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diff --git a/42552-0.txt b/42552-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d753c29 --- /dev/null +++ b/42552-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,19396 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42552 *** + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE MARSHALLTOWN: "The city is situated in a rich agricultural + region, and is a market for grain, meat cattle, horses and swine." + 'meat' amended from 'neat'. + + ARTICLE MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI: "His knowledge of the middle ages + is inadequate, and his criticisms are not discriminating." 'middle' + amended from 'mddile'. + + ARTICLE MARTIN, SIR THEODORE: "Then came translations of the Vita + Nuova of Dante, and the first part of Goethe's Faust." 'Then' + amended from 'The'. + + ARTICLE MARVELL, ANDREW: "Marvell's connexion with Hull had been + strengthened by the marriages of his sisters with persons of local + importance ..." 'been' amended from 'heen'. + + ARTICLE MARX, HEINRICH KARL: "This average rate of profits, added + to the actual cost price of a given commodity ..." 'of' amended + from 'or'. + + ARTICLE MARX, HEINRICH KARL: "... see J. Stammhammer, Bibliographie + des Sozialismus und Kommunismus (Jena, 1893) ..." 'Sozialismus' + amended from 'Soziatismus'. + + ARTICLE MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS: "On the 28th of November she was + removed to Sheffield Castle, where she remained for the next + fourteen years in charge of the earl of Shrewsbury." 'fourteen' + amended from 'fourteeen'. + + ARTICLE MASULIPATAM: "During the wars of the Carnatic, the English + were temporarily expelled from the town, which was held by the + French for some years." added 'from'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XVII, SLICE VII + + Mars to Matteawan + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + MARS MASAI + MARSALA MASANIELLO + MARSDEN, WILLIAM MASAYA + MARSEILLES MASCAGNI, PIETRO + MARSH, ADAM MASCARA + MARSH, GEORGE PERKINS MASCARENE ISLANDS + MARSH, HERBERT MASCARON, JULES + MARSH, NARCISSUS MASCHERONI, LORENZO + MARSH, OTHNIEL CHARLES MASCOT + MARSH MASDEU, JUAN FRANCISCO + MARSHAL MASERU + MARSHALL, ALFRED MASHAM, ABIGAIL + MARSHALL, JOHN (American jurist) MASHAM, SAMUEL CUNLIFFE LISTER + MARSHALL, JOHN (British surgeon) MASHONA + MARSHALL, STEPHEN MASK + MARSHALL (Missouri, U.S.A.) MASKELYNE, NEVIL + MARSHALL (Texas, U.S.A.) MASOLINO DA PANICALE + MARSHALL ISLANDS MASON, FRANCIS + MARSHALLTOWN MASON, GEORGE + MARSHALSEA MASON, GEORGE HEMMING + MARSHBUCK MASON, JAMES MURRAY + MARSHFIELD MASON, SIR JOHN + MARSH GAS MASON, JOHN + MARSHMAN, JOSHUA MASON, JOHN YOUNG + MARSI MASON, SIR JOSIAH + MARSIGLI, LUIGI FERDINANDO MASON, LOWELL + MARSILIUS OF PADUA MASON, WILLIAM + MARSIVAN MASON AND DIXON LINE + MARS-LA-TOUR MASON CITY + MARSTON, JOHN MASONRY + MARSTON, PHILIP BOURKE MASPERO, GASTON CAMILLE CHARLES + MARSTON MOOR, BATTLE OF MASS + MARSUPIALIA MASSA + MARSUPIAL MOLE MASSACHUSETTS + MARSUS, DOMITIUS MASSACRE + MARSYAS MASSAGE + MARTABAN MASSAGETAE + MARTELLO TOWER MASSA MARITTIMA + MARTEN, HENRY MASSAWA + MARTEN MASSÉNA, ANDRÉ + MARTENS, FRÉDÉRIC FROMMHOLD DE MASSENBACH, CHRISTIAN KARL VON + MARTENS, GEORG FRIEDRICH VON MASSENET, JULES ÉMILE FRÉDÉRIC + MARTENSEN, HANS LASSEN MASSEREENE, JOHN CLOTWORTHY + MARTHA'S VINEYARD MASSEY, SIR EDWARD + MARTÍ, JUAN JOSÉ MASSEY, GERALD + MARTIAL MASSICUS, MONS + MARTIALIS, QUINTUS GARGILIUS MASSIF + MARTIAL LAW MASSILLON, JEAN BAPTISTE + MARTIGNAC, JEAN BAPTISTE GAY MASSILLON + MARTIGUES MASSIMO + MARTIN, ST MASSINGER, PHILIP + MARTIN (several popes) MASSINISSA + MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI MASSON, DAVID + MARTIN, CLAUD MASSON, LOUIS CLAUDE FRÉDÉRIC + MARTIN, FRANÇOIS XAVIER MAST + MARTIN, HOMER DODGE MASTABA + MARTIN, JOHN MASTER + MARTIN, LUTHER MASTER AND SERVANT + MARTIN, SIR THEODORE MASTER OF THE HORSE + MARTIN, WILLIAM MASTER OF THE ROLLS + MARTIN, SIR WILLIAM FANSHAWE MASTIC + MARTIN OF TROPPAU MASTIGOPHORA + MARTIN (bird) MASTODON + MARTINEAU, HARRIET MAS'UDI + MARTINEAU, JAMES MASULIPATAM + MARTINET MAT + MARTÍNEZ DE LA ROSA, DE PAULA MATABELE + MARTINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA MATACHINES + MARTINI, SIMONE MATADOR + MARTINIQUE MATAMOROS + MARTINSBURG MATANZAS + MARTINS FERRY MATARÓ + MARTINUZZI, GEORGE MATCH + MARTIUS, CARL FRIEDRICH VON MATE (companion) + MARTOS, CHRISTINO MATÉ (shrub) + MARTOS MATERA + MARTYN, HENRY MATERIALISM + MARTYN, JOHN MATER MATUTA + MARTYR MATHEMATICS + MARTYROLOGY MATHER, COTTON + MARULLUS, MICHAEL TARCHANIOTA MATHER, INCREASE + MARUM, MARTIN VAN MATHER, RICHARD + MARUTS MATHERAN + MARVELL, ANDREW MATHESON, GEORGE + MARX, HEINRICH KARL MATHEW, THEOBALD + MARY (the mother of Jesus) MATHEWS, CHARLES + MARY (Magdalene) MATHEWS, THOMAS + MARY I. MATHY, KARL + MARY II. MATILDA (queen of England) + MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS MATILDA (countess of Tuscany) + MARY (duchess of Burgundy) MATINS + MARY (queen of France) MATLOCK + MARY OF LORRAINE MATOS FRAGOSO, JUAN DE + MARY OF MODENA MATRASS + MARY OF ORANGE MATRIARCHATE + MARYBOROUGH (Ireland) MATRIMONY + MARYBOROUGH (Queensland) MATRIX + MARYBOROUGH (Victoria, Australia) MATROSS + MARYLAND MATSUKATA + MARYPORT MATSYS, QUINTIN + MARZABOTTO MATTEAWAN + MASACCIO + + + + +MARS, in astronomy, the fourth planet in the order of distance from the +sun, and the next outside the earth. To the naked eye it appears as a +bright star of a decidedly reddish or lurid tint, which contrasts +strongly with the whiteness of Venus and Jupiter. At opposition it is +brighter than a first magnitude star, sometimes outshining even Sirius. +It is by virtue of its position the most favourably situated of all the +planets for observation from the earth. The eccentricity of its orbit, +0.0933, is greater than that of any other major planet except Mercury. +The result is that at an opposition near perihelion Mars is markedly +nearer to the earth than at an opposition near aphelion, the one +distance being about 35 million miles; the other 63 million. These +numbers express only the minimum distances at or near opposition, and +not the distance at other times. The time of revolution of Mars is +686.98 days. The mean interval between oppositions is 2 years 49½ days, +but, owing to the eccentricity of the orbit, the actual excess over two +years ranges from 36 days to more than 2½ months. Its period of rotation +is 24 h. 37 m. 22.66 s. (H. G. Bakhuyzen). + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Orbits of Mars and the Earth, showing aspects of +the planet relative to the earth and sun.] + +_Motions._--The accompanying diagram will convey a notion of the varied +aspects presented by the planet, of the cycles of change through which +they go, and of the order in which the oppositions follow each other. +The outer circle represents the orbit of Mars, the inner one that of the +earth. AE is the line of the equinoxes from which longitudes are +counted. The perihelion of Mars is in longitude 335° at the point [pi]. +The ascending node [Omega] is in longitude 47°. The line of nodes makes +an angle of 74° with the major axis, so that Mars is south of the +ecliptic near perihelion, but north of it near aphelion. Around the +inner circle, representing the earth's orbit, are marked the months +during which the earth passes through the different parts of the orbit. +It will be seen that the distance of Mars at the time of any opposition +depends upon the month in which opposition occurs. The least possible +distance would occur in an opposition about the end of August, a little +before Mars reached the perihelion, because the eccentricity of the +earth's orbit throws our planet a little farther from the sun and nearer +the orbit of Mars in July than it does in August. The opposition of 1909 +occurred on the 24th of September, at a point marked by the year near +the equinox, and the month and years of the oppositions following, up to +1941, are also shown in the same way. Tracing them around, it will be +seen that the points of opposition travel around the orbit in about 16 +years, so that oppositions near perihelion, when Mars is therefore +nearest the earth, occur at intervals of 15 or 17 years. + +The axis of rotation of the planet is inclined between 23° and 24° to +the orbit, and the equator of the planet has the same inclination to the +plane of the orbit. The north pole is directed toward a point in +longitude 355°, in consequence of which the projection of the planet's +axis upon the plane of the ecliptic is nearly parallel to the line of +our equinoxes. This projection is shown by the dotted line SP-NP, which +corresponds closely to the line of the Martian solstices. It will be +seen that at a September opposition the north pole of the planet is +turned away from the sun, so that only the southern hemisphere is +presented to us, and only the south pole can be seen from the earth. The +Martian vernal equinox is near Q and the northern solstice near A. Here +at the point S.P. the northern hemisphere is turned toward the sun. It +will be seen that the aspect of the planet at opposition, especially the +hemisphere which is visible, varies with the month of opposition, the +general rule being that the northern hemisphere of the planet is +entirely seen only near aphelion oppositions, and therefore when +farthest from us, while the southern hemisphere is best seen near +perihelion oppositions. The distances of the planet from the sun at +aphelion and at perihelion are nearly in the ratio 6:5. The intensity of +the sun's radiation on the planet is as the inverse square of this +ratio. It is therefore more than 40% greater near perihelion than near +aphelion. It follows from all this that the southern hemisphere is +subjected to a more intense solar heat than the northern, and must +therefore have a warmer summer season. But the length of the seasons is +the inverse of this, the summer of the northern hemisphere being longer +and the heat of the southern hemisphere shorter in proportion. + +_Surface Features._--The surface features of the planet will be better +understood by first considering what is known of its atmosphere and of +the temperature which probably prevails on its surface. One method of +detecting an atmosphere is through its absorption of the different rays +in the spectrum of the sunlight reflected from the planet. Several +observers have thought that they saw fairly distinct evidence of such +absorption when the planet was examined with the spectroscope. But the +observations were not conclusive; and with the view of setting the +question at rest if possible, W. W. Campbell at the Lick Observatory +instituted a very careful series of spectroscopic observations.[1] To +reduce the chances of error to a minimum the spectrum of Mars was +compared with that of the moon when the two bodies were near each other. +Not the slightest difference could be seen between any of the lines in +the two spectra. It being certain that the spectrum of the moon is not +affected by absorption, it followed that any absorption produced by the +atmosphere of Mars is below the limit of perception. It was considered +by Campbell that if the atmosphere of Mars were ¼ that of the earth in +density, the absorption would have been visible. Consequently the +atmosphere of Mars would be of a density less than ¼ that of the +earth.[2] + +Closely related to the question of an atmosphere is that of possible +clouds above the surface of the planet, the existence of which, if real, +would necessarily imply an atmosphere of a density approaching the limit +set by Campbell's observations. The most favourable opportunity for +seeing clouds would be when they are formed above a region of the planet +upon which the sun is about to rise, or from which it has just been +setting. The cloud will then be illuminated by the sun's rays while the +surface below it is in darkness, and will appear to an observer on the +earth as a spot of light outside the terminator, or visible edge of the +illuminated part of the disk. It is noticeable that phenomena more or +less of this character, though by no means common, have been noted by +observers on several occasions. Among these have been the Mt Hamilton +and Lowell observers, and W. H. Pickering at Arequipa. Campbell has +shown that many of them may be accounted for by supposing the presence +of mountains not more than two miles in height, which may well exist on +the planet. While this hypothesis will serve to explain several of these +appearances, this can scarcely be said of a detached spot observed on +the evening of the 26th of May 1903, at the Lowell Observatory.[3] Dr +Slipher, who first saw it, was so struck by the appearance of the +projection from the terminator upon the dark side of the disk that he +called the other observers to witness it. Micrometric measures showed +that it was some 300 miles in length, and that its highest point stood +some 17 miles above the surface of the planet. That a cloud should be +formed at such a height in so rare an atmosphere seems difficult to +account for except on the principle that the rate of diminution of the +density of an atmosphere with its height is proportional to the +intensity of gravity, which is smaller on Mars than on the earth. The +colour was not white, but tawny, of the tint exhibited by a cloud of +dust. Percival Lowell therefore suggests that this and other appearances +of the same kind seen from time to time are probably dust clouds, +travelling over the desert, as they sometimes do on the earth, and +settling slowly again to the ground. + +_Temperature._--Up to a recent time all that could be said of the +probable temperature of Mars was that, being more distant from the sun +than the earth, and having a rarer atmosphere, it had a general mean +temperature probably below that of the earth. Greater precision can now +be given to this theoretical conclusion by recent determination of the +law of radiation of heat by bodies at different temperatures. Regarding +it as fairly well established that at ordinary temperatures the +radiation varies directly as the fourth power of the absolute +temperature, it is possible when the "solar constant" is known to +compute the temperature of a non-coloured body at the distance of Mars +which presents every part of its surface in rapid succession to the +sun's rays in the absence of atmosphere only. This has been elaborately +done for the major planets by J. H. Poynting,[4] who computes that the +mean temperature of Mars is far below the freezing point of water. On +the other hand an investigation made by Lowell in 1907,[5] taking into +account the effect of the rare atmosphere on the heat lost by +reflection, and of several other factors in the problem hitherto +overlooked, led him to the conclusion that the mean temperature is about +48° Fahr.[6] But the temperature may rise much above the mean on those +regions of the surface exposed to a nearly vertical noon-day sun. The +diurnal changes of temperature, being diminished by an atmosphere, must +be greater on Mars than on the earth, so that the vicissitudes of +temperature are there very great, but cannot be exactly determined, +because they must depend upon the conductivity and thermal capacity of +the matter composing the surface of the planet. What we can say with +confidence is that, during the Martian winter of between eight and +twelve of our months, the regions around either pole must fall to a +temperature nearer the absolute zero than any known on this planet. In +fact the climatic conditions in all but the equatorial regions are +probably of the same nature as those which prevail on the tops of our +highest mountains, except that the cold is more intense.[7] + +Having these preliminary considerations in mind, we may now study the +features presented to our view by the surface of the planet. These have +a permanence and invariability which markedly differentiate them from +the ever varying surfaces of Jupiter and Saturn, and show that what we +see is a solid surface, like that of our earth. They were observed and +delineated by the leading astronomers of the 16th century, especially +Huygens, Cassini and Hooke. These observers could only distinguish the +different regions upon the planet as bright or dark. Reasoning as they +did in the case of the moon, it was naturally supposed that the brighter +regions were land and the darker ones seas. The observers of our time +find that the darker regions have a slightly blue-green aspect, which +might suggest the idea of water, but are variegated in a way to show +that they must be composed of a solid crust, like the brighter regions. +The latter have a decidedly warm red or ochre tint, which gives the +characteristic colour to the planet as seen by the naked eye. The +regions in equatorial and middle latitudes, which are those best seen +from our planet, show a surface of which the general aspect is not +dissimilar to that which would be presented by the deserts of our earth +when seen from the moon. With each improvement in the telescope the +numerous drawings of the planet show more definiteness and certainty in +details. About 1830 a fairly good map was made by W. Beer and J. H. +Mädler, a work which has been repeated by a number of observers since +that time. The volume of literature on the subject, illustrated by +drawings and maps, has become so great that it is impossible here to +present even an abstract of it; and it would not be practicable, even +were it instructive, to enter upon any detailed description of Martian +topography. A few great and well-marked features were depicted by the +earliest observers, who saw them so plainly that they may be recognized +by their drawings at the present time. There is also a general agreement +among nearly all observers with good instruments as to the general +features of the planet, but even in the latest drawings there is a +marked divergence as to the minuter details. This is especially true of +the boundaries of the more ill-defined regions, and of the faint and +difficult markings of various kinds which are very numerous on every +part of the planet. There is not even a close agreement between the +drawings by the same observer at different oppositions; but this may be +largely due to seasonal and other changes. + +The most striking feature, and one which shows the greatest resemblance +to a familiar terrestrial process, is that when either polar region +comes into view after being turned nearly a year away from the sun, it +is found to be covered with a white cap. This gradually contracts in +extent as the sun shines upon it during the remaining half of the +Martian year, sometimes nearly disappearing. That this change is due to +the precipitation of watery vapour in the form of ice, snow or frost +during the winter, and its melting or evaporation when exposed to the +sun's rays, is so obvious a conclusion that it has never been seriously +questioned. It has indeed been suggested that the deposit may be frozen +carbonic acid. While we cannot pronounce this out of the question, the +probabilities seem in favour of the deposit being due to the +precipitation of aqueous vapour in a frozen form. At a temperature of +-50° C., which is far above what we can suppose to prevail in the polar +regions during the winter, the tension of aqueous vapour is 0.034 mm. On +the other hand Faraday found the tension of carbonic acid to be still an +entire atmosphere at as low a temperature as -80° C. Numerically exact +statements are impossible owing to our want of knowledge of the actual +temperature, which must depend partly upon air currents between the +equator and the poles of Mars. It can, however, be said, in a general +way, that a proportion of aqueous vapour in the rare atmosphere of Mars, +far smaller than that which prevails on the earth, would suffice to +explain the observed formation and disappearances of the polar caps. +Since every improvement in the telescope and in the conditions of +observation must enable modern observers to see all that their +predecessors did and yet more, we shall confine our statements to the +latest results. These may be derived from the work of Professor Lowell +of Boston, who in 1894 founded an observatory at Flagstaff, Arizona, +7250 ft. above sea-level, and supplied it with a 24´´ telescope, of +which the main purpose was the study of Mars. This work has been +continued with such care and assiduity that its results must take +precedence of all others in everything that relates to our present +subject.[8] + +Among the more probable conclusions to be drawn from Lowell's +observations, the following are of most interest. The darker areas are +all seamed by lines and dots darker than themselves, which are permanent +in position, so that there can be no bodies of water on the planet. On +the other hand, their colour, blue-green, is that of vegetation. This +fades out as vegetation would at certain seasons to faint blue-green, +but in some places to a tawny brown. Each hemisphere undergoes these +changes in its turn, the changes being opposite in opposite +hemispheres. The changes in the dark areas follow some time after the +melting of the polar caps. The aspect of these areas suggests old sea +bottoms, and when on the terminator appear as depressions, though this +may be only apparent and due to the dark colour. The smoothness and soft +outline of the terminator shows that there are no mountains on Mars +comparable with ours, but that the surface is surprisingly flat. White +spots are occasionally visible in the tropical and temperate regions, +which are perhaps due to the condensation of frost or snow, or to saline +exudation such as seasonally occurs in India (Lowell). Moreover in +winter the temperate zones are more or less covered by a whitish veil, +which may be either hoar frost or cloud. A spring haze seems to surround +the north polar cap during its most extensive melting; otherwise the +Martian sky is quite clear, like that of a dry desert land. When either +polar cap is melting it is bordered by a bluish area, which Lowell +attributes to the water produced by the melting. But the obliquity at +which the sun's rays strike the surface as the cap is melting away is so +great that it would seem to preclude the possibility of a temperature +high enough to melt the snow into water. Under the low barometric +pressure prevailing on the planet, snow would evaporate under the +influence of the sun's rays without changing into water. It is also +contended that what looks like such a bluish border may be formed around +a bright area by the secondary aberration of a refracting telescope.[9] + +The modern studies of Mars which have aroused so much public interest +began with the work of Schiaparelli in 1877. Accepting the term "ocean," +used by the older observers, to designate the widely extended darker +regions on the planet, and holding that they were really bodies of +water, he found that they were connected by comparatively narrow +streaks. (Schiaparelli considered them really water until after the +Lowell observations.) In accordance with the adopted system of +nomenclature, he termed these streaks _canale_, a word of which the +proper rendering into English would be _channels_. But the word was +actually translated into both English and French as canal, thus +connoting artificiality in the supposed waterways, which were attributed +to the inhabitants of the planet. The fact that they were many miles in +breadth, and that it was therefore absurd to call them canals, did not +prevent this term from being so extensively used that it is now scarcely +possible to do away with it. A second series of observations was made by +Schiaparelli at the opposition of 1879, when the planet was farther +away, but was better situated as to altitude above the horizon. He now +found a number of additional channels, which were much finer than those +he had previously drawn. The great interest attaching to their seemingly +artificial character gave an impetus to telescopic study of the planet +which has continued to the present time. New canals were added, +especially at the Lowell Observatory, until the entire number listed in +1908 amounted to more than 585. The general character of this complex +system of lines is described by Lowell as a network covering the whole +face of the planet, light and dark regions alike, and connecting at +either end with the respective polar caps there. At their junctions are +small dark pinheads of spots. The lines vary in size between themselves, +but each maintains its own width throughout. But the more difficult of +these objects are only seen occasionally and are variable in +definiteness. Of two canals equally well situated for seeing, only one +may be visible at one time and only the other at other times. If this +variability of aspect among different canals is true as they are seen +from the Lowell Observatory, we find it true to a much greater extent +when we compare descriptions by different observers. At Flagstaff, the +most favourably situated of all the points of observation, they are seen +as fine sharp lines, sometimes as well marked as if drawn with a pencil. +But other observers see them with varying degrees of breadth and +diffuseness. + +One remarkable feature of these objects is their occasional +"gemination," some of the canals appearing as if doubled. This was +first noticed by Schiaparelli, and has been confirmed, so far as +observations can confirm it, by other observers. Different explanations +of this phenomenon have been suggested, but the descriptions of it are +not sufficiently definite to render any explanation worthy of entire +confidence possible. Indeed the more cautious astronomers, who have not +specially devoted themselves to the particular phenomena, reserve a +doubt as to how far the apparent phenomena of the finer canals are real, +and what the markings which give rise to their appearance might prove to +be if a better and nearer view of the planet than is now possible could +be obtained. Of the reality of the better marked ones there can be no +doubt, as they have been seen repeatedly by many observers, including +those at the Lick Observatory, and have actually been photographed at +the Lowell Observatory. The doubt is therefore confined to the vast +network of lines so fine that they never certainly have been seen +elsewhere than at Flagstaff. The difficulty of pronouncing upon their +reality arises from the fact that we have to do mainly with objects not +plainly visible (or, as Lowell contends, not plainly visible elsewhere). +The question therefore becomes one of psychological optics rather than +of astronomy. When the question is considered from this point of view it +is found that combinations of light and shaded areas very different from +continuous lines, will, under certain conditions, be interpreted by the +eye as such lines; and when such is the case, long practice by an +observer, however carefully conducted, may confirm him in this +interpretation. To give a single example of the principles involved; it +is found by experiment that if, through a long line so fine as to +approach the limit of visibility, segments not too near each other, or +so short that they would not be visible by themselves, be taken out, +their absence from the line will not be noticed, and the latter will +still seem continuous.[10] In other words we do not change the aspect of +the line by taking away from it a part which by itself would be +invisible. This act of the eye, in interpreting a discontinuous series +of very faint patches as a continuous line, is not, properly speaking, +an optical illusion, but rather a habit. The arguments for the reality +of all the phenomena associated with the canals, while cogent, have not +sufficed to bring about a general consensus of opinion among critics +beyond the limit already mentioned. + +Accepting the view that the dark lines on Mars are objectively real and +continuous, and are features as definite in reality as they appear in +the telescope, Professor Lowell has put forth an explanation of +sufficient interest to be mentioned here. His first proposition is that +lines frequently thousands of miles long, each following closely a great +circle, must be the product of design rather than of natural causes. His +explanation is that they indicate the existence of irrigating canals +which carry the water produced annually by the melting of the polar +snows to every part of the planet. The actual canals are too minute to +be visible to us. What we really see as dark lines are broad strips of +vegetation, produced by artificial cultivation extending along each +border of the irrigating streams. On the other hand, in the view of his +critics, the quantity of ice or snow which the sun's rays could melt +around the poles of Mars, the rate of flow and evaporation as the water +is carried toward the equator, and several other of the conditions +involved, require investigation before the theory can be +established.[11] + +The accompanying illustrations of Mars and its canals are those of +Lowell, and represent the planet as seen by the Flagstaff observers. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +_Satellites and Pole of Mars._--At the opposition of Mars which occurred +in August 1877 the planet was unusually near the earth. Asaph Hall, then +in charge of the 26´´ telescope at the Naval Observatory in Washington, +took advantage of this favourable circumstance to make a careful search +for a visible satellite of the planet. On the night of the 11th of +August he found a faint object near the planet. Cloudy weather +intervened, and the object was not again seen until the 16th, when it +was found to be moving with the planet, leaving no doubt as to its being +a satellite. On the night following an inner satellite much nearer the +planet was observed. This discovery, apart from its intrinsic interest, +is also noteworthy as the first of a series of discoveries of satellites +of the outer planets. The satellites of Mars are difficult to observe, +on account not merely of their faintness, but of their proximity to the +planet, the light of which is so bright as to nearly blot out that of +the satellite. Intrinsically the inner satellite is brighter than the +outer one, but for the reason just mentioned it is more difficult to +observe. The names given them by Hall were Deimos for the outer +satellite and Phobos for the inner one, derived from the mythological +horses that drew the chariot of the god Mars. A remarkable feature of +the orbit of Phobos is that it is so near the planet as to perform a +revolution in less than one-third that of the diurnal rotation of Mars. +The result is that to an inhabitant of Mars this satellite would rise in +the west and set in the east, making two apparent diurnal revolutions +every day. The period of Deimos is only six days greater than that of a +Martian day; consequently its apparent motion around the planet would be +so slow that more than two days elapse between rising and setting, and +again between setting and rising. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +Owing to the minuteness of these bodies it is impossible to make any +measures of their diameters. These can be inferred only from their +brightness. Assuming them to be of the same colour as Mars, Lowell +estimates them to be about ten miles for Deimos and somewhat more for +Phobos. But these estimates are uncertain, not only from the somewhat +hypothetical character of the data on which they rest, but from the +difficulty of accurately estimating the brightness of such an object in +the glare of the planet. + +A long and careful series of observations was made upon these bodies by +other observers. Later, especially at the very favourable oppositions of +1892 and 1894, observations were made by Hermann Struve at Poulkova, who +subjected all the observations up to 1898 to a very careful discussion. +He showed that the inclination of the planes of the orbits to the +equator of the planet is quite small, thus making it certain that these +two planes can never wander far from each other. In the following +statement of the numerical elements of the entire system, Struve's +results are given for the satellites, while those of Lowell are adopted +for the position of the plane of the equator. + +The relations of the several planes can be best conceived by considering +the points at which lines perpendicular to them, or their poles, meet +the celestial sphere. By theory, the pole of the orbital plane of each +satellite revolves round the pole of a certain fixed plane, differing +less from the plane of the equator of Mars the nearer the satellite is +to Mars. Lowell from a combination of his own observations with those +of Schiaparelli, Lohse and Cerulli, found for the pole of the axis of +rotation of Mars[12]:-- + + R.A. = 317.5°; Dec. = +54.5°; Epoch, 1905. + +Tilt[13] of Martian Equator to Martian ecliptic, 23°. 59´. Hermann +Struve, from the observations of the satellites, found theoretically the +following positions of this pole, and of those of the fixed planes of +the satellite orbits for 1900:-- + + Pole of Mars: R.A. = 317.25° Dec. = 52.63° + Pole of fixed plane for Phobos = 317.24° = 52.64° + Pole of fixed plane for Deimos = 316.20° = 53.37° + +Lowell's position of the pole is that now adopted by the British +Nautical Almanac. + +The actual positions of the poles of the satellite--orbits revolve +around these poles of the two fixed planes in circles. Putting N for the +right-ascensions of their nodes on the plane of the terrestrial equator, +and J for their angular distance from the north terrestrial pole, N, and +J, for the corresponding poles of the fixed planes, and t for the time +in years after 1900, Struve's results are:-- + + Deimos. + + N1 = 46°.12´ + 0.463´ t; J =36°.42´ - 0.24´ t + (N - N1) sin J = 97.6´ sin (356.8° - 6.375° t) + J - J1 = 97.6 cos (356.8° - 6.375° t) + + Phobos. + + N1 = 47° 14.3´ + 0.46´ t; J1 = 37° 21.9´ - 0.24´ t + (N - N1) sin J = 53.1´ sin (257°.1´ - 158.0° t) + J - J1 = 53.1´ cos (257°1´ - 158.0 t) + +The other elements are:-- + + Deimos. Phobos. + + Mean long. 1894, Oct. o.o G.M.T 186.25° 296.13° + Mean daily motion (tropical) 285.16198° 1128.84396° + Mean distance ([Delta] = 1) 32.373´´ 12.938´´ + Long. of pericentre, ([pi] + N) 264° + 6.375°t 14° + 158.0°t + Eccentricity of orbit 0.0031 0.0217 + Epoch for t 1900.0 1900.0 + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Flammarion, _La Planète Mars et ses conditions + d'habitilité_ (Paris, 1892), embodies so copious a _résumé_ of all the + publications and drawings relating to Mars up to 1891 that there is + little occasion for reference in detail to early publications. Among + the principal sources may be mentioned the _Monthly Notices_ and + _Memoirs_ of the Royal Astronomical Society, the publications of the + Astronomical Society of the Pacific, especially vols. vi., viii. and + ix., containing observations and discussions by the Mt Hamilton + astronomers, and the journals, _Sidereal Messenger, Astronomy_ and + _Astrophysics_ and _Astrophysical Journal_. Schiaparelli's extended + memoirs appeared under the general title _Osservazioni astronomiche e + fisiche sull' asse di rotazione e sulla topografia del pianeta Marte_, + and were published in different volumes of the _Memoirs_ of the _Reale + Accademia dei Lincei_ of Rome. The observations and drawings of Lowell + are found _in extenso_ in _Annals_ of the Lowell Observatory. Lowell's + conclusions are summarized in _Mars and its Canals_, by Percival + Lowell (1906), and _Mars as the Abode of Life_ (1909). In connexion + with his work may be mentioned _Mars and its Mystery_, by Edward S. + Morse (Boston, 1906), the work of a naturalist who made studies of the + planet at the Lowell Observatory in 1905. Brief discussions and + notices will also be found in the Lowell Observatory _Bulletins_. The + optical principles involved in the interpretations of the canals are + discussed in recent volumes of the _Monthly Notices, R.A.S_., and in + the _Astrophysical Journal_. In 1907 the veteran A. R. Wallace + disputed Lowell's views vigorously in his _Is Mars Habitable?_ and was + briefly answered by Lowell in _Nature_, who contended that Wallace's + theory was not in accord with celestial mechanics. (S. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Astronomy and Astrophysics_, iii. 752, and _Astron. Soc. of the + Pacific, Publications_, vi. 273 and ix. 109. + + [2] According to Percival Lowell these results were, however, + inconclusive because the strong atmospheric lines lie redwards beyond + the part of the spectrum then possible to observe. Subsequently, by + experimenting with sensitizing dyes, Dr Slipher of the Lowell + Observatory succeeded in 1908 in photographing the spectrum far into + the red. Comparison spectrograms of Mars and the Moon, taken by him + at equal altitudes on such plates, eight in all, show the "a" band, + the great band of water-vapour was distinctly stronger in the + spectrum of Mars, thus affording what appeared decisive evidence of + water vapour in the atmosphere of the planet. + + [3] Lowell, _Mars and its Canals_, p. 101. + + [4] _Phil. Trans._, vol. 202 A, p. 525. + + [5] _Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences_, vol. xlii. No. 25. + + [6] Professor F. W. Very concurs with Lowell (_Phil. Mag._, 1908). + + [7] According to Lowell, the climatic conditions are proportionally + warm in summer. + + [8] The great space penetration of the Lowell Observatory is shown in + the case of stars. More stars have been mapped there in a given space + than at the Lick, and Mr Ritchey of the Yerkes Observatory found + stars easily visible there which were only just perceptible at + Yerkes. + + [9] As against this, Lowell's answer is that the effect is not + optical; for the belt surrounds the _melting_, not the _making_ cap. + + [10] For limits of this theory and Lowell's view of its + inapplicability to Mars, see _Astrophys. Jour._, Sept. 1907. + + [11] Prof. Lowell's theory is supported by so much evidence of + different kinds that his own exposition should be read _in extenso_ + in _Mars and its canals_ and _Mars as the abode of life_. In order, + however, that his views may be adequately presented here, he has + kindly supplied the following summary in his own words:-- + + "Owing to inadequate atmospheric advantages generally, much + misapprehension exists as to the definiteness with which the surface + of Mars is seen under good conditions. In steady air the canals are + perfectly distinct lines, not unlike the Fraunhofer ones of the + Spectrum, pencil lines or gossamer filaments according to size. All + the observers at Flagstaff concur in this. The photographs of them + taken there also confirm it up to the limit of their ability. Careful + experiments by the same observers on artificial lines show that if + the canals had breaks amounting to 16 m. across, such breaks would be + visible. None are; while the lines themselves are thousands of miles + long and perfectly straight (_Astrophys. Journ._, Sept. 1907). + Between expert observers representing the planet at the same epoch + the accordance is striking; differences in drawings are differences + of time and are due to seasonal and secular changes in the planet + itself. These seasonal changes have been carefully followed at + Flagstaff, and the law governing them detected. They are found to + depend upon the melting of the polar caps. After the melting is under + way the canals next the cap proceed to darken, and the darkening + thence progresses regularly down the latitudes. Twice this happens + every Martian year, first from one cap and then six Martian months + later from the other. The action reminds one of the quickening of the + Nile valley after the melting of the snows in Abyssinia; only with + planet-wide rhythm. Some of the canals are paired. The phenomenon is + peculiar to certain canals, for only about one-tenth of the whole + number, 56 out of 585, ever show double and these do so regularly. + Each double has its special width; this width between the pair being + 400 m. in some cases, only 75 in others. Careful plotting has + disclosed the fact that the doubles cluster round the planet's + equator, rarely pass 40° Lat., and never occur at the poles, though + the planet's axial tilt reveals all its latitudes to us in turn. They + are thus features of those latitudes where the surface is greatest + compared with the area of the polar cap, which is suggestive. Space + precludes mention of many other equally striking peculiarities of the + canals' positioning and development. At the junctions of the canals + are small, dark round spots, which also wax and wane with the + seasons. These facts and a host of others of like significance have + led Lowell to the conclusion that the whole canal system is of + artificial origin, first because of each appearance and secondly + because of the laws governing its development. Every opposition has + added to the assurance that the canals are artificial; both by + disclosing their peculiarities better and better and by removing + generic doubts as to the planet's habitability. The warmer + temperature disclosed from Lowell's investigation on the subject, and + the spectrographic detection by Slipher of water-vapour in the + Martian air, are among the latest of these confirmations."--[ED.] + + [12] _Bulletin Lowell Obsy., Monthly Notices, R.A.S._ (1905), 66, p. + 51. + + [13] _St Petersburg Memoirs_, series viii., Phys. Mars-classe, vol. + viii. + + + + +MARSALA, a seaport of Sicily, in the province of Trapani, 19 m. by rail +S. of Trapani. Pop. (1881), 19,732; (1901), 57,567. The low coast on +which it is situated is the westernmost point of the island. The town is +the seat of a bishop, and the cathedral contains 16 grey marble columns, +which are said to have been intended for Canterbury Cathedral in +England, the vessel conveying them having been wrecked here. The town +owes its importance mainly to the trade in Marsala wine. + +Marsala occupies the site of _Lilybaeum_, the principal stronghold of +the Carthaginians in Sicily, founded by Himilco after the abandonment of +_Motya_. Neither Pyrrhus nor the Romans were able to reduce it by siege, +but it was surrendered to the latter in 241 B.C. at the end of the First +Punic War. In the later wars it was a starting point for the Roman +expeditions against Carthage; and under Roman rule it enjoyed +considerable prosperity (_C.I.L._ x. p. 742). It obtained municipal +rights from Augustus and became a colony under Pertinax or Septimus +Severus. The Saracens gave it its present name, _Marsa Ali_, port of +Ali. The harbour, which lay on the north-east, was destroyed by Charles +V. to prevent its occupation by pirates. The modern harbour lies to the +south-east. In 1860 Garibaldi landed at Marsala with 1000 men and began +his campaign in Sicily. Scanty remains of the ancient _Lilybaeum_ +(fragments of the city walls, of squared stones, and some foundations of +buildings between the walls and the sea) are visible; and the so-called +grotto and spring of the Sibyl may be mentioned. To the east of the town +is a great fosse which defended it on the land side, and beyond this +again are quarries like those of Syracuse on a small scale. The modern +town takes the shape of the Roman camp within the earlier city, one of +the gates of which still existed in 1887. The main street (the Cassaro) +perpetuates the name _castrum_. + + + + +MARSDEN, WILLIAM (1754-1836), English orientalist, the son of a Dublin +merchant, was born at Verval, Co. Wicklow on the 16th of November 1754. +He was educated in Dublin, and having obtained an appointment in the +civil service of the East India Company arrived at Benkulen, Sumatra, in +1771. There he soon rose to the office of principal secretary to the +government, and acquired a knowledge of the Malay language and country. +Returning to England in 1779 with a pension, he wrote his _History of +Sumatra_, published in 1783. Marsden was appointed in 1795 second +secretary and afterwards first secretary to the admiralty. In 1807 he +retired and published in 1812 his _Grammar and Dictionary of the Malay +Language_, and in 1818 his translation of the _Travels of Marco Polo_. +He was a member of many learned societies, and treasurer and +vice-president of the Royal Society. In 1834 he presented his collection +of oriental coins to the British Museum, and his library of books and +Oriental MSS. to King's College, London. He died on the 6th of October +1836. + + Marsden's other works are: _Numismata orientalia_ (London, 1823-1825); + _Catalogue of Dictionaries, Vocabularies, Grammars and Alphabets_ + (1796); and several papers on Eastern topics in the _Philosophical + Transactions_ and the _Archaelogia_. + + + + +MARSEILLES, a city of southern France, chief seaport of France and of +the Mediterranean, 219 m. S. by E. of Lyons and 534 m. S.S.E. of Paris, +by the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway. Pop. (1906), commune 517,498; +town 421,116. Marseilles is situated on the Golfe du Lion on the eastern +shore of a bay protected to the south by Cape Croisette but open towards +the west; to the east the horizon is bounded by an amphitheatre of +hills, those in the foreground clothed with vegetation while the more +distant eminences are bare and rugged. The city is built on undulating +ground and the south-western and most aristocratic quarter covers the +slopes of the ridge crowned by a fort and the church of Notre-Dame de la +Garde and projecting westward into the bay to form a protection for the +harbour. The newest and most pleasant portion lies on the south-eastern +slope of the ridge, between the southern end of the Rue Paradis and the +Prado avenues, which is better protected than most other quarters from +the mistral that blows down the Rhone valley, and where in summer the +temperature is always a little lower than in the centre of the town. The +old harbour of Marseilles opens on the west to the Golfe du Lion, the +famous Rue Cannebière[1] prolonged by the Rue Noailles leading E.N.E. +from its inner end. These two streets are the centre of the life of the +city. Continued in the Allées de Meilhan and the Boulevard de la +Madeleine, they form one of its main arteries. The other, at right +angles with the first, connects the Place d'Aix with the spacious and +fashionable Promenade du Prado, by way of the Cours Belsunce and the Rue +de Rome. Other fine streets--the Rue St Ferréol, the Rue Paradis and the +Rue Breteuil are to the south of the Cannebière running parallel with +the Rue de Rome. To these must be added the neighbouring avenue of +Pierre Puget named after the sculptor whose statue stands in the Borély +Park. The Prado, with its avenues of trees and fine houses, runs to +within a quarter of a mile of the Huveaune, a stream that borders the +city on the south-east, then turns off at right angles and extends to +the sea, coming to an end close to the Borély Park and the race-course. +From its extremity the Chemin de la Corniche runs northwards along the +coast, fringed by villas and bathing establishments, to the Anse des +Catalans, a distance of 4½ miles. + +The old town of Marseilles is bounded W. by the Joliette basin and the +sea, E. by the Cours Belsunce, S. by the northern quay of the old port, +and N. by the Boulevard des Dames. It consists of a labyrinth of steep, +dark and narrow streets inhabited by a seafaring population. Through its +centre runs the broad Rue de la République, extending from the +Cannebière to the Place de la Joliette. The entrance to the old harbour +is defended by Fort St Jean on the north and Fort St Nicolas on the +south. Behind the latter is the Anse (Creek) de la Réserve. Beyond this +again, situated in succession along the shore, come the Château du +Pharo, given by the empress Eugénie to the town, the Anse du Pharo, the +military exercising ground, and the Anse des Catalans. To the old +harbour, which covers only 70 acres with a mean depth of 19½ ft. and is +now used by sailing vessels, the basin of La Joliette (55 acres) with an +entrance harbour was added in 1853. Communicating with the old harbour +by a channel which passes behind Fort St Jean, this dock opens on the +south into the outer harbour, opposite the palace and the Anse du Pharo. +A series of similar basins separated from the roadstead by a jetty 2½ m. +long was subsequently added along the shore to the north, viz. the +basins of Lazaret and Arenc, bordered by the harbour railway station and +the extensive warehouses of the Compagnie des Docks et Entrepôts, the +Bassin de la Gare Maritime with the warehouses of the chamber of +commerce; the Bassin National with the refitting basin, comprising six +dry docks behind it; and the Bassin de la Pinède entered from the +northern outer harbour. These new docks have a water area of 414 acres +and over 11 m. of quays, and are commodious and deep enough for the +largest vessels to manoeuvre easily. + +In the roads to the south-west of the port lie the islands of Ratonneau +and Pomègue, united by a jetty forming a quarantine port. Between them +and the mainland is the islet of Château d'If, in which the scene of +part of Dumas' _Monte Cristo_ is laid. + +Marseilles possesses few remains of either the Greek or Roman periods of +occupation, and is poor in medieval buildings. The old cathedral of la +Major (Sainte-Marie-Majeure), dating chiefly from the 12th century and +built on the ruins of a temple of Diana, is in bad preservation. The +chapel of St Lazare (late 15th century) in the left aisle is in the +earliest Renaissance style, and a bas-relief of white porcelain by Lucca +della Robbia is of artistic value. Beside this church and alongside the +Joliette basin is a modern building begun in 1852, opened for worship in +1893 and recognized as the finest modern cathedral in France. It is a +Byzantine basilica, in the form of a Latin cross, 460 ft. long, built in +green Florentine stone blended with white stone from the neighbourhood +of Arles. The four towers which surmount it--two at the west front, one +over the crossing, one at the east end--are roofed with cupolas. Near +the cathedral stands the bishop's palace, and the Place de la Major, +which they overlook, is embellished with the statue of Bishop Belsunce, +who displayed great devotion during the plague of 1720-1721. The +celebrated Notre-Dame de la Garde, the steeple of which, surmounted by a +gilded statue of the Virgin, 30 ft. in height, rises 150 ft. above the +summit of the hill on which it stands, commands a view of the whole port +and town, as well as of the surrounding mountains and the neighbouring +sea. The present chapel is modern and occupies the site of one built in +1214. + +On the south side of the old harbour near the Fort St Nicolas stands the +church of St Victor, built in the 13th century and once attached to an +abbey founded early in the 4th century. With its lofty crenellated walls +and square towers built of large blocks of uncemented stone, it +resembles a fortress. St Victor is built above crypts dating mainly +from the 11th century but also embodying architecture of the Carolingian +period and of the early centuries of the Christian era. Tradition +relates that St Lazarus inhabited the catacombs under St Victor; and the +black image of the Virgin, still preserved there, is popularly +attributed to St Luke. The spire, which is the only relic of the ancient +church of Accoules, marks the centre of Old Marseilles. At its foot are +a "calvary" and a curious underground chapel in rock work, both modern. +Notre-Dame du Mont Carmel, also in the old town, occupies the place of +what was the citadel of the Massaliots when they were besieged by Julius +Caesar. + +Of the civil buildings of the city, the prefecture, one of the finest in +France, the Palais de Justice, in front of which is the statue of the +advocate Antoine Berryer (1790-1868) and the Exchange, all date from the +latter half of the 19th century. The Exchange, built at the expense of +the Chamber of Commerce, includes the spacious hall of that institution +with its fine mural paintings and gilding. The hôtel-de-ville (17th +century) stands on the northern quay of the old harbour. All these +buildings are surpassed by the Palais Longchamp (1862-1870), situated in +the north-east of the town at the end of the Boulevard Longchamp. The +centre of the building is occupied by a monumental _château d'eau_ +(reservoir). Colonnades branch off from this, uniting it on the left to +the picture gallery, with a fine collection of ancient and modern works, +and on the right to the natural history museum, remarkable for its +conchological department and collection of ammonites. In front are +ornamental grounds; behind are extensive zoological gardens, with the +astronomical observatory. The museum of antiquities is established in +the Château Borély (1766-1778) in a fine park at the end of the Prado. +It includes a Phoenician collection (containing the remains that support +the hypothesis of the Phoenician origin of Marseilles), an Egyptian +collection, numerous Greek, Latin, and Christian inscriptions in stone, +&c. A special building within the city contains the school of art with a +valuable library and a collection of medals and coins annexed to it. The +city also has a colonial museum and a laboratory of marine zoology. The +triumphal arch of Aix, originally dedicated to the victors of the +Trocadéro, was in 1830 appropriated to the conquests of the empire. + +The canal de Marseille, constructed from 1837 to 1848, which has +metamorphosed the town and its arid surroundings by bringing to them the +waters of the Durance, leaves the river opposite Pertuis. It has a +length of 97 miles (including its four main branches) of which 13 are +underground, and irrigates some 7500 acres. After crossing the valley of +the Arc, between Aix and Rognac, by the magnificent aqueduct of +Roquefavour, it purifies its waters, charged with ooze, in the basins of +Réaltort. It draws about 2200 gallons of water per second from the +Durance, supplies 2450 horse-power to works in the vicinity of +Marseilles, and ensures a good water-supply and efficient sanitation to +the city. + +Marseilles is the headquarters of the XV. army corps and the seat of a +bishop and a prefect. It has tribunals of first instance and of +commerce, a chamber of commerce, a board of trade arbitration, and a +branch of the Bank of France. The educational institutions include a +faculty of science, a school of medicine and pharmacy, and a faculty +(_faculté libre_) of law, these three forming part of the university of +Aix-Marseille; lycées for boys and girls, a conservatoire of music, a +school of fine art, a higher school of commerce, a school for ships' +boys, a school of navigation and industrial schools for both sexes. + + _Trade and Industry._--Marseilles is the western emporium for the + Levant trade and the French gate of the Far East. It suffers, however, + from the competition of Genoa, which is linked with the Rhine basin by + the Simplon and St Gotthard railway routes, and from lack of + communication with the inland waterways of France. In January 1902 the + chamber of deputies voted £3,656,000 for the construction of a canal + from Marseilles to the Rhone at Arles. This scheme was designed to + overcome the difficulties of egress from the Rhone and to make the + city the natural outlet of the rich Rhone basin. Much of the activity + of the port is due to the demand for raw material created by the + industries of Marseilles itself. The imports include raw silk, sesame, + ground-nuts and other oil-producing fruits and seeds largely used in + the soap manufacture, cereals and flour, wool, hides and skins, olive + and other oils, raw cotton, sheep and other livestock, woven goods, + table fruit, wine, potatoes and dry vegetables, lead, cocoon silk, + coffee, coal, timber. The total value of imports was £64,189,000 in + 1907, an increase of £18,000,000 in the preceding decade. The exports, + of which the total value was £52,901,000 (an increase of £21,000,000 + in the decade) included cotton fabrics, silk fabrics, cereals and + flour, hides and skins, wool fabrics, worked skins, olive and other + oils, chemical products, wine, refined sugar, raw cotton, wool, coal, + building-material, machinery and pottery. + + The port is the centre for numerous lines of steamers, of which the + chief are the Messageries Maritimes, which ply to the eastern + Mediterranean, the east coast of Africa, Australia, India, Indo-China, + Havre and London, and the Compagnie Générale Transatlantique, whose + vessels run to Algiers, Tunis, Malta, Corsica, Morocco and the + Antilles. In addition many important foreign lines call at the port, + among them being the P. and O., the Orient, the North German Lloyd, + and the German East Africa lines. + + Marseilles has five chief railway stations, two of which serve the new + harbours, while one is alongside the old port; the city is on the main + line of the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway from the Riviera and + Toulon to Paris via Arles, Avignon and Lyons, another less important + line connecting it with Aix. + + Soap-making, introduced in antiquity from Savona and Genoa, is carried + on in upwards of fifty factories. These utilize the products of the + oil-distilleries and of the chemical works, the latter being also an + important adjunct to the manufacture of candles, another leading + industry. A large quantity of iron, copper and other ores is smelted + in the blast-furnaces of Saint Louis in the vicinity and in other + foundries, and the Mediterranean Engineering Company and other + companies have large workshops for the construction or repair of + marine steam-engines and every branch of iron shipbuilding. To these + industries must be added flour-milling, the manufacture of semolina + and other farinaceous foods and of biscuits, bricks and tiles, rope, + casks, capsules for bottles and other tin-goods, tanning, distilling, + brewing and sulphur- and sugar-refining. There are state tobacco and + match factories. + +_History._--The Greek colony of Massalia (Lat. _Massilia_) was founded +by the mariners of Phocaea in Asia Minor, about 600 B.C. The settlement +of the Greeks in waters which the Carthaginians reserved for their own +commerce was not effected without a naval conflict; it is not improbable +that the Phoenicians were settled at Marseilles before the Greek period, +and that the name of the town is the Phoenician for "settlement." +Whether the judges (_sophetim_, "suffetes") of the Phoenician +sacrificial tablet of Marseilles were the rulers of a city existing +before the advent of the Phocaeans, or were consuls for Punic residents +in the Greek period, is disputed. In 542 B.C. the fall of the Phocaean +cities before the Persians probably sent new settlers to the Ligurian +coast and cut off the remote city of Massalia from close connexion with +the mother country. Isolated amid alien populations, the Massaliots made +their way by prudence in dealing with the inland tribes, by vigilant +administration of their oligarchical government, and by frugality united +to remarkable commercial and naval enterprise. Their colonies spread +east and west along the coast from Monaco to Cape St Martin in Spain, +carrying with them the worship of Artemis; the inland trade, in which +wine was an important element, can be traced by finds of Massalian coins +across Gaul and through the Alps as far as Tirol. In the 4th century +B.C. the Massaliot Pytheas visited the coasts of Gaul, Britain and +Germany, and Euthymenes is said to have sailed down the west coast of +Africa as far as Senegal. The great rival of Massalian trade was +Carthage, and in the Punic Wars the city took the side of Rome, and was +rewarded by Roman assistance in the subjugation of the native tribes of +Liguria. In the war between Caesar and Pompey Massilia took Pompey's +side and in A.D. 49 offered a vain resistance to Caesar's lieutenant +Trebonius. In memory of its ancient services the city, "without which," +as Cicero says, "Rome had never triumphed over the Transalpine nations," +was left as a _civitas libera_, but her power was broken and most of her +dependencies taken from her. From this time Massilia has little place in +Roman history; it became for a time an important school of letters and +medicine, but its commercial and intellectual importance declined. The +town appears to have been christianized before the end of the 3rd +century, and at the beginning of the 4th century was the scene of the +martyrdom of St Victor. Its reputation partly revived through the names +of Gennadius and Cassian, which give it prominence in the history of +Semi-Pelagianism and the foundation of western monachism. + +After the ravages of successive invaders, Marseilles was repeopled in +the 10th century under the protection of its viscounts. The town +gradually bought up their rights, and at the beginning of the 13th +century was formed into a republic, governed by a _podestat_, who was +appointed for life, and exercised his office in conjunction with 3 +notables, and a municipal council, composed of 80 citizens, 3 clerics, +and 6 principal tradesmen. During the rest of the middle ages, however, +the higher town was governed by the bishop, and had its harbour at the +creek of La Joliette which at that period ran inland to the north of the +old town. The southern suburb was governed by the abbot of St Victor, +and owned the Port des Catalans. Situated between the two, the lower +town, the republic, retained the old harbour, and was the most powerful +of the three divisions. The period of the crusades brought prosperity to +Marseilles, though throughout the middle ages it suffered from the +competition of Pisa, Genoa and Venice. In 1245 and 1256 Charles of +Anjou, count of Provence, whose predecessors had left the citizens a +large measure of independence, established his authority above that of +the republic. In 1423 Alphonso V. of Aragon sacked the town. King René, +who had made it his winter residence, however, caused trade, arts and +manufactures again to flourish. On the embodiment of Provence in the +kingdom of France in 1481, Marseilles preserved a separate +administration directed by royal officials. Under Francis I. the +disaffected constable Charles de Bourbon vainly besieged the town with +the imperial forces in 1524. During the wars of religion, Marseilles +took part against the Protestants, and long refused to acknowledge Henry +IV. The loss of the ancient liberties of the town brought new +disturbances under the Fronde, which Louis XIV. came in person to +suppress. He entered the town by a breach in the walls and afterwards +had Fort St Nicolas constructed. Marseilles repeatedly suffered from the +plague, notably from May 1720 to May 1721. + +During the Revolution the people rose against the aristocracy, who up to +that time had governed the commune. In the Terror they rebelled against +the Convention, but were promptly subdued by General Carteaux. The wars +of the empire, by dealing a blow to their maritime commerce, excited the +hatred of the inhabitants against Napoleon, and they hailed the return +of the Bourbons and the defeat of Waterloo. The news of the latter +provoked a bloody reaction in the town against those suspected of +imperialism. The prosperity of the city received a considerable impulse +from the conquest of Algeria and from the opening of the Suez Canal. + + See P. Castanier, _Histoire de la Provence dans l'antiquité_, vol. ii. + (Paris, 1896); E. Caman, _Marseille au XX^me siècle_ (Paris, 1905); P. + Joanne, _Marseille et ses environs_. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] From the Latin _cannabis_, Provençal _cannèbe_, "hemp," in + allusion to the rope-walks formerly occupying its site. + + + + +MARSH, ADAM (ADAM DE MARISCO) (d. c. 1258), English Franciscan, scholar +and theologian, was born about 1200 in the diocese of Bath, and educated +at Oxford under the famous Grosseteste. Before 1226 Adam received the +benefice of Wearmouth from his uncle, Richard Marsh, bishop of Durham; +but between that year and 1230 he entered the Franciscan order. About +1238 he became the lecturer of the Franciscan house at Oxford, and +within a few years was regarded by the English province of that order as +an intellectual and spiritual leader. Roger Bacon, his pupil, speaks +highly of his attainments in theology and mathematics. His fame, +however, rests upon the influence which he exercised over the statesmen +of his day. Consulted as a friend by Grosseteste, as a spiritual +director by Simon de Montfort, the countess of Leicester and the queen, +as an expert lawyer and theologian by the primate, Boniface of Savoy, he +did much to guide the policy both of the opposition and of the court +party in all matters affecting the interests of the Church. He shrank +from office, and never became provincial minister of the English +Franciscans, though constantly charged with responsible commissions. +Henry III. and Archbishop Boniface unsuccessfully endeavoured to secure +for him the see of Ely in 1256. In 1257 Adam's health was failing, and +he appears to have died in the following year. To judge from his +correspondence he took no interest in secular politics. He sympathized +with Montfort as with a friend of the Church and an unjustly treated +man; but on the eve of the baronial revolution he was on friendly terms +with the king. Faithful to the traditions of his order, he made it his +ambition to be a mediator. He rebuked both parties in the state for +their shortcomings, but he did not break with either. + + See his correspondence, with J. S. Brewer's introduction, in + _Monumenta franciscana_, vol. i. (Rolls ser., 1858); the biographical + notice in A. G. Little's Grey _Friars in Oxford_ (Oxford, 1892), where + all the references are collected. On Marsh's relations with + Grosseteste, see _Roberti Grosseteste epistolae_, ed. H. R. Luard + (Rolls ed., 1861), and F. S. Stevenson, _Robert Grosseteste_ (London, + 1809). (H. W. C. D.) + + + + +MARSH, GEORGE PERKINS (1801-1882), American diplomatist and philologist, +was born at Woodstock, Vermont, on the 15th of March 1801. He graduated +at Dartmouth College in 1820, was admitted to the bar in 1825, and +practised law at Burlington, Vermont, devoting himself also with ardour +to philological studies. In 1835 he was a member of the Supreme +Executive Council of Vermont, and from 1843 to 1849 a Whig +representative in Congress. In 1849 he was appointed United States +minister resident in Turkey, and in 1852-1853 discharged a mission to +Greece in connexion with the imprisonment by the authorities of that +country of an American missionary, Dr Jonas King (1792-1869). He +returned to Vermont in 1854, and in 1857 was a member of the state +railway commission. In 1861 he became the first United States minister +to the kingdom of Italy, and died in that office at Vallombrosa on the +23rd of July 1882. He was buried in a Protestant cemetery in Rome. Marsh +was an able linguist, writing and speaking with ease the Scandinavian +and half a dozen other European languages, a remarkable philologist for +his day, and a scholar of great breadth, knowing much of military +science, engraving and physics, as well as of Icelandic, which was his +specialty. He wrote many articles for Johnson's _Universal Cyclopaedia_, +and contributed many reviews and letters to the _Nation_. His chief +published works are: _A Compendious Grammar of the Old Northern or +Icelandic Language_ (1838), compiled and translated from the grammars of +Rask; _The Camel, his Organization, Habits, and Uses, with Reference to +his Introduction into the United States_ (1856); _Lectures on the +English Language_ (1860); _The Origin and History of the English +Language_ (1862; revised ed., 1885); and _Man and Nature_ (1865). The +last-named work was translated into Italian in 1872, and, largely +rewritten, was issued in 1874 under the title _The Earth as Modified by +Human Action_; a revised edition was published in 1885. He also +published a work on _Mediaeval and Modern Saints and Miracles_ (1876). +His valuable library was presented in 1883 by Frederick Billings to the +university of Vermont. His second wife, CAROLINE (CRANE) MARSH +(1816-1901), whom he married in 1839, published _Wolfe of the Knoll and +other Poems_ (1860), and the _Life and Letters of George Perkins Marsh_ +(New York, 1888). This last work was left incomplete, the second volume +never having been published. She also translated from the German of +Johann C. Biernatzki (1795-1840), _The Hallig; or the Sheepfold in the +Waters_ (1856). + + + + +MARSH, HERBERT (1757-1839), English divine, was born at Faversham, Kent, +on the 10th of December 1757, and was educated at St John's College, +Cambridge, where he was elected fellow in 1782, having been second +wrangler and second Smith's prizeman. For some years he studied at +Leipzig, and between 1793 and 1801 published in four volumes a +translation of J. D. Michaelis's _Introduction to the New Testament_, +with notes of his own, in which he may be said to have introduced German +methods of research into English biblical scholarship. His _History of +the Politics of Great Britain and France_ (1799) brought him much notice +and a pension from William Pitt. In 1807 he was appointed Lady Margaret +professor of divinity at Cambridge, and lectured to large audiences on +biblical criticism, substituting English for the traditional Latin. Both +here, and afterwards as bishop of Llandaff (1816) and of Peterborough +(1819), he stoutly opposed hymn-singing, Calvinism, Roman Catholicism, +and the Evangelical movement as represented by Charles Simeon and the +Bible Society. Among his writings are _Lectures on the Criticism and +Interpretation of the Bible_ (1828), _A Comparative View of the Churches +of England and Rome_ (1814), and _Horae Pelasgicae_ (1815). He died at +Peterborough on the 1st of May 1839. + + + + +MARSH, NARCISSUS (1638-1713), archbishop of Dublin and Armagh, was born +at Hannington, Wiltshire, and educated at Oxford. He became a fellow of +Exeter College, Oxford, in 1658. In 1662 he was ordained, and presented +to the living of Swindon, which he resigned in the following year. After +acting as chaplain to Seth Ward, bishop of Exeter and Salisbury, and +Lord Chancellor Clarendon, he was elected principal of St Alban Hall, +Oxford, in 1673. In 1679 he was appointed provost of Trinity College, +Dublin, where he did much to encourage the study of the Irish language. +He helped to found the Royal Dublin Society, and contributed to it a +paper entitled "Introductory Essay to the Doctrine of Sounds" (printed +in _Philosophical Transactions_, No. 156, Oxford, 1684). In 1683 he was +consecrated bishop of Ferns and Leighlin, but after the accession of +James II. he was compelled by the turbulent soldiery to flee to England +(1689), where he became vicar of Gresford, Flint, and canon of St Asaph. +Returning to Ireland in 1691 after the battle of the Boyne, he was made +archbishop of Cashel, and three years later he became archbishop of +Dublin. About this time he founded the Marsh Library in Dublin. He +became archbishop of Armagh in 1703. Between 1699 and 1711 he was six +times a lord justice of Ireland. He died on the 2nd of November 1713. + + + + +MARSH, OTHNIEL CHARLES (1831-1899), American palaeontologist, was born +in Lockport, New York, on the 29th of October 1831. He graduated at Yale +College in 1860, and studied geology and mineralogy in the Sheffield +scientific school, New Haven, and afterwards palaeontology and anatomy +in Berlin, Heidelberg and Breslau. Returning to America in 1866 he was +appointed professor of vertebrate palaeontology at Yale College, and +there began the researches of the fossil vertebrata of the western +states, whereby he established his reputation. He was aided by a private +fortune from his uncle, George Peabody, whom he induced to establish the +Peabody Museum of Natural History (especially devoted to zoology, +geology and mineralogy) in the college. In May 1871 he discovered the +first pterodactyl remains found in America, and in subsequent years he +brought to light from Wyoming and other regions many new genera and +families, and some entirely new orders of extinct vertebrata, which he +described in monographs or periodical articles. These included remains +of the Cretaceous toothed birds _Hesperornis_ and _Ichthyornis_, the +Cretaceous flying-reptiles (_Pteranodon_), the swimming reptiles or +Mosasauria, and the Cretaceous and Jurassic land reptiles (_Dinosauria_) +among which were the _Brontosaurus_ and _Atlantosaurus_. The remarkable +mammals which he termed Brontotheria (now grouped as Titanotheriidae), +and the huge Dinocerata, one being the _Uintatherium_, were also brought +to light by him. Among his later discoveries were remains of early +ancestors of horses in America. On becoming vice-president of the +American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1875 he gave an +address on the "Introduction and Succession of Vertebrate Life in +America," summarizing his conclusions to that date. He repeatedly +organized and often accompanied scientific exploring expeditions in the +Rocky Mountains, and their results tended in an important degree to +support the doctrines of natural selection and evolution. He published +many papers on these, and found time--besides that necessarily given to +the accumulation and care of the most extensive collection of fossils in +the world--to write _Odontornithes: A Monograph on the Extinct Toothed +Birds of North America_ (1880); _Dinocerata: A Monograph on an Extinct +Order of Gigantic Mammals_ (1884); and _The Dinosaurs of North America_ +(1896). His work is full of accurately recorded facts of permanent +value. He was long in charge of the division of vertebrate palaeontology +in the United States Geological Survey, and received many scientific +honours, medals and degrees, American and foreign. He died in New Haven +on the 18th of March 1899. + + See obituary by Dr Henry Woodward (with portrait) in _Geol. Mag._ + (1899), p. 237. + + + + +MARSH (O. F. _mersc_, for _merisc_, a place full of "meres" or pools; +cf. Ger. _Meer_, sea, Lat. _mare_), an area of low-lying watery land. +The significance of a marsh area is not so much in the manner of its +formation as in the peculiar chemical and physical results that +accompany it, and its relation to the ecology of plant and animal life. +Chemically it is productive of such gases as arise from decomposing +vegetation and are transitory in their effects, and in the production of +hydrated iron oxide, which may be seen floating as an iridescent scum at +the edge of rusty, marshy pools. This sinks into the soil and forms a +powerful iron cement to many sandstones, binding them into a hard local +mass, while the surrounding sandstones are loose and friable. A curious +morphological inversion follows in a later geological period, the marsh +area forming the hard cap of a hill (see MESA) while the surrounding +sandstones are weathered away. Salt marshes are a feature of many +low-lying sea-coasts and areas of inland drainage. + + + + +MARSHAL (med. Lat. _marescalcus_, from O.H.Ger. _marah_, horse, and +_scalc_, servant), a title given in various countries to certain +military and civil officers, usually of high rank. The origin and +development of the meaning of the designation is closely analogous with +that of constable (q.v.). Just as the title of constable, in all its +medieval and modern uses, is traceable to the style and functions of the +Byzantine count of the stable, so that of marshal was evolved from the +title of the _marescalci_, or masters of the horse, of the early +Frankish kings. In this original sense the word survived down to the +close of the Holy Roman empire in the titular office of _Erz-Marschalk_ +(arch-marshal), borne by the electors of Saxony. Elsewhere the meaning +of office and title was modified. The importance of cavalry in medieval +warfare led to the marshalship being associated with military command; +this again led to the duty of keeping order in court and camp, of +deciding questions of chivalry, and to the assumption of judicial and +executive functions. The marshal, as a military leader, was originally a +subordinate officer, the chief command under the king being held by the +constable; but in the 12th century, though still nominally second to the +constable, the marshal has come to the forefront as commander of the +royal forces and a great officer of state. In England after the Conquest +the marshalship was hereditary in the family which derived its surname +from the office, and the hereditary title of earl-marshal originated in +the marriage of William Marshal with the heiress of the earldom of +Pembroke (see EARL MARSHAL). Similarly, in Scotland, the office of +marischal (from the French _maréchal_), probably introduced under David +I., became in the 14th century hereditary in the house of Keith. In 1485 +the Scottish marischal became an earl under the designation of +earl-marischal, the dignity coming to an end by the attainder of George, +10th earl-marischal, in 1716. In France, on the other hand, though under +Philip Augustus the marshal of France (_marescalcus Franciae_) appears +as commander-in-chief of the forces, care was taken not to allow the +office to become descendible; under Francis I. the number of marshals of +France was raised to two, under Henry III. to four, and under Louis XIV. +to twenty. Revived by Napoleon, the title fell into abeyance with the +downfall of the Second empire. + +In England the use of the word marshal in the sense of commander of an +army appears very early; so Matthew Paris records that in 1214 King John +constituted William, earl of Salisbury, _marescalcus_ of his forces. The +modern military title of field marshal, imported from Germany by King +George II. in 1736, is derived from the high dignity of the +_marescalcus_ in a roundabout way. The _marescalcus campi_, or _maréchal +des champs_, was originally one of a number of officials to whom the +name, with certain of the functions, of the marshal was given. The +marshal, being responsible for order in court and camp, had to employ +subordinates, who developed into officials often but nominally dependent +upon him. On military expeditions it was usual for two such marshals to +precede the army, select the site of the camp and assign to the lords +and knights their places in it. In time of peace they preceded the king +on a journey and arranged for his lodging and maintenance. In France +_maréchal des logis_ is the title of superior non-commissioned officers +in the cavalry. + +Similarly at the king's court the _marescalcus aulae_ or _intrinsecus_ +was responsible for order, the admission or exclusion of those seeking +access, ceremonial arrangements, &c. Such "marshals" were maintained, +not only by the king, but by great lords and ecclesiastics. The more +dignified of their functions, together with the title, survive in the +various German courts, where the court marshal (_Hofmarschall_) is +equivalent to the English lord chamberlain. Just as the _marescalcus +intrinsecus_ acted as the vicar of the marshal for duties "within" the +court, so the _marescalcus forinsecus_ was deputed to perform those acts +of serjeanty due from the marshal to the Crown "without." Similarly +there appears in the statute 5 Edw. III. cap. 8, a _marescalcus banci +regii_ (_maréchal du Banc du Roy_), or marshal of the king's bench, who +presided over the Marshalsea Court, and was responsible for the safe +custody of prisoners, who were bestowed in the _mareschalcia_, or +Marshalsea prison. The office of marshal of the queen's bench survived +till 1849 (see LORD STEWARD; and MARSHALSEA). The official known as a +judge's marshal, whose office is of considerable antiquity, and whose +duties consisted of making abstracts of indictments and pleadings for +the use of the judge, still survives, but no longer exercises the above +functions. He accompanies a judge of assize on circuit and is appointed +by him at the beginning of each circuit. His travelling and other +expenses are paid by the judge, and he receives an allowance of two +guineas a day, which is paid through the Treasury. He introduces the +high sheriff of the county to the judge of assize on his arrival, and +swears in the grand jury. For the French _maréchaussée_ see FRANCE: § +_Law and Institutions_. + +In the sense of executive legal officer the title marshal survives in +the United States of America in two senses. The United States marshal is +the executive officer of the Federal courts, one being appointed for +each district, or exceptionally, one for two districts. His duties are +to open and close the sessions of the district and circuit courts, serve +warrants, and execute throughout the district the orders of the court. +There are United States marshals also in Alaska, Hawaii, Porto Rico and +the Philippines. They are appointed by the President, with the advice +and consent of the Senate, for a term of four years, and, besides their +duties in connexion with the courts, are employed in the service of the +internal revenue, public lands, post office, &c. The temporary police +sworn in to maintain order in times of disturbance, known in England as +special constables, are also termed marshals in the United States. In +some of the southern and western states of the Union the title marshal +has sunk to that of the village policeman, as distinct from the county +officers known as sheriffs and those of the justices' courts called +constables. + +In England the title of marshal, as applied to an executive officer, +survives only in the army, where the provost marshal is chief of the +military police in large garrisons and in field forces. Office and title +were borrowed from the French _prévot des maréchaux_, the modern +equivalent of the medieval _praepositus marescalcorum_ or _guerrarum_. + + + + +MARSHALL, ALFRED (1842- ), English economist, was born in London on +the 26th of July 1842. He was educated at the Merchant Taylors' School +and St John's College, Cambridge, being second wrangler in 1865, and in +the same year becoming fellow of his college. He became principal of +University College, Bristol, in 1877, and was lecturer and fellow of +Balliol College, Oxford in 1883-1884. He was professor of political +economy at Cambridge University from 1885 to 1908, and was a member of +the Royal Commission on Labour in 1891. He became a fellow of the +British Academy in 1902. He wrote (in conjunction with his wife) +_Economics of Industry_ (1879), whilst his _Principles of Economics_ +(1st ed., 1890) is a standard English treatise. + + + + +MARSHALL, JOHN (1755-1835), American jurist, chief-justice of the U.S. +Supreme Court, was born on the 24th of September 1755 at Germantown (now +Midland), in what four years later became Fauquier county, Virginia. He +was of English descent, the son of Thomas Marshall (1732-1806) and his +wife Mary Isham Keith. Marshall served first as lieutenant and after +July 1778 as captain in the Continental Army during the War of +Independence. He resigned his commission early in 1781; was admitted to +the bar after a brief course of study, first practised in Fauquier +county; and after two years began to practise in Richmond. In 1786 we +find him counsel in a case of great importance, _Hite_ v. _Fairfax_, +involving the original title of Lord Fairfax to that large tract of +country between the headwaters of the Potomac and Rappahannock, known as +the northern neck of Virginia. Marshall represented tenants of Lord +Fairfax and won his case. From this time, as is shown by an examination +of Call's _Virginia Reports_ which cover the period, he maintained the +leadership of the bar of Virginia. He was a member of the Virginia +Assembly in 1782-1791 and again in 1795-1797; and in 1788, he took a +leading part in the Virginia Convention called to act on the proposed +constitution for the United States, with Madison ably urging the +ratification of that instrument. In 1795 Washington offered him the +attorney-generalship, and in 1796, after the retirement of James Monroe, +the position of minister to France. Marshall declined both offers +because his situation at the bar appeared to him "to be more independent +and not less honourable than any other," and his "preference for it was +decided." He spent the autumn and winter of 1797-1798 in France as one +of the three commissioners appointed by President John Adams to adjust +the differences between the young republic and the directory. The +commission failed, but the course pursued by Marshall was approved in +America, and with the resentment felt because of the way in which the +commission had been treated in France, made him, on his return, +exceedingly popular. To this popularity, as well as to the earnest +advocacy of Patrick Henry, he owed his election as a Federalist to the +National House of Representatives in the spring of 1799, though the +feeling in Richmond was overwhelmingly in favour of the opposition or +Republican party. His most notable service in Congress was his speech on +the case of Thomas Nash, alias Jonathan Robbins, in which he showed that +there is nothing in the constitution of the United States which prevents +the Federal government from carrying out an extradition treaty. He was +secretary of state under President Adams from the 6th of June 1800 to +the 4th of March 1801. In the meantime he had been appointed +chief-justice of the Supreme Court, his commission bearing date the 31st +of January. Thus while still secretary he presided as chief-justice. + +At the time of Marshall's appointment it was generally considered that +the Supreme Court was the one department of the new government which had +failed in its purpose. John Jay, the first chief-justice, who had +resigned in 1795, had just declined a reappointment to the +chief-justiceship on the ground that he had left the bench perfectly +convinced that the court would never acquire proper weight and dignity, +its organization being fatally defective. The advent of the new +chief-justice was marked by a change in the conduct of business in the +court. Since its organization, following the prevailing English custom, +the judges had pronounced their opinions seriatim. But beginning with +the December term 1801, the chief-justice became practically the sole +mouthpiece of the court. For eleven years the opinions are almost +exclusively his, and there are few recorded dissents. The change was +admirably adapted to strengthen the power and dignity of the court. The +chief-justice embodied the majesty of the judicial department of the +government almost as fully as the president stood for the power of the +executive. That this change was acquiesced in by his associates without +diminishing their goodwill towards their new chief is testimony to the +persuasive force of Marshall's personality; for his associates were not +men of mediocre ability. After the advent of Mr Justice Joseph Story the +practice was abandoned. Marshall, however, still delivered the opinion +in the great majority of cases, and in practically all cases of any +importance involving the interpretation of the Constitution. During the +course of his judicial life his associates were as a rule men of +learning and ability. During most of the time the majority were the +appointees of Democratic presidents, and before their elevation to the +bench supposed to be out of sympathy with the federalistic ideas of the +chief-justice. Yet in matters pertaining to constitutional construction, +they seem to have had hardly any other function than to add the weight +of their silent concurrence to the decision of their great chief. Thus +the task of expounding the constitution during the most critical period +of its history was his, and it was given to him to preside over the +Supreme Court when it was called upon to decide four cases of vital +importance: _Marbury_ v. _Madison_, _M'Culloch_ v. _Maryland_, _Cohens_ +v. _Virginia_ and _Gibbons_ v. _Ogden_. In each of these cases it is +Marshall who writes the opinion of the court; in each the continued +existence of the peculiar Federal system established by the Constitution +depended on the action of the court, and in each the court adopted a +principle which is now generally perceived to be essential to the +preservation of the United States as a federal state. + + In _Marbury_ v. _Madison_, which was decided two years after his + elevation to the bench, he decided that it was the duty of the court + to disregard any act of Congress, and, therefore, a fortiori any act + of a legislature of one of the states, which the court thought + contrary to the Federal Constitution. + + In _Cohens_ v. _Virginia_, in spite of the contention of Jefferson and + the then prevalent school of political thought that it was contrary to + the Constitution for a person to bring one of the states of the United + States, though only as an appellee, into a court of justice, he held + that Congress could lawfully pass an act which permitted a person who + was convicted in a state court, to appeal to the Supreme Court of the + United States, if he alleged that the state act under which he was + convicted conflicted with the Federal Constitution or with an act of + Congress. + + In _M'Culloch_ v. _Maryland_, though admitting that the Federal + government is one of delegated powers and cannot exercise any power + not expressly given in the Constitution, he laid down the rule that + Congress in the exercise of a delegated power has a wide latitude in + the choice of means, not being confined in its choice of means to + those which must be used if the power is to be exercised at all. + + Lastly, in _Gibbons_ v. _Ogden_, he held that when the power to + regulate interstate and foreign commerce was conferred by the + Constitution on the Federal government, the word "commerce" included + not only the exchange of commodities, but the means by which + interstate and foreign intercourse was carried on, and therefore that + Congress had the power to license vessels to carry goods and + passengers between the states, and an act of one of the states making + a regulation which interfered with such regulation of Congress was, + _pro tanto_, of no effect. It will be seen that in the first two cases + he established the Supreme Court as the final interpreter of the + Constitution. + + The decision in _M'Culloch_ v. _Maryland_, by leaving Congress + unhampered in the choice of means to execute its delegated powers, + made it possible for the Federal government to accomplish the ends of + its existence. "Let the end be legitimate," said Marshall in the + course of its opinion, "let it be within the scope of the + Constitution, and all means which are appropriate, which are plainly + adapted to that end, which are not prohibited, but consist with the + letter and spirit of the Constitution, are constitutional." + + If the decision in _M'Culloch_ v. _Maryland_ gave vigour to all + Federal power, the decision in _Gibbons_ v. _Ogden_, by giving the + Federal government control over the means by which interstate and + foreign commerce is carried on, preserved the material prosperity of + the country. The decision recognizes what the framers of the + Constitution recognized, namely that the United States is an economic + union, and that business which is national should be under national, + not state, control. + +Though for the reasons stated, the four cases mentioned are the most +important of his decisions, the value of his work as an expounder of the +Constitution of the United States is not to be measured by these cases +alone. In all he decided forty-four cases involving constitutional +questions. Nearly every important part of the Constitution of the United +States as it existed before the amendments which were adopted after the +Civil War, is treated in one or more of them. The Constitution in its +most important aspects is the Constitution as he interpreted it. He did +not work out completely the position of the states in the Federal +system, but he did grasp and establish the position of the Federal +legislature and the Federal judiciary. To appreciate his work, however, +it is necessary to see that it was the work not of a statesman but of a +judge. Had Marshall been merely a far-seeing statesman, while most of +his important cases would have been decided as he decided them, his +life-work would have been a failure. It was not only necessary that he +should decide great constitutional questions properly, but also that the +people of the United States should be convinced of the correctness of +his interpretation of the Constitution. His opinions, therefore, had to +carry to those who studied them a conviction that the constitution as +written had been interpreted according to its evident meaning. They +fulfilled this prime requisite. Their chief characteristic is the +cumulative force of the argument. The ground for the premiss is +carefully prepared, the premiss itself is clearly stated; nearly every +possible objection is examined and answered; and then comes the +conclusion. There is little or no repetition, but there is a wealth of +illustration, a completeness of analysis, that convinces the reader, not +only that the subject has been adequately treated, but that it has been +exhausted. His style, reflecting his character, suits perfectly the +subject matter. Simple in the best sense of the word, his intellectual +processes were so clear that he never doubted the correctness of the +conclusion to which they led him. Apparently from his own point of view, +he merely indicated the question at issue, and the inexorable rules of +logic did the rest. Thus his opinions are simple, clear, dignified. +Intensely interesting, the interest is in the argument, not in its +expression. He had, in a wonderful degree, the power of phrase. He +expressed important principles of law in language which tersely yet +clearly conveyed his exact meaning. Not only is the Constitution +interpreted largely as he taught the people of the United States to +interpret it, but when they wish to express important constitutional +principles which he enunciated they use his exact words. Again, his +opinions show that he adhered closely to the words of the Constitution; +indeed no one who has attempted to expound that instrument has confined +himself more strictly to an examination of the text. In the proper, +though not in the historical, sense he was the strictest of strict +constructionalists, and as a result his opinions are practically devoid +of theories of government, sovereignty and the rights of man. + + A single illustration of his avoidance of all theory and his adherence + to the words of the Constitution will suffice. In the case of the + _United States_ v. _Fisher_ the constitutional question involved was + the power of Congress to give to the United States a preference over + all other creditors in the distribution of the assets of a bankrupt. + Such an act can be upheld on the ground that all governments have + necessarily the right to give themselves priority. Not so Marshall. To + him the act must be supported, if supported at all, not on any theory + of the innate nature of the government, national or otherwise, but as + a reasonable means of carrying out one of the express powers conferred + by the Constitution on the Federal government. Thus, he upholds the + act in question because of the power expressly conferred on the + Federal government to pay the debts of the union, and as a necessary + consequence of this power the right to make remittances by bills or + otherwise and to take precautions which will render the transactions + safe. + +It is important to emphasize the fact that Marshall adhered in his +opinions to the Constitution as written, not only because it is a fact +which must be recognized if we are to understand the correct value of +his work in the field of constitutional law, but also because there +exists to-day a popular impression that by implication he stretched to +the utmost the powers of the Federal government. This impression is due +primarily to the ignorance of many of those who have undertaken to +praise him. During his life he was charged by followers of the States +Rights School of political thought with upholding Federal power in cases +not warranted by the constitution. Later, however, those who admired a +strong national government, without taking the trouble to ascertain +whether the old criticism by members of the States Rights Party was +just, regarded the assumption on which it was founded as Marshall's best +claim to his country's gratitude. + +As a constitutional lawyer, Marshall stands without a rival. His work on +international law and admiralty is of first rank. But though a good, he +was not a great, common law or equity lawyer. In these fields he did not +make new law nor clarify what was obscure, and his constitutional +opinions which to-day are found least satisfactory are those in which +the question to be solved necessarily involves the discussion of some +common-law conception, especially those cases in which he was required +to construe the restriction imposed by the Constitution on any state +impairing the obligation of contracts. His decision in the celebrated +case of _Dartmouth College_ v. _Woodward_, in which he held that a state +could not repeal a charter of a private corporation, because a charter +is a contract which a subsequent act of the state repealing the charter +impairs, though of great economic importance, does not touch any +fundamental question of constitutional law. The argument which he +advances lacks the clearness and finality for which most of his opinions +are celebrated. It is not certain with whom he thought the contract was +made: with the corporation created by the charter, with the trustees of +the corporation, or with those who had contributed money to its objects. + +Of the wonderful persuasive force of Marshall's personality there is +abundant evidence. His influence over his associates, already referred +to, is but one example though a most impressive one. From the moment he +delivered the opinion in _Marbury_ v. _Madison_ the legal profession +knew that he was a great judge. Each year added to his reputation and +made for a better appreciation of his intellectual and moral qualities. +The bar of the Supreme Court during his chief-justiceship was the most +brilliant which the United States has ever known. Leaders, not only of +legal, but political thought were among its members; one, Webster, was a +man of genius and commanding position. To a very great degree Marshall +impressed on the members of this bar and on the profession generally his +own ideas of the correct interpretation of the Constitution and his own +love for the union. He did this, not merely by his arguments but by the +influence which was his by right of his strong, sweet nature. Statesmen +and politicians, great and small, were at this time, almost without +exception, members of the bar. To influence the political thought of the +bar was to a great extent to influence the political thought of the +people. + +In 1782 he married Mary Willis Ambler, the daughter of the then +treasurer of Virginia. They had ten children, six of whom grew to full +age. For the greater part of the forty-eight years of their married life +Mrs Marshall suffered intensely from a nervous affliction. Her condition +called out the love and sympathy of her husband's deep and affectionate +nature. Judge Story tells us: "That which, in a just sense, was his +highest glory, was the purity, affectionateness, liberality and +devotedness of his domestic life." For the first thirty years of his +chief-justiceship his life was a singularly happy one. He never had to +remain in Washington for more than three months. During the rest of the +year, with the exception of a visit to Raleigh, which his duties as +circuit judge required him to make, and a visit to his old home in +Fauquier county, he lived in Richmond. His house on Shockhoe Hill is +still standing. + +On Christmas Day 1831 his wife died. He never was quite the same again. +On returning from Washington in the spring of 1835 he suffered severe +contusions, from an accident to the stage coach in which he was riding. +His health, which had not been good, now rapidly declined and in June he +returned to Philadelphia for medical attendance. There he died on the +6th of July. His body, which was taken to Richmond, lies in Shockhoe +Hill Cemetery under a plain marble slab, on which is a simple +inscription written by himself. In addition to his decisions Marshall +wrote a famous biography of George Washington (5 vols., 1804-1807; 2nd +ed., 2 vols., 1832), which though prepared hastily contains much +material of value. + + The principal sources of information are: an essay by James B. Thayer + (Boston and New York, 1904); _Great American Lawyers_ (Philadelphia, + 1908), ii. 313-408, an essay by Wm. Draper Lewis; and Allan B. + Magruder, _John Marshall_ (Boston, 1885), in the "American Statesmen + Series." The addresses delivered on Marshall Day, the 4th of February + 1901, are collected by John F. Dillon (Chicago, 1903). In the + "Appendix" to Dillon's collection will be found the "Discourse" by + Joseph Story and the "Eulogy" by Horace Binney, both delivered soon + after Marshall's death. For a study of Marshall's decisions, the + _Constitutional Decisions of John Marshall_, edited by Joseph P. + Collon, Jr. (New York and London, 1905), is of value. (W. D. L.) + + + + + +MARSHALL, JOHN (1818-1891), British surgeon and physiologist, was born +at Ely, on the 11th of September 1818, his father being a lawyer of that +city. He entered University College, London, in 1838, and in 1847 he was +appointed assistant-surgeon at the hospital, becoming in 1866 surgeon +and professor of surgery. He was professor of anatomy at the Royal +Academy from 1873 till his death. In 1883 he was president of the +College of Surgeons, also Bradshaw lecturer (on "Nerve-stretching for +the relief or cure of pain"), Hunterian orator in 1885, and Morton +lecturer in 1889. In 1867 he published his well-known textbook _The +Outlines of Physiology_ in two volumes. He died on the 1st of January +1891. "Marshall's fame," wrote Sir W. MacCormac in his volume on the +_Centenary of the College of Surgeons_ (1900), "rests on the great +ability with which he taught anatomy in relation to art, on the +introduction into modern surgery of the galvano-cautery, and on the +operation for the excision of varicose veins. He was one of the first to +show that cholera might be spread by means of drinking water, and issued +a report on the outbreak of cholera in Broad Street, St James's, 1854. +He also invented the system of circular wards for hospitals, and to him +are largely owing the details of the modern medical student's +education." + + + + +MARSHALL, STEPHEN (c. 1594-1655), English Nonconformist divine, was born +at Godmanchester in Huntingdonshire, and was educated at Emmanuel +College, Cambridge (M.A. 1622, B.D. 1629). After holding the living of +Wethersfield in Essex he became vicar of Finchingfield in the same +county, and in 1636 was reported for "want of conformity." He was a +preacher of great power, and influenced the elections for the Short +Parliament of 1640. Clarendon esteemed his influence on the +parliamentary side greater than that of Laud on the royalist. In 1642 he +was appointed lecturer at St Margaret's, Westminster, and delivered a +series of addresses to the Commons in which he advocated episcopal and +liturgical reform. He had a share in writing _Smectymnuus_, was +appointed chaplain to the earl of Essex's regiment in 1642, and a member +of the Westminster Assembly in 1643. He represented the English +Parliament in Scotland in 1643, and attended the parliamentary +commissions at the Uxbridge Conference in 1645. He waited on Archbishop +Laud before his execution, and was chaplain to Charles I. at Holmby +House and at Carisbrooke. A moderate and judicious presbyterian, he +prepared with others the "Shorter Catechism" in 1647, and was one of the +"Triers," 1654. He died in November 1655 and was buried in Westminster +Abbey, but his body was exhumed and maltreated at the Restoration. His +sermons, especially that on the death of John Pym in 1643, reveal +eloquence and fervour. The only "systematic" work he published was _A +Defence of Infant Baptism_, against John Tombes (London, 1646). + + + + +MARSHALL, a city and the county-seat of Saline county, Missouri, U.S.A., +situated a little W. of the centre of the state, near the Salt Fork of +the La Mine River. Pop. (1890), 4297; (1900), 5086 (208 being +foreign-born and 98 negroes); (1910) 4869. It is served by the Missouri +Pacific and the Chicago & Alton railways. The city is laid out regularly +on a high, undulating prairie. It is the seat of Missouri Valley College +(opened 1889; co-educational), which was established by the Cumberland +Presbyterian church, and includes a preparatory department and a +conservatory of music. The court-house (1883), a Roman Catholic convent +and a high school (1907) are the principal buildings. The Missouri +colony for the feeble-minded and epileptic (1899) is at Marshall. The +principal trade is with the surrounding farming country. The +municipality owns and operates the waterworks. Marshall was first +settled and was made the county seat in 1839; it became a town in 1866 +(re-incorporated 1870) and a city in 1878. + + + + +MARSHALL, a city and the county-seat of Harrison county, Texas, U.S.A., +about 145 m. E. by S. of Dallas. Pop. (1890), 7207; (1900) 7855 (3769 +negroes); (1910) 11,452. Marshall is served by the Texas & Pacific and +the Marshall & East Texas railways, which have large shops here. Wiley +University was founded in 1873 by the Freedman's Aid Society of the +Methodist Episcopal Church, and Bishop College, was founded in 1881 by +the American Baptist Home Mission Society and incorporated in 1885. +Marshall is situated in a region growing cotton and Indian corn, +vegetables, small fruits and sugar-cane; in the surrounding country +there are valuable forests of pine, oak and gum. In the vicinity of the +city there are several lakes (including Caddo Lake) and springs +(including Hynson and Rosborough springs). The city has a cotton +compress, and among its manufactures are cotton-seed oil, lumber, ice, +foundry products and canned goods. The municipality owns and operates +the waterworks. Marshall was first settled in 1842, was incorporated in +1843, and received a city charter in 1848; in 1909 it adopted the +commission form of government. + + + + +MARSHALL ISLANDS, an island group in the western Pacific Ocean +(Micronesia) belonging to Germany. The group consists of a number of +atolls ranged in two almost parallel lines, which run from N.W. to S.E. +between 4° and 15° N. and 161° and 174° E. The north-east line, with +fifteen islands, is called Ratak, the other, numbering eighteen, Ralik. +These atolls are of coralline formation and of irregular shape. They +rise but little above high-water mark. The highest elevation occurs on +the island of Likieb, but is only 33 ft. The lagoon is scarcely more +than 150 ft. deep and is accessible through numerous breaks in the reef. +On the outward side the shore sinks rapidly to a great depth. The +surface of the atolls is covered with sand, except in a few places where +it has been turned into soil through the admixture of decayed +vegetation. The reef in scarcely any instance exceeds 600 ft. in width. + +The climate is moist and hot, the mean temperature being 80.50° F. +Easterly winds prevail all the year round. There is no difference +between the seasons, which, though the islands belong to the northern +hemisphere, have the highest temperature in January and the lowest in +July. Vegetation, on the whole, is very poor. There are many coco-nut +palms, bread-fruit trees (_Artocarpus incisa_), various kinds of +bananas, yams and taro, and pandanus, of which the natives eat the +seeds. From the bark of another plant they manufacture mats. There are +few animals. Cattle do not thrive, and even poultry are scarce. Pigs, +cats, dogs and rats have been imported. There are a few pigeons and +aquatic birds, butterflies and beetles. Crustacea and fish abound on the +reefs. + +The natives are Micronesians of a dark brown colour, though lighter +shades occur. Their hair is not woolly but straight and long. They +practise tattooing, and show Papuan influence by distending the +ear-lobes by the insertion of wooden disks. They are expert navigators, +and construct curious charts of thin strips of wood tied together with +fibres, some giving the position of the islands and some the direction +of the prevailing winds. Their canoes carry sails and are made of the +trunk of the bread-fruit tree. The people are divided into four classes, +of which only two are allowed to own land. The islands lie entirely +within the German sphere of interest, and the boundaries were agreed +upon between Great Britain and Germany on the 10th of April 1889. Their +area is estimated at 160 sq. m., with 15,000 inhabitants, who are +apparently increasing, though the contrary was long believed. All but +about 250 are natives. The administrator of the islands is the governor +of German New Guinea, but a number of officials reside on the islands. +There is no military force, the natives being of peaceful disposition. +The chief island and seat of government is Jaluit. The most populous +island is Majeru, with 1600 inhabitants. The natives are generally +pagans, but a Roman Catholic mission has been established, and the +American Mission Board maintains coloured teachers on many of the +islands. There is communication with Sydney by private steamer, and a +steamer sails between Jaluit and Ponape to connect with the French boats +for Singapore. The chief products for export are copra, tortoise-shell, +mother-of-pearl, sharks' fins and trepang. The natives are clever +boat-builders, and find a market for their canoes on neighbouring +islands. They have made such progress in their art that they have even +built seaworthy little schooners of 30 to 40 tons. The only other +articles they make are a few shell ornaments. + +The Marshall Islands may have been visited by Alvaro de Saavedra in +1529, Captain Wallis touched at the group in 1767, and in 1788 Captains +Marshall and Gilbert explored it. The Germans made a treaty with the +chieftains of Jaluit in 1878 and annexed the group in 1885-1886. + + See C. Hager, _Die Marshall-Inseln_ (Leipzig, 1886); Steinbach and + Grösser, _Wörterbuch der Marshall-Sprache_ (Hamburg, 1902). + + + + +MARSHALLTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Marshall county, Iowa, +U.S.A., near the Iowa River and about 60 m. N.E. of Des Moines. Pop. +(1890), 8914; (1900), 11,544, of whom 1590 were foreign-born; (1910 +census) 13,374. Marshalltown is served by the Chicago & North-Western, +the Chicago Great Western, and the Iowa Central railways, the last of +which has machine shops here. At Marshalltown are the Iowa soldiers' +home, supported in part by the Federal Government, and St. Mary's +institute, a Roman Catholic commercial and business school. The city is +situated in a rich agricultural region, and is a market for grain, meat +cattle, horses and swine. There are miscellaneous manufactures, and in +1905 the factory product was valued at $3,090,312. The municipality owns +and operates its waterworks and its electric-lighting plant. +Marshalltown, named in honour of Chief Justice John Marshall, was laid +out in 1853, and became the county-seat in 1860. It was incorporated as +a town in 1863, and was chartered as a city in 1868. + + + + +MARSHALSEA, a prison formerly existing in Southwark, London. It was +attached to the court of that name held by the steward and marshal of +the king's house (see LORD STEWARD and MARSHAL). The date of its first +establishment is unknown, but it existed as early as the reign of Edward +III. It was consolidated in 1842 with the queen's bench and the Fleet, +and was then described as "a prison for debtors and for persons charged +with contempt of Her Majesty's courts of the Marshalsea, the court of +the queen's palace of Westminster, and the high court of admiralty, and +also for admiralty prisoners under sentence of courts martial." It was +abolished in 1849. The Marshalsea Prison is described in Charles +Dickens' _Little Dorrit_. + + + + +MARSHBUCK, a book-name proposed for such of the African bushbucks or +harnessed antelopes as have abnormally long hoofs to support them in +walking on marshy or swampy ground. (See BUSHBUCK and ANTELOPE.) + + + + +MARSHFIELD, a city of Wood county, Wisconsin, about 165 m. N.W. of +Milwaukee. Pop. (1890), 3450; (1900), 5240, of whom 1161 were +foreign-born; (1905) 6036; (1910) 5783. It is served by the Chicago & +North-Western, the Chicago, St Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha, and the +Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie railways. It contains the +mother-house of the Sisters of the Sorrowful Mother. Lumbering is the +most important industry, and there are various manufactures. The city is +situated in a clover region, in which dairying is important, and +Guernsey and Holstein-Friesland cattle are raised. The municipality owns +and operates the waterworks and the electric-lighting plant. The site of +Marshfield was part of a tract granted by the Federal government to the +Fox River Improvement Company, organized to construct a waterway between +the Mississippi river and Green Bay, and among the original owners of +the town site were Samuel Marsh of Massachusetts (in whose honour the +place was named) and Horatio Seymour, Ezra Cornell, Erastus Corning, and +William A. Butler of New York. Marshfield was settled about 1870, and +was first chartered as a city in 1883. + + + + +MARSH GAS (methane), CH4, the first member of the series of paraffin +hydrocarbons. It occurs as a constituent of the "fire-damp" of +coal-mines, in the gases evolved from volcanoes, and in the gases which +arise in marshy districts (due to the decomposition of vegetable matter +under the surface of water). It is found associated with petroleum and +also in human intestinal gases. It is a product of the destructive +distillation of complex organic matter (wood, coal, bituminous shale, +&c.), forming in this way from 30 to 40% of ordinary illuminating gas. +It may be synthetically obtained by passing a mixture of the vapour of +carbon bisulphide with sulphuretted hydrogen over red-hot copper (M. +Berthelot, _Comptes rendus_, 1856, 43, p. 236), CS2 + 2H2S + 8Cu = 4Cu2S ++ CH4; by passing a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide over reduced +nickel at 200-250° C., or hydrogen and carbon dioxide at 230-300° C. (P. +Sabatier and J. B. Senderens, _Comptes rendus_, 1902, 134, pp. 514, +689); by the decomposition of aluminium carbide with water [H. Moissan, +_Bull. Soc. Chim._, 1894, (3) 11, p. 1012]; and by heating phosphonium +iodide with carbon bisulphide in a sealed tube to 120-140° C. (H. Jahn, +_Ber._, 1880, 13, p. 127). It is also obtained by the reduction of many +methyl compounds with nascent hydrogen; thus methyl iodide dissolved in +methyl alcohol readily yields methane when acted on by the zinc-copper +couple (J. H. Gladstone and A. Tribe, _Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1884, 45, p. +156) or by the aluminium-mercury couple. It may be obtained in an +indirect manner from methyl iodide by conversion of this compound into +zinc methyl, or into magnesium methyl iodide (formed by the action of +magnesium on methyl iodide dissolved in anhydrous ether), and +decomposing these latter substances with water (E. Frankland, 1856; V. +Grignard, 1900), + + Zn(CH4)2 + H2O = 2CH4 + ZnO; 2CH3MgI + H2O = 2CH4 + MgI2 + MgO. + +In the laboratory it is usually prepared by J. B. A. Dumas' method +(_Ann._, 1840, 33, p. 181), which consists in heating anhydrous sodium +acetate with soda lime, CH3CO2Na + NaOH = Na2CO3 + CH4. The product +obtained by this method is not pure, containing generally more or less +ethylene and hydrogen. + +Methane is a colourless gas of specific gravity 0.559 (air = 1). It may +be condensed to a colourless liquid at -155° to -160° C. under +atmospheric pressure (S. Wroblewsky, _Comptes rendus_, 1884, 99, p. +136). It boils at -162° C. and freezes at -186° C. Its critical +temperature is -99.5° C. (J. Dewar). The gas is almost insoluble in +water, but is slightly soluble in alcohol. It decomposes into its +constituents when passed through a red-hot tube, small quantities of +other hydrocarbons (ethane, ethylene, acetylene, benzene, &c.) being +formed at the same time. It burns with a pale flame, and when mixed with +air or oxygen forms a highly explosive mixture. W. A. Bone (_Jour. Chem. +Soc._, 1902, 81, p. 535; 1903, 83, p. 1074) has shown that in the +oxidation of methane by oxygen at 450-500° C. formaldehyde (or possibly +methyl alcohol) is formed as an intermediate product, and is ultimately +oxidized to carbon dioxide. Methane is an exceedingly stable gas, being +unaffected by the action of chromic acid, nitric acid, or a mixture of +nitric and sulphuric acids. Chlorine and bromine, however, react with +methane, gradually replacing hydrogen and forming chlor- and +brom-substitution products. + + + + +MARSHMAN, JOSHUA (1768-1837), English Baptist missionary and +orientalist, was born on the 20th of April 1768, at Westbury Leigh, in +Wiltshire. He followed the occupation of a weaver until 1794, but having +meanwhile devoted himself to study he removed to Broadmead, Bristol, to +take charge of a small school. In 1799 he was sent by the Baptist +Missionary Society to join their mission at Serampur. Here, in addition +to his more special duties, he studied Bengali and Sanskrit, and +afterwards Chinese. He translated the Bible into various dialects, and, +aided by his son, established newspapers and founded Serampur College. +He received the degree of D.D. from Brown University, U.S.A., in 1810. +He died at Serampur on the 5th of December 1837. His son, John Clark +Marshman (1704-1877), was official Bengali translator; he published a +_Guide to the Civil Law_ which, before the work of Macaulay, was the +civil code of India, and wrote a _History of India_ (1842). + + Marshman translated into Chinese the book of Genesis, the Gospels, and + the Epistles of Paul to the Romans and the Corinthians; in 1811 he + published _The Works of Confucius, containing the Original Text, with + a Translation_, and in 1814 his _Clavis Sinica_. He was also the + author of _Elements of Chinese Grammar, with Preliminary Dissertation + on the Characters and Colloquial Mediums of the Chinese_, and was + associated with W. Carey in the preparation of a Sanskrit grammar and + of a Bengali-English dictionary. + + See J. C. Marshman, _Life and Times of Carey, Marshman and Ward_ (2 + vols., 1859). + + + + +MARSI, an ancient people of Italy, whose chief centre was Marruvium, on +the eastern shore of Lake Fucinus. They are first mentioned as members +of a confederacy with the Vestini, Paeligni and Marrucini (Liv. viii. +29, cf. viii. 6, and Polyb. ii. 24, 12). They joined the Samnites in 308 +B.C. (Liv. ix. 41), and on their submission became allies of Rome in 304 +B.C. (Liv. ix. 45). After a short-lived revolt two years later, for +which they were punished by loss of territory (Liv. x. 3), they were +readmitted to the Roman alliance and remained faithful down to the +social war, their contingent (e.g. Liv. xliv. 46) being always regarded +as the flower of the Italian forces (e.g. Hor. _Od._ ii. 20, 18). In +this war, which, owing to the prominence of the Marsian rebels is often +known as the Marsic War, they fought bravely against odds under their +leader Q. Pompaedius Silo, and, though they were frequently defeated, +the result of the war was the enfranchisement of the allies (see ROME: +_History_, "The Republic"). The Marsi were a hardy mountain people, +famed for their simple habits and indomitable courage. It was said that +the Romans had never triumphed over them or without them (Appian). They +were also renowned for their magicians, who had strange remedies for +various diseases. + +The Latin colony of Alba Fucens near the north-west corner of the lake +was founded in the adjoining Aequian territory in 303, so that from the +beginning of the 3rd century the Marsians were in touch with a +Latin-speaking community, to say nothing of the Latin colony of Carsioli +(298 B.C.) farther west. The earliest pure Latin inscriptions of the +district seem to be _C.I.L._ ix. 3827 and 3848 from the neighbourhood of +Supinum; its character generally is of the Gracchan period, though it +might be somewhat earlier. + +Mommsen (_Unteritalische Dialekten_, p. 345) pointed out that in the +social war all the coins of Pompaedius Silo have the Latin legend +"Italia," while the other leaders in all but one case used Oscan. + +The chief record of the dialect or patois we owe to the goddess Angitia, +whose chief temple and grove stood at the south-west corner of Lake +Fucinus, near the inlet to the _emissarius_ of Claudius (restored by +Prince Torlonia), and the modern village of Luco. She (or they, for the +name is in the plural in the Latin inscription next cited) was widely +worshipped in the central highlands (Sulmo, _C.I.L._ ix. 3074, Furfo +Vestinorum, ibid. 3515) as a goddess of healing, especially skilled to +cure serpent bites by charms and the herbs of the Marsian woods. Her +worshippers naturally practised the same arts--as their descendants do +(see A. de Nino's charming collection of _Usi e costumi abruzzesi_), +their country being in Rome counted the home of witchcraft; see Hor. +_Sal._ 1, 9, 29, _Epod._ 17, 28, &c. + +The earliest local inscriptions date from about 300 to 150 B.C. and +include the interesting and difficult bronze of Lake Fucinus, which +seems to record a votive offering to Angitia, if _A(n)ctia_, as is +probable, was the local form of her name. Their language differs very +slightly from Roman Latin of that date; for apparently contracted forms +like _Fougno_ instead of _Fucino_ may really only be a matter of +spelling. In final syllables the diphthongs _ai_, _ei_, _oi_, all appear +as _e_. On the other hand, the older form of the name of the tribe (dat. +plur. _Martses_ = Lat. _Martiis_) shows its derivation and exhibits the +assibilation of _-tio-_ into _-tso-_ proper to many Oscan dialects (see +OSCA LINGUA) but strange to classical Latin. + + See R. S. Conway, _The Italic Dialects_, pp. 290 seq. (from which some + portions of this article are taken by permission of the syndics of the + Camb. Univ. Press); on the Fucino-Bronze, ib. p. 294. (R. S. C.) + + + + +MARSIGLI [Latinized MARSILIUS], LUIGI FERDINANDO, Count (1658-1730), +Italian soldier and scientific writer, was born at Bologna on the 10th +of July 1658. After a course of scientific studies in his native city he +travelled through Turkey collecting data on the military organization of +that empire, as well as on its natural history. On his return he entered +the service of the emperor Leopold (1682) and fought with distinction +against the Turks, by whom he was wounded and captured in an action on +the river Raab, and sold to a pasha whom he accompanied to the siege of +Vienna. His release was purchased in 1684, and he afterwards took part +in the war of the Spanish succession. In 1703 he was appointed second in +command under Count Arco in the defence of Alt-Breisach. The fortress +surrendered to the duke of Burgundy, and both Arco and Marsigli were +court martialled; the former was condemned to death and the latter +cashiered, although acquitted of blame by public opinion. Having thus +been forced to give up soldiering, he devoted the rest of his life to +scientific investigations, in the pursuit of which he made many journeys +through Europe, spending a considerable time at Marseilles to study the +nature of the sea. In 1712 he presented his collections to his native +city, where they formed the nucleus of the Bologna Institute of Science +and Art. He died at Bologna on the 1st of November 1730. Marsigli was a +fellow of the London Royal Society and a member of the Paris Academy of +Science. