Commissioners of the United Colonies, -apparently at the request of the inhabitants of Martha's Vineyard, -annexed the island to Massachusetts, but ten years later the islanders -declared their independence of that colony, and apparently for the next -decade managed their own affairs. Meanwhile Mayhew had recognized the -jurisdiction of Maine;[3] and though the officials of that province -showed no disposition to press their claim, it seems that this technical -suzerainty continued until 1664, when the Duke of York received from his -brother, Charles II., the charter for governing New York, New Jersey, -and other territory, including Martha's Vineyard. In 1671 Governor -Francis Lovelace, of New York, appointed Mayhew governor for life of -Martha's Vineyard; in 1683, the island, with Nantucket, the Elizabeth -Islands, No Man's Land, and Chappaquiddick Island were erected into -Dukes county, and in 1695 the county was re-incorporated by -Massachusetts with Nantucket excluded. Under the new charter of -Massachusetts Bay (1691), after some dispute between Massachusetts and -New York, Martha's Vineyard became a part of Massachusetts. - -There is a tradition that the first settlement of Martha's Vineyard was -made in 1632, at or near the present site of Edgartown village, by -several English families forming part of a company bound for Virginia, -their ship having put in at this harbour on account of heavy weather. It -is certain, however, that in 1642, the year after Thomas Mayhew bought -the island, his son, also named Thomas Mayhew (c. 1616-1657), and -several other persons established a plantation on the site of what is -now Edgartown village. This settlement was at first called "Great -Harbor," but soon after Mayhew was appointed governor of the island it -was named Edgartown, probably in honour of the only surviving son of the -Duke of York. The younger Mayhew, soon after removing to Martha's -Vineyard, devoted himself to missionary work among the Indians, his work -beginning at about the same time as that of John Eliot; he was lost at -sea in 1657 while on his way to secure financial assistance in England, -and his work was continued successfully by his father.[4] The township -of Edgartown was incorporated in 1671, and is the county-seat of Dukes -county. In 1783 several Edgartown families joined the association made -up of Martha's Vineyard, Nantucket, Providence and Newport whalers, who -founded Hudson, on the Hudson river, in Columbia county, New York. Oak -Bluffs had its origin as a settlement in the camp meetings, which were -begun here in 1835, and by 1860 had grown to large proportions. As the -village expanded it took the name of Cottage City. In 1880 the township -was incorporated under that name, which it retained until January 1907, -when the name (and that of the village also) was changed to Oak Bluffs. -Tisbury township was bought from the Indians in 1669 and was -incorporated in 1671. Its principal village, Vineyard Haven, was called -"Holmes's Hole" (in honour of one of the early settlers) until 1871, -when the present name was adopted. West Tisbury township was set off -from Tisbury, and incorporated in 1892. Chilmark township was -incorporated in 1694. Gay Head township was set off from Chilmark, and -incorporated in 1870. - - See C. Gilbert Hine, _The Story of Martha's Vineyard_ (New York, - 1908); Charles E. Banks, "Martha's Vineyard and the Province of Maine" - in _Collections and Proceedings_ of the Maine Historical Society, 2nd - series, vol. ix. p. 123 (Portland, Maine, 1898); and Walter S. Tower, - _A History of the American Whale Fishery_ (Philadelphia, 1907). - (G. G.*) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] In the 17th century both "Martha's Vineyard" and "Martin's - Vineyard" were used, and the latter appears in a book as early as - 1638 and in another as late as 1699, and on a map as late as 1670. It - seems probable that the original form was _Martin_ the name of one of - Gosnold's crew; according to some authorities the name Martha's - Vineyard was adopted by Mayhew in honour of his wife or daughter. - - [2] Mayhew was born at Tisbury, Wiltshire, was a merchant in - Southampton, emigrated to Massachusetts about 1633, settled at - Watertown, Mass., in 1635; was a member of the Massachusetts General - Court in 1636-1644, and after 1644 or 1645 lived on Martha's - Vineyard. - - [3] It appears from a letter from Mayhew to Governor Andros in 1675 - that about 1641 Mayhew obtained a conveyance to Martha's Vineyard - from Richard Vines, agent of Gorges. See F. B. Hough, _Papers - Relating to the Island of Nantucket, with Documents Relating to the - Original Settlement of that Island, Martha's Vineyard, &c._ (Albany, - N.Y., 1856). - - [4] In 1901, a boulder memorial was erected to the younger Mayhew on - the West Tisbury road, between the village of that name and - Edgartown, marking the spot where the missionary bade farewell to - several hundred Indians. The Martha's Vineyard Indians were subject - to the Wampanoag tribe, on the mainland, were expert watermen, and - were very numerous when the whites first came. Nearly all of them - were converted to Christianity by the Mayhews, and they were friendly - to the settlers during King Philip's war. By 1698 their numbers had - been reduced to about 1000, and by 1764 to about 300. Soon after this - they began to intermarry with negroes, and now only faint traces of - them remain. - - - - -MARTI, JUAN JOSE (1570?-1604), Spanish novelist, was born at Orihuela -(Valencia) about 1570. He graduated as bachelor of canon law at Valencia -in 1591, and in 1598 took his degree as doctor of canon law; in the -latter year he was appointed co-examiner in canon law at Valencia -University, and held the post for six years. He died at Valencia, and -was buried in the cathedral of that city on the 22nd of December 1604. -Marti joined the Valencian _Academia de los nocturnos_, under the name -of "Atrevimiento," but is best known by another pseudonym, Mateo Lujan -de Sayavedra, under which he issued an apocryphal continuation (1602) of -Aleman's _Guzman de Alfarache_ (1599). Marti obtained access to Aleman's -unfinished manuscript, and stole some of his ideas; this dishonesty -lends point to the sarcastic congratulations which Aleman, in the -genuine sequel (1604) pays to his rival's sallies: "I greatly envy them, -and should be proud that they were mine." Marti's book is clever, but -the circumstances in which it was produced account for its cold -reception and afford presumption that the best scenes are not original. - - It has been suggested that Marti is identical with Avellaneda, the - writer of a spurious continuation (1614) to _Don Quixote_; but he died - before the first part of _Don Quixote_ was published (1605). - - - - -MARTIAL (MARCUS VALERIUS MARTIALIS), Latin epigrammatist, was born, in -one of the years A.D. 38-41, for in book x., of which the poems were -composed in the years 95-98, he is found celebrating his fifty-seventh -birthday (x. 24). Our knowledge of his career is derived almost entirely -from himself. Reference to public events enables us approximately to fix -the date of the publication of the different books of epigrams, and from -these dates to determine those of various important events in his life. -The place of his birth was Bilbilis, officially Augusta Bilbilis, in -Spain. His name seems to imply that he was born a Roman citizen, but he -speaks of himself as "sprung from the Celts and Iberians, and a -countryman of the Tagus;" and, in contrasting his own masculine -appearance with that of an effeminate Greek, he draws especial attention -to "his stiff Spanish hair" (x. 65, 7). His parents, Fronto and -Flaccilla, appear to have died in his youth (v. 34). His home was -evidently one of rude comfort and plenty, sufficiently in the country to -afford him the amusements of hunting and fishing, which he often recalls -with keen pleasure, and sufficiently near the town to afford him the -companionship of many comrades, the few survivors of whom he looks -forward to meeting again after his four-and-thirty years' absence (x. -104). The memories of this old home, and of other spots, the rough names -and local associations which he delights to introduce into his verse, -attest the enjoyment which he had in his early life, and were among the -influences which kept his spirit alive in the routine of social life in -Rome. But his Spanish home could impart, not only the vigorous vitality -which was one condition of his success as a wit and poet, but the -education which made him so accomplished a writer. The literary -distinction obtained by the Senecas, by Lucan, by Quintilian, who -belonged to a somewhat older generation, and by his friends and -contemporaries, Licinianus of Bilbilis, Decianus of Emerita, and Canius -of Gades, proves how eagerly the novel impulse of letters was received -in Spain in the first century of the empire. The success of his -countrymen may have been the motive which induced Martial to remove to -Rome when he had completed his education. This he did in A.D. 64, one -year before the fall of Seneca and Lucan, who were probably his earliest -patrons. - -Of the details of his life for the first twenty years or so after he -came to Rome we do not know much. He published some juvenile poems of -which he thought very little in his maturer years, and he laughs at a -foolish bookseller who would not allow them to die a natural death (i. -113). Martial had neither youthful passion nor youthful enthusiasm to -make him precociously a poet. His faculty ripened with experience and -with the knowledge of that social life which was both his theme and his -inspiration; and many of his best epigrams are among those written in -his last years. From many answers which he makes to the remonstrances of -friends--among others to those of Quintilian--it may be inferred that he -was urged to practise at the bar, but that he preferred his own lazy -Bohemian kind of life. He made many influential friends and patrons, and -secured the favour both of Titus and Domitian. From them he obtained -various privileges, among others the _semestris tribunatus_, which -conferred on him equestrian rank. He failed, however, in his application -to the latter for more substantial advantages, although he commemorates -the glory of having been invited to dinner by him, and also the fact -that he procured the privilege of citizenship for many persons in whose -behalf he appealed to him. The earliest of his extant works, that known -by the name of _Liber spectaculorum_, was first published at the opening -of the Colosseum in the reign of Titus, and relates to the theatrical -performances given by him; but the book as it now stands was given to -the world in or about the first year of Domitian, i.e. about A.D. 81. -The favour of the emperor procured him the countenance of some of the -worst creatures at the imperial court--among them of the notorious -Crispinus, and probably of Paris, the supposed author of Juvenal's -exile, for whose monument Martial afterwards wrote a eulogistic epitaph. -The two books, numbered by editors xiii. and xiv., and known by the -names of _Xenia_ and _Apophoreta_--inscriptions in two lines each for -presents,--were published at the Saturnalia of 84. In 86 he gave to the -world the first two of the twelve books on which his reputation rests. -From that time till his return to Spain in A.D. 98 he published a volume -almost every year. The first nine books and the first edition of book x. -appeared in the reign of Domitian; and book xi. at the end of A.D. 96, -shortly after the accession of Nerva. A revised edition of book x., that -which we now possess, appeared in A.D. 98, about the time of the -entrance of Trajan into Rome. The last book was written after three -years' absence in Spain, shortly before his death, which happened about -the year A.D. 102 or 103. - -These twelve books bring Martial's ordinary mode of life between the age -of five-and-forty and sixty very fully before us. His regular home for -five-and-thirty years was Rome. He lived at first up three pairs of -stairs, and his "garret" overlooked the laurels in front of the portico -of Agrippa. He had a small villa and unproductive farm near Nomentum, in -the Sabine territory, to which he occasionally retired from the bores -and noises of the city (ii. 38, xii. 57). In his later years he had also -a small house on the Quirinal, near the temple of Quirinus. At the time -when his third book was brought out he had retired for a short time to -Cisalpine Gaul, in weariness, as he tells us, of his unremunerative -attendance on the levees of the great. For a time he seems to have felt -the charm of the new scenes which he visited, and in a later book (iv. -25) he contemplates the prospect of retiring to the neighbourhood of -Aquileia and the Timavus. But the spell exercised over him by Rome and -Roman society was too great; even the epigrams sent from Forum Corneli -and the Aemilian Way ring much more of the Roman forum, and of the -streets, baths, porticos and clubs of Rome, than of the places from -which they are dated. So too his motive for his final departure from -Rome in A.D. 98 was a weariness of the burdens imposed on him by his -social position, and apparently the difficulties of meeting the -ordinary expenses of living in the metropolis (x. 96); and he looks -forward to a return to the scenes familiar to his youth. The well-known -epigram addressed to Juvenal (xii. 18) shows that for a time his ideal -was realized; but the more trustworthy evidence of the prose epistle -prefixed to book xii. proves that his contentment was of short duration, -and that he could not live happily away from the literary and social -pleasures of Rome. The one consolation of his exile was the society of a -lady, Marcella, of whom he writes rather as if she were his -patroness--and it seems to have been a necessity of his being to have -always a patron or patroness--than his wife or mistress. - -During his life at Rome, although he never rose to a position of real -independence, and had always a hard struggle with poverty, he seems to -have known everybody, especially every one of any eminence at the bar or -in literature. In addition to Lucan and Quintilian, he numbered among -his friends or more intimate acquaintances Silius Italicus, Juvenal, the -younger Pliny; and there were many others of high position whose society -and patronage he enjoyed. The silence which he and Statius, although -authors writing at the same time, having common friends and treating -often of the same subjects, maintain in regard to one another may be -explained by mutual dislike or want of sympathy. Martial in many places -shows an undisguised contempt for the artificial kind of epic on which -Statius's reputation chiefly rests; and it seems quite natural that the -respectable author of the _Thebaid_ and the _Silvae_ should feel little -admiration for either the life or the works of the Bohemian -epigrammatist. - -Martial's faults are of the most glaring kind, and are exhibited without -the least concealment. Living under perhaps the worst of the many bad -emperors who ruled the world in the 1st century, he addresses him and -his favourites with the most servile flattery in his lifetime, censures -him immediately after his death (xii. 6), and offers incense at the -shrine of his successor. He is not ashamed to be dependent on his -wealthy friends and patrons for gifts of money, for his dinner, and even -for his dress. We cannot feel sure that even what seem his sincerest -tributes of regard may not be prompted by the hope of payment. Further, -there are in every book epigrams which cannot be read with any other -feelings than those of extreme distaste. - -These faults are so unmistakable and undeniable that many have formed -their whole estimate of Martial from them, and have declined to make any -further acquaintance with him. Even those who greatly admire his genius, -and find the freshest interest in his representation of Roman life and -his sketches of manners and character, do not attempt to palliate his -faults, though they may partially account for them by reference to the -morals of his age and the circumstances of his life. The age was one -when literature had either to be silent or to be servile. Martial was -essentially a man of letters: he was bound either to gain favour by his -writings or to starve. Even Statius, whose writings are in other -respects irreproachable, is nearly as fulsome in his adulation. The -relation of client to patron had been recognized as an honourable one by -the best Roman traditions. No blame had attached to Virgil or Horace on -account of the favours which they received from Augustus and Maecenas, -or of the return which they made for these favours in their verse. That -old honourable relationship had, however, greatly changed between -Augustus and Domitian. Men of good birth and education, and sometimes -even of high official position (Juv. i. 117), accepted the dole -(_sportula_). Martial was merely following a general fashion in paying -his court to "a lord," and he made the best of the custom. In his -earlier career he used to accompany his patrons to their villas at Baiae -or Tibur, and to attend their morning levees. Later on he went to his -own small country house, near Nomentum, and sent a poem, or a small -volume of his poems, as his representative at the early visit. The fault -of grossness Martial shares with nearly all ancient and many modern -writers who treat of life from the baser or more ridiculous side. That -he offends more than perhaps any of them is not, apparently, to be -explained on the ground that he had to amuse a peculiarly corrupt -public. Although there is the most cynical effrontery and want of -self-respect in Martial's use of language, there is not much trace of -the satyr in him--much less, many readers will think, than in Juvenal. - -It remains to ask, What were those qualities of nature and intellect -which enable us to read his best work--even the great body of his -work--with the freshest sense of pleasure in the present day? He had the -keenest capacity for enjoyment, the keenest curiosity and power of -observation. He had also a very just discernment. It is rare to find any -one endowed with so quick a perception of the ridiculous who is so -little of a caricaturist. He was himself singularly free from cant, -pedantry or affectation of any kind. Though tolerant of most vices, he -had a hearty scorn of hypocrisy. There are few better satirists of -social and literary pretenders in ancient or modern times. Living in a -very artificial age, he was quite natural, hating pomp and show, and -desiring to secure in life only what really gave him pleasure. To live -one's own life heartily from day to day without looking before or after, -and to be one's self without trying to be that for which nature did not -intend him, is the sum of his philosophy. Further, while tolerant of -much that is bad and base--the characters of Crispinus and Regulus, for -instance--he shows himself genuinely grateful for kindness and -appreciative of excellence. He has no bitterness, malice or envy in his -composition. He professes to avoid personalities in his -satire;--"Ludimus innocui" is the character he claims for it. Pliny, in -the short tribute which he pays to him on hearing of his death, says, -"He had as much good-nature as wit and pungency in his writings" (_Ep._ -iii. 21). - -Honour and sincerity (_fides_ and _simplicitas_) are the qualities which -he most admires in his friends. Though many of his epigrams indicate a -cynical disbelief in the character of women, yet others prove that he -could respect and almost reverence a refined and courteous lady. His own -life in Rome afforded him no experience of domestic virtue; but his -epigrams show that, even in the age which is known to modern readers -chiefly from the _Satires_ of Juvenal, virtue was recognized as the -purest source of happiness. The tenderest element in Martial's nature -seems, however, to have been his affection for children and for his -dependents. - -The permanent literary interest of Martial's epigrams arises not so much -from their verbal brilliancy, though in this they are unsurpassed, as -from the amount of human life and character which they contain. He, -better than any other writer, enables us to revive the outward spectacle -of the imperial Rome. If Juvenal enforces the lesson of that time, and -has penetrated more deeply into the heart of society, Martial has -sketched its external aspect with a much fairer pencil and from a much -more intimate contact with it. Martial was to Rome in the decay of its -ancient virtue and patriotism what Menander was to Athens in its -decline. They were both men of cosmopolitan rather than of a national -type, and had a closer affinity to the life of Paris or London in the -18th century than to that of Rome in the days of the Scipios or of -Athens in the age of Pericles. The form of epigram was fitted to the -critical temper of Rome as the comedy of manners was fitted to the -dramatic genius of Greece. Martial professes to be of the school of -Catullus, Pedo, and Marsus, and admits his inferiority only to the -first. But, though he is a poet of a less pure and genuine inspiration -he is a greater epigrammatist even than his master. Indeed the epigram -bears to this day the form impressed upon it by his unrivalled skill. - - AUTHORITIES.--The MSS. of Martial are divided by editors into three - families according to the recension of the text which they offer. Of - these the oldest and best is represented by three MSS. which contain - only selected extracts. The second family is derived from an inferior - source, a MS. which was edited in A.D. 401 by Torquatus Gennadius; it - comprises four MSS. and contains the whole of the text. The third - family, of which the MSS. are very numerous, also contains the whole - of the text in a recension slightly different from that of the other - two; the best representative of this family is the MS. preserved in - the Advocates' Library at Edinburgh. - - The best separate edition of the text is that of Lindsay (Oxford, - 1902); earlier editions of importance are those of Schneidewin (1842 - and 1853), and of Gilbert (Leipzig, 1886). The best commentary is that - of L. Friedlander (Leipzig, 1886) in two volumes with German notes) - and in the same scholar's _Sittengeschichte Roms_ much will be found - that explains and illustrates Martial's epigrams. There is a large - selection from the epigrams with English notes by Paley and Stone - (1875), a smaller selection with notes by Stephenson (1880); see also - Edwin Post, _Selected Epigrams of Martial_ (1908), with introduction - and notes. The translation into English verse by Elphinston (London, - 1782) is famous for its absurdity, which drew an epigram from Burns. - (W. Y. S.) - - - - -MARTIALIS, QUINTUS GARGILIUS, a Latin writer on horticultural subjects. -He has been identified by some with the military commander of the same -name, mentioned in a Latin inscription of A.D. 260 (_C. I. L._ viii. -9047) as having lost his life in the colony of Auzia (_Aumale_) in -Mauretania Caesariensis. Considerable fragments of his work (probably -called _De hortis_), which treated of the cultivation of trees and -vegetables, and also of their medicinal properties, have survived, -chiefly in the body of and as an appendix to the _Medicina Plinii_ (an -anonymous 4th century handbook of medical recipes based upon Pliny, -_Nat. Hist._ xx.-xxxii.). Extant sections treat of apples, peaches, -quinces, almonds and chestnuts. Gargilius also wrote a treatise on the -tending of cattle (_De curis boum_), and a biography of the emperor -Alexander Severus is attributed by two of the Scriptores historiae -Augustae (Aelius Lampridius and Flavius Vopiscus) to a Gargilius -Martialis, who may be the same person. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Gargilii Martialis ... fragmenta_, ed. A. Mai (1846); - _Plinii secundi quae fertur medicina_, ed. V. Rose (1876); _De curis - boum_, ed. E. Lommatzsch (1903) with Vegetius Renatus's - _Mulomedicina_; "Gargilius Martialis und die Maurenkriege," C. - Cichorius in G. Curtius, _Leipziger Studien_, x. (1887), where the - inscription referred to above is fully discussed: see also - Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Literature_ (Eng. trans.), S 380. - - - - -MARTIAL LAW. "Martial law" is an unfortunate term and in a sense a -misnomer. It describes a suspension of ordinary law, rendered necessary -by circumstances of war or rebellion. The confusion arose from the fact -that the marshal's court administered military law before the -introduction of articles of war, which were in their turn merged in the -Army Act. But martial law is not a law in the proper sense of the term. -It is the exercise of the will of the military commander, who takes upon -himself the responsibility of suspending ordinary law in order to ensure -the safety of the state. It is declared, by a proclamation issued by the -executive, that ordinary law is inadequate to cope with the -circumstances, and provides exceptional means of arrest and punishment -of persons who resist the government or aid the enemy. But such a -proclamation, while invariably issued in order to give publicity to the -suspension of ordinary law, does not invest the step with the force of -law. It is simply military authority exercised in accordance with the -laws and usages of war, and is limited by military necessity. Yet in -reality it is part of common law which justifies acts done by necessity -for the defence of the commonwealth when there is war. H. W. Halleck in -his work on International Law (i. 544), says, "Martial law originates -either in the prerogative of the crown, as in Great Britain, or from the -exigency of the occasion, as in other states: it is one of the rights of -sovereignty, and is essential to the existence of a state, as is the -right to declare or to carry on war." - -This opinion, however, must be read, as regards the British Empire, with -the passage in the Petition of Right which is reproduced in the preamble -of each annual Army Act, and asserts the illegality of martial law in -time of peace in the following terms:--"No man shall be fore-judged or -subjected in time of peace to any kind of punishment within this realm -by martial law." Therefore, whilst martial law is declared illegal in -time of peace, it is indirectly declared lawful in time of war and -intestinal commotion when the courts are closed, or when there is no -time for their cumbrous action. C. M. Clode, in _Military Forces of the -Crown_, argues that the words of the Petition of Right and of the -Military Act since the reign of Anne are plain in this respect "that ... -the crown possesses the right of issuing commissions in war and -rebellion." But he rightly adds that the military commander may permit -the usual courts to continue their jurisdiction upon such subjects as he -thinks proper. Legislative enactments have also sanctioned this special -jurisdiction at various times, notably in 1798, 1799, 1801, and in 1803. -These enactments lay down that exceptional powers may be exercised -"whether the ordinary courts shall or shall not be open." As an -invariable rule an act of indemnity has been passed on the withdrawal of -martial law, but only to protect any person in charge of the execution -of martial law who has exceeded his powers in good faith. - -There has been much discussion as to whether, in districts where martial -law has not been proclaimed, a person can be sent for trial from such -district into a district where martial law was in operation. It is -argued that if the ordinary courts were open and at work in the -non-proclaimed district recourse should be had to them. The Privy -Council in 1902 (_re_ Marais) refused leave to appeal where the Supreme -Court of Cape Colony had declined to issue a writ of Habeas Corpus in -these circumstances. Mr Justice Blackburn in his charge in _R._ v. -_Eyre_ says, "I have come to the conclusion that, looking at what -martial law was, the bringing of a person into the proclaimed district -to be tried might, in a proper case, be justified." The learned judge -admits that there should be a power of summary trial, observing all the -substantials of justice, in order to stamp out an insurrection by speedy -trial. - -Whilst martial law is the will of the commanders, and is only limited by -the customs of war and the discretion of those who administer it, still, -as far as practicable, the procedure of military law is followed, and a -military court is held on the same lines as a court-martial. Charges are -simply framed without technicalities. The prisoner is present, the -evidence of prosecution and prisoner is taken on oath, the proceedings -are recorded, and the sentence of the court must be confirmed according -to the rules of the Army Act. Sentences of death and penal servitude -must be referred to headquarters for confirmation. In the South African -War (1899-1902) these limits of procedure were observed, and when -possible will always be. - - - Different Applications of Martial Law. - -Entering more into detail, the term martial law has been employed in -several senses:--(1) As applied to the military forces of the crown, -apart from the military law under the old Mutiny Acts, and the present -annual Army Acts. (2) As applied to the enemy. (3) As applied to rebels. -(4) As applied to civilian subjects who are not in rebellion, but in a -district where the ordinary course of civil life cannot be maintained -owing to war or rebellion. - -1. In regard to the military forces of the crown, the superseding of -justice as administered under the Army Act could only occur in a time of -great need; e.g. mutiny of five or six regiments in the field, with no -time to take the opinion of any executive authority. The officer in -command would then be bound to take measures for the purpose of -suppressing such mutiny, even to putting soldiers to death if necessary. -It would be a case where necessity forced immediate action. - -2. Martial law as applied to the enemy or the population of the enemy's -country, is in the words of the duke of Wellington, "the will of the -general of the army, though it must be administered in accordance with -the customs of war." - -3, 4. But it is as affecting the subjects of the crown in rebellion that -the subject of martial law really obtains its chief importance; and it -is in this sense that the term is generally used; i.e. the suspension of -ordinary law and the temporary government of the country, or parts of -it, or all of it, by military tribunals. It has often been laid down -that martial law in this sense is unknown to the law of England. A. V. -Dicey, for instance, restricts martial law to only another expression -for "the common right of the crown and its servants to repel force by -force, in the case of invasion, insurrection, or riot, or generally of -any violent resistance." But more than this is understood by the term -martial law. - -When the proposition was laid down that martial law in this sense is -unknown to the law of England, it is to be remembered that fortunately -in England there never had been a state at all similar to that -prevailing in Cape Colony in 1900-1902, and it may perhaps be questioned -whether the statement would have been made with such certainty if -similar events had been present to the writers' minds. - -In the charge delivered by Mr Justice Blackburn in the Jamaica case the -law as affecting the general question of martial law is well set out. - - "By the laws of this country," said Mr Justice Blackburn, "beginning - at Magna Carta and getting more and more established, down to the time - of the Revolution, when it was finally and completely established, the - general rule was that a subject was not to be tried or punished except - by due course of law; all crimes are to be determined by juries - subject to the guidance of the judge; that is the general rule, and is - established law. But from the earliest times there was this also which - was the law, and is the law still, that when there was a foreign - invasion or an insurrection, it was the duty of every good subject, in - obedience to the officers and magistrates, to resist the rebels, ... - in such a case as that of insurrection prevailing so far that the - courts of law cannot sit, there must really be anarchy unless there is - some power to keep the people in order, ... before that principle the - crown claimed the prerogative to exercise summary proceedings by - martial law ... in time of war when this disturbance was going on, - over others than the army. And further than that, the crown made this - further claim against the insurgents, that whilst it existed, pending - the insurrection and for a short time afterwards, the crown had ... - the power to proclaim martial law in the sense of using summary - proceedings, to punish the insurgents and to check and stop the spread - of the rebellion by summary proceedings against the insurgents, so as - ... to stamp out the rebellion. Now no doubt the extent to which the - crown had power to do that has never been yet decided. Our law has - been declared from time to time and has always been a practical - science, that is, the judges have decided so much as was necessary for - the particular case, and that has become part of the law. But it never - has come to be decided what this precise power is." - -So far as the United Kingdom is concerned the need has never arisen. It -has always been found possible to employ the ordinary courts directly -the rebels have been defeated in the field and have been made prisoners -or surrendered. "Fortunately in England only three occasions have arisen -since the Revolution when the authority of the civil power was for a -time, and then only partially, suspended," 1715, 1745 and 1780. Clode, -_Military Forces_, ii. 163, says: "Upon the threat of invasion followed -by rebellion in 1715, the first action of the government was to issue a -proclamation authorizing all officers, civil and military, by force of -arms (if necessary) to suppress the rebellion." This, therefore, would -only seem to fall within the limited sense in which Dicey understands -martial law to be legal, "the right of the crown and its servants to -repel force by force." There was no attempt to bring persons before -courts-martial who ought to be tried by the common law, and all the -extraordinary acts of the crown were sanctioned by parliament. After the -rebellion had been suppressed two statutes were passed, one for -indemnity and the other for pardon. Before the revolution of 1745 -similar action was adopted, a proclamation charging civil magistrates to -do their utmost to prevent and suppress all riots, and acts of -parliament suspending Habeas Corpus, providing for speedy trials; and of -indemnity. In the Gordon Riots of 1780 a very similar course was -pursued, and nothing was done which would not fall within Dicey's -limitation. No prisoners were tried by martial law. - -In Ireland the ordinary law was suspended in 1798-1801 and in 1803. In -1798 an order in Council was issued to all general officers commanding -H.M. forces to punish all persons acting in, aiding, or in any way -assisting the rebellion, according to _martial law_, either by death or -otherwise, as to them should seem expedient for the suppression and -punishment of all rebels; but the order was communicated to the Irish -houses of parliament, who expressed their approval by addresses to the -viceroy. It was during the operation of this order that Wolfe Tone's -case arose. Tone, a subject of the king, was captured on board a French -man-of-war, and condemned to death by a court-martial. Curran, his -counsel, applied to the king's bench at Dublin for a Habeas Corpus, on -the grounds that only when war was raging could courts-martial be -endured, not while the court of king's bench sat. The court granted his -application; but no ultimate decision was ever given, as Tone died -before it could be arrived at. - -In 1799 application was made to parliament for express sanction to -martial law. The preamble of the act declared that "The Rebellion still -continues ... and stopped the ordinary course of justice and of the -common law; and that many persons ... who had been taken by H.M. forces -... have availed themselves of such partial restoration of the ordinary -course of the common law to evade the punishment of their crimes, -whereby it had become necessary for parliament to interfere." The act -declared that martial law should prevail and be put in force whether the -ordinary courts were or were not open, &c. And nothing in the act could -be held to take away, abridge or eliminate the acknowledged prerogative -of war, for the public safety to resort to the exercise of martial law -against open enemies or traitors, &c. - -After the suppression of the rebellion an act of indemnity was passed in -1801. - -In 1803 a similar act was passed by the parliament of the United Kingdom -as it was after the Act of Union. In introducing it Mr Pitt stated: "The -bill is not one to enable the government in Ireland to declare martial -law in districts where insurrection exists, for that is a power which -His Majesty already possesses--the object will be to enable the -lord-lieutenant, when any persons shall be taken in rebellion, to order -them to be tried immediately by a court-martial." - - During the 19th century martial law was proclaimed by the British - government in the following places:-- - - 1. Barbados, 1805-1816. - 2. Demerara, 1823. - 3. Jamaica, 1831-1832; 1865. - 4. Canada, 1837-1838. - 5. Ceylon, 1817 and 1848. - 6. Cephalonia, 1848. - 7. Cape of Good Hope, 1834; 1849-1851. - 8. St Vincent, 1863. - 9. South Africa, 1899-1901. - - The proclamation was always based on the grounds of necessity, and - where any local body of a representative character existed it would - seem that its assent was given, and an act of indemnity obtained after - the suppression of the rebellion. (Jno. S.) - - - - -MARTIGNAC, JEAN BAPTISTE SYLVERE GAY, VICOMTE de (1778-1832), French -statesman, was born at Bordeaux on the 20th of June 1778. In 1798 he -acted as secretary to Sieyes; then after serving for a while in the -army, he turned to literature, producing several light plays. Under the -Empire he practised with success as an advocate at Bordeaux, where in -1818 he became advocate-general of the _cour royale_. In 1819 he was -appointed _procureur-general_ at Limoges, and in 1821 was returned for -Marmande to the Chamber of Deputies, where he supported the policy of -Villele. In 1822 he was appointed councillor of state, in 1823 he -accompanied the due d'Angouleme to Spain as civil commissary; in 1824 he -was created a viscount and appointed director-general of registration. -In contact with practical politics his ultra-royalist views were -gradually modified in the direction of the Doctrinaires, and on the fall -of Villele he was selected by Charles X. to carry out the new policy of -compromise. On the 4th of January 1828 he was appointed minister of the -interior, and, though not bearing the title of president, became the -virtual head of the cabinet. He succeeded in passing the act abolishing -the press censorship, and in persuading the king to sign the ordinances -of the 16th of June 1828 on the Jesuits and the little seminaries. He -was exposed to attack from both the extreme Left and the extreme Right, -and when in April 1829 a coalition of these groups defeated him in the -chamber, Charles X., who had never believed in the policy he -represented, replaced him by the prince, de Polignac. In March 1830 -Martignac voted with the majority for the address protesting against the -famous ordinances; but during the revolution that followed he remained -true to his legitimist principles. His last public appearance was in -defence of Polignac in the Chamber of Peers in December 1830. He died on -the 3rd of April 1832. - - Martignac published _Bordeaux au mois de Mars 1815_ (Paris, 1830), and - an _Essai historique sur les revolutions d'Espagne et l'intervention - francaise de 1823_ (Paris, 1832). See also E. Daudet, _Le Ministere de - M. de Martignac_ (Paris, 1875). - - - - -MARTIGUES, a port of south-eastern France in the department of -Bouches-du-Rhone, on the southern shore of the lagoon of Berre, and at -the eastern extremity of that of Caronte, by which the former is -connected with the Mediterranean. Pop. (1906), 4,178. Martigues is 23 m. -W.N.W. of Marseilles by rail. Divided into three quarters by canals, the -place has been called the Venice of Provence. It has a harbour (used by -coasting and fishing vessels), marine workshops, oil and soap -manufactures and cod-drying works. A special industry consists in the -preparation of _boutargue_ from the roes of the grey mullet caught in -the salt lagoons, which rivals Russian caviare. - - Built in 1232 by Raymond Berenger, count of Provence, Martigues was - made a viscountship by Joanna I., queen of Naples. Henry IV. made it a - principality, in favour of a princess of the house of Luxembourg. It - afterwards passed into the hands of the duke of Villars. - - - - -MARTIN, ST (c. 316-400), bishop of Tours, was born of heathen parents at -Sabaria (Stein am Agger) in Pannonia, about the year 316. When ten years -old he became a catechumen, and at fifteen he reluctantly entered the -army. While stationed at Amiens he divided his cloak with a beggar, and -on the following night had the vision of Christ making known to his -angels this act of charity to Himself on the part of "Martinus, still a -catechumen." Soon afterwards he received baptism, and two years later, -having left the army, he joined Hilary of Poitiers, who wished to make -him a deacon, but at his own request ordained him to the humbler office -of an exorcist. On a visit home he converted his mother, but his zeal -against the Arians roused persecution against him and for some time he -lived an ascetic life on the desert island of Gallinaria near Genoa. -Between 360 and 370 he was again with Hilary at Poitiers, and founded in -the neighbourhood the monasterium locociagense (Licuge). In 371-372 the -people of Tours chose him for their bishop. He did much to extirpate -idolatry from his diocese and from France, and to extend the monastic -system. To obtain privacy for the maintenance of his personal religion, -he established the monastery of Marmoutier-les-Tours (Martini -monasterium) on the banks of the Loire. At Treves, in 385, he entreated -that the lives of the Priscillianist heretics should be spared, and he -ever afterwards refused to hold ecclesiastical fellowship with those -bishops who had sanctioned their execution. He died at Candes in the -year 400, and is commemorated by the Roman Church on the 11th of -November (duplex). He left no writings, the so-called _Confessio_ being -spurious. He is the patron saint of France and of the cities of Mainz -and Wurzburg. The _Life_ by his disciple Sulpicius Severus is -practically the only source for his biography, but it is full of -legendary matter and chronological errors. Gregory of Tours gives a list -of 206 miracles wrought by him after his death; Sidonius Apollinaris -composed a metrical biography of him. The Feast of St Martin (Martinmas) -took the place of an old pagan festival, and inherited some of its -usages (such as the _Martinsmannchen_, _Martinsfeuer_, _Martinshorn_ and -the like, in various parts of Germany); by this circumstance is probably -to be explained the fact that Martin is regarded as the patron of -drinking and jovial meetings, as well as of reformed drunkards. - - See A. Dupuy, _Geschichte des heiligen Martins_ (Schaffhausen, 1855); - J. G. Cazenove in _Dict. chr. biog._ iii. 838. - - - - -MARTIN (Martinus), the name of several popes. - -MARTIN I. succeeded Theodore I. in June or July 649. He had previously -acted as papal apocrisiarius at Constantinople, and was held in high -repute for learning and virtue. Almost his first official act was to -summon a synod (the first Lateran) for dealing with the Monothelite -heresy. It met in the Lateran church, was attended by one hundred and -five bishops (chiefly from Italy, Sicily and Sardinia, a few being from -Africa and other quarters), held five sessions or "secretarii" from the -5th to the 31st of October 649, and in twenty canons condemned the -Monothelite heresy, its authors, and the writings by which it had been -promulgated. In this condemnation were included, not only the _Ecthesis_ -or exposition of faith of the patriarch Sergius for which the emperor -Heraclius had stood sponsor, but also the Typus of Paul, the successor -of Sergius, which had the support of the reigning emperor (Constans -II.). Martin published the decrees of his Lateran synod in an -encyclical, and Constans replied by enjoining his exarch to seize the -pope and send him prisoner to Constantinople. Martin was arrested in the -Lateran (June 15, 653), hurried out of Rome, and conveyed first to Naxos -and subsequently to Constantinople (Sept. 17, 654). He was ultimately -banished to Cherson, where he arrived on the 26th of March 655, and died -on the 16th of September following. His successor was Eugenius I. (L. -D.*) - - A full account of the events of his pontificate will be found in - Hefele's _Conciliengeschichte_, vol. iii. (1877). - -MARTIN II., the name commonly given in error to Marinus I. (q.v.). - -MARTIN III., see Marinus II. - -MARTIN IV. (Simon Mompitie de Brion), pope from the 22nd of February -1281 to the 28th of March 1285, should have been named Martin II. He was -born about 1210 in Touraine. He became a priest at Rouen and canon of St -Martin's at Tours, and was made chancellor of France by Louis IX. in -1260 and cardinal-priest of Sta Cecilia by Urban IV. in 1261. As papal -legate in France he held several synods for the reformation of the -clergy and conducted the negotiations for the assumption of the crown of -Sicily by Charles of Anjou. It was through the latter's influence that -he succeeded Nicholas III., after a six-months' struggle between the -French and Italian cardinals. The Romans at first declined to receive -him, and he was consecrated at Orvieto on the 23rd of March 1281. -Peaceful and unassuming, he relied completely on Charles of Anjou, and -showed little ability as pope. His excommunication of the emperor -Michael Palaeologus (Nov. 1281), who stood in the way of the French -projects against Greece, weakened the union with the Eastern Christians, -dating from the Lyons Council of 1274. He unduly favoured his own -countrymen, and for three years after the Sicilian Vespers (Mar. 31, -1282) he employed all the spiritual and material resources at his -command on behalf of his patron against Peter of Aragon. He was driven -from Rome by a popular uprising and died at Perugia. His successor was -Honorius IV. (C. H. Ha.) - - His registers have been published in the _Bibliotheque des ecoles - francaises d'Athenes et de Rome_ (Paris, 1901). - - See A. Potthast, _Regesta pontif. roman._, vol. 2 (Berlin, 1875); K. - J. von Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_, Bd. 6, 2nd ed.; F. Gregorovius, - _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol. 5, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton - (London, 1900-1902); H. H. Milman, _Latin Christianity_, vol. 6 - (London, 1899); W. Norden, _Das Papsttum u. Byzanz_ (Berlin, 1903); E. - Choullier, "Recherches sur la vie du pape Martin IV.," in _Revue de - Champagne_, vol. 4 (1878); _Processo istorico dell' insurrezione di - Sicilia dell' anno 1282_, ed. by G. di Marzo (Palermo, 1882). - -MARTIN V. (Otto Colonna) (1417-1431) was elected at Constance on St -Martin's Day, in a conclave composed of twenty-three cardinals and -thirty delegates from the five different "nations" of the council. Son -of Agapito Colonna, who had himself become a bishop and cardinal, the -new pope belonged to one of the greatest Roman families; to Urban VI. -had been due his entry, as _referendarius_, upon an ecclesiastical -career. Having become a cardinal under Innocent VII., he had seceded -from Gregory XII. in 1408, and together with the other cardinals at -Pisa, had taken part in the election of Alexander V. and afterwards of -John XXIII. At Constance, his role had been chiefly that of an arbiter; -he was a good and gentle man, leading a simple life, free from intrigue. -While refraining from making any pronouncement as to the validity of the -decrees of the fourth and fifth sessions, which had seemed to proclaim -the superiority of the council over the pope, Martin V. nevertheless -soon revealed his personal feelings by having a constitution read in -consistory which forbade any appeal from the judgment of the sovereign -pontiff in matters of faith (May 10, 1418). As to the reform, of which -everybody felt the necessity, the fathers in council had not succeeded -in arriving at any agreement. Martin V. himself settled a great number -of points, and then passed a series of special concordats with Germany, -France, Italy, Spain and England. Though this was not the thorough -reform of which need was felt, the council itself gave the pope a -_satisfecit_. When the council was dissolved Martin V. made it his task -to regain Italy. After staying for long periods at Mantua and Florence, -where the deposed pope, Baldassare Cossa (John XXIII.), came and made -submission to him, Martin V. was enabled to enter Rome (Sept. 30, 1420) -and measure the extent of the ruins left there by the Great Schism of -the West. He set to work to restore some of these ruins, to reconstitute -and pacify the Papal State, to put an end to the Schism, which showed -signs of continuing in Aragon and certain parts of southern France; to -enter into negotiations, unfortunately unfruitful, with the Greek Church -also with a view to a return to unity, to organize the struggle against -heresy in Bohemia; to interpose his pacific mediation between France and -England, as well as between the parties which were rending France; and, -finally, to welcome and act as patron to saintly reformers like -Bernardino of Siena and Francesca Romana, foundress of the nursing -sisterhood of the Oblate di Tor de' Specchi (1425). - -In accordance with the decree _Frequens_, and the promises which he had -made, Martin V., after an interval of five years, summoned a new -council, which was almost immediately transferred from Pavia to Siena, -in consequence of an epidemic (1423). But the small number of fathers -who attended at the latter town, and above all, the disquieting -tendencies which began to make themselves felt there, induced the pope -to force on a dissolution of the synod. Pending the reunion of the new -council which had been summoned at Basel for the end of a period of -seven years, Martin V. himself endeavoured to effect a reformation in -certain points, but he was carried off by apoplexy (Feb. 20, 1431), just -as he had designated the young and brilliant Cardinal Giuliano Cesarini -to preside in his place over the council of Basel. - - See L. Pastor, _Geschichte der Papste_ (1901), i. 205-279; J. Guiraud, - _L'Etat pontifical apres le Grand Schisme_ (1896); Muntz, _Les Arts a - la cour des papes pendant le xv^e et le xvi^e siecle_ (1878); N. - Valois, _La Crise religieuse du xv^e siecle; le pape et le concile_ - (1909), vol. i. p. i.-xxix., 1-93. (N. V.) - - - - -MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI (1810-1883), French historian, was born on the -20th of February 1810 at St Quentin (Aisne), where his father was a -judge. Trained as a notary, he followed this profession for some time -but having achieved success with an historical romance, _Wolfthurm_ -(1830), he applied himself to historical research. Becoming associated -with Paul Lacroix ("le Bibliophile Jacob"), he planned with him a -history of France, to consist of excerpts from the chief chroniclers and -historians, with original matter filling up gaps in the continuity. The -first volume, which appeared in 1833, encouraged the author to make the -work his own, and his _Histoire de France_, in fifteen volumes -(1833-1836), was the result. This _magnum opus_, rewritten and further -elaborated (4th ed., 16 vols. and index, 1861-1865) gained for the -author in 1856 the first prize of the Academy, and in 1869 the grand -biennial prize of 20,000 francs. A popular abridgment in seven volumes -was published in 1867. This, together with the continuation, _Histoire -de France depuis 1789 jusqu'a nos jours_ (6 vols. 1878-1883), gives a -complete history of France, and superseded Sismondi's _Histoire des -Francais_. - -This work is in parts defective; Martin's descriptions of the Gauls are -based rather on romance than on history, and in this respect he was too -much under the influence of Jean Reynaud and his cosmogonic philosophy. -However he gave a great impetus to Celtic and anthropological studies. -His knowledge of the middle ages is inadequate, and his criticisms are -not discriminating. As a free-thinking republican, his prejudices often -biassed his judgment on the political and religious history of the -_ancien regime_. The last six volumes, devoted to the 17th and 18th -centuries, are superior to the earlier ones. Martin sat in the -_assemblee nationale_ as deputy for Aisne in 1871, and was elected life -senator in 1878, but he left no mark as a politician. He died in Paris -on the 14th of December 1883. - - Among his minor works may be mentioned:--_De la France, de son genie - et de ses destinees_ (1847); _Daniel Manin_ (1860), _La Russie et - l'Europe_ (1866); _Etudes d'archeologie celtique_ (1872); _Les - Napoleon et les frontieres de la France_ (1874). See his biography by - Gabriel Hanotaux, _Henri Martin; sa vie, ses oeuvres, son temps_ - (1885). - - - - -MARTIN, CLAUD (1735-1800), French adventurer and officer in the army of -the English East India Company, was born at Lyons on the 4th of January -1735, the son of a cooper. He went out to India in 1751 to serve under -Dupleix and Lally in the Carnatic wars. When Pondicherry fell in 1761, -he seems, like others of his countrymen, to have accepted service in the -Bengal army of the English, obtaining an ensign's commission in 1763, -and steadily rising to the rank of major-general. He was employed on the -building of the new Fort William at Calcutta, and afterwards on the -survey of Bengal under Rennell. In 1776 he was allowed to accept the -appointment of superintendent of the arsenal of the nawab of Oudh at -Lucknow, retaining his rank but being ultimately placed on half pay. He -acquired a large fortune, and on his death (Sept. 13, 1800) he -bequeathed his residuary estate to found institutions for the education -of European children at Lucknow, Calcutta and Lyons, all known by the -name of "La Martiniere." That at Lucknow is the best known. It was -housed in the palace that he had built called Constantia, which, though -damaged during the Mutiny, retains many personal memorials of its -founder. - - See S. C. Hill, _The Life of Claud Martin_ (Calcutta, 1901). - - - - -MARTIN, FRANCOIS XAVIER (1762-1846), American jurist and author, was -born in Marseilles, France, on the 17th of March 1762, of Provencal -descent. In 1780 he went to Martinique, and before the close of the -American war of Independence went to North Carolina, where (in New Bern) -he taught French and learnt English, and set up as a printer. He studied -law, and was admitted to the North Carolina bar in 1789. He published -various legal books, and edited _Acts of the North Carolina Assembly -from 1715 to 1803_ (2nd ed., 1809). He was a member of the lower house -of the General Assembly in 1806-1807. In 1809 he was commissioned a -judge of the superior court of the territory of Mississippi, and in -March 1810 became judge of the superior court of the territory of -Orleans. Here the law was in a chaotic condition, what with French law -before O'Reilly's rule, then a Spanish code, and in 1808 the Digest of -the Civil Laws, an adaptation by James Brown and Moreau Lislet of the -code of Napoleon, which repealed the Spanish fueros, partidas, -recopilationes and laws of the Indies only as they conflicted with its -provisions. Martin published in 1811 and 1813 reports of cases decided -by the superior court of the territory of Orleans. For two years from -February 1813 Martin was attorney-general of the newly established state -of Louisiana, and then until March 1846 was a judge and (from 1836 to -1846) presiding judge of the supreme court of the state. For the period -until 1830 he published reports of the decisions of the supreme court; -and in 1816 he published two volumes, one French and one English, of _A -General Digest of the Acts of Legislatures of the Late Territory of -Orleans and of the State of Louisiana_. He won the name of the "father -of Louisiana jurisprudence" and his work was of great assistance to -Edward Livingston, Pierre Derbigny and Moreau Lislet in the Louisiana -codification of 1821-1826. Martin's eyesight had begun to fail when he -was seventy, and after 1836 he could no longer write opinions with his -own hand.[1] He died in New Orleans on the 11th of December 1846. - - Martin translated Robert J. Pothier _On Obligations_ (1802), and wrote - _The History of Louisiana from the Earliest Period_ (2 vols. - 1827-1829) and _The History of North Carolina_ (2 vols., 1829). There - is a memoir by Henry A. Bullard in part ii. of B. F. French's - _Historical Collections of Louisiana_ (Philadelphia, 1850), and one by - W. W. Howe in John F. Condon's edition of Martin's _History of - Louisiana_ (New Orleans, 1882). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] His holographic will in favour of his brother (written in 1844 - and devising property worth nearly $400,000) was unsuccessfully - contested by the state of Louisiana on the ground that the will was - void as being a legal and physical impossibility, or as being an - attempted fraud on the state, as under it the state would not receive - a 10% tax if the property went to the heirs of Martin (as intestate) - in France. - - - - -MARTIN, HOMER DODGE (1836-1897), American artist, was born at Albany, -New York, on the 28th of October 1836. A pupil for a short time of -William Hart, his earlier work followed the lines of the Hudson River -School. He was elected as associate of the National Academy of Design, -New York, in 1868, and a full academician in 1874. During a trip to -Europe in 1876 he was captivated by the Barbizon school, and from 1882 -to 1886 he lived in France spending much of the time in Normandy. At -Villerville he painted his "Harp of the Winds," now at the Metropolitan -Museum of Art, New York. Among his important canvases are "Westchester -Hills," "Adirondack Scenery," "The Cinqueboeuf Church," "Sand Dunes," -and "A Newport Landscape." Martin is generally spoken of as one of the -great trio of American landscapists, the other two being Inness and -Wyant, and examples of his work are in most of the important American -collections. He died at St. Paul, Minnesota, on the 2nd of February -1897. - - - - -MARTIN, JOHN (1789-1854), English painter, was born at Haydon Bridge, -near Hexham, on the 19th of July 1789. He was apprenticed by his father -to a coachbuilder to learn heraldic painting, but owing to a quarrel the -indentures were cancelled, and he was placed under Bonifacio Musso, an -Italian artist, father of the enamel painter Charles Musso. With his -master Martin removed to London in 1806, where he married at the age of -nineteen, and supported himself by giving drawing lessons, and by -painting in water colours, and on china and glass. His leisure was -occupied in the study of perspective and architecture. His first -picture, "Sadak in Search of the Waters of Oblivion," was exhibited in -the Royal Academy of 1812, and sold for fifty guineas. It was followed -by the "Expulsion" (1813), "Paradise" (1813), "Clytie" (1814), and -"Joshua" (1815). In 1821 appeared his "Belshazzar's Feast," which -excited much favourable and hostile comment, and was awarded a prize of -L200 at the British Institution, where the Joshua had previously carried -off a premium of L100. Then came the "Destruction of Herculaneum" -(1822), the "Creation" (1824), the "Eve of the Deluge" (1841), and a -series of other Biblical and imaginative subjects. In 1832-1833 Martin -received L2000 for drawing and engraving a fine series of designs to -Milton, and with Westall he produced a set of Bible illustrations. He -was also occupied with schemes for the improvement of London, and -published various pamphlets and plans dealing with the metropolitan -water supply, sewage, dock and railway systems. During the last four -years of his life he was engaged upon his large subjects of "The -Judgment," the "Day of Wrath," and the "Plains of Heaven." He was -attacked with paralysis while painting, and died in the Isle of Man on -the 17th of February 1854. - - - - -MARTIN, LUTHER (1748-1826), American lawyer, was born in New Brunswick, -New Jersey, on the 9th of February 1748. He graduated at the college of -New Jersey (now Princeton University) at the head of a class of -thirty-five in 1766, and immediately afterwards removed to Maryland, -teaching at Queenstown in that colony until 1770, and being admitted to -the bar in 1771. He practised law for a short time in Virginia, then -returned to Maryland, and became recognized as the leader of the -Maryland bar and as one of the ablest lawyers in the United States. From -1778 to 1805 he was attorney-general of Maryland; in 1814-1816 he was -chief judge of the court of Oyer and Terminer for the city of Baltimore; -and in 1818-1822 he was attorney-general of Maryland. He was one of -Maryland's representatives in the Continental Congress in 1784-1785 and -in the Constitutional Convention of 1787 at Philadelphia, but opposed -the constitution and refused to affix his signature. He subsequently -allied himself with the Federalists, and was an opponent of Thomas -Jefferson, who in 1807 spoke of him as the "Federal Bull-Dog." His -ability was shown in his famous defence of Judge Samuel Chase (q.v.) in -the impeachment trial before the United States Senate in 1804-1805, and -in his defence of Aaron Burr (q.v.) against the charge of treason in -1807. He has been described by the historian Henry Adams, writing of the -Chase trial, as at that time the "most formidable of American -advocates." Though he received a large income, he was so improvident -that he was frequently in want, and on the 22nd of February 1822 the -legislature of Maryland passed a remarkable resolution--the only one of -the kind in American history--requiring every lawyer in the state to pay -an annual licence fee of five dollars, to be handed over to trustees -appointed "for the appropriation of the proceeds raised by virtue of -this resolution to the use of Luther Martin." This resolution was -rescinded on the 6th of February 1823. Martin died at the home of Aaron -Burr in New York on the 10th of July 1826. In 1783 he had married a -daughter of the Captain Michael Cresap (1742-1775), who was unjustly -charged by Jefferson, in his _Notes on Virginia_, with the murder of the -family of the Indian chief, John Logan, and whom Martin defended in a -pamphlet long out of print. - - See the biographical sketch by Henry P. Goddard, _Luther Martin, the - Federal Bull-Dog_ (Baltimore, 1887), No. 24 of the "Peabody Fund - Publications," of the Maryland Historical Society. - - - - -MARTIN, SIR THEODORE (1816-1909), British author and translator, the son -of a solicitor, was born at Edinburgh on the 16th of September 1816, and -educated at the Royal High School and the University, from which he -subsequently received the honorary degree of LL.D. He practised for some -time as a solicitor in Edinburgh, but in 1846 went to London, where he -became senior partner in the firm of Martin & Leslie, parliamentary -agents. He early contributed to _Fraser's Magazine_ and _Tait's -Magazine_, under the signature of "Bon Gaultier," and in 1856, in -conjunction with Professor Aytoun, he published the _Book of Ballads_ -under the same pseudonym. This work at once obtained popular favour. In -1858 he published a volume of translations of the _Poems and Ballads of -Goethe_, and this was followed by a rendering of the Danish poet Henrik -Hertz's lyric drama, _King Rene's Daughter_. The principal character in -this drama, Iolanthe, was sustained by Helena Faucit (q.v.), who in 1851 -became the author's wife. Martin's translations of Ohlenschlager's -dramas, _Correggio_ (1854) and _Aladdin, or the Wonderful Lamp_ (1857), -widened the fame of the Danish poet in England. In 1860 appeared -Martin's metrical translation of the _Odes of Horace_; and in 1870 he -wrote a volume on _Horace_ for the series of "Ancient Classics for -English Readers." In 1882 his Horatian labours were concluded by a -translation of the poet's whole works, with a life and notes, in two -volumes. A poetical translation of _Catullus_ was published in 1861, -followed by a privately printed volume of _Poems, Original and -Translated_, in 1863. Then came translations of the _Vita Nuova_ of -Dante, and the first part of Goethe's _Faust_. A metrical translation of -the second part of _Faust_ appeared in 1866. Martin wrote a memoir of -his friend Aytoun in 1867, and while engaged upon this work he was -requested by Queen Victoria, to whom he was introduced by his friend Sir -Arthur Helps, to undertake the _Life of His Royal Highness the Prince -Consort_. The first volume of this well-known work was published in -1874. In 1878 Martin's translation of Heine's _Poems and Ballads_ -appeared. Two years later the _Life of the Prince Consort_ was brought -to a successful conclusion by the publication of the fifth volume. A -knighthood was then conferred upon him. In the following November he was -elected lord rector of the university of St Andrews. Martin's _Life of -Lord Lyndhurst_, based upon papers furnished by the family, was -published in 1883. In 1889 appeared _The Song of the Bell, and other -Translations from Schiller, Goethe, Uhland, and Others_; in 1804 -_Madonna Pia, a Tragedy, and three Other Dramas_; a translation of -Leopardi's poems in 1905; and in 1901 he published a biography of his -wife. The kindly relations which subsisted between Queen Victoria and -Sir Theodore Martin were continued after the completion of the _Life_ of -the prince consort up to the queen's death. Sir Theodore's account of -these relations was privately printed in 1902, and, with King Edward's -consent, for general publication in 1908. This little book, _Queen -Victoria as I knew her_, throws a good deal of light on the Queen's -character and private life. Sir Theodore Martin died on the 18th of -August 1909. - - - - -MARTIN, WILLIAM (1767-1810), English naturalist, the son of a hosier, -was born at Mansfield, Nottinghamshire, in 1767. He studied drawing at -an early age from James Bolton at Halifax, and gained from him a taste -for the study of natural history. In 1805 he was appointed drawing -master in the grammar school at Macclesfield. Meanwhile he cultivated -his taste for natural history, and was in 1796 elected a fellow of the -Linnaean Society. He is best known for his early works on British -fossils, entitled _Petrifacta derbiensia or Figures and Descriptions of -Petrifactions collected in Derbyshire_ (1809); and _Outlines of an -Attempt to establish a Knowledge of Extraneous Fossils on Scientific -Principles_ (1809). He died at Macclesfield on the 31st of May 1810. - - - - -MARTIN, SIR WILLIAM FANSHAWE (1801-1895), British admiral, son of -Admiral of the Fleet Sir Thomas Byam Martin, comptroller of the navy, -and grandson, on the mother's side, of Captain Robert Fanshawe, who -commanded the "Namur" 90 in Rodney's victory of the 12th of April 1782, -was born on the 5th of December 1801. Entering the navy at the age of -twelve, his father's interest secured his rapid promotion: he was made a -lieutenant on the 15th of December 1820; on the 8th of February 1823 he -was promoted to be commander of the "Fly" sloop, his good service in -which in support of the interests of British merchants at Callao secured -his promotion as captain on the 5th of June 1824. He afterwards served -in the Mediterranean and on the home station. In 1849-1852 he was -commodore commanding the Channel squadron, and gave evidence of a -remarkable aptitude for command. He was made rear-admiral in May 1853, -and for the next four years was superintendent of Portsmouth dockyard. -He was made vice-admiral in February 1858, and after a year as a lord of -the admiralty, was appointed commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean. -The discipline of the navy was then bad. It was a tradition sprung from -the wholesale shipment of gaol-birds during the old war, that the men -were to be treated without consideration; moreover the ships had been -largely filled up with "bounty men" bought into the service with a L10 -note without training. Out of this unpromising material Martin formed -the fleet which was at that time the ideal of excellence. He had no war -service, and, beyond the Italian disturbance of 1860-61, no opportunity -for showing diplomatic ability. But his memory lives as that of the -reformer of discipline and the originator of a comprehensive system of -steam manoeuvres. He became an admiral in November 1863, and on the 4th -of December succeeded to the baronetcy which had been conferred on his -grandfather. His last appointment was the command at Plymouth, -1866-1869, and in 1870 he was put on the retired list. In 1873 the -G.C.B. was conferred on him, and in 1878 he was made rear-admiral. He -died at Upton Grey, near Winchfield, on the 24th of March 1895. He was -twice married, and left, besides daughters, one son, who succeeded to -the baronetcy. - - - - -MARTIN OF TROPPAU, or MARTIN THE POLE (d. 1278), chronicler, was born at -Troppau, and entered the order of St Dominic at Prague. Afterwards he -went to Rome and became papal chaplain under Clement IV. and other -popes. In 1278 Pope Nicholas III. appointed him archbishop of Gnesen, -but he died at Bologna whilst proceeding to Poland to take up his new -duties. Martin wrote some sermons and some commentaries on the canon -law; but more important is his _Chronicon pontificum et imperatorum_, a -history of the popes and emperors to 1277. Written at the request of -Clement IV. the _Chronicon_ is jejune and untrustworthy, and was mainly -responsible for the currency of the legend of Pope Joan, and the one -about the institution of seven electors by the pope. Nevertheless it -enjoyed an extraordinary popularity and found many continuators; but its -value to students arises solely from the fact that it was used by -numerous chroniclers during the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries. In the -15th century it was translated into French, and as part of the -_Chronique martiniane_ was often quoted by controversialists. It has -also been translated into German, Italian and Bohemian. - - The Latin text is printed, with introduction by L. Weiland, in Band - XXII. of the _Monumenta Germaniae historica_ (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 - seq.). See G. Waitz, H. Brosien and others in the _Neues Archiv der - Geseltschaft fur altere deutsche Geschichtskunde_ (Hanover, 1876 - seq.); W. Wattenbach, _Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen_, Band II. - (Berlin, 1894); and A. Molinier, _Les Sources de l'histoire de - France_, Tome III. (Paris, 1903). - - - - -MARTIN[1] (Fr. _Martinet_), the _Hirundo urbica_ of Linnaeus and -_Chelidon urbica_ of modern ornithologists, a bird well known throughout -Europe, including even Lapland, where it is abundant, retiring in winter -to the south of Africa. It also inhabits the western part of Asia, and -appears from time to time in large flocks in India. The martin (or -house-martin, as it is often called, to distinguish it from the -sand-martin) commonly reaches its summer quarters a few days later than -the Swallow (q.v.), with which it is often confused in spite of the -differences between them, the martin's white rump and lower parts being -conspicuous as it flies or clings to its nest attached to houses. This -nest, made of the same material as the swallow's, is, however, a more -difficult structure to rear, and a week or more is often occupied in -laying its foundations--the builders clinging to the wall while -depositing the mud of which it is composed. The base once fixed, the -superstructure is often quickly added, till the whole takes the shape of -the half or quarter of a hemisphere, and is finished with a lining of -feathers mixed with a few bents or straws. The martin builds soon after -its return, and a nest that has outlasted the winter is almost at once -reoccupied. The bird usually in the course of the summer raises a -second, or rarely a third, brood of offspring--though the latest broods -often die in the nest, apparently through failure of food. What seem to -be adults are observed in England every year so late as November, and -sometimes within a few days of the winter solstice, but these late birds -are almost certainly strangers. - -The sand-martin, _Hirundo riparia_ of Linnaeus and _Cotile riparia_ of -modern writers, differs much in appearance and habits from the former. -Its smaller size, mouse-coloured upper surface and jerking flight -distinguish it from the other British _Hirundinidae_; but it is seldom -discriminated, and, being the first of the family to return to its -northern home, the so-called "early swallow" is nearly always of this -species. Instead of the clay-built nest of the house-martin, this bird -bores horizontal galleries in an escarpment. When beginning its -excavation, it clings to the face of the bank, and with its bill loosens -the earth, working from the centre outwards, and often hanging head -downwards. The tunnel may extend to 4, 6, or even 9 ft. The gallery -seems intended to be straight, but inequalities of the ground, and -especially the meeting with stones, often causes it to take a sinuous -course. At the end is formed a nest lined with a few grass-stalks and -feathers. The sand-martin has several broods in the year, and is more -regular than other _Hirundinidae_ in its departure for the south. The -kind of soil needed for its nesting habits makes it somewhat local, but -no species of the order _Passeres_ has a geographical range that can -compare with this. In Europe it is found nearly to the North Cape, and -thence to the Sea of Okhotsk. In winter it visits many parts of India -and South Africa to the Transvaal. In America its range extends (having -due regard to the season) from Melville Island to Caicara in Brazil, and -from Newfoundland to Alaska. - -The purple martin of America, _Progne purpurea_, is a favourite in -Canada and the United States. Naturally breeding in hollow trees, it -readily adapts itself to the nest-boxes which are commonly set up for -it; but its numbers are in some years and places diminished in a manner -unexplained. The limits of its range in winter are not determined, -chiefly owing to the differences of opinion as to the validity of -certain supposed kindred species found in South America; but according -to some authorities it reaches the border of Patagonia, while in summer -it is known to inhabit lands within the Arctic Circle. The male is -almost wholly of a glossy steel-blue, while the female is duller in -colour above, and beneath of a brownish-grey. - -Birds that may be called martins occur almost all over the world except -in New Zealand, which is not regularly inhabited by any member of the -family. The ordinary martin of Australia is the _Petrochelidon -nigricans_ of most ornithologists, and another and more beautiful form -is the ariel or fairy-martin of the same country, _Petrochelidon ariel_. -This last builds a bottle-shaped nest of mud, as does also the -rock-martin of Europe, _Cotile rupestris_. The eggs of martins are from -four to seven in number, and generally white, while those of swallows -usually have brown, grey or lilac markings. (A. N.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The older English form, martlet (French, _Martelet_), is, except - in heralds' language, almost obsolete, and when used is now applied - in some places to the Swift (q.v.). The bird called martin by French - colonists in the Old World is a mynah (_Acridotheres_). (See - GRACKLE.) - - - - -MARTINEAU, HARRIET (1802-1876), English writer, was born at Norwich, -where her father was a manufacturer, on the 12th of June 1802. The -family was of Huguenot extraction (see MARTINEAU, JAMES) and professed -Unitarian views. The atmosphere of her home was industrious, -intellectual and austere; she herself was clever, but weakly and -unhappy; she had no sense of taste or smell, and moreover early grew -deaf. At the age of fifteen the state of her health and nerves led to a -prolonged visit to her father's sister, Mrs Kentish, who kept a school -at Bristol. Here, in the companionship of amiable and talented people, -her life became happier. Here, also, she fell under the influence of the -Unitarian minister, Dr Lant Carpenter, from whose instructions, she -says, she derived "an abominable spiritual rigidity and a truly -respectable force of conscience strangely mingled together." From 1819 -to 1830 she again resided chiefly at Norwich. About her twentieth year -her deafness became confirmed. In 1821 she began to write anonymously -for the _Monthly Repository_, a Unitarian periodical, and in 1823 she -published _Devotional Exercises and Addresses, Prayers and Hymns_. - -In 1826 her father died, leaving a bare maintenance to his wife and -daughters. His death had been preceded by that of his eldest son, and -was shortly followed by that of a man to whom Harriet was engaged. Mrs -Martineau and her daughters soon after lost all their means by the -failure of the house where their money was placed. Harriet had to earn -her living, and, being precluded by deafness from teaching, took up -authorship in earnest. Besides reviewing for the _Repository_ she wrote -stories (afterwards collected as _Traditions of Palestine_), gained in -one year (1830) three essay-prizes of the Unitarian Association, and -eked out her income by needlework. In 1831 she was seeking a publisher -for a series of tales designed as _Illustrations of Political Economy_. -After many failures she accepted disadvantageous terms from Charles Fox, -to whom she was introduced by his brother, the editor of the -_Repository_. The sale of the first of the series was immediate and -enormous, the demand increased with each new number, and from that time -her literary success was secured. In 1832 she moved to London, where she -numbered among her acquaintance Hallam, Milman, Malthus, Monckton -Milnes, Sydney Smith, Bulwer, and later Carlyle. Till 1834 she continued -to be occupied with her political economy series and with a supplemental -series of _Illustrations of Taxation_. Four stories dealing with the -poor-law came out about the same time. These tales, direct, lucid, -written without any appearance of effort, and yet practically effective, -display the characteristics of their author's style. In 1834, when the -series was complete, Miss Martineau paid a long visit to America. Here -her open adhesion to the Abolitionist party, then small and very -unpopular, gave great offence, which was deepened by the publication, -soon after her return, of _Society in America_ (1837) and a _Retrospect -of Western Travel_ (1838). An article in the _Westminster Review_, "The -Martyr Age of the United States," introduced English readers to the -struggles of the Abolitionists. The American books were followed by a -novel, _Deerbrook_ (1839)--a story of middle-class country life. To the -same period belong a few little handbooks, forming parts of a _Guide to -Service_. The veracity of her _Maid of All Work_ led to a widespread -belief, which she regarded with some complacency, that she had once been -a maid of all work herself. - -In 1839, during a visit to the Continent, Miss Martineau's health broke -down. She retired to solitary lodgings in Tynemouth, and remained an -invalid till 1844. Besides a novel, _The Hour and the Man_ (1840), _Life -in the Sickroom_ (1844), and the _Playfellow_ (1841), she published a -series of tales for children containing some of her most popular work: -_Settlers at Home_, _The Peasant and the Prince_, _Feats on the Fiord_, -&c. During this illness she for a second time declined a pension on the -civil list, fearing to compromise her political independence. Her letter -on the subject was published, and some of her friends raised a small -annuity for her soon after. - -In 1844 Miss Martineau underwent a course of mesmerism, and in a few -months was restored to health. She eventually published an account of -her case, which had caused much discussion, in sixteen _Letters on -Mesmerism_. On her recovery she removed to Ambleside, where she built -herself "The Knoll," the house in which the greater part of her after -life was spent. In 1845 she published three volumes of _Forest and Game -Law Tales_. In 1846 she made a tour with some friends in Egypt, -Palestine and Syria, and on her return published _Eastern Life, Present -and Past_ (1848). This work showed that as humanity passed through one -after another of the world's historic religions, the conception of the -Deity and of Divine government became at each step more and more -abstract and indefinite. The ultimate goal Miss Martineau believed to be -philosophic atheism, but this belief she did not expressly declare. She -published about this time _Household Education_, expounding the theory -that freedom and rationality, rather than command and obedience, are the -most effectual instruments of education. Her interest in schemes of -instruction led her to start a series of lectures, addressed at first to -the school children of Ambleside, but afterwards extended, at their own -desire, to their elders. The subjects were sanitary principles and -practice, the histories of England and North America, and the scenes of -her Eastern travels. At the request of Charles Knight she wrote, in -1849, _The History of the Thirty Years' Peace, 1816-1846_--an excellent -popular history written from the point of view of a "philosophical -Radical," completed in twelve months. - -In 1851 Miss Martineau edited a volume of _Letters on the Laws of Man's -Nature and Development_. Its form is that of a correspondence between -herself and H. G. Atkinson, and it expounds that doctrine of -philosophical atheism to which Miss Martineau in _Eastern Life_ had -depicted the course of human belief as tending. The existence of a first -cause is not denied, but is declared unknowable, and the authors, while -regarded by others as denying it, certainly considered themselves to be -affirming the doctrine of man's moral obligation. Atkinson was a zealous -exponent of mesmerism, and the prominence given to the topics of -mesmerism and clairvoyance heightened the general disapprobation of the -book, which caused a lasting division between Miss Martineau and some of -her friends. - -She published a condensed English version of the _Philosophie Positive_ -(1853). To the _Daily News_ she contributed regularly from 1852 to 1866. -Her _Letters from Ireland_, written during a visit to that country in -the summer of 1852, appeared in that paper. She was for many years a -contributor to the _Westminster Review_, and was one of the little band -of supporters whose pecuniary assistance in 1854 prevented its -extinction or forced sale. In the early part of 1855 Miss Martineau -found herself suffering from heart disease. She now began to write her -autobiography, but her life, which she supposed to be so near its close, -was prolonged for twenty years. She died at "The Knoll" on the 27th of -June 1876. - -She cultivated a tiny farm at Ambleside with success, and her poorer -neighbours owed much to her. Her busy life bears the consistent impress -of two leading characteristics--industry and sincerity. The verdict -which she records on herself in the autobiographical sketch left to be -published by the _Daily News_ has been endorsed by posterity. She -says--"Her original power was nothing more than was due to earnestness -and intellectual clearness within a certain range. With small -imaginative and suggestive powers, and therefore nothing approaching to -genius, she could see clearly what she did see, and give a clear -expression to what she had to say. In short, she could popularize while -she could neither discover nor invent." Her judgment on large questions -was clear and sound, and was always the judgment of a mind naturally -progressive and Protestant. - - See her _Autobiography, with Memorials by Maria Weston Chapman_ (1877) - and Mrs. Fenwick Miller, _Harriet Martineau_ (1884, "Eminent Women - Series"). - - - - -MARTINEAU, JAMES (1805-1900), English philosopher and divine, was born -at Norwich on the 21st of April 1805, the seventh child of Thomas -Martineau and Elizabeth Rankin, the sixth, his senior by almost three -years, being his sister Harriet (see above). He was descended from -Gaston Martineau, a Huguenot surgeon and refugee, who married in 1693 -Marie Pierre, and settled soon afterwards in Norwich. His son and -grandson--respectively the great-grandfather and grandfather of James -Martineau--were surgeons in the same city, while his father was a -manufacturer and merchant. James was educated at Norwich Grammar School -under Edward Valpy, as good a scholar as his better-known brother -Richard. But the boy proving too sensitive for the life of a public day -school, was sent to Bristol to the private academy of Dr Lant Carpenter, -under whom he studied for two years. On leaving he was apprenticed to a -civil engineer at Derby, where he acquired "a store of exclusively -scientific conceptions,"[1] but also experienced the hunger of mind -which forced him to look to religion for satisfaction. Hence came his -"conversion," and the sense of vocation for the ministry which impelled -him in 1822 to enter Manchester College, then lodged at York. Here he -"woke up to the interest of moral and metaphysical speculations." Of his -teachers, one, the Rev. Charles Wellbeloved, was, Martineau said, "a -master of the true Lardner type, candid and catholic, simple and -thorough, humanly fond indeed of the counsels of peace, but piously -serving every bidding of sacred truth." "He never justified a prejudice; -he never misdirected our admiration; he never hurt an innocent feeling -or overbore a serious judgment; and he set up within us a standard of -Christian scholarship to which it must ever exalt us to aspire."[2] The -other, the Rev. John Kenrick, he described as a man so learned as to be -placed by Dean Stanley "in the same line with Blomfield and -Thirlwall,"[3] and as "so far above the level of either vanity or -dogmatism, that cynicism itself could not think of them in his -presence."[4] - -On leaving the college in 1827 Martineau returned to Bristol to teach in -the school of Lant Carpenter; but in the following year he was ordained -for a Unitarian church in Dublin, whose senior minister was a relative -of his own. But his career there was in 1832 suddenly cut short by -difficulties growing out of the "regium donum," which had on the death -of the senior minister fallen to him. He conceived it as "a religious -monopoly" to which "the nation at large contributes," while -"Presbyterians alone receive," and which placed him in "a relation to -the state" so "seriously objectionable" as to be "impossible to -hold."[5] The invidious distinction it drew between Presbyterians on the -one hand, and Catholics, Friends, free-thinking Christians, unbelievers -and Jews on the other, who were compelled to support a ministry they -"conscientiously disapproved," offended his always delicate conscience; -while possibly the intellectual and ecclesiastical atmosphere of the -city proved uncongenial to his liberal magnanimity. From Dublin he was -called to Liverpool, and there for a quarter of a century he exercised -extraordinary influence as a preacher, and achieved a high reputation as -a writer in religious philosophy. In 1840 he was appointed professor of -mental and moral philosophy and political economy in Manchester New -College, the seminary in which he had himself been educated, and which -had now removed from York to the city after which it was named. This -position he held for forty-five years. In 1853 the college removed to -London, and four years later he followed it thither. In 1858 he was -called to occupy the pulpit of Little Portland Street chapel in London, -which he did at first for two years in conjunction with the Rev. J. J. -Tayler, who was also his colleague in the college, and then for twelve -years alone. In 1866 the chair of the philosophy of mind and logic in -University College, London, fell vacant, and Martineau became a -candidate. But potent opposition was offered to the appointment of a -minister of religion, and the chair went to George Croom Robertson--then -an untried man--between whom and Martineau a cordial friendship came to -exist. In 1885 he retired, full of years and honours, from the -principalship of the college he had so long served and adorned. -Martineau, who was in his youth denied the benefit of a university -education, yet in his age found famous universities eager to confer upon -him their highest distinctions. He was made LL.D. of Harvard in 1872, -S.T.D. of Leiden in 1874, D.D. of Edinburgh in 1884, D.C.L. of Oxford in -1888 and D.Litt. of Dublin in 1891. He died in London on the 11th of -January 1900. - -The life of Martineau was so essentially the life of the thinker, and -was so typical of the century in which he lived and the society within -which he moved, that he can be better understood through his spoken mind -than through his outward history. He was a man happy in his ancestry; he -inherited the dignity, the reserve, the keen and vivid intellect, and -the picturesque imagination of the French Huguenot, though they came to -him chastened and purified by generations of Puritan discipline -exercised under the gravest ecclesiastical disabilities, and of culture -maintained in the face of exclusion from academic privileges. He had the -sweet and patient temper which knew how to live, unrepining and -unsoured, in the midst of the most watchful persecution, public and -private; and it is wonderful how rarely he used his splendid rhetoric -for the purposes of invective against the spirit and policy from which -he must have suffered deeply, while, it may be added, he never hid an -innuendo under a metaphor or a trope. He was fundamentally too much a -man of strong convictions to be correctly described as open-minded, for -if nature ever determined any man's faith, it was his; the root of his -whole intellectual life, which was too deep to be disturbed by any -superficial change in his philosophy, being the feeling for God. He has, -indeed, described in graphic terms the greatest of the more superficial -changes he underwent; how he had "carried into logical and ethical -problems the maxims and postulates of physical knowledge," and had moved -within the narrow lines drawn by the philosophical instructions of the -class-room "interpreting human phenomena by the analogy of external -nature"; how he served in willing captivity "the 'empirical' and -'necessarian' mode of thought," even though "shocked" by the dogmatism -and acrid humours "of certain distinguished representatives";[6] and how -in a period of "second education" at Berlin, "mainly under the admirable -guidance of Professor Trendelenburg," he experienced "a new intellectual -birth" which "was essentially the gift of fresh conceptions, the -unsealing of hidden openings of self-consciousness, with unmeasured -corridors and sacred halls behind; and, once gained, was more or less -available throughout the history of philosophy, and lifted the darkness -from the pages of Kant and even Hegel."[7] But though this momentous -change of view illuminated his old beliefs and helped him to -re-interpret and re-articulate them, yet it made him no more of a theist -than he had been before. And as his theism was, so was his religion and -his philosophy. Certainly it was true of him, in a far higher degree -than of John Henry Newman, that the being of God and himself were to his -mind two absolutely self-luminous truths--though both his God and his -self were almost infinitely remote from Newman's. And as these truths -were self-evident, so the religion he deduced from them was sufficient, -not only for his own moral and intellectual nature, but also for man as -he conceived him, for history as he knew it, and for society as he saw -it. - - We may, alternatively, describe Martineau's religion as his applied - philosophy or his philosophy as his explicated religion, and both as - the expression of his singularly fine ethical and reverent nature. - But to understand these in their mutual and explanatory relations it - will be necessary to exhibit the conditions under which his thought - grew into consistency and system. His main function made him in his - early life a preacher even more emphatically than a teacher. In all he - said and all he thought he had the preacher's end in view. He was, - indeed, no mere orator or speaker to multitudes. He addressed a - comparatively small and select circle, a congregation of thoughtful - and devout men, who cultivated reverence and loved religion all the - more that their own beliefs were limited to the simplest and sublimest - truths. He felt the majesty of these truths to be the greater that - they so represented to him not only the most fundamental of human - beliefs, but also all that man could be reasonably expected to - believe, though to believe with his whole reason. Hence the beliefs he - preached were never to him mere speculative ideas, but rather the - ultimate realities of being and thought, the final truths as to the - character and ways of God interpreted into a law for the government of - conscience and the regulation of life. And so he became a positive - religious teacher by virtue of the very ideas that made the words of - the Hebrew prophets so potent and sublime. But he did more than - interpret to his age the significance of man's ultimate theistic - beliefs, he gave them vitality by reading them through the - consciousness of Jesus Christ. His religion was what he conceived the - personal religion of Jesus to have been; and He was to him more a - person to be imitated than an authority to be obeyed, rather an ideal - to be revered than a being to be worshipped. - - Martineau's mental qualities fitted him to fulfil these high - interpretative functions. He had the imagination that invested with - personal being and ethical qualities the most abstruse notions. To him - space became a mode of divine activity, alive with the presence and - illuminated by the vision of God; time was an arena where the divine - hand guided and the divine will reigned. And though he did not believe - in the Incarnation, yet he held deity to be in a sense manifest in - humanity; its saints and heroes became, in spite of innumerable - frailties, after a sort divine; man underwent an apotheosis, and all - life was touched with the dignity and the grace which it owed to its - source. The 19th century had no more reverent thinker than Martineau; - the awe of the Eternal was the very atmosphere that he breathed, and - he looked at man with the compassion of one whose thoughts were full - of God. - - To his function as a preacher we owe some of his most characteristic - and stimulating works, especially the discourses by which it may be - said he won his way to wide and influential recognition--_Endeavours - after the Christian Life_, 1st series, 1843; 2nd series, 1847; _Hours - of Thought_, 1st series, 1876; 2nd series, 1879; the various - hymn-books he issued at Dublin in 1831, at Liverpool in 1840, in - London in 1873; and the _Home Prayers_ in 1891. But besides the - vocation he had freely selected and assiduously laboured to fulfil, - two more external influences helped to shape Martineau's mind and - define his problem and his work; the awakening of English thought to - the problems which underlie both philosophy and religion, and the new - and higher opportunities offered for their discussion in the - periodical press. The questions which lived in the earlier and more - formative period of his life concerned mainly the idea of the church, - the historical interpretation of the documents which described the - persons who had created the Christian religion, especially the person - and work of its founder; but those most alive in his later and maturer - time chiefly related to the philosophy of religion and ethics. In one - respect Martineau was singularly happy; he just escaped the active - and, on the whole, belittling period of the old Unitarian controversy. - When his ministry began its fires were slowly dying down, though the - embers still glowed. We feel its presence in his earliest notable - work, _The Rationale of Religious Enquiry_, 1836; and may there see - the rigour with which it applied audacious logic to narrow premisses, - the tenacity with which it clung to a limited literal supernaturalism - which it had no philosophy to justify, and so could not believe - without historical and verbal authority. This traditional conservatism - survived in the statement, which, while it caused vehement discussion - when the book appeared, was yet not so much characteristic of the man - as of the school in which he had been trained, that "in no - intelligible sense can any one who denies the supernatural origin of - the religion of Christ be termed a Christian," which term, he - explained, was used not as "a name of praise," but simply as "a - designation of belief."[8] He censured the German rationalists "for - having preferred, by convulsive efforts of interpretation, to compress - the memoirs of Christ and His apostles into the dimensions of ordinary - life, rather than admit the operation of miracle on the one hand, or - proclaim their abandonment of Christianity on the other."[9] The - echoes of the dying controversy are thus distinct and not very distant - in this book, though it also offers in its larger outlook, in the - author's evident uneasiness under the burden of inherited beliefs, and - his inability to reconcile them with his new standpoint and accepted - principles, a curious forecast of his later development, while in its - positive premisses it presents a still more instructive contrast to - the conclusions of his later dialectic. Nor did the sound of the - ancient controversy ever cease to be audible to him. In 1839 he sprang - to the defence of Unitarian doctrine, which had been assailed by - certain Liverpool clergymen, of whom Fielding Ould was the most active - and Hugh McNeill the most famous. As his share in the controversy, - Martineau published five discourses, in which he discussed "the Bible - as the great autobiography of human nature from its infancy to its - perfection," "the Deity of Christ," "Vicarious Redemption," "Evil," - and "Christianity without Priest and without Ritual."[10] He remained - to the end a keen and vigilant apologist of the school in which he had - been nursed. But the questions proper to the new day came swiftly upon - his quick and susceptible mind--enlarged, deepened and developed it. - Within his own fold new light was breaking. To W. E. Channing (q.v.), - whom Martineau had called "the inspirer of his youth," Theodore Parker - had succeeded, introducing more radical ideas as to religion and a - more drastic criticism of sacred history. Blanco White, "the - rationalist A'Kempis," who had dared to appear as "a religious sceptic - in God's presence," had found a biographer and interpreter in - Martineau's friend and colleague, John Hamilton Thom. Within the - English Church men with whom he had both personal and religious - sympathy rose--Whately, of whom he said, "We know no living writer who - has proved so little and disproved so much";[11] and Thomas Arnold, "a - man who could be a hero without romance";[12] F. D. Maurice, whose - character, marked by "religious realism," sought in the past "the - witness to eternal truths, the manifestation by time-samples of - infinite realities and unchanging relations";[13] and Charles - Kingsley, "a great teacher," though one "certain to go astray the - moment he becomes didactic."[14] Beside these may be placed men like - E. B. Pusey and J. H. Newman, whose mind Martineau said was "critical, - not prophetic, since without immediateness of religious vision," and - whose faith is "an escape from an alternative scepticism, which - receives the _veto_ not of his reason but of his will,"[15] as men for - whose teachings and methods he had a potent and stimulating antipathy. - The philosophic principles and religious deductions of Dean Mansel he - disliked as much as those of Newman, but he respected his arguments - more. Apart from the Churches, men like Carlyle and Matthew - Arnold--with whom he had much in common--influenced him; while Herbert - Spencer in England and Comte in France afforded the antithesis needful - to the dialectical development of his own views. He came to know - German philosophy and criticism, especially the criticism of Baur and - the Tubingen school, which affected profoundly his construction of - Christian history. And these were strengthened by French influences, - notably those of Renan and the Strassburg theologians. The rise of - evolution, and the new scientific way of looking at nature and her - creative methods, compelled him to rethink and reformulate his - theistic principles and conclusions, especially as to the forms under - which the relation of God to the world and His action within it could - be conceived. Under the impulses which came from these various sides - Martineau's mind lived and moved, and as they successively rose he - promptly, by appreciation or criticism, responded to the dialectical - issues which they raised. - - In the discussion of these questions the periodical press supplied him - with the opportunity of taking an effective part. At first his - literary activity was limited to sectional publications, and he - addressed his public, now as editor and now as leading contributor, in - the _Monthly Repository_, the _Christian Reformer_, the _Prospective_, - the Westminster and the _National Review_. Later, especially when - scientific speculation had made the theistic problem urgent, he was a - frequent contributor to the literary monthlies. And when in 1890 he - began to gather together the miscellaneous essays and papers written - during a period of sixty years, he expressed the hope that, though - "they could lay no claim to logical consistency," they might yet show - "beneath the varying complexion of their thought some intelligible - moral continuity," "leading in the end to a view of life more coherent - and less defective than was presented at the beginning."[16] And - though it is a proud as well as a modest hope, no one could call it - unjustified. For his essays are fine examples of permanent literature - appearing in an ephemeral medium, and represent work which has solid - worth for later thought as well as for the speculation of their own - time. There is hardly a name or a movement in the religious history of - the century which he did not touch and illuminate. It was in this form - that he criticized the "atheistic mesmerism" to which his sister - Harriet had committed herself, and she never forgave his criticism. - But his course was always singularly independent, and, though one of - the most affectionate and most sensitive of men, yet it was his - fortune to be so fastidious in thought and so conscientious in - judgment as often to give offence or create alarm in those he deeply - respected or tenderly loved. - - The theological and philosophical discussions which thus appeared he - later described as "the tentatives which gradually prepared the way - for the more systematic expositions of the _Types of Ethical_ - _Theory_ and _The Study of Religion_, and, in some measure, of _The - Seat of Authority in Religion_."[17] These books expressed his mature - thought, and may be said to contain, in what he conceived as a final - form, the speculative achievements of his life. They appeared - respectively in 1885, 1888 and 1890, and were without doubt remarkable - feats to be performed by a man who had passed his eightieth year. - Their literary and speculative qualities are indeed exceptionally - brilliant; they are splendid in diction, elaborate in argument, cogent - yet reverent, keen while fearless in criticism. But they have also - most obvious defects: they are unquestionably the books of an old man - who had thought much as well as spoken and written often on the themes - he discusses, yet who had finally put his material together in haste - at a time when his mind had lost, if not its dialectic vigour, yet its - freshness and its sense of proportion; and who had been so accustomed - to amplify the single stages of his argument that he had forgotten how - much they needed to be reduced to scale and to be built into an - organic whole. In the first of these books his nomenclature is - unfortunate; his division of ethical theories into the - "unpsychological," "idiopsychological," and the - "hetero-psychological," is incapable of historical justification; his - exposition of single ethical systems is, though always interesting and - suggestive, often arbitrary and inadequate, being governed by - dialectical exigencies rather than historical order and perspective. - In the second of the above books his idea of religion is somewhat of - an anachronism; as he himself confessed, he "used the word in the - sense which it invariably bore half a century ago," as denoting - "belief in an ever-living God, a divine mind and will ruling the - universe and holding moral relations with mankind." As thus used, it - was a term which governed the problems of speculative theism rather - than those connected with the historical origin, the evolution and the - organization of religion. And these are the questions which are now to - the front. These criticisms mean that his most elaborate discussions - came forty years too late, for they were concerned with problems which - agitated the middle rather than the end of the 19th century. But if we - pass from this criticism of form to the actual contents of the two - books, we are bound to confess that they constitute a wonderfully - cogent and persuasive theistic argument. That argument may be - described as a criticism of man and his world used as a basis for the - construction of a reasoned idea of nature and being. Man and nature, - thought and being, fitted each other. What was implicit in nature had - become explicit in man; the problem of the individual was one with the - problem of universal experience. The interpretation of man was - therefore the interpretation of his universe. Emphasis was made to - fall on the reason, the conscience and the will of the finite - personality; and just as these were found to be native in him they - were held to be immanent in the cause of his universe. What lived in - time belonged to eternity; the microcosm was the epitome of the - macrocosm; the reason which reigned in man interpreted the law that - was revealed in conscience and the power which governed human destiny, - while the freedom which man realized was the direct negation both of - necessity and of the operation of any fortuitous cause in the cosmos. - - It was not possible, however, that the theistic idea could be - discussed in relation to nature only. It was necessary that it should - be applied to history and to the forces and personalities active - within it. And of these the greatest was of course the Person that had - created the Christian religion. What did Jesus signify? What authority - belonged to Him and to the books that contain His history and - interpret His person? This was the problem which Martineau attempted - to deal with in _The Seat of Authority in Religion_. The workmanship - of the book is unequal: historical and literary criticism had never - been Martineau's strongest point, although he had almost continuously - maintained an amount of New Testament study, as his note-books show. - In its speculative parts the book is quite equal to those that had - gone before, but in its literary and historical parts there are - indications of a mind in which a long-practised logic had become a - rooted habit. While a comparison of his expositions of the Pauline and - Johannine Christologies with the earlier Unitarian exegesis in which - he had been trained shows how wide is the interval, the work does not - represent a mind that had throughout its history lived and worked in - the delicate and judicial investigations he here tried to conduct. - -Martineau's theory of the religious society or church was that of an -idealist rather than of a statesman or practical politician. He stood -equally remote from the old Voluntary principle, that "the State had -nothing to do with religion," and from the sacerdotal position that the -clergy stood in an apostolic succession, and either constituted the -Church or were the persons into whose hands its guidance had been -committed. He hated two things intensely, a sacrosanct priesthood and an -enforced uniformity. He may be said to have believed in the sanity and -sanctity of the state rather than of the Church. Statesmen he could -trust as he would not trust ecclesiastics. And so he even propounded a -scheme, which fell still-born, that would have repealed uniformity, -taken the church out of the hands of a clerical order, and allowed the -coordination of sects or churches under the state. Not that he would -have allowed the state to touch doctrine, to determine polity or -discipline; but he would have had it to recognize historical -achievement, religious character and capacity, and endow out of its -ample resources those societies which had vindicated their right to be -regarded as making for religion. His ideal may have been academic, but -it was the dream of a mind that thought nobly both of religion and of -the state. - - See _Life and Letters_ by J. Drummond and C. B. Upton (2 vols., 1901); - J. E. Carpenter, _James Martineau, Theologian and Teacher_ (1905); J. - Crawford, _Recollections_ of James Martineau (1903); A. W. Jackson, - _James Martineau, a Biography and a Study_ (Boston, 1900); H. - Sidgwick, _Lectures on the Ethics of Green, Spencer and Martineau_ - (1902); and J. Hunt, _Religious Thought in England in the 19th - Century_. (A. M. F.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] _Types of Ethical Theory_, i. 8. - - [2] _Essays, Reviews and Addresses_, iv. 54. - - [3] Ibid. i. 397. - - [4] _Essays, Reviews and Addresses_, i. 419. - - [5] Martineau's "Letter to the Dissenting Congregation of Eustace - Street" (Dublin). - - [6] _Types of Ethical Theory_, i. pp. vii.-ix. - - [7] Ibid. p. xiii. - - [8] _Rationale_, 2nd ed., pref., p. vii. - - [9] Ibid. p. 133. - - [10] They stand as Lectures ii., v., vi., xi., xii. in the volume - _Unitarianism Defended_, 1839. - - [11] Essays, _Reviews and Addresses_, ii. 10. - - [12] Ibid. i. 46. - - [13] Ibid. i. 258, 262. - - [14] Ibid. ii. 285. - - [15] Ibid. i. 233. - - [16] _Essays, Reviews and Addresses_, i., iii. - - [17] Ibid, iii., pref., p. vi. - - - - -MARTINET, a military term (more generally used in a disparaging than in -a complimentary sense) implying a strict disciplinarian or drill-master. -The term originated in the French army about the middle of Louis XIV.'s -reign, and was derived from Jean Martinet (d. 1672), who as -lieutenant-colonel of the King's regiment of foot and inspector-general -of infantry drilled and trained that arm in the model regular army -created by Louis and Louvois between 1660 and 1670. Martinet seems also -to have introduced the copper pontoons with which Louis bridged the -Rhine in 1672. He was killed, as a _marechal de camp_, at the siege of -Duisburg in the same year, being accidentally shot by bis own artillery -while leading the infantry assault. His death, and that of the Swiss -captain Soury by the same discharge gave rise to a _bon mot_, typical of -the polite ingratitude of the age, that Duisburg had only cost the king -a martin and a mouse. The "martin" as a matter of fact shares with -Vauban and other professional soldiers of Louis XIV. the glory of having -made the French army the first and best regular army in Europe. Great -nobles, such as Turenne, Conde and Luxemburg, led this army and inspired -it, but their fame has obscured that of the men who made it manageable -and efficient. It was about this time that the soldier of fortune, who -joined a regiment with his own arms and equipment and had learned his -trade by varied experience, began to give place to the soldier regularly -enlisted as a recruit in permanent regiments and trained by his own -officers. The consequence of this was the introduction of a uniform, or -nearly uniform system of drill and training, which in all essentials has -endured to the present day. Thus Martinet was the forerunner of Leopold -of Dessau and Frederick William, just as Jean Jacques de Fourilles, the -organizer of the cavalry, who was forced into an untimely charge at -Seneffe (1674) by a brutal taunt of Conde, and there met his death, was -the forerunner of Zieten and Seydlitz. These men, while differing from -the creators of the Prussian army in that they contributed nothing to -the tactics of their arms, at least made tactics possible by the -thorough drilling and organization they imparted to the formerly -heterogeneous and hardly coherent elements of an army. - - - - -MARTINEZ DE LA ROSA, FRANCISCO DE PAULA (1789-1862), Spanish statesman -and dramatist, was born on the 10th of March 1789 at Granada, and -educated at the university there. He won popularity with a series of -epigrams on local celebrities published under the title of _El -Cementerio de momo_. During the struggle against Napoleon he took the -patriotic side, was elected deputy, and at Cadiz produced his first -play, _Lo que puede un empleo_, a prose comedy in the manner of the -younger Moratin. _La Viuda de Padilla_ (1814), a tragedy modelled upon -Alfieri, was less acceptable to the Spanish public. Meanwhile the author -became more and more engulfed in politics, and in 1814 was banished to -Africa, where he remained till 1820, when he was suddenly recalled and -appointed prime minister. During the next three years he was the most -unpopular man in Spain; denounced as a revolutionist by the -Conservatives and as a reactionary by the Liberals, he alienated the -sympathies of all parties, and his rhetoric earned for him the -contemptuous nickname of _Rosita la Pastelera_. Exiled in 1823, he took -refuge in Paris, where he issued his _Obras literarias_ (1827), -including his _Arte poetica_, in which he exaggerated the literary -theories already promulgated by Luzan. Returning to Spain in 1831, he -became prime minister on the death of Ferdinand VII., but proved -incapable of coping with the insurrectionary movement and resigned in -1834. He was ambassador at Paris in 1839-1840 and at Rome in 1842-1843, -joined the Conservative party, held many important offices, and was -president of congress and director of the Spanish academy at the time of -his death, which took place at Madrid on the 7th of February 1862. As a -statesman, Martinez de la Rosa never rose above mediocrity. It was his -misfortune to be in place without real power, to struggle against a -turbulent pseudo-democratic movement promoted by unscrupulous soldiers, -and to contend with the intrigues of the king, the court camarilla and -the clergy. But circumstances which hampered him in politics favoured -his career in literature. He was not a great natural force; his early -plays and poems are influenced by Moratin or by Melendez Valdes; his -_Espiritu del siglo_ (1835) is an elegant summary of all the -commonplaces concerning the philosophy of history; his _Dona Isabel de -Solis_ (1837-1846) is a weak imitation of Walter Scott's historical -novels. Still his place in the history of Spanish literature is secure, -if not eminent. Through the happy accident of his exile at Paris he was -thrown into relations with the leaders of the French romantic movement, -and was so far impressed with the innovations of the new school as to -write in French a romantic piece entitled _Aben-Humeya_ (1830), which -was played at the Porte Saint-Martin. The experiment was not -unsuccessful, and on his return to Madrid Martinez de la Rosa produced -_La Conjuration de Venecia_ (April 23, 1834), which entitles him to be -called the pioneer of the romantic drama in Spain. The play is more -reminiscent of Casimir Delavigne than of Victor Hugo; but it was -unquestionably effective, and smoothed the way for the bolder essays of -Rivas, Garcia Gutierrez and Hartzenbusch. - - - - -MARTINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1706-1784), Italian musician, was born at -Bologna on the 24th of April 1706. His father, Antonio Maria Martini, a -violinist, taught him the elements of music and the violin; later he -learned singing and harpsichord playing from Padre Pradieri, and -counterpoint from Antonio Riccieri. Having received his education in -classics from the fathers of the oratory of San Filippo Neri, he -afterwards entered upon a noviciate at the Franciscan monastery at Lago, -at the close of which he was received as a Minorite on the 11th of -September 1722. In 1725, though only nineteen years old, he received the -appointment of chapel-master in the Franciscan church at Bologna, where -his compositions attracted attention. At the invitation of amateurs and -professional friends he opened a school of composition at which several -celebrated musicians were trained; as a teacher he consistently declared -his preference for the traditions of the old Roman school of -composition. Padre Martini was a zealous collector of musical -literature, and possessed an extensive musical library. Burney estimated -it at 17,000 volumes; after Martini's death a portion of it passed to -the Imperial library at Vienna, the rest remaining in Bologna, now in -the Liceo Rossini. Most contemporary musicians speak of Martini with -admiration, and Mozart's father consulted him with regard to the talents -of his son. Abt Vogler, however, makes reservations in his praise, -condemning his philosophical principles as too much in sympathy with -those of Fox, which had already been expressed by P. Vallotti. He died -at Bologna on the 4th of August 1784. His _Elogio_ was published by -Pietro della Valle at Bologna in the same year. - - The greater number of Martini's sacred compositions remain unprinted. - The Liceo of Bologna possesses the MSS. of two oratorios; and a - requiem, with some other pieces of church music, are now in Vienna. - _Litaniae atque antiphonae finales B. V. Mariae_ were published at - Bologna in 1734, as also twelve _Sonate d'intavolatura_; six _Sonate - per l'organo ed il cembalo_ in 1747; and Duetti da camera in 1763. - Martini's most important works are his _Storia della musica_ (Bologna, - 1757-1781) and his _Saggio di contrapunto_ (Bologna, 1774-1775). The - former, of which the three published volumes relate wholly to ancient - music, and thus represent a mere fragment of the author's vast plan, - exhibits immense reading and industry, but is written in a dry and - unattractive style, and is overloaded with matter which cannot be - regarded as historical. At the beginning and end of each chapter - occur puzzle-canons, wherein the primary part or parts alone are - given, and the reader has to discover the canon that fixes the period - and the interval at which the response is to enter. Some of these are - exceedingly difficult, but Cherubini solved the whole of them. The - _Saggio_ is a learned and valuable work, containing an important - collection of examples from the best masters of the old Italian and - Spanish schools, with excellent explanatory notes. It treats chiefly - of the tonalities of the plain chant, and of counterpoints constructed - upon them. Besides being the author of several controversial works, - Martini drew up a _Dictionary of Ancient Musical Terms_, which - appeared in the second volume of G. B. Doni's _Works_; he also - published a treatise on _The Theory of Numbers as applied to Music_. - His celebrated canons, published in London, about 1800, edited by Pio - Cianchettini, show him to have had a strong sense of musical humour. - - - - -MARTINI, SIMONE (1283-1344), Sienese painter, called also Simone di -Martino, and more commonly, but not correctly, Simon Memmi,[1] was born -in 1283. He followed the manner of painting proper to his native Siena, -as improved by Duccio, which is essentially different from the style of -Giotto and his school, and the idea that Simone was himself a pupil of -Giotto is therefore wide of the mark. The Sienese style is less natural, -dignified and reserved than the Florentine; it has less unity of -impression, has more tendency to pietism, and is marked by exaggerations -which are partly related to the obsolescent Byzantine manner, and partly -seem to forebode certain peculiarities of the fully developed art which -we find prevalent in Michelangelo. Simone, in especial, tended to an -excessive and rather affected tenderness in his female figures; he was -more successful in single figures and in portraits than in large -compositions of incident. He finished with scrupulous minuteness, and -was elaborate in decorations of patterning, gilding, &c. - -The first known fresco of Simone is the vast one which he executed in -the hall of the Palazzo Pubblico in Siena--the "Madonna Enthroned, with -the Infant," and a number of angels and saints; its date is 1315, at -which period he was already an artist of repute throughout Italy. In S. -Lorenzo Maggiore of Naples he painted a life-sized picture of King -Robert crowned by his brother Lewis, bishop of Toulouse; this also is -extant, but much damaged. In 1320 he painted for the high altar of the -church of S. Caterina in Pisa the Virgin and Child between six saints; -above are archangels, apostles and other figures. The compartmented -portions of this work are now dispersed, some of them being in the -academy of Siena. Towards 1321 he executed for the church of S. Domenico -in Orvieto a picture of the bishop of Savona kneeling before the Madonna -attended by saints, now in the Fabriceria of the cathedral. Certain -frescoes in Assisi in the chapel of San Martino, representing the life -of that saint, ascribed by Vasari to Puccio Capanna, are now, upon -internal evidence, assigned to Simone. He painted also, in the south -transept of the lower church of the same edifice, figures of the Virgin -and eight saints. In 1328 he produced for the sala del consilio in Siena -a striking equestrian portrait of the victorious general Guidoriccio -Fogliani de' Ricci. - -Simone had married in 1324 Giovanna, the daughter of Memmo (Guglielmo) -di Filippuccio. Her brother, named Lippo Memmi, was also a painter, and -was frequently associated with Simone in his work; and this is the only -reason why Simone has come down to us with the family-name Memmi. They -painted together in 1333 the "Annunciation" which is now in the Uffizi -gallery. Simone kept a bottega (or shop), undertaking any ornamental -work, and his gains were large. In 1339 he settled at the papal court in -Avignon, where he made the acquaintance of Petrarch and Laura; and he -painted for the poet a portrait of his lady, which gave occasion for two -of Petrarch's sonnets, in which Simone is eulogized. He also illuminated -for the poet a copy of the commentary of Servius upon Virgil, now -preserved in the Ambrosian library of Milan. He was largely employed in -the decorations of the papal buildings in Avignon, and several of his -works still remain--in the cathedral, in the hall of the consistory, -and, in the two chapels of the palace, the stories of the Baptist, and -of Stephen and other saints. One of his latest productions (1342) is the -picture of "Christ Found by his Parents in the Temple," now in the -Liverpool Gallery. Simone died in Avignon in July 1344. - - Some of the works with which Simone's name and fame have been - generally identified are not now regarded as his. Such are the - compositions, in the Campo Santo of Pisa, from the legend of S. - Ranieri, and the "Assumption of the Virgin"; and the great frescoes in - the Cappellone degli Spagnuoli, in S. Maria Novella, Florence, - representing the Triumph of Religion through the work of the Dominican - order, &c. (W. M. R.