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A list of his works, over twenty in number, is given in + Niceron's _Memoirs_; his _Breve ristretto del saggio fisico intorno + alla storia del mare_ was published at Venice in 1711, and again at + Amsterdam (in French) in 1725; the _Stato militare dell' impero + ottomano_ was published at Amsterdam and the Hague in Italian and + French (1732), the _Osservazioni intorno al Bosforo Tracio_ in Rome + (1681) and the _Danubius pannonico-mysicus_, a large work in six + volumes containing much valuable historic and scientific information + on the Danubian countries, at the Hague (1725). See Fontenelle, + "Éloge" in the _Mém. de l'acad. des sciences_ (Paris, 1730); Quincy, + _Mémoires sur la vie de M. le comte Marsigli_ (Zürich, 1741), and + Fantuzzi's biography of Marsigli (Bologna, 1770). + + + + +MARSILIUS OF PADUA [MARSIGLIO MAINARDINO] (1270-1342), Italian medieval +scholar, was born at Padua, and at first studied medicine in his own +country. After practising various professions, among others that of a +soldier, he went to Paris about 1311. The reputation which he had gained +in the physical sciences soon caused him to be raised to the position of +rector of the university (for the first term of the year 1313). While +still practising medicine he entered into relations with another master +of Paris, the philosopher John of Jandun, who collaborated with him in +the composition of the famous _Defensor pacis_ (1324), one of the most +extraordinary political and religious works which appeared during the +14th century. A violent struggle had just broken out between pope John +XXII. and Louis of Bavaria, king of the Romans, and the latter, on being +excommunicated and called upon to give up the empire, only replied to +the pope's threats with fresh provocations. Marsilius of Padua and John +of Jandun, though they had both reason to be grateful for the benefits +of John XXII., chose this moment to demonstrate, by plausible arguments, +the supremacy of the Empire, its independence of the Holy See, and the +emptiness of the prerogatives "usurped" by the sovereign pontiffs--a +demonstration naturally calculated to give them a claim on the gratitude +of the German sovereign. + +The _Defensor pacis_, as its name implies, is a work intended to restore +peace, as the most indispensable benefit of human society. The author of +the law is the people, i.e. the whole body, or at least the most +important part (_valentior_) of the citizens; the people should +themselves elect, or at least appoint, the head of the government, who, +lest he should be tempted to put himself above the scope of the laws, +should have at his disposal only a limited armed force. This chief is +responsible to the people for his breaches of the law, and in serious +cases they can condemn him to death. The real cause of the trouble which +prevails among men is the papacy, a "fictitious" power, the development +of which is the result of a series of usurpations. Marsilius denies, not +only to the pope, but to the bishops and clergy, any coercive +jurisdiction or any right to pronounce on their own authority +excommunications and interdicts, or in any way to impose the observation +of the divine law. He is not opposed to penalties against heretics, but +he would have them pronounced only by civil tribunals. Desiring to see +the clergy practise a holy poverty, he proposes the suppression of +tithes and the seizure by the secular power of the greater part of the +property of the church. The clergy, thus deprived of its wealth, +privileges and jurisdiction, is further to be deprived of independence, +for the civil power is to have the right of appointing to benefices, +&c. The supreme authority in the church is to be the council, but a +council summoned by the emperor. The pope, no longer possessing any more +power than other bishops (though Marsilius recognizes that the supremacy +of the Church of Rome goes back to the earliest times of Christianity), +is to content himself with a pre-eminence mainly of an honorary kind, +without claiming to interpret the Holy Scriptures, define dogmas or +distribute benefices; moreover, he is to be elected by the Christian +people, or by the delegates of the people, i.e. the princes, or by the +council, and these are also to have the power to punish, suspend or +depose him. Such is this famous work, full of obscurities, redundancies +and contradictions, in which the thread of the argument is sometimes +lost in a labyrinth of reasonings and citations, both sacred and +profane, but which nevertheless expresses, both in religion and +politics, such audacious and novel ideas that it has been possible to +trace in it, as it were, a rough sketch of the doctrines developed +during the periods of the Reformation and of the French Revolution. The +theory was purely democratic, but was all ready to be transformed, by +means of a series of fictions and implications, into an imperialist +doctrine; and in like manner it contained a visionary plan of +reformation which ended, not in the separation of the church from the +state, but in the subjection of the church to the state. To overthrow +the ecclesiastical hierarchy, to deprive the clergy of all their +privileges, to reduce the pope to the rank of a kind of president of a +Christian republic, which governs itself, or rather submits to the +government of Caesar--such is the dream formed in 1324 by two masters of +the university of Paris. + +When in 1326 Louis of Bavaria saw the arrival in Nuremberg of the two +authors of the book dedicated to him, startled by the boldness of their +political and religious theories, he was at first inclined to treat them +as heretics. He soon changed his mind, however, and, admitting them to +the circle of his intimates, loaded them with favours. Having become one +of the chief inspirers of the imperial policy, Marsilius accompanied +Louis of Bavaria to Italy, where he preached or circulated written +attacks against the pope, especially at Milan, and where he came within +the sight of the realization of his wildest utopias. To see a king of +the Romans crowned emperor at Rome, not by the pope, but by those who +claimed to be the delegates of the people (Jan. 17, 1328), to see John +XXII. deposed by the head of the Empire (April 18), and a mendicant +friar, Pietro de Corbara, raised by an imperial decree to the throne of +St Peter (as Nicholas V.) after a sham of a popular election (May 12), +all this was merely the application of principles laid down in the +_Defensor pacis_. The two authors of this book played a most active part +in the Roman Revolution. Marsilius, appointed imperial vicar, abused his +power to persecute the clergy who had remained faithful to John XXII. In +recompense for his services, he seems to have been appointed archbishop +of Milan, while his collaborator, John of Jandun, obtained from Louis of +Bavaria the bishopric of Ferrara. + +Marsilius of Padua also composed a treatise _De translatione imperii +romani_, which is merely a rearrangement of a work of Landolfo Colonna, +_De jurisdictione imperatoris in causa matrimoniali_, intended to prove +the exclusive jurisdiction of the emperor in matrimonial affairs, or +rather, to justify the intervention of Louis of Bavaria, who, in the +interests of his policy, had just annulled the marriage of the son of +the king of Bohemia and the countess of Tirol. But, above all, in an +unpublished work preserved at Oxford, the _Defensor minor_, Marsilius +completed and elaborated in a curious manner certain points in the +doctrine laid down in the _Defensor pacis_. In it he deals with +ecclesiastical jurisdiction, penances, indulgences, crusades and +pilgrimages, vows, excommunication, the pope and the council, marriage +and divorce. Here his democratic theory still more clearly leads up to a +proclamation of the imperial omnipotence. + +Marsilius of Padua does not seem to have lived long after 1342. But the +scandal provoked by his _Defensor pacis_, condemned by the court of +Avignon in 1326, lasted much longer. Benedict XII. and Clement VI. +censured it in turn; Louis of Bavaria disowned it. Translated into +French, then into Italian (14th century) and into English (16th +century), it was known by Wycliffe and Luther, and was not without an +influence on the Reform movement. + + See J. Sullivan, _American Historical Review_, vol. ii. (1896-1897), + and _English Historical Review_ for April 1905; _Histoire littéraire + de la France_ (1906), xxxiii. 528-623; Sigmund Riezler, _Die + literarischen Widersacher der Päpste zur Zeit Ludwig des Baiers_ + (Leipzig, 1874). + + There are numerous manuscripts of the _Defensor pacis_ extant. We will + here mention only one edition, that given by Goldast, in 1614, in vol. + i. of his _Monarchia sacri imperii_; an unpublished last chapter was + published by Karl Müller, in 1883, in the _Göttingische gelehrte + Anzeigen_, pp. 923-925. + + Count Lützow in _The Life and Times of Master John Hus_ (London and + New York, 1909), pp. 5-9, gives a good abstract of the Defensor pacis + and the relations of Marsilius to other precursors of the Reformation. + (N. V.) + + + + +MARSIVAN, or MERZIFUN (anc. _Phazemon?_), a town in the Amasia sanjak of +the Sivas vilayet of Asia Minor, situated at the foot of the Tavshan +Dagh. Pop. about 20,000, two-thirds Mussulman. It is a centre of +American missionary and educational enterprise, and the seat of Anatolia +College, a theological seminary, and schools which were partly destroyed +in the anti-Armenian riots of 1893 and 1895. There is also a Jesuit +school. Marsivan is an unusually European place both in its aspect and +the commodities procurable in the bazaar. + + + + +MARS-LA-TOUR, a village of Lorraine, between Metz and the French +frontier, which formed part of the battlefield of the 16th of August +1870. The battle is often called the battle of Mars-la-Tour, though it +is more usually named after Vionville. (See METZ; and FRANCO-GERMAN +WAR.) At Mars-la-Tour occurred the destruction of the German 38th +brigade. + + + + +MARSTON, JOHN (c. 1575-1634), English dramatist and satirist, eldest son +of John Marston of Coventry, at one time lecturer of the Middle Temple, +was born in 1575, or early in 1576. Swinburne notes his affinities with +Italian literature, which may be partially explained by his parentage, +for his mother was the daughter of an Italian physician, Andrew Guarsi. +He entered Brasenose College, Oxford, in 1592, taking his B.A. degree in +1594. The elder Marston in his will expresses regret that his son, to +whom he left his law-books and the furniture of his rooms in the Temple, +had not been willing to follow his profession. John Marston married Mary +Wilkes, daughter of one of the royal chaplains, and Ben Jonson said that +"Marston wrote his father-in-law's preachings, and his father-in-law his +sermons." His first work was _The Metamorphosis of Pigmalions Image, and +certaine Satyres_ (1598). "Pigmalion" is an erotic poem in the metre of +_Venus and Adonis_, and Joseph Hall attached a rather clumsy epigram to +every copy that was exposed for sale in Cambridge. In the same year +Marston published, under the pseudonym of W. Kinsayder, already employed +in the earlier volume, his _Scourge of Villanie_, eleven satires, in the +sixth of which he asserted that Pigmalion was intended to parody the +amorous poetry of the time. Both this volume and its predecessor were +burnt by order of the archbishop of Canterbury. The satires, in which +Marston avowedly took Persius as his model, are coarse and vigorous. In +addition to a general attack on the vices of his age he avenges himself +on Joseph Hall who had assailed him in _Virgidemiae_. He had a great +reputation among his contemporaries. John Weever couples his name with +Ben Jonson's in an epigram; Francis Meres in _Palladis tamia_ (1598) +mentions him among the satirists; a long passage is devoted to "Monsieur +Kinsayder" in the _Return from Parnassus_ (1606), and Dr Brinsley +Nicholson has suggested that _Furor poeticus_ in that piece may be a +satirical portrait of him. But his invective by its general tone, goes +far to justify Mr W. J. Courthope's[1] judgment that "it is likely +enough that in seeming to satirize the world without him, he is usually +holding up the mirror to his own prurient mind." + +On the 28th of September 1599 Henslowe notices in his diary that he lent +"unto Mr Maxton, the new poete, the sum of forty shillings," as an +advance on a play which is not named. Another hand has amended "Maxton" +to "Mastone." The earliest plays to which Marston's name is attached are +_The History of Antonio and Mellida. The First Part_; and _Antonio's +Revenge. The Second Part_ (both entered at Stationers' Hall in 1601 and +printed 1602). The second part is preceded by a prologue which, in its +gloomy forecast of the play, moved the admiration of Charles Lamb, who +also compares the situation of Andrugio and Lucia to Lear and Kent, but +the scene which he quotes gives a misleading idea of the play and of the +general tenor of Marston's work. + +The melodrama and the exaggerated expression of these two plays offered +an opportunity to Ben Jonson, who had already twice ridiculed Marston, +and now pilloried him as Crispinus in _The Poetaster_ (1601). The +quarrel was patched up, for Marston dedicated his _Malcontent_ (1604) to +Jonson, and in the next year he prefixed commendatory verses to +_Sejanus_. Far greater restraint is shown in _The Malcontent_ than in +the earlier plays. It was printed twice in 1604, the second time with +additions by John Webster. _The Dutch Courtezan_ (1605) and +_Parasitaster, or the Fawne_ (1606) followed. In 1605 _Eastward Hoe_,[2] +a gay comedy of London life, which gave offence to the king's Scottish +friends, caused the playwrights concerned in its production--Marston, +Chapman and Jonson--to be imprisoned at the instance of Sir James +Murray. _The Wonder of Women, or the Tragedie of Sophonisba_ (1606), +seems to have been put forward by Marston as a model of what could be +accomplished in tragedy. In the preface he mocks at those authors who +make a parade of their authorities and their learning, and the next +play, _What you Will_ (printed 1607; but probably written much earlier), +contains a further attack on Jonson. The tragedy of _The Insatiate +Countesse_ was printed in 1613, and again, this time anonymously, in +1616. It was not included in the collected edition of Marston's plays in +1633, and in the Duke of Devonshire's library there is a copy bearing +the name of William Barksteed, the author of the poems, _Myrrha, the +Mother of Adonis_ (1607), and _Hiren and the Fair Greek_ (1611). The +piece contains many passages superior to anything to be found in +Marston's well-authenticated plays, and Mr A. H. Bullen suggests that it +may be Barksteed's version of an earlier one drafted by Marston. The +character and history of Isabella are taken chiefly from "The Disordered +Lyfe of the Countess of Celant" in William Paynter's _Palace of +Pleasure_, derived eventually from Bandello. There is no certain +evidence of Marston's authorship in _Histriomastix_ (printed 1610, but +probably produced before 1599), or in _Jacke Drums Entertainement, or +the Comedie of Pasquil and Katherine_ (1616), though he probably had a +hand in both. Mr R. Boyle (_Englische Studien_, vol. xxx., 1901), in a +critical study of Shakespeare's _Troilus and Cressida_, assigns to +Marston's hand the whole of the action dealing with Hector, with the +prologue and epilogue, and attributes to him the bombast and coarseness +in the last scenes of the play. It will be seen that his undoubted +dramatic work was completed in 1607. It is uncertain at what time he +exchanged professions, but in 1616 he was presented to the living of +Christchurch, Hampshire. He formally resigned his charge in 1631, and +when his works were collected in 1633 the publisher, William Sheares, +stated that the author "in his autumn and declining age" was living "far +distant from this place." Nevertheless he died in London, in the parish +of Aldermanbury, on the 25th of June 1634. He was buried in the Temple +Church. + + Marston's works were first published in 1633, once anonymously as + _Tragedies and Comedies_, and then in the same year as _Workes of Mr + John Marston_. _The Works of John Marston_ (3 vols.) were reprinted by + Mr J. O. Halliwell (Phillipps) in 1856, and again by Mr. A. H. Bullen + (3 vols.) in 1887. His _Poems_ (2 vols.) were edited by Dr A. B. + Grosart in 1879. The British Museum Catalogue tentatively assigns to + Marston _The Whipper of the Satyre his pennance in a white sheete; or, + the Beadle's Confutation_ (1601), a pamphlet in answer to _The + Whipping of the Satyre_. For an account of the quarrel of Dekker and + Marston with Ben Jonson see Dr R. A. Small, _The Stage Quarrel + between Ben Jonson and the so-called Poetasters_; in E. Koelbing, + _Forschungen zur englischen Sprache und Litteratur_, pt. i. (1899). + See also three articles _John Marston als Dramatiker_, by Ph. + Aronstein in _Englische Studien_ (vols. xx. and xxi., 1895), and + "Quellenstudien zu den Dramen Ben Jonsons, John Marstons ..." by Emil + Koeppel (_Münchener Beiträge zur roman. und engl. Philologie_, pt. xi. + 1895). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Hist. of Eng. Poetry_, iii. 70. + + [2] Revived at Drury Lane (1751) as _The Prentices_, in 1775 as _Old + City Manners_, and said to have suggested Hogarth's "Industrious and + Idle Prentices." + + + + +MARSTON, PHILIP BOURKE (1850-1887), English poet, was born in London on +the 13th of August 1850. His father, JOHN WESTLAND MARSTON (1819-1890), +of Lincolnshire origin, the friend of Dickens, Macready and Charles +Kean, was the author of a series of metrical dramas which held the stage +in succession to the ambitious efforts of John Tobin, Talfourd, Bulwer +and Sheridan Knowles. His chief plays were _The Patrician's Daughter_ +(1841), _Strathmore_ (1849), _A Hard Struggle_ (1858) and _Donna Diana_ +(1863). He was looked up to as the upholder of the outworn tradition of +the acted poetic drama, but his plays showed little vitality, and +Marston's reviews for the _Athenaeum_, including one of Swinburne's +_Atalanta in Calydon_, and his dramatic criticisms embodied in _Our +Recent Actors_ (1888) will probably claim a more enduring reputation. +His _Dramatic and Poetical Works_ were collected in 1876. The son, +Philip Bourke, was born in a literary atmosphere. His sponsors were +Philip James Bailey and Dinah Mulock (Mrs Craik). At his father's house +near Chalk Farm he met authors and actors of his father's generation, +and subsequently the Rossettis, Swinburne, Arthur O'Shaughnessy and +Irving. From his earliest years his literary precocity was overshadowed +by misfortunes. In his fourth year, in part owing to an accident, his +sight began to decay, and he gradually became almost totally blind. His +mother died in 1870. His _fiancée_, Mary Nesbit, died in 1871; his +closest friend, Oliver Madox Brown, in 1874; his sister Cicely, his +amanuensis, in 1878; in 1879 his remaining sister, Eleanor, who was +followed to the grave after a brief interval by her husband, the poet +O'Shaughnessy, and her two children. In 1882 the death of his chief +poetic ally and inspirer, Rossetti, was followed closely by the tragedy +of another kindred spirit, the sympathetic pessimist, James Thomson ("B. +V."), who was carried dying from his blind friend's rooms, where he had +sought refuge from his latest miseries early in June of the same year. +It is said that Marston came to dread making new friendships, for fear +of evil coming to the recipients of his affection. In the face of such +calamities it is not surprising that Marston's verse became more and +more sorrowful and melancholy. The idylls of flower-life, such as the +early and very beautiful "The Rose and the Wind" were succeeded by +dreams of sleep and the repose of death. These qualities and gradations +of feeling, reflecting the poet's successive ideals of action and +quiescence, are traceable through his three published collections, +_Songtide_ (1871), _All in All_ (1875) and _Wind Voices_ (1883). The +first and third, containing his best work, went out of print, but +Marston's verse was collected in 1892 by Mrs Louise Chandler Moulton, a +loyal and devoted friend, and herself a poet. Marston read little else +but poetry; and of poetic values, especially of the intenser order, his +judgment could not be surpassed in sensitiveness. He was saturated with +Rossetti and Swinburne, and his imitative power was remarkable. In his +later years he endeavoured to make money by writing short stories in +_Home Chimes_ and other American magazines, through the agency of Mrs +Chandler Moulton. His popularity in America far exceeded that in his own +country. His health showed signs of collapse from 1883; in January 1887 +he lost his voice, and suffered intensely from the failure to make +himself understood. He died on the 13th of February 1887. + + He was commemorated in Dr Gordon Hake's "Blind Boy," and in a fine + sonnet by Swinburne, beginning "The days of a man are threescore years + and ten." There is an intimate sketch of the blind poet by a friend, + Mr Coulson Kernahan, in _Sorrow and Song_ (1894), p. 127. (T. Se.) + + + + +MARSTON MOOR, BATTLE OF, was fought on the 2nd of July 1644 on a moor +(now enclosed) seven miles west of York, between the Royalist army under +Prince Rupert and the Parliamentary and Scottish armies under the earl +of Manchester, Lord Fairfax and Lord Leven. For the operations that +preceded the battle see GREAT REBELLION. Rupert had relieved York and +joined forces with the marquess of Newcastle's army that had defended +that city, and the Parliamentarians and Scots who had besieged it had +drawn off south-westward followed by the Royalists. On the morning of +the 2nd of July, however, Rupert's attack on their rearguard forced them +to halt and deploy on rising ground on the south edge of the moor, their +position being defined on the right and left by Long Marston and +Tockwith and divided from the Royalist army on the moor by a lane +connecting these two villages. The respective forces were--Royalists +about 18,000, Parliamentarians and Scots about 27,000. The armies stood +front to front. On the Royalist right was half the cavalry under Rupert; +the infantry was in the centre in two lines and the left wing of cavalry +was under General (Lord) Goring. The lane along the front was held by +skirmishers. On the other side the cavalry of the Eastern Association +under Lieut.-General Cromwell and that of the Scots under Major-General +Leslie (Lord Newark) formed the left, the infantry of the Eastern +Association under Major-General Crawford, of the Scots under Lord Leven, +and of the Yorkshire Parliamentarians under Lord Fairfax was in the +centre and the Yorkshire cavalry under Sir Thomas Fairfax was on the +right wing. + +During the afternoon there was a desultory cannonade, but neither side +advanced. At last, concluding from movements in the enemy's lines that +there would be no fighting that day, Rupert and Newcastle strolled away +to their coaches and their soldiers dismounted and lay down to rest. But +seeing this Cromwell instantly advanced his wing to the attack (5 p.m.). +His dragoons drove away the skirmishers along the lane, and the line +cavalry crossed into the moor. The general forward movement spread along +the Parliamentary line from left to right, the Eastern Association +infantry being the first to cross the road. In Rupert's momentary +absence, the surprised Royalist cavalry could make no head against +Cromwell's charge, although the latter was only made piecemeal as each +unit crossed the lane and formed to the front. Rupert soon galloped up +with his fresh second line and drove back Cromwell's men, Cromwell +himself being wounded, but Leslie and the Scots Cavalry, taking ground +to their left, swung in upon Rupert's flank, and after a hard struggle +the hitherto unconquered cavalry of the prince was broken and routed. +Then, being unlike other cavalry of the time, a thoroughly disciplined +force, the Eastern Association cavalry rallied, leaving the pursuit to +the Scots light horse. On the Parliamentary right, Goring had swept away +the Yorkshire horse, and although most of his troopers had followed in +disorderly pursuit, Sir Charles Lucas with some squadrons was attacking +the exposed right of Leven's infantry. At the same time the +Parliamentary infantry had mostly crossed the lane and was fighting at +close quarters and suffering severely, Newcastle's north-country +"White-Coat" brigade driving back and finally penetrating their centre. +Lord Leven gave up the battle as lost and rode away to Tadcaster. But +the Scots on the right of the foot held firm against Lucas's attacks, +and Cromwell and Leslie with their cavalry passed along the rear of the +Royal army, guided by Sir Thomas Fairfax (who though wounded in the rout +of his Yorkshire horse had made his way to the other flank). Then, on +the ground where Goring had routed Fairfax, Cromwell and Leslie won an +easy victory over Goring's scattered and disordered horsemen. The +Eastern Association infantry had followed the horse and was now in rear +of the Royalists. The original Parliamentary centre of foot, a remnant, +but one containing only the bravest and steadiest men, held fast, and +soon the Royalist infantry was broken up into isolated regiments and +surrounded by the victorious horse and foot of the enemy. The +White-Coats retreated into an enclosure and there defended themselves to +the last man. The rest were cut down on the field or scattered in the +pursuit and at nightfall the Royalist army had ceased to exist. Some of +Rupert's foot regiments made their way to York, but the dispirited +garrison only held out for a fortnight. Rupert rallied some six thousand +of the men and escaped over the hills into Lancashire, thence rejoining +King Charles in the south. But the Northern army, the main hope of the +Royalist cause, was destroyed. + + + + +MARSUPIALIA (from Lat. _marsupium_, a "pouch," or "bag"), the group of +mammals in which the young are usually carried for some time after birth +in a pouch on the under-surface of the body of the female. The group, +which has also the alternative title of Didelphia, is by some +authorities regarded as a sub-class of the mammalia of equal rank with +the Monotremata, while by others it is brigaded with the placentals, so +that the two together form a sub-class of equal grade with the one +represented by the monotremes. There is much to be urged in favour of +either view; and in adopting the former alternative, it must be borne in +mind that the difference between monotremes and marsupials is vastly +greater than that which separates the latter from placentals. In +elevating the marsupials to the rank of a sub-class the name Metatheria +has been suggested as the title for the higher grade, with Marsupialia +as the designation for the single order by which they are now +represented. It is, however, less liable to cause confusion, and in many +other ways more convenient to employ the better known term Marsupialia +in both senses. + +Marsupials may be defined as viviparous (that is non-egg-laying) +mammals, in which the young are born in an imperfect condition, and +almost immediately attached to the teats of the mammary glands; the +latter being generally enclosed in a pouch, and the front edge of the +pelvis being always furnished with epipubic or "marsupial" bones. As a +rule there is no allantoic placenta forming the means of communication +between the blood of the parent and the foetus, and when such a +structure does occur its development is incomplete. In all cases a more +or less full series of teeth is developed, these being differentiated +into incisors, canines, premolars and molars, when all are present; but +only a single pair of teeth in each jaw has deciduous predecessors. + +The pouch from which the marsupials take their name is supported by the +two epipubic bones, but does not correspond to the temporary +breeding-pouch of the monotremes. It may open either forward or +backwards; and although present in the great majority of the species, +and enclosing the teats, it may, as in many of the opossums, be +completely absent, when the teats extend in two rows along the whole +length of the under-surface of the body. Whether a pouch is present or +not, the young are born in an exceedingly imperfect state of +development, after a very short period of gestation, and are immediately +transferred by the female parent to the teats, where they remain firmly +attached for a considerable time; the milk being injected into their +mouths at intervals by means of a special muscle which compresses the +glands. In the case of the great grey kangaroo, for instance, the period +of gestation is less than forty days, and the newly-born embryo, which +is blind, naked, and unable to use its bud-like limbs, is little more +than an inch in length. + + As additional features of the sub-class may be mentioned the absence + of a corpus callosum connecting the right and left hemispheres of the + brain,[1] and of a fossa in the septum between the two auricles of the + heart. In the skull there are always vacuities, or unossified spaces + in the bones of the palate, while the "angle," or lower hind extremity + of each half of the lower jaw is strongly bent inwards so as to form a + kind of shelf, and the alisphenoid bone takes a share in the formation + of the tympanum, or auditory bladder, or bulla. Didelphia, the + alternative name of the group was given in allusion to the + circumstance that the uterus has two separate openings; while other + features are the inclusion of the openings of the alimentary canal and + the urino-genital sinus in a common sphincter muscle, and the position + of the scrotum in advance of the penis. The bandicoots alone possess a + placenta. Lastly the number of trunk-vertebrae is always nineteen, + while there are generally thirteen pairs of ribs. + + As regards the teeth, in all cases except the wombats the number of + upper incisors differs from that of the corresponding lower teeth. As + already stated, there is no vertical displacement and succession of + the functional teeth except in the case of a single tooth on each side + of each jaw, which is the third of the premolar series, and is + preceded by a tooth having more or less of the characters of a molar + (see fig. 1). In some cases (as in rat-kangaroos) this tooth retains + its place and function until the animal has nearly, if not quite, + attained its full stature, and is not shed and replaced by its + successor until after all the other teeth, including the molars, are + in place and use. In others, as the thylacine, it is rudimentary, + being shed or absorbed before any of the other teeth have cut the gum, + and therefore functionless. It may be added that there are some + marsupials, such as the wombat, koala, marsupial ant-eater and the + dasyures, in which no such deciduous tooth, even in a rudimentary + state, has been discovered. In addition to this replacement of a + single pair of functional teeth in each jaw, it has been discovered + that marsupials possess rudimentary tooth-germs which never cut the + gum. According to one theory, these rudimentary teeth, together with + the one pair of functional teeth in each jaw that has vertical + successors, represent the milk-teeth of placental mammals. On the + other hand, there are those who believe that the functional dentition + (other than the replacing premolar and the molars) correspond to the + milk-dentition of placentals, and that the rudimentary tooth-germs + represent a "prelacteal" dentition. The question, however, is of + academic rather than of practical interest, and whichever way it is + answered does not affect our general conception of the nature and + relationships of the group. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Teeth of Upper Jaw of Opossum (_Didelphys + marsupialis_), all of which are unchanged, except the third premolar, + the place of which is occupied in the young animal by a molariform + tooth, represented in the figure below the line of the other teeth.] + + Unfortunately the homology of the functional series does not by any + means end the uncertainty connected with the marsupial dentition; as + there is also a difference of opinion with regard to the serial + homology of some of the cheek-teeth. For instance, according to the + older view, the dental formula in the thylacine or Tasmanian wolf is + i. 4/3, c, 1/1 p. 3/3, m. 4/4 = 46. On the other hand, in the opinion + of the present writer, this formula, so far as the cheek-teeth are + concerned, should be altered to p. 4/4, m. 3/3, thus bringing it in + accord, so far as these teeth are concerned, with the placental + formula, and making the single pair of replacing teeth the third + premolars. It may be added that the formula given above shows that the + marsupial dentition may comprise more teeth than the 44 which form the + normal full placental complement. + +As regards geographical distribution, existing marsupials, with the +exception of two families, _Didelphyidae_ and _Epanorthidae_, are mainly +limited to the Australian region, forming the chief mammalian fauna of +Australia, New Guinea, and some of the adjacent islands. The +_Didelphyidae_ are almost exclusively Central and South American, only +one or two species ranging into North America. Fossil remains of members +of this family have also been found in Europe in strata of the Oligocene +period. + +_History._--The origin and evolution of the Australian marsupials have +been discussed by Mr B. A. Bensley. In broad contrast to the views of Dr +A. R. Wallace, this author is of opinion that marsupials did not effect +an entrance into Australia till about the middle of the Tertiary period, +their ancestors being probably opossums of the American type. They were +then arboreal; but they speedily entered upon a rapid, although +short-lived, course of evolution, during which leaping terrestrial forms +like the kangaroos were developed. The short period of this evolution is +at least one factor in the primitive grade of even the most specialized +members of the group. In the advance of their molar teeth from a +tritubercular to a grinding type, the author traces a curious +parallelism between marsupials and placentals. Taking opossums to have +been the ancestors of the group, the author considers that the present +writer may be right in his view that marsupials entered Australia from +Asia by way of New Guinea. On the other hand there is nothing absolutely +decisive against their origin being southern. + +Again, taking as a text Mr L. Dollo's view that marsupials were +originally arboreal, that, on account of their foot-structure, they +could not have been the ancestors of placentals, and that they +themselves are degenerate placentals, Mr Bensley contrasts this with +Huxley's scheme of mammalian evolution. According to the latter, the +early monotremes which became specialized into modern monotremes, gave +rise to the ancestors of the modern marsupials; while the modern +placentals are likewise an offshoot from the ancestral marsupial stock. +This phylogeny, the author thinks, is the most probable of all. It is +urged that the imperfect placenta of the bandicoots instead of being +vestigial, may be an instance of parallelism, and that in marsupials +generally the allantois failed to form a placental connexion. Owing to +the antiquity of both placentals and marsupials, the arboreal character +of the feet of the modern forms of the latter is of little importance. +Further, it is considered that too much weight has been assigned to the +characters distinguishing monotremes from other mammals, foetal +marsupials showing a monotreme type of coracoid, while it is probable +that in the long run it will be found impossible to maintain the +essential dissimilarity between the milk-glands of monotremes and other +mammals. + +Another view is to regard both marsupials and placentals as derivates +from implacental ancestors more or less nearly related to the creodont +carnivora, or possibly as independently descended from anomodont +reptiles (see CREODONTA). Finally, there is the hypothesis that +marsupials are the descendants of placentals, in which case, as was +suggested by its discoverer, the placenta of the bandicoots would be a +true vestigial structure. + + +_Classification._ + +Existing marsupials may be divided into three main divisions or +sub-orders, of which the first, or Polyprotodontia, is common to America +and Australasia; the second, or Paucituberculata, is exclusively South +American; while the third, or Diprotodonts, is as solely Australasian +inclusive of a few in the eastern Austro-Malayan islands. + + 1. _Polyprotodonts._--The Polyprotodonts are characterized by their + numerous, small, sub-equal incisors, of which there are either five or + four pairs in the upper and always three in the lower jaw, (fig. 2) + and the generally strong and large canines, as well as by the presence + of from four to five sharp cusps or tubercles on the crown of the + molars. The pouch is often absent, and may open backwards. For the + most part the species are carnivorous or insectivorous. + + [Illustration: From Flower, _Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc._ + + FIG. 2.--Front View of Skull of the Tasmanian Devil (_Sarcophilus + ursinus_) to exhibit polyprotodont type of dentition.] + + The first family is that of the true or American + opossums--_Didelphyidae_, in which there are five pairs of upper + incisors, while the feet are of the presumed primitive arboreal type, + the hind foot having the four outer toes sub-equal and separate, with + the first opposable to them all. With the exception of the + water-opossum, forming the genus _Chironectes_, all the living members + of the family may be included in the genus _Didelphys_. The latter + may, however, be split up into several sub-generic groups, such as + _Metachirus_, _Philander_, _Marmosa_ (_Micoureus_ or _Grymaeomys_), + _Peramys_, _Dromiciops_, &c. The small South American forms included + in _Marmosa_, which lack the pouch, and have numerous teats, and molar + teeth of a primitive type, are doubtless the most generalized + representatives of the group (see OPOSSUM; and WATER-OPOSSUM). + + Nearly allied is the Australian family _Dasyuridae_, characterized by + the presence of only four pairs of upper incisors, the generally small + and rudimentary condition of the first hind toe, which can but seldom + be opposed to the rest, and the absence of prehensile power in the + tail; the pouch being either present or absent, and the fore feet + always five-toed. The stomach is simple, and there is no caecum to the + intestine, although this is present in the opossums. + + The largest representative of the family is the Tasmanian wolf, or + thylacine, alone representing the genus _Thylacinus_, in which the + dentition numbers i. 4/3, c. 1/1, p. 4/4, m. 3/3 = 46; with the + incisors small and vertical, the outer one in the upper jaw being + larger than the others. Summits of the lower incisors, before they are + worn, with a deep transverse groove, dividing it into an anterior and + a posterior cusp. Canines long, strong and conical. Premolars with + compressed crowns, increasing in size from before backwards. Molars in + general characters resembling those of _Sarcophilus_, but of more + simple form, the cusps being less distinct and not so sharply pointed. + Deciduous molar very small, and shed before the animal leaves the + mother's pouch. General form dog-like, with the head elongated, the + muzzle pointed, and the ears moderate, erect and triangular. Fur short + and closely applied to the skin. Tail of moderate length, thick at the + base and tapering towards the apex, clothed with short hair. First + hind toe (including the metacarpal bone) absent. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. + 13, L. 6, S. 2, Ca. 23. Marsupial bones unossified. The gradual + passage of the thick root of the tail into the body is a character + common to the Tasmanian wolf and the aard-vark, and may be directly + inherited from reptilian ancestors (see THYLACINE). + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--The Tasmanian Wolf, or Thylacine (_Thylacinus + cynocephalus_).] + + The next genus is represented solely by the Tasmanian devil, + _Sarcophilus_ (or _Diabolus_) _ursinus_, a medium-sized animal with a + dental formula similar to that of the dasyures, but with teeth (fig. + 2) approximating to those of the thylacine, though markedly different + in details. The first hind toe is absent. + + In the "native cats," or dasyures, constituting the genus _Dasyurus_, + the dental formula is i. 4/3, c. 1/1, p. 3/3, m. 3/3: total 42. The + upper incisors are nearly equal and vertical, with the first slightly + longer, narrower, and separated from the rest. Lower incisors sloping + forward and upward. Canines large and sharply pointed. First two + premolars with compressed and sharp-pointed crowns, and slightly + developed anterior and posterior accessory basal cusps. Molars with + numerous sharp-pointed cusps. In the upper jaw the first two with + crowns having a triangular free surface; the last small, simple, + narrow and placed transversely. In the lower jaw the molars more + compressed, with longer cusps; the last not notably smaller than the + others. Ears of moderate size, prominent and obtusely pointed. First + hind toe rudimentary, clawless or absent; its metatarsal bone always + present. Tail generally long and well clothed with hair. Vertebrae: C. + 7, D. 13, L. 6, S. 2, Ca. 18-20 (see DASYURE). + + The genus _Phascologale_ comprises a number of small marsupials, none + exceeding a rat in size, differing from the dasyures in possessing an + additional premolar--the dentition being i. 4/3, c. 1/1, p. 4/4, m. + 3/3: total 46--and in having the teeth generally developed upon an + insectivorous rather than a carnivorous pattern, the upper middle + incisors being larger and inclined forward, the canines relatively + smaller, and the molars with broad crowns, armed with prickly + tubercles. The muzzle is pointed. Ears moderately rounded, and nearly + naked. Fore feet with five sub-equal toes, with compressed, slightly + curved pointed claws. Hind feet with the four outer toes sub-equal, + with claws similar to those in the fore feet; the first toe almost + always distinct and partially opposable, though small and nailless, + sometimes absent. + + In some respects intermediate between the preceding and the next genus + is _Dasyuroides byrnei_, of Central Australia, an animal of the size + of a rat, with one lower premolar less than in _Phascologale_, without + the first hind toe, and with a somewhat thickened tail. The pouch is + incomplete, with two lateral folds, and the number of teats six. + + _Sminthopsis_ includes several very small species, with the same + dental formula as _Phascologale_, but distinguished from that genus by + the narrowness of the hind foot, in which the first toe is present, + and the granulated or hairy (in place of broad, smooth and naked) + soles. A pouch is present, and there are eight or ten teats. Nearly + allied is the jumping _Antechinomys laniger_, of East Central + Australia, an elegant mouse-like creature, with large oval ears, + elongated limbs, a long and tufted tail and no first hind toe. In + connexion with the large size of the ears is the excessive inflation + of the auditory bulla of the skull. + + From all other members of the family the marsupial, or banded, + ant-eater (_Myrmecobius fasciatus_) differs by the presence of more + than seven pairs of cheek-teeth in each jaw, as well as by the + exceedingly long and protrusile tongue. Hence it is made the type of a + distinct sub-family, the _Myrmecobiinae_, as distinct from the + _Dasyurinae_, which includes all the other members of the family. From + the number of its cheek-teeth, the banded ant-eater has been regarded + as related to some of the primitive Jurassic mammals; but this view is + disputed by Mr Bensley, who regards this multiplicity of teeth as a + degenerate feature. On the other hand, it is noteworthy that this + marsupial retains in its lower jaw the so-called mylo-hyoid groove, + which is found in the aforesaid Jurassic mammals. _Myrmecobius_ has a + total of 52 or 54 teeth, which may be classed as i. 4/3, c. 1/1, p. + + m. (8 or 9)/(8 or 9). The teeth are all small and (except the four + posterior inferior molars) separated from each other by an interval. + Head elongated, but broad behind; muzzle long and pointed; ears of + moderate size, ovate and rather pointed. Fore-feet with five toes, all + having strong pointed, compressed claws, the second, third and fourth + nearly equal, the fifth somewhat and the first considerably shorter. + Hind-feet with no trace of first toe externally, but the metatarsal + bone is present. Tail long, clothed with long hairs. Fur rather harsh + and bristly. Female without pouch, the young when attached to the + nipples being concealed by the long hair of the abdomen. Vertebrae: C. + 7, D. 13, L. 6, S. 3, Ca. 23. The single species, which is a native of + western and southern Australia, is about the size of an English + squirrel, to which its long bushy tail gives it some resemblance; but + it lives entirely on the ground, especially in sterile sandy + districts, feeding on ants. Its prevailing colour is chestnut-red, but + the hinder part of the back is marked with broad, white, transverse + bands on a dark ground. + + [Illustration: From Gould. + + FIG. 4.--The Marsupial or Banded Ant-eater (_Myrmecobius fasciatus_).] + + With the bandicoots, or _Peramelidae_, we come to a family of + polyprotodonts which resemble the diprotodonts in the peculiarly + specialized structure of their hind limbs; an adaptation which we must + apparently regard as having been independently acquired in the two + groups. The dentition is i. 5/3, c. 1/1, p. 4/4, m. 3/3; total, 48; + the upper incisors being small, with short, broad crowns; the lower + incisors moderate, narrow, proclivous; canines well developed. + Premolars compressed, pointed; and the molars with quadrate + tuberculated crowns. Deciduous premolar preceded by a minute + molariform tooth, which remains in place until the animal is nearly + full grown. Fore feet with two or three of the middle toes of nearly + equal size, and provided with strong, sharp, slightly curved claws, + the other toes rudimentary. Hind feet long and narrow; the first toe + rudimentary or absent; the second and third very slender and united in + a common integument; the fourth very large, with a stout elongated + conical claw; the fifth smaller than the fourth (see fig. 6). The + terminal phalanges of the large toes of both feet cleft at their + extremities. Head elongated, with the muzzle long, narrow and pointed. + Stomach simple. Caecum of moderate size. Pouch complete, generally + opening backwards. Alone among marsupials bandicoots have no + clavicles. More remarkable still is the development of a small + allantoic placenta. + + [Illustration: From Gould. + + FIG. 5.--Gunn's Bandicoot (_Perameles gunni_).] + + In the true bandicoots of the genus _Perameles_ (fig. 5) the fore-feet + have the three middle toes well developed, the third slightly larger + than the second, the fourth somewhat shorter, provided with long, + strong, slightly curved, pointed claws. First and fifth toes very + short and without claws. Hind feet with one or two phalanges, in the + first toe forming a distinct tubercle visible externally; the second + and third toes very slender, of equal length, joined as far as the + terminal phalange, but with distinct claws; the fifth intermediate in + length between these and the largely developed fourth toe. Ears of + moderate or small size, ovate, pointed. Tail rather short, clothed + with short depressed hairs. Fur short and harsh. Pouch opening + backwards. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13, L. 6, S. 1, Ca. 17. (see + BANDICOOT.) + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Skeleton of Hind Foot of _Choeropus + castanotis_. + + c, calcanium; a, astralagus; cb, cuboid; n. navicular; c³, + ectocuneiform; II. and III. the conjoined second and third digits; IV. + the large and only functional digit; V. the rudimentary fifth digit.] + + The rabbit-bandicoot, _Peragale_ (or _Thylacomys_) represents a genus + in which the cheek-teeth are curved, with longer crowns and shorter + roots than in the last. Hind extremities proportionally longer with + inner toe represented only by a small metatarsal bone. Muzzle much + elongated and narrow. Fur soft and silky. Ears very large, long and + pointed. Tail long, its apical half-clothed on the dorsal surface with + long hairs. Pouch opening forwards. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13, L. 6, S. + 2, Ca. 23. + + The one species, from Western Australia, is the largest member of the + family, being about the size of a rabbit, to which it bears sufficient + superficial resemblance to have acquired the name of "native rabbit" + from the colonists. It burrows in the ground, but in other respects + resembles bandicoots in habits. + + In the pig-footed bandicoot (_Choeropus castanotis_) the dentition + generally resembles that of _Perameles_, but the canines are less + developed, and in the upper jaw two-rooted. Limbs very slender; + posterior nearly twice the length of the anterior. Fore feet with the + functional toes reduced to two, the second and third, of equal length, + with closely united metacarpals and short, sharp, slightly curved, + compressed claws. First toe represented by a minute rudiment of a + metacarpal bone; the fourth by a metacarpal and two small phalanges + without a claw, and not reaching the middle of the metacarpal of the + third; fifth entirely absent. Hind foot long and narrow, mainly + composed of the strongly developed fourth toe, terminating in a + conical pointed nail, with a strong pad behind it; the first toe + represented by a rudimentary metatarsal; the remaining toes completely + developed, with claws, but exceedingly slender; the united second and + third reaching a little way beyond the metatarso-phalangeal + articulation of the fourth; the fifth somewhat shorter. Tail not quite + so long as the body, and covered with short hairs. Ears large and + pointed, and folded down when the animal is at rest. Fur soft and + loose. Pouch opening backwards. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13, L. 6, S. 1, + Ca. 20. + + The only species of this genus is about the size of a small rat, found + in the interior of Australia. Its general habits and food appear to + resemble those of other bandicoots. A separate family, _Notoryctidae_, + is represented by the marsupial mole (_Notoryctes typhlops_), of the + deserts of south Central Australia, a silky, golden-haired, burrowing + creature, with a curious leathery muzzle, and a short, naked stumpy + tail. The limbs are five-toed, with the third and fourth toes of the + front pair armed with enormous digging claws; there are no external + ear-conchs; and the dentition includes four pairs of upper, and three + of lower, incisors, and distinctly tritubercular cheek-teeth. The + small pouch, supported by the usual epipubic bones, opens backwards. + In correlation with its burrowing habits, some of the vertebrae of the + neck and of the loins are respectively welded together. The eyes have + degenerated to a greater extent than those of any other burrowing + mammal, the retina being reduced to a mass of simple cells, and the + cornea and sclerotic ("white") to a pear-shaped fibrous capsule + enclosing a ball of pigment. The reason for this extreme degeneration + is probably to be found in the sandy nature of the soil in which the + creature burrows, a substance which would evidently irritate and + inflame any functional remnant of an eye. The portion of the lachrymal + duct communicating with the cavity of the nose has, on the other hand, + been abnormally developed, apparently for the purpose of cleansing + that chamber from particles of sand which may obtain an entrance while + the animal is burrowing. (See MARSUPIAL MOLE.) + + [Illustration: From Gould. + + FIG. 7.--The Pig-footed Bandicoot (_Choeropus castanotis_).] + + [Illustration: After Thomas. + + FIG. 8.--Skull of _Caenolestes obscurus_.] + + 2. _Paucituberculates._--The second sub-order of marsupials, the + Paucituberculata, is exclusively South American, and typically + represented by the family _Epanorthidae_, the majority of the members + of which are extinct, their remains being found in the probably + Miocene Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia, although one existing genus + (_Caenolestes_) survives in Ecuador and Colombia. One of the two + living species was, indeed, described so long ago as the year 1863, + under the preoccupied name of _Hyracodon_, but attracted little or no + attention, as its affinities were not fully recognized. Externally + _Caenolestes_ has a shrew-like appearance. The elongated skull (fig. + 8) has four pairs of upper incisors and long upper canines, while in + the lower jaw there is a single pair of procumbent incisors, followed + by several small teeth representing the canine and earlier premolars. + The three pairs of molars in each jaw are, like the last premolar, + quadritubercular oblong teeth. The five-toed feet are of normal + structure, and the rat-like tail is prehensile towards the tip. The + female has a small pouch. The extinct members of the family are + represented by the genera _Epanorthus_, _Acdestis_, _Garzonia_, &c. In + a second family--_Abderitidae_--also from the Patagonian Miocene, the + penultimate premolar is developed into an enormous tooth, with a tall, + secant and grooved crown, somewhat after the fashion of the enlarged + premolar of _Plagiaulax_. From the structure of the skull, it is + thought probable that _Abderites_ had an elongated snout, like that of + many Insectivora. As a sub-order, the Paucituberculata are + characterized by the presence of four pairs of upper and three of + lower incisor teeth; the enlargement and forward inclination of the + first pair of lower incisors, and the presence of four or five sharp + cusps on the cheek-teeth, coupled with the absence of "syndactylism" + in the hind limbs. + + [Illustration: From Flower, _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ + + FIG. 9.--Front view of Skull of the Koala (Phascolarctus cinereus) to + exhibit Diprotodont type of dentition.] + + 3. _Diprotodonts._--The third and last sub-order of marsupials is the + Diprotodontia, which is exclusively Australasian and includes the + wombats, koala, cuscuses, kangaroos and their relatives. There are + never more than three pairs of upper and one of lower incisors, of + which the middle upper and the single lower pair are large and + chisel-like (fig. 9); the canines are small or absent; the cheek-teeth + have bluntly tuberculate or transversely-ridged crowns in most cases; + and the hind-feet are syndactylous. With one exception, the intestine + has a caecum, and the pouch is large and opens forwards. It should be + added that Professor Elliot Smith has pointed out a certain + peculiarity in its commissures whereby the brain of the diprotodonts + differs markedly from that of the polyprotodonts and approximates to + the placental type. Dr Einar Lönnberg has also recorded certain + adaptive peculiarities in the stomach. Most of the species, + particularly the specialized types, are more or less completely + herbivorous. + + The first family, _Phascolomyidae_, is typified by the wombats; but + according to the view adopted by Mr H. Winge, and endorsed by + Professor Max Weber, is also taken to include the koala. In this wider + sense the family may be characterized as follows. The tympanic process + of the alisphenoid bone of the skull is short, not covering the cavity + of the tympanum, nor reaching the paroccipital process. The tail is + rudimentary, the first hind-toe opposable, the first pair of upper + incisors very large, but the second and third either absent or small + and placed partially behind the larger pair; and only five pairs of + cheek-teeth in each jaw. The stomach has a cardiac gland, and the + number of teats is two. + + In the wombats (_Phascolomys_) the dentition is i. 1/1, c. 0/0, p. + + m. 5/5, total 24; all the teeth growing from persistent pulps, and the + incisors large and chisel-like, with enamel only on the front surface. + The cheek-teeth strongly curved, forming from the base to the summit + about a quarter of a circle, the concavity being directed outwards in + the upper and inwards in the lower teeth. The first of the series + (which appears to have no predecessor) single-lobed; the other four + composed of two lobes, each subtriangular in section. Limbs equal, + stout and short. Fore-feet with five distinct toes, each furnished + with a long, strong and slightly curved nail, the first and fifth + considerably shorter than the other three. Hind-feet with a very short + nailless first toe, the second, third and fourth toes partially united + by integument, of nearly equal length, the fifth distinct and rather + shorter; all four with long and curved nails. In the skeleton the + second and third toes are distinctly more slender than the fourth, + showing a tendency towards the character so marked in the following + families. Tail rudimentary. Caecum very short and wide, with a + vermiform appendage (see WOMBAT). + + In addition to remains referable to the existing genus, the + Pleistocene deposits of Australia have yielded evidence of an extinct + giant wombat constituting the genus _Phascolonus_ (_Sceparnodon_). + + The koala, or "native bear" (_Phascolarctus cinereus_), which differs + widely from the wombats in its arboreal habits, is less specialized as + regards its dentition, of which the formula is i. 3/1, c. 1/0, p. + m. + 5/5, total 30. Upper incisors crowded together, cylindroidal, the + first much larger than the others, with a bevelled cutting edge (fig. + 9). Canine very small; a considerable interval between it and the + first premolar, which is as long from before backwards but not so + broad as the molars, and has a cutting edge, with a smaller parallel + inner ridge. The molar-like teeth slightly diminishing in size from + the first to the fourth, with square crowns, each bearing four + pyramidal cusps. The lower incisors are partially inclined forwards, + compressed and tapering, bevelled at the ends. Cheek-teeth in + continuous series, as in the upper jaw. Fore-feet with the two inner + toes slightly separated from and opposable to the remaining three, all + with strong curved and much compressed claws. Hind-foot (fig. 10) with + the first toe placed far back, large and broad, the second and third + (united) toes considerably smaller than the other two; the fourth the + largest. No external tail. Fur dense and woolly. Ears of moderate + size, thickly clothed with long hair. Caecum very long and dilated, + with numerous folds. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 11, L. 8, S. 2, Ca. 8. Ribs + eleven pairs (see KOALA). + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Skeleton of Right Hind-Foot of Koala + (_Phascolarctus cinereus_), showing stout opposable hallux, followed + by two slender toes, which in the living animal are enclosed as far as + the nails in a common integument.] + + Here may be noticed three genera of large extinct marsupials from the + Pleistocene of Australia whose affinities appear to ally them to the + wombat-group on the one hand and to the phalangers on the other. The + longest known is _Diprotodon_, an animal of the size of a rhinoceros, + with a dental formula of i. 3/1, c. 0/0, p. 1/1, m. 4/4, total 28. The + first upper incisor very large and chisel-like, molars with prominent + transverse ridges, as in _Macropus_, but without the longitudinal + connecting ridge. Complete skeletons disinterred by Dr E. C. Stirling + indicate that in the structure of the feet this creature presents + resemblances both to the wombats and the phalangers, but is nearer to + the former than to the latter. On the other hand, the considerably + smaller _Nototherium_, characterized by its sharp and broad skull and + smaller incisors, seems to have been much more wombat-like, and may + perhaps have possessed similar burrowing habits. + + [Illustration: From Flower, Quart. _Journ. Geol. Soc._ + + FIG. 11.--Front view of Skull of _Thylacoleo carnifex_, restored.] + + The last of the three is _Thylacoleo carnifex_, so named on account of + its supposed carnivorous habits. In the adult the dentition (fig. 11) + is i. 3/1, c. 1/0, p. + m. 4/3, total 24. The first upper incisor is + much larger than the others; canine and first two premolars + rudimentary. In the lower jaw there are also one or two small and + early deciduous premolars; third premolars of both jaws formed on the + same type as that of the rat-kangaroos, but relatively much larger; + molars rudimentary, tubercular. The functional teeth are reduced to + one pair of large cutting incisors situated close to the middle line, + and one great, cutting, compressed premolar, on each side above and + below. As already mentioned, _Thylacoleo_ was originally regarded as a + carnivorous creature, but this view was subsequently disputed, and its + diet supposed to consist of soft roots, bulbs and fruits, with an + occasional small bird or mammal. Recently, however, the pendulum of + opinion has swung back towards the original view: and Dr R. Broom + believes _Thylacoleo_ to have been "a purely carnivorous animal, and + one which would be quite able to, and probably did, kill animals as + large or larger than itself." The affinities of the creature are + clearly with the phalangers. + + By means of the little musk-kangaroo, the cuscuses and phalangers + constituting the family _Phalangeridae_, are so closely connected with + the kangaroos, or _Macropodidae_, that in the opinion of some + naturalists they ought all to be included in a single family, with + three sub-families. Theoretically, no doubt, this is correct, but the + typical members of the two groups are so different from one another + that, as a matter of convenience, the retention of the two families + seems advisable. From the _Phascolomyidae_, the two families, which + may be collectively designated Phalangeroidea, differ by the + circumstance that in the skull the tympanic process of the alisphenoid + covers the tympanic cavity and reaches the paroccipital process. The + tail is long and in some cases prehensile; the first hind-toe may be + either large, small or absent; the dentition usually includes three + pairs of upper and one of lower incisors, and six or seven pairs of + cheek-teeth in each jaw; the stomach is either simple or sacculated, + without a cardiac gland; and there are four teats. + + With the exception of the aberrant long-snouted phalanger, the members + of the family _Phalangeridae_ have the normal number of functional + incisors, in addition to which there may be one or two rudimentary + pairs in the lower jaw. The first in the upper jaw is strong, curved + and cutting, the other two generally somewhat smaller; the single + lower functional incisor large, more or less inclined forwards; + canines 1/(1 or 0) upper small or moderate, conical and sharp-pointed; + lower absent or rudimentary; premolars variable; molars 3/3, or 2/2, + with four obtuse tubercles, sometimes forming crescents. Limbs + subequal. Fore-feet with five distinct subequal toes with claws. + Hind-feet short and broad, with five well-developed toes; the first + large, nailless and opposable; the second and third slender and united + by a common integument as far as the claws. Caecum present (except in + _Tarsipes_), and usually large. The lower jaw has no pocket on the + outer side. All are animals of small or moderate size and arboreal + habits, feeding on a vegetable or mixed diet, and inhabiting + Australia, Papua and the Moluccan Islands. + + [Illustration: From Gould. + + FIG. 12.--The Long-snouted Phalanger (_Tarsipes rostratus_).] + + As the first example of the group may be taken the elegant little + long-snouted phalanger (_Tarsipes rostratus_, fig. 12), a west + Australian creature of the size of a mouse, which may be regarded as + representing by itself a sub-family (_Tarsipediinae_), characterized + by the rudimentary teeth, the long and extensile tongue, and absence + of a caecum. The head is elongated, with a slender muzzle and the + mouth-opening small. The two lower incisors are long, very slender, + sharp-pointed and horizontally placed. All the other teeth are simple, + conical, minute and placed at considerable and irregular intervals + apart in the jaws, the number appearing to vary in different + individuals and even on different sides of the jaw of the same + individuals. The formula in one specimen was i.(2 - 2)/(1 - 1), c.(1 - + 1)/(0 - 0), p. + m.(3 - 4)/(2 - 3); total 20. The lower jaw is + slender, nearly straight, and without a coronoid process or inflected + angle. Fore-feet with five well-developed toes, carrying small, flat, + scale-like nails, not reaching the extremity of the digits. Hind-feet + rather long and slender, with a well-developed opposable and nailless + first toe; second and third digits united, with sharp, compressed + curved claws; the fourth and fifth free, with small flat nails. Ears + of moderate size and rounded. Tail longer than the body and head, + scantily clothed with short hairs, prehensile. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13, + L. 5, S. 3. Ca. 24. + + As indicated in the accompanying illustration, the long-snouted + phalanger is arboreal in habits, extracting honey and probably small + insects from long-tubed flowers by means of its extensile tongue. + + The remaining members of the family may be included in the sub family + _Phalangerinae_, characterized by the normal nature of the dentition + (which shows rudimentary lower canines) and tongue. Cuscuses and + phalangers form a numerous group, all the members of which are + arboreal, and some of which are provided with lateral expansions of + skin enabling them to glide from tree to tree like flying-squirrels. + The typical members of the group are the cuscuses (_Phalanger_), + ranging from the Moluccas and Celebes to New Guinea, in which the + males are often different in colour from the females. The true + phalangers, or opossums of the colonists, constitute the genus + _Trichosurus_, while the ring-tailed species are known as + _Pseudochirus_; the latter ranging to New Guinea. _Dactylopsila_ is + easily recognized by its attenuated fourth finger and parti-coloured + fur; the flying species are classed as _Petauroides_, _Petaurus_, + _Gymnobelideus_ and _Acrobates_, the last no larger than a mouse; + while Dromicia, _Distaechurus_ and _Acrobates_ are allied types + without parachutes (see PHALANGER). + + An equally brief notice must suffice of the kangaroo tribe or + _Macropodidae_, since these receive a special notice elsewhere. The + dentition is i.(3/1) c.(0 or 1)/0 p.(3/3) m.(3/3); the incisors being + sharp and cutting, and those of the lower jaw frequently having a + scissor-like action against one another. The broad molars are either + bluntly tuberculated or transversely ridged; the outer side of the + hind part of the lower jaw has a deep pocket; and the hind-limbs are + generally very long, with the structure of the foot similar to that of + the bandicoots. The family is connected with the _Phalangeridae_ by + means of the musk-kangaroo (_Hypsiprymnodon moschatus_); forming the + sub-family _Hypsiprymnodontinae_. Then come the rat-kangaroos, or + kangaroo-rats, constituting the sub-family _Potoroinae_; while the + tree-kangaroos (_Dendrolagus_), rock-wallabies (_Petrogale_), and + wallabies and kangaroos (_Macropus_) form the _Macropodinae_ (see + KANGAROO). + + _Extinct Marsupials_ + + Reference has been made to the Australasian Pleistocene genera + _Phascolonus_, _Diprotodon_, _Nototherium_ and _Thylacoleo_, whose + affinities are with the wombats and phalangers. The same deposits have + also yielded remains of extinct types of kangaroo, some of gigantic + size, constituting the genera _Sthenurus_, _Procoptodon_ and + _Palorchestes_. Numerous types more or less nearly allied to the + phalangers, such as _Burramys_ and _Triclis_ have also been described, + as well as a flying form, _Polaeopetaurus_. It is also interesting to + note that fossil remains indicate the former occurrence of thylacines + and Tasmanian devils on the Australian mainland. Of more interest is + the imperfectly known _Wynyardia_, from older Tertiary beds in + Tasmania, which apparently presents points of affinity both to + phalangers and dasyures. From the Oligocene deposits of France and + southern England have been obtained numerous remains of opossums + referable to the American family _Didelphyidae_. These ancient + opossums have been separated generically from _Didelphys_ (in its + widest sense) on account of certain differences in the relative sizes + of the lower premolars, but as nearly the whole of the species have + been formed on lower jaws, of which some hundreds have been found, it + is impossible to judge how far these differences are correlated with + other dental or osteological characters. In the opinion of Dr H. + Filhol, the fossils themselves represent two genera, _Peratherium_, + containing the greater part of the species, about twenty in number, + and _Amphiperatherium_, with three species only. All are comparatively + small animals, few of them exceeding the size of a rat. + + Besides these interesting European fossils, a certain number of + didelphian bones have been found in the caves of Brazil, but these are + either closely allied to or identical with the species now living in + the same region. + + The occurrence in the Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia of fossil + marsupials allied to the living _Caenolestes_ has been mentioned + above. The alleged occurrence in the same beds of marsupials allied to + the thylacine is based on remains now more generally regarded as + referable to the creodont carnivores (see CREODONTA). + + _Mesozoic Mammals._--Under the heading of MULTITUBERCULATA will be + found a brief account of certain extinct mammals from the Mesozoic + formations of Europe and North America which have been regarded as + more or less nearly related to the monotremes. The same deposits have + yielded remains of small mammals whose dentition approximates more + nearly to that of either polyprotodont marsupials or insectivores; and + these may be conveniently noticed here without prejudice to their true + affinities. Before proceeding further it may be mentioned that the + remains of many of these mammals are very scarce, even in formations + apparently in every way suitable to the preservation of such fossils, + and it hence seems probable that these creatures are stragglers from + a country where primitive small mammals were abundant. Not improbably + this country was either "Gondwana-land," connecting Mesozoic India + with Africa, or perhaps Africa itself. At any rate, there seems little + doubt that it was the region where creodonts and other primitive + mammals were first differentiated from their reptilian ancestors. + + [Illustration: From Owen. + + FIG. 13.--Lower Jaw of _Triconodon mordax_ (nat. size).] + + [Illustration: From Owen. + + FIG. 14.--Lower Jaw and Teeth of _Phascolotherium bucklandi_ (nat. + size in outline).] + + [Illustration: From Owen. + + FIG. 15.--Spalacotherium tricuspidens (twice nat. size), Purbeck + beds.] + + Of the Old World forms, the family _Triconodontidae_ is typified by + the genus _Triconodon_, from the English Purbeck, in which the + cheek-teeth carry three cutting cusps arranged longitudinally. There + seems to have been a replacement of some of these teeth; and it has + been suggested that this was of the marsupial type. To the same family + are referred _Phascolotherium_ (fig. 14), of the Lower Jurassic + Stonesfield slate of England, and _Spalacotherium_ (fig. 15), of the + Dorsetshire Purbeck; the latter having the three cusps of the + cheek-teeth rotated so as to assume a tritubercular type. Other genera + are _Menacodon_ and _Priacodon_, the former American, and the latter + common to Europe and North America. By one authority _Amphilestes_ + (fig. 16), of the Stonesfield Slate, is included in the same group, + while by a second it is regarded as representing a family by itself. + _Amphitherium_, of the Stonesfield Slate, typifies the family + _Amphitheriidae_, which includes the American _Dryolestes_, and in + which some would class the European Purbeck genus _Amblotherium_, + although Professor H. F. Osborn has made the last the type of a + distinct family. Yet another family, according to the palaeontologist + last named, is typified by the genus _Stylacodon_, of the English + Purbeck. To mention the other forms which have received names will be + unnecessary on this occasion. + + [Illustration: From Owen. + + FIG. 16.--Lower Jaw and Teeth of _Amphilestes broderipi_ (twice nat. + size).] + + It will be observed from the figures of the lower jaws, which are in + most cases the only parts known, that in many instances the number of + cheek-teeth exceeds that found in modern marsupials except + _Myrmecobius_. The latter has indeed been regarded as the direct + descendant of these Mesozoic forms; but as already stated, in the + opinion of Mr B. A. Bensley, this is incorrect. It may be added that + the division of these teeth into premolars and molars in figs. 14 and + 16 is based upon the view of Sir R. Owen, and is not altogether + trustworthy, while the restoration of some of the missing teeth is + more or less conjectural. As regards the affinities of the creatures + to which these jaws belonged, Professor Osborn has referred the + _Triconodontidae_ and _Amphitheriidae_, together with the + Curtodontidae (as represented by the English Purbeck _Curtodon_), to a + primitive group of marsupials, while he has assigned the + _Amblotheriidae_ and _Stylacodontidae_ to an ancestral assemblage of + Insectivora. On the other hand, in the opinion of Professor H. Winge, + a large number of these creatures are primitive monotremes. Besides + the above, in the Trias of North America we have _Dromotherium_ and + _Microconodon_, extremely primitive forms, representing the family + _Dromotheriidae_, and apparently showing decided traces of reptilian + affinity. It may be added that a few traces of mammals have been + obtained from the English Wealden, among which an incisor tooth + foreshadows the rodent type. + + AUTHORITIES.--The above article is partly based on that by Sir W. H. + Flower in the 9th edition of this work. See also O. Thomas, Catalogue + of Monotremata and Marsupialia in the British Museum (1888); "On + _Caenolestes_, a Survivor of the _Epanorthidae," Proc. Zool. Soc. + London_ (1895); J. D. Ogilby, Catalogue of Australian Mammals (Sydney, + 1895); B. A. Bensley, "A Theory of the Origin and Evolution of the + Australian Marsupialia," _American Naturalist_ (1901); "On the + Evolution of the Australian Marsupialia, &c.," _Trans. Linn. Soc._ + (vol. ix., 1903); L. Dollo, "Arboreal Ancestry of Marsupials," + _Miscell. Biologiques_ (Paris, 1899); B. Spencer, "Mammalia of the + Horn Expedition" (1896); "Wynyardia, a Fossil Marsupial from + Tasmania," _Proc. Zool. Soc. London_ (1900); J. P. Hill, + "Contributions to the Morphology of the Female Urino-genital Organs in + Marsupialia," _Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales_, vols. xxiv. and xxv.; + "Contributions to the Embryology of the Marsupialia," _Quart. Journ. + Micr. Science_, vol. xliii.; E. C. Stirling, "On _Notoryctes + typhlops_," _Proc. Zool. Soc. London_ (1891); "Fossil Remains of Lake + Cadibona," Part I. _Diprotodon, Mem. R. Soc. S. Australia_ (vol. i., + 1889); R. Broom, "On the Affinities of _Thylacoleo," Proc. Linn. Soc. + N. S. Wales_ (1898); H. F. Osborn, "Mesozoic Mammalia," _Journ. Acad. + Nat. Sci. Philadelphia_ (vol. ix., 1888); E. S. Goodrich, "On the + Fossil Mammalia from the Stonesfield Slate," _Quart. Journ. Micr. + Science_ (vol. xxxv., 1894). (R. L.*) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The presence or absence of the corpus callosum has been much + disputed; the latest researches, however, indicate its absence. + + + + +MARSUPIAL MOLE (_Noloryctes typhlops_), the "Ur-quamata" of the natives, +an aberrant polyprotodont from central South Australia, constituting a +family (_Noloryctidae_). This is a small burrowing animal, of a pale +golden-yellow colour, with long silky hair, a horny shield on the nose, +and a stumpy leathery tail. The feet are five-toed, and the third and +fourth toes of the front pair armed with enormous claws adapted for +digging. Neither ear-conches nor eyes are visible externally. There are +but three pairs of incisor teeth in each jaw, and the upper molars are +tricuspid. This animal spends most of its time burrowing in the sand in +search of insects and their larvae, but occasionally makes its +appearance on the surface. + +[Illustration: Marsupial Mole (_Notoryctes typhlops_).] + + + + +MARSUS, DOMITIUS, Latin poet, the friend of Virgil and Tibullus, and +contemporary of Horace. He survived Tibullus (d. 19 B.C.), but was no +longer alive when Ovid wrote (c. A.D. 12) the epistle from Pontus (_Ex +Ponto_, iv. 16) containing a list of poets. He was the author of a +collection of epigrams called _Cicuta_ ("hemlock")[1] from their bitter +sarcasm, and of a beautiful epitaph on the death of Tibullus; of elegiac +poems, probably of an erotic character; of an epic poem _Amazonis_; and +of a prose work on wit (_De urbanitate_). Martial often alludes to +Marsus as one of his predecessors, but he is never mentioned by Horace, +although a passage in the _Odes_ (iv. 4, 19) is supposed to be an +indirect allusion to the _Amazonis_ (M. Haupt, _Opuscula_, iii. 332). + + See J. A. Weichert, _Poetarum latinorum vitae et reliquiae_ (1830); R. + Unger, _De Dom. Marsi cicuta_ (Friedland, 1861). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] According to others, a reed-pipe made of the stalks of hemlock; + the reading _scutica_ ("whip") has also been proposed. + + + + +MARSYAS, in Greek mythology, a Phrygian god or Silenus, son of Hyagnis. +He was originally the god of the small river of the same name near +Celaenae, an old Phrygian town. He represents the art of playing the +flute as opposed to the lyre--the one the accompaniment of the worship +of Cybele, the other that of the worship of Apollo. According to the +legend, Athena, who had invented the flute, threw it away in disgust, +because it distorted the features. Marsyas found it, and having acquired +great skill in playing it, challenged Apollo to a contest with his lyre. +Midas, king of Phrygia, who had been appointed judge, declared in favour +of Marsyas, and Apollo punished Midas by changing his ears into ass's +ears. In another version, the Muses were judges and awarded the victory +to Apollo, who tied Marsyas to a tree and flayed him alive. Marsyas, as +well as Midas and Silenus, are associated in legend with Dionysus and +belong to the cycle of legends of Cybele. A statue of Marsyas was set +up in the Roman forum and colonies as a symbol of liberty. The contest +and punishment of Marsyas were favourite subjects in Greek art, both +painting and sculpture. In Florence there are several statues of Marsyas +hanging on the tree as he is going to be flayed (see GREEK ART, fig. 54, +Pl. II.); Apollo and the executioner complete the group. In the Lateran +museum at Rome there is a statue representing Marsyas in the act of +picking up the flute, a copy of a masterpiece by Myron (Hyginus, _Fab._ +167, 191; Apollodorus i. 4, 2; Ovid, _Metam._ vi. 382-400, xi. 145-193), +for which see GREEK ART, fig. 64 (Pl. III.). + + + + +MARTABAN, a town in the Thaton district of Lower Burma, on the right +bank of the Salween, opposite Moulmein. It is said to have been founded +in A.D. 573, by the first king of Pegu, and was once the capital of a +powerful Talaing kingdom; but it is now little more than a village. +Martaban is frequently mentioned by European voyagers of the 16th +century; and it has given the name of "Martavans" to a class of large +vessels of glazed pottery, also known in India as "Pegu jars." It was +twice captured by the British, in 1824 and 1852. The Bay of Martaban +receives the rivers Irrawaddy and Salween. + + + + +MARTELLO TOWER, a kind of tower formerly used in English coast defence. +The name is a corruption of Mortella. The Martello tower was introduced +in consequence of an incident of the French revolutionary wars. In +September 1793 a British squadron of three ships of the line and two +frigates was ordered to support the Corsican insurgents. It was +determined in the first place to take a tower on Cape Mortella which +commanded the only secure anchorage in the Gulf of San Fiorenzo. This +tower, according to James, was named "after its inventor"; but the real +derivation appears to be the name of a wild myrtle which grew thickly +around. The tower, which mounted one 24-pounder and two 18-pounders on +its top, was bombarded for a short time by the frigates, was then +deserted by its little garrison, and occupied by a landing party. The +tower was afterwards retaken by the French from the Corsicans. So far it +had done nothing to justify its subsequent reputation. In 1794, however, +a fresh attempt was made to support the insurgents. On the 7th of +February 1400 troops were landed, and the tower was attacked by land and +sea on the 8th. The "Fortitude" and "Juno" kept up a cannonade for 2½ +hours and then hauled off, the former being on fire and having sixty-two +men killed and wounded. The fire from the batteries on shore produced no +impression until a hot shot set fire to the "bass junk with which, to +the depth of 5 ft., the immensely thick parapet was lined." The garrison +of thirty-three men then surrendered. The armament was found to consist +only of two 18-pounders and one 6-pounder. The strong resistance offered +by these three guns seems to have led to the conclusion that towers of +this description were specially formidable, and Martello towers were +built in large numbers, and at heavy expense, along the shores of +England, especially on the southern and eastern coasts, which in certain +parts are lined with these towers at short intervals. They are +structures of solid masonry, containing vaulted rooms for the garrison, +and providing a platform at the top for two or three guns, which fire +over a low masonry parapet. Access is provided by a ladder, +communicating with a door about 20 ft. above the ground. In some cases a +deep ditch is provided around the base. The chief defect of the tower +was its weakness against vertical fire; its masonry was further liable +to be cut through by breaching batteries. The French _tours modèles_ +were somewhat similar to the Martello towers; their chief use was to +serve as keeps to unrevetted works. While the Martello tower owes its +reputation and its widespread adoption in Great Britain to a single +incident of modern warfare, the round masonry structure entered by a +door raised high above the base is to be found in many lands, and is one +of the earliest types of masonry fortification. + + + + +MARTEN, HENRY (1602-1680), English regicide, was the elder son of Sir +Henry Marten, and was educated at University College, Oxford. As a +public man he first became prominent in 1639 when he refused to +contribute to a general loan, and in 1640 he entered parliament as one +of the members for Berkshire. In the House of Commons he joined the +popular party, spoke in favour of the proposed bill of attainder against +Strafford, and in 1642 was a member of the committee of safety. Some of +his language about the king was so frank that Charles demanded his +arrest and his trial for high treason. When the Great Rebellion broke +out Marten did not take the field, although he was appointed governor of +Reading, but in parliament he was very active. On one occasion his zeal +in the parliamentary cause led him to open a letter from the earl of +Northumberland to his countess, an impertinence for which, says +Clarendon, he was "cudgelled" by the earl; and in 1643, on account of +some remark about extirpating the royal family, he was expelled from +parliament and was imprisoned for a few days. In the following year, +however, he was made governor of Aylesbury, and about this time took +some small part in the war. Allowed to return to parliament in January +1646, Marten again advocated extreme views. He spoke of his desire to +prepare the king for heaven; he attacked the Presbyterians, and, +supporting the army against the parliament, he signed the agreement of +August 1647. He was closely associated with John Lilburne and the +Levellers, and was one of those who suspected the sincerity of Cromwell, +whose murder he is said personally to have contemplated. However, he +acted with Cromwell in bringing Charles I. to trial; he was one of the +most prominent of the king's judges and signed the death warrant. He was +then energetic in establishing the republic and in destroying the +remaining vestiges of the monarchical system. He was chosen a member of +the council of state in 1649, and as compensation for his losses and +reward for his services during the war, lands valued at £1000 a year +were settled upon him. In parliament he spoke often and with effect, but +he took no part in public life during the Protectorate, passing part of +this time in prison, where he was placed on account of his debts. Having +sat among the restored members of the Long Parliament in 1659, Marten +surrendered himself to the authorities as a regicide in June 1660, and +with some others he was excepted from the act of indemnity, but with a +saving clause. He behaved courageously at his trial, which took place in +October 1660, but he was found guilty of taking part in the king's +death. Through the action, or rather the inaction of the House of Lords, +he was spared the death penalty, but he remained a captive, and was in +prison at Chepstow Castle when he died on the 9th of September 1680. +Although a leading Puritan, Marten was a man of loose morals. He wrote +and published several pamphlets, and in 1662 there appeared _Henry +Marten's Familiar Letters to his Lady of Delight_, which contained +letters to his mistress, Mary Ward. + +Marten's father, Sir Henry Marten (c. 1562-1641), was born in London and +was educated at Winchester school and at New College, Oxford, becoming a +fellow of the college in 1582. Having become a barrister, he secured a +large practice and soon came to the front in public life. He was sent +abroad on some royal business, was made chancellor of the diocese of +London, was knighted, and in 1617 became a judge of the admiralty court. +Later he was appointed a member of the court of high commission and dean +of the arches. He became a member of parliament in 1625, and in 1628 +represented the university of Oxford, taking part in the debates on the +petition of right. + + See J. Forster, _Statesmen of the Commonwealth_ (1840); M. Noble, + _Lives of the English Regicides_ (1798); the article by C. H. Firth in + _Dict. Nat. Biog._ (1893); and S. R. Gardiner, _History of the Great + Civil War_ and _History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate_. + + + + +MARTEN,[1] a name originally belonging to the pine-marten (_Mustela +martes_), but now applied to all members of the same genus of +carnivorous mammals (see CARNIVORA). Martens are limited to the northern +hemisphere, ranging throughout the greater part of the northern +temperate regions of both Old and New Worlds, and southwards in America +to 35° N. lat., while in Asia one species is met with in Java. + +The species appear to be similar in their habits. They live in woods and +rocky places, and spend most of their time in trees, although descending +to the ground in quest of prey. They climb with great facility, and are +agile and graceful in their movements. Some are said occasionally to +resort to berries and other fruit for food, but as a rule they are +carnivorous, feeding chiefly on birds and their eggs, small mammals, as +squirrels, hares, rabbits and moles, but chiefly mice of various kinds, +and occasionally snakes, lizards and frogs. In proportion to their size +they are among the most bloodthirsty of animals, though less so than the +weasels. The female makes her nest of moss, dried leaves and grass in +the hollow of a tree, but sometimes in a hole among rocks or ruined +buildings, and produces several young at a birth, usually from four to +six. Though wild and untameable to a great degree if captured when fully +grown, if taken young they are docile, and have frequently been made +pets, not having the strong unpleasant odour of the smaller +_Mustelidae_. The pine-marten appears to have been partially +domesticated by the Greeks and Romans, and used to keep houses clear +from rats and mice. In the same way, according to Brian Hodgson, the +yellow-bellied weasel (_Putorius kathia_) "is exceedingly prized by the +Nepalese for its service in ridding houses of rats. It is easily tamed; +and such is the dread of it common to all murine animals that not one +will approach a house where it is domiciled." It is, however, to the +great value attached to the pelts of these animals that their importance +to man is chiefly due. Though all yield fur of serviceable quality, the +commercial value varies immensely, not only according to the species +from which it is obtained, but according to individual variation, +depending upon age, sex, season, and other circumstances. The skins from +northern regions are more full and of a finer colour and gloss than +those from more temperate climates, as are those of animals killed in +winter compared to the same individuals in summer. Fashion has, +moreover, set fictitious values upon slight shades of colour. Enormous +numbers of animals are caught, chiefly in traps, to supply the demand of +the fur trade, Siberia and North America being the principal localities +from which they are obtained. + + With the exception of the pekan (_M. pennanti_), the martens are much + alike in size, general colouring and cranial and dental characters. + The following description by Dr Elliott Coues of the American marten + (_M. americana_) will apply almost equally well to most of the others. + "It is almost impossible to describe the colour of the marten, except + in general terms, without going into the details of the endless + diversities occasioned by age, sex, season, or other incidents. The + animal is 'brown,' of a shade from orange or tawny to quite blackish; + the tail and feet are ordinarily the darkest, the head lightest, often + quite whitish; the ears usually have a whitish rim, while on the + throat there is usually a large tawny-yellowish or orange-brown patch, + from the chin to the fore legs; sometimes entire, sometimes broken + into a number of smaller, irregular blotches, sometimes wanting, + sometimes prolonged on the whole under surface, when the animal is + bicolor like a stoat in summer. The general 'brown' has a greyish + cast, as far as the under fur is concerned, and is overlaid with rich + lustrous blackish-brown in places where the long bristly hairs + prevail. The claws are whitish; the naked nose pad and whiskers are + black. The tail occasionally shows interspersed white hairs, or a + white tip." + + The following are the best-known species:-- + + _Mustela foina_: the beech-marten, stone-marten or white-breasted + marten.--Distinguished from the following by the greater breadth of + the skull, and some minute but constant dental characters, by the dull + greyish-brown colour of the fur of the upper parts and the pure white + of the throat and breast. It inhabits the greater part of the + continent of Europe, but is more southern than the next in its + distribution, not being found in Sweden or Norway. + + _M. martes_, the pine-marten (see figure).--Fur rich dark brown; under + fur reddish-grey, with clear yellow tips; breast spot usually yellow, + varying from bright orange to pale cream-colour or yellowish-white. + Length of head and body 16 to 18 in., of tail (including the hair) 9 + to 12 in. This species is extensively distributed throughout northern + Europe and Asia, and was formerly common in most parts of Great + Britain and Ireland. It is still found in the northern counties of + England and North Wales, but in decreasing numbers. In Scotland it is + rare, but in Ireland may be found in almost every county occasionally. + Though commonly called "pine-marten," it does not appear to have any + special preference for coniferous trees. + + [Illustration: The Pine-Marten (_Mustela martes_).] + + Next comes _M. zibellina_, the sable (German, _Zobel_ and _Zebel_; + Swedish, _sabel_; Russian, _sobel_, a word probably of Turanian + origin), which closely resembles the last, if indeed it differs except + in the quality of the fur--the most highly valued of that of all the + group. The sable is found chiefly in eastern Siberia. + + Very distinct is the brilliantly coloured orange-and-black Indian + marten (_M. flavigula_), found from the Himalaya and Ceylon to Java. + + The North American _M. americana_ is closely allied to the pine-marten + and Asiatic sable. The importance of the fur of this animal as an + article of commerce may be judged of from the fact that 15,000 skins + were sold in one year by the Hudson's Bay Company as long ago as 1743. + It is ordinarily caught in wooden traps of simple construction, being + little enclosures of stakes or brush in which the bait is placed upon + a trigger, with a short upright stick supporting a log of wood, which + falls upon its victim on the slightest disturbance. A line of such + traps, several to a mile, often extends many miles. The bait is any + kind of meat, a mouse, squirrel, piece of fish or bird's head. It is + principally trapped during the colder months, from October to April, + when the fur is in good condition, as it is nearly valueless during + the shedding in summer. It maintains its numbers partly in consequence + of its shyness, which keeps it away from the abodes of men, and partly + because it is so prolific, bringing forth six to eight young at a + litter. Its home is sometimes a den under ground or beneath rocks, but + oftener the hollow of a tree, and it is said to take possession of a + squirrel's nest, driving off or devouring the rightful proprietor. + + The pekan or Pennant's marten, also called fisher marten, though there + appears to be nothing in its habits to justify the appellation, is the + largest of the group, the head and body measuring from 24 to 30 in., + and the tail 14 to 18 in. It is also more robust in form than the + others, its general aspect being more that of a fox than a weasel; in + fact its usual name among the American hunters is "black fox." Its + general colour is blackish, lighter by mixture of brown or grey on the + head and upper fore part of the body, with no light patch on the + throat, and unlike other martens generally darker below than above. It + was generally distributed in wooded districts throughout the greater + part of North America, as far north as Great Slave Lake, lat. 63° N., + and Alaska, and extending south to the parallel of 35°; but at the + present time is almost exterminated in the settled parts of the United + States east of the Mississippi. (W. H. F.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] By all old authors, as Ray, Pennant, Shaw and Fleming, the word + is written "Martin," but this form of spelling is now generally + reserved for the bird (see MARTIN). The word, as applied to the + animal here described, occurs in most Germanic and Romanic languages: + German, _marder_; Dutch, _marter_; Swedish, _mard_; Danish, _maar_; + English, _marteron_, _martern_, _marten_, _martin_ and _martlett_; + French, _marte_ and _martre_; Italian, _martora_ and _martorella_; + Spanish and Portuguese, _marta_. Its earliest known use is in the + form _martes_ (Martial, _Ep._ x. 37), but it can scarcely be an old + Latin word, as it is not found in Pliny or other classical writers, + and Martial often introduced foreign words into his Latin. Its + etymology has been connected with the German "martern," to torment. A + second Romanic name for the same animal is _fuina_, in French + _fouine_. The term "Marten Cat" is also used. + + + + +MARTENS, FRÉDÉRIC FROMMHOLD DE (1845-1909), Russian jurist, was born at +Pernau in Livonia. In 1868 he entered the Russian ministry of foreign +affairs, was admitted in 1871 as a _Dozent_ in international law in the +university of St Petersburg, and in 1871 became lecturer and then (1872) +professor of public law in the Imperial School of Law and the Imperial +Alexander Lyceum. In 1874 when Prince Gorchakov, then imperial +chancellor, needed assistance for certain kinds of special work, +Martens was chosen to afford it. His book on _The Right of Private +Property in War_ had appeared in 1869, and had been followed in 1873 by +that upon _The Office of Consul and Consular Jurisdiction in the East_, +which had been translated into German and republished at Berlin. These +were the first of a long series of studies which won for their author a +world-wide reputation, and raised the character of the Russian school of +international jurisprudence in all civilized countries. First amongst +them must be placed the great _Recueil des traités et conventions +conclus par la Russie avec les puissances étrangères_ (13 vols., +1874-1902). This collection, published in Russian and French in parallel +columns, contains not only the texts of the treaties but valuable +introductions dealing with the diplomatic conditions of which the +treaties were the outcome. These introductions are based largely on +unpublished documents from the Russian archives. Of Martens' original +works his _International Law of Civilized Nations_ is perhaps the best +known; it was written in Russian, a German edition appearing in +1884-1885, and a French edition in 1887-1888. It displays much judgment +and acumen, though some of the doctrines which it defends by no means +command universal assent. More openly "tendencious" in character are +such treatises as _Russia and England in Central Asia_ (1879); _Russia's +Conflict with China_ (1881), _The Egyptian Question_ (1882), and _The +African Conference of Berlin and the Colonial Policy of Modern States_ +(1887). In the delicate questions raised in some of these works Martens +stated his case with learning and ability, even when it was obvious that +he was arguing as a special pleader. Martens was repeatedly chosen to +act in international arbitrations. Among the controversies which he +helped to adjust were that between Mexico and the United States--the +first case determined by the permanent tribunal of The Hague--and the +difference between Great Britain and France in regard to Newfoundland in +1891. He played an important part in the negotiations between his own +country and Japan, which led to the peace of Portsmouth (Aug. 1905) and +prepared the way for the Russo-Japanese convention. He was employed in +laying the foundations for The Hague Conferences. He was one of the +Russian plenipotentiaries at the first conference and president of the +fourth committee--that on maritime law--at the second conference. His +visits to the chief capitals of Europe in the early part of 1907 were an +important preliminary in the preparation of the programme. He was judge +of the Russian supreme prize court established to determine cases +arising during the war with Japan. He received honorary degrees from the +universities of Oxford, Cambridge and Yale; he was also awarded the +Nobel Peace Prize in 1902. In April 1907 he addressed a remarkable +letter to _The Times_ on the position of the second Duma, in which he +argued that the best remedy for the ills of Russia would be the +dissolution of that assembly and the election of another on a narrower +franchise. He died suddenly on the 20th of June 1909. + + See T. E. Holland, in _Journal of the Society of Comparative + Legislation_ for October 1909, where a list of the writings of Martens + appears. + + + + +MARTENS, GEORG FRIEDRICH VON (1756-1821), German jurist and diplomatist, +was born at Hamburg on the 22nd of February 1756. Educated at the +universities of Göttingen, Regensburg and Vienna, he became professor of +jurisprudence at Göttingen in 1783 and was ennobled in 1789. He was made +a counsellor of state by the elector of Hanover in 1808, and in 1810 was +president of the financial section of the council of state of the +kingdom of Westphalia. In 1814 he was appointed privy cabinet-councillor +(_Geheimer Kabinetsrat_) by the king of Hanover, and in 1816 went as +representative of the king to the diet of the new German Confederation +at Frankfort, where he died on the 21st of February 1821. + + Of his works the most important is the great collection of treaties + _Recueil des traités, &c._ from 1761 onwards. Of this the first seven + volumes were published at Göttingen (1791-1801), followed by four + supplementary volumes partly edited by his nephew Karl von Martens + (see below). These were followed by _Nouveau recueil_, of treaties + subsequent to 1808, in 16 vols. (Göttingen, 1817-1842), of which G. F. + von Martens edited the first four, the fifth being the work of K. von + Martens, the others (6-9) by F. Saalfeld and (10-16) F. Murhard. A + _Nouveau supplément_, in 3 vols., filling gaps in the previous + collection, was also published by Murhard (Göttingen, 1839-1842). This + was followed by _Nouveau recueil ... continuation du grand recueil de + Martens_, in 20 vols. (Göttingen, 1843-1875), edited in turn by F. + Murhard, C. Murhard, J. Pinhas, C. Samwer and J. Hopf, with a general + index of treaties from 1494 to 1874 (1876). This was followed by + _Nouveau recueil, 2me série_ (Göttingen, 1876-1896; vols. xxii.-xxxv., + Leipzig, 1897-1908). From vol. xi. on this series was edited by Felix + Stork, professor of public law at Greifswald. In 1909 appeared vol. i. + of a further _Continuation (troisième série)_ under the editorship of + Professor Heinrich Triepel of Kiel University. + + Of Martens' other works the most important are the _Précis du droit + des gens modernes de l'Europe_ (1789; 3rd ed., Göttingen, 1821; new + ed., G. S. Pinheiro-Ferreira, 2 vols., 1858, 1864); _Erzählungen + merkwürdiger Fälle des neueren europäischen Völkerrechts_, 2 vols. + (Göttingen, 1800-1802); _Cours diplomatique ou tableau des relations + des puissances de l'Europe_, 3 vols. (Berlin, 1801); _Grundriss einer + diplomatischen Gesch. der europ. Staatshändel u. Friedensschlüsse seit + dem Ende des 15. Jahrhunderts_ (ibid. 1807). + + His nephew KARL VON MARTENS (1790-1863), who at his death was minister + resident of the grand-duke of Weimar at Dresden, published a _Manuel + diplomatique_ (Leipzig, 1823), re-issued as _Guide diplomatique_ in + two vols. in 1832 (5th ed. by Geffcken, 1866), a valuable textbook of + the rules and customs of the diplomatic service; _Causes célèbres du + droit des gens_ (2 vols., ibid., 1827) and _Nouvelles causes célèbres_ + (2 vols., ibid., 1843), both republished, in 5 vols. (1858-1861); + _Recueil manuel et pratique de traités_ (7 vols., ibid., 1846-1857); + continued by Geffcken in 3 vols., (1885-1888). + + + + +MARTENSEN, HANS LASSEN (1808-1884), Danish divine, was born at Flensburg +on the 19th of August 1808. He studied in Copenhagen, and was ordained +in the Danish Church. At Copenhagen he was lektor in theology in 1838, +professor extra-ordinarius in 1840, court preacher also in 1845, and +professor ordinarius in 1850. In 1854 he was made bishop of Seeland. In +his studies he had come under the influence of Schleiermacher, Hegel and +Franz Baader; but he was a man of independent mind, and developed a +peculiar speculative theology which showed a disposition towards +mysticism and theosophy. His contributions to theological literature +included treatises on Christian ethics and dogmatics, on moral +philosophy, on baptism, and a sketch of the life of Jakob Boehme, who +exercised so marked an influence on the mind of the great English +theologian of the 18th century, William Law. Martensen was a +distinguished preacher, and his works were translated into various +languages. The "official" eulogy he pronounced upon Bishop Jakob P. +Mynster (1775-1854) in 1854, brought down upon his head the invectives +of the philosopher Sören Kierkegaard. He died at Copenhagen on the 3rd +of February 1884. + + Amongst his works are: _Grundriss des Systems der Moralphilosophie_ + (1841; 3rd ed., 1879; German, 1845), _Die christl. Taufe und die + baptistische Frage_ (2nd ed., 1847; German, 2nd ed., 1860), _Den + Christelige Dogmatik_ (4th ed., 1883; Eng. trans., 1866; German by + himself, 4th ed., 1897); _Christliche Ethik_ (1871; Eng. trans., Part + I. 1873, Part II. 1881 seq.); _Hirtenspiegel_ (1870-1872); + _Katholizismus und Protestantismus_ (1874); _Jacob Böhme_ (1882; Eng. + trans., 1885). An autobiography, _Aus meinem Leben_, appeared in 1883, + and after his death the _Briefwechsel zwischen Martensen und Dorner_ + (1888). + + + + +MARTHA'S VINEYARD, an island including the greater part of Dukes county, +Massachusetts, U.S.A., lying about 3 m. off the southern coast of that +state. Its extreme length (east to west) is about 20 m., and its extreme +width (north to south) about 9½ m. Along its north-west and a portion of +its north-east shore lies Vineyard Sound. Its principal bays are +Vineyard Haven Harbor, a deep indentation at the northernmost angle of +the island; and, on the eastern coast, Edgartown Harbor and Katama Bay, +both formed by the juxtaposition of Chappaquiddick Island. The surface +is mainly flat, excepting a strip about 2 m. broad along the +north-western coast, and the two western townships (Chilmark and Gay +Head), which are hilly, with several eminences of 200 to 300 ft.--the +highest, Prospect Peak, in Chilmark township, 308 ft. Gay Head Light, a +beacon near the western extremity, stands among picturesque cliffs, 145 +ft. above the sea. Along the southern coast are many ponds, all shut off +from the ocean by a narrow strip of land, excepting Tisbury Great Pond, +which has a small outlet to the sea. Others are Sengekontacket Pond on +the eastern coast; Lagoon Pond, which is practically an arm of Vineyard +Haven Harbor; and, about a mile east of the Harbor, Chappaquonsett Pond. +Martha's Vineyard is divided into the following townships (from east to +west): Edgartown (in the south-eastern part of the island), pop. (1910), +1191; area, 29.7 sq. m.; Oak Bluffs (north-eastern portion), pop. +(1910), 1084; area, 7.9 sq. m.; Tisbury, pop. (1910), 1196; area, 7.1 +sq. m.; West Tisbury, pop. (1910), 437; area, 30.5 sq. m.; Chilmark, +pop. (1910), 282; area, 19.4 sq. m.; and Gay Head, pop. (1910), 162; +area 5.2 sq. m. The population of the county, including the Elizabeth +Ids. (Gosnold town, pop. 152), N. W. of Martha's Vineyard; +Chappaquiddick Island (Edgartown township), and No Man's Land (a small +island south-west of Martha's Vineyard), was 4561 in 1900 (of whom 645 +were foreign-born, including 79 Portuguese and 72 English-Canadians, and +154 Indians), and in 1910, 4504. The principal villages are Oak Bluffs +on the north-east coast, facing Vineyard Sound; Vineyard Haven, in +Tisbury township, beautifully situated on the west shore of Vineyard +Haven Harbor, and Edgartown on Edgartown Harbor--all summer resorts. No +Man's Land, included politically in Chilmark township, lies about 6½ m. +south of Gay Head. It is about 1½ m. long (east and west) and about 1 m. +wide, is composed of treeless swamps, and is used mainly for +sheep-grazing; the neighbouring waters are excellent fishing ground. +Martha's Vineyard is served by steamship lines from Wood's Hole and New +Bedford to Vineyard Haven, Oak Bluffs, and Edgartown. The Martha's +Vineyard railway (from Oak Bluffs to the south-east extremity of the +island, by way of Edgartown), opened in 1874, was not a financial +success, and had been practically abandoned in 1909, but an electric +line from Oak Bluffs to Vineyard Haven provides transit facilities for +that part of the island. + +For more than a century whale fishing was practically the sole industry +of Martha's Vineyard. It was carried on at first from the shore in small +boats; but by the first decade of the 18th century vessels especially +built for the purpose were being used, and by 1760 shore fishing had been +practically abandoned. The industry, seriously crippled by invasions of +British troops during the War of American Independence--especially by a +force which landed at Holmes's Hole (Vineyard Haven) in September +1778--and again during the War of 1812, revived and was at its height in +1840-1850, only to receive another setback during the Civil War. In the +last part of the 19th century its decline was rapid, not only because of +the increasing scarcity of whales, but because of the introduction of the +mineral oils, and by the end of the century whaling had ceased to be of +any economic importance. Herring fishing, on both the north and the south +shore, occupies a small percentage of the inhabitants, and there is also +some deep-sea fishing. Sheep-raising, especially for wool, is an industry +of considerable importance, and Dukes county is one of the three most +important counties of the state in this industry. + +Martha's Vineyard was discovered in 1602 by Captain Bartholomew Gosnold, +who landed (May 21) on the island now called No Man's Land, and named it +Martha's Vineyard,[1] which name was subsequently applied to the larger +island. Captain Gosnold rounded Gay Head, which he named Dover Cliff, +and established on what is now Cuttyhunk Island, which he called +Elizabeth Island, the first (though, as it proved, a temporary) English +settlement in New England. The entire line of sixteen islands, of which +Cuttyhunk is the westernmost of the larger ones, have since been called +the Elizabeth Islands; they form the dividing line between Buzzards Bay +and Vineyard Sound, and in 1864 were incorporated as Gosnold township +(pop. in 1905, 161) of Dukes county. + +The territory within the jurisdiction of the Council for New England was +parcelled in 1635 among the patentees in such terms--owing to +insufficient knowledge of the geography of the coast--that both William +Alexander, earl of Stirling, and Sir Ferdinando Gorges, proprietor of +Maine, claimed Martha's Vineyard. In 1641 Stirling's agent, Forrett, +sold to Thomas Mayhew (1592-1682),[2] of Watertown, Massachusetts, for +$200, the island of Nantucket, with several smaller neighbouring +islands, and also Martha's Vineyard. It seems probable that Forrett +acted without authority, and his successor, Forrester, was arrested by +the Dutch in New Amsterdam and sent to Holland before he could confirm +the transfer. In 1644 the Commissioners of the United Colonies, +apparently at the request of the inhabitants of Martha's Vineyard, +annexed the island to Massachusetts, but ten years later the islanders +declared their independence of that colony, and apparently for the next +decade managed their own affairs. Meanwhile Mayhew had recognized the +jurisdiction of Maine;[3] and though the officials of that province +showed no disposition to press their claim, it seems that this technical +suzerainty continued until 1664, when the Duke of York received from his +brother, Charles II., the charter for governing New York, New Jersey, +and other territory, including Martha's Vineyard. In 1671 Governor +Francis Lovelace, of New York, appointed Mayhew governor for life of +Martha's Vineyard; in 1683, the island, with Nantucket, the Elizabeth +Islands, No Man's Land, and Chappaquiddick Island were erected into +Dukes county, and in 1695 the county was re-incorporated by +Massachusetts with Nantucket excluded. Under the new charter of +Massachusetts Bay (1691), after some dispute between Massachusetts and +New York, Martha's Vineyard became a part of Massachusetts. + +There is a tradition that the first settlement of Martha's Vineyard was +made in 1632, at or near the present site of Edgartown village, by +several English families forming part of a company bound for Virginia, +their ship having put in at this harbour on account of heavy weather. It +is certain, however, that in 1642, the year after Thomas Mayhew bought +the island, his son, also named Thomas Mayhew (c. 1616-1657), and +several other persons established a plantation on the site of what is +now Edgartown village. This settlement was at first called "Great +Harbor," but soon after Mayhew was appointed governor of the island it +was named Edgartown, probably in honour of the only surviving son of the +Duke of York. The younger Mayhew, soon after removing to Martha's +Vineyard, devoted himself to missionary work among the Indians, his work +beginning at about the same time as that of John Eliot; he was lost at +sea in 1657 while on his way to secure financial assistance in England, +and his work was continued successfully by his father.[4] The township +of Edgartown was incorporated in 1671, and is the county-seat of Dukes +county. In 1783 several Edgartown families joined the association made +up of Martha's Vineyard, Nantucket, Providence and Newport whalers, who +founded Hudson, on the Hudson river, in Columbia county, New York. Oak +Bluffs had its origin as a settlement in the camp meetings, which were +begun here in 1835, and by 1860 had grown to large proportions. As the +village expanded it took the name of Cottage City. In 1880 the township +was incorporated under that name, which it retained until January 1907, +when the name (and that of the village also) was changed to Oak Bluffs. +Tisbury township was bought from the Indians in 1669 and was +incorporated in 1671. Its principal village, Vineyard Haven, was called +"Holmes's Hole" (in honour of one of the early settlers) until 1871, +when the present name was adopted. West Tisbury township was set off +from Tisbury, and incorporated in 1892. Chilmark township was +incorporated in 1694. Gay Head township was set off from Chilmark, and +incorporated in 1870. + + See C. Gilbert Hine, _The Story of Martha's Vineyard_ (New York, + 1908); Charles E. Banks, "Martha's Vineyard and the Province of Maine" + in _Collections and Proceedings_ of the Maine Historical Society, 2nd + series, vol. ix. p. 123 (Portland, Maine, 1898); and Walter S. Tower, + _A History of the American Whale Fishery_ (Philadelphia, 1907). + (G. G.*) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] In the 17th century both "Martha's Vineyard" and "Martin's + Vineyard" were used, and the latter appears in a book as early as + 1638 and in another as late as 1699, and on a map as late as 1670. It + seems probable that the original form was _Martin_ the name of one of + Gosnold's crew; according to some authorities the name Martha's + Vineyard was adopted by Mayhew in honour of his wife or daughter. + + [2] Mayhew was born at Tisbury, Wiltshire, was a merchant in + Southampton, emigrated to Massachusetts about 1633, settled at + Watertown, Mass., in 1635; was a member of the Massachusetts General + Court in 1636-1644, and after 1644 or 1645 lived on Martha's + Vineyard. + + [3] It appears from a letter from Mayhew to Governor Andros in 1675 + that about 1641 Mayhew obtained a conveyance to Martha's Vineyard + from Richard Vines, agent of Gorges. See F. B. Hough, _Papers + Relating to the Island of Nantucket, with Documents Relating to the + Original Settlement of that Island, Martha's Vineyard, &c._ (Albany, + N.Y., 1856). + + [4] In 1901, a boulder memorial was erected to the younger Mayhew on + the West Tisbury road, between the village of that name and + Edgartown, marking the spot where the missionary bade farewell to + several hundred Indians. The Martha's Vineyard Indians were subject + to the Wampanoag tribe, on the mainland, were expert watermen, and + were very numerous when the whites first came. Nearly all of them + were converted to Christianity by the Mayhews, and they were friendly + to the settlers during King Philip's war. By 1698 their numbers had + been reduced to about 1000, and by 1764 to about 300. Soon after this + they began to intermarry with negroes, and now only faint traces of + them remain. + + + + +MARTÍ, JUAN JOSÉ (1570?-1604), Spanish novelist, was born at Orihuela +(Valencia) about 1570. He graduated as bachelor of canon law at Valencia +in 1591, and in 1598 took his degree as doctor of canon law; in the +latter year he was appointed co-examiner in canon law at Valencia +University, and held the post for six years. He died at Valencia, and +was buried in the cathedral of that city on the 22nd of December 1604. +Martí joined the Valencian _Academia de los nocturnos_, under the name +of "Atrevimiento," but is best known by another pseudonym, Mateo Luján +de Sayavedra, under which he issued an apocryphal continuation (1602) of +Alemán's _Guzmán de Alfarache_ (1599). Marti obtained access to Alemán's +unfinished manuscript, and stole some of his ideas; this dishonesty +lends point to the sarcastic congratulations which Alemán, in the +genuine sequel (1604) pays to his rival's sallies: "I greatly envy them, +and should be proud that they were mine." Martí's book is clever, but +the circumstances in which it was produced account for its cold +reception and afford presumption that the best scenes are not original. + + It has been suggested that Martí is identical with Avellaneda, the + writer of a spurious continuation (1614) to _Don Quixote_; but he died + before the first part of _Don Quixote_ was published (1605). + + + + +MARTIAL (MARCUS VALERIUS MARTIALIS), Latin epigrammatist, was born, in +one of the years A.D. 38-41, for in book x., of which the poems were +composed in the years 95-98, he is found celebrating his fifty-seventh +birthday (x. 24). Our knowledge of his career is derived almost entirely +from himself. Reference to public events enables us approximately to fix +the date of the publication of the different books of epigrams, and from +these dates to determine those of various important events in his life. +The place of his birth was Bilbilis, officially Augusta Bilbilis, in +Spain. His name seems to imply that he was born a Roman citizen, but he +speaks of himself as "sprung from the Celts and Iberians, and a +countryman of the Tagus;" and, in contrasting his own masculine +appearance with that of an effeminate Greek, he draws especial attention +to "his stiff Spanish hair" (x. 65, 7). His parents, Fronto and +Flaccilla, appear to have died in his youth (v. 34). His home was +evidently one of rude comfort and plenty, sufficiently in the country to +afford him the amusements of hunting and fishing, which he often recalls +with keen pleasure, and sufficiently near the town to afford him the +companionship of many comrades, the few survivors of whom he looks +forward to meeting again after his four-and-thirty years' absence (x. +104). The memories of this old home, and of other spots, the rough names +and local associations which he delights to introduce into his verse, +attest the enjoyment which he had in his early life, and were among the +influences which kept his spirit alive in the routine of social life in +Rome. But his Spanish home could impart, not only the vigorous vitality +which was one condition of his success as a wit and poet, but the +education which made him so accomplished a writer. The literary +distinction obtained by the Senecas, by Lucan, by Quintilian, who +belonged to a somewhat older generation, and by his friends and +contemporaries, Licinianus of Bilbilis, Decianus of Emerita, and Canius +of Gades, proves how eagerly the novel impulse of letters was received +in Spain in the first century of the empire. The success of his +countrymen may have been the motive which induced Martial to remove to +Rome when he had completed his education. This he did in A.D. 64, one +year before the fall of Seneca and Lucan, who were probably his earliest +patrons. + +Of the details of his life for the first twenty years or so after he +came to Rome we do not know much. He published some juvenile poems of +which he thought very little in his maturer years, and he laughs at a +foolish bookseller who would not allow them to die a natural death (i. +113). Martial had neither youthful passion nor youthful enthusiasm to +make him precociously a poet. His faculty ripened with experience and +with the knowledge of that social life which was both his theme and his +inspiration; and many of his best epigrams are among those written in +his last years. From many answers which he makes to the remonstrances of +friends--among others to those of Quintilian--it may be inferred that he +was urged to practise at the bar, but that he preferred his own lazy +Bohemian kind of life. He made many influential friends and patrons, and +secured the favour both of Titus and Domitian. From them he obtained +various privileges, among others the _semestris tribunatus_, which +conferred on him equestrian rank. He failed, however, in his application +to the latter for more substantial advantages, although he commemorates +the glory of having been invited to dinner by him, and also the fact +that he procured the privilege of citizenship for many persons in whose +behalf he appealed to him. The earliest of his extant works, that known +by the name of _Liber spectaculorum_, was first published at the opening +of the Colosseum in the reign of Titus, and relates to the theatrical +performances given by him; but the book as it now stands was given to +the world in or about the first year of Domitian, i.e. about A.D. 81. +The favour of the emperor procured him the countenance of some of the +worst creatures at the imperial court--among them of the notorious +Crispinus, and probably of Paris, the supposed author of Juvenal's +exile, for whose monument Martial afterwards wrote a eulogistic epitaph. +The two books, numbered by editors xiii. and xiv., and known by the +names of _Xenia_ and _Apophoreta_--inscriptions in two lines each for +presents,--were published at the Saturnalia of 84. In 86 he gave to the +world the first two of the twelve books on which his reputation rests. +From that time till his return to Spain in A.D. 98 he published a volume +almost every year. The first nine books and the first edition of book x. +appeared in the reign of Domitian; and book xi. at the end of A.D. 96, +shortly after the accession of Nerva. A revised edition of book x., that +which we now possess, appeared in A.D. 98, about the time of the +entrance of Trajan into Rome. The last book was written after three +years' absence in Spain, shortly before his death, which happened about +the year A.D. 102 or 103. + +These twelve books bring Martial's ordinary mode of life between the age +of five-and-forty and sixty very fully before us. His regular home for +five-and-thirty years was Rome. He lived at first up three pairs of +stairs, and his "garret" overlooked the laurels in front of the portico +of Agrippa. He had a small villa and unproductive farm near Nomentum, in +the Sabine territory, to which he occasionally retired from the bores +and noises of the city (ii. 38, xii. 57). In his later years he had also +a small house on the Quirinal, near the temple of Quirinus. At the time +when his third book was brought out he had retired for a short time to +Cisalpine Gaul, in weariness, as he tells us, of his unremunerative +attendance on the levées of the great. For a time he seems to have felt +the charm of the new scenes which he visited, and in a later book (iv. +25) he contemplates the prospect of retiring to the neighbourhood of +Aquileia and the Timavus. But the spell exercised over him by Rome and +Roman society was too great; even the epigrams sent from Forum Corneli +and the Aemilian Way ring much more of the Roman forum, and of the +streets, baths, porticos and clubs of Rome, than of the places from +which they are dated. So too his motive for his final departure from +Rome in A.D. 98 was a weariness of the burdens imposed on him by his +social position, and apparently the difficulties of meeting the +ordinary expenses of living in the metropolis (x. 96); and he looks +forward to a return to the scenes familiar to his youth. The well-known +epigram addressed to Juvenal (xii. 18) shows that for a time his ideal +was realized; but the more trustworthy evidence of the prose epistle +prefixed to book xii. proves that his contentment was of short duration, +and that he could not live happily away from the literary and social +pleasures of Rome. The one consolation of his exile was the society of a +lady, Marcella, of whom he writes rather as if she were his +patroness--and it seems to have been a necessity of his being to have +always a patron or patroness--than his wife or mistress. + +During his life at Rome, although he never rose to a position of real +independence, and had always a hard struggle with poverty, he seems to +have known everybody, especially every one of any eminence at the bar or +in literature. In addition to Lucan and Quintilian, he numbered among +his friends or more intimate acquaintances Silius Italicus, Juvenal, the +younger Pliny; and there were many others of high position whose society +and patronage he enjoyed. The silence which he and Statius, although +authors writing at the same time, having common friends and treating +often of the same subjects, maintain in regard to one another may be +explained by mutual dislike or want of sympathy. Martial in many places +shows an undisguised contempt for the artificial kind of epic on which +Statius's reputation chiefly rests; and it seems quite natural that the +respectable author of the _Thebaid_ and the _Silvae_ should feel little +admiration for either the life or the works of the Bohemian +epigrammatist. + +Martial's faults are of the most glaring kind, and are exhibited without +the least concealment. Living under perhaps the worst of the many bad +emperors who ruled the world in the 1st century, he addresses him and +his favourites with the most servile flattery in his lifetime, censures +him immediately after his death (xii. 6), and offers incense at the +shrine of his successor. He is not ashamed to be dependent on his +wealthy friends and patrons for gifts of money, for his dinner, and even +for his dress. We cannot feel sure that even what seem his sincerest +tributes of regard may not be prompted by the hope of payment. Further, +there are in every book epigrams which cannot be read with any other +feelings than those of extreme distaste. + +These faults are so unmistakable and undeniable that many have formed +their whole estimate of Martial from them, and have declined to make any +further acquaintance with him. Even those who greatly admire his genius, +and find the freshest interest in his representation of Roman life and +his sketches of manners and character, do not attempt to palliate his +faults, though they may partially account for them by reference to the +morals of his age and the circumstances of his life. The age was one +when literature had either to be silent or to be servile. Martial was +essentially a man of letters: he was bound either to gain favour by his +writings or to starve. Even Statius, whose writings are in other +respects irreproachable, is nearly as fulsome in his adulation. The +relation of client to patron had been recognized as an honourable one by +the best Roman traditions. No blame had attached to Virgil or Horace on +account of the favours which they received from Augustus and Maecenas, +or of the return which they made for these favours in their verse. That +old honourable relationship had, however, greatly changed between +Augustus and Domitian. Men of good birth and education, and sometimes +even of high official position (Juv. i. 117), accepted the dole +(_sportula_). Martial was merely following a general fashion in paying +his court to "a lord," and he made the best of the custom. In his +earlier career he used to accompany his patrons to their villas at Baiae +or Tibur, and to attend their morning levées. Later on he went to his +own small country house, near Nomentum, and sent a poem, or a small +volume of his poems, as his representative at the early visit. The fault +of grossness Martial shares with nearly all ancient and many modern +writers who treat of life from the baser or more ridiculous side. That +he offends more than perhaps any of them is not, apparently, to be +explained on the ground that he had to amuse a peculiarly corrupt +public. Although there is the most cynical effrontery and want of +self-respect in Martial's use of language, there is not much trace of +the satyr in him--much less, many readers will think, than in Juvenal. + +It remains to ask, What were those qualities of nature and intellect +which enable us to read his best work--even the great body of his +work--with the freshest sense of pleasure in the present day? He had the +keenest capacity for enjoyment, the keenest curiosity and power of +observation. He had also a very just discernment. It is rare to find any +one endowed with so quick a perception of the ridiculous who is so +little of a caricaturist. He was himself singularly free from cant, +pedantry or affectation of any kind. Though tolerant of most vices, he +had a hearty scorn of hypocrisy. There are few better satirists of +social and literary pretenders in ancient or modern times. Living in a +very artificial age, he was quite natural, hating pomp and show, and +desiring to secure in life only what really gave him pleasure. To live +one's own life heartily from day to day without looking before or after, +and to be one's self without trying to be that for which nature did not +intend him, is the sum of his philosophy. Further, while tolerant of +much that is bad and base--the characters of Crispinus and Regulus, for +instance--he shows himself genuinely grateful for kindness and +appreciative of excellence. He has no bitterness, malice or envy in his +composition. He professes to avoid personalities in his +satire;--"Ludimus innocui" is the character he claims for it. Pliny, in +the short tribute which he pays to him on hearing of his death, says, +"He had as much good-nature as wit and pungency in his writings" (_Ep._ +iii. 21). + +Honour and sincerity (_fides_ and _simplicitas_) are the qualities which +he most admires in his friends. Though many of his epigrams indicate a +cynical disbelief in the character of women, yet others prove that he +could respect and almost reverence a refined and courteous lady. His own +life in Rome afforded him no experience of domestic virtue; but his +epigrams show that, even in the age which is known to modern readers +chiefly from the _Satires_ of Juvenal, virtue was recognized as the +purest source of happiness. The tenderest element in Martial's nature +seems, however, to have been his affection for children and for his +dependents. + +The permanent literary interest of Martial's epigrams arises not so much +from their verbal brilliancy, though in this they are unsurpassed, as +from the amount of human life and character which they contain. He, +better than any other writer, enables us to revive the outward spectacle +of the imperial Rome. If Juvenal enforces the lesson of that time, and +has penetrated more deeply into the heart of society, Martial has +sketched its external aspect with a much fairer pencil and from a much +more intimate contact with it. Martial was to Rome in the decay of its +ancient virtue and patriotism what Menander was to Athens in its +decline. They were both men of cosmopolitan rather than of a national +type, and had a closer affinity to the life of Paris or London in the +18th century than to that of Rome in the days of the Scipios or of +Athens in the age of Pericles. The form of epigram was fitted to the +critical temper of Rome as the comedy of manners was fitted to the +dramatic genius of Greece. Martial professes to be of the school of +Catullus, Pedo, and Marsus, and admits his inferiority only to the +first. But, though he is a poet of a less pure and genuine inspiration +he is a greater epigrammatist even than his master. Indeed the epigram +bears to this day the form impressed upon it by his unrivalled skill. + + AUTHORITIES.--The MSS. of Martial are divided by editors into three + families according to the recension of the text which they offer. Of + these the oldest and best is represented by three MSS. which contain + only selected extracts. The second family is derived from an inferior + source, a MS. which was edited in A.D. 401 by Torquatus Gennadius; it + comprises four MSS. and contains the whole of the text. The third + family, of which the MSS. are very numerous, also contains the whole + of the text in a recension slightly different from that of the other + two; the best representative of this family is the MS. preserved in + the Advocates' Library at Edinburgh. + + The best separate edition of the text is that of Lindsay (Oxford, + 1902); earlier editions of importance are those of Schneidewin (1842 + and 1853), and of Gilbert (Leipzig, 1886). The best commentary is that + of L. Friedländer (Leipzig, 1886) in two volumes with German notes) + and in the same scholar's _Sittengeschichte Roms_ much will be found + that explains and illustrates Martial's epigrams. There is a large + selection from the epigrams with English notes by Paley and Stone + (1875), a smaller selection with notes by Stephenson (1880); see also + Edwin Post, _Selected Epigrams of Martial_ (1908), with introduction + and notes. The translation into English verse by Elphinston (London, + 1782) is famous for its absurdity, which drew an epigram from Burns. + (W. Y. S.) + + + + +MARTIALIS, QUINTUS GARGILIUS, a Latin writer on horticultural subjects. +He has been identified by some with the military commander of the same +name, mentioned in a Latin inscription of A.D. 260 (_C. I. L._ viii. +9047) as having lost his life in the colony of Auzia (_Aumale_) in +Mauretania Caesariensis. Considerable fragments of his work (probably +called _De hortis_), which treated of the cultivation of trees and +vegetables, and also of their medicinal properties, have survived, +chiefly in the body of and as an appendix to the _Medicina Plinii_ (an +anonymous 4th century handbook of medical recipes based upon Pliny, +_Nat. Hist._ xx.-xxxii.). Extant sections treat of apples, peaches, +quinces, almonds and chestnuts. Gargilius also wrote a treatise on the +tending of cattle (_De curis boum_), and a biography of the emperor +Alexander Severus is attributed by two of the Scriptores historiae +Augustae (Aelius Lampridius and Flavius Vopiscus) to a Gargilius +Martialis, who may be the same person. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Gargilii Martialis ... fragmenta_, ed. A. Mai (1846); + _Plinii secundi quae fertur medicina_, ed. V. Rose (1876); _De curis + boum_, ed. E. Lommatzsch (1903) with Vegetius Renatus's + _Mulomedicina_; "Gargilius Martialis und die Maurenkriege," C. + Cichorius in G. Curtius, _Leipziger Studien_, x. (1887), where the + inscription referred to above is fully discussed: see also + Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Literature_ (Eng. trans.), § 380. + + + + +MARTIAL LAW. "Martial law" is an unfortunate term and in a sense a +misnomer. It describes a suspension of ordinary law, rendered necessary +by circumstances of war or rebellion. The confusion arose from the fact +that the marshal's court administered military law before the +introduction of articles of war, which were in their turn merged in the +Army Act. But martial law is not a law in the proper sense of the term. +It is the exercise of the will of the military commander, who takes upon +himself the responsibility of suspending ordinary law in order to ensure +the safety of the state. It is declared, by a proclamation issued by the +executive, that ordinary law is inadequate to cope with the +circumstances, and provides exceptional means of arrest and punishment +of persons who resist the government or aid the enemy. But such a +proclamation, while invariably issued in order to give publicity to the +suspension of ordinary law, does not invest the step with the force of +law. It is simply military authority exercised in accordance with the +laws and usages of war, and is limited by military necessity. Yet in +reality it is part of common law which justifies acts done by necessity +for the defence of the commonwealth when there is war. H. W. Halleck in +his work on International Law (i. 544), says, "Martial law originates +either in the prerogative of the crown, as in Great Britain, or from the +exigency of the occasion, as in other states: it is one of the rights of +sovereignty, and is essential to the existence of a state, as is the +right to declare or to carry on war." + +This opinion, however, must be read, as regards the British Empire, with +the passage in the Petition of Right which is reproduced in the preamble +of each annual Army Act, and asserts the illegality of martial law in +time of peace in the following terms:--"No man shall be fore-judged or +subjected in time of peace to any kind of punishment within this realm +by martial law." Therefore, whilst martial law is declared illegal in +time of peace, it is indirectly declared lawful in time of war and +intestinal commotion when the courts are closed, or when there is no +time for their cumbrous action. C. M. Clode, in _Military Forces of the +Crown_, argues that the words of the Petition of Right and of the +Military Act since the reign of Anne are plain in this respect "that ... +the crown possesses the right of issuing commissions in war and +rebellion." But he rightly adds that the military commander may permit +the usual courts to continue their jurisdiction upon such subjects as he +thinks proper. Legislative enactments have also sanctioned this special +jurisdiction at various times, notably in 1798, 1799, 1801, and in 1803. +These enactments lay down that exceptional powers may be exercised +"whether the ordinary courts shall or shall not be open." As an +invariable rule an act of indemnity has been passed on the withdrawal of +martial law, but only to protect any person in charge of the execution +of martial law who has exceeded his powers in good faith. + +There has been much discussion as to whether, in districts where martial +law has not been proclaimed, a person can be sent for trial from such +district into a district where martial law was in operation. It is +argued that if the ordinary courts were open and at work in the +non-proclaimed district recourse should be had to them. The Privy +Council in 1902 (_re_ Marais) refused leave to appeal where the Supreme +Court of Cape Colony had declined to issue a writ of Habeas Corpus in +these circumstances. Mr Justice Blackburn in his charge in _R._ v. +_Eyre_ says, "I have come to the conclusion that, looking at what +martial law was, the bringing of a person into the proclaimed district +to be tried might, in a proper case, be justified." The learned judge +admits that there should be a power of summary trial, observing all the +substantials of justice, in order to stamp out an insurrection by speedy +trial. + +Whilst martial law is the will of the commanders, and is only limited by +the customs of war and the discretion of those who administer it, still, +as far as practicable, the procedure of military law is followed, and a +military court is held on the same lines as a court-martial. Charges are +simply framed without technicalities. The prisoner is present, the +evidence of prosecution and prisoner is taken on oath, the proceedings +are recorded, and the sentence of the court must be confirmed according +to the rules of the Army Act. Sentences of death and penal servitude +must be referred to headquarters for confirmation. In the South African +War (1899-1902) these limits of procedure were observed, and when +possible will always be. + + + Different Applications of Martial Law. + +Entering more into detail, the term martial law has been employed in +several senses:--(1) As applied to the military forces of the crown, +apart from the military law under the old Mutiny Acts, and the present +annual Army Acts. (2) As applied to the enemy. (3) As applied to rebels. +(4) As applied to civilian subjects who are not in rebellion, but in a +district where the ordinary course of civil life cannot be maintained +owing to war or rebellion. + +1. In regard to the military forces of the crown, the superseding of +justice as administered under the Army Act could only occur in a time of +great need; e.g. mutiny of five or six regiments in the field, with no +time to take the opinion of any executive authority. The officer in +command would then be bound to take measures for the purpose of +suppressing such mutiny, even to putting soldiers to death if necessary. +It would be a case where necessity forced immediate action. + +2. Martial law as applied to the enemy or the population of the enemy's +country, is in the words of the duke of Wellington, "the will of the +general of the army, though it must be administered in accordance with +the customs of war." + +3, 4. But it is as affecting the subjects of the crown in rebellion that +the subject of martial law really obtains its chief importance; and it +is in this sense that the term is generally used; i.e. the suspension of +ordinary law and the temporary government of the country, or parts of +it, or all of it, by military tribunals. It has often been laid down +that martial law in this sense is unknown to the law of England. A. V. +Dicey, for instance, restricts martial law to only another expression +for "the common right of the crown and its servants to repel force by +force, in the case of invasion, insurrection, or riot, or generally of +any violent resistance." But more than this is understood by the term +martial law. + +When the proposition was laid down that martial law in this sense is +unknown to the law of England, it is to be remembered that fortunately +in England there never had been a state at all similar to that +prevailing in Cape Colony in 1900-1902, and it may perhaps be questioned +whether the statement would have been made with such certainty if +similar events had been present to the writers' minds. + +In the charge delivered by Mr Justice Blackburn in the Jamaica case the +law as affecting the general question of martial law is well set out. + + "By the laws of this country," said Mr Justice Blackburn, "beginning + at Magna Carta and getting more and more established, down to the time + of the Revolution, when it was finally and completely established, the + general rule was that a subject was not to be tried or punished except + by due course of law; all crimes are to be determined by juries + subject to the guidance of the judge; that is the general rule, and is + established law. But from the earliest times there was this also which + was the law, and is the law still, that when there was a foreign + invasion or an insurrection, it was the duty of every good subject, in + obedience to the officers and magistrates, to resist the rebels, ... + in such a case as that of insurrection prevailing so far that the + courts of law cannot sit, there must really be anarchy unless there is + some power to keep the people in order, ... before that principle the + crown claimed the prerogative to exercise summary proceedings by + martial law ... in time of war when this disturbance was going on, + over others than the army. And further than that, the crown made this + further claim against the insurgents, that whilst it existed, pending + the insurrection and for a short time afterwards, the crown had ... + the power to proclaim martial law in the sense of using summary + proceedings, to punish the insurgents and to check and stop the spread + of the rebellion by summary proceedings against the insurgents, so as + ... to stamp out the rebellion. Now no doubt the extent to which the + crown had power to do that has never been yet decided. Our law has + been declared from time to time and has always been a practical + science, that is, the judges have decided so much as was necessary for + the particular case, and that has become part of the law. But it never + has come to be decided what this precise power is." + +So far as the United Kingdom is concerned the need has never arisen. It +has always been found possible to employ the ordinary courts directly +the rebels have been defeated in the field and have been made prisoners +or surrendered. "Fortunately in England only three occasions have arisen +since the Revolution when the authority of the civil power was for a +time, and then only partially, suspended," 1715, 1745 and 1780. Clode, +_Military Forces_, ii. 163, says: "Upon the threat of invasion followed +by rebellion in 1715, the first action of the government was to issue a +proclamation authorizing all officers, civil and military, by force of +arms (if necessary) to suppress the rebellion." This, therefore, would +only seem to fall within the limited sense in which Dicey understands +martial law to be legal, "the right of the crown and its servants to +repel force by force." There was no attempt to bring persons before +courts-martial who ought to be tried by the common law, and all the +extraordinary acts of the crown were sanctioned by parliament. After the +rebellion had been suppressed two statutes were passed, one for +indemnity and the other for pardon. Before the revolution of 1745 +similar action was adopted, a proclamation charging civil magistrates to +do their utmost to prevent and suppress all riots, and acts of +parliament suspending Habeas Corpus, providing for speedy trials; and of +indemnity. In the Gordon Riots of 1780 a very similar course was +pursued, and nothing was done which would not fall within Dicey's +limitation. No prisoners were tried by martial law. + +In Ireland the ordinary law was suspended in 1798-1801 and in 1803. In +1798 an order in Council was issued to all general officers commanding +H.M. forces to punish all persons acting in, aiding, or in any way +assisting the rebellion, according to _martial law_, either by death or +otherwise, as to them should seem expedient for the suppression and +punishment of all rebels; but the order was communicated to the Irish +houses of parliament, who expressed their approval by addresses to the +viceroy. It was during the operation of this order that Wolfe Tone's +case arose. Tone, a subject of the king, was captured on board a French +man-of-war, and condemned to death by a court-martial. Curran, his +counsel, applied to the king's bench at Dublin for a Habeas Corpus, on +the grounds that only when war was raging could courts-martial be +endured, not while the court of king's bench sat. The court granted his +application; but no ultimate decision was ever given, as Tone died +before it could be arrived at. + +In 1799 application was made to parliament for express sanction to +martial law. The preamble of the act declared that "The Rebellion still +continues ... and stopped the ordinary course of justice and of the +common law; and that many persons ... who had been taken by H.M. forces +... have availed themselves of such partial restoration of the ordinary +course of the common law to evade the punishment of their crimes, +whereby it had become necessary for parliament to interfere." The act +declared that martial law should prevail and be put in force whether the +ordinary courts were or were not open, &c. And nothing in the act could +be held to take away, abridge or eliminate the acknowledged prerogative +of war, for the public safety to resort to the exercise of martial law +against open enemies or traitors, &c. + +After the suppression of the rebellion an act of indemnity was passed in +1801. + +In 1803 a similar act was passed by the parliament of the United Kingdom +as it was after the Act of Union. In introducing it Mr Pitt stated: "The +bill is not one to enable the government in Ireland to declare martial +law in districts where insurrection exists, for that is a power which +His Majesty already possesses--the object will be to enable the +lord-lieutenant, when any persons shall be taken in rebellion, to order +them to be tried immediately by a court-martial." + + During the 19th century martial law was proclaimed by the British + government in the following places:-- + + 1. Barbados, 1805-1816. + 2. Demerara, 1823. + 3. Jamaica, 1831-1832; 1865. + 4. Canada, 1837-1838. + 5. Ceylon, 1817 and 1848. + 6. Cephalonia, 1848. + 7. Cape of Good Hope, 1834; 1849-1851. + 8. St Vincent, 1863. + 9. South Africa, 1899-1901. + + The proclamation was always based on the grounds of necessity, and + where any local body of a representative character existed it would + seem that its assent was given, and an act of indemnity obtained after + the suppression of the rebellion. (Jno. S.) + + + + +MARTIGNAC, JEAN BAPTISTE SYLVERE GAY, VICOMTE de (1778-1832), French +statesman, was born at Bordeaux on the 20th of June 1778. In 1798 he +acted as secretary to Sieyès; then after serving for a while in the +army, he turned to literature, producing several light plays. Under the +Empire he practised with success as an advocate at Bordeaux, where in +1818 he became advocate-general of the _cour royale_. In 1819 he was +appointed _procureur-général_ at Limoges, and in 1821 was returned for +Marmande to the Chamber of Deputies, where he supported the policy of +Villèle. In 1822 he was appointed councillor of state, in 1823 he +accompanied the due d'Angoulême to Spain as civil commissary; in 1824 he +was created a viscount and appointed director-general of registration. +In contact with practical politics his ultra-royalist views were +gradually modified in the direction of the Doctrinaires, and on the fall +of Villèle he was selected by Charles X. to carry out the new policy of +compromise. On the 4th of January 1828 he was appointed minister of the +interior, and, though not bearing the title of president, became the +virtual head of the cabinet. He succeeded in passing the act abolishing +the press censorship, and in persuading the king to sign the ordinances +of the 16th of June 1828 on the Jesuits and the little seminaries. He +was exposed to attack from both the extreme Left and the extreme Right, +and when in April 1829 a coalition of these groups defeated him in the +chamber, Charles X., who had never believed in the policy he +represented, replaced him by the prince, de Polignac. In March 1830 +Martignac voted with the majority for the address protesting against the +famous ordinances; but during the revolution that followed he remained +true to his legitimist principles. His last public appearance was in +defence of Polignac in the Chamber of Peers in December 1830. He died on +the 3rd of April 1832. + + Martignac published _Bordeaux au mois de Mars 1815_ (Paris, 1830), and + an _Essai historique sur les révolutions d'Espagne et l'intervention + française de 1823_ (Paris, 1832). See also E. Daudet, _Le Ministère de + M. de Martignac_ (Paris, 1875). + + + + +MARTIGUES, a port of south-eastern France in the department of +Bouches-du-Rhône, on the southern shore of the lagoon of Berre, and at +the eastern extremity of that of Caronte, by which the former is +connected with the Mediterranean. Pop. (1906), 4,178. Martigues is 23 m. +W.N.W. of Marseilles by rail. Divided into three quarters by canals, the +place has been called the Venice of Provence. It has a harbour (used by +coasting and fishing vessels), marine workshops, oil and soap +manufactures and cod-drying works. A special industry consists in the +preparation of _boutargue_ from the roes of the grey mullet caught in +the salt lagoons, which rivals Russian caviare. + + Built in 1232 by Raymond Bérenger, count of Provence, Martigues was + made a viscountship by Joanna I., queen of Naples. Henry IV. made it a + principality, in favour of a princess of the house of Luxembourg. It + afterwards passed into the hands of the duke of Villars. + + + + +MARTIN, ST (c. 316-400), bishop of Tours, was born of heathen parents at +Sabaria (Stein am Agger) in Pannonia, about the year 316. When ten years +old he became a catechumen, and at fifteen he reluctantly entered the +army. While stationed at Amiens he divided his cloak with a beggar, and +on the following night had the vision of Christ making known to his +angels this act of charity to Himself on the part of "Martinus, still a +catechumen." Soon afterwards he received baptism, and two years later, +having left the army, he joined Hilary of Poitiers, who wished to make +him a deacon, but at his own request ordained him to the humbler office +of an exorcist. On a visit home he converted his mother, but his zeal +against the Arians roused persecution against him and for some time he +lived an ascetic life on the desert island of Gallinaria near Genoa. +Between 360 and 370 he was again with Hilary at Poitiers, and founded in +the neighbourhood the monasterium locociagense (Licugé). In 371-372 the +people of Tours chose him for their bishop. He did much to extirpate +idolatry from his diocese and from France, and to extend the monastic +system. To obtain privacy for the maintenance of his personal religion, +he established the monastery of Marmoutier-les-Tours (Martini +monasterium) on the banks of the Loire. At Trèves, in 385, he entreated +that the lives of the Priscillianist heretics should be spared, and he +ever afterwards refused to hold ecclesiastical fellowship with those +bishops who had sanctioned their execution. He died at Candes in the +year 400, and is commemorated by the Roman Church on the 11th of +November (duplex). He left no writings, the so-called _Confessio_ being +spurious. He is the patron saint of France and of the cities of Mainz +and Würzburg. The _Life_ by his disciple Sulpicius Severus is +practically the only source for his biography, but it is full of +legendary matter and chronological errors. Gregory of Tours gives a list +of 206 miracles wrought by him after his death; Sidonius Apollinaris +composed a metrical biography of him. The Feast of St Martin (Martinmas) +took the place of an old pagan festival, and inherited some of its +usages (such as the _Martinsmännchen_, _Martinsfeuer_, _Martinshorn_ and +the like, in various parts of Germany); by this circumstance is probably +to be explained the fact that Martin is regarded as the patron of +drinking and jovial meetings, as well as of reformed drunkards. + + See A. Dupuy, _Geschichte des heiligen Martins_ (Schaffhausen, 1855); + J. G. Cazenove in _Dict. chr. biog._ iii. 838. + + + + +MARTIN (Martinus), the name of several popes. + +MARTIN I. succeeded Theodore I. in June or July 649. He had previously +acted as papal apocrisiarius at Constantinople, and was held in high +repute for learning and virtue. Almost his first official act was to +summon a synod (the first Lateran) for dealing with the Monothelite +heresy. It met in the Lateran church, was attended by one hundred and +five bishops (chiefly from Italy, Sicily and Sardinia, a few being from +Africa and other quarters), held five sessions or "secretarii" from the +5th to the 31st of October 649, and in twenty canons condemned the +Monothelite heresy, its authors, and the writings by which it had been +promulgated. In this condemnation were included, not only the _Ecthesis_ +or exposition of faith of the patriarch Sergius for which the emperor +Heraclius had stood sponsor, but also the Typus of Paul, the successor +of Sergius, which had the support of the reigning emperor (Constans +II.). Martin published the decrees of his Lateran synod in an +encyclical, and Constans replied by enjoining his exarch to seize the +pope and send him prisoner to Constantinople. Martin was arrested in the +Lateran (June 15, 653), hurried out of Rome, and conveyed first to Naxos +and subsequently to Constantinople (Sept. 17, 654). He was ultimately +banished to Cherson, where he arrived on the 26th of March 655, and died +on the 16th of September following. His successor was Eugenius I. (L. +D.*) + + A full account of the events of his pontificate will be found in + Hefele's _Conciliengeschichte_, vol. iii. (1877). + +MARTIN II., the name commonly given in error to Marinus I. (q.v.). + +MARTIN III., see Marinus II. + +MARTIN IV. (Simon Mompitié de Brion), pope from the 22nd of February +1281 to the 28th of March 1285, should have been named Martin II. He was +born about 1210 in Touraine. He became a priest at Rouen and canon of St +Martin's at Tours, and was made chancellor of France by Louis IX. in +1260 and cardinal-priest of Sta Cecilia by Urban IV. in 1261. As papal +legate in France he held several synods for the reformation of the +clergy and conducted the negotiations for the assumption of the crown of +Sicily by Charles of Anjou. It was through the latter's influence that +he succeeded Nicholas III., after a six-months' struggle between the +French and Italian cardinals. The Romans at first declined to receive +him, and he was consecrated at Orvieto on the 23rd of March 1281. +Peaceful and unassuming, he relied completely on Charles of Anjou, and +showed little ability as pope. His excommunication of the emperor +Michael Palaeologus (Nov. 1281), who stood in the way of the French +projects against Greece, weakened the union with the Eastern Christians, +dating from the Lyons Council of 1274. He unduly favoured his own +countrymen, and for three years after the Sicilian Vespers (Mar. 31, +1282) he employed all the spiritual and material resources at his +command on behalf of his patron against Peter of Aragon. He was driven +from Rome by a popular uprising and died at Perugia. His successor was +Honorius IV. (C. H. Ha.) + + His registers have been published in the _Bibliothèque des écoles + françaises d'Athènes et de Rome_ (Paris, 1901). + + See A. Potthast, _Regesta pontif. roman._, vol. 2 (Berlin, 1875); K. + J. von Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_, Bd. 6, 2nd ed.; F. Gregorovius, + _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol. 5, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton + (London, 1900-1902); H. H. Milman, _Latin Christianity_, vol. 6 + (London, 1899); W. Norden, _Das Papsttum u. Byzanz_ (Berlin, 1903); E. + Choullier, "Recherches sur la vie du pape Martin IV.," in _Revue de + Champagne_, vol. 4 (1878); _Processo istorico dell' insurrezione di + Sicilia dell' anno 1282_, ed. by G. di Marzo (Palermo, 1882). + +MARTIN V. (Otto Colonna) (1417-1431) was elected at Constance on St +Martin's Day, in a conclave composed of twenty-three cardinals and +thirty delegates from the five different "nations" of the council. Son +of Agapito Colonna, who had himself become a bishop and cardinal, the +new pope belonged to one of the greatest Roman families; to Urban VI. +had been due his entry, as _referendarius_, upon an ecclesiastical +career. Having become a cardinal under Innocent VII., he had seceded +from Gregory XII. in 1408, and together with the other cardinals at +Pisa, had taken part in the election of Alexander V. and afterwards of +John XXIII. At Constance, his rôle had been chiefly that of an arbiter; +he was a good and gentle man, leading a simple life, free from intrigue. +While refraining from making any pronouncement as to the validity of the +decrees of the fourth and fifth sessions, which had seemed to proclaim +the superiority of the council over the pope, Martin V. nevertheless +soon revealed his personal feelings by having a constitution read in +consistory which forbade any appeal from the judgment of the sovereign +pontiff in matters of faith (May 10, 1418). As to the reform, of which +everybody felt the necessity, the fathers in council had not succeeded +in arriving at any agreement. Martin V. himself settled a great number +of points, and then passed a series of special concordats with Germany, +France, Italy, Spain and England. Though this was not the thorough +reform of which need was felt, the council itself gave the pope a +_satisfecit_. When the council was dissolved Martin V. made it his task +to regain Italy. After staying for long periods at Mantua and Florence, +where the deposed pope, Baldassare Cossa (John XXIII.), came and made +submission to him, Martin V. was enabled to enter Rome (Sept. 30, 1420) +and measure the extent of the ruins left there by the Great Schism of +the West. He set to work to restore some of these ruins, to reconstitute +and pacify the Papal State, to put an end to the Schism, which showed +signs of continuing in Aragon and certain parts of southern France; to +enter into negotiations, unfortunately unfruitful, with the Greek Church +also with a view to a return to unity, to organize the struggle against +heresy in Bohemia; to interpose his pacific mediation between France and +England, as well as between the parties which were rending France; and, +finally, to welcome and act as patron to saintly reformers like +Bernardino of Siena and Francesca Romana, foundress of the nursing +sisterhood of the Oblate di Tor de' Specchi (1425). + +In accordance with the decree _Frequens_, and the promises which he had +made, Martin V., after an interval of five years, summoned a new +council, which was almost immediately transferred from Pavia to Siena, +in consequence of an epidemic (1423). But the small number of fathers +who attended at the latter town, and above all, the disquieting +tendencies which began to make themselves felt there, induced the pope +to force on a dissolution of the synod. Pending the reunion of the new +council which had been summoned at Basel for the end of a period of +seven years, Martin V. himself endeavoured to effect a reformation in +certain points, but he was carried off by apoplexy (Feb. 20, 1431), just +as he had designated the young and brilliant Cardinal Giuliano Cesarini +to preside in his place over the council of Basel. + + See L. Pastor, _Geschichte der Päpste_ (1901), i. 205-279; J. Guiraud, + _L'État pontifical après le Grand Schisme_ (1896); Müntz, _Les Arts à + la cour des papes pendant le xv^e et le xvi^e siècle_ (1878); N. + Valois, _La Crise religieuse du xv^e siècle; le pape et le concile_ + (1909), vol. i. p. i.-xxix., 1-93. (N. V.) + + + + +MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI (1810-1883), French historian, was born on the +20th of February 1810 at St Quentin (Aisne), where his father was a +judge. Trained as a notary, he followed this profession for some time +but having achieved success with an historical romance, _Wolfthurm_ +(1830), he applied himself to historical research. Becoming associated +with Paul Lacroix ("le Bibliophile Jacob"), he planned with him a +history of France, to consist of excerpts from the chief chroniclers and +historians, with original matter filling up gaps in the continuity. The +first volume, which appeared in 1833, encouraged the author to make the +work his own, and his _Histoire de France_, in fifteen volumes +(1833-1836), was the result. This _magnum opus_, rewritten and further +elaborated (4th ed., 16 vols. and index, 1861-1865) gained for the +author in 1856 the first prize of the Academy, and in 1869 the grand +biennial prize of 20,000 francs. A popular abridgment in seven volumes +was published in 1867. This, together with the continuation, _Histoire +de France depuis 1789 jusqu'à nos jours_ (6 vols. 1878-1883), gives a +complete history of France, and superseded Sismondi's _Histoire des +Français_. + +This work is in parts defective; Martin's descriptions of the Gauls are +based rather on romance than on history, and in this respect he was too +much under the influence of Jean Reynaud and his cosmogonic philosophy. +However he gave a great impetus to Celtic and anthropological studies. +His knowledge of the middle ages is inadequate, and his criticisms are +not discriminating. As a free-thinking republican, his prejudices often +biassed his judgment on the political and religious history of the +_ancien régime_. The last six volumes, devoted to the 17th and 18th +centuries, are superior to the earlier ones. Martin sat in the +_assemblée nationale_ as deputy for Aisne in 1871, and was elected life +senator in 1878, but he left no mark as a politician. He died in Paris +on the 14th of December 1883. + + Among his minor works may be mentioned:--_De la France, de son génie + et de ses destinées_ (1847); _Daniel Manin_ (1860), _La Russie et + l'Europe_ (1866); _Études d'archéologie celtique_ (1872); _Les + Napoléon et les frontières de la France_ (1874). See his biography by + Gabriel Hanotaux, _Henri Martin; sa vie, ses oeuvres, son temps_ + (1885). + + + + +MARTIN, CLAUD (1735-1800), French adventurer and officer in the army of +the English East India Company, was born at Lyons on the 4th of January +1735, the son of a cooper. He went out to India in 1751 to serve under +Dupleix and Lally in the Carnatic wars. When Pondicherry fell in 1761, +he seems, like others of his countrymen, to have accepted service in the +Bengal army of the English, obtaining an ensign's commission in 1763, +and steadily rising to the rank of major-general. He was employed on the +building of the new Fort William at Calcutta, and afterwards on the +survey of Bengal under Rennell. In 1776 he was allowed to accept the +appointment of superintendent of the arsenal of the nawab of Oudh at +Lucknow, retaining his rank but being ultimately placed on half pay. He +acquired a large fortune, and on his death (Sept. 13, 1800) he +bequeathed his residuary estate to found institutions for the education +of European children at Lucknow, Calcutta and Lyons, all known by the +name of "La Martinière." That at Lucknow is the best known. It was +housed in the palace that he had built called Constantia, which, though +damaged during the Mutiny, retains many personal memorials of its +founder. + + See S. C. Hill, _The Life of Claud Martin_ (Calcutta, 1901). + + + + +MARTIN, FRANÇOIS XAVIER (1762-1846), American jurist and author, was +born in Marseilles, France, on the 17th of March 1762, of Provençal +descent. In 1780 he went to Martinique, and before the close of the +American war of Independence went to North Carolina, where (in New Bern) +he taught French and learnt English, and set up as a printer. He studied +law, and was admitted to the North Carolina bar in 1789. He published +various legal books, and edited _Acts of the North Carolina Assembly +from 1715 to 1803_ (2nd ed., 1809). He was a member of the lower house +of the General Assembly in 1806-1807. In 1809 he was commissioned a +judge of the superior court of the territory of Mississippi, and in +March 1810 became judge of the superior court of the territory of +Orleans. Here the law was in a chaotic condition, what with French law +before O'Reilly's rule, then a Spanish code, and in 1808 the Digest of +the Civil Laws, an adaptation by James Brown and Moreau Lislet of the +code of Napoleon, which repealed the Spanish fueros, partidas, +recopilationes and laws of the Indies only as they conflicted with its +provisions. Martin published in 1811 and 1813 reports of cases decided +by the superior court of the territory of Orleans. For two years from +February 1813 Martin was attorney-general of the newly established state +of Louisiana, and then until March 1846 was a judge and (from 1836 to +1846) presiding judge of the supreme court of the state. For the period +until 1830 he published reports of the decisions of the supreme court; +and in 1816 he published two volumes, one French and one English, of _A +General Digest of the Acts of Legislatures of the Late Territory of +Orleans and of the State of Louisiana_. He won the name of the "father +of Louisiana jurisprudence" and his work was of great assistance to +Edward Livingston, Pierre Derbigny and Moreau Lislet in the Louisiana +codification of 1821-1826. Martin's eyesight had begun to fail when he +was seventy, and after 1836 he could no longer write opinions with his +own hand.[1] He died in New Orleans on the 11th of December 1846. + + Martin translated Robert J. Pothier _On Obligations_ (1802), and wrote + _The History of Louisiana from the Earliest Period_ (2 vols. + 1827-1829) and _The History of North Carolina_ (2 vols., 1829). There + is a memoir by Henry A. Bullard in part ii. of B. F. French's + _Historical Collections of Louisiana_ (Philadelphia, 1850), and one by + W. W. Howe in John F. Condon's edition of Martin's _History of + Louisiana_ (New Orleans, 1882). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] His holographic will in favour of his brother (written in 1844 + and devising property worth nearly $400,000) was unsuccessfully + contested by the state of Louisiana on the ground that the will was + void as being a legal and physical impossibility, or as being an + attempted fraud on the state, as under it the state would not receive + a 10% tax if the property went to the heirs of Martin (as intestate) + in France. + + + + +MARTIN, HOMER DODGE (1836-1897), American artist, was born at Albany, +New York, on the 28th of October 1836. A pupil for a short time of +William Hart, his earlier work followed the lines of the Hudson River +School. He was elected as associate of the National Academy of Design, +New York, in 1868, and a full academician in 1874. During a trip to +Europe in 1876 he was captivated by the Barbizon school, and from 1882 +to 1886 he lived in France spending much of the time in Normandy. At +Villerville he painted his "Harp of the Winds," now at the Metropolitan +Museum of Art, New York. Among his important canvases are "Westchester +Hills," "Adirondack Scenery," "The Cinqueboeuf Church," "Sand Dunes," +and "A Newport Landscape." Martin is generally spoken of as one of the +great trio of American landscapists, the other two being Inness and +Wyant, and examples of his work are in most of the important American +collections. He died at St. Paul, Minnesota, on the 2nd of February +1897. + + + + +MARTIN, JOHN (1789-1854), English painter, was born at Haydon Bridge, +near Hexham, on the 19th of July 1789. He was apprenticed by his father +to a coachbuilder to learn heraldic painting, but owing to a quarrel the +indentures were cancelled, and he was placed under Bonifacio Musso, an +Italian artist, father of the enamel painter Charles Musso. With his +master Martin removed to London in 1806, where he married at the age of +nineteen, and supported himself by giving drawing lessons, and by +painting in water colours, and on china and glass. His leisure was +occupied in the study of perspective and architecture. His first +picture, "Sadak in Search of the Waters of Oblivion," was exhibited in +the Royal Academy of 1812, and sold for fifty guineas. It was followed +by the "Expulsion" (1813), "Paradise" (1813), "Clytie" (1814), and +"Joshua" (1815). In 1821 appeared his "Belshazzar's Feast," which +excited much favourable and hostile comment, and was awarded a prize of +£200 at the British Institution, where the Joshua had previously carried +off a premium of £100. Then came the "Destruction of Herculaneum" +(1822), the "Creation" (1824), the "Eve of the Deluge" (1841), and a +series of other Biblical and imaginative subjects. In 1832-1833 Martin +received £2000 for drawing and engraving a fine series of designs to +Milton, and with Westall he produced a set of Bible illustrations. He +was also occupied with schemes for the improvement of London, and +published various pamphlets and plans dealing with the metropolitan +water supply, sewage, dock and railway systems. During the last four +years of his life he was engaged upon his large subjects of "The +Judgment," the "Day of Wrath," and the "Plains of Heaven." He was +attacked with paralysis while painting, and died in the Isle of Man on +the 17th of February 1854. + + + + +MARTIN, LUTHER (1748-1826), American lawyer, was born in New Brunswick, +New Jersey, on the 9th of February 1748. He graduated at the college of +New Jersey (now Princeton University) at the head of a class of +thirty-five in 1766, and immediately afterwards removed to Maryland, +teaching at Queenstown in that colony until 1770, and being admitted to +the bar in 1771. He practised law for a short time in Virginia, then +returned to Maryland, and became recognized as the leader of the +Maryland bar and as one of the ablest lawyers in the United States. From +1778 to 1805 he was attorney-general of Maryland; in 1814-1816 he was +chief judge of the court of Oyer and Terminer for the city of Baltimore; +and in 1818-1822 he was attorney-general of Maryland. He was one of +Maryland's representatives in the Continental Congress in 1784-1785 and +in the Constitutional Convention of 1787 at Philadelphia, but opposed +the constitution and refused to affix his signature. He subsequently +allied himself with the Federalists, and was an opponent of Thomas +Jefferson, who in 1807 spoke of him as the "Federal Bull-Dog." His +ability was shown in his famous defence of Judge Samuel Chase (q.v.) in +the impeachment trial before the United States Senate in 1804-1805, and +in his defence of Aaron Burr (q.v.) against the charge of treason in +1807. He has been described by the historian Henry Adams, writing of the +Chase trial, as at that time the "most formidable of American +advocates." Though he received a large income, he was so improvident +that he was frequently in want, and on the 22nd of February 1822 the +legislature of Maryland passed a remarkable resolution--the only one of +the kind in American history--requiring every lawyer in the state to pay +an annual licence fee of five dollars, to be handed over to trustees +appointed "for the appropriation of the proceeds raised by virtue of +this resolution to the use of Luther Martin." This resolution was +rescinded on the 6th of February 1823. Martin died at the home of Aaron +Burr in New York on the 10th of July 1826. In 1783 he had married a +daughter of the Captain Michael Cresap (1742-1775), who was unjustly +charged by Jefferson, in his _Notes on Virginia_, with the murder of the +family of the Indian chief, John Logan, and whom Martin defended in a +pamphlet long out of print. + + See the biographical sketch by Henry P. Goddard, _Luther Martin, the + Federal Bull-Dog_ (Baltimore, 1887), No. 24 of the "Peabody Fund + Publications," of the Maryland Historical Society. + + + + +MARTIN, SIR THEODORE (1816-1909), British author and translator, the son +of a solicitor, was born at Edinburgh on the 16th of September 1816, and +educated at the Royal High School and the University, from which he +subsequently received the honorary degree of LL.D. He practised for some +time as a solicitor in Edinburgh, but in 1846 went to London, where he +became senior partner in the firm of Martin & Leslie, parliamentary +agents. He early contributed to _Fraser's Magazine_ and _Tait's +Magazine_, under the signature of "Bon Gaultier," and in 1856, in +conjunction with Professor Aytoun, he published the _Book of Ballads_ +under the same pseudonym. This work at once obtained popular favour. In +1858 he published a volume of translations of the _Poems and Ballads of +Goethe_, and this was followed by a rendering of the Danish poet Henrik +Hertz's lyric drama, _King René's Daughter_. The principal character in +this drama, Iolanthe, was sustained by Helena Faucit (q.v.), who in 1851 +became the author's wife. Martin's translations of Öhlenschläger's +dramas, _Correggio_ (1854) and _Aladdin, or the Wonderful Lamp_ (1857), +widened the fame of the Danish poet in England. In 1860 appeared +Martin's metrical translation of the _Odes of Horace_; and in 1870 he +wrote a volume on _Horace_ for the series of "Ancient Classics for +English Readers." In 1882 his Horatian labours were concluded by a +translation of the poet's whole works, with a life and notes, in two +volumes. A poetical translation of _Catullus_ was published in 1861, +followed by a privately printed volume of _Poems, Original and +Translated_, in 1863. Then came translations of the _Vita Nuova_ of +Dante, and the first part of Goethe's _Faust_. A metrical translation of +the second part of _Faust_ appeared in 1866. Martin wrote a memoir of +his friend Aytoun in 1867, and while engaged upon this work he was +requested by Queen Victoria, to whom he was introduced by his friend Sir +Arthur Helps, to undertake the _Life of His Royal Highness the Prince +Consort_. The first volume of this well-known work was published in +1874. In 1878 Martin's translation of Heine's _Poems and Ballads_ +appeared. Two years later the _Life of the Prince Consort_ was brought +to a successful conclusion by the publication of the fifth volume. A +knighthood was then conferred upon him. In the following November he was +elected lord rector of the university of St Andrews. Martin's _Life of +Lord Lyndhurst_, based upon papers furnished by the family, was +published in 1883. In 1889 appeared _The Song of the Bell, and other +Translations from Schiller, Goethe, Uhland, and Others_; in 1804 +_Madonna Pia, a Tragedy, and three Other Dramas_; a translation of +Leopardi's poems in 1905; and in 1901 he published a biography of his +wife. The kindly relations which subsisted between Queen Victoria and +Sir Theodore Martin were continued after the completion of the _Life_ of +the prince consort up to the queen's death. Sir Theodore's account of +these relations was privately printed in 1902, and, with King Edward's +consent, for general publication in 1908. This little book, _Queen +Victoria as I knew her_, throws a good deal of light on the Queen's +character and private life. Sir Theodore Martin died on the 18th of +August 1909. + + + + +MARTIN, WILLIAM (1767-1810), English naturalist, the son of a hosier, +was born at Mansfield, Nottinghamshire, in 1767. He studied drawing at +an early age from James Bolton at Halifax, and gained from him a taste +for the study of natural history. In 1805 he was appointed drawing +master in the grammar school at Macclesfield. Meanwhile he cultivated +his taste for natural history, and was in 1796 elected a fellow of the +Linnaean Society. He is best known for his early works on British +fossils, entitled _Petrifacta derbiensia or Figures and Descriptions of +Petrifactions collected in Derbyshire_ (1809); and _Outlines of an +Attempt to establish a Knowledge of Extraneous Fossils on Scientific +Principles_ (1809). He died at Macclesfield on the 31st of May 1810. + + + + +MARTIN, SIR WILLIAM FANSHAWE (1801-1895), British admiral, son of +Admiral of the Fleet Sir Thomas Byam Martin, comptroller of the navy, +and grandson, on the mother's side, of Captain Robert Fanshawe, who +commanded the "Namur" 90 in Rodney's victory of the 12th of April 1782, +was born on the 5th of December 1801. Entering the navy at the age of +twelve, his father's interest secured his rapid promotion: he was made a +lieutenant on the 15th of December 1820; on the 8th of February 1823 he +was promoted to be commander of the "Fly" sloop, his good service in +which in support of the interests of British merchants at Callao secured +his promotion as captain on the 5th of June 1824. He afterwards served +in the Mediterranean and on the home station. In 1849-1852 he was +commodore commanding the Channel squadron, and gave evidence of a +remarkable aptitude for command. He was made rear-admiral in May 1853, +and for the next four years was superintendent of Portsmouth dockyard. +He was made vice-admiral in February 1858, and after a year as a lord of +the admiralty, was appointed commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean. +The discipline of the navy was then bad. It was a tradition sprung from +the wholesale shipment of gaol-birds during the old war, that the men +were to be treated without consideration; moreover the ships had been +largely filled up with "bounty men" bought into the service with a £10 +note without training. Out of this unpromising material Martin formed +the fleet which was at that time the ideal of excellence. He had no war +service, and, beyond the Italian disturbance of 1860-61, no opportunity +for showing diplomatic ability. But his memory lives as that of the +reformer of discipline and the originator of a comprehensive system of +steam manoeuvres. He became an admiral in November 1863, and on the 4th +of December succeeded to the baronetcy which had been conferred on his +grandfather. His last appointment was the command at Plymouth, +1866-1869, and in 1870 he was put on the retired list. In 1873 the +G.C.B. was conferred on him, and in 1878 he was made rear-admiral. He +died at Upton Grey, near Winchfield, on the 24th of March 1895. He was +twice married, and left, besides daughters, one son, who succeeded to +the baronetcy. + + + + +MARTIN OF TROPPAU, or MARTIN THE POLE (d. 1278), chronicler, was born at +Troppau, and entered the order of St Dominic at Prague. Afterwards he +went to Rome and became papal chaplain under Clement IV. and other +popes. In 1278 Pope Nicholas III. appointed him archbishop of Gnesen, +but he died at Bologna whilst proceeding to Poland to take up his new +duties. Martin wrote some sermons and some commentaries on the canon +law; but more important is his _Chronicon pontificum et imperatorum_, a +history of the popes and emperors to 1277. Written at the request of +Clement IV. the _Chronicon_ is jejune and untrustworthy, and was mainly +responsible for the currency of the legend of Pope Joan, and the one +about the institution of seven electors by the pope. Nevertheless it +enjoyed an extraordinary popularity and found many continuators; but its +value to students arises solely from the fact that it was used by +numerous chroniclers during the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries. In the +15th century it was translated into French, and as part of the +_Chronique martiniane_ was often quoted by controversialists. It has +also been translated into German, Italian and Bohemian. + + The Latin text is printed, with introduction by L. Weiland, in Band + XXII. of the _Monumenta Germaniae historica_ (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 + seq.). See G. Waitz, H. Brosien and others in the _Neues Archiv der + Geseltschaft für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde_ (Hanover, 1876 + seq.); W. Wattenbach, _Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen_, Band II. + (Berlin, 1894); and A. Molinier, _Les Sources de l'histoire de + France_, Tome III. (Paris, 1903). + + + + +MARTIN[1] (Fr. _Martinet_), the _Hirundo urbica_ of Linnaeus and +_Chelidon urbica_ of modern ornithologists, a bird well known throughout +Europe, including even Lapland, where it is abundant, retiring in winter +to the south of Africa. It also inhabits the western part of Asia, and +appears from time to time in large flocks in India. The martin (or +house-martin, as it is often called, to distinguish it from the +sand-martin) commonly reaches its summer quarters a few days later than +the Swallow (q.v.), with which it is often confused in spite of the +differences between them, the martin's white rump and lower parts being +conspicuous as it flies or clings to its nest attached to houses. This +nest, made of the same material as the swallow's, is, however, a more +difficult structure to rear, and a week or more is often occupied in +laying its foundations--the builders clinging to the wall while +depositing the mud of which it is composed. The base once fixed, the +superstructure is often quickly added, till the whole takes the shape of +the half or quarter of a hemisphere, and is finished with a lining of +feathers mixed with a few bents or straws. The martin builds soon after +its return, and a nest that has outlasted the winter is almost at once +reoccupied. The bird usually in the course of the summer raises a +second, or rarely a third, brood of offspring--though the latest broods +often die in the nest, apparently through failure of food. What seem to +be adults are observed in England every year so late as November, and +sometimes within a few days of the winter solstice, but these late birds +are almost certainly strangers. + +The sand-martin, _Hirundo riparia_ of Linnaeus and _Cotile riparia_ of +modern writers, differs much in appearance and habits from the former. +Its smaller size, mouse-coloured upper surface and jerking flight +distinguish it from the other British _Hirundinidae_; but it is seldom +discriminated, and, being the first of the family to return to its +northern home, the so-called "early swallow" is nearly always of this +species. Instead of the clay-built nest of the house-martin, this bird +bores horizontal galleries in an escarpment. When beginning its +excavation, it clings to the face of the bank, and with its bill loosens +the earth, working from the centre outwards, and often hanging head +downwards. The tunnel may extend to 4, 6, or even 9 ft. The gallery +seems intended to be straight, but inequalities of the ground, and +especially the meeting with stones, often causes it to take a sinuous +course. At the end is formed a nest lined with a few grass-stalks and +feathers. The sand-martin has several broods in the year, and is more +regular than other _Hirundinidae_ in its departure for the south. The +kind of soil needed for its nesting habits makes it somewhat local, but +no species of the order _Passeres_ has a geographical range that can +compare with this. In Europe it is found nearly to the North Cape, and +thence to the Sea of Okhotsk. In winter it visits many parts of India +and South Africa to the Transvaal. In America its range extends (having +due regard to the season) from Melville Island to Caiçara in Brazil, and +from Newfoundland to Alaska. + +The purple martin of America, _Progne purpurea_, is a favourite in +Canada and the United States. Naturally breeding in hollow trees, it +readily adapts itself to the nest-boxes which are commonly set up for +it; but its numbers are in some years and places diminished in a manner +unexplained. The limits of its range in winter are not determined, +chiefly owing to the differences of opinion as to the validity of +certain supposed kindred species found in South America; but according +to some authorities it reaches the border of Patagonia, while in summer +it is known to inhabit lands within the Arctic Circle. The male is +almost wholly of a glossy steel-blue, while the female is duller in +colour above, and beneath of a brownish-grey. + +Birds that may be called martins occur almost all over the world except +in New Zealand, which is not regularly inhabited by any member of the +family. The ordinary martin of Australia is the _Petrochelidon +nigricans_ of most ornithologists, and another and more beautiful form +is the ariel or fairy-martin of the same country, _Petrochelidon ariel_. +This last builds a bottle-shaped nest of mud, as does also the +rock-martin of Europe, _Cotile rupestris_. The eggs of martins are from +four to seven in number, and generally white, while those of swallows +usually have brown, grey or lilac markings. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The older English form, martlet (French, _Martelet_), is, except + in heralds' language, almost obsolete, and when used is now applied + in some places to the Swift (q.v.). The bird called martin by French + colonists in the Old World is a mynah (_Acridotheres_). (See + GRACKLE.) + + + + +MARTINEAU, HARRIET (1802-1876), English writer, was born at Norwich, +where her father was a manufacturer, on the 12th of June 1802. The +family was of Huguenot extraction (see MARTINEAU, JAMES) and professed +Unitarian views. The atmosphere of her home was industrious, +intellectual and austere; she herself was clever, but weakly and +unhappy; she had no sense of taste or smell, and moreover early grew +deaf. At the age of fifteen the state of her health and nerves led to a +prolonged visit to her father's sister, Mrs Kentish, who kept a school +at Bristol. Here, in the companionship of amiable and talented people, +her life became happier. Here, also, she fell under the influence of the +Unitarian minister, Dr Lant Carpenter, from whose instructions, she +says, she derived "an abominable spiritual rigidity and a truly +respectable force of conscience strangely mingled together." From 1819 +to 1830 she again resided chiefly at Norwich. About her twentieth year +her deafness became confirmed. In 1821 she began to write anonymously +for the _Monthly Repository_, a Unitarian periodical, and in 1823 she +published _Devotional Exercises and Addresses, Prayers and Hymns_. + +In 1826 her father died, leaving a bare maintenance to his wife and +daughters. His death had been preceded by that of his eldest son, and +was shortly followed by that of a man to whom Harriet was engaged. Mrs +Martineau and her daughters soon after lost all their means by the +failure of the house where their money was placed. Harriet had to earn +her living, and, being precluded by deafness from teaching, took up +authorship in earnest. Besides reviewing for the _Repository_ she wrote +stories (afterwards collected as _Traditions of Palestine_), gained in +one year (1830) three essay-prizes of the Unitarian Association, and +eked out her income by needlework. In 1831 she was seeking a publisher +for a series of tales designed as _Illustrations of Political Economy_. +After many failures she accepted disadvantageous terms from Charles Fox, +to whom she was introduced by his brother, the editor of the +_Repository_. The sale of the first of the series was immediate and +enormous, the demand increased with each new number, and from that time +her literary success was secured. In 1832 she moved to London, where she +numbered among her acquaintance Hallam, Milman, Malthus, Monckton +Milnes, Sydney Smith, Bulwer, and later Carlyle. Till 1834 she continued +to be occupied with her political economy series and with a supplemental +series of _Illustrations of Taxation_. Four stories dealing with the +poor-law came out about the same time. These tales, direct, lucid, +written without any appearance of effort, and yet practically effective, +display the characteristics of their author's style. In 1834, when the +series was complete, Miss Martineau paid a long visit to America. Here +her open adhesion to the Abolitionist party, then small and very +unpopular, gave great offence, which was deepened by the publication, +soon after her return, of _Society in America_ (1837) and a _Retrospect +of Western Travel_ (1838). An article in the _Westminster Review_, "The +Martyr Age of the United States," introduced English readers to the +struggles of the Abolitionists. The American books were followed by a +novel, _Deerbrook_ (1839)--a story of middle-class country life. To the +same period belong a few little handbooks, forming parts of a _Guide to +Service_. The veracity of her _Maid of All Work_ led to a widespread +belief, which she regarded with some complacency, that she had once been +a maid of all work herself. + +In 1839, during a visit to the Continent, Miss Martineau's health broke +down. She retired to solitary lodgings in Tynemouth, and remained an +invalid till 1844. Besides a novel, _The Hour and the Man_ (1840), _Life +in the Sickroom_ (1844), and the _Playfellow_ (1841), she published a +series of tales for children containing some of her most popular work: +_Settlers at Home_, _The Peasant and the Prince_, _Feats on the Fiord_, +&c. During this illness she for a second time declined a pension on the +civil list, fearing to compromise her political independence. Her letter +on the subject was published, and some of her friends raised a small +annuity for her soon after. + +In 1844 Miss Martineau underwent a course of mesmerism, and in a few +months was restored to health. She eventually published an account of +her case, which had caused much discussion, in sixteen _Letters on +Mesmerism_. On her recovery she removed to Ambleside, where she built +herself "The Knoll," the house in which the greater part of her after +life was spent. In 1845 she published three volumes of _Forest and Game +Law Tales_. In 1846 she made a tour with some friends in Egypt, +Palestine and Syria, and on her return published _Eastern Life, Present +and Past_ (1848). This work showed that as humanity passed through one +after another of the world's historic religions, the conception of the +Deity and of Divine government became at each step more and more +abstract and indefinite. The ultimate goal Miss Martineau believed to be +philosophic atheism, but this belief she did not expressly declare. She +published about this time _Household Education_, expounding the theory +that freedom and rationality, rather than command and obedience, are the +most effectual instruments of education. Her interest in schemes of +instruction led her to start a series of lectures, addressed at first to +the school children of Ambleside, but afterwards extended, at their own +desire, to their elders. The subjects were sanitary principles and +practice, the histories of England and North America, and the scenes of +her Eastern travels. At the request of Charles Knight she wrote, in +1849, _The History of the Thirty Years' Peace, 1816-1846_--an excellent +popular history written from the point of view of a "philosophical +Radical," completed in twelve months. + +In 1851 Miss Martineau edited a volume of _Letters on the Laws of Man's +Nature and Development_. Its form is that of a correspondence between +herself and H. G. Atkinson, and it expounds that doctrine of +philosophical atheism to which Miss Martineau in _Eastern Life_ had +depicted the course of human belief as tending. The existence of a first +cause is not denied, but is declared unknowable, and the authors, while +regarded by others as denying it, certainly considered themselves to be +affirming the doctrine of man's moral obligation. Atkinson was a zealous +exponent of mesmerism, and the prominence given to the topics of +mesmerism and clairvoyance heightened the general disapprobation of the +book, which caused a lasting division between Miss Martineau and some of +her friends. + +She published a condensed English version of the _Philosophie Positive_ +(1853). To the _Daily News_ she contributed regularly from 1852 to 1866. +Her _Letters from Ireland_, written during a visit to that country in +the summer of 1852, appeared in that paper. She was for many years a +contributor to the _Westminster Review_, and was one of the little band +of supporters whose pecuniary assistance in 1854 prevented its +extinction or forced sale. In the early part of 1855 Miss Martineau +found herself suffering from heart disease. She now began to write her +autobiography, but her life, which she supposed to be so near its close, +was prolonged for twenty years. She died at "The Knoll" on the 27th of +June 1876. + +She cultivated a tiny farm at Ambleside with success, and her poorer +neighbours owed much to her. Her busy life bears the consistent impress +of two leading characteristics--industry and sincerity. The verdict +which she records on herself in the autobiographical sketch left to be +published by the _Daily News_ has been endorsed by posterity. She +says--"Her original power was nothing more than was due to earnestness +and intellectual clearness within a certain range. With small +imaginative and suggestive powers, and therefore nothing approaching to +genius, she could see clearly what she did see, and give a clear +expression to what she had to say. In short, she could popularize while +she could neither discover nor invent." Her judgment on large questions +was clear and sound, and was always the judgment of a mind naturally +progressive and Protestant. + + See her _Autobiography, with Memorials by Maria Weston Chapman_ (1877) + and Mrs. Fenwick Miller, _Harriet Martineau_ (1884, "Eminent Women + Series"). + + + + +MARTINEAU, JAMES (1805-1900), English philosopher and divine, was born +at Norwich on the 21st of April 1805, the seventh child of Thomas +Martineau and Elizabeth Rankin, the sixth, his senior by almost three +years, being his sister Harriet (see above). He was descended from +Gaston Martineau, a Huguenot surgeon and refugee, who married in 1693 +Marie Pierre, and settled soon afterwards in Norwich. His son and +grandson--respectively the great-grandfather and grandfather of James +Martineau--were surgeons in the same city, while his father was a +manufacturer and merchant. James was educated at Norwich Grammar School +under Edward Valpy, as good a scholar as his better-known brother +Richard. But the boy proving too sensitive for the life of a public day +school, was sent to Bristol to the private academy of Dr Lant Carpenter, +under whom he studied for two years. On leaving he was apprenticed to a +civil engineer at Derby, where he acquired "a store of exclusively +scientific conceptions,"[1] but also experienced the hunger of mind +which forced him to look to religion for satisfaction. Hence came his +"conversion," and the sense of vocation for the ministry which impelled +him in 1822 to enter Manchester College, then lodged at York. Here he +"woke up to the interest of moral and metaphysical speculations." Of his +teachers, one, the Rev. Charles Wellbeloved, was, Martineau said, "a +master of the true Lardner type, candid and catholic, simple and +thorough, humanly fond indeed of the counsels of peace, but piously +serving every bidding of sacred truth." "He never justified a prejudice; +he never misdirected our admiration; he never hurt an innocent feeling +or overbore a serious judgment; and he set up within us a standard of +Christian scholarship to which it must ever exalt us to aspire."[2] The +other, the Rev. John Kenrick, he described as a man so learned as to be +placed by Dean Stanley "in the same line with Blomfield and +Thirlwall,"[3] and as "so far above the level of either vanity or +dogmatism, that cynicism itself could not think of them in his +presence."[4] + +On leaving the college in 1827 Martineau returned to Bristol to teach in +the school of Lant Carpenter; but in the following year he was ordained +for a Unitarian church in Dublin, whose senior minister was a relative +of his own. But his career there was in 1832 suddenly cut short by +difficulties growing out of the "regium donum," which had on the death +of the senior minister fallen to him. He conceived it as "a religious +monopoly" to which "the nation at large contributes," while +"Presbyterians alone receive," and which placed him in "a relation to +the state" so "seriously objectionable" as to be "impossible to +hold."[5] The invidious distinction it drew between Presbyterians on the +one hand, and Catholics, Friends, free-thinking Christians, unbelievers +and Jews on the other, who were compelled to support a ministry they +"conscientiously disapproved," offended his always delicate conscience; +while possibly the intellectual and ecclesiastical atmosphere of the +city proved uncongenial to his liberal magnanimity. From Dublin he was +called to Liverpool, and there for a quarter of a century he exercised +extraordinary influence as a preacher, and achieved a high reputation as +a writer in religious philosophy. In 1840 he was appointed professor of +mental and moral philosophy and political economy in Manchester New +College, the seminary in which he had himself been educated, and which +had now removed from York to the city after which it was named. This +position he held for forty-five years. In 1853 the college removed to +London, and four years later he followed it thither. In 1858 he was +called to occupy the pulpit of Little Portland Street chapel in London, +which he did at first for two years in conjunction with the Rev. J. J. +Tayler, who was also his colleague in the college, and then for twelve +years alone. In 1866 the chair of the philosophy of mind and logic in +University College, London, fell vacant, and Martineau became a +candidate. But potent opposition was offered to the appointment of a +minister of religion, and the chair went to George Croom Robertson--then +an untried man--between whom and Martineau a cordial friendship came to +exist. In 1885 he retired, full of years and honours, from the +principalship of the college he had so long served and adorned. +Martineau, who was in his youth denied the benefit of a university +education, yet in his age found famous universities eager to confer upon +him their highest distinctions. He was made LL.D. of Harvard in 1872, +S.T.D. of Leiden in 1874, D.D. of Edinburgh in 1884, D.C.L. of Oxford in +1888 and D.Litt. of Dublin in 1891. He died in London on the 11th of +January 1900. + +The life of Martineau was so essentially the life of the thinker, and +was so typical of the century in which he lived and the society within +which he moved, that he can be better understood through his spoken mind +than through his outward history. He was a man happy in his ancestry; he +inherited the dignity, the reserve, the keen and vivid intellect, and +the picturesque imagination of the French Huguenot, though they came to +him chastened and purified by generations of Puritan discipline +exercised under the gravest ecclesiastical disabilities, and of culture +maintained in the face of exclusion from academic privileges. He had the +sweet and patient temper which knew how to live, unrepining and +unsoured, in the midst of the most watchful persecution, public and +private; and it is wonderful how rarely he used his splendid rhetoric +for the purposes of invective against the spirit and policy from which +he must have suffered deeply, while, it may be added, he never hid an +innuendo under a metaphor or a trope. He was fundamentally too much a +man of strong convictions to be correctly described as open-minded, for +if nature ever determined any man's faith, it was his; the root of his +whole intellectual life, which was too deep to be disturbed by any +superficial change in his philosophy, being the feeling for God. He has, +indeed, described in graphic terms the greatest of the more superficial +changes he underwent; how he had "carried into logical and ethical +problems the maxims and postulates of physical knowledge," and had moved +within the narrow lines drawn by the philosophical instructions of the +class-room "interpreting human phenomena by the analogy of external +nature"; how he served in willing captivity "the 'empirical' and +'necessarian' mode of thought," even though "shocked" by the dogmatism +and acrid humours "of certain distinguished representatives";[6] and how +in a period of "second education" at Berlin, "mainly under the admirable +guidance of Professor Trendelenburg," he experienced "a new intellectual +birth" which "was essentially the gift of fresh conceptions, the +unsealing of hidden openings of self-consciousness, with unmeasured +corridors and sacred halls behind; and, once gained, was more or less +available throughout the history of philosophy, and lifted the darkness +from the pages of Kant and even Hegel."[7] But though this momentous +change of view illuminated his old beliefs and helped him to +re-interpret and re-articulate them, yet it made him no more of a theist +than he had been before. And as his theism was, so was his religion and +his philosophy. Certainly it was true of him, in a far higher degree +than of John Henry Newman, that the being of God and himself were to his +mind two absolutely self-luminous truths--though both his God and his +self were almost infinitely remote from Newman's. And as these truths +were self-evident, so the religion he deduced from them was sufficient, +not only for his own moral and intellectual nature, but also for man as +he conceived him, for history as he knew it, and for society as he saw +it. + + We may, alternatively, describe Martineau's religion as his applied + philosophy or his philosophy as his explicated religion, and both as + the expression of his singularly fine ethical and reverent nature. + But to understand these in their mutual and explanatory relations it + will be necessary to exhibit the conditions under which his thought + grew into consistency and system. His main function made him in his + early life a preacher even more emphatically than a teacher. In all he + said and all he thought he had the preacher's end in view. He was, + indeed, no mere orator or speaker to multitudes. He addressed a + comparatively small and select circle, a congregation of thoughtful + and devout men, who cultivated reverence and loved religion all the + more that their own beliefs were limited to the simplest and sublimest + truths. He felt the majesty of these truths to be the greater that + they so represented to him not only the most fundamental of human + beliefs, but also all that man could be reasonably expected to + believe, though to believe with his whole reason. Hence the beliefs he + preached were never to him mere speculative ideas, but rather the + ultimate realities of being and thought, the final truths as to the + character and ways of God interpreted into a law for the government of + conscience and the regulation of life. And so he became a positive + religious teacher by virtue of the very ideas that made the words of + the Hebrew prophets so potent and sublime. But he did more than + interpret to his age the significance of man's ultimate theistic + beliefs, he gave them vitality by reading them through the + consciousness of Jesus Christ. His religion was what he conceived the + personal religion of Jesus to have been; and He was to him more a + person to be imitated than an authority to be obeyed, rather an ideal + to be revered than a being to be worshipped. + + Martineau's mental qualities fitted him to fulfil these high + interpretative functions. He had the imagination that invested with + personal being and ethical qualities the most abstruse notions. To him + space became a mode of divine activity, alive with the presence and + illuminated by the vision of God; time was an arena where the divine + hand guided and the divine will reigned. And though he did not believe + in the Incarnation, yet he held deity to be in a sense manifest in + humanity; its saints and heroes became, in spite of innumerable + frailties, after a sort divine; man underwent an apotheosis, and all + life was touched with the dignity and the grace which it owed to its + source. The 19th century had no more reverent thinker than Martineau; + the awe of the Eternal was the very atmosphere that he breathed, and + he looked at man with the compassion of one whose thoughts were full + of God. + + To his function as a preacher we owe some of his most characteristic + and stimulating works, especially the discourses by which it may be + said he won his way to wide and influential recognition--_Endeavours + after the Christian Life_, 1st series, 1843; 2nd series, 1847; _Hours + of Thought_, 1st series, 1876; 2nd series, 1879; the various + hymn-books he issued at Dublin in 1831, at Liverpool in 1840, in + London in 1873; and the _Home Prayers_ in 1891. But besides the + vocation he had freely selected and assiduously laboured to fulfil, + two more external influences helped to shape Martineau's mind and + define his problem and his work; the awakening of English thought to + the problems which underlie both philosophy and religion, and the new + and higher opportunities offered for their discussion in the + periodical press. The questions which lived in the earlier and more + formative period of his life concerned mainly the idea of the church, + the historical interpretation of the documents which described the + persons who had created the Christian religion, especially the person + and work of its founder; but those most alive in his later and maturer + time chiefly related to the philosophy of religion and ethics. In one + respect Martineau was singularly happy; he just escaped the active + and, on the whole, belittling period of the old Unitarian controversy. + When his ministry began its fires were slowly dying down, though the + embers still glowed. We feel its presence in his earliest notable + work, _The Rationale of Religious Enquiry_, 1836; and may there see + the rigour with which it applied audacious logic to narrow premisses, + the tenacity with which it clung to a limited literal supernaturalism + which it had no philosophy to justify, and so could not believe + without historical and verbal authority. This traditional conservatism + survived in the statement, which, while it caused vehement discussion + when the book appeared, was yet not so much characteristic of the man + as of the school in which he had been trained, that "in no + intelligible sense can any one who denies the supernatural origin of + the religion of Christ be termed a Christian," which term, he + explained, was used not as "a name of praise," but simply as "a + designation of belief."[8] He censured the German rationalists "for + having preferred, by convulsive efforts of interpretation, to compress + the memoirs of Christ and His apostles into the dimensions of ordinary + life, rather than admit the operation of miracle on the one hand, or + proclaim their abandonment of Christianity on the other."[9] The + echoes of the dying controversy are thus distinct and not very distant + in this book, though it also offers in its larger outlook, in the + author's evident uneasiness under the burden of inherited beliefs, and + his inability to reconcile them with his new standpoint and accepted + principles, a curious forecast of his later development, while in its + positive premisses it presents a still more instructive contrast to + the conclusions of his later dialectic. Nor did the sound of the + ancient controversy ever cease to be audible to him. In 1839 he sprang + to the defence of Unitarian doctrine, which had been assailed by + certain Liverpool clergymen, of whom Fielding Ould was the most active + and Hugh McNeill the most famous. As his share in the controversy, + Martineau published five discourses, in which he discussed "the Bible + as the great autobiography of human nature from its infancy to its + perfection," "the Deity of Christ," "Vicarious Redemption," "Evil," + and "Christianity without Priest and without Ritual."