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The ordinary account of Simone is that given by Vasari, and since - repeated in a variety of forms. Modern research shows that it is far - from correct, the incidents being erroneous, and the paintings - attributed to Simone in various principal instances not his. We - follow the authority of Crowe and Cavalcaselle. - - - - -MARTINIQUE, an island of the West Indies, belonging to the chain of the -Lesser Antilles, and constituting a French colony, between the British -islands of Dominica and St Lucia, 25 m. S. of the one and 20 m. N. of -the other, about 14 deg. 40' N., 61 deg. W. Its length is 40 m., its -greatest width 21 m.; and the area comprises 380 sq. m. A cluster of -volcanic mountains in the north, a similar group in the south, and a -line of lower heights between them, form the backbone of the island. Its -deep ravines and precipitous escarpments are reduced in appearance to -gentle undulations by the drapery of the forests. The massif of Mont -Pele in the north is the culminating point of the island (4430 ft.); -that of Carbet is little inferior (3963 ft.), but the mountains in the -south are much lower. Mont Pele is notorious for an appalling eruption -in May 1902. - - Of the numerous streams which traverse the few miles of country - between the watershed and the sea (the longest radiating from Mount - Carbet), about seventy-five are of considerable size, and in the rainy - season become deep and often destructive torrents. On the north-west - and north the coast is elevated and bold; and similarly on the south, - where a lateral range, branching from the backbone of the island, - forms a blunt peninsula bounding the low-shored western bay of Fort de - France on the south. Another peninsula, called Caravelle, projects - from the middle part of the east coast, and south of this the coast is - low and fretted, with many islets and cays lying off it. Coral reefs - occur especially in this locality. Plains, most numerous and extensive - in the south, occupy about one-third of the total area of the island. - - The mean annual temperature is 80 deg. F. in the coast region, the - monthly mean for June being 83 deg., and that for January 77 deg. Of - the annual rainfall of 87 in., August has the heaviest share (11.3 - in.), though the rainy season extends from June to October; March, the - driest month, has 3.7. Martinique enjoys a marked immunity from - hurricanes. The low coastal districts are not very healthy for - Europeans in the hotter months, but there are numerous sanatoria in - the forest region at an elevation of about 1500 ft., where the average - temperature is some 10 deg. F. lower than that already quoted. The - north winds which prevail from November to February are comparatively - fresh and dry; those from the south (July to October) are damp and - warm. From March to June easterly winds are prevalent. - -The population increased from 162,861 in 1878 to 175,863 in 1888 and -203,781 in 1901. In 1902 the great eruption of Mont Pele occurred, and -in 1905 the population was only 182,024. The bulk of the population -consists of Creole negroes and half-castes of various grades, ranging -from the "Saccatra," who has retained hardly any trace of Caucasian -blood, to the so-called "Sangmele," with only a suspicion of negro -commixture. The capital of the island is Fort de France, on the -west-coast bay of the same name, with a fine harbour defended by three -forts, and a population of 18,000. The other principal centres of -population are, on the west coast Lamentin, on the same bay as the -capital, and on the east coast Le Francois and Le Robert. The colony is -administered by a governor and a general council, and returns a senator -and two deputies. There are elective municipal councils. The chief -product is sugar, and some coffee, cocoa, tobacco and cotton are grown. -The island is served by British, French and American steamship lines, -and local communications are carried on by small coasting steamers and -by subsidized mail coaches, as there are excellent roads. In 1905 the -total value of the exports, consisting mainly of sugar, rum and cocoa, -was L725,460, France taking by far the greater part, while imports were -valued at L596,294, of which rather more than one-half by value came -from France, the United States of America being the next principal -importing country. In 1903, the year following the eruption of Mont -Pele, exports were valued at L604,163. - -[Illustration: Map of Martinique.] - -Martinique, the name of which may be derived from a native form Madiana -or Mantinino, was probably discovered by Columbus on the 15th of June -1502; although by some authorities its discovery is placed in 1493. It -was at that time inhabited by Caribs who had expelled or incorporated an -older stock. It was not until the 25th of June 1635 that possession was -taken of the island in the name of the French _Compagnie des Iles -d'Amerique_. Actual settlement was carried out in the same year by -Pierre Belain, Sieur d'Esnambuc, captain-general of the island of St -Christopher. In 1637 his nephew Dyel Duparquet (d. 1658) became -captain-general of the colony, now numbering seven hundred men, and -subsequently obtained the seigneurie of the island by purchase from the -company under the authority of the king of France. In 1654 welcome was -given to three hundred Jews expelled from Brazil, and by 1658 there were -at least five thousand people exclusive of the Caribs, who were soon -after exterminated. Purchased by the French government from Duparquet's -children for 120,000 livres, Martinique was assigned to the West India -Company, but in 1674 it became part of the royal domain. The _habitants_ -(French landholders) at first devoted themselves to the cultivation of -cotton and tobacco; but in 1650 sugar plantations were begun, and in -1723 the coffee plant was introduced. Slave labour having been -introduced at an early period of the occupation, there were 60,000 -blacks in the island by 1736. This slavery was abolished in 1860. -Martinique had a full share of wars. In early days the Caribs were not -brought under subjection without severe struggles. In 1666 and 1667 the -island was attacked by the British without success, and hostilities were -terminated by the treaty of Breda. The Dutch made similar attempts in -1674, and the British again attacked the island in 1693. Captured by -Rodney in 1762, Martinique was next year restored to the French; but -after the conquest by Sir John Jervis and Sir Charles Grey in 1793 it -was retained for eight years; and, seized again in 1809, it was not -surrendered till 1814. The island was the birth-place of the Empress -Josephine. - -Martinique has suffered from occasional severe storms, as in 1767, when -1600 persons perished, and M. de la Pagerie, father of the Empress -Josephine, was practically ruined, and in 1839, 1891 and 1903, when much -damage was done to the sugar crop. Earthquakes have also been frequent, -but the most terrible natural disaster was the eruption of Mont Pele in -1902, by which the town of St Pierre, formerly the chief commercial -centre of the island, was destroyed. During the earlier months of the -year various manifestations of volcanic activity had occurred; on the -25th of April there was a heavy fall of ashes, and on the 2nd and 3rd of -May a heavy eruption destroyed extensive sugar plantations north of St -Pierre, and caused a loss of some 150 lives. A few days later the news -that the Souffriere in St Vincent was in eruption reassured the -inhabitants of St Pierre, as it was supposed that this outbreak might -relieve the volcano of Pele. But on the 8th of May the final catastrophe -came without warning; a mass of fire, compared to a flaming whirlwind, -swept over St Pierre, destroying the ships in the harbour, among which, -however, one, the "Roddam" of Scrutton, escaped. A fall of molten lava -and ashes followed the flames, accompanied by dense gases which -asphyxiated those who had thus far escaped. The total loss of life was -estimated at 40,000. Consternation was caused not only in the West -Indies, but in France and throughout the world, and at first it was -seriously suggested that the island should be evacuated, but no -countenance was lent to this proposal by the French government. Relief -measures were undertaken and voluntary subscriptions raised. The -material losses were estimated at L4,000,000; but, besides St Pierre, -only one-tenth of the island had been devastated, and although during -July there was further volcanic activity, causing more destruction, the -economic situation recovered more rapidly than was expected. - - See _Annuaire de la Martinique_ (Fort de France); H. Mouet, _La - Martinique_ (Paris, 1892); M. J. Guet, _Origines de la Martinique_ - (Vannes, 1893); G. Landes, _Notice sur la Martinique_ (with full - bibliography), (Paris, 1900); M. Dumoret, _Au pays du sucre_ (Paris, - 1902); and on the eruption of 1902, A. Heilprin, _Mont Pelee and the - Tragedy of Martinique_ (Philadelphia and London, 1903); A. Lacroix, - _La Montagne Pelee et ses eruptions_ (Paris, 1904); and the report of - Drs J. S. Flett and T. Anderson (November 20, 1902), who investigated - the eruptions on behalf of the Royal Society; cf. T. Anderson, "Recent - Volcanic Eruptions in the West Indies," in _Geographical Journal_, - vol. xxi. (1903). - - - - -MARTINSBURG, a town and the county-seat of Berkeley county, West -Virginia, U.S.A., about 74 m. W.N.W. of Washington, D.C. Pop. (1890) -7226; (1900) 7564 (678 negroes); (1910) 10,698. It is served by the -Baltimore & Ohio and the Cumberland Valley railways; the former has -repair shops here. It lies in the Lower Shenandoah Valley at the foot of -Little North mountain, in the midst of a fruit-growing region, peaches -and apples being the principal crops. Slate and limestone also abound in -the vicinity. The town has a fine Federal Building and a King's -Daughters' hospital. There are grain elevators, and various -manufactures, including hosiery, woollen goods, dressed lumber, &c. -Martinsburg owns its waterworks, the supply being derived from a -neighbouring spring. A town was laid out here a short time before the -War of Independence and was named Martinstown in honour of Colonel -Thomas Bryan Martin, a nephew of Thomas, Lord Fairfax (1692-1782); in -1778 it was incorporated under its present name. During the Civil War -Martinsburg was occupied by several different Union and Confederate -forces. - - - - -MARTINS FERRY, a city of Belmont county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Ohio -River, nearly opposite Wheeling, West Virginia. Pop. (1890), 6250; -(1900), 7760, including 1033 foreign-born and 252 negroes; (1910), 9133. -It is served by the Pennsylvania (Cleveland & Pittsburg Division), the -Baltimore & Ohio, and the Wheeling & Lake Erie (Wabash System) railways, -and by several steamboat lines. The city is situated on two plateaus; -the lower is occupied chiefly by factories, the upper by dwellings. Coal -mining and manufacturing are the principal industries; among factory -products are iron, steel, tin, stoves, machinery and glassware. The -municipality owns and operates the waterworks and an electric-lighting -plant. A settlement was attempted here in 1785, but was abandoned on -account of trouble with the Indians. In 1795 a town was laid out by -Absalom Martin and was called Jefferson, but this, too, was abandoned, -on account of its not being made the county-seat. The town was laid out -again in 1835 by Ebenezer Martin (son of Absalom Martin) and was called -Martinsville; the present name was substituted a few years later. The -Martins and other pioneers are buried in Walnut Grove Cemetery within -the city limits. Martins Ferry was incorporated as a town in 1865 and -chartered as a city in 1885. - - - - -MARTINUZZI, GEORGE [GYORGY UTIE[VS]ENOVI['C]] (1482-1551), Hungarian -statesman, who, since he usually signed himself "Frater Georgius," is -known in Hungarian history as FRATER GYORGY or simply THE FRATER, was -born at Kamicic in Croatia, the son of Gregory Utiesenovi['c], a -Croatian gentleman. His mother was a Martinuzzi, a Venetian patrician -family. From his eighth to his twentieth year he was attached to the -court of John Corvinus; subsequently, entering the service of the -Zapolya family, he saw something of warfare under John Zapolya but, -tiring of a military life, he entered the Paulician Order in his -twenty-eighth year. His historical career began when his old patron -Zapolya, now king of Hungary, forced to fly before his successful rival -Ferdinand, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand I., sent him on a diplomatic -mission to Hungary. It was due to his tact and ability that John -recovered Buda (1529), and henceforth Frater Gyorgy became his treasurer -and chief counsellor. In 1534 he became bishop of Grosswardein; in 1538 -he concluded with Austria the peace of Grosswardein, whereby the royal -title and the greater part of Hungary were conceded to Zapolya. King -John left the Frater the guardian of his infant son John Sigismund, who -was proclaimed and crowned king of Hungary, the Frater acting as regent. -He frustrated all the attempts of the queen mother, Isabella, to bring -in the Austrians, and when, in 1541, an Austrian army appeared beneath -the walls of Buda, he arrested the queen and applied to the Porte for -help. On the 28th of August 1541, the Frater did homage to the sultan, -but during his absence with the baby king in the Turkish camp, the grand -vizier took Buda by subtlety. Then only the Frater recognized the -necessity of a composition with both Austria and Turkey. He attained it -by the treaty of Gyula (Dec. 29, 1541), whereby western Hungary fell to -Ferdinand, while Transylvania, as an independent principality under -Turkish suzerainty, reverted to John Sigismund. It included, besides -Transylvania proper, many Hungarian counties on both sides of the -Theiss, and the important city of Kassa. It was the Frater's policy to -preserve Transylvania neutral and intact by cultivating amicable -relations with Austria without offending the Porte. It was a difficult -policy, but succeeded brilliantly for a time. In 1545, encouraged by the -growing unpopularity of Ferdinand, owing to his incapacity to defend -Hungary against the Turks, the Frater was tempted to unite Austrian -Hungary to Transylvania and procure the election of John Sigismund as -the national king. But recognizing that this was impossible, he aimed at -an alliance with Ferdinand on terms of relative equality, and to this -system he adhered till his death. Queen Isabella, who hated the Frater -and constantly opposed him, complained of him to the sultan, who -commanded that either the traitor himself or his head should be sent to -Constantinople (1550). A combination was then formed against him of the -queen, the hospodars of Moldavia and Wallachia and the Turks; but the -Frater shut the queen up in Gyula-Fehervar, drove the hospodars out of -Transylvania, defeated the Turks at Deva, and finally compelled Isabella -to accept a composition with Austria very profitable to her family and -to Transylvania, at the same time soothing the rage of the sultan by -flatteries and gifts. This compact, a masterpiece of statesmanship, was -confirmed by the diet of Kolozsvar in August 1551. The Frater retained -the governorship of Transylvania, and was subsequently consecrated -archbishop of Esztergom and received the red hat. Thus Hungary was once -more reunited, but the inability of Ferdinand to defend it against the -Turks, as promised, forced the Frater, for the common safety, to resume -the payment of tribute to the Porte in December 1551. Unfortunately, the -Turks no longer trusted a diplomatist they could not understand, while -Ferdinand suspected him of an intention to secure Hungary for himself. -When the Turks (in 1551) took Csanad and other places, the Frater and -the imperial generals Castaldo and Pallavicini combined their forces -against the common foe; but when the Frater privately endeavoured to -mediate between the Turks and the Hungarians, Castaldo represented him -to Ferdinand as a traitor, and asked permission to kill him if -necessary. The Frater's secretary Marco Aurelio Ferrari was hired, and -stabbed his master from behind at the castle of Alvinczy while reading a -letter, on the 18th of December 1551; but the cardinal, though in his -sixty-ninth year, fought for his life, and was only despatched with the -aid of Pallavicini and a band of bravos. Ferdinand took the -responsibility of the murder on himself. He sent to Julius III. an -accusation of treason against the Frater in eighty-seven articles, and -after long hesitation, and hearing one hundred and sixteen witnesses, -the pope exonerated Ferdinand of blame. - - See A. Bechet, _Histoire du ministere du cardinal Martinusius_ (Paris, - 1715); O. M. Utiesenovi['c], _Lebensgeschichte des Cardinals Georg - Utiesenovi['c]_ (Vienna, 1881); _Codex epistolaris Fratris Georgii - 1535-1551_, ed. A. Karolyi (Budapest, 1881). But the most vivid - presentation of Frater is to be found in M. Jokai's fine historical - romance, _Brother George_ (Hung.) (Budapest, 1893). (R. N. B.) - - - - -MARTIUS, CARL FRIEDRICH PHILIPP VON (1794-1868), German botanist and -traveller, was born on the 17th of April 1794 at Erlangen, where he -graduated M.D. in 1814, publishing as his thesis a critical catalogue of -plants in the botanic garden of the university. He afterwards devoted -himself to botanical study, and in 1817 he and J. B. von Spix were sent -to Brazil by the king of Bavaria. They travelled from Rio de Janeiro -through several of the southern and eastern provinces of Brazil, and -ascended the river Amazon to Tabatinga, as well as some of its larger -affluents. On his return to Europe in 1820 he was appointed conservator -of the botanic garden at Munich, and in 1826 professor of botany in the -university there, and held both offices till 1864. He devoted his chief -attention to the flora of Brazil, and in addition to numerous short -papers he published the _Nova Genera et Species Plantarum Brasiliensium_ -(1823-1832, 3 vols.) and _Icones selectae Plantarum Cryptogamicarum -Brasiliensium_ (1827), both works being finely illustrated. An account -of his travels in Brazil appeared in 3 vols. 4to, 1823-1831, with an -atlas of plates, but probably the work by which he is best known is his -_Historia Palmarum_ (1823-1850) in 3 large folio volumes, of which one -describes the palms discovered by himself in Brazil. In 1840 he began -the _Flora Brasiliensis_, with the assistance of the most distinguished -European botanists, who undertook monographs of the various orders. Its -publication was continued after his death under the editorship of A. W. -Eichler (1839-1887) until 1887, and subsequently of Ignaz von Urban. He -also edited several works on the zoological collections made in Brazil -by Spix, after the death of the latter in 1826. On the outbreak of -potato disease in Europe he investigated it and published his -observations in 1842. He also published works and short papers on the -aborigines of Brazil, on their civil and social condition, on their past -and probable future, on their diseases and medicines, and on the -languages of the various tribes, especially the Tupi. He died at Munich -on the 13th of December 1868. - - - - -MARTOS, CHRISTINO (1830-1893), Spanish politician, was born at Granada -on the 13th of September 1830. He was educated there and at Madrid -University, where his Radicalism soon got him into trouble, and he -narrowly escaped being expelled for his share in student riots and other -demonstrations against the governments of Queen Isabella. He -distinguished himself as a journalist on _El Tribuno_. He joined -O'Donnell and Espartero in 1854 against a revolutionary cabinet, and -shortly afterwards turned against O'Donnell to assist the Democrats and -Progressists under Prim, Rivero, Castelar, and Sagasta in the -unsuccessful movements of 1866, and was obliged to go abroad. His -political career had not prevented Martos from rising into note at the -bar, where he was successful for forty years. After remaining abroad -three years, he returned to Spain to take his seat in the Cortes of 1869 -after the revolution of 1868. Throughout the revolutionary period he -represented in cabinets with Prim, Serrano and Ruiz Zorilla, and lastly -under King Amadeus, the advanced Radical tendencies of the men who -wanted to give Spain a democratic monarchy. After the abdication of -Amadeus of Savoy, Martos played a prominent part in the proclamation of -the federal republic, in the struggle between the executive of that -republic and the permanent committee of the Cortes, backed by the -generals and militia, who nearly put an end to the executive and -republic in April 1873. When the republicans triumphed Martos retired -into exile, and soon afterwards into private life. He reappeared for a -few months after General Pavia's _coup d'etat_ in January 1874, to join -a coalition cabinet formed by Marshal Serrano, with Sagasta and Ulloa. -Martos returned to the Bar in May 1874, and quietly looked on when the -restoration took place at the end of that year. He stuck to his -democratic ideals for some years, even going to Biarritz in 1881 to be -present at a republican congress presided over by Ruiz Zorilla. Shortly -afterwards Martos joined the dynastic Left organized by Marshal Serrano, -General Lopez Dominguez, and Moret, Becerra, Balaguer, and other quondam -revolutionaries. He sat in several parliaments of the reign of Alphonso -XII. and of the regency of Queen Christina, joined the dynastic Liberals -under Sagasta, and gave Sagasta not a little trouble when the latter -allowed him to preside over the House of Deputies. Having failed to form -a rival party against Sagasta, Martos subsided into political -insignificance, despite his great talent as an orator and debater, and -died in Madrid on the 16th of January 1893. - - - - -MARTOS, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Jaen, 16 m. W.S.W. -of Jaen, by the Jaen-Lucena railway. Pop. (1900), 17,078. Martos is -situated on an outlying western peak of the Jabalcuz mountains, which is -surmounted by a ruined castle and overlooks the plain of Andalusia. In -the neighbourhood are two sulphurous springs with bathing -establishments. The local trade is almost exclusively agricultural. - - Martos perhaps stands on or near the site of the _Tucci_ of Ptolemy, - which was fortified and renamed _Colonia Augusta Gemella_ by the - Romans. By Ferdinand III. it was taken from the Moors in 1225, and - given to the knights of Calatrava; it was here that the brothers - Carvajal, commanders of the order, were in 1312 executed by command of - Ferdinand IV. Before their death they summoned Ferdinand to meet them - within thirty days at the judgment-seat of God. Ferdinand died a month - later and thus received the popular name of _el Emplazado_--"the - Summoned." - - - - -MARTYN, HENRY (1781-1812), English missionary to India, was born on the -18th of February 1781, at Truro, Cornwall. His father, John Martyn, was a -"captain" or mine-agent at Gwennap. The lad was educated at Truro grammar -school under Dr Cardew, entered St John's College, Cambridge, in the -autumn of 1797, and was senior wrangler and first Smith's prizeman in -1801. In 1802 he was chosen a fellow of his college. He had intended to -go to the bar, but in the October term of 1802 he chanced to hear Charles -Simeon speaking of the good done in India by a single missionary, William -Carey, and some time afterwards he read the life of David Brainerd, the -apostle of the Indians of North America. He resolved, accordingly, to -become a Christian missionary. On the 22nd of October, 1803, he was -ordained deacon at Ely, and afterwards priest, and served as Simeon's -curate at the church of Holy Trinity, taking charge of the neighbouring -parish of Lolworth. He was about to offer his services to the Church -Missionary Society, when a disaster in Cornwall deprived him and his -unmarried sister of the provision their father had made for them, and -rendered it necessary that he should obtain a salary that would support -her as well as himself. He accordingly obtained a chaplaincy under the -East India Company and left for India on the 5th of July 1805. For some -months he was stationed at Aldeen, near Serampur; in October 1806 he -proceeded to Dinapur, where he was soon able to conduct worship among the -natives in the vernacular, and established schools. In April 1809 he was -transferred to Cawnpore, where he preached in his own compound, in spite -of interruptions and threats. He occupied himself in linguistic study, -and had already, during his residence at Dinapur, been engaged in -revising the sheets of his Hindostani version of the New Testament. He -now translated the whole of the New Testament into Hindi also, and into -Persian twice. He translated the Psalms into Persian, the Gospels into -Judaeo-Persic, and the Prayer-book into Hindostani, in spite of -ill-health and "the pride, pedantry and fury of his chief munshi Sabat." -Ordered by the doctors to take a sea voyage, he obtained leave to go to -Persia and correct his Persian New Testament, whence he wished to go to -Arabia, and there compose an Arabic version. Accordingly, on the 1st of -October 1810, having seen his work at Cawnpore crowned on the previous -day by the opening of a church, he left for Calcutta, whence he sailed on -the 7th of January 1811, for Bombay, which he reached on his thirtieth -birthday. From Bombay he set out for Bushire, bearing letters from Sir -John Malcolm to men of position there, as also at Shiraz and Isfahan. -After an exhausting journey from the coast he reached Shiraz, and was -soon plunged into discussion with the disputants of all classes, "Sufi, -Mahommedan, Jew, and Jewish-Mahommedan, even Armenian, all anxious to -test their powers of argument with the first English priest who had -visited them." Having made an unsuccessful journey to Tabriz to present -the shah with his translation of the New Testament, he was seized with -fever, and after a temporary recovery, had to seek a change of climate. -On the 12th of September 1812, he started with two Armenian servants, -crossed the Araxes, rode from Tabriz to Erivan, from Erivan to Kars, from -Kars to Erzerum, from Erzerum to Chiflik, urged on from place to place by -a thoughtless Tatar guide, and, though the plague was raging at Tokat -(near Eski-Shehr in Asia Minor), he was compelled by prostration to stop -there. On the 6th of October he died. Macaulay's youthful lines, written -early in 1813, testify to the impression made by his career. - - His _Journals and Letters_ were published by Samuel Wilberforce in - 1837. See also _Lives_ by John Sargent (1819; new ed. 1885), and G. - Smith (1892); and _The Church Quarterly Review_ (Oct. 1881). - - - - -MARTYN, JOHN (1699-1768), English botanist, was born in London on the -12th of September 1699. Originally intended for a business career, he -abandoned it in favour of medical and botanical studies. He was one of -the founders (with J. J. Dillen and others) and the secretary of a -botanical society which met for a few years in the Rainbow Coffee-house, -Watling Street; he also started the _Grub Street Journal_, a weekly -satirical review, which lasted from 1730 to 1737. In 1732 he was -appointed professor of botany in Cambridge University, but, finding -little encouragement and hampered by lack of appliances, he soon -discontinued lecturing. He retained his professorship, however, till -1762, when he resigned in favour of his son Thomas (1735-1825), author -of _Flora rustica_ (1792-1794). Although he had not taken a medical -degree, he long practised as a physician at Chelsea, where he died on -the 29th of January 1768. His reputation chiefly rests upon his -_Historia plantarum rariorum_ (1728-1737), and his translation, with -valuable agricultural and botanical notes, of the _Eclogues_ (1749) and -_Georgics_ (1741) of Virgil. On resigning the botanical chair at -Cambridge he presented the university with a number of his botanical -specimens and books. - - See memoir by Thomas Martyn in _Memoirs of John Martyn and Thomas - Martyn_, by G. C. Gorham (1830). - - - - -MARTYR (Gr. [Greek: martyr] or [Greek: martys]), a word meaning -literally "witness" and often used in that sense in the New Testament -e.g. Matt, xviii. 16; Mark xiv. 63. During the conflict between Paganism -and Christianity when many Christians "testified" to the truth of their -convictions by sacrificing their lives, the word assumed its modern -technical sense. The beginnings of this use are to be seen in such -passages as Acts xxii. 20; Rev. ii. 13, xiii. 6. During the first three -centuries the fortitude of these "witnesses" won the admiration of their -brethren. Ardent spirits craved the martyr's crown, and to confess -Christ in persecution was to attain a glory inferior only to that won by -those who actually died. Confessors were visited in prison, martyrs' -graves were scenes of pilgrimage, and the day on which they suffered -was celebrated as the birthday of their glory. Martyrology was the most -popular literature in the early Church. While the honour paid to -martyrdom was a great support to early champions of the faith, it was -attended by serious evils. It was thought that martyrdom would atone for -sin, and imprisoned confessors not only issued to the Churches commands -which were regarded almost as inspired utterances, but granted pardons -in rash profusion to those who had been excommunicated by the regular -clergy, a practice which caused Cyprian and his fellow bishops much -difficulty. The zeal of Ignatius (c. 115), who begs the Roman Church to -do nothing to avert from him the martyr's death, was natural enough in a -spiritual knight-errant, but with others in later days, especially in -Phrygia and North Africa, the passion became artificial. Fanatics sought -death by insulting the magistrates or by breaking idols, and in their -enthusiasm for martyrdom became self-centred and forgetful of their -normal duty. None the less it is true that these men and women endured -torments, often unthinkable in their cruelty, and death rather than -abandon their faith. The same phenomena have been witnessed, not only in -the conflicts within the Church that marked the 13th to the 16th -centuries, but in the different mission fields, and particularly in -Madagascar and China. - - See A. J. Mason, _The Historic Martyrs of the Primitive Church_ - (London, 1905); H. B. Workman, _Persecution in the Early Church_ - (London, 1906); Paul Allard, _Ten Lectures on the Martyrs_ (London, - 1907); John Foxe, _The Book of Martyrs_; Mary I. Bryson, _Cross and - Crown_ (London, 1904). - - - - -MARTYROLOGY, a catalogue or list of _martyrs_, or, more exactly, of -saints, arranged in the order of their anniversaries. This is the now -accepted meaning in the Latin Church. In the Greek Church the nearest -equivalent to the martyrology is the Synaxarium (q.v.). As regards form, -we should distinguish between simple martyrologies, which consist merely -of an enumeration of names, and historical martyrologies, which also -include stories or biographical details. As regards documents, the most -important distinction is between local and general martyrologies. The -former give a list of the festivals of some particular Church; the -latter are the result of a combination of several local martyrologies. -We may add certain compilations of a factitious character, to which the -name of martyrology is given by analogy, e.g. the _Martyrologe -universel_ of Chatelain (1709). As types of local martyrologies we may -quote that of Rome, formed from the _Depositio martyrum_ and the -_Depositio episcoporum_ of the chronograph of 354; the Gothic calendar -of Ulfila's Bible, the calendar of Carthage published by Mabillon, the -calendar of fasts and vigils of the Church of Tours, going back as far -as Bishop Perpetuus (d. 490), and preserved in the _Historia francorum_ -(xi. 31) of Gregory of Tours. The Syriac martyrology discovered by -Wright (_Journal of Sacred Literature_, 1866) gives the idea of a -general martyrology. The most important ancient martyrology preserved to -the present day is the compilation falsely attributed to St Jerome, -which in its present form goes back to the end of the 6th century. It is -the result of the combination of a general martyrology of the Eastern -Churches, a local martyrology of the Church of Rome, some general -martyrologies of Italy and Africa, and a series of local martyrologies -of Gaul. The task of critics is to distinguish between its various -constituent elements. Unfortunately, this document has reached us in a -lamentable condition. The proper names are distorted, repeated or -misplaced, and in many places the text is so corrupt that it is -impossible to understand it. With the exception of a few traces of -borrowings from the Passions of the martyrs, the compilation is in the -form of a simple martyrology. Of the best-known historical martyrologies -the oldest are those which go under the name of Bede and of Florus -(_Acta sanctorum Martii_, vol. ii.); of Wandelbert, a monk of Prum -(842); of Rhabanus Maurus (c. 845); of Ado (d. 875); of Notker (896); -and of Wolfhard (c. 896 v. _Analecta bollandiana_, xvii. 11). The most -famous is that of Usuard (c. 875), on which the Roman martyrology was -based. The first edition of the Roman martyrology appeared at Rome in -1583. The third edition, which appeared in 1584, was approved by -Gregory XIII., who imposed the Roman martyrology upon the whole Church. -In 1586 Baronius published his annotated edition, which in spite of its -omissions and inaccuracies is a mine of valuable information. - - The chief works on the martyrologies are those of Rosweyde, who in - 1613 published at Antwerp the martyrology of Ado (also edition of - Giorgi, Rome, 1745); of Sollerius, to whom we owe a learned edition of - Usuard (_Acta sanctorum Junii_, vols. vi. and vii.); and of - Fiorentini, who published in 1688 an annotated edition of the - _Martyrology of St Jerome_. The critical edition of the latter by J. - B. de Rossi and Mgr. L. Duchesne, was published in 1894, in vol. ii. - of the _Acta sanctorum Novembris_. The historical martyrologies taken - as a whole have been studied by Dom Quentin (1908). There are also - numerous editions of calendars or martyrologies of less universal - interest, and commentaries upon them. Mention ought to be made of the - famous calendar of Naples, commented on by Mazocchi (Naples, 1744) and - Sabbatini (Naples, 1744). - - See C. de Smedt, _Introductio generalis ad historiam ecclesiasticam_ - (Gandavi, 1876), pp. 127-156; H. Matagne and V. de Buck in De Backer, - _Bibliotheque des ecrivains de la Compagnie de Jesus_, 2nd ed., vol. - iii. pp. 369-387; De Rossi-Duchesne, _Les Sources du martyrologe - hieronymien_ (Rome, 1885); H. Achelis, _Die Martyrologien, ihre - Geschichte und ihr Wert_ (Berlin, 1900); H. Delehaye, "Le Temoignage - des martyrologes," in _Analecta bollandiana_, xxvi. 78-99 (1907); H. - Quentin, _Les Martyrologes historiques du moyen age_ (Paris, 1908). - (H. De.) - - - - -MARULLUS, MICHAEL TARCHANIOTA (d. 1500), Greek scholar, poet, and -soldier, was born at Constantinople. In 1453, when the Turks captured -Constantinople, he was taken to Ancona in Italy, where he became the -friend and pupil of J. J. Pontanus, with whom his name is associated by -Ariosto (_Orl. Fur._ xxxvii. 8). He received his education at Florence, -where he obtained the patronage of Lorenzo de' Medici. He was the author -of epigrams and _hymni naturales_, in which he happily imitated -Lucretius. He took no part in the work of translation, then the -favourite exercise of scholars, but he was understood to be planning -some great work when he was drowned, on the 10th of April 1500, in the -river Cecina near Volterra. He was a bitter enemy of Politian, whose -successful rival he had been in the affections of the beautiful and -learned Alessandra Scala. He is remembered chiefly for the brilliant -emendations on Lucretius which he left unpublished; these were used for -the Juntine edition (Munro's _Lucretius_, Introduction). - - The hymns, some of the epigrams, and a fragment, _De Principum - institutione_, were reprinted in Paris by C. M. Sathas in _Documents - inedits relatifs a l'histoire de la Grece au moyen age_, vol. vii. - (1888). - - - - -MARUM, MARTIN VAN (1750-1837), Dutch man of science, was born on the -20th of March 1750 at Groningen, where he graduated in medicine and -philosophy. He began to practise medicine at Haarlem, but devoted -himself mainly to lecturing on physical subjects. He became secretary of -the scientific society of that city, and under his management the -society was advanced to the position of one of the most noted in Europe. -He was also entrusted with the care of the collection left to Haarlem by -P. Teyler van der Hulst (1702-1778). His name is not associated with any -discovery of the first order, but his researches (especially in -connexion with electricity) were remarkable for their number and -variety. He died at Haarlem on the 26th of December 1837. - - - - -MARUTS, in Hindu mythology, storm-gods. Their numbers vary in the -different scriptures, usually thrice seven or thrice sixty. In the Vedas -they are called the sons of Rudra. They are the companions of Indra, and -associated with him in the wielding of thunderbolts, sometimes as his -equals, sometimes as his servants. They are armed with golden weapons -and lightnings. They split drought (_Vritra_) and bring rain, and cause -earthquakes. Various myths surround their birth. A derivative word, -Maruti or Maroti, is the popular name throughout the Deccan for Hanuman -(q.v.). - - - - -MARVELL, ANDREW (1621-1678), English poet and satirist, son of Andrew -Marvell and his wife Anne Pease, was born at the rectory house, -Winestead, in the Holderness division of Yorkshire, on the 31st of March -1621. In 1624 his father exchanged the living of Winestead for the -mastership of Hull grammar school. He also became lecturer at Holy -Trinity Church and master of the Charterhouse in the same town. Thomas -Fuller (_Worthies of England_, ed. 1811, i. 165) describes him as "a -most excellent preacher." The younger Marvell was educated at Hull -grammar school until his thirteenth year, when he matriculated on the -14th of December 1633 (according to a doubtful statement in Wood's -_Athen. oxon._) at Trinity College, Cambridge. It is related by his -early biographer, Thomas Cooke, that he was induced by some Jesuit -priests to leave the university. After some months he was discovered by -his father in a bookseller's shop in London, and returned to -Cambridge.[1] He contributed two poems to the _Musa cantabrigiensis_ in -1637, and in the following year he received a scholarship at Trinity -College, and took his B.A. degree in 1639. His father was drowned in -1640 while crossing the Humber in company with the daughter of a Mrs -Skinner, almost certainly connected with the Cyriack Skinner to whom two -of Milton's sonnets are addressed. It is said that Mrs Skinner adopted -Marvell and provided for him at her death. The Conclusion Book of -Trinity College, Cambridge, registers the decision (Sept. 24, 1641) that -he with others should be excluded from further advantages from the -college either because they were married, or did not attend their "days" -or "acts." He travelled for four years on the Continent, visiting -Holland, France, Italy and Spain. In Rome he met Richard Flecknoe, whom -he satirized in the amusing verses on "Flecnoe, an English priest at -Rome." - -Although Marvell ranks as a great Puritan poet his sympathies were at -first with Charles I., and in the lines on "Tom May's Death" he found no -words too strong to express his scorn for the historian of the Long -Parliament. He himself was no partisan, but had a passion for law and -order. He acquiesced, accordingly, in the strong rule of Cromwell, but -in his famous "Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland" -(1650)[2] he inserts a tribute to the courage and dignity of Charles I., -which forms the best-known section of the poem. In 1650 he became tutor -to Lord Fairfax's daughter Mary, afterwards duchess of Buckingham, then -in her twelfth year. During his life with the Fairfaxes at Nunappleton, -Yorkshire, he wrote the poems "Upon the Hill and Grove at Billborow" and -"On Appleton House." Doubtless the other poems on country life, and his -exquisite "garden poetry" may be referred to this period. "Clorinda and -Damon" and "The Nymph complaining for the Death of her Faun" are good -examples of the beauty and simplicity of much of this early verse. But -he had affinities with John Donne and the metaphysical poets, and could -be obscure on occasion. - -Marvell was acquainted with Milton probably through their common -friends, the Skinners, and in February 1653 Milton sent him with a -letter to the lord president of the council, John Bradshaw, recommending -him as "a man of singular desert for the state to make use of," and -suggesting his appointment as assistant to himself in his duties as -foreign secretary. The appointment was, however, given at the time to -Philip Meadows, and Marvell became tutor to Cromwell's ward, William -Dutton. In 1653 he was established with his pupil at Eton in the house -of John Oxenbridge, then a fellow of the college, but formerly a -minister in the Bermudas. No doubt the well-known verses, "Bermudas," -were inspired by intercourse with the Oxenbridges. At Eton he enjoyed -the society of John Hales, then living in retirement. He was employed by -Milton in 1654 to convey to Bradshaw a copy of the _Defensio secunda_, -and the letter to Milton in which he describes the reception of the gift -is preserved. When the secretaryship again fell vacant in 1657 Marvell -was appointed, and retained the appointment until the accession of -Charles II. During this period he wrote many political poems, all of -them displaying admiration for Cromwell. His "Poem upon the Death of his -late Highness the Lord Protector" has been unfavourably compared to -Edmund Waller's "Panegyric," but Marvell's poem is inspired with -affection. - -Marvell's connexion with Hull had been strengthened by the marriages of -his sisters with persons of local importance, and in January 1659 he was -elected to represent the borough in parliament. He was re-elected in -1660, again in 1661, and continued to represent the town until his -death. According to Milton's nephew, Edward Phillips, the poet owed his -safety at the Restoration largely to the efforts of Marvell, who "made a -considerable party for him" in the House of Commons. From 1663 to 1665 -he acted as secretary to Charles Howard, 1st earl of Carlisle, on his -difficult and unsuccessful embassy to Muscovy, Sweden, and Denmark; and -this is the only official post he filled during the reign of Charles. -With the exception of this absence, for which he had leave from his -constituents, and of shorter intervals of travel on private business -which took him to Holland, Marvell was constant in his parliamentary -attendance to the day of his death. He seldom spoke in the House, but -his parliamentary influence is established by other evidence. He was an -excellent man of affairs, and looked after the special interests of the -port of Hull. He was a member of the corporation of Trinity House, both -in London and Hull, and became a younger warden of the London Trinity -House. His correspondence with his constituents, from 1660 to 1678, some -400 letters in all, printed by Dr Grosart (_Complete Works_, vol. ii.), -forms a source of information all the more valuable because by a -resolution passed at the Restoration the publication of the proceedings -of the House without leave was forbidden. He made it a point of duty to -write at each post--that is, every two or three days--both on local -interests and on all matters of public interest. The discreet reserve of -these letters, natural at a time when the post office was a favourite -source of information to the government, contrasts curiously with the -freedom of the few private letters which state opinions as well as -facts. Marvell's constituents, in their turn, were not unmindful of -their member. He makes frequent references to their presents, usually of -Hull ale and of salmon, and he regularly drew from them the wages of a -member, six-and-eightpence a day during session. - -The development of Marvell's political opinions may be traced in the -satirical verse he published during the reign of Charles II., and in his -private letters. With all his admiration for Cromwell he had retained -his sympathies with the royal house, and had loyally accepted the -Restoration. In 1667 the Dutch fleet sailed up the Thames, and Marvell -expressed his wrath at the gross mismanagement of public affairs in -"Last Instructions to a Painter," a satire which was published as a -broadside and of course remained anonymous. Edmund Waller had published -in 1665 a gratulatory poem on the duke of York's victory in that year -over the Dutch as "Instructions to a Painter for the drawing up and -posture of his Majesty's forces at sea...." A similar form was adopted -in Sir John Denham's four satirical "Directions to a Painter," and -Marvell writes on the same model. His indignation was well grounded, but -he had no scruples in the choice of the weapons he employed in his -warfare against the corruption of the court, which he paints even -blacker than do contemporary memoir writers; and his satire often -descends to the level of the lampoon. The most inexcusable of his -scandalous verses are perhaps those on the duchess of York. In the same -year he attacked Lord Clarendon, evidently hoping that with the removal -of the "betrayer of England and Flanders" matters would improve. But in -1672 when he wrote his "Poem on the Statue in the Stocks-Market" he had -no illusions left about Charles, whom he describes as too often -"purchased and sold," though he concludes with "Yet we'd rather have him -than his bigoted brother." "An Historical Poem," "Advice to a Painter," -and "Britannia and Raleigh" urge the same advice in grave language. In -the last-named poem, probably written early in 1674, Raleigh pleads that -"'tis god-like good to save a fallen king," but Britannia has at length -decided that the tyrant cannot be divided from the Stuart, and proposes -to reform the state on the republican model of Venice. These and other -equally bold satires were probably handed round in MS., or secretly -printed, and it was not until after the Revolution that they were -collected with those of other writers in _Poems on Affairs of State_ (3 -pts., 1689; 4 pts., 1703-1707). Marvell's controversial prose writings -are wittier than his verse satires, and are free from the scurrility -which defaces the "Last Instructions to a Painter." A short and -brilliant example of his irony is "His Majesty's Most Gracious Speech to -both Houses of Parliament" (printed in _Grosart_, ii. 431 seq.), in -which Charles is made to take the house into the friendliest confidence -on his domestic affairs. - -Marvell was among the masters of Jonathan Swift, who, in the "Apology" -prefixed to the _Tale of a Tub_, wrote that his answer to Samuel Parker -could be still read with pleasure, although the pamphlets that provoked -it were long since forgotten. Parker had written a _Discourse of -Ecclesiastical Politye_ (1670) and other polemics against Dissenters, to -which Marvell replied in _The Rehearsal Transposed_ (2 pts., 1672 and -1673). The book contains some passages of dignified eloquence, and some -coarse vituperation, but the prevailing tone is that of grave and -ironical banter of Parker as "Mr Bayes." Parker was attacked, says -Bishop Burnet (_Hist. of His Own Time_, ed. 1823, i. 451), "by the -liveliest droll of the age, who writ in a burlesque strain, but with so -peculiar and entertaining a conduct, that, from the king down to the -tradesman, his books were read with great pleasure." He certainly -humbled Parker, but whether this effect extended, as Burnet asserts, to -the whole party, is doubtful. Parker had intimated that Milton had a -share in the first part of Marvell's reply. This Marvell emphatically -denied (_Grosart_, iii. 498). He points out that Parker had, like -Milton, profited by the royal clemency, and that he had first met him at -Milton's house. He takes the opportunity to praise Milton's "great -learning and sharpness of wit," and to the second edition of _Paradise -Lost_ (1674) he contributed some verses of just and eloquent praise. - -His _Mr Smirke, or the Divine in Mode ..._ (1676) was a defence of -Herbert Croft, bishop of Hereford, against the criticisms of Dr Francis -Turner, master of St John's College, Cambridge. A far more important -work was _An Account of the Growth of Popery and Arbitrary Government in -England, more particularly from the Long Prorogation of Parliament ..._ -(1677). This pamphlet was written in the same outspoken tone as the -verse satires, and brought against the court the indictment of nursing -designs to establish absolute monarchy and the Roman Catholic religion -at the same time. A reward was offered for the author, whose identity -was evidently suspected, and it is said that Marvell was in danger of -assassination. He died on the 16th of August 1678 in consequence of an -overdose of an opiate taken during an attack of ague. He was buried in -the church of St Giles-in-the-Fields, London. Joint administration of -his estate was granted to one of his creditors, and to his widow, Mary -Marvell, of whom we have no previous mention. - -As a humorist, and as a great "parliament man," no name is of more -interest to a student of the reign of Charles II. than that of Marvell. -He had friends among the republican thinkers of the times. Aubrey says -that he was intimate with James Harrington, the author of _Oceana_, and -he was probably a member of the "Rota" club. In the heyday of political -infamy, he, a needy man, obliged to accept wages from his constituents, -kept his political virtue unspotted, and he stood throughout his career -as the champion of moderate and tolerant measures. There is a story that -his old schoolfellow, Danby, was sent by the king to offer the -incorruptible poet a place at court and a gift of L1000, which Marvell -refused with the words: "I live here to serve my constituents: the -ministry may seek men for their purpose; I am not one." When -self-indulgence was the ordinary habit of town life, Marvell was a -temperate man. His personal appearance is described by John Aubrey: "He -was of a middling stature, pretty strong set, roundish faced, cherry -cheeked, hazel eyed, brown haired. In his conversation he was modest and -of very few words." ("Lives of Eminent Persons," printed in _Letters ... -in the 17th and 18th Centuries_, 1813). - - Among Marvell's works is also a _Defence of John Howe on God's - Prescience ..._ (1678), and among the spurious works fathered on him - are: _A Seasonable Argument ... for a new Parliament_ (1677), _A - Seasonable Question and a Useful Answer ..._ (1676), _A Letter from a - Parliament Man ..._ (1675), and a translation of _Suetonius_ (1672). - Marvell's satires were no doubt first printed as broadsides, but very - few are still extant in that form. Such of his poems as were printed - during his lifetime appeared in collections of other men's works. The - earliest edition of his non-political verse is _Miscellaneous Poems_ - (1681), edited by his wife, Mary Marvell. The political satires were - printed as _A Collection of Poems on Affairs of State, by A---- - M----l, Esq. and other Eminent Wits_ (1689), with second and third - parts in the same year. The works of Andrew Marvell contained in these - two publications were also edited by Thomas Cooke (2 vols., 1726), who - added some letters. Cooke's edition was reprinted by Thomas Davies in - 1772. Marvell's next editor was Captain Thompson of Hull, who was - connected with the poet's family, and made further additions from a - commonplace book since lost. Other editions followed, but were - superseded by Dr A. B. Grosart's laborious work, which, in spite of - many defects of style, remains indispensable to the student. _The - Complete Works in Verse and Prose of Andrew Marvell, M.P._ (4 vols., - 1872-1875) forms part of his "Fuller Worthies Library." See also the - admirable edition of the _Poems and Satires of Andrew Marvell ..._ (2 - vols., 1892) in the "Muses' Library," where a full bibliography of his - works and of the commentaries on them is provided; also _The Poems and - some Satires of Andrew Marvell_ (ed. Edward Wright, 1904), and _Andrew - Marvell_ (1905), by Augustine Birrell in the "English Men of Letters" - series. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] There is an allusion to this escapade addressed by another - anxious parent to the elder Marvell in the Hull Corporation Records - (No. 498) [see Grosart, i. xxviii.]. The document is without address - or signature, but the identification seems safe. - - [2] This poem has been highly praised by Goldwin Smith (T. H. Ward's - _English Poets_, ii. 383 (1880)). It was first printed, so far as we - know, in 1776, and the only external testimony to Marvell's - authorship is the statement of Captain Thompson, who had included - many poems by other writers in his edition of Marvell, that this ode - was in poet's own handwriting. The internal evidence in favour of - Marvell may, however, be accepted as conclusive. - - - - -MARX, HEINRICH KARL (1818-1883), German socialist, and head of the -International Working Men's Association, was born on the 5th of May 1818 -in Treves (Rhenish Prussia). His father, a Jewish lawyer, in 1824 went -over to Christianity, and he and his whole family were baptized as -Christian Protestants. The son went to the high grammar school at -Treves, and from 1835 to the universities of Bonn and Berlin. He studied -first law, then history and philosophy, and in 1841 took the degree of -doctor of philosophy. In Berlin he had close intimacy with the most -prominent representatives of the young Hegelians--the brothers Bruno and -Edgar Bauer and their circle, the so-called "Freien." He at first -intended to settle as a lecturer at Bonn University, but his Radical -views made a university career out of the question, and he accepted work -on a Radical paper, the _Rheinische Zeitung_, which expounded the ideas -of the most advanced section of the Rhenish Radical _bourgeoisie_. In -October 1842 he became one of the editors of this paper, which, however, -after an incessant struggle with press censors, was suppressed in the -beginning of 1843. In the summer of this year Marx married Jenny von -Westphalen, the daughter of a high government official. Through her -mother Jenny von Westphalen was a lineal descendant of the earl of -Argyle, who was beheaded under James II. She was a most faithful -companion to Marx during all the vicissitudes of his career, and died on -the 2nd of December 1881; he outliving her only fifteen months. - -Already in the _Rheinische Zeitung_ some socialist voices had been -audible, couched in a somewhat philosophical strain. Marx, though not -accepting these views, refused to criticize them until he had studied -the question thoroughly. For this purpose he went in the autumn of 1843 -to Paris, where the socialist movement was then at its intellectual -zenith, and where he, together with Arnold Ruge, the well-known literary -leader of Radical Hegelianism, was to edit a review, the -_Deutsch-franzosische Jahrbucher_, of which, however, only one number -appeared. It contained two articles by Marx--a criticism of Bruno -Bauer's treatment of the Jewish question, and an introduction to a -criticism of Hegel's philosophy of the law. The first concluded that the -social emancipation of the Jews could only be achieved together with the -emancipation of society from Judaism, i.e. commercialism. The second -declared that in Germany no partial political emancipation was possible; -there was now only one class from which a real and reckless fight -against authority was to be expected--namely, the proletariate. But the -proletariate could not emancipate itself except by breaking all the -chains, by dissolving the whole constituted society, by recreating man -as a member of the human society in the place of established states and -classes. "Then the day of German resurrection will be announced by the -crowing of the Gallican cock." Both articles thus relegated the -solution of the questions then prominent in Germany to the advent of -socialism, and so far resembled in principle other socialist -publications of the time. But the way of reasoning was different, and -the final words of the last quoted sentence pointed to a political -revolution, to begin in France as soon as the industrial evolution had -created a sufficiently strong proletariate. In contradistinction to most -of the socialists of the day, Marx laid stress upon the political -struggle as the lever of social emancipation. In some letters which -formed part of a correspondence between Marx, Ruge, Ludwig Feuerbach, -and Mikhail Bakunin, published as an introduction to the review, this -opposition of Marx to socialistic "dogmatism" was enunciated in a still -more pronounced form: "Nothing prevents us," he said, "from combining -our criticism with the criticism of politics, from participating in -politics, and consequently in real struggles. We will not, then, oppose -the world like doctrinarians with a new principle: here is truth, kneel -down here! We expose new principles to the world out of the principles -of the world itself. We don't tell it: 'Give up your struggles, they are -rubbish, we will show you the true war-cry.' We explain to it only the -real object for which it struggles, and consciousness is a thing it must -acquire even if it objects to it." - -In Paris Marx met FRIEDRICH ENGELS (1820-1895), from whom the -_Deutsch-franzosische Jahrbucher_ had two articles--a powerfully written -outline of a criticism of political economy, and a letter on Carlyle's -_Past and Present_. Engels, the son of a wealthy cotton-spinner, was -born in 1820 at Barmen. Although destined by his father for a commercial -career, he attended a classical school, and during his apprenticeship -and whilst undergoing in Berlin his one year's military service, he had -given up part of his free hours to philosophical studies. In Berlin he -had frequented the society of the "Freien," and had written letters to -the _Rheinische Zeitung_. In 1842 he had gone to England, his father's -firm having a factory near Manchester, and had entered into connexion -with the Owenite and Chartist movements, as well as with German -communists. He contributed to Owen's _New Moral World an_d to the -Chartist _Northern Star_, gave up much of his abstract speculative -reasoning for a more positivist conception of things, and took to -economic studies. Now, in September 1844, on a short stay in Paris, he -visited Marx, and the two found that in regard to all theoretical points -there was perfect agreement between them. From that visit dates the -close friendship and uninterrupted collaboration and exchange of ideas -which lasted during their lives, so that even some of Marx's subsequent -works, which he published under his own name, are more or less also the -work of Engels. The first result of their collaboration was the book -_Die heilige Familie oder Kritik der kritischen Kritik, gegen Bruno -Bauer und Konsorten_, a scathing exposition of the perverseness of the -high-sounding speculative radicalism of Bauer and the other Berlin -"Freie." By aid of an analysis, which, though not free from exaggeration -and a certain diffuseness, bears testimony to the great learning of Marx -and the vigorous discerning faculty of both the authors, it is shown -that the supposed superior criticism--the "critical criticism" of the -Bauer school, based upon the doctrine of a "self-conscious" idea, -represented by or incarnated in the critic--was in fact inferior to the -older Hegelian idealism. The socialist and working-class movements in -Great Britain, France and Germany are defended against the superior -criticism of the "holy" Bauer family. - -In Paris, where he had very intimate intercourse with Heinrich Heine, -who always speaks of him with the greatest respect, and some of whose -poems were suggested by Marx, the latter contributed to a Radical -magazine, the _Vorwarts_; but in consequence of a request by the -Prussian government, nearly the whole staff of the magazine soon got -orders to leave France. Marx now went to Brussels, where he shortly -afterwards was joined by Engels. In Brussels he published his second -great work, _La Misere de la philosophie_, a sharp rejoinder to the -_Philosophie de la misere ou contradictions economiques_ of J. P. -Proudhon. In this he deals with Proudhon, whom in the former work he had -defended against the Bauers, not less severely than with the latter. It -is shown that in many points Proudhon is inferior to both the -middle-class economists and the socialists, that his somewhat noisily -proclaimed discoveries in regard to political economy were made long -before by English socialists, and that his main remedies, the -"constitution of the labour-value" and the establishment of exchange -bazaars, were but a repetition of what English socialists had already -worked out much more thoroughly and more consistently. Altogether the -book shows remarkable knowledge of political economy. In justice to -Proudhon, it must be added that it is more often his mode of speaking -than the thought underlying the attacked sentences that is hit by Marx's -criticism. In Brussels Marx and Engels also wrote a number of essays, -wherein they criticized the German literary representatives of that kind -of socialism and philosophic radicalism which was mainly influenced by -the writings of Ludwig Feuerbach, and deduced its theorems or postulates -from speculations on the "nature of man." They mockingly nicknamed this -kind of socialism "German or True Socialism," and ridiculed the idea -that by disregarding historical and class distinctions a conception of -society and socialism superior to that of the English and French workers -and theorists could be obtained. Some of these essays were published at -the time, two or three, curiously enough, by one of the attacked writers -in his own magazine; one, a criticism of Feuerbach himself, was in a -modified form published by Engels in 1885, but others have remained in -manuscript. They were at first intended for publication in two volumes -as a criticism of post-Hegelian German philosophy, but the Revolution of -1848 postponed for a time all interest in theoretical discussions. - -In Brussels Marx and Engels came into still closer contact with the -socialist working-class movement. They founded a German workers' -society, acquired a local German weekly, the _Brusseller deutsche -Zeitung_, and finally joined a communistic society of German workers, -the "League of the Just," a secret society which had its main branches -in London, Paris, Brussels and several Swiss towns. For this league, -which till then had adhered to the rough-and-ready communism of the -gifted German workman Wilhelm Weitling, but which now called itself -"League of the Communists," and gave up its leanings towards conspiracy -and became an educational and propagandistic body, Marx and Engels at -the end of 1847 wrote their famous pamphlet, _Manifest der Kommunisten_. -It was a concise exposition of the history of the working-class movement -in modern society according to their views, to which was added a -critical survey of the existing socialist and communist literature, and -an explanation of the attitude of the Communists towards the advanced -opposition parties in the different countries. Scarcely was the -manifesto printed when, in February 1848, the Revolution broke out in -France, and "the crowing of the Gallican cock" gave the signal for an -upheaval in Germany such as Marx had prophesied. After a short stay in -France, Marx and Engels went to Cologne in May 1848, and there with some -friends they founded the _Neue rheinische Zeitung_, with the sub-title -"An Organ of Democracy," a political daily paper on a large scale, of -which Marx was the chief editor. They took a frankly revolutionary -attitude, and directed their criticism to a great extent against the -middle-class democratic parties, who, by evading all decisive issues, -delayed the achievement of the upheaval. When in November 1848 the king -of Prussia dissolved the National Assembly, Marx and his friends -advocated the non-payment of taxes and the organization of armed -resistance. Then the state of siege was declared in Cologne, the _Neue -rheinische Zeitung_ was suspended, and Marx was put on trial for high -treason. He was unanimously acquitted by a middle-class jury, but in May -1849 he was expelled from Prussian territory. He went to Paris, but was -soon given the option of either leaving France or settling at a small -provincial place. He preferred the former, and went to England. He -settled in London, and remained there for the rest of his life. - -At first he tried to reorganize the Communist League; but soon a -conflict broke out in its ranks, and after some of its members had been -tried in Germany and condemned for high treason, Marx, who had done -everything to save the accused, dissolved the Communist League -altogether. Nor was a literary enterprise, a review, also called the -_Neue rheinische Zeitung_, more successful; only six numbers of it were -issued. It contained, however, some very remarkable contributions; and a -series of articles on the career of the French Revolution of 1848, which -first appeared there, was in 1895 published by Engels in book form under -the title of _Die Klassenkampfe in Frankreich von 1848"_ by Karl Marx." -Carlyle's _Latter Day Pamphlets_, published at that time, met with a -very vehement criticism in the _Neue rheinische Zeitung_. The endeavours -of Ernest Jones and others to revive the Chartist movement were heartily -supported by Marx, who contributed to several of the Chartist journals -of the period, mostly, if not wholly, without getting or asking payment. -He lived at this time in great financial straits, occupied a few small -rooms in Dean Street, Soho, and all his children then born died very -young. At length he was invited to write letters for the _New York -Tribune_, whose staff consisted of advanced democrats and socialists of -the Fourierist school. For these letters he was paid at the rate of a -guinea each. Part of them, dealing with the Eastern Question and the -Crimean War, were republished in 1897 (London, Sonnenschein). Some were -even at the time reprinted in pamphlet form. The co-operation of Marx, -who was determinedly anti-Russian, since Russia was the leading -reactionary power in Europe, was obtained by David Urquhart and his -followers. A number of Marx's articles were issued as pamphlets by the -Urquhartite committees, and Marx wrote a series of articles on the -diplomatic history of the 18th century for the Urquhartite _Free Press_ -(Sheffield and London, 1856-1857). When in 1859 the Franco-Austrian War -about Italy broke out, Marx denounced it as a Franco-Russian intrigue, -directed against Germany on the one hand and the revolutionary movement -in France on the other. He opposed those democrats who supported a war -which in their eyes aimed at the independence of the Italian nation and -promised to weaken Austria, whose superiority in Germany was the -hindrance to German unity. Violent derogatory remarks directed against -him by the well-known naturalist Karl Vogt gave occasion to a not less -violent rejoinder, _Herr Vogt_, a book full of interesting material for -the student of modern history. Marx's contention, that Vogt acted as an -agent of the Bonapartist clique, seems to have been well founded, whilst -it must be an open question how far Vogt acted from dishonourable -motives. The discussions raised by the war also resulted in a great -estrangement between Marx and Ferdinand Lassalle. Lassalle had taken a -similar view of the war to that advocated by Vogt, and fought tooth and -nail for it in letters to Marx. In the same year, 1859, Marx published -as a first result of his renewed economic studies the book _Zur Kritik -der politischen Okonomie_. It was the first part of a much larger work -planned to cover the whole ground of political economy. But Marx found -that the arrangement of his materials did not fully answer his purpose, -and that many details had still to be worked out. He consequently -altered the whole plan and sat down to rewrite the book, of which in -1867 he published the first volume under the title _Das Kapital_. - -In the meantime, in 1864, the International Working Men's Association -was founded in London, and Marx became in fact though not in name, the -head of its general council. All its addresses and proclamations were -penned by him and explained in lectures to the members of the council. -The first years of the International went smoothly enough. Marx was then -at his best. He displayed in the International a political sagacity and -toleration which compare most favourably with the spirit of some of the -publications of the Communist League. He was more of its teacher than an -agitator, and his expositions of such subjects as education, trade -unions, the working day, and co-operation were highly instructive. He -did not hurry on extreme resolutions, but put his proposals in such a -form that they could be adopted by even the more backward sections, and -yet contained no concessions to reactionary tendencies. But this -condition of things was not permitted to go on. The anarchist agitation -of Bakunin, the Franco-German War, and the Paris Commune created a state -of things before which the International succumbed. Passions and -prejudices ran so high that it proved impossible to maintain any sort of -centralized federation. At the congress of the Hague, September 1872, -the general council was removed from London to New York. But this was -only a makeshift, and in July 1876 the rest of the old International was -formally dissolved at a conference held in Philadelphia. That its spirit -had not passed away was shown by subsequent international congresses, -and by the growth and character of socialist labour parties in different -countries. They have mostly founded their programmes on the basis of its -principles, but are not always in their details quite in accordance with -Marx's views. Thus the programme which the German socialist party -accepted at its congress in 1875 was very severely criticized by Marx. -This criticism, reprinted in 1891 in the review _Die neue Zeit_, is of -great importance for the analysis of Marx's conception of socialism. - -The dissolution of the International gave Marx an opportunity of -returning to his scientific work. He did not, however, succeed in -publishing further volumes of _Das Kapital_. In order to make it--and -especially the part dealing with property in land--as complete as -possible, he took up, as Engels tells us, a number of new studies, but -repeated illness interrupted his researches, and on the 14th of March -1883 he passed quietly away. - - From the manuscripts he left Engels compiled a second and a third - volume of _Das Kapital_ by judiciously and elaborately using complete - and incomplete chapters, rough copies and excerpts, which Marx had at - different times written down. Much of the copy used dates back to the - 'sixties, i.e. represents the work as at first conceived by Marx, so - that, e.g., the matter published as the third volume was in the main - written much earlier than the matter which was used for compiling the - second volume. The same applies to the fourth volume. Although the - work thus comprises the four volumes promised in the preface to the - book, it can only in a very restricted sense be regarded as complete. - In substance and demonstration it must be regarded as a torso. And it - is perhaps not quite accidental that it should be so. Marx, if he had - lived longer and had enjoyed better health, would have given the world - a much greater amount of scientific work of high value than is now the - case. But it seems doubtful whether he would have brought _Das - Kapital_, his main work, to a satisfactory conclusion. - - _Das Kapital_ proposes to show up historically and critically the - whole mechanism of capitalist economy. The first volume deals with the - processes of producing capital, the second with the circulation of - capital, the third with the movements of capital as a whole, whilst - the fourth gives the history of the theories concerning capital. - Capital is, according to Marx, the means of appropriating - _surplus-value_ as distinguished from ground rent (rent on every kind - of terrestrial property, such as land, mines, rivers, &c., based upon - the monopolist nature of such property). Surplus-value is created in - the process of production only, it is this part of the value of the - newly created product which is not given to the workman as a - return--the _wage_--of the labour-force he expended in working. If at - first taken by the employer, it is in the different phases of economic - intercourse split up into the profit of industrial enterprise, - commercial or merchants' profit, interest and ground rent. The value - of every commodity consists in the labour expended on it, and is - measured according to the time occupied by the labour employed on its - production. Labour in itself has no value, being only the measure of - value, but the labour-force of the workman has a value, the value of - the means required to maintain the worker in normal conditions of - social existence. Thus, in distinction to other commodities, in the - determination of the value of labour-force, besides the purely - economical, a _moral_ and _historical_ element enter. If to-day the - worker receives a wage which covers the bare necessaries of life, he - is underpaid--he does not receive the real value of his labour-force. - For the value of any commodity is determined by its socially necessary - costs of production (or in this case, maintenance). "Socially - necessary" means, further, that no more labour is embodied in a - commodity than is required by applying labour-force, tools, &c., of - average or normal efficiency, and that the commodity is produced in - such quantity as is required to meet the effective demand for it. As - this generally cannot be known in advance, the market value of a - commodity only gravitates round its (abstract) value. But in the long - run an equalization takes place, and for his further deductions Marx - assumes that commodities exchange according to their value. - - That part of an industrial capital which is employed for - installations, machines, raw and auxiliary materials, is called by - Marx _constant capital_, for the value of it or of its wear and tear - reappears in equal proportions in the value of the new product. It is - otherwise with labour. The new value of the product must by necessity - be always higher than the value of the employed labour-force. Hence - the capital employed in buying labour-force, i.e. in wages, is called - _variable capital_. It is the tendency of capitalist production to - reduce the amount spent in wages and to increase the amount invested - in machines, &c. For with natural and social, legal and other - limitations of the working day, and the opposition to unlimited - reduction of wages, it is not possible otherwise to cheapen production - and beat competition. According to the proportion of constant to - variable capital, Marx distinguishes capitals of _lowest average_ and - _highest composition_, the highest composition being that where - proportionately the least amount of variable (wages) capital is - employed. - - The ratio of the wages which workmen receive to the surplus-value - which they produce Marx calls the _rate of surplus-value_; that of the - surplus-value produced to the whole capital employed is the _rate of - profit_. It is evident, then, that at the same time the rate of - surplus-value can increase and the rate of profit decrease, and this - in fact is the case. There is a continuous tendency of the rates of - profit to decrease, and only by some counteracting forces is their - decrease temporarily interrupted, protracted, or even sometimes - reversed. Besides, by competition and movement of capitals the rates - of profit in the different branches of trade are pressed towards an - _equalization_ in the shape of an _average rate of profits_. This - average rate of profits, added to the actual cost price of a given - commodity, constitutes its _price of production_, and it is this price - of production which appears to the empirical mind of the business man - as the value of the commodity. The real law of value, on the contrary, - disappears from the surface in a society where, as to-day, commodities - are bought and sold against money and not exchanged against other - commodities. Nevertheless, according to Marx, it is also to-day this - law of value ("labour-value") which in the last resort rules the - prices and profits. - - The tendency to cheapen production by increasing the relative - proportion of constant capital--the fixed capital of the classical - economist plus that portion of the circulating capital which consists - of raw and auxiliary materials, &c.--leads to a continuous increase in - the size of private enterprises, to their growing concentration. It is - the larger enterprise that beats and swallows the smaller. The number - of dependent workmen--"proletarians"--is thus continually growing, - whilst employment only periodically keeps pace with their number. - Capital alternately attracts and repels workmen, and creates a - constant surplus-population of workmen--a _reserve-army_ for its - requirements--which helps to lower wages and to keep the whole class - in economic dependency. A decreasing number of capitalists usurp and - monopolize all the benefits of industrial progress, whilst the mass of - misery, of oppression, of servitude, of depravation, and of - exploitation increases. But at the same time the working class - continuously grows in numbers, and is disciplined, united and - organized by the very mechanism of the capitalist mode of production. - The centralization of the means of production and the socialization of - the mode of production reach a point where they will become - incompatible with their capitalist integument. Then the knell of - capitalist private property will have been rung. Those who used to - expropriate will be expropriated. Individual property will again be - established based upon co-operation and common ownership of the earth - and the means of production produced by labour. - - These are the principal outlines of _Das Kapital_. Its purely economic - deductions are dominated throughout by the _theory of surplus-value_. - Its leading sociological principle is the _materialist conception of - history_. This theory is in _Das Kapital_ only laid down by - implication, but it has been more connectedly explained in the preface - of _Zur Kritik_ and several works of Engels. According to it the - material basis of life, the manner in which life and its requirements - are produced, determines in the last instance the social ideas and - institutions of the time or historical epoch, so that fundamental - changes in the former produce in the long run also fundamental changes - in the latter. A set of social institutions answer to a given mode of - production, and periods where the institutions no longer answer to the - mode of production are periods of social revolution, which go on until - sufficient adjustment has taken place. The main _subjective_ forces of - the struggle between the old order and the new are _the classes_ into - which society is divided after the dissolution of the communistic or - semi-communistic tribes and the creation of states. And as long as - society is divided into classes a class war will persist, sometimes in - a more latent or disguised, sometimes in a more open or acute form, - according to circumstances. In advanced capitalist society the classes - between whom the decisive war takes place are the capitalist owners of - the means of production and the non-propertied or wage-earning - workers, the "proletariate." But the proletariate cannot free itself - without freeing all other oppressed classes, and thus its victory - means the end of exploitation and political repression altogether. - Consequently the state as a repressive power will die out, and a free - association will take its place. - - Almost from the first _Das Kapital_ and the publications of Marx and - Engels connected with it have been subjected to all kinds of - criticisms. The originality of its leading ideas has been disputed, - the ideas themselves have been declared to be false or only partially - true, and consequently leading to wrong conclusions; and it has been - said of many of Marx's statements that they are incorrect, and that - many of the statistics upon which he bases his deductions do not - prove what he wants them to prove. In regard to the first point, it - must be conceded that the _disjecta membra_ of Marx's value theory and - of his materialist conception of history are already to be found in - the writings of former socialists and sociologists. It may even be - said that just those points of the Marxist doctrine which have become - popular are in a very small degree the produce of Marx's genius, and - that what really belongs to Marx, the methodical conjunction and - elaboration of these points, as well as the finer deductions drawn - from their application, are generally ignored. But this is an - experience repeated over and over again in the history of deductive - sciences, and is quite irrelevant for the question of Marx's place in - the history of socialism and social science. - - It must further be admitted that in several places the statistical - evidence upon which Marx bases his deductions is insufficient or - inconclusive. Moreover--and this is one of the most damaging - admissions--it repeatedly happens that he points out all the phenomena - connected with a certain question, but afterwards ignores some of them - and proceeds as if they did not exist. Thus, e.g., he speaks at the - end of the first volume, where he sketches the historical tendency of - capitalist accumulation, of the decreasing number of magnates of - capital as of an established fact. But all statistics show that the - number of capitalists does not decrease, but increase; and in other - places in _Das Kapital_ this fact is indeed fully admitted, and even - accentuated. Marx was, as the third volume shows, also quite aware - that limited liability companies play an important part in the - distribution of wealth. But he leaves this factor, too, quite out of - sight, and confuses the concentration of private enterprises with the - centralization of fortunes and capitals. By these and other omissions, - quite apart from developments he could not well foresee, he announces - a coming evolution which is very unlikely to take place in the way - described. - - In this and in other features of his work a _dualism_ reveals itself - which is also often observable in his actions in life--the alternating - predominance of the spirit of the scholar and the spirit of the - radical revolutionary. Marx originally entitled his great social work - _Criticism of Political Economy_, and this is still the sub-title of - _Das Kapital_. But the conception of _critic_ or _criticize_ has with - Marx a very pronounced meaning. He uses them mostly as identical with - fundamentally opposing. Much as he had mocked the "critical criticism" - of the Bauers, he is in this respect yet of their breed and relapses - into their habits. He retained in principle the Hegelian dialectical - method, of which he said that in order to be rationally employed it - must be "turned upside down," i.e. put upon a materialist basis. But - as a matter of fact he has in many respects contravened against this - prescription. Strict materialist dialectics cannot conclude much - beyond actual facts. Dialectical materialism is revolutionary in the - sense that it recognizes no finality, but otherwise it is necessarily - positivist in the general meaning of that term. But Marx's opposition - to modern society was fundamental and revolutionary, answering to that - of the proletarian to the _bourgeois_. And here we come to the main - and fatal contradiction of his work. He wanted to proceed, and to a - very great extent did proceed, scientifically. Nothing was to be - deduced from preconceived ideas; from the observed evolutionary laws - and forces of modern society alone were conclusions to be drawn. And - yet the final conclusion of the work, as already noted, is a - preconceived idea; it is the announcement of a state of society - logically opposed to the given one. Imperceptibly the dialectical - movement of _ideas_ is substituted for the dialectical movement of - facts, and the real movement of facts is only considered so far as is - compatible with the former. Science is violated in the service of - speculation. The picture given at the end of the first volume answers - to a conception arrived at by speculative socialism in the 'forties. - True, Marx calls this chapter "the historical tendency of capitalist - accumulation," and "tendency" does not necessarily mean realization in - every detail. But on the whole the language used there is much too - absolute to allow of the interpretation that Marx only wanted to give - a speculative picture of the goal to which capitalist accumulation - would lead if unhampered by socialist counteraction. The epithet - "historical" indicates rather that the passage in question was meant - to give in the main the true outline of the forthcoming social - revolution. We are led to this conclusion also by the fact that, in - language which is not in the least conditional, it is there said that - the change of capitalist property into social property will mean "only - the expropriation of a few usurpers by the mass of the people." In - short, the principal reason for the undeniable contradictions in _Das - Kapital_ is to be found in the fact that where Marx has to do with - details or subordinate subjects he mostly notices the important - changes which actual evolution had brought about since the time of his - first socialist writings, and thus himself states how far their - presuppositions have been corrected by facts. But when he comes to - general conclusions, he adheres in the main to the original - propositions based upon the old uncorrected presuppositions. Besides, - the complex character of modern society is greatly under-estimated, so - that, e.g., such important features as the influence of the changes of - traffic and aggregation on modern life are scarcely considered at all; - and industrial and political problems are viewed only from the aspect - of class antagonism, and never under their administrative aspect. With - regard to the theory of surplus-value and its foundation, the theory - of labour-value, so much may be safely said that, its premisses - accepted, it is most ingeniously and most consistently worked out. And - since its principal contention is in any case so far true that the - wage-earning workers as a whole produce more than they receive, the - theory has the great merit of demonstrating in an admirably lucid way - the relations between wages and surplus-produce and the growth and - movements of capital. But the theory of labour-value as the - determining factor of the exchange or market value of commodities can - with justification be disputed, and is surely not more true than those - theories of value based on social demand or utility. Marx himself, in - placing in the third volume what he calls the _law of value_ in the - background and setting out the formation of the "price of production" - as the empirical determinator of prices in modern society, justifies - those who look upon the conception of labour-value as an abstract - formula which does not apply to individual exchanges of commodities at - all, but which only serves to show an imagined typical example of what - in reality to-day is only true with regard to the production of the - whole of social wealth. Thus understood, the conception of - labour-value is quite unobjectionable, but it loses much of the - significance attributed to it by most of the disciples of Marx and - occasionally by Marx himself. It is a means of analysing and - exemplifying surplus labour, but quite inconclusive as to the proof of - the surplus value, or as an indication of the degree of the - exploitation of the workers. This becomes the more apparent the more - the reader advances in the second and third volumes of _Das Kapital_, - where commercial capital, money capital and ground rent are dealt - with. Though full of fine observations and deductions, they form, from - a revolutionary standpoint, an anti-climax to the first volume. It is - difficult to see how, after all that is explained there on the - functions of the classes that stand between industrial employers and - workers, Marx could have returned to those sweeping conclusions with - which the first volume ends. - - The great scientific achievement of Marx lies, then, not in these - conclusions, but in the _details_ and yet more in the _method_ and - _principles_ of his investigations in his _philosophy of history_. - Here he has, as is now generally admitted, broken new ground and - opened new ways and new outlooks. Nobody before him had so clearly - shown the role of the productive agencies in historical evolution; - nobody so masterfully exhibited their great determining influence on - the forms and ideologies of social organisms. The passages and - chapters dealing with this subject form, notwithstanding occasional - exaggerations, the crowning parts of his works. If he has been justly - compared with Darwin, it is in these respects that he ranks with that - great genius, not through his value theory, ingenious though it be. - With the great theorist of biological transformation he had also in - common the indefatigable way in which he made painstaking studies of - the minutest details connected with his researches. In the same year - as Darwin's epoch-making work on the origin of species there appeared - also Marx's work _Zur Kritik der politischen Okonomie_, where he - explains in concise sentences in the preface that philosophy of - history which has for the theory of the transformation or evolution of - social organisms the same significance that the argument of Darwin had - for the theory of the transformation of biological organisms. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The main writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels are - as follow (we give only the titles of the original works and of their - English translations): (1) Of Karl Marx alone: _La Misere de la - philosophie, reponse a la philosophie de la misere de M. Proudhon_ - (Paris, 1847; new ed., 1892; English ed., _The Poverty of Philosophy_, - London, 1900); _Lohnarbeit und Kapital_, pamphlet, written 1848 (new - ed., Berlin, 1891); English ed., _Wage, Labour and Capital_ (London, - 1900); _Die Klassenkampfe in Frankreich, 1848 to 1850_ (Berlin, 1895); - _Der Achtzehnte Brumaire des Louis Bonaparte_ (New York, 1852; 3rd - ed., Hamburg, 1889; Eng. ed., New York, 1889); _Enthullungen uber den - Kolner Kommunistenprozess_ (Basel, 1852; new ed., Zurich-Berlin, - 1885); "European Revolutions and Counter-Revolutions" (reprints from - the _New York Tribune_, 1851-1852; London, 1897); "The Eastern - Question" (reprints from the _New York Tribune_, 1853-1856; London, - 1898); _Zur Kritik der politischen Okonomie_ (Berlin, 1859; new ed., - Stuttgart, 1897); _Herr Vogt_ (London, 1860); _Inaugural Address of - the International Working Men's Association_ (London, 1864); _Value, - Price and Profit_ (written 1865, published London, 1898); _Das - Kapital, Kritik der politischen Okonomie_ (3 vols., Hamburg, 1867, - 1885 and 1895; Eng. ed. of 1st vol., 1886); _The Civil War in France, - 1871_ (London, 1871; new ed., 1894); _L'Alliance de la democratie - socialiste_ (London, 1873); articles printed or reprinted in - _Rheinische Zeitung_ (1842-1843), _Deutsch-franzosische Jahrbucher_ - (Paris, 1844), _Das westphalische Dampfboot_ (Bielefeld und Paderborn, - 1845-1848), _Der Gesellschaftsspiegel_ (Elberfeld, 1846), _Deutsche - brusseler Zeitung_ (Brussels, 1847), _Neue rheinische Zeitung_ (daily, - Cologne, 1848-1849; monthly, Hamburg, 1850), _The People_ (London, - 1852-1858), _The New York Tribune_ (New York, 1853-1860), _The Free - Press_ (Sheffield and London, 1856-1857), _Das Volk_ (London, 1859), - _Der Vorbote_ (Geneva, 1866-1875), _Der Volkstaat_ (Leipzig, - 1869-1876), _Die Neue Zeit_ (Stuttgart, 1883, sqq.); _Sozialistische - Monatshefte_ (Berlin, 1895, sqq.). (2) Of Friedrich Engels alone: _Die - Lage der arbeitenden Klassen in England_ (Leipzig, 1845; new ed., - Stuttgart, 1892; Eng. ed., London, 1892); _Zur Wohnungsfrage_ - (Leipzig, 1873-1874; new ed., Zurich-Berlin, 1887); _Herrn Eugen - Duhrings Umwalzung der Wissenschaft_ (Leipzig, 1877; 3rd ed., - Stuttgart, 1894). Three chapters of the first-named are published in - English under the title Socialism, _Utopian and Scientific_ (London, - 1892). _Der Ursprung des Eigenthums, der Familie und des Staates_ - (Zurich and Stuttgart, 1885 and 1892); _Ludwig Feuerbach und der - Ausgang der klassischen deutschen Philosophie_ (Stuttgart, 1886). - Introductions to most of the posthumous works of K. Marx and articles - in the same periodicals as Marx. (3) Of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels - together: _Die heilige Familie oder Kritik der kritischen Kritik_ - (Frankfurt, 1845); _Manifest der kommunistischen Partei_ (London, - 1848; Eng. ed., 1848 and 1888). (4) With regard to Marx generally, his - theory and his school, see J. Stammhammer, _Bibliographie des - Sozialismus und Kommunismus_ (Jena, 1893); and Th. G. Masaryk, _Die - philosophischen und soziologischen Grundlagen des Marxismus_ (Vienna, - 1899). Much biographical and bibliographical information on Marx and - Engels is to be found in Dr Franz Mehring, _Geschichte der deutschen - Sozialdemokratie_ (Stuttgart, 1897-1898), and in the collection, - edited also by Dr Fr. Mehring, _Aus dem literarischen Nachlass von - Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels und Ferdinand Lassalle_ (Stuttgart, 1902). - Of the criticisms of Marx's economics, one of the most comprehensive - is E. von Boehm-Bawerk's _Karl Marx and the Close of his System_ - (London, 1898). Marx's historic theory is, apart from Masaryk, very - exhaustively analysed by R. Stammler in _Wirthschaft und Recht_ - (Leipzig, 1896). (E. Bn.) - - - - -MARY[1] ([Greek: Maria, Mariam]), the mother of Jesus. At the time when -the gospel history begins, she had her home in Galilee, at the village -of Nazareth. Of her parentage nothing is recorded in any extant -historical document of the 1st century, for the genealogy in Luke iii. -(cf. i. 27) is manifestly that of Joseph. In early life she became the -wife of Joseph (q.v.) and the mother of Jesus Christ; that she -afterwards had other children is a natural inference from Matt. i. 25, -which the evangelists, who frequently allude to "the brethren of the -Lord," are at no pains to obviate. The few incidents mentioned in -Scripture regarding her show that she followed our Lord to the very -close of His earthly career with unfailing motherliness, but the -"Magnificat" assigned to her in Luke i. is the only passage which would -distinctly imply on her part a high prophetic appreciation of His divine -mission. It is however doubtful whether Luke really intended to assign -this hymn to Mary or to Elizabeth (cf. especially _Niceta of Remesiana_ -by A. E. Burn, Cambridge, 1905; Harnack's "Das Magnificat der Elizabeth" -in the _Sitzungsberichte_ of the Berlin Academy for 1900, and Burkitt's -"Who spoke the Magnificat?" in the _Journal of Theological Studies_, -Jan. 1906). The original text of Luke probably mentioned no name in -introducing the Magnificat; scribes supplied the ambiguity by inserting, -some Mary, others Elizabeth. It is doubtful which represents the -intention of the writer: there is perhaps more to be said for the view -that he meant to assign the Magnificat to Elizabeth. Mary was present at -the Crucifixion, where she was commended by Jesus to the care of the -apostle John (John xix. 26, 27), Joseph having apparently died before -this time. Mary is mentioned in Acts i. 14 as having been among those -who continued in prayer along with the apostles at Jerusalem during the -interval between the Ascension and Pentecost. There is no allusion in -the New Testament to the time or place of her death. - -The subsequent growth of ecclesiastical tradition and belief regarding -Mary will be traced must conveniently under the separate heads of (1) -her perpetual virginity, (2) her absolute sinlessness, (3) her peculiar -relation to the Godhead, which specially fits her for successful -intercession on behalf of mankind. - -_Her Perpetual Virginity._--This doctrine was, to say the least, of no -importance in the eyes of the evangelists, and so far as extant writings -go there is no evidence of its having been anywhere taught within the -pale of the Catholic Church of the first three centuries. On the -contrary, to Tertullian the fact of Mary's marriage after the birth of -Christ is a useful argument for the reality of the Incarnation against -gnostic notions, and Origen relies upon the references to the Lord's -brethren as disproving the Docetism with which he had to contend. The -[Greek: aeiparthenia] though very ancient, is in reality a doctrine of -non-Catholic origin, and first occurs in a work proscribed by the -earliest papal _Index librorum prohibitorum_ (attributed to Gelasius) as -heretical,--the so-called _Protevangelium Jacobi_, written, it is -generally admitted, within the 2nd century. According to this very early -source, which seems to have formed the basis of the later _Liber de -infantia Mariae et Christi salvatoris_ and _Evangelium de nativitate -Mariae_, the name of Mary's father was Joachim (in the _Liber de -infantia_ a shepherd of the tribe of Judah, living in Jerusalem); he had -long been married to Anna her mother, whose continual childlessness had -become a cause of much humiliation and sorrow to them both. The birth of -a daughter was at last angelically predicted to each parent separately. -From her third to her twelfth year "Mary was in the Temple as if she were -a dove that dwelt there, and she received food from the hand of an -angel." When she became of nubile age a guardian was sought for her by -the priests among the widowers of Israel "lest she should defile the -sanctuary of the Lord"; and Joseph, an elderly man with a family, was -indicated for this charge by a miraculous token. Some time afterwards the -annunciation took place; when the Virgin's pregnancy was discovered, -Joseph and she were brought before the high priest, and, though asserting -their innocence in all sincerity, were acquitted only after they had been -tried with "the water of the ordeal of the Lord" (Num. v. 11). Numerous -details regarding the birth at Bethlehem are then given. The perpetual -physical virginity of Mary, naively insisted upon in this apocryphon, is -alluded to only with a half belief and a "some say" by Clement of -Alexandria (_Strom._ vii. 16), but became of much importance to the -leaders of the Church in the 4th century, as for example to Ambrose, who -sees in Ezek. xliv. 1-3 a prophetic indication of so great a mystery.[2] -Those who continued to believe that Mary, after the miraculous birth of -Jesus, had become the mother of other children by Joseph came accordingly -to be spoken of as her enemies--Antidicomarianitae (Epiphanius) or -Antidicomaritae (Augustine)--and the first-mentioned author devotes a -whole chapter (ch. 78) of his great work upon heresies to their -confutation. For holding the same view Bonosus of Sardica was condemned -by the synod of Capua in 391. To Jerome the perpetual virginity not only -of Mary but even of Joseph appeared of so much consequence that while a -young man he wrote (387) the long and vehement tract _Against Helvidius_, -in which he was the first to broach the theory (which has since gained -wide currency) that the brethren of our Lord were children neither of -Mary by her husband nor of Joseph by a former marriage, but of another -Mary, sister to the Virgin and wife of Clopas or Alphaeus. At last the -epithet of [Greek: haei parthenos] was authoritatively applied to the -Virgin by the council of Chalcedon in 451, and the doctrine implied has -ever since been an undisputed point of orthodoxy both in the Eastern and -in the Roman Churches, some even seeking to hold the Anglican Church -committed to it on account of the general declaration (in the _Homilies_) -of concurrence in the decisions of the first four general councils. - -_Her Absolute Sinlessness._--While much of the apocryphal literature of -the early sects in which she is repeatedly spoken of as "undefiled -before God" would seem to encourage some such doctrine as this, many -passages from the acknowledged fathers of the Church could be cited to -show that it was originally quite unknown to Catholicism. Even Augustine -repeatedly asserts that she was born in original sin (_De gen. ad lit._ -x. 18); and the _locus classicus_ regarding her possible immunity from -actual transgression, on which the subsequent doctrine of Lombardus and -his commentators was based, is simply an extremely guarded passage (_De -nat. et grat._ ch. 36), in which, while contradicting the assertion of -Pelagius that many had lived free from sin, he wishes exception to be -made in favour of "the holy Virgin Mary, of whom out of honour to the -Lord I wish no question to be made where sins are treated of--for how do -we know what mode of grace wholly to conquer sin may have been bestowed -upon her who was found meet to conceive and bear Him of whom it is -certain that He had no sin." A writer so late as Anselm (_Cur deus -homo_, ii. 16), declares that "the Virgin herself whence He (Christ) was -assumed was conceived in iniquity, and in sin did her mother conceive -her, and with original sin was she born, because she too sinned in Adam -in whom all sinned," and the same view was expressed by Damiani. For the -growth of the modern Roman doctrine of the immaculate conception from -the time in the 12th century, when the canons of Lyons sought to -institute a festival in honour of her "holy conception," and were -remonstrated with by Bernard, see IMMACULATE CONCEPTION. The epithets -applied to her in the Greek Church are such as [Greek: amolyntos, -panagnos, hagia, panagia]; but in the East generally no clear -distinction is drawn between immunity from actual sin and original -sinlessness. - -_Her Peculiar Relation to the Godhead, which specially fits Her for -Successful Intercession on Behalf of Mankind._--It seems probable that -the epithet [Greek: theotokos] ("Mother of God") was first applied to -Mary by theologians of Alexandria towards the close of the 3rd century; -but it does not occur in any genuine extant writing of that period, -unless we are to assign an early date to the apocryphal _Transitus -Mariae_, in which the word is of frequent occurrence. In the 4th century -it is met with frequently, being used by Eusebius, Athanasius, Didymus -and Gregory of Nazianzus,--the latter declaring that the man who -believes not Mary to have been [Greek: theotokos] has no part in God -(_Orat._ li. p. 738).[3] If its use was first recommended by a desire to -bring into prominence the divinity of the Incarnate Word, there can be -no doubt that latterly the expression came to be valued as directly -honourable to Mary herself and as corresponding to the greatly increased -esteem in which she personally was held throughout the Catholic world, -so that when Nestorius and others began to dispute its propriety, in the -following century, their temerity was resented, not as an attack upon -the established orthodox doctrine of the Nicene creed, but as -threatening a more vulnerable and more tender part of the popular faith. -It is sufficient in illustration of the drift of theological opinion to -refer to the first sermon of Proclus, preached on a certain festival of -the Virgin ([Greek: panegyris parthenike]) at Constantinople about the -year 430 or to that of Cyril of Alexandria delivered in the church of -the Virgin Mary at the opening of the council of Ephesus in 431. In the -former the orator speaks of "the holy Virgin and Mother of God" as "the -spotless treasure-house of virginity, the spiritual paradise of the -second Adam; the workshop in which two natures were welded together ... -the one bridge between God and men";[4] in the latter she is saluted as -the "mother and virgin," "through whom ([Greek: di' hes]) the Trinity is -glorified and worshipped, the cross of the Saviour exalted and honoured, -through whom heaven triumphs, the angels are made glad, devils driven -forth, the tempter overcome, and the fallen creature raised up even to -heaven." The response which such language found in the popular heart was -sufficiently shown by the shouts of joy with which the Ephesian mob -heard of the deposition of Nestorius, escorting his judges with torches -and incense to their homes, and celebrating the occasion by a general -illumination. The causes which in the preceding century had led to this -exaltation of the Mother of God in the esteem of the Catholic world are -not far to seek. On the one hand the solution of the Arian controversy, -however correct it may have been theoretically, undoubtedly had the -practical effect of relegating the God-man redeemer for ordinary minds -into a far away region of "remote and awful Godhead," so that the need -for a mediator to deal with the very Mediator could not fail to be felt. -On the other hand, the religious instincts of mankind are very ready to -pay worship, in grosser or more refined forms, to the idea of womanhood; -at all events many of those who became professing Christians at the -political fall of Paganism entered the Church with such instincts -(derived from the nature-religions in which they had been brought up) -very fully developed. Probably it ought to be added that the comparative -colourlessness with which the character of Mary is presented, not only -in the canonical gospels but even in the most copious of the apocrypha, -left greater scope for the untrammelled exercise of devout imagination -than was possible in the case of Christ, in the circumstances of whose -humiliation and in whose recorded utterances there were many things -which the religious consciousness found difficulty in understanding or -in adapting to itself. At all events, from the time of the council of -Ephesus, to exhibit figures of the Virgin and Child became the approved -expression of orthodoxy, and the relationship of motherhood in which -Mary had been formally declared to stand to God[5] was instinctively -felt to give the fullest and freest sanction of the Church to that -invocation of her aid which had previously been resorted to only -hesitatingly and occasionally. Previously to the council of Ephesus, -indeed, the practice had obtained complete recognition, so far as we -know, in those circles only in which one or other of the numerous -redactions of the _Transitus Mariae_ passed current.[6] There we read of -Mary's prayer to Christ: "Do Thou bestow Thine aid upon every man -calling upon, or praying to, or naming the name of Thine handmaid"; to -which His answer is, "Every soul that calls upon Thy name shall not be -ashamed, but shall find mercy and support and confidence both in the -world that now is and in that which is to come in the presence of My -Father in the heavens." But Gregory of Nazianzus also, in his panegyric -upon Justina, mentions with incidental approval that in her hour of -peril she "implored Mary the Virgin to come to the aid of a virgin in -her danger."[7] Of the growth of the Marian cultus, alike in the East -and in the West, after the decision at Ephesus it would be impossible to -trace the history, however slightly, within the limits of the present -article. Justinian in one of his laws bespeaks her advocacy for the -empire, and he inscribes the high altar in the new church of St Sophia -with her name. Narses looks to her for directions on the field of -battle. The emperor Heraclius bears her image on his banner. John of -Damascus speaks of her as the sovereign lady to whom the whole creation -has been made subject by her son. Peter Damian recognizes her as the -most exalted of all creatures, and apostrophizes her as deified and -endowed with all power in heaven and in earth, yet not forgetful of our -race.[8] In a word, popular devotion gradually developed the entire -system of doctrine and practice which Protestant controversialists are -accustomed to call by the name of Mariolatry. With reference to this -much-disputed phrase it is always to be kept in mind that the directly -authoritative documents, alike of the Greek and of the Roman Church, -distinguish formally between _latria_ and _dulia_, and declare that the -"worship" to be paid to the mother of God must never exceed that -superlative degree of _dulia_ which is vaguely described as -_hyperdulia_. But the comparative reserve shown by the council of Trent -in its decrees, and even in its catechism,[9] on this subject has not -been observed by individual theologians, and in view of the fact of the -canonization of some of these (such as Liguori)--a fact guaranteeing the -absence of erroneous teaching from their writings--it does not seem -unfair, to hold the Roman Church responsible for the natural -interpretations and just inferences which may be drawn even from -apparently exaggerated expressions in such works as the well-known -_Glories of Mary_ and others frequently quoted in controversial -literature. There is a good _resume_ of Catholic developments of the -cultus of Mary in Pusey's _Eirenicon_. - - The following are the principal feasts of the Virgin in the order in - which they occur in the ecclesiastical year. (1) That of the - Presentation (_Praesentatio B. V. M._, [Greek: ta eisodia tes - theotokou]), to commemorate the beginning of her stay in the Temple, - as recorded in the _Protevangelium Jacobi_. It is believed to have - originated in the East in the 8th century, the earliest allusion to it - being made by George of Nicomedia (9th century); Manuel Comnenus made - it universal for the Eastern Empire, and in the modern Greek Church it - is one of the five great festivals in honour of the Deipara. It was - introduced into the Western Church late in the 14th century, and, - after having been withdrawn from the calendar by Pius V., was restored - by Sixtus V., the day observed in both East and West being the 21st of - November. It is not mentioned in the English calendar. (2) The Feast - of the Conception (_Conceptio B. V. M._, _Conceptio immaculata B. V. - M._, [Greek: sullepsis tes hagias Hannes]), observed by the Roman - Catholic Church on the 8th of December, and by all the Eastern - Churches on the 9th of December, has already been explained; in the - Greek Church it only ranks as one of the middle festivals of Mary. (3) - The Feast of the Purification (_Occursus_, _Obviatio_, _Praesentatio_, - _Festum SS Simeonis et Annae_, _Purificatio_, _Candelaria_, [Greek: - hupapante], [Greek: hupante]) is otherwise known as CANDLEMAS. (4) The - Feast of the Annunciation of the Virgin Mary (_Annunciatio_, [Greek: - Euaggelismos]). It may be mentioned that at the council of Toledo in - 656 it was decreed that this festival should be observed on the 18th - of December, in order to keep clear of Lent. (5) The Feast of the - Visitation (_Visitatio B. V. M._) was instituted by Urban VI., - promulgated in 1389 by Boniface IX., and reappointed by the council of - Basel in 1441 in commemoration of the visit paid by Mary to Elizabeth. - It is observed on the 2nd of July, and has been retained in the - English calendar. (6) The Feast of the Assumption (_Dormitio_, - _Pausatio_, _Transitus_, _Depositio_, _Migratio_, _Assumptio_, [Greek: - kaimesis], [Greek: metastasis], [Greek: analepsis]) has reference to - the apocryphal story related in several forms in various documents of - the 4th century condemned by Pope Gelasius. Their general purport is - that as the time drew nigh for "the most blessed Virgin" (who is also - spoken of as "Holy Mary," "the queen of all the saints," "the holy - spotless Mother of God") to leave the world, the apostles were - miraculously assembled round her deathbed at Bethlehem on the Lord's - Day, whereupon Christ descended with a multitude of angels and - received her soul. After "the spotless and precious body" had been - laid in the tomb, "suddenly there shone round them (the apostles) a - miraculous light," and it was taken up into heaven. The first Catholic - writer who relates this story is Gregory of Tours (c. 590); Epiphanius - two centuries earlier had declared that nothing was known as to the - circumstances of Mary's death and burial; and one of the documents of - the council of Ephesus implies a belief that she was buried in that - city. The Sleep of the Theotokos is observed in the Greek Church as a - great festival on the 15th of August; the Armenian Church also - commemorates it, but the Ethiopic Church celebrates her death and - burial on two separate days. The earliest allusion to the existence of - such a festival in the Western Church seems to be that found in the - proceedings of the synod of Salzburg in 800; it is also spoken of in - the thirty-sixth canon of the reforming synod of Mainz, held in 813. - It was not at that time universal, being mentioned as doubtful in the - capitularies of Charlemagne. The doctrine of the bodily assumption of - the Virgin into heaven, although extensively believed, and indeed - flowing as a natural theological consequence from that of her - sinlessness, has never been declared to be "de fide" by the Church of - Rome, and is still merely a "pia sententia." (7) The Nativity of Mary - (_Nativitas_, [Greek: genethlion tes theotokou]) observed on the 8th - of September, is first mentioned in one of the homilies of Andrew of - Crete (c. 750), and with the Feasts of the Purification, the - Annunciation and the Assumption, it was appointed to be observed by - the synod of Salzburg in 800, but seems to have been unknown at that - time in the Gallican Church, and even two centuries later it was by no - means general in Italy. In the Roman Catholic Church a large number of - minor festivals in honour of the Virgin are locally celebrated; and - all the Saturdays of the year as well as the entire month of May are - also regarded as sacred to her. - - The chief apocryphal writings concerned with Mary are the following: - (1) The _Portevangelium Jacobi_, with its derivatives the _De - nativitate Mariae_, the _Evangelium Ps.-Matthaei_, the _Historia - Josephi fabri lignarii_ (all edited by Tischendorf, _Evangelia - apocrypha_; cf. Harnack, _Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur_, - p. 20 seq. and _Chronologie_, i. 598 sqq.). (2) _Evangelium Mariae_ - (see _Sitzungsberichte der Berlinischen Akademie der Wissenschaften_ - 1896, pp. 839-847). (3) [Greek: Ioannou tou theologou logos eis ten - koimesin tes theotokou], which appears in Latin under the title of the - _Transitus Mariae_ (ed. Tischendorf, _Apocalypses apocryphae_ and - _Evangelia apocrypha_, and see Bonnet, _Zeitschr. f. wissensch. - Theol._, 1880, pp. 222-247). (J. S. Bl.; K. L.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] The name (Heb. [Hebrew: Miriam]), that of the sister of Moses and - Aaron, is of uncertain etymology; many interpretations have been - suggested, including _Stella maris_ ("star of the sea"), which, - though it has attained considerable currency through Jerome (the - _Onomasticon_), may be at once dismissed. It seems to have been very - common among the Jews in New Testament times: besides the subject of - the present notice there are mentioned (1) "Mary (the wife) of - Clopas," who was perhaps the mother of James "the little" ([Greek: ho - mikros]) and of Joses; (2) Mary Magdalene, i.e. of Magdala; (3) Mary - of Bethany, sister of Martha and Lazarus; (4) Mary, the mother of - Mark; and (5) Mary, an otherwise unknown benefactress of the apostle - Paul (Rom. xvi. 6). - - [2] _De Inst. Virg._, "quae est haec porta nisi Maria? ... per quam - Christus intravit in hunc mundum, quando virginali fusus est partu et - genitalia virginitatis claustra non solvit." - - [3] See Gieseler (_KG._, Bd. i. Abth. 1), who points out instances in - which anti-Arianizing zeal went so far as to call David [Greek: - theopator] and James [Greek: adelphotheos]. - - [4] Labbe, _Conc._ iii. 51. Considerable extracts are given by - Augusti (_Denkw._ iii.); see also Milman (_Lat. Christ._ i. 185), who - characterizes much of it as a "wild labyrinth of untranslatable - metaphor." - - [5] The term [Greek: theotokas] does not actually occur in the canons - of Ephesus. It is found, however, in the creed of Chalcedon. - - [6] It is true that Irenaeus (_Haer._ v. 19, 1) in the passage in - which he draws his well-known parallel and contrast between the first - and second Eve (cf. Justin, _Dial. c. Tryph._ 100), to the effect - that "as the human race fell into bondage to death by a virgin, so is - it rescued by a virgin," takes occasion to speak of Mary as the - "advocata" of Eve; but it seems certain that this word is a - translation of the Greek [Greek: sunegoros], and implies hostility - and rebuke rather than advocacy. - - [7] It is probable that the commemorations and invocations of the - Virgin which occur in the present texts of the ancient liturgies of - "St James" and "St Mark" are due to interpolation. In this connexion - ought also to be noted the chapter in Epiphanius (_Haer._, 79) - against the "Collyridians," certain women in Thrace, Scythia and - Arabia, who were in the habit of worshipping the Virgin ([Greek: haei - parthenon]) as a goddess, the offering of a cake ([Greek: kallurida - tina]) being one of the features of their worship. He rebukes them - for offering the worship which was due to the Trinity alone; "let - Mary be held in honour, but by no means worshipped." The cultus was - probably a relic of heathenism; cf. Jer. xliv. 19. - - [8] "Numquid quia ita deificata, ideo nostrae humanitatis oblita es? - Nequaquam, Domina.... Data est tibi omnis potestas in coelo et in - terra. Nil tibi impossibile." _Serm. de nativ. Mariae_, ap. Gieseler, - _KG._, Bd. ii. Abth. 1. - - [9] The points taught in the catechism are--that she is truly the - Mother of God, and the second Eve, by whose means we have received - blessing and life; that she is the Mother of Pity, and very specially - our advocate; that her merits are highly exalted, and that her - dispositions towards us are extremely gracious; that her images are - of the utmost utility. In the _Missal_ her intercessions (though - alluded to in the canon and elsewhere) are seldom directly appealed - to except in the Litany and in some of the later offices, such as - those for the 8th of September and for the Festival of the Seven - Sorrows (decree by Benedict XIII. in 1727). Noteworthy are the - versicles in the office for the 8th of December (The Feast of the - Immaculate Conception), "Tota pulchra es, Maria, et macula originalis - non est in te," and "Gloriosa dicta sunt de te, Maria, quia fecit - tibi magna qui potens est." - - - - -MARY, known as MARY MAGDALENE, a woman mentioned in the Gospels, first -in Luke viii. 2, as one of a company who "healed of evil spirits and -infirmities ... ministered unto them (Jesus and the apostles) of their -substance." It is said that seven demons were cast out of her, but this -need not imply simply one occasion. Her name implies that she came from -Magdala (el-Mejdel, 3 m. N.W. from Tiberias: in Matt. XV. 39 the right -reading is not Magdala by Magadan). She went with Jesus on the last -journey to Jerusalem, witnessed the Crucifixion, followed to the burial, -and returned to prepare spices. John XX. gives an account of her finding -the tomb empty and of her interview with the risen Jesus. Mary of -Magdala has been confounded (1) with the unnamed fallen woman who in -Simon's house anointed Christ's feet (Luke vii. 37); (2) with Mary of -Bethany, sister of Lazarus and Martha. - - - - -MARY I., queen of England (1516-1558), unpleasantly remembered as "the -Bloody Mary" on account of the religious persecutions which prevailed -during her reign, was the daughter of Henry VIII. and Catherine of -Aragon, born in the earlier years of their married life, when as yet no -cloud had darkened the prospect of Henry's reign. Her birth occurred at -Greenwich, on Monday, the 18th February 1516, and she was baptized on -the following Wednesday, Cardinal Wolsey standing as her godfather. She -seems to have been a singularly precocious child, and is reported in -July 1520, when scarcely four and a half years old, as entertaining some -visitors by a performance on the virginals. When she was little over -nine she was addressed in a complimentary Latin oration by commissioners -sent over from Flanders on commercial matters, and replied to them in -the same language "with as much assurance and facility as if she had -been twelve years old" (Gayangos, iii. pt. 1, 82). Her father was proud -of her achievements. About the same time that she replied to the -commissioners in Latin he was arranging that she should learn Spanish, -Italian and French. A great part, however, of the credit of her early -education was undoubtedly due to her mother, who not only consulted the -Spanish scholar Vives upon the subject, but was herself Mary's first -teacher in Latin. She was also well instructed in music, and among her -principal recreations as she grew up was that of playing on the -virginals and lute. - -It was a misfortune that she shared with high-born ladies generally in -those days that her prospects in life were made a matter of sordid -bargaining from the first. Mary was little more than two years old when -she was proposed in marriage to the dauphin, son of Francis I. Three -years afterwards the French alliance was broken off, and in 1522 she was -affianced to her cousin the young emperor Charles V. by the Treaty of -Windsor. No one, perhaps, seriously expected either of these -arrangements to endure; and, though we read in grave state papers of -some curious compliments and love tokens (really the mere counters of -diplomacy) professedly sent by the girl of nine to her powerful cousin, -not many years passed away before Charles released himself from this -engagement and made a more convenient match. In 1526 a rearrangement was -made of the royal household, and it was thought right to give Mary an -establishment of her own along with a council on the borders of Wales, -for the better government of the Marches. For some years she accordingly -kept her court at Ludlow, while new arrangements were made for the -disposal of her hand. She was now proposed as a wife, not for the -dauphin as before, but for his father Francis I., who had just been -redeemed from captivity at Madrid, and who was only too glad of an -alliance with England to mitigate the severe conditions imposed on him -by the emperor. Wolsey, however, on this occasion, only made use of the -princess as a bait to enhance the terms of the compact, and left Francis -free in the end to marry the emperor's sister. - -It was during this negotiation, as Henry afterwards pretended, that the -question was first raised whether Henry's own marriage with Catherine -was a lawful one. Grammont, bishop of Tarbes, who was one of the -ambassadors sent over by Francis to ask the princess in marriage, had, -it was said, started an objection that she might possibly be considered -illegitimate on account of her mother having been once the wife of her -father's brother. The statement was a mere pretence to shield the king -when the unpopularity of the divorce became apparent. It is proved to be -untrue by the strongest evidence, for we have pretty full contemporary -records of the whole negotiation. On the contrary, it is quite clear -that Henry, who had already for some time conceived the project of a -divorce, kept the matter a dead secret, and was particularly anxious -that the French ambassadors should not know it, while he used his -daughter's hand as a bait for a new alliance. The alliance itself, -however, was actually concluded by a treaty dated Westminster, the 30th -of April 1527, in which it was provided, as regards the Princess Mary, -that she should be married either to Francis himself or to his second -son Henry duke of Orleans. But the real object was only to lay the -foundation of a perfect mutual understanding between the two kings, -which Wolsey soon after went into France to confirm. - -During the next nine years the life of Mary, as well as that of her -mother, was rendered miserable by the conduct of Henry VIII. in seeking -a divorce. During most of that period mother and daughter seem to have -been kept apart. Possibly Queen Catherine had the harder trial; but -Mary's was scarcely less severe. Removed from court and treated as a -bastard, she was, on the birth of Anne Boleyn's daughter, required to -give up the dignity of princess and acknowledge the illegitimacy of her -own birth. On her refusal her household was broken up, and she was sent -to Hatfield to act as lady-in-waiting to her own infant half-sister. Nor -was even this the worst of her trials; her very life was in danger from -the hatred of Anne Boleyn. Her health, moreover, was indifferent, and -even when she was seriously ill, although Henry sent his own physician, -Dr Buttes, to attend her, he declined to let her mother visit her. So -also at her mother's death, in January 1536, she was forbidden to take a -last farewell of her. But in May following another change occurred. Anne -Boleyn, the real cause of all her miseries, fell under the king's -displeasure and was put to death. Mary was then urged to make a humble -submission to her father as the means of recovering his favour, and -after a good deal of correspondence with the king's secretary, Cromwell, -she actually did so. The terms exacted of her were bitter in the -extreme, but there was no chance of making life tolerable otherwise, if -indeed she was permitted to live at all; and the poor friendless girl, -absolutely at the mercy of a father who could brook no contradiction, at -length subscribed an act of submission, acknowledging the king as -"Supreme Head of the Church of England under Christ," repudiating the -pope's authority, and confessing that the marriage between her father -and mother "was by God's law and man's law incestuous and unlawful." - -No act, perhaps, in the whole of Henry's reign gives us a more painful -idea of his revolting despotism. Mary was a high-spirited girl, and -undoubtedly popular. All Europe looked upon her at that time as the only -legitimate child of her father, but her father himself compelled her to -disown the title and pass an unjust stigma on her own birth and her -mother's good name. Nevertheless Henry was now reconciled to her, and -gave her a household in some degree suitable to her rank. During the -rest of the reign we hear little about her except in connexion with a -number of new marriage projects taken up and abandoned successively, one -of which, to the count palatine Philip, duke of Bavaria, was specially -repugnant to her in the matter of religion. Her privy purse expenses for -nearly the whole of this period have been published, and show that -Hatfield, Beaulieu or Newhall in Essex, Richmond and Hunsdon were among -her principal places of residence. Although she was still treated as of -illegitimate birth, it was believed that the king, having obtained from -parliament the extraordinary power to dispose of the crown by will, -would restore her to her place in the succession, and three years before -his death she was so restored by statute, but still under conditions to -be regulated by her father's will. - -Under the reign of her brother, Edward VI. she was again subjected to -severe trials, which at one time made her seriously meditate taking -flight and escaping abroad. Edward himself indeed seems to have been -personally not unkind to her, but the religious revolution in his reign -assumed proportions such as it had not done before, and Mary, who had -done sufficient violence to her own convictions in submitting to a -despotic father, was not disposed to yield an equally tame obedience to -authority exercised by a factious council in the name of a younger -brother not yet come to years of discretion. Besides, the cause of the -pope was naturally her own. In spite of the forced declaration formerly -wrung from herself, no one really regarded her as a bastard, and the -full recognition of her rights depended on the recognition of the pope -as head of the Church. Hence, when Edward's parliament passed an Act of -Uniformity enjoining services in English and communion in both kinds, -the law appeared to her totally void of authority, and she insisted on -having Mass in her own private chapel under the old form. When ordered -to desist, she appealed for protection to the emperor Charles V., who, -being her cousin, intervened for some time not ineffectually, -threatening war with England if her religious liberty was interfered -with. But Edward's court was composed of factions of which the most -violent eventually carried the day. Lord Seymour, the admiral, was -attainted of treason and beheaded in 1549. His brother, the Protector -Somerset, met with the same fate in 1552. Dudley, duke of -Northumberland, then became paramount in the privy council, and easily -obtained the sanction of the young king to those schemes for altering -the succession which led immediately after his death to the usurpation -of Lady Jane Grey. Dudley had, in fact, overawed all the rest of the -privy council, and when the event occurred he took such energetic -measures to give effect to the scheme that Lady Jane was actually -recognized as queen for some days, and Mary had even to fly from Hunsdon -into Norfolk. But the country was really devoted to her cause, as indeed -her right in law was unquestionable, and before many days she was -royally received in London, and took up her abode within the Tower. - -Her first acts at the beginning of her reign displayed a character very -different from that which she still holds in popular estimation. Her -clemency towards those who had taken up arms against her was altogether -remarkable. She released from prison Lady Jane's father, Suffolk, and -had difficulty even in signing the warrant for the execution of -Northumberland. Lady Jane herself she fully meant to spare, and did -spare till after Wyatt's formidable insurrection. Her conduct, indeed, -was in every respect conciliatory and pacific, and so far as they -depended on her personal character the prospects of the new reign might -have appeared altogether favourable. But unfortunately her position was -one of peculiar difficulty, and the policy on which she determined was -far from judicious. Inexperienced in the art of governing, she had no -trusty councillor but Gardiner; every other member of the council had -been more or less implicated in the conspiracy against her. And though -she valued Gardiner's advice she was naturally led to rely even more on -that of her cousin, the emperor, who had been her mother's friend in -adversity, and had done such material service to herself in the -preceding reign. Following the emperor's guidance she determined almost -from the first to make his son Philip her husband, though she was eleven -years his senior. She was also strongly desirous of restoring the old -religion and wiping out the stigma of illegitimacy upon her birth, so -that she might not seem to reign by virtue of a mere parliamentary -settlement. - -Each of these different objects was attended by difficulties or -objections peculiar to itself; but the marriage was the most unpopular -of all. A restoration of the old religion threatened to deprive the new -owners of abbey lands of their easy and comfortable acquisitions; and it -was only with an express reservation of their interests that the thing -was actually accomplished. A declaration of her own legitimacy -necessarily cast a slur on that of her sister Elizabeth, and cut her off -from the succession. But the marriage promised to throw England into the -arms of Spain and place the resources of the kingdom at the command of -the emperor's son. The Commons sent her a deputation to entreat that she -would not marry a foreigner, and when her resolution was known -insurrections broke out in different parts of the country. Suffolk, -whose first rebellion had been pardoned, proclaimed Lady Jane Grey again -in Leicestershire, while young Wyatt raised the county of Kent and, -though denied access by London Bridge, led his men round by Kingston to -the very gates of London before he was repulsed. In the midst of the -danger Mary showed great intrepidity, and the rebellion was presently -quelled; after which, unhappily, she got leave to pursue her own course -unchecked. She married Philip, restored the old religion, and got -Cardinal Pole to come over and absolve the kingdom from its past -disobedience to the Holy See. - -It was a more than questionable policy thus to ally England with -Spain--a power then actually at war with France. By the treaty, indeed, -England was to remain neutral; but the force of events, in the end, -compelled her, as might have been expected, to take part in the quarrel. -Meanwhile the country was full of faction, and seditious pamphlets of -Protestant origin inflamed the people with hatred against the Spaniards. -Philip's Spanish followers met with positive ill-usage everywhere, and -violent outbreaks occurred. A year after his marriage Philip went over -to Brussels to receive from his father the government of the Low -Countries and afterwards the kingdom of Spain. Much to Mary's distress, -his absence was prolonged for a year and a half, and when he returned in -March 1557 it was only to commit England completely to the war; after -which he went back to Brussels in July, to return no more to England. - -Hostilities with France were inevitable, because France had encouraged -disaffection among Mary's subjects, even during the brief truce of -Vaucelles. Conspiracies had been hatched by English refugees in Paris, -and an attempt to seize Scarborough had been made with the aid of -vessels from the Seine. But perhaps the strangest thing about the -situation was that the pope took part with France against Spain; and so -the very marriage which Mary had contracted to bring England back to the -Holy See made her the wife of the pope's enemy. It was, moreover, this -war with France that occasioned the final calamity of the loss of -Calais, which sank so deeply into Mary's heart some time before she -died. - -The cruel persecution of the Protestants, which has cast so much infamy -upon her reign, was not due, as commonly supposed, to inhumanity on her -part. When the kingdom was reconciled to Rome and absolved by Cardinal -Pole, it followed, almost as a matter of necessity, that the old heresy -laws should be revived, as they were then by Act of Parliament. They had -been abolished by the Protector Somerset for the express purpose of -promoting changes of doctrine which did violence to what was still the -prevailing religious sentiment; and now the old religion required to be -protected from insult and fanatical outrages. Doubts were felt as to the -result even from the first; but the law having been once passed could -not be relaxed merely because the victims were so numerous; for that -would only have encouraged the irreverence which it was intended to -check. No doubt there were milder men among the heretics, but as a class -their stern fanaticism and ill-will to the old religion made them -dangerous, even to the public peace. Rogers, the first of the martyrs, -was burnt on the 4th of February 1555. Hooper, bishop of Gloucester, had -been condemned six days before, and suffered the same fate upon the 9th. -From this time the persecution went on uninterrupted for three years and -three quarters, numbering among its victims Ridley, Latimer and Cranmer. -It came to an end at last on the death of Mary. It seems to have been -more severe in the eastern and southern parts of England, and the -largest number of sufferers was naturally in the diocese of Bonner, -bishop of London. From first to last nearly three hundred victims are -known to have perished at the stake; and their fate certainly created a -revulsion against Rome that nothing else was likely to have effected. - -Mary was of weak constitution and subject to frequent illnesses, both -before and after her accession. One special infirmity caused her to -believe a few months after her marriage that she was with child, and -thanksgiving services were ordered throughout the diocese of London in -November 1554. The same delusion recurred in March 1558, when though she -did not make her expectation public, she drew up a will in anticipation -of the dangers of childbirth, constituting her husband regent during the -minority of her prospective heir. To this she added a codicil on the -28th of October following, when the illness that was to be her last had -set in, showing that she had ceased to have much expectation of -maternity, and earnestly entreating her "next heir and successor by the -laws" (whom she did not name) to allow execution of the instrument. She -died on the 17th of November. - -Her name deserved better treatment than it has generally met with; for -she was far from cruel. Her kindness to poor people is undoubted, and -the severe execution of her laws seemed only a necessity. Even in this -matter, moreover, she was alive to the injustice with which the law was -usually strained in behalf of the prerogative; and in appointing Sir -Richard Morgan chief justice of the Common Pleas she charged him "not to -sit in judgment otherwise for her highness than for her subjects," and -to avoid the old error of refusing to admit witnesses against the Crown -(Holinshed III. 1112). Her conduct as queen was certainly governed by -the best possible intentions; and it is evident that her very zeal for -goodness caused most of the trouble she brought upon herself. Her -subjects were entirely released, even by papal authority, from any -obligation to restore the confiscated lands of the Church. But she -herself made it an object, at her own expense, to restore several of the -monasteries; and courtiers who did not like to follow her example, -encouraged the fanatics to spread an alarm that it would even yet be -made compulsory. So the worldly minded joined hands with the godly -heretics in stirring up enmity against her. (J. Ga.) - - - - -MARY II. (1662-1694), queen of England and wife of king William III., -elder daughter of James, duke of York, afterwards King James II., by his -first wife, Anne, daughter of Edward Hyde, 1st earl of Clarendon, was -born in London on the 30th of April 1662. She was educated as a -Protestant, and as it was probable that she would succeed to the English -throne after the deaths of her uncle, Charles II., and her father, the -choice of a husband for her was a political event of high importance. -About 1672 the name of William, prince of Orange, was mentioned in this -connexion; and after some hesitation on both sides caused by the -condition of European politics, the betrothal of William and Mary took -place in October 1677, and was quickly followed by their marriage in -London on the 4th of November. Mary's married life in Holland does not -appear to have been a happy one. Although she soon became popular among -the Dutch, she remained childless, while William treated her with -neglect and even with insult; and her troubles were not diminished after -her father became king of England in 1685. James had treated his -daughter very shabbily in money matters; and it was increasingly -difficult for her to remain loyal to both father and husband when they -were so divergent in character and policy. Although Mary never entirely -lost her affection for her father the wife prevailed over the daughter; -and after the birth of her half-brother, the prince of Wales, in 1688, -she regarded the dethronement of James as inevitable. It cannot be said, -however, that William merited this confidence. Possibly he was jealous -of his wife as the heiress of the English throne, contrasting her future -position with his own; but according to Burnet, who was then staying at -the Hague, this cause of difference was removed by the tactful -interference of Burnet himself. The latter asserts that having divined -the reason of the prince's jealousy he mentioned the matter to the -princess, who in her ignorance of statecraft had never considered the -relative positions of herself and her husband with regard to the English -throne; and that Mary, by telling the prince "she would be no more but -his wife, and that she would do all that lay in her power to make him -king for life" (Burnet, _Supplement_, ed. Foxcroft, p. 309), probably -mollified her husband's jealousy. On the other hand Macaulay's statement -that henceforward there was "entire friendship and confidence" between -them must be taken with some reserve. Mary shared heartily in the events -which immediately preceded William's expedition to England in 1688. -After the success of the undertaking she arrived in London in February -1689; and by her faithful adherence to her promise made a satisfactory -settlement of the English crown possible. William and Mary were together -proclaimed king and queen of England, and afterwards of Scotland, and -were crowned on the 11th of April 1689. During the king's absence from -England the queen, assisted by a committee of the privy council, was -entrusted with the duties of government, duties which she performed -faithfully, but which she gladly laid down on William's return. In these -times of danger, however, she acted when necessary with courage and -promptitude, as when in 1690 she directed the arrest of her uncle Henry -Hyde, 2nd earl of Clarendon; but she was constantly anxious for -William's safety, and unable to trust many of her advisers. She was -further distressed by a quarrel with her sister Anne in 1692 following -the dismissal of Marlborough, and this event somewhat diminished her -popularity, which had hitherto been one of the mainstays of the throne. -Weak in body and troubled in mind, the queen died at Kensington Palace -from small-pox on the 28th of December 1694, and was buried in -Westminster Abbey. Mary was a woman of a remarkably modest and retiring -disposition, whose outstanding virtue was perhaps her unswerving loyalty -to William. Burnet has passed a remarkable panegyric upon her character. -She was extremely pious and charitable; her blameless private life was -in marked contrast with her surroundings, both in England and Holland; -without bigotry she was greatly attached to the Protestant faith and to -the Church of England; and she was always eager to improve the tone of -public morals, and to secure a better observance of Sunday. Greenwich -Hospital for Seamen was founded in her honour. - - For the political events of Mary's life see WILLIAM III. For her - private life see Sir John Dalrymple, _Memoirs of Great Britain and - Ireland_ (London, 1790); Countess Bentinck, _Lettres et memoires de - Marie, reine d'Angleterre_ (The Hague, 1880); _Memoires and Letters of - Mary Queen of England_ (ed. by R. Doebner, Leipzig, 1886); F. J. L. - Kramer, Maria II. Stuart (Utrecht, 1890); Agnes Strickland, _Lives of - the Queens of England_, vols. x. and xi. (London, 1847); G. Burnet, - _History of my own Time_ (Oxford, 1833); and O. Klopp, _Der Fall des - Hauses Stuart_ (Vienna, 1875-1888). - - - - -MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS[1] (1542-1587), daughter of King James V. and his -wife Mary of Lorraine, was born in December 1542, a few days before the -death of her father, heart-broken by the disgrace of his arms at Solway -Moss, where the disaffected nobles had declined to encounter an enemy of -inferior force in the cause of a king whose systematic policy had been -directed against the privileges of their order, and whose representative -on the occasion was an unpopular favourite appointed general in defiance -of their ill-will. On the 9th of September following the ceremony of -coronation was duly performed upon the infant. A scheme for her -betrothal to Edward, prince of Wales, was defeated by the grasping greed -of his father, whose obvious ambition to annex the crown of Scotland at -once to that of England aroused instantly the general suspicion and -indignation of Scottish patriotism. In 1548 the queen of six years old -was betrothed to the dauphin Francis, and set sail for France, where she -arrived on the 15th of August. The society in which the child was -thenceforward reared is known to readers of Brantome as well as that of -imperial Rome at its worst is known to readers of Suetonius or Petronius -as well as that of papal Rome at its worst is known to readers of the -diary kept by the domestic chaplain of Pope Alexander VI. Only in their -pages can a parallel be found to the gay and easy record which reveals -without sign of shame or suspicion of offence the daily life of a court -compared to which the court of King Charles II. is as the court of Queen -Victoria to the society described by Grammont. Debauchery of all kinds, -and murder in all forms, were the daily matter of excitement or of jest -to the brilliant circle which revolved around Queen Catherine de' -Medici. After ten years' training under the tutelage of the woman whose -main instrument of policy was the corruption of her own children, the -queen of Scots, aged fifteen years and five months, was married to the -eldest and feeblest of the brood on the 24th of April 1558. On the 17th -of November Elizabeth became queen of England, and the princes of -Lorraine--Francis the great duke of Guise, and his brother the -cardinal--induced their niece and her husband to assume, in addition to -the arms of France and Scotland, the arms of a country over which they -asserted the right of Mary Stuart to reign as legitimate heiress of Mary -Tudor. Civil strife broke out in Scotland between John Knox and the -queen-dowager--between the self-styled "congregation of the Lord" and -the adherents of the regent, whose French troops repelled the combined -forces of the Scotch and their English allies from the beleaguered walls -of Leith, little more than a month before the death of their mistress in -the castle of Edinburgh, on the 10th of June 1560. On the 25th of August -Protestantism was proclaimed and Catholicism suppressed in Scotland by a -convention of states assembled without the assent of the absent queen. -On the 5th of December Francis II. died; in August 1561 his widow left -France for Scotland, having been refused a safe-conduct by Elizabeth on -the ground of her own previous refusal to ratify the treaty made with -England by her commissioners in the same month of the preceding year. -She arrived nevertheless in safety at Leith, escorted by three of her -uncles of the house of Lorraine, and bringing in her train her future -biographer, Brantome, and Chastelard, the first of all her voluntary -victims. On the 21st of August she first met the only man able to -withstand her; and their first passage of arms left, as he has recorded, -upon the mind of John Knox an ineffaceable impression of her "proud -mind, crafty wit and indurate heart against God and His truth." And yet -her acts of concession and conciliation were such as no fanatic on the -opposite side could have approved. She assented, not only to the -undisturbed maintenance of the new creed, but even to a scheme for the -endowment of the Protestant ministry out of the confiscated lands of the -Church. Her half-brother, Lord James Stuart, shared the duties of her -chief counsellor with William Maitland of Lethington, the keenest and -most liberal thinker in the country. By the influence of Lord James, in -spite of the earnest opposition of Knox, permission was obtained for her -to hear Mass celebrated in her private chapel--a licence to which, said -the Reformer, he would have preferred the invasion of ten thousand -Frenchmen. Through all the first troubles of her reign the young queen -steered her skilful and dauntless way with the tact of a woman and the -courage of a man. An insurrection in the north, headed by the earl of -Huntly under pretext of rescuing from justice the life which his son had -forfeited by his share in a homicidal brawl, was crushed at a blow by -the Lord James against whose life, as well as against his sister's -liberty, the conspiracy of the Gordons had been aimed, and on whom, -after the father had fallen in fight and the son had expiated his double -offence on the scaffold, the leading rebel's earldom of Murray was -conferred by the gratitude of the queen. Exactly four months after the -battle of Corrichie, and the subsequent execution of a criminal whom she -is said to have "loved entirely," had put an end to the first -insurrection raised against her, Pierre de Boscosel de Chastelard, who -had returned to France with the other companions of her arrival, and in -November 1562 had revisited Scotland, expiated with his head the offence -or the misfortune of a second detection at night in her bedchamber. In -the same month, twenty-five years afterwards, the execution of his -mistress, according to the verdict of her contemporaries in France, -avenged the blood of a lover who had died without uttering a word to -realize the apprehension which (according to Knox) had before his trial -impelled her to desire her brother "that, as he loved her, he would slay -Chastelard, and let him never speak word." And in the same month, two -years from the date of Chastelard's execution, her first step was -unconsciously taken on the road to Fotheringhay, when she gave her heart -at first sight to her kinsman Henry, Lord Darnley, son of Matthew -Stuart, earl of Lennox, who had suffered an exile of twenty years in -expiation of his intrigues with England, and had married the niece of -King Henry VIII., daughter of his sister Margaret, the widow of James -IV., by her second husband, the earl of Angus. Queen Elizabeth, with the -almost incredible want of tact or instinctive delicacy which -distinguished and disfigured her vigorous intelligence, had recently -proposed as a suitor to the queen of Scots her own low-born favourite, -Lord Robert Dudley, the widower if not the murderer of Amy Robsart; and -she now protested against the project of marriage between Mary and -Darnley. Mary who had already married her kinsman in secret at Stirling -Castle with Catholic rites celebrated in the apartment of David Rizzio, -her secretary for correspondence with France, assured the English -ambassador, in reply to the protest of his mistress, that the marriage -would not take place for three months, when a dispensation from the pope -would allow the cousins to be publicly united without offence to the -Church. On the 29th of July 1565 they were accordingly remarried at -Holyrood. The hapless and worthless bridegroom had already incurred the -hatred of two powerful enemies, the earls of Morton and Glencairn; but -the former of these took part with the queen against the forces raised -by Murray, Glencairn and others, under the nominal leadership of -Hamilton, duke of Chatelherault, on the double plea of danger to the new -religion of the country, and of the illegal proceeding by which Darnley -had been proclaimed king of Scots without the needful constitutional -assent of the estates of the realm. Murray was cited to attend the -"raid" or array levied by the king and queen, and was duly denounced by -public blast of trumpet for his non-appearance. He entered Edinburgh -with his forces, but failed to hold the town against the guns of the -castle, and fell back upon Dumfries before the advance of the royal -army, which was now joined by James Hepburn, earl of Bothwell, on his -return from a three years' outlawed exile in France. He had been -accused in 1562 of a plot to seize the queen and put her into the -keeping of the earl of Arran, whose pretensions to her hand ended only -when his insanity could no longer be concealed. Another new adherent was -the son of the late earl of Huntly, to whom the forfeited honours of his -house were restored a few months before the marriage of his sister to -Bothwell. The queen now appealed to France for aid; but Castelnau, the -French ambassador, replied to her passionate pleading by sober and -earnest advice to make peace with the malcontents. This counsel was -rejected, and in October 1565 the queen marched an army of 18,000 men -against them from Edinburgh; their forces dispersed in face of superior -numbers, and Murray, on seeking shelter in England, was received with -contumely by Elizabeth, whose half-hearted help had failed to support -his enterprise, and whose intercession for his return found at first no -favour with the queen of Scots. But the conduct of the besotted boy on -whom at their marriage she had bestowed the title of king began at once -to justify the enterprise and to play into the hands of all his enemies -alike. His father set him on to demand the crown matrimonial, which -would at least have assured to him the rank and station of independent -royalty for life. Rizzio, hitherto his friend and advocate, induced the -queen to reply by a reasonable refusal to this hazardous and audacious -request. Darnley at once threw himself into the arms of the party -opposed to the policy of the queen and her secretary--a policy which at -that moment was doubly and trebly calculated to exasperate the fears of -the religious and the pride of the patriotic. Mary was invited if not -induced by the king of Spain to join his league for the suppression of -Protestantism; while the actual or prospective endowment of Rizzio with -Morton's office of chancellor, and the projected attainder of Murray and -his allies, combined to inflame at once the anger and the apprehension -of the Protestant nobles. According to one account, Darnley privately -assured his uncle George Douglas of his wife's infidelity; he had -himself, if he might be believed, discovered the secretary in the -queen's apartment at midnight, under circumstances yet more -unequivocally compromising than those which had brought Chastelard to -the scaffold. Another version of the pitiful history represents Douglas -as infusing suspicion of Rizzio into the empty mind of his nephew, and -thus winning his consent to a deed already designed by others. A bond -was drawn in which Darnley pledged himself to support the confederates -who undertook to punish "certain privy persons" offensive to the state, -"especially a strange Italian, called Davie"; another was subscribed by -Darnley and the banished lords, then biding their time in Newcastle, -which engaged him to procure their pardon and restoration, while -pledging them to insure to him the enjoyment of the title he coveted, -with the consequent security of an undisputed succession to the crown, -despite the counter claims of the house of Hamilton, in case his wife -should die without issue--a result which, intentionally or not, he and -his fellow-conspirators did all that brutality could have suggested to -accelerate and secure. On the 9th of March the palace of Holyrood was -invested by a troop under the command of Morton, while Rizzio was -dragged by force out of the queen's presence and slain without trial in -the heat of the moment. The parliament was discharged by proclamation -issued in the name of Darnley as king; and in the evening of the next -day the banished lords, whom it was to have condemned to outlawry, -returned to Edinburgh. On the day following they were graciously -received by the queen, who undertook to sign a bond for their security, -but delayed the subscription till next morning under plea of sickness. -During the night she escaped with Darnley, whom she had already seduced -from the party of his accomplices, and arrived at Dunbar on the third -morning after the slaughter of her favourite. From thence they returned -to Edinburgh on the 28th of March, guarded by two thousand horsemen -under the command of Bothwell, who had escaped from Holyrood on the -night of the murder, to raise a force on the queen's behalf with his -usual soldierly promptitude. The slayers of Rizzio fled to England, and -were outlawed; Darnley was permitted to protest his innocence and -denounce his accomplices; after which he became the scorn of all -parties alike, and few men dared or cared to be seen in his company. On -the 19th of June a son was born to his wife, and in the face of his -previous protestations he was induced to acknowledge himself the father. -But, as Murray and his partisans returned to favour and influence no -longer incompatible with that of Bothwell and Huntly, he grew desperate -enough with terror to dream of escape to France. This design was at once -frustrated by the queen's resolution. She summoned him to declare his -reasons for it in presence of the French ambassador and an assembly of -the nobles; she besought him for God's sake to speak out, and not spare -her; and at last he left her presence with an avowal that he had nothing -to allege. The favour shown to Bothwell had not yet given occasion for -scandal, though his character as an adventurous libertine was as notable -as his reputation for military hardihood; but as the summer advanced his -insolence increased with his influence at court and the general aversion -of his rivals. He was richly endowed by Mary from the greater and lesser -spoils of the Church; and the three wardenships of the border, united -for the first time in his person, gave the lord high admiral of Scotland -a position of unequalled power. In the gallant discharge of its duties -he was dangerously wounded by a leading outlaw, whom he slew in single -combat; and while yet confined to Hermitage Castle he received a visit -of two hours from the queen, who rode thither from Jedburgh and back -through 20 miles of the wild borderland where her person was in -perpetual danger from the freebooters whom her father's policy had -striven and had failed to extirpate. The result of this daring ride was -a ten days' fever, after which she removed by short stages to -Craigmillar, where a proposal for her divorce from Darnley was laid -before her by Bothwell, Murray, Huntly, Argyle and Lethington, who was -chosen spokesman for the rest. She assented on condition that the -divorce could be lawfully effected without impeachment of her son's -legitimacy; whereupon Lethington undertook in the name of all present -that she should be rid of her husband without any prejudice to the -child--at whose baptism a few days afterwards Bothwell took the place of -the putative father, though Darnley was actually residing under the same -roof, and it was not till after the ceremony that he was suddenly struck -down by a sickness so violent as to excite suspicions of poison. He was -removed to Glasgow, and left for the time in charge of his father; but -on the news of his progress towards recovery a bond was drawn up for -execution of the sentence of death which had secretly been pronounced -against the twice-turned traitor who had earned his doom at all hands -alike. On the 22nd of the next month (Jan. 1567) the queen visited her -husband at Glasgow and proposed to remove him to Craigmillar Castle, -where he would have the benefit of medicinal baths; but instead of this -resort he was conveyed on the last day of the month to the lonely and -squalid shelter of the residence which was soon to be made memorable by -his murder. Between the ruins of two sacred buildings, with the -town-wall to the south and a suburban hamlet known to ill fame as the -Thieves' Row to the north of it, a lodging was prepared for the titular -king of Scotland, and fitted up with tapestries taken from the Gordons -after the battle of Corrichie. On the evening of Sunday, the 9th of -February, Mary took her last leave of the miserable boy who had so often -and so mortally outraged her as consort and as queen. That night the -whole city was shaken out of sleep by an explosion of gunpowder which -shattered to fragments the building in which he should have slept and -perished; and the next morning the bodies of Darnley and a page were -found strangled in a garden adjoining it, whither they had apparently -escaped over a wall, to be despatched by the hands of Bothwell s -attendant confederates. - -Upon a view which may be taken of Mary's conduct during the next three -months depends the whole debateable question of her character. According -to the professed champions of that character, this conduct was a tissue -of such dastardly imbecility, such heartless irresolution and such -brainless inconsistency as for ever to dispose of her time-honoured -claim to the credit of intelligence and courage. It is certain that just -three months and six days after the murder of her husband she became -the wife of her husband's murderer. On the 11th of February she wrote to -the bishop of Glasgow, her ambassador in France, a brief letter of -simple eloquence, announcing her providential escape from a design upon -her own as well as her husband's life. A reward of two thousand pounds -was offered by proclamation for discovery of the murderer. Bothwell and -others, his satellites or the queen's, were instantly placarded by name -as the criminals. Voices were heard by night in the streets of Edinburgh -calling down judgment on the assassins. Four days after the discovery of -the bodies, Darnley was buried in the chapel of Holyrood with secrecy as -remarkable as the solemnity with which Rizzio had been interred there -less than a year before. On the Sunday following, Mary left Edinburgh -for Seton Palace, 12 miles from the capital, where scandal asserted that -she passed the time merrily in shooting-matches with Bothwell for her -partner against Lords Seton and Huntly; other accounts represent Huntly -and Bothwell as left at Holyrood in charge of the infant prince. -Gracefully and respectfully, with statesmanlike yet feminine dexterity, -the demands of Darnley's father for justice on the murderers of his son -were accepted and eluded by his daughter-in-law. Bothwell, with a troop -of fifty men, rode through Edinburgh defiantly denouncing vengeance on -his concealed accusers. As weeks elapsed without action on the part of -the royal widow, while the cry of blood was up throughout the country, -raising echoes from England and abroad, the murmur of accusation began -to rise against her also. Murray, with his sister's ready permission, -withdrew to France. Already the report was abroad that the queen was -bent on marriage with Bothwell, whose last year's marriage with the -sister of Huntly would be dissolved, and the assent of his wife's -brother purchased by the restitution of his forfeited estates. According -to the _Memoirs_ of Sir James Melville, both Lord Herries and himself -resolved to appeal to the queen in terms of bold and earnest -remonstrance against so desperate and scandalous a design; Herries, -having been met with assurances of its unreality and professions of -astonishment at the suggestion, instantly fled from court; Melville, -evading the danger of a merely personal protest without backers to -support him, laid before Mary a letter from a loyal Scot long resident -in England, which urged upon her consideration and her conscience the -danger and disgrace of such a project yet more freely than Herries had -ventured to do by word of mouth; but the sole result was that it needed -all the queen's courage and resolution to rescue him from the violence -of the man for whom, she was reported to have said, she cared not if she -lost France, England and her own country, and would go with him to the -world's end in a white petticoat before she would leave him. On the 28th -of March the privy council, in which Bothwell himself sat, appointed the -12th of April as the day of his trial, Lennox, instead of the crown, -being named as the accuser, and cited by royal letters to appear at "the -humble request and petition of the said Earl Bothwell," who, on the day -of the trial, had 4000 armed men behind him in the streets, while the -castle was also at his command. Under these arrangements it was not -thought wonderful that Lennox discreetly declined the danger of -attendance, even with 3000 men ready to follow him, at the risk of -desperate street fighting. He pleaded sickness, asked for more time, and -demanded that the accused, instead of enjoying special favour, should -share the treatment of other suspected criminals. But, as no particle of -evidence on his side was advanced, the protest of his representative was -rejected, and Bothwell, acquitted in default of witnesses against him, -was free to challenge any persistent accuser to the ancient ordeal of -battle. His wealth and power were enlarged by gift of the parliament -which met on the 14th and rose on the 19th of April--a date made notable -by the subsequent supper at Ainslie's tavern, where Bothwell obtained -the signatures of its leading members to a document affirming his -innocence, and pledging the subscribers to maintain it against all -challengers, to stand by him in all his quarrels and finally to promote -by all means in their power the marriage by which they recommended the -queen to reward his services and benefit the country. On the second day -following Mary went to visit her child at Stirling, where his guardian, -the earl of Mar, refused to admit more than two women in her train. It -was well known in Edinburgh that Bothwell had a body of men ready to -intercept her on the way back, and carry her to Dunbar--not, as was -naturally inferred, without good assurance of her consent. On the 24th -of April, as she approached Edinburgh, Bothwell accordingly met her at -the head of 800 spearmen, assured her (as she afterwards averred) that -she was in the utmost peril, and escorted her, together with Huntly, -Lethington and Melville, who were then in attendance, to Dunbar Castle. -On the 3rd of May Lady Jane Gordon, who had become countess of Bothwell -on the 22nd of February of the year preceding, obtained, on the ground -of her husband's infidelities, a separation which, however, would not -under the old laws of Catholic Scotland have left him free to marry -again; on the 7th, accordingly, the necessary divorce was pronounced, -after two days' session, by a clerical tribunal which ten days before -had received from the queen a special commission to give judgment on a -plea of somewhat apocryphal consanguinity alleged by Bothwell as the -ground of an action for divorce against his wife. The fact was -studiously evaded or concealed that a dispensation had been granted by -the archbishop of St Andrews for this irregularity, which could only -have arisen through some illicit connexion of the husband with a -relative of the wife between whom and himself no affinity by blood or -marriage could be proved. On the day when the first or Protestant -divorce was pronounced, Mary and Bothwell returned to Edinburgh with -every prepared appearance of a peaceful triumph. Lest her captivity -should have been held to invalidate the late legal proceedings in her -name, proclamation was made of forgiveness accorded by the queen to her -captor in consideration of his past and future services, and her -intention was announced to reward them by further promotion; and on the -same day (May 12), he was duly created duke of Orkney and Shetland. The -duke, as a conscientious Protestant, refused to marry his mistress -according to the rites of her Church, and she, the chosen champion of -its cause, agreed to be married to him, not merely by a Protestant but -by one who before his conversion had been a Catholic bishop, and should -therefore have been more hateful and contemptible in her eyes than any -ordinary heretic, had not religion as well as policy, faith as well as -reason, been absorbed or superseded by some more mastering passion or -emotion. This passion or emotion, according to those who deny her -attachment to Bothwell, was simply terror--the blind and irrational -prostration of an abject spirit before the cruel force of circumstances -and the crafty wickedness of men. Hitherto, according to all evidence, -she had shown herself on all occasions, as on all subsequent occasions -she indisputably showed herself, the most fearless, the most -keen-sighted, the most ready-witted, the most high-gifted and -high-spirited of women; gallant and generous, skilful and practical, -never to be cowed by fortune, never to be cajoled by craft; neither more -unselfish in her ends nor more unscrupulous in her practice than might -have been expected from her training and her creed. But at the crowning -moment of trial there are those who assert their belief that the woman -who on her way to the field of Corrichie had uttered her wish to be a -man, that she might know all the hardship and all the enjoyment of a -soldier's life, riding forth "in jack and knapscull"--the woman who long -afterwards was to hold her own for two days together without help of -counsel against all the array of English law and English statesmanship, -armed with irrefragable evidence and supported by the resentment of a -nation--showed herself equally devoid of moral and of physical -resolution; too senseless to realize the significance and too heartless -to face the danger of a situation from which the simplest exercise of -reason, principle or courage must have rescued the most unsuspicious and -inexperienced of honest women who was not helplessly deficient in -self-reliance and self-respect. The famous correspondence produced next -year in evidence against her at the conference of York may have been, as -her partisans affirm, so craftily garbled and falsified by -interpolation, suppression, perversion, or absolute forgery as to be -all but historically worthless. Its acceptance or its rejection does not -in any degree whatever affect, for better or for worse, the rational -estimate of her character. The problem presented by the simple existence -of the facts just summed up remains in either case absolutely the same. - -That the coarse and imperious nature of the hardy and able ruffian who -had now become openly her master should no less openly have shown itself -even in the first moments of their inauspicious union is what any -bystander of common insight must inevitably have foreseen. Tears, -dejection and passionate expressions of a despair "wishing only for -death," bore fitful and variable witness to her first sense of a heavier -yoke than yet had galled her spirit and her pride. At other times her -affectionate gaiety would give evidence as trustworthy of a fearless and -improvident satisfaction. They rode out in state together, and if he -kept cap in hand as a subject she would snatch it from him and clap it -on his head again; while in graver things she took all due or possible -care to gratify his ambition, by the insertion of a clause in their -contract of marriage which made their joint signature necessary to all -documents of state issued under the sign-manual. She despatched to -France a special envoy, the bishop of Dumblane, with instructions -setting forth at length the unparalleled and hitherto ill-requited -services and merits of Bothwell, and the necessity of compliance at once -with his passion and with the unanimous counsel of the nation--a people -who would endure the rule of no foreign consort, and whom none of their -own countrymen were so competent to control, alike by wisdom and by -valour, as the incomparable subject of her choice. These personal merits -and this political necessity were the only pleas advanced in a letter to -her ambassador in England. But that neither plea would avail her for a -moment in Scotland she had ominous evidence on the thirteenth day after -her marriage, when no response was made to the usual form of -proclamation for a raid or levy of forces under pretext of a campaign -against the rievers of the border. On the 6th or 7th of June Mary and -Bothwell took refuge in Borthwick Castle, twelve miles from the capital, -where the fortress was in the keeping of an adherent whom the diplomacy -of Sir James Melville had succeeded in detaching from his allegiance to -Bothwell. The fugitives were pursued and beleaguered by the earl of -Morton and Lord Hume, who declared their purpose to rescue the queen -from the thraldom of her husband. He escaped, leaving her free to follow -him or to join the party of her professed deliverers. But whatever cause -she might have found since marriage to complain of his rigorous custody -and domineering brutality was insufficient to break the ties by which he -held her. Alone, in the disguise of a page, she slipped out of the -castle at midnight, and rode off to meet him at a tower two miles -distant, whence they fled together to Dunbar. The confederate lords on -entering Edinburgh were welcomed by the citizens, and after three hours' -persuasion Lethington, who had now joined them, prevailed on the captain -of the castle to deliver it also into their hands. Proclamations were -issued in which the crime of Bothwell was denounced, and the disgrace of -the country, the thraldom of the queen and the mortal peril of her -infant son, were set forth as reasons for summoning all the lieges of -the chief cities of Scotland to rise in arms on three hours' notice and -join the forces assembled against the one common enemy. News of his -approach reached them on the night of June 14, and they marched before -dawn with 2200 men to meet him near Musselburgh. Mary meanwhile had -passed from Dunbar to Haddington, and thence to Seton, where 1600 men -rallied to her side. On the 15th of June, one month from their marriage -day, the queen and Bothwell, at the head of a force of fairly equal -numbers but visibly inferior discipline, met the army of the -confederates at Carberry Hill, some six miles from Edinburgh. Du Croc, -the French ambassador, obtained permission through the influence of -Maitland to convey to the queen the terms proposed by their -leaders--that she and Bothwell should part, or that he should meet in -single combat a champion chosen from among their number. Bothwell -offered to meet any man of sufficient quality; Mary would not assent. As -the afternoon wore on their force began to melt away by desertion and -to break up for lack of discipline. Again the trial by single combat was -proposed, and thrice the proposal fell through, owing to objections on -this side or on that. At last it was agreed that the queen should yield -herself prisoner, and Bothwell be allowed to retire in safety to Dunbar -with the few followers who remained to him. Mary took leave of her first -and last master with passionate anguish and many parting kisses; but in -face of his enemies, and in hearing of the cries which burst from the -ranks, demanding her death by fire as a murderess and harlot, the whole -heroic and passionate spirit of the woman, represented by her admirers -as a spiritless imbecile, flamed out in responsive threats to have all -the men hanged and crucified, in whose power she now stood helpless and -alone. She grasped the hand of Lord Lindsay as he rode beside her, and -swore "by this hand" she would "have his head for this." In Edinburgh -she was received by a yelling mob, which flaunted before her at each -turn a banner representing the corpse of Darnley with her child beside -it invoking on his knees the retribution of divine justice. From the -violence of a multitude in which women of the worst class were more -furious than the men she was sheltered in the house of the provost, -where she repeatedly showed herself at the window, appealing aloud with -dishevelled hair and dress to the mercy which no man could look upon her -and refuse. At nine in the evening she was removed to Holyrood, and -thence to the port of Leith, where she embarked under guard, with her -attendants, for the island castle of Lochleven. On the 20th a silver -casket containing letters and French verses, miscalled sonnets, in the -handwriting of the queen, was taken from the person of a servant who had -been sent by Bothwell to bring it from Edinburgh to Dunbar. Even in the -existing versions of the letters, translated from the lost originals and -retranslated from this translation of a text which was probably -destroyed in 1603 by order of King James on his accession to the English -throne--even in these possibly disfigured versions, the fiery pathos of -passion, the fierce and piteous fluctuations of spirit between love and -hate, hope and rage and jealousy, have an eloquence apparently beyond -the imitation or invention of art (see CASKET LETTERS[2]). Three days -after this discovery Lord Lindsay, Lord Ruthven and Sir Robert Melville -were despatched to Lochleven, there to obtain the queen's signature to -an act of abdication in favour of her son, and another appointing Murray -regent during his minority. She submitted, and a commission of regency -was established till the return from France of Murray, who, on the 15th -of August, arrived at Lochleven with Morton and Athole. According to his -own account, the expostulations as to her past conduct which preceded -his admonitions for the future were received with tears, confessions and -attempts at extenuation or excuse; but when they parted next day on good -terms she had regained her usual spirits. Nor from that day forward had -they reason to sink again, in spite of the close keeping in which she -was held, with the daughters of the house for bedfellows. Their mother -and the regent's, her father's former mistress, was herself not -impervious to her prisoner's lifelong power of seduction and -subjugation. Her son George Douglas fell inevitably under the charm. A -rumour transmitted to England went so far as to assert that she had -proposed him to their common half-brother Murray as a fourth husband for -herself; a later tradition represented her as the mother of a child by -him. A third report, at least as improbable as either, asserted that a -daughter of Mary and Bothwell, born about this time, lived to be a nun -in France. It is certain that the necessary removal of George Douglas -from Lochleven enabled him to devise a method of escape for the prisoner -on the 25th of March, 1568, which was frustrated by detection of her -white hands under the disguise of a laundress. But a younger member of -the household, Willie Douglas, aged eighteen, whose devotion was -afterwards remembered and his safety cared for by Mary at a time of -utmost risk and perplexity to herself, succeeded on the 2nd of May in -assisting her to escape by a postern gate to the lake-side, and thence -in a boat to the mainland, where George Douglas, Lord Seton and others -were awaiting her. Thence they rode to Seton's castle of Niddry, and -next day to Hamilton palace, round which an army of 6000 men was soon -assembled, and whither the new French ambassador to Scotland hastened to -pay his duty. The queen's abdication was revoked, messengers were -despatched to the English and French courts, and word was sent to Murray -at Glasgow that he must resign the regency, and should be pardoned in -common with all offenders against the queen. But on the day when Mary -arrived at Hamilton Murray had summoned to Glasgow the feudatories of -the Crown to take arms against the insurgent enemies of the infant king. -Elizabeth sent conditional offers of help to her kinswoman, provided she -would accept of English intervention and abstain from seeking foreign -assistance; but the messenger came too late. Mary's followers had failed -to retake Dunbar Castle from the regent, and made for Dumbarton instead, -marching two miles south of Glasgow, by the village of Langside. Here -Murray, with 4500 men, under leaders of high distinction, met the 6000 -of the queen's army, whose ablest man, Herries, was as much distrusted -by Mary as by every one else, while the Hamiltons could only be trusted -to think of their own interests, and were suspected of treasonable -designs on all who stood between their house and the monarchy. On the -13th of May the battle or skirmish of Langside determined the result of -the campaign in three-quarters of an hour. Kirkaldy of Grange, who -commanded the regent's cavalry, seized and kept the place of vantage -from the beginning, and at the first sign of wavering on the other side -shattered at a single charge the forces of the queen with a loss of one -man to three hundred. Mary fled 60 miles from the field of her last -battle before she halted at Sanquhar, and for three days of flight, -according to her own account, had to sleep on the hard ground, live on -oatmeal and sour milk, and fare at night like the owls, in hunger, cold -and fear. On the third day from the rout of Langside she crossed the -Solway and landed at Workington in Cumberland, May 16, 1568. On the 20th -Lord Scrope and Sir Francis Knollys were sent from court to carry -messages and letters of comfort from Elizabeth to Mary at Carlisle. On -the 11th of June Knollys wrote to Cecil at once the best description and -the noblest panegyric extant of the queen of Scots--enlarging, with a -brave man's sympathy, on her indifference to form and ceremony, her -daring grace and openness of manner, her frank display of a great desire -to be avenged of her enemies, her readiness to expose herself to all -perils in hope of victory, her delight to hear of hardihood and courage, -commending by name all her enemies of approved valour, sparing no -cowardice in her friends, but above all things athirst for victory by -any means at any price, so that for its sake pain and peril seemed -pleasant to her, and wealth and all things, if compared with it, -contemptible and vile. What was to be done with such a princess, whether -she were to be nourished in one's bosom, above all whether it could be -advisable or safe to try any diplomatic tricks upon such a lady, Knollys -left for the minister to judge. It is remarkable that he should not have -discovered in her the qualities so obvious to modern champions of her -character--easiness, gullibility, incurable innocence and invincible -ignorance of evil, incapacity to suspect or resent anything, readiness -to believe and forgive all things. On the 15th of July, after various -delays interposed by her reluctance to leave the neighbourhood of the -border, where on her arrival she had received the welcome and the homage -of the leading Catholic houses of Northumberland and Cumberland, she was -removed to Bolton Castle in North Yorkshire. During her residence here a -conference was held at York between her own and Elizabeth's -commissioners and those appointed to represent her son as a king of -Scots. These latter, of whom Murray himself was the chief, privately -laid before the English commissioners the contents of the famous casket. -On the 24th of October the place of the conference was shifted from York -to London, where the inquiry was to be held before Queen Elizabeth in -council. Mary was already aware that the chief of the English -commissioners, the duke of Norfolk, was secretly an aspirant to the -peril of her hand; and on the 21st of October she gave the first sign of -assent to the suggestion of a divorce from Bothwell. On the 26th of -October the charge of complicity in the murder of Darnley was distinctly -brought forward against her in spite of Norfolk's reluctance and -Murray's previous hesitation. Elizabeth, by the mouth of her chief -justice, formally rebuked the audacity of the subjects who durst bring -such a charge against their sovereign, and challenged them to advance -their proofs. They complied by the production of an indictment under -five heads, supported by the necessary evidence of documents. The number -of English commissioners was increased, and they were bound to preserve -secrecy as to the matters revealed. Further evidence was supplied by -Thomas Crawford, a retainer of the house of Lennox, tallying so exactly -with the text of the casket letters as to have been cited in proof that -the latter must needs be a forgery. Elizabeth, on the close of the -evidence, invited Mary to reply to the proofs alleged before she could -be admitted to her presence; but Mary simply desired her commissioners -to withdraw from the conference. She declined with scorn the proposal -made by Elizabeth through Knollys, that she should sign a second -abdication in favour of her son. On the 10th of January, 1569, the -judgment given at the conference acquitted Murray and his adherents of -rebellion, while affirming that nothing had been proved against Mary--a -verdict accepted by Murray as equivalent to a practical recognition of -his office as regent for the infant king. This position he was not long -to hold; and the fierce exultation of Mary at the news of his murder -gave to those who believed in her complicity with the murderer, on whom -a pension was bestowed by her unblushing gratitude, fresh reason to -fear, if her liberty of correspondence and intrigue were not restrained, -the likelihood of a similar fate for Elizabeth. On the 26th of January -1569 she had been removed from Bolton Castle to Tutbury in -Staffordshire, where proposals were conveyed to her, at the instigation -of Leicester, for a marriage with the duke of Norfolk, to which she gave -a graciously conditional assent; but the discovery of these proposals -consigned Norfolk to the Tower, and on the outbreak of an insurrection -in the north Mary, by Lord Hunsdon's advice, was again removed to -Coventry, when a body of her intending deliverers was within a day's -ride of Tutbury. On the 23rd of January following Murray was -assassinated; and a second northern insurrection was crushed in a single -sharp fight by Lord Hunsdon. In October Cecil had an interview with Mary -at Chatsworth, when the conditions of her possible restoration to the -throne in compliance with French demands were debated at length. The -queen of Scots, with dauntless dignity, refused to yield the castles of -Edinburgh and Dumbarton into English keeping, or to deliver up her -fugitive English partisans then in Scotland; upon other points they came -to terms, and the articles were signed the 16th of October. On the same -day Mary wrote to Elizabeth, requesting with graceful earnestness the -favour of an interview which might reassure her against the suggestion -that this treaty was a mere pretence. On the 28th of November she was -removed to Sheffield Castle, where she remained for the next fourteen -years in charge of the earl of Shrewsbury. The detection of a plot, in -which Norfolk was implicated, for the invasion of England by Spain on -behalf of Mary, who was then to take him as the fourth and most -contemptible of her husbands, made necessary the reduction of her -household and the stricter confinement of her person. On the 28th of May -1572 a demand from both houses of parliament for her execution as well -as Norfolk's was generously rejected by Elizabeth; but after the -punishment of the traitorous pretender to her hand, on whom she had -lavished many eloquent letters of affectionate protestation, she fell -into "a passion of sickness" which convinced her honest keeper of her -genuine grief for the ducal caitiff. A treaty projected on the news of -the massacre of St Bartholomew, by which Mary should be sent back to -Scotland for immediate execution, was broken off by the death of the -earl of Mar, who had succeeded Lennox as regent; nor was it found -possible to come to acceptable terms on a like understanding with his -successor Morton, who in 1577 sent a proposal to Mary for her -restoration, which she declined, in suspicion of a plot laid to entrap -her by the policy of Sir Francis Walsingham, the most unscrupulously -patriotic of her English enemies, who four years afterwards sent word to -Scotland that the execution of Morton, so long the ally of England, -would be answered by the execution of Mary. But on that occasion -Elizabeth again refused her assent either to the trial of Mary or to her -transference from Sheffield to the Tower. In 1581 Mary accepted the -advice of Catherine de' Medici and Henry III. that she should allow her -son's title to reign as king of Scotland conjointly with herself when -released and restored to a share of the throne. This plan was but part -of a scheme including the invasion of England by her kinsman the duke of -Guise, who was to land in the north and raise a Scottish army to place -the released prisoner of Sheffield beside her son on the throne of -Elizabeth. After the overthrow of the Scottish accomplices in this -notable project, Mary poured forth upon Elizabeth a torrent of pathetic -and eloquent reproach for the many wrongs she had suffered at the hands -of her hostess, and pledged her honour to the assurance that she now -aspired to no kingdom but that of heaven. In the spring of 1583 she -retained enough of this saintly resignation to ask for nothing but -liberty, without a share in the government of Scotland; but Lord -Burghley not unreasonably preferred, if feasible, to reconcile the -alliance of her son with the detention of his mother. In 1584 the -long-suffering earl of Shrewsbury was relieved of his fourteen years' -charge through the involuntary good offices of his wife, whose daughter -by her first husband had married a brother of Darnley; and their orphan -child Arabella, born in England, of royal descent on the father's side, -was now, in the hopeful view of her grandmother, a more plausible -claimant than the king or queen of Scots to the inheritance of the -English throne. In December 1583 Mary had laid before the French -ambassador her first complaint of the slanders spread by Lady Shrewsbury -and her sons, who were ultimately compelled to confess the falsehood of -their imputations on the queen of Scots and her keeper. It was probably -at the time when a desire for revenge on her calumniatress made her -think the opportunity good and safe for discharge of such a two-edged -dart at the countess and the queen that Mary wrote, but abstained from -despatching, the famous and terrible letter in which, with many gracious -excuses and professions of regret and attachment, she transmits to -Elizabeth a full and vivid report of the hideous gossip retailed by Bess -of Hardwick regarding her character and person at a time when the -reporter of these abominations was on friendly terms with her husband's -royal charge. In the autumn of 1584 she was removed to Wingfield Manor -under charge of Sir Ralph Sadler and John Somers, who accompanied her -also on her next removal to Tutbury in January 1585. A letter received -by her in that cold, dark and unhealthy castle, of which fifteen years -before she had made painful and malodorous experience, assured her that -her son would acknowledge her only as queen-mother, and provoked at once -the threat of a parent's curse and an application to Elizabeth for -sympathy. In April 1585 Sir Amyas Paulet was appointed to the office of -which Sadler, accused of careless indulgence, had requested to be -relieved; and on Christmas Eve she was removed from the hateful shelter -of Tutbury to the castle of Chartley in the same county. Her -correspondence in cipher from thence with her English agents abroad, -intercepted by Walsingham and deciphered by his secretary, gave eager -encouragement to the design for a Spanish invasion of England under the -prince of Parma,--an enterprise in which she would do her utmost to make -her son take part, and in case of his refusal would induce the Catholic -nobles of Scotland to betray him into the hands of Philip, from whose -tutelage he should be released only on her demand, or if after her death -he should wish to return, nor then unless he had become a Catholic. But -even these patriotic and maternal schemes to consign her child and -re-consign the kingdom to the keeping of the Inquisition, incarnate in -the widower of Mary Tudor, were superseded by the attraction of a -conspiracy against the throne and life of Elizabeth. Anthony Babington, -in his boyhood a ward of Shrewsbury, resident in the household at -Sheffield Castle, and thus subjected to the charm before which so many -victims had already fallen, was now induced to undertake the deliverance -of the queen of Scots by the murder of the queen of England. It is -maintained by those admirers of Mary who assume her to have been an -almost absolute imbecile, gifted with the power of imposing herself on -the world as a woman of unsurpassed ability, that, while cognisant of -the plot for her deliverance by English rebels and an invading army of -foreign auxiliaries, she might have been innocently unconscious that -this conspiracy involved the simultaneous assassination of Elizabeth. In -the conduct and detection of her correspondence with Babington, traitor -was played off against traitor, and spies were utilized against -assassins, with as little scruple as could be required or expected in -the diplomacy of the time. As in the case of the casket letters, it is -alleged that forgery was employed to interpolate sufficient evidence of -Mary's complicity in a design of which it is thought credible that she -was kept in ignorance by the traitors and murderers who had enrolled -themselves in her service,--that one who pensioned the actual murderer -of Murray and a would-be murderer of Elizabeth was incapable of -approving what her keen and practised intelligence was too blunt and -torpid to anticipate as inevitable and inseparable from the general -design. In August the conspirators were netted, and Mary was arrested at -the gate of Tixall Park, whither Paulet had taken her under pretence of -a hunting party. At Tixall she was detained till her papers at Chartley -had undergone thorough research. That she was at length taken in her own -toils even such a dullard as her admirers depict her could not have -failed to understand; that she was no such dastard as to desire or -deserve such defenders the whole brief course of her remaining life bore -consistent and irrefragable witness. Her first thought on her return to -Chartley was one of loyal gratitude and womanly sympathy. She cheered -the wife of her English secretary, now under arrest, with promises to -answer for her husband to all accusations brought against him, took her -new-born child from the mother's arms, and in default of clergy baptized -it, to Paulet's Puritanic horror, with her own hands by her own name. -The next or the twin-born impulse of her indomitable nature was, as -usual in all times of danger, one of passionate and high-spirited -defiance on discovering the seizure of her papers. A fortnight -afterwards her keys and her money were confiscated, while she, bedridden -and unable to move her hand, could only ply the terrible weapon of her -bitter and fiery tongue. Her secretaries were examined in London, and -one of them gave evidence that she had first heard of the conspiracy by -letter from Babington, of whose design against the life of Elizabeth she -thought it best to take no notice in her reply, though she did not hold -herself bound to reveal it. On the 25th of September she was removed to -the strong castle of Fotheringay in Northamptonshire. On the 6th of -October she was desired by letter from Elizabeth to answer the charges -brought against her before certain of the chief English nobles appointed -to sit in commission on the cause. In spite of her first refusal to -submit, she was induced by the arguments of the vice-chamberlain, Sir -Christopher Hatton, to appear before this tribunal on condition that her -protest should be registered against the legality of its jurisdiction -over a sovereign, the next heir of the English crown. - -On the 14th and 15th of October 1586 the trial was held in the hall of -Fotheringay Castle. Alone, "without one counsellor on her side among so -many," Mary conducted the whole of her own defence with courage -incomparable and unsurpassable ability. Pathos and indignation, subtlety -and simplicity, personal appeal and political reasoning, were the -alternate weapons with which she fought against all odds of evidence or -inference, and disputed step by step every inch of debatable ground. She -repeatedly insisted on the production of proof in her own handwriting as -to her complicity with the project of the assassins who had expiated -their crime on the 20th and 21st of the month preceding. When the charge -was shifted to the question of her intrigues with Spain, she took her -stand resolutely on her own right to convey whatever right she -possessed, though now no kingdom was left her for disposal, to -whomsoever she might choose. One single slip she made in the whole -course of her defence; but none could have been more unluckily -characteristic and significant. When Burghley brought against her the -unanswerable charge of having at that moment in her service, and in -receipt of an annual pension, the instigator of a previous attempt on -the life of Elizabeth, she had the unwary audacity to cite in her -justification the pensions allowed by Elizabeth to her adversaries in -Scotland, and especially to her son. It is remarkable that just two -months later, in a conversation with her keepers, she again made use of -the same extraordinary argument in reply to the same inevitable -imputation, and would not be brought to admit that the two cases were -other than parallel. But except for this single instance of oversight or -perversity her defence was throughout a masterpiece of indomitable -ingenuity, of delicate and steadfast courage, of womanly dignity and -genius. Finally she demanded, as she had demanded before, a trial either -before the estates of the realm lawfully assembled or else before the -queen in council. So closed the second day of the trial; and before the -next day's work could begin a note of two or three lines hastily written -at midnight informed the commissioners that Elizabeth had suddenly -determined to adjourn the expected judgment and transfer the place of it -to the star-chamber. Here, on the 25th of October, the commissioners -again met; and one of them alone, Lord Zouch, dissented from the verdict -by which Mary was found guilty of having, since the 1st of June -preceding, compassed and imagined divers matters tending to the -destruction of Elizabeth. This verdict was conveyed to her, about three -weeks later, by Lord Buckhurst and Robert Beale, clerk of the privy -council. At the intimation that her life was an impediment to the -security of the received religion, "she seemed with a certain unwonted -alacrity to triumph, giving God thanks, and rejoicing in her heart that -she was held to be an instrument" for the restoration of her own faith. -This note of exultation as in martyrdom was maintained with unflinching -courage to the last. She wrote to Elizabeth and the duke of Guise two -letters of almost matchless eloquence and pathos, admirable especially -for their loyal and grateful remembrance of all her faithful servants. -Between the date of these letters and the day of her execution wellnigh -three months of suspense elapsed. Elizabeth, fearless almost to a fault -in face of physical danger, constant in her confidence even after -discovery of her narrow escape from the poisoned bullets of household -conspirators, was cowardly even to a crime in face of subtler and more -complicated peril. She rejected with resolute dignity the intercession -of French envoys for the life of the queen-dowager of France; she -allowed the sentence of death to be proclaimed and welcomed with -bonfires and bell-ringing throughout the length of England; she yielded -a respite of twelve days to the pleading of the French ambassador, and -had a charge trumped up against him of participation in a conspiracy -against her life; at length, on the 1st of February 1587, she signed the -death-warrant, and then made her secretaries write word to Paulet of her -displeasure that in all this time he should not of himself have found -out some way to shorten the life of his prisoner, as in duty bound by -his oath, and thus relieve her singularly tender conscience from the -guilt of bloodshed. Paulet, with loyal and regretful indignation, -declined the disgrace proposed to him in a suggestion "to shed blood -without law or warrant"; and on the 7th of February the earls of -Shrewsbury and Kent arrived at Fotheringay with the commission of the -council for execution of the sentence given against his prisoner. Mary -received the announcement with majestic tranquillity, expressing in -dignified terms her readiness to die, her consciousness that she was a -martyr for her religion, and her total ignorance of any conspiracy -against the life of Elizabeth. At night she took a graceful and -affectionate leave of her attendants, distributed among them her money -and jewels, wrote out in full the various legacies to be conveyed by her -will, and charged her apothecary Gorion with her last messages for the -king of Spain. In these messages the whole nature of the woman was -revealed. Not a single friend, not a single enemy, was forgotten; the -slightest service, the slightest wrong, had its place assigned in her -faithful and implacable memory for retribution or reward. Forgiveness -of injuries was as alien from her fierce and loyal spirit as -forgetfulness of benefits; the destruction of England and its liberties -by Spanish invasion and conquest was the strongest aspiration of her -parting soul. At eight next morning she entered the hall of execution, -having taken leave of the weeping envoy from Scotland, to whom she gave -a brief message for her son; took her seat on the scaffold, listened -with an air of even cheerful unconcern to the reading of her sentence, -solemnly declared her innocence of the charge conveyed in it and her -consolation in the prospect of ultimate justice, rejected the -professional services of Richard Fletcher, dean of Peterborough, lifted -up her voice in Latin against his in English prayer, and when he and his -fellow-worshippers had fallen duly silent prayed aloud for the -prosperity of her own church, for Elizabeth, for her son, and for all -the enemies whom she had commended overnight to the notice of the -Spanish invader; then, with no less courage than had marked every hour -and every action of her life, received the stroke of death from the -wavering hand of the headsman. - -Mary Stuart was in many respects the creature of her age, of her creed, -and of her station; but the noblest and most noteworthy qualities of her -nature were independent of rank, opinion or time. Even the detractors -who defend her conduct on the plea that she was a dastard and a dupe are -compelled in the same breath to retract this implied reproach, and to -admit, with illogical acclamation and incongruous applause, that the -world never saw more splendid courage at the service of more brilliant -intelligence, that a braver if not "a rarer spirit never did steer -humanity." A kinder or more faithful friend, a deadlier or more -dangerous enemy, it would be impossible to dread or to desire. Passion -alone could shake the double fortress of her impregnable heart and -ever-active brain. The passion of love, after very sufficient -experience, she apparently and naturally outlived; the passion of hatred -and revenge was as inextinguishable in her inmost nature as the emotion -of loyalty and gratitude. Of repentance it would seem that she knew as -little as of fear, having been trained from her infancy in a religion -where the Decalogue was supplanted by the Creed. Adept as she was in the -most exquisite delicacy of dissimulation, the most salient note of her -original disposition was daring rather than subtlety. Beside or behind -the voluptuous or intellectual attractions of beauty and culture, she -had about her the fresher charm of a fearless and frank simplicity, a -genuine and enduring pleasure in small and harmless things no less than -in such as were neither. In 1562 she amused herself for some days by -living "with her little troop" in the house of a burgess of St Andrews -"like a burgess's wife," assuring the English ambassador that he should -not find the queen there,--"nor I know not myself where she is become." -From Sheffield Lodge, twelve years later, she applied to the archbishop -of Glasgow and the cardinal of Guise for some pretty little dogs, to be -sent her in baskets very warmly packed,--"for besides reading and -working, I take pleasure only in all the little animals that I can get." -No lapse of reconciling time, no extent of comparative indulgence, could -break her in to resignation, submission, or toleration of even partial -restraint. Three months after the massacre of St Bartholomew had caused -some additional restrictions to be placed upon her freedom of action, -Shrewsbury writes to Burghley that "rather than continue this -imprisonment she sticks not to say she will give her body, her son, and -country for liberty"; nor did she ever show any excess of regard for any -of the three. For her own freedom of will and of way, of passion and of -action, she cared much; for her creed she cared something; for her -country she cared less than nothing. She would have flung Scotland with -England into the hell fire of Spanish Catholicism rather than forgo the -faintest chance of personal revenge. Her profession of a desire to be -instructed in the doctrines of Anglican Protestantism was so -transparently a pious fraud as rather to afford confirmation than to -arouse suspicion of her fidelity to the teaching of her church. -Elizabeth, so shamefully her inferior in personal loyalty, fidelity and -gratitude, was as clearly her superior on the one all-important point of -patriotism. The saving salt of Elizabeth's character, with all its -wellnigh incredible mixture of heroism and egotism, meanness and -magnificence, was simply this, that, overmuch as she loved herself, she -did yet love England better. Her best though not her only fine qualities -were national and political, the high public virtues of a good public -servant; in the private and personal qualities which attract and attach -a friend to his friend and a follower to his leader, no man or woman was -ever more constant and more eminent than Mary Queen of Scots. - (A. C. S.) - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The biography of Mary Stuart being virtually the - history of Scotland during the period covered by her life, with which - the history of England at the same period is also largely concerned, - the chief events in which she figured are related in all the general - _Histories_ of both countries. The most important original authorities - are the voluminous _State Papers_ of the period, with other MS. - documents preserved at the British Museum, the Cambridge University - Library, Hatfield and elsewhere. See especially the _Reports_ of the - Hist. MSS. Commission; _Calendar of State Papers relating to Scotland - and Mary Queen of Scots_ (Scottish Record Publ. 1898); _Calendar of - Letters and State Papers relating to English Affairs, principally in - the Archives at Simancas_ (vols. i.-iv., 1892-1899); and the - _Calendars of State Papers: Domestic Series, Edw. VI.-James I.; - Foreign Series, Elizabeth; Venice Series_. - - The most important unofficial contemporary works are the _Histories_ - of John Knox, Bishop John Lesley, George Buchanan, and Robert Lindsay - of Pitscottie; the _Diurnal of Remarkable Occurrents from the death of - James IV. till 1575_ (Bannatyne Club, 1833); Robert Birrell's "Diary" - in Sir J. G. Dalzell's _Fragments of Scottish History_ (Edinburgh, - 1798); _History of Mary Stuart_, by her secretary Claude Nau, ed. by - J. Stevenson (Edinburgh, 1883); Sir James Melville's _Memoirs of his - own Life_ (Bannatyne Club, 1827); Richard Bannatyne, _Memoriales of - Transactions in Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1836); William Camden's - _Annales_ (Eng. trans., London, 1635); Michel de Castelnau's - _Memoires_ (Brussels, 1731); the _Memoires_ of Brantome (ed. by L. - Lalanne, 12 vols., Paris, 1864-1896); _Relations politiques de la - France et de l'Espagne avec l'Ecosse au 16th siecle_ (ed. by J. B. A. - Teulet, 5 vols., Paris, 1862), containing important original letters - and documents; Thomas Wright's _Queen Elizabeth and her Times_ (2 - vols., London, 1838), consists of private letters of Elizabethan - statesmen many of which refer to Mary Stuart, and others are to be - found in Sir Henry Ellis's _Original Letters illustrative of English - History_ (London, 1825-1846); much of Mary's own correspondence will - be found in Prince A. Labanoff's _Lettres inedites, 1558-1587_ (Paris, - 1839), and _Lettres, instructions, et memoires de Marie Stuart_ (7 - vols., London, 1844), selections from which have been translated into - English by W. Turnbull in _Letters of Mary Queen of Scots_ (London, - 1845), and by Agnes Strickland in _Letters of Mary Queen of Scots and - Documents connected with her Personal History_ (3 vols., London, - 1842). - - Among authorities not actually contemporary but written within a - century of Mary's death are David Calderwood's _Hist. of the Kirk of - Scotland_ (8 vols., Edinburgh, 1842-1849); Archbishop Spottiswoode's - _Hist. of the Church of Scotland_ (ed. by M. Russell, 3 vols., - Edinburgh, 1847-1851), and Robert Keith's _Hist. of Affairs of Church - and State in Scotland_ (Spottiswoode Society ed., 1844); to which - should be added the modern classic, George Grub's _Ecclesiastical - History of Scotland_ (4 vols., Edinburgh, 1861). - - Of modern general histories those of chief importance on the subject - are the Histories of England by Hume, Lingard and Froude; and the - _Histories of Scotland_ by Robertson, P. F. Tytler, John Hill Burton, - Malcolm Laing and Andrew Lang. Numerous biographies of Mary Stuart - have been published, as well as essays and treatises dealing with - particular episodes in her life, of which the most worthy of mention - are: George Chalmers, _Life of Mary Queen of Scots_, (2 vols., London, - 1818); Henry Glassford Bell, _Life of Mary Queen of Scots_ (2 vols., - Edinburgh, 1828-1831); the "Life" in Agnes Strickland's _Lives of the - Queens of Scotland_ (8 vols., Edinburgh, 1850); J. D. Leader, _Mary - Queen of Scots in Captivity_ (Sheffield, 1880); Colin Lindsay, _Mary - Queen of Scots and her Marriage with Bothwell_ (London, 1883); Mrs - Maxwell-Scott, _The Tragedy of Fotheringay_ (London, 1895); F. A. M. - Mignet, _Histoire de Marie Stuart_ (2 vols., Brussels, 1851); Martin - Philippson, _Histoire du regne de Marie Stuart_ ( 3 vols., Paris, - 1891); Sir John Skelton, _Mary Stuart_ (London, 1893), _Maitland of - Lethington and the Scotland of Mary Stuart_ (2 vols., Edinburgh, - 1887), _The Impeachment of Mary Stuart_ (Edinburgh, 1878), and _Essays - in History and Biography, including the Defence of Mary Stuart_ - (Edinburgh, 1883); Joseph Stevenson, _Mary Stuart: The First Eighteen - Years of her Life_ (Edinburgh, 1886); D. Hay Fleming, _Mary Stuart_ - (2nd ed. 1898); Jane Stoddart, _Girlhood of Mary Queen of Scots_. - - With special reference to the controversy concerning the Casket - Letters, in addition to the article CASKET LETTERS and the - above-mentioned works by Sir John Skelton, the following should be - consulted: Walter Goodall, _Examination of the Letters said to be - written by Mary Queen of Scots to Bothwell_ (2 vols., Edinburgh, - 1754), which contains the letters themselves; William Tytler, _Inquiry - into the Evidence against Mary Queen of Scots_ (2 vols., London, - 1790); John Whitaker, _Mary Queen of Scots Vindicated_ (3 vols., - London, 1788); F. de Peyster, _Mary Stuart, Bothwell and the Casket - Letters_ (London, 1890); T. F. Henderson, _The Casket Letters and Mary - Queen of Scots_ (Edinburgh, 1889); Andrew Lang, _The Mystery of Mary - Stuart_ (London, 1900). - - In 1690 Giovanni Francesco Savaro published a play _La Maria Stuarda_, - and since then the story of the Queen of Scots has been the subject of - numerous poems and dramas, of which the most celebrated are Schiller's - _Maria Stuart_, and three tragedies by A. C. Swinburne--_Chastelard_ - (1865), _Bothwell_ (1874), and _Mary Stuart_ (1881). - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] In a letter dated the 4th of April 1882, referring to the - publication of his drama _Mary Stuart_, Swinburne wrote to Edmund - Clarence Stedman: "_Mary Stuart_ has procured me two satisfactions - which I prefer infinitely to six columns of adulation in The Times - and any profit thence resulting. (1) A letter from Sir Henry Taylor - ... (2) An application from the editor of the _Encyclopaedia - Britannica_--who might, I suppose, as in Macaulay's time, almost - command the services of the most eminent scholars and historians of - the country--to me, a mere poet, proposing that I should contribute - to that great repository of erudition the biography of Mary Queen of - Scots. I doubt if the like compliment was ever paid before to one of - our 'idle trade.'" The present article is the biography contributed - by the poet to the 9th ed. in response to the invitation referred to - in this letter. - - [2] It is to be observed that the above conclusion as to the - authenticity of the Casket Letters is the same as that arrived at - upon different grounds by the most recent research on the - subject.--ED. E. B. - - - - -MARY (1457-1482), duchess of Burgundy, only child of Charles the Bold, -duke of Burgundy, and his wife Isabella of Bourbon, was born on the 13th -of February 1457. As heiress of the rich Burgundian domains her hand was -eagerly sought by a number of princes. When her father fell upon the -field of Nancy, on the 5th of January 1477, Mary was not yet twenty -years of age. Louis XI. of France seized the opportunity afforded by his -rival's defeat and death to take possession of the duchy of Burgundy as -a fief lapsed to the French crown, and also of Franche Comte, Picardy -and Artois. He was anxious that Mary should marry the Dauphin Charles -and thus secure the inheritance of the Netherlands for his descendants. -Mary, however, distrusted Louis; declined the French alliance, and -turned to her Netherland subjects for help. She obtained the help only -at the price of great concessions. On the 11th of February 1477 she was -compelled to sign a charter of rights, known as "the Great Privilege," -by which the provinces and towns of the Netherlands recovered all the -local and communal rights which had been abolished by the arbitrary -decrees of the dukes of Burgundy in their efforts to create in the Low -Countries a centralized state. Mary had to undertake not to declare war, -make peace, or raise taxes without the consent of the States, and not to -employ any but natives in official posts. Such was the hatred of the -people to the old regime that two influential councillors of Charles the -Bold, the Chancellor Hugonet and the Sire d'Humbercourt, having been -discovered in correspondence with the French king, were executed at -Ghent despite the tears and entreaties of the youthful duchess. Mary now -made her choice among the many suitors for her hand, and selected the -archduke Maximilian of Austria, afterwards the emperor Maximilian I., -and the marriage took place at Ghent on the 18th of August 1477. Affairs -now went more smoothly in the Netherlands, the French aggression was -checked, and internal peace was in a large measure restored, when the -duchess met her death by a fall from her horse on the 27th of March -1482. Three children had been the issue of her marriage, and her elder -son, Philip, succeeded to her dominions under the guardianship of his -father. - - See E. Munch, _Maria von Burgund, nebst d. Leben v. Margaretha v. - York_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1832), and the _Cambridge Mod. Hist._ (vol. - i., c. xii., bibliography, 1903). - - - - -MARY (1496-1533), queen of France, was the daughter of Henry VII. of -England and Elizabeth of York. At first it was intended to marry her to -Charles of Austria, the future emperor Charles V., and by the treaty of -Calais (Dec. 21, 1507) it was agreed that the marriage should take place -when Charles should have attained the age of fourteen, the contract -being secured by bonds taken from various princes and cities in the Low -Countries. On the 17th of December 1508 the Sieur de Bergues, who had -come over as Charles's representative at the head of a magnificent -embassy, married the princess by proxy. The contract, originally made by -Henry VII., was renewed on the 17th of October 1513 by Henry VIII. at a -meeting with Margaret of Savoy at Lille, the wedding being fixed for the -following year. But the emperor Maximilian I., to whom Louis XII. had -proposed his daughter Renee as wife for Charles, with Brittany for -dowry, postponed the match with the English princess in a way that left -no doubt of his intention to withdraw from the contract altogether. He -was forestalled by the diplomacy of Wolsey, at whose instance peace was -signed with France on the 7th of August 1514, and on the same date a -treaty was concluded for the marriage of Mary Tudor with Louis XII., who -had recently lost his wife Anne of Brittany. The marriage was celebrated -at Abbeville on the 9th of October. The bridegroom was a broken man of -fifty-two; the bride a beautiful, well-educated and charming girl of -eighteen, whose heart was already engaged to Charles Brandon, duke of -Suffolk, her future husband. The political marriage was, however, no -long one. Mary was crowned queen of France on the 5th of November 1514; -on the 1st of January following King Louis died. Mary had only been -induced to consent to the marriage with Louis by the promise that, on -his death, she should be allowed to marry the man of her choice. But -there was danger that the agreement would not be kept. In France the -dukes of Lorraine and Savoy were mentioned as possible suitors, and -meanwhile the new king, Francis I., was making advances to her, and only -desisted when she confessed to him her previous attachment to Suffolk. -The duke himself was at the head of the embassy which came from England -to congratulate the new king, and to the detriment of his political -mission he used the opportunity to win the hand of the queen. Francis -good-naturedly promised to use his influence in his favour; Henry VIII. -himself was not averse to the match, but Mary feared the opposition of -the lords of the council, and, in spite of Suffolk's promise to the king -not to take any steps in the matter until after his return, she -persuaded him to marry her secretly before he left Paris. On their -return to England in April, Suffolk was for a while in serious danger -from the king's indignation, but was ultimately pardoned through -Wolsey's intercession, on payment of a heavy fine and the surrender of -all the queen's jewels and plate. The marriage was publicly solemnized -at Greenwich on the 13th of May 1515. Suffolk had been already twice -married, and his first wife was still alive. He thought it necessary -later on (1528) to obtain a bull from Pope Clement VII. declaring his -marriage with his first wife invalid and his union with Mary therefore -canonical. Mary's life after this was comparatively uneventful. She -lived mainly in the retirement of the country, but shared from time to -time in the festivities of the court, and was present at the Field of -the Cloth of Gold. She died on the 24th of June 1533. By the duke of -Suffolk she had three children: Henry, born on the 11th of March 1516, -created earl of Lincoln (1525), who died young; Frances, born on the -16th of July 1517, the wife of Henry Grey, marquess of Northampton, and -mother of Lady Jane Grey (q.v.); and Eleanor. - - See _Lettres de Louis XII. et du cardinal Georges d'Amboise_ - (Brussels, 1712); _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._ (Cal. State - Pap.); M. A. E. Green, _Lives of the Princesses of England_ (vol. v., - 1849-1855); Life by James Gairdner in _Dict. Nat. Biog._ - - - - -MARY OF LORRAINE (1515-1560), generally known as MARY OF GUISE, queen of -James V. and afterwards regent of Scotland, was born at Bar on the 22nd -of November 1515. She was the eldest child of Claude of Guise and -Antoinette of Bourbon, and married in 1534 Louis II. of Orleans, duke of -Longueville, to whom in 1535 she bore a son, Francis (d. 1551). The duke -died in June 1537, and Mary was sought in marriage by James V., whose -wife Magdalene died in July, and by Henry VIII. after the death of Jane -Seymour. Henry persisted in his offers after the announcement of her -betrothal to James V. Mary, who was made by adoption a daughter of -France, received a papal dispensation for her marriage with James, which -was celebrated by proxy in Paris (May 1538) and at St Andrews on her -arrival in Scotland. Her two sons, James (b. May 1540) and Robert or -Arthur (b. April 1541), died within a few days of one another in April -1541, and her husband died in December 1542, within a week of the birth -of his daughter and heiress, Mary, Queen of Scots. Cardinal David Beton, -the head of the French and Catholic party and therefore Mary of -Lorraine's friend and ally, produced a will of the late king in which -the primacy in the regency was assigned to himself. John Knox accused -the queen of undue intimacy with Beton, and a popular report of a -similar nature, probably unfounded, was revived in 1543 by Sir Ralph -Sadler, the English envoy. Beton was arrested and the regency fell to -the heir presumptive James, earl of Arran, whose inclinations were -towards England and the Protestant party, and who hoped to secure the -hand of the infant princess for his own son. Mary of Lorraine was -approached by the English commissioner, Sir Ralph Sadler, to induce her -to further her daughter's marriage contract with Edward VI. She informed -Sadler that Arran had asked her whether Henry had made propositions of -marriage to herself, and that she had stated that "if Henry should mind -or offer her such an honour she must account herself much bounden." -Sadler further learnt that she was "singularly well affected to Henry's -desires." The marriage treaty between Mary, not then one year old, and -Edward VI. was signed on the 1st of July at Greenwich, and guaranteed -that Mary should be placed in Henry's keeping when she was ten years -old. The queen dowager and her daughter were carefully watched at -Linlithgow, but on the 23rd of July 1543 they escaped, with the help of -Cardinal Beton, to the safer walls of Stirling castle. After the queen's -coronation in September Mary of Lorraine was made principal member of -the council appointed to direct the affairs of the kingdom. She was -constantly in communication with her kinsmen in France, and was already -planning to secure for her daughter a French alliance, which was opposed -on different grounds by all her advisers. She made fresh alliances with -the earl of Angus and Sir George Douglas, and in 1544 she made a -premature attempt to seize the regency; but a reconciliation with Arran -was brought about by Cardinal Beton. The assassination of Beton left her -the cleverest politician in Scotland. The English invasions of 1547, -undertaken with a view to enforcing the English marriage, gave Mary the -desired pretext for a French alliance. In June 1548 a French fleet, with -provisions and 5000 soldiers on board, under the command of Andre de -Montalembert, seigneur d'Esse, landed at Leith to reinforce the Scots -army, and laid siege to Haddington, then in the hands of the English. -The Scottish parliament agreed to the marriage of the young queen with -the dauphin of France, and, on the plea of securing her safety from -English designs, she set sail from Dumbarton in August 1548 to complete -her education at the French court. - -Mary of Lorraine now gave her energies to the expulsion of the English -and to the difficult task of keeping the peace between the Scots and -their French auxiliaries. In September 1550 she visited France and -obtained from Henry II. the confirmation of the dukedom and revenues of -Chatelherault for the earl of Arran, in the hope of inducing him to -resign the regency. On her way back to Scotland she was driven by storms -to Portsmouth harbour and paid a friendly visit to Edward VI. Arran -refused, however, to relinquish the regency until April 1554, when he -resigned after receiving an assurance of his rights to the succession. -The new regent had to deal with an empty exchequer and with a strong -opposition to her daughter's marriage with the dauphin. The gift of high -offices of state to Frenchmen lent to the Protestant opposition the -aspect of a national resistance to foreign domination. The hostility of -Arran and his brother Archbishop Hamilton forced Mary into friendly -relations with the lords who favoured the Protestant party. Soon after -her marriage miners had been brought from Lorraine to dig for gold at -Crawford Moor, and she now carried on successful mining enterprises for -coal and lead, which enabled her to meet the expenses of her government. -In 1554 she took into her service William Maitland of Lethington, who as -secretary of state gained very great influence over her. She also -provoked a dangerous enemy in John Knox by her expressed contempt for a -letter which he had written to her, but the first revolt against her -authority arose from an attempt to establish a standing army. When she -provoked a war with England in 1557 the nobles refused to cross the -border. In matters of religion she at first tried to hold the balance -between the Catholic and Protestant factions and allowed the -Presbyterian preachers the practice of their religion so long as they -refrained from public preachings in Edinburgh and Leith. The marriage of -Francis II. and her daughter Mary in 1558 strengthened her position, and -in 1559 she relinquished her conciliatory tactics to submit to the -dictation of her relatives, the Guises, by falling more into line with -their religious policy. She was reconciled with Archbishop Hamilton, and -took up arms against the Protestants of Perth, who, incited by Knox, -had destroyed the Charterhouse, where many of the Scottish kings were -buried. The reformers submitted on condition that no foreign garrison -was to be imposed on Perth and that the religious questions in dispute -should be brought before the Scottish parliament. Mary of Lorraine broke -the spirit of this agreement by garrisoning Perth with Scottish troops -in the pay of France. The lords of the Congregation soon assembled in -considerable force on Cupar Muir. Mary retreated to Edinburgh and thence -to Dunbar, while Edinburgh opened its gates to the reformers, who issued -a proclamation (Oct. 21, 1559) claiming that the regent was deposed. The -lords of the Congregation sought help from Elizabeth, while the regent -had recourse to France, where an expedition under her brother, Rene of -Lorraine, marquis of Elbeuf, was already in preparation. Mary, with the -assistance of a French contingent, began to fortify Leith. The strength -of her opponents was increased by the defection of Chatelherault and his -son Arran; and an even more serious danger was the treachery of her -secretary Maitland, who betrayed her plans to the lords of the -Congregation. In October 1559 they made an unsuccessful attack on Leith -and the seizure of an English convoy on the way to their army by James -Hepburn, earl of Bothwell, increased their difficulties. Mary entered -Edinburgh and conducted a campaign in Fife. Meanwhile Maitland of -Lethington had been at the English court, and an English fleet under -William Winter was sent to the Forth in January 1560 to waylay Elbeuf's -fleet, which was, however, driven back by a storm to Calais. Elbeuf had -been commissioned by Francis I. and Mary to take over Mary's regency on -account of her failing health. An English army under Lord Grey entered -Scotland on the 29th of March 1560, and the regent received an asylum in -Edinburgh castle, which was held strictly neutral by John Erskine. When -she knew that she was dying Mary sent for the lords of the Congregation, -with whom she pleaded for the maintenance of the French alliance. She -even consented to listen to the exhortations of the preacher John -Willock. She died on the 11th of June 1560. Her body was taken to Reims -and buried in the church of the nunnery of St Peter, of which her sister -was abbess. - - The chief sources for her history are the Calendar of State Papers for - the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI. in the Rolls Series; A. - Teulet, _Papiers d etat ... relatifs a l'histoire de l'Ecosse au XVI^e - siecle_ (Paris, 3 vols., 1851), for the Bannatyne Club; _Hamilton - Papers_, ed. J. Bain (Edinburgh, 2 vols., 1890-1899); _Calendar of - State Papers relating to Scotland and Mary Queen of Scots, 1547-1603_ - (Edinburgh, 2 vols., 1898-1900), &c. There is a Life in Miss - Strickland's _Queens of Scotland_ (vols. i.