[10] He remained + to the end a keen and vigilant apologist of the school in which he had + been nursed. But the questions proper to the new day came swiftly upon + his quick and susceptible mind--enlarged, deepened and developed it. + Within his own fold new light was breaking. To W. E. Channing (q.v.), + whom Martineau had called "the inspirer of his youth," Theodore Parker + had succeeded, introducing more radical ideas as to religion and a + more drastic criticism of sacred history. Blanco White, "the + rationalist A'Kempis," who had dared to appear as "a religious sceptic + in God's presence," had found a biographer and interpreter in + Martineau's friend and colleague, John Hamilton Thom. Within the + English Church men with whom he had both personal and religious + sympathy rose--Whately, of whom he said, "We know no living writer who + has proved so little and disproved so much";[11] and Thomas Arnold, "a + man who could be a hero without romance";[12] F. D. Maurice, whose + character, marked by "religious realism," sought in the past "the + witness to eternal truths, the manifestation by time-samples of + infinite realities and unchanging relations";[13] and Charles + Kingsley, "a great teacher," though one "certain to go astray the + moment he becomes didactic."[14] Beside these may be placed men like + E. B. Pusey and J. H. Newman, whose mind Martineau said was "critical, + not prophetic, since without immediateness of religious vision," and + whose faith is "an escape from an alternative scepticism, which + receives the _veto_ not of his reason but of his will,"[15] as men for + whose teachings and methods he had a potent and stimulating antipathy. + The philosophic principles and religious deductions of Dean Mansel he + disliked as much as those of Newman, but he respected his arguments + more. Apart from the Churches, men like Carlyle and Matthew + Arnold--with whom he had much in common--influenced him; while Herbert + Spencer in England and Comte in France afforded the antithesis needful + to the dialectical development of his own views. He came to know + German philosophy and criticism, especially the criticism of Baur and + the Tübingen school, which affected profoundly his construction of + Christian history. And these were strengthened by French influences, + notably those of Renan and the Strassburg theologians. The rise of + evolution, and the new scientific way of looking at nature and her + creative methods, compelled him to rethink and reformulate his + theistic principles and conclusions, especially as to the forms under + which the relation of God to the world and His action within it could + be conceived. Under the impulses which came from these various sides + Martineau's mind lived and moved, and as they successively rose he + promptly, by appreciation or criticism, responded to the dialectical + issues which they raised. + + In the discussion of these questions the periodical press supplied him + with the opportunity of taking an effective part. At first his + literary activity was limited to sectional publications, and he + addressed his public, now as editor and now as leading contributor, in + the _Monthly Repository_, the _Christian Reformer_, the _Prospective_, + the Westminster and the _National Review_. Later, especially when + scientific speculation had made the theistic problem urgent, he was a + frequent contributor to the literary monthlies. And when in 1890 he + began to gather together the miscellaneous essays and papers written + during a period of sixty years, he expressed the hope that, though + "they could lay no claim to logical consistency," they might yet show + "beneath the varying complexion of their thought some intelligible + moral continuity," "leading in the end to a view of life more coherent + and less defective than was presented at the beginning."[16] And + though it is a proud as well as a modest hope, no one could call it + unjustified. For his essays are fine examples of permanent literature + appearing in an ephemeral medium, and represent work which has solid + worth for later thought as well as for the speculation of their own + time. There is hardly a name or a movement in the religious history of + the century which he did not touch and illuminate. It was in this form + that he criticized the "atheistic mesmerism" to which his sister + Harriet had committed herself, and she never forgave his criticism. + But his course was always singularly independent, and, though one of + the most affectionate and most sensitive of men, yet it was his + fortune to be so fastidious in thought and so conscientious in + judgment as often to give offence or create alarm in those he deeply + respected or tenderly loved. + + The theological and philosophical discussions which thus appeared he + later described as "the tentatives which gradually prepared the way + for the more systematic expositions of the _Types of Ethical_ + _Theory_ and _The Study of Religion_, and, in some measure, of _The + Seat of Authority in Religion_."[17] These books expressed his mature + thought, and may be said to contain, in what he conceived as a final + form, the speculative achievements of his life. They appeared + respectively in 1885, 1888 and 1890, and were without doubt remarkable + feats to be performed by a man who had passed his eightieth year. + Their literary and speculative qualities are indeed exceptionally + brilliant; they are splendid in diction, elaborate in argument, cogent + yet reverent, keen while fearless in criticism. But they have also + most obvious defects: they are unquestionably the books of an old man + who had thought much as well as spoken and written often on the themes + he discusses, yet who had finally put his material together in haste + at a time when his mind had lost, if not its dialectic vigour, yet its + freshness and its sense of proportion; and who had been so accustomed + to amplify the single stages of his argument that he had forgotten how + much they needed to be reduced to scale and to be built into an + organic whole. In the first of these books his nomenclature is + unfortunate; his division of ethical theories into the + "unpsychological," "idiopsychological," and the + "hetero-psychological," is incapable of historical justification; his + exposition of single ethical systems is, though always interesting and + suggestive, often arbitrary and inadequate, being governed by + dialectical exigencies rather than historical order and perspective. + In the second of the above books his idea of religion is somewhat of + an anachronism; as he himself confessed, he "used the word in the + sense which it invariably bore half a century ago," as denoting + "belief in an ever-living God, a divine mind and will ruling the + universe and holding moral relations with mankind." As thus used, it + was a term which governed the problems of speculative theism rather + than those connected with the historical origin, the evolution and the + organization of religion. And these are the questions which are now to + the front. These criticisms mean that his most elaborate discussions + came forty years too late, for they were concerned with problems which + agitated the middle rather than the end of the 19th century. But if we + pass from this criticism of form to the actual contents of the two + books, we are bound to confess that they constitute a wonderfully + cogent and persuasive theistic argument. That argument may be + described as a criticism of man and his world used as a basis for the + construction of a reasoned idea of nature and being. Man and nature, + thought and being, fitted each other. What was implicit in nature had + become explicit in man; the problem of the individual was one with the + problem of universal experience. The interpretation of man was + therefore the interpretation of his universe. Emphasis was made to + fall on the reason, the conscience and the will of the finite + personality; and just as these were found to be native in him they + were held to be immanent in the cause of his universe. What lived in + time belonged to eternity; the microcosm was the epitome of the + macrocosm; the reason which reigned in man interpreted the law that + was revealed in conscience and the power which governed human destiny, + while the freedom which man realized was the direct negation both of + necessity and of the operation of any fortuitous cause in the cosmos. + + It was not possible, however, that the theistic idea could be + discussed in relation to nature only. It was necessary that it should + be applied to history and to the forces and personalities active + within it. And of these the greatest was of course the Person that had + created the Christian religion. What did Jesus signify? What authority + belonged to Him and to the books that contain His history and + interpret His person? This was the problem which Martineau attempted + to deal with in _The Seat of Authority in Religion_. The workmanship + of the book is unequal: historical and literary criticism had never + been Martineau's strongest point, although he had almost continuously + maintained an amount of New Testament study, as his note-books show. + In its speculative parts the book is quite equal to those that had + gone before, but in its literary and historical parts there are + indications of a mind in which a long-practised logic had become a + rooted habit. While a comparison of his expositions of the Pauline and + Johannine Christologies with the earlier Unitarian exegesis in which + he had been trained shows how wide is the interval, the work does not + represent a mind that had throughout its history lived and worked in + the delicate and judicial investigations he here tried to conduct. + +Martineau's theory of the religious society or church was that of an +idealist rather than of a statesman or practical politician. He stood +equally remote from the old Voluntary principle, that "the State had +nothing to do with religion," and from the sacerdotal position that the +clergy stood in an apostolic succession, and either constituted the +Church or were the persons into whose hands its guidance had been +committed. He hated two things intensely, a sacrosanct priesthood and an +enforced uniformity. He may be said to have believed in the sanity and +sanctity of the state rather than of the Church. Statesmen he could +trust as he would not trust ecclesiastics. And so he even propounded a +scheme, which fell still-born, that would have repealed uniformity, +taken the church out of the hands of a clerical order, and allowed the +coordination of sects or churches under the state. Not that he would +have allowed the state to touch doctrine, to determine polity or +discipline; but he would have had it to recognize historical +achievement, religious character and capacity, and endow out of its +ample resources those societies which had vindicated their right to be +regarded as making for religion. His ideal may have been academic, but +it was the dream of a mind that thought nobly both of religion and of +the state. + + See _Life and Letters_ by J. Drummond and C. B. Upton (2 vols., 1901); + J. E. Carpenter, _James Martineau, Theologian and Teacher_ (1905); J. + Crawford, _Recollections_ of James Martineau (1903); A. W. Jackson, + _James Martineau, a Biography and a Study_ (Boston, 1900); H. + Sidgwick, _Lectures on the Ethics of Green, Spencer and Martineau_ + (1902); and J. Hunt, _Religious Thought in England in the 19th + Century_. (A. M. F.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Types of Ethical Theory_, i. 8. + + [2] _Essays, Reviews and Addresses_, iv. 54. + + [3] Ibid. i. 397. + + [4] _Essays, Reviews and Addresses_, i. 419. + + [5] Martineau's "Letter to the Dissenting Congregation of Eustace + Street" (Dublin). + + [6] _Types of Ethical Theory_, i. pp. vii.-ix. + + [7] Ibid. p. xiii. + + [8] _Rationale_, 2nd ed., pref., p. vii. + + [9] Ibid. p. 133. + + [10] They stand as Lectures ii., v., vi., xi., xii. in the volume + _Unitarianism Defended_, 1839. + + [11] Essays, _Reviews and Addresses_, ii. 10. + + [12] Ibid. i. 46. + + [13] Ibid. i. 258, 262. + + [14] Ibid. ii. 285. + + [15] Ibid. i. 233. + + [16] _Essays, Reviews and Addresses_, i., iii. + + [17] Ibid, iii., pref., p. vi. + + + + +MARTINET, a military term (more generally used in a disparaging than in +a complimentary sense) implying a strict disciplinarian or drill-master. +The term originated in the French army about the middle of Louis XIV.'s +reign, and was derived from Jean Martinet (d. 1672), who as +lieutenant-colonel of the King's regiment of foot and inspector-general +of infantry drilled and trained that arm in the model regular army +created by Louis and Louvois between 1660 and 1670. Martinet seems also +to have introduced the copper pontoons with which Louis bridged the +Rhine in 1672. He was killed, as a _maréchal de camp_, at the siege of +Duisburg in the same year, being accidentally shot by bis own artillery +while leading the infantry assault. His death, and that of the Swiss +captain Soury by the same discharge gave rise to a _bon mot_, typical of +the polite ingratitude of the age, that Duisburg had only cost the king +a martin and a mouse. The "martin" as a matter of fact shares with +Vauban and other professional soldiers of Louis XIV. the glory of having +made the French army the first and best regular army in Europe. Great +nobles, such as Turenne, Condé and Luxemburg, led this army and inspired +it, but their fame has obscured that of the men who made it manageable +and efficient. It was about this time that the soldier of fortune, who +joined a regiment with his own arms and equipment and had learned his +trade by varied experience, began to give place to the soldier regularly +enlisted as a recruit in permanent regiments and trained by his own +officers. The consequence of this was the introduction of a uniform, or +nearly uniform system of drill and training, which in all essentials has +endured to the present day. Thus Martinet was the forerunner of Leopold +of Dessau and Frederick William, just as Jean Jacques de Fourilles, the +organizer of the cavalry, who was forced into an untimely charge at +Seneffe (1674) by a brutal taunt of Condé, and there met his death, was +the forerunner of Zieten and Seydlitz. These men, while differing from +the creators of the Prussian army in that they contributed nothing to +the tactics of their arms, at least made tactics possible by the +thorough drilling and organization they imparted to the formerly +heterogeneous and hardly coherent elements of an army. + + + + +MARTÍNEZ DE LA ROSA, FRANCISCO DE PAULA (1789-1862), Spanish statesman +and dramatist, was born on the 10th of March 1789 at Granada, and +educated at the university there. He won popularity with a series of +epigrams on local celebrities published under the title of _El +Cementerio de momo_. During the struggle against Napoleon he took the +patriotic side, was elected deputy, and at Cadiz produced his first +play, _Lo que puede un empleo_, a prose comedy in the manner of the +younger Moratin. _La Viuda de Padilla_ (1814), a tragedy modelled upon +Alfieri, was less acceptable to the Spanish public. Meanwhile the author +became more and more engulfed in politics, and in 1814 was banished to +Africa, where he remained till 1820, when he was suddenly recalled and +appointed prime minister. During the next three years he was the most +unpopular man in Spain; denounced as a revolutionist by the +Conservatives and as a reactionary by the Liberals, he alienated the +sympathies of all parties, and his rhetoric earned for him the +contemptuous nickname of _Rosita la Pastelera_. Exiled in 1823, he took +refuge in Paris, where he issued his _Obras literarias_ (1827), +including his _Arte poética_, in which he exaggerated the literary +theories already promulgated by Luzán. Returning to Spain in 1831, he +became prime minister on the death of Ferdinand VII., but proved +incapable of coping with the insurrectionary movement and resigned in +1834. He was ambassador at Paris in 1839-1840 and at Rome in 1842-1843, +joined the Conservative party, held many important offices, and was +president of congress and director of the Spanish academy at the time of +his death, which took place at Madrid on the 7th of February 1862. As a +statesman, Martínez de la Rosa never rose above mediocrity. It was his +misfortune to be in place without real power, to struggle against a +turbulent pseudo-democratic movement promoted by unscrupulous soldiers, +and to contend with the intrigues of the king, the court camarilla and +the clergy. But circumstances which hampered him in politics favoured +his career in literature. He was not a great natural force; his early +plays and poems are influenced by Moratin or by Meléndez Valdés; his +_Espirítu del siglo_ (1835) is an elegant summary of all the +commonplaces concerning the philosophy of history; his _Doña Isabel de +Solís_ (1837-1846) is a weak imitation of Walter Scott's historical +novels. Still his place in the history of Spanish literature is secure, +if not eminent. Through the happy accident of his exile at Paris he was +thrown into relations with the leaders of the French romantic movement, +and was so far impressed with the innovations of the new school as to +write in French a romantic piece entitled _Aben-Humeya_ (1830), which +was played at the Porte Saint-Martin. The experiment was not +unsuccessful, and on his return to Madrid Martínez de la Rosa produced +_La Conjuratión de Venecia_ (April 23, 1834), which entitles him to be +called the pioneer of the romantic drama in Spain. The play is more +reminiscent of Casimir Delavigne than of Victor Hugo; but it was +unquestionably effective, and smoothed the way for the bolder essays of +Rivas, Garcia Gutiérrez and Hartzenbusch. + + + + +MARTINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1706-1784), Italian musician, was born at +Bologna on the 24th of April 1706. His father, Antonio Maria Martini, a +violinist, taught him the elements of music and the violin; later he +learned singing and harpsichord playing from Padre Pradieri, and +counterpoint from Antonio Riccieri. Having received his education in +classics from the fathers of the oratory of San Filippo Neri, he +afterwards entered upon a noviciate at the Franciscan monastery at Lago, +at the close of which he was received as a Minorite on the 11th of +September 1722. In 1725, though only nineteen years old, he received the +appointment of chapel-master in the Franciscan church at Bologna, where +his compositions attracted attention. At the invitation of amateurs and +professional friends he opened a school of composition at which several +celebrated musicians were trained; as a teacher he consistently declared +his preference for the traditions of the old Roman school of +composition. Padre Martini was a zealous collector of musical +literature, and possessed an extensive musical library. Burney estimated +it at 17,000 volumes; after Martini's death a portion of it passed to +the Imperial library at Vienna, the rest remaining in Bologna, now in +the Liceo Rossini. Most contemporary musicians speak of Martini with +admiration, and Mozart's father consulted him with regard to the talents +of his son. Abt Vogler, however, makes reservations in his praise, +condemning his philosophical principles as too much in sympathy with +those of Fox, which had already been expressed by P. Vallotti. He died +at Bologna on the 4th of August 1784. His _Elogio_ was published by +Pietro della Valle at Bologna in the same year. + + The greater number of Martini's sacred compositions remain unprinted. + The Liceo of Bologna possesses the MSS. of two oratorios; and a + requiem, with some other pieces of church music, are now in Vienna. + _Litaniae atque antiphonae finales B. V. Mariae_ were published at + Bologna in 1734, as also twelve _Sonate d'intavolatura_; six _Sonate + per l'organo ed il cembalo_ in 1747; and Duetti da camera in 1763. + Martini's most important works are his _Storia della musica_ (Bologna, + 1757-1781) and his _Saggio di contrapunto_ (Bologna, 1774-1775). The + former, of which the three published volumes relate wholly to ancient + music, and thus represent a mere fragment of the author's vast plan, + exhibits immense reading and industry, but is written in a dry and + unattractive style, and is overloaded with matter which cannot be + regarded as historical. At the beginning and end of each chapter + occur puzzle-canons, wherein the primary part or parts alone are + given, and the reader has to discover the canon that fixes the period + and the interval at which the response is to enter. Some of these are + exceedingly difficult, but Cherubini solved the whole of them. The + _Saggio_ is a learned and valuable work, containing an important + collection of examples from the best masters of the old Italian and + Spanish schools, with excellent explanatory notes. It treats chiefly + of the tonalities of the plain chant, and of counterpoints constructed + upon them. Besides being the author of several controversial works, + Martini drew up a _Dictionary of Ancient Musical Terms_, which + appeared in the second volume of G. B. Doni's _Works_; he also + published a treatise on _The Theory of Numbers as applied to Music_. + His celebrated canons, published in London, about 1800, edited by Pio + Cianchettini, show him to have had a strong sense of musical humour. + + + + +MARTINI, SIMONE (1283-1344), Sienese painter, called also Simone di +Martino, and more commonly, but not correctly, Simon Memmi,[1] was born +in 1283. He followed the manner of painting proper to his native Siena, +as improved by Duccio, which is essentially different from the style of +Giotto and his school, and the idea that Simone was himself a pupil of +Giotto is therefore wide of the mark. The Sienese style is less natural, +dignified and reserved than the Florentine; it has less unity of +impression, has more tendency to pietism, and is marked by exaggerations +which are partly related to the obsolescent Byzantine manner, and partly +seem to forebode certain peculiarities of the fully developed art which +we find prevalent in Michelangelo. Simone, in especial, tended to an +excessive and rather affected tenderness in his female figures; he was +more successful in single figures and in portraits than in large +compositions of incident. He finished with scrupulous minuteness, and +was elaborate in decorations of patterning, gilding, &c. + +The first known fresco of Simone is the vast one which he executed in +the hall of the Palazzo Pubblico in Siena--the "Madonna Enthroned, with +the Infant," and a number of angels and saints; its date is 1315, at +which period he was already an artist of repute throughout Italy. In S. +Lorenzo Maggiore of Naples he painted a life-sized picture of King +Robert crowned by his brother Lewis, bishop of Toulouse; this also is +extant, but much damaged. In 1320 he painted for the high altar of the +church of S. Caterina in Pisa the Virgin and Child between six saints; +above are archangels, apostles and other figures. The compartmented +portions of this work are now dispersed, some of them being in the +academy of Siena. Towards 1321 he executed for the church of S. Domenico +in Orvieto a picture of the bishop of Savona kneeling before the Madonna +attended by saints, now in the Fabriceria of the cathedral. Certain +frescoes in Assisi in the chapel of San Martino, representing the life +of that saint, ascribed by Vasari to Puccio Capanna, are now, upon +internal evidence, assigned to Simone. He painted also, in the south +transept of the lower church of the same edifice, figures of the Virgin +and eight saints. In 1328 he produced for the sala del consilio in Siena +a striking equestrian portrait of the victorious general Guidoriccio +Fogliani de' Ricci. + +Simone had married in 1324 Giovanna, the daughter of Memmo (Guglielmo) +di Filippuccio. Her brother, named Lippo Memmi, was also a painter, and +was frequently associated with Simone in his work; and this is the only +reason why Simone has come down to us with the family-name Memmi. They +painted together in 1333 the "Annunciation" which is now in the Uffizi +gallery. Simone kept a bottega (or shop), undertaking any ornamental +work, and his gains were large. In 1339 he settled at the papal court in +Avignon, where he made the acquaintance of Petrarch and Laura; and he +painted for the poet a portrait of his lady, which gave occasion for two +of Petrarch's sonnets, in which Simone is eulogized. He also illuminated +for the poet a copy of the commentary of Servius upon Virgil, now +preserved in the Ambrosian library of Milan. He was largely employed in +the decorations of the papal buildings in Avignon, and several of his +works still remain--in the cathedral, in the hall of the consistory, +and, in the two chapels of the palace, the stories of the Baptist, and +of Stephen and other saints. One of his latest productions (1342) is the +picture of "Christ Found by his Parents in the Temple," now in the +Liverpool Gallery. Simone died in Avignon in July 1344. + + Some of the works with which Simone's name and fame have been + generally identified are not now regarded as his. Such are the + compositions, in the Campo Santo of Pisa, from the legend of S. + Ranieri, and the "Assumption of the Virgin"; and the great frescoes in + the Cappellone degli Spagnuoli, in S. Maria Novella, Florence, + representing the Triumph of Religion through the work of the Dominican + order, &c. (W. M. R.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The ordinary account of Simone is that given by Vasari, and since + repeated in a variety of forms. Modern research shows that it is far + from correct, the incidents being erroneous, and the paintings + attributed to Simone in various principal instances not his. We + follow the authority of Crowe and Cavalcaselle. + + + + +MARTINIQUE, an island of the West Indies, belonging to the chain of the +Lesser Antilles, and constituting a French colony, between the British +islands of Dominica and St Lucia, 25 m. S. of the one and 20 m. N. of +the other, about 14° 40´ N., 61° W. Its length is 40 m., its greatest +width 21 m.; and the area comprises 380 sq. m. A cluster of volcanic +mountains in the north, a similar group in the south, and a line of +lower heights between them, form the backbone of the island. Its deep +ravines and precipitous escarpments are reduced in appearance to gentle +undulations by the drapery of the forests. The massif of Mont Pelé in +the north is the culminating point of the island (4430 ft.); that of +Carbet is little inferior (3963 ft.), but the mountains in the south are +much lower. Mont Pelé is notorious for an appalling eruption in May +1902. + + Of the numerous streams which traverse the few miles of country + between the watershed and the sea (the longest radiating from Mount + Carbet), about seventy-five are of considerable size, and in the rainy + season become deep and often destructive torrents. On the north-west + and north the coast is elevated and bold; and similarly on the south, + where a lateral range, branching from the backbone of the island, + forms a blunt peninsula bounding the low-shored western bay of Fort de + France on the south. Another peninsula, called Caravelle, projects + from the middle part of the east coast, and south of this the coast is + low and fretted, with many islets and cays lying off it. Coral reefs + occur especially in this locality. Plains, most numerous and extensive + in the south, occupy about one-third of the total area of the island. + + The mean annual temperature is 80° F. in the coast region, the monthly + mean for June being 83°, and that for January 77°. Of the annual + rainfall of 87 in., August has the heaviest share (11.3 in.), though + the rainy season extends from June to October; March, the driest + month, has 3.7. Martinique enjoys a marked immunity from hurricanes. + The low coastal districts are not very healthy for Europeans in the + hotter months, but there are numerous sanatoria in the forest region + at an elevation of about 1500 ft., where the average temperature is + some 10° F. lower than that already quoted. The north winds which + prevail from November to February are comparatively fresh and dry; + those from the south (July to October) are damp and warm. From March + to June easterly winds are prevalent. + +The population increased from 162,861 in 1878 to 175,863 in 1888 and +203,781 in 1901. In 1902 the great eruption of Mont Pelé occurred, and +in 1905 the population was only 182,024. The bulk of the population +consists of Creole negroes and half-castes of various grades, ranging +from the "Saccatra," who has retained hardly any trace of Caucasian +blood, to the so-called "Sangmêlé," with only a suspicion of negro +commixture. The capital of the island is Fort de France, on the +west-coast bay of the same name, with a fine harbour defended by three +forts, and a population of 18,000. The other principal centres of +population are, on the west coast Lamentin, on the same bay as the +capital, and on the east coast Le François and Le Robert. The colony is +administered by a governor and a general council, and returns a senator +and two deputies. There are elective municipal councils. The chief +product is sugar, and some coffee, cocoa, tobacco and cotton are grown. +The island is served by British, French and American steamship lines, +and local communications are carried on by small coasting steamers and +by subsidized mail coaches, as there are excellent roads. In 1905 the +total value of the exports, consisting mainly of sugar, rum and cocoa, +was £725,460, France taking by far the greater part, while imports were +valued at £596,294, of which rather more than one-half by value came +from France, the United States of America being the next principal +importing country. In 1903, the year following the eruption of Mont +Pelé, exports were valued at £604,163. + +[Illustration: Map of Martinique.] + +Martinique, the name of which may be derived from a native form Madiana +or Mantinino, was probably discovered by Columbus on the 15th of June +1502; although by some authorities its discovery is placed in 1493. It +was at that time inhabited by Caribs who had expelled or incorporated an +older stock. It was not until the 25th of June 1635 that possession was +taken of the island in the name of the French _Compagnie des Îles +d'Amérique_. Actual settlement was carried out in the same year by +Pierre Belain, Sieur d'Esnambuc, captain-general of the island of St +Christopher. In 1637 his nephew Dyel Duparquet (d. 1658) became +captain-general of the colony, now numbering seven hundred men, and +subsequently obtained the seigneurie of the island by purchase from the +company under the authority of the king of France. In 1654 welcome was +given to three hundred Jews expelled from Brazil, and by 1658 there were +at least five thousand people exclusive of the Caribs, who were soon +after exterminated. Purchased by the French government from Duparquet's +children for 120,000 livres, Martinique was assigned to the West India +Company, but in 1674 it became part of the royal domain. The _habitants_ +(French landholders) at first devoted themselves to the cultivation of +cotton and tobacco; but in 1650 sugar plantations were begun, and in +1723 the coffee plant was introduced. Slave labour having been +introduced at an early period of the occupation, there were 60,000 +blacks in the island by 1736. This slavery was abolished in 1860. +Martinique had a full share of wars. In early days the Caribs were not +brought under subjection without severe struggles. In 1666 and 1667 the +island was attacked by the British without success, and hostilities were +terminated by the treaty of Breda. The Dutch made similar attempts in +1674, and the British again attacked the island in 1693. Captured by +Rodney in 1762, Martinique was next year restored to the French; but +after the conquest by Sir John Jervis and Sir Charles Grey in 1793 it +was retained for eight years; and, seized again in 1809, it was not +surrendered till 1814. The island was the birth-place of the Empress +Josephine. + +Martinique has suffered from occasional severe storms, as in 1767, when +1600 persons perished, and M. de la Pagerie, father of the Empress +Josephine, was practically ruined, and in 1839, 1891 and 1903, when much +damage was done to the sugar crop. Earthquakes have also been frequent, +but the most terrible natural disaster was the eruption of Mont Pelé in +1902, by which the town of St Pierre, formerly the chief commercial +centre of the island, was destroyed. During the earlier months of the +year various manifestations of volcanic activity had occurred; on the +25th of April there was a heavy fall of ashes, and on the 2nd and 3rd of +May a heavy eruption destroyed extensive sugar plantations north of St +Pierre, and caused a loss of some 150 lives. A few days later the news +that the Souffrière in St Vincent was in eruption reassured the +inhabitants of St Pierre, as it was supposed that this outbreak might +relieve the volcano of Pelé. But on the 8th of May the final catastrophe +came without warning; a mass of fire, compared to a flaming whirlwind, +swept over St Pierre, destroying the ships in the harbour, among which, +however, one, the "Roddam" of Scrutton, escaped. A fall of molten lava +and ashes followed the flames, accompanied by dense gases which +asphyxiated those who had thus far escaped. The total loss of life was +estimated at 40,000. Consternation was caused not only in the West +Indies, but in France and throughout the world, and at first it was +seriously suggested that the island should be evacuated, but no +countenance was lent to this proposal by the French government. Relief +measures were undertaken and voluntary subscriptions raised. The +material losses were estimated at £4,000,000; but, besides St Pierre, +only one-tenth of the island had been devastated, and although during +July there was further volcanic activity, causing more destruction, the +economic situation recovered more rapidly than was expected. + + See _Annuaire de la Martinique_ (Fort de France); H. Mouet, _La + Martinique_ (Paris, 1892); M. J. Guët, _Origines de la Martinique_ + (Vannes, 1893); G. Landes, _Notice sur la Martinique_ (with full + bibliography), (Paris, 1900); M. Dumoret, _Au pays du sucre_ (Paris, + 1902); and on the eruption of 1902, A. Heilprin, _Mont Pelée and the + Tragedy of Martinique_ (Philadelphia and London, 1903); A. Lacroix, + _La Montagne Pelée et ses éruptions_ (Paris, 1904); and the report of + Drs J. S. Flett and T. Anderson (November 20, 1902), who investigated + the eruptions on behalf of the Royal Society; cf. T. Anderson, "Recent + Volcanic Eruptions in the West Indies," in _Geographical Journal_, + vol. xxi. (1903). + + + + +MARTINSBURG, a town and the county-seat of Berkeley county, West +Virginia, U.S.A., about 74 m. W.N.W. of Washington, D.C. Pop. (1890) +7226; (1900) 7564 (678 negroes); (1910) 10,698. It is served by the +Baltimore & Ohio and the Cumberland Valley railways; the former has +repair shops here. It lies in the Lower Shenandoah Valley at the foot of +Little North mountain, in the midst of a fruit-growing region, peaches +and apples being the principal crops. Slate and limestone also abound in +the vicinity. The town has a fine Federal Building and a King's +Daughters' hospital. There are grain elevators, and various +manufactures, including hosiery, woollen goods, dressed lumber, &c. +Martinsburg owns its waterworks, the supply being derived from a +neighbouring spring. A town was laid out here a short time before the +War of Independence and was named Martinstown in honour of Colonel +Thomas Bryan Martin, a nephew of Thomas, Lord Fairfax (1692-1782); in +1778 it was incorporated under its present name. During the Civil War +Martinsburg was occupied by several different Union and Confederate +forces. + + + + +MARTINS FERRY, a city of Belmont county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Ohio +River, nearly opposite Wheeling, West Virginia. Pop. (1890), 6250; +(1900), 7760, including 1033 foreign-born and 252 negroes; (1910), 9133. +It is served by the Pennsylvania (Cleveland & Pittsburg Division), the +Baltimore & Ohio, and the Wheeling & Lake Erie (Wabash System) railways, +and by several steamboat lines. The city is situated on two plateaus; +the lower is occupied chiefly by factories, the upper by dwellings. Coal +mining and manufacturing are the principal industries; among factory +products are iron, steel, tin, stoves, machinery and glassware. The +municipality owns and operates the waterworks and an electric-lighting +plant. A settlement was attempted here in 1785, but was abandoned on +account of trouble with the Indians. In 1795 a town was laid out by +Absalom Martin and was called Jefferson, but this, too, was abandoned, +on account of its not being made the county-seat. The town was laid out +again in 1835 by Ebenezer Martin (son of Absalom Martin) and was called +Martinsville; the present name was substituted a few years later. The +Martins and other pioneers are buried in Walnut Grove Cemetery within +the city limits. Martins Ferry was incorporated as a town in 1865 and +chartered as a city in 1885. + + + + +MARTINUZZI, GEORGE [GYÖRGY UTIE[VS]ENOVI['C]] (1482-1551), Hungarian +statesman, who, since he usually signed himself "Frater Georgius," is +known in Hungarian history as FRATER GYÖRGY or simply THE FRATER, was +born at Kamicic in Croatia, the son of Gregory Utiesenovi['c], a +Croatian gentleman. His mother was a Martinuzzi, a Venetian patrician +family. From his eighth to his twentieth year he was attached to the +court of John Corvinus; subsequently, entering the service of the +Zapolya family, he saw something of warfare under John Zapolya but, +tiring of a military life, he entered the Paulician Order in his +twenty-eighth year. His historical career began when his old patron +Zapolya, now king of Hungary, forced to fly before his successful rival +Ferdinand, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand I., sent him on a diplomatic +mission to Hungary. It was due to his tact and ability that John +recovered Buda (1529), and henceforth Frater György became his treasurer +and chief counsellor. In 1534 he became bishop of Grosswardein; in 1538 +he concluded with Austria the peace of Grosswardein, whereby the royal +title and the greater part of Hungary were conceded to Zapolya. King +John left the Frater the guardian of his infant son John Sigismund, who +was proclaimed and crowned king of Hungary, the Frater acting as regent. +He frustrated all the attempts of the queen mother, Isabella, to bring +in the Austrians, and when, in 1541, an Austrian army appeared beneath +the walls of Buda, he arrested the queen and applied to the Porte for +help. On the 28th of August 1541, the Frater did homage to the sultan, +but during his absence with the baby king in the Turkish camp, the grand +vizier took Buda by subtlety. Then only the Frater recognized the +necessity of a composition with both Austria and Turkey. He attained it +by the treaty of Gyula (Dec. 29, 1541), whereby western Hungary fell to +Ferdinand, while Transylvania, as an independent principality under +Turkish suzerainty, reverted to John Sigismund. It included, besides +Transylvania proper, many Hungarian counties on both sides of the +Theiss, and the important city of Kassa. It was the Frater's policy to +preserve Transylvania neutral and intact by cultivating amicable +relations with Austria without offending the Porte. It was a difficult +policy, but succeeded brilliantly for a time. In 1545, encouraged by the +growing unpopularity of Ferdinand, owing to his incapacity to defend +Hungary against the Turks, the Frater was tempted to unite Austrian +Hungary to Transylvania and procure the election of John Sigismund as +the national king. But recognizing that this was impossible, he aimed at +an alliance with Ferdinand on terms of relative equality, and to this +system he adhered till his death. Queen Isabella, who hated the Frater +and constantly opposed him, complained of him to the sultan, who +commanded that either the traitor himself or his head should be sent to +Constantinople (1550). A combination was then formed against him of the +queen, the hospodars of Moldavia and Wallachia and the Turks; but the +Frater shut the queen up in Gyula-Fehérvár, drove the hospodars out of +Transylvania, defeated the Turks at Déva, and finally compelled Isabella +to accept a composition with Austria very profitable to her family and +to Transylvania, at the same time soothing the rage of the sultan by +flatteries and gifts. This compact, a masterpiece of statesmanship, was +confirmed by the diet of Kolozsvár in August 1551. The Frater retained +the governorship of Transylvania, and was subsequently consecrated +archbishop of Esztergom and received the red hat. Thus Hungary was once +more reunited, but the inability of Ferdinand to defend it against the +Turks, as promised, forced the Frater, for the common safety, to resume +the payment of tribute to the Porte in December 1551. Unfortunately, the +Turks no longer trusted a diplomatist they could not understand, while +Ferdinand suspected him of an intention to secure Hungary for himself. +When the Turks (in 1551) took Csanád and other places, the Frater and +the imperial generals Castaldo and Pallavicini combined their forces +against the common foe; but when the Frater privately endeavoured to +mediate between the Turks and the Hungarians, Castaldo represented him +to Ferdinand as a traitor, and asked permission to kill him if +necessary. The Frater's secretary Marco Aurelio Ferrari was hired, and +stabbed his master from behind at the castle of Alvinczy while reading a +letter, on the 18th of December 1551; but the cardinal, though in his +sixty-ninth year, fought for his life, and was only despatched with the +aid of Pallavicini and a band of bravos. Ferdinand took the +responsibility of the murder on himself. He sent to Julius III. an +accusation of treason against the Frater in eighty-seven articles, and +after long hesitation, and hearing one hundred and sixteen witnesses, +the pope exonerated Ferdinand of blame. + + See A. Bechet, _Histoire du ministère du cardinal Martinusius_ (Paris, + 1715); O. M. Utiesenovi['c], _Lebensgeschichte des Cardinals Georg + Utiesenovi['c]_ (Vienna, 1881); _Codex epistolaris Fratris Georgii + 1535-1551_, ed. A. Károlyi (Budapest, 1881). But the most vivid + presentation of Frater is to be found in M. Jókai's fine historical + romance, _Brother George_ (Hung.) (Budapest, 1893). (R. N. B.) + + + + +MARTIUS, CARL FRIEDRICH PHILIPP VON (1794-1868), German botanist and +traveller, was born on the 17th of April 1794 at Erlangen, where he +graduated M.D. in 1814, publishing as his thesis a critical catalogue of +plants in the botanic garden of the university. He afterwards devoted +himself to botanical study, and in 1817 he and J. B. von Spix were sent +to Brazil by the king of Bavaria. They travelled from Rio de Janeiro +through several of the southern and eastern provinces of Brazil, and +ascended the river Amazon to Tabatinga, as well as some of its larger +affluents. On his return to Europe in 1820 he was appointed conservator +of the botanic garden at Munich, and in 1826 professor of botany in the +university there, and held both offices till 1864. He devoted his chief +attention to the flora of Brazil, and in addition to numerous short +papers he published the _Nova Genera et Species Plantarum Brasiliensium_ +(1823-1832, 3 vols.) and _Icones selectae Plantarum Cryptogamicarum +Brasiliensium_ (1827), both works being finely illustrated. An account +of his travels in Brazil appeared in 3 vols. 4to, 1823-1831, with an +atlas of plates, but probably the work by which he is best known is his +_Historia Palmarum_ (1823-1850) in 3 large folio volumes, of which one +describes the palms discovered by himself in Brazil. In 1840 he began +the _Flora Brasiliensis_, with the assistance of the most distinguished +European botanists, who undertook monographs of the various orders. Its +publication was continued after his death under the editorship of A. W. +Eichler (1839-1887) until 1887, and subsequently of Ignaz von Urban. He +also edited several works on the zoological collections made in Brazil +by Spix, after the death of the latter in 1826. On the outbreak of +potato disease in Europe he investigated it and published his +observations in 1842. He also published works and short papers on the +aborigines of Brazil, on their civil and social condition, on their past +and probable future, on their diseases and medicines, and on the +languages of the various tribes, especially the Tupi. He died at Munich +on the 13th of December 1868. + + + + +MARTOS, CHRISTINO (1830-1893), Spanish politician, was born at Granada +on the 13th of September 1830. He was educated there and at Madrid +University, where his Radicalism soon got him into trouble, and he +narrowly escaped being expelled for his share in student riots and other +demonstrations against the governments of Queen Isabella. He +distinguished himself as a journalist on _El Tribuno_. He joined +O'Donnell and Espartero in 1854 against a revolutionary cabinet, and +shortly afterwards turned against O'Donnell to assist the Democrats and +Progressists under Prim, Rivero, Castelar, and Sagasta in the +unsuccessful movements of 1866, and was obliged to go abroad. His +political career had not prevented Martos from rising into note at the +bar, where he was successful for forty years. After remaining abroad +three years, he returned to Spain to take his seat in the Cortes of 1869 +after the revolution of 1868. Throughout the revolutionary period he +represented in cabinets with Prim, Serrano and Ruiz Zorilla, and lastly +under King Amadeus, the advanced Radical tendencies of the men who +wanted to give Spain a democratic monarchy. After the abdication of +Amadeus of Savoy, Martos played a prominent part in the proclamation of +the federal republic, in the struggle between the executive of that +republic and the permanent committee of the Cortes, backed by the +generals and militia, who nearly put an end to the executive and +republic in April 1873. When the republicans triumphed Martos retired +into exile, and soon afterwards into private life. He reappeared for a +few months after General Pavia's _coup d'état_ in January 1874, to join +a coalition cabinet formed by Marshal Serrano, with Sagasta and Ulloa. +Martos returned to the Bar in May 1874, and quietly looked on when the +restoration took place at the end of that year. He stuck to his +democratic ideals for some years, even going to Biarritz in 1881 to be +present at a republican congress presided over by Ruiz Zorilla. Shortly +afterwards Martos joined the dynastic Left organized by Marshal Serrano, +General Lopez Dominguez, and Moret, Becerra, Balaguer, and other quondam +revolutionaries. He sat in several parliaments of the reign of Alphonso +XII. and of the regency of Queen Christina, joined the dynastic Liberals +under Sagasta, and gave Sagasta not a little trouble when the latter +allowed him to preside over the House of Deputies. Having failed to form +a rival party against Sagasta, Martos subsided into political +insignificance, despite his great talent as an orator and debater, and +died in Madrid on the 16th of January 1893. + + + + +MARTOS, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Jaen, 16 m. W.S.W. +of Jaen, by the Jaen-Lucena railway. Pop. (1900), 17,078. Martos is +situated on an outlying western peak of the Jabalcuz mountains, which is +surmounted by a ruined castle and overlooks the plain of Andalusia. In +the neighbourhood are two sulphurous springs with bathing +establishments. The local trade is almost exclusively agricultural. + + Martos perhaps stands on or near the site of the _Tucci_ of Ptolemy, + which was fortified and renamed _Colonia Augusta Gemella_ by the + Romans. By Ferdinand III. it was taken from the Moors in 1225, and + given to the knights of Calatrava; it was here that the brothers + Carvajal, commanders of the order, were in 1312 executed by command of + Ferdinand IV. Before their death they summoned Ferdinand to meet them + within thirty days at the judgment-seat of God. Ferdinand died a month + later and thus received the popular name of _el Emplazado_--"the + Summoned." + + + + +MARTYN, HENRY (1781-1812), English missionary to India, was born on the +18th of February 1781, at Truro, Cornwall. His father, John Martyn, was a +"captain" or mine-agent at Gwennap. The lad was educated at Truro grammar +school under Dr Cardew, entered St John's College, Cambridge, in the +autumn of 1797, and was senior wrangler and first Smith's prizeman in +1801. In 1802 he was chosen a fellow of his college. He had intended to +go to the bar, but in the October term of 1802 he chanced to hear Charles +Simeon speaking of the good done in India by a single missionary, William +Carey, and some time afterwards he read the life of David Brainerd, the +apostle of the Indians of North America. He resolved, accordingly, to +become a Christian missionary. On the 22nd of October, 1803, he was +ordained deacon at Ely, and afterwards priest, and served as Simeon's +curate at the church of Holy Trinity, taking charge of the neighbouring +parish of Lolworth. He was about to offer his services to the Church +Missionary Society, when a disaster in Cornwall deprived him and his +unmarried sister of the provision their father had made for them, and +rendered it necessary that he should obtain a salary that would support +her as well as himself. He accordingly obtained a chaplaincy under the +East India Company and left for India on the 5th of July 1805. For some +months he was stationed at Aldeen, near Serampur; in October 1806 he +proceeded to Dinapur, where he was soon able to conduct worship among the +natives in the vernacular, and established schools. In April 1809 he was +transferred to Cawnpore, where he preached in his own compound, in spite +of interruptions and threats. He occupied himself in linguistic study, +and had already, during his residence at Dinapur, been engaged in +revising the sheets of his Hindostani version of the New Testament. He +now translated the whole of the New Testament into Hindi also, and into +Persian twice. He translated the Psalms into Persian, the Gospels into +Judaeo-Persic, and the Prayer-book into Hindostani, in spite of +ill-health and "the pride, pedantry and fury of his chief munshi Sabat." +Ordered by the doctors to take a sea voyage, he obtained leave to go to +Persia and correct his Persian New Testament, whence he wished to go to +Arabia, and there compose an Arabic version. Accordingly, on the 1st of +October 1810, having seen his work at Cawnpore crowned on the previous +day by the opening of a church, he left for Calcutta, whence he sailed on +the 7th of January 1811, for Bombay, which he reached on his thirtieth +birthday. From Bombay he set out for Bushire, bearing letters from Sir +John Malcolm to men of position there, as also at Shiraz and Isfahan. +After an exhausting journey from the coast he reached Shiraz, and was +soon plunged into discussion with the disputants of all classes, "Sufi, +Mahommedan, Jew, and Jewish-Mahommedan, even Armenian, all anxious to +test their powers of argument with the first English priest who had +visited them." Having made an unsuccessful journey to Tabriz to present +the shah with his translation of the New Testament, he was seized with +fever, and after a temporary recovery, had to seek a change of climate. +On the 12th of September 1812, he started with two Armenian servants, +crossed the Araxes, rode from Tabriz to Erivan, from Erivan to Kars, from +Kars to Erzerum, from Erzerum to Chiflik, urged on from place to place by +a thoughtless Tatar guide, and, though the plague was raging at Tokat +(near Eski-Shehr in Asia Minor), he was compelled by prostration to stop +there. On the 6th of October he died. Macaulay's youthful lines, written +early in 1813, testify to the impression made by his career. + + His _Journals and Letters_ were published by Samuel Wilberforce in + 1837. See also _Lives_ by John Sargent (1819; new ed. 1885), and G. + Smith (1892); and _The Church Quarterly Review_ (Oct. 1881). + + + + +MARTYN, JOHN (1699-1768), English botanist, was born in London on the +12th of September 1699. Originally intended for a business career, he +abandoned it in favour of medical and botanical studies. He was one of +the founders (with J. J. Dillen and others) and the secretary of a +botanical society which met for a few years in the Rainbow Coffee-house, +Watling Street; he also started the _Grub Street Journal_, a weekly +satirical review, which lasted from 1730 to 1737. In 1732 he was +appointed professor of botany in Cambridge University, but, finding +little encouragement and hampered by lack of appliances, he soon +discontinued lecturing. He retained his professorship, however, till +1762, when he resigned in favour of his son Thomas (1735-1825), author +of _Flora rustica_ (1792-1794). Although he had not taken a medical +degree, he long practised as a physician at Chelsea, where he died on +the 29th of January 1768. His reputation chiefly rests upon his +_Historia plantarum rariorum_ (1728-1737), and his translation, with +valuable agricultural and botanical notes, of the _Eclogues_ (1749) and +_Georgics_ (1741) of Virgil. On resigning the botanical chair at +Cambridge he presented the university with a number of his botanical +specimens and books. + + See memoir by Thomas Martyn in _Memoirs of John Martyn and Thomas + Martyn_, by G. C. Gorham (1830). + + + + +MARTYR (Gr. [Greek: martyr] or [Greek: martys]), a word meaning +literally "witness" and often used in that sense in the New Testament +e.g. Matt, xviii. 16; Mark xiv. 63. During the conflict between Paganism +and Christianity when many Christians "testified" to the truth of their +convictions by sacrificing their lives, the word assumed its modern +technical sense. The beginnings of this use are to be seen in such +passages as Acts xxii. 20; Rev. ii. 13, xiii. 6. During the first three +centuries the fortitude of these "witnesses" won the admiration of their +brethren. Ardent spirits craved the martyr's crown, and to confess +Christ in persecution was to attain a glory inferior only to that won by +those who actually died. Confessors were visited in prison, martyrs' +graves were scenes of pilgrimage, and the day on which they suffered +was celebrated as the birthday of their glory. Martyrology was the most +popular literature in the early Church. While the honour paid to +martyrdom was a great support to early champions of the faith, it was +attended by serious evils. It was thought that martyrdom would atone for +sin, and imprisoned confessors not only issued to the Churches commands +which were regarded almost as inspired utterances, but granted pardons +in rash profusion to those who had been excommunicated by the regular +clergy, a practice which caused Cyprian and his fellow bishops much +difficulty. The zeal of Ignatius (c. 115), who begs the Roman Church to +do nothing to avert from him the martyr's death, was natural enough in a +spiritual knight-errant, but with others in later days, especially in +Phrygia and North Africa, the passion became artificial. Fanatics sought +death by insulting the magistrates or by breaking idols, and in their +enthusiasm for martyrdom became self-centred and forgetful of their +normal duty. None the less it is true that these men and women endured +torments, often unthinkable in their cruelty, and death rather than +abandon their faith. The same phenomena have been witnessed, not only in +the conflicts within the Church that marked the 13th to the 16th +centuries, but in the different mission fields, and particularly in +Madagascar and China. + + See A. J. Mason, _The Historic Martyrs of the Primitive Church_ + (London, 1905); H. B. Workman, _Persecution in the Early Church_ + (London, 1906); Paul Allard, _Ten Lectures on the Martyrs_ (London, + 1907); John Foxe, _The Book of Martyrs_; Mary I. Bryson, _Cross and + Crown_ (London, 1904). + + + + +MARTYROLOGY, a catalogue or list of _martyrs_, or, more exactly, of +saints, arranged in the order of their anniversaries. This is the now +accepted meaning in the Latin Church. In the Greek Church the nearest +equivalent to the martyrology is the Synaxarium (q.v.). As regards form, +we should distinguish between simple martyrologies, which consist merely +of an enumeration of names, and historical martyrologies, which also +include stories or biographical details. As regards documents, the most +important distinction is between local and general martyrologies. The +former give a list of the festivals of some particular Church; the +latter are the result of a combination of several local martyrologies. +We may add certain compilations of a factitious character, to which the +name of martyrology is given by analogy, e.g. the _Martyrologe +universel_ of Châtelain (1709). As types of local martyrologies we may +quote that of Rome, formed from the _Depositio martyrum_ and the +_Depositio episcoporum_ of the chronograph of 354; the Gothic calendar +of Ulfila's Bible, the calendar of Carthage published by Mabillon, the +calendar of fasts and vigils of the Church of Tours, going back as far +as Bishop Perpetuus (d. 490), and preserved in the _Historia francorum_ +(xi. 31) of Gregory of Tours. The Syriac martyrology discovered by +Wright (_Journal of Sacred Literature_, 1866) gives the idea of a +general martyrology. The most important ancient martyrology preserved to +the present day is the compilation falsely attributed to St Jerome, +which in its present form goes back to the end of the 6th century. It is +the result of the combination of a general martyrology of the Eastern +Churches, a local martyrology of the Church of Rome, some general +martyrologies of Italy and Africa, and a series of local martyrologies +of Gaul. The task of critics is to distinguish between its various +constituent elements. Unfortunately, this document has reached us in a +lamentable condition. The proper names are distorted, repeated or +misplaced, and in many places the text is so corrupt that it is +impossible to understand it. With the exception of a few traces of +borrowings from the Passions of the martyrs, the compilation is in the +form of a simple martyrology. Of the best-known historical martyrologies +the oldest are those which go under the name of Bede and of Florus +(_Acta sanctorum Martii_, vol. ii.); of Wandelbert, a monk of Prüm +(842); of Rhabanus Maurus (c. 845); of Ado (d. 875); of Notker (896); +and of Wolfhard (c. 896 v. _Analecta bollandiana_, xvii. 11). The most +famous is that of Usuard (c. 875), on which the Roman martyrology was +based. The first edition of the Roman martyrology appeared at Rome in +1583. The third edition, which appeared in 1584, was approved by +Gregory XIII., who imposed the Roman martyrology upon the whole Church. +In 1586 Baronius published his annotated edition, which in spite of its +omissions and inaccuracies is a mine of valuable information. + + The chief works on the martyrologies are those of Rosweyde, who in + 1613 published at Antwerp the martyrology of Ado (also edition of + Giorgi, Rome, 1745); of Sollerius, to whom we owe a learned edition of + Usuard (_Acta sanctorum Junii_, vols. vi. and vii.); and of + Fiorentini, who published in 1688 an annotated edition of the + _Martyrology of St Jerome_. The critical edition of the latter by J. + B. de Rossi and Mgr. L. Duchesne, was published in 1894, in vol. ii. + of the _Acta sanctorum Novembris_. The historical martyrologies taken + as a whole have been studied by Dom Quentin (1908). There are also + numerous editions of calendars or martyrologies of less universal + interest, and commentaries upon them. Mention ought to be made of the + famous calendar of Naples, commented on by Mazocchi (Naples, 1744) and + Sabbatini (Naples, 1744). + + See C. de Smedt, _Introductio generalis ad historiam ecclesiasticam_ + (Gandavi, 1876), pp. 127-156; H. Matagne and V. de Buck in De Backer, + _Bibliothèque des écrivains de la Compagnie de Jésus_, 2nd ed., vol. + iii. pp. 369-387; De Rossi-Duchesne, _Les Sources du martyrologe + hiéronymien_ (Rome, 1885); H. Achelis, _Die Martyrologien, ihre + Geschichte und ihr Wert_ (Berlin, 1900); H. Delehaye, "Le Témoignage + des martyrologes," in _Analecta bollandiana_, xxvi. 78-99 (1907); H. + Quentin, _Les Martyrologes historiques du moyen âge_ (Paris, 1908). + (H. De.) + + + + +MARULLUS, MICHAEL TARCHANIOTA (d. 1500), Greek scholar, poet, and +soldier, was born at Constantinople. In 1453, when the Turks captured +Constantinople, he was taken to Ancona in Italy, where he became the +friend and pupil of J. J. Pontanus, with whom his name is associated by +Ariosto (_Orl. Fur._ xxxvii. 8). He received his education at Florence, +where he obtained the patronage of Lorenzo de' Medici. He was the author +of epigrams and _hymni naturales_, in which he happily imitated +Lucretius. He took no part in the work of translation, then the +favourite exercise of scholars, but he was understood to be planning +some great work when he was drowned, on the 10th of April 1500, in the +river Cecina near Volterra. He was a bitter enemy of Politian, whose +successful rival he had been in the affections of the beautiful and +learned Alessandra Scala. He is remembered chiefly for the brilliant +emendations on Lucretius which he left unpublished; these were used for +the Juntine edition (Munro's _Lucretius_, Introduction). + + The hymns, some of the epigrams, and a fragment, _De Principum + institutione_, were reprinted in Paris by C. M. Sathas in _Documents + inédits relatifs à l'histoire de la Grèce au moyen âge_, vol. vii. + (1888). + + + + +MARUM, MARTIN VAN (1750-1837), Dutch man of science, was born on the +20th of March 1750 at Groningen, where he graduated in medicine and +philosophy. He began to practise medicine at Haarlem, but devoted +himself mainly to lecturing on physical subjects. He became secretary of +the scientific society of that city, and under his management the +society was advanced to the position of one of the most noted in Europe. +He was also entrusted with the care of the collection left to Haarlem by +P. Teyler van der Hulst (1702-1778). His name is not associated with any +discovery of the first order, but his researches (especially in +connexion with electricity) were remarkable for their number and +variety. He died at Haarlem on the 26th of December 1837. + + + + +MARUTS, in Hindu mythology, storm-gods. Their numbers vary in the +different scriptures, usually thrice seven or thrice sixty. In the Vedas +they are called the sons of Rudra. They are the companions of Indra, and +associated with him in the wielding of thunderbolts, sometimes as his +equals, sometimes as his servants. They are armed with golden weapons +and lightnings. They split drought (_Vritra_) and bring rain, and cause +earthquakes. Various myths surround their birth. A derivative word, +Maruti or Maroti, is the popular name throughout the Deccan for Hanuman +(q.v.). + + + + +MARVELL, ANDREW (1621-1678), English poet and satirist, son of Andrew +Marvell and his wife Anne Pease, was born at the rectory house, +Winestead, in the Holderness division of Yorkshire, on the 31st of March +1621. In 1624 his father exchanged the living of Winestead for the +mastership of Hull grammar school. He also became lecturer at Holy +Trinity Church and master of the Charterhouse in the same town. Thomas +Fuller (_Worthies of England_, ed. 1811, i. 165) describes him as "a +most excellent preacher." The younger Marvell was educated at Hull +grammar school until his thirteenth year, when he matriculated on the +14th of December 1633 (according to a doubtful statement in Wood's +_Athen. oxon._) at Trinity College, Cambridge. It is related by his +early biographer, Thomas Cooke, that he was induced by some Jesuit +priests to leave the university. After some months he was discovered by +his father in a bookseller's shop in London, and returned to +Cambridge.[1] He contributed two poems to the _Musa cantabrigiensis_ in +1637, and in the following year he received a scholarship at Trinity +College, and took his B.A. degree in 1639. His father was drowned in +1640 while crossing the Humber in company with the daughter of a Mrs +Skinner, almost certainly connected with the Cyriack Skinner to whom two +of Milton's sonnets are addressed. It is said that Mrs Skinner adopted +Marvell and provided for him at her death. The Conclusion Book of +Trinity College, Cambridge, registers the decision (Sept. 24, 1641) that +he with others should be excluded from further advantages from the +college either because they were married, or did not attend their "days" +or "acts." He travelled for four years on the Continent, visiting +Holland, France, Italy and Spain. In Rome he met Richard Flecknoe, whom +he satirized in the amusing verses on "Flecnoe, an English priest at +Rome." + +Although Marvell ranks as a great Puritan poet his sympathies were at +first with Charles I., and in the lines on "Tom May's Death" he found no +words too strong to express his scorn for the historian of the Long +Parliament. He himself was no partisan, but had a passion for law and +order. He acquiesced, accordingly, in the strong rule of Cromwell, but +in his famous "Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland" +(1650)[2] he inserts a tribute to the courage and dignity of Charles I., +which forms the best-known section of the poem. In 1650 he became tutor +to Lord Fairfax's daughter Mary, afterwards duchess of Buckingham, then +in her twelfth year. During his life with the Fairfaxes at Nunappleton, +Yorkshire, he wrote the poems "Upon the Hill and Grove at Billborow" and +"On Appleton House." Doubtless the other poems on country life, and his +exquisite "garden poetry" may be referred to this period. "Clorinda and +Damon" and "The Nymph complaining for the Death of her Faun" are good +examples of the beauty and simplicity of much of this early verse. But +he had affinities with John Donne and the metaphysical poets, and could +be obscure on occasion. + +Marvell was acquainted with Milton probably through their common +friends, the Skinners, and in February 1653 Milton sent him with a +letter to the lord president of the council, John Bradshaw, recommending +him as "a man of singular desert for the state to make use of," and +suggesting his appointment as assistant to himself in his duties as +foreign secretary. The appointment was, however, given at the time to +Philip Meadows, and Marvell became tutor to Cromwell's ward, William +Dutton. In 1653 he was established with his pupil at Eton in the house +of John Oxenbridge, then a fellow of the college, but formerly a +minister in the Bermudas. No doubt the well-known verses, "Bermudas," +were inspired by intercourse with the Oxenbridges. At Eton he enjoyed +the society of John Hales, then living in retirement. He was employed by +Milton in 1654 to convey to Bradshaw a copy of the _Defensio secunda_, +and the letter to Milton in which he describes the reception of the gift +is preserved. When the secretaryship again fell vacant in 1657 Marvell +was appointed, and retained the appointment until the accession of +Charles II. During this period he wrote many political poems, all of +them displaying admiration for Cromwell. His "Poem upon the Death of his +late Highness the Lord Protector" has been unfavourably compared to +Edmund Waller's "Panegyric," but Marvell's poem is inspired with +affection. + +Marvell's connexion with Hull had been strengthened by the marriages of +his sisters with persons of local importance, and in January 1659 he was +elected to represent the borough in parliament. He was re-elected in +1660, again in 1661, and continued to represent the town until his +death. According to Milton's nephew, Edward Phillips, the poet owed his +safety at the Restoration largely to the efforts of Marvell, who "made a +considerable party for him" in the House of Commons. From 1663 to 1665 +he acted as secretary to Charles Howard, 1st earl of Carlisle, on his +difficult and unsuccessful embassy to Muscovy, Sweden, and Denmark; and +this is the only official post he filled during the reign of Charles. +With the exception of this absence, for which he had leave from his +constituents, and of shorter intervals of travel on private business +which took him to Holland, Marvell was constant in his parliamentary +attendance to the day of his death. He seldom spoke in the House, but +his parliamentary influence is established by other evidence. He was an +excellent man of affairs, and looked after the special interests of the +port of Hull. He was a member of the corporation of Trinity House, both +in London and Hull, and became a younger warden of the London Trinity +House. His correspondence with his constituents, from 1660 to 1678, some +400 letters in all, printed by Dr Grosart (_Complete Works_, vol. ii.), +forms a source of information all the more valuable because by a +resolution passed at the Restoration the publication of the proceedings +of the House without leave was forbidden. He made it a point of duty to +write at each post--that is, every two or three days--both on local +interests and on all matters of public interest. The discreet reserve of +these letters, natural at a time when the post office was a favourite +source of information to the government, contrasts curiously with the +freedom of the few private letters which state opinions as well as +facts. Marvell's constituents, in their turn, were not unmindful of +their member. He makes frequent references to their presents, usually of +Hull ale and of salmon, and he regularly drew from them the wages of a +member, six-and-eightpence a day during session. + +The development of Marvell's political opinions may be traced in the +satirical verse he published during the reign of Charles II., and in his +private letters. With all his admiration for Cromwell he had retained +his sympathies with the royal house, and had loyally accepted the +Restoration. In 1667 the Dutch fleet sailed up the Thames, and Marvell +expressed his wrath at the gross mismanagement of public affairs in +"Last Instructions to a Painter," a satire which was published as a +broadside and of course remained anonymous. Edmund Waller had published +in 1665 a gratulatory poem on the duke of York's victory in that year +over the Dutch as "Instructions to a Painter for the drawing up and +posture of his Majesty's forces at sea...." A similar form was adopted +in Sir John Denham's four satirical "Directions to a Painter," and +Marvell writes on the same model. His indignation was well grounded, but +he had no scruples in the choice of the weapons he employed in his +warfare against the corruption of the court, which he paints even +blacker than do contemporary memoir writers; and his satire often +descends to the level of the lampoon. The most inexcusable of his +scandalous verses are perhaps those on the duchess of York. In the same +year he attacked Lord Clarendon, evidently hoping that with the removal +of the "betrayer of England and Flanders" matters would improve. But in +1672 when he wrote his "Poem on the Statue in the Stocks-Market" he had +no illusions left about Charles, whom he describes as too often +"purchased and sold," though he concludes with "Yet we'd rather have him +than his bigoted brother." "An Historical Poem," "Advice to a Painter," +and "Britannia and Raleigh" urge the same advice in grave language. In +the last-named poem, probably written early in 1674, Raleigh pleads that +"'tis god-like good to save a fallen king," but Britannia has at length +decided that the tyrant cannot be divided from the Stuart, and proposes +to reform the state on the republican model of Venice. These and other +equally bold satires were probably handed round in MS., or secretly +printed, and it was not until after the Revolution that they were +collected with those of other writers in _Poems on Affairs of State_ (3 +pts., 1689; 4 pts., 1703-1707). Marvell's controversial prose writings +are wittier than his verse satires, and are free from the scurrility +which defaces the "Last Instructions to a Painter." A short and +brilliant example of his irony is "His Majesty's Most Gracious Speech to +both Houses of Parliament" (printed in _Grosart_, ii. 431 seq.), in +which Charles is made to take the house into the friendliest confidence +on his domestic affairs. + +Marvell was among the masters of Jonathan Swift, who, in the "Apology" +prefixed to the _Tale of a Tub_, wrote that his answer to Samuel Parker +could be still read with pleasure, although the pamphlets that provoked +it were long since forgotten. Parker had written a _Discourse of +Ecclesiastical Politye_ (1670) and other polemics against Dissenters, to +which Marvell replied in _The Rehearsal Transposed_ (2 pts., 1672 and +1673). The book contains some passages of dignified eloquence, and some +coarse vituperation, but the prevailing tone is that of grave and +ironical banter of Parker as "Mr Bayes." Parker was attacked, says +Bishop Burnet (_Hist. of His Own Time_, ed. 1823, i. 451), "by the +liveliest droll of the age, who writ in a burlesque strain, but with so +peculiar and entertaining a conduct, that, from the king down to the +tradesman, his books were read with great pleasure." He certainly +humbled Parker, but whether this effect extended, as Burnet asserts, to +the whole party, is doubtful. Parker had intimated that Milton had a +share in the first part of Marvell's reply. This Marvell emphatically +denied (_Grosart_, iii. 498). He points out that Parker had, like +Milton, profited by the royal clemency, and that he had first met him at +Milton's house. He takes the opportunity to praise Milton's "great +learning and sharpness of wit," and to the second edition of _Paradise +Lost_ (1674) he contributed some verses of just and eloquent praise. + +His _Mr Smirke, or the Divine in Mode ..._ (1676) was a defence of +Herbert Croft, bishop of Hereford, against the criticisms of Dr Francis +Turner, master of St John's College, Cambridge. A far more important +work was _An Account of the Growth of Popery and Arbitrary Government in +England, more particularly from the Long Prorogation of Parliament ..._ +(1677). This pamphlet was written in the same outspoken tone as the +verse satires, and brought against the court the indictment of nursing +designs to establish absolute monarchy and the Roman Catholic religion +at the same time. A reward was offered for the author, whose identity +was evidently suspected, and it is said that Marvell was in danger of +assassination. He died on the 16th of August 1678 in consequence of an +overdose of an opiate taken during an attack of ague. He was buried in +the church of St Giles-in-the-Fields, London. Joint administration of +his estate was granted to one of his creditors, and to his widow, Mary +Marvell, of whom we have no previous mention. + +As a humorist, and as a great "parliament man," no name is of more +interest to a student of the reign of Charles II. than that of Marvell. +He had friends among the republican thinkers of the times. Aubrey says +that he was intimate with James Harrington, the author of _Oceana_, and +he was probably a member of the "Rota" club. In the heyday of political +infamy, he, a needy man, obliged to accept wages from his constituents, +kept his political virtue unspotted, and he stood throughout his career +as the champion of moderate and tolerant measures. There is a story that +his old schoolfellow, Danby, was sent by the king to offer the +incorruptible poet a place at court and a gift of £1000, which Marvell +refused with the words: "I live here to serve my constituents: the +ministry may seek men for their purpose; I am not one." When +self-indulgence was the ordinary habit of town life, Marvell was a +temperate man. His personal appearance is described by John Aubrey: "He +was of a middling stature, pretty strong set, roundish faced, cherry +cheeked, hazel eyed, brown haired. In his conversation he was modest and +of very few words." ("Lives of Eminent Persons," printed in _Letters ... +in the 17th and 18th Centuries_, 1813). + + Among Marvell's works is also a _Defence of John Howe on God's + Prescience ..._ (1678), and among the spurious works fathered on him + are: _A Seasonable Argument ... for a new Parliament_ (1677), _A + Seasonable Question and a Useful Answer ..._ (1676), _A Letter from a + Parliament Man ..._ (1675), and a translation of _Suetonius_ (1672). + Marvell's satires were no doubt first printed as broadsides, but very + few are still extant in that form. Such of his poems as were printed + during his lifetime appeared in collections of other men's works. The + earliest edition of his non-political verse is _Miscellaneous Poems_ + (1681), edited by his wife, Mary Marvell. The political satires were + printed as _A Collection of Poems on Affairs of State, by A---- + M----l, Esq. and other Eminent Wits_ (1689), with second and third + parts in the same year. The works of Andrew Marvell contained in these + two publications were also edited by Thomas Cooke (2 vols., 1726), who + added some letters. Cooke's edition was reprinted by Thomas Davies in + 1772. Marvell's next editor was Captain Thompson of Hull, who was + connected with the poet's family, and made further additions from a + commonplace book since lost. Other editions followed, but were + superseded by Dr A. B. Grosart's laborious work, which, in spite of + many defects of style, remains indispensable to the student. _The + Complete Works in Verse and Prose of Andrew Marvell, M.P._ (4 vols., + 1872-1875) forms part of his "Fuller Worthies Library." See also the + admirable edition of the _Poems and Satires of Andrew Marvell ..._ (2 + vols., 1892) in the "Muses' Library," where a full bibliography of his + works and of the commentaries on them is provided; also _The Poems and + some Satires of Andrew Marvell_ (ed. Edward Wright, 1904), and _Andrew + Marvell_ (1905), by Augustine Birrell in the "English Men of Letters" + series. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] There is an allusion to this escapade addressed by another + anxious parent to the elder Marvell in the Hull Corporation Records + (No. 498) [see Grosart, i. xxviii.]. The document is without address + or signature, but the identification seems safe. + + [2] This poem has been highly praised by Goldwin Smith (T. H. Ward's + _English Poets_, ii. 383 (1880)). It was first printed, so far as we + know, in 1776, and the only external testimony to Marvell's + authorship is the statement of Captain Thompson, who had included + many poems by other writers in his edition of Marvell, that this ode + was in poet's own handwriting. The internal evidence in favour of + Marvell may, however, be accepted as conclusive. + + + + +MARX, HEINRICH KARL (1818-1883), German socialist, and head of the +International Working Men's Association, was born on the 5th of May 1818 +in Trèves (Rhenish Prussia). His father, a Jewish lawyer, in 1824 went +over to Christianity, and he and his whole family were baptized as +Christian Protestants. The son went to the high grammar school at +Trèves, and from 1835 to the universities of Bonn and Berlin. He studied +first law, then history and philosophy, and in 1841 took the degree of +doctor of philosophy. In Berlin he had close intimacy with the most +prominent representatives of the young Hegelians--the brothers Bruno and +Edgar Bauer and their circle, the so-called "Freien." He at first +intended to settle as a lecturer at Bonn University, but his Radical +views made a university career out of the question, and he accepted work +on a Radical paper, the _Rheinische Zeitung_, which expounded the ideas +of the most advanced section of the Rhenish Radical _bourgeoisie_. In +October 1842 he became one of the editors of this paper, which, however, +after an incessant struggle with press censors, was suppressed in the +beginning of 1843. In the summer of this year Marx married Jenny von +Westphalen, the daughter of a high government official. Through her +mother Jenny von Westphalen was a lineal descendant of the earl of +Argyle, who was beheaded under James II. She was a most faithful +companion to Marx during all the vicissitudes of his career, and died on +the 2nd of December 1881; he outliving her only fifteen months. + +Already in the _Rheinische Zeitung_ some socialist voices had been +audible, couched in a somewhat philosophical strain. Marx, though not +accepting these views, refused to criticize them until he had studied +the question thoroughly. For this purpose he went in the autumn of 1843 +to Paris, where the socialist movement was then at its intellectual +zenith, and where he, together with Arnold Ruge, the well-known literary +leader of Radical Hegelianism, was to edit a review, the +_Deutsch-französische Jahrbücher_, of which, however, only one number +appeared. It contained two articles by Marx--a criticism of Bruno +Bauer's treatment of the Jewish question, and an introduction to a +criticism of Hegel's philosophy of the law. The first concluded that the +social emancipation of the Jews could only be achieved together with the +emancipation of society from Judaism, i.e. commercialism. The second +declared that in Germany no partial political emancipation was possible; +there was now only one class from which a real and reckless fight +against authority was to be expected--namely, the proletariate. But the +proletariate could not emancipate itself except by breaking all the +chains, by dissolving the whole constituted society, by recreating man +as a member of the human society in the place of established states and +classes. "Then the day of German resurrection will be announced by the +crowing of the Gallican cock." Both articles thus relegated the +solution of the questions then prominent in Germany to the advent of +socialism, and so far resembled in principle other socialist +publications of the time. But the way of reasoning was different, and +the final words of the last quoted sentence pointed to a political +revolution, to begin in France as soon as the industrial evolution had +created a sufficiently strong proletariate. In contradistinction to most +of the socialists of the day, Marx laid stress upon the political +struggle as the lever of social emancipation. In some letters which +formed part of a correspondence between Marx, Ruge, Ludwig Feuerbach, +and Mikhail Bakunin, published as an introduction to the review, this +opposition of Marx to socialistic "dogmatism" was enunciated in a still +more pronounced form: "Nothing prevents us," he said, "from combining +our criticism with the criticism of politics, from participating in +politics, and consequently in real struggles. We will not, then, oppose +the world like doctrinarians with a new principle: here is truth, kneel +down here! We expose new principles to the world out of the principles +of the world itself. We don't tell it: 'Give up your struggles, they are +rubbish, we will show you the true war-cry.' We explain to it only the +real object for which it struggles, and consciousness is a thing it must +acquire even if it objects to it." + +In Paris Marx met FRIEDRICH ENGELS (1820-1895), from whom the +_Deutsch-französische Jahrbücher_ had two articles--a powerfully written +outline of a criticism of political economy, and a letter on Carlyle's +_Past and Present_. Engels, the son of a wealthy cotton-spinner, was +born in 1820 at Barmen. Although destined by his father for a commercial +career, he attended a classical school, and during his apprenticeship +and whilst undergoing in Berlin his one year's military service, he had +given up part of his free hours to philosophical studies. In Berlin he +had frequented the society of the "Freien," and had written letters to +the _Rheinische Zeitung_. In 1842 he had gone to England, his father's +firm having a factory near Manchester, and had entered into connexion +with the Owenite and Chartist movements, as well as with German +communists. He contributed to Owen's _New Moral World an_d to the +Chartist _Northern Star_, gave up much of his abstract speculative +reasoning for a more positivist conception of things, and took to +economic studies. Now, in September 1844, on a short stay in Paris, he +visited Marx, and the two found that in regard to all theoretical points +there was perfect agreement between them. From that visit dates the +close friendship and uninterrupted collaboration and exchange of ideas +which lasted during their lives, so that even some of Marx's subsequent +works, which he published under his own name, are more or less also the +work of Engels. The first result of their collaboration was the book +_Die heilige Familie oder Kritik der kritischen Kritik, gegen Bruno +Bauer und Konsorten_, a scathing exposition of the perverseness of the +high-sounding speculative radicalism of Bauer and the other Berlin +"Freie." By aid of an analysis, which, though not free from exaggeration +and a certain diffuseness, bears testimony to the great learning of Marx +and the vigorous discerning faculty of both the authors, it is shown +that the supposed superior criticism--the "critical criticism" of the +Bauer school, based upon the doctrine of a "self-conscious" idea, +represented by or incarnated in the critic--was in fact inferior to the +older Hegelian idealism. The socialist and working-class movements in +Great Britain, France and Germany are defended against the superior +criticism of the "holy" Bauer family. + +In Paris, where he had very intimate intercourse with Heinrich Heine, +who always speaks of him with the greatest respect, and some of whose +poems were suggested by Marx, the latter contributed to a Radical +magazine, the _Vorwärts_; but in consequence of a request by the +Prussian government, nearly the whole staff of the magazine soon got +orders to leave France. Marx now went to Brussels, where he shortly +afterwards was joined by Engels. In Brussels he published his second +great work, _La Misère de la philosophie_, a sharp rejoinder to the +_Philosophie de la misère ou contradictions économiques_ of J. P. +Proudhon. In this he deals with Proudhon, whom in the former work he had +defended against the Bauers, not less severely than with the latter. It +is shown that in many points Proudhon is inferior to both the +middle-class economists and the socialists, that his somewhat noisily +proclaimed discoveries in regard to political economy were made long +before by English socialists, and that his main remedies, the +"constitution of the labour-value" and the establishment of exchange +bazaars, were but a repetition of what English socialists had already +worked out much more thoroughly and more consistently. Altogether the +book shows remarkable knowledge of political economy. In justice to +Proudhon, it must be added that it is more often his mode of speaking +than the thought underlying the attacked sentences that is hit by Marx's +criticism. In Brussels Marx and Engels also wrote a number of essays, +wherein they criticized the German literary representatives of that kind +of socialism and philosophic radicalism which was mainly influenced by +the writings of Ludwig Feuerbach, and deduced its theorems or postulates +from speculations on the "nature of man." They mockingly nicknamed this +kind of socialism "German or True Socialism," and ridiculed the idea +that by disregarding historical and class distinctions a conception of +society and socialism superior to that of the English and French workers +and theorists could be obtained. Some of these essays were published at +the time, two or three, curiously enough, by one of the attacked writers +in his own magazine; one, a criticism of Feuerbach himself, was in a +modified form published by Engels in 1885, but others have remained in +manuscript. They were at first intended for publication in two volumes +as a criticism of post-Hegelian German philosophy, but the Revolution of +1848 postponed for a time all interest in theoretical discussions. + +In Brussels Marx and Engels came into still closer contact with the +socialist working-class movement. They founded a German workers' +society, acquired a local German weekly, the _Brüsseller deutsche +Zeitung_, and finally joined a communistic society of German workers, +the "League of the Just," a secret society which had its main branches +in London, Paris, Brussels and several Swiss towns. For this league, +which till then had adhered to the rough-and-ready communism of the +gifted German workman Wilhelm Weitling, but which now called itself +"League of the Communists," and gave up its leanings towards conspiracy +and became an educational and propagandistic body, Marx and Engels at +the end of 1847 wrote their famous pamphlet, _Manifest der Kommunisten_. +It was a concise exposition of the history of the working-class movement +in modern society according to their views, to which was added a +critical survey of the existing socialist and communist literature, and +an explanation of the attitude of the Communists towards the advanced +opposition parties in the different countries. Scarcely was the +manifesto printed when, in February 1848, the Revolution broke out in +France, and "the crowing of the Gallican cock" gave the signal for an +upheaval in Germany such as Marx had prophesied. After a short stay in +France, Marx and Engels went to Cologne in May 1848, and there with some +friends they founded the _Neue rheinische Zeitung_, with the sub-title +"An Organ of Democracy," a political daily paper on a large scale, of +which Marx was the chief editor. They took a frankly revolutionary +attitude, and directed their criticism to a great extent against the +middle-class democratic parties, who, by evading all decisive issues, +delayed the achievement of the upheaval. When in November 1848 the king +of Prussia dissolved the National Assembly, Marx and his friends +advocated the non-payment of taxes and the organization of armed +resistance. Then the state of siege was declared in Cologne, the _Neue +rheinische Zeitung_ was suspended, and Marx was put on trial for high +treason. He was unanimously acquitted by a middle-class jury, but in May +1849 he was expelled from Prussian territory. He went to Paris, but was +soon given the option of either leaving France or settling at a small +provincial place. He preferred the former, and went to England. He +settled in London, and remained there for the rest of his life. + +At first he tried to reorganize the Communist League; but soon a +conflict broke out in its ranks, and after some of its members had been +tried in Germany and condemned for high treason, Marx, who had done +everything to save the accused, dissolved the Communist League +altogether. Nor was a literary enterprise, a review, also called the +_Neue rheinische Zeitung_, more successful; only six numbers of it were +issued. It contained, however, some very remarkable contributions; and a +series of articles on the career of the French Revolution of 1848, which +first appeared there, was in 1895 published by Engels in book form under +the title of _Die Klassenkämpfe in Frankreich von 1848"_ by Karl Marx." +Carlyle's _Latter Day Pamphlets_, published at that time, met with a +very vehement criticism in the _Neue rheinische Zeitung_. The endeavours +of Ernest Jones and others to revive the Chartist movement were heartily +supported by Marx, who contributed to several of the Chartist journals +of the period, mostly, if not wholly, without getting or asking payment. +He lived at this time in great financial straits, occupied a few small +rooms in Dean Street, Soho, and all his children then born died very +young. At length he was invited to write letters for the _New York +Tribune_, whose staff consisted of advanced democrats and socialists of +the Fourierist school. For these letters he was paid at the rate of a +guinea each. Part of them, dealing with the Eastern Question and the +Crimean War, were republished in 1897 (London, Sonnenschein). Some were +even at the time reprinted in pamphlet form. The co-operation of Marx, +who was determinedly anti-Russian, since Russia was the leading +reactionary power in Europe, was obtained by David Urquhart and his +followers. A number of Marx's articles were issued as pamphlets by the +Urquhartite committees, and Marx wrote a series of articles on the +diplomatic history of the 18th century for the Urquhartite _Free Press_ +(Sheffield and London, 1856-1857). When in 1859 the Franco-Austrian War +about Italy broke out, Marx denounced it as a Franco-Russian intrigue, +directed against Germany on the one hand and the revolutionary movement +in France on the other. He opposed those democrats who supported a war +which in their eyes aimed at the independence of the Italian nation and +promised to weaken Austria, whose superiority in Germany was the +hindrance to German unity. Violent derogatory remarks directed against +him by the well-known naturalist Karl Vogt gave occasion to a not less +violent rejoinder, _Herr Vogt_, a book full of interesting material for +the student of modern history. Marx's contention, that Vogt acted as an +agent of the Bonapartist clique, seems to have been well founded, whilst +it must be an open question how far Vogt acted from dishonourable +motives. The discussions raised by the war also resulted in a great +estrangement between Marx and Ferdinand Lassalle. Lassalle had taken a +similar view of the war to that advocated by Vogt, and fought tooth and +nail for it in letters to Marx. In the same year, 1859, Marx published +as a first result of his renewed economic studies the book _Zur Kritik +der politischen Ökonomie_. It was the first part of a much larger work +planned to cover the whole ground of political economy. But Marx found +that the arrangement of his materials did not fully answer his purpose, +and that many details had still to be worked out. He consequently +altered the whole plan and sat down to rewrite the book, of which in +1867 he published the first volume under the title _Das Kapital_. + +In the meantime, in 1864, the International Working Men's Association +was founded in London, and Marx became in fact though not in name, the +head of its general council. All its addresses and proclamations were +penned by him and explained in lectures to the members of the council. +The first years of the International went smoothly enough. Marx was then +at his best. He displayed in the International a political sagacity and +toleration which compare most favourably with the spirit of some of the +publications of the Communist League. He was more of its teacher than an +agitator, and his expositions of such subjects as education, trade +unions, the working day, and co-operation were highly instructive. He +did not hurry on extreme resolutions, but put his proposals in such a +form that they could be adopted by even the more backward sections, and +yet contained no concessions to reactionary tendencies. But this +condition of things was not permitted to go on. The anarchist agitation +of Bakunin, the Franco-German War, and the Paris Commune created a state +of things before which the International succumbed. Passions and +prejudices ran so high that it proved impossible to maintain any sort of +centralized federation. At the congress of the Hague, September 1872, +the general council was removed from London to New York. But this was +only a makeshift, and in July 1876 the rest of the old International was +formally dissolved at a conference held in Philadelphia. That its spirit +had not passed away was shown by subsequent international congresses, +and by the growth and character of socialist labour parties in different +countries. They have mostly founded their programmes on the basis of its +principles, but are not always in their details quite in accordance with +Marx's views. Thus the programme which the German socialist party +accepted at its congress in 1875 was very severely criticized by Marx. +This criticism, reprinted in 1891 in the review _Die neue Zeit_, is of +great importance for the analysis of Marx's conception of socialism. + +The dissolution of the International gave Marx an opportunity of +returning to his scientific work. He did not, however, succeed in +publishing further volumes of _Das Kapital_. In order to make it--and +especially the part dealing with property in land--as complete as +possible, he took up, as Engels tells us, a number of new studies, but +repeated illness interrupted his researches, and on the 14th of March +1883 he passed quietly away. + + From the manuscripts he left Engels compiled a second and a third + volume of _Das Kapital_ by judiciously and elaborately using complete + and incomplete chapters, rough copies and excerpts, which Marx had at + different times written down. Much of the copy used dates back to the + 'sixties, i.e. represents the work as at first conceived by Marx, so + that, e.g., the matter published as the third volume was in the main + written much earlier than the matter which was used for compiling the + second volume. The same applies to the fourth volume. Although the + work thus comprises the four volumes promised in the preface to the + book, it can only in a very restricted sense be regarded as complete. + In substance and demonstration it must be regarded as a torso. And it + is perhaps not quite accidental that it should be so. Marx, if he had + lived longer and had enjoyed better health, would have given the world + a much greater amount of scientific work of high value than is now the + case. But it seems doubtful whether he would have brought _Das + Kapital_, his main work, to a satisfactory conclusion. + + _Das Kapital_ proposes to show up historically and critically the + whole mechanism of capitalist economy. The first volume deals with the + processes of producing capital, the second with the circulation of + capital, the third with the movements of capital as a whole, whilst + the fourth gives the history of the theories concerning capital. + Capital is, according to Marx, the means of appropriating + _surplus-value_ as distinguished from ground rent (rent on every kind + of terrestrial property, such as land, mines, rivers, &c., based upon + the monopolist nature of such property). Surplus-value is created in + the process of production only, it is this part of the value of the + newly created product which is not given to the workman as a + return--the _wage_--of the labour-force he expended in working. If at + first taken by the employer, it is in the different phases of economic + intercourse split up into the profit of industrial enterprise, + commercial or merchants' profit, interest and ground rent. The value + of every commodity consists in the labour expended on it, and is + measured according to the time occupied by the labour employed on its + production. Labour in itself has no value, being only the measure of + value, but the labour-force of the workman has a value, the value of + the means required to maintain the worker in normal conditions of + social existence. Thus, in distinction to other commodities, in the + determination of the value of labour-force, besides the purely + economical, a _moral_ and _historical_ element enter. If to-day the + worker receives a wage which covers the bare necessaries of life, he + is underpaid--he does not receive the real value of his labour-force. + For the value of any commodity is determined by its socially necessary + costs of production (or in this case, maintenance). "Socially + necessary" means, further, that no more labour is embodied in a + commodity than is required by applying labour-force, tools, &c., of + average or normal efficiency, and that the commodity is produced in + such quantity as is required to meet the effective demand for it. As + this generally cannot be known in advance, the market value of a + commodity only gravitates round its (abstract) value. But in the long + run an equalization takes place, and for his further deductions Marx + assumes that commodities exchange according to their value. + + That part of an industrial capital which is employed for + installations, machines, raw and auxiliary materials, is called by + Marx _constant capital_, for the value of it or of its wear and tear + reappears in equal proportions in the value of the new product. It is + otherwise with labour. The new value of the product must by necessity + be always higher than the value of the employed labour-force. Hence + the capital employed in buying labour-force, i.e. in wages, is called + _variable capital_. It is the tendency of capitalist production to + reduce the amount spent in wages and to increase the amount invested + in machines, &c. For with natural and social, legal and other + limitations of the working day, and the opposition to unlimited + reduction of wages, it is not possible otherwise to cheapen production + and beat competition. According to the proportion of constant to + variable capital, Marx distinguishes capitals of _lowest average_ and + _highest composition_, the highest composition being that where + proportionately the least amount of variable (wages) capital is + employed. + + The ratio of the wages which workmen receive to the surplus-value + which they produce Marx calls the _rate of surplus-value_; that of the + surplus-value produced to the whole capital employed is the _rate of + profit_. It is evident, then, that at the same time the rate of + surplus-value can increase and the rate of profit decrease, and this + in fact is the case. There is a continuous tendency of the rates of + profit to decrease, and only by some counteracting forces is their + decrease temporarily interrupted, protracted, or even sometimes + reversed. Besides, by competition and movement of capitals the rates + of profit in the different branches of trade are pressed towards an + _equalization_ in the shape of an _average rate of profits_. This + average rate of profits, added to the actual cost price of a given + commodity, constitutes its _price of production_, and it is this price + of production which appears to the empirical mind of the business man + as the value of the commodity. The real law of value, on the contrary, + disappears from the surface in a society where, as to-day, commodities + are bought and sold against money and not exchanged against other + commodities. Nevertheless, according to Marx, it is also to-day this + law of value ("labour-value") which in the last resort rules the + prices and profits. + + The tendency to cheapen production by increasing the relative + proportion of constant capital--the fixed capital of the classical + economist plus that portion of the circulating capital which consists + of raw and auxiliary materials, &c.--leads to a continuous increase in + the size of private enterprises, to their growing concentration. It is + the larger enterprise that beats and swallows the smaller. The number + of dependent workmen--"proletarians"--is thus continually growing, + whilst employment only periodically keeps pace with their number. + Capital alternately attracts and repels workmen, and creates a + constant surplus-population of workmen--a _reserve-army_ for its + requirements--which helps to lower wages and to keep the whole class + in economic dependency. A decreasing number of capitalists usurp and + monopolize all the benefits of industrial progress, whilst the mass of + misery, of oppression, of servitude, of depravation, and of + exploitation increases. But at the same time the working class + continuously grows in numbers, and is disciplined, united and + organized by the very mechanism of the capitalist mode of production. + The centralization of the means of production and the socialization of + the mode of production reach a point where they will become + incompatible with their capitalist integument. Then the knell of + capitalist private property will have been rung. Those who used to + expropriate will be expropriated. Individual property will again be + established based upon co-operation and common ownership of the earth + and the means of production produced by labour. + + These are the principal outlines of _Das Kapital_. Its purely economic + deductions are dominated throughout by the _theory of surplus-value_. + Its leading sociological principle is the _materialist conception of + history_. This theory is in _Das Kapital_ only laid down by + implication, but it has been more connectedly explained in the preface + of _Zur Kritik_ and several works of Engels. According to it the + material basis of life, the manner in which life and its requirements + are produced, determines in the last instance the social ideas and + institutions of the time or historical epoch, so that fundamental + changes in the former produce in the long run also fundamental changes + in the latter. A set of social institutions answer to a given mode of + production, and periods where the institutions no longer answer to the + mode of production are periods of social revolution, which go on until + sufficient adjustment has taken place. The main _subjective_ forces of + the struggle between the old order and the new are _the classes_ into + which society is divided after the dissolution of the communistic or + semi-communistic tribes and the creation of states. And as long as + society is divided into classes a class war will persist, sometimes in + a more latent or disguised, sometimes in a more open or acute form, + according to circumstances. In advanced capitalist society the classes + between whom the decisive war takes place are the capitalist owners of + the means of production and the non-propertied or wage-earning + workers, the "proletariate." But the proletariate cannot free itself + without freeing all other oppressed classes, and thus its victory + means the end of exploitation and political repression altogether. + Consequently the state as a repressive power will die out, and a free + association will take its place. + + Almost from the first _Das Kapital_ and the publications of Marx and + Engels connected with it have been subjected to all kinds of + criticisms. The originality of its leading ideas has been disputed, + the ideas themselves have been declared to be false or only partially + true, and consequently leading to wrong conclusions; and it has been + said of many of Marx's statements that they are incorrect, and that + many of the statistics upon which he bases his deductions do not + prove what he wants them to prove. In regard to the first point, it + must be conceded that the _disjecta membra_ of Marx's value theory and + of his materialist conception of history are already to be found in + the writings of former socialists and sociologists. It may even be + said that just those points of the Marxist doctrine which have become + popular are in a very small degree the produce of Marx's genius, and + that what really belongs to Marx, the methodical conjunction and + elaboration of these points, as well as the finer deductions drawn + from their application, are generally ignored. But this is an + experience repeated over and over again in the history of deductive + sciences, and is quite irrelevant for the question of Marx's place in + the history of socialism and social science. + + It must further be admitted that in several places the statistical + evidence upon which Marx bases his deductions is insufficient or + inconclusive. Moreover--and this is one of the most damaging + admissions--it repeatedly happens that he points out all the phenomena + connected with a certain question, but afterwards ignores some of them + and proceeds as if they did not exist. Thus, e.g., he speaks at the + end of the first volume, where he sketches the historical tendency of + capitalist accumulation, of the decreasing number of magnates of + capital as of an established fact. But all statistics show that the + number of capitalists does not decrease, but increase; and in other + places in _Das Kapital_ this fact is indeed fully admitted, and even + accentuated. Marx was, as the third volume shows, also quite aware + that limited liability companies play an important part in the + distribution of wealth. But he leaves this factor, too, quite out of + sight, and confuses the concentration of private enterprises with the + centralization of fortunes and capitals. By these and other omissions, + quite apart from developments he could not well foresee, he announces + a coming evolution which is very unlikely to take place in the way + described. + + In this and in other features of his work a _dualism_ reveals itself + which is also often observable in his actions in life--the alternating + predominance of the spirit of the scholar and the spirit of the + radical revolutionary. Marx originally entitled his great social work + _Criticism of Political Economy_, and this is still the sub-title of + _Das Kapital_. But the conception of _critic_ or _criticize_ has with + Marx a very pronounced meaning. He uses them mostly as identical with + fundamentally opposing. Much as he had mocked the "critical criticism" + of the Bauers, he is in this respect yet of their breed and relapses + into their habits. He retained in principle the Hegelian dialectical + method, of which he said that in order to be rationally employed it + must be "turned upside down," i.e. put upon a materialist basis. But + as a matter of fact he has in many respects contravened against this + prescription. Strict materialist dialectics cannot conclude much + beyond actual facts. Dialectical materialism is revolutionary in the + sense that it recognizes no finality, but otherwise it is necessarily + positivist in the general meaning of that term. But Marx's opposition + to modern society was fundamental and revolutionary, answering to that + of the proletarian to the _bourgeois_. And here we come to the main + and fatal contradiction of his work. He wanted to proceed, and to a + very great extent did proceed, scientifically. Nothing was to be + deduced from preconceived ideas; from the observed evolutionary laws + and forces of modern society alone were conclusions to be drawn. And + yet the final conclusion of the work, as already noted, is a + preconceived idea; it is the announcement of a state of society + logically opposed to the given one. Imperceptibly the dialectical + movement of _ideas_ is substituted for the dialectical movement of + facts, and the real movement of facts is only considered so far as is + compatible with the former. Science is violated in the service of + speculation. The picture given at the end of the first volume answers + to a conception arrived at by speculative socialism in the 'forties. + True, Marx calls this chapter "the historical tendency of capitalist + accumulation," and "tendency" does not necessarily mean realization in + every detail. But on the whole the language used there is much too + absolute to allow of the interpretation that Marx only wanted to give + a speculative picture of the goal to which capitalist accumulation + would lead if unhampered by socialist counteraction. The epithet + "historical" indicates rather that the passage in question was meant + to give in the main the true outline of the forthcoming social + revolution. We are led to this conclusion also by the fact that, in + language which is not in the least conditional, it is there said that + the change of capitalist property into social property will mean "only + the expropriation of a few usurpers by the mass of the people." In + short, the principal reason for the undeniable contradictions in _Das + Kapital_ is to be found in the fact that where Marx has to do with + details or subordinate subjects he mostly notices the important + changes which actual evolution had brought about since the time of his + first socialist writings, and thus himself states how far their + presuppositions have been corrected by facts. But when he comes to + general conclusions, he adheres in the main to the original + propositions based upon the old uncorrected presuppositions. Besides, + the complex character of modern society is greatly under-estimated, so + that, e.g., such important features as the influence of the changes of + traffic and aggregation on modern life are scarcely considered at all; + and industrial and political problems are viewed only from the aspect + of class antagonism, and never under their administrative aspect. With + regard to the theory of surplus-value and its foundation, the theory + of labour-value, so much may be safely said that, its premisses + accepted, it is most ingeniously and most consistently worked out. And + since its principal contention is in any case so far true that the + wage-earning workers as a whole produce more than they receive, the + theory has the great merit of demonstrating in an admirably lucid way + the relations between wages and surplus-produce and the growth and + movements of capital. But the theory of labour-value as the + determining factor of the exchange or market value of commodities can + with justification be disputed, and is surely not more true than those + theories of value based on social demand or utility. Marx himself, in + placing in the third volume what he calls the _law of value_ in the + background and setting out the formation of the "price of production" + as the empirical determinator of prices in modern society, justifies + those who look upon the conception of labour-value as an abstract + formula which does not apply to individual exchanges of commodities at + all, but which only serves to show an imagined typical example of what + in reality to-day is only true with regard to the production of the + whole of social wealth. Thus understood, the conception of + labour-value is quite unobjectionable, but it loses much of the + significance attributed to it by most of the disciples of Marx and + occasionally by Marx himself. It is a means of analysing and + exemplifying surplus labour, but quite inconclusive as to the proof of + the surplus value, or as an indication of the degree of the + exploitation of the workers. This becomes the more apparent the more + the reader advances in the second and third volumes of _Das Kapital_, + where commercial capital, money capital and ground rent are dealt + with. Though full of fine observations and deductions, they form, from + a revolutionary standpoint, an anti-climax to the first volume. It is + difficult to see how, after all that is explained there on the + functions of the classes that stand between industrial employers and + workers, Marx could have returned to those sweeping conclusions with + which the first volume ends. + + The great scientific achievement of Marx lies, then, not in these + conclusions, but in the _details_ and yet more in the _method_ and + _principles_ of his investigations in his _philosophy of history_. + Here he has, as is now generally admitted, broken new ground and + opened new ways and new outlooks. Nobody before him had so clearly + shown the rôle of the productive agencies in historical evolution; + nobody so masterfully exhibited their great determining influence on + the forms and ideologies of social organisms. The passages and + chapters dealing with this subject form, notwithstanding occasional + exaggerations, the crowning parts of his works. If he has been justly + compared with Darwin, it is in these respects that he ranks with that + great genius, not through his value theory, ingenious though it be. + With the great theorist of biological transformation he had also in + common the indefatigable way in which he made painstaking studies of + the minutest details connected with his researches. In the same year + as Darwin's epoch-making work on the origin of species there appeared + also Marx's work _Zur Kritik der politischen Ökonomie_, where he + explains in concise sentences in the preface that philosophy of + history which has for the theory of the transformation or evolution of + social organisms the same significance that the argument of Darwin had + for the theory of the transformation of biological organisms. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The main writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels are + as follow (we give only the titles of the original works and of their + English translations): (1) Of Karl Marx alone: _La Misère de la + philosophie, réponse à la philosophie de la misère de M. Proudhon_ + (Paris, 1847; new ed., 1892; English ed., _The Poverty of Philosophy_, + London, 1900); _Lohnarbeit und Kapital_, pamphlet, written 1848 (new + ed., Berlin, 1891); English ed., _Wage, Labour and Capital_ (London, + 1900); _Die Klassenkämpfe in Frankreich, 1848 to 1850_ (Berlin, 1895); + _Der Achtzehnte Brumaire des Louis Bonaparte_ (New York, 1852; 3rd + ed., Hamburg, 1889; Eng. ed., New York, 1889); _Enthüllungen über den + Kölner Kommunistenprozess_ (Basel, 1852; new ed., Zürich-Berlin, + 1885); "European Revolutions and Counter-Revolutions" (reprints from + the _New York Tribune_, 1851-1852; London, 1897); "The Eastern + Question" (reprints from the _New York Tribune_, 1853-1856; London, + 1898); _Zur Kritik der politischen Ökonomie_ (Berlin, 1859; new ed., + Stuttgart, 1897); _Herr Vogt_ (London, 1860); _Inaugural Address of + the International Working Men's Association_ (London, 1864); _Value, + Price and Profit_ (written 1865, published London, 1898); _Das + Kapital, Kritik der politischen Ökonomie_ (3 vols., Hamburg, 1867, + 1885 and 1895; Eng. ed. of 1st vol., 1886); _The Civil War in France, + 1871_ (London, 1871; new ed., 1894); _L'Alliance de la démocratie + socialiste_ (London, 1873); articles printed or reprinted in + _Rheinische Zeitung_ (1842-1843), _Deutsch-französische Jahrbücher_ + (Paris, 1844), _Das westphälische Dampfboot_ (Bielefeld und Paderborn, + 1845-1848), _Der Gesellschaftsspiegel_ (Elberfeld, 1846), _Deutsche + brüsseler Zeitung_ (Brussels, 1847), _Neue rheinische Zeitung_ (daily, + Cologne, 1848-1849; monthly, Hamburg, 1850), _The People_ (London, + 1852-1858), _The New York Tribune_ (New York, 1853-1860), _The Free + Press_ (Sheffield and London, 1856-1857), _Das Volk_ (London, 1859), + _Der Vorbote_ (Geneva, 1866-1875), _Der Volkstaat_ (Leipzig, + 1869-1876), _Die Neue Zeit_ (Stuttgart, 1883, sqq.); _Sozialistische + Monatshefte_ (Berlin, 1895, sqq.). (2) Of Friedrich Engels alone: _Die + Lage der arbeitenden Klassen in England_ (Leipzig, 1845; new ed., + Stuttgart, 1892; Eng. ed., London, 1892); _Zur Wohnungsfrage_ + (Leipzig, 1873-1874; new ed., Zürich-Berlin, 1887); _Herrn Eugen + Dührings Umwälzung der Wissenschaft_ (Leipzig, 1877; 3rd ed., + Stuttgart, 1894). Three chapters of the first-named are published in + English under the title Socialism, _Utopian and Scientific_ (London, + 1892). _Der Ursprung des Eigenthums, der Familie und des Staates_ + (Zürich and Stuttgart, 1885 and 1892); _Ludwig Feuerbach und der + Ausgang der klassischen deutschen Philosophie_ (Stuttgart, 1886). + Introductions to most of the posthumous works of K. Marx and articles + in the same periodicals as Marx. (3) Of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels + together: _Die heilige Familie oder Kritik der kritischen Kritik_ + (Frankfurt, 1845); _Manifest der kommunistischen Partei_ (London, + 1848; Eng. ed., 1848 and 1888). (4) With regard to Marx generally, his + theory and his school, see J. Stammhammer, _Bibliographie des + Sozialismus und Kommunismus_ (Jena, 1893); and Th. G. Masaryk, _Die + philosophischen und soziologischen Grundlagen des Marxismus_ (Vienna, + 1899). Much biographical and bibliographical information on Marx and + Engels is to be found in Dr Franz Mehring, _Geschichte der deutschen + Sozialdemokratie_ (Stuttgart, 1897-1898), and in the collection, + edited also by Dr Fr. Mehring, _Aus dem literarischen Nachlass von + Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels und Ferdinand Lassalle_ (Stuttgart, 1902). + Of the criticisms of Marx's economics, one of the most comprehensive + is E. von Boehm-Bawerk's _Karl Marx and the Close of his System_ + (London, 1898). Marx's historic theory is, apart from Masaryk, very + exhaustively analysed by R. Stammler in _Wirthschaft und Recht_ + (Leipzig, 1896). (E. Bn.) + + + + +MARY[1] ([Greek: Maria, Mariam]), the mother of Jesus. At the time when +the gospel history begins, she had her home in Galilee, at the village +of Nazareth. Of her parentage nothing is recorded in any extant +historical document of the 1st century, for the genealogy in Luke iii. +(cf. i. 27) is manifestly that of Joseph. In early life she became the +wife of Joseph (q.v.) and the mother of Jesus Christ; that she +afterwards had other children is a natural inference from Matt. i. 25, +which the evangelists, who frequently allude to "the brethren of the +Lord," are at no pains to obviate. The few incidents mentioned in +Scripture regarding her show that she followed our Lord to the very +close of His earthly career with unfailing motherliness, but the +"Magnificat" assigned to her in Luke i. is the only passage which would +distinctly imply on her part a high prophetic appreciation of His divine +mission. It is however doubtful whether Luke really intended to assign +this hymn to Mary or to Elizabeth (cf. especially _Niceta of Remesiana_ +by A. E. Burn, Cambridge, 1905; Harnack's "Das Magnificat der Elizabeth" +in the _Sitzungsberichte_ of the Berlin Academy for 1900, and Burkitt's +"Who spoke the Magnificat?" in the _Journal of Theological Studies_, +Jan. 1906). The original text of Luke probably mentioned no name in +introducing the Magnificat; scribes supplied the ambiguity by inserting, +some Mary, others Elizabeth. It is doubtful which represents the +intention of the writer: there is perhaps more to be said for the view +that he meant to assign the Magnificat to Elizabeth. Mary was present at +the Crucifixion, where she was commended by Jesus to the care of the +apostle John (John xix. 26, 27), Joseph having apparently died before +this time. Mary is mentioned in Acts i. 14 as having been among those +who continued in prayer along with the apostles at Jerusalem during the +interval between the Ascension and Pentecost. There is no allusion in +the New Testament to the time or place of her death. + +The subsequent growth of ecclesiastical tradition and belief regarding +Mary will be traced must conveniently under the separate heads of (1) +her perpetual virginity, (2) her absolute sinlessness, (3) her peculiar +relation to the Godhead, which specially fits her for successful +intercession on behalf of mankind. + +_Her Perpetual Virginity._--This doctrine was, to say the least, of no +importance in the eyes of the evangelists, and so far as extant writings +go there is no evidence of its having been anywhere taught within the +pale of the Catholic Church of the first three centuries. On the +contrary, to Tertullian the fact of Mary's marriage after the birth of +Christ is a useful argument for the reality of the Incarnation against +gnostic notions, and Origen relies upon the references to the Lord's +brethren as disproving the Docetism with which he had to contend. The +[Greek: aeiparthenia] though very ancient, is in reality a doctrine of +non-Catholic origin, and first occurs in a work proscribed by the +earliest papal _Index librorum prohibitorum_ (attributed to Gelasius) as +heretical,--the so-called _Protevangelium Jacobi_, written, it is +generally admitted, within the 2nd century. According to this very early +source, which seems to have formed the basis of the later _Liber de +infantia Mariae et Christi salvatoris_ and _Evangelium de nativitate +Mariae_, the name of Mary's father was Joachim (in the _Liber de +infantia_ a shepherd of the tribe of Judah, living in Jerusalem); he had +long been married to Anna her mother, whose continual childlessness had +become a cause of much humiliation and sorrow to them both. The birth of +a daughter was at last angelically predicted to each parent separately. +From her third to her twelfth year "Mary was in the Temple as if she were +a dove that dwelt there, and she received food from the hand of an +angel." When she became of nubile age a guardian was sought for her by +the priests among the widowers of Israel "lest she should defile the +sanctuary of the Lord"; and Joseph, an elderly man with a family, was +indicated for this charge by a miraculous token. Some time afterwards the +annunciation took place; when the Virgin's pregnancy was discovered, +Joseph and she were brought before the high priest, and, though asserting +their innocence in all sincerity, were acquitted only after they had been +tried with "the water of the ordeal of the Lord" (Num. v. 11). Numerous +details regarding the birth at Bethlehem are then given. The perpetual +physical virginity of Mary, naïvely insisted upon in this apocryphon, is +alluded to only with a half belief and a "some say" by Clement of +Alexandria (_Strom._ vii. 16), but became of much importance to the +leaders of the Church in the 4th century, as for example to Ambrose, who +sees in Ezek. xliv. 1-3 a prophetic indication of so great a mystery.[2] +Those who continued to believe that Mary, after the miraculous birth of +Jesus, had become the mother of other children by Joseph came accordingly +to be spoken of as her enemies--Antidicomarianitae (Epiphanius) or +Antidicomaritae (Augustine)--and the first-mentioned author devotes a +whole chapter (ch. 78) of his great work upon heresies to their +confutation. For holding the same view Bonosus of Sardica was condemned +by the synod of Capua in 391. To Jerome the perpetual virginity not only +of Mary but even of Joseph appeared of so much consequence that while a +young man he wrote (387) the long and vehement tract _Against Helvidius_, +in which he was the first to broach the theory (which has since gained +wide currency) that the brethren of our Lord were children neither of +Mary by her husband nor of Joseph by a former marriage, but of another +Mary, sister to the Virgin and wife of Clopas or Alphaeus. At last the +epithet of [Greek: haei parthenos] was authoritatively applied to the +Virgin by the council of Chalcedon in 451, and the doctrine implied has +ever since been an undisputed point of orthodoxy both in the Eastern and +in the Roman Churches, some even seeking to hold the Anglican Church +committed to it on account of the general declaration (in the _Homilies_) +of concurrence in the decisions of the first four general councils. + +_Her Absolute Sinlessness._--While much of the apocryphal literature of +the early sects in which she is repeatedly spoken of as "undefiled +before God" would seem to encourage some such doctrine as this, many +passages from the acknowledged fathers of the Church could be cited to +show that it was originally quite unknown to Catholicism. Even Augustine +repeatedly asserts that she was born in original sin (_De gen. ad lit._ +x. 18); and the _locus classicus_ regarding her possible immunity from +actual transgression, on which the subsequent doctrine of Lombardus and +his commentators was based, is simply an extremely guarded passage (_De +nat. et grat._ ch. 36), in which, while contradicting the assertion of +Pelagius that many had lived free from sin, he wishes exception to be +made in favour of "the holy Virgin Mary, of whom out of honour to the +Lord I wish no question to be made where sins are treated of--for how do +we know what mode of grace wholly to conquer sin may have been bestowed +upon her who was found meet to conceive and bear Him of whom it is +certain that He had no sin." A writer so late as Anselm (_Cur deus +homo_, ii. 16), declares that "the Virgin herself whence He (Christ) was +assumed was conceived in iniquity, and in sin did her mother conceive +her, and with original sin was she born, because she too sinned in Adam +in whom all sinned," and the same view was expressed by Damiani. For the +growth of the modern Roman doctrine of the immaculate conception from +the time in the 12th century, when the canons of Lyons sought to +institute a festival in honour of her "holy conception," and were +remonstrated with by Bernard, see IMMACULATE CONCEPTION. The epithets +applied to her in the Greek Church are such as [Greek: amolyntos, +panagnos, hagia, panagia]; but in the East generally no clear +distinction is drawn between immunity from actual sin and original +sinlessness. + +_Her Peculiar Relation to the Godhead, which specially fits Her for +Successful Intercession on Behalf of Mankind._--It seems probable that +the epithet [Greek: theotokos] ("Mother of God") was first applied to +Mary by theologians of Alexandria towards the close of the 3rd century; +but it does not occur in any genuine extant writing of that period, +unless we are to assign an early date to the apocryphal _Transitus +Mariae_, in which the word is of frequent occurrence. In the 4th century +it is met with frequently, being used by Eusebius, Athanasius, Didymus +and Gregory of Nazianzus,--the latter declaring that the man who +believes not Mary to have been [Greek: theotokos] has no part in God +(_Orat._ li. p. 738).[3] If its use was first recommended by a desire to +bring into prominence the divinity of the Incarnate Word, there can be +no doubt that latterly the expression came to be valued as directly +honourable to Mary herself and as corresponding to the greatly increased +esteem in which she personally was held throughout the Catholic world, +so that when Nestorius and others began to dispute its propriety, in the +following century, their temerity was resented, not as an attack upon +the established orthodox doctrine of the Nicene creed, but as +threatening a more vulnerable and more tender part of the popular faith. +It is sufficient in illustration of the drift of theological opinion to +refer to the first sermon of Proclus, preached on a certain festival of +the Virgin ([Greek: panêgyris parthenikê]) at Constantinople about the +year 430 or to that of Cyril of Alexandria delivered in the church of +the Virgin Mary at the opening of the council of Ephesus in 431. In the +former the orator speaks of "the holy Virgin and Mother of God" as "the +spotless treasure-house of virginity, the spiritual paradise of the +second Adam; the workshop in which two natures were welded together ... +the one bridge between God and men";[4] in the latter she is saluted as +the "mother and virgin," "through whom ([Greek: di' hês]) the Trinity is +glorified and worshipped, the cross of the Saviour exalted and honoured, +through whom heaven triumphs, the angels are made glad, devils driven +forth, the tempter overcome, and the fallen creature raised up even to +heaven." The response which such language found in the popular heart was +sufficiently shown by the shouts of joy with which the Ephesian mob +heard of the deposition of Nestorius, escorting his judges with torches +and incense to their homes, and celebrating the occasion by a general +illumination. The causes which in the preceding century had led to this +exaltation of the Mother of God in the esteem of the Catholic world are +not far to seek. On the one hand the solution of the Arian controversy, +however correct it may have been theoretically, undoubtedly had the +practical effect of relegating the God-man redeemer for ordinary minds +into a far away region of "remote and awful Godhead," so that the need +for a mediator to deal with the very Mediator could not fail to be felt. +On the other hand, the religious instincts of mankind are very ready to +pay worship, in grosser or more refined forms, to the idea of womanhood; +at all events many of those who became professing Christians at the +political fall of Paganism entered the Church with such instincts +(derived from the nature-religions in which they had been brought up) +very fully developed. Probably it ought to be added that the comparative +colourlessness with which the character of Mary is presented, not only +in the canonical gospels but even in the most copious of the apocrypha, +left greater scope for the untrammelled exercise of devout imagination +than was possible in the case of Christ, in the circumstances of whose +humiliation and in whose recorded utterances there were many things +which the religious consciousness found difficulty in understanding or +in adapting to itself. At all events, from the time of the council of +Ephesus, to exhibit figures of the Virgin and Child became the approved +expression of orthodoxy, and the relationship of motherhood in which +Mary had been formally declared to stand to God[5] was instinctively +felt to give the fullest and freest sanction of the Church to that +invocation of her aid which had previously been resorted to only +hesitatingly and occasionally. Previously to the council of Ephesus, +indeed, the practice had obtained complete recognition, so far as we +know, in those circles only in which one or other of the numerous +redactions of the _Transitus Mariae_ passed current.[6] There we read of +Mary's prayer to Christ: "Do Thou bestow Thine aid upon every man +calling upon, or praying to, or naming the name of Thine handmaid"; to +which His answer is, "Every soul that calls upon Thy name shall not be +ashamed, but shall find mercy and support and confidence both in the +world that now is and in that which is to come in the presence of My +Father in the heavens." But Gregory of Nazianzus also, in his panegyric +upon Justina, mentions with incidental approval that in her hour of +peril she "implored Mary the Virgin to come to the aid of a virgin in +her danger."[7] Of the growth of the Marian cultus, alike in the East +and in the West, after the decision at Ephesus it would be impossible to +trace the history, however slightly, within the limits of the present +article. Justinian in one of his laws bespeaks her advocacy for the +empire, and he inscribes the high altar in the new church of St Sophia +with her name. Narses looks to her for directions on the field of +battle. The emperor Heraclius bears her image on his banner. John of +Damascus speaks of her as the sovereign lady to whom the whole creation +has been made subject by her son. Peter Damian recognizes her as the +most exalted of all creatures, and apostrophizes her as deified and +endowed with all power in heaven and in earth, yet not forgetful of our +race.[8] In a word, popular devotion gradually developed the entire +system of doctrine and practice which Protestant controversialists are +accustomed to call by the name of Mariolatry. With reference to this +much-disputed phrase it is always to be kept in mind that the directly +authoritative documents, alike of the Greek and of the Roman Church, +distinguish formally between _latria_ and _dulia_, and declare that the +"worship" to be paid to the mother of God must never exceed that +superlative degree of _dulia_ which is vaguely described as +_hyperdulia_. But the comparative reserve shown by the council of Trent +in its decrees, and even in its catechism,[9] on this subject has not +been observed by individual theologians, and in view of the fact of the +canonization of some of these (such as Liguori)--a fact guaranteeing the +absence of erroneous teaching from their writings--it does not seem +unfair, to hold the Roman Church responsible for the natural +interpretations and just inferences which may be drawn even from +apparently exaggerated expressions in such works as the well-known +_Glories of Mary_ and others frequently quoted in controversial +literature. There is a good _résumé_ of Catholic developments of the +cultus of Mary in Pusey's _Eirenicon_. + + The following are the principal feasts of the Virgin in the order in + which they occur in the ecclesiastical year. (1) That of the + Presentation (_Praesentatio B. V. M._, [Greek: ta eisodia tês + theotokou]), to commemorate the beginning of her stay in the Temple, + as recorded in the _Protevangelium Jacobi_. It is believed to have + originated in the East in the 8th century, the earliest allusion to it + being made by George of Nicomedia (9th century); Manuel Comnenus made + it universal for the Eastern Empire, and in the modern Greek Church it + is one of the five great festivals in honour of the Deipara. It was + introduced into the Western Church late in the 14th century, and, + after having been withdrawn from the calendar by Pius V., was restored + by Sixtus V., the day observed in both East and West being the 21st of + November. It is not mentioned in the English calendar. (2) The Feast + of the Conception (_Conceptio B. V. M._, _Conceptio immaculata B. V. + M._, [Greek: sullêpsis tês hagias Hannês]), observed by the Roman + Catholic Church on the 8th of December, and by all the Eastern + Churches on the 9th of December, has already been explained; in the + Greek Church it only ranks as one of the middle festivals of Mary. (3) + The Feast of the Purification (_Occursus_, _Obviatio_, _Praesentatio_, + _Festum SS Simeonis et Annae_, _Purificatio_, _Candelaria_, [Greek: + hupapantê], [Greek: hupantê]) is otherwise known as CANDLEMAS. (4) The + Feast of the Annunciation of the Virgin Mary (_Annunciatio_, [Greek: + Euaggelismos]). It may be mentioned that at the council of Toledo in + 656 it was decreed that this festival should be observed on the 18th + of December, in order to keep clear of Lent. (5) The Feast of the + Visitation (_Visitatio B. V. M._) was instituted by Urban VI., + promulgated in 1389 by Boniface IX., and reappointed by the council of + Basel in 1441 in commemoration of the visit paid by Mary to Elizabeth. + It is observed on the 2nd of July, and has been retained in the + English calendar. (6) The Feast of the Assumption (_Dormitio_, + _Pausatio_, _Transitus_, _Depositio_, _Migratio_, _Assumptio_, [Greek: + kaimêsis], [Greek: metastasis], [Greek: analêpsis]) has reference to + the apocryphal story related in several forms in various documents of + the 4th century condemned by Pope Gelasius. Their general purport is + that as the time drew nigh for "the most blessed Virgin" (who is also + spoken of as "Holy Mary," "the queen of all the saints," "the holy + spotless Mother of God") to leave the world, the apostles were + miraculously assembled round her deathbed at Bethlehem on the Lord's + Day, whereupon Christ descended with a multitude of angels and + received her soul. After "the spotless and precious body" had been + laid in the tomb, "suddenly there shone round them (the apostles) a + miraculous light," and it was taken up into heaven. The first Catholic + writer who relates this story is Gregory of Tours (c. 590); Epiphanius + two centuries earlier had declared that nothing was known as to the + circumstances of Mary's death and burial; and one of the documents of + the council of Ephesus implies a belief that she was buried in that + city. The Sleep of the Theotokos is observed in the Greek Church as a + great festival on the 15th of August; the Armenian Church also + commemorates it, but the Ethiopic Church celebrates her death and + burial on two separate days. The earliest allusion to the existence of + such a festival in the Western Church seems to be that found in the + proceedings of the synod of Salzburg in 800; it is also spoken of in + the thirty-sixth canon of the reforming synod of Mainz, held in 813. + It was not at that time universal, being mentioned as doubtful in the + capitularies of Charlemagne. The doctrine of the bodily assumption of + the Virgin into heaven, although extensively believed, and indeed + flowing as a natural theological consequence from that of her + sinlessness, has never been declared to be "de fide" by the Church of + Rome, and is still merely a "pia sententia." (7) The Nativity of Mary + (_Nativitas_, [Greek: genethlion tês theotokou]) observed on the 8th + of September, is first mentioned in one of the homilies of Andrew of + Crete (c. 750), and with the Feasts of the Purification, the + Annunciation and the Assumption, it was appointed to be observed by + the synod of Salzburg in 800, but seems to have been unknown at that + time in the Gallican Church, and even two centuries later it was by no + means general in Italy. In the Roman Catholic Church a large number of + minor festivals in honour of the Virgin are locally celebrated; and + all the Saturdays of the year as well as the entire month of May are + also regarded as sacred to her. + + The chief apocryphal writings concerned with Mary are the following: + (1) The _Portevangelium Jacobi_, with its derivatives the _De + nativitate Mariae_, the _Evangelium Ps.-Matthaei_, the _Historia + Josephi fabri lignarii_ (all edited by Tischendorf, _Evangelia + apocrypha_; cf. Harnack, _Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur_, + p. 20 seq. and _Chronologie_, i. 598 sqq.). (2) _Evangelium Mariae_ + (see _Sitzungsberichte der Berlinischen Akademie der Wissenschaften_ + 1896, pp. 839-847). (3) [Greek: Iôannou tou theologou logos eis tên + koimêsin tês theotokou], which appears in Latin under the title of the + _Transitus Mariae_ (ed. Tischendorf, _Apocalypses apocryphae_ and + _Evangelia apocrypha_, and see Bonnet, _Zeitschr. f. wissensch. + Theol._, 1880, pp. 222-247). (J. S. Bl.; K. L.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The name (Heb. [Hebrew: Miriam]), that of the sister of Moses and + Aaron, is of uncertain etymology; many interpretations have been + suggested, including _Stella maris_ ("star of the sea"), which, + though it has attained considerable currency through Jerome (the + _Onomasticon_), may be at once dismissed. It seems to have been very + common among the Jews in New Testament times: besides the subject of + the present notice there are mentioned (1) "Mary (the wife) of + Clopas," who was perhaps the mother of James "the little" ([Greek: ho + mikros]) and of Joses; (2) Mary Magdalene, i.e. of Magdala; (3) Mary + of Bethany, sister of Martha and Lazarus; (4) Mary, the mother of + Mark; and (5) Mary, an otherwise unknown benefactress of the apostle + Paul (Rom. xvi. 6). + + [2] _De Inst. Virg._, "quæ est hæc porta nisi Maria? ... per quam + Christus intravit in hunc mundum, quando virginali fusus est partu et + genitalia virginitatis claustra non solvit." + + [3] See Gieseler (_KG._, Bd. i. Abth. 1), who points out instances in + which anti-Arianizing zeal went so far as to call David [Greek: + theopatôr] and James [Greek: adelphotheos]. + + [4] Labbé, _Conc._ iii. 51. Considerable extracts are given by + Augusti (_Denkw._ iii.); see also Milman (_Lat. Christ._ i. 185), who + characterizes much of it as a "wild labyrinth of untranslatable + metaphor." + + [5] The term [Greek: theotokas] does not actually occur in the canons + of Ephesus. It is found, however, in the creed of Chalcedon. + + [6] It is true that Irenaeus (_Haer._ v. 19, 1) in the passage in + which he draws his well-known parallel and contrast between the first + and second Eve (cf. Justin, _Dial. c. Tryph._ 100), to the effect + that "as the human race fell into bondage to death by a virgin, so is + it rescued by a virgin," takes occasion to speak of Mary as the + "advocata" of Eve; but it seems certain that this word is a + translation of the Greek [Greek: sunêgoros], and implies hostility + and rebuke rather than advocacy. + + [7] It is probable that the commemorations and invocations of the + Virgin which occur in the present texts of the ancient liturgies of + "St James" and "St Mark" are due to interpolation. In this connexion + ought also to be noted the chapter in Epiphanius (_Haer._, 79) + against the "Collyridians," certain women in Thrace, Scythia and + Arabia, who were in the habit of worshipping the Virgin ([Greek: haei + parthenon]) as a goddess, the offering of a cake ([Greek: kallurida + tina]) being one of the features of their worship. He rebukes them + for offering the worship which was due to the Trinity alone; "let + Mary be held in honour, but by no means worshipped." The cultus was + probably a relic of heathenism; cf. Jer. xliv. 19. + + [8] "Numquid quia ita deificata, ideo nostrae humanitatis oblita es? + Nequaquam, Domina.... Data est tibi omnis potestas in coelo et in + terra. Nil tibi impossibile." _Serm. de nativ. Mariae_, ap. Gieseler, + _KG._, Bd. ii. Abth. 1. + + [9] The points taught in the catechism are--that she is truly the + Mother of God, and the second Eve, by whose means we have received + blessing and life; that she is the Mother of Pity, and very specially + our advocate; that her merits are highly exalted, and that her + dispositions towards us are extremely gracious; that her images are + of the utmost utility. In the _Missal_ her intercessions (though + alluded to in the canon and elsewhere) are seldom directly appealed + to except in the Litany and in some of the later offices, such as + those for the 8th of September and for the Festival of the Seven + Sorrows (decree by Benedict XIII. in 1727). Noteworthy are the + versicles in the office for the 8th of December (The Feast of the + Immaculate Conception), "Tota pulchra es, Maria, et macula originalis + non est in te," and "Gloriosa dicta sunt de te, Maria, quia fecit + tibi magna qui potens est." + + + + +MARY, known as MARY MAGDALENE, a woman mentioned in the Gospels, first +in Luke viii. 2, as one of a company who "healed of evil spirits and +infirmities ... ministered unto them (Jesus and the apostles) of their +substance." It is said that seven demons were cast out of her, but this +need not imply simply one occasion. Her name implies that she came from +Magdala (el-Mejdel, 3 m. N.W. from Tiberias: in Matt. XV. 39 the right +reading is not Magdala by Magadan). She went with Jesus on the last +journey to Jerusalem, witnessed the Crucifixion, followed to the burial, +and returned to prepare spices. John XX. gives an account of her finding +the tomb empty and of her interview with the risen Jesus. Mary of +Magdala has been confounded (1) with the unnamed fallen woman who in +Simon's house anointed Christ's feet (Luke vii. 37); (2) with Mary of +Bethany, sister of Lazarus and Martha. + + + + +MARY I., queen of England (1516-1558), unpleasantly remembered as "the +Bloody Mary" on account of the religious persecutions which prevailed +during her reign, was the daughter of Henry VIII. and Catherine of +Aragon, born in the earlier years of their married life, when as yet no +cloud had darkened the prospect of Henry's reign. Her birth occurred at +Greenwich, on Monday, the 18th February 1516, and she was baptized on +the following Wednesday, Cardinal Wolsey standing as her godfather. She +seems to have been a singularly precocious child, and is reported in +July 1520, when scarcely four and a half years old, as entertaining some +visitors by a performance on the virginals. When she was little over +nine she was addressed in a complimentary Latin oration by commissioners +sent over from Flanders on commercial matters, and replied to them in +the same language "with as much assurance and facility as if she had +been twelve years old" (Gayangos, iii. pt. 1, 82). Her father was proud +of her achievements. About the same time that she replied to the +commissioners in Latin he was arranging that she should learn Spanish, +Italian and French. A great part, however, of the credit of her early +education was undoubtedly due to her mother, who not only consulted the +Spanish scholar Vives upon the subject, but was herself Mary's first +teacher in Latin. She was also well instructed in music, and among her +principal recreations as she grew up was that of playing on the +virginals and lute. + +It was a misfortune that she shared with high-born ladies generally in +those days that her prospects in life were made a matter of sordid +bargaining from the first. Mary was little more than two years old when +she was proposed in marriage to the dauphin, son of Francis I. Three +years afterwards the French alliance was broken off, and in 1522 she was +affianced to her cousin the young emperor Charles V. by the Treaty of +Windsor. No one, perhaps, seriously expected either of these +arrangements to endure; and, though we read in grave state papers of +some curious compliments and love tokens (really the mere counters of +diplomacy) professedly sent by the girl of nine to her powerful cousin, +not many years passed away before Charles released himself from this +engagement and made a more convenient match. In 1526 a rearrangement was +made of the royal household, and it was thought right to give Mary an +establishment of her own along with a council on the borders of Wales, +for the better government of the Marches. For some years she accordingly +kept her court at Ludlow, while new arrangements were made for the +disposal of her hand. She was now proposed as a wife, not for the +dauphin as before, but for his father Francis I., who had just been +redeemed from captivity at Madrid, and who was only too glad of an +alliance with England to mitigate the severe conditions imposed on him +by the emperor. Wolsey, however, on this occasion, only made use of the +princess as a bait to enhance the terms of the compact, and left Francis +free in the end to marry the emperor's sister. + +It was during this negotiation, as Henry afterwards pretended, that the +question was first raised whether Henry's own marriage with Catherine +was a lawful one. Grammont, bishop of Tarbes, who was one of the +ambassadors sent over by Francis to ask the princess in marriage, had, +it was said, started an objection that she might possibly be considered +illegitimate on account of her mother having been once the wife of her +father's brother. The statement was a mere pretence to shield the king +when the unpopularity of the divorce became apparent. It is proved to be +untrue by the strongest evidence, for we have pretty full contemporary +records of the whole negotiation. On the contrary, it is quite clear +that Henry, who had already for some time conceived the project of a +divorce, kept the matter a dead secret, and was particularly anxious +that the French ambassadors should not know it, while he used his +daughter's hand as a bait for a new alliance. The alliance itself, +however, was actually concluded by a treaty dated Westminster, the 30th +of April 1527, in which it was provided, as regards the Princess Mary, +that she should be married either to Francis himself or to his second +son Henry duke of Orleans. But the real object was only to lay the +foundation of a perfect mutual understanding between the two kings, +which Wolsey soon after went into France to confirm. + +During the next nine years the life of Mary, as well as that of her +mother, was rendered miserable by the conduct of Henry VIII. in seeking +a divorce. During most of that period mother and daughter seem to have +been kept apart. Possibly Queen Catherine had the harder trial; but +Mary's was scarcely less severe. Removed from court and treated as a +bastard, she was, on the birth of Anne Boleyn's daughter, required to +give up the dignity of princess and acknowledge the illegitimacy of her +own birth. On her refusal her household was broken up, and she was sent +to Hatfield to act as lady-in-waiting to her own infant half-sister. Nor +was even this the worst of her trials; her very life was in danger from +the hatred of Anne Boleyn. Her health, moreover, was indifferent, and +even when she was seriously ill, although Henry sent his own physician, +Dr Buttes, to attend her, he declined to let her mother visit her. So +also at her mother's death, in January 1536, she was forbidden to take a +last farewell of her. But in May following another change occurred. Anne +Boleyn, the real cause of all her miseries, fell under the king's +displeasure and was put to death. Mary was then urged to make a humble +submission to her father as the means of recovering his favour, and +after a good deal of correspondence with the king's secretary, Cromwell, +she actually did so. The terms exacted of her were bitter in the +extreme, but there was no chance of making life tolerable otherwise, if +indeed she was permitted to live at all; and the poor friendless girl, +absolutely at the mercy of a father who could brook no contradiction, at +length subscribed an act of submission, acknowledging the king as +"Supreme Head of the Church of England under Christ," repudiating the +pope's authority, and confessing that the marriage between her father +and mother "was by God's law and man's law incestuous and unlawful." + +No act, perhaps, in the whole of Henry's reign gives us a more painful +idea of his revolting despotism. Mary was a high-spirited girl, and +undoubtedly popular. All Europe looked upon her at that time as the only +legitimate child of her father, but her father himself compelled her to +disown the title and pass an unjust stigma on her own birth and her +mother's good name. Nevertheless Henry was now reconciled to her, and +gave her a household in some degree suitable to her rank. During the +rest of the reign we hear little about her except in connexion with a +number of new marriage projects taken up and abandoned successively, one +of which, to the count palatine Philip, duke of Bavaria, was specially +repugnant to her in the matter of religion. Her privy purse expenses for +nearly the whole of this period have been published, and show that +Hatfield, Beaulieu or Newhall in Essex, Richmond and Hunsdon were among +her principal places of residence. Although she was still treated as of +illegitimate birth, it was believed that the king, having obtained from +parliament the extraordinary power to dispose of the crown by will, +would restore her to her place in the succession, and three years before +his death she was so restored by statute, but still under conditions to +be regulated by her father's will. + +Under the reign of her brother, Edward VI. she was again subjected to +severe trials, which at one time made her seriously meditate taking +flight and escaping abroad. Edward himself indeed seems to have been +personally not unkind to her, but the religious revolution in his reign +assumed proportions such as it had not done before, and Mary, who had +done sufficient violence to her own convictions in submitting to a +despotic father, was not disposed to yield an equally tame obedience to +authority exercised by a factious council in the name of a younger +brother not yet come to years of discretion. Besides, the cause of the +pope was naturally her own. In spite of the forced declaration formerly +wrung from herself, no one really regarded her as a bastard, and the +full recognition of her rights depended on the recognition of the pope +as head of the Church. Hence, when Edward's parliament passed an Act of +Uniformity enjoining services in English and communion in both kinds, +the law appeared to her totally void of authority, and she insisted on +having Mass in her own private chapel under the old form. When ordered +to desist, she appealed for protection to the emperor Charles V., who, +being her cousin, intervened for some time not ineffectually, +threatening war with England if her religious liberty was interfered +with. But Edward's court was composed of factions of which the most +violent eventually carried the day. Lord Seymour, the admiral, was +attainted of treason and beheaded in 1549. His brother, the Protector +Somerset, met with the same fate in 1552. Dudley, duke of +Northumberland, then became paramount in the privy council, and easily +obtained the sanction of the young king to those schemes for altering +the succession which led immediately after his death to the usurpation +of Lady Jane Grey. Dudley had, in fact, overawed all the rest of the +privy council, and when the event occurred he took such energetic +measures to give effect to the scheme that Lady Jane was actually +recognized as queen for some days, and Mary had even to fly from Hunsdon +into Norfolk. But the country was really devoted to her cause, as indeed +her right in law was unquestionable, and before many days she was +royally received in London, and took up her abode within the Tower. + +Her first acts at the beginning of her reign displayed a character very +different from that which she still holds in popular estimation. Her +clemency towards those who had taken up arms against her was altogether +remarkable. She released from prison Lady Jane's father, Suffolk, and +had difficulty even in signing the warrant for the execution of +Northumberland. Lady Jane herself she fully meant to spare, and did +spare till after Wyatt's formidable insurrection. Her conduct, indeed, +was in every respect conciliatory and pacific, and so far as they +depended on her personal character the prospects of the new reign might +have appeared altogether favourable. But unfortunately her position was +one of peculiar difficulty, and the policy on which she determined was +far from judicious. Inexperienced in the art of governing, she had no +trusty councillor but Gardiner; every other member of the council had +been more or less implicated in the conspiracy against her. And though +she valued Gardiner's advice she was naturally led to rely even more on +that of her cousin, the emperor, who had been her mother's friend in +adversity, and had done such material service to herself in the +preceding reign. Following the emperor's guidance she determined almost +from the first to make his son Philip her husband, though she was eleven +years his senior. She was also strongly desirous of restoring the old +religion and wiping out the stigma of illegitimacy upon her birth, so +that she might not seem to reign by virtue of a mere parliamentary +settlement. + +Each of these different objects was attended by difficulties or +objections peculiar to itself; but the marriage was the most unpopular +of all. A restoration of the old religion threatened to deprive the new +owners of abbey lands of their easy and comfortable acquisitions; and it +was only with an express reservation of their interests that the thing +was actually accomplished. A declaration of her own legitimacy +necessarily cast a slur on that of her sister Elizabeth, and cut her off +from the succession. But the marriage promised to throw England into the +arms of Spain and place the resources of the kingdom at the command of +the emperor's son. The Commons sent her a deputation to entreat that she +would not marry a foreigner, and when her resolution was known +insurrections broke out in different parts of the country. Suffolk, +whose first rebellion had been pardoned, proclaimed Lady Jane Grey again +in Leicestershire, while young Wyatt raised the county of Kent and, +though denied access by London Bridge, led his men round by Kingston to +the very gates of London before he was repulsed. In the midst of the +danger Mary showed great intrepidity, and the rebellion was presently +quelled; after which, unhappily, she got leave to pursue her own course +unchecked. She married Philip, restored the old religion, and got +Cardinal Pole to come over and absolve the kingdom from its past +disobedience to the Holy See. + +It was a more than questionable policy thus to ally England with +Spain--a power then actually at war with France. By the treaty, indeed, +England was to remain neutral; but the force of events, in the end, +compelled her, as might have been expected, to take part in the quarrel. +Meanwhile the country was full of faction, and seditious pamphlets of +Protestant origin inflamed the people with hatred against the Spaniards. +Philip's Spanish followers met with positive ill-usage everywhere, and +violent outbreaks occurred. A year after his marriage Philip went over +to Brussels to receive from his father the government of the Low +Countries and afterwards the kingdom of Spain. Much to Mary's distress, +his absence was prolonged for a year and a half, and when he returned in +March 1557 it was only to commit England completely to the war; after +which he went back to Brussels in July, to return no more to England. + +Hostilities with France were inevitable, because France had encouraged +disaffection among Mary's subjects, even during the brief truce of +Vaucelles. Conspiracies had been hatched by English refugees in Paris, +and an attempt to seize Scarborough had been made with the aid of +vessels from the Seine. But perhaps the strangest thing about the +situation was that the pope took part with France against Spain; and so +the very marriage which Mary had contracted to bring England back to the +Holy See made her the wife of the pope's enemy. It was, moreover, this +war with France that occasioned the final calamity of the loss of +Calais, which sank so deeply into Mary's heart some time before she +died. + +The cruel persecution of the Protestants, which has cast so much infamy +upon her reign, was not due, as commonly supposed, to inhumanity on her +part. When the kingdom was reconciled to Rome and absolved by Cardinal +Pole, it followed, almost as a matter of necessity, that the old heresy +laws should be revived, as they were then by Act of Parliament. They had +been abolished by the Protector Somerset for the express purpose of +promoting changes of doctrine which did violence to what was still the +prevailing religious sentiment; and now the old religion required to be +protected from insult and fanatical outrages. Doubts were felt as to the +result even from the first; but the law having been once passed could +not be relaxed merely because the victims were so numerous; for that +would only have encouraged the irreverence which it was intended to +check. No doubt there were milder men among the heretics, but as a class +their stern fanaticism and ill-will to the old religion made them +dangerous, even to the public peace. Rogers, the first of the martyrs, +was burnt on the 4th of February 1555. Hooper, bishop of Gloucester, had +been condemned six days before, and suffered the same fate upon the 9th. +From this time the persecution went on uninterrupted for three years and +three quarters, numbering among its victims Ridley, Latimer and Cranmer. +It came to an end at last on the death of Mary. It seems to have been +more severe in the eastern and southern parts of England, and the +largest number of sufferers was naturally in the diocese of Bonner, +bishop of London. From first to last nearly three hundred victims are +known to have perished at the stake; and their fate certainly created a +revulsion against Rome that nothing else was likely to have effected. + +Mary was of weak constitution and subject to frequent illnesses, both +before and after her accession. One special infirmity caused her to +believe a few months after her marriage that she was with child, and +thanksgiving services were ordered throughout the diocese of London in +November 1554. The same delusion recurred in March 1558, when though she +did not make her expectation public, she drew up a will in anticipation +of the dangers of childbirth, constituting her husband regent during the +minority of her prospective heir. To this she added a codicil on the +28th of October following, when the illness that was to be her last had +set in, showing that she had ceased to have much expectation of +maternity, and earnestly entreating her "next heir and successor by the +laws" (whom she did not name) to allow execution of the instrument. She +died on the 17th of November. + +Her name deserved better treatment than it has generally met with; for +she was far from cruel. Her kindness to poor people is undoubted, and +the severe execution of her laws seemed only a necessity. Even in this +matter, moreover, she was alive to the injustice with which the law was +usually strained in behalf of the prerogative; and in appointing Sir +Richard Morgan chief justice of the Common Pleas she charged him "not to +sit in judgment otherwise for her highness than for her subjects," and +to avoid the old error of refusing to admit witnesses against the Crown +(Holinshed III. 1112). Her conduct as queen was certainly governed by +the best possible intentions; and it is evident that her very zeal for +goodness caused most of the trouble she brought upon herself. Her +subjects were entirely released, even by papal authority, from any +obligation to restore the confiscated lands of the Church. But she +herself made it an object, at her own expense, to restore several of the +monasteries; and courtiers who did not like to follow her example, +encouraged the fanatics to spread an alarm that it would even yet be +made compulsory. So the worldly minded joined hands with the godly +heretics in stirring up enmity against her. (J. Ga.) + + + + +MARY II. (1662-1694), queen of England and wife of king William III., +elder daughter of James, duke of York, afterwards King James II., by his +first wife, Anne, daughter of Edward Hyde, 1st earl of Clarendon, was +born in London on the 30th of April 1662. She was educated as a +Protestant, and as it was probable that she would succeed to the English +throne after the deaths of her uncle, Charles II., and her father, the +choice of a husband for her was a political event of high importance. +About 1672 the name of William, prince of Orange, was mentioned in this +connexion; and after some hesitation on both sides caused by the +condition of European politics, the betrothal of William and Mary took +place in October 1677, and was quickly followed by their marriage in +London on the 4th of November. Mary's married life in Holland does not +appear to have been a happy one. Although she soon became popular among +the Dutch, she remained childless, while William treated her with +neglect and even with insult; and her troubles were not diminished after +her father became king of England in 1685. James had treated his +daughter very shabbily in money matters; and it was increasingly +difficult for her to remain loyal to both father and husband when they +were so divergent in character and policy. Although Mary never entirely +lost her affection for her father the wife prevailed over the daughter; +and after the birth of her half-brother, the prince of Wales, in 1688, +she regarded the dethronement of James as inevitable. It cannot be said, +however, that William merited this confidence. Possibly he was jealous +of his wife as the heiress of the English throne, contrasting her future +position with his own; but according to Burnet, who was then staying at +the Hague, this cause of difference was removed by the tactful +interference of Burnet himself. The latter asserts that having divined +the reason of the prince's jealousy he mentioned the matter to the +princess, who in her ignorance of statecraft had never considered the +relative positions of herself and her husband with regard to the English +throne; and that Mary, by telling the prince "she would be no more but +his wife, and that she would do all that lay in her power to make him +king for life" (Burnet, _Supplement_, ed. Foxcroft, p. 309), probably +mollified her husband's jealousy. On the other hand Macaulay's statement +that henceforward there was "entire friendship and confidence" between +them must be taken with some reserve. Mary shared heartily in the events +which immediately preceded William's expedition to England in 1688. +After the success of the undertaking she arrived in London in February +1689; and by her faithful adherence to her promise made a satisfactory +settlement of the English crown possible. William and Mary were together +proclaimed king and queen of England, and afterwards of Scotland, and +were crowned on the 11th of April 1689. During the king's absence from +England the queen, assisted by a committee of the privy council, was +entrusted with the duties of government, duties which she performed +faithfully, but which she gladly laid down on William's return. In these +times of danger, however, she acted when necessary with courage and +promptitude, as when in 1690 she directed the arrest of her uncle Henry +Hyde, 2nd earl of Clarendon; but she was constantly anxious for +William's safety, and unable to trust many of her advisers. She was +further distressed by a quarrel with her sister Anne in 1692 following +the dismissal of Marlborough, and this event somewhat diminished her +popularity, which had hitherto been one of the mainstays of the throne. +Weak in body and troubled in mind, the queen died at Kensington Palace +from small-pox on the 28th of December 1694, and was buried in +Westminster Abbey. Mary was a woman of a remarkably modest and retiring +disposition, whose outstanding virtue was perhaps her unswerving loyalty +to William. Burnet has passed a remarkable panegyric upon her character. +She was extremely pious and charitable; her blameless private life was +in marked contrast with her surroundings, both in England and Holland; +without bigotry she was greatly attached to the Protestant faith and to +the Church of England; and she was always eager to improve the tone of +public morals, and to secure a better observance of Sunday. Greenwich +Hospital for Seamen was founded in her honour. + + For the political events of Mary's life see WILLIAM III. For her + private life see Sir John Dalrymple, _Memoirs of Great Britain and + Ireland_ (London, 1790); Countess Bentinck, _Lettres et mémoires de + Marie, reine d'Angleterre_ (The Hague, 1880); _Memoires and Letters of + Mary Queen of England_ (ed. by R. Doebner, Leipzig, 1886); F. J. L. + Krämer, Maria II. Stuart (Utrecht, 1890); Agnes Strickland, _Lives of + the Queens of England_, vols. x. and xi. (London, 1847); G. Burnet, + _History of my own Time_ (Oxford, 1833); and O. Klopp, _Der Fall des + Hauses Stuart_ (Vienna, 1875-1888). + + + + +MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS[1] (1542-1587), daughter of King James V. and his +wife Mary of Lorraine, was born in December 1542, a few days before the +death of her father, heart-broken by the disgrace of his arms at Solway +Moss, where the disaffected nobles had declined to encounter an enemy of +inferior force in the cause of a king whose systematic policy had been +directed against the privileges of their order, and whose representative +on the occasion was an unpopular favourite appointed general in defiance +of their ill-will. On the 9th of September following the ceremony of +coronation was duly performed upon the infant. A scheme for her +betrothal to Edward, prince of Wales, was defeated by the grasping greed +of his father, whose obvious ambition to annex the crown of Scotland at +once to that of England aroused instantly the general suspicion and +indignation of Scottish patriotism. In 1548 the queen of six years old +was betrothed to the dauphin Francis, and set sail for France, where she +arrived on the 15th of August. The society in which the child was +thenceforward reared is known to readers of Brantôme as well as that of +imperial Rome at its worst is known to readers of Suetonius or Petronius +as well as that of papal Rome at its worst is known to readers of the +diary kept by the domestic chaplain of Pope Alexander VI. Only in their +pages can a parallel be found to the gay and easy record which reveals +without sign of shame or suspicion of offence the daily life of a court +compared to which the court of King Charles II. is as the court of Queen +Victoria to the society described by Grammont. Debauchery of all kinds, +and murder in all forms, were the daily matter of excitement or of jest +to the brilliant circle which revolved around Queen Catherine de' +Medici. After ten years' training under the tutelage of the woman whose +main instrument of policy was the corruption of her own children, the +queen of Scots, aged fifteen years and five months, was married to the +eldest and feeblest of the brood on the 24th of April 1558. On the 17th +of November Elizabeth became queen of England, and the princes of +Lorraine--Francis the great duke of Guise, and his brother the +cardinal--induced their niece and her husband to assume, in addition to +the arms of France and Scotland, the arms of a country over which they +asserted the right of Mary Stuart to reign as legitimate heiress of Mary +Tudor. Civil strife broke out in Scotland between John Knox and the +queen-dowager--between the self-styled "congregation of the Lord" and +the adherents of the regent, whose French troops repelled the combined +forces of the Scotch and their English allies from the beleaguered walls +of Leith, little more than a month before the death of their mistress in +the castle of Edinburgh, on the 10th of June 1560. On the 25th of August +Protestantism was proclaimed and Catholicism suppressed in Scotland by a +convention of states assembled without the assent of the absent queen. +On the 5th of December Francis II. died; in August 1561 his widow left +France for Scotland, having been refused a safe-conduct by Elizabeth on +the ground of her own previous refusal to ratify the treaty made with +England by her commissioners in the same month of the preceding year. +She arrived nevertheless in safety at Leith, escorted by three of her +uncles of the house of Lorraine, and bringing in her train her future +biographer, Brantôme, and Chastelard, the first of all her voluntary +victims. On the 21st of August she first met the only man able to +withstand her; and their first passage of arms left, as he has recorded, +upon the mind of John Knox an ineffaceable impression of her "proud +mind, crafty wit and indurate heart against God and His truth." And yet +her acts of concession and conciliation were such as no fanatic on the +opposite side could have approved. She assented, not only to the +undisturbed maintenance of the new creed, but even to a scheme for the +endowment of the Protestant ministry out of the confiscated lands of the +Church. Her half-brother, Lord James Stuart, shared the duties of her +chief counsellor with William Maitland of Lethington, the keenest and +most liberal thinker in the country. By the influence of Lord James, in +spite of the earnest opposition of Knox, permission was obtained for her +to hear Mass celebrated in her private chapel--a licence to which, said +the Reformer, he would have preferred the invasion of ten thousand +Frenchmen. Through all the first troubles of her reign the young queen +steered her skilful and dauntless way with the tact of a woman and the +courage of a man. An insurrection in the north, headed by the earl of +Huntly under pretext of rescuing from justice the life which his son had +forfeited by his share in a homicidal brawl, was crushed at a blow by +the Lord James against whose life, as well as against his sister's +liberty, the conspiracy of the Gordons had been aimed, and on whom, +after the father had fallen in fight and the son had expiated his double +offence on the scaffold, the leading rebel's earldom of Murray was +conferred by the gratitude of the queen. Exactly four months after the +battle of Corrichie, and the subsequent execution of a criminal whom she +is said to have "loved entirely," had put an end to the first +insurrection raised against her, Pierre de Boscosel de Chastelard, who +had returned to France with the other companions of her arrival, and in +November 1562 had revisited Scotland, expiated with his head the offence +or the misfortune of a second detection at night in her bedchamber. In +the same month, twenty-five years afterwards, the execution of his +mistress, according to the verdict of her contemporaries in France, +avenged the blood of a lover who had died without uttering a word to +realize the apprehension which (according to Knox) had before his trial +impelled her to desire her brother "that, as he loved her, he would slay +Chastelard, and let him never speak word." And in the same month, two +years from the date of Chastelard's execution, her first step was +unconsciously taken on the road to Fotheringhay, when she gave her heart +at first sight to her kinsman Henry, Lord Darnley, son of Matthew +Stuart, earl of Lennox, who had suffered an exile of twenty years in +expiation of his intrigues with England, and had married the niece of +King Henry VIII., daughter of his sister Margaret, the widow of James +IV., by her second husband, the earl of Angus. Queen Elizabeth, with the +almost incredible want of tact or instinctive delicacy which +distinguished and disfigured her vigorous intelligence, had recently +proposed as a suitor to the queen of Scots her own low-born favourite, +Lord Robert Dudley, the widower if not the murderer of Amy Robsart; and +she now protested against the project of marriage between Mary and +Darnley. Mary who had already married her kinsman in secret at Stirling +Castle with Catholic rites celebrated in the apartment of David Rizzio, +her secretary for correspondence with France, assured the English +ambassador, in reply to the protest of his mistress, that the marriage +would not take place for three months, when a dispensation from the pope +would allow the cousins to be publicly united without offence to the +Church. On the 29th of July 1565 they were accordingly remarried at +Holyrood. The hapless and worthless bridegroom had already incurred the +hatred of two powerful enemies, the earls of Morton and Glencairn; but +the former of these took part with the queen against the forces raised +by Murray, Glencairn and others, under the nominal leadership of +Hamilton, duke of Châtelherault, on the double plea of danger to the new +religion of the country, and of the illegal proceeding by which Darnley +had been proclaimed king of Scots without the needful constitutional +assent of the estates of the realm. Murray was cited to attend the +"raid" or array levied by the king and queen, and was duly denounced by +public blast of trumpet for his non-appearance. He entered Edinburgh +with his forces, but failed to hold the town against the guns of the +castle, and fell back upon Dumfries before the advance of the royal +army, which was now joined by James Hepburn, earl of Bothwell, on his +return from a three years' outlawed exile in France. He had been +accused in 1562 of a plot to seize the queen and put her into the +keeping of the earl of Arran, whose pretensions to her hand ended only +when his insanity could no longer be concealed. Another new adherent was +the son of the late earl of Huntly, to whom the forfeited honours of his +house were restored a few months before the marriage of his sister to +Bothwell. The queen now appealed to France for aid; but Castelnau, the +French ambassador, replied to her passionate pleading by sober and +earnest advice to make peace with the malcontents. This counsel was +rejected, and in October 1565 the queen marched an army of 18,000 men +against them from Edinburgh; their forces dispersed in face of superior +numbers, and Murray, on seeking shelter in England, was received with +contumely by Elizabeth, whose half-hearted help had failed to support +his enterprise, and whose intercession for his return found at first no +favour with the queen of Scots. But the conduct of the besotted boy on +whom at their marriage she had bestowed the title of king began at once +to justify the enterprise and to play into the hands of all his enemies +alike. His father set him on to demand the crown matrimonial, which +would at least have assured to him the rank and station of independent +royalty for life. Rizzio, hitherto his friend and advocate, induced the +queen to reply by a reasonable refusal to this hazardous and audacious +request. Darnley at once threw himself into the arms of the party +opposed to the policy of the queen and her secretary--a policy which at +that moment was doubly and trebly calculated to exasperate the fears of +the religious and the pride of the patriotic. Mary was invited if not +induced by the king of Spain to join his league for the suppression of +Protestantism; while the actual or prospective endowment of Rizzio with +Morton's office of chancellor, and the projected attainder of Murray and +his allies, combined to inflame at once the anger and the apprehension +of the Protestant nobles. According to one account, Darnley privately +assured his uncle George Douglas of his wife's infidelity; he had +himself, if he might be believed, discovered the secretary in the +queen's apartment at midnight, under circumstances yet more +unequivocally compromising than those which had brought Chastelard to +the scaffold. Another version of the pitiful history represents Douglas +as infusing suspicion of Rizzio into the empty mind of his nephew, and +thus winning his consent to a deed already designed by others. A bond +was drawn in which Darnley pledged himself to support the confederates +who undertook to punish "certain privy persons" offensive to the state, +"especially a strange Italian, called Davie"; another was subscribed by +Darnley and the banished lords, then biding their time in Newcastle, +which engaged him to procure their pardon and restoration, while +pledging them to insure to him the enjoyment of the title he coveted, +with the consequent security of an undisputed succession to the crown, +despite the counter claims of the house of Hamilton, in case his wife +should die without issue--a result which, intentionally or not, he and +his fellow-conspirators did all that brutality could have suggested to +accelerate and secure. On the 9th of March the palace of Holyrood was +invested by a troop under the command of Morton, while Rizzio was +dragged by force out of the queen's presence and slain without trial in +the heat of the moment. The parliament was discharged by proclamation +issued in the name of Darnley as king; and in the evening of the next +day the banished lords, whom it was to have condemned to outlawry, +returned to Edinburgh. On the day following they were graciously +received by the queen, who undertook to sign a bond for their security, +but delayed the subscription till next morning under plea of sickness. +During the night she escaped with Darnley, whom she had already seduced +from the party of his accomplices, and arrived at Dunbar on the third +morning after the slaughter of her favourite. From thence they returned +to Edinburgh on the 28th of March, guarded by two thousand horsemen +under the command of Bothwell, who had escaped from Holyrood on the +night of the murder, to raise a force on the queen's behalf with his +usual soldierly promptitude. The slayers of Rizzio fled to England, and +were outlawed; Darnley was permitted to protest his innocence and +denounce his accomplices; after which he became the scorn of all +parties alike, and few men dared or cared to be seen in his company. On +the 19th of June a son was born to his wife, and in the face of his +previous protestations he was induced to acknowledge himself the father. +But, as Murray and his partisans returned to favour and influence no +longer incompatible with that of Bothwell and Huntly, he grew desperate +enough with terror to dream of escape to France. This design was at once +frustrated by the queen's resolution. She summoned him to declare his +reasons for it in presence of the French ambassador and an assembly of +the nobles; she besought him for God's sake to speak out, and not spare +her; and at last he left her presence with an avowal that he had nothing +to allege. The favour shown to Bothwell had not yet given occasion for +scandal, though his character as an adventurous libertine was as notable +as his reputation for military hardihood; but as the summer advanced his +insolence increased with his influence at court and the general aversion +of his rivals. He was richly endowed by Mary from the greater and lesser +spoils of the Church; and the three wardenships of the border, united +for the first time in his person, gave the lord high admiral of Scotland +a position of unequalled power. In the gallant discharge of its duties +he was dangerously wounded by a leading outlaw, whom he slew in single +combat; and while yet confined to Hermitage Castle he received a visit +of two hours from the queen, who rode thither from Jedburgh and back +through 20 miles of the wild borderland where her person was in +perpetual danger from the freebooters whom her father's policy had +striven and had failed to extirpate. The result of this daring ride was +a ten days' fever, after which she removed by short stages to +Craigmillar, where a proposal for her divorce from Darnley was laid +before her by Bothwell, Murray, Huntly, Argyle and Lethington, who was +chosen spokesman for the rest. She assented on condition that the +divorce could be lawfully effected without impeachment of her son's +legitimacy; whereupon Lethington undertook in the name of all present +that she should be rid of her husband without any prejudice to the +child--at whose baptism a few days afterwards Bothwell took the place of +the putative father, though Darnley was actually residing under the same +roof, and it was not till after the ceremony that he was suddenly struck +down by a sickness so violent as to excite suspicions of poison. He was +removed to Glasgow, and left for the time in charge of his father; but +on the news of his progress towards recovery a bond was drawn up for +execution of the sentence of death which had secretly been pronounced +against the twice-turned traitor who had earned his doom at all hands +alike. On the 22nd of the next month (Jan. 1567) the queen visited her +husband at Glasgow and proposed to remove him to Craigmillar Castle, +where he would have the benefit of medicinal baths; but instead of this +resort he was conveyed on the last day of the month to the lonely and +squalid shelter of the residence which was soon to be made memorable by +his murder. Between the ruins of two sacred buildings, with the +town-wall to the south and a suburban hamlet known to ill fame as the +Thieves' Row to the north of it, a lodging was prepared for the titular +king of Scotland, and fitted up with tapestries taken from the Gordons +after the battle of Corrichie. On the evening of Sunday, the 9th of +February, Mary took her last leave of the miserable boy who had so often +and so mortally outraged her as consort and as queen. That night the +whole city was shaken out of sleep by an explosion of gunpowder which +shattered to fragments the building in which he should have slept and +perished; and the next morning the bodies of Darnley and a page were +found strangled in a garden adjoining it, whither they had apparently +escaped over a wall, to be despatched by the hands of Bothwell s +attendant confederates. + +Upon a view which may be taken of Mary's conduct during the next three +months depends the whole debateable question of her character. According +to the professed champions of that character, this conduct was a tissue +of such dastardly imbecility, such heartless irresolution and such +brainless inconsistency as for ever to dispose of her time-honoured +claim to the credit of intelligence and courage. It is certain that just +three months and six days after the murder of her husband she became +the wife of her husband's murderer. On the 11th of February she wrote to +the bishop of Glasgow, her ambassador in France, a brief letter of +simple eloquence, announcing her providential escape from a design upon +her own as well as her husband's life. A reward of two thousand pounds +was offered by proclamation for discovery of the murderer. Bothwell and +others, his satellites or the queen's, were instantly placarded by name +as the criminals. Voices were heard by night in the streets of Edinburgh +calling down judgment on the assassins. Four days after the discovery of +the bodies, Darnley was buried in the chapel of Holyrood with secrecy as +remarkable as the solemnity with which Rizzio had been interred there +less than a year before. On the Sunday following, Mary left Edinburgh +for Seton Palace, 12 miles from the capital, where scandal asserted that +she passed the time merrily in shooting-matches with Bothwell for her +partner against Lords Seton and Huntly; other accounts represent Huntly +and Bothwell as left at Holyrood in charge of the infant prince. +Gracefully and respectfully, with statesmanlike yet feminine dexterity, +the demands of Darnley's father for justice on the murderers of his son +were accepted and eluded by his daughter-in-law. Bothwell, with a troop +of fifty men, rode through Edinburgh defiantly denouncing vengeance on +his concealed accusers. As weeks elapsed without action on the part of +the royal widow, while the cry of blood was up throughout the country, +raising echoes from England and abroad, the murmur of accusation began +to rise against her also. Murray, with his sister's ready permission, +withdrew to France. Already the report was abroad that the queen was +bent on marriage with Bothwell, whose last year's marriage with the +sister of Huntly would be dissolved, and the assent of his wife's +brother purchased by the restitution of his forfeited estates. According +to the _Memoirs_ of Sir James Melville, both Lord Herries and himself +resolved to appeal to the queen in terms of bold and earnest +remonstrance against so desperate and scandalous a design; Herries, +having been met with assurances of its unreality and professions of +astonishment at the suggestion, instantly fled from court; Melville, +evading the danger of a merely personal protest without backers to +support him, laid before Mary a letter from a loyal Scot long resident +in England, which urged upon her consideration and her conscience the +danger and disgrace of such a project yet more freely than Herries had +ventured to do by word of mouth; but the sole result was that it needed +all the queen's courage and resolution to rescue him from the violence +of the man for whom, she was reported to have said, she cared not if she +lost France, England and her own country, and would go with him to the +world's end in a white petticoat before she would leave him. On the 28th +of March the privy council, in which Bothwell himself sat, appointed the +12th of April as the day of his trial, Lennox, instead of the crown, +being named as the accuser, and cited by royal letters to appear at "the +humble request and petition of the said Earl Bothwell," who, on the day +of the trial, had 4000 armed men behind him in the streets, while the +castle was also at his command. Under these arrangements it was not +thought wonderful that Lennox discreetly declined the danger of +attendance, even with 3000 men ready to follow him, at the risk of +desperate street fighting. He pleaded sickness, asked for more time, and +demanded that the accused, instead of enjoying special favour, should +share the treatment of other suspected criminals. But, as no particle of +evidence on his side was advanced, the protest of his representative was +rejected, and Bothwell, acquitted in default of witnesses against him, +was free to challenge any persistent accuser to the ancient ordeal of +battle. His wealth and power were enlarged by gift of the parliament +which met on the 14th and rose on the 19th of April--a date made notable +by the subsequent supper at Ainslie's tavern, where Bothwell obtained +the signatures of its leading members to a document affirming his +innocence, and pledging the subscribers to maintain it against all +challengers, to stand by him in all his quarrels and finally to promote +by all means in their power the marriage by which they recommended the +queen to reward his services and benefit the country. On the second day +following Mary went to visit her child at Stirling, where his guardian, +the earl of Mar, refused to admit more than two women in her train. It +was well known in Edinburgh that Bothwell had a body of men ready to +intercept her on the way back, and carry her to Dunbar--not, as was +naturally inferred, without good assurance of her consent. On the 24th +of April, as she approached Edinburgh, Bothwell accordingly met her at +the head of 800 spearmen, assured her (as she afterwards averred) that +she was in the utmost peril, and escorted her, together with Huntly, +Lethington and Melville, who were then in attendance, to Dunbar Castle. +On the 3rd of May Lady Jane Gordon, who had become countess of Bothwell +on the 22nd of February of the year preceding, obtained, on the ground +of her husband's infidelities, a separation which, however, would not +under the old laws of Catholic Scotland have left him free to marry +again; on the 7th, accordingly, the necessary divorce was pronounced, +after two days' session, by a clerical tribunal which ten days before +had received from the queen a special commission to give judgment on a +plea of somewhat apocryphal consanguinity alleged by Bothwell as the +ground of an action for divorce against his wife. The fact was +studiously evaded or concealed that a dispensation had been granted by +the archbishop of St Andrews for this irregularity, which could only +have arisen through some illicit connexion of the husband with a +relative of the wife between whom and himself no affinity by blood or +marriage could be proved. On the day when the first or Protestant +divorce was pronounced, Mary and Bothwell returned to Edinburgh with +every prepared appearance of a peaceful triumph. Lest her captivity +should have been held to invalidate the late legal proceedings in her +name, proclamation was made of forgiveness accorded by the queen to her +captor in consideration of his past and future services, and her +intention was announced to reward them by further promotion; and on the +same day (May 12), he was duly created duke of Orkney and Shetland. The +duke, as a conscientious Protestant, refused to marry his mistress +according to the rites of her Church, and she, the chosen champion of +its cause, agreed to be married to him, not merely by a Protestant but +by one who before his conversion had been a Catholic bishop, and should +therefore have been more hateful and contemptible in her eyes than any +ordinary heretic, had not religion as well as policy, faith as well as +reason, been absorbed or superseded by some more mastering passion or +emotion. This passion or emotion, according to those who deny her +attachment to Bothwell, was simply terror--the blind and irrational +prostration of an abject spirit before the cruel force of circumstances +and the crafty wickedness of men. Hitherto, according to all evidence, +she had shown herself on all occasions, as on all subsequent occasions +she indisputably showed herself, the most fearless, the most +keen-sighted, the most ready-witted, the most high-gifted and +high-spirited of women; gallant and generous, skilful and practical, +never to be cowed by fortune, never to be cajoled by craft; neither more +unselfish in her ends nor more unscrupulous in her practice than might +have been expected from her training and her creed. But at the crowning +moment of trial there are those who assert their belief that the woman +who on her way to the field of Corrichie had uttered her wish to be a +man, that she might know all the hardship and all the enjoyment of a +soldier's life, riding forth "in jack and knapscull"--the woman who long +afterwards was to hold her own for two days together without help of +counsel against all the array of English law and English statesmanship, +armed with irrefragable evidence and supported by the resentment of a +nation--showed herself equally devoid of moral and of physical +resolution; too senseless to realize the significance and too heartless +to face the danger of a situation from which the simplest exercise of +reason, principle or courage must have rescued the most unsuspicious and +inexperienced of honest women who was not helplessly deficient in +self-reliance and self-respect. The famous correspondence produced next +year in evidence against her at the conference of York may have been, as +her partisans affirm, so craftily garbled and falsified by +interpolation, suppression, perversion, or absolute forgery as to be +all but historically worthless. Its acceptance or its rejection does not +in any degree whatever affect, for better or for worse, the rational +estimate of her character. The problem presented by the simple existence +of the facts just summed up remains in either case absolutely the same. + +That the coarse and imperious nature of the hardy and able ruffian who +had now become openly her master should no less openly have shown itself +even in the first moments of their inauspicious union is what any +bystander of common insight must inevitably have foreseen. Tears, +dejection and passionate expressions of a despair "wishing only for +death," bore fitful and variable witness to her first sense of a heavier +yoke than yet had galled her spirit and her pride. At other times her +affectionate gaiety would give evidence as trustworthy of a fearless and +improvident satisfaction. They rode out in state together, and if he +kept cap in hand as a subject she would snatch it from him and clap it +on his head again; while in graver things she took all due or possible +care to gratify his ambition, by the insertion of a clause in their +contract of marriage which made their joint signature necessary to all +documents of state issued under the sign-manual. She despatched to +France a special envoy, the bishop of Dumblane, with instructions +setting forth at length the unparalleled and hitherto ill-requited +services and merits of Bothwell, and the necessity of compliance at once +with his passion and with the unanimous counsel of the nation--a people +who would endure the rule of no foreign consort, and whom none of their +own countrymen were so competent to control, alike by wisdom and by +valour, as the incomparable subject of her choice. These personal merits +and this political necessity were the only pleas advanced in a letter to +her ambassador in England. But that neither plea would avail her for a +moment in Scotland she had ominous evidence on the thirteenth day after +her marriage, when no response was made to the usual form of +proclamation for a raid or levy of forces under pretext of a campaign +against the rievers of the border. On the 6th or 7th of June Mary and +Bothwell took refuge in Borthwick Castle, twelve miles from the capital, +where the fortress was in the keeping of an adherent whom the diplomacy +of Sir James Melville had succeeded in detaching from his allegiance to +Bothwell. The fugitives were pursued and beleaguered by the earl of +Morton and Lord Hume, who declared their purpose to rescue the queen +from the thraldom of her husband. He escaped, leaving her free to follow +him or to join the party of her professed deliverers. But whatever cause +she might have found since marriage to complain of his rigorous custody +and domineering brutality was insufficient to break the ties by which he +held her. Alone, in the disguise of a page, she slipped out of the +castle at midnight, and rode off to meet him at a tower two miles +distant, whence they fled together to Dunbar. The confederate lords on +entering Edinburgh were welcomed by the citizens, and after three hours' +persuasion Lethington, who had now joined them, prevailed on the captain +of the castle to deliver it also into their hands. Proclamations were +issued in which the crime of Bothwell was denounced, and the disgrace of +the country, the thraldom of the queen and the mortal peril of her +infant son, were set forth as reasons for summoning all the lieges of +the chief cities of Scotland to rise in arms on three hours' notice and +join the forces assembled against the one common enemy. News of his +approach reached them on the night of June 14, and they marched before +dawn with 2200 men to meet him near Musselburgh. Mary meanwhile had +passed from Dunbar to Haddington, and thence to Seton, where 1600 men +rallied to her side. On the 15th of June, one month from their marriage +day, the queen and Bothwell, at the head of a force of fairly equal +numbers but visibly inferior discipline, met the army of the +confederates at Carberry Hill, some six miles from Edinburgh. Du Croc, +the French ambassador, obtained permission through the influence of +Maitland to convey to the queen the terms proposed by their +leaders--that she and Bothwell should part, or that he should meet in +single combat a champion chosen from among their number. Bothwell +offered to meet any man of sufficient quality; Mary would not assent. As +the afternoon wore on their force began to melt away by desertion and +to break up for lack of discipline. Again the trial by single combat was +proposed, and thrice the proposal fell through, owing to objections on +this side or on that. At last it was agreed that the queen should yield +herself prisoner, and Bothwell be allowed to retire in safety to Dunbar +with the few followers who remained to him. Mary took leave of her first +and last master with passionate anguish and many parting kisses; but in +face of his enemies, and in hearing of the cries which burst from the +ranks, demanding her death by fire as a murderess and harlot, the whole +heroic and passionate spirit of the woman, represented by her admirers +as a spiritless imbecile, flamed out in responsive threats to have all +the men hanged and crucified, in whose power she now stood helpless and +alone. She grasped the hand of Lord Lindsay as he rode beside her, and +swore "by this hand" she would "have his head for this." In Edinburgh +she was received by a yelling mob, which flaunted before her at each +turn a banner representing the corpse of Darnley with her child beside +it invoking on his knees the retribution of divine justice. From the +violence of a multitude in which women of the worst class were more +furious than the men she was sheltered in the house of the provost, +where she repeatedly showed herself at the window, appealing aloud with +dishevelled hair and dress to the mercy which no man could look upon her +and refuse. At nine in the evening she was removed to Holyrood, and +thence to the port of Leith, where she embarked under guard, with her +attendants, for the island castle of Lochleven. On the 20th a silver +casket containing letters and French verses, miscalled sonnets, in the +handwriting of the queen, was taken from the person of a servant who had +been sent by Bothwell to bring it from Edinburgh to Dunbar. Even in the +existing versions of the letters, translated from the lost originals and +retranslated from this translation of a text which was probably +destroyed in 1603 by order of King James on his accession to the English +throne--even in these possibly disfigured versions, the fiery pathos of +passion, the fierce and piteous fluctuations of spirit between love and +hate, hope and rage and jealousy, have an eloquence apparently beyond +the imitation or invention of art (see CASKET LETTERS[2]). Three days +after this discovery Lord Lindsay, Lord Ruthven and Sir Robert Melville +were despatched to Lochleven, there to obtain the queen's signature to +an act of abdication in favour of her son, and another appointing Murray +regent during his minority. She submitted, and a commission of regency +was established till the return from France of Murray, who, on the 15th +of August, arrived at Lochleven with Morton and Athole. According to his +own account, the expostulations as to her past conduct which preceded +his admonitions for the future were received with tears, confessions and +attempts at extenuation or excuse; but when they parted next day on good +terms she had regained her usual spirits. Nor from that day forward had +they reason to sink again, in spite of the close keeping in which she +was held, with the daughters of the house for bedfellows. Their mother +and the regent's, her father's former mistress, was herself not +impervious to her prisoner's lifelong power of seduction and +subjugation. Her son George Douglas fell inevitably under the charm. A +rumour transmitted to England went so far as to assert that she had +proposed him to their common half-brother Murray as a fourth husband for +herself; a later tradition represented her as the mother of a child by +him. A third report, at least as improbable as either, asserted that a +daughter of Mary and Bothwell, born about this time, lived to be a nun +in France. It is certain that the necessary removal of George Douglas +from Lochleven enabled him to devise a method of escape for the prisoner +on the 25th of March, 1568, which was frustrated by detection of her +white hands under the disguise of a laundress. But a younger member of +the household, Willie Douglas, aged eighteen, whose devotion was +afterwards remembered and his safety cared for by Mary at a time of +utmost risk and perplexity to herself, succeeded on the 2nd of May in +assisting her to escape by a postern gate to the lake-side, and thence +in a boat to the mainland, where George Douglas, Lord Seton and others +were awaiting her. Thence they rode to Seton's castle of Niddry, and +next day to Hamilton palace, round which an army of 6000 men was soon +assembled, and whither the new French ambassador to Scotland hastened to +pay his duty. The queen's abdication was revoked, messengers were +despatched to the English and French courts, and word was sent to Murray +at Glasgow that he must resign the regency, and should be pardoned in +common with all offenders against the queen. But on the day when Mary +arrived at Hamilton Murray had summoned to Glasgow the feudatories of +the Crown to take arms against the insurgent enemies of the infant king. +Elizabeth sent conditional offers of help to her kinswoman, provided she +would accept of English intervention and abstain from seeking foreign +assistance; but the messenger came too late. Mary's followers had failed +to retake Dunbar Castle from the regent, and made for Dumbarton instead, +marching two miles south of Glasgow, by the village of Langside. Here +Murray, with 4500 men, under leaders of high distinction, met the 6000 +of the queen's army, whose ablest man, Herries, was as much distrusted +by Mary as by every one else, while the Hamiltons could only be trusted +to think of their own interests, and were suspected of treasonable +designs on all who stood between their house and the monarchy. On the +13th of May the battle or skirmish of Langside determined the result of +the campaign in three-quarters of an hour. Kirkaldy of Grange, who +commanded the regent's cavalry, seized and kept the place of vantage +from the beginning, and at the first sign of wavering on the other side +shattered at a single charge the forces of the queen with a loss of one +man to three hundred. Mary fled 60 miles from the field of her last +battle before she halted at Sanquhar, and for three days of flight, +according to her own account, had to sleep on the hard ground, live on +oatmeal and sour milk, and fare at night like the owls, in hunger, cold +and fear. On the third day from the rout of Langside she crossed the +Solway and landed at Workington in Cumberland, May 16, 1568. On the 20th +Lord Scrope and Sir Francis Knollys were sent from court to carry +messages and letters of comfort from Elizabeth to Mary at Carlisle. On +the 11th of June Knollys wrote to Cecil at once the best description and +the noblest panegyric extant of the queen of Scots--enlarging, with a +brave man's sympathy, on her indifference to form and ceremony, her +daring grace and openness of manner, her frank display of a great desire +to be avenged of her enemies, her readiness to expose herself to all +perils in hope of victory, her delight to hear of hardihood and courage, +commending by name all her enemies of approved valour, sparing no +cowardice in her friends, but above all things athirst for victory by +any means at any price, so that for its sake pain and peril seemed +pleasant to her, and wealth and all things, if compared with it, +contemptible and vile. What was to be done with such a princess, whether +she were to be nourished in one's bosom, above all whether it could be +advisable or safe to try any diplomatic tricks upon such a lady, Knollys +left for the minister to judge. It is remarkable that he should not have +discovered in her the qualities so obvious to modern champions of her +character--easiness, gullibility, incurable innocence and invincible +ignorance of evil, incapacity to suspect or resent anything, readiness +to believe and forgive all things. On the 15th of July, after various +delays interposed by her reluctance to leave the neighbourhood of the +border, where on her arrival she had received the welcome and the homage +of the leading Catholic houses of Northumberland and Cumberland, she was +removed to Bolton Castle in North Yorkshire. During her residence here a +conference was held at York between her own and Elizabeth's +commissioners and those appointed to represent her son as a king of +Scots. These latter, of whom Murray himself was the chief, privately +laid before the English commissioners the contents of the famous casket. +On the 24th of October the place of the conference was shifted from York +to London, where the inquiry was to be held before Queen Elizabeth in +council. Mary was already aware that the chief of the English +commissioners, the duke of Norfolk, was secretly an aspirant to the +peril of her hand; and on the 21st of October she gave the first sign of +assent to the suggestion of a divorce from Bothwell. On the 26th of +October the charge of complicity in the murder of Darnley was distinctly +brought forward against her in spite of Norfolk's reluctance and +Murray's previous hesitation. Elizabeth, by the mouth of her chief +justice, formally rebuked the audacity of the subjects who durst bring +such a charge against their sovereign, and challenged them to advance +their proofs. They complied by the production of an indictment under +five heads, supported by the necessary evidence of documents. The number +of English commissioners was increased, and they were bound to preserve +secrecy as to the matters revealed. Further evidence was supplied by +Thomas Crawford, a retainer of the house of Lennox, tallying so exactly +with the text of the casket letters as to have been cited in proof that +the latter must needs be a forgery. Elizabeth, on the close of the +evidence, invited Mary to reply to the proofs alleged before she could +be admitted to her presence; but Mary simply desired her commissioners +to withdraw from the conference. She declined with scorn the proposal +made by Elizabeth through Knollys, that she should sign a second +abdication in favour of her son. On the 10th of January, 1569, the +judgment given at the conference acquitted Murray and his adherents of +rebellion, while affirming that nothing had been proved against Mary--a +verdict accepted by Murray as equivalent to a practical recognition of +his office as regent for the infant king. This position he was not long +to hold; and the fierce exultation of Mary at the news of his murder +gave to those who believed in her complicity with the murderer, on whom +a pension was bestowed by her unblushing gratitude, fresh reason to +fear, if her liberty of correspondence and intrigue were not restrained, +the likelihood of a similar fate for Elizabeth. On the 26th of January +1569 she had been removed from Bolton Castle to Tutbury in +Staffordshire, where proposals were conveyed to her, at the instigation +of Leicester, for a marriage with the duke of Norfolk, to which she gave +a graciously conditional assent; but the discovery of these proposals +consigned Norfolk to the Tower, and on the outbreak of an insurrection +in the north Mary, by Lord Hunsdon's advice, was again removed to +Coventry, when a body of her intending deliverers was within a day's +ride of Tutbury. On the 23rd of January following Murray was +assassinated; and a second northern insurrection was crushed in a single +sharp fight by Lord Hunsdon. In October Cecil had an interview with Mary +at Chatsworth, when the conditions of her possible restoration to the +throne in compliance with French demands were debated at length. The +queen of Scots, with dauntless dignity, refused to yield the castles of +Edinburgh and Dumbarton into English keeping, or to deliver up her +fugitive English partisans then in Scotland; upon other points they came +to terms, and the articles were signed the 16th of October. On the same +day Mary wrote to Elizabeth, requesting with graceful earnestness the +favour of an interview which might reassure her against the suggestion +that this treaty was a mere pretence. On the 28th of November she was +removed to Sheffield Castle, where she remained for the next fourteen +years in charge of the earl of Shrewsbury. The detection of a plot, in +which Norfolk was implicated, for the invasion of England by Spain on +behalf of Mary, who was then to take him as the fourth and most +contemptible of her husbands, made necessary the reduction of her +household and the stricter confinement of her person. On the 28th of May +1572 a demand from both houses of parliament for her execution as well +as Norfolk's was generously rejected by Elizabeth; but after the +punishment of the traitorous pretender to her hand, on whom she had +lavished many eloquent letters of affectionate protestation, she fell +into "a passion of sickness" which convinced her honest keeper of her +genuine grief for the ducal caitiff. A treaty projected on the news of +the massacre of St Bartholomew, by which Mary should be sent back to +Scotland for immediate execution, was broken off by the death of the +earl of Mar, who had succeeded Lennox as regent; nor was it found +possible to come to acceptable terms on a like understanding with his +successor Morton, who in 1577 sent a proposal to Mary for her +restoration, which she declined, in suspicion of a plot laid to entrap +her by the policy of Sir Francis Walsingham, the most unscrupulously +patriotic of her English enemies, who four years afterwards sent word to +Scotland that the execution of Morton, so long the ally of England, +would be answered by the execution of Mary. But on that occasion +Elizabeth again refused her assent either to the trial of Mary or to her +transference from Sheffield to the Tower. In 1581 Mary accepted the +advice of Catherine de' Medici and Henry III. that she should allow her +son's title to reign as king of Scotland conjointly with herself when +released and restored to a share of the throne. This plan was but part +of a scheme including the invasion of England by her kinsman the duke of +Guise, who was to land in the north and raise a Scottish army to place +the released prisoner of Sheffield beside her son on the throne of +Elizabeth. After the overthrow of the Scottish accomplices in this +notable project, Mary poured forth upon Elizabeth a torrent of pathetic +and eloquent reproach for the many wrongs she had suffered at the hands +of her hostess, and pledged her honour to the assurance that she now +aspired to no kingdom but that of heaven. In the spring of 1583 she +retained enough of this saintly resignation to ask for nothing but +liberty, without a share in the government of Scotland; but Lord +Burghley not unreasonably preferred, if feasible, to reconcile the +alliance of her son with the detention of his mother. In 1584 the +long-suffering earl of Shrewsbury was relieved of his fourteen years' +charge through the involuntary good offices of his wife, whose daughter +by her first husband had married a brother of Darnley; and their orphan +child Arabella, born in England, of royal descent on the father's side, +was now, in the hopeful view of her grandmother, a more plausible +claimant than the king or queen of Scots to the inheritance of the +English throne. In December 1583 Mary had laid before the French +ambassador her first complaint of the slanders spread by Lady Shrewsbury +and her sons, who were ultimately compelled to confess the falsehood of +their imputations on the queen of Scots and her keeper. It was probably +at the time when a desire for revenge on her calumniatress made her +think the opportunity good and safe for discharge of such a two-edged +dart at the countess and the queen that Mary wrote, but abstained from +despatching, the famous and terrible letter in which, with many gracious +excuses and professions of regret and attachment, she transmits to +Elizabeth a full and vivid report of the hideous gossip retailed by Bess +of Hardwick regarding her character and person at a time when the +reporter of these abominations was on friendly terms with her husband's +royal charge. In the autumn of 1584 she was removed to Wingfield Manor +under charge of Sir Ralph Sadler and John Somers, who accompanied her +also on her next removal to Tutbury in January 1585. A letter received +by her in that cold, dark and unhealthy castle, of which fifteen years +before she had made painful and malodorous experience, assured her that +her son would acknowledge her only as queen-mother, and provoked at once +the threat of a parent's curse and an application to Elizabeth for +sympathy. In April 1585 Sir Amyas Paulet was appointed to the office of +which Sadler, accused of careless indulgence, had requested to be +relieved; and on Christmas Eve she was removed from the hateful shelter +of Tutbury to the castle of Chartley in the same county. Her +correspondence in cipher from thence with her English agents abroad, +intercepted by Walsingham and deciphered by his secretary, gave eager +encouragement to the design for a Spanish invasion of England under the +prince of Parma,--an enterprise in which she would do her utmost to make +her son take part, and in case of his refusal would induce the Catholic +nobles of Scotland to betray him into the hands of Philip, from whose +tutelage he should be released only on her demand, or if after her death +he should wish to return, nor then unless he had become a Catholic. But +even these patriotic and maternal schemes to consign her child and +re-consign the kingdom to the keeping of the Inquisition, incarnate in +the widower of Mary Tudor, were superseded by the attraction of a +conspiracy against the throne and life of Elizabeth. Anthony Babington, +in his boyhood a ward of Shrewsbury, resident in the household at +Sheffield Castle, and thus subjected to the charm before which so many +victims had already fallen, was now induced to undertake the deliverance +of the queen of Scots by the murder of the queen of England. It is +maintained by those admirers of Mary who assume her to have been an +almost absolute imbecile, gifted with the power of imposing herself on +the world as a woman of unsurpassed ability, that, while cognisant of +the plot for her deliverance by English rebels and an invading army of +foreign auxiliaries, she might have been innocently unconscious that +this conspiracy involved the simultaneous assassination of Elizabeth. In +the conduct and detection of her correspondence with Babington, traitor +was played off against traitor, and spies were utilized against +assassins, with as little scruple as could be required or expected in +the diplomacy of the time. As in the case of the casket letters, it is +alleged that forgery was employed to interpolate sufficient evidence of +Mary's complicity in a design of which it is thought credible that she +was kept in ignorance by the traitors and murderers who had enrolled +themselves in her service,--that one who pensioned the actual murderer +of Murray and a would-be murderer of Elizabeth was incapable of +approving what her keen and practised intelligence was too blunt and +torpid to anticipate as inevitable and inseparable from the general +design. In August the conspirators were netted, and Mary was arrested at +the gate of Tixall Park, whither Paulet had taken her under pretence of +a hunting party. At Tixall she was detained till her papers at Chartley +had undergone thorough research. That she was at length taken in her own +toils even such a dullard as her admirers depict her could not have +failed to understand; that she was no such dastard as to desire or +deserve such defenders the whole brief course of her remaining life bore +consistent and irrefragable witness. Her first thought on her return to +Chartley was one of loyal gratitude and womanly sympathy. She cheered +the wife of her English secretary, now under arrest, with promises to +answer for her husband to all accusations brought against him, took her +new-born child from the mother's arms, and in default of clergy baptized +it, to Paulet's Puritanic horror, with her own hands by her own name. +The next or the twin-born impulse of her indomitable nature was, as +usual in all times of danger, one of passionate and high-spirited +defiance on discovering the seizure of her papers. A fortnight +afterwards her keys and her money were confiscated, while she, bedridden +and unable to move her hand, could only ply the terrible weapon of her +bitter and fiery tongue. Her secretaries were examined in London, and +one of them gave evidence that she had first heard of the conspiracy by +letter from Babington, of whose design against the life of Elizabeth she +thought it best to take no notice in her reply, though she did not hold +herself bound to reveal it. On the 25th of September she was removed to +the strong castle of Fotheringay in Northamptonshire. On the 6th of +October she was desired by letter from Elizabeth to answer the charges +brought against her before certain of the chief English nobles appointed +to sit in commission on the cause. In spite of her first refusal to +submit, she was induced by the arguments of the vice-chamberlain, Sir +Christopher Hatton, to appear before this tribunal on condition that her +protest should be registered against the legality of its jurisdiction +over a sovereign, the next heir of the English crown. + +On the 14th and 15th of October 1586 the trial was held in the hall of +Fotheringay Castle. Alone, "without one counsellor on her side among so +many," Mary conducted the whole of her own defence with courage +incomparable and unsurpassable ability. Pathos and indignation, subtlety +and simplicity, personal appeal and political reasoning, were the +alternate weapons with which she fought against all odds of evidence or +inference, and disputed step by step every inch of debatable ground. She +repeatedly insisted on the production of proof in her own handwriting as +to her complicity with the project of the assassins who had expiated +their crime on the 20th and 21st of the month preceding. When the charge +was shifted to the question of her intrigues with Spain, she took her +stand resolutely on her own right to convey whatever right she +possessed, though now no kingdom was left her for disposal, to +whomsoever she might choose. One single slip she made in the whole +course of her defence; but none could have been more unluckily +characteristic and significant. When Burghley brought against her the +unanswerable charge of having at that moment in her service, and in +receipt of an annual pension, the instigator of a previous attempt on +the life of Elizabeth, she had the unwary audacity to cite in her +justification the pensions allowed by Elizabeth to her adversaries in +Scotland, and especially to her son. It is remarkable that just two +months later, in a conversation with her keepers, she again made use of +the same extraordinary argument in reply to the same inevitable +imputation, and would not be brought to admit that the two cases were +other than parallel. But except for this single instance of oversight or +perversity her defence was throughout a masterpiece of indomitable +ingenuity, of delicate and steadfast courage, of womanly dignity and +genius. Finally she demanded, as she had demanded before, a trial either +before the estates of the realm lawfully assembled or else before the +queen in council. So closed the second day of the trial; and before the +next day's work could begin a note of two or three lines hastily written +at midnight informed the commissioners that Elizabeth had suddenly +determined to adjourn the expected judgment and transfer the place of it +to the star-chamber. Here, on the 25th of October, the commissioners +again met; and one of them alone, Lord Zouch, dissented from the verdict +by which Mary was found guilty of having, since the 1st of June +preceding, compassed and imagined divers matters tending to the +destruction of Elizabeth. This verdict was conveyed to her, about three +weeks later, by Lord Buckhurst and Robert Beale, clerk of the privy +council. At the intimation that her life was an impediment to the +security of the received religion, "she seemed with a certain unwonted +alacrity to triumph, giving God thanks, and rejoicing in her heart that +she was held to be an instrument" for the restoration of her own faith. +This note of exultation as in martyrdom was maintained with unflinching +courage to the last. She wrote to Elizabeth and the duke of Guise two +letters of almost matchless eloquence and pathos, admirable especially +for their loyal and grateful remembrance of all her faithful servants. +Between the date of these letters and the day of her execution wellnigh +three months of suspense elapsed. Elizabeth, fearless almost to a fault +in face of physical danger, constant in her confidence even after +discovery of her narrow escape from the poisoned bullets of household +conspirators, was cowardly even to a crime in face of subtler and more +complicated peril. She rejected with resolute dignity the intercession +of French envoys for the life of the queen-dowager of France; she +allowed the sentence of death to be proclaimed and welcomed with +bonfires and bell-ringing throughout the length of England; she yielded +a respite of twelve days to the pleading of the French ambassador, and +had a charge trumped up against him of participation in a conspiracy +against her life; at length, on the 1st of February 1587, she signed the +death-warrant, and then made her secretaries write word to Paulet of her +displeasure that in all this time he should not of himself have found +out some way to shorten the life of his prisoner, as in duty bound by +his oath, and thus relieve her singularly tender conscience from the +guilt of bloodshed. Paulet, with loyal and regretful indignation, +declined the disgrace proposed to him in a suggestion "to shed blood +without law or warrant"; and on the 7th of February the earls of +Shrewsbury and Kent arrived at Fotheringay with the commission of the +council for execution of the sentence given against his prisoner. Mary +received the announcement with majestic tranquillity, expressing in +dignified terms her readiness to die, her consciousness that she was a +martyr for her religion, and her total ignorance of any conspiracy +against the life of Elizabeth. At night she took a graceful and +affectionate leave of her attendants, distributed among them her money +and jewels, wrote out in full the various legacies to be conveyed by her +will, and charged her apothecary Gorion with her last messages for the +king of Spain. In these messages the whole nature of the woman was +revealed. Not a single friend, not a single enemy, was forgotten; the +slightest service, the slightest wrong, had its place assigned in her +faithful and implacable memory for retribution or reward. Forgiveness +of injuries was as alien from her fierce and loyal spirit as +forgetfulness of benefits; the destruction of England and its liberties +by Spanish invasion and conquest was the strongest aspiration of her +parting soul. At eight next morning she entered the hall of execution, +having taken leave of the weeping envoy from Scotland, to whom she gave +a brief message for her son; took her seat on the scaffold, listened +with an air of even cheerful unconcern to the reading of her sentence, +solemnly declared her innocence of the charge conveyed in it and her +consolation in the prospect of ultimate justice, rejected the +professional services of Richard Fletcher, dean of Peterborough, lifted +up her voice in Latin against his in English prayer, and when he and his +fellow-worshippers had fallen duly silent prayed aloud for the +prosperity of her own church, for Elizabeth, for her son, and for all +the enemies whom she had commended overnight to the notice of the +Spanish invader; then, with no less courage than had marked every hour +and every action of her life, received the stroke of death from the +wavering hand of the headsman. + +Mary Stuart was in many respects the creature of her age, of her creed, +and of her station; but the noblest and most noteworthy qualities of her +nature were independent of rank, opinion or time. Even the detractors +who defend her conduct on the plea that she was a dastard and a dupe are +compelled in the same breath to retract this implied reproach, and to +admit, with illogical acclamation and incongruous applause, that the +world never saw more splendid courage at the service of more brilliant +intelligence, that a braver if not "a rarer spirit never did steer +humanity." A kinder or more faithful friend, a deadlier or more +dangerous enemy, it would be impossible to dread or to desire. Passion +alone could shake the double fortress of her impregnable heart and +ever-active brain. The passion of love, after very sufficient +experience, she apparently and naturally outlived; the passion of hatred +and revenge was as inextinguishable in her inmost nature as the emotion +of loyalty and gratitude. Of repentance it would seem that she knew as +little as of fear, having been trained from her infancy in a religion +where the Decalogue was supplanted by the Creed. Adept as she was in the +most exquisite delicacy of dissimulation, the most salient note of her +original disposition was daring rather than subtlety. Beside or behind +the voluptuous or intellectual attractions of beauty and culture, she +had about her the fresher charm of a fearless and frank simplicity, a +genuine and enduring pleasure in small and harmless things no less than +in such as were neither. In 1562 she amused herself for some days by +living "with her little troop" in the house of a burgess of St Andrews +"like a burgess's wife," assuring the English ambassador that he should +not find the queen there,--"nor I know not myself where she is become." +From Sheffield Lodge, twelve years later, she applied to the archbishop +of Glasgow and the cardinal of Guise for some pretty little dogs, to be +sent her in baskets very warmly packed,--"for besides reading and +working, I take pleasure only in all the little animals that I can get." +No lapse of reconciling time, no extent of comparative indulgence, could +break her in to resignation, submission, or toleration of even partial +restraint. Three months after the massacre of St Bartholomew had caused +some additional restrictions to be placed upon her freedom of action, +Shrewsbury writes to Burghley that "rather than continue this +imprisonment she sticks not to say she will give her body, her son, and +country for liberty"; nor did she ever show any excess of regard for any +of the three. For her own freedom of will and of way, of passion and of +action, she cared much; for her creed she cared something; for her +country she cared less than nothing. She would have flung Scotland with +England into the hell fire of Spanish Catholicism rather than forgo the +faintest chance of personal revenge. Her profession of a desire to be +instructed in the doctrines of Anglican Protestantism was so +transparently a pious fraud as rather to afford confirmation than to +arouse suspicion of her fidelity to the teaching of her church. +Elizabeth, so shamefully her inferior in personal loyalty, fidelity and +gratitude, was as clearly her superior on the one all-important point of +patriotism. The saving salt of Elizabeth's character, with all its +wellnigh incredible mixture of heroism and egotism, meanness and +magnificence, was simply this, that, overmuch as she loved herself, she +did yet love England better. Her best though not her only fine qualities +were national and political, the high public virtues of a good public +servant; in the private and personal qualities which attract and attach +a friend to his friend and a follower to his leader, no man or woman was +ever more constant and more eminent than Mary Queen of Scots. + (A. C. S.) + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The biography of Mary Stuart being virtually the + history of Scotland during the period covered by her life, with which + the history of England at the same period is also largely concerned, + the chief events in which she figured are related in all the general + _Histories_ of both countries. The most important original authorities + are the voluminous _State Papers_ of the period, with other MS. + documents preserved at the British Museum, the Cambridge University + Library, Hatfield and elsewhere. See especially the _Reports_ of the + Hist. MSS. Commission; _Calendar of State Papers relating to Scotland + and Mary Queen of Scots_ (Scottish Record Publ. 1898); _Calendar of + Letters and State Papers relating to English Affairs, principally in + the Archives at Simancas_ (vols. i.