-ii.) based on original - documents. - - - - -MARY OF MODENA [MARIA BEATRICE ANNE MARGARET ISABEL D'ESTE] (1658-1718), -queen of the English king James II., was the daughter of Alphonso IV., -duke of Modena, and the Duchess Laura, of the Roman family Martinozzi. -She was born at Modena on the 5th of October 1658. Her education was -strict, and her own wish was to be a nun in a convent of the order of -the Visitation founded by her mother. As a princess she was not free to -choose for herself, and was selected, mainly by the king of France, -Louis XIV., as the wife of James, duke of York, heir-presumptive to the -English throne. The duke had become a Roman Catholic, and it was a point -of policy with the French king to provide him with a Roman Catholic -wife. Mary Beatrice of Este was chosen partly on the ground of her known -religious zeal, but also because of her beauty. The marriage was -celebrated by proxy on the 30th of September 1673. She reached England -in November. In later life she confessed that her first feelings towards -her husband could only be expressed by tears. In England the duchess, -who was commonly spoken of as Madam East, was supposed to be an agent of -the pope, who had indeed exerted himself to secure her consent. Her -beauty and her fine manners secured her the respect of her -brother-in-law, Charles II., and she lived on good terms with her -husband's daughters by his first marriage, but she was always disliked -by the nation. The birth of her first son (who died in infancy) on the -16th of January 1675 was regretted. During the Popish Plot, to which -her secretary Coleman was a victim, she went abroad with her husband. -After her husband's accession she suffered much domestic misery through -his infidelity. Her influence on him was unfortunate, for she was a -strong supporter of the Jesuit party which was in favour of extreme -measures. Her second son, James Francis Edward, was born on the 10th of -June (o.s.) 1688. The public refused to believe that the baby was Mary's -child, and declared that a fraud had been perpetrated to secure a Roman -Catholic heir. When the revolution had broken out she made the -disastrous mistake of consenting to escape to France (Dec. 10, 1688) -with her son. She urged her husband to follow her to France when it was -his manifest interest to stay in England, and when he went to Ireland -she pressed incessantly for his return. Her daughter, Louisa Maria, was -born at St Germain on the 28th of June 1692. When her husband died on -the 6th of September 1701, she succeeded in inducing King Louis to -recognize her son as king of England, an act which precipitated the war -of the Spanish Succession. Queen Mary survived her husband for seventeen -years and her daughter for two. She received a pension of 100,000 -crowns, which was largely spent in supporting Jacobite exiles. At the -close of her life she had some success in obtaining payment of her -jointure. She lived at St Germain or at Chaillot, a religious house of -the Visitation. Her death occurred on the 7th of May 1718, and is said -by Saint-Simon to have been that of a saint. - - See Miss Strickland, _Queens of England_ (vols. 9 and 10, London, - 1846); Campana di Cavelli, _Les Derniers Stuarts a Saint-Germain - en-Laye_ (London, 1871); and Martin Haile, _Mary of Modena_ (London, - 1905). - - - - -MARY OF ORANGE (1631-1660), eldest daughter of the English king Charles -I., was born in London on the 4th of November 1631. Her father wished -her to marry a son of Philip IV., king of Spain, while her cousin, the -elector palatine, Charles Louis, was also a suitor for her hand, but -both proposals fell through and she became the wife of a Dutch prince, -William, son of Frederick Henry, prince of Orange. The marriage took -place in London on the 2nd of May 1641, but owing to the tender years of -the bride it was not consummated for several years. However in 1642 Mary -crossed over to Holland with her mother, Queen Henrietta Maria, and in -1644, as the daughter-in-law of the stadtholder, she began to take her -place in public life. In 1647 her husband, William II., succeeded his -father as stadtholder, but three years later, just after his attempt to -capture Amsterdam, he died; a son, afterwards the English king William -III., being born to him a few days later (Nov. 14, 1650). Mary was -obliged to share the guardianship of her infant son with his grandmother -Amelia, the widow of Frederick Henry, and with Frederick William, -elector of Brandenburg; moreover, she was unpopular with the Dutch owing -to her sympathies with her kinsfolk, the Stuarts, and at length public -opinion having been further angered by the hospitality which she showed -to her brothers, Charles II. and James, duke of York, she was forbidden -to receive her relatives. From 1654 to 1657 the princess passed most of -her time away from Holland. In 1657 she was appointed regent on behalf -of her son for the principality of Orange, but the difficulties of her -position led her to implore the assistance of Louis XIV., and the French -king answered by seizing Orange himself. The position both of Mary and -of her son in Holland was greatly bettered through the restoration of -Charles II. in Great Britain. In September 1660 Mary journeyed to -England. She was taken ill of small-pox, and died in London on the 24th -of December 1660, her death, says Bishop Burnet, being "not much -lamented." - - - - -MARYBOROUGH, a market town and the county town of Queen's County, -Ireland. Pop. (1901), 2957. It lies in the broad lowland east of the -Slieve Bloom mountains, on the river Triogue, an affluent of the Barrow, -and on the main line of the Great Southern & Western railway, by which -it is 51 m. W.S.W. of Dublin. The town was chosen as county town in the -reign of Mary (1556), in whose honour both town and county received -their names. Its charter was granted in 1570, but its present -appearance, save a bastion of the ancient castle, is wholly modern. -There are flour-mills and a considerable general trade. Maryborough -returned two members to the Irish parliament from 1585 until the union -in 1800. The singular lofty rock of Dunamase or Dunmall, about 3 m. from -the town, bears on its summit extensive ruins of a castle, originally -belonging to the kings of Leinster, but probably built in the main by -William Bruce (c. 1200) and dismantled in 1650 by Cromwell's troops. - - - - -MARYBOROUGH, a town of March county, Queensland, Australia, on the left -bank and 25 m. from the mouth of the Mary river, 180 m. by rail N. of -Brisbane. Pop. (1901), 10,159. Besides a handsome court-house and town -hall, the principal buildings are the hospital, a technical college, a -library, the Anglican Church of St Paul with a fine tower and peal of -bells, and the grammar schools. There is a large shipbuilding yard, and -breweries, distilleries, a tannery, boot factories, soap works, -saw-mills, flour-mills, carriage works and iron foundries, besides -extensive sugar factories in the neighbourhood. The largest smelting -works in Australia are 5 m. distant, in which ore from all the states is -treated. Maryborough is the port of shipment for a wide agricultural -district yielding maize and sugar, and also for the Gympie gold-fields. -Timber abounds in the neighbourhood and is exported. Maryborough is also -the second coaling port in Queensland, the government railway wharf -being in direct communication with the Burrum coal-fields. - - - - -MARYBOROUGH, a municipal town of Talbot county, Victoria, Australia, 112 -m. by rail N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901), 5633. It has fine government -buildings, a town hall, a botanical garden, and numerous park lands. It -is an important railway centre, and has extensive railway workshops, as -well as coach factories, breweries and foundries. The gold mining of the -district is deep alluvial. Wheat, oats and wine are the chief -agricultural products of the neighbourhood. - - - - -MARYLAND, a South Atlantic state of the United States, and one of the -original thirteen, situated between latitudes 37 deg. 53' and 39 deg. -44' N. and longitudes 75 deg. 4' and 79 deg. 33' W. (the precise western -boundary has not been determined). It is bounded N. by Pennsylvania and -Delaware; E. by Delaware and the Atlantic Ocean; S. and W. by the -Potomac river and its north branch, which separate it, except on the -extreme W. border, from Virginia and West Virginia; W., also, by West -Virginia. It is one of the small states of the Union--only seven are -smaller--its total area being 12,327 sq. m. of which 2386 sq. m. are -water surface. - - _Physical Features._--Maryland is crossed from north to south by each - of the leading topographical regions of the east section of the United - States--the Coastal Plain, the Piedmont Plateau, the Appalachian - Mountains, and the Appalachian Plateau--hence its great diversity of - surface. The portion within the Coastal Plain embraces nearly the - whole of the south-east half of the state and is commonly known as - tide-water Maryland. It is marked off from the Piedmont Plateau by a - "Fall Line" extending from Washington (D.C.) north-east through - Baltimore to a point a little south of the north-east corner of the - state, and is divided by the Chesapeake Bay into two parts known as - the East Shore and the West Shore. The East Shore is a low level - plain, the least elevated section of the state. Along its entire - Atlantic border extends the narrow sandy Sinepuxent Beach, which - encloses a shallow lagoon or bay also called Sinepuxent at the north, - where, except in the extreme north, it is very narrow, and - Chincoteague at the south, where its width is in most places from 4 to - 5 m. Between this and the Chesapeake to the west and north-west there - is a slight general rise, a height of about 100 ft. being reached in - the extreme north. A water-parting extending from north-east to - south-west and close to the Atlantic border separates the East Shore - into two drainage systems, though that next to the Atlantic is - insignificant. That on the Chesapeake side is drained chiefly by the - Pocomoke, Nanticoke, Choptank and Chester rivers, together with their - numerous branches, the general direction of all of which is - south-west. The branches as well as the upper parts of the main - streams flow through broad and shallow valleys; the middle courses of - the main streams wind their way through reed-covered marshes, the - water ebbing and flowing with the tide; in their lower courses they - become estuarine and the water flows between low banks. The West Shore - is somewhat more undulating than the East and also more elevated. Its - general slope is from north-west to south-east; along the west border - are points 300 ft. or more in height. The principal rivers crossing - this section are the Patuxent, Patapsco and Gunpowder, with which may - be grouped the Potomac, forming the state's southern boundary. These - rivers, lined in most instances with terraces 30 to 40 ft. high on one - or both sides, flow south-east into the Chesapeake Bay through valleys - bounded by low hills. The Fall Line, which forms the boundary between - the Coastal Plain and the Piedmont Plateau, is a zone in which a - descent of about 100 ft. or more is made in many places within a few - miles and in consequence is marked by waterfalls, cascades and rapids. - - The part of Maryland within the Piedmont Plateau extends west from the - Fall Line to the base of Catoctin Mountain, or the west border of - Frederick county, and has an area of about 2500 sq. m. In general it - has a broad rolling surface. It is divided into two sections by an - elevated strip known as Parr's Ridge, which extends from north-east to - south-west a short distance west of the middle. The east section rises - from about 450 ft. along the Fall Line to from 850 to 900 ft. along - the summit of Parr's Ridge. Its principal streams are those that cross - the West Shore of the Coastal Plain and here wind their way from - Parr's Ridge rapidly toward the south-east in narrow steep-sided - gorges through broad limestone valleys. To the west of Parr's Ridge - the surface for the most part slopes gently down to the east bank of - the Monocacy river (which flows nearly at a right angle with the - streams east of the Ridge), and then from the opposite bank rises - rapidly toward the Catoctin Mountain; but just above the mouth of the - Monocacy on the east side of the valley is Sugar Loaf Mountain, which - makes a steep ascent of 1250 ft. - - The portion of the state lying within the Appalachian Region is - commonly known as Western Maryland. To the eastward it abounds in - mountains and valleys; to the westward it is a rolling plateau. West - of Catoctin Mountain (1800 ft.) is Middletown Valley, with Catoctin - Creek running through it from north to south, and the Blue Ridge - Mountains (2400 ft.), near the Pennsylvania border, forming its west - slope. Farther west the serrated crests of the Blue Ridge overlook the - Greater Appalachian Valley, here 73 m. in width, the broad - gently-rolling slopes of the Great Cumberland or Hagerstown Valley - occupying its eastern and the Appalachian Ridges its western portion. - Through the eastern portion Antietam Creek to the east and - Conococheague Creek to the west flow rapidly in meandering trenches - that in places exceed 75 ft. in depth. The Appalachian Ridges of the - western portion begin with North Mountain on the east and end with - Wills Mountain on the west. They are long, narrow, uniformly-sloping - and level-crested mountains, extending along parallel lines from - north-east to south-west, and reaching a maximum height in Martin's - Ridge of more than 2000 ft. Overlooking them from the west are the - higher ranges of the Alleghenies, among which the Savage, Backbone and - Negro Mountains reach elevations of 3000 ft. or more. In the extreme - west part of the state these mountains merge, as it were, into a - rolling plateau, the Appalachian Plateau, having an average elevation - of 2500 ft. All rivers of Western Maryland flow south into the Potomac - except in the extreme west, where the waters of the Youghiogheny and - its tributaries flow north into the Monongahela. - - _Fauna and Flora._--In primitive times deer, ducks, turkeys, fish and - oysters were especially numerous, and wolves, squirrels and crows were - a source of annoyance to the early settlers. Deer, black bears and - wild cats (lynx) are still found in some uncultivated sections. Much - more numerous are squirrels, rabbits, "groundhogs" (woodchucks), - opossums, skunks, weasels and minks. Many species of ducks are also - still found; and the reed-bird (bobolink), "partridge" (elsewhere - called quail or "Bob White"), ruffed grouse (elsewhere called - partridge), woodcock, snipe, plover and Carolina rail still abound. - The waters of the Chesapeake Bay are especially rich in oysters and - crabs, and there, also, shad, alewives, "striped" (commonly called - "rock") bass, menhaden, white perch and weak-fish ("sea-trout") occur - in large numbers. Among the more common trees are several species of - oak, pine, hickory, gums and maple, and the chestnut, the poplar, the - beech, the cypress and the red cedar; the merchantable pine has been - cut, but the chestnut and other hard woods of West Maryland are still - a product of considerable value. Among wild fruit-trees are the - persimmon and Chickasaw plum; grape-vines and a large variety of - berry-bushes grow wild and in abundance. - - _Climate._--The climate of Maryland in the south-east is influenced by - ocean and bay--perhaps also by the sandy soil--while in the west it is - influenced by the mountains. The prevailing winds are westerly; but - generally north-west in winter in the west section and south-west in - summer in the south section. In the south the normal winter is mild, - the normal summer rather hot; in the west the normal winter is cold, - the normal summer cool. The normal average annual temperature for the - entire state is between 53 deg. and 54 deg. F., ranging from 48 deg. - at Grantsville in the north-west to 53 deg. at Darlington in the - north-east, and to 57 deg. at Princess Anne in the south-east. The - normal temperature for the state during July (the warmest month) is - 75.2 deg. F., and during January (the coldest month) 32.14 deg. F. - Although the west section is generally much the cooler in summer, yet - both of the greatest extremes recorded since 1891 were at points not - far apart in Western Maryland: 109 deg. F. at Boettcherville and -26 - deg. F. at Sunnyside. The normal annual precipitation for the state - is about 43 in. It is greatest, about 53 in., on the east slope of - Catoctin Mountain, owing to the elevations which obstruct the - moisture-bearing winds, and is above the average along the middle of - the shores of the Chesapeake. It is least, from 25 to 35 in., in the - Greater Appalachian Valley, in the south on the West Shore, and along - the Atlantic border. During spring and summer the precipitation - throughout the state is about 2 in. more than during autumn and - winter. - - _Soils and Agriculture._--The great variety of soils is one of the - more marked features of Maryland. On the East Shore to the north is a - marly loam overlying a yellowish-red clay sub-soil, to the south is a - soil quite stiff with light coloured clay, while here and there, - especially in the middle and south, are considerable areas both of - light sandy soils and tidal marsh loams. On the West Shore the soils - range from a light sandy loam in the lower levels south from Baltimore - to rather heavy loams overlying a yellowish clay on the rolling - uplands and on the terraces along the Potomac and Patuxent. Crossing - the state along the lower edge of the Fall Line is a belt heavy with - clay, but so impervious to water as to be of little value for - agricultural purposes. The soils of the Piedmont Plateau east of - Parr's Ridge are, like the underlying rocks, exceptionally variable in - composition, texture and colour. For the most part they are - considerably heavier with clay than are those of the Coastal Plain, - and better adapted to general agricultural purposes. Light loams, - however, are found both in the north-east and south-east. A soil of - very close texture, the gabbro, is found, most largely in the - north-east. Alluvial loams occupy the narrow river valleys; but the - most common soil of the section is that formed from gneiss with a - large per cent. of clay in the subsoil. West of Parr's Ridge in the - Piedmont, the principal soils are those the character of which is - determined either by decomposed red sandstone or by decomposed - limestone. In the east portion of the mountainous region the soil so - well adapted to peach culture contains much clay, together with - particles of Cambrian sandstone. In Hagerstown Valley are rich red or - yellow limestone-clay soils. The Allegheny ridges have only a thin - stony soil; but good limestone, sandstone, shale and alluvial soils, - occur in the valleys and in some of the plateaus of the extreme west. - - Of the total land surface of the state 82% was in 1900 included in - farms and 68% of the farmland was improved. There were 46,012 farms, - of which 15,833 contained less than 50 acres, 3940 contained 260 acres - or more, and 79 contained 1,000 acres or more--the average size being - 112.4 acres. In 1890, 69% of the farms were worked by the owners or - their managers, in 1900 only 66.4%; but share tenants outnumber cash - tenants by almost three to one. Of the total number of farms about - seven times as many are operated by white as by negro farmers, though - the number of farms operated by white share tenants outnumber those - operated by negro share tenants by only about five to one. Of all the - inhabitants of the state, at least ten years old, who in 1900 were - engaged in gainful occupations, 20.8% were farmers. The leading - agricultural pursuits are the growing of Indian corn and wheat and the - raising of livestock, yet it is in the production of fruits, - vegetables and tobacco, that Maryland ranks highest as an agricultural - state, and in no other state except South Carolina is so large a per - cent. of the value of the crop expended for fertilizers. In 1907, - according to the _Year Book_ of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, - the Indian corn crop was 22,196,000 bushels, valued at $11,986,000; - the wheat crop was 14,763,000 bushels, valued at $14,172,000; the oat - crop was 825,000 bushels, valued at $404,000; and the crop of rye was - 315,000 bushels, valued at $236,000. Of the livestock, hogs were the - most numerous in 1900, cattle next, sheep third, and horses fourth. - The hay and forage crop of 1899 (exclusive of corn-stalks) grew on - 374,848 acres. Until after the middle of the 18th century tobacco was - the staple crop of Maryland, and the total yield did not reach its - maximum until 1860 when the crop amounted to 51,000 hhds.; from this - it decreased to 14,000 hhds., or 12,356,838 lb. in 1889; in 1899 it - rose again to 24,589,480 lb., in 1907 the crop was only 16,962,000 - lb., less than that of nine other states. In market-garden products, - including small fruits, Maryland ranked in 1899 sixth among the states - of the Union, the crop being valued at $4,766,760, an increase of - 350.9% over that of 1889. In the yield both of strawberries and of - tomatoes it ranked first; the yield of raspberries and blackberries is - also large. In its crop of green-peas Maryland was exceeded (1899) by - New York only; in sweet Indian corn it ranked fifth; in kale, second; - in spinach, third; in cabbages, ninth. The number of peach-trees, - especially in the west part of the state, where the quality is of the - best, is rapidly increasing, and in the yield of peaches and - nectarines the state ranked thirteenth in 1899; in the yield of pears - it ranked fifth; in apples seventeenth. - - The Indian-corn, wheat and livestock sections of the state, are in the - Piedmont Plateau, the Hagerstown Valley and the central portion of the - East Shore. Garrett county in the extreme north-west, however, raises - the largest number of sheep. Most of the tobacco is grown in the south - counties of the West Shore. The great centre for vegetables and small - fruits is in the counties bordering on the north-west shore of the - Chesapeake, and in Howard, Frederick and Washington counties, directly - west, Anne Arundel county producing the second largest quantity of - strawberries of all the counties in the Union in 1899. Peaches and - pears grow in large quantities in Kent and neighbouring counties on - the East Shore and in Washington and Frederick counties; apples grow - in abundance in all parts of the Piedmont Plateau. - - The woodland area of the state in 1900 was 4400 sq. m., about 44% - (estimated in 1907 to be 3450 sq. m., about 35%) of the total land - area, but with the exception of considerable oak and chestnut, some - maple and other hard woods in west Maryland, about all of the - merchantable timber has been cut. The lumber industry, nevertheless, - has steadily increased in importance, the value of the product in 1860 - amounting to only $605,864, that in 1890 to $1,600,472, and that in - 1900 to $2,650,082, of which sum $2,495,169 was the value of products - under the factory system; in 1905 the value of the factory product was - $2,750,339. - - _Fisheries._--In 1897 the value of the fishery product of Maryland was - exceeded only by that of Massachusetts, but by 1901, although it had - increased somewhat during the four years, it was exceeded by the - product of New Jersey, of Virginia and of New York. Oysters constitute - more than 80% of the total value, the product in 1901 amounting to - 5,685,561 bushels, and being valued at $3,031,518. The supply on - natural beds has been diminishing, but the planting of private beds - promises a large increase. Crabs are next in value and are caught - chiefly along the East Shore and in Anne Arundel and Calvert counties - on the West Shore. Shad, to the number of 3,111,181 and valued at - $120,602, were caught during 1901. In Somerset and Worcester counties - clams are a source of considerable value. The terrapin catch decreased - in value from $22,333 in 1891 to $1,139 in 1901. The total value of - the fish product of 1901 was $3,767,461. The state laws for the - protection of fish and shell-fish were long carelessly enforced - because of the fishermen's strong feeling against them, but this - sentiment has slowly changed and enforcement has become more vigorous. - - _Minerals and Manufactures._--The coal deposits, which form a part of - the well-known Cumberland field, furnish by far the most important - mineral product of the state; more than 98% of this, in 1901, was - mined in Allegany county from a bed about 20 m. long and 5 m. wide and - the remainder in Garrett county, whose deposits, though undeveloped, - are of great value. The coal is of two varieties: bituminous and - semi-bituminous. The bituminous is of excellent quality for the - manufacture of coke and gas, but up to 1902 had been mined only in - small quantities. Most of the product has been of the semi-bituminous - variety and of the best quality in the country for the generation of - steam. Nearly all the high grade blacksmithing coal mined in the - United States comes from Maryland. The deposits were discovered early - in the 19th century (probably first in 1804 near the present - Frostburg), but were not exploited until railway transport became - available in 1842, and the output was not large until after the close - of the Civil War; in 1865 it was 1,025,208 short tons, from which it - steadily increased to 5,532,628 short tons in 1907. From 1722 until - the War of Independence the iron-ore product of North and West - Maryland was greater than that of any of the other colonies, but since - then ores of superior quality have been discovered in other states and - the output in Maryland, taken chiefly from the west border of the - Coastal Plain in Anne Arundel and Prince George's counties, has become - comparatively of little importance--24,367 long tons in 1902 and only - 8269 tons in 1905. Gold, silver and copper ores, have been found in - the state, and attempts have been made to mine them, without much - success. The Maryland building stone, of which there is an abundance - of good quality, consists chiefly of granites, limestones, slate, - marble and sandstones, the greater part of which is quarried in the - east section of the Piedmont Plateau especially in Cecil county, - though some limestones, including those from which hydraulic cement is - manufactured, and some sandstones are obtained from the western part - of the Piedmont Plateau and the east section of the Appalachian - region; the value of stone quarried in the state in 1907 was - $1,439,355, of which $1,183,753 was the value of granite, $142,825 - that of limestone, $98,918 that of marble, and $13,859 that of - sandstone. Brick, potter's and tile clays are obtained most largely - along the west border of the Coastal Plain, and fire-clay from the - coal region of West Maryland; in 1907 the value of clay products was - $1,886,362. Materials for porcelain, including flint, feldspar and - kaolin, abound in the east portion of the Piedmont, the kaolin chiefly - in Cecil county, and material for mineral paint in Anne Arundel and - Prince George's counties, as well as farther north-west. - - [Illustration: Map of Maryland and Delaware.] - - Between 1850 and 1900, while the population increased 103.8%, the - average number of wage-earners employed in manufacturing - establishments increased 258.5%, constituting 5.2% of the total - population in 1850 and 9.1% in 1900. In 1900 the total value of - manufactured goods was $242,552,990, an increase of 41.1% over that of - 1890. Of the total given for 1900, $211,076,143 was the value of - products under the factory system; and in 1905 the value of factory - products was $243,375,996, being 15.3% more than in 1900. The products - of greatest value in 1905 were: custom-made men's clothing; fruits and - vegetables and oysters, canned and preserved; iron and steel; foundry - and machine-shop products, including stoves and furnaces; flour and - grist mill products; tinware, coppersmithing and sheet iron working; - fertilizers; slaughtering and meat-packing; cars and repairs by - steam railways; shirts; cotton goods; malt liquors; and cigars and - cigarettes. In the value of fertilizers manufactured, and in that of - oysters canned and preserved, Maryland was first among the states in - 1900 and second in 1905; in 1900 and in 1905 it was fourth among the - states in the value of men's clothing. Baltimore is still the great - manufacturing centre, but of the state's total product the percentage - in value of that manufactured there decreased from 82.5 in 1890 to - 66.5 in 1900, and to 62.3 (of the factory product) in 1905. The - largest secondary centres are Cumberland, Hagerstown and Frederick the - total value of whose factory products in 1905 was less than - $10,000,000. - - _Communications._--Tide-water Maryland is afforded rather unusual - facilities of water transportation by the Chesapeake Bay, with its - deep channel, numerous deep inlets and navigable tributaries, together - with the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, which crosses the state of - Delaware and connects its waters with those of the Delaware river and - bay. As early as 1783 steps were taken to extend these facilities to - the navigable waters of the Ohio, chiefly by improving the navigation - of the Potomac above Georgetown. By 1820 this project was merged into - a movement for a Chesapeake and Ohio canal along the same line. Ground - was broken in 1828 and in 1850 the canal was opened to navigation from - Georgetown to Cumberland, a distance of 186 m. In 1878 and again in - 1889 it was wrecked by a freshet, and since then has been of little - service.[1] However, on the same day that ground was broken for this - canal, ground was also broken for the Baltimore & Ohio railway, of - which 15 m. was built in 1828-1830 and which was one of the first - steam railway lines in operation in the United States. Since then - railway building has progressed steadily. In Maryland (and including - the District of Columbia) there were 259 m. of railway in 1850, 386 m. - in 1860, 671 m. in 1870, and 1040 m. in 1880; in 1890, in Maryland - alone, the mileage was 1270.04 m., and in 1909 it was 1394.19 m. The - more important railway lines are the Baltimore & Ohio, the - Philadelphia, Baltimore & Washington (controlled by the Pennsylvania - and a consolidation of the Philadelphia, Wilmington & Baltimore, and - the Baltimore & Potomac), the Western Maryland, the West Virginia - Central & Pittsburg (leased by the Western Maryland), the Northern - Central, the Maryland electric railways (including what was formerly - the Baltimore & Annapolis Short Line), and the Washington, Baltimore & - Annapolis electric railway. Baltimore is the chief railway centre and - its harbour is one of the most important in the country. - -_Inhabitants._--The population of Maryland in 1880 was 934,943; in 1890, -1,042,390, an increase of 11.5%; in 1900, 1,188,044 (14%); in 1910, -1,295,346 (increase 9%).[2] Of the total population in 1900 there were -952,424 whites, 235,064 negroes, 544 Chinese, 9 Japanese and 3 Indians, -the increase in the white population from 1890 to 1900 being 15.2%, -while that of the negroes was only 9%. In 1900 there were 1,094,110 -native born to 93,934 foreign-born, and of the foreign-born 44,990 were -natives of Germany and 68,600 were residents of the city of Baltimore. -The urban population, i.e. total population of cities of 4000 or more -inhabitants, in 1900, was 572,795, or 48.2% of the total and an increase -of 16.6% over that of 1890; while the rural population, i.e. population -outside of incorporated places, was 539,685, an increase of about 8% -over that of 1890. There are about 59 religious sects, of which the -members of the Roman Catholic Church, which was prominent in the early -history of Maryland, are far the most numerous, having in 1906 166,941 -members out of 473,257 communicants of all denominations; in the same -year there were 137,156 Methodists, 34,965 Protestant Episcopalians, -32,246 Lutherans, 30,928 Baptists, 17,895 Presbyterians and 13,442 -members of the Reformed Church in the United States. The chief cities -are Baltimore, pop. (1910) 558,485, Cumberland 21,839, Hagerstown -16,507, Frederick 10,411 and Annapolis 8609. - -_Government._--The state constitution of 1867, the one now in force, has -been frequently amended, all that is required for its amendment being a -three-fifths vote of all of the members elected to each of the two -houses of the General Assembly, followed by a majority vote of the state -electorate, and it is further provided that once in twenty years, -beginning with 1887, the wish of the people in regard to calling a -convention for altering the constitution shall be ascertained by a poll. -Any constitution or constitutional amendment proposed by such -constitutional convention comes into effect only if approved by a -majority of the votes cast in a popular election. Since 1870 suffrage -has been the right of all male citizens (including negroes) twenty-one -years of age or over who shall have lived within the state for one year -and within the county or the legislative district of the city of -Baltimore in which they may offer to vote for six months immediately -preceding an election; persons convicted of larceny or other infamous -crime and not since pardoned by the governor, as well as lunatics or -those who have been convicted of bribery at a previous election are -excepted. In 1908 the General Assembly passed a law providing for annual -direct primary elections (outside of Baltimore; and making the Baltimore -special primary law applicable to state as well as city officials), but, -as regards state officers, making only a slight improvement upon -previous conditions inasmuch as the county or district is the unit and -the vote of county or district merely "instructs" delegates to the -party's state nominating convention, representation in which is not -strictly in proportion to population, the rural counties having an -advantage over Baltimore; no nomination petition is required. In the -same year a separate law was passed providing for primary elections for -the choice of United States senators; but here also the method is not -that of nomination by a plurality throughout the state, but by the vote -of counties and legislative districts, so that this measure, like the -other primary law, is not sufficiently direct to give Baltimore a vote -proportional to its population. - - The chief executive authority is vested in a governor elected by - popular vote for a term of four years. Since becoming a state Maryland - has had no lieutenant-governor except under the constitution of 1864; - and the office of governor is to be filled in case of a vacancy by - such person as the General Assembly may elect.[3] Any citizen of - Maryland may be elected to the office who is thirty years of age or - over, who has been for ten years a citizen of the state, who has lived - in the state for five years immediately preceding election, and who is - at the time of his election a qualified voter therein. Until 1838 the - governor had a rather large appointing power, but since that date most - of the more important offices have been filled by popular election. - He, however, still appoints, subject to the confirmation of the - senate, the secretary of state, the superintendent of public - education, the commissioner of the land office, the adjutant-general, - justices of the peace, notaries public, the members of numerous - administrative boards, and other administrative officers. He is - himself one of the board of education, of the board of public works, - and of the board for the management of the house of correction. No - veto power whatever was given to the governor until 1867, when, in the - present constitution, it was provided that no bill vetoed by him - should become a law unless passed over his veto by a three-fifths vote - of the members elected to each house, and an amendment of 1890 - (ratified by the people in 1891) further provides that any item of a - money bill may likewise be separately vetoed. The governor's salary is - fixed by the constitution at $4500 a year. Other executive officers - are a treasurer, elected by joint ballot of the General Assembly for a - term of two years, a comptroller elected by popular vote for a similar - term, and an attorney-general elected by popular vote for four years. - - The legislature, or General Assembly, meets biennially in - even-numbered years, at Annapolis, and consists of a Senate and a - House of Delegates. Senators are elected, one from each of the - twenty-three counties and one from each of the four legislative - districts of the city of Baltimore, for a term of four years, the - terms of one-half expiring every two years. Delegates are elected for - a term of two years, from each county and from each legislative - district of Baltimore, according to population, as follows: for a - population of 18,000 or less, two delegates; 18,000 to 28,000, three; - 28,000 to 40,000, four; 40,000 to 55,000, five; 55,000 and upwards, - six. Each legislative district of Baltimore is entitled to the number - of delegates to which the largest county shall or may be entitled - under the foregoing apportionment, and the General Assembly may from - time to time alter the boundaries of Baltimore city districts in order - to equalize their population. This system of apportionment gives to - the rural counties a considerable political advantage over the city of - Baltimore, which, with 42.8% of the total population according to the - census of 1900, has only 4 out of 27 members of the Senate and only 24 - out of 101 members of the House of Delegates. Since far back in the - colonial era, no minister, preacher, or priest has been eligible to a - seat in either house. A senator must be twenty-five years of age or - over, and both senators and delegates must have lived within the state - at least three years and in their county or legislative district at - least one year immediately preceding their election. - - The constitution provides that no bill or joint resolution shall pass - either house except by an affirmative vote of a majority of all the - members elected to that house and requires that on the final vote the - yeas and nays be recorded. - - _Justice, &c._--The administration of justice is entrusted to a court - of appeals, circuit courts, special courts for the city of Baltimore, - orphans' courts, and justices of the peace. Exclusive of the city of - Baltimore, the state is divided into seven judicial circuits, in each - of which are elected for a term of fifteen years one chief judge and - two associate judges, who at the time of their election must be - members of the Maryland bar, between the ages of thirty and seventy, - and must have been residents of the state for at least five years. The - seven chief judges so elected, together with one elected from the city - of Baltimore, constitute the court of appeals, the governor with the - advice and consent of the senate designating one of the eight as chief - judge of that court. The court has appellate jurisdiction only. The - three judges elected in each circuit constitute the circuit court of - each of the several counties in such circuit. The courts have both - original and appellate jurisdiction and are required to hold at least - two sessions to which jurors shall be summoned every year in each - county of its circuit, and if only two such terms are held, there must - be two other and intermediate terms to which jurors shall not be - summoned. Three other judges are elected for four-year terms, in each - county and in the city of Baltimore to constitute an orphans' court. - The number of justices of the peace for each county is fixed by local - law; they are appointed by the governor, subject to the confirmation - of the Senate, for a term of two years. - - In the colonial era Maryland had an interesting list of governmental - subdivisions--the manor, the hundred, the parish, the county, and the - city--but the two last are about all that remain and even these are in - considerable measure subject to the special local acts of the General - Assembly. In general, each county has from three to seven - commissioners--the number is fixed by county laws--elected on a - general ticket of each county for a term of from two to six years, - entrusted with the charge and control of property owned by the county, - empowered to appoint constables, judges of elections, collectors of - taxes, trustees of the poor, and road supervisors, to levy taxes, to - revise taxable valuations of real property, and open or close public - roads. - - In Maryland a wife holds her property as if single except that she can - convey real estate only by a joint deed with her husband (this - requirement being for the purpose of effecting a release of the - husband's "dower interest"), neither husband nor wife is liable for - the separate debts of the other, and on the death of either the rights - of the survivor in the estate of the other are about equal. - Wife-beating is made punishable by whipping in gaol, not exceeding - forty lashes. Prior to 1841 a divorce was granted by the legislature - only, from then until 1851 it could be granted by either the - legislature or the equity courts, since 1851 by the courts only. The - grounds for a divorce _a mensa et thoro_, which may be granted for - ever or for a limited time only, are cruelty, excessively vicious - conduct, or desertion; for a divorce _a vinculo matrimonii_ the chief - grounds are impotence at the time of marriage, adultery or deliberate - abandonment for three years. There is no homestead exemption law and - exemptions from levy for the satisfaction of debts extend only to $100 - worth of property, besides wearing apparel and books and tools used by - the debtor in his profession or trade, and to all money payable in the - nature of insurance. Employers of workmen in a clay or coal mine, - stone quarry, or on a steam or street railway are liable for damage in - case of an injury to any of their workmen where such injury is caused - by the negligence of the employer or of any servant or employee of the - employer. The chief of the bureau of labour statistics is directed in - case of danger of a strike or lockout to seek to mediate between the - parties and if unsuccessful in that, then to endeavour to secure their - consent to the formation of a board of arbitration. - - The state penal and charitable institutions include a penitentiary at - Baltimore; a house of correction at Jessups, two houses of refuge at - Baltimore; a house of reformation in Prince George's county; St Mary's - industrial school for boys at Baltimore; an industrial home for negro - girls at Melvale; an asylum and training school for the feeble-minded - at Owings Mills; an infirmary at Cumberland; the Maryland hospital for - the insane at Catonsville; the Springfield state hospital for the - insane; the Maryland school for the deaf and dumb at Frederick city; - and the Maryland school for the blind at Baltimore. Each of these is - under the management of a board appointed by the governor subject to - the confirmation of the senate. Besides these there are a large number - of state-aided charitable institutions. In 1900 there was created a - board of state aid and charities, composed of seven members appointed - by the governor for a term of two years, not more than four to be - reappointed. There is also a state lunacy commission of four members, - who are appointed for terms of four years, one annually, by the - governor. - - _Education._--The basis of the present common school system was laid - in 1865, after which a marked development was accompanied by some - important changes in the system and its administration, and the - percentage of total illiteracy (i.e. inability to write among those - ten years old and over) decreased from 19.3 in 1800 to 11.1 in 1900, - while illiteracy among the native whites decreased during the same - period from 7.8 to 4.1 and among negroes from 59.6 to 35.2. At the - head of the system is a state board and a state superintendent, and - under these in each county is a county board which appoints a - superintendent for the county and a board of trustees for each school - district none of which is to be more than four miles square. The state - board is composed of the governor as its president, the state - superintendent as its secretary, six other members appointed by the - governor for a term of six years, and, as _ex-officio_ members without - the right to vote, the principals of the state and other normal - schools. Prior to 1900 the principal of the state normal was - _ex-officio_ state superintendent, but since then the superintendent - has been appointed by the governor for a term of four years. Each - county board is also appointed by the governor for a term of six - years. In both the state and the county boards at least one-third of - the members appointed by the governor are not to be of the dominant - political party and only one-third of the members are to be appointed - every two years. The state board enacts by-laws for the administration - of the system; its decision of controversies arising under the school - law is final; it may suspend or remove a county superintendent for - inefficiency or incompetency; it issues life state certificates, but - applicants must have had seven years of experience in teaching, five - in Maryland, and must hold a first-class certificate or a college or - normal school diploma; and it pensions teachers who have taught - successfully for twenty-five years in any of the public or normal - schools of the state, who have reached the age of sixty, and who have - become physically or mentally incapable of teaching longer, the - pension amounting to $200 a year. The legislature of 1908 passed a law - under which the minimum pay for a teacher holding a first-class - certificate should be $350 a year after three years' teaching, $400 - after five years' teaching and $450 after eight years' teaching. By a - law of 1904 all teachers who taught an average of 15 pupils were to - receive at least $300. School books are purchased out of the proceeds - of the school tax, but parents may purchase if they prefer. In 1908 - the average school year was nine and seven-tenths months--ten in the - cities and nine and four-tenths in the counties; the aim is ten months - throughout, and a law of 1904 provides that if a school is taught less - than nine months a portion of the funds set apart for it shall be - withheld. A compulsory education law of 1902--to operate, however, - only in the city of Baltimore and in Allegany county--requires the - attendance for the whole school year of children between the ages of - eight and twelve and also of those between the ages of twelve and - sixteen who are not employed at home or elsewhere. A separate school - for negro children is to be maintained in every election district in - which the population warrants it. The system is maintained by a state - tax of 16 cents on each $100 of taxable property. - - The higher state educational institutions are two normal schools and - one agricultural college. One of the normal schools was opened in - Baltimore in 1866, the other at Frostburg in 1904. Both are under the - management of the state Board of Education, which appoints the - principals and teachers and prescribes the course of study. There is - besides, in Washington College at Chestertown, a normal department - supported by the state and under the supervision of the state Board of - Education. The Maryland Agricultural College, to which an experiment - station has been added, was opened in 1859; it is at College Park in - Prince George's county, and is largely under state management. - Maryland supports no state university, but Johns Hopkins University, - one of the leading institutions of its kind in the country, receives - $25,000 a year from the state; the medical department of the - university of Maryland receives an annual appropriation of about - $2500, and St John's College, the academic department of the - university of Maryland, receives from the state $13,000 annually and - gives for each county in the state one free scholarship and one - scholarship covering all expenses. Among the principal institutions in - the state are the university of Maryland, an outgrowth of the medical - college of Maryland (1807) in Baltimore, with a law school - (reorganized in 1869), a dental school (1882), a school of pharmacy - (1904), and, since 1907, a department of arts and science in St John's - College (non-sect., opened in 1789) at Annapolis; Washington College, - with a normal department (non-sect., opened in 1782) at Chestertown; - Mount St Mary's College (Roman Catholic, 1808) at Emmitsburg; New - Windsor College (Presbyterian, 1843) at New Windsor; St Charles - College (Roman Catholic, opened in 1848) and Rock Hill College (Roman - Catholic, 1857) near Ellicott City; Loyola College (Roman Catholic, - 1852) at Baltimore; Western Maryland College (Methodist Protestant, - 1867) at Westminster; Johns Hopkins University (non-sect., 1876) at - Baltimore; Morgan College (coloured, Methodist, 1876) at Baltimore; - Goucher College (Methodist, founded 1884, opened 1888) at Baltimore; - several professional schools mostly in Baltimore (q.v.); the Peabody - Institute at Baltimore; and the United States Naval Academy at - Annapolis. - - _Revenue._--The state's revenue is derived from a general direct - property tax, a licence tax, corporation taxes, a collateral - inheritance tax, fines, forfeitures and fees; and the penitentiary - yields an annual net revenue of about $40,000. There is no provision - for a general periodic assessment, but a state tax commissioner - appointed by the governor, treasurer and comptroller assesses the - corporations, and the county commissioners (in the counties) and the - appeal tax court (in the city of Baltimore) revise valuations of real - property every two years. From 1820 to 1836 Maryland, in its - enthusiasm over internal improvements, incurred an indebtedness of - more than $16,000,000. To meet the interest, such heavy taxes were - levied that anti-tax associations were formed to resist the - collection, and in 1842 the state failed to pay what was due; but the - accumulated interest had been funded by 1848 and was paid soon - afterwards, the expenses of the government were curtailed by the - constitution of 1851, and after the Civil War the amount of - indebtedness steadily decreased until in 1902 the funded debt was - $6,909,326 and the net debt only $2,797,269.13, while on the 1st of - October 1908 the net debt was $366,643.91. As a result of incurring - the large debt, a clause in the constitution prohibits the legislature - from contracting a debt without providing by the imposition of taxes - for the payment of the interest annually and the principal within - fifteen years, except to meet a temporary deficiency not exceeding - $50,000. The first bank of the state was established in 1790, and by - 1817 there was one in each of twelve counties and several in - Baltimore; in 1818-1820 and in 1837-1839 there were several serious - bank failures, but there have been no serious failures since. A - constitutional provision makes each stockholder in a state bank liable - to the amount of his share or shares for all the bank's debts and - liabilities. A savings bank is taxed on its deposits, and a state bank - is taxed on its capital-stock. - -_History._--The history of Maryland begins in 1632 with the procedure of -Charles I. to grant a charter conveying almost unlimited territorial and -governmental rights therein to George Calvert, first Lord Baltimore -(1580?-1632), and styling him its absolute lord and proprietor. George -Calvert died before the charter had passed the great seal, but about two -months later in the same year it was issued to his eldest son, Cecilius. -In November 1633 two vessels, the "Ark" and the "Dove," carrying at -least two hundred colonists under Leonard Calvert (c. 1582-1647), a -brother of the proprietor, as governor, sailed from Gravesend and -arrived in Maryland late in March of the following year. Friendly -relations were at the outset established with the Indians, and the -province never had much trouble with that race; but with William -Claiborne (1589?-1676?), the arch-enemy of the province as long as he -lived, it was otherwise. He had opposed the grant of the Maryland -charter, had established a trading post on Kent Island in Chesapeake Bay -in 1631, and when commanded to submit to the new government he and his -followers offered armed resistance. A little later, during his temporary -absence in England, his followers on the island were reduced to -submission; but in 1644, while the Civil War in England was in progress, -he was back in the province assisting Richard Ingle, a pirate who -claimed to be acting in the interest of parliament, in raising an -insurrection which deprived Governor Calvert of his office for about a -year and a half. Finally, the lord proprietor was deprived of his -government from 1654 to 1658 in obedience to instructions from -parliament which were originally intended to affect only Virginia, but -were so modified, through the influence of Claiborne and some Puritan -exiles from Virginia who had settled in Maryland, as to apply also to -"the plantations within Chesapeake Bay." Then the long continued unrest -both in the mother country and in the province seems to have encouraged -Josias Fendall, the proprietor's own appointee as governor, to strike a -blow against the proprietary government and attempt to set up a -commonwealth in its place; but this revolt was easily suppressed and -order was generally preserved in the province from the English -Restoration of 1660 to the English Revolution of 1688. - -Meanwhile an interesting internal development had been in progress. The -proprietor was a Roman Catholic and probably it was his intention that -Maryland should be an asylum for persecuted Roman Catholics, but it is -even more clear that he was desirous of having Protestant colonists -also. To this end he promised religious toleration from the beginning -and directed his officers accordingly; this led to the famous toleration -act passed by the assembly in 1649, which, however, extended its -protection only to sects of Trinitarian Christianity. Again, although -the charter reserved to the proprietor the right of calling an assembly -of the freemen or their delegates at such times and in such form and -manner as he should choose, he surrendered in 1638 his claim to the sole -right of initiating legislation. By 1650 the assembly had been divided -into two houses, in one of which sat only the representatives of the -freemen without whose consent no bill could become a law, and annual -sessions as well as triennial elections were coming to be the usual -order. When suffrage had thus come to be a thing really worth -possessing, the proprietor, in 1670, sought to check the opposition by -disfranchising all freemen who did not have a freehold of fifty acres or -a visible estate of forty pounds sterling. But this step was followed by -more and more impassioned complaints against him, such as: that he was -interfering with elections, that he was summoning only a part of the -delegates elected, that he was seeking to overawe those summoned, that -he was abusing his veto power, and that he was keeping the government in -the hands of Roman Catholics, who were mostly members of his own family. -About this time also the north and east boundaries of the province were -beginning to suffer from the aggressions of William Penn. The territory -now forming the state of Delaware was within the boundaries defined by -the Maryland charter, but in 1682 it was transferred by the duke of York -to William Penn and in 1685 Lord Baltimore's claim to it was denied by -an order in council, on the ground that it had been inhabited by -Christians before the Maryland charter was granted. In the next place, -although it was clear from the words of the charter that the parallel of -40 deg. N. was intended for its north boundary, and although Penn's -charter prescribed that Pennsylvania should extend on the south to the -"beginning of the fortieth degree of Northern Latitude," a controversy -arose with regard to the boundary between the two provinces, and there -was a long period of litigation; in 1763-1767 Charles Mason and Jeremiah -Dixon, two English mathematicians, established the line named from them -(see MASON AND DIXON LINE), which runs along the parallel 39 deg. 43' -26".3 N. and later became famous as the dividing line between the free -states and the slave states. While the proprietor was absent defending -his claims against Penn the English Revolution of 1688 was started. -Owing to the death of a messenger there was long delay in proclaiming -the new monarchs in Maryland; this delay, together with a rumor of a -Popish plot to slaughter the Protestants, enabled the opposition to -overthrow the proprietary government, and then the crown, in the -interest of its trade policy, set up a royal government in its place, in -1692, without, however, divesting the proprietor of his territorial -rights. Under the royal government the Church of England was -established, the people acquired a strong control of their branch of the -legislature and they were governed more by statute law and less by -executive ordinance. The proprietor having become a Protestant, the -proprietary government was restored in 1715. Roman Catholics were -disfranchised immediately afterward. In 1730 Germans began to settle in -considerable numbers in the west-central part of the colony, where they -greatly promoted its industrial development but at the same time added -much strength to the opposition. The first great dispute between -proprietor and people after the restoration of 1715 was with regard to -the extension of the English statutes to Maryland, the popular branch of -the legislature vigorously contending that all such statutes except -those expressly excluded extended to the province, and the lord -proprietor contending that only those in which the dominions were -expressly mentioned were in force there. Many other disputes speedily -followed and when the final struggle between the English and French for -possession in America came, although appropriations were made at its -beginning to protect her own west frontier from the attacks of the -enemy, a dead-lock between the two branches of the assembly prevented -Maryland from responding to repeated appeals from the mother country for -aid in the latter part of that struggle. This failure was used as an -argument in favour of imposing the famous Stamp Act. Nevertheless, -popular clamour against parliament on account of that measure was even -greater than it had been against the proprietor. The stamp distributor -was driven out, and the arguments of Daniel Dulany (1721-1797), the -ablest lawyer in the province, against the act were quoted by speakers -in parliament for its repeal. - -In the years immediately preceding the Declaration of Independence -Maryland pursued much the same course as did other leading colonies in -the struggle--a vessel with tea on board was even burned to the water's -edge--and yet when it came to the decisive act of declaring independence -there was hesitation. As the contest against the proprietor had been -nearly won, the majority of the best citizens desired the continuance of -the old government and it was not until the Maryland delegates in the -Continental Congress were found almost alone in holding back that their -instructions not to vote for independence were rescinded. The new -constitution drawn and adopted in 1776 to take the place of the charter -was of an aristocratic rather than a democratic nature. Under it the -property qualification for suffrage was a freehold of 50 acres or L30 -current money, the property qualifications for delegates L500, for -senators L1000, and for governor L5000. Four delegates were chosen from -each county and two each from Baltimore and Annapolis, the same as under -the proprietary government, population not being taken into account. -Senators were chosen by a college of fifteen electors elected in the -same manner as the delegates, and the governor by a joint ballot of the -two houses of assembly. In 1802 negroes were disfranchised, and in 1810 -property qualifications for suffrage and office were abolished. The -system of representation that, with the rapid growth of population in -the north-east sections, especially in the city of Baltimore, placed the -government in the hands of a decreasing minority also began to be -attacked about this time; but the fear of that minority which -represented the tobacco-raising and slave-holding counties of south -Maryland, with respect to the attitude of the majority toward slavery -prevented any changes until 1837, when the opposition awakened by the -enthusiasm over internal improvements effected the adoption of -amendments which provided for the election of the governor and senators -by a direct vote of the people, a slight increase in the representation -of the city of Baltimore and the larger counties, and a slight decrease -in that of the smaller counties. Scarcely had these amendments been -carried when the serious financial straits brought on by debt incurred -through the state's promotion of internal improvements gave rise to the -demand for a reduction of governmental expenses and a limitation of the -power of the General Assembly to contract debts. The result was the new -constitution of 1851, which fully established representation in the -counties on the basis of population and further increased that of -Baltimore. The constitution of 1851 was however chiefly a patchwork of -compromises. So, when during the Civil War Maryland was largely under -Federal control and the demand arose for the abolition of slavery by the -state, another constitutional convention was called, in 1864, which -framed a constitution providing that those who had given aid to the -Rebellion should be disfranchised and that only those qualified for -suffrage in accordance with the new document could vote on its adoption. -This was too revolutionary to stand long and in 1867 it was superseded -by the present constitution. In national affairs Maryland early took a -stand of perhaps far-reaching consequences in refusing to sign the -Articles of Confederation (which required the assent of all the states -before coming into effect), after all the other states had done so (in -1779), until those states claiming territory between the Alleghany -Mountains and the Mississippi and north of the Ohio--Virginia, New York, -Massachusetts and Connecticut--should have surrendered such claims. As -those states finally yielded, the Union was strengthened by reason of a -greater equality and consequently less jealousy among the original -states, and the United States came into possession of the first -territory in which all the states had a common interest and out of which -new states were to be created. In the War of 1812 Frederick, Havre de -Grace, and Frenchtown were burned by the British; but particularly -noteworthy were the unsuccessful movements of the enemy by land and by -sea against Baltimore, in which General Robert Ross (c. 1766-1814), the -British commander of the land force, was killed before anything had been -accomplished and the failure of the fleet to take Fort McHenry after a -siege of a day and a night inspired the song _The Star-spangled Banner_, -composed by Francis Scott Key who had gone under a flag of truce to -secure from General Ross the release of a friend held as a prisoner by -the British and during the attack was detained on his vessel within the -British lines. In 1861 Maryland as a whole was opposed to secession but -also opposed to coercing the seceded states. During the war that -followed the west section was generally loyal to the north while the -south section favoured the Confederacy and furnished many soldiers for -its army; but most of the state was kept under Federal control, the writ -of habeas corpus being suspended. The only battle of much importance -fought on Maryland soil during the war was that of Sharpsburg or -Antietam on the 16th and 17th of September 1862. As between political -parties the state has usually been quite equally divided. From 1820 to -1860, however, the Whigs were in general a trifle the stronger; and from -1866 to 1895 the Democrats were triumphant; in 1895 a Republican -governor was elected; in 1896 Maryland gave McKinley 32,232 votes more -than it gave Bryan; and in 1904 seven Democratic electors and one -Republican were chosen; and in 1908 five Democratic and three -Republican. - - The proprietors of Maryland were: Cecilius Calvert, second Lord - Baltimore (1605[?]-1675) from 1632 to 1675; Charles Calvert, third - Lord Baltimore (1629-1715) from 1675 to 1715; Benedict Leonard - Calvert, fourth Lord Baltimore (1684?-1715) 1715; Charles Calvert, - fifth Lord Baltimore (1699-1751) from 1715 to 1751; Frederick Calvert, - sixth and last Lord Baltimore (1731-1771) from 1751 to 1771; Henry - Harford, from 1771 to 1776. - - - _Governors of Maryland._ - - _Proprietary._ - - Leonard Calvert 1633-1645 - Richard Ingle (usurper) 1645 - Edward Hill (chosen by the council) 1646 - Leonard Calvert 1646-1647 - Thomas Greene 1647-1649 - William Stone \ 1649-1652 - Richard Bennett > (commissioners of \ - Edmund Curtis | parliament) > 1652 - William Claiborne / / - William Stone 1652-1654 - William Fuller and others (appointed by the - commissioners of parliament) 1654-1658 - Josias Fendall 1658-1660 - Philip Calvert 1660-1661 - Charles Calvert 1661-1675 - Charles Calvert, third Lord Baltimore 1675-1676 - Cecilius Calvert (titular) and Jesse Wharton (real) 1676 - Thomas Notley 1676-1679 - Charles Calvert, third Lord Baltimore 1679-1684 - Benedict Leonard Calvert (titular) and council (real) 1684-1688 - William Joseph (president of the council) 1688-1689 - Protestant Associators under John Coode 1689-1692 - - _Royal._ - - Sir Lionel Copley 1692-1693 - Sir Edmund Andros 1693-1694 - Francis Nicholson 1694-1699 - Nathaniel Blackistone 1699-1702 - Thomas Tench (president of the council) 1702-1704 - John Seymour 1704-1709 - Edward Lloyd (president of the council) 1709-1714 - John Hart 1714-1715 - John Hart 1715-1720 - Charles Calvert 1720-1727 - Benedict Leonard Calvert 1727-1731 - Samuel Ogle 1731-1732 - Charles Calvert, fifth Lord Baltimore 1732-1733 - Samuel Ogle 1733-1742 - Thomas Bladen 1742-1747 - Samuel Ogle 1747-1752 - Benjamin Tasker (president of the council) 1752-1753 - Horatio Sharpe 1752-1769 - Robert Eden 1769-1774 - Robert Eden (nominal) and Convention and Council - of Safety (real) 1774-1776 - - STATE - - Thomas Johnson 1777-1779 - Thomas Sim Lee 1779-1782 - William Paca 1782-1785 - William Smallwood 1785-1788 - John Eager Howard 1788-1791 - George Plater[4] 1791-1792 - James Brice (acting) 1792 - Thomas Sim Lee 1792-1794 - John H. Stone 1794-1797 - John Henry Democratic Republican 1797-1798 - Benjamin Ogle Federalist 1798-1801 - John Francis Mercer Democratic Republican 1801-1803 - Robert Bowie " " 1803-1806 - Robert Wright[5] " " 1806-1808 - James Butcher (acting) " " 1808-1809 - Edward Lloyd Whig 1809-1811 - Robert Bowie Democratic Republican 1811-1812 - Levin Winder Federalist 1812-1815 - Charles Ridgely " 1815-1818 - Charles Goldsborough " 1818-1819 - Samuel Sprigg Democratic Republican 1819-1822 - Samuel Stevens, jun. " " 1822-1825 - Joseph Kent " " 1825-1828 - Daniel Martin Anti-Jackson 1828-1829 - Thomas King Carroll Jackson Democrat 1829-1830 - Daniel Martin Anti-Jackson 1830-1831 - George Howard (acting) Whig 1831-1832 - George Howard " 1832-1833 - James Thomas " 1833-1835 - Thomas W. Veazey " 1835-1838 - William Grason Democrat 1838-1841 - Francis Thomas " 1841-1844 - Thomas G. Pratt Whig 1844-1847 - Philip Francis Thomas Democrat 1847-1850 - Enoch Louis Lowe " 1850-1853 - Thomas Watkins Ligon " 1853-1857 - Thomas Holliday Hicks American or - Know Nothing 1857-1861 - Augustus W. Bradford Unionist 1861-1865 - Thomas Swann " 1865-1868 - Oden Bowie Democrat 1868-1872 - William Pinkney Whyte[6] " 1872-1874 - James Black Groome " 1874-1876 - John Lee Carroll " 1876-1880 - William T. Hamilton " 1880-1884 - Robert M. McLane " 1884-1885 - Henry Lloyd " 1885-1888 - Elihu E. Jackson " 1888-1892 - Frank Brown " 1892-1896 - Lloyd Lowndes Republican 1896-1900 - John Walter Smith Democrat 1900-1904 - Edwin Warfield " 1904-1908 - Austin L. Crothers " 1908- - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Publications of the Maryland Geological Survey_ - (Baltimore, 1897); _Maryland Weather Service Climatology and Physical - Features_, biennial reports (Baltimore, 1892- ); _United States - Census_; _Reports_ of the U.S. Fish Commissioner and Bureau of - Fisheries (Washington, 1871); State Department, _Maryland Manual, a - Compendium of Legal, Historical and Statistical Information_ - (Baltimore, 1900- ); B.C. Steiner, _Citizenship and Suffrage in - Maryland_ (Baltimore, 1895), an historical review of the subject; J. - W. Harry, _The Maryland Constitution of 1851_, Johns Hopkins - University Studies in Historical and Political Science (Baltimore, - 1902), contains an account of the agitation from 1835 to 1850 for - constitutional reform; B. C. Steiner, _History of Education in - Maryland_, Circulars of Information of the United States Bureau of - Education (Washington, 1894), a general historical survey of the - common schools, public and private, and a particular account of each - college, university and professional school; A. D. Mayo, _The Final - Establishment of the American School System in West Virginia, - Maryland, Virginia and Delaware_, Report of the Commissioner of - Education (Washington, 1905) contains an interesting account of the - development of the public school system of the state from 1864 to - 1900; F. S. Adams, _Taxation in Maryland_, Johns Hopkins University - Studies (Baltimore, 1900), an historical account of the sources of the - state's revenue and administration of its taxing system; A. V. Bryan, - _History of State Banking in Maryland_, Johns Hopkins University - Studies (Baltimore, 1899), a careful study of the state's experience - with banks from 1790 to 1864; J. L. Bozman, _History of Maryland from - 1633 to 1660_ (Baltimore, 1837), a compilation of much of the more - important material relating to the early history of the province; J. - V. L. McMahon, _An Historical View of the Government of Maryland from - its Colonization to the Present Day_ (Baltimore, 1833), an able - treatment of the subject by a learned jurist; J. T. Scharf, _History - of Maryland_ (Baltimore, 1879), the most extensive general history of - the state, but it contains numerous errors and the arrangement is - poor; W. H. Browne, _Maryland: the History of a Palatinate_ (Boston, - 1884 and 1895), an excellent outline of the colonial history; N. D. - Mereness, _Maryland as a Proprietary Province_ (New York, 1901), a - constitutional history of the province in the light of its industrial - and social development, contains a bibliography; and Bernard C. - Steiner, _Maryland during the English Civil War_ (2 vols., Baltimore, - 1906-1907), one of the Johns Hopkins University Studies. (N. D. M.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Maryland and Delaware together began the construction of the - Chesapeake and Delaware canal (13(1/2) m. long) across the north part - of the state of Delaware, between the Delaware river and Chesapeake - Bay; this canal received Federal aid in 1828, was completed in 1829, - and in 1907 was chosen as the most practicable route for a proposed - ship waterway between the Chesapeake and the Delaware. - - [2] The population at previous censuses was as follows: 319,728 in - 1790; 341,548 in 1800; 380,546 in 1810; 407,350 in 1820; 447,040 in - 1830; 470,019 in 1840; 583,034 in 1850; 687,049 in 1860; and 780,894 - in 1870. - - [3] The General Assembly regularly elected the governor during the - period 1776-1838. - - [4] Died in office. - - [5] Resigned on the 6th of May 1808. - - [6] Resigned in 1874 to become (March 4, 1875) U.S. senator from - Maryland. - - - - -MARYPORT, a market town and seaport in the Cockermouth parliamentary -division of Cumberland, England, 25 m. W.S.W. of Carlisle, on the -Maryport & Carlisle railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 11,897. It -is irregularly built on the shore of the Irish Sea and on the cliffs -above, at the mouth of the river Ellen. Until 1750 there were only a few -huts here, the spot being called Ellenfoot, but at this time the harbour -was built by Humphrey Senhouse. In 1892 Maryport became an independent -port with Workington, Whitehaven and Millom subordinate to it. Coal and -pig-iron are exported from the mining district inland, and shipbuilding -is carried on. There are also rope and sail works, iron-foundries, -saw-mills, breweries and tanneries. On the hill north of the town there -is a Roman fort which guarded the coast, and many remains of this period -have been discovered. The fort was called Uxellodunum. - - - - -MARZABOTTO, a village of Emilia, Italy, in the province of Bologna, 17 -m. S.S.W. of Bologna by rail. Pop. (1901), 617 (village); 5272 -(commune). It lies in the valley of the Reno, 443 ft. above sea-level. -In and below the grounds of the Villa Aria, close to it, are the remains -of an Etruscan town of the 5th century B.C., protected on the west by -the mountains, on the east and south by the river, which by a change of -course has destroyed about half of it. The acropolis was just below the -villa: here remains of temples were found. The town lay below the modern -high-road and was laid out on a rectangular plan divided by main streets -into eight quarters, and these in turn into blocks or _insulae_. -Cemeteries were found on the east and north of the site. The name of the -place is unknown: it was partially inhabited later by the Gauls, but was -not occupied by the Romans. - - The discoveries of 1888-1889 (with references to previous works) are - described by E. Brizio in _Monumenti dei Lincei_ (1891), i. 249 sqq. - (T. As.) - - - - -MASACCIO (1402-1429), Italian painter. Tommaso Guidi, son of a notary, -Ser Giovanni di Simone Guidi, of the family of the Scheggia, who had -property in Castel S. Giovanni di Val d'Arno, was born in 1402 -(according to Milanesi, on the 21st of December 1401), and acquired the -nickname of Masaccio, which may be translated "Lubberly Tom," in -consequence of his slovenly dressing and deportment. From childhood he -showed a great inclination for the arts of design, and he is said to -have studied under his contemporary Masolino da Panicale. In 1421, or -perhaps 1423, he was enrolled in the gild of the speziali (druggists) in -Florence, in 1424 in the gild of painters. His first attempts in -painting were made in Florence, and then in Pisa. Next he went to Rome, -still no doubt very young; although the statement that he returned from -Rome to Florence, in 1420, when only eighteen or nineteen, seems -incredible, considering the works he undertook in the papal city. These -included a series of frescoes still extant in a chapel of the church of -S. Clemente, a Crucifixion, and scenes from the life of St Catherine and -of St Clement, or perhaps some other saint. Though much inferior to his -later productions, these paintings are, for naturalism and propriety of -representation, in advance of their time. Some critics, however, -consider that the design only, if even that, was furnished by Masaccio, -and the execution left to an inferior hand; this appears highly -improbable, as Masaccio, at his early age, can scarcely have held the -position of a master laying out work for subordinates; indeed Vasari -says that Lubberly Tom was held in small esteem at all times of his -brief life. In the Crucifixion subject the group of the Marys is -remarkable; the picture most generally admired is that of Catherine, in -the presence of Maxentius, arguing against and converting eight learned -doctors. After returning to Florence, Masaccio was chiefly occupied in -painting in the church of the Carmine, and especially in that "Brancacci -Chapel" which he has rendered famous almost beyond rivalry in the annals -of painting. - - The chapel, had been built early in the 15th century by Felice Michele - di Piuvichese Brancacci, a noble Florentine. Masaccio's work in it - began probably in 1423, and continued at intervals until he finally - quitted Florence in 1428. There is a whole library-shelf of discussion - as to what particular things were done by Masaccio and what by - Masolino, and long afterwards by Filippino Lippi, in the Brancacci - Chapel, and also as to certain other paintings by Masaccio in the - Carmine. He began with a trial piece, a majestic figure of St Paul, - not in the chapel; this has perished. A monochrome of the Procession - for the Consecration of the Chapel, regarded as a wonderful example, - for that early period, of perspective and of grouping, has also - disappeared; it contains portraits of Brunelleschi, Donatello and many - others. In the cloister of the Carmine was discovered in recent years - a portion of a fresco by Masaccio representing a procession; but this, - being in colours and not in monochrome, does not appear to be the - Brancacci procession. As regards the works in the Brancacci chapel - itself, the prevalent opinion now is that Masolino, who used to be - credited with a considerable portion of them, did either nothing, or - at most the solitary compartment which represents St Peter restoring - Tabitha to life, and the same saint healing a cripple. The share which - Filippino Lippi bore in the work admits of little doubt; to him are - due various items on which the fame of Masaccio used principally to be - based--as for instance the figure of St Paul addressing Peter in - prison, which Raphael partly appropriated; and hence it may be - observed that an eloquent and often-quoted outpouring of Sir Joshua - Reynolds in praise of Masaccio ought in great part to be transferred - to Filippino. What Masaccio really painted in the chapel appears with - tolerable certainty to be as follows, and is ample enough to sustain - the high reputation he has always enjoyed:--(1) The "Temptation of - Adam and Eve"; (2) "Peter and the Tribute-Money"; (3) The "Expulsion - from Eden"; (4) "Peter Preaching"; (5) "Peter Baptizing"; (6) "Peter - Almsgiving"; (7) "Peter and John curing the Sick"; (8) "Peter - restoring to Life the Son of King Theophilus of Antioch" was begun by - Masaccio, including the separate incident of "Peter Enthroned," but a - large proportion is by Filippino; (9) the double subject already - allotted to Masolino may perhaps be by Masaccio, and in that case it - must have been one of the first in order of execution. A few words may - be given to these pictures individually. (1) The "Temptation" shows a - degree of appreciation of nude form, corresponding to the feeling of - the antique, such as was at that date unexampled in painting. (2) The - "Tribute-Money," a full, harmonious and expressive composition, - contains a head reputed to be the portrait of Masaccio himself--one of - the apostles, with full locks, a solid resolute countenance and a - pointed beard. (3) The "Expulsion" was so much admired by Raphael - that, with comparatively slight modifications, he adopted it as his - own in one of the subjects of the Logge of the Vatican. (5) "Peter - Baptizing" contains some nude figures of strong naturalistic design; - that of the young man, prepared for the baptismal ceremony, who stands - half-shivering in the raw air, has always been a popular favourite and - an object of artistic study. (8) The restoration of the young man to - life has been open to much discussion as to what precise subject was - in view, but the most probable opinion is that the legend of King - Theophilus was intended. - -In 1427 Masaccio was living in Florence with his mother, then for the -second time a widow, and with his younger brother Giovanni, a painter of -no distinction; he possessed nothing but debts. In 1428 he was working, -as we have seen, in the Brancacci chapel. Before the end of that year he -disappeared from Florence, going, as it would appear, to Rome, to evade -the importunities of creditors. Immediately afterwards, in 1429, when -his age was twenty-seven or twenty-eight, he was reported dead. -Poisoning by jealous rivals in art was rumoured, but of this nothing is -known. The statement that several years afterwards, in 1443, he was -buried in the Florentine Church of the Carmine, without any monument, -seems to be improbable, and to depend upon a confused account of the -dates, which have now, after long causing much bewilderment, been -satisfactorily cleared up from extant documents. - -It has been said that Masaccio introduced into painting the plastic -boldness of Donatello, and carried out the linear perspective of Paolo -Uccello and Brunelleschi (who had given him practical instruction), and -he was also the first painter who made some considerable advance in -atmospheric perspective. He was the first to make the architectural -framework of his pictures correspond in a reasonable way to the -proportions of the figures. In the Brancacci chapel he painted with -extraordinary swiftness. The contours of the feet and articulations in -his pictures are imperfect; and his most prominent device for giving -roundness to the figures (a point in which he made a great advance upon -his predecessors) was a somewhat mannered way of putting the high lights -upon the edges. His draperies were broad and easy, and his landscape -details natural, and superior to his age. In fact, he led the way in -representing the objects of nature correctly, with action, liveliness -and relief. Soon after his death, his work was recognized at its right -value, and led to notable advances; and all the greatest artists of -Italy, through studying the Brancacci chapel, became his champions and -disciples. - - Of the works attributed to Masaccio in public or private galleries - hardly any are authentic. The one in the Florentine Academy, the - "Virgin and Child in the Lap of St Anna," is an exception. The - so-called portrait of Masaccio in the Uffizi Gallery is more probably - Filippino Lippi; and Filippino, or Botticelli, may be the real author - of the head, at first termed a Masaccio, in the National Gallery, - London. - - An early work on Masaccio was that of T. Patch, _Life with Engravings_ - (Florence, 1770-1772). See Layard, _The Brancacci Chapel_, &c. (1868); - H. Eckstein, _Life of Masaccio, Giotto_, &c. (1882); Charles Yriarte, - _Tommaso dei Guidi_ (1894). (W. M. R.) - - - - -MASAI, an Eastern Equatorial African people of Negro-Hamitic stock, -speaking a Nilotic language. The Hamitic element, which is not great, -has probably been derived from the Galla. The Masai were probably -isolated in the high mountains or plateaus which lie between the Nile -and the Karamojo country. There they originally had their home, and -there to-day the Latuka, who show affinities with them, still live. -Famine or inter-tribal wars drove the Masai in the direction of Mount -Elgon and Lake Rudolf. After a long settlement there they split into two -groups, the Masai proper and the Wa-Kuafi or agricultural Masai, and -this at no very remote date, as the two tribes speak practically the -same language. The more powerful Masai were purely nomadic and pastoral, -their wealth consisting in enormous herds. The Wa-Kuafi, losing their -cattle to their stronger kinsmen, split up again into the Burkeneji, the -Gwas Ngishu, and the Nyarusi (Enjamusi) and settled as agriculturists. -Meantime the Masai became masters of the greater part of inner East -Africa from Ugogo and the Unyamwezi countries on the south and west to -Mount Kenya and Galla-land on the north, and eastward to the -hundred-mile strip of more or less settled Bantu country on the coast of -the Indian Ocean. - -The Masai physical type is slender, but among the finest in Africa. A -tall, well-made people, the men are often well over six feet, with slim -wiry figures, chocolate-coloured, with eyes often slightly oblique like -the Mongolians, but the nose especially being often almost Caucasian in -type, with well formed bridge and finely cut nostrils. Almost all the -men and women knock out the two lower incisor teeth. For this custom -they give the curious explanation that lockjaw was once very common in -Masai-land, and that it was found to be easy to feed the sufferer -through the gap thus made. All the hair on the body of both sexes is -pulled out with iron tweezers; a Masai with a moustache or beard is -unknown. The hair of the head is shaved in women and married men; but -the hair of a youth at puberty is allowed to grow till it is long enough -to have thin strips of leather plaited into it. In this way the hair, -after a coating of red clay and mutton fat, is made into pigtails, the -largest of which hangs down the back, another over the forehead, and one -on each side. The warriors smear their whole bodies with the clay and -fat, mixed in equal proportion. - - No tattooing or scarring is performed on the men, but Sir Harry - Johnston noticed women with parallel lines burnt into the skin round - the eyes. In both sexes the lobes of the ears are distended into great - loops, through holes in which large disks of wood are thrust. Bead - necklaces, bead and wood armlets are worn by men, and before marriage - the Masai girl has thick iron wire wound round her legs so tightly as - to check the calf development. The women wear dressed hides or calico; - the old men wear a skin or cloth cape. The warriors wind red calico - round their waists, a circle of ostrich feathers round their face (or - a cap of lion or colobus skin) and fringes of long white fur round the - knee. Masai houses are of two kinds. The agricultural tribes build - round huts with walls of reeds or sticks, and conical, grass-thatched - roofs. The true Masai nomads, however, have houses unlike those of any - other neighbouring negro tribe. Long, low (not more than 6 ft. high), - flat-roofed, they are built on a framework of sticks with strong - partitions dividing the structure into separate compartments, each a - dwelling, with low, oblong door. Mud and cow-dung are plastered on to - the brushwood used in the roofing. Beds are made of brushwood neatly - stacked and covered with hides. The fireplace is a circle of stones. - The only furniture, besides cooking-pots, consists of long gourds used - as milkcans, half-gourds as cups, and small three-legged stools cut - out of a single block of wood and used by the elder men to sit on. - The Masai are not hunters of big game except lions, but they eat the - eland and kudu. The domestic animals are cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys - and dogs. Only women and the married men smoke. The dead are - ordinarily not buried, but the bodies are carried a short distance - from the village and left on the ground to be devoured by hyenas, - jackals and vultures. Important chiefs are buried, however, and a year - later the eldest son or successor recovers the skull, which is - treasured as a charm. The medicine men of Masai are often the chiefs, - and the supreme chief is almost always a medicine man. - - The Masai believe in a nature-god as a supreme being--Ngai - ("sky")--and his aid is invoked in cases of drought by a ceremonial - chant of the children, standing in a circle after sunset, each with a - bunch of grass in its hand. They have creation-myths involving four - gods, the black, white, grey and red deities. They believe there is no - future for women or common people, but that such distinction is - reserved for chiefs. Pythons and a species of snake are revered as the - reincarnated forms of their more celebrated ancestors. A kind of - worship is paid to the hyena in some districts: the whole tribe going - into mourning if the beast crosses their path. The Masai also have a - vague tree-worship, and grass is a sacred symbol. When making peace a - tuft is held in the right hand, and when the warriors start out on a - raid their sweethearts throw grass after them or lay it in the forks - of trees. But the oddest of their superstitious customs is the - importance attached to spitting. To spit upon a person or thing is - regarded as a sign of reverence and goodwill, as among other Nilotic - tribes. Newly born children are spat on by every one who sees them. - Johnston states that every Masai before extending his hand to him spat - on it first. They spit when they meet and when they part, and bargains - are sealed in this way. Joseph Thomson writes, "being regarded as a - wizard of the first water, the Masai flocked to me ... and the more - copiously I spat on them the greater was their delight." The Masai has - no love for work, and practises no industries. The women attend to his - personal needs; and trades such as smelting and forging are left to - enslaved tribes such as the Dorobo (Wandorobo). These manufacture - spears with long blades and butts and the peculiar swords or _simes_ - like long slender leaves, very narrow towards the hilt and broad at - the point. Most of the Masai live in the British East Africa - Protectorate. - - See A. C. Hollis, _The Masai, their Language and Folklore_ (1905); M. - Merker, _Die Nasai_ (1904); Sir H. H. Johnston, _Kilimanjaro - Expedition_ (1886) and _Uganda Protectorate_ (1902); Joseph Thomson, - _Through Masai-land_ (1885); O. Baumann, _Durch Massai-land zur - Nilquelle_ (1894); F. Kallenberg, _Auf dem Kriegspfad gegen die - Massai_ (1892). - - - - -MASANIELLO, an abbreviation of TOMMASO ANIELLO (1622-1647), an Amalfi -fisherman, who became leader of the revolt against Spanish rule in -Naples in 1647. Misgovernment and fiscal oppression having aroused much -discontent throughout the two Sicilies, a revolt broke out at Palermo in -May 1647, and the people of Naples followed the example of the -Sicilians. The immediate occasion of the latter rising was a new tax on -fruit, the ordinary food of the poor, and the chief instigator of the -movement was Masaniello, who took command of the malcontents. The -outbreak began on the 7th of July 1647 with a riot at the city gates -between the fruit-vendors of the environs and the customs officers; the -latter were forced to flee, and the customs office was burnt. The -rioters then poured into Naples and forced their way into the palace of -the viceroy, the hated Count d'Arcos, who had to take refuge first in a -neighbouring convent, then in Castel Sant' Elmo, and finally in -Castelnuovo. Masaniello attempted to discipline the mob and restrain its -vandalic instincts, and to some extent he succeeded; attired in his -fisherman's garb, he gave audiences and administered justice from a -wooden scaffolding outside his house. Several rioters, including the -duke of Maddaloni, an opponent of the viceroy, and his brother Giuseppe -Caraffa, who had come to Naples to make trouble, were condemned to death -by him and executed. The mob, which every day obtained more arms and was -becoming more intractable, terrorized the city, drove off the troops -summoned from outside, and elected Masaniello "captain-general"; the -revolt was even spreading to the provinces. Finally, the viceroy, whose -negotiations with Masaniello had been frequently interrupted by fresh -tumults, ended by granting all the concessions demanded of him. On the -13th of July, through the mediation of Cardinal Filomarino, archbishop -of Naples, a convention was signed between D'Arcos and Masaniello as -"leader of the most faithful people of Naples," by which the rebels were -pardoned, the more oppressive taxes removed, and the citizens granted -certain rights, including that of remaining in arms until the treaty -should have been ratified by the king of Spain. The astute D'Arcos then -invited Masaniello to the palace, confirmed his title of -"captain-general of the Neapolitan people," gave him a gold chain of -office, and offered him a pension. Masaniello refused the pension and -laid down his dignities, saying that he wished to return to his old life -as a fisherman; but he was entertained by the viceroy and, partly owing -to the strain and excitement of the past days, partly because he was -made dizzy by his astonishing change of fortune, or perhaps, as it was -believed, because he was poisoned, he lost his head and behaved like a -frenzied maniac. The people continued to obey him for some days, until, -abandoned by his best friends, who went over to the Spanish party, he -was murdered while haranguing a mob on the market-place on the 16th of -July 1647; his head was cut off and brought by a band of roughs to the -viceroy and the body buried outside the city. But the next day the -populace, angered by the alteration of the measures for weighing bread, -repented of its insane fury; the body of Masaniello was dug up and given -a splendid funeral, at which the viceroy himself was represented. - -Masaniello's insurrection appealed to the imagination of poets and -composers, and formed the subject of several operas, of which the most -famous is Auber's La Muelle de Portici (1828). - - See Saavedra, _Insurreccion de Napoli en 1647_ (2 vols., Madrid, - 1849); A. von Reumont, _Die Caraffa von Maddaloni_ (2 vols., Berlin, - 1849); Capasso, _La Casa e famiglia di Masaniello_ (Naples, 1893); V. - Spinazzola, _Masaniello e la sua famiglia, secondo un codice bolognese - del sec. xvi_. (in the review Flegrea, 1900); A. G. Meissner, - _Masaniello_ (in German); E. Bourg, _Masaniello_ (in French); F. - Palermo, _Documenti diversi sulle novita accadute in Napoli l'anno - 1647_ (in the _Archivio storico italiano_, 1st series, vol. ix.). See - also NAPLES. - - - - -MASAYA, the capital of the department of Masaya, Nicaragua, 13 m. W.N.W. -of Lake Nicaragua and the city of Granada, on the eastern shore of Lake -Masaya, and on the Granada-Managua railway. Pop. (1905), about 20,000. -The city is built in the midst of a very fertile lowland region, which -yields large quantities of tobacco. The majority of the inhabitants are -Indians or half-castes. Lake Masaya occupies an extinct crater; the -isolated volcano of Masaya (3000 ft.) on the opposite side of the lake -was active at the time of the conquest of Nicaragua in 1522, and the -conquerors, thinking the lava they saw was gold, had themselves lowered -into the crater at the risk of their lives. The volcano was in eruption -in 1670, 1782, 1857 and 1902. - - - - -MASCAGNI, PIETRO (1863- ), Italian operatic composer, was born at -Leghorn, the son of a baker, and educated for the law; but he neglected -his legal studies for music, taking secret lessons at the Instituto -Luigi Cherubini. There a symphony by him was performed in 1879, and -various other compositions attracted attention, so that money was -provided by a wealthy amateur for him to study at the Milan -Conservatoire. But Mascagni chafed at the teaching, and soon left Milan -to become conductor to a touring operatic company. After a somewhat -chequered period he suddenly leapt into fame by the production at Rome -in 1890 of his one-act opera _Cavalleria Rusticana_, containing a -tuneful "intermezzo," which became wildly popular. Mascagni was the -musical hero of the hour, and _Cavalleria Rusticana_ was performed -everywhere. But his later work failed to repeat this success. _L'Amico -Fritz_ (1891), _I Rantzau_ (1892), _Guglielmo Ratcliff_ (1895), -_Silvano_ (1895), _Zanetto_ (1896), _Iris_ (1898), _Le Maschere_ (1901), -and _Amica_ (1905), were coldly or adversely received; and though -_Cavalleria Rusticana_, with its catchy melodies, still held the stage, -this succession of failures involved a steady decline in the composer's -reputation. From 1895 to 1903 Mascagni was director of the Pesaro -Conservatoire, but in the latter year, having left his post in order to -tour through the United States, he was dismissed from the appointment. - - - - -MASCARA, chief town of an arrondissement in the department of Oran, -Algeria, 60 m. S.E. of Oran. It lies 1800 ft. above the sea, on the -southern slope of a range forming part of the Little Atlas Mountains, -and occupies two small hills separated by the Wad Tudman, which is -crossed by three stone bridges. The walls, upwards of two miles in -circuit, and strengthened by bastions and towers, give the place a -somewhat imposing appearance. Mascara is a town of the French colonial -type, few vestiges of the Moorish period remaining. Among the public -buildings are two mosques, in one of which Abd-el-Kader preached the -_jihad_. The town also contains the usual establishments attaching to -the seat of a sub-prefect and the centre of a military subdivision. The -principal industry is the making of wine, the white wines of Mascara -being held in high repute. There is also a considerable trade in grains -and oil. A branch railway eight miles long connects Mascara with the -line from the seaport of Arzeu to Ain Sefra. Access is also gained by -this line to Oran, Algiers, &c. Pop. (1906) of the town, 18,989; of the -commune, which includes several villages, 22,934; of the arrondissement, -comprising eleven communes, 190,154. - - Mascara (i.e. "mother of soldiers") was the capital of a Turkish - beylik during the Spanish occupation of Oran from the 16th to the - close of the 18th century; but for the most of that period it occupied - a site about two miles distant from the present position. On the - removal of the bey to Oran its importance rapidly declined; and it was - an insignificant place when in 1832 Abd-el-Kader, who was born in the - neighbourhood, chose it as the seat of his power. It was laid in ruins - by the French under Marshal Clausel and the duke of Orleans in 1835, - the amir retreating south. Being reoccupied by Abd-el-Kader in 1838, - Mascara was again captured in 1841 by Marshal Bugeaud and General - Lamoriciere. - - - - -MASCARENE ISLANDS (occasionally MASCARENHAS), the collective title of a -group in the Indian Ocean cast of Madagascar, viz. Mauritius, Reunion -and Rodriguez (q.v.). The collective title is derived from the -Portuguese navigator Mascarenhas, by whom Reunion, at first called -Mascarenhas, was discovered. - - - - -MASCARON, JULES (1634-1703), French preacher, was the son of a barrister -at Aix. Born at Marseilles in 1634, he early entered the French Oratory, -and obtained great reputation as a preacher. Paris confirmed the -judgment of the provinces; in 1666 he was asked to preach before the -court, and became a great favourite with Louis XIV., who said that his -eloquence was one of the few things that never grew old. In 1671 he was -appointed bishop of Tulle; eight years later he was transferred to the -larger diocese of Agen. He still continued, however, to preach regularly -at court, being especially in request for funeral orations. A panegyric -on Turenne, delivered in 1675, is considered his masterpiece. His style -is strongly tinged with _preciosite_; and his chief surviving interest -is as a glaring example of the evils from which Bossuet delivered the -French pulpit. During his later years he devoted himself entirely to his -pastoral duties at Agen, where he died in 1703. - - Six of his most famous sermons were edited, with a biographical sketch - of their author, by the Oratorian Borde in 1704. - - - - -MASCHERONI, LORENZO (1750-1800), Italian geometer, was professor of -mathematics at the university of Pavia, and published a variety of -mathematical works, the best known of which is his _Geometria del -compasso_ (Pavia, 1797), a collection of geometrical constructions in -which the use of the circle alone is postulated. Many of the solutions -are most ingenious, and some of the constructions of considerable -practical importance. - - There is a French translation by A. M. Carette (Paris, 1798), who also - wrote a biography of Mascheroni. See Poggendorff, _Biog. Lit. - Handworterbuch_. - - - - -MASCOT (Fr. slang: perhaps from Port. _mascotto_, "witchcraft"), the -term for any person, animal, or thing supposed to bring luck. The word -was first popularized by Edmond Audran through his comic opera _La -Mascotte_ (1880), but it had been common in France long before among -gamblers. It has been traced back to a dialectic use in Provence and -Gascony, where it meant something which brought luck to a household. The -suggestion that it is from _masque_ (masked or concealed), the -provincial French for a child born with a caul, in allusion to the lucky -destiny of such children, is improbable. - - - - -MASDEU, JUAN FRANCISCO (1744-1817), Spanish historian, was born at -Palermo on the 4th of October 1744. He joined the Company of Jesus on -the 19th of December 1759, and became professor in the Jesuit seminaries -at Ferrara and Ascoli. He visited Spain in 1799, was exiled, and -returned in 1815, dying at Valencia on the 11th of April 1817. His -_Storia critica di Spagna e della cultura spagnuola in ogni genere_ (2 -vols., 1781-1784) was finally expanded into the _Historia critica de -Espana y de la cultura espanola_ (1783-1805), which, though it consists -of twenty volumes, was left unfinished; had it been continued on the -same scale, the work would have consisted of fifty volumes. Masdeu wrote -in a critical spirit and with a regard for accuracy rare in his time; -but he is more concerned with small details than with the philosophy of -history. Still, his narrative is lucid, and later researches have not -yet rendered his work obsolete. - - - - -MASERU, the capital of Basutoland, British South Africa. It is -pleasantly situated on the left bank of the Caledon river, 90 m. by rail -E. by S. of Bloemfontein, and 40 m. N.E. of Wepener. It is in the centre -of a fertile grain-growing district. Pop. (1904), 862, of whom 99 were -Europeans. The principal buildings are Government House, the church of -the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society, the hospital, and the railway -station. (See BASUTOLAND.) - - - - -MASHAM, ABIGAIL, LADY (d. 1734), favourite of Anne, queen of England, -was the daughter of Francis Hill, a London merchant, her mother being an -aunt of Sarah Jennings, duchess of Marlborough. The family being reduced -to poor circumstances through Hill's speculations, Lady Churchill (as -she then was), lady of the bedchamber to the Princess Anne, befriended -her cousin Abigail, whom she took into her own household at St Albans, -and for whom after the accession of the princess to the throne she -procured an appointment in the queen's household about the year 1704. It -was not long before Abigail Hill began to supplant her powerful and -imperious kinswoman in the favour of Queen Anne. Whether she was guilty -of the deliberate ingratitude charged against her by the duchess of -Marlborough is uncertain. It is not unlikely that, in the first instance -at all events, Abigail's influence over the queen was not so much due to -subtle scheming on her part as to the pleasing contrast between her -gentle and genial character and the dictatorial temper of the duchess, -which after many years of undisputed sway had at last become intolerable -to Anne. The first intimation of her protege's growing favour with the -queen came to the duchess in the summer of 1707, when she learned that -Abigail Hill had been privately married to a gentleman of the queen's -household named Samuel Masham, and that the queen herself had been -present at the marriage. Inquiry then elicited the information that -Abigail had for some time enjoyed considerable intimacy with her royal -mistress, no hint of which had previously reached the duchess. Abigail -was said to be a cousin of Robert Harley, earl of Oxford, and after the -latter's dismissal from office in February 1708 she assisted him in -maintaining confidential relations with the queen. The completeness of -her ascendancy was seen in 1710 when the queen compelled Marlborough, -much against his will, to give an important command to Colonel John -Hill, Abigail's brother; and when Sunderland, Godolphin, and the other -Whig ministers were dismissed from office, largely owing to her -influence, to make way for Oxford and Bolingbroke. In the following year -the duchess of Marlborough was also dismissed from her appointment at -court, Mrs Masham taking her place as keeper of the privy purse. In 1711 -the ministers, intent on bringing about the disgrace of Marlborough and -arranging the Peace of Utrecht, found it necessary to secure their -position in the House of Lords by creating twelve new peers; one of -these was Samuel Masham, the favourite's husband, though Anne showed -some reluctance to raise her bedchamber woman to a position in which she -might show herself less ready to give her personal services to the -queen. Lady Masham soon quarrelled with Oxford, and set herself to -foster by all the means in her power the queen's growing personal -distaste for her minister. Oxford's vacillation between the Jacobites -and the adherents of the Hanoverian succession to the Crown probably -strengthened the opposition of Lady Masham, who now warmly favoured the -Jacobite party led by Bolingbroke and Atterbury. Altercations took place -in the queen's presence between Lady Masham and the minister; and -finally, on the 27th of July 1714, Anne dismissed Oxford from his office -of lord high treasurer, and three days later gave the staff to the duke -of Shrewsbury. Anne died on the 1st of August, and Lady Masham then -retired into private life. She died on the 6th of December 1734. - -Lady Masham was by no means the vulgar, ill-educated person she was -represented to have been by her defeated rival, the duchess of -Marlborough; her extant letters, showing not a little refinement of -literary style, prove the reverse. Swift, with whom both she and her -husband were intimate, describes Lady Masham as "a person of a plain -sound understanding, of great truth and sincerity, without the least -mixture of falsehood or disguise." The barony of Masham became extinct -when Lady Masham's son, Samuel, the 2nd baron, died in June 1776. - - AUTHORITIES.--Gilbert Burnet, _History of My Own Time_, vol. vi. (2nd - ed., 6 vols., Oxford, 1833); F. W. Wyon, _History of Great Britain - during the Reign of Queen Anne_ (2 vols., London, 1876); Earl - Stanhope, _History of England, comprising the Reign of Queen Anne - until the Peace of Utrecht_ (London, 1870), and _History of England - from the Peace of Utrecht_, vol. i. (7 vols., London, 1836-1854); - Justin McCarthy, _The Reign of Queen Anne_ (2 vols., London, 1902); - _An Account of the Conduct of the Dowager Duchess of Marlborough from - first coming to Court to 1710_, edited by Nathaniel Hooke, with an - anonymous reply entitled _A Review of a Late Treatise_ (London, 1842); - _Private Correspondence of Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough_ (2 vols., - London, 1838); _Letters of Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough_ (London, - 1875); Mrs Arthur Colville, _Duchess Sarah_ (London, 1904). Numerous - references to Lady Masham will also be found scattered through Swift's - _Works_ (2nd ed., 19 vols., Edinburgh, 1824). (R. J. M.) - - - - -MASHAM, SAMUEL CUNLIFFE LISTER, 1ST BARON (1815-1906), English inventor, -born at Calverley Hall, near Bradford, on the 1st of January 1815, was -the fourth son of Ellis Cunliffe (1774-1853), who successively took the -names of Lister and Lister-Kay, and was the first member of parliament -elected for Bradford after the Reform Act of 1832. It was at first -proposed that he should take orders, but he preferred a business career -and became a clerk at Liverpool. In 1838 he and his elder brother John -started as worsted spinners and manufacturers in a new mill which their -father built for them at Manningham, and about five years later he -turned his attention to the problem of mechanical wool-combing, which, -in spite of the efforts of E. Cartwright and numerous other inventors, -still awaited a satisfactory solution. Two years of hard work spent in -modifying and improving existing devices enabled him to produce a -machine which worked well, and subsequently he consolidated his position -by buying up rival patents, as well as by taking out additional ones of -his own. His combing machines came into such demand that though they -were made for only L200 apiece he was able to sell them for L1200, and -the saving they effected in the cost of production not only brought -about a reduction in the price of clothing, but in consequence of the -increase in the sales created the necessity for new supplies of wool, -and thus contributed to the development of Australian sheep-farming. In -1855 he was sent a sample of silk waste (the refuse left in reeling silk -from the cocoons) and asked whether he could find a way of utilizing the -fibre it contained. The task occupied his time for many years and -brought him to the verge of bankruptcy, but at last he succeeded in -perfecting silk-combing appliances which enabled him to make yarn that -in one year sold for 23s. a pound, though produced from raw material -costing only 6d. or 1s. a pound. Another important and lucrative -invention in connexion with silk manufacture was his velvet loom for -piled fabrics; and this, with the silk comb worked at his Manningham -mill, yielded him an annual income of L200,000 for many years. But the -business was seriously affected by the prohibitory duties imposed by -America, and this was one reason why he was an early and determined -critic of the British policy of free imports. In 1891 he was made a -peer; he took his title from the little Yorkshire town of Masham, close -to which is Swinton Park, purchased by him in 1888. In 1886 an Albert -medal was awarded him for his inventions, which were mostly related to -the textile industries, though he occasionally diverged to other -subjects, such as an air-brake for railways. He was fond of outdoor -sports, especially coursing and shooting, and was a keen patron of the -fine arts. He died at Swinton Park on the 2nd of February 1906, and was -succeeded in the title by his son. - - - - -MASHONA, a Bantu-negro people, inhabitants of Mashonaland, Southern -Rhodesia. The name Mashona has been derived from the contemptuous term -_Amashuina_ applied by the Matabele to the aborigines owing to the habit -of the latter of taking refuge in the rocky hills with which the country -abounds. Before the Matabele invasion about 1840 most of Southern -Rhodesia was occupied by the Makalanga, the Makorikori and the Banyai, -all closely related. Most of them became subject to the Matabele, but -although they suffered severely from their attacks, the Mashona -preserved a certain national unity. In 1890 the Mashona came under -British protection (see RHODESIA). They are in general a peaceful, -mild-mannered people, industrious and successful farmers, skilful -potters, and weavers of bark cloth. - -The crafts, however, in which they excel are the smelting and forging of -iron and wood-carving. They are also great hunters; and they are very -fond of music, the most usual instrument being the "piano" with iron -keys. Bows and arrows, assegais and axes are the native weapons, but all -who can get them now use guns. Up to their conquest by the Matabele the -Mashona worked the gold diggings which are scattered over their country; -indeed as late as 1870 certain Mashona were still extracting gold from -quartz (_Geog. Jour._ April 1906). - - For the possible connexion of these people with the builders of the - ruins at Zimbabwe and elsewhere, see RHODESIA: _Archaeology_; and - ZIMBABWE. - - - - -MASK (Fr. _masque_, apparently from med. Lat. _mascus, masca_, spectre, -through Ital. _maschera_, Span. _mascara_), a covering for the face, -taking various forms, used either as a protective screen or as a -disguise. In the latter sense masks are mostly associated with the -artificial faces worn by actors in dramatic representations, or assumed -for exciting terror (e.g. in savage rites). The spelling "masque," -representing the same word, is now in English used more specially for -certain varieties of drama in which masks were originally worn (see -DRAMA); so also "masquerade," particularly in the sense of a masked ball -or an entertainment where the personages arc disguised. Both "mask" and -"masquerade" have naturally passed into figurative and technical -meanings, the former especially for various senses of face and head -(head of a fox, grotesque faces in sculpture), or as equivalent to -"cloak" or "screen" (as in fortification or other military uses, -fencing, &c.). And in the case of "death-masks" the term is employed for -the portrait-casts, generally of plaster or metallic foil, taken from -the face of a dead person (also similarly from the living), an ancient -practice of considerable interest in art. An interesting collection made -by Laurence Hutton (see his _Portraits in Plaster_, 1894), is at -Princeton University in the United States. (For the historical mystery -of the "man in the iron mask," see IRON MASK.) - -The ancient Greek and Roman masks worn by their actors--hollow figures -of heads--had the double object of identifying the performers with the -characters assumed, and of increasing the power of the voice by means of -metallic mouthpieces. They were derived like the drama from the rural -religious festivities, the wearing of mock faces or beards being a -primitive custom, connected no doubt with many early types of folk-lore -and religion. The use of the dramatic mask was evolved in the later -theatre through the mimes and the Italian popular comedy into pantomime; -and the masquerade similarly came from Italy, where the _domino_ was -introduced from Venice. The _domino_ (originally apparently an -ecclesiastical garment) was a loose cloak with a small half-mask worn at -masquerades and costume-balls by persons not otherwise dressed in -character; and the word is applied also to the person wearing it. - - See generally Altmann, _Die Masken der Schauspieler_ (1875; new ed., - 1896); and Dale, _Masks, Labrets and Certain Aboriginal Customs_ - (1885); also DRAMA. - - - - -MASKELYNE, NEVIL (1732-1811), English astronomer-royal, was born in -London on the 6th of October 1732. The solar eclipse of 1748 made a -deep impression upon him; and having graduated as seventh wrangler from -Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1754, he determined to devote himself -wholly to astronomy. He became intimate with James Bradley in 1755, and -in 1761 was deputed by the Royal Society to make observations of the -transit of Venus at St Helena. During the voyage he experimented upon -the determination of longitude by lunar distances, and ultimately -effected the introduction of the method into navigation (q.v.). In 1765 -he succeeded Nathaniel Bliss as astronomer-royal. Having energetically -discharged the duties of his office during forty-six years, he died on -the 9th of February 1811. - - Maskelyne's first contribution to astronomical literature was "A - Proposal for Discovering the Annual Parallax of Sirius," published in - 1760 (_Phil. Trans._ li. 889). Subsequent volumes of the same series - contained his observations of the transits of Venus (1761 and 1769), - on the tides at St Helena (1762), and on various astronomical - phenomena at St Helena (1764) and at Barbados (1764). In 1763 he - published the _British Mariner's Guide_, which includes the suggestion - that in order to facilitate the finding of longitude at sea lunar - distances should be calculated beforehand for each year and published - in a form accessible to navigators. This important proposal, the germ - of the _Nautical Almanac_, was approved of by the government, and - under the care of Maskelyne the _Nautical Almanac_ for 1767 was - published in 1766. He continued during the remainder of his life the - superintendence of this invaluable annual. He further induced the - government to print his observations annually, thereby securing the - prompt dissemination of a large mass of data inestimable from their - continuity and accuracy. Maskelyne had but one assistant, yet the work - of the observatory was perfectly organized and methodically executed. - He introduced several practical improvements, such as the measurement - of time to tenths of a second; and he prevailed upon the government to - replace Bird's mural quadrant by a repeating circle 6 ft. in diameter. - The new instrument was constructed by E. Troughton; but Maskelyne did - not live to see it completed. In 1772 he suggested to the Royal - Society the famous Schehallion experiment for the determination of the - earth's density and carried out his plan in 1774 (_Phil. Trans._ 1. - 495), the apparent difference of latitude between two stations on - opposite sides of the mountain being compared with the real difference - of latitude obtained by triangulation. From Maskelyne's observations - Charles Hutton deduced a density for the earth 4.5 times that of water - (ib. lxviii. 782). Maskelyne also took a great interest in various - geodetical operations, notably the measurement of the length of a - degree of latitude in Maryland and Pennsylvania (ibid. lviii. 323), - executed by Mason and Dixon in 1766-1768, and later the determination - of the relative longitude of Greenwich and Paris (ib. lxxvii. 151). On - the French side the work was conducted by Count Cassini, Legendre, and - Mechain; on the English side by General Roy. This triangulation was - the beginning of the great trigonometrical survey which has since been - extended all over the country. His observations appeared in four large - folio volumes (1776-1811). Some of them were reprinted in S. Vince's - _Astronomy_ (vol. iii.). (A. M. C.) - - - - -MASOLINO DA PANICALE (1383-c. 1445), Florentine painter, was said to -have been born at Panicale di Valdelsa, near Florence. It is more -probable, however, that he was born in Florence itself, his father, -Cristoforo Fini, who was an "imbiancatore," or whitewasher, having been -domiciled in the Florentine quarter of S. Croce. There is reason to -believe that Tommaso, nicknamed Masolino, was a pupil of the painter -Starnina, and was principally influenced in style by Antonio Veneziano; -he may probably enough have become in the sequel the master of Masaccio. -He was born in 1383; he died later than 1429, perhaps as late as 1440 or -even 1447. Towards 1423 he entered the service of Filippo Scolari, the -Florentine-born _obergespann_ of Temeswar in Hungary, and stayed some -time in that country, returning towards 1427 to Italy. The only works -which can with certainty be assigned to him are a series of wall -paintings executed towards 1428, commissioned by Cardinal Branda -Castiglione, in the church of Castiglione d'Olona, not far from Milan, -and another series in the adjoining baptistery. The first set is signed -as painted by "Masolinus de Florentia." It was recovered in 1843 from a -coating of whitewash, considerably damaged; its subject matter is taken -from the lives of the Virgin and of SS Lawrence and Stephen. The series -in the baptistery relates to the life and death of John the Baptist. The -reputation of Masolino had previously rested almost entirely upon the -considerable share which he was supposed to have had in the celebrated -frescoes of the Brancacci Chapel, in the Church of the Carmine in -Florence; he was regarded as the precursor of Masaccio, and by many -years the predecessor of Filippino Lippi, in the execution of a large -proportion of these works. But from a comparison of the Castiglione with -the Brancacci frescoes, and from other data, it is very doubtful whether -Masolino had any hand at all in the latter series. Possibly he painted -in the Brancacci Chapel certain specified subjects which are now either -destroyed or worked over. Several paintings assigned to Masolino on the -authority of Vasari are now ascribed to Masaccio. (W. M. R.) - - - - -MASON, FRANCIS (1799-1874), American missionary, was born in York, -England, on the 2nd of April 1799. His grandfather, Francis Mason, was -the founder of the Baptist Society in York, and his father, a shoemaker -by trade, was a Baptist lay preacher there. After working with his -father as a shoemaker for several years, he emigrated in 1818 to the -United States, and in Massachusetts was licensed to preach as a Baptist -in 1827. In 1830 he was sent by the American Baptist Missionary -Convention to labour among the Karens in Burma. Besides conducting a -training college for native preachers and teachers at Tavoy, he -translated the Bible into the two principal dialects of the Karens, the -Sgaw and the Pwo (his translation being published in 1853), and Matthew, -Genesis, and the Psalms into the Bghai dialect. He also published _A -Pali Grammar on the Basis of Kachchayano, with Chrestomathy and -Vocabulary_ (1868). In 1852 he published a book of great value on the -fauna and flora of British Burma, of which an improved edition appeared -in 1860 under the title _Burmah, its People and Natural Productions_, -and a third edition (2 vols.) revised and enlarged by W. Theobald in -1882-1883. He died at Rangoon on the 3rd of March 1874. - - See his autobiography, _The Story of a Working Man's Life, with - Sketches of Travel in Europe, Asia, Africa and America_ (New York, - 1870). - - - - -MASON, GEORGE (1725-1792), American statesman, was born in Stafford -county (the part which is now Fairfax county), Virginia, in 1725. His -family was of Royalist descent and emigrated to America after the -execution of Charles I. His colonial ancestors held official positions -in the civil and military service of Virginia. Mason was a near -neighbour and a lifelong friend of George Washington, though in later -years they disagreed in politics. His large estates and high social -standing, together with his personal ability, gave Mason great influence -among the Virginia planters, and he became identified with many -enterprises, such as the organization of the Ohio Company and the -founding of Alexandria (1749). He was a member of the Virginia House of -Burgesses in 1759-1760. In 1769 he drew up for Washington a series of -non-importation resolutions, which were adopted by the Virginia -legislature. In July 1774 he wrote for a convention in Fairfax county a -series of resolutions known as the Fairfax Resolves, in which he -advocated a congress of the colonies and suggested non-intercourse with -Great Britain, a policy subsequently adopted by Virginia and later by -the Continental Congress. He was a member of the Virginia Committee of -Safety from August to December 1775, and of the Virginia Convention in -1775 and 1776; and in 1776 he drew up the Virginia Constitution and the -famous Bill of Rights, a radically democratic document which had great -influence on American political institutions. In 1780 he outlined the -plan which was subsequently adopted by Virginia for ceding to the -Federal government her claim to the "back lands," i.e. to territory -north and north-west of the Ohio river. From 1776 to 1788 he represented -Fairfax county in the Virginia Assembly. He was a member of the Virginia -House of Delegates in 1776-1780 and again in 1787-1788, and in 1787 was -a member of the convention that framed the Federal Constitution, and as -one of its ablest debaters took an active part in the work. Particularly -notable was his opposition to the compromises in regard to slavery and -the slave-trade. Indeed, like most of the prominent Virginians of the -time, Mason was strongly in favour of the gradual abolition of slavery. -He objected to the large and indefinite powers given by the completed -Constitution to Congress, so he joined with Patrick Henry in opposing -its ratification in the Virginia Convention (1788). Failing in this he -suggested amendments, the substance of several of which was afterwards -embodied in the present Bill of Rights. Declining an appointment as a -United States Senator from Virginia, he retired to his home, Gunston -Hall (built by him about 1758 and named after the family home in -Staffordshire, England), where he died on the 7th of October 1792. With -James Madison and Thomas Jefferson, Mason carried through the Virginia -legislature measures disestablishing the Episcopal Church and protecting -all forms of worship. In politics he was a radical republican, who -believed that local government should be kept strong and central -government weak; his democratic theories had much influence in Virginia -and other southern and western states. - - See Kate Mason Rowland, _Life and Writings of George Mason_ (2 vols., - New York, 1892). - - - - -MASON, GEORGE HEMMING (1818-1872), English painter, was born at Wetley -Abbey, the eldest son of a Staffordshire county gentleman. He was -educated at King Edward's School, Birmingham, and studied for the -medical profession for five years under Dr Watt of that city. But all -his thoughts being given to art, he abandoned medicine in 1844 and -travelled for a time on the Continent, finally settling in Rome, where -he remained for some years and sought to make a living as an artist. -During this period he underwent many privations which permanently -affected his health; but he continued to labour assiduously, making -studies of the picturesque scenery that surrounded him, and with hardly -any instruction except that received from Nature and from the Italian -pictures he gradually acquired the painter's skill. At least two -important works are referable to this period: "Ploughing in the -Campagna," shown in the Royal Academy of 1857, and "In the Salt Marshes, -Campagna," exhibited in the following year. After Mason's return from -the continent, in 1858, when he settled at Wetley Abbey, he continued -for a while to paint Italian subjects from studies made during his stay -abroad, and then his art began to touch in a wonderfully tender and -poetic way the peasant life of England, especially of his native -Staffordshire, and the homely landscape in the midst of which that life -was set. The first picture of this class was "Wind on the Wold," and it -was followed--along with much else of admirable quality--by the -painter's three greatest works: The "Evening Hymn" (1868), a band of -Staffordshire mill-girls returning from their work; "Girls dancing by -the Sea" (1869); and the "Harvest Moon" (1872). He left Staffordshire in -1865 and went to live at Hammersmith; and he was elected an associate of -the Royal Academy in 1869. By that time he had fully established his -position as an artist of unusual power and individuality. Mason died on -the 22nd of October 1872. In his work he laboured under the double -disadvantage of feeble and uncertain health, and a want of thorough -art-training, so that his pictures were never produced easily, or -without strenuous and long-continued effort. His art is great in virtue -of the solemn pathos which pervades it, of the dignity and beauty in -rustic life which it reveals, of its keen perception of noble form and -graceful motion, and of rich effects of colour and subdued light. In -_motif_ and treatment it has something in common with the art of Millet -and Jules Breton, as with that of Frederick Walker among Englishmen; -though he had neither the occasional uncouth robustness of Millet nor -the firm actuality of Jules Breton. His pictures "Wind on the Wold" and -"The Cast Shoe" are in the National Gallery of British Art. - - - - -MASON, JAMES MURRAY (1798-1871), American political leader, was born in -Fairfax county, Virginia, on the 3rd of November 1798, the grandson of -George Mason (1723-1792). Educated at the university of Pennsylvania and -the college of William and Mary, he was admitted to the bar in 1820. He -was a member of the Virginia House of Delegates in 1826-1827 and -1828-1831, of the state Constitutional Convention of 1829, of the -National House of Representatives (1837-1839), of the United States -Senate from 1847 until July 1861 (when, with other Southern senators he -was formally expelled--he had previously withdrawn), and of the Virginia -Secession Convention in April 1861. Entering politics as a Jacksonian -Democrat, Mason was throughout his career a consistent strict -constructionist, opposing protective tariffs, internal improvements by -the national government, and all attempts to restrict or control the -spread of slavery, which he sincerely believed to be essential to the -social and political welfare of the South. He was the author of the -Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, and in 1860 was chairman of the Senate -committee which investigated the John Brown raid. After Lincoln's -election as President he was one of the strongest advocates of secession -in Virginia. He was appointed in August 1861 commissioner of the -Confederate States to Great Britain. The British ship "Trent," upon -which he and John Slidell, the commissioner to France, sailed, was -intercepted (Nov. 8, 1861) by a United States ship-of-war (the "San -Jacinto," Captain Charles Wilkes), and the two commissioners were seized -and carried as prisoners to Boston. Great Britain immediately demanded -their release, and war for a time seemed imminent; but owing mainly to -the tactful diplomacy of the prince consort, Lincoln acknowledged that -the seizure of Mason and Slidell was a violation of the rights of Great -Britain as a neutral, and on the 1st of January 1862 released the -commissioners. The incident has become known in history as the "Trent -Affair." Mason at once proceeded to London, where, however, he was -unable to secure official recognition, and his commission to Great -Britain was withdrawn late in 1863. He remained in Europe, spending most -of his time at Paris and holding blank commissions which he was -authorized to fill in at his discretion in case the presence of a -Confederate commissioner should seem desirable at any particular -European court. These commissions, however, he did not use. After the -war he lived for several years in Canada, but returned in 1869 to -Virginia, and on the 28th of April 1871 died at Alexandria. - - See _The Public Life and Diplomatic Correspondence of James M. Mason, - with some Personal History_ (Roanoke, Va., 1903), by his daughter, - Virginia Mason; Sir Theodore Martin, _Life of the Prince Consort_. - - - - -MASON, SIR JOHN (1503-1566), English diplomatist, was born of humble -parentage at Abingdon in 1503, and was educated at Oxford, where he -became Fellow of All Souls in 1521. He was ordained before 1531. Most of -his early years were spent on the Continent, where he witnessed the -meeting between Henry VIII. and Francis I. at Calais in 1532, and where -he was employed in collecting information for the English government, -gaining in this work the reputation of a capable diplomatist. By his -never-failing caution, moderation and pliancy, Mason succeeded in -keeping himself in favour with four successive sovereigns of the Tudor -monarchy. In 1537 he became secretary to the English ambassador at -Madrid, Sir Thomas Wyat; but when the latter was put on his trial for -treason in 1541 Mason was unmolested, and soon afterwards was appointed -clerk of the privy council, and procured for himself sundry other posts -and privileges. Mason was knighted and made dean of Winchester by Edward -VI. He was one of the commissioners to negotiate the treaty by which -Boulogne was restored to France in 1550, and in the same year he became -English ambassador in Paris, where he helped to arrange the bethrothal -of Edward VI. to the princess Elizabeth of France. He returned to -England at the end of 1551, became clerk of parliament, received -extensive grants of land, and in 1552 was made chancellor of Oxford -University. He was elected member of parliament in the same year. On the -death of Edward VI., he at first joined the party of Northumberland and -the Lady Jane Grey; but quickly perceiving his mistake he took an active -part in procuring the proclamation of Mary as queen. Mason now received -fresh tokens of royal favour, being confirmed in all his secular, though -not in his ecclesiastical, offices; and in 1553 he was appointed English -ambassador at the court of the emperor Charles V., of whose abdication -at Brussels in October 1555 he wrote a vivid account. He took a -prominent share in the administrative business of the government in the -first years of Elizabeth's reign, and largely influenced her foreign -policy until his death, which occurred on the 20th of April 1566. Sir -John Mason married Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Thomas Isley of Sundridge, -Kent, and widow of Richard Hill. He had no children, and his heir was -Anthony Wyckes, whom he had adopted, and who assumed the name of Mason -and left a large family. - - See J. A. Froude, _History of England_ (12 vols., London, 1856-1870); - Charles Wriothesley, _Chronicle of England during the Reigns of the - Tudors_, edited by W. D. Hamilton (Camden Soc., 2 vols., London, - 1875); P. F. Tytler, _England under the Reigns of Edward VI. and Mary_ - (2 vols., London, 1839); John Strype, _Ecclesiastical Memorials_ (3 - vols., Oxford, 1824) and _Memorials of Thomas Cranmer_ (3 vols., - Oxford, 1848); _Acts of the Privy Council of England_ (new series), - edited by J. R. Dasent, vols. i.-vii. - - - - -MASON, JOHN (1586-1635), founder of New Hampshire, U.S.A., was born in -King's Lynn, Norfolk, England. In 1610 he commanded a small naval force -sent by James I. to assist in subduing the Hebrides Islands. From 1615 -to 1621 he was governor of the English colony on the north side of -Conception Bay in Newfoundland; he explored the island, made the first -English map of it (published in 1625), and wrote a descriptive tract -entitled _A Briefe Discourse of the Newfoundland_ (Edinburgh, 1620) to -promote the colonization of the island by Scotsmen. Here he was brought -into official relations with Sir Ferdinando Gorges, then a commissioner -to regulate the Newfoundland fisheries. In March 1622 Mason obtained -from the Council for New England, of which Gorges was the most -influential member, a grant of the territory (which he named Mariana) -between the Naumkeag or Salem river and the Merrimac, and in the -following August he and Gorges together received a grant of the region -between the Merrimac and Kennebec rivers, and extending 60 m. inland. -From 1625 to 1629 Mason was engaged as treasurer and paymaster of the -English army in the wars which England was waging against Spain and -France. Towards the close of 1629 Mason and Gorges agreed upon a -division of the territory held jointly by them, and on the 7th of -November 1629 Mason received from the Council a separate grant of the -tract between the Merrimac and the Piscataqua, which he now named New -Hampshire. Thinking that the Piscataqua river had its source in Lake -Champlain, Mason with Gorges and a few other associates secured, on the -17th of November 1629, a grant of a region which was named Laconia -(apparently from the number of lakes it was supposed to contain), and -was described as bordering on Lake Champlain, extending 10 m. east and -south from it and far to the west and north-west, together with 1000 -acres to be located along some convenient harbour, presumably near the -mouth of the Piscataqua. In November 1631 Mason and his associates -obtained, under the name of the Pescataway Grant, a tract on both sides -of the Piscataqua river, extending 30 m. inland and including also the -Isles of Shoals. Mason became a member of the Council for New England in -June 1632, and its vice-president in the following November; and in -1635, when the members decided to divide their territory among -themselves and surrender their charter, he was allotted as his share all -the region between the Naumkeag and Piscataqua rivers extending 60 m. -inland, the southern half of the Isles of Shoals, and a ten-thousand -acre tract, called Masonia, on the west side of the Kennebec river. In -October 1635 he was appointed vice-admiral of New England, but he died -early in December, before crossing the Atlantic. He was buried in -Westminster Abbey. Forty-four years after his death New Hampshire was -made a royal province. - - See _Captain John Mason, the Founder of New Hampshire_ (Boston, 1887; - published by the Prince Society), which contains a memoir by C. W. - Tuttle and historical papers relating to Mason's career, edited by J. - W. Dean. - - - - -MASON, JOHN YOUNG (1799-1859), American political leader and -diplomatist, was born in Greenesville county, Virginia, on the 18th of -April 1799. Graduating at the university of North Carolina in 1816, he -studied law in the famous Litchfield (Connecticut) law school, and in -1819 was admitted to practice in Southampton county, Virginia. He served -in the Virginia house of delegates in 1823-1827, in the state -constitutional convention of 1829-1830, and from 1831 to 1837 in the -National House of Representatives, being chairman of the committee on -foreign affairs in 1835-1836. He was secretary of the navy in President -Tyler's cabinet (1844-1845), and was attorney-general (1845-1846) and -secretary of the navy (1846-1849), succeeding George Bancroft, under -President Polk. He was president of the Virginia constitutional -convention of 1851, and from 1853 until his death at Paris on the 3rd of -October 1859, was United States minister to France. In this capacity he -attracted attention by wearing at the court of Napoleon III. a simple -diplomatic uniform (for this he was rebuked by Secretary of State W. L. -Marcy, who had ordered American ministers to wear a plain civilian -costume), and by joining with James Buchanan and Pierre Soule, ministers -to Great Britain and Spain respectively, in drawing up (Oct. 1854) the -famous Ostend Manifesto. Hawthorne called him a "fat-brained, -good-hearted, sensible old man"; and in politics he was a typical -Virginian of the old school, a state's rights Democrat, upholding -slavery and hating abolitionism. - - - - -MASON, SIR JOSIAH (1795-1881), English pen-manufacturer, was born in -Kidderminster on the 23rd of February 1795, the son of a carpet-weaver. -He began life as a street hawker of cakes, fruits and vegetables. After -trying his hand in his native town at shoemaking, baking, carpentering, -blacksmithing, house-painting and carpet-weaving, he moved in 1814 to -Birmingham. Here he found employment in the gilt-toy trade. In 1824 he -set up on his own account as a manufacturer of split-rings by machinery, -to which he subsequently added the making of steel pens. Owing to the -circumstance of his pens being supplied through James Perry, the London -stationer whose name they bore, he was less well known than Joseph -Gillott and other makers, although he was really the largest producer in -England. In 1874 the business was converted into a limited liability -company. Besides his steel-pen trade Mason carried on for many years the -business of electro-plating, copper-smelting, and india-rubber ring -making, in conjunction with George R. Elkington. Mason was almost -entirely self-educated, having taught himself to write when a -shoemaker's apprentice, and in later life he felt his deficiencies -keenly. It was this which led him in 1860 to establish his great -orphanage at Erdington, near Birmingham. Upon it he expended about -L300,000, and for this munificent endowment he was knighted in 1872. He -had previously given a dispensary to his native town and an almshouse to -Erdington. In 1880 Mason College, since incorporated in the university -of Birmingham, was opened, the total value of the endowment being about -L250,000. Mason died on the 16th of June 1881. - - See J. T. Bunce, _Josiah Mason_ (1882). - - - - -MASON, LOWELL (1792-1872), American musician, was born at Medfield, -Massachusetts. For some years he led a business life, but was always -studying music; and in 1827, as the result of his work in forming the -collection of church music published in 1821 at Boston by the Handel and -Haydn Society, he moved to Boston and there first became president of -the society and then founder of the Boston Academy of Music (1832). He -published some successful educational books, and was a pioneer of -musical instruction in the public schools, adopted in 1838. He received -the degree of doctor of music from New York University in 1855. He died -at Orange, New Jersey, on the 11th of August 1872. - - His son William Mason (1829-1908), an accomplished pianist and - composer, published an interesting volume of reminiscences, _Memoirs - of a Musical Life_, in 1901. - - - - -MASON, WILLIAM (1725-1797), English poet, son of William Mason, vicar of -Holy Trinity, Hull, was born on the 12th of February 1725, was educated -at St John's College, Cambridge, and took holy orders. In 1744 he wrote -_Musaeus_, a lament for Pope in imitation of _Lycidas_, and in 1749 -through the influence of Thomas Gray he was elected a fellow of -Pembroke College. He became a devoted friend and admirer of Gray, who -addressed him as "Skroddles," and corrected the worst solecisms in his -verses. In 1748 he published _Isis_, a poem directed against the -supposed Jacobitism of the university of Oxford, which provoked Thomas -Warton's _Triumph of Isis_. Mason conceived the ambition of reconciling -modern drama with ancient forms by strict observance of the unities and -the restoration of the chorus. These ideas were exemplified in _Elfrida_ -(1752) and _Caractacus_ (1759), two frigid performances no doubt -intended to be read rather than acted, but produced with some -alterations at Covent Garden in 1772 and 1776 respectively. Horace -Walpole described _Caractacus_ as "laboured, uninteresting, and no more -resembling the manners of Britons than of Japanese"; while Gray declared -he had read the manuscript "not with pleasure only, but with emotion." -In 1754 Mason was presented to the rectory of Aston, near Rotherham, -Yorkshire, and in 1757 through the influence of the duke of Devonshire -he became one of the king's chaplains. He also received the prebend of -Holme in York Minster (1756), was made canon residentiary in 1762, and -in 1763 became precentor and prebendary of Driffield. He married in 1764 -Mary Sherman, who died three years later. When Gray died in 1771 he made -Mason his literary executor. In the preparation of the _Life and Letters -of Gray_, which appeared in 1774, he had much help from Horace Walpole, -with whom he corresponded regularly until 1784 when Mason opposed Fox's -India Bill, and offended Walpole by thrusting on him political advice -unasked. Twelve years of silence followed, but in the year before his -death the correspondence was renewed on friendly terms. Mason died at -Aston on the 7th of April 1797. - - His correspondence with Gray and Walpole shows him to have been a man - of cultivated tastes. He was something of an antiquarian, a good - musician, and an amateur of painting. He is said to have invented an - instrument called the celestina, a modified pianoforte. Gray rewarded - his faithful admiration with good-humoured kindness. He warned him - against confounding Mona with the Isle of Man, or the Goths with the - Celts, corrected his grammar, pointed out his plagiarisms, and laughed - gently at his superficial learning. His powers show to better - advantage in the unacknowledged satirical poems which he produced - under the pseudonym of Malcolm Macgregor. In editing Gray's letters he - took considerable liberties with his originals, and did not print all - that related to himself. - - Mason's other works included _Odes_ (1756); _The English Garden_, a - didactic poem in blank verse, the four books of which appeared in - 1772, 1777, 1779 and 1782; _An Heroic Epistle to Sir William Chambers_ - (1774); an _Ode to Mr Pinchbeck_ (1776) and an _Epistle to Dr - Shebbeare_ (1777)--all these by "Malcolm Macgregor"; _Essay, - Historical and Critical, of Church Music_ (1795), and a lyrical drama, - _Sappho_ (1797). - - His poems were collected in 1764 and 1774, and an edition of his - _Works_ appeared in 1811. His poems with a _Life_ are included in - Alexander Chalmers's _English Poets_. His correspondence with Walpole - was edited by J. Mitford in 1851; and his correspondence with Gray by - the same editor in 1853. See also the standard editions of the letters - of Gray and of Walpole. There is a very pleasant picture of Mason's - character in Southey's _Doctor_ (ch. cxxvi.). - - - - -MASON AND DIXON LINE, in America, the boundary line (lat. 39 deg. 43' -26.3" N.) between Maryland and Pennsylvania, U.S.A.; popularly the line -separating "free" states and "slave" states before the Civil War. The -line derives its name from Charles Mason (1730-1787) and Jeremiah Dixon, -two English astronomers, whose survey of it to a point about 244 m. west -of the Delaware between 1763 and 1767[1] marked the close of the -protracted boundary dispute (arising upon the grant of Pennsylvania to -William Penn in 1681) between the Baltimores and Penns, proprietors -respectively of Maryland and Pennsylvania. The dispute arose from the -designation, in the grant to Penn, of the southern boundary of -Pennsylvania mainly as the parallel marking the "beginning of the -fortieth degree of Northerne Latitude," after the northern boundary of -Maryland had been defined as a line "which lieth under the fortieth -degree of north latitude from the equinoctial." The eastern part of the -line as far as Sideling Hill in the western part of the present -Washington county, was originally marked with milestones brought from -England, every fifth of which bore on one side the arms of Baltimore and -on the opposite side those of Penn; but the difficulties in transporting -them to the westward were so great that many of them were not set up. -Owing to the removal of the stone marking the north-east corner of -Maryland, this point was again determined and marked in 1849-1850 by -Lieut.-Colonel J. D. Graham of the U.S. topographical engineers; and as -the western part of the boundary was not marked by stones, and local -disputes arose, the line was again surveyed between 1901 and 1903 under -the direction of a commission appointed by Pennsylvania and Maryland. - - The use of the term "Mason and Dixon Line" to designate the boundary - between the free and the slave states (and in general between the - North and the South) dates from the debates in Congress over the - Missouri Compromise in 1819-1820. As so used it may be defined as not - only the Mason and Dixon Line proper, but also the line formed by the - Ohio River from its intersection with the Pennsylvania boundary to its - mouth, thence the eastern, northern and western boundaries of - Missouri, and thence westward the parallel 36 deg. 30'--the line - established by the Missouri Compromise to separate free and slave - territory in the "Louisiana Purchase," except as regards Missouri. It - is to be noted, however, that the Missouri Compromise did not affect - the territory later acquired from Mexico. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] These surveyors also surveyed and marked the boundary between - Maryland and Delaware. - - - - -MASON CITY, a city and the county-seat of Cerro Gordo county, Iowa, -U.S.A., on Lime Creek, in the northern part of the state. Pop. (1905, -state census), 8357 (929 foreign-born); (1910) 11,230. It is served by -the Chicago Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago & North-Western, the -Chicago Great Western, the Iowa Central and the St Paul & Des Moines -railways, and also by the Mason City & Clear Lake (electric) railway, -which connects Mason City with Clear Lake, a pleasure resort, 10 m. west -of the city. At Mason City is Memorial University (co-educational; -founded in 1900 by the National Encampment of the Sons of Veterans, and -opened in 1902), dedicated to the Grand Army of the Republic, the -special aim of which is to teach American history. The city is situated -in a good agricultural region, and there are valuable stone quarries in -the vicinity. The manufactures include lime, Portland cement, brick and -tile. Mason City was settled in 1853, laid out in 1855, incorporated as -a town in 1870 and chartered as a city in 1881. - - - - -MASONRY,[1] the art of building in stone. The earliest remains (apart -from the primitive work in rude stone--see STONE MONUMENTS; ARCHAEOLOGY, -&c.) are those of the ancient temples of India and Egypt. Many of these -early works were constructed of stones of huge size, and it still -remains a mystery how the ancients were able to quarry and raise to a -considerable height above the ground blocks seven or eight hundred tons -in weight. Many of the early buildings of the middle ages were entirely -constructed of masses of concrete, often faced with a species of rough -cast. The early masonry seems to have been for the most part worked with -the axe and not with the chisel. A very excellent example of the -contrast between the earlier and later Norman masonry may be seen in the -choir of Canterbury Cathedral. In those times the groining was -frequently filled in with a light tufa stone, said by some to have been -brought from Italy, but more probably from the Rhine. The Normans -imported a great quantity of stone from Caen, it being easily worked, -and particularly fit for carving. The freestones of England were also -much used; and in the first Pointed period, Purbeck and Bethersden -marbles were employed for column shafts, &c. The methods of working and -setting stone were much the same as at present, except that owing to -difficulties of conveyance the stones were used in much smaller sizes. -As time went on the art of masonry advanced till in England, in point of -execution, it at length rivalled that of any country. - - _Tools._--The mason's tools may be grouped under five heads--hammers - and mallets, saws, chisels, setting-out and setting tools, and - hoisting appliances. - - - Hammers and Mallets. - - There are several different kinds of iron hammers used by the stone - worker; the mash hammer has a short handle and heavy head for use with - chisels; the iron hammer, used in carving, in shape resembles a - carpenter's mallet but is smaller; the waller's hammer is used for - roughly shaping stones in rubble work; the spalling hammer for roughly - dressing stones in the quarry; the scabbling-hammer, for the same - purpose, has one end pointed for use on hard stone; the pick has a - long head pointed at both ends, weighs from 14 to 20 lb., and is used - for rough dressing and splitting; the axe has a double wedge-shaped - head and is used to bring stones to a fairly level face preparatory to - their being worked smooth; the patent axe, or patent hammer, is formed - with a number of plates with sharpened edges bolted together to form a - head; the mallet of hard wood is used for the finishing chisel work - and carving; and the dummy is of similar shape but smaller. - - - Saws. - - A hand saw similar to that used by the carpenter is used for cutting - small soft stones. Larger blocks are cut with the two-handed saw - worked by two men. For the largest blocks the frame saw is used, and - is slung by a rope and pulleys fitted with balance weights to relieve - the operator of its weight. The blade is of plain steel, the cutting - action being supplied by sand with water as a lubricant constantly - applied. - - - Chisels. - - There are perhaps even more varieties of chisels than of hammers. The - point and the punch have very small cutting edges, a quarter of an - inch or less in width. The former is used on the harder and the latter - on the softer varieties of stone after the rough hammer dressing. The - pitching tool has a wide thick edge and is used in rough dressing. - Jumpers are shafts of steel having a widened edge, and are used for - boring holes in hard stone. Chisels are made with edges from a - quarter-inch to one and a half inches wide; those that exceed this - width are termed boasters. The claw chisel has a number of teeth from - one-eighth to three-eighths wide, and is used on the surface of hard - stones after the point has been used. The drag is a semi-circular - steel plate, the straight edge having teeth cut on it. It is used to - level down the surfaces of soft stones. Cockscombs are used for the - same purpose on mouldings and are shaped to various curves. Wedges of - various sizes are used in splitting stones and are inserted either in - holes made with the jumper or in chases cut with the stone-pick. - - - Setting-out and Setting Tools. - - The implements for setting out the work are similar to those used, by - the bricklayer and other tradesmen, comprising the rule, square, set - square, the bevel capable of being set to any required angle, - compasses, spirit level, plumb-rule and bob and mortar trowels. Gauges - and moulds are required in sinking moulds to the proper section. - - [Illustration: FIG. 1.--(1/2 in. = 1 ft.) FIG. 2.--(1 in. = 1 ft.)] - - - Hoisting Appliances. - - The _nippers_ (fig. 1), or _scissors_, as they are sometimes termed, - have two hooked arms fitting into notches in the opposite sides of the - block to be lifted. These arms are riveted together in the same way as - a pair of scissors, the upper ends having rings attached for the - insertion of a rope or chain which when pulled tight in the operation - of lifting causes the hooked ends to grip the stone. _Lewises_ (fig. - 2.) are wedge-shaped pieces of steel which are fitted into a - dovetailed mortise in the stone to be hoisted. They are also used for - setting blocks too large to be set by hand, and are made in several - forms. These are the usual methods of securing the stone to the - hoisting rope or chain, the hoisting being effected by a pulley and - fall, by a crane, or by other means. - - _Scaffolding._--For rubble walls single scaffolds, resting partly on - the walls, similar to those used for brickwork (q.v.), are employed; - for ashlar and other gauged stonework (see below) self-supporting - scaffolds are used with a second set of standards and ledgers erected - close to the wall, the whole standing entirely independent. The reason - for the use of this double scaffold is that otherwise holes for the - putlogs to rest in would have to be left in the wall, and obviously in - an ashlar stone wall it would be impossible properly to make these - good on the removal of the scaffold (see further SCAFFOLD). - - _Seasoning Stone._--Stone freshly quarried is full of sap, and thus - admits of being easily worked. On being exposed to the air the sap - dries out, and the stone becomes much harder in consequence. For this - reason, and because carriage charges are lessened by the smaller bulk - of the worked stone as compared with the rough block, the stone for a - building is often specified to be quarry-worked. Vitruvius recommended - that stone should be quarried in summer when driest, and that it - should be seasoned by being allowed to lie two years before being - used, so as to allow the natural sap to evaporate. In the erection of - St Paul's Cathedral, Sir Christopher Wren required that the stone - after being quarried should be exposed for three years on the - sea-beach before its introduction into the building. - - The regular and determined form of bricks makes it to a large extent a - matter of practice to enable a man to become a good bricklayer, but - beyond these a continual exercise of judgment is required of the - workman in stone, who has for the most part to deal with masses of all - forms and of all sizes. - - _Setting Stones._--All beds and joints should be truly worked and - perfectly level. If the surface be convex it will give rise to wide - unsightly joints; if concave the weight thrown on the stone will rest - on the edges and probably cause them to "flush" or break off and - disfigure the work. Large stones are placed in position with the aid - of hoisting appliances and should be tried in position before being - finally set. Great care should be taken to avoid fracturing or - chipping the stone in the process of handling, as it is impossible to - make good such damage. All stratified stones--and this includes by far - the largest proportion of building stones--when set in a level - position should be laid on their natural bed, i.e. with their laminae - horizontal. The greatest strength of a stone is obtained when the - laminae lie at right angles to the pressure placed upon it. In the - case of arches these layers should be parallel with the centre line of - the voussoirs and at right angles to the face of the arch. For - cornices (except the corner-stones) and work of a like nature, the - stone is set with the laminae on edge and perpendicular to the face of - the work. With many stones it is easy to determine the bed by - moistening with water, when the laminae will become apparent. Some - stones, however, it is impossible to read in this way, and it is - therefore advisable to have them marked in the quarry. A horizontal - line in a quarry does not in all cases give the proper bed of the - stone, for since the deposits were made ages ago natural upheavals - have possibly occurred to alter the "lie" of the material. - - For the shafts of columns especially it is necessary to have the - layers horizontally placed, and a stone should be selected from a - quarry with a bed of the required depth. An example of the omission of - this precaution is visible in the arcading of the Royal Courts of - Justice, London, where the small shafts of the front arcade in red - sandstone have been turned with the laminae in a vertical position, - with the result that nearly every shaft is flaking away or is cracked. - - _Use of Mortar._--See BRICKWORK. Of whatever quality the stone may be - of which a wall is built, it should consist as much of stone and as - little of mortar as possible. Only fine mortar is admissible if we are - to obtain as thin joints as possible. The joints should be well raked - out and pointed in Portland cement mortar. This applies only to some - sandstones, as marbles and many limestones are stained by the use of - Portland cement. For these a special cement must be employed, composed - of plaster of Paris, lime, and marble or stone-dust. - - _Bonding._--Bond (see BRICKWORK) is of not less importance in stone - walling than in brickwork. In ashlar-work the work is bonded - uniformly, the joints being kept perpendicularly one over the other; - but in rubble-work, instead of making the joints recur one over the - other in alternate courses they should be carefully made to lock, so - as to give the strength of two or three courses or layers between a - joint in one course and the joint that next occurs vertically above it - in another course. In the through or transverse bonding of a wall a - good proportion of header stones running about two-thirds of the - distance through the width of the wall should be provided to bind the - whole structure together. The use of through stones, i.e. stones - running through the whole thickness of the wall from front to back, is - not to be recommended. Such stones are liable to fracture and convey - damp to the internal face. - - _Slip Joints._--As with brickwork so in masonry great care must be - exercised to prevent the different parts of a building settling - unequally. When two portions of a building differing considerably in - height come together, it is usual to employ a slip or housed joint - instead of bonding the walls into each other. This arrangement allows - the heavier work to settle to a greater extent than the low portion - without causing any defect in the stones. - - _Footings._--The footings of stone walls should consist of large - stones of even thickness proportionate to their length; if possible - they should be the full breadth in one piece. Each course should be - well bedded and levelled. - - _Walling._--There are broadly speaking two classes of stone walling: - rubble and ashlar. Rubble walls are built of stones more or less - irregular in shape and size and coarsely jointed. Ashlar walls are - constructed of carefully worked blocks of regular dimensions and set - with fine joints. - - [Illustration: FIG. 3.--(1/4 in. = 1 ft.)] - - _Random Rubble_ (fig. 3) is the roughest form of stonework. It is - built with irregular pieces of stone usually less than 9 in. thick, - loosely packed without much regard to courses, the interstices between - the large stones being occupied by small ones, the remaining crevices - filled up with mortar. Bond stones or headers should be used - frequently in every course. This form of walling is much used in stone - districts for boundary walls and is often set dry without mortar. For - this work the mason uses no tool but the trowel to lay on the mortar, - the scabbling hammer to break off the most repulsive irregularities - from the stone, and the plumb-rule to keep his work perpendicular. - - [Illustration: FIG. 4.--(1/4 in. = 1 ft.)] - - _Coursed Rubble_ (fig. 4) is levelled up in courses 12 or 18 in. deep, - the depth varying in different courses according to the sizes of the - stones. The stones are dressed by the workman before he begins - building, to obtain a fairly level bed and perpendicular face. - - _Irregularly Coursed Squared Rubble_ is a development of uncoursed - random rubble, the stones in this case being squared with the hammer - and roughly faced up with the axe. The courses jump abruptly from one - level to another as the sizes of the blocks demand; the interstices - are filled in with small pieces of stone called "snecks." - - For _Coursed Squared Rubble_ the stone is faced in a similar manner - and set in courses, the depth of each course being made up of one or - more stones. - - In _Regular Coursed Rubble_ all the stones in one course are of the - same height. - - _Block-in-course_ is the name applied to a form of stone walling that - has some of the characteristics of ashlar but the execution of which - is much rougher. The courses are usually less than 12 in. high. It is - much used by engineers for waterside and railway work where a good - appearance is desired. - - The _Angles_ or _Quoins_ of rubble-work are always carefully and - precisely worked and serve as a gauge for the rest of the walling. - Frequently the quoins and jambs are executed in ashlar, which gives a - neat and finished appearance and adds strength to the work. - - The name _Ashlar_ is given, without regard to the finish of the face - of the stone, to walling composed of stones carefully dressed, from 12 - to 18 in. deep, the mortar joints being about an eighth of an inch or - less in thickness. No stone except the hardest should exceed in length - three times its depth when required to resist a heavy load and its - breadth should be from one and a half to three times its depth. The - hardest stone may have a length equal to four or perhaps five times - its depth and a width three times its depth. The face of ashlar-work - may be plain and level, or have rebated, chamfered, or moulded joints. - - - Backing to Stonework. - - The great cost of this form of stonework renders the employment of a - backing of an inferior nature very general. This backing varies - according to the district in which the building operations are being - carried on, being rubble stonework in stone districts and brick or - concrete elsewhere, the whole being thoroughly tied together both - transversely and longitudinally with bondstones. In England a stone - much used for backing ashlar and Kentish rag rubble-work is a soft - sandstone called "hassock." In the districts where it is quarried it - is much cheaper than brickwork. (For brickbacking see BRICKWORK.) - Ashlar facing usually varies from 4 to 9 in. in thickness. The work - must not be all of one thickness, but should vary in order that - effective bond with the backing may be obtained. If the work is in - courses of uneven depth the narrow courses are made of the greater - thickness and the deep courses are narrow. It is sometimes necessary - to secure the stone facing back with iron ties, but this should be - avoided wherever possible, as they are liable to rust and split the - stonework. When it is necessary to use them they should be covered - with some protective coating. The use of a backing to a stone wall, - besides lessening the cost, gives a more equable temperature inside - the building and prevents the transmission of wet by capillary - attraction to the interior, which would take place if single stones - were used for the entire thickness. - - All work of this description must be executed in Portland cement, - mortar of good strength, to avoid as much as possible the unequal - settlement of the deep courses of stone facing and the narrower - courses of the brick or rough stone backing. If the backing is of - brick it should never be less than 9 in. thick, and whether of stone - or brick it should be levelled up in courses of the same thickness as - the ashlar. - - - Walling. - - There are many different sorts of walling, or modes of structure, - arising from the nature of the materials available in various - localities. That is perhaps of most frequent occurrence in which - either squared, broken, or round flints are used. This, when executed - with care, has a distinctly decorative appearance. To give stability - to the structure, lacing courses of tiles, bricks or dressed stones - are introduced, and brick or stone piers are built at intervals, thus - forming a flint panelled wall. The quoins, too, in this type of wall - are formed in dressed stone or brick work. - - Uncoursed rubble built with irregular blocks of ragstone, an - unstratified rock quarried in Kent, is in great favour for facing the - external walls of churches and similar works (fig. 5). - - [Illustration: FIG. 5.--(1/4 in. = 1 ft.)] - - _Pointing._--As with brickwork this is generally done when the work is - completed and before the scaffolding is removed. Suitable weather - should be chosen, for if the weather be either frosty or too hot the - pointing will suffer. The joints are raked out to a depth of half an - inch or more, well wetted, and then refilled with a fine mortar - composed specially to resist the action of the weather. This is - finished flat or compressed with a special tool to a shaped joint, the - usual forms of which are shown in fig. 6. - - [Illustration: FIG. 6.--(3/4 full size).] - - _Stonewash._--To give a uniform appearance to the stonework and - preserve the finished face until a hardened skin has formed, it is - usual to coat the surface of exposed masonry with a protective - compound of ordinary limewhite with a little size mixed in it, or a - special mixture of stone-dust, lime, salt, whiting and size with a - little ochre to tone it down. After six months or more the work is - cleaned down with water and stiff bristle or wire brushes. Sometimes - muriatic acid much diluted with water is used. - - _Technical Terms._--Of the following technical terms, many will be - found embodied in the drawing of a gable wall (fig. 7), which shows - the manner and position in which many different members are used. - - _Apex Stone._--The topmost stone of a gable forming a finial for the - two sloping sides; it is sometimes termed a "saddle" (fig. 7). - - [Illustration: FIG. 7.--(Scale--approximately 1/2 in. = 1 ft.)] - - _Blocking Course,_ a heavy course of stone above a cornice to form a - parapet and weigh down the back of the cornice (fig. 8). - - [Illustration: FIG. 8.--(1/2 in. = 1 ft.)] - - _Bed._--The _bed_ surface upon which a stone is set or bedded should - be worked truly level in every part. Many workmen to form a neat thin - joint with a minimum amount of labour hollow the bed and thus when the - stone is set all weight is thrown upon the edges with the frequent - result that these are crushed. - - _Coping._--The _coping_ or _capping_ stones are placed on the top of - walls not covered by a roof, spanning their entire width and throwing - off the rain and snow, thus keeping the interior of the wall dry. The - fewer the number of joints the better the security, and for this - reason it is well to form copings with as long stones as possible. To - throw water off clear, and prevent it from running down the face of - the wall, the coping should project an inch or two on each side and - have a throat worked on the under-side of the projections (fig. 7). - - _Cornice,_ a projecting course of moulded stone crowning a structure, - forming a cap or finish and serving to throw any wet clear of the - walls. A deep drip should always be worked in the upper members of a - cornice to prevent the rain trickling down and disfiguring the face of - the moulding and the wall below (fig. 8). - - _Corbel,_ a stone built into a wall and projecting to form a - cantilever, supporting a load beyond the face of the wall. It is - frequently richly ornamented by carving (fig. 7). - - _Skew Corbel,_ a stone placed at the base of the sloping side of a - gable wall to resist any sliding tendency of the sloping coping. - Stones placed for a similar purpose at intervals along the sloping - side, tailing into the wall, are termed "kneelers" and have the - section of the coping worked upon them (fig. 7). - - _Corbel Table,_ a lino of small corbels placed at short distances - apart supporting a parapet or arcade. This forms an ornamental feature - which was much employed in early Gothic times. It probably originates - from the machicolations of ancient fortresses. - - _Dressings,_ the finished stones of window and door jambs and quoins. - For example, a "brick building with stone dressings" would have brick - walls with stone door and window jambs, heads and sills, and perhaps - also stone quoins (fig. 7). - - _Diaper,_ a square pattern formed on the face of the stonework by - means of stones of different colours and varieties or by patterns - carved on the surface (fig. 7). - - _Finial,_ a finishing ornament applied usually to a gable end (fig. - 7). - - _Gablet,_ small gable-shaped carved panels frequently used in Gothic - stonework for apex stones, and in spires, &c. - - _Gargoyle,_ a detail, not often met with in modern work, which - consists of a waterspout projecting so as to throw the rain-water from - the gutters clear of the walls. In early work it was often carved into - grotesque shapes of animal and other forms. - - _Galleting._--The joints of rubble are sometimes enriched by having - small pebbles or chips of flint pressed into the mortar whilst green. - The joints are then said to be "galleted." - - _Jamb._--Window and door jambs should always be of dressed stone, both - on account of the extra strength thus gained and in order to give a - finish to the work. The stones are laid alternately as stretchers and - headers; the former are called outbands, the latter inbands (fig. 7). - - _Label Moulding,_ a projecting course of stone running round an arch. - When not very large it is sometimes cut on the voussoirs, but is - usually made a separate course of stone. Often, and especially in the - case of door openings, a small sinking is worked on the top surface of - the moulding to form a gutter which leads to the sides any water that - trickles down the face of the wall. - - _Lacing Stone._--This is placed as a voussoir in brick arches of wide - span, and serves to bond or lace several courses together (see - BRICKWORK). - - _Lacing Course,_ a course of dressed stone, bricks or tiles, run at - intervals in a wall of rubble or flint masonry to impart strength and - tie the whole together (fig. 7). - - _Long and Short Work,_ a typical Saxon method of arranging quoin - stones, flat slabs and long narrow vertical stones being placed - alternately. Earls Barton church in Northamptonshire is an example of - their use in old work. In modern work long and short work, sometimes - termed "block and start," is little used (fig. 7). - - _Parapet,_ a fence wall at the top of a wall at the eaves of the roof. - The gutter lies behind, and waterways are formed through the parapet - wall for the escape of the rain-water. - - _Plinth,_ a projecting base to a wall serving to give an appearance of - stability to the work. - - _Quoin,_ the angle at the junction of two walls. Quoins are often - executed in dressed stone (fig. 7). - - _Rag-bolt,_ the end of an iron bolt when required to be let into stone - is roughed or ragged. A dovetailed mortise is prepared in the stone - and the ragged end of the bolt placed in this, and the mortise filled - in with molten lead or sand and sulphur (fig. 9). - - [Illustration: FIG. 9.--(1 in. = 1 ft.)] - - _Sill,_ the stone which forms a finish to the wall at the bottom of an - opening. Sills should always be weathered, slightly in the case of - door sills, more sharply for windows, and throated on the under side - to throw off the wet. The weathering is not carried through the whole - length of the sill, but a stool is left on at each end to form a - square end for building in (fig. 7). - - _String Courses,_ horizontal bands of stone, either projecting beyond - or flush with the face of the wall and often moulded or carved. They - are frequently continuations of the sills or head lines of windows - (figs. 5 and 7). - - _Scontion._--In a thick wall the dressed stones forming the inside - angles of the jamb of a window or door opening are termed scontions. - - _Spalls,_ small pieces chipped off whilst working a stone. - - _Templates,_ slabs of hard stone set in a wall to take the ends of a - beam or girder so as to distribute the load over a larger area of the - wall. - - _Tympanum,_ the triangular filling of masonry in a pediment between - the cornices, or between the horizontal head of a window or door and - the under-side of the relieving arch above it. It is often panelled or - enriched with carved ornament (fig. 7). - - _Throat,_ a groove worked on the under-side of projecting external - members to intercept rain-water and cause it to drop off the member - clear of the work beneath (fig. 8). - - _Weathering._--The surface of an exposed stone is weathered when it is - worked to a slope so as to throw off the water. Cornices, copings, - sills and string courses should all be so weathered. - - _Voussoirs,_ the wedge-shaped blocks of which an arch is built up. - - _Methods of finishing Face of Stones._--The _self face_ or _quarry - face_ is the natural surface formed when the stone is detached from - the mass in the quarry or when a stone is split. - - _Saw-face,_ the surface formed by sawing. - - _Hammer-dressed, Rock-faced, or Pitch-faced._--This face is used for - ashlar-work, usually with a chisel-draughted margin around each block. - It gives a very massive and solid appearance to the lower storeys of - masonry buildings, and is formed with little labour, and is therefore - the cheapest face to adopt for ashlar-work (fig. 7). - - _Broached and Pointed Work._--This face is also generally used with a - chisel-draughted margin. The stone as left from the scabbling hammer - at the quarry has its rocky face worked down to an approximate level - by the point. In broached work the grooves made by the tool are - continuous, often running obliquely across the face of the block. In - pointed work the lines are not continuous; the surface is rough or - fine pointed according as the point is used over every inch or - half-inch of the stone. The point is used more upon hard stones than - soft ones (fig. 7). - - _Tooth-chiselled Work._--The cheapest method of dressing soft stones - is by the toothed chisel which gives a surface very much like the - pointed work of hard stones. - - _Droved Work._--This surface is obtained with a chisel about two and a - half inches wide, no attempt being made to keep the cuts in continuous - lines. - - _Tooled Work_ is somewhat similar to droved work and is done with a - flat chisel, the edge of which is about four inches wide, care being - taken to make the cuts in continuous lines across the width of the - stone. - - _Combed or Dragged Work._--For soft stones the steel comb or drag is - often employed to remove all irregularities from the face and thus - form a fine surface. These tools are specially useful for moulded - work, as they are formed to fit a variety of curves. - - _Rubbed Work._--For this finish the surface of the stone is previously - brought with the chisel to a level and approximately smooth face, and - then the surface is rubbed until it is quite smooth with a piece of - grit stone aided by fine sand and water as a lubricant. Marbles are - polished by being rubbed with gritstone, then with pumice, and lastly - with emery powder. - - Besides these, the most usual methods of finishing the faces of - stonework, there are several kinds of surface formed with hammers or - axes of various descriptions. These types of hammers are more used on - the continent of Europe and in America perhaps than in England, but - they deserve notice here. - - The _toothed axe_ has its edges divided into teeth, fine or coarse - according to the work to be done. It is used to reduce the face of - limestones and sandstones to a condition ready for the chisel. The - _bush hammer_ has a heavy square-shaped double-faced head, upon which - are cut projecting pyramidal points. It is used to form a surface full - of little holes, and with it the face of sand and limestones may be - brought to a somewhat ornamental finish. The _patent hammer_ is used - on granite and other hard rocks, which have been first dressed to a - medium surface with the point. The fineness of the result is - determined by the number of blades in the hammer, and the work is said - to be "six," "eight" or "ten-cut" work according to the number of - blades inserted or bolted in the hammer head. The _crandall_ has an - iron handle slotted at one end with a hole 3/8 in. wide and 3 in. - long. In this slot are fixed by a key ten or eleven double-headed - points of 1/4 in. square steel about 9 in. long. It is used for - finishing sandstone and soft stones after the surface has been - levelled down with the axe or chisel. It gives a fine pebbly sparkling - appearance. - - There are several methods of finishing stone which involve a great - deal of labour and are therefore expensive to work, but which result - in imparting a very stiff and unnatural appearance to the masonry. - - _Vermiculated Work._--This is formed by carving a number of curling - worm-like lines over the face of the block, sinking in between the - worms to a depth of a fourth of an inch. The surface of the strings is - worked smooth, and the sinkings are pock-marked with a pointed tool - (fig. 7). - - _Furrowed Work._--In this face the stone is cut with a chisel into a - number of small parallel grooves or furrows (fig. 7). - - _Reticulated Face_ is a finish somewhat similar to vermiculated work, - but the divisions are more nearly squares. - - _Face Joints of Ashlar._--The face joints of ashlar stonework are - often sunk or rebated to form what are termed rusticated joints; - sometimes the angles of each block are moulded or chamfered to give - relief to the surface or to show a massive effect (fig. 7). - - _Joints in Stonework._--The joints between one block of stone and - another are formed in many ways by cramps, dowels and joggles of - various descriptions. - - [Illustration: FIG. 10.--(1 in. = 1 ft.)] - - - Cramps. - - The stones of copings, cornices and works of a similar nature, are - often tied together with metal cramps to check any tendency for the - stones to separate under the force of the wind (figs. 10 and 11). - Cramps are made of iron (plain or galvanized), copper or gun-metal, of - varying sections and lengths to suit the work. A typical cramp would - be about 9 in. long, 1 or 1(1/2) in. wide, and from 1/4 to 1/2 in. - thick, and turned down about 1(1/2) in. at each end. A dovetailed - mortise is formed at a suitable point in each of the stones to be - joined and connected by a chase. The cramp is placed in this channel - with its turned-down ends in the mortises, and it is then fixed with - molten lead, sulphur and sand, or Portland cement. Lead shrinks on - cooling, and if used at all should be well caulked when cold. Double - dovetailed slate cramps bedded in Portland cement are occasionally - used (fig. 11). - - [Illustration: FIG. 11.--(3/4 in. = 1 ft.)] - - - Dowels. - - Dowels are used for connecting stones where the use of cramps would be - impracticable, as in the joints of window mullions, the shafts of - small columns, and in similar works (figs. 7, 8 and 20). Dowels for - bed and side joints may be used. They are of slate, metal, or - sometimes of hard wood. - - [Illustration: FIG. 12.--(1/2 in. = 1 ft.)] - - - Joggles. - - There are many ways of making a joggle joint. The joggle may be worked - on one of the stones so as to fit into a groove in the adjoining - stone, or grooves may be cut in both the stones and an independent - joggle of slate, pebbles, or Portland cement fitted, the joggle being - really a kind of dowel. The pebble joggle joint is formed with the aid - of pebbles as small dowels fitted into mortises in the jointing faces - of two stones and set with Portland cement; but joggles of slate have - generally taken the place of pebbles. Portland cement joggles are - formed by pouring cement grout into a vertical or oblique mortise - formed by cutting a groove in each of the joining surfaces of the - stones. What is known as a he-and-she joggle, worked on the edges of - the stones themselves, is shown in fig. 13. - - [Illustration: FIG. 13.--(1/2 in. = 1 ft.)] - - Plugs or dowels of lead are formed by pouring molten lead through a - channel into dovetailed mortises in each stone (figs. 14 and 15). When - cold the metal is caulked to compress it tightly into the holes. - - [Illustration: FIG. 14.--(3/4 in. = 1 ft.)] - - [Illustration: FIG. 15.--(1 in. = 1 ft.)] - - The saddle joint is used for cornices, and is formed when a portion of - the stone next the joint is left raised so as to guide rain-water away - from the joint (fig. 8). - - Two forms of rebated joints for stone copings and roofs are common. In - one form (shown in fig. 7) the stones forming the coping are thicker - at their lower and rebated edge than at the top plain edge, giving a - stepped surface. The other form has a level surface and the stone is - of the same thickness throughout and worked to a rebate on top and - bottom edges. In laying stone roofs the joints are usually lapped over - with an upper slab of stone. - - _Joints in Spires._--Four forms of jointing for the battering - stonework of spires are shown in fig. 16. A is a plain horizontal - joint. B is a similar joint formed at right angles to the face of the - work. This is the most economical form of joint, the stone being cut - with its sides square with each other; but if the mortar in the joint - decay moisture is allowed to penetrate. With these forms dowelling is - frequently necessary for greater stability. The joints C and D are - more elaborate and much more expensive on account of the extra labour - involved in working and fitting. - - [Illustration: FIG. 16.--(1/2 in. = 1 ft.)] - - Where a concentrated weight is carried by piers or columns the bed - joints are in many cases formed without the use of mortar, a thin - sheet of milled lead being placed between the blocks of stone to fill - up any slight inequalities. - - _Moulded Work._--The working of mouldings in stone is an important - part of the mason's craft, and forms a costly item in the erection of - a stone structure. Much skill and care is required to retain the - arrises sharp and the curved members of accurate and proportionate - outline. As in the case of wood mouldings, machinery now plays an - important part in the preparation of stone moulded work. The process - of working a stone by hand labour is as follows: The profile of the - moulding is marked on to a zinc template on opposite ends of the stone - to be worked; a short portion, an inch or two in length termed a - "draught," is at each end worked to the required section. The - remaining portion is then proceeded with, the craftsman continually - checking the accuracy of his work with a straight-edge and zinc - templates. A stone to be moulded by machinery is fixed to a moving - table placed under a shaped tool which is fixed in an immovable - portion of the machine, and is so adjusted as to cut or chip off a - small layer of stone. Each time the stone passes under the cutter it - is automatically moved a trifle nearer, and thus it gradually reduces - the stone until the required shape is attained. - - [Illustration: FIG. 17.--(1 in. = 1 ft.)] - - _Iron in Stonework._--The use of iron dowels or cramps in stonework, - unless entirely and permanently protected from oxidation is attended - by the gravest risks; for upon the expansion of the iron by rusting - the stone may split, and perhaps bring about a more or less serious - failure in that portion of the building. A case in point is that of - the church of St Mary-le-Strand, London, where the ashlar facing was - secured to the backing with iron cramps; these were inefficiently - protected from damp, with the result that many of the blocks have been - split in consequence of rusting. John Smeaton in his Eddystone - Lighthouse used dowels of Purbeck marble. - - [Illustration: FIG. 18.--(1/2 in. = 1 ft.)] - - _Stone Arches._--Stone arches are very frequently used both in stone - and brick buildings. (For general definitions and terms see - BRICKWORK.) They may be built in a great variety of styles, either - flat, segmental, circular, elliptical or pointed. Each block or - voussoir should be cut to fit exactly in its appointed place, the - joints being made as fine as possible. The joints should radiate from - the centre from which the soffit or intrados is struck, or in the case - of an elliptical arch they should be at right angles to a tangent - drawn to the intrados at that point. The extrados or back of the arch - is usually concentric with the intrados, but is sometimes made thicker - in one portion than in another; thus the arch may be deeper at the - crown than at the sides, or at the sides than in the centre. In some - cases two or more voussoirs are of one stone, having a false joint cut - in the centre; this is economical, and in some cases adds to the - stability of the arch. Generally the arch is divided into an uneven - number of voussoirs so as to give a keystone, the voussoirs being laid - from each side of the keystone and fitting exactly in the centre of - the arch. The keystone is not a necessity, arches being frequently - formed with an even number of voussoirs; some architects hold that the - danger of the voussoirs cracking is thereby lessened. Where lintels - are used in a stone wall over openings of small span it is usual to - build a relieving arch above to take the superincumbent weight of - masonry; or the same purpose may be effected in walls of ashlar by a - flat relieving or "save" arch, formed in the next course of three - stones above the lintel, the tapering keystone resting between the two - side stones which are tailed well into the wall. - - In very many cases it is desired to form square heads to openings of - greater span than it is convenient to obtain lintels for in one piece, - and some form of flat arch must therefore be adopted. The voussoirs - are connected by joggles worked on their joints, as in fig. 17. The - weight of the superimposed wall is taken by a lintel with relieving - arch above at the back of the arch. - - Arches built to an elliptical form when used for large spans (if of - flat curve they should bridge over 8 ft. or 10 ft.) are liable if - heavily loaded to fail by the voussoirs at the centre being forced - down, or else to burst up at the haunches. With arches of this - description there is a large amount of outward thrust, and abutments - of ample strength must be placed to receive the springers. - - _Stone Tracery._--The designs of Gothic and other tracery stonework - are almost infinite, and there are many methods, ingenious and - otherwise, of setting out such work. Nearly all diagrams of - construction are planned on the principle of geometrical - intersections. In the example illustrated in fig. 18 the method of - setting out and finishing the design is very clearly shown, together - with the best positions for the joints of the various parts. The - jointing is a matter which must be carefully considered in order to - avoid any waste of stone and labour. It will be observed that the - right-hand side of the elevation shows the method of setting out the - tracery by the centre lines of the various intersecting branches, the - other half giving the completed design with the cusping drawn in and - the positions of joints. All the upper construction of windows and - doors and of aisle arches should be protected from superincumbent - pressure by strong relieving arches above the labels, as shown in the - figure, which should be worked with the ordinary masonry, and so set - that the weight above should avoid pressure on the fair work, which - would be liable to flush or otherwise destroy the joints of the - tracery. - - _Carving._--Stone carving is a craft quite apart from the work of the - ordinary stonemason, and like carving in wood needs an artistic - feeling and special training. Carving-stone should be of fine grain - and sufficiently soft to admit of easy working. The Bath stones in - England and the Caen stone of France are largely used for internal - work, but if for the exterior they should be treated with some - chemical preservative. Carving is frequently done after the stone is - built into position, the face being left rough--"boasted"--and - projecting sufficiently for the intended design. - - See E. Viollet-le-Duc, _Dictionnaire raisonne de l'architecture - francaise_; W. R. Purchase, _Practical Masonry_; J. O. Baker, _A - Treatise on Masonry Construction_; C. F. Mitchell, _Brickwork and - Masonry_; W. Diack, _The Art of Masonry in Britain_. (J. Bt.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The English word "mason" is from the French, which appears in the - two forms, _machun_ and _masson_ (from the last comes the modern Fr. - form _macon_, which means indifferently a bricklayer or mason). In O. - H. Ger. the word is _mezzo_, which survives in the German for a - stone-mason, _Steinmetz_. The med. Lat. form, _machio_, was connected - with _machina_--obviously a guess. The Low Lat., _macheria_ or - _maceria_ (see Du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.v. _macio_), a wall, has - been suggested as showing some connexion. Some popular Lat. form as - _macio_ or _mattio_ is probably the origin. No Teut. word, according - to the _New English Dictionary_, except that which appears in - "mattock," seems to have any bearing on the ultimate origin. - - - - -MASPERO, GASTON CAMILLE CHARLES (1846- ), French Egyptologist, was -born in Paris on the 23rd of June 1846, his parents being of Lombard -origin. While at school he showed a special taste for history, and when -fourteen years old was already interested in hieroglyphic writing. It -was not until his second year at the Ecole Normale in 1867 that Maspero -met with an Egyptologist in the person of Mariette, who was then in -Paris as commissioner for the Egyptian section of the exhibition. -Mariette gave him two newly discovered hieroglyphic texts of -considerable difficulty to study, and, self-taught, the young scholar -produced translations of them in less than a fortnight, a great feat in -those days when Egyptology was still almost in its infancy. The -publication of these in the same year established his reputation. A -short time was spent in assisting a gentleman in Peru, who was seeking -to prove an Aryan affinity for the dialects spoken by the Indians of -that country, to publish his researches; but in 1868 Maspero was back in -France at more profitable work. In 1869 he became a teacher -(_repetiteur_) of Egyptian language and archaeology at the Ecole des -Hautes Etudes; in 1874 he was appointed to the chair of Champollion at -the College de France. - -In November 1880 Professor Maspero went to Egypt as head of an -archaeological mission despatched thither by the French government, -which ultimately developed into the well-equipped Institut Francais de -l'Archeologie Oriental. This was but a few months before the death of -Mariette, whom Maspero then succeeded as director-general of excavations -and of the antiquities of Egypt. He held this post till June 1886; in -these five years he had organized the mission, and his labours for the -Bulak museum and for archaeology had been early rewarded by the -discovery of the great cache of royal mummies at Deir el-Bahri in July -1881. Maspero now resumed his professorial duties in Paris until 1899, -when he returned to Egypt in his old capacity as director-general of the -department of antiquities. He found the collections in the Cairo Museum -enormously increased, and he superintended their removal from Gizeh to -the new quarters at Kasr en-Nil in 1902. The vast catalogue of the -collections made rapid progress under Maspero's direction. Twenty-four -volumes or sections were already published in 1909. The repairs and -clearances at the temple of Karnak, begun in his previous tenure of -office, led to the most remarkable discoveries in later years (see -KARNAK), during which a vast amount of excavation and exploration has -been carried on also by unofficial but authorized explorers of many -nationalities. - - Among his best-known publications are the large _Histoire ancienne des - peuples de l'Orient classique_ (3 vols., Paris, 1895-1897, translated - into English by Mrs McClure for the S.P.C.K.), displaying the history - of the whole of the nearer East from the beginnings to the conquest by - Alexander; a smaller _Histoire des peuples de l'Orient_, 1 vol., of - the same scope, which has passed through six editions from 1875 to - 1904; _Etudes de mythologie et d'archeologie egyptiennes_ (Paris, - 1893, &c.), a collection of reviews and essays originally published in - various journals, and especially important as contributions to the - study of Egyptian religion; _L'Archeologie egyptienne_ (latest ed., - 1907), of which several editions have been published in English. He - also established the journal _Recueil de travaux relatifs a la - philologie et a l'archeologie egyptiennes et assyriennes_; the - _Bibliotheque egyptologique_, in which the scattered essays of the - French Egyptologists are collected, with biographies, &c.; and the - _Annales du service des antiquites de l'Egypte_, a repository for - reports on official excavations, &c. - - Maspero also wrote: _Les Inscriptions des pyramides de Saqqaroh_ - (Paris, 1894); _Les Momies royales de Deir el-Bahari_ (Paris, 1889); - _Les Contes populaires de l'Egypte ancienne_ (3rd ed., Paris, 1906); - _Causeries d'Egypte_ (1907), translated by Elizabeth Lee as _New Light - on Ancient Egypt_ (1908). - - - - -MASS (O.E. _maesse_; Fr. _messe_; Ger. _Messe_; Ital. _messa_; from -eccl. Lat. _missa_), a name for the Christian eucharistic service, -practically confined since the Reformation to that of the Roman Catholic -Church. The various orders for the celebration of Mass are dealt with -under LITURGY; a detailed account of the Roman order is given under -MISSAL; and the general development of the eucharistic service, -including the Mass, is described in the article EUCHARIST. The present -article is confined (1) to the consideration of certain special meanings -which have become attached to the word Mass and are the subject of -somewhat acute controversy, (2) to the Mass in music. - -The origin of the word _missa_, as applied to the Eucharist, is obscure. -The first to discuss the matter is Isidore of Seville (_Etym._ vi. 19), -who mentions an "evening office" (_officium vespertinum_), a "morning -office" (_officium matutinum_), and an office called _missa_. Of the -latter he says: "Missa tempore sacrificii est, quando catechumeni foras -mittuntur, clamante levita 'si quis catechumenus remansit, exeat foras.' -Et inde 'missa,' quia sacramentis altaris interesse non possunt, qui -nondum regenerati sunt" ("The _missa_ is at the time of the sacrifice, -when the catechumens are sent out, the deacon crying, 'If any catechumen -remain, let him go forth.'" Hence _missa_, because those who are as yet -unregenerate--i.e. unbaptized--may not be present at the sacraments of -the altar). This derivation of the word Mass, which would connect it -with the special formula of dismissal still preserved in the Roman -liturgy--_Ite, missa est_--once generally accepted, is now disputed. It -is pointed out that the word _missa_ long continued to be applied to any -church service, and more particularly to the lections (see Du Cange for -numerous examples), and it is held that such services received their -name of _missal_ from the solemn form of dismissal with which it was -customary to conclude them; thus, in the 4th century _Pilgrimage of -Etheria_ (_Silvia_) the word _missa_ is used indiscriminately of the -Eucharist, other services, and the ceremony of dismissal. F. Kattenbusch -(Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklop. s._ "Messe") ingeniously, but with little -evidence, suggests that the word may have had a double origin and -meaning: (1) in the sense of _dimissio_, "dismissal"; (2) in that of -_commissio_, "commission," "official duty," i.e. the exact Latin -equivalent of the Greek [Greek: leitourgia] (see LITURGY), and hence the -conflicting use of the term. It is, however, far more probable that it -was a general term that gradually became crystallized as applying to -that service in which the dismissal represented a more solemn function. -In the narrower sense of "Mass" it is first found in St Ambrose (_Ep._ -20, 4, ed. Ballerini): "Missam facere coepi. Dum offero ..." which -evidently identifies the _missa_ with the sacrifice. It continued, -however, to be used loosely, though its tendency to become proper only -to the principal Christian service is clear from a passage in the 12th -homily of Caesarius, bishop of Arles (d. 542): "If you will diligently -attend, you will recognize that _missae_ are not celebrated when the -divine readings are recited in the church, but when gifts are offered -and the Body and Blood of the Lord are consecrated." The complete -service (_missa ad integrum_), the bishop goes on to say, cannot be had -at home by reading and prayer, but only in the house of God, where, -besides the Eucharist, "the divine word is preached and the blessing is -given to the people." - -Whatever its origin, the word Mass had by the time of the Reformation -been long applied only to the Eucharist; and, though in itself a -perfectly colourless term, and used as such during the earlier stages of -the 16th century controversies concerning the Eucharist, it soon became -identified with that sacrificial aspect of the sacrament of the altar -which it was the chief object of the Reformers to overthrow. In England, -so late as the first Prayer-book of Edward VI., it remained one of the -official designations of the Eucharist, which is there described as "The -Supper of the Lorde and holy Communion, commonly called the Masse." -This, however, like the service itself, represented a compromise which -the more extreme reformers would not tolerate, and in the second -Prayer-book, together with such language in the canon as might imply the -doctrine of transubstantiation and of the sacrifice, the word Mass also -disappears. That this abolition of the word Mass, as implying the -offering of Christ's Body and Blood by the priest for the living and the -dead was deliberate is clear from the language of those who were chiefly -responsible for the change. Bishops Ridley and Latimer, the two most -conspicuous champions of "the new religion," denounced "the Mass" with -unmeasured violence; Latimer said of "Mistress Missa" that "the devil -hath brought her in again"; Ridley said: "I do not take the Mass as it -is at this day for the communion of the Church, but for a popish -device," &c. (_Works_, ed. Parker Soc., pp. 121, 120), and again: "In -the stead of the Lord's holy table they give the people, with much -solemn disguising, a thing which they call their mass; but in deed and -in truth it is a very masking and mockery of the true Supper of the -Lord, or rather I may call it a crafty juggling, whereby these false -thieves and jugglers have bewitched the minds of the simple people ... -unto pernicious idolatory" (ib. p. 409). This language is reflected in -the 31st of the Articles of Religion of the Church of England: -"Wherefore the sacrifices of Masses, in which it was commonly said that -the Priest did offer Christ for the quick and the dead, to have -remission of pain and guilt, were blasphemous fables and dangerous -deceits." Clearly the word Mass had ceased to be a colourless term -generally applicable to the eucharistic service; it was, in fact, not -only proscribed officially, but in the common language of English people -it passed entirely out of use except in the sense in which it is defined -in Johnson's Dictionary, i.e. that of the "Service of the Romish Church -at the celebration of the Eucharist." In connexion with the Catholic -reaction in the Church of England, which had its origin in the "Oxford -Movement" of the 19th century, efforts have been made by some of the -clergy to reintroduce the term "Mass" for the Holy Communion in the -English Church. - - See Du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.v. "Missa"; F. Kattenbusch in - Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (ed. 1903), s.v. "Messe, - dogmengeschichtlich"; for the facts as to the use of the word "Mass" - at the time of the Reformation see the article by J. H. Round in the - _Nineteenth Century_ for May 1897. (W. A. P.) - -MASS, IN MUSIC: 1. _Polyphonic Masses._--The composition of musical -settings of the Mass plays a part in the history of music which is of -special importance up to and including the 16th century. As an art-form -the musical Mass is governed to a peculiar degree by the structure of -its text. It so happens that the supremely important parts of the Mass -are those which have the smallest number of words, namely the _Kyrie_, -important as being the opening prayer; the _Sanctus_ and _Benedictus_, -embodying the central acts and ideas of the service; and the _Agnus -Dei_, the prayer with which it concludes. The 16th-century methods were -specially fitted for highly developed music when words were few and -embodied ideas of such important emotional significance or finality that -they could be constantly repeated without losing force. Now the texts of -the _Gloria_ and _Credo_ were more voluminous than any others which -16th-century composers attempted to handle in a continuous scheme. The -practical limits of the church service made it impossible to break them -up by setting each clause to a separate movement, a method by which -16th-century music composers contrived to set psalms and other long -texts to compositions lasting an hour or longer. Accordingly, Palestrina -and his great contemporaries and predecessors treated the _Gloria_ and -_Credo_ in a style midway in polyphonic organization and rhythmic -breadth between that of the elaborate motet (adopted in the _Sanctus_) -and the homophonic reciting style of the Litany. The various ways in -which this special style could be modified by the scale of the work, and -contrasted with the broader and more elaborate parts, gave the Mass -(even in its merely technical aspects) a range which made it to the -16th-century composer what the symphony is to the great instrumental -classics. Moreover, as being inseparably associated with the highest act -of worship, it inspired composers in direct proportion to their piety -and depth of mind. Of course there were many false methods of attacking -the art-problem, and many other relationships, true and false, between -the complexity of the settings of the various parts of the Mass and of -motets. The story of the action of the council of Trent on the subject -of corruption of church music is told elsewhere (see MUSIC and -PALESTRINA); and it has been recently paralleled by a decree of Pope -Pius X., which has restored the 16th-century polyphonic Mass to a -permanent place in the Roman Catholic Church music. - -2. _Instrumental Masses in the Neapolitan Form._--The next definite -stage in the musical history of the Mass was attained by the Neapolitan -composers who were first to reach musical coherence after the monodic -revolution at the beginning of the 17th century. The fruit of their -efforts came to maturity in the Masses of Mozart and Haydn. By this time -the resources of music were such that the long and varied text of the -_Gloria_ and _Credo_ inevitably either overbalanced the scheme or met -with an obviously perfunctory treatment. It is almost impossible, -without asceticism of a radically inartistic kind, to treat with the -resources of instrumental music and free harmony such passages as that -from the _Crucifixus_ to the _Resurrexit_, without an emotional contrast -which inevitably throws any natural treatment of the _Sanctus_ into the -background, and makes the _Agnus Dei_ an inadequate conclusion to the -musical scheme. So unfavourable were the conditions of 18th-century -music for the formation of a good ecclesiastical style that only a very -small proportion of Mozart's and Haydn's Mass music may be said to -represent their ideas of religious music at all. The best features of -their Masses are those that combine faithfulness to the Neapolitan forms -with a contrapuntal richness such as no Neapolitan composer ever -achieved. Thus Mozart's most perfect as well as most ecclesiastical -example is his extremely terse Mass in F, written at the age of -seventeen, which is scored simply for four-part chorus and solo voices -accompanied by the organ with a largely independent bass and by two -violins mostly in independent real parts. This scheme, with the addition -of a pair of trumpets and drums and, occasionally, oboes, forms the -normal orchestra of 18th-century Masses developed or degenerated from -this model. Trombones often played with the three lower voices, a -practice of high antiquity surviving from a time when there were soprano -trombones or _cornetti_ (_Zincken_, a sort of treble _serpent_) to play -with the sopranos. - -3. _Symphonic Masses._--The enormous dramatic development in the -symphonic music of Beethoven made the problem of the Mass with -orchestral accompaniment almost insoluble. This makes it all the more -remarkable that Beethoven's second and only important Mass (in D, _Op._ -123) is not only the most dramatic ever penned but is, perhaps, the last -classical Mass that is thoughtfully based upon the liturgy, and is not a -mere musical setting of what happens to be a liturgic text. It was -intended for the installation of Beethoven's friend, the archduke -Rudolph, as archbishop of Olmutz; and, though not ready until two years -after that occasion, it shows the most careful consideration of the -meaning of a church service, no doubt of altogether exceptional length -and pomp, but by no means impossible for its unique occasion. Immense as -was Beethoven's dramatic force, it was equalled by his power of sublime -repose; and he was accordingly able once more to put the supreme moment -of the music where the service requires it to be, viz. in the _Sanctus_ -and _Benedictus_. In the _Agnus Dei_ the circumstances of the time gave -him something special to say which has never so imperatively demanded -utterance since. Europe had been shattered by the Napoleonic wars. -Beethoven read the final prayer of the Mass as a "prayer for inward and -outward peace," and, giving it that title, organized it on the basis of -a contrast between terrible martial sounds and the triumph of peaceful -themes, in a scheme none the less spiritual and sublime because those -who first heard it had derived their notions of the horror of war from -living in Vienna during its bombardment. Critics who have lived in -London during the relief of Mafeking have blamed Beethoven for his -realism. - -Schubert's Masses show rather the influence of Beethoven's not very -impressive first Mass, which they easily surpass in interest, though -they rather pathetically show an ignorance of the meaning of the Latin -words. The last two Masses are later than Beethoven's Mass in D and -contain many remarkable passages. It is evident from them that a -dramatic treatment of the _Agnus Dei_ was "in the air"; all the more so, -since Schubert does not imitate Beethoven's realism. - -4. _Lutheran Masses._--Music with Latin words is not excluded from the -Lutheran Church, and the _Kyrie_ and _Gloria_ are frequently sung in -succession and entitled a Mass. Thus the _Four Short Masses_ of Bach are -called short, not because they are on a small scale, which is far from -being the case, but because they consist only of the _Kyrie_ and -_Gloria_. Bach's method is to treat each clause of his text as a -separate movement, alternating choruses with groups of arias; a method -which was independently adopted by Mozart in those larger masses in -which he transcends the Neapolitan type, such as the great unfinished -Mass in C minor. This method, in the case of an entire Mass, results in -a length far too great for a Roman Catholic service; and Bach's B minor -Mass, which is such a setting of the entire test, must be regarded as a -kind of oratorio. It thus has obviously nothing to do with the Roman -liturgy; but as an independent setting of the text it is one of the most -sublime and profoundly religious works in all art; and its singular -perfection as a design is nowhere more evident than in its numerous -adaptations of earlier works. - -The most interesting of all these adaptations is the setting of the -words: "Et expecto resurrectionem mortuorum et vitam venturi -saeculi.--AMEN." Obviously the greatest difficulty in any elaborate -instrumental setting of the _Credo_ is the inevitable anti-climax after -the _Resurrexit_. Bach contrives to give this anti-climax a definite -artistic value; all the more from the fact that his _Crucifixus_ and -_Resurrexit_, and the contrast between them, are among the most sublime -and directly impressive things in all music. To the end of his -_Resurrexit_ chorus he appends an orchestral _ritornello_, summing up -the material of the chorus in the most formal possible way, and thereby -utterly destroying all sense of finality as a member of a large group, -while at the same time not in the least impairing the force and contrast -of the whole--that contrast having ineffaceably asserted itself at the -moment when it occurred. After this the aria "Et in spiritum sanctum," -in which the next dogmatic clauses are enshrined like relics in a -casket, furnishes a beautiful decorative design on which the listener -can repose his mind; and then comes the voluminous ecclesiastical fugue, -_Confiteor unum baptisma_, leading, as through the door and world-wide -spaces of the Catholic Church, to that veil which is not all darkness to -the eye of faith. At the words "Et expecto resurrectionem mortuorum" the -music plunges suddenly into a slow series of some of the most sublime -and mysterious modulations ever written, until it breaks out as suddenly -into a _vivace e allegro_ of broad but terse design, which comes to its -climax very rapidly and ends as abruptly as possible, the last chord -being carefully written as a short note without a pause. This gives the -utmost possible effect of finality to the whole _Credo_, and contrasts -admirably with the coldly formal instrumental end of the _Resurrexit_ -three movements further back. Now, such subtleties seem as if they must -be unconscious on the part of the composer; yet here Bach is so far -aware of his reasons that his _vivace e allegro_ is an arrangement of -the second chorus of a church cantata, _Gott man lobet dich in der -Stille_; and in the cantata the chorus has introductory and final -symphonies and a middle section with a _da capo!_ - -5. _The Requiem._--The _Missa pro defunctis_ or _Requiem Mass_ has a far -less definite musical history than the ordinary Mass; and such special -musical forms as it has produced have little in common with each other. -The text of the _Dies Irae_ so imperatively demands either a very -dramatic elaboration or none at all, that even in the 16th century it -could not possibly be set to continuous music on the lines of the -_Gloria_ and _Credo_. Fortunately, however, the Gregorian _canto fermo_ -associated with it is of exceptional beauty and symmetry; and the great -16th century masters either, like Palestrina, left it to be sung as -plain-chant, or obviated all occasion for dramatic expression by setting -it in versicles (like their settings of the _Magnificat_ and other -canticles) for two groups of voices alternatively, or for the choir in -alternation with the plain chant of the priests. - -With modern orchestral conditions the text seems positively to demand an -unecclesiastical, not to say sensational, style, and probably the only -instrumental Requiem Masses which can be said to be great church music -are the sublime unfinished work of Mozart (the antecedents of which -would be a very interesting subject) and the two beautiful works by -Cherubini. These latter, however, tend to be funereal rather than -uplifting. The only other artistic solution of the problem is to follow -Berlioz, Verdi and Dvorak in the complete renunciation of all -ecclesiastical style. - -Brahms's _Deutsches requiem_ has nothing to do with the Mass for the -dead, being simply a large choral work on a text compiled from the Bible -by the composer. (D. F. T.) - - - - -MASSA, a town of Tuscany, Italy, the joint capital with Carrara of the -province of Massa and Carrara, and sharing with it the episcopal see, 20 -m. S.E. of Spezia by rail, 246 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 10,559 -(town); 26,118 (commune). The Palazzo Ducale (now the prefecture) was -erected in 1701, and was a summer residence of Napoleon's sister, Elisa -Baciocchi, princess of Lucca, who caused the ancient cathedral opposite -to be destroyed. The hills round the town yield marble, and there is a -narrow-gauge railway to the Marina d'Avenza, where the marble is -shipped. - - - - -MASSACHUSETTS (an Indian name, originally applied to a tribe of -Indians), one of the original thirteen states of the American Union, -bounded on the N. by Vermont and New Hampshire, on the E. by the -Atlantic, on the S. by Rhode Island and Connecticut, and on the W. by -New York. It lies approximately between 41 deg. 15' and 42 deg. 50' N. -lat. and 69 deg. 55' and 73 deg. 30' W. long. The bulk of its -area--which is about 8266 sq. m. (of which 227 are water)--forms a -parallelogram of 130 m. E. and W., 46 m. N. and S., the additional area -lying in a projection at the S.E. and a lesser one at the N.E., which -give the mainland a breadth of 90 m. where it borders upon the ocean, -while the general irregularity of the coast-line gives a sea frontage of -about 250 m. - - _Physical Features._--The east and south-east portions are in general - undulating or level, the central hilly and broken, and the west rugged - and mountainous. (For geological details see UNITED STATES: _Geology, - ad fin._) The Hoosac Hills (1200-1600 ft. high), separating the - valleys of the Housatonic and Connecticut, are a range of the - Berkshires, a part of the Appalachian system, and a continuation of - the Green Mountains of Vermont, and with the Taconic range on the west - side of the Housatonic Valley--of which the highest peaks are - Greylock, or "Saddleback" (3535 ft.), and Mt Williams (3040 ft.)--in - the extreme north-west corner of the state, form the only considerable - elevated land.[1] Bordering on the lowlands of the Connecticut, Mt Tom - (1214 ft.) and a few other hills (Mt Holyoke, 954 ft.; Mt Toby, 1275) - form conspicuous landmarks. East of this valley the country continues - more or less hilly and rocky, but the elevations eastward become - increasingly slight and of little consequence. Mt Lincoln (1246 ft.) - and especially Mt Wachusett (2108 ft.), to the east in a level - country, are very exceptional. The Blue Hills in Milton are the - nearest elevations to the coast, and are conspicuous to navigators - approaching Boston. The south-east corner of the state is a sandy - lowland, generally level with a slightly elevated ridge (Manomet) - south of Plymouth, and well watered by ponds. - - With the exception of this corner, Massachusetts is a part of the - slanting upland that includes all of southern New England. This upland - is an uplifted peneplain of subaerial denudation,[2] now so far - advanced in a "second" cycle of weathering and so thoroughly dissected - that to an untrained eye it appears to be only a country of hills - confusedly arranged. The general contour of the upland, marked by a - remarkably even sky-line, is evident at almost every locality in the - state. In the nature and position of the upland rocks--mainly - crystalline schists and gneisses, excessively complicated and - disordered in mass, and also internally deformed--there is found - abundant proof that the peneplain is a degraded mountain region. The - upland is interrupted by the rivers, and on the coast by great - lowlands, and is everywhere marked by hills somewhat surmounting the - generally even skyline. Monadnock (in New Hampshire, near N.E. - Massachusetts), the Blue Hills near Boston, Greylock, in the - north-west, and Wachusett in the centre, are the most commanding - remnant-summits (known generically as "Monadnocks") of the original - mountain system. But in the derivant valley peneplains developed in - the present cycle of denudation, and there are residual summits also; - in the Connecticut Valley trap ridges, of which Mt Tom and Mt Holyoke - are the best examples; at Mt Holyoke, lava necks; occasionally in the - lowlands, ridges of resistant sandstone, like Deerfield Mountain near - Northampton; in the Berkshire Valley, summits of resistant schists, - like Greylock, the highest summit in the state. The larger streams - have cut their channels to very moderate gradients, but the smaller - ones are steeper. The Housatonic and Millers (and the Connecticut - also, but not in its course within Massachusetts alone) afford - beautiful examples of the dependence of valley breadth upon the strike - of soft or harder rocks across the stream. The Connecticut lowland is - cut from 5 to 18 m. wide in soft sandstones and shales. The glacial - era has left abundant evidences in the topography of the state. The - ice covered even the Monadnocks. Till drumlins, notably abundant on - the lowland about Boston and the highland near Spencer; morainic - hills, extending, e.g. all along Cape Cod; eskers, kames and river - terraces afford the plainest evidences of the extent of the glacial - sheet. The Berkshire country--Berkshire, Hampden, Hampshire and - Franklin counties--is among the most beautiful regions of the United - States. It is a rolling highland dominated by long, wooded - hill-ridges, remarkably even-topped in general elevation, intersected - and broken by deep valleys. Scores of charming lakes lie in the - hollows. The district is often called the Lake Region of America, - partly from the comparableness of its scenic beauties with the English - Lake Country (Matthew Arnold, however, wrote: "The country is pleasing - but not to be compared with Westmoreland. It is wider and opener, and - neither hills nor lakes are so effective."), and partly from the - parallelism of literary associations. It has become since 1850, and - especially in much more recent years, a favoured resort of summer - residents. Owing to topography, and also to the manner in which - Massachusetts was settled, the western counties were long connected - commercially more closely with New York than with Massachusetts, and - this territory was long in dispute between these two states. - - The Connecticut is the most considerable stream, and is navigable by - small craft. Its valley, much the richest portion of the state - agriculturally, is celebrated for the quiet variety and beauty of its - scenery. The Housatonic, in portions placid, in others wild and rapid, - winding along the deflecting barrier of the Hoosac Hills, is the most - beautiful river of the state, despite the mercantile use of its - water-power. The Merrimac, the second stream of the state in volume, - runs in a charming valley through the extreme north-east corner, and - affords immensely valuable water-power at Lowell, Lawrence and - Haverhill. - - South of Cohasset the shore is sandy, with a few isolated rocky ledges - and boulders. About Boston, and to the north of it, the shore is rocky - and picturesque. Cape Cod, like a human arm doubled at the elbow, 40 - m. from shoulder to elbow and 30 from elbow to hand, is nowhere more - than a few miles broad. It is a sandy ridge, dotted with summer - resorts and cottages. Cape Ann has a rugged interior and a ragged, - rocky coast. It, too, is a summer recreation ground, with much - beautiful scenery. Boston Harbor (originally known as Massachusetts - Bay, a name which now has a much broader signification) is the finest - roadstead on the coast. The extreme hook of the Cape Cod Peninsula - forms Provincetown Harbor, which is an excellent and capacious port of - refuge for vessels approaching Boston. Salem Harbor is the most - considerable other haven on Massachusetts Bay; on Buzzard's Bay New - Bedford has a good harbour, and on the Atlantic coast are the - excellent harbours of Gloucester and Marblehead, both frequented by - summer residents. Gloucester has the largest fishery interests of any - place in the country, and is one of the chief fishing ports of the - world. Buzzard's Bay is also a popular yachting ground, and all about - its shores are towns of summer residence. Wood's Hole is a station of - the United States Bureau of Fisheries, and a marine biological - laboratory is there. - - The principal islands lie off the south coast. The largest is Martha's - Vineyard, about 20 m. long, with an extreme breadth of about 9(1/2) m. - It has in Vineyard Haven (Holmes's Hole) a spacious harbour, much - frequented by wind-bound vessels seeking a passage round Cape Cod. The - island is covered with stunted trees. Its population was formerly - dependent wholly upon the sea, but its climate has made it a popular - summer resort, Oak Bluffs being one of the chief resorts of the - Atlantic coast. Farther east, Nantucket, a smaller island of - triangular shape, is likewise the home of a seafaring folk who still - retain in some degree primitive habits, though summer visitors are - more and more affecting its life. - - _Flora and Fauna._--Massachusetts lies entirely in the humid area of - the Transition life-zone, with the exception of the extreme - north-western corner of the state, which lies in the Boreal zone. Thus - the original native trees and plants were those common to New England - and northern New York. The presence of a dense population has driven - out some, and brought in others, including some noxious weeds. The - larger wild animals have disappeared, excepting an occasional black - bear or deer. Of the smaller fur-bearing animals, the beaver was long - ago exterminated, the otter is seen very rarely, and the mink only in - the most isolated districts; but foxes, skunks, weasels, musk-rats, - rabbits, and grey and red squirrels are not uncommon. Copperhead - snakes and rattlesnakes arc occasionally seen, and there are several - species of harmless serpents. Of game birds the most characteristic is - the partridge (ruffed grouse), exclusively a woodland bird; the - Wilson's snipe and the woodcock are not uncommon in favourable - localities, and several species of ducks are found especially in the - bays and marshes near the coast during the seasons of migration. A - stray eagle is sometimes seen. Very interesting to ornithologists are - the few heath hens, the eastern representative of the prairie hen - (pinnated grouse), which are found on the island of Martha's Vineyard, - and are the sole survivors in the eastern states of one of the finest - of American game birds, now practically exterminated even on the - western plains. There are many insectivorous birds; among the song - birds are the hermit thrush, the wood thrush, the Wilson's thrush, the - brown thrasher, the bobolink, the catbird, the oven bird, the house - wren, the song sparrow, the fox sparrow, the vesper sparrow, the - white-throated sparrow (Peabody bird), the gold-finch and the robin. - Brook trout are found, especially in the streams in the western part - of the state, and bass, pickerel, perch and smaller fish occur in the - rivers and other inland waters. Fish are so abundant on the coast that - the cod is sometimes used as an emblem of the state; thus a figure of - one hangs in the representatives' chamber at the State House. The - artificial propagation and preservation of salmon and other edible - fresh-water fish have been carried on successfully under the - supervision of a state commission. The commonwealth has expended large - sums since 1890 in a vain attempt to exterminate the gipsy moth - (_Ocneria_, or more exactly _Porthetria, dispar_), accidentally - allowed to escape in 1869 by a French naturalist. - - _Climate._--The climate is trying, showing great extremes of - temperature (20 deg. F. below zero to 100 deg. above) and marked local - variations. The south-eastern coast and islands are mildest. The mean - average temperature of Boston is 48 deg. F. In the interior it is - slightly lower. The mean summer temperature generally over the state - is about 70 deg. F. Changes are often sudden, and the passage from - winter to summer is through a rapid spring. The ocean tempers the - climate considerably on the seaboard. Boston Harbor has been frozen - over in the past, but steamtugs plying constantly now prevent the - occurrence of such obstruction. In the elevated region in the west the - winters are decidedly severe, and the springs and summers often late - and cold. Williamstown has a winter mean of about 23 deg. F. The - yearly precipitation is about 39 to 45 in., decreasing inland, and is - evenly distributed throughout the year. Fogs are common on the coast, - and east wind drizzles; the north-east winds being the weather bane of - spring and late autumn. In the summer and the autumn the weather is - commonly fine, and often most beautiful; and especially in the - Berkshires a cool, pure and elastic atmosphere prevails, relatively - dry, and altogether delightful. - - _Agriculture._--The soil, except in some of the valleys, is not - naturally fertile; and sandy wastes are common in the south-east - parts. High cultivation, however, has produced valuable market-gardens - about Boston and the larger towns; and industry has made tillage - remunerative in most other parts. The gross value of agricultural - products is not great compared with that of other industries, but they - are of great importance in the economy of the state. The total value - of farm property in 1900 was $182,646,704, including livestock valued - at $15,798,464. Of the increase in the total value of farm property - between 1850 and 1900 more than half was in the decade 1890-1900; this - increase being due partly to the rising value of suburban realty, but - also to a development of intensive farming that has been very marked - since 1880. The total value of farm products in 1899 was $42,298,274 - (expenditure for fertilizers $1,320,600); crops representing 54.7 and - animal products 45.3% of this total. The leading crops and their - percentages of the total crop value were hay and forage (39.1%), - vegetables (23.9%), fruits and nuts (11.7%), forest products (8.4%), - and flowers and plants (7.1%). Of the animal products 67.3% were dairy - products, and 20.8% poultry and eggs. Cereals[3] have been for many - years declining, although Indian corn is a valuable subsidiary to the - dairy interest, which is the most thriving farm industry. The value of - farms on which dairying was the chief source of income in 1900 was 46% - of the total farm value of the state; the corresponding percentages - for livestock, vegetables, hay and grain, flowers and plants, fruit - and tobacco, being respectively 14.6, 10.2, 8.0, 4.2, 3.2, and 1.8%. - The shrinkage of cereal crops has been mainly responsible for the idea - that Massachusetts is agriculturally decadent. Parallel to this - shrinkage was the decrease in ranging sheep (82.0% from 1850-1900; - 34.2% from 1890-1900), and cattle, once numerous in the hill counties - of the west, and in the Connecticut Valley; Boston, then ranking after - London as the second wool market of the world, and being at one time - the chief packing centre of the country. Dairy cows increased, - however, from 1850 to 1900 by 41.9% (1890-1900, 7.3%). The amount of - improved farmland decreased in the same period 39.4%, decreasing even - more since 1880 than earlier, and amounting in 1900 to no more than - 25.1% of the area of the state; but this decrease has been compensated - by increased value of products, especially since the beginning of - intensive agriculture. An unusual density of urban settlement, - furnishing excellent home markets and transportation facilities, are - the main props of this new interest. Worcester and Middlesex counties - are agriculturally foremost. Tobacco, which has been cultivated since - colonial times, especially since the Civil War, is grown exclusively - in the Connecticut Valley or on its borders. In the swamps and bogs of - the south-east coast cranberry culture is practised, this district - producing in 1900 three-fifths of the entire yield of the United - States. "Abandoned farms" (aggregating, in 1890, 3.4% of the total - farm area, and 6.85% in Hampshire county) are common, especially in - the west and south-east. - - _Mines and Mining._--Granite is the chief mineral, and granite - quarrying is the principal mineral industry of the state. In 1900 the - value of manufactures based primarily upon the products of mines and - quarries was $196,930,979, or 19% of the state's total manufactured - product. In 1906 Massachusetts led all states in the value of its - granite output, but in 1907 and 1908 it was second to Vermont. The - value of the product (including a small output of igneous rocks) was - in 1903, $2,351,027; 1904, $2,554,748; 1905, $2,251,319; 1906, - $3,327,416; 1907, $2,328,777; 1908, $2,027,463. - - Granite boulders were used for construction in Massachusetts as early - as 1650. Systematic quarrying of siliceous crystalline rocks in New - England began at Quincy in about 1820. The Gloucester quarries, opened - in 1824, were probably the next to be worked regularly. The principal - granite quarries are in Milford, (Worcester county), Quincy and Milton - (Norfolk county), Rockport (Essex county) and Becket (Berkshire - county). Of the fourteen quarries of "Milford granite," twelve are in - the township of that name, and two in Hopkinton township, Middlesex - county. B. K. Emerson and J. H. Perry classify this granite as - post-Cambrian. They describe it[4] as "a compact, massive rock, - somewhat above medium grain, and of light colour. The light flesh - colour of the feldspar, and the blue of the quartz give it in some - places a slight pinkish tint, and it is now much used as a - building-stone under the name of 'pink granite.'" - - The Quincy granite district lies around the north-east end of the Blue - Hill region, about 11 m. south of Boston. For monumental purposes this - granite is classified as "medium," "dark," and "extra dark." Quincy - granite takes a very high polish, owing to the absence of mica and to - the coarser cleavage of its hornblende and augite. The lightest of the - monumental stone quarried at Quincy is called gold-leaf; it is - bluish-green gray, speckled with black and light yellow brown. Another - variety has small, rather widely separated cherry-red dots. - - The Rockport granite is found along or near the seashore, between - Rockport and Bay View, and within about three-quarters of a mile of - Cape Ann. The granite is of two kinds, known commercially as "grey - granite" and "green granite." Both varieties are hard and take a very - high polish. - - The Becker granite (known as "Chester dark" and "Chester light") is a - muscovite-biotite granite varying from medium grey to medium bluish - grey colour, and fine in texture. It is used principally for - monuments. - - In 1907 Massachusetts ranked sixth among the states in the value of - its trap rock product ($432,604), and eighth in sandstone ($243,328). - The value of the marble produced in the same year was $212,438, the - state ranking fifth in the value of the total product and fourth in - building-marble. Other minerals are emery, limestone and quartz. The - state ranked fifth in 1906 in the total value of stone quarried - ($4,333,616), and eighth in 1908 ($2,955,195). The output of lime in - 1908 was 107,813 tons, valued at $566,022. Second in value to the - various stones were the clay products of the state, which were valued - in 1906 at $2,172,733 (of which $1,415,864 was the value of common - brick) and in 1908 at $1,647,362 (of which $950,921 was the value of - common brick). There are many mineral springs in the state, more than - half being in Essex and Middlesex counties. The total amount of - mineral waters sold in 1908 was valued at $227,907. In that year the - total value of the minerals and mining products of the state was - $5,925,949. Gold has been found in small quantities in Middlesex, - Norfolk and Plymouth counties. - - _Manufactures._--Though only four states of the Union are smaller, - only three exceeded Massachusetts in 1905 in the value of manufactured - products (six exceeding it in population); and this despite very scant - native resources of raw materials and a very limited home market. - Historical priority of development, exceptionally extensive and well - utilized water-power, and good transportation facilities are largely - responsible for the exceptional rank of Massachusetts as a - manufacturing state. Vast water-power is developed on the Merrimac at - Lawrence and Lowell, and on the Connecticut at South Hadley, and to a - less extent at scores of other cities on many streams and artificial - ponds; many of the machines that have revolutionized industrial - conditions since the beginning of the factory system have been - invented by Massachusetts men; and the state contains various - technical schools of great importance. In 1900 the value of - manufactures was $1,035,198,989, an increase from 1890 of 16.6%; that - from 1880 to 1890 having been 40.7%. In textiles--cottons, worsteds, - woollens and carpets--in boots and shoes, in rubber foot-wear, in fine - writing paper, and in other minor products, it is the leading state of - the country. The textile industries (the making of carpets and rugs, - cotton goods, cotton smallwares, dyeing and finishing textiles, felt - goods, felt hats, hosiery and knit goods, shoddy, silk and silk goods, - woollen goods, and worsted goods), employed 32.5% of all manufacturing - wage earners in 1905, and their product ($271,369,816) was 24.1% of - the total, and of this nearly one-half ($129,171,449) was in cotton - goods, being 28.9% of the total output of the country, as compared - with 11% for South Carolina, the nearest competitor of Massachusetts. - There is a steadily increasing product of fine grade fabrics. The - output of worsted goods in 1905 ($51,973,944) was more than - three-tenths that of the entire country, Rhode Island being second - with $44,477,596; in Massachusetts the increase in the value of this - product was 28.2% between 1900 and 1905. The value of woollen goods in - 1905 ($44,653,940) was more than three-tenths of the entire product - for the country; and it was 44.6% more than that of 1900. The value of - boots and shoes and cut stock in 1905 was $173,612,660, being 23% - greater than in 1900; the value of boots and shoes in 1905 - ($144,291,426) was 45.1% of the country's output, that of New York, - the second state, being only 10.7%. In this industry, as in the - manufacture of cotton goods, Massachusetts has long been without - serious rivalry; Brockton, Lynn, Haverhill, Marlboro and Boston, in - the order named, being the principal centres. The third industry in - 1905 was that of foundry and machine-shop products ($58,508,793), of - which Boston and Worcester are the principal centres. Lesser - interests, in the order of importance, with the product value of each - in 1905, were: rubber goods ($53,133,020), tanned, curried and - finished leather ($33,352,999), in the manufacture of which - Massachusetts ranked second among the states; paper and wood pulp[5] - ($32,012,247), in the production of which the state ranked second - among the states of the Union; slaughtering and meat packing - ($30,253,838); printing and publishing ($33,900,748, of which - $21,020,237 was the value of newspapers and periodicals); clothing - ($21,724,056); electrical machinery, apparatus and supplies - ($15,882,216); lumber ($12,636,329); iron and steel, steel works and - rolling-mills products ($11,947,731; less than in 1900); cordage and - twine ($11,173,521), in the manufacture of which Massachusetts was - second only to New York; furniture ($11,092,581); malt liquors - ($11,080,944); jewelry ($10,073,595), Massachusetts ranking second to - Rhode Island; confectionery ($9,317,996), in which Massachusetts was - third among the states. - - [Illustration: Map of Massachusetts.] - - Many of these industries have a history going back far into colonial - times, some even dating from the first half of the 17th century. - Textile products were really varied and of considerable importance - before 1700. The policy of the British government towards such - industries in the colonial period was in general repressive. The - non-importation sentiment preceding the War of Independence fostered - home manufactures considerably, and the Embargo and Non-Intercourse - Acts before the war of 1812, as well as that war itself (despite the - subsequent glut of British goods) had a much greater effect; for they - mark the introduction of the factory system, which by 1830 was firmly - established in the textile industry and was rapidly transforming other - industries. Improvements were introduced much more slowly than in - England, the cost of cotton machinery as late as 1826 being 50-60% - greater in America. The first successful power loom in America was set - up at Waltham in 1814. Carding, roving and spinning machines were - constructed at Bridgewater in 1786. The first cotton mill had been - established in Beverly in 1788, and the first real woollen factory at - Byfield in 1794. Woolcard machinery destined to revolutionize the - industry was devised by Amos Whittemore (1759-1828) in 1797; spinning - jennies were in operation under water-power before 1815. - Carpet-weaving was begun at Worcester in 1804. "Not a yard of fancy - wool fabric had ever been woven by the power-loom in any country till - done by William Crompton at the Middlesex Mills, Lowell, in 1840" - (Samuel Lawrence).