-iv., 1892-1899); and the + _Calendars of State Papers: Domestic Series, Edw. VI.-James I.; + Foreign Series, Elizabeth; Venice Series_. + + The most important unofficial contemporary works are the _Histories_ + of John Knox, Bishop John Lesley, George Buchanan, and Robert Lindsay + of Pitscottie; the _Diurnal of Remarkable Occurrents from the death of + James IV. till 1575_ (Bannatyne Club, 1833); Robert Birrell's "Diary" + in Sir J. G. Dalzell's _Fragments of Scottish History_ (Edinburgh, + 1798); _History of Mary Stuart_, by her secretary Claude Nau, ed. by + J. Stevenson (Edinburgh, 1883); Sir James Melville's _Memoirs of his + own Life_ (Bannatyne Club, 1827); Richard Bannatyne, _Memoriales of + Transactions in Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1836); William Camden's + _Annales_ (Eng. trans., London, 1635); Michel de Castelnau's + _Mémoires_ (Brussels, 1731); the _Mémoires_ of Brantôme (ed. by L. + Lalanne, 12 vols., Paris, 1864-1896); _Relations politiques de la + France et de l'Espagne avec l'Écosse au 16th siècle_ (ed. by J. B. A. + Teulet, 5 vols., Paris, 1862), containing important original letters + and documents; Thomas Wright's _Queen Elizabeth and her Times_ (2 + vols., London, 1838), consists of private letters of Elizabethan + statesmen many of which refer to Mary Stuart, and others are to be + found in Sir Henry Ellis's _Original Letters illustrative of English + History_ (London, 1825-1846); much of Mary's own correspondence will + be found in Prince A. Labanoff's _Lettres inédites, 1558-1587_ (Paris, + 1839), and _Lettres, instructions, et mémoires de Marie Stuart_ (7 + vols., London, 1844), selections from which have been translated into + English by W. Turnbull in _Letters of Mary Queen of Scots_ (London, + 1845), and by Agnes Strickland in _Letters of Mary Queen of Scots and + Documents connected with her Personal History_ (3 vols., London, + 1842). + + Among authorities not actually contemporary but written within a + century of Mary's death are David Calderwood's _Hist. of the Kirk of + Scotland_ (8 vols., Edinburgh, 1842-1849); Archbishop Spottiswoode's + _Hist. of the Church of Scotland_ (ed. by M. Russell, 3 vols., + Edinburgh, 1847-1851), and Robert Keith's _Hist. of Affairs of Church + and State in Scotland_ (Spottiswoode Society ed., 1844); to which + should be added the modern classic, George Grub's _Ecclesiastical + History of Scotland_ (4 vols., Edinburgh, 1861). + + Of modern general histories those of chief importance on the subject + are the Histories of England by Hume, Lingard and Froude; and the + _Histories of Scotland_ by Robertson, P. F. Tytler, John Hill Burton, + Malcolm Laing and Andrew Lang. Numerous biographies of Mary Stuart + have been published, as well as essays and treatises dealing with + particular episodes in her life, of which the most worthy of mention + are: George Chalmers, _Life of Mary Queen of Scots_, (2 vols., London, + 1818); Henry Glassford Bell, _Life of Mary Queen of Scots_ (2 vols., + Edinburgh, 1828-1831); the "Life" in Agnes Strickland's _Lives of the + Queens of Scotland_ (8 vols., Edinburgh, 1850); J. D. Leader, _Mary + Queen of Scots in Captivity_ (Sheffield, 1880); Colin Lindsay, _Mary + Queen of Scots and her Marriage with Bothwell_ (London, 1883); Mrs + Maxwell-Scott, _The Tragedy of Fotheringay_ (London, 1895); F. A. M. + Mignet, _Histoire de Marie Stuart_ (2 vols., Brussels, 1851); Martin + Philippson, _Histoire du règne de Marie Stuart_ ( 3 vols., Paris, + 1891); Sir John Skelton, _Mary Stuart_ (London, 1893), _Maitland of + Lethington and the Scotland of Mary Stuart_ (2 vols., Edinburgh, + 1887), _The Impeachment of Mary Stuart_ (Edinburgh, 1878), and _Essays + in History and Biography, including the Defence of Mary Stuart_ + (Edinburgh, 1883); Joseph Stevenson, _Mary Stuart: The First Eighteen + Years of her Life_ (Edinburgh, 1886); D. Hay Fleming, _Mary Stuart_ + (2nd ed. 1898); Jane Stoddart, _Girlhood of Mary Queen of Scots_. + + With special reference to the controversy concerning the Casket + Letters, in addition to the article CASKET LETTERS and the + above-mentioned works by Sir John Skelton, the following should be + consulted: Walter Goodall, _Examination of the Letters said to be + written by Mary Queen of Scots to Bothwell_ (2 vols., Edinburgh, + 1754), which contains the letters themselves; William Tytler, _Inquiry + into the Evidence against Mary Queen of Scots_ (2 vols., London, + 1790); John Whitaker, _Mary Queen of Scots Vindicated_ (3 vols., + London, 1788); F. de Peyster, _Mary Stuart, Bothwell and the Casket + Letters_ (London, 1890); T. F. Henderson, _The Casket Letters and Mary + Queen of Scots_ (Edinburgh, 1889); Andrew Lang, _The Mystery of Mary + Stuart_ (London, 1900). + + In 1690 Giovanni Francesco Savaro published a play _La Maria Stuarda_, + and since then the story of the Queen of Scots has been the subject of + numerous poems and dramas, of which the most celebrated are Schiller's + _Maria Stuart_, and three tragedies by A. C. Swinburne--_Chastelard_ + (1865), _Bothwell_ (1874), and _Mary Stuart_ (1881). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] In a letter dated the 4th of April 1882, referring to the + publication of his drama _Mary Stuart_, Swinburne wrote to Edmund + Clarence Stedman: "_Mary Stuart_ has procured me two satisfactions + which I prefer infinitely to six columns of adulation in The Times + and any profit thence resulting. (1) A letter from Sir Henry Taylor + ... (2) An application from the editor of the _Encyclopaedia + Britannica_--who might, I suppose, as in Macaulay's time, almost + command the services of the most eminent scholars and historians of + the country--to me, a mere poet, proposing that I should contribute + to that great repository of erudition the biography of Mary Queen of + Scots. I doubt if the like compliment was ever paid before to one of + our 'idle trade.'" The present article is the biography contributed + by the poet to the 9th ed. in response to the invitation referred to + in this letter. + + [2] It is to be observed that the above conclusion as to the + authenticity of the Casket Letters is the same as that arrived at + upon different grounds by the most recent research on the + subject.--ED. E. B. + + + + +MARY (1457-1482), duchess of Burgundy, only child of Charles the Bold, +duke of Burgundy, and his wife Isabella of Bourbon, was born on the 13th +of February 1457. As heiress of the rich Burgundian domains her hand was +eagerly sought by a number of princes. When her father fell upon the +field of Nancy, on the 5th of January 1477, Mary was not yet twenty +years of age. Louis XI. of France seized the opportunity afforded by his +rival's defeat and death to take possession of the duchy of Burgundy as +a fief lapsed to the French crown, and also of Franche Comté, Picardy +and Artois. He was anxious that Mary should marry the Dauphin Charles +and thus secure the inheritance of the Netherlands for his descendants. +Mary, however, distrusted Louis; declined the French alliance, and +turned to her Netherland subjects for help. She obtained the help only +at the price of great concessions. On the 11th of February 1477 she was +compelled to sign a charter of rights, known as "the Great Privilege," +by which the provinces and towns of the Netherlands recovered all the +local and communal rights which had been abolished by the arbitrary +decrees of the dukes of Burgundy in their efforts to create in the Low +Countries a centralized state. Mary had to undertake not to declare war, +make peace, or raise taxes without the consent of the States, and not to +employ any but natives in official posts. Such was the hatred of the +people to the old regime that two influential councillors of Charles the +Bold, the Chancellor Hugonet and the Sire d'Humbercourt, having been +discovered in correspondence with the French king, were executed at +Ghent despite the tears and entreaties of the youthful duchess. Mary now +made her choice among the many suitors for her hand, and selected the +archduke Maximilian of Austria, afterwards the emperor Maximilian I., +and the marriage took place at Ghent on the 18th of August 1477. Affairs +now went more smoothly in the Netherlands, the French aggression was +checked, and internal peace was in a large measure restored, when the +duchess met her death by a fall from her horse on the 27th of March +1482. Three children had been the issue of her marriage, and her elder +son, Philip, succeeded to her dominions under the guardianship of his +father. + + See E. Münch, _Maria von Burgund, nebst d. Leben v. Margaretha v. + York_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1832), and the _Cambridge Mod. Hist._ (vol. + i., c. xii., bibliography, 1903). + + + + +MARY (1496-1533), queen of France, was the daughter of Henry VII. of +England and Elizabeth of York. At first it was intended to marry her to +Charles of Austria, the future emperor Charles V., and by the treaty of +Calais (Dec. 21, 1507) it was agreed that the marriage should take place +when Charles should have attained the age of fourteen, the contract +being secured by bonds taken from various princes and cities in the Low +Countries. On the 17th of December 1508 the Sieur de Bergues, who had +come over as Charles's representative at the head of a magnificent +embassy, married the princess by proxy. The contract, originally made by +Henry VII., was renewed on the 17th of October 1513 by Henry VIII. at a +meeting with Margaret of Savoy at Lille, the wedding being fixed for the +following year. But the emperor Maximilian I., to whom Louis XII. had +proposed his daughter Renée as wife for Charles, with Brittany for +dowry, postponed the match with the English princess in a way that left +no doubt of his intention to withdraw from the contract altogether. He +was forestalled by the diplomacy of Wolsey, at whose instance peace was +signed with France on the 7th of August 1514, and on the same date a +treaty was concluded for the marriage of Mary Tudor with Louis XII., who +had recently lost his wife Anne of Brittany. The marriage was celebrated +at Abbeville on the 9th of October. The bridegroom was a broken man of +fifty-two; the bride a beautiful, well-educated and charming girl of +eighteen, whose heart was already engaged to Charles Brandon, duke of +Suffolk, her future husband. The political marriage was, however, no +long one. Mary was crowned queen of France on the 5th of November 1514; +on the 1st of January following King Louis died. Mary had only been +induced to consent to the marriage with Louis by the promise that, on +his death, she should be allowed to marry the man of her choice. But +there was danger that the agreement would not be kept. In France the +dukes of Lorraine and Savoy were mentioned as possible suitors, and +meanwhile the new king, Francis I., was making advances to her, and only +desisted when she confessed to him her previous attachment to Suffolk. +The duke himself was at the head of the embassy which came from England +to congratulate the new king, and to the detriment of his political +mission he used the opportunity to win the hand of the queen. Francis +good-naturedly promised to use his influence in his favour; Henry VIII. +himself was not averse to the match, but Mary feared the opposition of +the lords of the council, and, in spite of Suffolk's promise to the king +not to take any steps in the matter until after his return, she +persuaded him to marry her secretly before he left Paris. On their +return to England in April, Suffolk was for a while in serious danger +from the king's indignation, but was ultimately pardoned through +Wolsey's intercession, on payment of a heavy fine and the surrender of +all the queen's jewels and plate. The marriage was publicly solemnized +at Greenwich on the 13th of May 1515. Suffolk had been already twice +married, and his first wife was still alive. He thought it necessary +later on (1528) to obtain a bull from Pope Clement VII. declaring his +marriage with his first wife invalid and his union with Mary therefore +canonical. Mary's life after this was comparatively uneventful. She +lived mainly in the retirement of the country, but shared from time to +time in the festivities of the court, and was present at the Field of +the Cloth of Gold. She died on the 24th of June 1533. By the duke of +Suffolk she had three children: Henry, born on the 11th of March 1516, +created earl of Lincoln (1525), who died young; Frances, born on the +16th of July 1517, the wife of Henry Grey, marquess of Northampton, and +mother of Lady Jane Grey (q.v.); and Eleanor. + + See _Lettres de Louis XII. et du cardinal Géorges d'Amboise_ + (Brussels, 1712); _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._ (Cal. State + Pap.); M. A. E. Green, _Lives of the Princesses of England_ (vol. v., + 1849-1855); Life by James Gairdner in _Dict. Nat. Biog._ + + + + +MARY OF LORRAINE (1515-1560), generally known as MARY OF GUISE, queen of +James V. and afterwards regent of Scotland, was born at Bar on the 22nd +of November 1515. She was the eldest child of Claude of Guise and +Antoinette of Bourbon, and married in 1534 Louis II. of Orleans, duke of +Longueville, to whom in 1535 she bore a son, Francis (d. 1551). The duke +died in June 1537, and Mary was sought in marriage by James V., whose +wife Magdalene died in July, and by Henry VIII. after the death of Jane +Seymour. Henry persisted in his offers after the announcement of her +betrothal to James V. Mary, who was made by adoption a daughter of +France, received a papal dispensation for her marriage with James, which +was celebrated by proxy in Paris (May 1538) and at St Andrews on her +arrival in Scotland. Her two sons, James (b. May 1540) and Robert or +Arthur (b. April 1541), died within a few days of one another in April +1541, and her husband died in December 1542, within a week of the birth +of his daughter and heiress, Mary, Queen of Scots. Cardinal David Beton, +the head of the French and Catholic party and therefore Mary of +Lorraine's friend and ally, produced a will of the late king in which +the primacy in the regency was assigned to himself. John Knox accused +the queen of undue intimacy with Beton, and a popular report of a +similar nature, probably unfounded, was revived in 1543 by Sir Ralph +Sadler, the English envoy. Beton was arrested and the regency fell to +the heir presumptive James, earl of Arran, whose inclinations were +towards England and the Protestant party, and who hoped to secure the +hand of the infant princess for his own son. Mary of Lorraine was +approached by the English commissioner, Sir Ralph Sadler, to induce her +to further her daughter's marriage contract with Edward VI. She informed +Sadler that Arran had asked her whether Henry had made propositions of +marriage to herself, and that she had stated that "if Henry should mind +or offer her such an honour she must account herself much bounden." +Sadler further learnt that she was "singularly well affected to Henry's +desires." The marriage treaty between Mary, not then one year old, and +Edward VI. was signed on the 1st of July at Greenwich, and guaranteed +that Mary should be placed in Henry's keeping when she was ten years +old. The queen dowager and her daughter were carefully watched at +Linlithgow, but on the 23rd of July 1543 they escaped, with the help of +Cardinal Beton, to the safer walls of Stirling castle. After the queen's +coronation in September Mary of Lorraine was made principal member of +the council appointed to direct the affairs of the kingdom. She was +constantly in communication with her kinsmen in France, and was already +planning to secure for her daughter a French alliance, which was opposed +on different grounds by all her advisers. She made fresh alliances with +the earl of Angus and Sir George Douglas, and in 1544 she made a +premature attempt to seize the regency; but a reconciliation with Arran +was brought about by Cardinal Beton. The assassination of Beton left her +the cleverest politician in Scotland. The English invasions of 1547, +undertaken with a view to enforcing the English marriage, gave Mary the +desired pretext for a French alliance. In June 1548 a French fleet, with +provisions and 5000 soldiers on board, under the command of André de +Montalembert, seigneur d'Essé, landed at Leith to reinforce the Scots +army, and laid siege to Haddington, then in the hands of the English. +The Scottish parliament agreed to the marriage of the young queen with +the dauphin of France, and, on the plea of securing her safety from +English designs, she set sail from Dumbarton in August 1548 to complete +her education at the French court. + +Mary of Lorraine now gave her energies to the expulsion of the English +and to the difficult task of keeping the peace between the Scots and +their French auxiliaries. In September 1550 she visited France and +obtained from Henry II. the confirmation of the dukedom and revenues of +Châtelherault for the earl of Arran, in the hope of inducing him to +resign the regency. On her way back to Scotland she was driven by storms +to Portsmouth harbour and paid a friendly visit to Edward VI. Arran +refused, however, to relinquish the regency until April 1554, when he +resigned after receiving an assurance of his rights to the succession. +The new regent had to deal with an empty exchequer and with a strong +opposition to her daughter's marriage with the dauphin. The gift of high +offices of state to Frenchmen lent to the Protestant opposition the +aspect of a national resistance to foreign domination. The hostility of +Arran and his brother Archbishop Hamilton forced Mary into friendly +relations with the lords who favoured the Protestant party. Soon after +her marriage miners had been brought from Lorraine to dig for gold at +Crawford Moor, and she now carried on successful mining enterprises for +coal and lead, which enabled her to meet the expenses of her government. +In 1554 she took into her service William Maitland of Lethington, who as +secretary of state gained very great influence over her. She also +provoked a dangerous enemy in John Knox by her expressed contempt for a +letter which he had written to her, but the first revolt against her +authority arose from an attempt to establish a standing army. When she +provoked a war with England in 1557 the nobles refused to cross the +border. In matters of religion she at first tried to hold the balance +between the Catholic and Protestant factions and allowed the +Presbyterian preachers the practice of their religion so long as they +refrained from public preachings in Edinburgh and Leith. The marriage of +Francis II. and her daughter Mary in 1558 strengthened her position, and +in 1559 she relinquished her conciliatory tactics to submit to the +dictation of her relatives, the Guises, by falling more into line with +their religious policy. She was reconciled with Archbishop Hamilton, and +took up arms against the Protestants of Perth, who, incited by Knox, +had destroyed the Charterhouse, where many of the Scottish kings were +buried. The reformers submitted on condition that no foreign garrison +was to be imposed on Perth and that the religious questions in dispute +should be brought before the Scottish parliament. Mary of Lorraine broke +the spirit of this agreement by garrisoning Perth with Scottish troops +in the pay of France. The lords of the Congregation soon assembled in +considerable force on Cupar Muir. Mary retreated to Edinburgh and thence +to Dunbar, while Edinburgh opened its gates to the reformers, who issued +a proclamation (Oct. 21, 1559) claiming that the regent was deposed. The +lords of the Congregation sought help from Elizabeth, while the regent +had recourse to France, where an expedition under her brother, René of +Lorraine, marquis of Elbeuf, was already in preparation. Mary, with the +assistance of a French contingent, began to fortify Leith. The strength +of her opponents was increased by the defection of Châtelherault and his +son Arran; and an even more serious danger was the treachery of her +secretary Maitland, who betrayed her plans to the lords of the +Congregation. In October 1559 they made an unsuccessful attack on Leith +and the seizure of an English convoy on the way to their army by James +Hepburn, earl of Bothwell, increased their difficulties. Mary entered +Edinburgh and conducted a campaign in Fife. Meanwhile Maitland of +Lethington had been at the English court, and an English fleet under +William Winter was sent to the Forth in January 1560 to waylay Elbeuf's +fleet, which was, however, driven back by a storm to Calais. Elbeuf had +been commissioned by Francis I. and Mary to take over Mary's regency on +account of her failing health. An English army under Lord Grey entered +Scotland on the 29th of March 1560, and the regent received an asylum in +Edinburgh castle, which was held strictly neutral by John Erskine. When +she knew that she was dying Mary sent for the lords of the Congregation, +with whom she pleaded for the maintenance of the French alliance. She +even consented to listen to the exhortations of the preacher John +Willock. She died on the 11th of June 1560. Her body was taken to Reims +and buried in the church of the nunnery of St Peter, of which her sister +was abbess. + + The chief sources for her history are the Calendar of State Papers for + the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI. in the Rolls Series; A. + Teulet, _Papiers d état ... relatifs à l'histoire de l'Écosse au XVI^e + siècle_ (Paris, 3 vols., 1851), for the Bannatyne Club; _Hamilton + Papers_, ed. J. Bain (Edinburgh, 2 vols., 1890-1899); _Calendar of + State Papers relating to Scotland and Mary Queen of Scots, 1547-1603_ + (Edinburgh, 2 vols., 1898-1900), &c. There is a Life in Miss + Strickland's _Queens of Scotland_ (vols. i.-ii.) based on original + documents. + + + + +MARY OF MODENA [MARIA BEATRICE ANNE MARGARET ISABEL D'ESTE] (1658-1718), +queen of the English king James II., was the daughter of Alphonso IV., +duke of Modena, and the Duchess Laura, of the Roman family Martinozzi. +She was born at Modena on the 5th of October 1658. Her education was +strict, and her own wish was to be a nun in a convent of the order of +the Visitation founded by her mother. As a princess she was not free to +choose for herself, and was selected, mainly by the king of France, +Louis XIV., as the wife of James, duke of York, heir-presumptive to the +English throne. The duke had become a Roman Catholic, and it was a point +of policy with the French king to provide him with a Roman Catholic +wife. Mary Beatrice of Este was chosen partly on the ground of her known +religious zeal, but also because of her beauty. The marriage was +celebrated by proxy on the 30th of September 1673. She reached England +in November. In later life she confessed that her first feelings towards +her husband could only be expressed by tears. In England the duchess, +who was commonly spoken of as Madam East, was supposed to be an agent of +the pope, who had indeed exerted himself to secure her consent. Her +beauty and her fine manners secured her the respect of her +brother-in-law, Charles II., and she lived on good terms with her +husband's daughters by his first marriage, but she was always disliked +by the nation. The birth of her first son (who died in infancy) on the +16th of January 1675 was regretted. During the Popish Plot, to which +her secretary Coleman was a victim, she went abroad with her husband. +After her husband's accession she suffered much domestic misery through +his infidelity. Her influence on him was unfortunate, for she was a +strong supporter of the Jesuit party which was in favour of extreme +measures. Her second son, James Francis Edward, was born on the 10th of +June (o.s.) 1688. The public refused to believe that the baby was Mary's +child, and declared that a fraud had been perpetrated to secure a Roman +Catholic heir. When the revolution had broken out she made the +disastrous mistake of consenting to escape to France (Dec. 10, 1688) +with her son. She urged her husband to follow her to France when it was +his manifest interest to stay in England, and when he went to Ireland +she pressed incessantly for his return. Her daughter, Louisa Maria, was +born at St Germain on the 28th of June 1692. When her husband died on +the 6th of September 1701, she succeeded in inducing King Louis to +recognize her son as king of England, an act which precipitated the war +of the Spanish Succession. Queen Mary survived her husband for seventeen +years and her daughter for two. She received a pension of 100,000 +crowns, which was largely spent in supporting Jacobite exiles. At the +close of her life she had some success in obtaining payment of her +jointure. She lived at St Germain or at Chaillot, a religious house of +the Visitation. Her death occurred on the 7th of May 1718, and is said +by Saint-Simon to have been that of a saint. + + See Miss Strickland, _Queens of England_ (vols. 9 and 10, London, + 1846); Campana di Cavelli, _Les Derniers Stuarts à Saint-Germain + en-Laye_ (London, 1871); and Martin Haile, _Mary of Modena_ (London, + 1905). + + + + +MARY OF ORANGE (1631-1660), eldest daughter of the English king Charles +I., was born in London on the 4th of November 1631. Her father wished +her to marry a son of Philip IV., king of Spain, while her cousin, the +elector palatine, Charles Louis, was also a suitor for her hand, but +both proposals fell through and she became the wife of a Dutch prince, +William, son of Frederick Henry, prince of Orange. The marriage took +place in London on the 2nd of May 1641, but owing to the tender years of +the bride it was not consummated for several years. However in 1642 Mary +crossed over to Holland with her mother, Queen Henrietta Maria, and in +1644, as the daughter-in-law of the stadtholder, she began to take her +place in public life. In 1647 her husband, William II., succeeded his +father as stadtholder, but three years later, just after his attempt to +capture Amsterdam, he died; a son, afterwards the English king William +III., being born to him a few days later (Nov. 14, 1650). Mary was +obliged to share the guardianship of her infant son with his grandmother +Amelia, the widow of Frederick Henry, and with Frederick William, +elector of Brandenburg; moreover, she was unpopular with the Dutch owing +to her sympathies with her kinsfolk, the Stuarts, and at length public +opinion having been further angered by the hospitality which she showed +to her brothers, Charles II. and James, duke of York, she was forbidden +to receive her relatives. From 1654 to 1657 the princess passed most of +her time away from Holland. In 1657 she was appointed regent on behalf +of her son for the principality of Orange, but the difficulties of her +position led her to implore the assistance of Louis XIV., and the French +king answered by seizing Orange himself. The position both of Mary and +of her son in Holland was greatly bettered through the restoration of +Charles II. in Great Britain. In September 1660 Mary journeyed to +England. She was taken ill of small-pox, and died in London on the 24th +of December 1660, her death, says Bishop Burnet, being "not much +lamented." + + + + +MARYBOROUGH, a market town and the county town of Queen's County, +Ireland. Pop. (1901), 2957. It lies in the broad lowland east of the +Slieve Bloom mountains, on the river Triogue, an affluent of the Barrow, +and on the main line of the Great Southern & Western railway, by which +it is 51 m. W.S.W. of Dublin. The town was chosen as county town in the +reign of Mary (1556), in whose honour both town and county received +their names. Its charter was granted in 1570, but its present +appearance, save a bastion of the ancient castle, is wholly modern. +There are flour-mills and a considerable general trade. Maryborough +returned two members to the Irish parliament from 1585 until the union +in 1800. The singular lofty rock of Dunamase or Dunmall, about 3 m. from +the town, bears on its summit extensive ruins of a castle, originally +belonging to the kings of Leinster, but probably built in the main by +William Bruce (c. 1200) and dismantled in 1650 by Cromwell's troops. + + + + +MARYBOROUGH, a town of March county, Queensland, Australia, on the left +bank and 25 m. from the mouth of the Mary river, 180 m. by rail N. of +Brisbane. Pop. (1901), 10,159. Besides a handsome court-house and town +hall, the principal buildings are the hospital, a technical college, a +library, the Anglican Church of St Paul with a fine tower and peal of +bells, and the grammar schools. There is a large shipbuilding yard, and +breweries, distilleries, a tannery, boot factories, soap works, +saw-mills, flour-mills, carriage works and iron foundries, besides +extensive sugar factories in the neighbourhood. The largest smelting +works in Australia are 5 m. distant, in which ore from all the states is +treated. Maryborough is the port of shipment for a wide agricultural +district yielding maize and sugar, and also for the Gympie gold-fields. +Timber abounds in the neighbourhood and is exported. Maryborough is also +the second coaling port in Queensland, the government railway wharf +being in direct communication with the Burrum coal-fields. + + + + +MARYBOROUGH, a municipal town of Talbot county, Victoria, Australia, 112 +m. by rail N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901), 5633. It has fine government +buildings, a town hall, a botanical garden, and numerous park lands. It +is an important railway centre, and has extensive railway workshops, as +well as coach factories, breweries and foundries. The gold mining of the +district is deep alluvial. Wheat, oats and wine are the chief +agricultural products of the neighbourhood. + + + + +MARYLAND, a South Atlantic state of the United States, and one of the +original thirteen, situated between latitudes 37° 53´ and 39° 44´ N. and +longitudes 75° 4´ and 79° 33´ W. (the precise western boundary has not +been determined). It is bounded N. by Pennsylvania and Delaware; E. by +Delaware and the Atlantic Ocean; S. and W. by the Potomac river and its +north branch, which separate it, except on the extreme W. border, from +Virginia and West Virginia; W., also, by West Virginia. It is one of the +small states of the Union--only seven are smaller--its total area being +12,327 sq. m. of which 2386 sq. m. are water surface. + + _Physical Features._--Maryland is crossed from north to south by each + of the leading topographical regions of the east section of the United + States--the Coastal Plain, the Piedmont Plateau, the Appalachian + Mountains, and the Appalachian Plateau--hence its great diversity of + surface. The portion within the Coastal Plain embraces nearly the + whole of the south-east half of the state and is commonly known as + tide-water Maryland. It is marked off from the Piedmont Plateau by a + "Fall Line" extending from Washington (D.C.) north-east through + Baltimore to a point a little south of the north-east corner of the + state, and is divided by the Chesapeake Bay into two parts known as + the East Shore and the West Shore. The East Shore is a low level + plain, the least elevated section of the state. Along its entire + Atlantic border extends the narrow sandy Sinepuxent Beach, which + encloses a shallow lagoon or bay also called Sinepuxent at the north, + where, except in the extreme north, it is very narrow, and + Chincoteague at the south, where its width is in most places from 4 to + 5 m. Between this and the Chesapeake to the west and north-west there + is a slight general rise, a height of about 100 ft. being reached in + the extreme north. A water-parting extending from north-east to + south-west and close to the Atlantic border separates the East Shore + into two drainage systems, though that next to the Atlantic is + insignificant. That on the Chesapeake side is drained chiefly by the + Pocomoke, Nanticoke, Choptank and Chester rivers, together with their + numerous branches, the general direction of all of which is + south-west. The branches as well as the upper parts of the main + streams flow through broad and shallow valleys; the middle courses of + the main streams wind their way through reed-covered marshes, the + water ebbing and flowing with the tide; in their lower courses they + become estuarine and the water flows between low banks. The West Shore + is somewhat more undulating than the East and also more elevated. Its + general slope is from north-west to south-east; along the west border + are points 300 ft. or more in height. The principal rivers crossing + this section are the Patuxent, Patapsco and Gunpowder, with which may + be grouped the Potomac, forming the state's southern boundary. These + rivers, lined in most instances with terraces 30 to 40 ft. high on one + or both sides, flow south-east into the Chesapeake Bay through valleys + bounded by low hills. The Fall Line, which forms the boundary between + the Coastal Plain and the Piedmont Plateau, is a zone in which a + descent of about 100 ft. or more is made in many places within a few + miles and in consequence is marked by waterfalls, cascades and rapids. + + The part of Maryland within the Piedmont Plateau extends west from the + Fall Line to the base of Catoctin Mountain, or the west border of + Frederick county, and has an area of about 2500 sq. m. In general it + has a broad rolling surface. It is divided into two sections by an + elevated strip known as Parr's Ridge, which extends from north-east to + south-west a short distance west of the middle. The east section rises + from about 450 ft. along the Fall Line to from 850 to 900 ft. along + the summit of Parr's Ridge. Its principal streams are those that cross + the West Shore of the Coastal Plain and here wind their way from + Parr's Ridge rapidly toward the south-east in narrow steep-sided + gorges through broad limestone valleys. To the west of Parr's Ridge + the surface for the most part slopes gently down to the east bank of + the Monocacy river (which flows nearly at a right angle with the + streams east of the Ridge), and then from the opposite bank rises + rapidly toward the Catoctin Mountain; but just above the mouth of the + Monocacy on the east side of the valley is Sugar Loaf Mountain, which + makes a steep ascent of 1250 ft. + + The portion of the state lying within the Appalachian Region is + commonly known as Western Maryland. To the eastward it abounds in + mountains and valleys; to the westward it is a rolling plateau. West + of Catoctin Mountain (1800 ft.) is Middletown Valley, with Catoctin + Creek running through it from north to south, and the Blue Ridge + Mountains (2400 ft.), near the Pennsylvania border, forming its west + slope. Farther west the serrated crests of the Blue Ridge overlook the + Greater Appalachian Valley, here 73 m. in width, the broad + gently-rolling slopes of the Great Cumberland or Hagerstown Valley + occupying its eastern and the Appalachian Ridges its western portion. + Through the eastern portion Antietam Creek to the east and + Conococheague Creek to the west flow rapidly in meandering trenches + that in places exceed 75 ft. in depth. The Appalachian Ridges of the + western portion begin with North Mountain on the east and end with + Wills Mountain on the west. They are long, narrow, uniformly-sloping + and level-crested mountains, extending along parallel lines from + north-east to south-west, and reaching a maximum height in Martin's + Ridge of more than 2000 ft. Overlooking them from the west are the + higher ranges of the Alleghenies, among which the Savage, Backbone and + Negro Mountains reach elevations of 3000 ft. or more. In the extreme + west part of the state these mountains merge, as it were, into a + rolling plateau, the Appalachian Plateau, having an average elevation + of 2500 ft. All rivers of Western Maryland flow south into the Potomac + except in the extreme west, where the waters of the Youghiogheny and + its tributaries flow north into the Monongahela. + + _Fauna and Flora._--In primitive times deer, ducks, turkeys, fish and + oysters were especially numerous, and wolves, squirrels and crows were + a source of annoyance to the early settlers. Deer, black bears and + wild cats (lynx) are still found in some uncultivated sections. Much + more numerous are squirrels, rabbits, "groundhogs" (woodchucks), + opossums, skunks, weasels and minks. Many species of ducks are also + still found; and the reed-bird (bobolink), "partridge" (elsewhere + called quail or "Bob White"), ruffed grouse (elsewhere called + partridge), woodcock, snipe, plover and Carolina rail still abound. + The waters of the Chesapeake Bay are especially rich in oysters and + crabs, and there, also, shad, alewives, "striped" (commonly called + "rock") bass, menhaden, white perch and weak-fish ("sea-trout") occur + in large numbers. Among the more common trees are several species of + oak, pine, hickory, gums and maple, and the chestnut, the poplar, the + beech, the cypress and the red cedar; the merchantable pine has been + cut, but the chestnut and other hard woods of West Maryland are still + a product of considerable value. Among wild fruit-trees are the + persimmon and Chickasaw plum; grape-vines and a large variety of + berry-bushes grow wild and in abundance. + + _Climate._--The climate of Maryland in the south-east is influenced by + ocean and bay--perhaps also by the sandy soil--while in the west it is + influenced by the mountains. The prevailing winds are westerly; but + generally north-west in winter in the west section and south-west in + summer in the south section. In the south the normal winter is mild, + the normal summer rather hot; in the west the normal winter is cold, + the normal summer cool. The normal average annual temperature for the + entire state is between 53° and 54° F., ranging from 48° at + Grantsville in the north-west to 53° at Darlington in the north-east, + and to 57° at Princess Anne in the south-east. The normal temperature + for the state during July (the warmest month) is 75.2° F., and during + January (the coldest month) 32.14° F. Although the west section is + generally much the cooler in summer, yet both of the greatest extremes + recorded since 1891 were at points not far apart in Western Maryland: + 109° F. at Boettcherville and -26° F. at Sunnyside. The normal annual + precipitation for the state is about 43 in. It is greatest, about 53 + in., on the east slope of Catoctin Mountain, owing to the elevations + which obstruct the moisture-bearing winds, and is above the average + along the middle of the shores of the Chesapeake. It is least, from 25 + to 35 in., in the Greater Appalachian Valley, in the south on the West + Shore, and along the Atlantic border. During spring and summer the + precipitation throughout the state is about 2 in. more than during + autumn and winter. + + _Soils and Agriculture._--The great variety of soils is one of the + more marked features of Maryland. On the East Shore to the north is a + marly loam overlying a yellowish-red clay sub-soil, to the south is a + soil quite stiff with light coloured clay, while here and there, + especially in the middle and south, are considerable areas both of + light sandy soils and tidal marsh loams. On the West Shore the soils + range from a light sandy loam in the lower levels south from Baltimore + to rather heavy loams overlying a yellowish clay on the rolling + uplands and on the terraces along the Potomac and Patuxent. Crossing + the state along the lower edge of the Fall Line is a belt heavy with + clay, but so impervious to water as to be of little value for + agricultural purposes. The soils of the Piedmont Plateau east of + Parr's Ridge are, like the underlying rocks, exceptionally variable in + composition, texture and colour. For the most part they are + considerably heavier with clay than are those of the Coastal Plain, + and better adapted to general agricultural purposes. Light loams, + however, are found both in the north-east and south-east. A soil of + very close texture, the gabbro, is found, most largely in the + north-east. Alluvial loams occupy the narrow river valleys; but the + most common soil of the section is that formed from gneiss with a + large per cent. of clay in the subsoil. West of Parr's Ridge in the + Piedmont, the principal soils are those the character of which is + determined either by decomposed red sandstone or by decomposed + limestone. In the east portion of the mountainous region the soil so + well adapted to peach culture contains much clay, together with + particles of Cambrian sandstone. In Hagerstown Valley are rich red or + yellow limestone-clay soils. The Allegheny ridges have only a thin + stony soil; but good limestone, sandstone, shale and alluvial soils, + occur in the valleys and in some of the plateaus of the extreme west. + + Of the total land surface of the state 82% was in 1900 included in + farms and 68% of the farmland was improved. There were 46,012 farms, + of which 15,833 contained less than 50 acres, 3940 contained 260 acres + or more, and 79 contained 1,000 acres or more--the average size being + 112.4 acres. In 1890, 69% of the farms were worked by the owners or + their managers, in 1900 only 66.4%; but share tenants outnumber cash + tenants by almost three to one. Of the total number of farms about + seven times as many are operated by white as by negro farmers, though + the number of farms operated by white share tenants outnumber those + operated by negro share tenants by only about five to one. Of all the + inhabitants of the state, at least ten years old, who in 1900 were + engaged in gainful occupations, 20.8% were farmers. The leading + agricultural pursuits are the growing of Indian corn and wheat and the + raising of livestock, yet it is in the production of fruits, + vegetables and tobacco, that Maryland ranks highest as an agricultural + state, and in no other state except South Carolina is so large a per + cent. of the value of the crop expended for fertilizers. In 1907, + according to the _Year Book_ of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, + the Indian corn crop was 22,196,000 bushels, valued at $11,986,000; + the wheat crop was 14,763,000 bushels, valued at $14,172,000; the oat + crop was 825,000 bushels, valued at $404,000; and the crop of rye was + 315,000 bushels, valued at $236,000. Of the livestock, hogs were the + most numerous in 1900, cattle next, sheep third, and horses fourth. + The hay and forage crop of 1899 (exclusive of corn-stalks) grew on + 374,848 acres. Until after the middle of the 18th century tobacco was + the staple crop of Maryland, and the total yield did not reach its + maximum until 1860 when the crop amounted to 51,000 hhds.; from this + it decreased to 14,000 hhds., or 12,356,838 lb. in 1889; in 1899 it + rose again to 24,589,480 lb., in 1907 the crop was only 16,962,000 + lb., less than that of nine other states. In market-garden products, + including small fruits, Maryland ranked in 1899 sixth among the states + of the Union, the crop being valued at $4,766,760, an increase of + 350.9% over that of 1889. In the yield both of strawberries and of + tomatoes it ranked first; the yield of raspberries and blackberries is + also large. In its crop of green-peas Maryland was exceeded (1899) by + New York only; in sweet Indian corn it ranked fifth; in kale, second; + in spinach, third; in cabbages, ninth. The number of peach-trees, + especially in the west part of the state, where the quality is of the + best, is rapidly increasing, and in the yield of peaches and + nectarines the state ranked thirteenth in 1899; in the yield of pears + it ranked fifth; in apples seventeenth. + + The Indian-corn, wheat and livestock sections of the state, are in the + Piedmont Plateau, the Hagerstown Valley and the central portion of the + East Shore. Garrett county in the extreme north-west, however, raises + the largest number of sheep. Most of the tobacco is grown in the south + counties of the West Shore. The great centre for vegetables and small + fruits is in the counties bordering on the north-west shore of the + Chesapeake, and in Howard, Frederick and Washington counties, directly + west, Anne Arundel county producing the second largest quantity of + strawberries of all the counties in the Union in 1899. Peaches and + pears grow in large quantities in Kent and neighbouring counties on + the East Shore and in Washington and Frederick counties; apples grow + in abundance in all parts of the Piedmont Plateau. + + The woodland area of the state in 1900 was 4400 sq. m., about 44% + (estimated in 1907 to be 3450 sq. m., about 35%) of the total land + area, but with the exception of considerable oak and chestnut, some + maple and other hard woods in west Maryland, about all of the + merchantable timber has been cut. The lumber industry, nevertheless, + has steadily increased in importance, the value of the product in 1860 + amounting to only $605,864, that in 1890 to $1,600,472, and that in + 1900 to $2,650,082, of which sum $2,495,169 was the value of products + under the factory system; in 1905 the value of the factory product was + $2,750,339. + + _Fisheries._--In 1897 the value of the fishery product of Maryland was + exceeded only by that of Massachusetts, but by 1901, although it had + increased somewhat during the four years, it was exceeded by the + product of New Jersey, of Virginia and of New York. Oysters constitute + more than 80% of the total value, the product in 1901 amounting to + 5,685,561 bushels, and being valued at $3,031,518. The supply on + natural beds has been diminishing, but the planting of private beds + promises a large increase. Crabs are next in value and are caught + chiefly along the East Shore and in Anne Arundel and Calvert counties + on the West Shore. Shad, to the number of 3,111,181 and valued at + $120,602, were caught during 1901. In Somerset and Worcester counties + clams are a source of considerable value. The terrapin catch decreased + in value from $22,333 in 1891 to $1,139 in 1901. The total value of + the fish product of 1901 was $3,767,461. The state laws for the + protection of fish and shell-fish were long carelessly enforced + because of the fishermen's strong feeling against them, but this + sentiment has slowly changed and enforcement has become more vigorous. + + _Minerals and Manufactures._--The coal deposits, which form a part of + the well-known Cumberland field, furnish by far the most important + mineral product of the state; more than 98% of this, in 1901, was + mined in Allegany county from a bed about 20 m. long and 5 m. wide and + the remainder in Garrett county, whose deposits, though undeveloped, + are of great value. The coal is of two varieties: bituminous and + semi-bituminous. The bituminous is of excellent quality for the + manufacture of coke and gas, but up to 1902 had been mined only in + small quantities. Most of the product has been of the semi-bituminous + variety and of the best quality in the country for the generation of + steam. Nearly all the high grade blacksmithing coal mined in the + United States comes from Maryland. The deposits were discovered early + in the 19th century (probably first in 1804 near the present + Frostburg), but were not exploited until railway transport became + available in 1842, and the output was not large until after the close + of the Civil War; in 1865 it was 1,025,208 short tons, from which it + steadily increased to 5,532,628 short tons in 1907. From 1722 until + the War of Independence the iron-ore product of North and West + Maryland was greater than that of any of the other colonies, but since + then ores of superior quality have been discovered in other states and + the output in Maryland, taken chiefly from the west border of the + Coastal Plain in Anne Arundel and Prince George's counties, has become + comparatively of little importance--24,367 long tons in 1902 and only + 8269 tons in 1905. Gold, silver and copper ores, have been found in + the state, and attempts have been made to mine them, without much + success. The Maryland building stone, of which there is an abundance + of good quality, consists chiefly of granites, limestones, slate, + marble and sandstones, the greater part of which is quarried in the + east section of the Piedmont Plateau especially in Cecil county, + though some limestones, including those from which hydraulic cement is + manufactured, and some sandstones are obtained from the western part + of the Piedmont Plateau and the east section of the Appalachian + region; the value of stone quarried in the state in 1907 was + $1,439,355, of which $1,183,753 was the value of granite, $142,825 + that of limestone, $98,918 that of marble, and $13,859 that of + sandstone. Brick, potter's and tile clays are obtained most largely + along the west border of the Coastal Plain, and fire-clay from the + coal region of West Maryland; in 1907 the value of clay products was + $1,886,362. Materials for porcelain, including flint, feldspar and + kaolin, abound in the east portion of the Piedmont, the kaolin chiefly + in Cecil county, and material for mineral paint in Anne Arundel and + Prince George's counties, as well as farther north-west. + + [Illustration: Map of Maryland and Delaware.] + + Between 1850 and 1900, while the population increased 103.8%, the + average number of wage-earners employed in manufacturing + establishments increased 258.5%, constituting 5.2% of the total + population in 1850 and 9.1% in 1900. In 1900 the total value of + manufactured goods was $242,552,990, an increase of 41.1% over that of + 1890. Of the total given for 1900, $211,076,143 was the value of + products under the factory system; and in 1905 the value of factory + products was $243,375,996, being 15.3% more than in 1900. The products + of greatest value in 1905 were: custom-made men's clothing; fruits and + vegetables and oysters, canned and preserved; iron and steel; foundry + and machine-shop products, including stoves and furnaces; flour and + grist mill products; tinware, coppersmithing and sheet iron working; + fertilizers; slaughtering and meat-packing; cars and repairs by + steam railways; shirts; cotton goods; malt liquors; and cigars and + cigarettes. In the value of fertilizers manufactured, and in that of + oysters canned and preserved, Maryland was first among the states in + 1900 and second in 1905; in 1900 and in 1905 it was fourth among the + states in the value of men's clothing. Baltimore is still the great + manufacturing centre, but of the state's total product the percentage + in value of that manufactured there decreased from 82.5 in 1890 to + 66.5 in 1900, and to 62.3 (of the factory product) in 1905. The + largest secondary centres are Cumberland, Hagerstown and Frederick the + total value of whose factory products in 1905 was less than + $10,000,000. + + _Communications._--Tide-water Maryland is afforded rather unusual + facilities of water transportation by the Chesapeake Bay, with its + deep channel, numerous deep inlets and navigable tributaries, together + with the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, which crosses the state of + Delaware and connects its waters with those of the Delaware river and + bay. As early as 1783 steps were taken to extend these facilities to + the navigable waters of the Ohio, chiefly by improving the navigation + of the Potomac above Georgetown. By 1820 this project was merged into + a movement for a Chesapeake and Ohio canal along the same line. Ground + was broken in 1828 and in 1850 the canal was opened to navigation from + Georgetown to Cumberland, a distance of 186 m. In 1878 and again in + 1889 it was wrecked by a freshet, and since then has been of little + service.[1] However, on the same day that ground was broken for this + canal, ground was also broken for the Baltimore & Ohio railway, of + which 15 m. was built in 1828-1830 and which was one of the first + steam railway lines in operation in the United States. Since then + railway building has progressed steadily. In Maryland (and including + the District of Columbia) there were 259 m. of railway in 1850, 386 m. + in 1860, 671 m. in 1870, and 1040 m. in 1880; in 1890, in Maryland + alone, the mileage was 1270.04 m., and in 1909 it was 1394.19 m. The + more important railway lines are the Baltimore & Ohio, the + Philadelphia, Baltimore & Washington (controlled by the Pennsylvania + and a consolidation of the Philadelphia, Wilmington & Baltimore, and + the Baltimore & Potomac), the Western Maryland, the West Virginia + Central & Pittsburg (leased by the Western Maryland), the Northern + Central, the Maryland electric railways (including what was formerly + the Baltimore & Annapolis Short Line), and the Washington, Baltimore & + Annapolis electric railway. Baltimore is the chief railway centre and + its harbour is one of the most important in the country. + +_Inhabitants._--The population of Maryland in 1880 was 934,943; in 1890, +1,042,390, an increase of 11.5%; in 1900, 1,188,044 (14%); in 1910, +1,295,346 (increase 9%).[2] Of the total population in 1900 there were +952,424 whites, 235,064 negroes, 544 Chinese, 9 Japanese and 3 Indians, +the increase in the white population from 1890 to 1900 being 15.2%, +while that of the negroes was only 9%. In 1900 there were 1,094,110 +native born to 93,934 foreign-born, and of the foreign-born 44,990 were +natives of Germany and 68,600 were residents of the city of Baltimore. +The urban population, i.e. total population of cities of 4000 or more +inhabitants, in 1900, was 572,795, or 48.2% of the total and an increase +of 16.6% over that of 1890; while the rural population, i.e. population +outside of incorporated places, was 539,685, an increase of about 8% +over that of 1890. There are about 59 religious sects, of which the +members of the Roman Catholic Church, which was prominent in the early +history of Maryland, are far the most numerous, having in 1906 166,941 +members out of 473,257 communicants of all denominations; in the same +year there were 137,156 Methodists, 34,965 Protestant Episcopalians, +32,246 Lutherans, 30,928 Baptists, 17,895 Presbyterians and 13,442 +members of the Reformed Church in the United States. The chief cities +are Baltimore, pop. (1910) 558,485, Cumberland 21,839, Hagerstown +16,507, Frederick 10,411 and Annapolis 8609. + +_Government._--The state constitution of 1867, the one now in force, has +been frequently amended, all that is required for its amendment being a +three-fifths vote of all of the members elected to each of the two +houses of the General Assembly, followed by a majority vote of the state +electorate, and it is further provided that once in twenty years, +beginning with 1887, the wish of the people in regard to calling a +convention for altering the constitution shall be ascertained by a poll. +Any constitution or constitutional amendment proposed by such +constitutional convention comes into effect only if approved by a +majority of the votes cast in a popular election. Since 1870 suffrage +has been the right of all male citizens (including negroes) twenty-one +years of age or over who shall have lived within the state for one year +and within the county or the legislative district of the city of +Baltimore in which they may offer to vote for six months immediately +preceding an election; persons convicted of larceny or other infamous +crime and not since pardoned by the governor, as well as lunatics or +those who have been convicted of bribery at a previous election are +excepted. In 1908 the General Assembly passed a law providing for annual +direct primary elections (outside of Baltimore; and making the Baltimore +special primary law applicable to state as well as city officials), but, +as regards state officers, making only a slight improvement upon +previous conditions inasmuch as the county or district is the unit and +the vote of county or district merely "instructs" delegates to the +party's state nominating convention, representation in which is not +strictly in proportion to population, the rural counties having an +advantage over Baltimore; no nomination petition is required. In the +same year a separate law was passed providing for primary elections for +the choice of United States senators; but here also the method is not +that of nomination by a plurality throughout the state, but by the vote +of counties and legislative districts, so that this measure, like the +other primary law, is not sufficiently direct to give Baltimore a vote +proportional to its population. + + The chief executive authority is vested in a governor elected by + popular vote for a term of four years. Since becoming a state Maryland + has had no lieutenant-governor except under the constitution of 1864; + and the office of governor is to be filled in case of a vacancy by + such person as the General Assembly may elect.[3] Any citizen of + Maryland may be elected to the office who is thirty years of age or + over, who has been for ten years a citizen of the state, who has lived + in the state for five years immediately preceding election, and who is + at the time of his election a qualified voter therein. Until 1838 the + governor had a rather large appointing power, but since that date most + of the more important offices have been filled by popular election. + He, however, still appoints, subject to the confirmation of the + senate, the secretary of state, the superintendent of public + education, the commissioner of the land office, the adjutant-general, + justices of the peace, notaries public, the members of numerous + administrative boards, and other administrative officers. He is + himself one of the board of education, of the board of public works, + and of the board for the management of the house of correction. No + veto power whatever was given to the governor until 1867, when, in the + present constitution, it was provided that no bill vetoed by him + should become a law unless passed over his veto by a three-fifths vote + of the members elected to each house, and an amendment of 1890 + (ratified by the people in 1891) further provides that any item of a + money bill may likewise be separately vetoed. The governor's salary is + fixed by the constitution at $4500 a year. Other executive officers + are a treasurer, elected by joint ballot of the General Assembly for a + term of two years, a comptroller elected by popular vote for a similar + term, and an attorney-general elected by popular vote for four years. + + The legislature, or General Assembly, meets biennially in + even-numbered years, at Annapolis, and consists of a Senate and a + House of Delegates. Senators are elected, one from each of the + twenty-three counties and one from each of the four legislative + districts of the city of Baltimore, for a term of four years, the + terms of one-half expiring every two years. Delegates are elected for + a term of two years, from each county and from each legislative + district of Baltimore, according to population, as follows: for a + population of 18,000 or less, two delegates; 18,000 to 28,000, three; + 28,000 to 40,000, four; 40,000 to 55,000, five; 55,000 and upwards, + six. Each legislative district of Baltimore is entitled to the number + of delegates to which the largest county shall or may be entitled + under the foregoing apportionment, and the General Assembly may from + time to time alter the boundaries of Baltimore city districts in order + to equalize their population. This system of apportionment gives to + the rural counties a considerable political advantage over the city of + Baltimore, which, with 42.8% of the total population according to the + census of 1900, has only 4 out of 27 members of the Senate and only 24 + out of 101 members of the House of Delegates. Since far back in the + colonial era, no minister, preacher, or priest has been eligible to a + seat in either house. A senator must be twenty-five years of age or + over, and both senators and delegates must have lived within the state + at least three years and in their county or legislative district at + least one year immediately preceding their election. + + The constitution provides that no bill or joint resolution shall pass + either house except by an affirmative vote of a majority of all the + members elected to that house and requires that on the final vote the + yeas and nays be recorded. + + _Justice, &c._--The administration of justice is entrusted to a court + of appeals, circuit courts, special courts for the city of Baltimore, + orphans' courts, and justices of the peace. Exclusive of the city of + Baltimore, the state is divided into seven judicial circuits, in each + of which are elected for a term of fifteen years one chief judge and + two associate judges, who at the time of their election must be + members of the Maryland bar, between the ages of thirty and seventy, + and must have been residents of the state for at least five years. The + seven chief judges so elected, together with one elected from the city + of Baltimore, constitute the court of appeals, the governor with the + advice and consent of the senate designating one of the eight as chief + judge of that court. The court has appellate jurisdiction only. The + three judges elected in each circuit constitute the circuit court of + each of the several counties in such circuit. The courts have both + original and appellate jurisdiction and are required to hold at least + two sessions to which jurors shall be summoned every year in each + county of its circuit, and if only two such terms are held, there must + be two other and intermediate terms to which jurors shall not be + summoned. Three other judges are elected for four-year terms, in each + county and in the city of Baltimore to constitute an orphans' court. + The number of justices of the peace for each county is fixed by local + law; they are appointed by the governor, subject to the confirmation + of the Senate, for a term of two years. + + In the colonial era Maryland had an interesting list of governmental + subdivisions--the manor, the hundred, the parish, the county, and the + city--but the two last are about all that remain and even these are in + considerable measure subject to the special local acts of the General + Assembly. In general, each county has from three to seven + commissioners--the number is fixed by county laws--elected on a + general ticket of each county for a term of from two to six years, + entrusted with the charge and control of property owned by the county, + empowered to appoint constables, judges of elections, collectors of + taxes, trustees of the poor, and road supervisors, to levy taxes, to + revise taxable valuations of real property, and open or close public + roads. + + In Maryland a wife holds her property as if single except that she can + convey real estate only by a joint deed with her husband (this + requirement being for the purpose of effecting a release of the + husband's "dower interest"), neither husband nor wife is liable for + the separate debts of the other, and on the death of either the rights + of the survivor in the estate of the other are about equal. + Wife-beating is made punishable by whipping in gaol, not exceeding + forty lashes. Prior to 1841 a divorce was granted by the legislature + only, from then until 1851 it could be granted by either the + legislature or the equity courts, since 1851 by the courts only. The + grounds for a divorce _a mensa et thoro_, which may be granted for + ever or for a limited time only, are cruelty, excessively vicious + conduct, or desertion; for a divorce _a vinculo matrimonii_ the chief + grounds are impotence at the time of marriage, adultery or deliberate + abandonment for three years. There is no homestead exemption law and + exemptions from levy for the satisfaction of debts extend only to $100 + worth of property, besides wearing apparel and books and tools used by + the debtor in his profession or trade, and to all money payable in the + nature of insurance. Employers of workmen in a clay or coal mine, + stone quarry, or on a steam or street railway are liable for damage in + case of an injury to any of their workmen where such injury is caused + by the negligence of the employer or of any servant or employee of the + employer. The chief of the bureau of labour statistics is directed in + case of danger of a strike or lockout to seek to mediate between the + parties and if unsuccessful in that, then to endeavour to secure their + consent to the formation of a board of arbitration. + + The state penal and charitable institutions include a penitentiary at + Baltimore; a house of correction at Jessups, two houses of refuge at + Baltimore; a house of reformation in Prince George's county; St Mary's + industrial school for boys at Baltimore; an industrial home for negro + girls at Melvale; an asylum and training school for the feeble-minded + at Owings Mills; an infirmary at Cumberland; the Maryland hospital for + the insane at Catonsville; the Springfield state hospital for the + insane; the Maryland school for the deaf and dumb at Frederick city; + and the Maryland school for the blind at Baltimore. Each of these is + under the management of a board appointed by the governor subject to + the confirmation of the senate. Besides these there are a large number + of state-aided charitable institutions. In 1900 there was created a + board of state aid and charities, composed of seven members appointed + by the governor for a term of two years, not more than four to be + reappointed. There is also a state lunacy commission of four members, + who are appointed for terms of four years, one annually, by the + governor. + + _Education._--The basis of the present common school system was laid + in 1865, after which a marked development was accompanied by some + important changes in the system and its administration, and the + percentage of total illiteracy (i.e. inability to write among those + ten years old and over) decreased from 19.3 in 1800 to 11.1 in 1900, + while illiteracy among the native whites decreased during the same + period from 7.8 to 4.1 and among negroes from 59.6 to 35.2. At the + head of the system is a state board and a state superintendent, and + under these in each county is a county board which appoints a + superintendent for the county and a board of trustees for each school + district none of which is to be more than four miles square. The state + board is composed of the governor as its president, the state + superintendent as its secretary, six other members appointed by the + governor for a term of six years, and, as _ex-officio_ members without + the right to vote, the principals of the state and other normal + schools. Prior to 1900 the principal of the state normal was + _ex-officio_ state superintendent, but since then the superintendent + has been appointed by the governor for a term of four years. Each + county board is also appointed by the governor for a term of six + years. In both the state and the county boards at least one-third of + the members appointed by the governor are not to be of the dominant + political party and only one-third of the members are to be appointed + every two years. The state board enacts by-laws for the administration + of the system; its decision of controversies arising under the school + law is final; it may suspend or remove a county superintendent for + inefficiency or incompetency; it issues life state certificates, but + applicants must have had seven years of experience in teaching, five + in Maryland, and must hold a first-class certificate or a college or + normal school diploma; and it pensions teachers who have taught + successfully for twenty-five years in any of the public or normal + schools of the state, who have reached the age of sixty, and who have + become physically or mentally incapable of teaching longer, the + pension amounting to $200 a year. The legislature of 1908 passed a law + under which the minimum pay for a teacher holding a first-class + certificate should be $350 a year after three years' teaching, $400 + after five years' teaching and $450 after eight years' teaching. By a + law of 1904 all teachers who taught an average of 15 pupils were to + receive at least $300. School books are purchased out of the proceeds + of the school tax, but parents may purchase if they prefer. In 1908 + the average school year was nine and seven-tenths months--ten in the + cities and nine and four-tenths in the counties; the aim is ten months + throughout, and a law of 1904 provides that if a school is taught less + than nine months a portion of the funds set apart for it shall be + withheld. A compulsory education law of 1902--to operate, however, + only in the city of Baltimore and in Allegany county--requires the + attendance for the whole school year of children between the ages of + eight and twelve and also of those between the ages of twelve and + sixteen who are not employed at home or elsewhere. A separate school + for negro children is to be maintained in every election district in + which the population warrants it. The system is maintained by a state + tax of 16 cents on each $100 of taxable property. + + The higher state educational institutions are two normal schools and + one agricultural college. One of the normal schools was opened in + Baltimore in 1866, the other at Frostburg in 1904. Both are under the + management of the state Board of Education, which appoints the + principals and teachers and prescribes the course of study. There is + besides, in Washington College at Chestertown, a normal department + supported by the state and under the supervision of the state Board of + Education. The Maryland Agricultural College, to which an experiment + station has been added, was opened in 1859; it is at College Park in + Prince George's county, and is largely under state management. + Maryland supports no state university, but Johns Hopkins University, + one of the leading institutions of its kind in the country, receives + $25,000 a year from the state; the medical department of the + university of Maryland receives an annual appropriation of about + $2500, and St John's College, the academic department of the + university of Maryland, receives from the state $13,000 annually and + gives for each county in the state one free scholarship and one + scholarship covering all expenses. Among the principal institutions in + the state are the university of Maryland, an outgrowth of the medical + college of Maryland (1807) in Baltimore, with a law school + (reorganized in 1869), a dental school (1882), a school of pharmacy + (1904), and, since 1907, a department of arts and science in St John's + College (non-sect., opened in 1789) at Annapolis; Washington College, + with a normal department (non-sect., opened in 1782) at Chestertown; + Mount St Mary's College (Roman Catholic, 1808) at Emmitsburg; New + Windsor College (Presbyterian, 1843) at New Windsor; St Charles + College (Roman Catholic, opened in 1848) and Rock Hill College (Roman + Catholic, 1857) near Ellicott City; Loyola College (Roman Catholic, + 1852) at Baltimore; Western Maryland College (Methodist Protestant, + 1867) at Westminster; Johns Hopkins University (non-sect., 1876) at + Baltimore; Morgan College (coloured, Methodist, 1876) at Baltimore; + Goucher College (Methodist, founded 1884, opened 1888) at Baltimore; + several professional schools mostly in Baltimore (q.v.); the Peabody + Institute at Baltimore; and the United States Naval Academy at + Annapolis. + + _Revenue._--The state's revenue is derived from a general direct + property tax, a licence tax, corporation taxes, a collateral + inheritance tax, fines, forfeitures and fees; and the penitentiary + yields an annual net revenue of about $40,000. There is no provision + for a general periodic assessment, but a state tax commissioner + appointed by the governor, treasurer and comptroller assesses the + corporations, and the county commissioners (in the counties) and the + appeal tax court (in the city of Baltimore) revise valuations of real + property every two years. From 1820 to 1836 Maryland, in its + enthusiasm over internal improvements, incurred an indebtedness of + more than $16,000,000. To meet the interest, such heavy taxes were + levied that anti-tax associations were formed to resist the + collection, and in 1842 the state failed to pay what was due; but the + accumulated interest had been funded by 1848 and was paid soon + afterwards, the expenses of the government were curtailed by the + constitution of 1851, and after the Civil War the amount of + indebtedness steadily decreased until in 1902 the funded debt was + $6,909,326 and the net debt only $2,797,269.13, while on the 1st of + October 1908 the net debt was $366,643.91. As a result of incurring + the large debt, a clause in the constitution prohibits the legislature + from contracting a debt without providing by the imposition of taxes + for the payment of the interest annually and the principal within + fifteen years, except to meet a temporary deficiency not exceeding + $50,000. The first bank of the state was established in 1790, and by + 1817 there was one in each of twelve counties and several in + Baltimore; in 1818-1820 and in 1837-1839 there were several serious + bank failures, but there have been no serious failures since. A + constitutional provision makes each stockholder in a state bank liable + to the amount of his share or shares for all the bank's debts and + liabilities. A savings bank is taxed on its deposits, and a state bank + is taxed on its capital-stock. + +_History._--The history of Maryland begins in 1632 with the procedure of +Charles I. to grant a charter conveying almost unlimited territorial and +governmental rights therein to George Calvert, first Lord Baltimore +(1580?-1632), and styling him its absolute lord and proprietor. George +Calvert died before the charter had passed the great seal, but about two +months later in the same year it was issued to his eldest son, Cecilius. +In November 1633 two vessels, the "Ark" and the "Dove," carrying at +least two hundred colonists under Leonard Calvert (c. 1582-1647), a +brother of the proprietor, as governor, sailed from Gravesend and +arrived in Maryland late in March of the following year. Friendly +relations were at the outset established with the Indians, and the +province never had much trouble with that race; but with William +Claiborne (1589?-1676?), the arch-enemy of the province as long as he +lived, it was otherwise. He had opposed the grant of the Maryland +charter, had established a trading post on Kent Island in Chesapeake Bay +in 1631, and when commanded to submit to the new government he and his +followers offered armed resistance. A little later, during his temporary +absence in England, his followers on the island were reduced to +submission; but in 1644, while the Civil War in England was in progress, +he was back in the province assisting Richard Ingle, a pirate who +claimed to be acting in the interest of parliament, in raising an +insurrection which deprived Governor Calvert of his office for about a +year and a half. Finally, the lord proprietor was deprived of his +government from 1654 to 1658 in obedience to instructions from +parliament which were originally intended to affect only Virginia, but +were so modified, through the influence of Claiborne and some Puritan +exiles from Virginia who had settled in Maryland, as to apply also to +"the plantations within Chesapeake Bay." Then the long continued unrest +both in the mother country and in the province seems to have encouraged +Josias Fendall, the proprietor's own appointee as governor, to strike a +blow against the proprietary government and attempt to set up a +commonwealth in its place; but this revolt was easily suppressed and +order was generally preserved in the province from the English +Restoration of 1660 to the English Revolution of 1688. + +Meanwhile an interesting internal development had been in progress. The +proprietor was a Roman Catholic and probably it was his intention that +Maryland should be an asylum for persecuted Roman Catholics, but it is +even more clear that he was desirous of having Protestant colonists +also. To this end he promised religious toleration from the beginning +and directed his officers accordingly; this led to the famous toleration +act passed by the assembly in 1649, which, however, extended its +protection only to sects of Trinitarian Christianity. Again, although +the charter reserved to the proprietor the right of calling an assembly +of the freemen or their delegates at such times and in such form and +manner as he should choose, he surrendered in 1638 his claim to the sole +right of initiating legislation. By 1650 the assembly had been divided +into two houses, in one of which sat only the representatives of the +freemen without whose consent no bill could become a law, and annual +sessions as well as triennial elections were coming to be the usual +order. When suffrage had thus come to be a thing really worth +possessing, the proprietor, in 1670, sought to check the opposition by +disfranchising all freemen who did not have a freehold of fifty acres or +a visible estate of forty pounds sterling. But this step was followed by +more and more impassioned complaints against him, such as: that he was +interfering with elections, that he was summoning only a part of the +delegates elected, that he was seeking to overawe those summoned, that +he was abusing his veto power, and that he was keeping the government in +the hands of Roman Catholics, who were mostly members of his own family. +About this time also the north and east boundaries of the province were +beginning to suffer from the aggressions of William Penn. The territory +now forming the state of Delaware was within the boundaries defined by +the Maryland charter, but in 1682 it was transferred by the duke of York +to William Penn and in 1685 Lord Baltimore's claim to it was denied by +an order in council, on the ground that it had been inhabited by +Christians before the Maryland charter was granted. In the next place, +although it was clear from the words of the charter that the parallel of +40° N. was intended for its north boundary, and although Penn's charter +prescribed that Pennsylvania should extend on the south to the +"beginning of the fortieth degree of Northern Latitude," a controversy +arose with regard to the boundary between the two provinces, and there +was a long period of litigation; in 1763-1767 Charles Mason and Jeremiah +Dixon, two English mathematicians, established the line named from them +(see MASON AND DIXON LINE), which runs along the parallel 39° 43´ 26´´.3 +N. and later became famous as the dividing line between the free states +and the slave states. While the proprietor was absent defending his +claims against Penn the English Revolution of 1688 was started. Owing to +the death of a messenger there was long delay in proclaiming the new +monarchs in Maryland; this delay, together with a rumor of a Popish plot +to slaughter the Protestants, enabled the opposition to overthrow the +proprietary government, and then the crown, in the interest of its trade +policy, set up a royal government in its place, in 1692, without, +however, divesting the proprietor of his territorial rights. Under the +royal government the Church of England was established, the people +acquired a strong control of their branch of the legislature and they +were governed more by statute law and less by executive ordinance. The +proprietor having become a Protestant, the proprietary government was +restored in 1715. Roman Catholics were disfranchised immediately +afterward. In 1730 Germans began to settle in considerable numbers in +the west-central part of the colony, where they greatly promoted its +industrial development but at the same time added much strength to the +opposition. The first great dispute between proprietor and people after +the restoration of 1715 was with regard to the extension of the English +statutes to Maryland, the popular branch of the legislature vigorously +contending that all such statutes except those expressly excluded +extended to the province, and the lord proprietor contending that only +those in which the dominions were expressly mentioned were in force +there. Many other disputes speedily followed and when the final struggle +between the English and French for possession in America came, although +appropriations were made at its beginning to protect her own west +frontier from the attacks of the enemy, a dead-lock between the two +branches of the assembly prevented Maryland from responding to repeated +appeals from the mother country for aid in the latter part of that +struggle. This failure was used as an argument in favour of imposing the +famous Stamp Act. Nevertheless, popular clamour against parliament on +account of that measure was even greater than it had been against the +proprietor. The stamp distributor was driven out, and the arguments of +Daniel Dulany (1721-1797), the ablest lawyer in the province, against +the act were quoted by speakers in parliament for its repeal. + +In the years immediately preceding the Declaration of Independence +Maryland pursued much the same course as did other leading colonies in +the struggle--a vessel with tea on board was even burned to the water's +edge--and yet when it came to the decisive act of declaring independence +there was hesitation. As the contest against the proprietor had been +nearly won, the majority of the best citizens desired the continuance of +the old government and it was not until the Maryland delegates in the +Continental Congress were found almost alone in holding back that their +instructions not to vote for independence were rescinded. The new +constitution drawn and adopted in 1776 to take the place of the charter +was of an aristocratic rather than a democratic nature. Under it the +property qualification for suffrage was a freehold of 50 acres or £30 +current money, the property qualifications for delegates £500, for +senators £1000, and for governor £5000. Four delegates were chosen from +each county and two each from Baltimore and Annapolis, the same as under +the proprietary government, population not being taken into account. +Senators were chosen by a college of fifteen electors elected in the +same manner as the delegates, and the governor by a joint ballot of the +two houses of assembly. In 1802 negroes were disfranchised, and in 1810 +property qualifications for suffrage and office were abolished. The +system of representation that, with the rapid growth of population in +the north-east sections, especially in the city of Baltimore, placed the +government in the hands of a decreasing minority also began to be +attacked about this time; but the fear of that minority which +represented the tobacco-raising and slave-holding counties of south +Maryland, with respect to the attitude of the majority toward slavery +prevented any changes until 1837, when the opposition awakened by the +enthusiasm over internal improvements effected the adoption of +amendments which provided for the election of the governor and senators +by a direct vote of the people, a slight increase in the representation +of the city of Baltimore and the larger counties, and a slight decrease +in that of the smaller counties. Scarcely had these amendments been +carried when the serious financial straits brought on by debt incurred +through the state's promotion of internal improvements gave rise to the +demand for a reduction of governmental expenses and a limitation of the +power of the General Assembly to contract debts. The result was the new +constitution of 1851, which fully established representation in the +counties on the basis of population and further increased that of +Baltimore. The constitution of 1851 was however chiefly a patchwork of +compromises. So, when during the Civil War Maryland was largely under +Federal control and the demand arose for the abolition of slavery by the +state, another constitutional convention was called, in 1864, which +framed a constitution providing that those who had given aid to the +Rebellion should be disfranchised and that only those qualified for +suffrage in accordance with the new document could vote on its adoption. +This was too revolutionary to stand long and in 1867 it was superseded +by the present constitution. In national affairs Maryland early took a +stand of perhaps far-reaching consequences in refusing to sign the +Articles of Confederation (which required the assent of all the states +before coming into effect), after all the other states had done so (in +1779), until those states claiming territory between the Alleghany +Mountains and the Mississippi and north of the Ohio--Virginia, New York, +Massachusetts and Connecticut--should have surrendered such claims. As +those states finally yielded, the Union was strengthened by reason of a +greater equality and consequently less jealousy among the original +states, and the United States came into possession of the first +territory in which all the states had a common interest and out of which +new states were to be created. In the War of 1812 Frederick, Havre de +Grace, and Frenchtown were burned by the British; but particularly +noteworthy were the unsuccessful movements of the enemy by land and by +sea against Baltimore, in which General Robert Ross (c. 1766-1814), the +British commander of the land force, was killed before anything had been +accomplished and the failure of the fleet to take Fort McHenry after a +siege of a day and a night inspired the song _The Star-spangled Banner_, +composed by Francis Scott Key who had gone under a flag of truce to +secure from General Ross the release of a friend held as a prisoner by +the British and during the attack was detained on his vessel within the +British lines. In 1861 Maryland as a whole was opposed to secession but +also opposed to coercing the seceded states. During the war that +followed the west section was generally loyal to the north while the +south section favoured the Confederacy and furnished many soldiers for +its army; but most of the state was kept under Federal control, the writ +of habeas corpus being suspended. The only battle of much importance +fought on Maryland soil during the war was that of Sharpsburg or +Antietam on the 16th and 17th of September 1862. As between political +parties the state has usually been quite equally divided. From 1820 to +1860, however, the Whigs were in general a trifle the stronger; and from +1866 to 1895 the Democrats were triumphant; in 1895 a Republican +governor was elected; in 1896 Maryland gave McKinley 32,232 votes more +than it gave Bryan; and in 1904 seven Democratic electors and one +Republican were chosen; and in 1908 five Democratic and three +Republican. + + The proprietors of Maryland were: Cecilius Calvert, second Lord + Baltimore (1605[?]-1675) from 1632 to 1675; Charles Calvert, third + Lord Baltimore (1629-1715) from 1675 to 1715; Benedict Leonard + Calvert, fourth Lord Baltimore (1684?-1715) 1715; Charles Calvert, + fifth Lord Baltimore (1699-1751) from 1715 to 1751; Frederick Calvert, + sixth and last Lord Baltimore (1731-1771) from 1751 to 1771; Henry + Harford, from 1771 to 1776. + + + _Governors of Maryland._ + + _Proprietary._ + + Leonard Calvert 1633-1645 + Richard Ingle (usurper) 1645 + Edward Hill (chosen by the council) 1646 + Leonard Calvert 1646-1647 + Thomas Greene 1647-1649 + William Stone \ 1649-1652 + Richard Bennett > (commissioners of \ + Edmund Curtis | parliament) > 1652 + William Claiborne / / + William Stone 1652-1654 + William Fuller and others (appointed by the + commissioners of parliament) 1654-1658 + Josias Fendall 1658-1660 + Philip Calvert 1660-1661 + Charles Calvert 1661-1675 + Charles Calvert, third Lord Baltimore 1675-1676 + Cecilius Calvert (titular) and Jesse Wharton (real) 1676 + Thomas Notley 1676-1679 + Charles Calvert, third Lord Baltimore 1679-1684 + Benedict Leonard Calvert (titular) and council (real) 1684-1688 + William Joseph (president of the council) 1688-1689 + Protestant Associators under John Coode 1689-1692 + + _Royal._ + + Sir Lionel Copley 1692-1693 + Sir Edmund Andros 1693-1694 + Francis Nicholson 1694-1699 + Nathaniel Blackistone 1699-1702 + Thomas Tench (president of the council) 1702-1704 + John Seymour 1704-1709 + Edward Lloyd (president of the council) 1709-1714 + John Hart 1714-1715 + John Hart 1715-1720 + Charles Calvert 1720-1727 + Benedict Leonard Calvert 1727-1731 + Samuel Ogle 1731-1732 + Charles Calvert, fifth Lord Baltimore 1732-1733 + Samuel Ogle 1733-1742 + Thomas Bladen 1742-1747 + Samuel Ogle 1747-1752 + Benjamin Tasker (president of the council) 1752-1753 + Horatio Sharpe 1752-1769 + Robert Eden 1769-1774 + Robert Eden (nominal) and Convention and Council + of Safety (real) 1774-1776 + + STATE + + Thomas Johnson 1777-1779 + Thomas Sim Lee 1779-1782 + William Paca 1782-1785 + William Smallwood 1785-1788 + John Eager Howard 1788-1791 + George Plater[4] 1791-1792 + James Brice (acting) 1792 + Thomas Sim Lee 1792-1794 + John H. Stone 1794-1797 + John Henry Democratic Republican 1797-1798 + Benjamin Ogle Federalist 1798-1801 + John Francis Mercer Democratic Republican 1801-1803 + Robert Bowie " " 1803-1806 + Robert Wright[5] " " 1806-1808 + James Butcher (acting) " " 1808-1809 + Edward Lloyd Whig 1809-1811 + Robert Bowie Democratic Republican 1811-1812 + Levin Winder Federalist 1812-1815 + Charles Ridgely " 1815-1818 + Charles Goldsborough " 1818-1819 + Samuel Sprigg Democratic Republican 1819-1822 + Samuel Stevens, jun. " " 1822-1825 + Joseph Kent " " 1825-1828 + Daniel Martin Anti-Jackson 1828-1829 + Thomas King Carroll Jackson Democrat 1829-1830 + Daniel Martin Anti-Jackson 1830-1831 + George Howard (acting) Whig 1831-1832 + George Howard " 1832-1833 + James Thomas " 1833-1835 + Thomas W. Veazey " 1835-1838 + William Grason Democrat 1838-1841 + Francis Thomas " 1841-1844 + Thomas G. Pratt Whig 1844-1847 + Philip Francis Thomas Democrat 1847-1850 + Enoch Louis Lowe " 1850-1853 + Thomas Watkins Ligon " 1853-1857 + Thomas Holliday Hicks American or + Know Nothing 1857-1861 + Augustus W. Bradford Unionist 1861-1865 + Thomas Swann " 1865-1868 + Oden Bowie Democrat 1868-1872 + William Pinkney Whyte[6] " 1872-1874 + James Black Groome " 1874-1876 + John Lee Carroll " 1876-1880 + William T. Hamilton " 1880-1884 + Robert M. McLane " 1884-1885 + Henry Lloyd " 1885-1888 + Elihu E. Jackson " 1888-1892 + Frank Brown " 1892-1896 + Lloyd Lowndes Republican 1896-1900 + John Walter Smith Democrat 1900-1904 + Edwin Warfield " 1904-1908 + Austin L. Crothers " 1908- + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Publications of the Maryland Geological Survey_ + (Baltimore, 1897); _Maryland Weather Service Climatology and Physical + Features_, biennial reports (Baltimore, 1892- ); _United States + Census_; _Reports_ of the U.S. Fish Commissioner and Bureau of + Fisheries (Washington, 1871); State Department, _Maryland Manual, a + Compendium of Legal, Historical and Statistical Information_ + (Baltimore, 1900- ); B.C. Steiner, _Citizenship and Suffrage in + Maryland_ (Baltimore, 1895), an historical review of the subject; J. + W. Harry, _The Maryland Constitution of 1851_, Johns Hopkins + University Studies in Historical and Political Science (Baltimore, + 1902), contains an account of the agitation from 1835 to 1850 for + constitutional reform; B. C. Steiner, _History of Education in + Maryland_, Circulars of Information of the United States Bureau of + Education (Washington, 1894), a general historical survey of the + common schools, public and private, and a particular account of each + college, university and professional school; A. D. Mayo, _The Final + Establishment of the American School System in West Virginia, + Maryland, Virginia and Delaware_, Report of the Commissioner of + Education (Washington, 1905) contains an interesting account of the + development of the public school system of the state from 1864 to + 1900; F. S. Adams, _Taxation in Maryland_, Johns Hopkins University + Studies (Baltimore, 1900), an historical account of the sources of the + state's revenue and administration of its taxing system; A. V. Bryan, + _History of State Banking in Maryland_, Johns Hopkins University + Studies (Baltimore, 1899), a careful study of the state's experience + with banks from 1790 to 1864; J. L. Bozman, _History of Maryland from + 1633 to 1660_ (Baltimore, 1837), a compilation of much of the more + important material relating to the early history of the province; J. + V. L. McMahon, _An Historical View of the Government of Maryland from + its Colonization to the Present Day_ (Baltimore, 1833), an able + treatment of the subject by a learned jurist; J. T. Scharf, _History + of Maryland_ (Baltimore, 1879), the most extensive general history of + the state, but it contains numerous errors and the arrangement is + poor; W. H. Browne, _Maryland: the History of a Palatinate_ (Boston, + 1884 and 1895), an excellent outline of the colonial history; N. D. + Mereness, _Maryland as a Proprietary Province_ (New York, 1901), a + constitutional history of the province in the light of its industrial + and social development, contains a bibliography; and Bernard C. + Steiner, _Maryland during the English Civil War_ (2 vols., Baltimore, + 1906-1907), one of the Johns Hopkins University Studies. (N. D. M.