[6] The introduction of the remarkably complete - machinery of the shoe industry was practically complete by 1865, this - being the last of the great industries to come under the full - dominance of machinery. At Pittsfield and at Dalton is centred the - manufacture of fine writing papers, including that of paper used by - the national government for bonds and paper money. Four-fifths of all - loft-dried paper produced in the country from 1860-1897 was made - within 15 m. of Springfield; Holyoke and South Hadley being the - greatest producers. Vulcanized rubber is a Massachusetts invention. - Most of the imitation jewelry of the United States is produced at - Attleboro and North Attleboro, and in Providence, Rhode Island. In - 1905 Boston produced 16.4% of all the manufactures of the state, and - Lynn, the second city, which had been fifth in 1900, 4.9%. Some - industries which have since become dead or of relatively slight - magnitude were once of much greater significance, economically or - socially: such as the rum-distilling connected with the colonial slave - trade, and various interests concerned with shipbuilding and - navigation. The packing of pork and beef formerly centred in Boston; - but, while the volume of this business has not diminished, it has been - greatly exceeded in the west. For many years Massachusetts controlled - a vast lumber trade, drawing upon the forests of Maine, but the growth - of the west changed the old channels of trade, and Boston carpenters - came to make use of western timber. It was between 1840 and 1850 that - the cotton manufactures of Massachusetts began to assume large - proportions; and about the same time the manufacture of boots and - shoes centred there. Medford ships began to be famous shortly after - the beginning of the 19th century, and by 1845 that town employed one - quarter of all the shipwrights in the state. - - Fishing is an important industry. Drift whales were utilized in the - earliest years of the colony, and shore boating for the baleen (or - "right") whale--rich in bone and in blubber yielding common oil--was - an industry already regulated by various towns before 1650; but the - pursuit of the sperm whale did not begin until about 1713. The former - industry had died out before the War of Independence; the latter is - not yet quite extinct. Nantucket and New Bedford were the centres of - the whaling trade, which, for the energy and skill required and the - length (three to five years when sailing vessels were employed) of the - ever-widening voyages which finally took the fishermen into every - quarter of the globe, contributes the most romantic chapters in the - history of American commerce. At one time it gave occupation to a - thousand ships, but the introduction of petroleum gradually diminished - this resource of the lesser ports. The Newfoundland Bank fisheries - were of greater economic importance and are still very important. - Gloucester is the chief centre of the trade. The value of fishery - products in 1895 was $5,703,143, and in 1905 $7,025,249; and 15,694 - persons were engaged in the fisheries. Though cod is much the most - important fish (in 1905 fresh cod were valued at $991,679, and salted - cod at $696,928), haddock (fresh, $1,051,910; salted, $17,194), - mackerel (value in 1905, including horse mackerel, $970,876), herring - (fresh, $266,699; salted, $114,997), pollock ($267,927), hake - ($258,438), halibut ($218,232), and many other varieties are taken in - great quantities. The shell fisheries are less important than those of - Maine. - - _Commerce._--Already by 1660 New England products were an "important - element in the commerce and industries of the mother country" - (Weeden). Codfish was perhaps the truest basis of her commerce, which - soon came to include the West Indies, Africa and southern Europe. Of - fundamental importance was the trade with the French West Indies, - licit and illicit, particularly after the Peace of Utrecht (1713). - Provisions taken to Newfoundland, poor fish to the West Indies, - molasses to New England, rum to Africa and good cod to France and - Spain, were the commonest ventures of foreign trade. The English - Navigation Acts were generally evaded, and were economically of little - effect; politically they were of great importance in Massachusetts as - a force that worked for independence. Privateering, piracy and - slave-trading--which though of less extent than in Rhode Island became - early of importance, and declined but little before the American War - of Independence--give colour to the history of colonial trade. - - Trade with China and India from Salem was begun in 1785 (first voyage - from New York, 1784), and was first controlled there, and afterwards - in Boston till the trade was lost to New York. The Boston trade to the - Canadian north-west coast was begun in 1788. The first regular - steamship line from Boston to other American Atlantic ports was - established in 1824. In commercial relations the chief port of - Massachusetts attained its greatest importance about 1840, when it was - selected as the American terminus of the first steamship line (Cunard) - connecting Great Britain with the United States; but Boston lost the - commercial prestige then won by the failure of the state to promote - railway communication with the west, so as to equal the development - effected by other cities. The decline of commerce, however, had - already begun, manufacturing supplanting it in importance; and this - decline was rapid by 1850. From 1840 to 1860 Massachusetts-built ships - competed successfully in the carrying trade of the world. Before 1840 - a ship of 500 tons was a large ship, but after the discovery of gold - in California the size of vessels increased rapidly and their lines - were more and more adapted to speed. The limit of size was reached in - an immense clipper of 4555 tons, and the greatest speed was attained - in a passage from San Francisco to Boston in seventy-five days, and - from San Francisco to Cork in ninety-three days. The development of - steam navigation for the carrying of large cargoes has driven this - fleet from the sea. Only a small part of the exports and imports of - Massachusetts is now carried in American bottoms.[7] The first grain - elevator built in Boston, and one of the first in the world, was - erected in 1843, when Massachusetts sent Indian corn to Ireland. When - the Civil War and steam navigation put an end to the supremacy of - Massachusetts wooden sailing ships, much of the capital which had been - employed in navigation was turned into developing railway facilities - and coasting steamship lines. In 1872 the great fire in Boston made - large drains upon the capital of the state, and several years of - depression followed. But in 1907 Boston was the second port of the - United States in the magnitude of its foreign commerce. In that year - the value of imports at the Boston-Charlestown customs district was - $123,411,168, and the value of exports was $104,610,908; for 1909 the - corresponding figures were $127,025,654 and $72,936,869. Other ports - of entry in the state in 1909 were Newburyport, Gloucester, Salem, - Marblehead, Plymouth, Barnstable, Nantucket, Edgartown, New Bedford - and Fall River. A protective tariff was imposed in early colonial - times and protection was generally approved in the state until toward - the close of the 19th century, when a strong demand became apparent - for reciprocity with Canada and for tariff reductions on the raw - materials (notably hides) of Massachusetts manufactures. - - At the end of 1908 the length of railway lines within the state was - 2,109.33 miles. The Hoosac Tunnel, 5(3/4) m. long, pierces the Hoosac - Mountain in the north-west corner of the state, affording a - communication with western lines. It cost about $20,000,000, the state - lending its credit, and was built between 1855 and 1874. The - inter-urban electric railways are of very great importance in the - state; in 1908 the total mileage of street and inter-urban electric - railways was 2841.59 m. (2233.85 m. being first main track). The Cape - Cod canal, 12 m. long, from Sandwich on Barnstable Bay to Buzzard's - Bay, was begun in June 1909, with a view to shortening the distance by - water from Boston to New York and eliminating the danger of the voyage - round Cape Cod. - -_Population._--The population of the state in 1910 was 3,366,416, the -increases in successive decades after 1790 being respectively 11.6, -11.6, 11.9, 16.6, 20.9, 34.8, 23.8, 18.4, 22.4, 25.6, 25.3 and 20%.[8] -With the exception of Rhode Island, it is the most densely populated -state in the Union, the average number to the square mile in 1900 being -349 (in 1910, 418.8), and the urban population, i.e. the population of -places having above 8000 or more inhabitants, being 69.9% in 1890 and in -1900 76.0% of the total population (in places above 2500, 91.5%; in -places above 25,000, 58.3%). The female population is greater (and has -been since 1765, at least) than the male, the percentage being in 1900 -greater than in any other state of the Union (51.3%; District of -Columbia, owing to clerks in government service 52.6%). In 1900 less -than 1.3% of the population was coloured; 30.2% were foreign-born (this -element having almost continuously risen from 16.49% in 1855), and 62.3% -of all inhabitants and 46.5% of those native-born had one or both -parents of foreign birth. Ireland contributed the largest proportion of -the foreign-born (29.5%), although since 1875 the proportion of Irish in -the total population has considerably fallen. After the Irish the -leading foreign elements are Canadian English (18.7%), Canadian French -(15.8%) and English (9.7%), these four constituting three-fourths of the -foreign population. Since 1885 the natives of southern Italy have -greatly increased in number. Of the increase in total population from -1856-1895 only a third could be attributed to the excess of births over -deaths; two-thirds being due to immigration from other states or from -abroad. Boston is the second immigrant port of the country. A large part -of the transatlantic immigrants pass speedily to permanent homes in the -west, but by far the greater part of the Canadian influx remains. - - According to the census of 1910 there were 32 incorporated cities[9] - in Massachusetts, of which 6 had between 12,000 and 20,000 - inhabitants; 3 between 20,000 and 25,000 (Gloucester, Medford and - North Adams); 11 between 25,000 and 50,000 (Maiden, Haverhill, Salem, - Newton, Fitchburg, Taunton, Everett, Quincy, Pittsfield, Waltham, - Chicopee); 7 between 50,000 and 100,000 (New Bedford, Lynn, - Springfield, Lawrence, Somerville, Holyoke, Brockton); and 5 more than - 100,000 (Boston, 670,585; Worcester, 145,986; Fall River, 119,295; - Lowell, 106,294; Cambridge, 104,839). - - Taking quinquennial periods from 1856-1905 the birth-rates were 29.5, - 25.3, 26.0, 27.6, 24.2, 25.0, 25.8, 27.6, 27.0 and 24.2 per 1,000; and - the death-rates 17.7, 20.7, 18.2, 20.8, 18.8, 19.8, 19.4, 19.8, 18.0 - and 16.4.[10] Pneumonia and consumption, approximately of equal - fatality (15 to 18 per 10,000 each), exceed more than twofold the - diseases of next lower fatality, cancer and cholera infantum. - - Of males (1,097,581) engaged in 1900 in gainful occupations 47.1% were - engaged in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits (77.9 in every 100 in - 1870 and 73 in 1900), 27.1 in trade and transportation, 14.2 in - domestic and personal service, 7.4 in agricultural pursuits and 4.2 in - professional service. The corresponding percentages for females - (1,169,467) were 46.4 in manufacturing (in 1890, 52%), 32.3 in - domestic and personal service, 13.6 in trade and transportation, 7.1 - in professional service and 0.6 in agriculture. Formerly farmers' - daughters of native stock were much employed in factories; but since - operatives of foreign birth or parentage have in great part taken - their places, they have sought other occupations, largely in the - manufacture of small wares in the cities, and particularly in - departments of trade where skilled labour is essential. Household - service is seldom now done, as it formerly was, by women of native - stock. The federal census of 1900 showed that of every 100 persons - employed for gain only 37.5% were of native descent (that is, had a - native-born father). Natives heavily predominated in agriculture and - the professions, slightly in trade, and held barely more than half of - all governmental positions; but in transportation, personal service, - manufactures, labour and domestic service, the predominance of the - foreign element warranted the assertion of the state Bureau of - Statistics of Labour that "the strong industrial condition of - Massachusetts has been secured and is held not by the labour of what - is called the 'native stock,' but by that of the immigrants." After - the original and exclusively English immigration from 1620 to 1640 - there was nothing like regular foreign immigration until the 19th - century; and it was a favourite assertion of Dr Palfrey that the blood - of the fishing folk on Cape Cod was more purely English through two - centuries than that of the inhabitants of any English county. - - With foreign immigration the strength of the Roman Catholic Church has - greatly increased: in 1906 of every 1000 of estimated population 355 - were members of the Roman Catholic Church (a proportion exceeded only - in New Mexico and in Rhode Island; 310 was the number per 1000 in - Louisiana), and only 148 were communicants of Protestant bodies; in - 1906 there were 1,080,706 Roman Catholics (out of a total of 1,562,621 - communicants of all denominations), 119,196 Congregationalists, 80,894 - Baptists, 65,498 Methodists and 51,636 Protestant Episcopalians. - - Reference has been made to "abandoned farms" in Massachusetts. The - desertion of farms was an inevitable result of the opening of the - great cereal regions of the west, but it is by no means characteristic - of Massachusetts alone. The Berkshire district affords an excellent - example of the interrelations of topography, soil and population. Many - hill towns once thriving have long since become abandoned, desolate - and comparatively inaccessible; though with the development of the - summer resident's interests many will probably eventually regain - prosperity. Almost half of the highland towns reached their maximum - population before the opening of the 19th century, although Berkshire - was scarcely settled till after 1760, and three-fourths of them before - 1850. On the other hand three-fourths of the lowland towns reached - their maximum since that date, and half of them since 1880. The - lowland population increased six and a half times in the century, the - upland diminished by an eighth. Socially and educationally the upland - has furnished an interesting example of decadence. Since 1865 (at - least) various parts of Cape Cod have shrunk greatly in population, - agriculture and manufactures, and even in fishing interests; this - reconstruction of industrial and social interests being, apparently, - simply part of the general urban movement--a movement toward better - opportunities. What prosperity or stability remains in various Cape - Cod communities is largely due to foreign immigrants--especially - British-Americans and Portuguese from the Azores; although the - population remains, to a degree exceptional in northern states, of - native stock. - -_Government._--Representative government goes back to 1634, and the -bicameral legislature to 1644. The constitution of 1780, which still -endures (the only remaining state constitution of the 18th century), was -framed in the main by Samuel Adams, and as an embodiment of colonial -experience and revolutionary principles, and as a model of -constitution-making in the early years of independence, is of very great -historical interest. It has been amended with considerable freedom (37 -amendments up to 1907), but with more conservatism than has often -prevailed in the constitutional reform of other states; so that the -constitution of Massachusetts is not so completely in harmony with -modern democratic sentiment as are the public opinion and statute law of -the state. The commonwealth, for example, is still denominated -"sovereign," and education is not declared a constitutional duty of the -commonwealth. One unique feature is the duty of the supreme court to -give legal advice, on request, to the governor and council. Another -almost equally exceptional feature is the persistence of the colonial -executive council, consisting of members chosen to represent divisions -of the state, who assist the governor in his executive functions. -Massachusetts is also one of the few states in which the legislature -meets in annual session.[11] Townships were represented as such in this -body (called the General Court) until 1856. Religious qualifications for -suffrage and office-holding were somewhat relaxed, except in the case of -Roman Catholics, after 1691.[12] Real toleration in public opinion grew -slowly through the 18th century, removing the religious tests of voters; -and a constitutional amendment in 1821 explicitly forbade such tests in -the case of office-holders. Property qualifications for the suffrage and -for office-holding--universal through colonial times--were abolished in -the main in 1780. From 1821 to 1891 the payment of at least a poll-tax -was a condition precedent to the exercise of the suffrage. An -educational test (dating from 1857) is exacted for the privilege of -voting, every voter being required to be able to read the constitution -of the commonwealth in the English language, and to write his name. The -property qualification of the governor was not abolished until 1892. In -the presidential election of 1896, when an unprecedentedly large vote -was cast, the number of voters registered was nearly 20% of the -population, and of these nearly 82% actually voted. Massachusetts is one -of the only two states in the Union in which elections for state -officers are held annually. In 1888 an act was passed providing for the -use in state elections of a blanket ballot, on which the names of all -candidates for each office are arranged alphabetically under the heading -of that office, and there is no arrangement in party columns. This was -the first state law of the kind in the country. The same method of -voting has been adopted in about two-thirds of the townships of the -state. A limited suffrage was conferred upon women in 1879. Every female -citizen having the qualifications of a male voter may vote in the city -and town elections for members of the school committee. - - A householder with a family may, by recording the proper declaration - in a registry of deeds, hold exempt from attachment, levy on - execution, and sale for the payment of debts thereafter contracted an - estate of homestead, not exceeding $800 in value, in a farm or lot - with buildings thereon which he lawfully possesses by lease or - otherwise and occupies as his residence. The exemption does not - extend, however, to the prohibition of sale for taxes, and in case the - householder's buildings are on land which he has leased those - buildings are not exempt from sale or levy for the ground rent. If the - householder has a wife he can mortgage or convey his estate of - homestead only with her consent, and if he dies leaving a widow or - minor children the homestead exemption survives until the youngest - child is twenty-one years of age, or until the death or marriage of - the widow, provided the widow or a child continues to occupy it. - - The scope of state activity has become somewhat remarkable. In - addition to the usual state boards of education (1837), agriculture - (1852), railroad commissioners (1869), health (1869), statistics of - labour, fisheries and game, charity (1879), the dairy bureau (1891), - of insanity (1898), prison, highways, insurance and banking - commissions, there are also commissions on ballot-law, voting - machines, civil service (1884), uniformity of legislation, gas and - electric lighting corporations, conciliation and arbitration in labour - disputes (1886), &c. There are efficient state boards of registration - in pharmacy, dentistry and medicine. Foods and drugs have been - inspected since 1882. In general it may be said that the excellence of - administrative results is noteworthy. The work of the Bureau of - Statistics of Labor, of the Bureau of Health, of the Board of Railroad - Commissioners, and of the Board of Conciliation and Arbitration, and - the progress of civil service, have been remarkable for value and - efficiency. Almost all state employees are under civil service rules; - the same is true of the city of Boston; and of the clerical, - stenographic, prison, police, civil engineering, fire, labour-foreman, - inspection and bridge tender services of all cities; and under a law - (1894) by which cities and towns may on petition enlarge the - application of their civil service rules. Various other public - services, including even common labourers of the larger towns, are - rapidly passing under civil service regulation. Veterans of the Civil - War have privileges in the administration of the state service. In the - settlement of labour disputes conciliatory methods were successful in - the formative period, when the parties to disputes adopted customary - attitudes of hostility and fought to the end unless they were - reconciled by the Board to a final agreement or to an agreement to - arbitrate.[13] In this earlier period (before 1900), thanks to the - efforts of the board there was an increase in the frequency of appeal - to arbitration, and settlements by compromise were often made. - Afterwards the number of arbitrations by the board increased in - number: from 1900 to 1908 (inclusive), of 568 controversies submitted - to the board, 525 were settled by an award and 43 by an induced - agreement. In the same period the mediation of the Board settled - disputes affecting 5560 establishments; and in the latter half of this - period labour disputes involving hostilities and of the magnitude - contemplated by the statute governing the Board of Conciliation and - Arbitration had almost disappeared. The laws relating to labour are - full, but, as compared with those of other states, present few - features calling for comment.[14] In 1899 eight hours were made to - constitute a day's work for all labourers employed by or for any city - or town adopting the act at an annual election. Acts have been passed - extending the common-law liability of employers, prohibiting the - manufacture and sale of sweat-shop clothing, and authorizing cities - and towns to provide free lectures and to maintain public baths, - gymnasia and playgrounds. Boston has been a leader in the - establishment of municipal baths. The state controls and largely - maintains two beaches magnificently equipped near the city. The - Massachusetts railroad commission, though preceded in point of time by - that of New Hampshire of 1844, was the real beginning of modern state - commissions. Its powers do not extend to direct and mandatory - regulation, being supervisory and advisory only, but it can make - recommendations at its discretion, appealing if necessary to the - General Court; and it has had great influence and excellent results. - The Torrens system of land registration was adopted in 1898, and a - court created for its administration. In the case of all quasi-public - corporations rigid laws exist prohibiting the issue of stock or bonds - unless the par value is first paid in; prohibiting the declaration of - any stock or scrip dividend, and requiring that new stock shall be - offered to stockholders at not less than its market value, to be - determined by the proper state officials, any shares not so subscribed - for to be sold by public auction. These laws are to prevent fictitious - capitalization and "stock-watering." In the twenty years preceding - 1880 60% of all sentences for crime were found traceable to liquor. In - 1881 a local option law was passed, by which the granting of licences - for the sale of liquor was confined to cities and towns voting at the - annual election to authorize their issue. In 1888 the number of - licences to be granted in municipalities voting in favour of their - issue was limited to one for each 1000 inhabitants, except in Boston, - where one licence may be issued for every 500 inhabitants. The vote - varies from year to year, and it is not unusual for a certain number - of municipalities to change from "licence" to "no licence," and vice - versa. The general result has been that centres of population, - especially where the foreign element is large, usually vote for - licence, while those in which native population predominates, as well - as the smaller towns, usually vote for prohibition. Through a growing - acquiescence in the operation of the local option law, the relative - importance of the vote of the Prohibition Party has diminished. Since - 1895 indeterminate sentences have been imposed on all convicts - sentenced to the state prison otherwise than for life or as habitual - criminals; i.e. maximum and minimum terms are established by law and - on the expiration of the latter a revocable permit of liberty may be - issued. Execution by electricity has been the death penalty since - 1898. Stringent legislation controls prison labour. - - The extension of state activity presents some surprising features in - view of the strength of local self-sufficiency nurtured by the old - system of township government. But this form of pure democracy was in - various cases long since inevitably abandoned: by Boston reluctantly - in 1822, and subsequently by many other townships or cities, as - growing population made action in town meeting unbearably cumbersome. - In modern times state activity has encroached on the cities. - Especially has the commonwealth undertaken certain noteworthy - enterprises as the agent of the several municipalities in the - immediate vicinity of Boston, constituting what is known as the - Metropolitan District; as, for example, in bringing water thither from - the Nashua River at Clinton, 40 m. from Boston, and in the development - of a magnificent park system of woods, fells, river-banks and - seashore, unrivalled elsewhere in the country. The commonwealth joined - the city of Boston in the construction of a subway beneath the most - congested portion of the city for the passage of electric cars. For - the better accommodation of the increasing commerce of the port of - Boston, the commonwealth bought a considerable frontage upon the - harbour lines and constructed a dock capable of receiving the largest - vessels, and has supplemented the work of the United States government - in deepening the approaches to the wharves. It has secured as public - reservations the summit and sides of Greylock (3535 ft.) in the - north-west corner of the state, and of Wachusett (2108 ft.) near the - centre. Since 1885 a large expenditure has been incurred in the - abolition of grade crossings of railways and highways,[15] and in 1894 - the commonwealth began the construction and maintenance of state - highways.[16] - - Since 1885, in Boston, and since 1894, in Fall River, the - administration of the city police departments, including the granting - of liquor licences, has been in the hands of state commissioners (one - commissioner in Boston, a board in Fall River) appointed by the - governor. But though in each case the result has been an improved - administration, it has been generally conceded that only most - exceptional circumstances can justify such interference with local - self-government, and later attempts to extend the practice have - failed. The referendum has been sparingly used in matters of local - concern. Beginning in 1892 various townships and cities, numbering 18 - in 1903, adopted municipal ownership and operation of lighting works. - The gasworks have been notably more successful than the electric - plants. - - In Massachusetts, as in New England generally, the word "town" is - used, officially and colloquially, to designate a township, and during - the colonial era the New England town-meeting was a notable school for - education in self-government. The members of the first group of - settlers in these colonies were mostly small farmers, belonged to the - same church, and dwelt in a village for protection from the Indians. - They adapted to these conditions some of the methods for managing - local affairs with which they had been familiar in England, and called - the resultant institution a town. The territorial extent of each town - was determined by its grant or grants from the general court, which - the towns served as agents in the management of land. A settlement or - "plantation" was sometimes incorporated first as a "district" and - later as a town, the difference being that the latter had the right of - corporate representation in the general court, while the former had no - such right. The towns elected (until 1856) the deputies to the general - court, and were the administrative units for the assessment and - collection of taxes, maintaining churches and schools, organizing and - training the militia, preserving the peace, caring for the poor, - building and repairing roads and bridges, and recording deeds, births, - deaths and marriages; and to discuss questions relating to these - matters as well as other matters of peculiarly local concern, to - determine the amount of taxes for town purposes, and to elect - officers. All the citizens were expected to attend the annual - town-meeting, and such male inhabitants as were not citizens were - privileged to attend and to propose and discuss measures, although - they had no right to vote. Generally several villages have grown up in - the same "town," and some of the more populous "towns," usually those - in which manufacturing has become more important than farming, have - been incorporated as "cities"; thus either a town or a city may now - include a farming country and various small villages. Although the - tendency in Massachusetts is towards chartering as cities "towns" - which have a population of 12,000 or more, the democratic institution - of the town-meeting persists in many large municipalities which are - still technically towns.[17] Most "towns" hold their annual meeting in - March, but some hold them in February and others in April. In the - larger "towns" the officers elected at this meeting may consist of - five, seven or nine selectmen, a clerk, a treasurer, three or more - assessors, three or more overseers of the poor, one or more collectors - of taxes, one or more auditors, one or more surveyors of highways, a - road commissioner, a sewer commissioner, a board of health, one or - more constables, two or more field drivers, two or more fence viewers, - and a tree warden; but in the smaller "towns" the number of selectmen - may be limited to three, the selectmen may assess the taxes, be - overseers of the poor, and act as a board of health, and the treasurer - or constable may collect the taxes. The term of all these officers may - be limited to one year, or the selectmen, clerk, assessors and - overseers of the poor may be elected for a term of three years, in - which case a part only of the selectmen, assessors and overseers of - the poor are elected each year. The selectmen have the general - management of a "town's" affairs during the interval between - town-meetings. They may call special town-meetings; they appoint - election officers and may appoint additional constables or public - officers, and such minor officials as inspectors of milk, inspectors - of buildings, gauger of measures, cullers of staves and hoops, fish - warden and forester. A school committee consisting of any number of - members divisible by three is chosen, one-third each year, at the - annual town-meeting or at a special meeting which is held in the same - month. Any "town" having a village or district within its limits that - contains 1000 inhabitants or more may authorize that village or - district to establish a separate organization for lighting its - streets, building and maintaining sidewalks, and employing a watchman - or policeman, the officers of such organization to include at least a - prudential committee and a clerk. All laws relative to "towns" are - applied to "cities" in so far as they are not inconsistent with - general or special laws relative to the latter, and the powers of the - selectmen are vested in the mayor and aldermen. - -_Education._--For cities of above 8000 inhabitants (for which alone -comparative statistics are annually available), in 1902-1903 the ratio -of average attendance to school enrolment, the average number of days' -attendance of each pupil enrolled, and the value of school property per -capita of pupils in average attendance were higher than in any other -state; the average length of the school term was slightly exceeded in -eight states; and the total cost of the schools per capita of pupils in -average attendance ($39.05) was exceeded in six other states. In -1905-1906 the percentage of average attendance in the public schools to -the number of children (between 5 and 15 years) in the state was 80; in -Barnstable county it was 95, and in Plymouth 92; and the lowest rate of -any county was 68, that of Bristol. In the same year the amount of the -various school taxes and other contributions was $30.53 for each child -in the average membership of the public schools, and the highest amount -for each child in any county was $35.77 in Suffolk county, and in any -township or city $68.01--in Lincoln. The school system is not one of -marked state centralization--as contrasted, e.g. with New York. A state -board of education has general control, its secretary acting as -superintendent of the state system in conjunction with local -superintendents and committees. Women are eligible for these positions, -and among the teachers in the schools they are greatly in excess over -men (more than 10 to 1), especially in lower grades. No recognition -exists in the schools of race, colour or religion. The proportion of the -child population that attends schools is equalled in but two or three -states east of the Mississippi river. The services of Horace Mann (q.v.) -as secretary of the state board (1837-1848) were productive of almost -revolutionary benefits not only to Massachusetts but to the entire -country. His reforms, which reached every part of the school system, -were fortunately introduced just at the beginning of railway and city -growth. Since 1850 truant and compulsory attendance laws (the first -compulsory education law was passed in 1642) have been enforced in -conjunction with laws against child labour. In 1900 the average period -of schooling per inhabitant for the United States was 4.3 years, for -Massachusetts 7 years. (The same year the ratio of wealth productivity -was as 66 to 37.) Massachusetts stands "foremost in the Union in the -universality of its provision for secondary education."[18] The laws -practically offer such education free to every child of the -commonwealth. Illiterate persons not less than ten years of age -constituted in 1900 5.9% of the population; and 0.8, 14.6, 10.7% -respectively of native whites, foreign-born whites and negroes. More -patents are issued, relatively, to citizens of Massachusetts than to -those of any other state except Connecticut. Post office statistics -indicate a similarly high average of intelligence. - - The public school system includes common, high and normal schools, and - various evening, industrial and truant schools. Many townships and - cities maintain free evening schools. In 1894 manual training was made - a part of the curriculum in all municipalities having 20,000 - inhabitants. There are also many private business colleges, academic - schools and college-preparatory schools. The high schools enjoy an - exceptional reputation. An unusual proportion of teachers in the - public schools are graduates of the state normal schools, of which the - first were founded in 1839 at Lexington and Barre, the former being - the first normal school of the United States.[19] These two schools - were removed subsequently to Framingham (1853) and Westfield (1844), - where they are still active; while others flourish at Bridgewater - (1840), Salem (1854), Worcester (1874), Fitchburg (1895), North Adams - (1897), Hyannis (1897) and Lowell (1897), that at Framingham being - open to women only. There is also a state normal art school at Boston - (1873) for both sexes. - - The commonwealth contributes to the support of textile schools in - cities in which 450,000 spindles are in operation. Such schools exist - (1909) in Lowell, Fall River and New Bedford. The commonwealth also - maintains aboard a national ship a nautical training school (1891) for - instruction in the science and practice of navigation. During the - Spanish-American War of 1898 more than half of the graduates and - cadets of the school enlisted in the United States service. - - There are several hundred private schools, whose pupils constituted in - 1905-1906 15.7% of the total school-enrolment of the state. Of higher - academies and college-preparatory schools there are scores. Among - those for boys Phillips Academy, at Andover, the Groton school, and - the Mount Hermon school are well-known examples. For girls the largest - school is the Northfield Seminary at East Northfield. In Boston and in - the towns in its environs are various famous schools, among them the - boys' classical school in Boston, founded in 1635, one of the oldest - secondary schools in the country. The leading educational institution - of the state, as it is the oldest and most famous of the country, is - Harvard University (founded 1636) at Cambridge. In the extreme - north-west of the state, at Williamstown, is Williams College (1793), - and in the Connecticut Valley is Amherst College (1821), both of these - unsectarian. Boston University (Methodist Episcopal, 1867); Tufts - College (1852), a few miles from Boston in Medford, originally a - Universalist school; Clark University (1889, devoted wholly to - graduate instruction until 1902, when Clark College was added), at - Worcester, are important institutions. Two Roman Catholic schools are - maintained--Boston College (1863) and the College of the Holy Cross - (1843), at Worcester. Of various institutions for the education of - women, Mount Holyoke (1837) at South Hadley, Smith College (1875) at - Northampton, Wellesley College (1875) at Wellesley near Boston, - Radcliffe College (1879) in connexion with Harvard at Cambridge and - Simmons College (1899) at Boston, are of national repute. The last - emphasizes scientific instruction in domestic economy. - - For agricultural students the state supports a school at Amherst - (1867), and Harvard University the Bussey Institution. In - technological science special instruction is given--in addition to the - scientific departments of the schools already mentioned--in the - Worcester Polytechnic Institute (1865), and the Massachusetts - Institute of Technology (opened in 1865). There are schools of - theology at Cambridge (Protestant Episcopal), Newton (Baptist) and - Waltham (New Church), as well as in connexion with Boston University - (Methodist), Tufts College (Universalist) and Harvard (non-sectarian, - and the affiliated Congregational Andover Theological Seminary at - Cambridge). Law and medical schools are maintained in Boston and - Harvard universities. - -_Public Institutions._--Massachusetts was in 1903, in proportion to the -population, more richly provided with public collections of books than -any other state: in that year she had nearly a seventh of all books in -public, society and school libraries in the country, and a much larger -supply of books per capita (2.56) than any other state. The rate for New -York, the only state having a larger number of books in such libraries, -being only 1.19. The Boston public library, exceeded in size in the -United States by the library of Congress at Washington--and probably -first, because of the large number of duplicates in the library of -Congress--and the largest free municipal library in the world; the -library of Harvard, extremely well chosen and valuable for research; the -collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society (1791); the Boston -Athenaeum (1807); the State Library (1826); the New England Historic -Genealogical Society (1845); the Congregational Library; the American -Academy of Arts and Sciences (1780); and the Boston Society of Natural -History (1830), all in Boston, leave it easily unrivalled, unless by -Washington, as the best research centre of the country. The collections -of the American Antiquarian Society (1812) at Worcester are also -notable. Massachusetts led, about 1850, in the founding of town and city -libraries supported by public taxes, and by 1880 had established more of -such institutions than existed in all other states combined. In 1900 out -of 353 towns and cities only five, representing less than half of 1%, -were without free library facilities, and three of these five had -association libraries charging only a small fee. - - The state is very well supplied with charitable and reformatory - institutions, in which noteworthy methods have been employed with - success. The state institutions, each governed by a board of trustees, - and all under the supervision of the state board of charity, include a - state hospital at Tewksbury, for paupers (1866); a state farm at - Bridgewater (1887) for paupers and petty criminals; the Lyman school - for boys at Westboro, a reformatory for male criminals under fifteen - years of age sentenced to imprisonment for terms less than life in - connexion with which a very successful farm is maintained for the - younger boys at Berlin; an industrial school for girls at Lancaster, - also a reformatory school--a third reformatory school for boys was - planned in 1909; a state sanatorium at Rutland for tuberculous - patients (the first public hospital for such in the United States) and - a hospital school at Canton for the care and instruction of crippled - and deformed children. Three more hospitals for consumptives were - planned in 1909. Under the supervision of the state board of insanity, - and each under the government of a board of seven trustees (of whom - two are women) are state hospitals for the insane at Worcester (1833), - Taunton, Northampton, Danvers, Westboro and Medford, a state colony - for the insane at Gardner, a state hospital for epileptics at Palmer, - a state school for the feeble-minded at Waltham (governed by six - trustees), a state school at Wrentham, state "hospital cottages for - children" (1882) at Baldwinville (governed by five trustees), and the - Foxboro state hospital for dipsomaniacs and insane. There are also - semi-state institutions for the insane at Waverley, Barre, Wrentham - and Baldwinville, and nineteen small private institutions, all under - the supervision of the state board of insanity. Under the supervision - of a board of prison commissioners, which appoints the superintendent - and warden of each, are a reformatory prison for women at Sherborn - (1877), a state reformatory for men at Concord (1884), a state prison - at Boston (Charlestown), and a prison camp and hospital at Rutland - (1905). There is a prison department at the state farm which receives - misdemeanants. Other institutions receiving state aid, each governed - by trustees appointed by the governor, are the Massachusetts general - hospital at Boston, the Massachusetts charitable eye and ear infirmary - at Boston, the Massachusetts homoeopathic hospital at Boston, the - Perkins Institution and Massachusetts school for the blind at South - Boston and the soldiers' home in Massachusetts at Boston. The Horace - Mann school in Boston, a public day school for the deaf, the New - England industrial school for deaf mutes at Beverly and the Clarke - school for the deaf at Northampton are maintained in part by the - state. Finally, many private charitable corporations (about 500 in - 1905) report to the state board of charity, and town and city - almshouses (205 in 1904) are subject to visitation. The Perkins - Institution is memorable for its association with the fame of S. G. - Howe (g.v.), whose reforms in charity methods were felt through all - the charitable interests of the state. The net yearly cost of support - and relief from 1884 to 1904 averaged $2,136,653, exclusive of - vagrancy cases (average $31,714). The whole number of paupers, besides - vagrants, in 1908 was 23.02 per 1000 of state population, and the cost - of relief ($5,104,255) was $1.699 for each inhabitant of the state. - The number of sane paupers declined steadily and markedly from 1863 to - 1904. - -_Finance._--Massachusetts is a very rich state, and Boston a very -wealthy city. The debt of the state (especially the contingent debt, -secured by sinking funds) has been steadily rising since 1888, and -especially since 1896, chiefly owing to the erection of important public -buildings, the construction of state highways and metropolitan park -roadways, the improvement of Boston harbour, the abolition of grade -crossings on railways, and the expenses incurred for the -Spanish-American War of 1898. - - The net direct funded debt (also secured by accumulating sinking - funds) in December 1908 was $17,669,372 (3.61 millions in 1893). The - average interest on this and the contingent debt ($60,428,223 in - December 1908) combined was only 3.35%. The net debts of towns and - cities rose in the years 1885-1908 from $63,306,213 to $163,558,325. - The county debts in 1908 aggregated $6,076,867. The assessed valuation - of realty in the state in 1908 was $2,799,062,707 and of personalty - $1,775,073,438. No other state has given so vigorous a test of the - ordinary American general-property tax, and the results have been as - discouraging as elsewhere. The "dooming" process (i.e. estimation by - assessors, without relief for overvaluation except for excess more - than 50% above the proper valuation) was introduced in 1868 as a - method of securing returns of personalty. But the most rigorous - application of the doomage law has only proved its complete futility - as an effort to reach unascertained corporate and personal - property.[20] Various special methods are used for the taxation of - banks, insurance companies, railways, tramways, trust companies and - corporations, some of them noteworthy. In the case of corporations - realty and machinery are taxed generally by the local authorities, and - stock values by the commonwealth. The Boston stock exchange is the - second of the country in the extent of the securities in which it - deals. The proportion of holders of U.S. bonds among the total - population is higher than that in any other state. - -_History._--It is possible that the coasts of Massachusetts were visited -by the Northmen, and by the earliest navigators who followed Cabot, but -this is only conjecture. In 1602 Bartholomew Gosnold landed at and named -Cape Cod and coasted as far south as the present No-Man's Land, which he -named Martin's or Martha's Vineyard, a name later transferred to a -neighbouring larger island. Pring and Champlain at a later date coasted -along what is now Massachusetts, but the map of Champlain is hardly -recognizable. The first sufficient explorations for cartographical -record were made by John Smith in 1614, and his map was long the -basis--particularly in its nomenclature--of later maps. Permanency of -occupation, however, dates from the voyage of the "Mayflower," which -brought about a hundred men, women and children who had mostly belonged -to an English sect of Separatists, originating in Yorkshire, but who had -passed a period of exile for religion's sake in Holland. In the early -winter of 1620 they made the coast of Cape Cod; they had intended to -make their landing farther south, within the jurisdiction of the -Virginia Company, which had granted them a patent; but stress of weather -prevented their doing so. Finding themselves without warrant in a region -beyond their patent, and threatened with the desertion of disaffected -members of their company (probably all servants or men of the "lesser" -sort) unless concessions were made to these, they drew up and signed -before landing a democratic compact of government which is accounted the -earliest written constitution in history.[21] After some exploration of -the coast they made a permanent landing on the 21st of December 1620 -(N.S.) at Plymouth, a harbour which had already been so named by John -Smith in his maps of 1614 and 1616. During the first winter nearly -one-half their number died from exposure, and the relations of the -survivors with their partners of the London Company, who had insisted -that for seven years the plantation should be managed as a joint stock -company, were unsatisfactory. However, about thirty-five new colonists -arrived in 1622 and ninety-six more in 1623. The abandonment of the -communal system was begun in the latter year, and with the dissolution -of the partnership with the adventurers of the London Company in 1627 -Plymouth became a corporate colony with its chief authority vested in -the whole body of freemen convened in the General Court. Upon the death -of the first governor, John Carver, in the spring of 1621, the General -Court chose William Bradford as his successor, and with him was chosen -one assistant. The subsequent elections were annual, and within a few -years the number of assistants was increased to seven. The General Court -was the legislature and the electorate; the governor and assistants were -the executive and the judiciary. The whole body of freemen composed the -General Court until other towns than Plymouth had been organized, the -first of which were Scituate in 1636 and Duxbury in 1637, and then the -representative form of government was adopted and there was a gradual -differentiation between Plymouth the town and Plymouth the colony. When -it had become known that the colony was within the territory of the New -England Council, John Pierce, in 1621, procured from that body a grant -which made the colonists its tenants. A year later Pierce surrendered -this and procured another, which in effect made him proprietor of the -colony, but he was twice shipwrecked and was forced to assign to the -adventurers his second patent. In 1629 Governor Bradford procured from -the same council a definite grant of the tract which corresponds to the -south-eastern portion of the present state. But all attempts to procure -a royal charter for Plymouth Colony were unsuccessful, and in 1691 it -was annexed to the Colony of Massachusetts Bay under what is termed the -Provincial Charter. - -King James having by patent in 1620 created a Council for New England to -whom he made a large grant of territory, the council in 1628 made a -sub-grant, confirmed by a royal charter that passed the seals on the 4th -of March 1629, to the "Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in -Newe England." There had been various minor expeditions during the few -years since Smith was on the coast before this company, in the Puritan -interests, had sent over John Endecott with a party in 1628 to what is -now Salem. In 1630 the government of the company, with questionable -right (for the charter seems evidently to have contemplated the -residence of the company in England), transferred itself to their -territory, and under the leadership of John Winthrop laid the -foundations anew of the Massachusetts colony, when they first settled -Boston in the autumn of that year. Winthrop served repeatedly, though -not continuously, as governor of the colony till his death in 1649, his -rejection in 1636 being due to a party of theological revolt which chose -Henry Vane (afterwards Sir Henry) to the office. This was an incident in -a famous episode, important rather as a symptom than in itself, namely, -the Antinomian controversy, "New England's earliest protest against -formulas," in which Vane and Ann Hutchinson took the lead in criticizing -the official orthodoxy of the colony. - -The magistrates successfully asserted themselves to the discomfiture of -their critics (Ann Hutchinson being banished), and this was -characteristic of the colony's early history. The charter gave the -company control over the admission of "freemen" (co-partners in the -enterprise, and voters), "full and absolute power and authority to -correct, punish and rule" subjects settling in the territory comprised -in their grant, and power to "resist ... by all fitting ways and means -whatever" all persons attempting the "destruction, invasion, detriment -or annoyance" of the plantation. Some writers deny the company's right -under this instrument to rule as they proceeded to do; but at any rate -what they did was to make the suffrage dependent on stringent religious -tests, and to repress with determined zeal all theological "vagaries" -and "whimsies." Criticism of church or magistrates was not tolerated. -Laws were modelled closely on the Bible. The clergy were a ruling class. -The government was frankly theocratic. Said Winthrop (1637): "We see not -that any should have authority to set up any other exercises besides -what authority hath already set up"; and a synod at Cambridge in 1637 -catalogued eighty-two "opinions, some blasphemous, others erroneous and -all unsafe," besides nine "unwholesome expressions," all of which were -consigned "to the devil of hell from whence they came." Another synod at -Cambridge in 1647 more formally established the principle of state -control. The legislation against Baptists (about 1644-1678) and the -persecution of the Quakers (especially 1656-1662) partook of the -brutality of the time, including scourging, boring of tongues, cutting -of ears and in rare cases capital punishment. It cannot be denied that -men like Roger Williams and some of the persecuted Quakers, though -undeniably contentious and aggressive in their conscientious dissent, -showed a spirit which to-day seems sweeter in tolerance and humanity -than that of the Puritans. And it seems necessary to emphasize these -facts because until about 1870 it was almost unchallenged tradition to -regard the men of Massachusetts Bay as seekers and champions of -"religious liberty." They left England, indeed, for liberty to discard -the "poperies" of the English Church, and once in Massachusetts they -even discarded far more than those "poperies." But religious liberty in -our modern sense they did not seek for themselves, nor accord to others; -they abhorred it, they trampled on it, and their own lives they -subjected to all the rigid restrictions to which they subjected others. -They were narrow but strong; no better example can be imagined of what -the French call "the defects of one's qualities." Their failures were -small compared with those of their contemporaries in England and -elsewhere in Europe, and public opinion did not long sustain violent -persecution of opinion. More than once mobs freed Quaker prisoners. Also -it is to be said that with the single exception of religious toleration -the record of the state in devotion to human rights has been from the -first a splendid one, whether in human principles of criminal law, or in -the defence of the civil rights commonly declared in American -constitutions. It was once generally assumed that the repression -practised attained its end of securing harmony of opinion. The fact -seems to be that intellectual speculation was as strong in America as in -Puritan England; the assumption that the inhibition of its expression -was good seems wholly gratuitous, and contrary to general convictions -underlying modern freedom of speech. A safer opinion is probably that -"the spiritual growth of Massachusetts withered under the shadow of -dominant orthodoxy; the colony was only saved from mental atrophy by its -vigorous political life" (J. A. Doyle). In literature the second half of -the 17th century is a sterile waste of forbidding theology; and its -life, judged by the present day, singularly sombre. - -In addition to the few persons banished to Rhode Island, theological and -political differences led many to emigrate thither. Others, discontented -with Massachusetts autocracy and wishing, too, "to secure more room," -went to Connecticut (q.v.) where they established a bulwark against the -Dutch of New York. - -A witchcraft scare (at its worst in 1691-1697, though the earliest -Connecticut case was in 1646-1647 and the earliest in Boston in 1648) -led to another tragedy of ignorance. In all thirty-two persons were -executed (according to W. F. Poole, about a thousandth part of those -executed for witchcraft in the British Isles in the 16th and 17th -centuries). Salem was the scene of the greatest excitement in 1691-1692. - -Exceptionally honourable to the early colonists was their devotion to -education (see HARVARD UNIVERSITY and BOSTON). Massachusetts Bay had a -large learned element; it is supposed that about 1640 there was an -Oxford or Cambridge graduate to every 250 persons in the colony. The -earliest printing in the British-American colonies was done at Cambridge -in 1639; it was not until 1674 that the authorities of the colony -permitted printing, except at Cambridge. Boston and Cambridge remain -leading publishing centres to-day. The first regular newspaper of -Boston, the _Boston Newsletter_, was the pioneer of the American -newspaper press. - -The early history was rendered unquiet at times by wars with the -Indians, the chief of which were the Pequot War in 1637, and King -Philip's War in 1675-76; and for better combining against these enemies, -Massachusetts, with Connecticut, New Haven and New Plymouth, formed a -confederacy in 1643, considered the prototype of the larger union of the -colonies which conducted the War of American Independence (1775-83). The -struggle with the Crown, which ended in independence, began at the -foundation of the colony, with assumptions of power under the charter -which the colonial government was always trying to maintain, and the -crown was as assiduously endeavouring to counteract. After more than -half a century of struggle, the crown finally annulled the charter of -the colony in 1684, though not until 1686 was the old government -actually supplanted on the arrival of Joseph Dudley, a native of the -colony, as president of a provisional council; later, Sir Edmund Andros -was sent over with a commission to unite New York and New England under -his rule. The colonists had been for many years almost independent; they -made their own laws, the Crown appointed natives as officials, and the -colonial interpretation of the old charter had in general been allowed -to stand. Massachusetts had excluded the English Book of Common Prayer, -she had restricted the franchise, laid the death penalty on religious -opinions, and passed various other laws repugnant to the Crown, notably -to Charles II. and James II.; she had caused laws and writs to run in -her own name, she had neglected to exact the oath of allegiance to the -sovereign, though carefully exacting an oath of fidelity to her own -government, she had protected the regicides, she had coined money with -her own seal, she had blocked legal appeals to the English courts, she -had not compelled the observance of the navigation acts. The revocation -of the charter aroused the strongest fears of the colonists Andros -speedily met determined opposition by measures undertaken relative to -taxation and land titles, by efforts to secure a church for Episcopal -service, and an attempt to curb the town meetings. His government was -supported by a small party (largely an Anglican Church party), but was -intensely unpopular with the bulk of the people; and--it is a disputed -question, whether before or after news arrived of the landing in England -of William of Orange--in April 1689 the citizens of Boston rose in -revolution, deposed Andros, imprisoned him and re-established their old -colonial form of government. Then came a struggle, carried on in England -by Increase Mather as agent (1688-1692) of the colony, to secure such a -form of government under a new charter as would preserve as many as -possible of their old liberties. Plymouth Colony, acting through its -agent in London, endeavoured to secure a separate existence by royal -charter, but accepted finally union with Massachusetts when association -with New York became the probable alternative. The province of Maine was -also united in the new provincial charter of 1691, and Sir William Phips -came over with it, commissioned as the first royal governor. As has been -mentioned already, the new charter softened religious tests for office -and the suffrage, and accorded "liberty of conscience" except to Roman -Catholics. The old religious exclusiveness had already been greatly -lessened: the clergy were less powerful, heresy had thrived under -repression, Anglican churchmen had come to the colony and were borne -with perforce, devotion to trade and commerce had weakened theological -tests in favour of ideals of mere good order and prosperity, and a -spirit of toleration had grown. - -Throughout the continuance of the government under the provincial -charter, there was a constant struggle between a prerogative party, -headed by the royal governor, and a popular party who cherished -recollections of their practical independence under the colonial -charter, and who were nursing the sentiments which finally took the form -of resistance in 1775. The inter-charter period, 1686-1691, is of great -importance in this connexion. The popular majority kept up the feeling -of hostility to the royal authority in recurrent combats in the -legislative assembly over the salary to be voted to the governor; though -these antagonisms were from time to time forgotten in the wars with the -French and Indians. During the earl of Bellomont's administration, New -York was again united with Massachusetts under the same executive -(1697-1701). The scenes of the recurrent wars were mostly distant from -Massachusetts proper, either in Maine or on Canadian or Acadian -territory, although some savage inroads of the Indians were now and then -made on the exposed frontier towns, as, for instance, upon Deerfield in -1704 and upon Haverhill in 1708. Phips, who had succeeded in an attack -on Port Royal, had ignominiously failed when he led the Massachusetts -fleet against Quebec in 1690; and the later expedition of 1711 was no -less a failure. The most noteworthy administration was that of William -Shirley (1741-1749 and 1753-1756), who at one time was the commanding -officer of the British forces in North America. He made a brilliant -success of the expedition against Louisburg in 1745, William Pepperell, -a Maine officer, being in immediate command. Shirley with Massachusetts -troops also took part in the Oswego expedition of 1755; and -Massachusetts proposed, and lent the chief assistance in the expedition -of Nova Scotia in 1755 which ended in the removal of the Acadians. Her -officers and troops also played an important part in the Crown Point and -second Louisburg expedition (1758). - -The first decided protests against the exercise of sovereign power by -the crown, the first general moral and political revolt that marked the -approach of the American War of Independence, took place in -Massachusetts; so that the most striking events in the general history -of the colonies as a whole from 1760 to 1775 are an intimate part of her -annals. The beginning of the active opposition to the crown may be -placed in the resistance, led by James Otis, to the issuing of writs -(after 1752, Otis's famous argument against them being made in -1760-1761) to compel citizens to assist the revenue officers; followed -later by the outburst of feeling at the imposition of the Stamp Act -(1765), when Massachusetts took the lead in confronting the royal power. -The governors put in office at this time by the crown were not of -conciliatory temperaments, and the measures instituted in parliament -(see UNITED STATES) served to increase bitterness of feeling. Royal -troops sent to Boston (several regiments, 1768) irritated the populace, -who were highly excited at the time, until in an outbreak on the 5th of -March 1770 a file of garrison troops shot down in self-defence a few -citizens in a crowd which assailed them. This is known as the "Boston -Massacre." The merchants combined to prevent the importation of goods -which by law would yield the crown a revenue; and the patriots--as the -anti-prerogative party called themselves--under the lead of Samuel -Adams, instituted regular communication between the different towns, and -afterwards, following the initiative of Virginia, with the other -colonies, through "committees of correspondence"; a method of the utmost -advantage thereafter in forcing on the revolution by intensifying and -unifying the resistance of the colony, and by inducing the co-operation -of other colonies. In 1773 (Dec. 16) a party of citizens, disguised as -Indians and instigated by popular meetings, boarded some tea-ships in -the harbour of Boston, and to prevent the landing of their taxable -cargoes threw them into the sea; this incident is known in history as -the "Boston tea-party." Parliament in retaliation closed the port of -Boston (1774), a proceeding which only aroused more bitter feeling in -the country towns and enlisted the sympathy of the other colonies. The -governorship was now given to General Thomas Gage, who commanded the -troops which had been sent to Boston. Everything foreboded an outbreak. -Most of the families of the highest social position were averse to -extreme measures; a large number were not won over and became -expatriated loyalists. The popular agitators, headed by Samuel -Adams--with whom John Hancock, an opulent merchant and one of the few of -the richer people who deserted the crown, leagued himself--forced on the -movement, which became war in April 1775, when Gage sent an expedition -to Concord and Lexington to destroy military stores accumulated by the -patriots and to capture Adams and Hancock, temporarily staying at -Lexington. This detachment, commanded by Lord Percy, was assaulted, and -returned with heavy loss. The country towns now poured their militia -into Cambridge, opposite Boston; troops came from neighbouring colonies, -and Artemas Ward, a Massachusetts general, was placed in command of the -irregular force, which with superior numbers at once shut the royal army -up in Boston. An attempt of the provincials to seize and hold a -commanding hill in Charlestown brought on the battle of Bunker Hill -(June 17, 1775), in which the provincials were driven from the ground, -although they lost much less heavily than the royal troops. Washington, -chosen by the Continental Congress to command the army, arrived in -Cambridge in July 1775, and stretching his lines around Boston, forced -its evacuation in March 1776. The state was not again the scene of any -conflict during the war. Generals Henry Knox and Benjamin Lincoln were -the most distinguished officers contributed by the state to the -revolutionary army. Out of an assessment at one time upon the states of -$5,000,000 for the expenses of the war, Massachusetts was charged with -$820,000, the next highest being $800,000 for Virginia. Of the 231,791 -troops sent by all the colonies into the field, reckoning by annual -terms, Massachusetts sent 67,907, the next highest being 31,939 from -Connecticut, Virginia furnishing only 26,678; and her proportion of -sailors was very much greater still. In every campaign in every colony -save in 1770-80 her soldiery were in absolute, and still more in -relative, number greater than those of any other colony. - -After the outbreak of the war a somewhat indefinite, heterogeneous -provisional government was in power till a constitution was adopted in -1780, when John Hancock became the first governor. Governor James -Bowdoin in 1786-1787 put down with clemency an almost bloodless -insurrection in the western counties (there was strong disaffection, -however, as far east as Middlesex), known as the Shays Rebellion, -significant of the rife ideas of popular power, the economic distress, -and the unsettled political conditions of the years of the -Confederation. Daniel Shays (1747-1825), the leader, was a brave -Revolutionary captain of no special personal importance. The state debt -was large, taxation was heavy, and industry was unsettled; worthless -paper money was in circulation, yet some men demanded more; debtors were -made desperate by prosecution; the state government seemed weak, the -Federal government contemptibly so; the local courts would not, or from -intimidation feared to, punish the turbulent, and demagogues encouraged -ideas of popular power. A convention of delegates representing the -malcontents of numerous towns in Worcester county met at Worcester on -the 15th of August 1786 to consider grievances, and a week later a -similar convention assembled at Hatfield, Hampshire county. Encouraged -by these and other conventions in order to obstruct the collection of -debts and taxes, a mob prevented a session of the Court of Common Pleas -and General Sessions of the Peace at Northampton on the 29th of August, -and in September other mobs prevented the same court from sitting in -Worcester, Middlesex and Berkshire counties. About 1000 insurgents under -Shays assembled at Springfield on the 26th of September to prevent the -sitting there of the Supreme Court, from which they feared indictments. -To protect the court and the national arsenal at Springfield, for which -the Federal government was powerless to provide a guard, Major-General -William Shepard (1737-1817) ordered out the militia, called for -volunteers, and supplied them with arms from the arsenal, and the court -sat for three days. The Federal government now attempted to enlist -recruits, ostensibly to protect the western frontier from the Indians, -but actually for the suppression of the insurrection; but the plan -failed from lack of funds, and the insurgents continued to interrupt the -procedure of the courts. In January 1787, however, Governor Bowdoin -raised an army of 4400 men and placed it under the command of -Major-General Benjamin Lincoln (1733-1810). While Lincoln was at -Worcester Shays planned to capture the arsenal at Springfield, but on -the 25th of January Shepard's men fired upon Shays's followers, killing -four and putting the rest to flight. Lincoln pursued them to Petersham, -Worcester county, where on the 4th of February he routed them and took -150 prisoners. Subsequently the insurgents gathered in small bands in -Berkshire county; but here, a league having been formed to assist the -government, 84 insurgents were captured at West Stockbridge, and the -insurrection practically terminated in an action at Sheffield on the -27th of February, in which the insurgents lost 2 killed and 30 wounded -and the militia 2 killed and 1 wounded. Two of the insurgent leaders, -Daniel Shays and Eli Parsons, escaped to Vermont soon after the rout at -Petersham. Fourteen other insurgents who were tried by the Supreme Court -in the spring of 1787 were found guilty of treason and sentenced to -death. They were, however, held rather as hostages for the good -behaviour of worse offenders who had escaped, and were pardoned in -September. In February 1788 Shays and Parsons petitioned for pardon, and -this was granted by the legislature in the following June. The outcome -of the uprising was an encouraging test of loyalty to the commonwealth; -and the insurrection is regarded as having been very potent in preparing -public opinion throughout the country for the adoption of a stronger -national government. The Federal Constitution was ratified by -Massachusetts by only a small majority on the 6th of February 1788, -after its rejection had been at one time imminent; but Massachusetts -became a strong Federalist state. Indeed, the general interest of her -history in the quarter-century after the adoption of the Constitution -lies mainly in her connexion with the fortunes of that great political -party. Her leading politicians were out of sympathy with the conduct of -national affairs (in the conduct of foreign relations, the distribution -of political patronage, naval policy, the question of public debt) from -1804--when Jefferson's party showed its complete supremacy--onward; and -particularly after the passage of the Embargo Act of 1807, which caused -great losses to Massachusetts commerce, and, so far from being accepted -by her leaders as a proper diplomatic weapon, seemed to them designed in -the interests of the Democratic party. The Federalist preference for -England over France was strong in Massachusetts, and her sentiment was -against the war with England of 1812-15. New England's discontent -culminated in the Hartford Convention (Dec. 1814), in which -Massachusetts men predominated. The state, however, bore her full part -in the war, and much of its naval success was due to her sailors. - -During the interval till the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861, -Massachusetts held a distinguished place in national life and politics. -As a state she may justly be said to have been foremost in the struggle -against slavery.[22] She opposed the policy that led to the Mexican War -in 1846, although a regiment was raised in Massachusetts by the personal -exertions of Caleb Cushing. The leaders of the ultra non-political -abolitionists (who opposed the formation of the Liberty party) were -mainly Massachusetts men, notably W. L. Garrison and Wendell Phillips. -The Federalist domination had been succeeded by Whig rule in the state; -but after the death of the great Whig, Daniel Webster, in 1852, all -parties disintegrated, re-aligning themselves gradually in an aggressive -anti-slavery party and the temporizing Democratic party. First, for many -years the Free-Soilers gained strength; then in 1855 in an extraordinary -party upheaval the Know-Nothings quite broke up Democratic, Free-Soil -and Whig organizations; the Free-Soilers however captured the -Know-Nothing organization and directed it to their own ends; and by -their junction with the anti-slavery Whigs there was formed the -Republican party. To this the original Free-Soilers contributed as -leaders Charles Sumner and C. F. Adams; the Know-Nothings, Henry Wilson -and N. P. Banks; and later, the War Democrats, B. F. Butler--all men of -mark in the history of the state. Charles Sumner, the most eminent -exponent of the new party, was the state's senator in Congress -(1851-1874). The feelings which grew up, and the movements that were -fostered till they rendered the Civil War inevitable, received something -of the same impulse from Massachusetts which she had given a century -before to the feelings and movements forerunning the War of American -Independence. When the war broke out it was her troops who first -received hostile fire in Baltimore, and turning their mechanical -training to account opened the obstructed railroad to Washington. In the -war thus begun she built, equipped and manned many vessels for the -Federal navy, and furnished from 1861 to 1865 26,163 (or, including -final credits, probably more than 30,000) men for the navy. During the -war all but twelve small townships raised troops in excess of every -call, the excess throughout the state amounting in all to more than -15,000 men; while the total recruits to the Federal army (including -re-enlistments) numbered, according to the adjutant-general of the -state, 159,165 men, of which less than 7000 were raised by draft.[23] -The state, as such, and the townships spent $42,605,517.19 in the war; -and private contributions of citizens are reckoned in addition at about -$9,000,000, exclusive of the aid to families of soldiers, paid then and -later by the state. - -Since the close of the war Massachusetts has remained generally -steadfast in adherence to the principles of the Republican party, and -has continued to develop its resources. Navigation, which was formerly -the distinctive feature of its business prosperity, has under the -pressure of laws and circumstances given place to manufactures, and the -development of carrying facilities on the land rather than on the sea. - -In the Spanish-American War of 1898 Massachusetts furnished 11,780 -soldiers and sailors, though her quota was but 7388; supplementing from -her own treasury the pay accorded them by the national government. - -No statement of the influence which Massachusetts has exerted upon the -American people, through intellectual activity, and even through vagary, -is complete without an enumeration of the names which, to Americans at -least, are the signs of this influence and activity. In science the -state can boast of John Winthrop, the most eminent of colonial -scientists; Benjamin Thompson (Count Rumford); Nathaniel Bowditch, the -translator of Laplace; Benjamin Peirce and Morse the electrician; not to -include an adopted citizen in Louis Agassiz. In history, Winthrop and -Bradford laid the foundations of her story in the very beginning; but -the best example of the colonial period is Thomas Hutchinson, and in -later days Bancroft, Sparks, Palfrey, Prescott, Motley and Parkman. In -poetry, a pioneer of the modern spirit in American verse was Richard -Henry Dana; and later came Bryant, Longfellow, Whittier, Lowell and -Holmes. In philosophy and the science of living, Jonathan Edwards, -Franklin, Channing, Emerson and Theodore Parker. In education, Horace -Mann; in philanthropy, S. G. Howe. In oratory, James Otis, Fisher Ames, -Josiah Quincy, junr., Webster, Choate, Everett, Sumner, Winthrop and -Wendell Phillips; and, in addition, in statesmanship, Samuel Adams, John -Adams and John Quincy Adams. In fiction, Hawthorne and Mrs Stowe. In -law, Story, Parsons and Shaw. In scholarship, Ticknor, William M. Hunt, -Horatio Greenough, W. W. Story and Thomas Ball. The "transcendental -movement," which sprang out of German affiliations and produced as one -of its results the well-known community of Brook Farm (1841-1847), under -the leadership of Dr George Ripley, was a Massachusetts growth, and in -passing away it left, instead of traces of an organization, a sentiment -and an aspiration for higher thinking which gave Emerson his following. -When Massachusetts was called upon to select for Statuary Hall in the -capitol at Washington two figures from the long line of her worthies, -she chose as her fittest representatives John Winthrop, the type of -Puritanism and state-builder, and Samuel Adams (though here the choice -was difficult between Samuel Adams and John Adams) as her greatest -leader in the heroic period of the War of Independence. - - - Governors of Plymouth Colony - - (Chosen annually by the people). - - John Carver 1620-1621 - William Bradford 1621-1633 - Edward Winslow 1633-1634 - Thomas Prence (or Prince) 1634-1635 - William Bradford 1635-1636 - Edward Winslow 1636-1637 - William Bradford 1637-1638 - Thomas Prence (or Prince) 1638-1639 - William Bradford 1639-1644 - Edward Winslow 1644-1645 - William Bradford 1645-1657 - Thomas Prence (or Prince) 1657-1673 - Josiah Winslow 1673-1680 - Thomas Hinckley 1680-1686 - Sir Edmund Andros 1686-1689 - Thomas Hinckley 1689-1692 - - Governors of Massachusetts - - (Under the First Charter--chosen annually) - - John Endecott[24] 1629-1630 - John Winthrop 1630-1634 - Thomas Dudley 1634-1635 - John Haynes 1635-1636 - Henry Vane 1636-1637 - John Winthrop 1637-1640 - Thomas Dudley 1640-1641 - Richard Bellingham 1641-1642 - John Winthrop 1642-1644 - John Endecott 1644-1645 - Thomas Dudley 1645-1646 - John Winthrop 1646-1649 - John Endecott 1649-1650 - Thomas Dudley 1650-1651 - John Endecott 1651-1654 - Richard Bellingham 1654-1655 - John Endecott 1655-1665 - Richard Bellingham 1665-1672 - John Leverett (acting, 1672-1673) 1672-1679 - Simon Bradstreet 1679-1686 - ------ - Sir Edmund Andros 1686-1689 - Simon Bradstreet 1689-1692 - - Under Second Charter--appointed by the Crown[25] - - Sir William Phips 1692-1694 - William Stoughton (acting) 1694-1699 - Richard Coote, earl of Bellomont 1699-1700 - William Stoughton (acting) 1700-1701 - Joseph Dudley 1702-1715 - William Tailer (acting) 1715-1716 - Samuel Shute 1716-1722 - William Dummer (acting) 1722-1728 - William Burnet 1728-1729 - William Dummer (acting) 1729-1730 - William Tailer (acting) 1730 - Jonathan Belcher 1730-1741 - William Shirley 1741-1749 - Spencer Phips (acting) 1749-1753 - William Shirley 1753-1756 - Spencer Phips (acting) 1756-1757 - Thomas Pownal 1757-1760 - Thomas Hutchinson (acting) 1760 - Sir Francis Bernard, Bart 1760-1769 - Thomas Hutchinson (acting) 1769-1771 - Thomas Hutchinson 1771-1774 - Thomas Gage[26] 1774-1775 - - Under the Constitution - - John Hancock 1780-1785 - James Bowdoin 1785-1787 - John Hancock 1787-1793 - Samuel Adams (acting) 1793-1794 - Samuel Adams 1794-1797 - Increase Sumner Federalist 1797-1799 - Moses Gill (lieut- - governor; acting) " 1799-1800 - Caleb Strong " 1800-1807 - Jas Sullivan Democratic-Republican 1807-1808 - Levi Lincoln (acting) " 1808-1809 - Christopher Gore Federalist 1809-1810 - Elbridge Gerry Democratic-Republican 1810-1812 - Caleb Strong Federalist 1812-1816 - John Brooks " 1816-1823 - William Eustis Democratic-Republican 1823-1825 - Levi Lincoln " 1825-1834 - John Davis Whig 1834-1835 - Edward Everett " 1836-1840 - Marcus Morton Democrat 1840-1841 - John Davis Whig 1841-1843 - Marcus Morton Democrat 1843-1844 - George N Briggs Whig 1844-1851 - George S Boutwell Free-Soil Democrat 1851-1853 - John H Clifford Whig 1853-1854 - Emory Washburn " 1854-1855 - Henry J Gardner Know-Nothing 1855-1858 - Nathaniel P Banks Republican 1858-1861 - Marcus Morton Democrat 1840-1841 - John A. Andrew Republican 1861-1866 - Alexander H. Bullock " 1866-1869 - William Claflin " 1869-1872 - William B. Washburn " 1872-1874 - Thomas Talbot (acting) " 1874-1875 - William Gaston Democrat 1875-1876 - Alexander H. Rice Republican 1876-1879 - Thomas Talbot " 1879-1880 - John Davis Long " 1880-1883 - Benjamin F. Butler Democrat 1883-1884 - George D. Robinson Republican 1884-1887 - Oliver Ames " 1887-1890 - John Q. A. Brackett " 1890-1891 - William E. Russell Democrat 1891-1894 - Frederic T. Greenhalge Republican 1894-1896 - Roger Wolcott " 1896-1897 - Roger Wolcott " 1897-1900 - W. Murray Crane " 1900-1903 - John L. Bates " 1903-1905 - William L. Douglas Democrat 1905-1906 - Curtis L. Guild Republican 1906-1909 - Eben S. Draper " 1909-1911 - Eugene N. Foss Democrat 1911- - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For Topography: W. M. Davis, _Physical Geography of - Southern New England_ (New York, 1895), and for the western counties, - R. D. Mallary, _Lenox and the Berkshire Highlands_ (New York-London, - 1902); also _Inland Massachusetts, Illustrated ..._ (Springfield, - 1890); C. F. Warner, _Picturesque Berkshire_ (also Franklin, Hampden, - Hampshire, Northampton, 1890-1893); U.S. Geological Survey, _Bulletin - 116_, H. Gannett, "Geographic Dictionary of Massachusetts." On - Minerals: _U.S. Census_, 1900, and _U.S. Geological Survey_, annual - volume on _Mineral Resources_. On Agriculture: _U.S. Census_ and - reports of Mass. Census (alternating with Federal census), and reports - and bulletins of the Board of Agriculture (1852) and the Agricultural - College (1867), and Experiment Station (1883) at Amherst. On - Manufactures, &c.: See _Reports_ of state and Federal censuses; also - _Annual Reports_ (1869) of the state Bureau of Statistics of Labor, - which contain a wealth of valuable material (e.g. 1903, "Race in - Industry"; 1902, "Sex in Industry"; 1885, "Wages and Prices, - 1752-1863," &c.); W. R. Bagnall, _The Textile Industries of the United - States_ (vol. i., 1639-1810, Cambridge, 1893); J. L. Hayes, "American - Textile Machinery: its Early History, &c." (Cambridge, 1870; - _Bulletin_ of National Association of Wool Manufacturers), and - literature therein referred to. On Commerce and Communications: _U.S. - Census_, 1902 (vol. on "Electric Railways"); U.S. Interstate Commerce - Commission, annual _Statistics of Railways_; publications of the State - Board of Trade; W. Hill on "First Stages of the Tariff Policy of the - United States" in _American Economic Association Publications_, vol. - viii., no. 6 (1893). On Population: Census reports, state and Federal, - publications of Bureau of Statistics of Labor, Board of Health (1869-; - the Annual Report of 1896 contains an exhaustive analysis of vital - statistics, 1856-1895); Board of Charity (1878- ), &c. On - Administration: G. H. Haynes, _Representation and Suffrage in - Massachusetts_, 1620-1691, in Johns Hopkins University, Studies in - History, xii.; _Manual for the General Court_ (Annual); R. H. Whitten, - _Public Administration in Massachusetts_, in Columbia University, - Studies in History, vol. viii. (1898); H. R. Spencer, _Constitutional - Conflict in Provincial Massachusetts_ (Columbus, O., 1905); and the - annual _Public Documents of Massachusetts_, embracing the reports of - all state officers and institutions. On Taxation: See especially the - official "Report of the Commission Appointed to Inquire into the - Expediency of Revising and Amending the Laws ... Relating to Taxation" - (1897), and vol. xi. of the _Report of the United States Industrial - Commission_ (Wash., 1901); H. G. Friedman, _The Taxation of - Corporations in Massachusetts_ (New York, 1907); and C. J. Bullock, - _Historical Sketch of the Finances and Financial Policy of - Massachusetts_ (1907). On Education: See _Annual Reports_ of the - United States Commissioner of Education; G. G. Bush, _History of - Higher Education in Massachusetts_ (Washington, U.S. Bureau of - Education, 1891); article on HARVARD UNIVERSITY. On History: Elaborate - bibliography is given in J. Winsor's _Narrative and Critical History - of America_ and in his _Memorial History of Boston_. The colonial - historical classics are William Bradford, _History of Plimoth - Plantation_ (pub. by the commonwealth, 1898; also edited by Charles - Deane, in _Collections_ of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 1856, - series 4, vol. iii.); J. Winthrop, _History of New England 1630-1649_, - edited by J. Savage (Boston, 2 vols. 1825-1826, new ed., 1853); S. E. - Sewall, _Diary, 1674-1729_ (3 vols., _Collections_ of the - Massachusetts Historical Society, series 5, vols. v.-vii., 1878-1882), - a fascinating and microscopic picture of colonial life; T. Hutchinson, - _History of ... Massachusetts_ (3 vols., respectively Boston, 1764, - 1767, London, 1828); also the very valuable _Hutchinson Papers_ (2 - vols., Prince Society, Boston, 1865). For the period 1662-1666, when - Massachusetts was investigated by royal commissioners, see - _Collections_ of the Massachusetts Historical Society, series 2, vol. - viii., 1819; on the Andros period, 1689-1691, see the _Andros Tracts_ - (3 vols., Prince Society Publications, v.-vii., Boston, 1868-1874), - ed. by J. H. Whitmore. The one-time-standard general history was that - of J. G. Palfrey, _History of New England_ (5 vols., Boston, - 1858-1890), to the War of Independence. It is generally accurate in - facts but written in an unsatisfactorily eulogistic vein. Of - importance in more modern views is a volume of _Lectures Delivered ... - before the Lowell Institute ... by Members of the Massachusetts - Historical Society on Subjects Relating to the Early History of - Massachusetts_ (Boston, 1869), perhaps especially the lectures of G. - E. Ellis, later expanded, and in the process somewhat weakened, into - his _Puritan Age and Rule in the Colony of the Massachusetts Bay, - 1629-1685_ (Boston, 1888; 3rd ed., 1891). See C. F. Adams, - _Massachusetts: its Historians and its History_ (Boston, 1893), for a - critique of the "filiopietistic" traditions of Massachusetts writers; - also his _Three Episodes of Massachusetts History_,--namely, - Settlement of the Colony, Antinomianism, and church and town - government in Quincy from 1634-1888 (2 vols., Boston, 1892). On town - government see further E. Channing in Johns Hopkins University, - _Studies in History_ vol. ii. (1884); P. E. Aldrich in American - Antiquarian Society, _Proceedings_, new series, vol. 3, pp. 111-124; - and C. F. Adams and others in Massachusetts Historical Society, - _Proceedings_, 2nd series, vol. vii (1892). On the Pilgrims and - Puritans: See article PLYMOUTH; also E. H. Byington, _The Puritan in - England and America_ (Boston, 1896) and _The Puritan as Colonist and - Reformer_ (Boston, 1899). On the Quaker Persecution: R. P. Hallowell, - _The Quaker Invasion of Massachusetts_ (Boston, 1883; rev. ed., 1887). - On Witchcraft: See C. W. Upham, _Witchcraft in Salem_ (2 vols., - Boston, 1867); S. G. Drake, _Annals of Witchcraft_ (Boston, 1869) and - _The Witchcraft Delusion in New England_ (3 vols., Roxbury, 1866), - this last a reprint of accounts of the time by Cotton Mather and R. - Calef; W. F. Poole, "Cotton Mather and Salem Witchcraft" (_North - American Review_, April 1869); and controversy of A. C. Goodell and G. - H. Moore in Massachusetts Historical Society, _Proceedings_. On - Slavery: G. H. Moore, _Notes on the History of Slavery_ (New York, - 1866); E. Washburn in _Collections_, Massachusetts Historical Society, - series 4, iv., 333-346; C. Deane in same, pp. 375-442, and in - _Proceedings_, American Antiquarian Society, new series, iv., 191-222. - In the essays of J. R. Lowell are two on "New England two Centuries - Ago" and "Witchcraft." For economic history, W. B. Weeden, _Economic - and Social History of New England, 1620-1789_ (2 vols., Boston, 1890); - C. H. J. Douglas, _The Financial History of Massachusetts ... to the - American Revolution_ (in Columbia University Studies, vol i., 1892). - On the revolutionary epoch, Mellen Chamberlain, _John Adams... with - other Essays and Addresses_ (Boston, 1898); T. Hutchinson, _Diary and - Letters_ (2 vols., Boston, 1884-1886); H. A. Cushing, _Transition from - Provincial to Commonwealth Government in Massachusetts_ (Columbia - University Studies in History, vol. iii., 1896); S. B. Harding, - _Contest over the Ratification of the Federal Constitution in - Massachusetts_ (Harvard University Studies, New York, 1896); and on - the Shays Rebellion compare J. P. Warren in _American Historical - Review_ (Oct., 1905). On New England discontent preceding 1812, Henry - Adams, _Documents Relating to New England Federalism, 1780-1815_ - (Boston, 1877); T. W. Higginson, _Massachusetts in the Army and Navy - during the War of 1861-65_ (Official, Boston, 2 vols., 1896). For a - list of the historical societies of the state consult A. M. Davis in - _Publications_ of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts, vol. i.; the - most important are the Massachusetts Historical Society, established - 1791, publishing _Collections and Proceedings_ (Boston) and the - American Antiquarian Society, established 1812, publishing - _Proceedings_ (Worcester). In many cases the most valuable material on - various periods is indicated under the biographies (or autobiographies - in some cases) of the public men named in the above article, to which - add Timothy Pickering, George Cabot, Joseph Warren, Elbridge Gerry, - Benjamin F. Butler, G. S. Boutwell and George F. Hoar. Many townships - have published their local records, and many township and county - histories contain valuable matter of general interest (e.g. as showing - in detail township action before the War of Independence), though - generally weighted heavily with genealogy and matters of merely local - interest. In American works of fiction, particularly of New England - authors, the reader will find a wealth of description of Massachusetts - and New England life, past and present, as in the writings of William - D. Howells, Sarah O. Jewett, Mary E. Wilkins-Freeman, Harriet B. Stowe - and others. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] At least seventy hills in the state, mainly in this quarter, have - an elevation of 1500 ft. (twenty-four above 2000 ft.). - - [2] In some localities it is not easy to establish irrefutably and in - detail the inter-arrangement of drainage and rock structure that - proves it to be a subaerial peneplain instead of an uplifted - submarine platform; but the general proof is very clear. - - [3] The yield of cereals and of such other crops in 1907 as are - recorded in the _Yearbook_ of the United States Department of - Agriculture was as follows: Indian corn, 1,584,000 bushels; oats, - 245,000 bushels; barley, 64,000 bushels; buckwheat, 42,000 bushels; - potatoes, 3,600,000 bushels; hay, 760,000 tons; tobacco, 7,167,500 - lb. In the same year, according to the same authority, there were in - the state 196,000 milch cows, 92,000 other neat cattle, 45,000 sheep - and 70,000 swine. - - [4] _The Green Schists and Associated Granites and Porphyries of - Rhode Island_, Bulletin, U.S. Geological Survey, No. 311, 1907. - - [5] In 1905 Massachusetts produced 60.7% of the writing paper - manufactured in the country. Besides writing paper, book paper and - building paper are made in the state, but very little newspaper. - - [6] It must be noted, however, that the first successful construction - of cards, drawing and roving, and of spindles, on the Arkwright - principle was by S. Slater at Pawtucket, Rhode Island in 1790. - - [7] The tax valuation on ships engaged in foreign trade was lowered - between 1884 and 1900 from $2,801,405 to $147,768. - - [8] The population of the state was 378,787 in 1790; 422,845 in 1800; - 472,040 in 1810; 523,287 in 1820; 610,408 in 1830; 737,699 in 1840; - 994,514 in 1850; 1,231,066 in 1860; 1,457,351 in 1870; 1,783,085 in - 1880; 2,238,943 in 1890; and 2,805,346 in 1900. In 1905, according to - the state census, the population was 3,003,680, or about 7.7% more - than in 1900. - - [9] In 1910 the following townships each had populations of more than - 15,000: Revere, Leominster, Westfield, Attleborough, Peabody, Hyde - Park. - - [10] The birth-rates every fifth (census) year up to 1895 varied for - natives from 14.48 to 19.49; for foreigners from 45.87 to 66.68. The - marriage rates in quinquennial periods up to 1905 were 19.6, 18.6, - 21.0, 19.8, 15.6, 18.6, 18.6, 18.6, 17.4 and 17.4; the ratio of - marriages to the marriageable population was for males (above 16 - years) 61.5, for females (above 14) 46.0; the fecundity of marriages - seemed to have increased, being about twice as high for foreigners as - for natives. See _Annual Report_ of the Board of Health (1896), by S. - W. Abbott; and _Sixty-fourth Report of Births, Marriages and Deaths - in Massachusetts_ (1906). - - [11] The number of representatives from 1832 to 1908 varied from 240 - to 635, and the length of session from 58 to 206 days (since 1867 - none of under 100 days), with an almost continual increase in both - respects. - - [12] However, every office-holder was, and every subject might be, - required to take (though this was not a condition of the franchise) - the oaths enjoined by parliament in the first year of the reign of - William and Mary as a substitute for the oaths of Allegiance and - Supremacy; and the same still applies to the signing of the - Declaration. - - [13] From 1887-1900, out of 290 cases settled, only 107 were formal - arbitrations, 124 agreements were effected by the mediation of the - Board, 100 were effected otherwise while proceedings were pending, - and in 59 cases the Board interposed when the parties preferred - hostilities. - - [14] For a summary statement of state labour laws in the United - States in 1903 see _Bulletin 54_ of the United States Bureau of - Labor, September 1904; and for a summary of labour laws in force at - the end of 1907 see 22nd _Annual Report_ (for 1907) of the U.S. - Commissioner of Labor (Washington, 1908). - - [15] The usual allotment of the cost of this work is as follows: 65% - is paid by the railway company, 25% by the commonwealth and 10% by - the municipality in which the crossing is located. - - [16] The cost was apportioned between the commonwealth and the local - government in the proportion of 3 to 1. - - [17] Boston remained a township, governed by town-meetings, until - 1822, when it had a population of some 47,000. The government of - Brookline (pop. in 1905, 23,436) is an interesting example of the - adaptation of the township system to urban conditions. The town is - frequently referred to as a model residential suburb; its budgets are - very large, its schools are excellent, and, among other things, it - has established a township gymnasium. The town hall is not large - enough for an assemblage of all the voters, but actually the - attendance is usually limited to about 200, and since 1901 there has - been in force a kind of referendum, under which any measure passed by - a town-meeting attended by 700 or more voters may be referred, upon - petition of 100 legal voters, to a regular vote at the polls. Much of - the work of the town-meetings is done through special committees. - - [18] E. G. Brown, in _Monographs on Education in the United States_ - prepared for the Paris Exposition of 1900 and edited by N. M. Butler. - - [19] This is an especially honourable distinction, for William T. - Harris has said that "The history of education since the time of - Horace Mann is very largely an account of the successive - modifications introduced into elementary schools through the direct - or indirect influence of the normal school." - - [20] In 1869 the personalty valuation was 60% that of realty; but it - steadily fell thereafter, amounting in 1893 to 32%. From 1874-1882 - the assessment of realty increased nearly twelve times as much as - personalty. In the intervening period the assessed valuation of - realty in Boston increased more than 100%, while that of personalty - slightly diminished (the corresponding figures for the entire United - States from 1860 to 1890 being 172% and 12%), yet the most competent - business and expert opinions regarded the true value of personalty as - at least equal to and most likely twice as great as that of realty. - - [21] In this document, whose democracy is characteristic of - differences between the Plymouth Colony and that of Massachusetts - Bay, the signatories "solemnly and mutually ... covenant and combine - ourselves together into a civil body politic, for our better ordering - and preservation and furtherance of the ends aforesaid; and by virtue - hereof to enact, constitute and frame--[laws]--unto which we promise - all due submission and obedience." This was signed 11/21 of November - 1620 by 41 persons. - - [22] Slavery had existed as a social fact from the earliest years, - and legally after 1641; but it was never profitable, and was - virtually abolished long before the War of American Independence; - still it was never abolished explicitly by Massachusetts, though the - slave trade was prohibited in 1788, and though a number of negroes - were declared free after the adoption of the constitution of 1780 on - the strength of the sweeping declaration of human rights in that - instrument. - - [23] According to the final report of the U.S. Adjutant-General in - 1885, the enlistments were 146,730 men, of whom 13,942 died in war. - These figures are probably less accurate than those of the state. - - [24] Endecott, by commission dated the 30th of April 1629, was made - "governor of London's plantation in the Massachusetts Bay." Matthew - Cradock, first governor of the Company, from the 4th of March 1629 to - the 20th of October 1629, was succeeded on the latter date by John - Winthrop, who, on reaching Salem on the 12th of June 1630 with the - charter, superseded Endecott. - - [25] During three periods, 1701-1702, in February 1715, and from - April to August 1757 the affairs of the colony were administered by - the Executive Council. - - [26] General Gage was military governor, Hutchinson remaining - nominally civil governor. - - - - -MASSACRE, a wholesale indiscriminate killing of persons, and also, in a -transferred sense, of animals. The word is adopted from the French; but -its origin is obscure. The meaning and the old form _macecle_ seem to -point to it being a corruption of the Lat. _macellum_, butcher's shop or -shambles, hence meat market; this is probably from the root _mac_-, seen -in [Greek: machesthai], to fight, [Greek: machaira], sword, and Lat. -_mactare_, to sacrifice. Another derivation connects with the Old Low -Ger. _matsken_, to cut in pieces; cf. mod. Ger. _metzeln_, to massacre. - - - - -MASSAGE. The word _massage_ has of late years come into general use to -signify the method of treating disease or other physical conditions by -manipulating the muscles and joints. According to Littre the word is -derived from the Arabic _mass_, and has the specific meaning of -"pressing the muscular parts of the body with the hands, and exercising -traction on the joints in order to give suppleness and stimulate -vitality." It was probably adopted from the Arabian physicians by the -French, who have played a leading part in reviving this method of -treatment, which has been practised from time immemorial, and by the -most primitive people, but has from time to time fallen into disuse -among Western nations. In the _Odyssey_ the women are described as -rubbing and kneading the heroes on their return from battle. In India, -under the name "shampoo" (_tshampua_), the same process has formed part -of the native system of medicine from the most remote times; -professional massers were employed there by Alexander the Great in 327 -B.C. In China the method is also of great antiquity, and practised by a -professional class; the Swedish gymnastic system instituted by Pehr -Henrik Ling is derived from the book of Cong-Fou, the bonze of Tao-Sse. -Hippocrates describes and enjoins the use of manipulation, especially in -cases of stiff joints, and he was followed by other Greek physicians. -Oribasius gives an account of the application of friction with the bare -hands, which exactly corresponds with the modern practice of massage. It -is worthy of note that the treatment, after being held in high esteem by -the leading Greek physicians, fell into disrepute with the profession, -apparently on account of its association with vicious abuses. The same -drawback has made itself felt in the present day, and can only be met by -the most scrupulous care in the choice of agents and the manner of their -employment. Among the Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, and later the Turks, -massage came to be part of the ordinary procedure of the bath without -any special therapeutic intention, and the usage has survived until -to-day; but that mode of application was no doubt a refinement of -civilized life. Medical rubbing is older and more elementary than -bathing, as we see from its employment by savages. Probably it was -evolved independently among different races from the natural -instinct--shared by the lower animals--which teaches to rub, press or -lick any part of the body in which uneasiness is felt, and is therefore -the oldest of all therapeutic means. - -According to Weiss, the therapeutic use of massage was revived in Europe -by Hieronymus Fabricius ab Aquapendente (1537-1619), who applied it to -stiff joints and similar conditions. Paracelsus in his _De medicina -Aegyptiorum_ (1591), gives a description of methodical massage as -practised by the Egyptians quite on modern lines. Thereafter it appears -to have been adopted here and there by individual practitioners, and -various references are made to it, especially by French writers. The -word "massage" occurs in an essay written by Pierre Adolphe Piorry -(1794-1879) for a large encyclopaedia which appeared in 1818, but it was -probably used before. The practice was gradually advocated by an -increasing number of medical men. In Great Britain it was called -"medical rubbing," and at Edinburgh Beveridge had a staff of eight -trained male rubbers. A book published by Estradere in 1863 attracted -much attention, but the man who contributed most to the modern -popularity of massage was Metzger of Amsterdam, who began to use it -tentatively in 1853, and then proceeded to study and apply it -methodically. He published an essay on the subject in 1868. The modern -refinements of the treatment are chiefly due to him. At the same time, -its application by Dr Silas Weir Mitchell to hysterical and other -nervous conditions, in conjunction with the "rest cure," has done much -to make it known. - -Massage, as now practised, includes several processes, some of which are -passive and others active. The former are carried out by an operator, -and consist of rubbing and kneading the skin and deeper tissues with the -hands, and exercising the joints by bending the patient's limbs. The -active movements consist of a special form of gymnastics, designed to -exercise particular muscles or groups of muscles. In what is called -"Swedish massage" the operator moves the limbs while the patient -resists, thus bringing the opposing muscles into play. Some writers -insist on confining the word "massage" to the rubbing processes, and use -the general term "manipulation" to cover all the movements mentioned; -but this is a verbal subtlety of no importance. It is evident that alike -among the Greeks, the Orientals, and savage races, the two processes -have always been applied as part of the same treatment, and the -definition quoted above from Littre goes to show that the word "massage" -is properly applied to both. - - Rubbing has been subdivided into several processes, namely (1) - stroking, (2) kneading, (3) rubbing, and (4) tapping, and some - practitioners attach great importance to the application of a - particular process in a particular way. As a rule, oils and other - lubricants are not used. But, however it may be applied, the treatment - acts essentially by increasing circulation and improving nutrition. It - has been shown by Lauder Brunton that more blood actually flows - through the tissues during and after rubbing. The number of red - corpuscles, and, to some extent, their haemoglobin value, are also - said to be increased (Mitchell). At the same time the movement of the - lymph stream is accelerated. In order to assist the flow of blood and - lymph, stroking is applied centripetally, that is to say, upwards - along the limbs and the lower part of the body, downwards from the - head. The effects of the increased physiological activity set up are - numerous. Functional ability is restored to exhausted muscles by the - removal of fatigue products and the induction of a fresh blood supply; - congestion is relieved; collections of serous fluid are dispersed; - secretion and excretion are stimulated; local and general nutrition - are improved. These effects indicate the conditions in which massage - may be usefully applied. Such are various forms of paralysis and - muscular wasting, chronic and subacute affections of the joints, - muscular rheumatism, sciatica and other neuralgias, local congestions, - sprains, contractions, insomnia and some forms of headache, in which - downward stroking from the head relieves cerebral congestion. It has - also been used in anaemia, hysteria and "neurasthenia," disorders of - the female organs, melancholia and other forms of insanity, - morphinism, obesity, constipation, inflammatory and other affections - of the eye, including even cataract. General massage is sometimes - applied, as a form of passive exercise, to indolent persons whose - tissues are overloaded with the products of incomplete metabolism. - - As with other methods of treatment, there has been a tendency on the - part of some practitioners to exalt it into a cure-all, and of others - to ignore it altogether. Of its therapeutic value, when judiciously - used, there is no doubt, but it is for the physician or surgeon to say - when and how it should be applied. Affections to which it is not - applicable are fevers, pregnancy, collections of pus, acute - inflammation of the joints, inflamed veins, fragile arteries, wounds - of the skin and, generally speaking, those conditions in which it is - not desirable to increase the circulation, or in which the patient - cannot bear handling. In such conditions it may have a very injurious - and even dangerous effect, and therefore should not be used in a - haphazard manner without competent advice. - - The revival of massage in Europe and America has called into existence - a considerable number of professional operators, both male and female, - who may be regarded as forming a branch of the nursing profession. - Some of these are trained in hospitals or other institutions, some by - private practitioners and some not at all. Similarly some are attached - to organized societies or institutions while others pursue their - calling independently. Several things are required for a good - operator. One is physical strength. Deep massage is very laborious - work, and cannot be carried on for an hour, or even half an hour, - without unusual muscular power. Feeble persons cannot practise it - effectively at all. The duration of a sitting may vary from five or - ten minutes to an hour. For general massage at least half an hour is - required. A masser should have strength enough to do the work without - too obvious exhaustion, which gives the patient an unpleasant - impression. A second requirement is tactile and muscular sensibility. - A person not endowed with a fine sense of touch and resistance is - liable to exert too great or too little pressure; the one hurts the - patient, the other is ineffective. Then skill and knowledge, which can - only be acquired by a course of instruction, are necessary. Finally, - some guarantee of cleanliness and character is almost indispensable. - Independent massers may possess all these qualifications in a higher - degree than those connected with an institution, but they may also be - totally devoid of them, whereas connexion with a recognized hospital - or society is a guarantee for a certain standard of efficiency. In - London there are several such institutions, which train and send out - both male and female massers. The fee is 5s. an hour, or from two to - four guineas a week. On the European continent, where trained massers - are much employed by some practitioners, the fee is considerably - lower; in the United States it is higher. For reasons mentioned above, - it is most desirable that patients should be attended by operators of - their own sex. If this is not insisted upon, a valuable therapeutic - means will be in danger of falling into disrepute both with the - medical profession and the general public. (A. Sl.) - - - - -MASSAGETAE, an ancient warlike people described by Herodotus (i. -203-216; iv. 22, 172) as dwelling beyond the Araxes (i.e. the Oxus) in -what is now Balkh and Bokhara. It was against their queen Tomyris that -Cyrus undertook the expedition in which according to one story he met -his end. In their usages some tribes were nomads like the people of -Scythia (q.v.), others with their community of wives and habit of -killing and eating their parents recalled the Issedones (q.v.); while -the dwellers in the islands of the river were fish-eating savages. -Probably the name denoted no ethnic unity, but included all the -barbarous north-eastern neighbours of the Persians. Herodotus says they -only used gold and copper (or bronze), not silver or iron. Their lavish -use of gold has caused certain massive ornaments from southern Siberia, -now in the Hermitage at St Petersburg, to be referred to the Massagetae. - (E. H. M.) - - - - -MASSA MARITTIMA, a town and episcopal see of the province of Grosseto, -Tuscany, Italy, 24 m. N.N.W. of Grosseto direct and 16 m. by rail N.E. -of Follonica (which is 28 m. N.W. of Grosseto on the main coast -railway), 1444 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), (town) 9219; (commune) -17,519. It has a cathedral of the 13th century containing a Romanesque -font (1267 with a cover of 1447) and a Gothic reliquary (1324) of the -saint Cerbone, to whom the cathedral is dedicated. The battlemented -municipal palace of the 13th century is picturesque. There are mineral -springs, mines of iron, mercury, lignite and copper, with foundries, -ironworks and olive-oil mills. At Follonica on the coast, but in this -commune, are the furnaces in which are smelted the iron ore of Elba. - - - - -MASSAWA, or MASSOWAH, a fortified town on the African coast of the Red -Sea, chief port of the Italian colony of Eritrea, in 15 deg. 36' N. and -39 deg. 28' E. Pop. about 10,000. The town stands at the north end of -the bay of Massawa and is built partly on a coral island of the same -name--where was the original settlement--and partly on the islets of -Tautlub and Sheik Said, and the neighbouring mainland. Massawa Island is -from 20 to 25 ft. above the sea, its length does not exceed 1/2 m. and -its breadth is about 1/4 m. The harbour is formed by the channel between -the island and the mainland. It affords good anchorage in from 5 to 9 -fathoms. The town possesses several good public buildings, chiefly built -of coral, as are the houses of the principal European and Arab -merchants. Landward the town is guarded by forts erected by the Italians -since 1885. Water was formerly scarce; but in 1872 an ancient aqueduct -from Mokullu (5 m. distant westward) was restored and continued by an -embankment to the town. A railway connects Massawa with Asmara, the -capital of the colony. Besides the Abyssinians, who speak a Tigre -dialect corrupted with Arabic, the inhabitants comprise Italian -officials and traders, Greeks, Indians, Arabs from Yemen and Hadramut, -Gallas and Somalis. Massawa is the natural port for northern Abyssinia -but commerce is undeveloped owing to the lack of rapid means of -communication. The trade done consists mainly in exporting hides, -butter, Abyssinian coffee and civet, and importing European and Indian -cotton goods and silks. It increased in value from about L65,000 per -annum in 1865 (the last year of Turkish control) to from L240,000 to -L280,000 between 1879 and 1881, when under the administration of Egypt. -Under the Italians trade greatly developed. The returns for the five -years 1901-1905 showed an average annual value of L1,800,000, about -two-thirds being imports. - -The island of Massawa has probably been inhabited from a very early -date. It appears to have formed part of the Abyssinian dominions for -many centuries. It was at Massawa (Matzua, as it is called by the -Portuguese chroniclers) that Christopher da Gama and his comrades landed -in July 1541 on their way to aid the Abyssinians against the Moslem -invaders. Captured by the Turks in 1557, the island remained a Turkish -possession over two hundred years. A military colony of Bosnians settled -at Arkiko (a port on the bay 4 m. south of Massawa Island) was appointed -not only to defend it in case of attack from the mainland, but to keep -it supplied with water in return for $1400 per month from the town's -customs. For some time at the close of the 18th century Massawa was held -by the sherif of Mecca, and it afterwards passed to Mehemet Ali of -Egypt. The Turks were reinstated about 1850, but in 1865 they handed the -island back to Egypt for an annual tribute of 2(1/2) million piastres. In -February 1885 Massawa was occupied by an Italian force, the Egyptian -garrison stationed there being withdrawn in the November following (see -EGYPT; ITALY; ABYSSINIA). The port was the capital of the Italian colony -until 1900 when the seat of administration was removed to Asmara (see -ERITREA). - - For a description of the town in 1769 see the _Travels_ of James - Bruce. At that time the governor, though appointed by the Turks, paid - one half of the customs receipts to the negus of Abyssinia in return - for the protection of that monarch. - - - - -MASSENA, ANDRE, or _Andrea_, duke of Rivoli, prince of Essling -(1756-1817), the greatest of Napoleon's marshals, son of a small wine -merchant, it is said of Jewish origin, was born at Nice on the 6th of -May 1756. His parents were very poor, and he began life as a cabin boy, -but he did not care much for the sea, and in 1775 he enlisted in the -Royal-Italien regiment. He quickly rose to be under-officer-adjutant; -but, finding his birth would prevent his ever getting a commission, he -left the army in 1789, retired to his native city, and married. At the -sound of war, however, and the word republic, his desire to see service -increased, and he once more left Italy, and joined the 3rd battalion of -the volunteers of the Var in 1791. In those days when men elected their -officers, and many of the old commissioned officers had emigrated, -promotion to a man with a knowledge of his drill was rapid, and by -February 1792 Massena was a lieutenant-colonel. His regiment was one of -those in the army which occupied Nice, and in the advance to the -Apennines which followed, his knowledge of the country, of the language, -and of the people was so useful that in December 1793 he was already a -general of division. In command of the advanced guard he won the battle -of Saorgio in August 1794, capturing ninety guns, and after many -successes he at last, on the 23rd of November 1795, with the right wing -of the army of Italy, had the greatest share in the victory of Loano, -won by Scherer over the Austrians and Sardinians. In Bonaparte's great -campaign of 1796-97 Massena was his most trusted general of division; in -each battle he won fresh laurels, up to the crowning victory of Rivoli, -from which he afterwards took his title. It was during this campaign -that Bonaparte gave him the title of _enfant gate de la victoire_, which -he was to justify till he met the English in 1810. In 1798 he commanded -the army of Rome for a short time, but was displaced by the intrigues of -his subordinate Berthier. Massena's next important service was in -command of the army in Switzerland, which united the army in Germany -under Moreau, and that in Italy under Joubert. There he proved himself a -great captain, as he had already proved himself a great lieutenant; the -archduke Charles and Suvarov had each been successful in Germany and in -Italy, and now turned upon Massena in Switzerland. That general held his -ground well against the archduke, and then suddenly, leaving Soult to -face the Austrians, he transported his army to Zurich, where, on the -26th of September 1799, he entirely defeated Korsakov, taking 200 guns -and 5000 prisoners. This campaign and battle placed his reputation on a -level with that of his compatriot Bonaparte, and he might have made the -revolution of Brumaire, but he was sincerely attached to the republic, -and had no ambition beyond a desire to live well and to have plenty of -money to spend. Bonaparte, now First Consul, sent him to Genoa to -command the debris of the army of Italy, and he nobly defended Genoa -from February to June to the very last extremity, giving time for -Bonaparte to strike his great blow at Marengo. He now went to Paris, -where he sat in the Corps Legislatif in 1803, and actually defended -Moreau without drawing upon himself the ill-will of Napoleon, who well -knew his honesty and lack of ambition. - -In 1804 he was made one of the first marshals of France of the new -regime, and in 1805 was decorated with the Grand Eagle of the Legion of -Honour. In that year Napoleon needed an able general to keep in check -the archduke Charles in Italy, while he advanced through Germany with -the grand army. Massena was chosen; he kept the archduke occupied till -he received news of the surrender of Ulm, and then on the 30th of -October defeated him in the battle of Caldiero. After the peace of -Pressburg had been signed, Massena was ordered to take possession of the -kingdom of Naples, and to place Joseph Bonaparte on the throne. This -task done, Napoleon summoned Massena to Poland, where he as usual -distinguished himself, and where he for the time gave up his republican -principles. In 1808 he was made duke of Rivoli. In 1808 he was -accidentally wounded by his old enemy Berthier when both were in -attendance on the emperor at a shooting party, and he lost the sight of -one eye. In the campaign in 1809 he covered himself with glory at -Landshut and at Eckmuhl, and finally at the battle of Aspern-Essling his -magnificent leadership made what would without him have been an -appalling disaster into a mere reverse of which the enemy could make no -use. On the field of Wagram Massena, though too ill to ride, directed -from his carriage the movements of the right wing. For his great -services he was created prince of Essling, and given the princely castle -of Thouars. He was then ordered to Spain to "drive the English into the -sea." (For the campaigns of 1810 and 1811, the advance to and the -retreat from Torres Vedras see PENINSULAR WAR.) Massena himself, with -some justice, ascribed his failure to the frequent disobedience of his -subordinates Ney, Reynier and Junot, and public opinion attributed this -disobedience to the presence with the army of Massena's mistress, and to -the resentment thereat felt by the wives of the three generals. Still, -unsuccessful as he was, Massena displayed the determination of the -defence of Genoa and the fertility in expedients of the campaign of -Zurich, and kept his army for five weary months close up to Wellington's -impregnable position before retiring. His retreat through a devastated -country was terrible, but his force of character kept his men together, -and Ney having shown the worst side of his character now showed the best -in the frequent and brilliant rearguard actions, until a new act of -insubordination at last made the old marshal dismiss Ney from his -command. Soon Massena was once again ready to try his fortune, and he -nearly defeated Wellington at Fuentes d'Onoro, though much hampered by -Bessieres. But his recall soon followed this and he returned home to -find his prestige gone. The old marshal felt he had a right to complain -of Ney and of Napoleon himself, and, it is said, opened communications -with Fouche and the remnant of the republican party. Whether this be -true or not, Napoleon gave his greatest marshal no more employment in -the field, but made him merely a territorial commandant at Marseilles. -This command he still held at the restoration, when Louis XVIII. -confirmed him in it, and with true Bourbon stupidity gave him letters of -naturalization, as if the great leader of the French armies had not -ceased to be an Italian. When Napoleon returned from Elba, Massena, -probably by the advice of Fouche, kept Marseilles quiet to await events, -the greatest service he could do the royalists, but afterwards imputed -to him as a fault. After the second restoration Massena was summoned to -sit on the court-martial which tried Marshal Ney, but, though he had -been on bad terms with that general, and attributed his own disgrace to -him, the old soldier would not be his comrade's judge. This refusal was -used by the royalists to attack the marshal, against whom they raked up -every offence they could think of. This annoyance shortened his life, -and on the 4th of April 1817 the old hero died. He was buried in -Pere-la-Chaise, with only the word "Massena" upon his tombstone. - -In private life indolent, greedy, rapacious, ill-educated and morose, in -war Massena was, like Napoleon, the incarnation of battle. Only his -indolence and his consequent lack of far-ranging imagination prevented -him being as great in strategy as in tactics. His genius needed the -presence of the enemy to stimulate it, but once it sprang to life -Massena became an ideal leader, absolutely brave, resourceful, -unrelenting and indefatigable. He was as great a master of the strategy -of forces in immediate contact--of gathering up as it were the threads -of the fugue into a "stretto." For the planning of a whole perfect -campaign he had neither knowledge nor inclination, and he falls short -therefore of the highest rank amongst great generals; but his place -amongst the greatest of soldiers is beyond challenge. - - See Thiebault's _Eloge funebre_, and Koch's _Memoires de Massena_ (4 - vols., 1849), a valuable work, carefully compiled. In more modern - times E. Gachot has produced several important works dealing with - Massena's campaigns. - - - - -MASSENBACH, CHRISTIAN KARL AUGUST LUDWIG VON (1758-1827), Prussian -soldier, was born at Schmalkalden on the 16th of April 1758, and -educated at Heilbronn and Stuttgart, devoting himself chiefly to -mathematics. He became an officer of the Wurttemberg army in 1778, and -left this for the service of Frederick the Great in 1782. The pay of his -rank was small, and his appointment on the quartermaster-general's staff -made it necessary to keep two horses, so that he had to write -mathematical school-books in his spare time to eke out his resources. He -was far however from neglecting the science and art of war, for thus -early he had begun to make his name as a theorist as well as a -mathematician. After serving as instructor in mathematics to the young -prince Louis, he took part with credit in the expedition into Holland, -and was given the order _Pour le merite_. On returning to Prussia he -became mathematical instructor at the school of military engineering, -leaving this post in 1792 to take part as a general staff officer in the -war against France. He was awarded a prebend at Minden for his services -as a topographical engineer on the day of Valmy, and after serving -through the campaigns of 1793 and 1794 he published a number of memoirs -on the military history of these years. He was chiefly occupied however -with framing schemes for the reorganization of the then neglected -general staff of the Prussian army, and many of his proposals were -accepted. Bronsart von Schellendorf in his _Duties of the General Staff_ -says of Massenbach's work in this connexion, "the organization which he -proposed and in the main carried out survived even the catastrophes of -1806-1807, and exists even at the present moment in its original -outline." This must be accounted as high praise when it is remembered -how much of the responsibility for these very disasters must be laid to -Massenbach's account. The permanent gain to the service due to his -exertions was far more than formal, for it is to him that the general -staff owes its tradition of thorough and patient individual effort. But -the actual doctrine taught by Massenbach, who was now a colonel, may be -summarized as the doctrine of positions carried to a ludicrous excess; -the claims put forward for the general staff, that it was to prepare -cut-and-dried plans of operations in peace which were to be imposed on -the troop leaders in war, were derided by the responsible generals; and -the memoirs on proposed plans of campaign to suit certain political -combinations were worked out in quite unnecessary detail. It was -noteworthy that none of the proposed plans of campaign considered France -as an enemy. - -In 1805 came threats of the war with Napoleon which Massenbach had -strongly opposed. He was made quartermaster-general (chief of staff) to -Prince Hohenlohe, over whom he soon obtained a fatal ascendancy. War was -averted for a moment by the result of the battle of Austerlitz, but it -broke out in earnest in October 1806. Massenbach's influence clouded all -the Prussian operations. The battles of Jena and Auerstadt were lost, -and the capitulation of Prince Hohenlohe's army was negotiated. Even -suggestions of disloyalty were not wanting; an attempt to try him by -court-martial was only frustrated by Prince Hohenlohe's action in taking -upon himself, as commander-in-chief, the whole responsibility for -Massenbach's actions. He then retired to his estate in the Posen -province, and occupied himself in writing pamphlets, memoirs, &c. When -his estates passed into the grand duchy of Warsaw, he chose to remain a -Prussian subject, and on the outbreak of the war of liberation he asked -in vain for a post on the Prussian staff. After the fall of Napoleon he -took part in Wurttemberg politics, was expelled from Stuttgart and -Heidelberg, and soon afterwards arrested at Frankfurt, delivered over to -the Prussian authorities and condemned to fourteen years' fortress -imprisonment for his alleged publication of state secrets in his -memoirs. He was kept in prison till 1826, when Frederick William III., -having recovered from an accident, pardoned those whom he considered to -have wronged him most deeply. He died on the 21st of November 1827, at -his estate of Bialokoscz, Posen. - - The obituary in _Neuer Nekrolog der Deutschen_, pt. ii. (Ilmenau, - 1827) is founded on a memoir (_Der Oberst C. v. Massenbach_) which was - published at the beginning of his imprisonment. - - - - -MASSENET, JULES EMILE FREDERIC (1842- ), French composer, was born at -Montaud, on the 12th of May 1842. He studied at the Paris Conservatoire, -where he obtained the Grand Prix de Rome in 1863 with the cantata _David -Rizzio_. Massenet became one of the most prolific composers of his time. -His operas include the following: _La Grande tante_, one act, opera -comique (1867); _Don Cesar de Bazan_, three acts, opera comique (1872); -_Le Roi de Lahore_, five acts, opera (1877); _Herodiade_, five acts -(Brussels, 1881); _Manon_, five acts, opera comique (1884); _Le Cid_, -four acts, opera (1885); _Esclarmonde_, four acts, opera comique (1889); -_Le Mage_, five acts, opera (1891); _Werther_, four acts (Vienna, 1892); -_Thais_, three acts, opera (1894); _Le Portrait de Manon_, one act, -opera comique (1894); _La Navarraise_, two acts (Covent Garden, 1894); -_Sapho_, opera comique (1897); _Cendrillon_, opera comique (1900); -_Griselidis_, opera comique (1901); _Le Jongleur de Notre Dame_ -(Mentone, 1902). Of these the most popular is Manon. Massenet's other -works include _Marie Madeleine_, sacred drama (1873); _Eve_, a mystery -(1875); _La Vierge_, sacred legend (1880); six orchestral suites -entitled _Scenes hongroises_, _Scenes pittoresques_, _Scenes -dramatiques_, _Scenes napolitaines_, _Scenes de feerie_, _Scenes -alsaciennes_; music to the tragedy _Les Erynnies_, to _Theodora_, _Le -Crocodile_, _L'Hetman_; a requiem, _Narcisse_; an idyll, _Biblis_; a -_Scene antique_; several sets of songs, entitled _Poeme d'avril_, _Poeme -d'amour_, _Poeme d'hiver_, _Poeme d'octobre_, _Poeme pastoral_, _Poeme -du souvenir_; also a large number of detached songs. He was professor of -composition at the Conservatoire from 1878 to 1896, among his pupils -being Hillemacher, Marty, Bruneau, Vidal, Pierne, Leroux and -Charpentier. Massenet undoubtedly possesses a style of his own. He is at -his best in music descriptive of the tender passion, and many of the -love scenes in his operas are very beautiful. - - - - -MASSEREENE, JOHN CLOTWORTHY, 1ST VISCOUNT (d. 1665), Anglo-Irish -politician, was a son of Sir Hugh Clotworthy, sheriff of county Antrim. -He was elected to the Irish parliament as member for county Antrim in -1634, and was a member both of the Short and of the Long Parliament in -England. Clotworthy was a vehement opponent of the earl of Stafford, in -whose impeachment he took an active share. He also took part in the -prosecution of Archbishop Laud. Having unsuccessfully negotiated with -Ormond for the surrender of Dublin to the Parliamentary forces in 1646, -he was accused in the following year of having betrayed his cause, and -also of embezzlement; in consequence of these charges he fled to the -Continent, but returned to parliament in June 1648. On the 12th of -December in that year he was arrested, and remained in prison for nearly -three years. Having taken an active part in forwarding the Restoration, -he was employed in Ireland in arranging the affairs of the soldiers and -other adventurers who had settled in Ireland Clotworthy in no way abated -his old animosity against "papists" and high Anglicans, and he -championed the cause of the Irish Presbyterians; but being personally -agreeable to Charles II., his ecclesiastical views were overlooked, and -on the 21st of November 1660 he was created Baron Loughneagh and -Viscount Massereene in the Irish peerage, with remainder in default of -male heirs to his son-in-law, Sir John Skeffington. Massereene died -without male issue in September 1665, and the title devolved on -Skeffington, whose great-grandson, the fifth viscount, was created earl -of Massereene in 1756. The earldom became extinct on the death of the -fourth earl without male issue in 1816, the viscounty and barony of -Loughneagh descending to his daughter Harriet, whose husband, Thomas -Foster, took the name of Skeffington, and inherited from his mother in -1824 the titles of Viscount Ferrard and Baron Oriel of Collon in the -Irish peerage, and from his father in 1828 that of Baron Oriel of -Ferrard in the peerage of the United Kingdom. - - - - -MASSEY, SIR EDWARD (c. 1619-c. 1674), English soldier in the Great -Rebellion, was the son of John Massey of Coddington, Cheshire. Little is -known of his early life, but it is said that he served in the Dutch army -against the Spaniards. In 1639 he appears as a captain of pioneers in -the army raised by Charles I. to fight against the Scots. At the -outbreak of the Great Rebellion he was with the king at York, but he -soon joined the Parliamentary army. As lieutenant-colonel under the earl -of Stamford he became deputy governor of Gloucester, where he remained -till towards the end of the first Civil War, becoming governor early in -1643. He conducted minor operations against numerous small bodies of -Royalists, and conducted the defence of Gloucester against the king's -main army in August 1643, with great steadiness and ability, receiving -the thanks of parliament and a grant of L1000 for his services. In 1644 -Massey continued to keep the field and to disperse the local Royalists, -and on several occasions he measured swords with Prince Rupert. In May -1644 he was made general of the forces of the Western Association. In -1645 he took the offensive against Lord Goring and the western -Royalists, advanced to the relief of Taunton, and in the autumn -co-operated effectively with Sir Thomas Fairfax and the New Model army -in the Langport campaign. After taking part in the desultory operations -which closed the first war, he took his seat in the House of Commons as -member for Gloucester. He then began to take an active part in politics -on the Presbyterian side, and was one of the generals who was impeached -by the army on the ground that they were attempting to revive the Civil -War in the Presbyterian interests. Massey fled from England in June -1647, and though he resumed his seat in the house in 1648 he was again -excluded by Pride's Purge, and after a short imprisonment escaped to -Holland. Thence, taking the side of the king openly and definitely like -many other Presbyterians, he accompanied Charles II. to Scotland. He -fought against Cromwell at the bridge of Stirling and Inverkeithing, and -commanded the advanced guard of the Royalist army in the invasion of -England in 1651. It was hoped that Massey's influence would win over the -towns of the Severn valley to the cause of the king, and the march of -the army on Worcester was partly inspired by this expectation. However, -he effected little, and after riding with the king for some distance -from the field of Worcester, fell into the hands of his former comrades -and was lodged in the Tower. He again managed to escape to Holland. -While negotiating with the English Presbyterians for the restoration of -Charles, he visited England twice, in 1654 and 1656. In 1660 he was -active in preparing for Charles's return, and was rewarded by a -knighthood and a grant of L3000. The rest of his life was spent in -political, and occasionally in military and administrative business, and -he is said to have died in Ireland in 1674 or 1675. - - - - -MASSEY, GERALD (1828-1907), English poet, was born near Tring, -Hertfordshire, on the 29th of May 1828. His parents were in humble -circumstances, and Massey was little more than a child when he was set -to hard work in a silk factory, which he afterwards deserted for the -equally laborious occupation of straw-plaiting. These early years were -rendered gloomy by much distress and deprivation, against which the -young man strove with increasing spirit and virility, educating himself -in his spare time, and gradually cultivating his innate taste for -literary work. He was attracted by the movement known as Christian -Socialism, into which he threw himself with whole-hearted vigour, and so -became associated with Maurice and Kingsley. His first public appearance -as a writer was in connexion with a journal called the _Spirit of -Freedom_, of which he became editor, and he was only twenty-two when he -published his first volume of poems, _Voices of Freedom and Lyrics of -Love_. These he followed in rapid succession by _The Ballad of Babe -Christabel_ (1854), _War Waits_ (1855), _Havelock's March_ (1860), and -_A Tale of Eternity_ (1869). Many years afterwards in 1889, he collected -the best of the contents of these volumes, with additions, into a -two-volume edition of his poems called _My Lyrical Life_. He also -published works dealing with spiritualism, the study of Shakespeare's -sonnets (1872 and 1890), and theological speculation. It is generally -understood that he was the original of George Eliot's _Felix Holt_. -Massey's poetry has a certain rough and vigorous element of sincerity -and strength which easily accounts for its popularity at the time of its -production. He treated the theme of Sir Richard Grenville before -Tennyson thought of using it, with much force and vitality. Indeed, -Tennyson's own praise of Massey's work is still its best eulogy, for the -Laureate found in him "a poet of fine lyrical impulse, and of a rich -half-Oriental imagination." The inspiration of his poetry is essentially -British; he was a patriot to the core. It is, however, as an -Egyptologist that Gerald Massey is best known in the world of letters. -He first published _The Book of the Beginnings_, followed by _The -Natural Genesis_; but by far his most important work is _Ancient Egypt: -The Light of the World_, published shortly before his death. He died on -the 29th of October 1907. - - See an article by J. Churton Collins in the _Contemporary Review_ (May - 1904). - - - - -MASSICUS, MONS, a mountain ridge of ancient Italy, in the territory of the -Aurunci, and on the border of Campania and Latium adjectum--attributed by -most authors to the latter. It projects south-west from the volcanic -system of Rocca Monfina (see SUESSA AURUNCA) as far as the sea, and -separates the lower course of the Liris from the plain of Campania. It -consists of limestone, with a superstratum of pliocenic and volcanic -masses, and was once an island; its highest point is 2661 ft. above -sea-level. - - It was very famous for its wine in ancient times. There was just room - along the coast for the road to pass through; the pass was guarded by - the Auruncan town of Vescia (probably on the mountain side), which - ceased to exist in 314 B.C. after the defeat of the Ausones, but left - its name to the spot. Its successor, Sinuessa, on the coast, a station - on the Via Appia, was constructed in 312 B.C., and a colony was - founded there in 295 B.C. It is not infrequently mentioned by - classical writers as a place in which travellers halted. Here Virgil - joined Horace on the famous journey to Brundusium. Domitian - considerably increased its importance by the construction of the Via - Domitiana, which left the Via Appia here and ran to Cumae and Puteoli, - and it was he, no doubt, who raised it to the position of _colonia - Flavia_. The town was destroyed by the Saracens, but some ruins of it - are still visible two miles north-west of the modern village of - Mondragone. The mineral springs which still rise here were frequented - in antiquity. - - - - -MASSIF, a French term, adopted in geology and physical geography for a -mountainous mass or group of connected heights, whether isolated or -forming part of a larger mountain system. A "massif" is more or less -clearly marked off by valleys. - - - - -MASSILLON, JEAN BAPTISTE (1663-1742), French bishop and preacher, was -born at Hyeres on the 24th of June 1663, his father being a royal notary -of that town. At the age of eighteen he joined the Congregation of the -Oratory and taught for a time in the colleges of his order at Pezenas, -and Montbrison and at the Seminary of Vienne. On the death of Henri de -Villars, archbishop of Vienne, in 1693, he was commissioned to deliver a -funeral oration, and this was the beginning of his fame. In obedience to -Cardinal de Noailles, archbishop of Paris, he left the Cistercian abbey -of Sept-Fonds, to which he had retired, and settled in Paris, where he -was placed at the head of the famous seminary of Saint Magloire. He soon -gained a wide reputation as a preacher and was selected to be the Advent -preacher at the court of Versailles in 1699. He was made bishop of -Clermont in 1717, and two years later was elected a member of the French -Academy. The last years of his life were spent in the faithful discharge -of his episcopal duties; his death took place at Clermont on the 18th of -September 1742. Massillon enjoyed in the 18th century a reputation equal -to that of Bossuet and of Bourdaloue, and has been much praised by -Voltaire, D'Alembert and kindred spirits among the _Encyclopaedists_. -His popularity was probably due to the fact that in his sermons he lays -little stress on dogmatic questions, but treats generally of moral -subjects, in which the secrets of the human heart and the processes of -man's reason are described with poetical feeling. He has usually been -contrasted with his predecessor Bourdaloue, the latter having the credit -of vigorous denunciation, Massillon that of gentle persuasiveness. -Besides the _Petit Careme_, a sermon which he delivered before the young -king Louis XV. in 1718, his sermons on the Prodigal Son, on the small -number of the elect, on death, for Christmas Day, and for the Fourth -Sunday in Advent, may be perhaps cited as his masterpieces. His funeral -oration on Louis XIV. is only noted now for the opening sentence: "Dieu -seul est grand." But in truth Massillon is singularly free from -inequality. His great literary power, his reputation for benevolence, -and his known toleration and dislike of doctrinal disputes caused him to -be much more favourably regarded than most churchmen by the -_philosophes_ of the 18th century. - - The first edition of Massillon's complete works was published by his - nephew, also an Oratorian (Paris, 1745-1748), and upon this, in the - absence of MSS., succeeding reprints were based. The best modern - edition is that of the Abbe Blampignon (Paris, 1865-1868, 4 vols.; new - ed. 1886). - - See Abbe Blampignon, _Massillon, d'apres des documents inedits_ - (Paris, 1879); and _L'Episcopat de Massitlon d'apres des documents - inedits, suivi de sa correspondance_ (Paris, 1884); F. Brunetiere - "L'Eloquence de Massillon" in _Etudes critiques_ (Paris, 1882); Pere - Ingold, _L'Oratoire et le jansenisme au temps de Massitlon_ (Paris, - 1880); and Louis Petit de Julleville's _Histoire de la langue et de la - litterature francaise_, v. 372-385 (Paris, 1898). - - - - -MASSILLON, a city of Stark county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Tuscarawas river -and the Ohio canal, 8 m. W. of Canton, and about 50 m. S. by E. of -Cleveland. Pop. (1900), 11,944 (1693 foreign-born); (1910), 13,879. It -is served by the Pennsylvania (Pittsburg, Ft Wayne & Chicago Division), -the Baltimore & Ohio and the Wheeling & Lake Erie railways. Massillon is -built among hills in a part of the state noted for its large production -of coal and wheat and abounding in white sandstone, iron ore and -potter's clay. The city has various manufactures, including iron, -engines, furnaces, reapers, threshers and bottles. The total value of -the factory products in 1905 was $3,707,013, an increase of 34.8% over -that of 1900. The first settlement was made in 1825; in 1826 the town -was laid out and named in honour of Jean Baptiste Massillon; it was -incorporated a village in 1853, and became a city in 1868. - - - - -MASSIMO, or MASSIMI, a Roman princely family of great antiquity, said to -be descended from the ancient Maximi of republican Rome. The name is -first mentioned in 1012 in the person of Leo de Maximis, and the family -played a considerable part in the history of the city in the middle -ages. The brothers Pietro and Francesco Massimi acquired fame by -protecting and encouraging the German printer Ulrich Hahn, who came to -Rome in 1467. In the 16th century the Massimi were the richest of the -Roman nobles. A marquisate was conferred on them in 1544, and the -lordship of Arsoli in 1574. To-day there are two branches of the -Massimi, viz. the Principi Massimo, descended from Camillo Massimiliano -(1770-1840), and the dukes of Rignano, descended from Francesco Massimo -(1773-1844). One of the sons of the present Prince Camillo Carlo -Alberto, Don Fabrizio, married Princess Beatrice, daughter of Don Carlos -of Bourbon (duke of Madrid), the pretender to the Spanish throne. The -Palazzo Massimo in Rome was built by Baldassare Peruzzi by order of -Pietro Massimo, on the ruins of an earlier palace destroyed in the sack -of Rome in 1527. - - See F. Gregorovius, _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_ (Stuttgart, 1880); A. - von Reumont, _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_ (Berlin, 1868); _Almanach de - Gotha_; J. H. Douglas, _The Principal Noble Families of Rome_ (Rome, - 1905). - - - - -MASSINGER, PHILIP (1583-1640), English dramatist, son of Arthur -Massinger or Messanger, was baptized at St Thomas's, Salisbury, on the -24th of November 1583. He apparently belonged to an old Salisbury -family, for the name occurs in the city records as early as 1415. He is -described in his matriculation entry at St Alban Hall, Oxford (1602), as -the son of a gentleman. His father, who had also been educated at St -Alban Hall, was a member of parliament, and was attached to the -household of Henry Herbert, 2nd earl of Pembroke, who recommended him in -1587 for the office of examiner in the court of the marches. The 3rd -earl of Pembroke, the William Herbert whose name has been connected with -Shakespeare's sonnets, succeeded to the title in 1601. It has been -suggested that he supported the poet at Oxford, but the significant -omission of any reference to him in any of Massinger's prefaces points -to the contrary. Massinger left Oxford without a degree in 1606. His -father had died in 1603, and he was perhaps dependent on his own -exertions. The lack of a degree and the want of patronage from Lord -Pembroke may both be explained on the supposition that he had become a -Roman Catholic. On leaving the university he went to London to make his -living as a dramatist, but his name cannot be definitely affixed to any -play until fifteen years later, when _The Virgin Martyr_ (ent. at -Stationers' Hall, Dec. 7, 1621) appeared as the work of Massinger and -Dekker. During these years he worked in collaboration with other -dramatists. A joint letter, from Nathaniel Field, Robert Daborne and -Philip Massinger, to Philip Henslowe, begs for an immediate loan of five -pounds to release them from their "unfortunate extremitie," the money to -be taken from the balance due for the "play of Mr Fletcher's and ours." -A second document shows that Massinger and Daborne owed Henslowe L3 on -the 4th of July 1615. The earlier note probably dates from 1613, and -from this time Massinger apparently worked regularly with John Fletcher, -although in editions of Beaumont and Fletcher's works his co-operation -is usually unrecognized. Sir Aston Cokayne, Massinger's constant friend -and patron, refers in explicit terms to this collaboration in a sonnet -addressed to Humphrey Moseley on the publication of his folio edition of -Beaumont and Fletcher (_Small Poems of Divers Sorts_, 1658), and in an -epitaph on the two poets he says:-- - - "Plays they did write together, were great friends, - And now one grave includes them in their ends." - -After Philip Henslowe's death in 1616 Massinger and Fletcher began to -write for the King's Men. Between 1623 and 1626 Massinger produced -unaided for the Lady Elizabeth's Men then playing at the Cockpit three -pieces, _The Parliament of Love_, _The Bondman_ and _The Renegado_. With -the exception of these plays and _The Great Duke of Florence_, produced -in 1627 by the Queen's servants, Massinger continued to write regularly -for the King's Men until his death. The tone of the dedications of his -later plays affords evidence of his continued poverty. Thus in the -preface to _The Maid of Honour_ (1632) he wrote, addressing Sir Francis -Foljambe and Sir Thomas Bland: "I had not to this time subsisted, but -that I was supported by your frequent courtesies and favours." The -prologue to _The Guardian_ (licensed 1633) refers to two unsuccessful -plays and two years of silence, when the author feared he had lost the -popular favour. S. R. Gardiner, in an essay on "The Political Element in -Massinger" (_Contemp. Review_, Aug. 1876), maintained that Massinger's -dramas are before all else political, that the events of his day were as -openly criticized in his plays as current politics are in the cartoons -of _Punch_. It is probable that this break in his production was owing -to his free handling of public matters. In 1631 Sir Henry Herbert, the -master of the revels, refused to license an unnamed play by Massinger -because of "dangerous matter as the deposing of Sebastian, King of -Portugal," calculated presumably to endanger good relations between -England and Spain. There is little doubt that this was the same piece as -_Believe as You List_, in which time and place are changed, Antiochus -being substituted for Sebastian, and Rome for Spain. In the prologue -Massinger ironically apologizes for his ignorance of history, and -professes that his accuracy is at fault if his picture comes near "a -late and sad example." The obvious "late and sad example" of a wandering -prince could be no other than Charles I.'s brother-in-law, the elector -palatine. An allusion to the same subject may be traced in _The Maid of -Honour_. In another play by Massinger, not extant, Charles I. is -reported to have himself struck out a passage put into the mouth of Don -Pedro, king of Spain, as "too insolent." The poet seems to have adhered -closely to the politics of his patron, Philip Herbert, earl of -Montgomery, and afterwards 4th earl of Pembroke, who had leanings to -democracy and was a personal enemy of the duke of Buckingham. In _The -Bondman_, dealing with the history of Timoleon, Buckingham is satirized -as Gisco. The servility towards the Crown displayed in Beaumont and -Fletcher's plays reflected the temper of the court of James I. The -attitude of Massinger's heroes and heroines towards kings is very -different. Camiola's remarks on the limitations of the royal prerogative -(_Maid of Honour_, act iv. sc. v.) could hardly be acceptable at court. - -Massinger died suddenly at his house near the Globe theatre, and was -buried in the churchyard of St Saviour's, Southwark, on the 18th of -March 1640. In the entry in the parish register he is described as a -"stranger," which, however, implies nothing more than that he belonged -to another parish. - -The supposition that Massinger was a Roman Catholic rests upon three of -his plays, _The Virgin Martyr_ (licensed 1620), _The Renegado_ (licensed -1624) and _The Maid of Honour_ (c. 1621). The religious sentiment is -certainly such as would obviously best appeal to an audience sympathetic -to Roman Catholic doctrine. _The Virgin Martyr_, in which Dekker -probably had a large share, is really a miracle play, dealing with the -martyrdom of Dorothea in the time of Diocletian, and the supernatural -element is freely used. Little stress can be laid on this performance as -elucidating Massinger's views. It is not entirely his work, and the -story is early Christian, not Roman Catholic. In _The Renegado_, -however, the action is dominated by the beneficent influence of a Jesuit -priest, Francisco, and the doctrine of baptismal regeneration is -enforced. In _The Maid of Honour_ a complicated situation is solved by -the decision of the heroine, Camiola, to take the veil. For this she is -held up "to all posterity a fair example for noble maids to imitate." -Among all Massinger's heroines Camiola is distinguished by genuine -purity and heroism. - -His plays have generally an obvious moral intention. He sets himself to -work out a series of ethical problems through a succession of ingenious -and effective plots. In the art of construction he has, indeed, few -rivals. But the virtue of his heroes and heroines is rather morbid than -natural, and often singularly divorced from common-sense. His _dramatis -personae_ are in general types rather than living persons, and their -actions do not appear to spring inevitably from their characters, but -rather from the exigencies of the plot. The heroes are too good, and the -villains too wicked to be quite convincing. Moreover their respective -goodness and villainy are too often represented as extraneous to -themselves. This defect of characterization shows that English drama had -already begun to decline. - -It seems doubtful whether Massinger was ever a popular playwright, for -the best qualities of his plays would appeal rather to politicians and -moralists than to the ordinary playgoer. He contributed, however, at -least one great and popular character to the English stage. Sir Giles -Overreach, in _A New Way to Pay Old Debts_, is a sort of commercial -Richard III., a compound of the lion and the fox, and the part provides -many opportunities for a great actor. He made another considerable -contribution to the comedy of manners in _The City Madam_. In -Massinger's own judgment _The Roman Actor_ was "the most perfect birth -of his Minerva." It is a study of the tyrant Domitian, and of the -results of despotic rule on the despot himself and his court. Other -favourable examples of his grave and restrained art are _The Duke of -Milan_, _The Bondman_ and _The Great Duke of Florence_. - -Massinger was a student and follower of Shakespeare. The form of his -verse, especially in the number of run-on lines, approximates in some -respects to Shakespeare's later manner. He is rhetorical and -picturesque, but rarely rises to extraordinary felicity. His verse is -never mean, but it sometimes comes perilously near to prose, and in -dealing with passionate situations it lacks fire and directness. - - The plays attributed to Massinger alone are: _The Duke of Milan, a - Tragedy_ (c. 1618, pr. 1623 and 1638); _The Unnatural Combat, a - Tragedy_ (c. 1619, pr. 1639); _The Bondman, an Antient Storie_ - (licensed 1623, pr. 1624); _The Renegado, a Tragaecomedie_ (lic. 1624, - pr. 1630); _The Parliament of Love_ (lic. 1624; ascribed, no doubt - erroneously, in the Stationers' Register, 1660, to W. Rowley; first - printed by Gifford from an imperfect MS. in 1805); _A New Way to Pay - Old Debts, a Comoedie_ (c. 1625, pr. 1632); _The Roman Actor. A - Tragaedie_ (lic. 1626, pr. 1629); _The Maid of Honour_ (dating perhaps - from 1621, pr. 1632); _The Picture, a Tragecomedie_ (lic. 1629, pr. - 1630); _The Great Duke of Florence, a Comicall Historie_ (lic. 1627, - pr. 1635); _The Emperor of the East, a Tragaecomoedie_ (lic. and pr. - 1631), founded on the story of Theodosius the Younger; _Believe as You - List_ (rejected by the censor in January, but licensed in May, 1631; - pr. 1848-1849 for the Percy Society); _The City Madam, a Comedie_ - (lic. 1632, pr. 1658), which Mr Fleay (_Biog. Chron. of the Eng. - Drama_, i. 226), however, considers to be a _rifaciamento_ of an older - play, probably by Jonson; _The Guardian_ (lic. 1633, pr. 1655); and - _The Bashful Lover_ (lic. 1636, pr. 1655). _A Very Woman, or The - Prince of Tarent_, licensed in 1634 as the work of Massinger alone, is - generally referred to his collaboration with Fletcher. The "exquisite - temperance and justice" of this piece are, according to Swinburne, - foreign to Fletcher's genius, and afford a striking example of - Massinger's artistic skill and moderation. - - Twelve plays of Massinger are said to be lost, but the titles of some - of these may be duplicates of those of existing plays. Five of these - lost plays were MSS. used by John Warburton's cook for pie-covers. The - numerous plays in which Massinger's co-operation with John Fletcher is - generally assumed are dealt with under BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER. But it - may be here noted that Mr R. Boyle has constructed an ingenious case - for the joint authorship by Fletcher and Massinger of the two - "Shakespearian" plays, _Henry VIII._ and _Two Noble Kinsmen_ (see the - New Shakspere Society's _Transactions_, 1884 and 1882). Mr Boyle sees - the touch of Massinger in the first two acts of the _Second Maiden's - Tragedy_ (Lansdowne MS., lic. 1611), a play with which the names of - Fletcher and Tourneur are also associated by different critics. _The - Fatall Dowry, a Tragedy_ (c. 1619, pr. 1632), which was adapted - without acknowledgment by Nicholas Rowe in his _Fair Penitent_, was - written in conjunction with Nathaniel Field; and _The Virgin Martir, a - Tragedie_ (lic. 1620, pr. 1621), with Thomas Dekker. - - Massinger's independent works were collected by Coxeter (4 vols., - 1759, revised edition with introduction by Thomas Davies, 1779), by J. - Monck Mason (4 vols., 1779), by William Gifford (4 vols., 1805, 1813), - by Hartley Coleridge (1840), by Lieut.-Colonel Cunningham (1867), and - selections by Mr Arthur Symons in the _Mermaid Series_ (1887-1889). - Gifford's remains the standard edition, and formed the basis of - Cunningham's text. It contains "An Essay on the Dramatic Writings of - Massinger" by Dr John Ferriar. - - Massinger has been the object of a good deal of criticism. A metrical - examination of the plays in which Massinger was concerned is given in - _Englische Studien_ (Halle, v. 74, vii. 66, viii. 39, ix. 209 and x. - 383), by Mr R. Boyle, who also contributed the life of the poet in the - _Dictionary of National Biography_. The sources of his plays are dealt - with by E. Koeppel in _Quellen Studien zu den Dramen Chapman's, - Massinger's und Ford's_ (Strassburg, 1897). For detailed criticism, - beside the introductions to the editions quoted, see A. W. Ward, - _Hist. of Eng. Dram. Lit._ (1899), iii. 1-47, and F. G. Fleay, _Biog. - Chron. of the Eng. Drama_ (1891), under _Fletcher_; a general estimate - of Massinger, dealing especially with his moral standpoint, is given - in Sir Leslie Stephen's _Hours in a Library_ (3rd series, 1879); - Swinburne, in the _Fortnightly Review_ (July 1889), while - acknowledging the justice of Sir L. Stephen's main strictures, found - much to say in praise of the poet. - - - - -MASSINISSA (c. 238-149 B.C.), king of Massylian or eastern Numidia. He -was educated, like many of the Numidian chiefs, at Carthage, learnt -Latin and Greek, and was an accomplished as well as a naturally clever -man. Although his kingdom was nominally independent of Carthage, it -really stood to it in a relation of vassalage; it was directly under -Carthaginian influences, and was imbued to a very considerable extent -with Carthaginian civilization. It was to this that Massinissa owed his -fame and success; he was a barbarian at heart, but he had a varnish of -culture, and to this he added the craft and cunning in which -Carthaginian statesmen were supposed to excel. While yet a young man -(212) he forced his neighbour Syphax, prince of western Numidia, who had -recently entered into an alliance with Rome, to fly to the Moors in the -extreme west of Africa. Soon afterwards he appeared in Spain, fighting -for Carthage with a large force of Numidian cavalry against the Romans -under the two Scipios. The defeat of the Carthaginian army in 206 led -him to cast in his lot with Rome. Scipio Africanus is said to have -cultivated his friendship. Massinissa now quitted Spain for a while for -Africa, and was again engaged in a war with Syphax in which he was -decidedly worsted. Scipio's arrival in Africa in 204 gave him another -chance, and no sooner had he joined the Roman general than he crushed -his old enemy Syphax, and captured his capital Cirta (Constantine). Here -occurs the romantic story of Sophonisba, daughter of the Carthaginian -Hasdrubal, who had been promised in marriage to Massinissa, but had -subsequently become the wife of Syphax. Massinissa, according to the -story, married Sophonisba immediately after his victory, but was -required by Scipio to dismiss her as a Carthaginian, and consequently an -enemy to Rome. To save her from such humiliation he sent her poison, -with which she destroyed herself. Massinissa was now accepted as a loyal -ally of Rome, and was confirmed by Scipio in the possession of his -kingdom. In the battle of Zama (202) (see PUNIC WARS), he commanded the -cavalry on Scipio's right wing, and materially assisted the Roman -victory. For his services he received the kingdom of Syphax, and thus -under Roman protection he became master of the whole of Numidia, and his -dominions completely enclosed the Carthaginian territories, now -straitened and reduced at the close of the Second Punic War. It would -seem that he had thoughts of annexing Carthage itself with the -connivance of Rome. In a war which soon followed he was successful; the -remonstrances of Carthage with Rome on the behaviour of her ally were -answered by the appointment of Scipio as arbitrator; but, as though -intentionally on the part of Rome, no definite settlement was arrived -at, and thus the relations between Massinissa and the Carthaginians -continued strained. Rome, it is certain, deliberately favoured her -ally's unjust claims with the view of keeping Carthage weak, and -Massinissa on his part was cunning enough to retain the friendship of -the Roman people by helping them with liberal supplies in their wars -against Perseus of Macedon and Antiochus. As soon as Carthage seemed to -be recovering herself, and some of Massinissa's partisans were driven -from the city into exile, his policy was to excite the fears of Rome, -till at last in 149 war was declared--the Third Punic War, which ended -in the final overthrow of Carthage. The king took some part in the -negotiations which preceded the war, but died soon after its -commencement in the ninetieth year of his age and the sixtieth of his -reign. - -Massinissa was an able ruler and a decided benefactor to Numidia. He -converted a plundering tribe into a settled and civilized population, -and out of robbers and marauders made efficient and disciplined -soldiers. To his sons he bequeathed a well-stored treasury, a formidable -army, and even a fleet. Cirta (q.v.), his capital, became a famous -centre of Phoenician civilization. In fact Massinissa changed for the -better the whole aspect of a great part of northern Africa. He had much -of the Arab nature, was singularly temperate, and equal to any amount of -fatigue. His fidelity to Rome was merely that of temporary expediency. -He espoused now one side, and now the other, but on the whole supported -Rome, so that orators and historians could speak of him as "a most -faithful ally of the Roman people." - - See Livy xxiv. 49, xxviii. 11, 35, 42, xxix. 27, xxx. 3, 12, 28, 37, - xlii. 23, 29, xliii. 3; Polybius iii. 5, ix. 42, xiv. 1, xxxii. 2, - xxxvii. 3; Appian, _Hisp._ 37, _Punica_, 11, 27, 105; Justin xxxiii. - 1; A. H. J. Greenidge, _Hist. of Rome_ (London, 1904). - - - - -MASSON, DAVID (1822-1907), Scottish man of letters, was born at Aberdeen -on the 2nd of December 1822, and educated at the grammar school there -and at Marischal College. Intending to enter the Church, he proceeded to -Edinburgh University, where he studied theology under Dr Chalmers, whose -friendship he enjoyed until the divine's death in 1847. However, -abandoning his project of the ministry, he returned to his native city -to undertake the editorship of the _Banner_, a weekly paper devoted to -the advocacy of Free Kirk principles. After two years he resigned this -post and went back to the capital, bent upon pursuing a purely literary -career. There he wrote a great deal, contributing to _Fraser's -Magazine_, _Dublin University Magazine_ (in which appeared his essays on -Chatterton) and other periodicals. In 1847 he went to London, where he -found wider scope for his energy and knowledge. He was secretary -(1851-1852) of the "Society of the Friends of Italy." In a famous -interview with Mrs Browning at Florence he contested her admiration for -Napoleon III. He had known De Quincey, whose biography he contributed in -1878 to the "English Men of Letters" series, and he was an enthusiastic -friend and admirer of Carlyle. In 1852 he was appointed professor of -English literature at University College, London, in succession to A. H. -Clough, and from 1858 to 1865 he edited the newly established -_Macmillan's Magazine_. In 1865 he was selected for the chair of -rhetoric and English literature at Edinburgh, and during the early years -of his professorship actively promoted the movement for the university -education of women. In 1879 he became editor of the Register of the -Scottish Privy Council, and in 1893 was appointed Historiographer Royal -for Scotland. Two years later he resigned his professorship. His _magnum -opus_ in his _Life of Milton in Connexion with the History of His Own -Time_ in six volumes, the first of which appeared in 1858 and the last -in 1880. He also edited the library edition of Milton's _Poetical Works_ -(3 vols., 1874), and De Quincey's _Collected Works_ (14 vols., -1889-1890). Among his other publications are _Essays, Biographical and -Critical_ (1856, reprinted with additions, 3 vols., 1874), _British -Novelists and their Styles_ (1859), _Drummond of Hawthornden_ (1873), -_Chatterton_ (1873) and _Edinburgh Sketches_ (1892). He died on the 6th -of October 1907. A bust of Masson was presented to the senate of the -university of Edinburgh in 1897. Professor Masson had married Rosaline -Orme. His son Orme Masson became professor of chemistry in the -university of Melbourne, and his daughter Rosaline is known as a writer -and novelist. - - - - -MASSON, LOUIS CLAUDE FREDERIC (1847- ), French historian, was born at -Paris on the 8th of March 1847. His father, Francis Masson, a solicitor, -was killed on the 23rd of June 1848, when major in the _garde -nationale_. Young Masson was educated at the college of Sainte Barbe, -and at the lycee Louis-le-Grand, and then travelled in Germany and in -England; from 1869 to 1880 he was librarian at the Foreign Office. At -first he devoted himself to the history of diplomacy, and published -between 1877 and 1884 several volumes connected with that subject. Later -he published a number of more or less curious memoirs illustrating the -history of the Revolution and of the empire. But he is best known for -his books connected with Napoleon. In _Napoleon inconnu_ (1895), Masson, -together with M. Guido Biagi, brought out the unpublished writings -(1786-1793) of the future emperor. These were notes, extracts from -historical, philosophical and literary books, and personal reflections -in which one can watch the growth of the ideas later carried out by the -emperor with modifications necessitated by the force of circumstances -and his own genius. But this was only one in a remarkable series: -_Josephine de Beauharnais, 1763-1796_ (1898); _Josephine, imperatrice et -reine_ (1899); _Josephine repudiee 1809-1814_ (1901); _L'Imperatrice -Marie Louise_ (1902); _Napoleon et les femmes_ (1894); _Napoleon et sa -famille_ (9 vols., 1897-1907); _Napoleon et son fils_ (1904); and -_Autour de l'Ile d'Elbe_ (1908). These works abound in details and -amusing anecdotes, which throw much light on the events and men of the -time, laying stress on the personal, romantic and dramatic aspects of -history. The author was made a member of the Academie francaise in 1903. -From 1886 to 1889 he edited the review _Arts and Letters_, published in -London and New York. - - A bibliography of his works, including anonymous ones and those under - an assumed name, has been published by G. Vicaire (_Manuel de - l'amateur des livres du XIX^e siecle_, tome v., 1904). _Napoleon et - les femmes_ has been translated into English as _Napoleon and the Fair - Sex_ (1894). - - - - -MAST (1) (O. Eng. _maest_; a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. -_malus_; from the medieval latinized form _mastus_ comes Fr. _mat_), in -nautical language, the name of the spar, or straight piece of timber, or -combination of spars, on which are hung the yards and sails of a vessel -of any size. It has been ingeniously supposed that man himself was the -first mast. He discovered by standing up in his prehistoric "dugout," or -canoe, that the wind blowing on him would carry his craft along. But the -origin of the mast, like that of the ship, is lost in times anterior to -all record. The earliest form of mast which prevailed till the close of -the middle ages, and is still in use for small vessels, was and is a -single spar made of some tough and elastic wood; the conifers supply the -best timber for the purpose. In sketching the history of the development -of the mast, we must distinguish between the increase in the number -erected, and the improvements made in the mast itself. The earliest -ships had only one, carrying a single sail. So little is known of the -rigging of classical ships that nothing can be affirmed of them with -absolute confidence. The Norse vessels carried one mast placed in the -middle. The number gradually increased till it reached four or five. All -were at first upright, but the mast which stood nearest the bow was by -degrees lowered forward till it became the bow-sprit of modern times, -and lost the name of mast. The next from the bows became the -foremast--called in Mediterranean sea language _mizzana_, in French -_misaine_. Then came the main-mast--in French _grand mat_; and then the -mizen--in French, which follows the Mediterranean usage, the _artimon_, -i.e. "next the rudder," _timon_. A small mast was sometimes erected in -the very end of the ship, and called in English a "bonaventure mizen." -It had a close resemblance to the jigger of yawl-rigged yachts. By the -close of the 16th century it had become the established rule that a ship -proper had three masts--fore, main and mizen. The third takes its name -not as the other two do, from its place, but from the lateen sail -originally hoisted on it (see RIGGING), which was placed fore and aft in -the middle (Italian, _mizzo_) of the ship, and did not lie across like -the courses and topsails. With the development of very large sailing -clippers in the middle of the 19th century a return was made to the -practice of carrying more than three masts. Ships and barques are built -with four or five. Some of the large schooners employed in the American -coast trade have six or seven, and some steamers have had as many. - - The mast was for long made out of a single spar. Thence the - Mediterranean name of "palo" (spar) and the Spanish "arbol" (tree). - The typical Mediterranean mast of "lateen" (Latin) vessels is short - and bends forward. In other classes it is upright, or bends slightly - backwards with what is called a "rake." The mast is grounded, or in - technical language "stepped," on the kelson (or keelson), the solid - timber or metal beam lying parallel with, and above the keel. As the - 15th century advanced the growth of the ship made it difficult, or - even impossible, to find spars large enough to make a mast. The - practice of dividing it into lower, and upper or topmast, was - introduced. At first the two were fastened firmly, and the topmast - could not be lowered. In the 16th century the topmast became movable. - No date can be given for the change, which was gradual, and was not - simultaneously adopted. When the masting of sailing ships was fully - developed, the division was into lower or standing mast, topmast, - topgallant mast, and topgallant royal. The topgallant royal is a small - spar which is often a continuation of the topgallant mast, and is - fixed. Increase of size also made it impossible to construct each of - these subdivisions out of single timbers. A distinction was made - between "whole" or single-spar masts and "armed" and "made masts." The - first were used for the lighter spars, for small vessels and the - Mediterranean craft called "polacras." Armed masts were composed of - two single timbers. Made masts were built of many pieces, bolted and - "coaked," i.e. dovetailed and fitted together, fastened round by iron - hoops, and between them by twelve or thirteen close turns of rope, - firmly secured. "Made masts" are stronger than those made of a single - tree and less liable to be sprung. The general principle of - construction is that it is built round a central shaft, called in - English the "spindle" or "upper tree," and in French the _meche_ or - wick. The other pieces--"side trees," "keel pieces," "side fishes," - "cant pieces" and "fillings" are "coaked," i.e. dovetailed and bolted - on to and around the "spindle," which itself is made of two pieces, - coaked and bolted. The whole is bound by iron bands, and between the - bands, by rope firmly "woulded" or turned round, and nailed tight. The - art of constructing made masts, like that of building wooden ships, is - in process of dying out. In sailing men-of-war the mizen-mast often - did not reach to the kelson, but was stepped on the orlop deck. Hollow - metal cylinders are now used as masts. In the case of a masted screw - steamer the masts abaft the engines could not be stepped on the kelson - because they would interfere with the shaft of the screw. It is - therefore necessary to step them on the lower deck, where they are - supported by stanchions, or on a horseshoe covering the screw shaft. - The size of masts naturally varies very much. In a 110-gun ship of - 2164 tons the proportions of the mainmast were: for the lower mast, - length 117 ft., diameter 3 ft. 3 in.; topmast, 70 ft., and 20(3/4) in.; - topgallant mast, 35 ft., and 11(5/8) in., 222 ft. in all. At the other - end of the scale, a cutter of 200 tons had a lower mast of 88 ft., of - 22 in. diameter, and a topgallant mast (there was no topmast between - them) of 44 ft., of 9(3/4) in. in diameter, 132 ft. in all; topgallant - mast of 44 ft., and 9(3/4) in. in diameter. The masts of a warship were - more lofty than those of a merchant ship of the same tonnage. At - present masts are only used by warships for signalling and military - purposes. In sailing merchant ships, the masts are more lofty than - they were about a century ago. A merchant ship of 1300 tons, in 1830, - had a mainmast 179 ft. in height; a vessel of the same size would have - a mast of 198 ft. to-day. - - A "jury mast" is a temporary mast put up by the crew when the spars - nave been carried away in a storm or in action, or have been cut away - to relieve pressure in a storm. The word has been supposed without any - foundation to be short for "injury" mast; it may be a mere fanciful - sailor adaptation of "jury" in some connexion now lost. Skeat suggests - that it is short for O. Fr. _ajourie_, Lat. _adjutare_, to aid. There - is no reason to connect with _jour_, day. - - See L. Jal, _Glossaire Nautique_ (Paris, 1848); Sir Henry Manwayring, - _The Seaman's Dictionary_ (London, 1644); N. Hutchinson, _Treatise on - Naval Architecture and Practical Seamanship_ (Liverpool, 1777); David - Steel, _Elements and Practice of Rigging, Seamanship and Naval - Tactics_ (London, 1800); William Burney's _Falconer's Dictionary_ - (London, 1830); Sir Gervais Nares's _Seamanship_ (Portsmouth, 1882); - and John Fincham, _On Masting Ships and Mast Making_ (London, 1829). - (D. H.) - -MAST (2) (Anglo-Saxon _maest_, food, common to some Teutonic languages, -and ultimately connected with "meat"), the fruit of the beech, oak, and -other forest trees, used as food for swine. - - - - -MASTABA (Arab. for "bench"), in Egyptian architecture, the term given to -the rectangular tombs in stone with raking sides and a flat roof. There -were three chambers inside. In one the walls were sometimes richly -decorated with paintings and had a low bench of stone in them on which -incense was burnt. The second chamber was either closed, with holes -pierced in the wall separating it from the first chamber, or entered -through a narrow passage through which the fumes of the incense passed; -this chamber contained the _serdab_ or figure of the deceased. A -vertical well-hole cut in the rock descended to a third chamber in which -the mummy was laid. - - - - -MASTER (Lat. _magister_, related to _magis_, more, as the corresponding -_minister_ is to _minus_, less; the English form is due partly to the O. -Eng. _maegister_, and partly to O. Fr. _maistre_, mod. _maitre_; cf. Du. -_meester_, Ger. _Meister_, Ital. _maestro_), one holding a position of -authority, disposition or control over persons or things. The various -applications of the word fall roughly into the following main divisions; -as the title of the holder of a position of command or authority; as -that of the holder of certain public or private offices, and hence a -title of address; and as implying the relationship of a teacher to his -pupils or of an employer to the persons he employs. As a title of the -holder of an office, the use of the Lat. _magister_ is very ancient. -_Magister equitum_, master of the horse, goes back to the early history -of the Roman Republic (see DICTATOR; and for the British office, MASTER -OF THE HORSE). In medieval times the title was of great frequency. In Du -Cange (_Glossarium_) the article _magister_ contains over 120 -sub-headings. In the British royal household most of the offices bearing -this title are now obsolete. Of the greater offices, that of master of -the buckhounds was abolished by the Civil List Act 1901. The master of -the household, master of the ceremonies, master of the king's music -still survive. Since 1870 the office of master of the mint has been held -by the chancellor of the exchequer, all the administrative and other -duties being exercised by the deputy master. - -At sea, a "master" is more properly styled "master mariner." In the -merchant service he is the commander of a ship, and is by courtesy known -as the captain. In the British navy he was the officer entrusted with -the navigation under the captain. He had no royal commission, but a -warrant from the Navy Board. Very often he had been a merchant captain. -His duties are now performed by the staff commander or navigating -lieutenant. The master-at-arms is the head of the internal police of a -ship; the same title is borne by a senior gymnastic instructor in the -army. In the United States navy, the master is a commissioned officer -below the rank of lieutenant. - -"Master" appears as the title of many legal functionaries (for the -masters of the supreme court see CHANCERY; and KING'S BENCH, COURT OF; -for masters in lunacy see INSANITY: S _Law_, see also MASTER OF THE -ROLLS, below). The "master of the faculties" is the chief officer of the -archbishop of Canterbury in his court of faculties. His duties are -concerned with the appointment of notaries and the granting of special -licences of marriage. The duties are performed _ex officio_ by the judge -of the provincial courts of Canterbury and York, who is also dean of -Arches, in accordance with S 7 of the Public Worship Regulation Act -1874. The "master of the Temple" is the title of the priest-in-charge of -the Temple Church in London. It was formerly the title of the grand -master of the Knights Templars. The priest-in-charge of the Templars' -Church was properly styled the _custos_, and this was preserved by the -Knights Hospitallers when they were granted the property of the Templars -at the dissolution of that order. The act of 1540 (32 Henry VIII.), -which dissolved the order of the Hospitallers, wrongly styled the -_custos_ master of the Temple, and the mistake has been continued. The -proper title of a bencher of the Inns of Court is "master of the Bench" -(see INNS OF COURT). The title of "Master-General of the Ordnance" was -revived in 1904 for the head of the Ordnance Department in the British -military administration. - -"Master" is the ordinary word for a teacher, very generally used in the -compound "schoolmaster." The word also is used in a sense transferred -from this to express the relation between the founder of a school of -religion, philosophy, science, art, &c., and his disciples. It is partly -in this sense and partly in that of one whose work serves as a model or -type of superlative excellence that such terms as "old masters" are -used. In medieval universities _magister_ was particularly applied to -one who had been granted a degree carrying with it the _licentia -docendi_, the licence to teach. In English usage this survives in the -faculty of arts. The degree is that of _artium magister_, master of -arts, abbreviated M.A. In the other faculties the corresponding degree -is doctor. Some British universities give a master's degree in surgery, -_magister chirurgiae_, C.M. or M.Ch., and also in science, _magister -scientiae_, M.Sc. The academic use of "master" as the title of the head -of certain colleges at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge is to be -referred to the frequent application of the term to the holder of a -presiding office in an institution. - -Master was the usual prefix of address to a man's name, though -originally confined to people of some social standing. Probably under -the influence of "mistress," it was corrupted in sound to "mister," and -was abbreviated to "Mr." In the case of the puisne judges of the High -Court "Mr Justice" is still used as the proper official form of written -address. The Speaker of the House of Commons is also formally addressed -as "Mr Speaker." In some Scottish peerages below the rank of earl, -"master" is used in the courtesy title of the heir, e.g. the "Master of -Ruthven." - - - - -MASTER AND SERVANT. These are scarcely to be considered as technical -terms in English law. The relationship which they imply is created when -one man hires the labour of another for a term. Thus it is not -constituted by merely contracting with another for the performance of a -definite work, or by sending an article to an artificer to be repaired, -or engaging a builder to construct a house. Nor would the employment of -a man for one definite act of personal service--e.g. the engagement of a -messenger for a single occasion--generally make the one master and the -other servant. It was held, however, in relation to the offence of -embezzlement, that a drover employed on one occasion to drive cattle -home from market was a servant within the statute. On the other hand, -there are many decisions limiting the meaning of "servants" under wills -giving legacies to the class of servants generally. Thus "a person who -was not obliged to give his whole time to the master, but was yet in -some sense a servant," was held not entitled to share in a legacy to the -servants. These cases are, however, interpretations of wills where the -intention obviously is to benefit domestic servants only. And so in -other connexions questions may arise as to the exact nature of the -relations between the parties--whether they are master and servant, or -principal and agent, or landlord and tenant, or partners, &c. - -The terms of the contract of service are for the most part such as the -parties choose to make them, but in the absence of express stipulations -terms will be implied by the law. Thus, "where no time is limited either -expressly or by implication for the duration of a contract of hiring and -service, the hiring is considered as a general hiring, and in point of -law a hiring for a year." But "in the case of domestic and menial -servants there is a well-known rule, founded solely on custom, that -their contract of service may be determined at any time by giving a -month's warning or paying a month's wages, but a domestic or other -yearly servant, _wrongfully_ quitting his master's service, forfeits all -claim to wages for that part of the current year during which he has -served, and cannot claim the sum to which his wages would have amounted -had he kept his contract, merely deducting therefrom one month's wages. -Domestic servants have a right by custom to leave their situations at -any time on payment of a calendar month's wages in advance, just as a -master may discharge them in a similar manner" (Manley Smith's _Law of -Master and Servant_, chs. ii. and iii.). The following are sufficient -grounds for discharging a servant: (1) wilful disobedience of any lawful -order; (2) gross moral misconduct; (3) habitual negligence; (4) -incompetence or permanent disability caused by illness. A master has a -right of action against any person who deprives him of the services of -his servant, by enticing him away, harbouring or detaining him after -notice, confining or disabling him, or by seducing his female servant. -Indeed, the ordinary and only available action for seduction in English -law is in form of a claim by a parent for the loss of his daughter's -services. The death of either master or servant in general puts an end -to the contract. A servant wrongfully discharged may either treat the -contract as rescinded and sue for services actually rendered, or he may -bring a special action for damages for the breach. The common law -liabilities of a master towards his servants have been further regulated -by the Workmen's Compensation Acts (see EMPLOYER'S LIABILITY). A master -is bound to provide food for a servant living under his roof, and wilful -breach of duty in that respect is a misdemeanour under the Offences -against the Person Act 1861. - -A servant has no right to demand "a character" from an employer, and if -a character be given it will be deemed a privileged communication, so -that the master will not be liable thereon to the servant unless it be -false and malicious. A master by knowingly giving a false character of a -servant to an intending employer may render himself liable--should the -servant for example rob or injure his new master. - - Reference may be made to the articles on LABOUR LEGISLATION for the - cases in which special terms have been introduced into contracts of - service by statute (e.g. Truck Acts). - - - - -MASTER OF THE HORSE, in England, an important official of the -sovereign's household. The master of the horse is the third dignitary of -the court, and is always a member of the ministry (before 1782 the -office was of cabinet rank), a peer and a privy councillor. All matters -connected with the horses and hounds of the sovereign, as well as the -stables and coach-houses, the stud, mews and kennels, are within his -jurisdiction. The practical management of the royal stables and stud -devolves on the chief or crown equerry, formerly called the gentleman of -the horse, who is never in personal attendance on the sovereign and -whose appointment is permanent. The clerk marshal has the supervision of -the accounts of the department before they are submitted to the Board of -Green Cloth, and is in waiting on the sovereign on state occasions only. -Exclusive of the crown equerry there are seven regular equerries, -besides extra and honorary equerries, one of whom is always in -attendance on the sovereign and rides at the side of the royal carriage. -They are always officers of the army, and each of them is "on duty" for -about the same time as the lords and grooms in waiting. There are also -several pages of honour in the master of the horse's department, who -must not be confounded with the pages of various kinds who are in the -department of the lord chamberlain. They are youths aged from twelve to -sixteen, selected by the sovereign in person, to attend on him at state -ceremonies, when two of them, arrayed in an antique costume, assist the -groom of the stole in carrying the royal train. - - In France the master of the horse ("Grand Ecuyer," or more usually - "Monsieur le grand") was one of the seven great officers of the crown - from 1617. As well as the superintendence of the royal stables, he had - that of the retinue of the sovereign, also the charge of the funds set - aside for the religious functions of the court, coronations, &c. On - the death of a sovereign he had the right to all the horses and their - equipment in the royal stables. Distinct from this officer and - independent of him, was the first equerry ("Premier Ecuyer"), who had - charge of the horses which the sovereign used personally ("la petite - ecurie"), and who attended on him when he rode out. The office of - master of the horse existed down to the reign of Louis XVI. Under - Louis XVIII. and Charles X. the duties were discharged by the first - equerry, but under Napoleon I. and Napoleon III. the office was - revived with much of its old importance. - - In Germany the master of the horse (Oberststallmeister) is a high - court dignitary; but his office is merely titular, the superintendence - of the king's stables being carried out by the Oberstallmeister, an - official corresponding to the crown equerry in England. - - - - -MASTER OF THE ROLLS, the third member of the Supreme Court of Judicature -in England, the lord chancellor, president of the chancery division, -being the first, and the lord chief justice, president of the king's -bench division, being the second. At first he was the principal clerk of -the chancery, and as such had charge of the records of the court, -especially of the register of original writs and of all patents and -grants under the Great Seal. Until the end of the 15th century he was -called either the clerk or the keeper of the rolls, and he is still -formally designated as the master or keeper of the rolls. The earliest -mention of him as master of the rolls is in an act of 1495; and in -another act of the same year he is again described as clerk of the -rolls, showing that his official designation still remained unsettled. -About the same period, however, the chief clerks of the chancery came to -be called masters in chancery, and the clerk, master or keeper of the -rolls was always the first among them, whichever name they bore. In -course of time, from causes which are not very easy to trace, his -original functions as keeper of the records passed away from him and he -gradually assumed a jurisdiction in the court of chancery second only to -that of the lord chancellor himself. In the beginning he only heard -causes in conjunction with the other masters in chancery, and his -decrees were invalid until they had been approved and signed by the lord -chancellor. Sitting in the Rolls chapel or in the court in Rolls yard, -he heard causes without assistance, and his decrees held good until they -were reversed on petition either to the lord chancellor or afterwards to -the lords justices of appeal. Before any judge with the formal title of -vice-chancellor was appointed the master of the rolls was often spoken -of as vice-chancellor, and in theory acted as such, sitting only when -the lord chancellor was not sitting and holding his court in the evening -from six o'clock to ten. Only since 1827 has the master of the rolls sat -in the morning hours. By the Public Record Office Act 1838 the custody -of the records was restored to him, and he is chairman of the State -Papers and Historical Manuscripts Commissions. Under the Judicature Act -1875, and the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876, he now always sits with -the lords justices in the court of appeal (which usually sits in two -divisions of three judges, the master of the rolls presiding over one -division), whose decisions can be questioned only in the House of Lords. -The master of the rolls was formerly eligible to a seat in the House of -Commons--a privilege enjoyed by no other member of the judicial -bench;[1] but he was deprived of it by the Supreme Court of Judicature -Act 1873, which provides that all judges of the High Court of Justice -and the court of appeal shall be incapable of being elected to or -sitting in the House of Commons. The master of the rolls is always sworn -of the privy council. His salary is L6000 a year. - - See Lord Hardwicke, _Office of the Master of the Rolls_. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Sir John Romilly, M.P. for Devonport, 1847 to 1852, was the last - master of the rolls to sit in Parliament. He was appointed master of - the rolls in 1851. - - - - -MASTIC, or MASTICH (Gr. [Greek: mastiche], probably connected with -[Greek: masasthai], to chew, since mastic is used in the East as a -chewing gum), a resinous exudation obtained from the lentisk, _Pistacia -lentiscus_, an evergreen shrub of the natural order Anacardiaceae. The -lentisk or mastic plant is indigenous to the Mediterranean coast region -from Syria to Spain, but grows also in Portugal, Morocco and the -Canaries. Although experiments have proved that excellent mastic might -be obtained in other islands in the archipelago, the production of the -substance has been, since the time of Dioscorides, almost exclusively -confined to the island of Chios. The mastic districts of that island are -for the most part flat and stony, with little hills and few streams. The -shrubs are about 6 ft. high. The resin is contained in the bark and not -in the wood, and in order to obtain it numerous vertical incisions are -made, during June, July and August, in the stem and chief branches. The -resin speedily exudes and hardens into roundish or oval tears, which are -collected, after about fifteen days, by women and children, in little -baskets lined with white paper or cotton wool. The ground around the -trees is kept hard and clean, and flat pieces of stone are often laid -beneath them to prevent any droppings of resin from becoming -contaminated with dirt. The collection is repeated three or four times -between June and September, a fine tree being found to yield about 8 or -10 lb. of mastic during the season. Besides that obtained from the -incisions, mastic of very fine quality spontaneously exudes from the -small branches. The harvest is affected by showers of rain during the -period of collection, and the trees are much injured by frost, which is, -however, of rare occurrence in the districts where they grow. Mastic -occurs in commerce in the form of roundish tears about the size of peas. -They are transparent, with a glassy fracture, of a pale yellow or faint -greenish tinge, which darkens slowly by age. During the 15th, 16th and -17th centuries mastic enjoyed a high reputation as a medicine, and -formed an ingredient in a large number of medical compounds; but its use -in medicine is now obsolete, and it is chiefly employed for making -varnish. - - _Pistacia Khinjuk_ and _P. cabulica_, trees growing throughout Sindh, - Baluchistan and Cabul, yield a kind of mastic which is met with in the - Indian bazaars under the name of _Mustagirumi_, i.e. Roman mastic. - This when occurring in the European market is known as East Indian or - Bombay mastic. In Algeria _P. Atlantica_ yields a solid resin, which - is collected and used by the Arabs as a masticatory. Cape mastic is - the produce of _Euryops multifidus_, the resin bush, or _harpuis - bosch_ of the Boers--a plant of the composite order growing abundantly - in the Clanwilliam district. Dammar resin is sometimes sold under the - name of mastic. The West Indian mastic tree is the _Bursera gummifera_ - and the Peruvian mastic is _Schinus molle_; but neither of these - furnishes commercial resins. The name mastic tree is also applied to a - timber tree, _Sider oxylon mastichodendron_, nat. ord. Sapotaceae, - which grows in the West Indies and on the coast of Florida. - - - - -MASTIGOPHORA, a group of Protozoa, moving and ingesting food by long -flagella (Gr. [Greek: mastix], whip), usually few in number, and -multiplying by fission, usually longitudinal, in the active condition. -They were separated off from the rest of the old "Infusoria" by K. -Dusing, and subdivided by O. Butschli and E. R. Lankester into (1) -Flagellata (q.v.), including Haemoflagellata (q.v.), (2) Dinoflagellata -(q.v.) and Rhyncho = Cystoflagellata E. Haeckel (q.v.) = -Rhynchoflagellata E. R. Lankester. The Mastigophora are frequently -termed Flagellata or Flagellates. - - - - -MASTODON (Gr. [Greek: mastos], breast, [Greek: odous], tooth), a name -given by Cuvier to the Pliocene and Miocene forerunners of the -elephants, on account of the nipple-like prominences on the molar teeth -of some of the species (fig. 2), which are of a much simpler type than -those of true elephants. Mastodons, like elephants, always have a pair -of upper tusks, while the earlier ones likewise have a short pair in the -lower jaw, which is prolonged into a snout-like symphysis for their -support. These long-chinned mastodons are now regarded as forming a -genus by themselves (_Tetrabelodon_), well-known examples of this group -being _Tetrabelodon angustidens_ from the Miocene and _T. longirostris_ -(fig. 1 C.) from the Lower Pliocene of the Continent. In the former the -upper tusks are bent down so as to cross the tips of the short and -chisel-like lower pair. These long-chinned mastodons must have had an -extremely elongated muzzle, formed by the upper lip and nose above and -the lower lip below, with which they were able to reach the ground, the -neck being probably rather longer than in elephants. On the other hand, -in the short-chinned mastodons, as represented by the Pleistocene North -American _Mastodon americanus_ and the Pliocene European _M. turicensis_ -(fig. 1), the chin had shrunk to the dimensions characteristic of -elephants, with the loss of the lower incisors (or with temporary -retention of rudimentary ones), while at the same time a true -elephant-like trunk must have been developed by the shortening of the -lower lip and the prolongation of the combined upper lip and nose. - -Mastodons are found in almost all parts of the world. In Asia they gave -rise to the elephants, while they themselves originated in Africa from -ungulates of more normal type. (See PROBOSCIDEA.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--_Mastodon turicensis_ (Pliocene). A, B, Skull -and Lower Jaw of _Mastodon americanus_. C, Lower Jaw of _Tetrabelodon -longirostris_.] - - The upper tusks of the early mastodons differ from those of elephants - in retaining longitudinal bands of enamel. The molar teeth are six in - number on each side, increasing in size from before backwards, and, as - in the elephants, with a horizontal succession, the anterior teeth - being lost before the full development of the posterior ones, which - gradually move forward, taking the place of those that are destroyed - by wear. This process is, however, less fully developed than in - elephants, and as many as three teeth may be in place in each jaw at - one time. There is, moreover, in many species a vertical succession, - affecting either the third, or the third and second, or (in one - American species, _Tetrabelodon productus_) the first, second and - third of the six molar teeth. These three are therefore reckoned as - milk-molars, and their successors as premolars, while the last three - correspond to the true molars of other mammals. The mode of succession - of the teeth in the mastodons exhibits so many stages of the process - by which the dentition of elephants has been derived from that of more - ordinary mammals. It also shows that the anterior molars of elephants - do not correspond to the premolars of other ungulates, but to the - milk-molars, the early loss of which in consequence of the peculiar - process of horizontal forward-moving succession does not require their - replacement by premolars. Specialized species like _Mastodon - americanus_ have completely lost the rudimentary premolars. - - [Illustration: (From Owen.) - - FIG. 2.--Upper Molar of _Mastodon arvernensis_, viewed from below.] - - Mastodons have fewer ridges on their molar teeth than elephants; the - ridges are also less elevated, wider apart, with a thicker enamel - covering, and scarcely any cement filling the space between them. - Sometimes (as in _M. americanus_) the ridges are simple transverse - wedge-shaped elevations, with straight or concave edges. In other - species the summits of the ridges are divided into conical cusps, and - may have accessory cusps clustering around them (as in _M. - arvernensis_, fig. 2). When the summits of these are worn by - mastication their surfaces present circles of dentine surrounded by a - border of enamel, and as attrition proceeds different patterns are - produced by the union of the bases of the cusps, a trefoil form being - characteristic of some species. - - Certain of the molar teeth of the middle of the series in both - elephants and mastodons have the same number of principal ridges; - those in front having fewer, and those behind a greater number. These - teeth are distinguished as "intermediate" molars. In elephants there - are only two, the last milk-molar and the first true molar (or the - third and fourth of the whole series), which are alike in the number - of ridges; whereas in mastodons there are three such teeth, the last - milk-molar and the first and second molars (or the third, fourth and - fifth of the whole series). In elephants the number of ridges on the - intermediate molars always exceeds five, but in mastodons it is nearly - always three or four, and the tooth in front has usually one fewer and - that behind one more, so that the ridge-formula (i.e. a formula - expressing the number of ridges on each of the six molar teeth) of - most mastodons can be reduced either to 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, or 2, 3, 4, - 4, 4, 5. Three-ridged and four-ridged types occur both in _Mastodon_ - and _Tetrabelodon_. (R. L.*) - - - - -MAS'UDI (ABU-L HASAN 'ALI IBN HUSAIN IBN 'ALI UL-MAS'UDI) (d. c. 956), -Arabian historian, was born at Bagdad towards the close of the 9th -century. Much of his life was spent in travel. After he had been in -Persia and Kerman, he visited Istakhr in 915, and went in the following -year to Multan and Mansura, thence to Cambay, Saimur and Ceylon, to -Madagascar and back to Oman. He seems about this time to have been as -far as China. After a visit to the shores of the Caspian Sea he visited -Tiberias in Palestine, examined the Christian church there, and -described its relics. In 943 he was in Antioch, studying the ruins, and -two years later in Damascus. The last ten years of his life he spent in -Syria and Egypt. His great object in life had been to study with his own -eyes the peculiarities of every land and to collect whatever was of -interest for archaeology, history and manners. Himself a Mo'tazilite -(see MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION: _Sects_), he was singularly free from bigotry, -and took his information, when necessary, from Persians, Jews, Indians, -and even the chronicle of a Christian bishop. - - His most extensive work was the _Kitab akhbar uz-Zaman_ or _Annals_, - in 30 volumes with a supplement, _the Kitab ul-Ausat_, a chronological - sketch of general history. Of these the first part only of the former - is extant in MS. in Vienna, while the latter seems to be in the - Bodleian Library, also in MS. The substance of the two was united by - him in the work by which he is now best known, the _Muruj udh-Dhahab - wa Ma'adin ul-Jawahir_ ("Meadows of Gold and Mines of Precious - Stones"), an historical work which he completed in 947. In 956 he - finished a second edition of this and made it double its former size, - but no copy of this seems to be extant. The original edition has been - published at Bulaq and Cairo, and with French translation by C. - Barbier de Meynard and Pavet de Courteille (9 vols., Paris, - 1861-1877). Another work of Mas'udi, written in the last year of his - life, is the _Kitab ut-Tanbih wal Ishraf_ (the "Book of Indication and - Revision"), in which he summarizes the work of his life and corrects - and completes his former writings. It has been edited by M. J. de - Goeje (Leiden, 1894), and a French translation has been made by Carra - de Vaux (Paris, 1896); cf. also the memoir of S. de Sacy published in - Meynard's edition of the _Muruj_. - - An account of Mas'udi's works is to be found in de Sacy's memoir and - in Goeje's preface to his edition of the _Tanbih_, and of the works - extant in C. Brockelmann's _Gesch. der Arabischen Litteratur_, i. - 144-145 (Weimar, 1898). C. Field's _Tales of the Caliphs_ (1909) is - based on Mas'udi. (G. W. T.) - - - - -MASULIPATAM, or BANDAR, a seaport of British India, administrative -headquarters of the Kistna district of Madras, on one of the mouths of -the river Kistna, 215 m. N. of Madras city. Pop. (1901), 39,507. -Masulipatam was the earliest English settlement on the Coromandel coast, -its importance being due to the fact that it was the _bandar_ or port of -Golconda. An agency was established there in 1611. During the wars of -the Carnatic, the English were temporarily expelled from the town, which -was held by the French for some years. In 1759 the town and fort were -carried by storm by Colonel Forde, an achievement followed by the -acquisition of the Northern Circars (q.v.). In 1864 a great storm-wave -swept over the entire town and is said to have destroyed 30,000 lives. -Weavers form a large portion of the inhabitants, though their trade has -greatly declined since the beginning of the 19th century. Their -operations, besides weaving, include printing, bleaching, washing and -dressing. In former days the chintzes of Masulipatam had a great -reputation abroad for the freshness and permanency of their dyes. -Masulipatam is a station of the Church Missionary Society. The port is -only a roadstead, where vessels anchor 5 m. out. A branch line from -Bezwada on the Southern Mahratta railway was opened in 1908. The chief -educational institution is the Noble College of the C.M.S. - - - - -MAT (O. Eng. _meatt_, from late Lat. _matta_, whence Ital. _matta_, Ger. -and Dan. _matte_, Du. _mat_, &c.), an article of various sizes and -shapes, according to the purpose for which it is intended, and made of -plaited or woven materials, such as coir, hemp, coco-nut fibre, straw, -rushes, &c., or of rope or coarse twine. The finer fabrics are known as -"matting" (q.v.). Mats are mainly used for covering floors, or in -horticulture as a protection against cold or exposure for plants and -trees. When used near the entrance to a house for people to wipe their -boots on "door mats" are usually made of coarse coco-nut fibre, or -india-rubber, cork, or of thickly coiled wire. Bags, rolls or sacks made -of matting are used to hold coffee, flax, rice and other produce, and -the term is often used with reference to the specific quantities of such -produce, e.g. so many "mats" of coffee, rice, &c. - - To be distinguished from the above is the term "mat" in glass-painting - or gilding, meaning dull, unpolished or unburnished. This is the same - as Ger. _matt_, dead, dull, cf. _matt-blau_, Med. Lat. _mattus_, - adapted from Persian _mat_, dazed, astonished, at a loss, helpless, - and seen in "mate" in chess, from Pers. _shah mat_ the king is dead. - - - - -MATABELE ("vanishing" or "hidden" people, so called from their -appearance in battle, hidden behind enormous oxhide shields), a people -of Zulu origin who began national life under the chief Mosilikatze. -Driven out of the Transvaal by the Boers in 1837, Mosilikatze crossed -the Limpopo with a military host which had been recruited from every -tribe conquered by him during his ten years' predominance in the -Transvaal. In their new territories the Matabele absorbed into their -ranks many members of the conquered Mashona tribes and established a -military despotism. Their sole occupation was war, for which their laws -and organization were designed to fit them. This system of constant -warfare is, since the conquest of Matabeleland by the British in 1893, a -thing of the past. The Matabele are now herdsmen and agriculturists. -(See RHODESIA.) - - - - -MATACHINES (Span. _matachin_, clown, or masked dancer), bands of mummers -or itinerant players in Mexico, especially popular around the Rio -Grande, who wander from village to village during Lent, playing in -rough-and-ready style a set drama based on the history of Montezuma. -Dressed in fantastic Indian costumes and carrying rattles as their -orchestra, the chief characters are _El Monarca_ "the monarch" -(Montezuma); _Malinche_, or _Malintzin_, the Indian mistress of Hernando -Cortes; _El Toro_, "the bull," the malevolent "comic man" of the play, -dressed in buffalo skin with the animal's horns on his head; _Aguelo_, -the "grandfather," and _Aguela_, "grandmother." With the help of a -chorus of dancers they portray the desertion of his people by Montezuma, -the luring of him back by the wiles and smiles of Malinche, the final -reunion of king and people, and the killing of El Toro, who is supposed -to have made all the mischief. - - - - -MATADOR, a Spanish word meaning literally "killer," from _matar_, Lat. -_mactare_, especially applied to the principal performer in a -bull-fight, whose function it is to slay the bull (see BULL-FIGHTING). -The word is also used of certain important cards in such games as -quadrille, ombre, &c., and more particularly of a special form of the -game of dominoes. - - - - -MATAMOROS, a town and port of the state of Tamaulipas, Mexico, on the S. -bank of the Rio Grande, 28 m. from its mouth, opposite Brownsville, -Texas. Pop. (1900), 8347. Matamoros stands in an open plain, the -commercial centre for a large district, but its import trade is -prejudiced by the bar at the mouth of the Rio Grande, which permits the -entrance of small vessels only. The exports include hides, wool and live -stock. The importance of the town in the foreign trade of northern -Mexico, however, has been largely diminished by the great railways. -Formerly it was the centre of a large contraband trade with Brownsville, -Texas. Matamoros was founded early in the 19th century, and was named in -honour of the Mexican patriot Mariano Matamoros (c. 1770-1814). In the -war between the United States and Mexico, Matamoros was easily taken by -the Americans on the 18th of May 1846, following General Zachary -Taylor's victories at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. Matamoros was -occupied by the Mexican imperialists under Mejia in 1864, and by the -French in 1866. - - - - -MATANZAS, an important city of Cuba, capital of Matanzas Province, -situated on a large deep bay on the N. coast, about 54 m. (by rail) E. -of Havana. Pop. (1907), 36,009. There are railway outlets W., S. and E., -and Matanzas is served by steamships to New York and by the coast -steamers of the Herrera Line. The bay, unlike all the other better -harbours of the island, has a broad mouth, 2 m. across, but there is -good shelter against all winds except from the N.E. A coral reef lies -across the entrance. Three rivers emptying into the bay--the San Juan, -Canimar and Yumuri--have deposited much silt, necessitating the use of -lighters in loading and unloading large ships. The city is finely placed -at the head of the bay, on a low, sloping plain backed by wooded hills, -over some of which the city itself has spread. The conical Pan de -Matanzas (1277 ft.) is a striking land-mark for sailors. The San Juan -and Yumuri rivers divide Matanzas into three districts. The Teatro -Esteban, Casino Espanol and Government House are noteworthy among the -buildings. The broad Paseo de Marti (Alameda de Versalles, Paseo de -Santa Cristina) extends along the edge of the harbour, and is perhaps -the handsomest parkway and boulevard in Cuba. At one end is a statue of -Ferdinand VII., at the other a monument to 63 Cubans executed by the -Spanish Government as traitors for bearing arms in the cause of -independence. A splendid military road continues the Paseo to the -Castillo de San Serverino (built in 1694-1695, reconstructed in 1773 and -following years). There are two smaller forts, established in the 18th -century. Near Matanzas are two of the most noted natural resorts of -Cuba: the valley of the Yumuri, and the caves of Bellamar. Commanding -the Yumuri Valley is the hill called Cumbre, on which is the Hermitage -of Monteserrate (1870), with a famous shrine. Matanzas is the second -port of the island in commerce. Sugar and molasses are the chief -exports. The city is the chief outlet for the sugar product of the -province, which, with the province of Santa Clara, produces two-thirds -of the crop of the island. There are many large warehouses, rum -distilleries, sugar-mills and railway machine-shops. Matanzas is -frequently mentioned in the annals of the 16th and 17th centuries, when -its bay was frequented by buccaneers; but the city was not laid out -until 1693. In the next year it received an _ayuntamiento_ (council). -Its prosperity rapidly increased after the establishment of free -commerce early in the 19th century. In 1815 it was made a department -capital. The mulatto poet, Gabriel de la Concepcion Valdes, known as -Placido (1809-1844), was born in Matanzas, and was executed there for -participation in the supposed conspiracy of negroes in 1844, which is -one of the most famous episodes in Cuban history. The hurricanes of 1844 -and 1846 are the only other prominent local events. American commercial -influence has always been particularly strong. - - - - -MATARO (anc. _Iluro_), a seaport of north-eastern Spain, in the province -of Barcelona, on the Mediterranean Sea and the Barcelona-Perpignan -railway. Pop. (1900), 19,704. The streets of the new town, lying next -the sea, are wide and regularly built; those of the old town, farther up -the hill, still preserve much of their ancient character. The parish -church of Santa Maria has some good pictures and wood carvings. The wine -of the neighbourhood, which resembles port, is shipped in large -quantities from Barcelona; and the district furnishes fine roses and -strawberries for the Barcelona market. The leading industries are -manufactures of linen and cotton goods, especially canvas and tarpaulin, -and of soap, paper, chemicals, starch, glass, leather, spirits and -flour. The railway to Barcelona, opened in October 1848, was the first -to be constructed in Spain. Outside the town is the much-frequented -carbonated mineral spring of Argentona. - - - - -MATCH: 1. O. Eng. _gemaecca_, a cognate form of "make," meaning -originally "fit" or "suitable"; a pair, or one of a pair of objects, -persons or animals. As particularly applied to a husband and wife, and -hence to a marriage, the word is especially used of two persons or -things which correspond exactly to each other. The verb "to match" has -also the meaning to "pit one against each other," and so is applied in -sport to an arranged contest between individuals or sides. - -2. O. Fr. _mesche_; apparently from a latinized form of Gr. [Greek: -myxa], mucus from the nose, applied to the nozzle of a lamp; primarily -the wick which conveys oil or molten wax to the flame of a lamp or -candle (this use is now obsolete), the word being then applied to -various objects having the property of carrying fire. With early -firearms a match, consisting of a cord of hemp or similar material -treated with nitre and other substances so that it continued to smoulder -after it had been ignited, was used for firing the charge, being either -held in the gunner's hand or attached to the cock of the musket or -arquebus and brought down by the action of the trigger on the powder -priming ("matchlock"); and more or less similar preparations, made to -burn more or less rapidly as required ("quick-match" and "slow-match"), -are employed as fuses in blasting and demolition work in military -operations. The word "match" was further used of a splint of wood, -tipped with sulphur so that it would readily ignite, but it now most -commonly means a slip of wood or other combustible material, having its -end covered with a composition which takes fire when rubbed either on -any rough surface or on another specially prepared composition. - -The first attempt to make matches in the modern sense may probably be -ascribed to Godfrey Haukwitz, who, in 1680, acting under the direction -of Robert Boyle, who at that time had just discovered how to prepare -phosphorus, employed small pieces of that element, ignited by friction, -to light splints of wood dipped in sulphur. This device, however, did -not come into extensive use owing to its danger and inconvenience and to -the cost of the phosphorus, and till the beginning of the 19th century -flint and steel with tinder-box and sulphur-tipped splints of -wood--"spunks" or matches--were the common means of obtaining fire for -domestic and other purposes. The sparks struck off by the percussion of -flint and steel were made to fall among the tinder, which consisted of -carbonized fragments of cotton and linen; the entire mass of the tinder -was set into a glow, developing sufficient heat to ignite the sulphur -with which the matches were tipped, and thereby the splints themselves -were set on fire. In 1805 one Chancel, assistant to Professor L. J. -Thenard of Paris, introduced an apparatus consisting of a small bottle -containing asbestos, saturated with strong sulphuric acid, with splints -or matches coated with sulphur, and tipped with a mixture of chlorate of -potash and sugar. The matches so prepared, when brought into contact -with the sulphuric acid in the bottle, ignited, and thus, by chemical -action, fire was produced. In 1823 a decided impetus was given to the -artificial production of fire by the introduction of the Dobereiner -lamp, so called after its inventor, J. W. Dobereiner of Jena. The first -really practical friction matches were made in England in 1827, by John -Walker, a druggist of Stockton-on-Tees. These were known as "Congreves" -after Sir William Congreve, the inventor of the Congreve rocket, and -consisted of wooden splints or sticks of cardboard coated with sulphur -and tipped with a mixture of sulphide of antimony, chlorate of potash -and gum. With each box which was retailed at a shilling, there was -supplied a folded piece of glass paper, the folds of which were to be -tightly pressed together, while the match was drawn through between -them. The same idea occurred to Sir Isaac Holden independently two and a -half years later. The so-called "Prometheans," patented by S. Jones of -London in 1830, consisted of a short roll of paper with a small quantity -of a mixture of chlorate of potash and sugar at one end, a thin glass -globule of strong sulphuric acid being attached at the same point. When -the sulphuric acid was liberated by pinching the glass globule, it acted -on the mixed chlorate and sugar, producing fire. The phosphorus -friction-match of the present day was first introduced on a commercial -scale in 1833. It appears to have been made almost simultaneously in -several distinct centres. The name most prominently connected with the -early stages of the invention is that of J. Preschel of Vienna, who in -1833 had a factory in operation for making phosphorus matches, fusees, -and amadou slips tipped with igniting composition. At the same time also -matches were being made by F. Moldenhauer in Darmstadt; and for a long -series of years Austria and the South-German states were the principal -centres of the new industry. - -But the use of ordinary white or yellow phosphorus as a principal -ingredient in the igniting mixture of matches was found to be -accompanied with very serious disadvantages. It is a deadly poison, and -its free dissemination has led to many accidental deaths, and to -numerous cases of wilful murder and suicide. Workers also who are -exposed to phosphoric vapours are subject to a peculiarly distressing -disease which attacks the jaw, and ultimately produces necrosis of the -jaw-bone ("phossy jaw"), though with scrupulous attention to ventilation -and cleanliness much of the risk of the disease may be avoided. The most -serious objections to the use of phosphorus, however, were overcome by -the discovery of the modified form of that body known as red or -amorphous phosphorus. That substance was utilized for the manufacture of -the well-known "safety matches" by J. E. Lundstrom, of Jonkoping, -Sweden, in 1852; its employment for this purpose had been patented eight -years previously by another Swede, G. E. Pasch, who, however, regarded -it as an oxide of phosphorus. Red phosphorus is in itself a perfectly -innocuous substance, and no evil effects arise from freely working the -compositions of which it forms an ingredient. The fact again that safety -matches ignite only in exceptional circumstances on any other than the -prepared surfaces which accompany the box--which surfaces and not the -matches themselves contain the phosphorus required for ignition--makes -them much less liable to cause accidental fires than other kinds. - -The processes carried out in a match factory include preparing the -splints, dipping them first in molten paraffin wax and then in the -igniting composition, and filling the matches into boxes. All these -operations are performed by complicated automatic machinery, in the -development of which the Diamond Match Company of America has taken a -leading part, with the minimum of manual intervention. - - The chief element in the igniting mixture of ordinary or "strike - anywhere" matches used to be common yellow phosphorus, combined with - one or more other bodies which readily part with oxygen under the - influence of heat. Chief among these latter substances is chlorate of - potash, others being red lead, nitrate of lead, bichromate of potash - and peroxide of manganese. But at the beginning of the 20th century - many countries took steps to stop the use of yellow phosphorus owing - to the danger to health attending its manipulation. In Sweden, matches - made with it have been prohibited for home consumption, but not for - export, since 1901. In 1905 and 1906 two conferences, attended by - representatives of most of the governments of Europe, were held at - Berne to consider the question of prohibiting yellow phosphorus, but - no general agreement was reached owing to the objections entertained - by Sweden, Norway, Spain and Portugal, and also Japan. Germany, - France, Italy, Denmark, Holland, Switzerland and Luxemburg, however, - agreed to a convention whereby yellow phosphorus was prohibited as - from 1912, and to this Great Britain expressed her adherence after the - passing of the White Matches Prohibition Act 1908, which forbade the - manufacture and importation of such matches from the 1st of January - 1910; though to avoid hardship to retailers and others holding large - stocks it permitted their sale for a year longer. Phosphorous sulphide - (sesquisulphide of phosphorus) is one of the substances widely - employed as a substitute for yellow phosphorus in matches which will - strike anywhere without the need of a specially prepared surface. - - Safety matches contain no phosphorus in the heads; according to one - formula that has been published the mixture with which they are tipped - consists of chlorate of potash, 32 parts; bichromate of potash, 12; - red lead, 32; sulphide of antimony, 24; while the ingredients of a - suitable rubbing surface are eight parts of amorphous phosphorus to - nine of sulphide of antimony. There is no doubt, however, that there - is considerable diversity in the composition of the mixtures actually - employed. - - "Vestas" are matches in which short pieces of thin "wax taper" are - used in place of wooden splints. Fusees or vesuvians consist of large - oval heads fixed on a round splint. These heads consist of a porous - mixture of charcoal, saltpetre, cascarilla or other scented bark, - glass and gum, tipped with common igniting composition. When lighted - they form a glowing mass, without flame. - - It is calculated that in the principal European countries from six to - ten matches are used for each inhabitant daily, and the world's annual - output must reach a total which requires twelve or thirteen figures - for its expression. In the United States the manufacture is under the - control of the Diamond Match Company, formed in 1881; which company - also has an important share in the industry in Great Britain, where it - has established large works. Similarly the manufacture of safety - matches in Sweden is largely controlled by one big combination. In - France matches are a government monopoly, and are both dear in price - and inferior in quality, as compared with other countries where the - industry is left to private enterprise. The French government formerly - leased the manufacture to a company (_Societe generale des allumettes - chimiques_), but since 1890 it has been undertaken directly by the - state. - - - - -MATE (a corruption of _make_, from O. Eng. _gemaca_, a "comrade"), a -companion. In the language of the sea, the mate is the companion or -assistant of the master, or of any officer at the head of a division of -the crew. In the merchant service the mates are the officers who serve -under the master, commonly called the captain, navigate the vessel under -his direction, and replace him if he dies, or is disabled. In a war-ship -mates serve under the gunner, boatswain, carpenter, &c. They are -officers told off to attend to a particular part of the ship, as for -example mate of the upper deck, whose duty is to see that it is kept -clean, or mate of the hold, who is employed to serve out the water and -other stores, and to keep the weights adjusted so as to preserve the -trim--or balance--of the ship. (For "mate" in chess, see CHESS.) - - - - -MATE, or PARAGUAY TEA, the dried leaves of _Ilex paraguariensis_,[1] an -evergreen shrub or small tree belonging to the same genus as the common -holly, a plant to which it bears some resemblance in size and habit. The -leaves are from 6 to 8 in. long, shortly stalked, with a somewhat acute -tip and finely toothed at the margin. The small white flowers grow in -forked clusters in the axils of the leaves; the sepals, petals and -stamens are four in number, or occasionally five; and the berry is -4-seeded. The plant grows abundantly in Paraguay, and the south of -Brazil, forming woods called _yerbales_. One of the principal centres of -the mate industry is the Villa Real, a small town above Asuncion on the -Paraguay river; another is the Villa de San Xavier, in the district -between the rivers Uruguay and Parana. - - Although mate appears to have been used from time immemorial by the - Indians, the Jesuits were the first to attempt its cultivation. This - was begun at their branch missions in Paraguay and the province of Rio - Grande de San Pedro, where some plantations still exist, and yield the - best tea that is made. From this circumstance the names Jesuits' tea, - tea of the Missions, St Bartholomew's tea, &c., are sometimes applied - to mate. Under cultivation the quality of the tea improves, but the - plant remains a small shrub with numerous stems, instead of forming, - as in the wild state, a tree with a rounded head. From cultivated - plants the leaves are gathered every two or three years, that interval - being necessary for restoration to vigorous growth. The collection of - mate is, however, chiefly effected by Indians employed for that - purpose by merchants, who pay a money consideration to government for - the privilege. - - When a yerbal or mate wood is found, the Indians, who usually travel - in companies of about twenty-five in number, build wigwams and settle - down to the work for about six months. Their first operation is to - prepare an open space, called a _tatacua_, about 6 ft. square, in - which the surface of the soil is beaten hard and smooth with mallets. - The leafy branches of the mate are then cut down and placed on the - tatacua, where they undergo a preliminary roasting from a fire kindled - around it. An arch of poles, or of hurdles, is then erected above it, - on which the mate is placed, a fire being lighted underneath. This - part of the process demands some care, since by it the leaves have to - be rendered brittle enough to be easily pulverized, and the aroma has - to be developed, the necessary amount of heat being only learned by - experience. After drying, the leaves are reduced to coarse powder in - mortars formed of pits in the earth well rammed. Mate so prepared is - called _caa gazu_ or _yerva do polos_, and is chiefly used in Brazil. - In Paraguay and the vicinity of Parana in the Argentine Republic, the - leaves are deprived of the midrib before roasting; this is called - _caa-miri_. A very superior quality, or _caa-cuys_, is also prepared - in Paraguay from the scarcely expanded buds. Another method of drying - mate has been adopted, the leaves being heated in large cast-iron pans - set in brickwork, in the same way that tea is dried in China; it is - afterwards powdered by machinery. - - [Illustration: Mate (_Ilex paraguariensis_). - - Portion of plant, half natural size. Flower, drupe and nuts, twice - natural size. Part of under-side of leaf showing minute glands, - natural size.] - - The different methods of preparation influence to a certain extent the - value of the product, the mate prepared in Paraguay being considered - the best, that of Oran and Paranagua very inferior. The leaves when - dried are packed tightly in serons or oblong packages made of raw - hides, which are then carefully sewed up. These shrink by exposure to - the sun, and in a couple of days form compact parcels each containing - about 200 lb. of tea; in this form it keeps well. The tea is generally - prepared for use in a small silver-mounted calabash, made of the fruit - of _Crescentia cujete_ (Cuca) or of _Lagenaria_ (Cabaco), usually - about the size of a large orange, the tapering end of the latter - serving for a handle. In the top of the calabash, or _mate_,[2] a - circular hole about the size of a florin is made, and through this - opening the tea is sucked by means of a bombilla. This instrument - consists of a small tube 6 or 7 in. long, formed either of metal or a - reed, which has at one end a bulb made either of extremely fine - basket-work or of metal perforated with minute holes, so as to prevent - the particles of the tea-leaves from being drawn up into the mouth. - Some sugar and a little hot water are first placed in the gourd, the - yerva is then added, and finally the vessel is filled to the brim with - boiling water, or milk previously heated by a spirit lamp. A little - burnt sugar or lemon juice is sometimes added instead of milk. The - beverage is then handed round to the company, each person being - furnished with a bombilla. The leaves will bear steeping about three - times. The infusion, if not drunk soon after it is made, rapidly turns - black. Persons who are fond of mate drink it before every meal, and - consume about 1 oz. of the leaves per day. In the neighbourhood of - Parana it is prepared and drunk like Chinese tea. Mate is generally - considered disagreeable by those unaccustomed to it, having a somewhat - bitter taste; moreover, it is the custom to drink it so hot as to be - unpleasant. But in the south-eastern republics it is a much-prized - article of luxury, and is the first thing offered to visitors. The - _gaucho_ of the plains will travel on horseback for weeks asking no - better fare than dried beef washed down with copious draughts of mate, - and for it he will forego any other luxury, such as sugar, rice or - biscuit. Mate acts as a restorative after great fatigue in the same - manner as tea. Since it does not lose its flavour so quickly as tea by - exposure to the air and damp it is more valuable to travellers. - - Since the beginning of the 17th century mate has been drunk by all - classes in Paraguay, and it is now used throughout Brazil and the - neighbouring countries. - - The virtues of this substance are due to the occurrence in it of - caffeine, of which a given quantity of mate, as prepared for drinking, - contains definitely less than a similar quantity of tea or coffee. It - is less astringent than either of these, and thus is, on all scores, - less open to objection. - - See Scully, _Brazil_ (London, 1866); Mansfield, _Brazil_ (London, - 1856); Christy, _New Commercial Plants_, No. 3 (London, 1880); _Kew - Bulletin_ (1892), p. 132. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] _I. gigantea_, _I. ovalifolia_, _I. Humboldtiana_, and _I. - nigropunctata_, besides several varieties of these species, are also - used for preparing mate. - - [2] The word _caa_ signified the plant in the native Indian language. - The Spaniards gave it a similar name, _yerba_. _Mate_ comes from the - language of the Incas, and originally means a calabash. The Paraguay - tea was called at first _yerva do mate_, and then, the _yerva_ being - dropped, the name _mate_ came to signify the same thing. - - - - -MATERA, a city of Basilicata, Italy, in the province of Potenza, from -which it is 68 m. E. by road (13 m. S. of the station of Altamura), 1312 -ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 17,801. Part of it is built on a level -plateau and part in deep valleys adjoining, the tops of the campaniles -of the lower portions being on a level with the streets of the upper. -The principal building is the cathedral of the archbishopric of Acerenza -and Matera, formed in 1203 by the union of the two bishoprics, dating -respectively from 300 and 398. The western facade of the cathedral is -plain, while the utmost richness of decoration is lavished on the south -front which faces the piazza. Almost in the centre of this south facade -is an exquisitely sculptured window, from which letters from the Greek -patriarch at Constantinople used to be read. The campanile is 175 ft. -high. In the vicinity are the troglodyte caverns of Monte Scaglioso, -still inhabited by some of the lower classes, and other caves with -13th-century frescoes. - - Neolithic pottery has been found here, but the origin of the town is - uncertain. Under the Normans Matera was a countship for William Bras - de Fer and his successors. It was the chief town of the Basilicata - from 1664 till 1811, when the French transferred the administration to - Potenza. - - - - -MATERIALISM (from Lat. _materia_, matter), in philosophy, the theory -which regards all the facts of the universe as explainable in terms of -matter and motion, and in particular explains all psychical processes by -physical and chemical changes in the nervous system. It is thus opposed -both to natural realism and to idealism. For the natural realist stands -upon the common-sense position that minds and material objects have -equally effective existence; while the idealist explains matter by mind -and denies that mind can be explained by matter. The various forms into -which materialism may be classified correspond to the various causes -which induce men to take up materialistic views. _Naive materialism_ is -due to a cause which still, perhaps, has no small power, the natural -difficulty which persons who have had no philosophic training experience -in observing and appreciating the importance of the immaterial facts of -consciousness. The pre-Socratics may be classed as naive materialists in -this sense; though, as at that early period the contrast between matter -and spirit had not been fully realized and matter was credited with -properties that belong to life, it is usual to apply the term hylozoism -(q.v.) to the earliest stage of Greek metaphysical theory. It is not -difficult to discern the influence of naive materialism in contemporary -thinking. We see it in Huxley, and still more in Haeckel, whose -materialism (which he chooses to term "monism") is evidently conditioned -by ignorance of the history and present position of speculation. -_Cosmological materialism_ is that form of the doctrine in which the -dominant motive is the formation of a comprehensive world-scheme: the -Stoics and Epicureans were cosmological materialists. In _anti-religious -materialism_ the motive is hostility to established dogmas which are -connected, in the Christian system especially, with certain forms of -spiritual doctrine. Such a motive weighed much with Hobbes and with the -French materialists of the 18th century, such as La Mettrie and -d'Holbach. The cause of _medical materialism_ is the natural bias of -physicians towards explaining the health and disease of mind by the -health and disease of body. It has received its greatest support from -the study of insanity, which is now fully recognized as conditioned by -disease of the brain. To this school belong Drs Maudsley and Mercier. -The highest form of the doctrine is _scientific materialism_, by which -term is meant the doctrine so commonly adopted by the physicist, -zoologist and biologist. - -It may perhaps be fairly said that materialism is at present a necessary -methodological postulate of natural-scientific inquiry. The business of -the scientist is to explain everything by the physical causes which are -comparatively well understood and to exclude the interference of -spiritual causes. It was the great work of Descartes to exclude -rigorously from science all explanations which were not scientifically -verifiable; and the prevalence of materialism at certain epochs, as in -the enlightenment of the 18th century and in the German philosophy of -the middle 19th, were occasioned by special need to vindicate the -scientific position, in the former case against the Church, in the -latter case against the pseudo-science of the Hegelian dialectic. The -chief definite periods of materialism are the pre-Socratic and the -post-Aristotelian in Greece, the 18th century in France, and in Germany -the 19th century from about 1850 to 1880. In England materialism has -been endemic, so to speak, from Hobbes to the present time, and English -materialism is more important perhaps than that of any other country. -But, from the national distrust of system, it has not been elaborated -into a consistent metaphysic, but is rather traceable as a tendency -harmonizing with the spirit of natural science. Hobbes, Locke, Hume, -Mill and Herbert Spencer are not systematic materialists, but show -tendencies towards materialism. - - See METAPHYSICS; and Lange's _History of Materialism_. - - - - -MATER MATUTA (connected with Lat. _mane_, _matutinus_, "morning"), an -old Italian goddess of dawn. The idea of light being closely connected -with childbirth, whereby the infant is brought into the light of the -world, she came to be regarded as a double of Juno, and was identified -by the Greeks with Eilithyia. Matuta had a temple in Rome in the Forum -Boarium, where the festival of Matralia was celebrated on the 11th of -June. Only married women were admitted, and none who had been married -more than once were allowed to crown her image with garlands. Under -hellenizing influences, she became a goddess of sea and harbours, the -Ino-Leucothea of the Greeks. In this connexion it is noticeable that, as -Ino tended her nephew Dionysus, so at the Matralia the participants -prayed for the welfare of their nephews and nieces before that of their -own children. The transformation was complete in 174 B.C., when Tiberius -Sempronius Gracchus, after the conquest of Sardinia, placed in the -temple of Matuta a map commemorative of the campaign, containing a plan -of the island and the various engagements. The progress of navigation -and the association of divinities of the sky with maritime affairs -probably also assisted to bring about the change, although the memory of -her earlier function as a goddess of childbirth survived till imperial -times. - - Ovid, _Fasti_, vi. 475; Livy xli. 28; Plutarch, _Quaestiones romanae_, - 16, 17. - - - - -MATHEMATICS (Gr. [Greek: mathematke], sc. [Greek: techne] or [Greek: -episteme]; from [Greek: mathema], "learning" or "science"), the general -term for the various applications of mathematical thought, the -traditional field of which is number and quantity. It has been usual to -define mathematics as "the science of discrete and continuous -magnitude." Even Leibnitz,[1] who initiated a more modern point of view, -follows the tradition in thus confining the scope of mathematics -properly so called, while apparently conceiving it as a department of a -yet wider science of reasoning. A short consideration of some leading -topics of the science will exemplify both the plausibility and -inadequacy of the above definition. Arithmetic, algebra, and the -infinitesimal calculus, are sciences directly concerned with integral -numbers, rational (or fractional) numbers, and real numbers generally, -which include incommensurable numbers. It would seem that "the general -theory of discrete and continuous quantity" is the exact description of -the topics of these sciences. Furthermore, can we not complete the -circle of the mathematical sciences by adding geometry? Now geometry -deals with points, lines, planes and cubic contents. Of these all except -points are quantities: lines involve lengths, planes involve areas, and -cubic contents involve volumes. Also, as the Cartesian geometry shows, -all the relations between points are expressible in terms of geometric -quantities. Accordingly, at first sight it seems reasonable to define -geometry in some such way as "the science of dimensional quantity." Thus -every subdivision of mathematical science would appear to deal with -quantity, and the definition of mathematics as "the science of quantity" -would appear to be justified. We have now to consider the reasons for -rejecting this definition as inadequate. - -_Types of Critical Questions._--What are numbers? We can talk of five -apples and ten pears. But what are "five" and "ten" apart from the -apples and pears? Also in addition to the cardinal numbers there are the -ordinal numbers: the fifth apple and the tenth pear claim thought. What -is the relation of "the fifth" and "the tenth" to "five" and "ten"? "The -first rose of summer" and "the last rose of summer" are parallel -phrases, yet one explicitly introduces an ordinal number and the other -does not. Again, "half a foot" and "half a pound" are easily defined. -But in what sense is there "a half," which is the same for "half a foot" -as "half a pound"? Furthermore, incommensurable numbers are defined as -the limits arrived at as the result of certain procedures with rational -numbers. But how do we know that there is anything to reach? We must -know that [root]2 exists before we can prove that any procedure will -reach it. An expedition to the North Pole has nothing to reach unless -the earth rotates. - -Also in geometry, what is a point? The straightness of a straight line -and the planeness of a plane require consideration. Furthermore, -"congruence" is a difficulty. For when a triangle "moves," the points do -not move with it. So what is it that keeps unaltered in the moving -triangle? Thus the whole method of measurement in geometry as described -in the elementary textbooks and the older treatises is obscure to the -last degree. Lastly, what are "dimensions"? All these topics require -thorough discussion before we can rest content with the definition of -mathematics as the general science of magnitude; and by the time they -are discussed the definition has evaporated. An outline of the modern -answers to questions such as the above will now be given. A critical -defence of them would require a volume.