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Maryland and Delaware together began the construction of the + Chesapeake and Delaware canal (13½ m. long) across the north part of + the state of Delaware, between the Delaware river and Chesapeake Bay; + this canal received Federal aid in 1828, was completed in 1829, and + in 1907 was chosen as the most practicable route for a proposed ship + waterway between the Chesapeake and the Delaware. + + [2] The population at previous censuses was as follows: 319,728 in + 1790; 341,548 in 1800; 380,546 in 1810; 407,350 in 1820; 447,040 in + 1830; 470,019 in 1840; 583,034 in 1850; 687,049 in 1860; and 780,894 + in 1870. + + [3] The General Assembly regularly elected the governor during the + period 1776-1838. + + [4] Died in office. + + [5] Resigned on the 6th of May 1808. + + [6] Resigned in 1874 to become (March 4, 1875) U.S. senator from + Maryland. + + + + +MARYPORT, a market town and seaport in the Cockermouth parliamentary +division of Cumberland, England, 25 m. W.S.W. of Carlisle, on the +Maryport & Carlisle railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 11,897. It +is irregularly built on the shore of the Irish Sea and on the cliffs +above, at the mouth of the river Ellen. Until 1750 there were only a few +huts here, the spot being called Ellenfoot, but at this time the harbour +was built by Humphrey Senhouse. In 1892 Maryport became an independent +port with Workington, Whitehaven and Millom subordinate to it. Coal and +pig-iron are exported from the mining district inland, and shipbuilding +is carried on. There are also rope and sail works, iron-foundries, +saw-mills, breweries and tanneries. On the hill north of the town there +is a Roman fort which guarded the coast, and many remains of this period +have been discovered. The fort was called Uxellodunum. + + + + +MARZABOTTO, a village of Emilia, Italy, in the province of Bologna, 17 +m. S.S.W. of Bologna by rail. Pop. (1901), 617 (village); 5272 +(commune). It lies in the valley of the Reno, 443 ft. above sea-level. +In and below the grounds of the Villa Aria, close to it, are the remains +of an Etruscan town of the 5th century B.C., protected on the west by +the mountains, on the east and south by the river, which by a change of +course has destroyed about half of it. The acropolis was just below the +villa: here remains of temples were found. The town lay below the modern +high-road and was laid out on a rectangular plan divided by main streets +into eight quarters, and these in turn into blocks or _insulae_. +Cemeteries were found on the east and north of the site. The name of the +place is unknown: it was partially inhabited later by the Gauls, but was +not occupied by the Romans. + + The discoveries of 1888-1889 (with references to previous works) are + described by E. Brizio in _Monumenti dei Lincei_ (1891), i. 249 sqq. + (T. As.) + + + + +MASACCIO (1402-1429), Italian painter. Tommaso Guidi, son of a notary, +Ser Giovanni di Simone Guidi, of the family of the Scheggia, who had +property in Castel S. Giovanni di Val d'Arno, was born in 1402 +(according to Milanesi, on the 21st of December 1401), and acquired the +nickname of Masaccio, which may be translated "Lubberly Tom," in +consequence of his slovenly dressing and deportment. From childhood he +showed a great inclination for the arts of design, and he is said to +have studied under his contemporary Masolino da Panicale. In 1421, or +perhaps 1423, he was enrolled in the gild of the speziali (druggists) in +Florence, in 1424 in the gild of painters. His first attempts in +painting were made in Florence, and then in Pisa. Next he went to Rome, +still no doubt very young; although the statement that he returned from +Rome to Florence, in 1420, when only eighteen or nineteen, seems +incredible, considering the works he undertook in the papal city. These +included a series of frescoes still extant in a chapel of the church of +S. Clemente, a Crucifixion, and scenes from the life of St Catherine and +of St Clement, or perhaps some other saint. Though much inferior to his +later productions, these paintings are, for naturalism and propriety of +representation, in advance of their time. Some critics, however, +consider that the design only, if even that, was furnished by Masaccio, +and the execution left to an inferior hand; this appears highly +improbable, as Masaccio, at his early age, can scarcely have held the +position of a master laying out work for subordinates; indeed Vasari +says that Lubberly Tom was held in small esteem at all times of his +brief life. In the Crucifixion subject the group of the Marys is +remarkable; the picture most generally admired is that of Catherine, in +the presence of Maxentius, arguing against and converting eight learned +doctors. After returning to Florence, Masaccio was chiefly occupied in +painting in the church of the Carmine, and especially in that "Brancacci +Chapel" which he has rendered famous almost beyond rivalry in the annals +of painting. + + The chapel, had been built early in the 15th century by Felice Michele + di Piuvichese Brancacci, a noble Florentine. Masaccio's work in it + began probably in 1423, and continued at intervals until he finally + quitted Florence in 1428. There is a whole library-shelf of discussion + as to what particular things were done by Masaccio and what by + Masolino, and long afterwards by Filippino Lippi, in the Brancacci + Chapel, and also as to certain other paintings by Masaccio in the + Carmine. He began with a trial piece, a majestic figure of St Paul, + not in the chapel; this has perished. A monochrome of the Procession + for the Consecration of the Chapel, regarded as a wonderful example, + for that early period, of perspective and of grouping, has also + disappeared; it contains portraits of Brunelleschi, Donatello and many + others. In the cloister of the Carmine was discovered in recent years + a portion of a fresco by Masaccio representing a procession; but this, + being in colours and not in monochrome, does not appear to be the + Brancacci procession. As regards the works in the Brancacci chapel + itself, the prevalent opinion now is that Masolino, who used to be + credited with a considerable portion of them, did either nothing, or + at most the solitary compartment which represents St Peter restoring + Tabitha to life, and the same saint healing a cripple. The share which + Filippino Lippi bore in the work admits of little doubt; to him are + due various items on which the fame of Masaccio used principally to be + based--as for instance the figure of St Paul addressing Peter in + prison, which Raphael partly appropriated; and hence it may be + observed that an eloquent and often-quoted outpouring of Sir Joshua + Reynolds in praise of Masaccio ought in great part to be transferred + to Filippino. What Masaccio really painted in the chapel appears with + tolerable certainty to be as follows, and is ample enough to sustain + the high reputation he has always enjoyed:--(1) The "Temptation of + Adam and Eve"; (2) "Peter and the Tribute-Money"; (3) The "Expulsion + from Eden"; (4) "Peter Preaching"; (5) "Peter Baptizing"; (6) "Peter + Almsgiving"; (7) "Peter and John curing the Sick"; (8) "Peter + restoring to Life the Son of King Theophilus of Antioch" was begun by + Masaccio, including the separate incident of "Peter Enthroned," but a + large proportion is by Filippino; (9) the double subject already + allotted to Masolino may perhaps be by Masaccio, and in that case it + must have been one of the first in order of execution. A few words may + be given to these pictures individually. (1) The "Temptation" shows a + degree of appreciation of nude form, corresponding to the feeling of + the antique, such as was at that date unexampled in painting. (2) The + "Tribute-Money," a full, harmonious and expressive composition, + contains a head reputed to be the portrait of Masaccio himself--one of + the apostles, with full locks, a solid resolute countenance and a + pointed beard. (3) The "Expulsion" was so much admired by Raphael + that, with comparatively slight modifications, he adopted it as his + own in one of the subjects of the Logge of the Vatican. (5) "Peter + Baptizing" contains some nude figures of strong naturalistic design; + that of the young man, prepared for the baptismal ceremony, who stands + half-shivering in the raw air, has always been a popular favourite and + an object of artistic study. (8) The restoration of the young man to + life has been open to much discussion as to what precise subject was + in view, but the most probable opinion is that the legend of King + Theophilus was intended. + +In 1427 Masaccio was living in Florence with his mother, then for the +second time a widow, and with his younger brother Giovanni, a painter of +no distinction; he possessed nothing but debts. In 1428 he was working, +as we have seen, in the Brancacci chapel. Before the end of that year he +disappeared from Florence, going, as it would appear, to Rome, to evade +the importunities of creditors. Immediately afterwards, in 1429, when +his age was twenty-seven or twenty-eight, he was reported dead. +Poisoning by jealous rivals in art was rumoured, but of this nothing is +known. The statement that several years afterwards, in 1443, he was +buried in the Florentine Church of the Carmine, without any monument, +seems to be improbable, and to depend upon a confused account of the +dates, which have now, after long causing much bewilderment, been +satisfactorily cleared up from extant documents. + +It has been said that Masaccio introduced into painting the plastic +boldness of Donatello, and carried out the linear perspective of Paolo +Uccello and Brunelleschi (who had given him practical instruction), and +he was also the first painter who made some considerable advance in +atmospheric perspective. He was the first to make the architectural +framework of his pictures correspond in a reasonable way to the +proportions of the figures. In the Brancacci chapel he painted with +extraordinary swiftness. The contours of the feet and articulations in +his pictures are imperfect; and his most prominent device for giving +roundness to the figures (a point in which he made a great advance upon +his predecessors) was a somewhat mannered way of putting the high lights +upon the edges. His draperies were broad and easy, and his landscape +details natural, and superior to his age. In fact, he led the way in +representing the objects of nature correctly, with action, liveliness +and relief. Soon after his death, his work was recognized at its right +value, and led to notable advances; and all the greatest artists of +Italy, through studying the Brancacci chapel, became his champions and +disciples. + + Of the works attributed to Masaccio in public or private galleries + hardly any are authentic. The one in the Florentine Academy, the + "Virgin and Child in the Lap of St Anna," is an exception. The + so-called portrait of Masaccio in the Uffizi Gallery is more probably + Filippino Lippi; and Filippino, or Botticelli, may be the real author + of the head, at first termed a Masaccio, in the National Gallery, + London. + + An early work on Masaccio was that of T. Patch, _Life with Engravings_ + (Florence, 1770-1772). See Layard, _The Brancacci Chapel_, &c. (1868); + H. Eckstein, _Life of Masaccio, Giotto_, &c. (1882); Charles Yriarte, + _Tommaso dei Guidi_ (1894). (W. M. R.) + + + + +MASAI, an Eastern Equatorial African people of Negro-Hamitic stock, +speaking a Nilotic language. The Hamitic element, which is not great, +has probably been derived from the Galla. The Masai were probably +isolated in the high mountains or plateaus which lie between the Nile +and the Karamojo country. There they originally had their home, and +there to-day the Latuka, who show affinities with them, still live. +Famine or inter-tribal wars drove the Masai in the direction of Mount +Elgon and Lake Rudolf. After a long settlement there they split into two +groups, the Masai proper and the Wa-Kuafi or agricultural Masai, and +this at no very remote date, as the two tribes speak practically the +same language. The more powerful Masai were purely nomadic and pastoral, +their wealth consisting in enormous herds. The Wa-Kuafi, losing their +cattle to their stronger kinsmen, split up again into the Burkeneji, the +Gwas Ngishu, and the Nyarusi (Enjamusi) and settled as agriculturists. +Meantime the Masai became masters of the greater part of inner East +Africa from Ugogo and the Unyamwezi countries on the south and west to +Mount Kenya and Galla-land on the north, and eastward to the +hundred-mile strip of more or less settled Bantu country on the coast of +the Indian Ocean. + +The Masai physical type is slender, but among the finest in Africa. A +tall, well-made people, the men are often well over six feet, with slim +wiry figures, chocolate-coloured, with eyes often slightly oblique like +the Mongolians, but the nose especially being often almost Caucasian in +type, with well formed bridge and finely cut nostrils. Almost all the +men and women knock out the two lower incisor teeth. For this custom +they give the curious explanation that lockjaw was once very common in +Masai-land, and that it was found to be easy to feed the sufferer +through the gap thus made. All the hair on the body of both sexes is +pulled out with iron tweezers; a Masai with a moustache or beard is +unknown. The hair of the head is shaved in women and married men; but +the hair of a youth at puberty is allowed to grow till it is long enough +to have thin strips of leather plaited into it. In this way the hair, +after a coating of red clay and mutton fat, is made into pigtails, the +largest of which hangs down the back, another over the forehead, and one +on each side. The warriors smear their whole bodies with the clay and +fat, mixed in equal proportion. + + No tattooing or scarring is performed on the men, but Sir Harry + Johnston noticed women with parallel lines burnt into the skin round + the eyes. In both sexes the lobes of the ears are distended into great + loops, through holes in which large disks of wood are thrust. Bead + necklaces, bead and wood armlets are worn by men, and before marriage + the Masai girl has thick iron wire wound round her legs so tightly as + to check the calf development. The women wear dressed hides or calico; + the old men wear a skin or cloth cape. The warriors wind red calico + round their waists, a circle of ostrich feathers round their face (or + a cap of lion or colobus skin) and fringes of long white fur round the + knee. Masai houses are of two kinds. The agricultural tribes build + round huts with walls of reeds or sticks, and conical, grass-thatched + roofs. The true Masai nomads, however, have houses unlike those of any + other neighbouring negro tribe. Long, low (not more than 6 ft. high), + flat-roofed, they are built on a framework of sticks with strong + partitions dividing the structure into separate compartments, each a + dwelling, with low, oblong door. Mud and cow-dung are plastered on to + the brushwood used in the roofing. Beds are made of brushwood neatly + stacked and covered with hides. The fireplace is a circle of stones. + The only furniture, besides cooking-pots, consists of long gourds used + as milkcans, half-gourds as cups, and small three-legged stools cut + out of a single block of wood and used by the elder men to sit on. + The Masai are not hunters of big game except lions, but they eat the + eland and kudu. The domestic animals are cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys + and dogs. Only women and the married men smoke. The dead are + ordinarily not buried, but the bodies are carried a short distance + from the village and left on the ground to be devoured by hyenas, + jackals and vultures. Important chiefs are buried, however, and a year + later the eldest son or successor recovers the skull, which is + treasured as a charm. The medicine men of Masai are often the chiefs, + and the supreme chief is almost always a medicine man. + + The Masai believe in a nature-god as a supreme being--Ngai + ("sky")--and his aid is invoked in cases of drought by a ceremonial + chant of the children, standing in a circle after sunset, each with a + bunch of grass in its hand. They have creation-myths involving four + gods, the black, white, grey and red deities. They believe there is no + future for women or common people, but that such distinction is + reserved for chiefs. Pythons and a species of snake are revered as the + reincarnated forms of their more celebrated ancestors. A kind of + worship is paid to the hyena in some districts: the whole tribe going + into mourning if the beast crosses their path. The Masai also have a + vague tree-worship, and grass is a sacred symbol. When making peace a + tuft is held in the right hand, and when the warriors start out on a + raid their sweethearts throw grass after them or lay it in the forks + of trees. But the oddest of their superstitious customs is the + importance attached to spitting. To spit upon a person or thing is + regarded as a sign of reverence and goodwill, as among other Nilotic + tribes. Newly born children are spat on by every one who sees them. + Johnston states that every Masai before extending his hand to him spat + on it first. They spit when they meet and when they part, and bargains + are sealed in this way. Joseph Thomson writes, "being regarded as a + wizard of the first water, the Masai flocked to me ... and the more + copiously I spat on them the greater was their delight." The Masai has + no love for work, and practises no industries. The women attend to his + personal needs; and trades such as smelting and forging are left to + enslaved tribes such as the Dorobo (Wandorobo). These manufacture + spears with long blades and butts and the peculiar swords or _simés_ + like long slender leaves, very narrow towards the hilt and broad at + the point. Most of the Masai live in the British East Africa + Protectorate. + + See A. C. Hollis, _The Masai, their Language and Folklore_ (1905); M. + Merker, _Die Nasai_ (1904); Sir H. H. Johnston, _Kilimanjaro + Expedition_ (1886) and _Uganda Protectorate_ (1902); Joseph Thomson, + _Through Masai-land_ (1885); O. Baumann, _Durch Massai-land zur + Nilquelle_ (1894); F. Kallenberg, _Auf dem Kriegspfad gegen die + Massai_ (1892). + + + + +MASANIELLO, an abbreviation of TOMMASO ANIELLO (1622-1647), an Amalfi +fisherman, who became leader of the revolt against Spanish rule in +Naples in 1647. Misgovernment and fiscal oppression having aroused much +discontent throughout the two Sicilies, a revolt broke out at Palermo in +May 1647, and the people of Naples followed the example of the +Sicilians. The immediate occasion of the latter rising was a new tax on +fruit, the ordinary food of the poor, and the chief instigator of the +movement was Masaniello, who took command of the malcontents. The +outbreak began on the 7th of July 1647 with a riot at the city gates +between the fruit-vendors of the environs and the customs officers; the +latter were forced to flee, and the customs office was burnt. The +rioters then poured into Naples and forced their way into the palace of +the viceroy, the hated Count d'Arcos, who had to take refuge first in a +neighbouring convent, then in Castel Sant' Elmo, and finally in +Castelnuovo. Masaniello attempted to discipline the mob and restrain its +vandalic instincts, and to some extent he succeeded; attired in his +fisherman's garb, he gave audiences and administered justice from a +wooden scaffolding outside his house. Several rioters, including the +duke of Maddaloni, an opponent of the viceroy, and his brother Giuseppe +Caraffa, who had come to Naples to make trouble, were condemned to death +by him and executed. The mob, which every day obtained more arms and was +becoming more intractable, terrorized the city, drove off the troops +summoned from outside, and elected Masaniello "captain-general"; the +revolt was even spreading to the provinces. Finally, the viceroy, whose +negotiations with Masaniello had been frequently interrupted by fresh +tumults, ended by granting all the concessions demanded of him. On the +13th of July, through the mediation of Cardinal Filomarino, archbishop +of Naples, a convention was signed between D'Arcos and Masaniello as +"leader of the most faithful people of Naples," by which the rebels were +pardoned, the more oppressive taxes removed, and the citizens granted +certain rights, including that of remaining in arms until the treaty +should have been ratified by the king of Spain. The astute D'Arcos then +invited Masaniello to the palace, confirmed his title of +"captain-general of the Neapolitan people," gave him a gold chain of +office, and offered him a pension. Masaniello refused the pension and +laid down his dignities, saying that he wished to return to his old life +as a fisherman; but he was entertained by the viceroy and, partly owing +to the strain and excitement of the past days, partly because he was +made dizzy by his astonishing change of fortune, or perhaps, as it was +believed, because he was poisoned, he lost his head and behaved like a +frenzied maniac. The people continued to obey him for some days, until, +abandoned by his best friends, who went over to the Spanish party, he +was murdered while haranguing a mob on the market-place on the 16th of +July 1647; his head was cut off and brought by a band of roughs to the +viceroy and the body buried outside the city. But the next day the +populace, angered by the alteration of the measures for weighing bread, +repented of its insane fury; the body of Masaniello was dug up and given +a splendid funeral, at which the viceroy himself was represented. + +Masaniello's insurrection appealed to the imagination of poets and +composers, and formed the subject of several operas, of which the most +famous is Auber's La Muelle de Portici (1828). + + See Saavedra, _Insurreccion de Napoli en 1647_ (2 vols., Madrid, + 1849); A. von Reumont, _Die Caraffa von Maddaloni_ (2 vols., Berlin, + 1849); Capasso, _La Casa e famiglia di Masaniello_ (Naples, 1893); V. + Spinazzola, _Masaniello e la sua famiglia, secondo un codice bolognese + del sec. xvi_. (in the review Flegrea, 1900); A. G. Meissner, + _Masaniello_ (in German); E. Bourg, _Masaniello_ (in French); F. + Palermo, _Documenti diversi sulle novità accadute in Napoli l'anno + 1647_ (in the _Archivio storico italiano_, 1st series, vol. ix.). See + also NAPLES. + + + + +MASAYA, the capital of the department of Masaya, Nicaragua, 13 m. W.N.W. +of Lake Nicaragua and the city of Granada, on the eastern shore of Lake +Masaya, and on the Granada-Managua railway. Pop. (1905), about 20,000. +The city is built in the midst of a very fertile lowland region, which +yields large quantities of tobacco. The majority of the inhabitants are +Indians or half-castes. Lake Masaya occupies an extinct crater; the +isolated volcano of Masaya (3000 ft.) on the opposite side of the lake +was active at the time of the conquest of Nicaragua in 1522, and the +conquerors, thinking the lava they saw was gold, had themselves lowered +into the crater at the risk of their lives. The volcano was in eruption +in 1670, 1782, 1857 and 1902. + + + + +MASCAGNI, PIETRO (1863- ), Italian operatic composer, was born at +Leghorn, the son of a baker, and educated for the law; but he neglected +his legal studies for music, taking secret lessons at the Instituto +Luigi Cherubini. There a symphony by him was performed in 1879, and +various other compositions attracted attention, so that money was +provided by a wealthy amateur for him to study at the Milan +Conservatoire. But Mascagni chafed at the teaching, and soon left Milan +to become conductor to a touring operatic company. After a somewhat +chequered period he suddenly leapt into fame by the production at Rome +in 1890 of his one-act opera _Cavalleria Rusticana_, containing a +tuneful "intermezzo," which became wildly popular. Mascagni was the +musical hero of the hour, and _Cavalleria Rusticana_ was performed +everywhere. But his later work failed to repeat this success. _L'Amico +Fritz_ (1891), _I Rantzau_ (1892), _Guglielmo Ratcliff_ (1895), +_Silvano_ (1895), _Zanetto_ (1896), _Iris_ (1898), _Le Maschere_ (1901), +and _Amica_ (1905), were coldly or adversely received; and though +_Cavalleria Rusticana_, with its catchy melodies, still held the stage, +this succession of failures involved a steady decline in the composer's +reputation. From 1895 to 1903 Mascagni was director of the Pesaro +Conservatoire, but in the latter year, having left his post in order to +tour through the United States, he was dismissed from the appointment. + + + + +MASCARA, chief town of an arrondissement in the department of Oran, +Algeria, 60 m. S.E. of Oran. It lies 1800 ft. above the sea, on the +southern slope of a range forming part of the Little Atlas Mountains, +and occupies two small hills separated by the Wad Tudman, which is +crossed by three stone bridges. The walls, upwards of two miles in +circuit, and strengthened by bastions and towers, give the place a +somewhat imposing appearance. Mascara is a town of the French colonial +type, few vestiges of the Moorish period remaining. Among the public +buildings are two mosques, in one of which Abd-el-Kader preached the +_jihad_. The town also contains the usual establishments attaching to +the seat of a sub-prefect and the centre of a military subdivision. The +principal industry is the making of wine, the white wines of Mascara +being held in high repute. There is also a considerable trade in grains +and oil. A branch railway eight miles long connects Mascara with the +line from the seaport of Arzeu to Ain Sefra. Access is also gained by +this line to Oran, Algiers, &c. Pop. (1906) of the town, 18,989; of the +commune, which includes several villages, 22,934; of the arrondissement, +comprising eleven communes, 190,154. + + Mascara (i.e. "mother of soldiers") was the capital of a Turkish + beylik during the Spanish occupation of Oran from the 16th to the + close of the 18th century; but for the most of that period it occupied + a site about two miles distant from the present position. On the + removal of the bey to Oran its importance rapidly declined; and it was + an insignificant place when in 1832 Abd-el-Kader, who was born in the + neighbourhood, chose it as the seat of his power. It was laid in ruins + by the French under Marshal Clausel and the duke of Orleans in 1835, + the amir retreating south. Being reoccupied by Abd-el-Kader in 1838, + Mascara was again captured in 1841 by Marshal Bugeaud and General + Lamoricière. + + + + +MASCARENE ISLANDS (occasionally MASCARENHAS), the collective title of a +group in the Indian Ocean cast of Madagascar, viz. Mauritius, Réunion +and Rodriguez (q.v.). The collective title is derived from the +Portuguese navigator Mascarenhas, by whom Réunion, at first called +Mascarenhas, was discovered. + + + + +MASCARON, JULES (1634-1703), French preacher, was the son of a barrister +at Aix. Born at Marseilles in 1634, he early entered the French Oratory, +and obtained great reputation as a preacher. Paris confirmed the +judgment of the provinces; in 1666 he was asked to preach before the +court, and became a great favourite with Louis XIV., who said that his +eloquence was one of the few things that never grew old. In 1671 he was +appointed bishop of Tulle; eight years later he was transferred to the +larger diocese of Agen. He still continued, however, to preach regularly +at court, being especially in request for funeral orations. A panegyric +on Turenne, delivered in 1675, is considered his masterpiece. His style +is strongly tinged with _préciosité_; and his chief surviving interest +is as a glaring example of the evils from which Bossuet delivered the +French pulpit. During his later years he devoted himself entirely to his +pastoral duties at Agen, where he died in 1703. + + Six of his most famous sermons were edited, with a biographical sketch + of their author, by the Oratorian Borde in 1704. + + + + +MASCHERONI, LORENZO (1750-1800), Italian geometer, was professor of +mathematics at the university of Pavia, and published a variety of +mathematical works, the best known of which is his _Geometria del +compasso_ (Pavia, 1797), a collection of geometrical constructions in +which the use of the circle alone is postulated. Many of the solutions +are most ingenious, and some of the constructions of considerable +practical importance. + + There is a French translation by A. M. Carette (Paris, 1798), who also + wrote a biography of Mascheroni. See Poggendorff, _Biog. Lit. + Handwörterbuch_. + + + + +MASCOT (Fr. slang: perhaps from Port. _mascotto_, "witchcraft"), the +term for any person, animal, or thing supposed to bring luck. The word +was first popularized by Edmond Audran through his comic opera _La +Mascotte_ (1880), but it had been common in France long before among +gamblers. It has been traced back to a dialectic use in Provence and +Gascony, where it meant something which brought luck to a household. The +suggestion that it is from _masqué_ (masked or concealed), the +provincial French for a child born with a caul, in allusion to the lucky +destiny of such children, is improbable. + + + + +MASDEU, JUAN FRANCISCO (1744-1817), Spanish historian, was born at +Palermo on the 4th of October 1744. He joined the Company of Jesus on +the 19th of December 1759, and became professor in the Jesuit seminaries +at Ferrara and Ascoli. He visited Spain in 1799, was exiled, and +returned in 1815, dying at Valencia on the 11th of April 1817. His +_Storia critica di Spagna e della cultura spagnuola in ogni genere_ (2 +vols., 1781-1784) was finally expanded into the _Historia critica de +España y de la cultura española_ (1783-1805), which, though it consists +of twenty volumes, was left unfinished; had it been continued on the +same scale, the work would have consisted of fifty volumes. Masdeu wrote +in a critical spirit and with a regard for accuracy rare in his time; +but he is more concerned with small details than with the philosophy of +history. Still, his narrative is lucid, and later researches have not +yet rendered his work obsolete. + + + + +MASERU, the capital of Basutoland, British South Africa. It is +pleasantly situated on the left bank of the Caledon river, 90 m. by rail +E. by S. of Bloemfontein, and 40 m. N.E. of Wepener. It is in the centre +of a fertile grain-growing district. Pop. (1904), 862, of whom 99 were +Europeans. The principal buildings are Government House, the church of +the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society, the hospital, and the railway +station. (See BASUTOLAND.) + + + + +MASHAM, ABIGAIL, LADY (d. 1734), favourite of Anne, queen of England, +was the daughter of Francis Hill, a London merchant, her mother being an +aunt of Sarah Jennings, duchess of Marlborough. The family being reduced +to poor circumstances through Hill's speculations, Lady Churchill (as +she then was), lady of the bedchamber to the Princess Anne, befriended +her cousin Abigail, whom she took into her own household at St Albans, +and for whom after the accession of the princess to the throne she +procured an appointment in the queen's household about the year 1704. It +was not long before Abigail Hill began to supplant her powerful and +imperious kinswoman in the favour of Queen Anne. Whether she was guilty +of the deliberate ingratitude charged against her by the duchess of +Marlborough is uncertain. It is not unlikely that, in the first instance +at all events, Abigail's influence over the queen was not so much due to +subtle scheming on her part as to the pleasing contrast between her +gentle and genial character and the dictatorial temper of the duchess, +which after many years of undisputed sway had at last become intolerable +to Anne. The first intimation of her protégé's growing favour with the +queen came to the duchess in the summer of 1707, when she learned that +Abigail Hill had been privately married to a gentleman of the queen's +household named Samuel Masham, and that the queen herself had been +present at the marriage. Inquiry then elicited the information that +Abigail had for some time enjoyed considerable intimacy with her royal +mistress, no hint of which had previously reached the duchess. Abigail +was said to be a cousin of Robert Harley, earl of Oxford, and after the +latter's dismissal from office in February 1708 she assisted him in +maintaining confidential relations with the queen. The completeness of +her ascendancy was seen in 1710 when the queen compelled Marlborough, +much against his will, to give an important command to Colonel John +Hill, Abigail's brother; and when Sunderland, Godolphin, and the other +Whig ministers were dismissed from office, largely owing to her +influence, to make way for Oxford and Bolingbroke. In the following year +the duchess of Marlborough was also dismissed from her appointment at +court, Mrs Masham taking her place as keeper of the privy purse. In 1711 +the ministers, intent on bringing about the disgrace of Marlborough and +arranging the Peace of Utrecht, found it necessary to secure their +position in the House of Lords by creating twelve new peers; one of +these was Samuel Masham, the favourite's husband, though Anne showed +some reluctance to raise her bedchamber woman to a position in which she +might show herself less ready to give her personal services to the +queen. Lady Masham soon quarrelled with Oxford, and set herself to +foster by all the means in her power the queen's growing personal +distaste for her minister. Oxford's vacillation between the Jacobites +and the adherents of the Hanoverian succession to the Crown probably +strengthened the opposition of Lady Masham, who now warmly favoured the +Jacobite party led by Bolingbroke and Atterbury. Altercations took place +in the queen's presence between Lady Masham and the minister; and +finally, on the 27th of July 1714, Anne dismissed Oxford from his office +of lord high treasurer, and three days later gave the staff to the duke +of Shrewsbury. Anne died on the 1st of August, and Lady Masham then +retired into private life. She died on the 6th of December 1734. + +Lady Masham was by no means the vulgar, ill-educated person she was +represented to have been by her defeated rival, the duchess of +Marlborough; her extant letters, showing not a little refinement of +literary style, prove the reverse. Swift, with whom both she and her +husband were intimate, describes Lady Masham as "a person of a plain +sound understanding, of great truth and sincerity, without the least +mixture of falsehood or disguise." The barony of Masham became extinct +when Lady Masham's son, Samuel, the 2nd baron, died in June 1776. + + AUTHORITIES.--Gilbert Burnet, _History of My Own Time_, vol. vi. (2nd + ed., 6 vols., Oxford, 1833); F. W. Wyon, _History of Great Britain + during the Reign of Queen Anne_ (2 vols., London, 1876); Earl + Stanhope, _History of England, comprising the Reign of Queen Anne + until the Peace of Utrecht_ (London, 1870), and _History of England + from the Peace of Utrecht_, vol. i. (7 vols., London, 1836-1854); + Justin McCarthy, _The Reign of Queen Anne_ (2 vols., London, 1902); + _An Account of the Conduct of the Dowager Duchess of Marlborough from + first coming to Court to 1710_, edited by Nathaniel Hooke, with an + anonymous reply entitled _A Review of a Late Treatise_ (London, 1842); + _Private Correspondence of Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough_ (2 vols., + London, 1838); _Letters of Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough_ (London, + 1875); Mrs Arthur Colville, _Duchess Sarah_ (London, 1904). Numerous + references to Lady Masham will also be found scattered through Swift's + _Works_ (2nd ed., 19 vols., Edinburgh, 1824). (R. J. M.) + + + + +MASHAM, SAMUEL CUNLIFFE LISTER, 1ST BARON (1815-1906), English inventor, +born at Calverley Hall, near Bradford, on the 1st of January 1815, was +the fourth son of Ellis Cunliffe (1774-1853), who successively took the +names of Lister and Lister-Kay, and was the first member of parliament +elected for Bradford after the Reform Act of 1832. It was at first +proposed that he should take orders, but he preferred a business career +and became a clerk at Liverpool. In 1838 he and his elder brother John +started as worsted spinners and manufacturers in a new mill which their +father built for them at Manningham, and about five years later he +turned his attention to the problem of mechanical wool-combing, which, +in spite of the efforts of E. Cartwright and numerous other inventors, +still awaited a satisfactory solution. Two years of hard work spent in +modifying and improving existing devices enabled him to produce a +machine which worked well, and subsequently he consolidated his position +by buying up rival patents, as well as by taking out additional ones of +his own. His combing machines came into such demand that though they +were made for only £200 apiece he was able to sell them for £1200, and +the saving they effected in the cost of production not only brought +about a reduction in the price of clothing, but in consequence of the +increase in the sales created the necessity for new supplies of wool, +and thus contributed to the development of Australian sheep-farming. In +1855 he was sent a sample of silk waste (the refuse left in reeling silk +from the cocoons) and asked whether he could find a way of utilizing the +fibre it contained. The task occupied his time for many years and +brought him to the verge of bankruptcy, but at last he succeeded in +perfecting silk-combing appliances which enabled him to make yarn that +in one year sold for 23s. a pound, though produced from raw material +costing only 6d. or 1s. a pound. Another important and lucrative +invention in connexion with silk manufacture was his velvet loom for +piled fabrics; and this, with the silk comb worked at his Manningham +mill, yielded him an annual income of £200,000 for many years. But the +business was seriously affected by the prohibitory duties imposed by +America, and this was one reason why he was an early and determined +critic of the British policy of free imports. In 1891 he was made a +peer; he took his title from the little Yorkshire town of Masham, close +to which is Swinton Park, purchased by him in 1888. In 1886 an Albert +medal was awarded him for his inventions, which were mostly related to +the textile industries, though he occasionally diverged to other +subjects, such as an air-brake for railways. He was fond of outdoor +sports, especially coursing and shooting, and was a keen patron of the +fine arts. He died at Swinton Park on the 2nd of February 1906, and was +succeeded in the title by his son. + + + + +MASHONA, a Bantu-negro people, inhabitants of Mashonaland, Southern +Rhodesia. The name Mashona has been derived from the contemptuous term +_Amashuina_ applied by the Matabele to the aborigines owing to the habit +of the latter of taking refuge in the rocky hills with which the country +abounds. Before the Matabele invasion about 1840 most of Southern +Rhodesia was occupied by the Makalanga, the Makorikori and the Banyai, +all closely related. Most of them became subject to the Matabele, but +although they suffered severely from their attacks, the Mashona +preserved a certain national unity. In 1890 the Mashona came under +British protection (see RHODESIA). They are in general a peaceful, +mild-mannered people, industrious and successful farmers, skilful +potters, and weavers of bark cloth. + +The crafts, however, in which they excel are the smelting and forging of +iron and wood-carving. They are also great hunters; and they are very +fond of music, the most usual instrument being the "piano" with iron +keys. Bows and arrows, assegais and axes are the native weapons, but all +who can get them now use guns. Up to their conquest by the Matabele the +Mashona worked the gold diggings which are scattered over their country; +indeed as late as 1870 certain Mashona were still extracting gold from +quartz (_Geog. Jour._ April 1906). + + For the possible connexion of these people with the builders of the + ruins at Zimbabwe and elsewhere, see RHODESIA: _Archaeology_; and + ZIMBABWE. + + + + +MASK (Fr. _masque_, apparently from med. Lat. _mascus, masca_, spectre, +through Ital. _maschera_, Span. _mascara_), a covering for the face, +taking various forms, used either as a protective screen or as a +disguise. In the latter sense masks are mostly associated with the +artificial faces worn by actors in dramatic representations, or assumed +for exciting terror (e.g. in savage rites). The spelling "masque," +representing the same word, is now in English used more specially for +certain varieties of drama in which masks were originally worn (see +DRAMA); so also "masquerade," particularly in the sense of a masked ball +or an entertainment where the personages arc disguised. Both "mask" and +"masquerade" have naturally passed into figurative and technical +meanings, the former especially for various senses of face and head +(head of a fox, grotesque faces in sculpture), or as equivalent to +"cloak" or "screen" (as in fortification or other military uses, +fencing, &c.). And in the case of "death-masks" the term is employed for +the portrait-casts, generally of plaster or metallic foil, taken from +the face of a dead person (also similarly from the living), an ancient +practice of considerable interest in art. An interesting collection made +by Laurence Hutton (see his _Portraits in Plaster_, 1894), is at +Princeton University in the United States. (For the historical mystery +of the "man in the iron mask," see IRON MASK.) + +The ancient Greek and Roman masks worn by their actors--hollow figures +of heads--had the double object of identifying the performers with the +characters assumed, and of increasing the power of the voice by means of +metallic mouthpieces. They were derived like the drama from the rural +religious festivities, the wearing of mock faces or beards being a +primitive custom, connected no doubt with many early types of folk-lore +and religion. The use of the dramatic mask was evolved in the later +theatre through the mimes and the Italian popular comedy into pantomime; +and the masquerade similarly came from Italy, where the _domino_ was +introduced from Venice. The _domino_ (originally apparently an +ecclesiastical garment) was a loose cloak with a small half-mask worn at +masquerades and costume-balls by persons not otherwise dressed in +character; and the word is applied also to the person wearing it. + + See generally Altmann, _Die Masken der Schauspieler_ (1875; new ed., + 1896); and Dale, _Masks, Labrets and Certain Aboriginal Customs_ + (1885); also DRAMA. + + + + +MASKELYNE, NEVIL (1732-1811), English astronomer-royal, was born in +London on the 6th of October 1732. The solar eclipse of 1748 made a +deep impression upon him; and having graduated as seventh wrangler from +Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1754, he determined to devote himself +wholly to astronomy. He became intimate with James Bradley in 1755, and +in 1761 was deputed by the Royal Society to make observations of the +transit of Venus at St Helena. During the voyage he experimented upon +the determination of longitude by lunar distances, and ultimately +effected the introduction of the method into navigation (q.v.). In 1765 +he succeeded Nathaniel Bliss as astronomer-royal. Having energetically +discharged the duties of his office during forty-six years, he died on +the 9th of February 1811. + + Maskelyne's first contribution to astronomical literature was "A + Proposal for Discovering the Annual Parallax of Sirius," published in + 1760 (_Phil. Trans._ li. 889). Subsequent volumes of the same series + contained his observations of the transits of Venus (1761 and 1769), + on the tides at St Helena (1762), and on various astronomical + phenomena at St Helena (1764) and at Barbados (1764). In 1763 he + published the _British Mariner's Guide_, which includes the suggestion + that in order to facilitate the finding of longitude at sea lunar + distances should be calculated beforehand for each year and published + in a form accessible to navigators. This important proposal, the germ + of the _Nautical Almanac_, was approved of by the government, and + under the care of Maskelyne the _Nautical Almanac_ for 1767 was + published in 1766. He continued during the remainder of his life the + superintendence of this invaluable annual. He further induced the + government to print his observations annually, thereby securing the + prompt dissemination of a large mass of data inestimable from their + continuity and accuracy. Maskelyne had but one assistant, yet the work + of the observatory was perfectly organized and methodically executed. + He introduced several practical improvements, such as the measurement + of time to tenths of a second; and he prevailed upon the government to + replace Bird's mural quadrant by a repeating circle 6 ft. in diameter. + The new instrument was constructed by E. Troughton; but Maskelyne did + not live to see it completed. In 1772 he suggested to the Royal + Society the famous Schehallion experiment for the determination of the + earth's density and carried out his plan in 1774 (_Phil. Trans._ 1. + 495), the apparent difference of latitude between two stations on + opposite sides of the mountain being compared with the real difference + of latitude obtained by triangulation. From Maskelyne's observations + Charles Hutton deduced a density for the earth 4.5 times that of water + (ib. lxviii. 782). Maskelyne also took a great interest in various + geodetical operations, notably the measurement of the length of a + degree of latitude in Maryland and Pennsylvania (ibid. lviii. 323), + executed by Mason and Dixon in 1766-1768, and later the determination + of the relative longitude of Greenwich and Paris (ib. lxxvii. 151). On + the French side the work was conducted by Count Cassini, Legendre, and + Méchain; on the English side by General Roy. This triangulation was + the beginning of the great trigonometrical survey which has since been + extended all over the country. His observations appeared in four large + folio volumes (1776-1811). Some of them were reprinted in S. Vince's + _Astronomy_ (vol. iii.). (A. M. C.) + + + + +MASOLINO DA PANICALE (1383-c. 1445), Florentine painter, was said to +have been born at Panicale di Valdelsa, near Florence. It is more +probable, however, that he was born in Florence itself, his father, +Cristoforo Fini, who was an "imbiancatore," or whitewasher, having been +domiciled in the Florentine quarter of S. Croce. There is reason to +believe that Tommaso, nicknamed Masolino, was a pupil of the painter +Starnina, and was principally influenced in style by Antonio Veneziano; +he may probably enough have become in the sequel the master of Masaccio. +He was born in 1383; he died later than 1429, perhaps as late as 1440 or +even 1447. Towards 1423 he entered the service of Filippo Scolari, the +Florentine-born _obergespann_ of Temeswar in Hungary, and stayed some +time in that country, returning towards 1427 to Italy. The only works +which can with certainty be assigned to him are a series of wall +paintings executed towards 1428, commissioned by Cardinal Branda +Castiglione, in the church of Castiglione d'Olona, not far from Milan, +and another series in the adjoining baptistery. The first set is signed +as painted by "Masolinus de Florentia." It was recovered in 1843 from a +coating of whitewash, considerably damaged; its subject matter is taken +from the lives of the Virgin and of SS Lawrence and Stephen. The series +in the baptistery relates to the life and death of John the Baptist. The +reputation of Masolino had previously rested almost entirely upon the +considerable share which he was supposed to have had in the celebrated +frescoes of the Brancacci Chapel, in the Church of the Carmine in +Florence; he was regarded as the precursor of Masaccio, and by many +years the predecessor of Filippino Lippi, in the execution of a large +proportion of these works. But from a comparison of the Castiglione with +the Brancacci frescoes, and from other data, it is very doubtful whether +Masolino had any hand at all in the latter series. Possibly he painted +in the Brancacci Chapel certain specified subjects which are now either +destroyed or worked over. Several paintings assigned to Masolino on the +authority of Vasari are now ascribed to Masaccio. (W. M. R.) + + + + +MASON, FRANCIS (1799-1874), American missionary, was born in York, +England, on the 2nd of April 1799. His grandfather, Francis Mason, was +the founder of the Baptist Society in York, and his father, a shoemaker +by trade, was a Baptist lay preacher there. After working with his +father as a shoemaker for several years, he emigrated in 1818 to the +United States, and in Massachusetts was licensed to preach as a Baptist +in 1827. In 1830 he was sent by the American Baptist Missionary +Convention to labour among the Karens in Burma. Besides conducting a +training college for native preachers and teachers at Tavoy, he +translated the Bible into the two principal dialects of the Karens, the +Sgaw and the Pwo (his translation being published in 1853), and Matthew, +Genesis, and the Psalms into the Bghai dialect. He also published _A +Pali Grammar on the Basis of Kachchayano, with Chrestomathy and +Vocabulary_ (1868). In 1852 he published a book of great value on the +fauna and flora of British Burma, of which an improved edition appeared +in 1860 under the title _Burmah, its People and Natural Productions_, +and a third edition (2 vols.) revised and enlarged by W. Theobald in +1882-1883. He died at Rangoon on the 3rd of March 1874. + + See his autobiography, _The Story of a Working Man's Life, with + Sketches of Travel in Europe, Asia, Africa and America_ (New York, + 1870). + + + + +MASON, GEORGE (1725-1792), American statesman, was born in Stafford +county (the part which is now Fairfax county), Virginia, in 1725. His +family was of Royalist descent and emigrated to America after the +execution of Charles I. His colonial ancestors held official positions +in the civil and military service of Virginia. Mason was a near +neighbour and a lifelong friend of George Washington, though in later +years they disagreed in politics. His large estates and high social +standing, together with his personal ability, gave Mason great influence +among the Virginia planters, and he became identified with many +enterprises, such as the organization of the Ohio Company and the +founding of Alexandria (1749). He was a member of the Virginia House of +Burgesses in 1759-1760. In 1769 he drew up for Washington a series of +non-importation resolutions, which were adopted by the Virginia +legislature. In July 1774 he wrote for a convention in Fairfax county a +series of resolutions known as the Fairfax Resolves, in which he +advocated a congress of the colonies and suggested non-intercourse with +Great Britain, a policy subsequently adopted by Virginia and later by +the Continental Congress. He was a member of the Virginia Committee of +Safety from August to December 1775, and of the Virginia Convention in +1775 and 1776; and in 1776 he drew up the Virginia Constitution and the +famous Bill of Rights, a radically democratic document which had great +influence on American political institutions. In 1780 he outlined the +plan which was subsequently adopted by Virginia for ceding to the +Federal government her claim to the "back lands," i.e. to territory +north and north-west of the Ohio river. From 1776 to 1788 he represented +Fairfax county in the Virginia Assembly. He was a member of the Virginia +House of Delegates in 1776-1780 and again in 1787-1788, and in 1787 was +a member of the convention that framed the Federal Constitution, and as +one of its ablest debaters took an active part in the work. Particularly +notable was his opposition to the compromises in regard to slavery and +the slave-trade. Indeed, like most of the prominent Virginians of the +time, Mason was strongly in favour of the gradual abolition of slavery. +He objected to the large and indefinite powers given by the completed +Constitution to Congress, so he joined with Patrick Henry in opposing +its ratification in the Virginia Convention (1788). Failing in this he +suggested amendments, the substance of several of which was afterwards +embodied in the present Bill of Rights. Declining an appointment as a +United States Senator from Virginia, he retired to his home, Gunston +Hall (built by him about 1758 and named after the family home in +Staffordshire, England), where he died on the 7th of October 1792. With +James Madison and Thomas Jefferson, Mason carried through the Virginia +legislature measures disestablishing the Episcopal Church and protecting +all forms of worship. In politics he was a radical republican, who +believed that local government should be kept strong and central +government weak; his democratic theories had much influence in Virginia +and other southern and western states. + + See Kate Mason Rowland, _Life and Writings of George Mason_ (2 vols., + New York, 1892). + + + + +MASON, GEORGE HEMMING (1818-1872), English painter, was born at Wetley +Abbey, the eldest son of a Staffordshire county gentleman. He was +educated at King Edward's School, Birmingham, and studied for the +medical profession for five years under Dr Watt of that city. But all +his thoughts being given to art, he abandoned medicine in 1844 and +travelled for a time on the Continent, finally settling in Rome, where +he remained for some years and sought to make a living as an artist. +During this period he underwent many privations which permanently +affected his health; but he continued to labour assiduously, making +studies of the picturesque scenery that surrounded him, and with hardly +any instruction except that received from Nature and from the Italian +pictures he gradually acquired the painter's skill. At least two +important works are referable to this period: "Ploughing in the +Campagna," shown in the Royal Academy of 1857, and "In the Salt Marshes, +Campagna," exhibited in the following year. After Mason's return from +the continent, in 1858, when he settled at Wetley Abbey, he continued +for a while to paint Italian subjects from studies made during his stay +abroad, and then his art began to touch in a wonderfully tender and +poetic way the peasant life of England, especially of his native +Staffordshire, and the homely landscape in the midst of which that life +was set. The first picture of this class was "Wind on the Wold," and it +was followed--along with much else of admirable quality--by the +painter's three greatest works: The "Evening Hymn" (1868), a band of +Staffordshire mill-girls returning from their work; "Girls dancing by +the Sea" (1869); and the "Harvest Moon" (1872). He left Staffordshire in +1865 and went to live at Hammersmith; and he was elected an associate of +the Royal Academy in 1869. By that time he had fully established his +position as an artist of unusual power and individuality. Mason died on +the 22nd of October 1872. In his work he laboured under the double +disadvantage of feeble and uncertain health, and a want of thorough +art-training, so that his pictures were never produced easily, or +without strenuous and long-continued effort. His art is great in virtue +of the solemn pathos which pervades it, of the dignity and beauty in +rustic life which it reveals, of its keen perception of noble form and +graceful motion, and of rich effects of colour and subdued light. In +_motif_ and treatment it has something in common with the art of Millet +and Jules Breton, as with that of Frederick Walker among Englishmen; +though he had neither the occasional uncouth robustness of Millet nor +the firm actuality of Jules Breton. His pictures "Wind on the Wold" and +"The Cast Shoe" are in the National Gallery of British Art. + + + + +MASON, JAMES MURRAY (1798-1871), American political leader, was born in +Fairfax county, Virginia, on the 3rd of November 1798, the grandson of +George Mason (1723-1792). Educated at the university of Pennsylvania and +the college of William and Mary, he was admitted to the bar in 1820. He +was a member of the Virginia House of Delegates in 1826-1827 and +1828-1831, of the state Constitutional Convention of 1829, of the +National House of Representatives (1837-1839), of the United States +Senate from 1847 until July 1861 (when, with other Southern senators he +was formally expelled--he had previously withdrawn), and of the Virginia +Secession Convention in April 1861. Entering politics as a Jacksonian +Democrat, Mason was throughout his career a consistent strict +constructionist, opposing protective tariffs, internal improvements by +the national government, and all attempts to restrict or control the +spread of slavery, which he sincerely believed to be essential to the +social and political welfare of the South. He was the author of the +Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, and in 1860 was chairman of the Senate +committee which investigated the John Brown raid. After Lincoln's +election as President he was one of the strongest advocates of secession +in Virginia. He was appointed in August 1861 commissioner of the +Confederate States to Great Britain. The British ship "Trent," upon +which he and John Slidell, the commissioner to France, sailed, was +intercepted (Nov. 8, 1861) by a United States ship-of-war (the "San +Jacinto," Captain Charles Wilkes), and the two commissioners were seized +and carried as prisoners to Boston. Great Britain immediately demanded +their release, and war for a time seemed imminent; but owing mainly to +the tactful diplomacy of the prince consort, Lincoln acknowledged that +the seizure of Mason and Slidell was a violation of the rights of Great +Britain as a neutral, and on the 1st of January 1862 released the +commissioners. The incident has become known in history as the "Trent +Affair." Mason at once proceeded to London, where, however, he was +unable to secure official recognition, and his commission to Great +Britain was withdrawn late in 1863. He remained in Europe, spending most +of his time at Paris and holding blank commissions which he was +authorized to fill in at his discretion in case the presence of a +Confederate commissioner should seem desirable at any particular +European court. These commissions, however, he did not use. After the +war he lived for several years in Canada, but returned in 1869 to +Virginia, and on the 28th of April 1871 died at Alexandria. + + See _The Public Life and Diplomatic Correspondence of James M. Mason, + with some Personal History_ (Roanoke, Va., 1903), by his daughter, + Virginia Mason; Sir Theodore Martin, _Life of the Prince Consort_. + + + + +MASON, SIR JOHN (1503-1566), English diplomatist, was born of humble +parentage at Abingdon in 1503, and was educated at Oxford, where he +became Fellow of All Souls in 1521. He was ordained before 1531. Most of +his early years were spent on the Continent, where he witnessed the +meeting between Henry VIII. and Francis I. at Calais in 1532, and where +he was employed in collecting information for the English government, +gaining in this work the reputation of a capable diplomatist. By his +never-failing caution, moderation and pliancy, Mason succeeded in +keeping himself in favour with four successive sovereigns of the Tudor +monarchy. In 1537 he became secretary to the English ambassador at +Madrid, Sir Thomas Wyat; but when the latter was put on his trial for +treason in 1541 Mason was unmolested, and soon afterwards was appointed +clerk of the privy council, and procured for himself sundry other posts +and privileges. Mason was knighted and made dean of Winchester by Edward +VI. He was one of the commissioners to negotiate the treaty by which +Boulogne was restored to France in 1550, and in the same year he became +English ambassador in Paris, where he helped to arrange the bethrothal +of Edward VI. to the princess Elizabeth of France. He returned to +England at the end of 1551, became clerk of parliament, received +extensive grants of land, and in 1552 was made chancellor of Oxford +University. He was elected member of parliament in the same year. On the +death of Edward VI., he at first joined the party of Northumberland and +the Lady Jane Grey; but quickly perceiving his mistake he took an active +part in procuring the proclamation of Mary as queen. Mason now received +fresh tokens of royal favour, being confirmed in all his secular, though +not in his ecclesiastical, offices; and in 1553 he was appointed English +ambassador at the court of the emperor Charles V., of whose abdication +at Brussels in October 1555 he wrote a vivid account. He took a +prominent share in the administrative business of the government in the +first years of Elizabeth's reign, and largely influenced her foreign +policy until his death, which occurred on the 20th of April 1566. Sir +John Mason married Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Thomas Isley of Sundridge, +Kent, and widow of Richard Hill. He had no children, and his heir was +Anthony Wyckes, whom he had adopted, and who assumed the name of Mason +and left a large family. + + See J. A. Froude, _History of England_ (12 vols., London, 1856-1870); + Charles Wriothesley, _Chronicle of England during the Reigns of the + Tudors_, edited by W. D. Hamilton (Camden Soc., 2 vols., London, + 1875); P. F. Tytler, _England under the Reigns of Edward VI. and Mary_ + (2 vols., London, 1839); John Strype, _Ecclesiastical Memorials_ (3 + vols., Oxford, 1824) and _Memorials of Thomas Cranmer_ (3 vols., + Oxford, 1848); _Acts of the Privy Council of England_ (new series), + edited by J. R. Dasent, vols. i.-vii. + + + + +MASON, JOHN (1586-1635), founder of New Hampshire, U.S.A., was born in +King's Lynn, Norfolk, England. In 1610 he commanded a small naval force +sent by James I. to assist in subduing the Hebrides Islands. From 1615 +to 1621 he was governor of the English colony on the north side of +Conception Bay in Newfoundland; he explored the island, made the first +English map of it (published in 1625), and wrote a descriptive tract +entitled _A Briefe Discourse of the Newfoundland_ (Edinburgh, 1620) to +promote the colonization of the island by Scotsmen. Here he was brought +into official relations with Sir Ferdinando Gorges, then a commissioner +to regulate the Newfoundland fisheries. In March 1622 Mason obtained +from the Council for New England, of which Gorges was the most +influential member, a grant of the territory (which he named Mariana) +between the Naumkeag or Salem river and the Merrimac, and in the +following August he and Gorges together received a grant of the region +between the Merrimac and Kennebec rivers, and extending 60 m. inland. +From 1625 to 1629 Mason was engaged as treasurer and paymaster of the +English army in the wars which England was waging against Spain and +France. Towards the close of 1629 Mason and Gorges agreed upon a +division of the territory held jointly by them, and on the 7th of +November 1629 Mason received from the Council a separate grant of the +tract between the Merrimac and the Piscataqua, which he now named New +Hampshire. Thinking that the Piscataqua river had its source in Lake +Champlain, Mason with Gorges and a few other associates secured, on the +17th of November 1629, a grant of a region which was named Laconia +(apparently from the number of lakes it was supposed to contain), and +was described as bordering on Lake Champlain, extending 10 m. east and +south from it and far to the west and north-west, together with 1000 +acres to be located along some convenient harbour, presumably near the +mouth of the Piscataqua. In November 1631 Mason and his associates +obtained, under the name of the Pescataway Grant, a tract on both sides +of the Piscataqua river, extending 30 m. inland and including also the +Isles of Shoals. Mason became a member of the Council for New England in +June 1632, and its vice-president in the following November; and in +1635, when the members decided to divide their territory among +themselves and surrender their charter, he was allotted as his share all +the region between the Naumkeag and Piscataqua rivers extending 60 m. +inland, the southern half of the Isles of Shoals, and a ten-thousand +acre tract, called Masonia, on the west side of the Kennebec river. In +October 1635 he was appointed vice-admiral of New England, but he died +early in December, before crossing the Atlantic. He was buried in +Westminster Abbey. Forty-four years after his death New Hampshire was +made a royal province. + + See _Captain John Mason, the Founder of New Hampshire_ (Boston, 1887; + published by the Prince Society), which contains a memoir by C. W. + Tuttle and historical papers relating to Mason's career, edited by J. + W. Dean. + + + + +MASON, JOHN YOUNG (1799-1859), American political leader and +diplomatist, was born in Greenesville county, Virginia, on the 18th of +April 1799. Graduating at the university of North Carolina in 1816, he +studied law in the famous Litchfield (Connecticut) law school, and in +1819 was admitted to practice in Southampton county, Virginia. He served +in the Virginia house of delegates in 1823-1827, in the state +constitutional convention of 1829-1830, and from 1831 to 1837 in the +National House of Representatives, being chairman of the committee on +foreign affairs in 1835-1836. He was secretary of the navy in President +Tyler's cabinet (1844-1845), and was attorney-general (1845-1846) and +secretary of the navy (1846-1849), succeeding George Bancroft, under +President Polk. He was president of the Virginia constitutional +convention of 1851, and from 1853 until his death at Paris on the 3rd of +October 1859, was United States minister to France. In this capacity he +attracted attention by wearing at the court of Napoleon III. a simple +diplomatic uniform (for this he was rebuked by Secretary of State W. L. +Marcy, who had ordered American ministers to wear a plain civilian +costume), and by joining with James Buchanan and Pierre Soulé, ministers +to Great Britain and Spain respectively, in drawing up (Oct. 1854) the +famous Ostend Manifesto. Hawthorne called him a "fat-brained, +good-hearted, sensible old man"; and in politics he was a typical +Virginian of the old school, a state's rights Democrat, upholding +slavery and hating abolitionism. + + + + +MASON, SIR JOSIAH (1795-1881), English pen-manufacturer, was born in +Kidderminster on the 23rd of February 1795, the son of a carpet-weaver. +He began life as a street hawker of cakes, fruits and vegetables. After +trying his hand in his native town at shoemaking, baking, carpentering, +blacksmithing, house-painting and carpet-weaving, he moved in 1814 to +Birmingham. Here he found employment in the gilt-toy trade. In 1824 he +set up on his own account as a manufacturer of split-rings by machinery, +to which he subsequently added the making of steel pens. Owing to the +circumstance of his pens being supplied through James Perry, the London +stationer whose name they bore, he was less well known than Joseph +Gillott and other makers, although he was really the largest producer in +England. In 1874 the business was converted into a limited liability +company. Besides his steel-pen trade Mason carried on for many years the +business of electro-plating, copper-smelting, and india-rubber ring +making, in conjunction with George R. Elkington. Mason was almost +entirely self-educated, having taught himself to write when a +shoemaker's apprentice, and in later life he felt his deficiencies +keenly. It was this which led him in 1860 to establish his great +orphanage at Erdington, near Birmingham. Upon it he expended about +£300,000, and for this munificent endowment he was knighted in 1872. He +had previously given a dispensary to his native town and an almshouse to +Erdington. In 1880 Mason College, since incorporated in the university +of Birmingham, was opened, the total value of the endowment being about +£250,000. Mason died on the 16th of June 1881. + + See J. T. Bunce, _Josiah Mason_ (1882). + + + + +MASON, LOWELL (1792-1872), American musician, was born at Medfield, +Massachusetts. For some years he led a business life, but was always +studying music; and in 1827, as the result of his work in forming the +collection of church music published in 1821 at Boston by the Handel and +Haydn Society, he moved to Boston and there first became president of +the society and then founder of the Boston Academy of Music (1832). He +published some successful educational books, and was a pioneer of +musical instruction in the public schools, adopted in 1838. He received +the degree of doctor of music from New York University in 1855. He died +at Orange, New Jersey, on the 11th of August 1872. + + His son William Mason (1829-1908), an accomplished pianist and + composer, published an interesting volume of reminiscences, _Memoirs + of a Musical Life_, in 1901. + + + + +MASON, WILLIAM (1725-1797), English poet, son of William Mason, vicar of +Holy Trinity, Hull, was born on the 12th of February 1725, was educated +at St John's College, Cambridge, and took holy orders. In 1744 he wrote +_Musaeus_, a lament for Pope in imitation of _Lycidas_, and in 1749 +through the influence of Thomas Gray he was elected a fellow of +Pembroke College. He became a devoted friend and admirer of Gray, who +addressed him as "Skroddles," and corrected the worst solecisms in his +verses. In 1748 he published _Isis_, a poem directed against the +supposed Jacobitism of the university of Oxford, which provoked Thomas +Warton's _Triumph of Isis_. Mason conceived the ambition of reconciling +modern drama with ancient forms by strict observance of the unities and +the restoration of the chorus. These ideas were exemplified in _Elfrida_ +(1752) and _Caractacus_ (1759), two frigid performances no doubt +intended to be read rather than acted, but produced with some +alterations at Covent Garden in 1772 and 1776 respectively. Horace +Walpole described _Caractacus_ as "laboured, uninteresting, and no more +resembling the manners of Britons than of Japanese"; while Gray declared +he had read the manuscript "not with pleasure only, but with emotion." +In 1754 Mason was presented to the rectory of Aston, near Rotherham, +Yorkshire, and in 1757 through the influence of the duke of Devonshire +he became one of the king's chaplains. He also received the prebend of +Holme in York Minster (1756), was made canon residentiary in 1762, and +in 1763 became precentor and prebendary of Driffield. He married in 1764 +Mary Sherman, who died three years later. When Gray died in 1771 he made +Mason his literary executor. In the preparation of the _Life and Letters +of Gray_, which appeared in 1774, he had much help from Horace Walpole, +with whom he corresponded regularly until 1784 when Mason opposed Fox's +India Bill, and offended Walpole by thrusting on him political advice +unasked. Twelve years of silence followed, but in the year before his +death the correspondence was renewed on friendly terms. Mason died at +Aston on the 7th of April 1797. + + His correspondence with Gray and Walpole shows him to have been a man + of cultivated tastes. He was something of an antiquarian, a good + musician, and an amateur of painting. He is said to have invented an + instrument called the celestina, a modified pianoforte. Gray rewarded + his faithful admiration with good-humoured kindness. He warned him + against confounding Mona with the Isle of Man, or the Goths with the + Celts, corrected his grammar, pointed out his plagiarisms, and laughed + gently at his superficial learning. His powers show to better + advantage in the unacknowledged satirical poems which he produced + under the pseudonym of Malcolm Macgregor. In editing Gray's letters he + took considerable liberties with his originals, and did not print all + that related to himself. + + Mason's other works included _Odes_ (1756); _The English Garden_, a + didactic poem in blank verse, the four books of which appeared in + 1772, 1777, 1779 and 1782; _An Heroic Epistle to Sir William Chambers_ + (1774); an _Ode to Mr Pinchbeck_ (1776) and an _Epistle to Dr + Shebbeare_ (1777)--all these by "Malcolm Macgregor"; _Essay, + Historical and Critical, of Church Music_ (1795), and a lyrical drama, + _Sappho_ (1797). + + His poems were collected in 1764 and 1774, and an edition of his + _Works_ appeared in 1811. His poems with a _Life_ are included in + Alexander Chalmers's _English Poets_. His correspondence with Walpole + was edited by J. Mitford in 1851; and his correspondence with Gray by + the same editor in 1853. See also the standard editions of the letters + of Gray and of Walpole. There is a very pleasant picture of Mason's + character in Southey's _Doctor_ (ch. cxxvi.). + + + + +MASON AND DIXON LINE, in America, the boundary line (lat. 39° 43´ 26.3´´ +N.) between Maryland and Pennsylvania, U.S.A.; popularly the line +separating "free" states and "slave" states before the Civil War. The +line derives its name from Charles Mason (1730-1787) and Jeremiah Dixon, +two English astronomers, whose survey of it to a point about 244 m. west +of the Delaware between 1763 and 1767[1] marked the close of the +protracted boundary dispute (arising upon the grant of Pennsylvania to +William Penn in 1681) between the Baltimores and Penns, proprietors +respectively of Maryland and Pennsylvania. The dispute arose from the +designation, in the grant to Penn, of the southern boundary of +Pennsylvania mainly as the parallel marking the "beginning of the +fortieth degree of Northerne Latitude," after the northern boundary of +Maryland had been defined as a line "which lieth under the fortieth +degree of north latitude from the equinoctial." The eastern part of the +line as far as Sideling Hill in the western part of the present +Washington county, was originally marked with milestones brought from +England, every fifth of which bore on one side the arms of Baltimore and +on the opposite side those of Penn; but the difficulties in transporting +them to the westward were so great that many of them were not set up. +Owing to the removal of the stone marking the north-east corner of +Maryland, this point was again determined and marked in 1849-1850 by +Lieut.-Colonel J. D. Graham of the U.S. topographical engineers; and as +the western part of the boundary was not marked by stones, and local +disputes arose, the line was again surveyed between 1901 and 1903 under +the direction of a commission appointed by Pennsylvania and Maryland. + + The use of the term "Mason and Dixon Line" to designate the boundary + between the free and the slave states (and in general between the + North and the South) dates from the debates in Congress over the + Missouri Compromise in 1819-1820. As so used it may be defined as not + only the Mason and Dixon Line proper, but also the line formed by the + Ohio River from its intersection with the Pennsylvania boundary to its + mouth, thence the eastern, northern and western boundaries of + Missouri, and thence westward the parallel 36° 30´--the line + established by the Missouri Compromise to separate free and slave + territory in the "Louisiana Purchase," except as regards Missouri. It + is to be noted, however, that the Missouri Compromise did not affect + the territory later acquired from Mexico. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] These surveyors also surveyed and marked the boundary between + Maryland and Delaware. + + + + +MASON CITY, a city and the county-seat of Cerro Gordo county, Iowa, +U.S.A., on Lime Creek, in the northern part of the state. Pop. (1905, +state census), 8357 (929 foreign-born); (1910) 11,230. It is served by +the Chicago Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago & North-Western, the +Chicago Great Western, the Iowa Central and the St Paul & Des Moines +railways, and also by the Mason City & Clear Lake (electric) railway, +which connects Mason City with Clear Lake, a pleasure resort, 10 m. west +of the city. At Mason City is Memorial University (co-educational; +founded in 1900 by the National Encampment of the Sons of Veterans, and +opened in 1902), dedicated to the Grand Army of the Republic, the +special aim of which is to teach American history. The city is situated +in a good agricultural region, and there are valuable stone quarries in +the vicinity. The manufactures include lime, Portland cement, brick and +tile. Mason City was settled in 1853, laid out in 1855, incorporated as +a town in 1870 and chartered as a city in 1881. + + + + +MASONRY,[1] the art of building in stone. The earliest remains (apart +from the primitive work in rude stone--see STONE MONUMENTS; ARCHAEOLOGY, +&c.) are those of the ancient temples of India and Egypt. Many of these +early works were constructed of stones of huge size, and it still +remains a mystery how the ancients were able to quarry and raise to a +considerable height above the ground blocks seven or eight hundred tons +in weight. Many of the early buildings of the middle ages were entirely +constructed of masses of concrete, often faced with a species of rough +cast. The early masonry seems to have been for the most part worked with +the axe and not with the chisel. A very excellent example of the +contrast between the earlier and later Norman masonry may be seen in the +choir of Canterbury Cathedral. In those times the groining was +frequently filled in with a light tufa stone, said by some to have been +brought from Italy, but more probably from the Rhine. The Normans +imported a great quantity of stone from Caen, it being easily worked, +and particularly fit for carving. The freestones of England were also +much used; and in the first Pointed period, Purbeck and Bethersden +marbles were employed for column shafts, &c. The methods of working and +setting stone were much the same as at present, except that owing to +difficulties of conveyance the stones were used in much smaller sizes. +As time went on the art of masonry advanced till in England, in point of +execution, it at length rivalled that of any country. + + _Tools._--The mason's tools may be grouped under five heads--hammers + and mallets, saws, chisels, setting-out and setting tools, and + hoisting appliances. + + + Hammers and Mallets. + + There are several different kinds of iron hammers used by the stone + worker; the mash hammer has a short handle and heavy head for use with + chisels; the iron hammer, used in carving, in shape resembles a + carpenter's mallet but is smaller; the waller's hammer is used for + roughly shaping stones in rubble work; the spalling hammer for roughly + dressing stones in the quarry; the scabbling-hammer, for the same + purpose, has one end pointed for use on hard stone; the pick has a + long head pointed at both ends, weighs from 14 to 20 lb., and is used + for rough dressing and splitting; the axe has a double wedge-shaped + head and is used to bring stones to a fairly level face preparatory to + their being worked smooth; the patent axe, or patent hammer, is formed + with a number of plates with sharpened edges bolted together to form a + head; the mallet of hard wood is used for the finishing chisel work + and carving; and the dummy is of similar shape but smaller. + + + Saws. + + A hand saw similar to that used by the carpenter is used for cutting + small soft stones. Larger blocks are cut with the two-handed saw + worked by two men. For the largest blocks the frame saw is used, and + is slung by a rope and pulleys fitted with balance weights to relieve + the operator of its weight. The blade is of plain steel, the cutting + action being supplied by sand with water as a lubricant constantly + applied. + + + Chisels. + + There are perhaps even more varieties of chisels than of hammers. The + point and the punch have very small cutting edges, a quarter of an + inch or less in width. The former is used on the harder and the latter + on the softer varieties of stone after the rough hammer dressing. The + pitching tool has a wide thick edge and is used in rough dressing. + Jumpers are shafts of steel having a widened edge, and are used for + boring holes in hard stone. Chisels are made with edges from a + quarter-inch to one and a half inches wide; those that exceed this + width are termed boasters. The claw chisel has a number of teeth from + one-eighth to three-eighths wide, and is used on the surface of hard + stones after the point has been used. The drag is a semi-circular + steel plate, the straight edge having teeth cut on it. It is used to + level down the surfaces of soft stones. Cockscombs are used for the + same purpose on mouldings and are shaped to various curves. Wedges of + various sizes are used in splitting stones and are inserted either in + holes made with the jumper or in chases cut with the stone-pick. + + + Setting-out and Setting Tools. + + The implements for setting out the work are similar to those used, by + the bricklayer and other tradesmen, comprising the rule, square, set + square, the bevel capable of being set to any required angle, + compasses, spirit level, plumb-rule and bob and mortar trowels. Gauges + and moulds are required in sinking moulds to the proper section. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.--(½ in. = 1 ft.) FIG. 2.--(1 in. = 1 ft.)] + + + Hoisting Appliances. + + The _nippers_ (fig. 1), or _scissors_, as they are sometimes termed, + have two hooked arms fitting into notches in the opposite sides of the + block to be lifted. These arms are riveted together in the same way as + a pair of scissors, the upper ends having rings attached for the + insertion of a rope or chain which when pulled tight in the operation + of lifting causes the hooked ends to grip the stone. _Lewises_ (fig. + 2.) are wedge-shaped pieces of steel which are fitted into a + dovetailed mortise in the stone to be hoisted. They are also used for + setting blocks too large to be set by hand, and are made in several + forms. These are the usual methods of securing the stone to the + hoisting rope or chain, the hoisting being effected by a pulley and + fall, by a crane, or by other means. + + _Scaffolding._--For rubble walls single scaffolds, resting partly on + the walls, similar to those used for brickwork (q.v.), are employed; + for ashlar and other gauged stonework (see below) self-supporting + scaffolds are used with a second set of standards and ledgers erected + close to the wall, the whole standing entirely independent. The reason + for the use of this double scaffold is that otherwise holes for the + putlogs to rest in would have to be left in the wall, and obviously in + an ashlar stone wall it would be impossible properly to make these + good on the removal of the scaffold (see further SCAFFOLD). + + _Seasoning Stone._--Stone freshly quarried is full of sap, and thus + admits of being easily worked. On being exposed to the air the sap + dries out, and the stone becomes much harder in consequence. For this + reason, and because carriage charges are lessened by the smaller bulk + of the worked stone as compared with the rough block, the stone for a + building is often specified to be quarry-worked. Vitruvius recommended + that stone should be quarried in summer when driest, and that it + should be seasoned by being allowed to lie two years before being + used, so as to allow the natural sap to evaporate. In the erection of + St Paul's Cathedral, Sir Christopher Wren required that the stone + after being quarried should be exposed for three years on the + sea-beach before its introduction into the building. + + The regular and determined form of bricks makes it to a large extent a + matter of practice to enable a man to become a good bricklayer, but + beyond these a continual exercise of judgment is required of the + workman in stone, who has for the most part to deal with masses of all + forms and of all sizes. + + _Setting Stones._--All beds and joints should be truly worked and + perfectly level. If the surface be convex it will give rise to wide + unsightly joints; if concave the weight thrown on the stone will rest + on the edges and probably cause them to "flush" or break off and + disfigure the work. Large stones are placed in position with the aid + of hoisting appliances and should be tried in position before being + finally set. Great care should be taken to avoid fracturing or + chipping the stone in the process of handling, as it is impossible to + make good such damage. All stratified stones--and this includes by far + the largest proportion of building stones--when set in a level + position should be laid on their natural bed, i.e. with their laminae + horizontal. The greatest strength of a stone is obtained when the + laminae lie at right angles to the pressure placed upon it. In the + case of arches these layers should be parallel with the centre line of + the voussoirs and at right angles to the face of the arch. For + cornices (except the corner-stones) and work of a like nature, the + stone is set with the laminae on edge and perpendicular to the face of + the work. With many stones it is easy to determine the bed by + moistening with water, when the laminae will become apparent. Some + stones, however, it is impossible to read in this way, and it is + therefore advisable to have them marked in the quarry. A horizontal + line in a quarry does not in all cases give the proper bed of the + stone, for since the deposits were made ages ago natural upheavals + have possibly occurred to alter the "lie" of the material. + + For the shafts of columns especially it is necessary to have the + layers horizontally placed, and a stone should be selected from a + quarry with a bed of the required depth. An example of the omission of + this precaution is visible in the arcading of the Royal Courts of + Justice, London, where the small shafts of the front arcade in red + sandstone have been turned with the laminae in a vertical position, + with the result that nearly every shaft is flaking away or is cracked. + + _Use of Mortar._--See BRICKWORK. Of whatever quality the stone may be + of which a wall is built, it should consist as much of stone and as + little of mortar as possible. Only fine mortar is admissible if we are + to obtain as thin joints as possible. The joints should be well raked + out and pointed in Portland cement mortar. This applies only to some + sandstones, as marbles and many limestones are stained by the use of + Portland cement. For these a special cement must be employed, composed + of plaster of Paris, lime, and marble or stone-dust. + + _Bonding._--Bond (see BRICKWORK) is of not less importance in stone + walling than in brickwork. In ashlar-work the work is bonded + uniformly, the joints being kept perpendicularly one over the other; + but in rubble-work, instead of making the joints recur one over the + other in alternate courses they should be carefully made to lock, so + as to give the strength of two or three courses or layers between a + joint in one course and the joint that next occurs vertically above it + in another course. In the through or transverse bonding of a wall a + good proportion of header stones running about two-thirds of the + distance through the width of the wall should be provided to bind the + whole structure together. The use of through stones, i.e. stones + running through the whole thickness of the wall from front to back, is + not to be recommended. Such stones are liable to fracture and convey + damp to the internal face. + + _Slip Joints._--As with brickwork so in masonry great care must be + exercised to prevent the different parts of a building settling + unequally. When two portions of a building differing considerably in + height come together, it is usual to employ a slip or housed joint + instead of bonding the walls into each other. This arrangement allows + the heavier work to settle to a greater extent than the low portion + without causing any defect in the stones. + + _Footings._--The footings of stone walls should consist of large + stones of even thickness proportionate to their length; if possible + they should be the full breadth in one piece. Each course should be + well bedded and levelled. + + _Walling._--There are broadly speaking two classes of stone walling: + rubble and ashlar. Rubble walls are built of stones more or less + irregular in shape and size and coarsely jointed. Ashlar walls are + constructed of carefully worked blocks of regular dimensions and set + with fine joints. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--(¼ in. = 1 ft.)] + + _Random Rubble_ (fig. 3) is the roughest form of stonework. It is + built with irregular pieces of stone usually less than 9 in. thick, + loosely packed without much regard to courses, the interstices between + the large stones being occupied by small ones, the remaining crevices + filled up with mortar. Bond stones or headers should be used + frequently in every course. This form of walling is much used in stone + districts for boundary walls and is often set dry without mortar. For + this work the mason uses no tool but the trowel to lay on the mortar, + the scabbling hammer to break off the most repulsive irregularities + from the stone, and the plumb-rule to keep his work perpendicular. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--(¼ in. = 1 ft.)] + + _Coursed Rubble_ (fig. 4) is levelled up in courses 12 or 18 in. deep, + the depth varying in different courses according to the sizes of the + stones. The stones are dressed by the workman before he begins + building, to obtain a fairly level bed and perpendicular face. + + _Irregularly Coursed Squared Rubble_ is a development of uncoursed + random rubble, the stones in this case being squared with the hammer + and roughly faced up with the axe. The courses jump abruptly from one + level to another as the sizes of the blocks demand; the interstices + are filled in with small pieces of stone called "snecks." + + For _Coursed Squared Rubble_ the stone is faced in a similar manner + and set in courses, the depth of each course being made up of one or + more stones. + + In _Regular Coursed Rubble_ all the stones in one course are of the + same height. + + _Block-in-course_ is the name applied to a form of stone walling that + has some of the characteristics of ashlar but the execution of which + is much rougher. The courses are usually less than 12 in. high. It is + much used by engineers for waterside and railway work where a good + appearance is desired. + + The _Angles_ or _Quoins_ of rubble-work are always carefully and + precisely worked and serve as a gauge for the rest of the walling. + Frequently the quoins and jambs are executed in ashlar, which gives a + neat and finished appearance and adds strength to the work. + + The name _Ashlar_ is given, without regard to the finish of the face + of the stone, to walling composed of stones carefully dressed, from 12 + to 18 in. deep, the mortar joints being about an eighth of an inch or + less in thickness. No stone except the hardest should exceed in length + three times its depth when required to resist a heavy load and its + breadth should be from one and a half to three times its depth. The + hardest stone may have a length equal to four or perhaps five times + its depth and a width three times its depth. The face of ashlar-work + may be plain and level, or have rebated, chamfered, or moulded joints. + + + Backing to Stonework. + + The great cost of this form of stonework renders the employment of a + backing of an inferior nature very general. This backing varies + according to the district in which the building operations are being + carried on, being rubble stonework in stone districts and brick or + concrete elsewhere, the whole being thoroughly tied together both + transversely and longitudinally with bondstones. In England a stone + much used for backing ashlar and Kentish rag rubble-work is a soft + sandstone called "hassock." In the districts where it is quarried it + is much cheaper than brickwork. (For brickbacking see BRICKWORK.) + Ashlar facing usually varies from 4 to 9 in. in thickness. The work + must not be all of one thickness, but should vary in order that + effective bond with the backing may be obtained. If the work is in + courses of uneven depth the narrow courses are made of the greater + thickness and the deep courses are narrow. It is sometimes necessary + to secure the stone facing back with iron ties, but this should be + avoided wherever possible, as they are liable to rust and split the + stonework. When it is necessary to use them they should be covered + with some protective coating. The use of a backing to a stone wall, + besides lessening the cost, gives a more equable temperature inside + the building and prevents the transmission of wet by capillary + attraction to the interior, which would take place if single stones + were used for the entire thickness. + + All work of this description must be executed in Portland cement, + mortar of good strength, to avoid as much as possible the unequal + settlement of the deep courses of stone facing and the narrower + courses of the brick or rough stone backing. If the backing is of + brick it should never be less than 9 in. thick, and whether of stone + or brick it should be levelled up in courses of the same thickness as + the ashlar. + + + Walling. + + There are many different sorts of walling, or modes of structure, + arising from the nature of the materials available in various + localities. That is perhaps of most frequent occurrence in which + either squared, broken, or round flints are used. This, when executed + with care, has a distinctly decorative appearance. To give stability + to the structure, lacing courses of tiles, bricks or dressed stones + are introduced, and brick or stone piers are built at intervals, thus + forming a flint panelled wall. The quoins, too, in this type of wall + are formed in dressed stone or brick work. + + Uncoursed rubble built with irregular blocks of ragstone, an + unstratified rock quarried in Kent, is in great favour for facing the + external walls of churches and similar works (fig. 5). + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--(¼ in. = 1 ft.)] + + _Pointing._--As with brickwork this is generally done when the work is + completed and before the scaffolding is removed. Suitable weather + should be chosen, for if the weather be either frosty or too hot the + pointing will suffer. The joints are raked out to a depth of half an + inch or more, well wetted, and then refilled with a fine mortar + composed specially to resist the action of the weather. This is + finished flat or compressed with a special tool to a shaped joint, the + usual forms of which are shown in fig. 6. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--(¾ full size).] + + _Stonewash._--To give a uniform appearance to the stonework and + preserve the finished face until a hardened skin has formed, it is + usual to coat the surface of exposed masonry with a protective + compound of ordinary limewhite with a little size mixed in it, or a + special mixture of stone-dust, lime, salt, whiting and size with a + little ochre to tone it down. After six months or more the work is + cleaned down with water and stiff bristle or wire brushes. Sometimes + muriatic acid much diluted with water is used. + + _Technical Terms._--Of the following technical terms, many will be + found embodied in the drawing of a gable wall (fig. 7), which shows + the manner and position in which many different members are used. + + _Apex Stone._--The topmost stone of a gable forming a finial for the + two sloping sides; it is sometimes termed a "saddle" (fig. 7). + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--(Scale--approximately ½ in. = 1 ft.)] + + _Blocking Course,_ a heavy course of stone above a cornice to form a + parapet and weigh down the back of the cornice (fig. 8). + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.--(½ in. = 1 ft.)] + + _Bed._--The _bed_ surface upon which a stone is set or bedded should + be worked truly level in every part. Many workmen to form a neat thin + joint with a minimum amount of labour hollow the bed and thus when the + stone is set all weight is thrown upon the edges with the frequent + result that these are crushed. + + _Coping._--The _coping_ or _capping_ stones are placed on the top of + walls not covered by a roof, spanning their entire width and throwing + off the rain and snow, thus keeping the interior of the wall dry. The + fewer the number of joints the better the security, and for this + reason it is well to form copings with as long stones as possible. To + throw water off clear, and prevent it from running down the face of + the wall, the coping should project an inch or two on each side and + have a throat worked on the under-side of the projections (fig. 7). + + _Cornice,_ a projecting course of moulded stone crowning a structure, + forming a cap or finish and serving to throw any wet clear of the + walls. A deep drip should always be worked in the upper members of a + cornice to prevent the rain trickling down and disfiguring the face of + the moulding and the wall below (fig. 8). + + _Corbel,_ a stone built into a wall and projecting to form a + cantilever, supporting a load beyond the face of the wall. It is + frequently richly ornamented by carving (fig. 7). + + _Skew Corbel,_ a stone placed at the base of the sloping side of a + gable wall to resist any sliding tendency of the sloping coping. + Stones placed for a similar purpose at intervals along the sloping + side, tailing into the wall, are termed "kneelers" and have the + section of the coping worked upon them (fig. 7). + + _Corbel Table,_ a lino of small corbels placed at short distances + apart supporting a parapet or arcade. This forms an ornamental feature + which was much employed in early Gothic times. It probably originates + from the machicolations of ancient fortresses. + + _Dressings,_ the finished stones of window and door jambs and quoins. + For example, a "brick building with stone dressings" would have brick + walls with stone door and window jambs, heads and sills, and perhaps + also stone quoins (fig. 7). + + _Diaper,_ a square pattern formed on the face of the stonework by + means of stones of different colours and varieties or by patterns + carved on the surface (fig. 7). + + _Finial,_ a finishing ornament applied usually to a gable end (fig. + 7). + + _Gablet,_ small gable-shaped carved panels frequently used in Gothic + stonework for apex stones, and in spires, &c. + + _Gargoyle,_ a detail, not often met with in modern work, which + consists of a waterspout projecting so as to throw the rain-water from + the gutters clear of the walls. In early work it was often carved into + grotesque shapes of animal and other forms. + + _Galleting._--The joints of rubble are sometimes enriched by having + small pebbles or chips of flint pressed into the mortar whilst green. + The joints are then said to be "galleted." + + _Jamb._--Window and door jambs should always be of dressed stone, both + on account of the extra strength thus gained and in order to give a + finish to the work. The stones are laid alternately as stretchers and + headers; the former are called outbands, the latter inbands (fig. 7). + + _Label Moulding,_ a projecting course of stone running round an arch. + When not very large it is sometimes cut on the voussoirs, but is + usually made a separate course of stone. Often, and especially in the + case of door openings, a small sinking is worked on the top surface of + the moulding to form a gutter which leads to the sides any water that + trickles down the face of the wall. + + _Lacing Stone._--This is placed as a voussoir in brick arches of wide + span, and serves to bond or lace several courses together (see + BRICKWORK). + + _Lacing Course,_ a course of dressed stone, bricks or tiles, run at + intervals in a wall of rubble or flint masonry to impart strength and + tie the whole together (fig. 7). + + _Long and Short Work,_ a typical Saxon method of arranging quoin + stones, flat slabs and long narrow vertical stones being placed + alternately. Earls Barton church in Northamptonshire is an example of + their use in old work. In modern work long and short work, sometimes + termed "block and start," is little used (fig. 7). + + _Parapet,_ a fence wall at the top of a wall at the eaves of the roof. + The gutter lies behind, and waterways are formed through the parapet + wall for the escape of the rain-water. + + _Plinth,_ a projecting base to a wall serving to give an appearance of + stability to the work. + + _Quoin,_ the angle at the junction of two walls. Quoins are often + executed in dressed stone (fig. 7). + + _Rag-bolt,_ the end of an iron bolt when required to be let into stone + is roughed or ragged. A dovetailed mortise is prepared in the stone + and the ragged end of the bolt placed in this, and the mortise filled + in with molten lead or sand and sulphur (fig. 9). + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.--(1 in. = 1 ft.)] + + _Sill,_ the stone which forms a finish to the wall at the bottom of an + opening. Sills should always be weathered, slightly in the case of + door sills, more sharply for windows, and throated on the under side + to throw off the wet. The weathering is not carried through the whole + length of the sill, but a stool is left on at each end to form a + square end for building in (fig. 7). + + _String Courses,_ horizontal bands of stone, either projecting beyond + or flush with the face of the wall and often moulded or carved. They + are frequently continuations of the sills or head lines of windows + (figs. 5 and 7). + + _Scontion._--In a thick wall the dressed stones forming the inside + angles of the jamb of a window or door opening are termed scontions. + + _Spalls,_ small pieces chipped off whilst working a stone. + + _Templates,_ slabs of hard stone set in a wall to take the ends of a + beam or girder so as to distribute the load over a larger area of the + wall. + + _Tympanum,_ the triangular filling of masonry in a pediment between + the cornices, or between the horizontal head of a window or door and + the under-side of the relieving arch above it. It is often panelled or + enriched with carved ornament (fig. 7). + + _Throat,_ a groove worked on the under-side of projecting external + members to intercept rain-water and cause it to drop off the member + clear of the work beneath (fig. 8). + + _Weathering._--The surface of an exposed stone is weathered when it is + worked to a slope so as to throw off the water. Cornices, copings, + sills and string courses should all be so weathered. + + _Voussoirs,_ the wedge-shaped blocks of which an arch is built up. + + _Methods of finishing Face of Stones._--The _self face_ or _quarry + face_ is the natural surface formed when the stone is detached from + the mass in the quarry or when a stone is split. + + _Saw-face,_ the surface formed by sawing. + + _Hammer-dressed, Rock-faced, or Pitch-faced._--This face is used for + ashlar-work, usually with a chisel-draughted margin around each block. + It gives a very massive and solid appearance to the lower storeys of + masonry buildings, and is formed with little labour, and is therefore + the cheapest face to adopt for ashlar-work (fig. 7). + + _Broached and Pointed Work._--This face is also generally used with a + chisel-draughted margin. The stone as left from the scabbling hammer + at the quarry has its rocky face worked down to an approximate level + by the point. In broached work the grooves made by the tool are + continuous, often running obliquely across the face of the block. In + pointed work the lines are not continuous; the surface is rough or + fine pointed according as the point is used over every inch or + half-inch of the stone. The point is used more upon hard stones than + soft ones (fig. 7). + + _Tooth-chiselled Work._--The cheapest method of dressing soft stones + is by the toothed chisel which gives a surface very much like the + pointed work of hard stones. + + _Droved Work._--This surface is obtained with a chisel about two and a + half inches wide, no attempt being made to keep the cuts in continuous + lines. + + _Tooled Work_ is somewhat similar to droved work and is done with a + flat chisel, the edge of which is about four inches wide, care being + taken to make the cuts in continuous lines across the width of the + stone. + + _Combed or Dragged Work._--For soft stones the steel comb or drag is + often employed to remove all irregularities from the face and thus + form a fine surface. These tools are specially useful for moulded + work, as they are formed to fit a variety of curves. + + _Rubbed Work._--For this finish the surface of the stone is previously + brought with the chisel to a level and approximately smooth face, and + then the surface is rubbed until it is quite smooth with a piece of + grit stone aided by fine sand and water as a lubricant. Marbles are + polished by being rubbed with gritstone, then with pumice, and lastly + with emery powder. + + Besides these, the most usual methods of finishing the faces of + stonework, there are several kinds of surface formed with hammers or + axes of various descriptions. These types of hammers are more used on + the continent of Europe and in America perhaps than in England, but + they deserve notice here. + + The _toothed axe_ has its edges divided into teeth, fine or coarse + according to the work to be done. It is used to reduce the face of + limestones and sandstones to a condition ready for the chisel. The + _bush hammer_ has a heavy square-shaped double-faced head, upon which + are cut projecting pyramidal points. It is used to form a surface full + of little holes, and with it the face of sand and limestones may be + brought to a somewhat ornamental finish. The _patent hammer_ is used + on granite and other hard rocks, which have been first dressed to a + medium surface with the point. The fineness of the result is + determined by the number of blades in the hammer, and the work is said + to be "six," "eight" or "ten-cut" work according to the number of + blades inserted or bolted in the hammer head. The _crandall_ has an + iron handle slotted at one end with a hole 3/8 in. wide and 3 in. + long. In this slot are fixed by a key ten or eleven double-headed + points of ¼ in. square steel about 9 in. long. It is used for + finishing sandstone and soft stones after the surface has been + levelled down with the axe or chisel. It gives a fine pebbly sparkling + appearance. + + There are several methods of finishing stone which involve a great + deal of labour and are therefore expensive to work, but which result + in imparting a very stiff and unnatural appearance to the masonry. + + _Vermiculated Work._--This is formed by carving a number of curling + worm-like lines over the face of the block, sinking in between the + worms to a depth of a fourth of an inch. The surface of the strings is + worked smooth, and the sinkings are pock-marked with a pointed tool + (fig. 7). + + _Furrowed Work._--In this face the stone is cut with a chisel into a + number of small parallel grooves or furrows (fig. 7). + + _Reticulated Face_ is a finish somewhat similar to vermiculated work, + but the divisions are more nearly squares. + + _Face Joints of Ashlar._--The face joints of ashlar stonework are + often sunk or rebated to form what are termed rusticated joints; + sometimes the angles of each block are moulded or chamfered to give + relief to the surface or to show a massive effect (fig. 7). + + _Joints in Stonework._--The joints between one block of stone and + another are formed in many ways by cramps, dowels and joggles of + various descriptions. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--(1 in. = 1 ft.)] + + + Cramps. + + The stones of copings, cornices and works of a similar nature, are + often tied together with metal cramps to check any tendency for the + stones to separate under the force of the wind (figs. 10 and 11). + Cramps are made of iron (plain or galvanized), copper or gun-metal, of + varying sections and lengths to suit the work. A typical cramp would + be about 9 in. long, 1 or 1½ in. wide, and from ¼ to ½ in. thick, and + turned down about 1½ in. at each end. A dovetailed mortise is formed + at a suitable point in each of the stones to be joined and connected + by a chase. The cramp is placed in this channel with its turned-down + ends in the mortises, and it is then fixed with molten lead, sulphur + and sand, or Portland cement. Lead shrinks on cooling, and if used at + all should be well caulked when cold. Double dovetailed slate cramps + bedded in Portland cement are occasionally used (fig. 11). + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.--(¾ in. = 1 ft.)] + + + Dowels. + + Dowels are used for connecting stones where the use of cramps would be + impracticable, as in the joints of window mullions, the shafts of + small columns, and in similar works (figs. 7, 8 and 20). Dowels for + bed and side joints may be used. They are of slate, metal, or + sometimes of hard wood. + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.--(½ in. = 1 ft.)] + + + Joggles. + + There are many ways of making a joggle joint. The joggle may be worked + on one of the stones so as to fit into a groove in the adjoining + stone, or grooves may be cut in both the stones and an independent + joggle of slate, pebbles, or Portland cement fitted, the joggle being + really a kind of dowel. The pebble joggle joint is formed with the aid + of pebbles as small dowels fitted into mortises in the jointing faces + of two stones and set with Portland cement; but joggles of slate have + generally taken the place of pebbles. Portland cement joggles are + formed by pouring cement grout into a vertical or oblique mortise + formed by cutting a groove in each of the joining surfaces of the + stones. What is known as a he-and-she joggle, worked on the edges of + the stones themselves, is shown in fig. 13. + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.--(½ in. = 1 ft.)] + + Plugs or dowels of lead are formed by pouring molten lead through a + channel into dovetailed mortises in each stone (figs. 14 and 15). When + cold the metal is caulked to compress it tightly into the holes. + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.--(¾ in. = 1 ft.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 15.--(1 in. = 1 ft.)] + + The saddle joint is used for cornices, and is formed when a portion of + the stone next the joint is left raised so as to guide rain-water away + from the joint (fig. 8). + + Two forms of rebated joints for stone copings and roofs are common. In + one form (shown in fig. 7) the stones forming the coping are thicker + at their lower and rebated edge than at the top plain edge, giving a + stepped surface. The other form has a level surface and the stone is + of the same thickness throughout and worked to a rebate on top and + bottom edges. In laying stone roofs the joints are usually lapped over + with an upper slab of stone. + + _Joints in Spires._--Four forms of jointing for the battering + stonework of spires are shown in fig. 16. A is a plain horizontal + joint. B is a similar joint formed at right angles to the face of the + work. This is the most economical form of joint, the stone being cut + with its sides square with each other; but if the mortar in the joint + decay moisture is allowed to penetrate. With these forms dowelling is + frequently necessary for greater stability. The joints C and D are + more elaborate and much more expensive on account of the extra labour + involved in working and fitting. + + [Illustration: FIG. 16.--(½ in. = 1 ft.)] + + Where a concentrated weight is carried by piers or columns the bed + joints are in many cases formed without the use of mortar, a thin + sheet of milled lead being placed between the blocks of stone to fill + up any slight inequalities. + + _Moulded Work._--The working of mouldings in stone is an important + part of the mason's craft, and forms a costly item in the erection of + a stone structure. Much skill and care is required to retain the + arrises sharp and the curved members of accurate and proportionate + outline. As in the case of wood mouldings, machinery now plays an + important part in the preparation of stone moulded work. The process + of working a stone by hand labour is as follows: The profile of the + moulding is marked on to a zinc template on opposite ends of the stone + to be worked; a short portion, an inch or two in length termed a + "draught," is at each end worked to the required section. The + remaining portion is then proceeded with, the craftsman continually + checking the accuracy of his work with a straight-edge and zinc + templates. A stone to be moulded by machinery is fixed to a moving + table placed under a shaped tool which is fixed in an immovable + portion of the machine, and is so adjusted as to cut or chip off a + small layer of stone. Each time the stone passes under the cutter it + is automatically moved a trifle nearer, and thus it gradually reduces + the stone until the required shape is attained. + + [Illustration: FIG. 17.--(1 in. = 1 ft.)] + + _Iron in Stonework._--The use of iron dowels or cramps in stonework, + unless entirely and permanently protected from oxidation is attended + by the gravest risks; for upon the expansion of the iron by rusting + the stone may split, and perhaps bring about a more or less serious + failure in that portion of the building. A case in point is that of + the church of St Mary-le-Strand, London, where the ashlar facing was + secured to the backing with iron cramps; these were inefficiently + protected from damp, with the result that many of the blocks have been + split in consequence of rusting. John Smeaton in his Eddystone + Lighthouse used dowels of Purbeck marble. + + [Illustration: FIG. 18.--(½ in. = 1 ft.)] + + _Stone Arches._--Stone arches are very frequently used both in stone + and brick buildings. (For general definitions and terms see + BRICKWORK.) They may be built in a great variety of styles, either + flat, segmental, circular, elliptical or pointed. Each block or + voussoir should be cut to fit exactly in its appointed place, the + joints being made as fine as possible. The joints should radiate from + the centre from which the soffit or intrados is struck, or in the case + of an elliptical arch they should be at right angles to a tangent + drawn to the intrados at that point. The extrados or back of the arch + is usually concentric with the intrados, but is sometimes made thicker + in one portion than in another; thus the arch may be deeper at the + crown than at the sides, or at the sides than in the centre. In some + cases two or more voussoirs are of one stone, having a false joint cut + in the centre; this is economical, and in some cases adds to the + stability of the arch. Generally the arch is divided into an uneven + number of voussoirs so as to give a keystone, the voussoirs being laid + from each side of the keystone and fitting exactly in the centre of + the arch. The keystone is not a necessity, arches being frequently + formed with an even number of voussoirs; some architects hold that the + danger of the voussoirs cracking is thereby lessened. Where lintels + are used in a stone wall over openings of small span it is usual to + build a relieving arch above to take the superincumbent weight of + masonry; or the same purpose may be effected in walls of ashlar by a + flat relieving or "save" arch, formed in the next course of three + stones above the lintel, the tapering keystone resting between the two + side stones which are tailed well into the wall. + + In very many cases it is desired to form square heads to openings of + greater span than it is convenient to obtain lintels for in one piece, + and some form of flat arch must therefore be adopted. The voussoirs + are connected by joggles worked on their joints, as in fig. 17. The + weight of the superimposed wall is taken by a lintel with relieving + arch above at the back of the arch. + + Arches built to an elliptical form when used for large spans (if of + flat curve they should bridge over 8 ft. or 10 ft.) are liable if + heavily loaded to fail by the voussoirs at the centre being forced + down, or else to burst up at the haunches. With arches of this + description there is a large amount of outward thrust, and abutments + of ample strength must be placed to receive the springers. + + _Stone Tracery._--The designs of Gothic and other tracery stonework + are almost infinite, and there are many methods, ingenious and + otherwise, of setting out such work. Nearly all diagrams of + construction are planned on the principle of geometrical + intersections. In the example illustrated in fig. 18 the method of + setting out and finishing the design is very clearly shown, together + with the best positions for the joints of the various parts. The + jointing is a matter which must be carefully considered in order to + avoid any waste of stone and labour. It will be observed that the + right-hand side of the elevation shows the method of setting out the + tracery by the centre lines of the various intersecting branches, the + other half giving the completed design with the cusping drawn in and + the positions of joints. All the upper construction of windows and + doors and of aisle arches should be protected from superincumbent + pressure by strong relieving arches above the labels, as shown in the + figure, which should be worked with the ordinary masonry, and so set + that the weight above should avoid pressure on the fair work, which + would be liable to flush or otherwise destroy the joints of the + tracery. + + _Carving._--Stone carving is a craft quite apart from the work of the + ordinary stonemason, and like carving in wood needs an artistic + feeling and special training. Carving-stone should be of fine grain + and sufficiently soft to admit of easy working. The Bath stones in + England and the Caen stone of France are largely used for internal + work, but if for the exterior they should be treated with some + chemical preservative. Carving is frequently done after the stone is + built into position, the face being left rough--"boasted"--and + projecting sufficiently for the intended design. + + See E. Viollet-le-Duc, _Dictionnaire raisonné de l'architecture + française_; W. R. Purchase, _Practical Masonry_; J. O. Baker, _A + Treatise on Masonry Construction_; C. F. Mitchell, _Brickwork and + Masonry_; W. Diack, _The Art of Masonry in Britain_. (J. Bt.