[2] - - _Cardinal Numbers._--A one-one relation between the members of two - classes [alpha] and [beta] is any method of correlating all the - members of [alpha] to all the members of [beta], so that any member of - [alpha] has one and only one correlate in [beta], and any member of - [beta] has one and only one correlate in [alpha]. Two classes between - which a one-one relation exists have the same cardinal number and are - called cardinally similar; and the cardinal number of the class - [alpha] is a certain class whose members are themselves - classes--namely, it is the class composed of all those classes for - which a one-one correlation with [alpha] exists. Thus the cardinal - number of [alpha] is itself a class, and furthermore [alpha] is a - member of it. For a one-one relation can be established between the - members of [alpha] and [alpha] by the simple process of correlating - each member of [alpha] with itself. Thus the cardinal number one is - the class of unit classes, the cardinal number two is the class of - doublets, and so on. Also a unit class is any class with the property - that it possesses a member _x_ such that, if _y_ is any member of the - class, then _x_ and _y_ are identical. A doublet is any class which - possesses a member _x_ such that the modified class formed by all the - other members except _x_ is a unit class. And so on for all the finite - cardinals, which are thus defined successively. The cardinal number - zero is the class of classes with no members; but there is only one - such class, namely--the null class. Thus this cardinal number has only - one member. The operations of addition and multiplication of two given - cardinal numbers can be defined by taking two classes [alpha] and - [beta], satisfying the conditions (1) that their cardinal numbers are - respectively the given numbers, and (2) that they contain no member in - common, and then by defining by reference to [alpha] and [beta] two - other suitable classes whose cardinal numbers are defined to be - respectively the required sum and product of the cardinal numbers in - question. We need not here consider the details of this process. - - With these definitions it is now possible to _prove_ the following six - premisses applying to finite cardinal numbers, from which Peano[3] has - shown that all arithmetic can be deduced:-- - - i. Cardinal numbers form a class. - - ii. Zero is a cardinal number. - - iii. If a is a cardinal number, a + 1 is a cardinal number. - - iv. If s is any class and zero is a member of it, also if when x is a - cardinal number and a member of s, also x+1 is a member of s, then the - whole class of cardinal numbers is contained in s. - - v. If a and b are cardinal numbers, and a + 1 = b + 1, then a = b. - - vi. If a is a cardinal number, then a + 1 [/=] 0. - - It may be noticed that (iv) is the familar principle of mathematical - induction. Peano in an historical note refers its first explicit - employment, although without a general enunciation, to Maurolycus in - his work, _Arithmeticorum libri duo_ (Venice, 1575). - - But now the difficulty of confining mathematics to being the science - of number and quantity is immediately apparent. For there is no - self-contained science of cardinal numbers. The proof of the six - premisses requires an elaborate investigation into the general - properties of classes and relations which can be deduced by the - strictest reasoning from our ultimate logical principles. Also it is - purely arbitrary to erect the consequences of these six principles - into a separate science. They are excellent principles of the highest - value, but they are in no sense the necessary premisses which must be - proved before any other propositions of cardinal numbers can be - established. On the contrary, the premisses of arithmetic can be put - in other forms, and, furthermore, an indefinite number of propositions - of arithmetic can be proved directly from logical principles without - mentioning them. Thus, while arithmetic may be defined as that branch - of deductive reasoning concerning classes and relations which is - concerned with the establishment of propositions concerning cardinal - numbers, it must be added that the introduction of cardinal numbers - makes no great break in this general science. It is no more than an - interesting subdivision in a general theory. - - _Ordinal Numbers._--We must first understand what is meant by "order," - that is, by "serial arrangement." An order of a set of things is to be - sought in that relation holding between members of the set which - constitutes that order. The set viewed as a class has many orders. - Thus the telegraph posts along a certain road have a space-order very - obvious to our senses; but they have also a time-order according to - dates of erection, perhaps more important to the postal authorities - who replace them after fixed intervals. A set of cardinal numbers have - an order of magnitude, often called _the_ order of the set because of - its insistent obviousness to us; but, if they are the numbers drawn in - a lottery, their time-order of occurrence in that drawing also ranges - them in an order of some importance. Thus the order is defined by the - "serial" relation. A relation (R) is serial[4] when (1) it implies - diversity, so that, if x has the relation R to y, x is diverse from y; - (2) it is transitive, so that if x has the relation R to y, and y to - z, then x has the relation R to z; (3) it has the property of - connexity, so that if x and y are things to which any things bear the - relation R, or which bear the relation R to any things, then _either_ - x is identical with y, _or_ x has the relation R to y, _or_ y has the - relation R to x. These conditions are necessary and sufficient to - secure that our ordinary ideas of "preceding" and "succeeding" hold in - respect to the relation R. The "field" of the relation R is the class - of things ranged in order by it. Two relations R and R' are said to be - ordinally similar, if a one-one relation holds between the members of - the two fields of R and R', such that if x and y are any two members - of the field of R, such that x has the relation R to y, and if x' and - y' are the correlates in the field of R' of x and y, then in all such - cases x' has the relation R' to y', and conversely, interchanging the - dashes on the letters, i.e. R and R', x and x', &c. It is evident that - the ordinal similarity of two relations implies the cardinal - similarity of their fields, but not conversely. Also, two relations - need not be serial in order to be ordinally similar; but if one is - serial, so is the other. The relation-number of a relation is the - class whose members are all those relations which are ordinally - similar to it. This class will include the original relation itself. - The relation-number of a relation should be compared with the cardinal - number of a class. When a relation is serial its relation-number is - often called its serial type. The addition and multiplication of two - relation-numbers is defined by taking two relations R and S, such that - (1) their fields have no terms in common; (2) their relation-numbers - are the two relation-numbers in question, and then by defining by - reference to R and S two other suitable relations whose - relation-numbers are defined to be respectively the sum and product of - the relation-numbers in question. We need not consider the details of - this process. Now if n be any finite cardinal number, it can be proved - that the class of those serial relations, which have a field whose - cardinal number is n, is a relation-number. This relation-number is - the ordinal number corresponding to n; let it be symbolized by n. - Thus, corresponding to the cardinal numbers 2, 3, 4 ... there are the - ordinal numbers 2, 3, 4.... The definition of the ordinal number 1 - requires some little ingenuity owing to the fact that no serial - relation can have a field whose cardinal number is 1; but we must omit - here the explanation of the process. The ordinal number 0 is the class - whose sole member is the null relation--that is, the relation which - never holds between any pair of entities. The definitions of the - finite ordinals can be expressed without use of the corresponding - cardinals, so there is no essential priority of cardinals to ordinals. - Here also it can be seen that the science of the finite ordinals is a - particular subdivision of the general theory of classes and relations. - Thus the illusory nature of the traditional definition of mathematics - is again illustrated. - - _Cantor's Infinite Numbers._--Owing to the correspondence between the - finite cardinals and the finite ordinals, the propositions of cardinal - arithmetic and ordinal arithmetic correspond point by point. But the - definition of the cardinal number of a class applies when the class is - not finite, and it can be proved that there are different infinite - cardinal numbers, and that there is a least infinite cardinal, now - usually denoted by [aleph]0, where [aleph] is the Hebrew letter aleph. - Similarly, a class of serial relations, called _well-ordered_ serial - relations, can be defined, such that their corresponding - relation-numbers include the ordinary finite ordinals, but also - include relation-numbers which have many properties like those of the - finite ordinals, though the fields of the relations belonging to them - are not finite. These relation-numbers are the infinite ordinal - numbers. The arithmetic of the infinite cardinals does not correspond - to that of the infinite ordinals. The theory of these extensions of - the ideas of number is dealt with in the article NUMBER. It will - suffice to mention here that Peano's fourth premiss of arithmetic does - not hold for infinite cardinals or for infinite ordinals. Contrasting - the above definitions of number, cardinal and ordinals, with the - alternative theory that number is an ultimate idea incapable of - definition, we notice that our procedure exacts a greater attention, - combined with a smaller credulity; for every idea, assumed as - ultimate, demands a separate act of faith. - - _The Data of Analysts._--Rational numbers and real numbers in general - can now be defined according to the same general method, If m and n - are finite cardinal numbers, the rational number m/n is the relation - which any finite cardinal number x bears to any finite cardinal number - y when n X x = m X y. Thus the rational number one, which we will - denote by 1_r, is not the cardinal number 1; for 1_r is the relation - 1/1 as defined above, and is thus a relation holding between certain - pairs of cardinals. Similarly, the other rational integers must be - distinguished from the corresponding cardinals. The arithmetic of - rational numbers is now established by means of appropriate - definitions, which indicate the entities meant by the operations of - addition and multiplication. But the desire to obtain general - enunciations of theorems without exceptional cases has led - mathematicians to employ entities of ever-ascending types of - elaboration. These entities are not created by mathematicians, they - are employed by them, and their definitions should point out the - construction of the new entities in terms of those already on hand. - The real numbers, which include irrational numbers, have now to be - defined. Consider the serial arrangement of the rationals in their - order of magnitude. A real number is a class ([alpha], say) of - rational numbers which satisfies the condition that it is the same as - the class of those rationals each of which precedes at least one - member of [alpha]. Thus, consider the class of rationals less than - 2_r; any member of this class precedes some other members of the - class--thus 1/2 precedes 4/3, 3/2 and so on; also the class of - predecessors of predecessors of 2_r is itself the class of - predecessors of 2_r. Accordingly this class is a real number; it will - be called the real number 2_R. Note that the class of rationals less - than or equal to 2_r is not a real number. For 2_r is not a - predecessor of some member of the class. In the above example 2_R is - an integral real number, which is distinct from a rational integer, - and from a cardinal number. Similarly, any rational real number is - distinct from the corresponding rational number. But now the - irrational real numbers have all made their appearance. For example, - the class of rationals whose squares are less than 2_r satisfies the - definition of a real number; it is the real number [root]2. The - arithmetic of real numbers follows from appropriate definitions of the - operations of addition and multiplication. Except for the immediate - purposes of an explanation, such as the above, it is unnecessary for - mathematicians to have separate symbols, such as 2, 2_r and 2_R, or - 2/3 and (2/3)_R. Real numbers with signs (+ or -) are now defined. If - a is a real number, +a is defined to be the relation which any real - number of the form x + a bears to the real number x, and -a is the - relation which any real number x bears to the real number x + a. The - addition and multiplication of these "signed" real numbers is suitably - defined, and it is proved that the usual arithmetic of such numbers - follows. Finally, we reach a complex number of the nth order. Such a - number is a "one-many" relation which relates n signed real numbers - (or n algebraic complex numbers when they are already defined by this - procedure) to the n cardinal numbers 1, 2 ... n respectively. If such - a complex number is written (as usual) in the form x1e1 + x2e2 + ... + - x_n e_n, then this particular complex number relates x1 to 1, x2 to 2, - ... x_n to n. Also the "unit" e1 (or e2) considered as a number of the - system is merely a shortened form for the complex number (+1) e1 + 0e2 - + ... + 0e_n. This last number exemplifies the fact that one signed - real number, such as 0, may be correlated to many of the n cardinals, - such as 2 ... n in the example, but that each cardinal is only - correlated with one signed number. Hence the relation has been called - above "one-many." The sum of two complex numbers x1e1 + x2e2 + ... + - x_n e_n and y1e1 + y2e2 + ... + y_n e_n is always defined to be the - complex number (x1 + y1)e1 + (x2 + y2)e2 + ... + (x_n + y_n)e_n. But - an indefinite number of definitions of the product of two complex - numbers yield interesting results. Each definition gives rise to a - corresponding algebra of higher complex numbers. We will confine - ourselves here to algebraic complex numbers--that is, to complex - numbers of the second order taken in connexion with that definition of - multiplication which leads to ordinary algebra. The product of two - complex numbers of the second order--namely, x1e1 + x2e2 and y1e1 + - y2e2, is in this case defined to mean the complex (x1y1 - x2y2)e1 + - (x1y2 + x2y1)e2. Thus e1 X e1 = e, e2 X e2 = -e1, e1 X e2 = e2 X e1 = - e2. With this definition it is usual to omit the first symbol e1, and - to write i or [root]-1 instead of e2. Accordingly, the typical form - for such a complex number is x + yi, and then with this notation the - above-mentioned definition of multiplication is invariably adopted. - The importance of this algebra arises from the fact that in terms of - such complex numbers with this definition of multiplication the utmost - generality of expression, to the exclusion of exceptional cases, can - be obtained for theorems which occur in analogous forms, but - complicated with exceptional cases, in the algebras of real numbers - and of signed real numbers. This is exactly the same reason as that - which has led mathematicians to work with signed real numbers in - preference to real numbers, and with real numbers in preference to - rational numbers. The evolution of mathematical thought in the - invention of the data of analysis has thus been completely traced in - outline. - -_Definition of Mathematics._--It has now become apparent that the -traditional field of mathematics in the province of discrete and -continuous number can only be separated from the general abstract theory -of classes and relations by a wavering and indeterminate line. Of course -a discussion as to the mere application of a word easily degenerates -into the most fruitless logomachy. It is open to any one to use any word -in any sense. But on the assumption that "mathematics" is to denote a -science well marked out by its subject matter and its methods from other -topics of thought, and that at least it is to include all topics -habitually assigned to it, there is now no option but to employ -"mathematics" in the general sense[5] of the "science concerned with the -logical deduction of consequences from the general premisses of all -reasoning." - -_Geometry._--The typical mathematical proposition is: "If x, y, z ... -satisfy such and such conditions, then such and such other conditions -hold with respect to them." By taking fixed conditions for the -hypothesis of such a proposition a definite department of mathematics is -marked out. For example, geometry is such a department. The "axioms" of -geometry are the fixed conditions which occur in the hypotheses of the -geometrical propositions. The special nature of the "axioms" which -constitute geometry is considered in the article GEOMETRY (_Axioms_). It -is sufficient to observe here that they are concerned with special types -of classes of classes and of classes of relations, and that the -connexion of geometry with number and magnitude is in no way an -essential part of the foundation of the science. In fact, the whole -theory of measurement in geometry arises at a comparatively late stage -as the result of a variety of complicated considerations. - - _Classes and Relations._--The foregoing account of the nature of - mathematics necessitates a strict deduction of the general properties - of classes and relations from the ultimate logical premisses. In the - course of this process, undertaken for the first time with the rigour - of mathematicians, some contradictions have become apparent. That - first discovered is known as Burali-Forti's contradiction,[6] and - consists in the proof that there both is and is not a greatest - infinite ordinal number. But these contradictions do not depend upon - any theory of number, for Russell's contradiction[7] does not involve - number in any form. This contradiction arises from considering the - class possessing as members all classes which are not members of - themselves. Call this class w; then to say that x is a w is equivalent - to saying that x is not an x. Accordingly, to say that w is a w is - equivalent to saying that w is not a w. An analogous contradiction can - be found for relations. It follows that a careful scrutiny of the very - idea of classes and relations is required. Note that classes are here - required in extension, so that the class of human beings and the class - of rational featherless bipeds are identical; similarly for relations, - which are to be determined by the entities related. Now a class in - respect to its components is many. In what sense then can it be one? - This problem of "the one and the many" has been discussed continuously - by the philosophers.[8] All the contradictions can be avoided, and yet - the use of classes and relations can be preserved as required by - mathematics, and indeed by common sense, by a theory which denies to a - class--or relation--existence or being in any sense in which the - entities composing it--or related by it--exist. Thus, to say that a - pen is an entity and the class of pens is an entity is merely a play - upon the word "entity"; the second sense of "entity" (if any) is - indeed derived from the first, but has a more complex signification. - Consider an incomplete proposition, incomplete in the sense that some - entity which ought to be involved in it is represented by an - undetermined x, which may stand for any entity. Call it a - propositional function; and, if [phi]x be a propositional function, - the undetermined variable x is the argument. Two propositional - functions [phi]x and [psi]x are "extensionally identical" if any - determination of x in [phi]x which converts [phi]x into a true - proposition also converts [psi]x into a true proposition, and - conversely for [psi] and [phi]. Now consider a propositional function - F_[chi] in which the variable argument [chi] is itself a propositional - function. If F_[chi] is true when, and only when, [chi] is determined - to be either [phi] or some other propositional function extensionally - equivalent to [phi], then the proposition F_[phi] is of the form which - is ordinarily recognized as being about the class determined by [phi]x - taken in extension--that is, the class of entities for which [phi]x is - a true proposition when x is determined to be any one of them. A - similar theory holds for relations which arise from the consideration - of propositional functions with two or more variable arguments. It is - then possible to define by a parallel elaboration what is meant by - classes of classes, classes of relations, relations between classes, - and so on. Accordingly, the number of a class of relations can be - defined, or of a class of classes, and so on. This theory[9] is in - effect a theory of the _use_ of classes and relations, and does not - decide the philosophic question as to the sense (if any) in which a - class in extension is one entity. It does indeed deny that it is an - entity in the sense in which one of its members is an entity. - Accordingly, it is a fallacy for any determination of x to consider "x - is an x" or "x is not an x" as having the meaning of propositions. - Note that for any determination of x, "x is an x" and "x is not an x," - are neither of them fallacies but are both meaningless, according to - this theory. Thus Russell's contradiction vanishes, and an examination - of the other contradictions shows that they vanish also. - -_Applied Mathematics._--The selection of the topics of mathematical -inquiry among the infinite variety open to it has been guided by the -useful applications, and indeed the abstract theory has only recently -been disentangled from the empirical elements connected with these -applications. For example, the application of the theory of cardinal -numbers to classes of physical entities involves in practice some -process of counting. It is only recently that the _succession_ of -processes which is involved in any act of counting has been seen to be -irrelevant to the idea of number. Indeed, it is only by experience that -we can know that any definite process of counting will give the true -cardinal number of some class of entities. It is perfectly possible to -imagine a universe in which any act of counting by a being in it -annihilated some members of the class counted during the time and only -during the time of its continuance. A legend of the Council of Nicea[10] -illustrates this point: "When the Bishops took their places on their -thrones, they were 318; when they rose up to be called over, it appeared -that they were 319; so that they never could make the number come right, -and whenever they approached the last of the series, he immediately -turned into the likeness of his next neighbour." Whatever be the -historical worth of this story, it may safely be said that it cannot be -disproved by deductive reasoning from the premisses of abstract logic. -The most we can do is to assert that a universe in which such things are -liable to happen on a large scale is unfitted for the practical -application of the theory of cardinal numbers. The application of the -theory of real numbers to physical quantities involves analogous -considerations. In the first place, some physical process of addition is -presupposed, involving some inductively inferred law of permanence -during that process. Thus in the theory of masses we must know that two -pounds of lead when put together will counterbalance in the scales two -pounds of sugar, or a pound of lead and a pound of sugar. Furthermore, -the sort of continuity of the series (in order of magnitude) of rational -numbers is known to be different from that of the series of real -numbers. Indeed, mathematicians now reserve "continuity" as the term for -the latter kind of continuity; the mere property of having an infinite -number of terms between any two terms is called "compactness." The -compactness of the series of rational numbers is consistent with -quasi-gaps in it--that is, with the possible absence of limits to -classes in it. Thus the class of rational numbers whose squares are less -than 2 has no upper limit among the rational numbers. But among the real -numbers all classes have limits. Now, owing to the necessary inexactness -of measurement, it is impossible to discriminate directly whether any -kind of continuous physical quantity possesses the compactness of the -series of rationals or the continuity of the series of real numbers. In -calculations the latter hypothesis is made because of its mathematical -simplicity. But, the assumption has certainly no a priori grounds in its -favour, and it is not very easy to see how to base it upon experience. -For example, if it should turn out that the mass of a body is to be -estimated by counting the number of corpuscles (whatever they may be) -which go to form it, then a body with an irrational measure of mass is -intrinsically impossible. Similarly, the continuity of space apparently -rests upon sheer assumption unsupported by any a priori or experimental -grounds. Thus the current applications of mathematics to the analysis of -phenomena can be justified by no a priori necessity. - -In one sense there is no science of applied mathematics. When once the -fixed conditions which any hypothetical group of entities are to satisfy -have been precisely formulated, the deduction of the further -propositions, which also will hold respecting them, can proceed in -complete independence of the question as to whether or no any such group -of entities can be found in the world of phenomena. Thus rational -mechanics, based on the Newtonian Laws, viewed as mathematics is -independent of its supposed application, and hydrodynamics remains a -coherent and respected science though it is extremely improbable that -any perfect fluid exists in the physical world. But this unbendingly -logical point of view cannot be the last word upon the matter. For no -one can doubt the essential difference between characteristic treatises -upon "pure" and "applied" mathematics. The difference is a difference in -method. In pure mathematics the hypotheses which a set of entities are -to satisfy are given, and a group of interesting deductions are sought. -In "applied mathematics" the "deductions" are given in the shape of the -experimental evidence of natural science, and the hypotheses from which -the "deductions" can be deduced are sought. Accordingly, every treatise -on applied mathematics, properly so-called, is directed to the criticism -of the "laws" from which the reasoning starts, or to a suggestion of -results which experiment may hope to find. Thus if it calculates the -result of some experiment, it is not the experimentalist's well-attested -results which are on their trial, but the basis of the calculation. -Newton's _Hypotheses non fingo_ was a proud boast, but it rests upon an -entire misconception of the capacities of the mind of man in dealing -with external nature. - - _Synopsis of Existing Developments of Pure Mathematics._--A complete - classification of mathematical sciences, as they at present exist, is - to be found in the _International Catalogue of Scientific Literature_ - promoted by the Royal Society. The classification in question was - drawn up by an international committee of eminent mathematicians, and - thus has the highest authority. It would be unfair to criticize it - from an exacting philosophical point of view. The practical object of - the enterprise required that the proportionate quantity of yearly - output in the various branches, and that the liability of various - topics as a matter of fact to occur in connexion with each other, - should modify the classification. - - Section A deals with pure mathematics. Under the general heading - "_Fundamental Notions_" occur the subheadings "_Foundations of - Arithmetic_," with the topics rational, irrational and transcendental - numbers, and aggregates; "_Universal Algebra_," with the topics - complex numbers, quaternions, ausdehnungslehre, vector analysis, - matrices, and algebra of logic; and "_Theory of Groups_," with the - topics finite and continuous groups. For the subjects of this general - heading see the articles ALGEBRA, UNIVERSAL; GROUPS, THEORY OF; - INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS; NUMBER; QUATERNIONS; VECTOR ANALYSIS. Under - the general heading "_Algebra and Theory of Numbers_" occur the - subheadings "_Elements of Algebra_," with the topics rational - polynomials, permutations, &c., partitions, probabilities; "_Linear - Substitutions_," with the topics determinants, &c., linear - substitutions, general theory of quantics; "_Theory of Algebraic - Equations_," with the topics existence of roots, separation of and - approximation to, theory of Galois, &c.; "_Theory of Numbers_," with - the topics congruences, quadratic residues, prime numbers, particular - irrational and transcendental numbers. For the subjects of this - general heading see the articles ALGEBRA; ALGEBRAIC FORMS; ARITHMETIC; - COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS; DETERMINANTS; EQUATION; FRACTION, CONTINUED; - INTERPOLATION; LOGARITHMS; MAGIC SQUARE; PROBABILITY. Under the - general heading "_Analysis_" occur the subheadings "_Foundations of - Analysis_," with the topics theory of functions of real variables, - series and other infinite processes, principles and elements of the - differential and of the integral calculus, definite integrals, and - calculus of variations; "_Theory of Functions of Complex Variables_," - with the topics functions of one variable and of several variables; - "_Algebraic Functions and their Integrals_," with the topics algebraic - functions of one and of several variables, elliptic functions and - single theta functions, Abelian integrals; "_Other Special - Functions_," with the topics Euler's, Legendre's, Bessel's and - automorphic functions; "_Differential Equations_," with the topics - existence theorems, methods of solution, general theory; - "_Differential Forms and Differential Invariants_," with the topics - differential forms, including Pfaffians, transformation of - differential forms, including tangential (or contact) transformations, - differential invariants; "_Analytical Methods connected with Physical - Subjects_," with the topics harmonic analysis, Fourier's series, the - differential equations of applied mathematics, Dirichlet's problem; - "_Difference Equations and Functional Equations_," with the topics - recurring series, solution of equations of finite differences and - functional equations. For the subjects of this heading see the - articles DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS; FOURIER'S SERIES; CONTINUED - FRACTIONS; FUNCTION; FUNCTION OF REAL VARIABLES; FUNCTION COMPLEX; - GROUPS, THEORY OF; INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS; MAXIMA AND MINIMA; SERIES; - SPHERICAL HARMONICS; TRIGONOMETRY; VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF. Under the - general heading "_Geometry_" occur the subheadings "_Foundations_," - with the topics principles of geometry, non-Euclidean geometries, - hyperspace, methods of analytical geometry; "_Elementary Geometry_," - with the topics planimetry, stereometry, trigonometry, descriptive - geometry; "_Geometry of Conics and Quadrics_," with the implied - topics; "_Algebraic Curves and Surfaces of Degree higher than the - Second_," with the implied topics; "_Transformations and General - Methods for Algebraic Configurations_," with the topics collineation, - duality, transformations, correspondence, groups of points on - algebraic curves and surfaces, genus of curves and surfaces, - enumerative geometry, connexes, complexes, congruences, higher - elements in space, algebraic configurations in hyperspace; - "_Infinitesimal Geometry: applications of Differential and Integral - Calculus to Geometry_," with the topics kinematic geometry, curvature, - rectification and quadrature, special transcendental curves and - surfaces; "_Differential Geometry: applications of Differential - Equations to Geometry_," with the topics curves on surfaces, minimal - surfaces, surfaces determined by differential properties, conformal - and other representation of surfaces on others, deformation of - surfaces, orthogonal and isothermic surfaces. For the subjects under - this heading see the articles CONIC SECTIONS; CIRCLE; CURVE; - GEOMETRICAL CONTINUITY; GEOMETRY, _AXIOMS OF_; GEOMETRY, _EUCLIDEAN_; - GEOMETRY, _PROJECTIVE_; GEOMETRY, _ANALYTICAL_; GEOMETRY, _LINE_; - KNOTS, MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF; MENSURATION; MODELS; PROJECTION; - SURFACE; TRIGONOMETRY. - - This survey of the existing developments of pure mathematics confirms - the conclusions arrived at from the previous survey of the theoretical - principles of the subject. Functions, operations, transformations, - substitutions, correspondences, are but names for various types of - relations. A group is a class of relations possessing a special - property. Thus the modern ideas, which have so powerfully extended and - unified the subject, have loosened its connexion with "number" and - "quantity," while bringing ideas of form and structure into increasing - prominence. Number must indeed ever remain the great topic of - mathematical interest, because it is in reality the great topic of - applied mathematics. All the world, including savages who cannot count - beyond five, daily "apply" theorems of number. But the complexity of - the idea of number is practically illustrated by the fact that it is - best studied as a department of a science wider than itself. - - _Synopsis of Existing Developments of Applied Mathematics._--Section B - of the _International Catalogue_ deals with mechanics. The heading - "_Measurement of Dynamical Quantities_" includes the topics units, - measurements, and the constant of gravitation. The topics of the other - headings do not require express mention. These headings are: - "_Geometry and Kinematics of Particles and Solid Bodies_"; - "_Principles of Rational Mechanics_"; "_Statics of Particles, Rigid - Bodies, &c._"; "_Kinetics of Particles, Rigid Bodies, &c._"; "_General - Analytical Mechanics_"; "_Statics and Dynamics of Fluids_"; - "_Hydraulics and Fluid Resistances_"; "_Elasticity_." For the subjects - of this general heading see the articles MECHANICS; DYNAMICS, - ANALYTICAL; GYROSCOPE; HARMONIC ANALYSIS; WAVE; HYDROMECHANICS; - ELASTICITY; MOTION, LAWS OF; ENERGY; ENERGETICS; ASTRONOMY (_Celestial - Mechanics_); TIDE. Mechanics (including dynamical astronomy) is that - subject among those traditionally classed as "applied" which has been - most completely transfused by mathematics--that is to say, which is - studied with the deductive spirit of the pure mathematician, and not - with the covert inductive intention overlaid with the superficial - forms of deduction, characteristic of the applied mathematician. - - Every branch of physics gives rise to an application of mathematics. A - prophecy may be hazarded that in the future these applications will - unify themselves into a mathematical theory of a hypothetical - substructure of the universe, uniform under all the diverse phenomena. - This reflection is suggested by the following articles: AETHER; - MOLECULE; CAPILLARY ACTION; DIFFUSION; RADIATION, THEORY OF; and - others. - - The applications of mathematics to statistics (see STATISTICS and - PROBABILITY) should not be lost sight of; the leading fields for these - applications are insurance, sociology, variation in zoology and - economics. - -_The History of Mathematics._--The history of mathematics is in the main -the history of its various branches. A short account of the history of -each branch will be found in connexion with the article which deals with -it. Viewing the subject as a whole, and apart from remote developments -which have not in fact seriously influenced the great structure of the -mathematics of the European races, it may be said to have had its origin -with the Greeks, working on pre-existing fragmentary lines of thought -derived from the Egyptians and Phoenicians. The Greeks created the -sciences of geometry and of number as applied to the measurement of -continuous quantities. The great abstract ideas (considered directly and -not merely in tacit use) which have dominated the science were due to -them--namely, ratio, irrationality, continuity, the point, the straight -line, the plane. This period lasted[11] from the time of Thales, c. 600 -B.C., to the capture of Alexandria by the Mahommedans, A.D. 641. The -medieval Arabians invented our system of numeration and developed -algebra. The next period of advance stretches from the Renaissance to -Newton and Leibnitz at the end of the 17th century. During this period -logarithms were invented, trigonometry and algebra developed, analytical -geometry invented, dynamics put upon a sound basis, and the period -closed with the magnificent invention of (or at least the perfecting of) -the differential calculus by Newton and Leibnitz and the discovery of -gravitation. The 18th century witnessed a rapid development of analysis, -and the period culminated with the genius of Lagrange and Laplace. This -period may be conceived as continuing throughout the first quarter of -the 19th century. It was remarkable both for the brilliance of its -achievements and for the large number of French mathematicians of the -first rank who flourished during it. The next period was inaugurated in -analysis by K. F. Gauss, N. H. Abel and A. L. Cauchy. Between them the -general theory of the complex variable, and of the various "infinite" -processes of mathematical analysis, was established, while other -mathematicians, such as Poncelet, Steiner, Lobatschewsky and von Staudt, -were founding modern geometry, and Gauss inaugurated the differential -geometry of surfaces. The applied mathematical sciences of light, -electricity and electromagnetism, and of heat, were now largely -developed. This school of mathematical thought lasted beyond the middle -of the century, after which a change and further development can be -traced. In the next and last period the progress of pure mathematics has -been dominated by the critical spirit introduced by the German -mathematicians under the guidance of Weierstrass, though foreshadowed by -earlier analysts, such as Abel. Also such ideas as those of invariants, -groups and of form, have modified the entire science. But the progress -in all directions has been too rapid to admit of any one adequate -characterization. During the same period a brilliant group of -mathematical physicists, notably Lord Kelvin (W. Thomson), H. V. -Helmholtz, J. C. Maxwell, H. Hertz, have transformed applied mathematics -by systematically basing their deductions upon the Law of the -conservation of energy, and the hypothesis of an ether pervading space. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--References to the works containing expositions of the - various branches of mathematics are given in the appropriate articles. - It must suffice here to refer to sources in which the subject is - considered as one whole. Most philosophers refer in their works to - mathematics more or less cursorily, either in the treatment of the - ideas of number and magnitude, or in their consideration of the - alleged a priori and necessary truths. A bibliography of such - references would be in effect a bibliography of metaphysics, or rather - of epistemology. The founder of the modern point of view, explained in - this article, was Leibnitz, who, however, was so far in advance of - contemporary thought that his ideas remained neglected and undeveloped - until recently; cf. _Opuscules et fragments inedits de Leibnitz. - Extraits des manuscrits de la bibliotheque royale de Hanovre_, by - Louis Couturat (Paris, 1903), especially pp. 356-399, "Generales - inquisitiones de analysi notionum et veritatum" (written in 1686); - also cf. _La Logique de Leibnitz_, already referred to. For the modern - authors who nave rediscovered and improved upon the position of - Leibnitz, cf. _Grundgesetze der Arithmetik, begriffsschriftlich - abgeleitet von Dr G. Frege, a.o. Professor an der Univ. Jena_ (Bd. i., - 1893; Bd. ii., 1903, Jena); also cf. Frege's earlier works, - _Begriffsschrift, eine der arithmetischen nachgebildete Formelsprache - des reinen Denkens_ (Halle, 1879), and _Die Grundlagen der Arithmetik_ - (Breslau, 1884); also cf. Bertrand Russell, _The Principles of - Mathematics_ (Cambridge, 1903), and his article on "Mathematical - Logic" in _Amer. Quart. Journ. of Math._ (vol. xxx., 1908). Also the - following works are of importance, though not all expressly expounding - the Leibnitzian point of view: cf. G. Cantor, "Grundlagen einer - allgemeinen Mannigfaltigkeitslehre," _Math. Annal._, vol. xxi. (1883) - and subsequent articles in vols. xlvi. and xlix.; also R. Dedekind, - _Stetigkeit und irrationales Zahlen_ (1st ed., 1872), and _Was sind - und was sollen die Zahlen?_ (1st ed., 1887), both tracts translated - into English under the title _Essays on the Theory of Numbers_ - (Chicago, 1901). These works of G. Cantor and Dedekind were of the - greatest importance in the progress of the subject. Also cf. G. Peano - (with various collaborators of the Italian school), _Formulaire de - mathematiques_ (Turin, various editions, 1894-1908; the earlier - editions are the more interesting philosophically); Felix Klein, - _Lectures on Mathematics_ (New York, 1894); W. K. Clifford, _The - Common Sense of the exact Sciences_ (London, 1885); H. Poincare, _La - Science el l'hypothese_ (Paris, 1st ed., 1902), English translation - under the title, _Science and Hypothesis_ (London, 1905); L. Couturat, - _Les Principes des mathematiques_ (Paris, 1905); E. Mach, _Die - Mechanik in ihrer Entwickelung_ (Prague, 1883), English translation - under the title, _The Science of Mechanics_ (London, 1893); K. - Pearson, _The Grammar of Science_ (London, 1st ed., 1892; 2nd ed., - 1900, enlarged); A. Cayley, _Presidential Address_ (Brit. Assoc., - 1883); B. Russell and A. N. Whitehead, _Principia Mathematica_ - (Cambridge, 1911). For the history of mathematics the one modern and - complete source of information is M. Cantor's _Vorlesungen uber - Geschichte der Mathematik_ (Leipzig, 1st Bd., 1880; 2nd Bd., 1892; 3rd - Bd., 1898; 4th Bd., 1908; 1st Bd., _von den altesten Zeiten bis zum - Jahre 1200, n. Chr._; 2nd Bd., _von 1200-1668_; 3rd Bd., _von - 1668-1758_; 4th Bd., _von 1795 bis 1790_); W. W. R. Ball, _A Short - History of Mathematics_ (London 1st ed., 1888, three subsequent - editions, enlarged and revised, and translations into French and - Italian). (A. N. W.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Cf. _La Logique de Leibnitz_, ch. vii., by L. Couturat (Paris, - 1901). - - [2] Cf. _The Principles of Mathematics_, by Bertrand Russell - (Cambridge, 1903). - - [3] Cf. _Formulaire mathematique_ (Turin, ed. of 1903); earlier - formulations of the bases of arithmetic are given by him in the - editions of 1898 and of 1901. The variations are only trivial. - - [4] Cf. Russell, _loc. cit._, pp. 199-256. - - [5] The first unqualified explicit statement of _part_ of this - definition seems to be by B. Peirce, "Mathematics is the science - which draws necessary conclusions" (_Linear Associative Algebra_, S - i. (1870), republished in the _Amer. Journ. of Math._, vol. iv. - (1881)). But it will be noticed that the second half of the - definition in the text--"from the general premisses of all - reasoning"--is left unexpressed. The full expression of the idea and - its development into a philosophy of mathematics is due to Russell, - _loc. cit._ - - [6] "Una questione sui numeri transfiniti," _Rend. del circolo mat. - di Palermo_, vol. xi. (1897); and Russell, _loc. cit._, ch. xxxviii. - - [7] Cf. Russell, _loc. cit._, ch. x. - - [8] Cf. _Pragmatism: a New Name for some Old Ways of Thinking_ - (1907). - - [9] Due to Bertrand Russell, cf. "Mathematical Logic as based on the - Theory of Types," _Amer. Journ. of Math._ vol. xxx. (1908). It is - more fully explained by him, with later simplifications, in - _Principia mathematica_ (Cambridge). - - [10] Cf. Stanley's _Eastern Church_, Lecture v. - - [11] Cf. _A Short History of Mathematics_, by W. W. R. Ball. - - - - -MATHER, COTTON (1663-1728), American Congregational clergyman and -author, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 12th of February 1663. -He was the grandson of Richard Mather, and the eldest child of Increase -Mather (q.v.), and Maria, daughter of John Cotton. After studying under -the famous Ezekiel Cheever (1614-1708), he entered Harvard College at -twelve, and graduated in 1678. While teaching (1678-1685), he began the -study of theology, but soon, on account of an impediment in his speech, -discontinued it and took up medicine. Later, however, he conquered the -difficulty and finished his preparation for the ministry. He was elected -assistant pastor in his father's church, the North, or Second, Church of -Boston, in 1681 and was ordained as his father's colleague in 1685. In -1688, when his father went to England as agent for the colony, he was -left at twenty-five in charge of the largest congregation in New -England, and he ministered to it for the rest of his life. He soon -became one of the most influential men in the colonies. He had much to -do with the witchcraft persecution of his day; in 1692 when the -magistrates appealed to the Boston clergy for advice in regard to the -witchcraft cases in Salem he drafted their reply, upon which the -prosecutions were based; in 1689 he had written _Memorable Providences -Relating to Witchcraft and Possessions_, and even his earlier diaries -have many entries showing his belief in diabolical possession and his -fear and hatred of it. Thinking as he did that the New World had been -the undisturbed realm of Satan before the settlements were made in -Massachusetts, he considered it natural that the Devil should make a -peculiar effort to bring moral destruction on these godly invaders. He -used prayer and fasting to deliver himself from evil enchantment; and -when he saw ecstatic and mystical visions promising him the Lord's help -and great usefulness in the Lord's work, he feared that these -revelations might be of diabolic origin. He used his great influence to -bring the suspected persons to trial and punishment. He attended the -trials, investigated many of the cases himself, and wrote sermons on -witchcraft, the _Memorable Providences_ and _The Wonders of the -Invisible World_ (1693), which increased the excitement of the people. -Accordingly, when the persecutions ceased and the reaction set in, much -of the blame was laid upon him; the influence of Judge Samuel Sewall, -after he had come to think his part in the Salem delusion a great -mistake, was turned against the Mathers; and the liberal leaders of -Congregationalism in Boston, notably the Brattles, found this a -vulnerable point in Cotton Mather's armour and used their knowledge to -much effect, notably by assisting Robert Calef (d. c. 1723) in the -preparation of _More Wonders of the Invisible World_ (1700) a powerful -criticism of Cotton Mather's part in the delusion at Salem. - -Mather took some part as adviser in the Revolution of 1689 in -Massachusetts. In 1690 he became a member oL the Corporation (probably -the youngest ever chosen as Fellow) of Harvard College, and in 1707 he -was greatly disappointed at his failure to be chosen president of that -institution. He received the degree of D.D. from the University of -Glasgow in 1710, and in 1713 was made a Fellow of the Royal Society. -Like his father he was deeply grieved by the liberal theology and Church -polity of the new Brattle Street Congregation, and conscientiously -opposed its pastor Benjamin Colman, who had been irregularly ordained in -England and by a Presbyterian body; but with his father he took part in -1700 in services in Colman's church. Harvard College was now controlled -by the Liberals of the Brattle Street Church, and as it grew farther and -farther away from Calvinism, Mather looked with increasing favour upon -the college in Connecticut; before September 1701 he had drawn up a -"scheme for a college," the oldest document now in the Yale archives; -and finally (Jan. 1718) he wrote to a London merchant, Elihu Yale, and -persuaded him to make a liberal gift to the college, which was named in -his honour. During the small-pox epidemic of 1721 he attempted in vain -to have treatment by inoculation employed, for the first time in -America; and for this he was bitterly attacked on all sides, and his -life was at one time in danger; but, nevertheless, he used the treatment -on his son, who recovered, and he wrote _An Account of the Method and -further Success of Inoculating for the Small Pox in London_ (1721). In -addition he advocated temperance, missions, Bible societies, and the -education of the negro; favoured the establishing of libraries for -working men and of religious organizations for young people, and -organized societies for other branches of philanthropic work. His later -years were clouded with many sorrows and disappointments; his relations -with Governor Joseph Dudley were unfriendly; he lost much of his former -prestige in the Church--his own congregation dwindled--and in the -college; his uncle John Cotton was expelled from his charge in the -Plymouth Church; his son Increase turned out a ne'er-do-well; four of -his children and his second wife died in November 1713; his wife's -brothers and the husbands of his sisters were ungodly and violent men; -his favourite daughter Katherine, who "understood Latin and read Hebrew -fluently," died in 1716; his third wife went mad in 1719; his personal -enemies circulated incredible scandals about him; and in 1724-1725 he -saw a Liberal once more preferred to him as a new president of Harvard. -He died in Boston on the 13th of February 1728 and is buried in the -Copps Hill burial-ground, Boston. He was thrice married--to Abigail -Phillips (d. 1702) in 1686, to Mrs Elizabeth Hubbard (d. 1713) in 1703, -and in 1715 to Mrs Lydia George (d. 1734). Of his fifteen children only -two survived him. - -Though self-conscious and vain, Cotton Mather had on the whole a noble -character. He believed strongly in the power of prayer and repeatedly -had assurances that his prayers were heard; and when he was disappointed -by non-fulfilment his grief and depression were terrible. His spiritual -nature was high-strung and delicate; and this condition was aggravated -by his constant study, his long fasts and his frequent vigils--in one -year, according to his diary, he kept sixty fasts and twenty vigils. In -his later years his diaries have less and less of personal detail, and -repeated entries prefaced by the letters "G.D." meaning Good Device, -embodying precepts of kindliness and practical Christianity. He was -remarkable for his godliness, his enthusiasm for knowledge, and his -prodigious memory. He became a skilled linguist, a widely read -scholar--though much of his learning was more curious than useful--a -powerful preacher, a valued citizen, and a voluminous writer, and did a -vast deal for the intellectual and spiritual quickening of New England. -He worked with might and main for the continuation of the old theocracy, -but before he died it had given way before an increasing -Liberalism--even Yale was infected with the Episcopalianism that he -hated. - - Among his four hundred or more published works, many of which are - sermons, tracts and letters, the most notable is his _Magnalia Christi - Americana: or the Ecclesiastical History of New England, from Its - First Planting in the Year 1620 unto the Year of Our Lord, 1698_. - Begun in 1693 and finished in 1697, this work was published in London, - in 1702, in one volume, and was republished in Hartford in 1820 and in - 1853-1855, in two volumes. It is in seven books and concerns itself - mainly with the settlement and religious history of New England. It is - often inaccurate, and it abounds in far-fetched conceits and odd and - pedantic features. Its style, though in the main rather unnatural and - declamatory, is at its best spontaneous, dignified and rhythmical; the - book is valuable for occasional facts and for its picture of the - times, and it did much to make Mather the most eminent American writer - of his day. His other writings include _A Poem Dedicated to the Memory - of the Reverend and Excellent Mr Urian Oakes_ (1682); _The Present - State of New England_ (1690); _The Life of the Renowned John Eliot_ - (1691), later included in Book III. of the _Magnalia; The Short - History of New England_ (1694); _Bonifacius_, usually known as _Essays - To Do Good_ (Boston, 1710; Glasgow, 1825; Boston, 1845), one of his - principal books and one which had a shaping influence on the life of - Benjamin Franklin; _Psalterium Americanum_ (1718), a blank verse - translation of the Psalms from the original Hebrew; _The Christian - Philosopher: A Collection of the Best Discoveries in Nature, with - Religious Improvements_ (1721); _Parentator_ (1724), a memoir of his - father; _Ratio Disciplinae_ (1726), an account of the discipline in - New England churches; _Manuductio ad Ministerium: Directions for a - Candidate of the Ministry_ (1726), one of the most readable of his - books. He also left a number of works in manuscript, including - diaries, a medical treatise and a huge commentary on the Bible, - entitled "Biblia Americana." - - See _The Life of Cotton Mather_ (Boston, 1729), by his son, Samuel - Mather; William B. O. Peabody, _The Life of Cotton Mather_ (1836) (in - Jared Sparks's "Library of American Biography," vol. vi.); Enoch Pond, - _The Mather Family_ (Boston, 1844); John L. Sibley, _Biographical - Sketches of Graduates of Harvard University_, vol. iii. (Cambridge, - 1885); Barrett Wendell, _Cotton Mather, the Puritan Priest_ (New York, - 1891), a remarkably sympathetic study and particularly valuable for - its insight into (and its defence of) Mather's attitude toward - witchcraft; Abijah P. Marvin, _The Life and Times of Cotton Mather_ - (Boston, 1892); M. C. Tyler, _A History of American Literature during - the Colonial Period_, vol. ii. (New York, 1878); and Barrett Wendell, - _A Literary History of America_ (New York, 1900). - -Cotton Mather's son, SAMUEL MATHER (1706-1785), also a clergyman, -graduated at Harvard in 1723, was pastor of the North Church, Boston, -from 1732 to 1742, when, owing to a dispute among his congregation over -revivals, he resigned to take charge of a church established for him in -North Bennett Street. - - Among his works are _The Life of Cotton Mather_ (1729); _An Apology - for the Liberties of the Churches in New England_ (1738), and _America - Known to the Ancients_ (1773). (W. L. C.*) - - - - -MATHER, INCREASE (1639-1723), American Congregational minister, was born -in Dorchester, Massachusetts, on the 21st of June 1639, the youngest son -of Richard Mather.[1] He entered Harvard in 1651, and graduated in 1656. -In 1657, on his eighteenth birthday, he preached his first sermon; in -the same year he went to visit his eldest brother in Dublin, and studied -there at Trinity College, where he graduated M.A. in 1658. He was -chaplain to the English garrison at Guernsey in April-December 1659 and -again in 1661; and in the latter year, refusing valuable livings in -England offered on condition of conformity, he returned to America. In -the winter of 1661-1662 he began to preach to the Second (or North) -Church of Boston, and was ordained there on the 27th of May 1664. As a -delegate from Dorchester, his father's church, to the Synod of 1662, he -opposed the Half-Way Covenant adopted by the Synod and defended by -Richard Mather and by Jonathan Mitchell (1624-1668) of Cambridge; but -soon afterwards he "surrendered a glad captive" to "the truth so -victoriously cleared by Mr Mitchell," and like his father and his son -became one of the chief exponents of the Half-Way Covenant. He was -bitterly opposed, however, to the liberal practices that followed the -Half-Way Covenant and (after 1677) in particular to "Stoddardeanism," -the doctrine of Solomon Stoddard (1643-1729) that all "such Persons as -have a good Conversation and a Competent Knowledge may come to the -Lord's Supper," only those of openly immoral life being excluded. In May -1679 Mather was a petitioner to the General Court for the call of a -Synod to consider the reformation in New England of "the Evils that have -Provoked the Lord to bring his Judgments,"[2] and when the "Reforming -Synod" met in September it appointed him one of a committee to draft a -creed; this committee reported in May 1680, at the Synod's second -session, of which Mather was moderator, the Savoy Declaration (slightly -modified, notably in ch. xxiv., "Of the Civil Magistrate"), which was -approved but was not made mandatory on the churches by the General -Court, and in 1708 was reaffirmed at Saybrook, Connecticut. With the -Cambridge Platform of 1646, drafted by his father, the Confession of -1680, for which Increase Mather was largely responsible, was printed as -a book of doctrine and government for the churches of Massachusetts. - -After the threat of a _Quo Warranto_ writ in 1683 for the surrender of -the Massachusetts charter, Mather used all his tremendous influence to -persuade the colonists not to give up the charter; and the Boston -freemen unanimously voted against submission. The royal agents -immediately afterwards sent to London a treasonable letter, falsely -attributed to Mather; but its spuriousness seems to have been suspected -in England and Mather was not "fetch'd over and made a Sacrifice." He -became a leader in the opposition to Sir Edmund Andros, to his secretary -Edward Randolph, and to Governor Joseph Dudley. He was chosen by the -General Court to represent the colony's interests in England, eluded -officers sent to arrest him,[3] and in disguise boarded a ship on which -he reached Weymouth on the 6th of May 1688. In London he acted with Sir -Henry Ashurst, the resident agent, and had two or three fruitless -audiences with James II. His first audience with William III. was on the -9th of January 1689; he was active in influencing the Commons to vote -(1689) that the New England charters should be restored; and he -published _A Narrative of the Miseries of New-England, By Reason of an -Arbitrary Government Erected there Under Sir Edmund Andros_ (1688), _A -Brief Relation for the Confirmation of Charter Privileges_ (1691), and -other pamphlets. In 1690 he was joined by Elisha Cooke (1638-1715) and -Thomas Oakes (1644-1719), additional agents, who were uncompromisingly -for the renewal of the old charter. Mather, however, was instrumental in -securing a new charter (signed on Oct. 7, 1691), and prevented the -annexation of the Plymouth Colony to New York. The nomination of -officers left to the Crown was reserved to the agents. Mather had -expressed strong dissatisfaction with the clause giving the governor the -right of veto, and regretted the less theocratic tone of the charter -which made all freemen (and not merely church members) electors. With -Sir William Phips, the new governor, a member of Mather's church, he -arrived in Boston on the 14th of May 1692. The value of his services to -the colony at this time is not easily over-estimated. In England he won -the friendship of divines like Baxter, Tillotson and Burnet, and -effectively promoted the union in 1691 of English Presbyterians and -Congregationalists. He was at heavy expense throughout his stay, and -even greater than his financial loss was his loss of authority and -control in the church and in Harvard College because of his absence. - -Mather had been acting president of Harvard College in 1681-1682, and in -June 1685 he again became acting president (or rector), but still -preached every Sunday in Boston and would not comply with an order of -the General Court that he should reside in Cambridge. In 1701 after a -short residence there he returned to Boston and wrote to the General -Court to "think of another President for the Colledge." The opposition -to him had been increasing in strength, his resignation was accepted, -and Samuel Willard took charge of the college as vice-president, -although he also refused to reside in Cambridge. That Mather's -administration of the college was excellent is admitted even by his -harsh critic, Josiah Quincy, in his _History of Harvard University_.[4] -The Liberal party, which now came into control in the college repeatedly -disappointed the hopes of Cotton Mather (q.v.) that he might be chosen -president, and by its ecclesiastical laxness and its broader views of -Church polity forced the Mathers to turn from Harvard to Yale as a truer -school of the prophets. - -The Liberal leaders, John Leverett (1662-1724), William Brattle -(1662-1713)--who graduated with Leverett in 1680, and with him as tutor -controlled the college during Increase Mather's absence in -England--William Brattle's eldest brother, Thomas Brattle (1658-1713), -and Ebenezer Pemberton (1671-1717), pastor of the Old South Church, -desired an "enrichment of the service," and greater liberality in the -matter of baptism. In 1697 the Second Boston Church, in which Cotton -Mather had been his father's colleague since 1685, upbraided the -Charlestown Church "for betraying the liberties of the churches in their -late putting into the hands of the whole inhabitants the choice of a -minister." In 1699 Increase Mather published _The Order of the Gospel_, -which severely (although indirectly), criticized the methods of the -"Liberals" in establishing the Brattle Street Church and especially the -ordination of their minister Benjamin Colman by a Presbyterian body in -London; the Liberals replied with _The Gospel Order Revived_, which was -printed in New York to lend colour to the (partly true) charge of its -authors that the printers of Massachusetts would print nothing hostile -to Increase Mather.[5] The autocracy of the Mathers in church, college, -colony and press, had slipped from them. The later years of Mather's -life were spent almost entirely in the work of the ministry, now -beginning to be a less varied career than when he entered on it. He died -on the 23rd of August 1723. He married in 1662 Maria, daughter of Sarah -and John Cotton. His first wife died in 1714; and in 1715 he married Ann -Lake, widow of John Cotton, of Hampton, N.H., a grandson of John Cotton -of Boston. - -Increase Mather was a great preacher with a simple style and a splendid -voice, which had a "Tonitruous Cogency," to quote his son's phrase. His -style was much simpler and more vernacular than his son's. He was an -assiduous student, commonly spending sixteen hours a day among his -books; but his learning (to quote Justin Winsor's contrast between -Increase and Cotton Mather) "usually left his natural ability and his -education free from entanglements." He was not so much self-seeking and -personally ambitious as eager to advance the cause of the church in -which he so implicitly believed. That it is a mistake to consider him a -narrow churchman is shown by his assisting in 1718 at the ordination of -Elisha Callender in the First Baptist Church of Boston. Like the most -learned men of his time he was superstitious and a firm believer in -"praesagious impressions"; his _Essay for the Recording of Illustrious -Providences: Wherein an Account is Given of many Remarkable and very -Memorable Events which have Hapned in this Last Age, Especially in New -England_ (1684) shows that he believed only less thoroughly than his son -in witchcraft, though in his _Cases of Conscience Concerning Evil -Spirits_ (1693) he considered some current proofs of witchcraft -inadequate. The revulsion of feeling after the witchcraft delusion -undermined his authority greatly, and Robert's Calef's _More Wonders of -the Spiritual World_ (1700) was a personal blow to him as well as to his -son. With Jonathan Edwards, than whom he was much more of a man of -affairs, and with Benjamin Franklin, whose mission in England somewhat -resembled Mather's, he may be ranked among the greatest Americans of the -period before the War of Independence. - - The first authority for the life of Increase Mather is the work of his - son Cotton Mather, _Parentator: Memoirs of Remarkables in the Life and - Death of the Ever Memorable Dr Increase Mather_ (Boston, 1724); there - are also a memoir and constant references in Cotton Mather's - _Magnalia_ (London, 1702) especially vol. iv.; there is an excellent - sketch in the first volume of J. L. Sibley's _Biographical Sketches of - Graduates of Harvard University_ (Cambridge, 1873), with an exhaustive - list of Mather's works (about 150 titles); there is much valuable - matter in Williston Walker's _Ten New England Leaders_ (New York, - 1901) and in his _Creeds and Platforms of Congregationalism_ (New - York, 1893); for literary criticism of the Mathers see ch. xii. of M. - C. Tyler's _History of American Literature, 1607-1676_ (New York, - 1878), and Barrett Wendell's _Cotton Mather_ (New York, 1891). - Mather's worth has been under-estimated by Josiah Quincy, Justin - Winsor and other historians out of sympathy with his ecclesiastical - spirit, who represent him as only an ambitious narrow-minded schemer. - (R. We.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] He was so christened "because of the never-to-be-forgotten - increase, of every sort, wherewith God favoured the country about the - time of his nativity." He often latinized his name, spelling it - _Crescentius Matherus_. - - [2] That is, King Philip's War, the Boston fires of 1676, when - Mather's church and home were burned, and 1679, the threatened - introduction of Episcopacy, and the general spiritual decay of the - country. - - [3] He had previously been arrested and acquitted on a charge of - having attributed the forged letter to Randolph. - - [4] Mather led the resistance to the royal demand instigated by - Edward Randolph in 1683, for the annulment of the college charter, - and after its vacation in 1684 strove for the grant of a new charter; - King James promised him a confirmation of the former charter; the new - provincial charter granted by William and Mary confirmed all gifts - and grants to colleges; in 1692 Mather drafted an act incorporating - the college, which was signed by Phips but was disallowed in England; - and in 1696, 1697, 1699, and 1700, Mather repeated his efforts for a - college charter. - - [5] Mather was made a licenser of the Press in 1674 when the General - Court abolished the monopoly of the Cambridge Press. - - - - -MATHER, RICHARD (1596-1669), American Congregational clergyman, was born -in Lowton, in the parish of Winwick, near Liverpool, England, of a -family which was in reduced circumstances but entitled to bear a -coat-of-arms. He studied at Winwick grammar school, of which he was -appointed a master in his fifteenth year, and left it in 1612 to become -master of a newly established school at Toxteth Park, Liverpool. After a -few months at Brasenose College, Oxford, he began in November 1618 to -preach at Toxteth, and was ordained there, possibly only as deacon, -early in 1619. In August-November 1633 he was suspended for -nonconformity in matters of ceremony; and in 1634 was again suspended by -the visitors of Richard Neile, archbishop of York, who, hearing that he -had never worn a surplice during the fifteen years of his ministry, -refused to reinstate him and said that "it had been better for him that -he had gotten Seven Bastards." He had a great reputation as a preacher -in and about Liverpool; but, advised by letters of John Cotton and -Thomas Hooker, and persuaded by his own elaborate formal "Arguments -tending to prove the Removing from Old-England to New ... to be not only -lawful, but also necessary for them that are not otherwise tyed, but -free," he left England and on the 17th of August 1635, and landed in -Boston after an "extraordinary and miraculous deliverance" from a -terrible storm. As a famous preacher "he was desired at Plimouth, -Dorchester, and Roxbury." He went to Dorchester, where the Church had -been greatly depleted by migrations to Windsor, Connecticut; and where, -after a delay of several months, in August 1636 there was constituted by -the consent of magistrates and clergy a church of which he was "teacher" -until his death in Dorchester on the 22nd of April 1669. - - He was an able preacher, "aiming," said his biographer, "to shoot his - arrows not over his people's heads, but into their Hearts and - Consciences"; and he was a leader of New England Congregationalism, - whose policy he defended and described in the tract _Church Government - and Church Covenant Discussed, in an Answer of the Elders of the - Severall Churches of New England to Two and Thirty Questions_ (written - 1639; printed 1643), and in his _Reply to Mr Rutherford_ (1647), a - polemic against the Presbyterianism to which the English - Congregationalists were then tending. He drafted the Cambridge - Platform, an ecclesiastical constitution in seventeen chapters, - adopted (with the omission of Mather's paragraph favouring the - "Half-way Covenant," of which he strongly approved) by the general - synod in August 1646. In 1657 he drafted the declaration of the - Ministerial Convention on the meaning and force of the Half-way - Covenant; this was published in 1659 under the title: _A Disputation - concerning Church Members and their Children in Answer to XXI. - Questions_. With Thomas Welde and John Eliot he wrote the "Bay Psalm - Book," or, more accurately, _The Whole Booke of Psalmes Faithfully - Translated into English Metre_ (1640), probably the first book printed - in the English colonies. - -He married in 1624 Katherine Hoult or Holt (d. 1655), and secondly in -1656 Sarah Hankredge (d. 1676), the widow of John Cotton. Of six sons, -all by his first wife, four were ministers: SAMUEL (1626-1671), the -first fellow of Harvard College who was a graduate, chaplain of Magdalen -College, Oxford, in 1650-1653, and pastor (1656-1671, excepting -suspension in 1660-1662) of St Nicholas's in Dublin; NATHANIEL -(1630-1697), who graduated at Harvard in 1647, was vicar of Barnstaple, -Devon, in 1656-1662, pastor of the English Church in Rotterdam, his -brother's successor in Dublin in 1671-1688, and then until his death -pastor of a church in London; ELEAZAR (1637-1669), who graduated at -Harvard in 1656 and after preaching in Northampton, Massachusetts, for -three years, became in 1661 pastor of the church there; and INCREASE -MATHER (q.v.). Horace E. Mather, in his _Lineage of Richard Mather_ -(Hartford, Connecticut, 1890), gives a list of 80 clergymen descended -from Richard Mather, of whom 29 bore the name Mather and 51 other names, -the more famous being Storrs and Schauffler. - - See _The Life and Death of That Reverend Man of God, Mr Richard - Mather_ (Cambridge, 1670; reprinted 1850, with his _Journal_ for 1635, - by the Dorchester Antiquarian and Historical Society), with an - introduction by Increase Mather, who may have been the author; W. B. - Sprague's _Annals of the American Pulpit_, vol. i. (New York, 1857); - Cotton Mather's _Magnalia_ (London, 1702); an essay on Richard Mather - in Williston Walker's _Ten New England Leaders_ (New York, 1901); and - the works referred to in the article on Increase Mather. (R. We.) - - - - -MATHERAN, a hill sanatorium in India, in the Kolaba district of Bombay, -2460 ft. above the sea, and about 30 m. E. of Bombay city. Pop. (1901), -3060. It consists of several thickly wooded ridges, on a spur of the -Western Ghats, with a magnificent outlook over the plain below and the -distant sea. First explored in 1850, it has since become the favourite -resort of the middle classes of Bombay (especially the Parsis) during -the spring and autumn months. It has recently been connected by a 2 ft. -gauge mountain line with Neral station on the Great Indian Peninsula -railway, 54 m. from Bombay. - - - - -MATHESON, GEORGE (1842-1906), Scottish theologian and preacher, was born -in Glasgow in 1842, the son of George Matheson, a merchant. He was -educated at the university of Glasgow, where he graduated first in -classics, logic and philosophy. In his twentieth year he became totally -blind, but he held to his resolve to enter the ministry, and gave -himself to theological and historical study. His first ministry began in -1868 at Innellan, on the Argyllshire coast between Dunoon and Toward. -His books on _Aids to the Study of German Theology, Can the Old Faith -live with the New? The Growth of the Spirit of Christianity from the -First Century to the Dawn of the Lutheran Era_, established his -reputation as a liberal and spiritually minded theologian; and Queen -Victoria invited him to preach at Balmoral. In 1886 he removed to -Edinburgh, where he became minister of St Bernard's Parish Church. Here -his chief work as a preacher was done. In 1879 the university of -Edinburgh conferred upon him the honorary degree of D.D., and the same -year he declined an invitation to the pastorate of Crown Court, London, -in succession to Dr John Cumming (1807-1881). In 1881 he was chosen as -Baird lecturer, and took for his subject "Natural Elements of Revealed -Theology," and in 1882 he was the St Giles lecturer, his subject being -"Confucianism." In 1890 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of -Edinburgh, Aberdeen gave him its honorary LL.D., and in 1899 he was -appointed Gifford lecturer by that university, but declined on grounds -of health. In the same year he severed his active connexion with St -Bernard's. One of his hymns, "O love that will not let me go," has -passed into the popular hymnology of the Christian Church. He died -suddenly of apoplexy on the 28th of August 1906. His exegesis owes its -interest to his subjective resources rather than to breadth of learning; -his power lay in spiritual vision rather than balanced judgment, and in -the vivid apprehension of the factors which make the Christian -personality, rather than in constructive doctrinal statement. - - - - -MATHEW, THEOBALD (1790-1856), Irish temperance reformer, popularly known -as Father Mathew, was descended from a branch of the Llandaff family, -and was born at Thomastown, Tipperary, on the 10th of October 1790. He -received his school education at Kilkenny, whence he passed for a short -time to Maynooth; from 1808 to 1814 he studied at Dublin, where in the -latter year he was ordained to the priesthood. Having entered the -Capuchin order, he, after a brief time of service at Kilkenny, joined -the mission in Cork, which was the scene of his religious and benevolent -labours for many years. The movement with which his name is most -intimately associated began in 1838 with the establishment of a total -abstinence association, which in less than nine months, thanks to his -moral influence and eloquence, enrolled no fewer than 150,000 names. It -rapidly spread to Limerick and elsewhere, and some idea of its -popularity may be formed from the fact that at Nenagh 20,000 persons are -said to have taken the pledge in one day, 100,000 at Galway in two days, -and 70,000 in Dublin in five days. In 1844 he visited Liverpool, -Manchester and London with almost equal success. Meanwhile the expenses -of his enterprise had involved him in heavy liabilities, and led on one -occasion to his arrest for debt; from this embarrassment he was only -partially relieved by a pension of L300 granted by Queen Victoria in -1847. In 1849 he paid a visit to the United States, returning in 1851. -He died at Queenstown on the 8th of December, 1856. - - See _Father Mathew, a Biography_, by J. F. Maguire, M.P. (1863). - - - - -MATHEWS, CHARLES (1776-1835), English actor, was born in London on the -28th of June 1776. His father was "a serious bookseller," who also -officiated as minister in one of Lady Huntingdon's chapels. Mathews was -educated at Merchant Taylors' School. His love for the stage was formed -in his boyhood, when he was apprentice to his father, and the latter in -1794 unwillingly permitted him to enter on a theatrical engagement in -Dublin. For several years Mathews had not only to content himself with -thankless parts at a low salary, but in May 1803 he made his first -London appearance at the Haymarket as Jabel in Cumberland's _The Jew_ -and as Lingo in _The Agreeable Surprise_. From this time his -professional career was an uninterrupted triumph. He had a wonderful -gift of mimicry, and could completely disguise his personality without -the smallest change of dress. The versatility and originality of his -powers were admirably displayed in his "At Homes," begun in the Lyceum -theatre in 1818, which, according to Leigh Hunt, "for the richness and -variety of his humour, were as good as half a dozen plays distilled." -Off the stage his simple and kind-hearted disposition won him affection -and esteem. In 1822 Mathews visited America, his observation on his -experiences there forming for the reader a most entertaining portion of -his biography. From infancy his health had been uncertain, and the toils -of his profession gradually undermined it. In 1834 he paid a second -visit to America. His last appearance in New York was on the 11th of -February 1835, when he played Samuel Coddle in _Married Life_ and Andrew -Steward in _The Lone House_. He died at Plymouth on the 28th of June -1835. In 1797 he had married Eliza Kirkham Strong (d. 1802), and in 1803 -Anne Jackson, an actress, the author of the popular and diverting -_Memoirs, by Mrs Mathews_ (4 vols., 1838-1839). - -His son CHARLES JAMES MATHEWS (1803-1878), who was born at Liverpool on -the 26th of December 1803, became even better known as an actor. After -attending Merchant Taylors' School he was articled as pupil to an -architect, and continued for some years nominally to follow this -profession. His first public appearance on the stage was made on the 7th -of December 1835, at the Olympic, London, as George Rattleton in his own -play _The Humpbacked Lover_, and as Tim Topple the Tiger in Leman Rode's -_Old and Young Stager_. In 1838 he married Madame Vestris, then lessee -of the Olympic, but neither his management of this theatre, nor -subsequently of Covent Garden, nor of the Lyceum, resulted in pecuniary -success, although the introduction of scenery more realistic and careful -in detail than had hitherto been employed was due to his enterprise. In -the year of his marriage he visited America, but without receiving a -very cordial welcome. As an actor he held in England an unrivalled place -in his peculiar vein of light eccentric comedy. The easy grace of his -manner, and the imperturbable solemnity with which he perpetrated his -absurdities, never failed to charm and amuse; his humour was never -broad, but always measured and restrained. It was as the leading -character in such plays as the _Game of Speculation_, _My Awful Dad_, -_Cool as a Cucumber_, _Patter versus Clatter_, and _Little Toddlekins_, -that he specially excelled. In 1856 Mme Vestris died, and in the -following year Mathews again visited the United States, where in 1858 he -married Mrs A. H. Davenport. In 1861 they gave a series of "At Homes" at -the Haymarket theatre, which were almost as popular as had been those of -the elder Mathews. Charles James Mathews was one of the few English -actors who played in French successfully,--his appearance in Paris in -1863 in a French version of _Cool as a Cucumber_, written by himself, -being received with great approbation. He also played there again in -1865 as Sir Charles Coldcream in the original play _L'Homme blase_ -(English version by Boucicault, _Used up_). After reaching his -sixty-sixth year, Mathews set out on a tour round the world, in which -was included a third visit to America, and on his return in 1872 he -continued to act without interruption till within a few weeks of his -death on the 24th of June 1878. He made his last appearance in New York -at Wallack's theatre on the 7th of June 1872, in H. J. Byron's _Not such -a Fool as he Looks_. His last appearance in London was at the Opera -Comique on the 2nd of June 1877, in _The Liar_ and _The Cosy Couple_. At -Stalybridge he gave his last performance on the 8th of June 1878, when -he played Adonis Evergreen in his own comedy _My Awful Dad_. - - See the _Life of Charles James Mathews_, edited by Charles Dickens (2 - vols., 1879); H. G. Paine in _Actors and Actresses of Great Britain - and the United States_ (New York, 1886). - - - - -MATHEWS, THOMAS (1676-1751), British admiral, son of Colonel Edward -Mathews (d. 1700), and grandson on his mother's side of Sir Thomas -Armstrong (1624-1684), who was executed for the Rye House Plot, was born -at Llandaff Court, Llandaff. He entered the navy and became lieutenant -in 1699, being promoted captain in 1703. During the short war with Spain -(1718-20) he commanded the "Kent" in the fleet of Sir George Byng (Lord -Torrington), and from 1722 to 1724 he had the command of a small -squadron sent to the East Indies to repress the pirates of the coast of -Malabar. He saw no further service till March 1741, when he was -appointed to the command in the Mediterranean, and plenipotentiary to -the king of Sardinia and the other courts of Italy. It is impossible to -understand upon what grounds he was selected. As an admiral he was not -distinguished; he was quite destitute of the experience and the tact -required for his diplomatic duties; and he was on the worst possible -terms with his second in command, Richard Lestock (1679?-1746). Yet the -purpose for which he was sent out in his double capacity was not -altogether ill performed. In 1742 Mathews sent a small squadron to -Naples to compel King Charles III., afterwards king of Spain, to remain -neutral. It was commanded by commodore, afterwards admiral, William -Martin (1696?-1756), who refused to enter into negotiations, and gave -the king half an hour in which to return an answer. In June of the same -year a squadron of Spanish galleys, which had taken refuge in the Bay of -Saint Tropez, was burnt by the fireships of Mathews' fleet. In the -meantime a Spanish squadron of line-of-battleships had taken refuge in -Toulon, and was watched by the British fleet from its anchorage at -Hyeres. In February 1744 the Spaniards put to sea in company with a -French force. Mathews, who had now returned to his flagship, followed, -and an engagement took place on the 11th of February. The battle was -highly discreditable to the British fleet, and not very honourable to -their opponents, but it is of the highest historical importance in the -history of the navy. It marked the lowest pitch reached in discipline -and fighting and efficiency by the fleet in the 18th century, and it had -a very bad effect in confirming the pedantic system of tactics set up by -the old Fighting Instructions. The British fleet followed the enemy in -light winds on the 10th of February, and became scattered. Mathews -hoisted the signal to form the line, and then when night fell, to lie -to. At that moment Lestock, who commanded in the rear, was at a -considerable distance from the body of the fleet, and he ought -undoubtedly to have joined his admiral before lying to, but he obeyed -the second order, with the result, which it is impossible not to feel -that he foresaw and desired, that when morning came he was a long way -off the flag of Mathews. The enemy were within striking distance of the -van and centre of the British fleet, and Mathews attacked their rear. -The battle was ill fought, as it had been ill prepared. Lestock never -came into action at all. One Spanish line-of-battleship, the "Poder" -(74), was taken, but afterwards burnt. Several of the British captains -behaved very badly, and Mathews in a heat of confused anger bore down on -the enemy out of his line, while the signal to keep the line was still -flying at his mast head. The French and Spaniards got away, and were not -pursued by Mathews, though they were of inferior strength. - -Deep indignation was aroused at home by this naval miscarriage, and the -battle led to more than twenty courts-martial and a parliamentary -inquiry. The evils which had overrun the navy were clearly displayed, -and in so far some good was done. It was shown for instance that one of -the captains whose ship behaved worst was a man of extreme age who was -nearly blind and deaf. One of the captains was so frightened at the -prospect of a trial that he deserted on his way home and disappeared -into Spain. Mathews resigned and returned home after the battle. In -consequence of the parliamentary motion for inquiry, Lestock was brought -to trial, and acquitted on the ground that he had obeyed orders. Then -Mathews was tried in 1746, and was condemned to be dismissed the service -on the ground that he had not only failed to pursue the enemy but had -taken his fleet into action in a confused manner. He had in fact not -waited till he had his fleet in a line with the enemy before bearing -down on them, and he had disordered his own line. To the country at -large it appeared strange that the admiral who had actually fought -should be condemned, while the admiral who had kept at a distance was -acquitted. Mathews looked upon his condemnation as the result of mere -party spirit. Sheer pedantry on the part of the officers forming the -court-martial affords a more satisfactory explanation. They judged that -a naval officer was bound not to go beyond the Fighting Instructions as -Mathews had undoubtedly done, and therefore condemned him. Their -decision had a serious effect in fixing the rule that all battles, at -any rate against enemies of equal or nearly equal numbers, were to be -fought on one pattern. Mathews died on the 2nd of October 1751 in -London. There is a portrait of him in the Painted Hall at Greenwich. - - In Beatson's _Naval and Military Memoirs_, vol. i., will be found a - fair account of the battle of February 1744. It is fully dealt with by - Montagu Burrows in his _Life of Hawke_. The French account may be - found in Tronde's _Batailles Navales de la France_. The Spanish view - is in the _Vida de Don Josef Navarro_ by Don Josef de Vargas. The - battle led to a violent pamphlet controversy. The charges and findings - at the courts-martial on both Lestock and Mathews were published at - the time. The minor trials arising out of the action are collected in - a folio under the title "Copies of all the Minutes and Proceedings - taken at and upon the several Tryals of Captain George Burrish" - (1746). A "Narrative" was published by, or for, Lestock in 1744, and - answered by, or on behalf of, Mathews under the title "Ad----l - M----w's Conduct in the late Engagement Vindicated" in 1745. - (D. H.) - - - - -MATHY, KARL (1807-1868), Badenese statesman, was born at Mannheim on the -17th of March 1807. He studied law and politics at Heidelberg, and -entered the Baden government department of finance in 1829. His sympathy -with the revolutionary ideas of 1830, expressed in his paper the -_Zeitgeist_, cost him his appointment in 1834, and he made his way to -Switzerland, where he contributed to the _Jeune Suisse_ directed by -Mazzini. On his return to Baden in 1840 he edited the _Landtagszeitung_ -at Carlsruhe, and in 1842 he entered the estates for the town of -Constance. He became one of the opposition leaders and in 1847 helped to -found the _Deutsche Zeitung_, a paper which eventually did much to -further the cause of German unity. He took part in the preliminary -parliament and in the assembly of Frankfort in 1848-1849, where he -supported the policy of H. W. A. von Gagern, and after the refusal of -Frederick William IV. to accept the imperial crown he still worked for -the cause of unity. He was made finance minister in Baden in May 1849, -but was dismissed after a few days of office. He then applied his -financial knowledge to banking business in Cologne, Berlin, Gotha and -Leipzig. He was recalled to Baden in 1862, and in 1864 became president -of the new ministry of commerce. He sought to bring Baden institutions -into line with those of northern Germany with a view to ultimate union, -and when in 1866 Baden took sides with Austria against Prussia he sent -in his resignation. After the war he became president of a new cabinet, -but he did not live to see the realization of the policy for which he -had striven. He died at Carlsruhe on the 3rd of February 1868. - - His letters during the years 1846-1848 were edited by Ludwig Mathy - (Leipzig, 1899), and his life was written by G. Freytag (Leipzig, 2nd - ed., 1872). - - - - -MATILDA (1102-1164), queen of England and empress, daughter of Henry I. -of England, by Matilda, his first wife, was born in 1102. In 1109 she -was betrothed to the emperor-elect, Henry V., and was sent to Germany, -but the marriage was delayed till 1114. Her husband died after eleven -years of wedlock, leaving her childless; and, since both her brothers -were now dead, she was recalled to her father's court in order that she -might be recognized as his successor in England and Normandy. The Great -Council of England did homage to her under considerable pressure. Their -reluctance to acknowledge a female sovereign was increased when Henry -gave her in marriage to Geoffrey Plantagenet, the heir of Anjou and -Maine (1129); nor was it removed by the birth of the future Henry II. in -1133. On the old king's death both England and Normandy accepted his -nephew, Stephen, of Mortain and Boulogne. Matilda and her husband were -in Anjou at the time. They wasted the next few years in the attempt to -win Normandy; but Earl Robert of Gloucester, the half-brother of the -empress, at length induced her to visit England and raise her standard -in the western shires, where his influence was supreme. Though on her -first landing Matilda only escaped capture through the misplaced -chivalry of her opponent, she soon turned the tables upon him with the -help of the Church and the barons of the west. Stephen was defeated and -captured at Lincoln (1141); the empress was acclaimed lady or queen of -England (she used both titles indifferently) and crowned at London. But -the arrogance which she displayed in her prosperity alienated the -Londoners and the papal legate, Bishop Henry of Winchester. Routed at -the siege of Winchester, she was compelled to release Stephen in -exchange for Earl Robert, and thenceforward her cause steadily declined -in England. In 1148, having lost by the earl's death her principal -supporter, she retired to Normandy, of which her husband had in the -meantime gained possession. Henceforward she remained in the background, -leaving her eldest son Henry to pursue the struggle with Stephen. She -outlived Henry's coronation by ten years; her husband had died in 1151. -As queen-mother she played the part of a mediator between her sons and -political parties. Age mellowed her temper, and she turned more and more -from secular ambitions to charity and religious works. She died on the -30th of January 1164. - - See O. Rossler, _Kaiserin Mathilde_ (Berlin, 1897); J. H. Round, - _Geoffrey de Mandeville_ (London, 1892). (H. W. C. D.) - - - - -MATILDA (1046-1115), countess or margravine of Tuscany, popularly known -as the Great Countess, was descended from a noble Lombard family. Her -great-grandfather, Athone of Canossa, had been made count of Modena and -Reggio by the emperor Otto I., and her grandfather had, in addition, -acquired Mantua, Ferrara and Brescia. Her own father, Boniface II., the -Pious, secured Tuscany, the duchy of Spoleto, the county of Parma, and -probably that of Cremona; and was loyal to the emperor until Henry -plotted against him. Through the murder of Count Boniface in 1052 and -the death of her older brother and sister three years later, Matilda was -left, at the age of nine, sole heiress to the richest estate in Italy. -She received an excellent education under the care of her mother, -Beatrice of Bar, the daughter of Frederick of Lorraine and aunt of Henry -III., who, after a brief detention in Germany by the emperor, married -Godfrey IV. of Lorraine, brother of Pope Stephen IX. (1057-1058). -Thenceforth Matilda's lot was cast against the emperor in the great -struggle over investiture, and for over thirty years she maintained the -cause of the successive pontiffs, Gregory VII., Victor III., Urban II., -Paschal II., with varying fortune, but with undaunted resolution. She -aided the pope against the Normans in 1074, and in 1075 attended the -synod at which Guibert was condemned and deprived of the archbishopric -of Ravenna. Her hereditary fief of Canossa was the scene (Jan. 28, 1077) -of the celebrated penance of Henry IV. before Gregory VII. She provided -an asylum for Henry's second wife, Praxides, and urged his son Conrad to -revolt against his father. In the course of the protracted struggle her -villages were plundered, her fortresses demolished, and Pisa and Lucca -temporarily lost, but she remained steadfast in her allegiance, and, -before her death, had, by means of a league of Lombard cities which she -formed, recovered all her possessions. The donation of her estates to -the Holy See, originally made in 1077 and renewed on the 17th of -November 1102, though never fully consummated on account of imperial -opposition, constituted the greater part of the temporal dominion of the -papacy. Matilda was twice married, first to Godfrey V. of Lorraine, -surnamed the Humpbacked, who was the son of her step-father and was -murdered on the 26th of February 1076; and secondly to the 17-year-old -Welf V. of Bavaria, from whom she finally separated in 1095--both -marriages of policy, which counted for little in her life. Matilda was -an eager student: she spoke Italian, French and German fluently, and -wrote many Latin letters; she collected a considerable library; she -supervised an edition of the Pandects of Justinian; and Anselm of -Canterbury sent her his _Meditations_. She combined her devotion to the -papacy and her learning with very deep personal piety. She died after a -long illness at Bodeno, near Modena, on the 24th of July 1115, and was -buried in the Benedictine church at Polirone, whence her remains were -taken to Rome by order of Urban VIII. in 1635 and interred in St -Peter's. - - The contemporary record of Matilda's life in rude Latin verse, by her - chaplain Domnizone (Donizo or Domenico), is preserved in the Vatican - Library. The best edition is that of Bethmann in the _Monumenta germ. - hist. scriptores_, xii. 348-409. The text, with an Italian - translation, was published by F. Davoli under the title _Vita della - granda contessa Matilda di Canossa_ (Reggio nell' Emilia 1888 seq.). - - See A. Overmann, _Grafin Mathilde von Tuscien; ihre Besitzungen ... u. - ihre Regesten_ (Innsbruck, 1895); A. Colombo, _Una Nuova vita delta - contessa Matilda in R. accad. d. sci. Atti_, vol. 39 (Turin, 1904); L. - Tosti, _La Contessa Matilda ed i romani pontefici_ (Florence, 1859); - A. Pannenborg, _Studien zur Geschichte der Herzogin Matilde von - Canossa_ (Gottingen, 1872); F. M. Fiorentini, _Memorie della Matilda_ - (Lucca, 1756); and Nora Duff, _Matilda of Tuscany_ (1910). - (C. H. Ha.) - - - - -MATINS (Fr. _matines_, med. Lat. _matutinae_, sc. possibly vigiliae, -morning watches; from _matutinus_, "belonging to the morning"), a word -now only used in an ecclesiastical sense for one of the canonical hours -in the Roman Breviary, originally intended to be said at midnight, but -sometimes said at dawn, after which "lauds" were recited or sung. In the -modern Roman Catholic Church, outside monastic services, the office is -usually said on the preceding afternoon or evening. The word is also -used in the Roman Catholic Church for the public service held on Sunday -mornings before the mass (see BREVIARY; and HOURS, CANONICAL). In the -Church of England since the Reformation matins is used for the order of -public morning prayer. - - - - -MATLOCK, a market town in the western parliamentary division of -Derbyshire, England, on the river Derwent, 17 m. N. by W. of Derby on -the Midland railway. Pop. (1901), of urban district of Matlock, 5979; of -Matlock Bath and Scarthin Nick, 1819. The entire township includes the -old village of Matlock, the commercial and manufacturing district of -Matlock Bridge, and the fashionable health resorts of Matlock Bath and -Matlock Bank. The town possesses cotton, corn and paper mills, while in -the vicinity there are stone-quarries and lead mines. A peculiar local -industry is the manufacture of so-called "petrified" birds' nests, -plants, and other objects. These are steeped in water from the mineral -springs until they become encrusted with a calcareous deposit which -gives them the appearance of fossils. Ornaments fashioned out of spar -and stalactites have also a considerable sale. - -MATLOCK BATH, one and a half miles south of Matlock, having a separate -railway station, overlooks the narrow and precipitous gorge of the -Derwent, and stands in the midst of woods and cliffs, deriving its name -from three medicinal springs, which first became celebrated towards the -close of the 17th century. They were not known to the Romans, although -lead-mining was carried on extensively in the district in the 1st and -2nd centuries A.D. The mean temperature of the springs is 68 deg. F. -Extensive grounds have been laid out for public use; and in the -neighbourhood there are several fine stalactite caverns. - -Sheltered under the high moorlands of Darley, MATLOCK BANK has grown up -about a mile north-east of the old village, and has become celebrated -for the number and excellence of its hydropathic establishments. A -tramway, worked by a single cable, over a gradient said to be the -steepest in the world, affords easy communication with Matlock Bridge. - - - - -MATOS FRAGOSO, JUAN DE (1614?-1689), Spanish dramatist, of Portuguese -descent, was born about 1614 at Alsito (Alemtejo). After taking his -degree in law at the university of Evora, he proceeded to Madrid, where -he made acquaintance with Perez de Montalban, and thus obtained an -introduction to the stage. He quickly displayed great cleverness in -hitting the public taste, and many contemporaries of superior talent -eagerly sought his aid as a collaborator. The earliest of his printed -plays is _La Defensa de la fe y principe prodigioso_ (1651), and twelve -more pieces were published in 1658. But though his popularity continued -long after his death (January 4, 1689), Matos Fragoso's dramas do not -stand the test of reading. His emphatic preciosity and sophistical -insistence on the "point of honour" are tedious and unconvincing; in _La -Venganza en el despeno_, in _A lo que obliga un agravio_, and in other -plays, he merely recasts, very adroitly, works by Lope de Vega. - - - - -MATRASS (mod. Lat. _matracium_), a glass vessel with a round or oval -body and a long narrow neck, used in chemistry, &c., as a digester or -distiller. The Florence flask of commerce is frequently used for this -purpose. The word is possibly identical with an old name "matrass" (Fr. -_materas_, _matelas_) for the bolt or quarrel of a cross-bow. If so, -some identity of shape is the reason for the application of the word; -"bolt-head" is also used as a name for the vessel. Another connexion is -suggested with the Arabic _matra_, a leather bottle. - - - - -MATRIARCHATE ("rule of the mother"), a term used to express a supposed -earliest and lowest form of family life, typical of primitive societies, -in which the promiscuous relations of the sexes result in the child's -father being unknown (see FAMILY). In such communities the mother took -precedence of the father in certain important respects, especially in -line of descent and inheritance. Matriarchate is assumed on this theory -to have been universal in prehistoric times. The prominent position then -naturally assigned women did not, however, imply any personal power, -since they were in the position of mere chattels: it simply constituted -them the sole relatives of their children and the only centre of any -such family life as existed. The custom of tracing descent through the -female is still observed among certain savage tribes. In Fiji father and -son are not regarded as relatives. Among the Bechuanas the chieftainship -passes to a brother, not to a son. In Senegal, Loango, Congo and Guinea, -relationship is traced through the female. Among the Tuareg Berbers a -child takes rank, freeman's or slave's, from its mother. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J. F. McLennan, _Patriarchal Theory_ (London, 1885); T. - T. Bachofen, _Das Mutterrecht_ (Stuttgart, 1861); E. Westermarck, - _History of Human Marriage_ (1894); A. Giraud-Teulon, _La Mere chez - certains peuples de l'antiquite_ (Paris, 1867); _Les Origines du - mariage et de la famille_ (Geneva and Paris, 1884); C. S. Wake, _The - Development of Marriage and Kinship_ (London, 1889); Ch. Letourneau, - _L'Evolution du mariage et de la famille_ (Paris, 1888); L. H. Morgan, - _Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of Human Family_, "Smithsonian - Contributions to Knowledge," vol. xvii. (Washington, 1871); C. N. - Starcke, _The Primitive Family_ (London, 1889). - - - - -MATRIMONY (Lat. _matrimonium_, marriage, which is the ordinary English -sense), a game at cards played with a full whist pack upon a table -divided into three compartments labelled "Matrimony," "Intrigue" and -"Confederacy," and two smaller spaces, "Pair" and "Best." These names -indicate combinations of two cards, any king and queen being -"Matrimony," any queen and knave "Intrigue," any king and knave -"Confederacy"; while any two cards of the same denomination form a -"Pair" and the diamond ace is "Best." The dealer distributes a number of -counters, to which an agreed value has been given, upon the -compartments, and the other players do likewise. The dealer then gives -one card to each player, face down, and a second, face up. If any -turned-up card is the diamond ace, the player holding it takes -everything on the space and the deal passes. If not turned, the diamond -ace has only the value of the other three aces. If it is not turned, the -players, beginning with the eldest hand, expose their second cards, and -the resulting combinations, if among the five successful ones, win the -counters of the corresponding spaces. If the counters on a space are not -won, they remain until the next deal. - - - - -MATRIX, a word of somewhat wide application, chiefly used in the sense -of a bed or enclosing mass in which something is shaped or formed (Late -Lat. _matrix_, womb; in classical Latin _matrix_ was only applied to an -animal kept for breeding). Matrix is thus used of a mould of metal or -other substance in which a design or pattern is made in intaglio, and -from which an impression in relief is taken. In die-sinking and coining, -the matrix is the hardened steel mould from which the die-punches are -taken. The term "seal" should strictly he applied to the impression only -on wax of the design of the matrix, but is often used both of the matrix -and of the impression (see SEALS). In mineralogy, the matrix is the mass -in which a crystal mineral or fossil is embedded. In mathematics, the -name "matrix" is used of an arrangement of numbers or symbols in a -rectangular or square figure. (See ALGEBRAIC FORMS.) - - In med. Latin _matrix_ and the diminutive _matricula_ had the meaning - of a roll or register, particularly one containing the names of the - members of an institution, as of the clergy belonging to a cathedral, - collegiate or other church, or of the members of a university. From - this use is derived "matriculation," the admission to membership of a - university, also the name of the examination for such admission. - _Matricula_ was also the name of the contributions in men and money - made by the various states of the Holy Roman Empire, and in the modern - German Empire the contributions made by the federal states to the - imperial finances are called _Matrikularbeitrage_, matricular - contributions. (See GERMANY: _Finance_.) - - - - -MATROSS, the name (now obsolete) for a soldier of artillery, who ranked -next below a gunner. The duty of a matross was to assist the gunners in -loading, firing and sponging the guns. They were provided with -firelocks, and marched with the store-wagons, acting as guards. In the -American army a matross ranked as a private of artillery. The word is -probably derived from Fr. _matelot_, a sailor. - - - - -MATSUKATA, MARQUIS (1835- ), Japanese statesman, was born at Kagoshima -in 1835, being a son of a _samurai_ of the Satsuma clan. On the -completion of the feudal revolution of 1868 he was appointed governor of -the province of Tosa, and having served six years in this office, was -transferred to Tokyo as assistant minister of finance. As representative -of Japan at the Paris Exhibition of 1878, he took the opportunity -afforded by his mission to study the financial systems of the great -European powers. On his return home, he held for a short time in 1880 -the portfolio of home affairs, and was in 1881 appointed minister of -finance. The condition of the currency of Japan was at that time -deplorable, and national bankruptcy threatened. The coinage had not only -been seriously debased during the closing years of the Tokugawa regime, -but large quantities of paper currency had been issued and circulated, -both by many of the feudal lords, and by the central government itself, -as a temporary expedient for filling an impoverished exchequer. In 1878 -depreciation had set in, and the inconvertible paper had by the close of -1881 grown to such an extent that it was then at a discount of 80% as -compared with silver. Matsukata showed the government the danger of the -situation, and urged that the issue of further paper currency should be -stopped at once, the expenses of administration curtailed, and the -resulting surplus of revenue used in the redemption of the paper -currency and in the creation of a specie reserve. These proposals were -acted upon: the Bank of Japan was established, and the right of issuing -convertible notes given to it; and within three years of the initiation -of these financial reforms, the paper currency, largely reduced in -quantity, was restored to its full par value with silver, and the -currency as a whole placed on a solvent basis. From this time forward -Japan's commercial and military advancement continued to make -uninterrupted progress. But _pari passu_ with the extraordinary impetus -given to its trade by the successful conclusion of the war with China, -the national expenditure enormously increased, rising within a few years -from 80 to 250 million yen. The task of providing for this expenditure -fell entirely on Matsukata, who had to face strong opposition on the -part of the diet. But he distributed the increased taxation so equally, -and chose its subjects so wisely, that the ordinary administrative -expenditure and the interest on the national debt were fully provided -for, while the extraordinary expenditure for military purposes was met -from the Chinese indemnity. As far back as 1878 Matsukata perceived the -advantages of a gold standard, but it was not until 1897 that his scheme -could be realized. In this year the bill authorizing it was under his -auspices submitted to the diet and passed; and with this financial -achievement Matsukata saw the fulfilment of his ideas of financial -reform, which were conceived during his first visit to Europe. -Matsukata, who in 1884 was created Count, twice held the office of prime -minister (1891-1892, 1896-1898), and during both his administrations he -combined the portfolio of finance with the premiership; from October -1898 to October 1900 he was minister of finance only. His name in -Japanese history is indissolubly connected with the financial progress -of his country at the end of the 19th century. In 1902 he visited -England and America, and he was created G.C.M.G., and given the Oxford -degree of D.C.L. In September 1907 he was advanced to the rank of -Marquis. - - - - -MATSYS (MASSYS or METZYS), QUINTIN (1466-1530), Flemish artist, was born -at Louvain, where he first learned a mechanical art. During the greater -part of the 15th century the centres in which the painters of the Low -Countries most congregated were Bruges, Ghent and Brussels. Towards the -close of the same period Louvain took a prominent part in giving -employment to workmen of every craft. It was not till the opening of the -16th century that Antwerp usurped the lead which it afterwards -maintained against Bruges and Ghent, Brussels, Mechlin and Louvain. -Quintin Matsys was one of the first men of any note who gave repute to -the gild of Antwerp. A legend relates how the smith of Louvain was -induced by affection for the daughter of an artist to change his trade -and acquire proficiency in painting. A less poetic but perhaps more real -version of the story tells that Quintin had a brother with whom he was -brought up by his father Josse Matsys, a smith, who held the lucrative -offices of clockmaker and architect to the municipality of Louvain. It -came to be a question which of the sons should follow the paternal -business, and which carve out a new profession for himself. Josse the -son elected to succeed his father, and Quintin then gave himself to the -study of painting. We are not told expressly by whom Quintin was taught, -but his style seems necessarily derived from the lessons of Dierick -Bouts, who took to Louvain the mixed art of Memlinc and Van der Weyden. -When he settled at Antwerp, at the age of twenty-five, he probably had a -style with an impress of its own, which certainly contributed most -importantly to the revival of Flemish art on the lines of Van Eyck and -Van der Weyden. What particularly characterizes Quintin Matsys is the -strong religious feeling which he inherited from earlier schools. But -that again was permeated by realism which frequently degenerated into -the grotesque. Nor would it be too much to say that the facial -peculiarities of the boors of Van Steen or Ostade have their -counterparts in the pictures of Matsys, who was not, however, trained to -use them in the same homely way. From Van der Weyden's example we may -trace the dryness of outline and shadeless modelling and the pitiless -finish even of trivial detail, from the Van Eycks and Memlinc through -Dierick Bouts the superior glow and richness of transparent pigments, -which mark the pictures of Matsys. The date of his retirement from -Louvain is 1491, when he became a master in the gild of painters at -Antwerp. His most celebrated picture is that which he executed in 1508 -for the joiners' company in the cathedral of his adopted city. Next in -importance to that is the Marys of Scripture round the Virgin and Child, -which was ordered for a chapel in the cathedral of Louvain. Both -altar-pieces are now in public museums, one at Antwerp, the other at -Brussels. They display great earnestness in expression, great minuteness -of finish, and a general absence of effect by light or shade. As in -early Flemish pictures, so in those of Matsys, superfluous care is -lavished on jewelry, edgings and ornament. To the great defect of want -of atmosphere such faults may be added as affectation, the result of -excessive straining after tenderness in women, or common gesture and -grimace suggested by a wish to render pictorially the brutality of -gaolers and executioners. Yet in every instance an effort is manifest to -develop and express individual character. This tendency in Matsys is -chiefly illustrated in his pictures of male and female market bankers -(Louvre and Windsor), in which an attempt is made to display -concentrated cupidity and avarice. The other tendency to excessive -emphasis of tenderness may be seen in two replicas of the "Virgin and -Child" at Berlin and Amsterdam, where the ecstatic kiss of the mother is -quite unreal. But in these examples there is a remarkable glow of colour -which makes up for many defects. Expression of despair is strongly -exaggerated in a Lucretia at the museum of Vienna. On the whole the best -pictures of Matsys are the quietest; his "Virgin and Christ" or "Ecce -Homo" and "Mater Dolorosa" (London and Antwerp) display as much serenity -and dignity as seems consistent with the master's art. He had -considerable skill as a portrait painter. Egidius at Longford, which -drew from Sir Thomas More a eulogy in Latin verse, is but one of a -numerous class, to which we may add the portrait of Maximilian of -Austria in the gallery of Amsterdam. Matsys in this branch of practice -was much under the influence of his contemporaries Lucas of Leiden and -Mabuse. His tendency to polish and smoothness excluded to some extent -the subtlety of modulation remarkable in Holbein and Durer. There is -reason to think that he was well acquainted with both these German -masters. He probably met Holbein more than once on his way to England. -He saw Durer at Antwerp in 1520. Quintin died at Antwerp in 1530. The -puritan feeling which slumbered in him was fatal to some of his -relatives. His sister Catherine and her husband suffered at Louvain in -1543 for the then capital offence of reading the Bible, he being -decapitated, she buried alive in the square fronting the cathedral. - - Quintin's son, Jan Matsys, inherited the art but not the skill of his - parent. The earliest of his works, a "St Jerome," dated 1537, in the - gallery of Vienna, the latest, a "Healing of Tobias," of 1564, in the - museum of Antwerp, are sufficient evidence of his tendency to - substitute imitation for original thought. - - - - -MATTEAWAN, a village of Fishkill township, Dutchess county, New York, -U.S.A., on the eastern bank of the Hudson river, opposite Newburgh and -15 m. S. of Poughkeepsie. Pop. (1890), 4278; (1900), 5807 (1044 -foreign-born); (1905, state census), 5584; (1910), 6727. The village is -served by the Central New England railway, and is the seat of the -Matteawan state hospital for the criminal insane, the Highland hospital, -and the Sargeant industrial school. The Teller House dates back to the -beginning of the 18th century. Near Matteawan is Beacon Hill, the -highest of the highlands, which has an electric railway to its summit. -There are manufactures of hats, rubber goods, machinery (notably -"fuel-economizers"), &c., water-power being furnished by Fishkill Creek. -The village owns its waterworks, the supply for which is derived from -Beacon Hill. Matteawan was incorporated as a village in 1886. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 17, Slice 7, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - -***** This file should be named 42552.txt or 42552.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/5/5/42552/ - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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