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The English word "mason" is from the French, which appears in the + two forms, _machun_ and _masson_ (from the last comes the modern Fr. + form _maçon_, which means indifferently a bricklayer or mason). In O. + H. Ger. the word is _mezzo_, which survives in the German for a + stone-mason, _Steinmetz_. The med. Lat. form, _machio_, was connected + with _machina_--obviously a guess. The Low Lat., _macheria_ or + _maceria_ (see Du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.v. _macio_), a wall, has + been suggested as showing some connexion. Some popular Lat. form as + _macio_ or _mattio_ is probably the origin. No Teut. word, according + to the _New English Dictionary_, except that which appears in + "mattock," seems to have any bearing on the ultimate origin. + + + + +MASPERO, GASTON CAMILLE CHARLES (1846- ), French Egyptologist, was +born in Paris on the 23rd of June 1846, his parents being of Lombard +origin. While at school he showed a special taste for history, and when +fourteen years old was already interested in hieroglyphic writing. It +was not until his second year at the École Normale in 1867 that Maspero +met with an Egyptologist in the person of Mariette, who was then in +Paris as commissioner for the Egyptian section of the exhibition. +Mariette gave him two newly discovered hieroglyphic texts of +considerable difficulty to study, and, self-taught, the young scholar +produced translations of them in less than a fortnight, a great feat in +those days when Egyptology was still almost in its infancy. The +publication of these in the same year established his reputation. A +short time was spent in assisting a gentleman in Peru, who was seeking +to prove an Aryan affinity for the dialects spoken by the Indians of +that country, to publish his researches; but in 1868 Maspero was back in +France at more profitable work. In 1869 he became a teacher +(_répétiteur_) of Egyptian language and archaeology at the École des +Hautes Études; in 1874 he was appointed to the chair of Champollion at +the Collège de France. + +In November 1880 Professor Maspero went to Egypt as head of an +archaeological mission despatched thither by the French government, +which ultimately developed into the well-equipped Institut Français de +l'Archéologie Oriental. This was but a few months before the death of +Mariette, whom Maspero then succeeded as director-general of excavations +and of the antiquities of Egypt. He held this post till June 1886; in +these five years he had organized the mission, and his labours for the +Bulak museum and for archaeology had been early rewarded by the +discovery of the great cache of royal mummies at Deir el-Bahri in July +1881. Maspero now resumed his professorial duties in Paris until 1899, +when he returned to Egypt in his old capacity as director-general of the +department of antiquities. He found the collections in the Cairo Museum +enormously increased, and he superintended their removal from Gizeh to +the new quarters at Kasr en-Nil in 1902. The vast catalogue of the +collections made rapid progress under Maspero's direction. Twenty-four +volumes or sections were already published in 1909. The repairs and +clearances at the temple of Karnak, begun in his previous tenure of +office, led to the most remarkable discoveries in later years (see +KARNAK), during which a vast amount of excavation and exploration has +been carried on also by unofficial but authorized explorers of many +nationalities. + + Among his best-known publications are the large _Histoire ancienne des + peuples de l'Orient classique_ (3 vols., Paris, 1895-1897, translated + into English by Mrs McClure for the S.P.C.K.), displaying the history + of the whole of the nearer East from the beginnings to the conquest by + Alexander; a smaller _Histoire des peuples de l'Orient_, 1 vol., of + the same scope, which has passed through six editions from 1875 to + 1904; _Études de mythologie et d'archéologie égyptiennes_ (Paris, + 1893, &c.), a collection of reviews and essays originally published in + various journals, and especially important as contributions to the + study of Egyptian religion; _L'Archéologie égyptienne_ (latest ed., + 1907), of which several editions have been published in English. He + also established the journal _Recueil de travaux relatifs à la + philologie et à l'archéologie égyptiennes et assyriennes_; the + _Bibliothèque égyptologique_, in which the scattered essays of the + French Egyptologists are collected, with biographies, &c.; and the + _Annales du service des antiquités de l'Égypte_, a repository for + reports on official excavations, &c. + + Maspero also wrote: _Les Inscriptions des pyramides de Saqqaroh_ + (Paris, 1894); _Les Momies royales de Deir el-Baharî_ (Paris, 1889); + _Les Contes populaires de l'Égypte ancienne_ (3rd ed., Paris, 1906); + _Causeries d'Égypte_ (1907), translated by Elizabeth Lee as _New Light + on Ancient Egypt_ (1908). + + + + +MASS (O.E. _maesse_; Fr. _messe_; Ger. _Messe_; Ital. _messa_; from +eccl. Lat. _missa_), a name for the Christian eucharistic service, +practically confined since the Reformation to that of the Roman Catholic +Church. The various orders for the celebration of Mass are dealt with +under LITURGY; a detailed account of the Roman order is given under +MISSAL; and the general development of the eucharistic service, +including the Mass, is described in the article EUCHARIST. The present +article is confined (1) to the consideration of certain special meanings +which have become attached to the word Mass and are the subject of +somewhat acute controversy, (2) to the Mass in music. + +The origin of the word _missa_, as applied to the Eucharist, is obscure. +The first to discuss the matter is Isidore of Seville (_Etym._ vi. 19), +who mentions an "evening office" (_officium vespertinum_), a "morning +office" (_officium matutinum_), and an office called _missa_. Of the +latter he says: "Missa tempore sacrificii est, quando catechumeni foras +mittuntur, clamante levita 'si quis catechumenus remansit, exeat foras.' +Et inde 'missa,' quia sacramentis altaris interesse non possunt, qui +nondum regenerati sunt" ("The _missa_ is at the time of the sacrifice, +when the catechumens are sent out, the deacon crying, 'If any catechumen +remain, let him go forth.'" Hence _missa_, because those who are as yet +unregenerate--i.e. unbaptized--may not be present at the sacraments of +the altar). This derivation of the word Mass, which would connect it +with the special formula of dismissal still preserved in the Roman +liturgy--_Ite, missa est_--once generally accepted, is now disputed. It +is pointed out that the word _missa_ long continued to be applied to any +church service, and more particularly to the lections (see Du Cange for +numerous examples), and it is held that such services received their +name of _missal_ from the solemn form of dismissal with which it was +customary to conclude them; thus, in the 4th century _Pilgrimage of +Etheria_ (_Silvia_) the word _missa_ is used indiscriminately of the +Eucharist, other services, and the ceremony of dismissal. F. Kattenbusch +(Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklop. s._ "Messe") ingeniously, but with little +evidence, suggests that the word may have had a double origin and +meaning: (1) in the sense of _dimissio_, "dismissal"; (2) in that of +_commissio_, "commission," "official duty," i.e. the exact Latin +equivalent of the Greek [Greek: leitourgia] (see LITURGY), and hence the +conflicting use of the term. It is, however, far more probable that it +was a general term that gradually became crystallized as applying to +that service in which the dismissal represented a more solemn function. +In the narrower sense of "Mass" it is first found in St Ambrose (_Ep._ +20, 4, ed. Ballerini): "Missam facere coepi. Dum offero ..." which +evidently identifies the _missa_ with the sacrifice. It continued, +however, to be used loosely, though its tendency to become proper only +to the principal Christian service is clear from a passage in the 12th +homily of Caesarius, bishop of Arles (d. 542): "If you will diligently +attend, you will recognize that _missae_ are not celebrated when the +divine readings are recited in the church, but when gifts are offered +and the Body and Blood of the Lord are consecrated." The complete +service (_missa ad integrum_), the bishop goes on to say, cannot be had +at home by reading and prayer, but only in the house of God, where, +besides the Eucharist, "the divine word is preached and the blessing is +given to the people." + +Whatever its origin, the word Mass had by the time of the Reformation +been long applied only to the Eucharist; and, though in itself a +perfectly colourless term, and used as such during the earlier stages of +the 16th century controversies concerning the Eucharist, it soon became +identified with that sacrificial aspect of the sacrament of the altar +which it was the chief object of the Reformers to overthrow. In England, +so late as the first Prayer-book of Edward VI., it remained one of the +official designations of the Eucharist, which is there described as "The +Supper of the Lorde and holy Communion, commonly called the Masse." +This, however, like the service itself, represented a compromise which +the more extreme reformers would not tolerate, and in the second +Prayer-book, together with such language in the canon as might imply the +doctrine of transubstantiation and of the sacrifice, the word Mass also +disappears. That this abolition of the word Mass, as implying the +offering of Christ's Body and Blood by the priest for the living and the +dead was deliberate is clear from the language of those who were chiefly +responsible for the change. Bishops Ridley and Latimer, the two most +conspicuous champions of "the new religion," denounced "the Mass" with +unmeasured violence; Latimer said of "Mistress Missa" that "the devil +hath brought her in again"; Ridley said: "I do not take the Mass as it +is at this day for the communion of the Church, but for a popish +device," &c. (_Works_, ed. Parker Soc., pp. 121, 120), and again: "In +the stead of the Lord's holy table they give the people, with much +solemn disguising, a thing which they call their mass; but in deed and +in truth it is a very masking and mockery of the true Supper of the +Lord, or rather I may call it a crafty juggling, whereby these false +thieves and jugglers have bewitched the minds of the simple people ... +unto pernicious idolatory" (ib. p. 409). This language is reflected in +the 31st of the Articles of Religion of the Church of England: +"Wherefore the sacrifices of Masses, in which it was commonly said that +the Priest did offer Christ for the quick and the dead, to have +remission of pain and guilt, were blasphemous fables and dangerous +deceits." Clearly the word Mass had ceased to be a colourless term +generally applicable to the eucharistic service; it was, in fact, not +only proscribed officially, but in the common language of English people +it passed entirely out of use except in the sense in which it is defined +in Johnson's Dictionary, i.e. that of the "Service of the Romish Church +at the celebration of the Eucharist." In connexion with the Catholic +reaction in the Church of England, which had its origin in the "Oxford +Movement" of the 19th century, efforts have been made by some of the +clergy to reintroduce the term "Mass" for the Holy Communion in the +English Church. + + See Du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.v. "Missa"; F. Kattenbusch in + Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_ (ed. 1903), s.v. "Messe, + dogmengeschichtlich"; for the facts as to the use of the word "Mass" + at the time of the Reformation see the article by J. H. Round in the + _Nineteenth Century_ for May 1897. (W. A. P.) + +MASS, IN MUSIC: 1. _Polyphonic Masses._--The composition of musical +settings of the Mass plays a part in the history of music which is of +special importance up to and including the 16th century. As an art-form +the musical Mass is governed to a peculiar degree by the structure of +its text. It so happens that the supremely important parts of the Mass +are those which have the smallest number of words, namely the _Kyrie_, +important as being the opening prayer; the _Sanctus_ and _Benedictus_, +embodying the central acts and ideas of the service; and the _Agnus +Dei_, the prayer with which it concludes. The 16th-century methods were +specially fitted for highly developed music when words were few and +embodied ideas of such important emotional significance or finality that +they could be constantly repeated without losing force. Now the texts of +the _Gloria_ and _Credo_ were more voluminous than any others which +16th-century composers attempted to handle in a continuous scheme. The +practical limits of the church service made it impossible to break them +up by setting each clause to a separate movement, a method by which +16th-century music composers contrived to set psalms and other long +texts to compositions lasting an hour or longer. Accordingly, Palestrina +and his great contemporaries and predecessors treated the _Gloria_ and +_Credo_ in a style midway in polyphonic organization and rhythmic +breadth between that of the elaborate motet (adopted in the _Sanctus_) +and the homophonic reciting style of the Litany. The various ways in +which this special style could be modified by the scale of the work, and +contrasted with the broader and more elaborate parts, gave the Mass +(even in its merely technical aspects) a range which made it to the +16th-century composer what the symphony is to the great instrumental +classics. Moreover, as being inseparably associated with the highest act +of worship, it inspired composers in direct proportion to their piety +and depth of mind. Of course there were many false methods of attacking +the art-problem, and many other relationships, true and false, between +the complexity of the settings of the various parts of the Mass and of +motets. The story of the action of the council of Trent on the subject +of corruption of church music is told elsewhere (see MUSIC and +PALESTRINA); and it has been recently paralleled by a decree of Pope +Pius X., which has restored the 16th-century polyphonic Mass to a +permanent place in the Roman Catholic Church music. + +2. _Instrumental Masses in the Neapolitan Form._--The next definite +stage in the musical history of the Mass was attained by the Neapolitan +composers who were first to reach musical coherence after the monodic +revolution at the beginning of the 17th century. The fruit of their +efforts came to maturity in the Masses of Mozart and Haydn. By this time +the resources of music were such that the long and varied text of the +_Gloria_ and _Credo_ inevitably either overbalanced the scheme or met +with an obviously perfunctory treatment. It is almost impossible, +without asceticism of a radically inartistic kind, to treat with the +resources of instrumental music and free harmony such passages as that +from the _Crucifixus_ to the _Resurrexit_, without an emotional contrast +which inevitably throws any natural treatment of the _Sanctus_ into the +background, and makes the _Agnus Dei_ an inadequate conclusion to the +musical scheme. So unfavourable were the conditions of 18th-century +music for the formation of a good ecclesiastical style that only a very +small proportion of Mozart's and Haydn's Mass music may be said to +represent their ideas of religious music at all. The best features of +their Masses are those that combine faithfulness to the Neapolitan forms +with a contrapuntal richness such as no Neapolitan composer ever +achieved. Thus Mozart's most perfect as well as most ecclesiastical +example is his extremely terse Mass in F, written at the age of +seventeen, which is scored simply for four-part chorus and solo voices +accompanied by the organ with a largely independent bass and by two +violins mostly in independent real parts. This scheme, with the addition +of a pair of trumpets and drums and, occasionally, oboes, forms the +normal orchestra of 18th-century Masses developed or degenerated from +this model. Trombones often played with the three lower voices, a +practice of high antiquity surviving from a time when there were soprano +trombones or _cornetti_ (_Zincken_, a sort of treble _serpent_) to play +with the sopranos. + +3. _Symphonic Masses._--The enormous dramatic development in the +symphonic music of Beethoven made the problem of the Mass with +orchestral accompaniment almost insoluble. This makes it all the more +remarkable that Beethoven's second and only important Mass (in D, _Op._ +123) is not only the most dramatic ever penned but is, perhaps, the last +classical Mass that is thoughtfully based upon the liturgy, and is not a +mere musical setting of what happens to be a liturgic text. It was +intended for the installation of Beethoven's friend, the archduke +Rudolph, as archbishop of Olmütz; and, though not ready until two years +after that occasion, it shows the most careful consideration of the +meaning of a church service, no doubt of altogether exceptional length +and pomp, but by no means impossible for its unique occasion. Immense as +was Beethoven's dramatic force, it was equalled by his power of sublime +repose; and he was accordingly able once more to put the supreme moment +of the music where the service requires it to be, viz. in the _Sanctus_ +and _Benedictus_. In the _Agnus Dei_ the circumstances of the time gave +him something special to say which has never so imperatively demanded +utterance since. Europe had been shattered by the Napoleonic wars. +Beethoven read the final prayer of the Mass as a "prayer for inward and +outward peace," and, giving it that title, organized it on the basis of +a contrast between terrible martial sounds and the triumph of peaceful +themes, in a scheme none the less spiritual and sublime because those +who first heard it had derived their notions of the horror of war from +living in Vienna during its bombardment. Critics who have lived in +London during the relief of Mafeking have blamed Beethoven for his +realism. + +Schubert's Masses show rather the influence of Beethoven's not very +impressive first Mass, which they easily surpass in interest, though +they rather pathetically show an ignorance of the meaning of the Latin +words. The last two Masses are later than Beethoven's Mass in D and +contain many remarkable passages. It is evident from them that a +dramatic treatment of the _Agnus Dei_ was "in the air"; all the more so, +since Schubert does not imitate Beethoven's realism. + +4. _Lutheran Masses._--Music with Latin words is not excluded from the +Lutheran Church, and the _Kyrie_ and _Gloria_ are frequently sung in +succession and entitled a Mass. Thus the _Four Short Masses_ of Bach are +called short, not because they are on a small scale, which is far from +being the case, but because they consist only of the _Kyrie_ and +_Gloria_. Bach's method is to treat each clause of his text as a +separate movement, alternating choruses with groups of arias; a method +which was independently adopted by Mozart in those larger masses in +which he transcends the Neapolitan type, such as the great unfinished +Mass in C minor. This method, in the case of an entire Mass, results in +a length far too great for a Roman Catholic service; and Bach's B minor +Mass, which is such a setting of the entire test, must be regarded as a +kind of oratorio. It thus has obviously nothing to do with the Roman +liturgy; but as an independent setting of the text it is one of the most +sublime and profoundly religious works in all art; and its singular +perfection as a design is nowhere more evident than in its numerous +adaptations of earlier works. + +The most interesting of all these adaptations is the setting of the +words: "Et expecto resurrectionem mortuorum et vitam venturi +saeculi.--AMEN." Obviously the greatest difficulty in any elaborate +instrumental setting of the _Credo_ is the inevitable anti-climax after +the _Resurrexit_. Bach contrives to give this anti-climax a definite +artistic value; all the more from the fact that his _Crucifixus_ and +_Resurrexit_, and the contrast between them, are among the most sublime +and directly impressive things in all music. To the end of his +_Resurrexit_ chorus he appends an orchestral _ritornello_, summing up +the material of the chorus in the most formal possible way, and thereby +utterly destroying all sense of finality as a member of a large group, +while at the same time not in the least impairing the force and contrast +of the whole--that contrast having ineffaceably asserted itself at the +moment when it occurred. After this the aria "Et in spiritum sanctum," +in which the next dogmatic clauses are enshrined like relics in a +casket, furnishes a beautiful decorative design on which the listener +can repose his mind; and then comes the voluminous ecclesiastical fugue, +_Confiteor unum baptisma_, leading, as through the door and world-wide +spaces of the Catholic Church, to that veil which is not all darkness to +the eye of faith. At the words "Et expecto resurrectionem mortuorum" the +music plunges suddenly into a slow series of some of the most sublime +and mysterious modulations ever written, until it breaks out as suddenly +into a _vivace e allegro_ of broad but terse design, which comes to its +climax very rapidly and ends as abruptly as possible, the last chord +being carefully written as a short note without a pause. This gives the +utmost possible effect of finality to the whole _Credo_, and contrasts +admirably with the coldly formal instrumental end of the _Resurrexit_ +three movements further back. Now, such subtleties seem as if they must +be unconscious on the part of the composer; yet here Bach is so far +aware of his reasons that his _vivace e allegro_ is an arrangement of +the second chorus of a church cantata, _Gott man lobet dich in der +Stille_; and in the cantata the chorus has introductory and final +symphonies and a middle section with a _da capo!_ + +5. _The Requiem._--The _Missa pro defunctis_ or _Requiem Mass_ has a far +less definite musical history than the ordinary Mass; and such special +musical forms as it has produced have little in common with each other. +The text of the _Dies Irae_ so imperatively demands either a very +dramatic elaboration or none at all, that even in the 16th century it +could not possibly be set to continuous music on the lines of the +_Gloria_ and _Credo_. Fortunately, however, the Gregorian _canto fermo_ +associated with it is of exceptional beauty and symmetry; and the great +16th century masters either, like Palestrina, left it to be sung as +plain-chant, or obviated all occasion for dramatic expression by setting +it in versicles (like their settings of the _Magnificat_ and other +canticles) for two groups of voices alternatively, or for the choir in +alternation with the plain chant of the priests. + +With modern orchestral conditions the text seems positively to demand an +unecclesiastical, not to say sensational, style, and probably the only +instrumental Requiem Masses which can be said to be great church music +are the sublime unfinished work of Mozart (the antecedents of which +would be a very interesting subject) and the two beautiful works by +Cherubini. These latter, however, tend to be funereal rather than +uplifting. The only other artistic solution of the problem is to follow +Berlioz, Verdi and Dvorák in the complete renunciation of all +ecclesiastical style. + +Brahms's _Deutsches requiem_ has nothing to do with the Mass for the +dead, being simply a large choral work on a text compiled from the Bible +by the composer. (D. F. T.) + + + + +MASSA, a town of Tuscany, Italy, the joint capital with Carrara of the +province of Massa and Carrara, and sharing with it the episcopal see, 20 +m. S.E. of Spezia by rail, 246 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 10,559 +(town); 26,118 (commune). The Palazzo Ducale (now the prefecture) was +erected in 1701, and was a summer residence of Napoleon's sister, Elisa +Baciocchi, princess of Lucca, who caused the ancient cathedral opposite +to be destroyed. The hills round the town yield marble, and there is a +narrow-gauge railway to the Marina d'Avenza, where the marble is +shipped. + + + + +MASSACHUSETTS (an Indian name, originally applied to a tribe of +Indians), one of the original thirteen states of the American Union, +bounded on the N. by Vermont and New Hampshire, on the E. by the +Atlantic, on the S. by Rhode Island and Connecticut, and on the W. by +New York. It lies approximately between 41° 15´ and 42° 50´ N. lat. and +69° 55´ and 73° 30´ W. long. The bulk of its area--which is about 8266 +sq. m. (of which 227 are water)--forms a parallelogram of 130 m. E. and +W., 46 m. N. and S., the additional area lying in a projection at the +S.E. and a lesser one at the N.E., which give the mainland a breadth of +90 m. where it borders upon the ocean, while the general irregularity of +the coast-line gives a sea frontage of about 250 m. + + _Physical Features._--The east and south-east portions are in general + undulating or level, the central hilly and broken, and the west rugged + and mountainous. (For geological details see UNITED STATES: _Geology, + ad fin._) The Hoosac Hills (1200-1600 ft. high), separating the + valleys of the Housatonic and Connecticut, are a range of the + Berkshires, a part of the Appalachian system, and a continuation of + the Green Mountains of Vermont, and with the Taconic range on the west + side of the Housatonic Valley--of which the highest peaks are + Greylock, or "Saddleback" (3535 ft.), and Mt Williams (3040 ft.)--in + the extreme north-west corner of the state, form the only considerable + elevated land.[1] Bordering on the lowlands of the Connecticut, Mt Tom + (1214 ft.) and a few other hills (Mt Holyoke, 954 ft.; Mt Toby, 1275) + form conspicuous landmarks. East of this valley the country continues + more or less hilly and rocky, but the elevations eastward become + increasingly slight and of little consequence. Mt Lincoln (1246 ft.) + and especially Mt Wachusett (2108 ft.), to the east in a level + country, are very exceptional. The Blue Hills in Milton are the + nearest elevations to the coast, and are conspicuous to navigators + approaching Boston. The south-east corner of the state is a sandy + lowland, generally level with a slightly elevated ridge (Manomet) + south of Plymouth, and well watered by ponds. + + With the exception of this corner, Massachusetts is a part of the + slanting upland that includes all of southern New England. This upland + is an uplifted peneplain of subaerial denudation,[2] now so far + advanced in a "second" cycle of weathering and so thoroughly dissected + that to an untrained eye it appears to be only a country of hills + confusedly arranged. The general contour of the upland, marked by a + remarkably even sky-line, is evident at almost every locality in the + state. In the nature and position of the upland rocks--mainly + crystalline schists and gneisses, excessively complicated and + disordered in mass, and also internally deformed--there is found + abundant proof that the peneplain is a degraded mountain region. The + upland is interrupted by the rivers, and on the coast by great + lowlands, and is everywhere marked by hills somewhat surmounting the + generally even skyline. Monadnock (in New Hampshire, near N.E. + Massachusetts), the Blue Hills near Boston, Greylock, in the + north-west, and Wachusett in the centre, are the most commanding + remnant-summits (known generically as "Monadnocks") of the original + mountain system. But in the derivant valley peneplains developed in + the present cycle of denudation, and there are residual summits also; + in the Connecticut Valley trap ridges, of which Mt Tom and Mt Holyoke + are the best examples; at Mt Holyoke, lava necks; occasionally in the + lowlands, ridges of resistant sandstone, like Deerfield Mountain near + Northampton; in the Berkshire Valley, summits of resistant schists, + like Greylock, the highest summit in the state. The larger streams + have cut their channels to very moderate gradients, but the smaller + ones are steeper. The Housatonic and Millers (and the Connecticut + also, but not in its course within Massachusetts alone) afford + beautiful examples of the dependence of valley breadth upon the strike + of soft or harder rocks across the stream. The Connecticut lowland is + cut from 5 to 18 m. wide in soft sandstones and shales. The glacial + era has left abundant evidences in the topography of the state. The + ice covered even the Monadnocks. Till drumlins, notably abundant on + the lowland about Boston and the highland near Spencer; morainic + hills, extending, e.g. all along Cape Cod; eskers, kames and river + terraces afford the plainest evidences of the extent of the glacial + sheet. The Berkshire country--Berkshire, Hampden, Hampshire and + Franklin counties--is among the most beautiful regions of the United + States. It is a rolling highland dominated by long, wooded + hill-ridges, remarkably even-topped in general elevation, intersected + and broken by deep valleys. Scores of charming lakes lie in the + hollows. The district is often called the Lake Region of America, + partly from the comparableness of its scenic beauties with the English + Lake Country (Matthew Arnold, however, wrote: "The country is pleasing + but not to be compared with Westmoreland. It is wider and opener, and + neither hills nor lakes are so effective."), and partly from the + parallelism of literary associations. It has become since 1850, and + especially in much more recent years, a favoured resort of summer + residents. Owing to topography, and also to the manner in which + Massachusetts was settled, the western counties were long connected + commercially more closely with New York than with Massachusetts, and + this territory was long in dispute between these two states. + + The Connecticut is the most considerable stream, and is navigable by + small craft. Its valley, much the richest portion of the state + agriculturally, is celebrated for the quiet variety and beauty of its + scenery. The Housatonic, in portions placid, in others wild and rapid, + winding along the deflecting barrier of the Hoosac Hills, is the most + beautiful river of the state, despite the mercantile use of its + water-power. The Merrimac, the second stream of the state in volume, + runs in a charming valley through the extreme north-east corner, and + affords immensely valuable water-power at Lowell, Lawrence and + Haverhill. + + South of Cohasset the shore is sandy, with a few isolated rocky ledges + and boulders. About Boston, and to the north of it, the shore is rocky + and picturesque. Cape Cod, like a human arm doubled at the elbow, 40 + m. from shoulder to elbow and 30 from elbow to hand, is nowhere more + than a few miles broad. It is a sandy ridge, dotted with summer + resorts and cottages. Cape Ann has a rugged interior and a ragged, + rocky coast. It, too, is a summer recreation ground, with much + beautiful scenery. Boston Harbor (originally known as Massachusetts + Bay, a name which now has a much broader signification) is the finest + roadstead on the coast. The extreme hook of the Cape Cod Peninsula + forms Provincetown Harbor, which is an excellent and capacious port of + refuge for vessels approaching Boston. Salem Harbor is the most + considerable other haven on Massachusetts Bay; on Buzzard's Bay New + Bedford has a good harbour, and on the Atlantic coast are the + excellent harbours of Gloucester and Marblehead, both frequented by + summer residents. Gloucester has the largest fishery interests of any + place in the country, and is one of the chief fishing ports of the + world. Buzzard's Bay is also a popular yachting ground, and all about + its shores are towns of summer residence. Wood's Hole is a station of + the United States Bureau of Fisheries, and a marine biological + laboratory is there. + + The principal islands lie off the south coast. The largest is Martha's + Vineyard, about 20 m. long, with an extreme breadth of about 9½ m. It + has in Vineyard Haven (Holmes's Hole) a spacious harbour, much + frequented by wind-bound vessels seeking a passage round Cape Cod. The + island is covered with stunted trees. Its population was formerly + dependent wholly upon the sea, but its climate has made it a popular + summer resort, Oak Bluffs being one of the chief resorts of the + Atlantic coast. Farther east, Nantucket, a smaller island of + triangular shape, is likewise the home of a seafaring folk who still + retain in some degree primitive habits, though summer visitors are + more and more affecting its life. + + _Flora and Fauna._--Massachusetts lies entirely in the humid area of + the Transition life-zone, with the exception of the extreme + north-western corner of the state, which lies in the Boreal zone. Thus + the original native trees and plants were those common to New England + and northern New York. The presence of a dense population has driven + out some, and brought in others, including some noxious weeds. The + larger wild animals have disappeared, excepting an occasional black + bear or deer. Of the smaller fur-bearing animals, the beaver was long + ago exterminated, the otter is seen very rarely, and the mink only in + the most isolated districts; but foxes, skunks, weasels, musk-rats, + rabbits, and grey and red squirrels are not uncommon. Copperhead + snakes and rattlesnakes arc occasionally seen, and there are several + species of harmless serpents. Of game birds the most characteristic is + the partridge (ruffed grouse), exclusively a woodland bird; the + Wilson's snipe and the woodcock are not uncommon in favourable + localities, and several species of ducks are found especially in the + bays and marshes near the coast during the seasons of migration. A + stray eagle is sometimes seen. Very interesting to ornithologists are + the few heath hens, the eastern representative of the prairie hen + (pinnated grouse), which are found on the island of Martha's Vineyard, + and are the sole survivors in the eastern states of one of the finest + of American game birds, now practically exterminated even on the + western plains. There are many insectivorous birds; among the song + birds are the hermit thrush, the wood thrush, the Wilson's thrush, the + brown thrasher, the bobolink, the catbird, the oven bird, the house + wren, the song sparrow, the fox sparrow, the vesper sparrow, the + white-throated sparrow (Peabody bird), the gold-finch and the robin. + Brook trout are found, especially in the streams in the western part + of the state, and bass, pickerel, perch and smaller fish occur in the + rivers and other inland waters. Fish are so abundant on the coast that + the cod is sometimes used as an emblem of the state; thus a figure of + one hangs in the representatives' chamber at the State House. The + artificial propagation and preservation of salmon and other edible + fresh-water fish have been carried on successfully under the + supervision of a state commission. The commonwealth has expended large + sums since 1890 in a vain attempt to exterminate the gipsy moth + (_Ocneria_, or more exactly _Porthetria, dispar_), accidentally + allowed to escape in 1869 by a French naturalist. + + _Climate._--The climate is trying, showing great extremes of + temperature (20° F. below zero to 100° above) and marked local + variations. The south-eastern coast and islands are mildest. The mean + average temperature of Boston is 48° F. In the interior it is slightly + lower. The mean summer temperature generally over the state is about + 70° F. Changes are often sudden, and the passage from winter to summer + is through a rapid spring. The ocean tempers the climate considerably + on the seaboard. Boston Harbor has been frozen over in the past, but + steamtugs plying constantly now prevent the occurrence of such + obstruction. In the elevated region in the west the winters are + decidedly severe, and the springs and summers often late and cold. + Williamstown has a winter mean of about 23° F. The yearly + precipitation is about 39 to 45 in., decreasing inland, and is evenly + distributed throughout the year. Fogs are common on the coast, and + east wind drizzles; the north-east winds being the weather bane of + spring and late autumn. In the summer and the autumn the weather is + commonly fine, and often most beautiful; and especially in the + Berkshires a cool, pure and elastic atmosphere prevails, relatively + dry, and altogether delightful. + + _Agriculture._--The soil, except in some of the valleys, is not + naturally fertile; and sandy wastes are common in the south-east + parts. High cultivation, however, has produced valuable market-gardens + about Boston and the larger towns; and industry has made tillage + remunerative in most other parts. The gross value of agricultural + products is not great compared with that of other industries, but they + are of great importance in the economy of the state. The total value + of farm property in 1900 was $182,646,704, including livestock valued + at $15,798,464. Of the increase in the total value of farm property + between 1850 and 1900 more than half was in the decade 1890-1900; this + increase being due partly to the rising value of suburban realty, but + also to a development of intensive farming that has been very marked + since 1880. The total value of farm products in 1899 was $42,298,274 + (expenditure for fertilizers $1,320,600); crops representing 54.7 and + animal products 45.3% of this total. The leading crops and their + percentages of the total crop value were hay and forage (39.1%), + vegetables (23.9%), fruits and nuts (11.7%), forest products (8.4%), + and flowers and plants (7.1%). Of the animal products 67.3% were dairy + products, and 20.8% poultry and eggs. Cereals[3] have been for many + years declining, although Indian corn is a valuable subsidiary to the + dairy interest, which is the most thriving farm industry. The value of + farms on which dairying was the chief source of income in 1900 was 46% + of the total farm value of the state; the corresponding percentages + for livestock, vegetables, hay and grain, flowers and plants, fruit + and tobacco, being respectively 14.6, 10.2, 8.0, 4.2, 3.2, and 1.8%. + The shrinkage of cereal crops has been mainly responsible for the idea + that Massachusetts is agriculturally decadent. Parallel to this + shrinkage was the decrease in ranging sheep (82.0% from 1850-1900; + 34.2% from 1890-1900), and cattle, once numerous in the hill counties + of the west, and in the Connecticut Valley; Boston, then ranking after + London as the second wool market of the world, and being at one time + the chief packing centre of the country. Dairy cows increased, + however, from 1850 to 1900 by 41.9% (1890-1900, 7.3%). The amount of + improved farmland decreased in the same period 39.4%, decreasing even + more since 1880 than earlier, and amounting in 1900 to no more than + 25.1% of the area of the state; but this decrease has been compensated + by increased value of products, especially since the beginning of + intensive agriculture. An unusual density of urban settlement, + furnishing excellent home markets and transportation facilities, are + the main props of this new interest. Worcester and Middlesex counties + are agriculturally foremost. Tobacco, which has been cultivated since + colonial times, especially since the Civil War, is grown exclusively + in the Connecticut Valley or on its borders. In the swamps and bogs of + the south-east coast cranberry culture is practised, this district + producing in 1900 three-fifths of the entire yield of the United + States. "Abandoned farms" (aggregating, in 1890, 3.4% of the total + farm area, and 6.85% in Hampshire county) are common, especially in + the west and south-east. + + _Mines and Mining._--Granite is the chief mineral, and granite + quarrying is the principal mineral industry of the state. In 1900 the + value of manufactures based primarily upon the products of mines and + quarries was $196,930,979, or 19% of the state's total manufactured + product. In 1906 Massachusetts led all states in the value of its + granite output, but in 1907 and 1908 it was second to Vermont. The + value of the product (including a small output of igneous rocks) was + in 1903, $2,351,027; 1904, $2,554,748; 1905, $2,251,319; 1906, + $3,327,416; 1907, $2,328,777; 1908, $2,027,463. + + Granite boulders were used for construction in Massachusetts as early + as 1650. Systematic quarrying of siliceous crystalline rocks in New + England began at Quincy in about 1820. The Gloucester quarries, opened + in 1824, were probably the next to be worked regularly. The principal + granite quarries are in Milford, (Worcester county), Quincy and Milton + (Norfolk county), Rockport (Essex county) and Becket (Berkshire + county). Of the fourteen quarries of "Milford granite," twelve are in + the township of that name, and two in Hopkinton township, Middlesex + county. B. K. Emerson and J. H. Perry classify this granite as + post-Cambrian. They describe it[4] as "a compact, massive rock, + somewhat above medium grain, and of light colour. The light flesh + colour of the feldspar, and the blue of the quartz give it in some + places a slight pinkish tint, and it is now much used as a + building-stone under the name of 'pink granite.'" + + The Quincy granite district lies around the north-east end of the Blue + Hill region, about 11 m. south of Boston. For monumental purposes this + granite is classified as "medium," "dark," and "extra dark." Quincy + granite takes a very high polish, owing to the absence of mica and to + the coarser cleavage of its hornblende and augite. The lightest of the + monumental stone quarried at Quincy is called gold-leaf; it is + bluish-green gray, speckled with black and light yellow brown. Another + variety has small, rather widely separated cherry-red dots. + + The Rockport granite is found along or near the seashore, between + Rockport and Bay View, and within about three-quarters of a mile of + Cape Ann. The granite is of two kinds, known commercially as "grey + granite" and "green granite." Both varieties are hard and take a very + high polish. + + The Becker granite (known as "Chester dark" and "Chester light") is a + muscovite-biotite granite varying from medium grey to medium bluish + grey colour, and fine in texture. It is used principally for + monuments. + + In 1907 Massachusetts ranked sixth among the states in the value of + its trap rock product ($432,604), and eighth in sandstone ($243,328). + The value of the marble produced in the same year was $212,438, the + state ranking fifth in the value of the total product and fourth in + building-marble. Other minerals are emery, limestone and quartz. The + state ranked fifth in 1906 in the total value of stone quarried + ($4,333,616), and eighth in 1908 ($2,955,195). The output of lime in + 1908 was 107,813 tons, valued at $566,022. Second in value to the + various stones were the clay products of the state, which were valued + in 1906 at $2,172,733 (of which $1,415,864 was the value of common + brick) and in 1908 at $1,647,362 (of which $950,921 was the value of + common brick). There are many mineral springs in the state, more than + half being in Essex and Middlesex counties. The total amount of + mineral waters sold in 1908 was valued at $227,907. In that year the + total value of the minerals and mining products of the state was + $5,925,949. Gold has been found in small quantities in Middlesex, + Norfolk and Plymouth counties. + + _Manufactures._--Though only four states of the Union are smaller, + only three exceeded Massachusetts in 1905 in the value of manufactured + products (six exceeding it in population); and this despite very scant + native resources of raw materials and a very limited home market. + Historical priority of development, exceptionally extensive and well + utilized water-power, and good transportation facilities are largely + responsible for the exceptional rank of Massachusetts as a + manufacturing state. Vast water-power is developed on the Merrimac at + Lawrence and Lowell, and on the Connecticut at South Hadley, and to a + less extent at scores of other cities on many streams and artificial + ponds; many of the machines that have revolutionized industrial + conditions since the beginning of the factory system have been + invented by Massachusetts men; and the state contains various + technical schools of great importance. In 1900 the value of + manufactures was $1,035,198,989, an increase from 1890 of 16.6%; that + from 1880 to 1890 having been 40.7%. In textiles--cottons, worsteds, + woollens and carpets--in boots and shoes, in rubber foot-wear, in fine + writing paper, and in other minor products, it is the leading state of + the country. The textile industries (the making of carpets and rugs, + cotton goods, cotton smallwares, dyeing and finishing textiles, felt + goods, felt hats, hosiery and knit goods, shoddy, silk and silk goods, + woollen goods, and worsted goods), employed 32.5% of all manufacturing + wage earners in 1905, and their product ($271,369,816) was 24.1% of + the total, and of this nearly one-half ($129,171,449) was in cotton + goods, being 28.9% of the total output of the country, as compared + with 11% for South Carolina, the nearest competitor of Massachusetts. + There is a steadily increasing product of fine grade fabrics. The + output of worsted goods in 1905 ($51,973,944) was more than + three-tenths that of the entire country, Rhode Island being second + with $44,477,596; in Massachusetts the increase in the value of this + product was 28.2% between 1900 and 1905. The value of woollen goods in + 1905 ($44,653,940) was more than three-tenths of the entire product + for the country; and it was 44.6% more than that of 1900. The value of + boots and shoes and cut stock in 1905 was $173,612,660, being 23% + greater than in 1900; the value of boots and shoes in 1905 + ($144,291,426) was 45.1% of the country's output, that of New York, + the second state, being only 10.7%. In this industry, as in the + manufacture of cotton goods, Massachusetts has long been without + serious rivalry; Brockton, Lynn, Haverhill, Marlboro and Boston, in + the order named, being the principal centres. The third industry in + 1905 was that of foundry and machine-shop products ($58,508,793), of + which Boston and Worcester are the principal centres. Lesser + interests, in the order of importance, with the product value of each + in 1905, were: rubber goods ($53,133,020), tanned, curried and + finished leather ($33,352,999), in the manufacture of which + Massachusetts ranked second among the states; paper and wood pulp[5] + ($32,012,247), in the production of which the state ranked second + among the states of the Union; slaughtering and meat packing + ($30,253,838); printing and publishing ($33,900,748, of which + $21,020,237 was the value of newspapers and periodicals); clothing + ($21,724,056); electrical machinery, apparatus and supplies + ($15,882,216); lumber ($12,636,329); iron and steel, steel works and + rolling-mills products ($11,947,731; less than in 1900); cordage and + twine ($11,173,521), in the manufacture of which Massachusetts was + second only to New York; furniture ($11,092,581); malt liquors + ($11,080,944); jewelry ($10,073,595), Massachusetts ranking second to + Rhode Island; confectionery ($9,317,996), in which Massachusetts was + third among the states. + + [Illustration: Map of Massachusetts.] + + Many of these industries have a history going back far into colonial + times, some even dating from the first half of the 17th century. + Textile products were really varied and of considerable importance + before 1700. The policy of the British government towards such + industries in the colonial period was in general repressive. The + non-importation sentiment preceding the War of Independence fostered + home manufactures considerably, and the Embargo and Non-Intercourse + Acts before the war of 1812, as well as that war itself (despite the + subsequent glut of British goods) had a much greater effect; for they + mark the introduction of the factory system, which by 1830 was firmly + established in the textile industry and was rapidly transforming other + industries. Improvements were introduced much more slowly than in + England, the cost of cotton machinery as late as 1826 being 50-60% + greater in America. The first successful power loom in America was set + up at Waltham in 1814. Carding, roving and spinning machines were + constructed at Bridgewater in 1786. The first cotton mill had been + established in Beverly in 1788, and the first real woollen factory at + Byfield in 1794. Woolcard machinery destined to revolutionize the + industry was devised by Amos Whittemore (1759-1828) in 1797; spinning + jennies were in operation under water-power before 1815. + Carpet-weaving was begun at Worcester in 1804. "Not a yard of fancy + wool fabric had ever been woven by the power-loom in any country till + done by William Crompton at the Middlesex Mills, Lowell, in 1840" + (Samuel Lawrence).[6] The introduction of the remarkably complete + machinery of the shoe industry was practically complete by 1865, this + being the last of the great industries to come under the full + dominance of machinery. At Pittsfield and at Dalton is centred the + manufacture of fine writing papers, including that of paper used by + the national government for bonds and paper money. Four-fifths of all + loft-dried paper produced in the country from 1860-1897 was made + within 15 m. of Springfield; Holyoke and South Hadley being the + greatest producers. Vulcanized rubber is a Massachusetts invention. + Most of the imitation jewelry of the United States is produced at + Attleboro and North Attleboro, and in Providence, Rhode Island. In + 1905 Boston produced 16.4% of all the manufactures of the state, and + Lynn, the second city, which had been fifth in 1900, 4.9%. Some + industries which have since become dead or of relatively slight + magnitude were once of much greater significance, economically or + socially: such as the rum-distilling connected with the colonial slave + trade, and various interests concerned with shipbuilding and + navigation. The packing of pork and beef formerly centred in Boston; + but, while the volume of this business has not diminished, it has been + greatly exceeded in the west. For many years Massachusetts controlled + a vast lumber trade, drawing upon the forests of Maine, but the growth + of the west changed the old channels of trade, and Boston carpenters + came to make use of western timber. It was between 1840 and 1850 that + the cotton manufactures of Massachusetts began to assume large + proportions; and about the same time the manufacture of boots and + shoes centred there. Medford ships began to be famous shortly after + the beginning of the 19th century, and by 1845 that town employed one + quarter of all the shipwrights in the state. + + Fishing is an important industry. Drift whales were utilized in the + earliest years of the colony, and shore boating for the baleen (or + "right") whale--rich in bone and in blubber yielding common oil--was + an industry already regulated by various towns before 1650; but the + pursuit of the sperm whale did not begin until about 1713. The former + industry had died out before the War of Independence; the latter is + not yet quite extinct. Nantucket and New Bedford were the centres of + the whaling trade, which, for the energy and skill required and the + length (three to five years when sailing vessels were employed) of the + ever-widening voyages which finally took the fishermen into every + quarter of the globe, contributes the most romantic chapters in the + history of American commerce. At one time it gave occupation to a + thousand ships, but the introduction of petroleum gradually diminished + this resource of the lesser ports. The Newfoundland Bank fisheries + were of greater economic importance and are still very important. + Gloucester is the chief centre of the trade. The value of fishery + products in 1895 was $5,703,143, and in 1905 $7,025,249; and 15,694 + persons were engaged in the fisheries. Though cod is much the most + important fish (in 1905 fresh cod were valued at $991,679, and salted + cod at $696,928), haddock (fresh, $1,051,910; salted, $17,194), + mackerel (value in 1905, including horse mackerel, $970,876), herring + (fresh, $266,699; salted, $114,997), pollock ($267,927), hake + ($258,438), halibut ($218,232), and many other varieties are taken in + great quantities. The shell fisheries are less important than those of + Maine. + + _Commerce._--Already by 1660 New England products were an "important + element in the commerce and industries of the mother country" + (Weeden). Codfish was perhaps the truest basis of her commerce, which + soon came to include the West Indies, Africa and southern Europe. Of + fundamental importance was the trade with the French West Indies, + licit and illicit, particularly after the Peace of Utrecht (1713). + Provisions taken to Newfoundland, poor fish to the West Indies, + molasses to New England, rum to Africa and good cod to France and + Spain, were the commonest ventures of foreign trade. The English + Navigation Acts were generally evaded, and were economically of little + effect; politically they were of great importance in Massachusetts as + a force that worked for independence. Privateering, piracy and + slave-trading--which though of less extent than in Rhode Island became + early of importance, and declined but little before the American War + of Independence--give colour to the history of colonial trade. + + Trade with China and India from Salem was begun in 1785 (first voyage + from New York, 1784), and was first controlled there, and afterwards + in Boston till the trade was lost to New York. The Boston trade to the + Canadian north-west coast was begun in 1788. The first regular + steamship line from Boston to other American Atlantic ports was + established in 1824. In commercial relations the chief port of + Massachusetts attained its greatest importance about 1840, when it was + selected as the American terminus of the first steamship line (Cunard) + connecting Great Britain with the United States; but Boston lost the + commercial prestige then won by the failure of the state to promote + railway communication with the west, so as to equal the development + effected by other cities. The decline of commerce, however, had + already begun, manufacturing supplanting it in importance; and this + decline was rapid by 1850. From 1840 to 1860 Massachusetts-built ships + competed successfully in the carrying trade of the world. Before 1840 + a ship of 500 tons was a large ship, but after the discovery of gold + in California the size of vessels increased rapidly and their lines + were more and more adapted to speed. The limit of size was reached in + an immense clipper of 4555 tons, and the greatest speed was attained + in a passage from San Francisco to Boston in seventy-five days, and + from San Francisco to Cork in ninety-three days. The development of + steam navigation for the carrying of large cargoes has driven this + fleet from the sea. Only a small part of the exports and imports of + Massachusetts is now carried in American bottoms.[7] The first grain + elevator built in Boston, and one of the first in the world, was + erected in 1843, when Massachusetts sent Indian corn to Ireland. When + the Civil War and steam navigation put an end to the supremacy of + Massachusetts wooden sailing ships, much of the capital which had been + employed in navigation was turned into developing railway facilities + and coasting steamship lines. In 1872 the great fire in Boston made + large drains upon the capital of the state, and several years of + depression followed. But in 1907 Boston was the second port of the + United States in the magnitude of its foreign commerce. In that year + the value of imports at the Boston-Charlestown customs district was + $123,411,168, and the value of exports was $104,610,908; for 1909 the + corresponding figures were $127,025,654 and $72,936,869. Other ports + of entry in the state in 1909 were Newburyport, Gloucester, Salem, + Marblehead, Plymouth, Barnstable, Nantucket, Edgartown, New Bedford + and Fall River. A protective tariff was imposed in early colonial + times and protection was generally approved in the state until toward + the close of the 19th century, when a strong demand became apparent + for reciprocity with Canada and for tariff reductions on the raw + materials (notably hides) of Massachusetts manufactures. + + At the end of 1908 the length of railway lines within the state was + 2,109.33 miles. The Hoosac Tunnel, 5¾ m. long, pierces the Hoosac + Mountain in the north-west corner of the state, affording a + communication with western lines. It cost about $20,000,000, the state + lending its credit, and was built between 1855 and 1874. The + inter-urban electric railways are of very great importance in the + state; in 1908 the total mileage of street and inter-urban electric + railways was 2841.59 m. (2233.85 m. being first main track). The Cape + Cod canal, 12 m. long, from Sandwich on Barnstable Bay to Buzzard's + Bay, was begun in June 1909, with a view to shortening the distance by + water from Boston to New York and eliminating the danger of the voyage + round Cape Cod. + +_Population._--The population of the state in 1910 was 3,366,416, the +increases in successive decades after 1790 being respectively 11.6, +11.6, 11.9, 16.6, 20.9, 34.8, 23.8, 18.4, 22.4, 25.6, 25.3 and 20%.[8] +With the exception of Rhode Island, it is the most densely populated +state in the Union, the average number to the square mile in 1900 being +349 (in 1910, 418.8), and the urban population, i.e. the population of +places having above 8000 or more inhabitants, being 69.9% in 1890 and in +1900 76.0% of the total population (in places above 2500, 91.5%; in +places above 25,000, 58.3%). The female population is greater (and has +been since 1765, at least) than the male, the percentage being in 1900 +greater than in any other state of the Union (51.3%; District of +Columbia, owing to clerks in government service 52.6%). In 1900 less +than 1.3% of the population was coloured; 30.2% were foreign-born (this +element having almost continuously risen from 16.49% in 1855), and 62.3% +of all inhabitants and 46.5% of those native-born had one or both +parents of foreign birth. Ireland contributed the largest proportion of +the foreign-born (29.5%), although since 1875 the proportion of Irish in +the total population has considerably fallen. After the Irish the +leading foreign elements are Canadian English (18.7%), Canadian French +(15.8%) and English (9.7%), these four constituting three-fourths of the +foreign population. Since 1885 the natives of southern Italy have +greatly increased in number. Of the increase in total population from +1856-1895 only a third could be attributed to the excess of births over +deaths; two-thirds being due to immigration from other states or from +abroad. Boston is the second immigrant port of the country. A large part +of the transatlantic immigrants pass speedily to permanent homes in the +west, but by far the greater part of the Canadian influx remains. + + According to the census of 1910 there were 32 incorporated cities[9] + in Massachusetts, of which 6 had between 12,000 and 20,000 + inhabitants; 3 between 20,000 and 25,000 (Gloucester, Medford and + North Adams); 11 between 25,000 and 50,000 (Maiden, Haverhill, Salem, + Newton, Fitchburg, Taunton, Everett, Quincy, Pittsfield, Waltham, + Chicopee); 7 between 50,000 and 100,000 (New Bedford, Lynn, + Springfield, Lawrence, Somerville, Holyoke, Brockton); and 5 more than + 100,000 (Boston, 670,585; Worcester, 145,986; Fall River, 119,295; + Lowell, 106,294; Cambridge, 104,839). + + Taking quinquennial periods from 1856-1905 the birth-rates were 29.5, + 25.3, 26.0, 27.6, 24.2, 25.0, 25.8, 27.6, 27.0 and 24.2 per 1,000; and + the death-rates 17.7, 20.7, 18.2, 20.8, 18.8, 19.8, 19.4, 19.8, 18.0 + and 16.4.[10] Pneumonia and consumption, approximately of equal + fatality (15 to 18 per 10,000 each), exceed more than twofold the + diseases of next lower fatality, cancer and cholera infantum. + + Of males (1,097,581) engaged in 1900 in gainful occupations 47.1% were + engaged in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits (77.9 in every 100 in + 1870 and 73 in 1900), 27.1 in trade and transportation, 14.2 in + domestic and personal service, 7.4 in agricultural pursuits and 4.2 in + professional service. The corresponding percentages for females + (1,169,467) were 46.4 in manufacturing (in 1890, 52%), 32.3 in + domestic and personal service, 13.6 in trade and transportation, 7.1 + in professional service and 0.6 in agriculture. Formerly farmers' + daughters of native stock were much employed in factories; but since + operatives of foreign birth or parentage have in great part taken + their places, they have sought other occupations, largely in the + manufacture of small wares in the cities, and particularly in + departments of trade where skilled labour is essential. Household + service is seldom now done, as it formerly was, by women of native + stock. The federal census of 1900 showed that of every 100 persons + employed for gain only 37.5% were of native descent (that is, had a + native-born father). Natives heavily predominated in agriculture and + the professions, slightly in trade, and held barely more than half of + all governmental positions; but in transportation, personal service, + manufactures, labour and domestic service, the predominance of the + foreign element warranted the assertion of the state Bureau of + Statistics of Labour that "the strong industrial condition of + Massachusetts has been secured and is held not by the labour of what + is called the 'native stock,' but by that of the immigrants." After + the original and exclusively English immigration from 1620 to 1640 + there was nothing like regular foreign immigration until the 19th + century; and it was a favourite assertion of Dr Palfrey that the blood + of the fishing folk on Cape Cod was more purely English through two + centuries than that of the inhabitants of any English county. + + With foreign immigration the strength of the Roman Catholic Church has + greatly increased: in 1906 of every 1000 of estimated population 355 + were members of the Roman Catholic Church (a proportion exceeded only + in New Mexico and in Rhode Island; 310 was the number per 1000 in + Louisiana), and only 148 were communicants of Protestant bodies; in + 1906 there were 1,080,706 Roman Catholics (out of a total of 1,562,621 + communicants of all denominations), 119,196 Congregationalists, 80,894 + Baptists, 65,498 Methodists and 51,636 Protestant Episcopalians. + + Reference has been made to "abandoned farms" in Massachusetts. The + desertion of farms was an inevitable result of the opening of the + great cereal regions of the west, but it is by no means characteristic + of Massachusetts alone. The Berkshire district affords an excellent + example of the interrelations of topography, soil and population. Many + hill towns once thriving have long since become abandoned, desolate + and comparatively inaccessible; though with the development of the + summer resident's interests many will probably eventually regain + prosperity. Almost half of the highland towns reached their maximum + population before the opening of the 19th century, although Berkshire + was scarcely settled till after 1760, and three-fourths of them before + 1850. On the other hand three-fourths of the lowland towns reached + their maximum since that date, and half of them since 1880. The + lowland population increased six and a half times in the century, the + upland diminished by an eighth. Socially and educationally the upland + has furnished an interesting example of decadence. Since 1865 (at + least) various parts of Cape Cod have shrunk greatly in population, + agriculture and manufactures, and even in fishing interests; this + reconstruction of industrial and social interests being, apparently, + simply part of the general urban movement--a movement toward better + opportunities. What prosperity or stability remains in various Cape + Cod communities is largely due to foreign immigrants--especially + British-Americans and Portuguese from the Azores; although the + population remains, to a degree exceptional in northern states, of + native stock. + +_Government._--Representative government goes back to 1634, and the +bicameral legislature to 1644. The constitution of 1780, which still +endures (the only remaining state constitution of the 18th century), was +framed in the main by Samuel Adams, and as an embodiment of colonial +experience and revolutionary principles, and as a model of +constitution-making in the early years of independence, is of very great +historical interest. It has been amended with considerable freedom (37 +amendments up to 1907), but with more conservatism than has often +prevailed in the constitutional reform of other states; so that the +constitution of Massachusetts is not so completely in harmony with +modern democratic sentiment as are the public opinion and statute law of +the state. The commonwealth, for example, is still denominated +"sovereign," and education is not declared a constitutional duty of the +commonwealth. One unique feature is the duty of the supreme court to +give legal advice, on request, to the governor and council. Another +almost equally exceptional feature is the persistence of the colonial +executive council, consisting of members chosen to represent divisions +of the state, who assist the governor in his executive functions. +Massachusetts is also one of the few states in which the legislature +meets in annual session.[11] Townships were represented as such in this +body (called the General Court) until 1856. Religious qualifications for +suffrage and office-holding were somewhat relaxed, except in the case of +Roman Catholics, after 1691.[12] Real toleration in public opinion grew +slowly through the 18th century, removing the religious tests of voters; +and a constitutional amendment in 1821 explicitly forbade such tests in +the case of office-holders. Property qualifications for the suffrage and +for office-holding--universal through colonial times--were abolished in +the main in 1780. From 1821 to 1891 the payment of at least a poll-tax +was a condition precedent to the exercise of the suffrage. An +educational test (dating from 1857) is exacted for the privilege of +voting, every voter being required to be able to read the constitution +of the commonwealth in the English language, and to write his name. The +property qualification of the governor was not abolished until 1892. In +the presidential election of 1896, when an unprecedentedly large vote +was cast, the number of voters registered was nearly 20% of the +population, and of these nearly 82% actually voted. Massachusetts is one +of the only two states in the Union in which elections for state +officers are held annually. In 1888 an act was passed providing for the +use in state elections of a blanket ballot, on which the names of all +candidates for each office are arranged alphabetically under the heading +of that office, and there is no arrangement in party columns. This was +the first state law of the kind in the country. The same method of +voting has been adopted in about two-thirds of the townships of the +state. A limited suffrage was conferred upon women in 1879. Every female +citizen having the qualifications of a male voter may vote in the city +and town elections for members of the school committee. + + A householder with a family may, by recording the proper declaration + in a registry of deeds, hold exempt from attachment, levy on + execution, and sale for the payment of debts thereafter contracted an + estate of homestead, not exceeding $800 in value, in a farm or lot + with buildings thereon which he lawfully possesses by lease or + otherwise and occupies as his residence. The exemption does not + extend, however, to the prohibition of sale for taxes, and in case the + householder's buildings are on land which he has leased those + buildings are not exempt from sale or levy for the ground rent. If the + householder has a wife he can mortgage or convey his estate of + homestead only with her consent, and if he dies leaving a widow or + minor children the homestead exemption survives until the youngest + child is twenty-one years of age, or until the death or marriage of + the widow, provided the widow or a child continues to occupy it. + + The scope of state activity has become somewhat remarkable. In + addition to the usual state boards of education (1837), agriculture + (1852), railroad commissioners (1869), health (1869), statistics of + labour, fisheries and game, charity (1879), the dairy bureau (1891), + of insanity (1898), prison, highways, insurance and banking + commissions, there are also commissions on ballot-law, voting + machines, civil service (1884), uniformity of legislation, gas and + electric lighting corporations, conciliation and arbitration in labour + disputes (1886), &c. There are efficient state boards of registration + in pharmacy, dentistry and medicine. Foods and drugs have been + inspected since 1882. In general it may be said that the excellence of + administrative results is noteworthy. The work of the Bureau of + Statistics of Labor, of the Bureau of Health, of the Board of Railroad + Commissioners, and of the Board of Conciliation and Arbitration, and + the progress of civil service, have been remarkable for value and + efficiency. Almost all state employees are under civil service rules; + the same is true of the city of Boston; and of the clerical, + stenographic, prison, police, civil engineering, fire, labour-foreman, + inspection and bridge tender services of all cities; and under a law + (1894) by which cities and towns may on petition enlarge the + application of their civil service rules. Various other public + services, including even common labourers of the larger towns, are + rapidly passing under civil service regulation. Veterans of the Civil + War have privileges in the administration of the state service. In the + settlement of labour disputes conciliatory methods were successful in + the formative period, when the parties to disputes adopted customary + attitudes of hostility and fought to the end unless they were + reconciled by the Board to a final agreement or to an agreement to + arbitrate.[13] In this earlier period (before 1900), thanks to the + efforts of the board there was an increase in the frequency of appeal + to arbitration, and settlements by compromise were often made. + Afterwards the number of arbitrations by the board increased in + number: from 1900 to 1908 (inclusive), of 568 controversies submitted + to the board, 525 were settled by an award and 43 by an induced + agreement. In the same period the mediation of the Board settled + disputes affecting 5560 establishments; and in the latter half of this + period labour disputes involving hostilities and of the magnitude + contemplated by the statute governing the Board of Conciliation and + Arbitration had almost disappeared. The laws relating to labour are + full, but, as compared with those of other states, present few + features calling for comment.[14] In 1899 eight hours were made to + constitute a day's work for all labourers employed by or for any city + or town adopting the act at an annual election. Acts have been passed + extending the common-law liability of employers, prohibiting the + manufacture and sale of sweat-shop clothing, and authorizing cities + and towns to provide free lectures and to maintain public baths, + gymnasia and playgrounds. Boston has been a leader in the + establishment of municipal baths. The state controls and largely + maintains two beaches magnificently equipped near the city. The + Massachusetts railroad commission, though preceded in point of time by + that of New Hampshire of 1844, was the real beginning of modern state + commissions. Its powers do not extend to direct and mandatory + regulation, being supervisory and advisory only, but it can make + recommendations at its discretion, appealing if necessary to the + General Court; and it has had great influence and excellent results. + The Torrens system of land registration was adopted in 1898, and a + court created for its administration. In the case of all quasi-public + corporations rigid laws exist prohibiting the issue of stock or bonds + unless the par value is first paid in; prohibiting the declaration of + any stock or scrip dividend, and requiring that new stock shall be + offered to stockholders at not less than its market value, to be + determined by the proper state officials, any shares not so subscribed + for to be sold by public auction. These laws are to prevent fictitious + capitalization and "stock-watering." In the twenty years preceding + 1880 60% of all sentences for crime were found traceable to liquor. In + 1881 a local option law was passed, by which the granting of licences + for the sale of liquor was confined to cities and towns voting at the + annual election to authorize their issue. In 1888 the number of + licences to be granted in municipalities voting in favour of their + issue was limited to one for each 1000 inhabitants, except in Boston, + where one licence may be issued for every 500 inhabitants. The vote + varies from year to year, and it is not unusual for a certain number + of municipalities to change from "licence" to "no licence," and vice + versa. The general result has been that centres of population, + especially where the foreign element is large, usually vote for + licence, while those in which native population predominates, as well + as the smaller towns, usually vote for prohibition. Through a growing + acquiescence in the operation of the local option law, the relative + importance of the vote of the Prohibition Party has diminished. Since + 1895 indeterminate sentences have been imposed on all convicts + sentenced to the state prison otherwise than for life or as habitual + criminals; i.e. maximum and minimum terms are established by law and + on the expiration of the latter a revocable permit of liberty may be + issued. Execution by electricity has been the death penalty since + 1898. Stringent legislation controls prison labour. + + The extension of state activity presents some surprising features in + view of the strength of local self-sufficiency nurtured by the old + system of township government. But this form of pure democracy was in + various cases long since inevitably abandoned: by Boston reluctantly + in 1822, and subsequently by many other townships or cities, as + growing population made action in town meeting unbearably cumbersome. + In modern times state activity has encroached on the cities. + Especially has the commonwealth undertaken certain noteworthy + enterprises as the agent of the several municipalities in the + immediate vicinity of Boston, constituting what is known as the + Metropolitan District; as, for example, in bringing water thither from + the Nashua River at Clinton, 40 m. from Boston, and in the development + of a magnificent park system of woods, fells, river-banks and + seashore, unrivalled elsewhere in the country. The commonwealth joined + the city of Boston in the construction of a subway beneath the most + congested portion of the city for the passage of electric cars. For + the better accommodation of the increasing commerce of the port of + Boston, the commonwealth bought a considerable frontage upon the + harbour lines and constructed a dock capable of receiving the largest + vessels, and has supplemented the work of the United States government + in deepening the approaches to the wharves. It has secured as public + reservations the summit and sides of Greylock (3535 ft.) in the + north-west corner of the state, and of Wachusett (2108 ft.) near the + centre. Since 1885 a large expenditure has been incurred in the + abolition of grade crossings of railways and highways,[15] and in 1894 + the commonwealth began the construction and maintenance of state + highways.[16] + + Since 1885, in Boston, and since 1894, in Fall River, the + administration of the city police departments, including the granting + of liquor licences, has been in the hands of state commissioners (one + commissioner in Boston, a board in Fall River) appointed by the + governor. But though in each case the result has been an improved + administration, it has been generally conceded that only most + exceptional circumstances can justify such interference with local + self-government, and later attempts to extend the practice have + failed. The referendum has been sparingly used in matters of local + concern. Beginning in 1892 various townships and cities, numbering 18 + in 1903, adopted municipal ownership and operation of lighting works. + The gasworks have been notably more successful than the electric + plants. + + In Massachusetts, as in New England generally, the word "town" is + used, officially and colloquially, to designate a township, and during + the colonial era the New England town-meeting was a notable school for + education in self-government. The members of the first group of + settlers in these colonies were mostly small farmers, belonged to the + same church, and dwelt in a village for protection from the Indians. + They adapted to these conditions some of the methods for managing + local affairs with which they had been familiar in England, and called + the resultant institution a town. The territorial extent of each town + was determined by its grant or grants from the general court, which + the towns served as agents in the management of land. A settlement or + "plantation" was sometimes incorporated first as a "district" and + later as a town, the difference being that the latter had the right of + corporate representation in the general court, while the former had no + such right. The towns elected (until 1856) the deputies to the general + court, and were the administrative units for the assessment and + collection of taxes, maintaining churches and schools, organizing and + training the militia, preserving the peace, caring for the poor, + building and repairing roads and bridges, and recording deeds, births, + deaths and marriages; and to discuss questions relating to these + matters as well as other matters of peculiarly local concern, to + determine the amount of taxes for town purposes, and to elect + officers. All the citizens were expected to attend the annual + town-meeting, and such male inhabitants as were not citizens were + privileged to attend and to propose and discuss measures, although + they had no right to vote. Generally several villages have grown up in + the same "town," and some of the more populous "towns," usually those + in which manufacturing has become more important than farming, have + been incorporated as "cities"; thus either a town or a city may now + include a farming country and various small villages. Although the + tendency in Massachusetts is towards chartering as cities "towns" + which have a population of 12,000 or more, the democratic institution + of the town-meeting persists in many large municipalities which are + still technically towns.[17] Most "towns" hold their annual meeting in + March, but some hold them in February and others in April. In the + larger "towns" the officers elected at this meeting may consist of + five, seven or nine selectmen, a clerk, a treasurer, three or more + assessors, three or more overseers of the poor, one or more collectors + of taxes, one or more auditors, one or more surveyors of highways, a + road commissioner, a sewer commissioner, a board of health, one or + more constables, two or more field drivers, two or more fence viewers, + and a tree warden; but in the smaller "towns" the number of selectmen + may be limited to three, the selectmen may assess the taxes, be + overseers of the poor, and act as a board of health, and the treasurer + or constable may collect the taxes. The term of all these officers may + be limited to one year, or the selectmen, clerk, assessors and + overseers of the poor may be elected for a term of three years, in + which case a part only of the selectmen, assessors and overseers of + the poor are elected each year. The selectmen have the general + management of a "town's" affairs during the interval between + town-meetings. They may call special town-meetings; they appoint + election officers and may appoint additional constables or public + officers, and such minor officials as inspectors of milk, inspectors + of buildings, gauger of measures, cullers of staves and hoops, fish + warden and forester. A school committee consisting of any number of + members divisible by three is chosen, one-third each year, at the + annual town-meeting or at a special meeting which is held in the same + month. Any "town" having a village or district within its limits that + contains 1000 inhabitants or more may authorize that village or + district to establish a separate organization for lighting its + streets, building and maintaining sidewalks, and employing a watchman + or policeman, the officers of such organization to include at least a + prudential committee and a clerk. All laws relative to "towns" are + applied to "cities" in so far as they are not inconsistent with + general or special laws relative to the latter, and the powers of the + selectmen are vested in the mayor and aldermen. + +_Education._--For cities of above 8000 inhabitants (for which alone +comparative statistics are annually available), in 1902-1903 the ratio +of average attendance to school enrolment, the average number of days' +attendance of each pupil enrolled, and the value of school property per +capita of pupils in average attendance were higher than in any other +state; the average length of the school term was slightly exceeded in +eight states; and the total cost of the schools per capita of pupils in +average attendance ($39.05) was exceeded in six other states. In +1905-1906 the percentage of average attendance in the public schools to +the number of children (between 5 and 15 years) in the state was 80; in +Barnstable county it was 95, and in Plymouth 92; and the lowest rate of +any county was 68, that of Bristol. In the same year the amount of the +various school taxes and other contributions was $30.53 for each child +in the average membership of the public schools, and the highest amount +for each child in any county was $35.77 in Suffolk county, and in any +township or city $68.01--in Lincoln. The school system is not one of +marked state centralization--as contrasted, e.g. with New York. A state +board of education has general control, its secretary acting as +superintendent of the state system in conjunction with local +superintendents and committees. Women are eligible for these positions, +and among the teachers in the schools they are greatly in excess over +men (more than 10 to 1), especially in lower grades. No recognition +exists in the schools of race, colour or religion. The proportion of the +child population that attends schools is equalled in but two or three +states east of the Mississippi river. The services of Horace Mann (q.v.) +as secretary of the state board (1837-1848) were productive of almost +revolutionary benefits not only to Massachusetts but to the entire +country. His reforms, which reached every part of the school system, +were fortunately introduced just at the beginning of railway and city +growth. Since 1850 truant and compulsory attendance laws (the first +compulsory education law was passed in 1642) have been enforced in +conjunction with laws against child labour. In 1900 the average period +of schooling per inhabitant for the United States was 4.3 years, for +Massachusetts 7 years. (The same year the ratio of wealth productivity +was as 66 to 37.) Massachusetts stands "foremost in the Union in the +universality of its provision for secondary education."[18] The laws +practically offer such education free to every child of the +commonwealth. Illiterate persons not less than ten years of age +constituted in 1900 5.9% of the population; and 0.8, 14.6, 10.7% +respectively of native whites, foreign-born whites and negroes. More +patents are issued, relatively, to citizens of Massachusetts than to +those of any other state except Connecticut. Post office statistics +indicate a similarly high average of intelligence. + + The public school system includes common, high and normal schools, and + various evening, industrial and truant schools. Many townships and + cities maintain free evening schools. In 1894 manual training was made + a part of the curriculum in all municipalities having 20,000 + inhabitants. There are also many private business colleges, academic + schools and college-preparatory schools. The high schools enjoy an + exceptional reputation. An unusual proportion of teachers in the + public schools are graduates of the state normal schools, of which the + first were founded in 1839 at Lexington and Barre, the former being + the first normal school of the United States.[19] These two schools + were removed subsequently to Framingham (1853) and Westfield (1844), + where they are still active; while others flourish at Bridgewater + (1840), Salem (1854), Worcester (1874), Fitchburg (1895), North Adams + (1897), Hyannis (1897) and Lowell (1897), that at Framingham being + open to women only. There is also a state normal art school at Boston + (1873) for both sexes. + + The commonwealth contributes to the support of textile schools in + cities in which 450,000 spindles are in operation. Such schools exist + (1909) in Lowell, Fall River and New Bedford. The commonwealth also + maintains aboard a national ship a nautical training school (1891) for + instruction in the science and practice of navigation. During the + Spanish-American War of 1898 more than half of the graduates and + cadets of the school enlisted in the United States service. + + There are several hundred private schools, whose pupils constituted in + 1905-1906 15.7% of the total school-enrolment of the state. Of higher + academies and college-preparatory schools there are scores. Among + those for boys Phillips Academy, at Andover, the Groton school, and + the Mount Hermon school are well-known examples. For girls the largest + school is the Northfield Seminary at East Northfield. In Boston and in + the towns in its environs are various famous schools, among them the + boys' classical school in Boston, founded in 1635, one of the oldest + secondary schools in the country. The leading educational institution + of the state, as it is the oldest and most famous of the country, is + Harvard University (founded 1636) at Cambridge. In the extreme + north-west of the state, at Williamstown, is Williams College (1793), + and in the Connecticut Valley is Amherst College (1821), both of these + unsectarian. Boston University (Methodist Episcopal, 1867); Tufts + College (1852), a few miles from Boston in Medford, originally a + Universalist school; Clark University (1889, devoted wholly to + graduate instruction until 1902, when Clark College was added), at + Worcester, are important institutions. Two Roman Catholic schools are + maintained--Boston College (1863) and the College of the Holy Cross + (1843), at Worcester. Of various institutions for the education of + women, Mount Holyoke (1837) at South Hadley, Smith College (1875) at + Northampton, Wellesley College (1875) at Wellesley near Boston, + Radcliffe College (1879) in connexion with Harvard at Cambridge and + Simmons College (1899) at Boston, are of national repute. The last + emphasizes scientific instruction in domestic economy. + + For agricultural students the state supports a school at Amherst + (1867), and Harvard University the Bussey Institution. In + technological science special instruction is given--in addition to the + scientific departments of the schools already mentioned--in the + Worcester Polytechnic Institute (1865), and the Massachusetts + Institute of Technology (opened in 1865). There are schools of + theology at Cambridge (Protestant Episcopal), Newton (Baptist) and + Waltham (New Church), as well as in connexion with Boston University + (Methodist), Tufts College (Universalist) and Harvard (non-sectarian, + and the affiliated Congregational Andover Theological Seminary at + Cambridge). Law and medical schools are maintained in Boston and + Harvard universities. + +_Public Institutions._--Massachusetts was in 1903, in proportion to the +population, more richly provided with public collections of books than +any other state: in that year she had nearly a seventh of all books in +public, society and school libraries in the country, and a much larger +supply of books per capita (2.56) than any other state. The rate for New +York, the only state having a larger number of books in such libraries, +being only 1.19. The Boston public library, exceeded in size in the +United States by the library of Congress at Washington--and probably +first, because of the large number of duplicates in the library of +Congress--and the largest free municipal library in the world; the +library of Harvard, extremely well chosen and valuable for research; the +collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society (1791); the Boston +Athenaeum (1807); the State Library (1826); the New England Historic +Genealogical Society (1845); the Congregational Library; the American +Academy of Arts and Sciences (1780); and the Boston Society of Natural +History (1830), all in Boston, leave it easily unrivalled, unless by +Washington, as the best research centre of the country. The collections +of the American Antiquarian Society (1812) at Worcester are also +notable. Massachusetts led, about 1850, in the founding of town and city +libraries supported by public taxes, and by 1880 had established more of +such institutions than existed in all other states combined. In 1900 out +of 353 towns and cities only five, representing less than half of 1%, +were without free library facilities, and three of these five had +association libraries charging only a small fee. + + The state is very well supplied with charitable and reformatory + institutions, in which noteworthy methods have been employed with + success. The state institutions, each governed by a board of trustees, + and all under the supervision of the state board of charity, include a + state hospital at Tewksbury, for paupers (1866); a state farm at + Bridgewater (1887) for paupers and petty criminals; the Lyman school + for boys at Westboro, a reformatory for male criminals under fifteen + years of age sentenced to imprisonment for terms less than life in + connexion with which a very successful farm is maintained for the + younger boys at Berlin; an industrial school for girls at Lancaster, + also a reformatory school--a third reformatory school for boys was + planned in 1909; a state sanatorium at Rutland for tuberculous + patients (the first public hospital for such in the United States) and + a hospital school at Canton for the care and instruction of crippled + and deformed children. Three more hospitals for consumptives were + planned in 1909. Under the supervision of the state board of insanity, + and each under the government of a board of seven trustees (of whom + two are women) are state hospitals for the insane at Worcester (1833), + Taunton, Northampton, Danvers, Westboro and Medford, a state colony + for the insane at Gardner, a state hospital for epileptics at Palmer, + a state school for the feeble-minded at Waltham (governed by six + trustees), a state school at Wrentham, state "hospital cottages for + children" (1882) at Baldwinville (governed by five trustees), and the + Foxboro state hospital for dipsomaniacs and insane. There are also + semi-state institutions for the insane at Waverley, Barre, Wrentham + and Baldwinville, and nineteen small private institutions, all under + the supervision of the state board of insanity. Under the supervision + of a board of prison commissioners, which appoints the superintendent + and warden of each, are a reformatory prison for women at Sherborn + (1877), a state reformatory for men at Concord (1884), a state prison + at Boston (Charlestown), and a prison camp and hospital at Rutland + (1905). There is a prison department at the state farm which receives + misdemeanants. Other institutions receiving state aid, each governed + by trustees appointed by the governor, are the Massachusetts general + hospital at Boston, the Massachusetts charitable eye and ear infirmary + at Boston, the Massachusetts homoeopathic hospital at Boston, the + Perkins Institution and Massachusetts school for the blind at South + Boston and the soldiers' home in Massachusetts at Boston. The Horace + Mann school in Boston, a public day school for the deaf, the New + England industrial school for deaf mutes at Beverly and the Clarke + school for the deaf at Northampton are maintained in part by the + state. Finally, many private charitable corporations (about 500 in + 1905) report to the state board of charity, and town and city + almshouses (205 in 1904) are subject to visitation. The Perkins + Institution is memorable for its association with the fame of S. G. + Howe (g.v.), whose reforms in charity methods were felt through all + the charitable interests of the state. The net yearly cost of support + and relief from 1884 to 1904 averaged $2,136,653, exclusive of + vagrancy cases (average $31,714). The whole number of paupers, besides + vagrants, in 1908 was 23.02 per 1000 of state population, and the cost + of relief ($5,104,255) was $1.699 for each inhabitant of the state. + The number of sane paupers declined steadily and markedly from 1863 to + 1904. + +_Finance._--Massachusetts is a very rich state, and Boston a very +wealthy city. The debt of the state (especially the contingent debt, +secured by sinking funds) has been steadily rising since 1888, and +especially since 1896, chiefly owing to the erection of important public +buildings, the construction of state highways and metropolitan park +roadways, the improvement of Boston harbour, the abolition of grade +crossings on railways, and the expenses incurred for the +Spanish-American War of 1898. + + The net direct funded debt (also secured by accumulating sinking + funds) in December 1908 was $17,669,372 (3.61 millions in 1893). The + average interest on this and the contingent debt ($60,428,223 in + December 1908) combined was only 3.35%. The net debts of towns and + cities rose in the years 1885-1908 from $63,306,213 to $163,558,325. + The county debts in 1908 aggregated $6,076,867. The assessed valuation + of realty in the state in 1908 was $2,799,062,707 and of personalty + $1,775,073,438. No other state has given so vigorous a test of the + ordinary American general-property tax, and the results have been as + discouraging as elsewhere. The "dooming" process (i.e. estimation by + assessors, without relief for overvaluation except for excess more + than 50% above the proper valuation) was introduced in 1868 as a + method of securing returns of personalty. But the most rigorous + application of the doomage law has only proved its complete futility + as an effort to reach unascertained corporate and personal + property.[20] Various special methods are used for the taxation of + banks, insurance companies, railways, tramways, trust companies and + corporations, some of them noteworthy. In the case of corporations + realty and machinery are taxed generally by the local authorities, and + stock values by the commonwealth. The Boston stock exchange is the + second of the country in the extent of the securities in which it + deals. The proportion of holders of U.S. bonds among the total + population is higher than that in any other state. + +_History._--It is possible that the coasts of Massachusetts were visited +by the Northmen, and by the earliest navigators who followed Cabot, but +this is only conjecture. In 1602 Bartholomew Gosnold landed at and named +Cape Cod and coasted as far south as the present No-Man's Land, which he +named Martin's or Martha's Vineyard, a name later transferred to a +neighbouring larger island. Pring and Champlain at a later date coasted +along what is now Massachusetts, but the map of Champlain is hardly +recognizable. The first sufficient explorations for cartographical +record were made by John Smith in 1614, and his map was long the +basis--particularly in its nomenclature--of later maps. Permanency of +occupation, however, dates from the voyage of the "Mayflower," which +brought about a hundred men, women and children who had mostly belonged +to an English sect of Separatists, originating in Yorkshire, but who had +passed a period of exile for religion's sake in Holland. In the early +winter of 1620 they made the coast of Cape Cod; they had intended to +make their landing farther south, within the jurisdiction of the +Virginia Company, which had granted them a patent; but stress of weather +prevented their doing so. Finding themselves without warrant in a region +beyond their patent, and threatened with the desertion of disaffected +members of their company (probably all servants or men of the "lesser" +sort) unless concessions were made to these, they drew up and signed +before landing a democratic compact of government which is accounted the +earliest written constitution in history.[21] After some exploration of +the coast they made a permanent landing on the 21st of December 1620 +(N.S.) at Plymouth, a harbour which had already been so named by John +Smith in his maps of 1614 and 1616. During the first winter nearly +one-half their number died from exposure, and the relations of the +survivors with their partners of the London Company, who had insisted +that for seven years the plantation should be managed as a joint stock +company, were unsatisfactory. However, about thirty-five new colonists +arrived in 1622 and ninety-six more in 1623. The abandonment of the +communal system was begun in the latter year, and with the dissolution +of the partnership with the adventurers of the London Company in 1627 +Plymouth became a corporate colony with its chief authority vested in +the whole body of freemen convened in the General Court. Upon the death +of the first governor, John Carver, in the spring of 1621, the General +Court chose William Bradford as his successor, and with him was chosen +one assistant. The subsequent elections were annual, and within a few +years the number of assistants was increased to seven. The General Court +was the legislature and the electorate; the governor and assistants were +the executive and the judiciary. The whole body of freemen composed the +General Court until other towns than Plymouth had been organized, the +first of which were Scituate in 1636 and Duxbury in 1637, and then the +representative form of government was adopted and there was a gradual +differentiation between Plymouth the town and Plymouth the colony. When +it had become known that the colony was within the territory of the New +England Council, John Pierce, in 1621, procured from that body a grant +which made the colonists its tenants. A year later Pierce surrendered +this and procured another, which in effect made him proprietor of the +colony, but he was twice shipwrecked and was forced to assign to the +adventurers his second patent. In 1629 Governor Bradford procured from +the same council a definite grant of the tract which corresponds to the +south-eastern portion of the present state. But all attempts to procure +a royal charter for Plymouth Colony were unsuccessful, and in 1691 it +was annexed to the Colony of Massachusetts Bay under what is termed the +Provincial Charter. + +King James having by patent in 1620 created a Council for New England to +whom he made a large grant of territory, the council in 1628 made a +sub-grant, confirmed by a royal charter that passed the seals on the 4th +of March 1629, to the "Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in +Newe England." There had been various minor expeditions during the few +years since Smith was on the coast before this company, in the Puritan +interests, had sent over John Endecott with a party in 1628 to what is +now Salem. In 1630 the government of the company, with questionable +right (for the charter seems evidently to have contemplated the +residence of the company in England), transferred itself to their +territory, and under the leadership of John Winthrop laid the +foundations anew of the Massachusetts colony, when they first settled +Boston in the autumn of that year. Winthrop served repeatedly, though +not continuously, as governor of the colony till his death in 1649, his +rejection in 1636 being due to a party of theological revolt which chose +Henry Vane (afterwards Sir Henry) to the office. This was an incident in +a famous episode, important rather as a symptom than in itself, namely, +the Antinomian controversy, "New England's earliest protest against +formulas," in which Vane and Ann Hutchinson took the lead in criticizing +the official orthodoxy of the colony. + +The magistrates successfully asserted themselves to the discomfiture of +their critics (Ann Hutchinson being banished), and this was +characteristic of the colony's early history. The charter gave the +company control over the admission of "freemen" (co-partners in the +enterprise, and voters), "full and absolute power and authority to +correct, punish and rule" subjects settling in the territory comprised +in their grant, and power to "resist ... by all fitting ways and means +whatever" all persons attempting the "destruction, invasion, detriment +or annoyance" of the plantation. Some writers deny the company's right +under this instrument to rule as they proceeded to do; but at any rate +what they did was to make the suffrage dependent on stringent religious +tests, and to repress with determined zeal all theological "vagaries" +and "whimsies." Criticism of church or magistrates was not tolerated. +Laws were modelled closely on the Bible. The clergy were a ruling class. +The government was frankly theocratic. Said Winthrop (1637): "We see not +that any should have authority to set up any other exercises besides +what authority hath already set up"; and a synod at Cambridge in 1637 +catalogued eighty-two "opinions, some blasphemous, others erroneous and +all unsafe," besides nine "unwholesome expressions," all of which were +consigned "to the devil of hell from whence they came." Another synod at +Cambridge in 1647 more formally established the principle of state +control. The legislation against Baptists (about 1644-1678) and the +persecution of the Quakers (especially 1656-1662) partook of the +brutality of the time, including scourging, boring of tongues, cutting +of ears and in rare cases capital punishment. It cannot be denied that +men like Roger Williams and some of the persecuted Quakers, though +undeniably contentious and aggressive in their conscientious dissent, +showed a spirit which to-day seems sweeter in tolerance and humanity +than that of the Puritans. And it seems necessary to emphasize these +facts because until about 1870 it was almost unchallenged tradition to +regard the men of Massachusetts Bay as seekers and champions of +"religious liberty." They left England, indeed, for liberty to discard +the "poperies" of the English Church, and once in Massachusetts they +even discarded far more than those "poperies." But religious liberty in +our modern sense they did not seek for themselves, nor accord to others; +they abhorred it, they trampled on it, and their own lives they +subjected to all the rigid restrictions to which they subjected others. +They were narrow but strong; no better example can be imagined of what +the French call "the defects of one's qualities." Their failures were +small compared with those of their contemporaries in England and +elsewhere in Europe, and public opinion did not long sustain violent +persecution of opinion. More than once mobs freed Quaker prisoners. Also +it is to be said that with the single exception of religious toleration +the record of the state in devotion to human rights has been from the +first a splendid one, whether in human principles of criminal law, or in +the defence of the civil rights commonly declared in American +constitutions. It was once generally assumed that the repression +practised attained its end of securing harmony of opinion. The fact +seems to be that intellectual speculation was as strong in America as in +Puritan England; the assumption that the inhibition of its expression +was good seems wholly gratuitous, and contrary to general convictions +underlying modern freedom of speech. A safer opinion is probably that +"the spiritual growth of Massachusetts withered under the shadow of +dominant orthodoxy; the colony was only saved from mental atrophy by its +vigorous political life" (J. A. Doyle). In literature the second half of +the 17th century is a sterile waste of forbidding theology; and its +life, judged by the present day, singularly sombre. + +In addition to the few persons banished to Rhode Island, theological and +political differences led many to emigrate thither. Others, discontented +with Massachusetts autocracy and wishing, too, "to secure more room," +went to Connecticut (q.v.) where they established a bulwark against the +Dutch of New York. + +A witchcraft scare (at its worst in 1691-1697, though the earliest +Connecticut case was in 1646-1647 and the earliest in Boston in 1648) +led to another tragedy of ignorance. In all thirty-two persons were +executed (according to W. F. Poole, about a thousandth part of those +executed for witchcraft in the British Isles in the 16th and 17th +centuries). Salem was the scene of the greatest excitement in 1691-1692. + +Exceptionally honourable to the early colonists was their devotion to +education (see HARVARD UNIVERSITY and BOSTON). Massachusetts Bay had a +large learned element; it is supposed that about 1640 there was an +Oxford or Cambridge graduate to every 250 persons in the colony. The +earliest printing in the British-American colonies was done at Cambridge +in 1639; it was not until 1674 that the authorities of the colony +permitted printing, except at Cambridge. Boston and Cambridge remain +leading publishing centres to-day. The first regular newspaper of +Boston, the _Boston Newsletter_, was the pioneer of the American +newspaper press. + +The early history was rendered unquiet at times by wars with the +Indians, the chief of which were the Pequot War in 1637, and King +Philip's War in 1675-76; and for better combining against these enemies, +Massachusetts, with Connecticut, New Haven and New Plymouth, formed a +confederacy in 1643, considered the prototype of the larger union of the +colonies which conducted the War of American Independence (1775-83). The +struggle with the Crown, which ended in independence, began at the +foundation of the colony, with assumptions of power under the charter +which the colonial government was always trying to maintain, and the +crown was as assiduously endeavouring to counteract. After more than +half a century of struggle, the crown finally annulled the charter of +the colony in 1684, though not until 1686 was the old government +actually supplanted on the arrival of Joseph Dudley, a native of the +colony, as president of a provisional council; later, Sir Edmund Andros +was sent over with a commission to unite New York and New England under +his rule. The colonists had been for many years almost independent; they +made their own laws, the Crown appointed natives as officials, and the +colonial interpretation of the old charter had in general been allowed +to stand. Massachusetts had excluded the English Book of Common Prayer, +she had restricted the franchise, laid the death penalty on religious +opinions, and passed various other laws repugnant to the Crown, notably +to Charles II. and James II.; she had caused laws and writs to run in +her own name, she had neglected to exact the oath of allegiance to the +sovereign, though carefully exacting an oath of fidelity to her own +government, she had protected the regicides, she had coined money with +her own seal, she had blocked legal appeals to the English courts, she +had not compelled the observance of the navigation acts. The revocation +of the charter aroused the strongest fears of the colonists Andros +speedily met determined opposition by measures undertaken relative to +taxation and land titles, by efforts to secure a church for Episcopal +service, and an attempt to curb the town meetings. His government was +supported by a small party (largely an Anglican Church party), but was +intensely unpopular with the bulk of the people; and--it is a disputed +question, whether before or after news arrived of the landing in England +of William of Orange--in April 1689 the citizens of Boston rose in +revolution, deposed Andros, imprisoned him and re-established their old +colonial form of government. Then came a struggle, carried on in England +by Increase Mather as agent (1688-1692) of the colony, to secure such a +form of government under a new charter as would preserve as many as +possible of their old liberties. Plymouth Colony, acting through its +agent in London, endeavoured to secure a separate existence by royal +charter, but accepted finally union with Massachusetts when association +with New York became the probable alternative. The province of Maine was +also united in the new provincial charter of 1691, and Sir William Phips +came over with it, commissioned as the first royal governor. As has been +mentioned already, the new charter softened religious tests for office +and the suffrage, and accorded "liberty of conscience" except to Roman +Catholics. The old religious exclusiveness had already been greatly +lessened: the clergy were less powerful, heresy had thrived under +repression, Anglican churchmen had come to the colony and were borne +with perforce, devotion to trade and commerce had weakened theological +tests in favour of ideals of mere good order and prosperity, and a +spirit of toleration had grown. + +Throughout the continuance of the government under the provincial +charter, there was a constant struggle between a prerogative party, +headed by the royal governor, and a popular party who cherished +recollections of their practical independence under the colonial +charter, and who were nursing the sentiments which finally took the form +of resistance in 1775. The inter-charter period, 1686-1691, is of great +importance in this connexion. The popular majority kept up the feeling +of hostility to the royal authority in recurrent combats in the +legislative assembly over the salary to be voted to the governor; though +these antagonisms were from time to time forgotten in the wars with the +French and Indians. During the earl of Bellomont's administration, New +York was again united with Massachusetts under the same executive +(1697-1701). The scenes of the recurrent wars were mostly distant from +Massachusetts proper, either in Maine or on Canadian or Acadian +territory, although some savage inroads of the Indians were now and then +made on the exposed frontier towns, as, for instance, upon Deerfield in +1704 and upon Haverhill in 1708. Phips, who had succeeded in an attack +on Port Royal, had ignominiously failed when he led the Massachusetts +fleet against Quebec in 1690; and the later expedition of 1711 was no +less a failure. The most noteworthy administration was that of William +Shirley (1741-1749 and 1753-1756), who at one time was the commanding +officer of the British forces in North America. He made a brilliant +success of the expedition against Louisburg in 1745, William Pepperell, +a Maine officer, being in immediate command. Shirley with Massachusetts +troops also took part in the Oswego expedition of 1755; and +Massachusetts proposed, and lent the chief assistance in the expedition +of Nova Scotia in 1755 which ended in the removal of the Acadians. Her +officers and troops also played an important part in the Crown Point and +second Louisburg expedition (1758). + +The first decided protests against the exercise of sovereign power by +the crown, the first general moral and political revolt that marked the +approach of the American War of Independence, took place in +Massachusetts; so that the most striking events in the general history +of the colonies as a whole from 1760 to 1775 are an intimate part of her +annals. The beginning of the active opposition to the crown may be +placed in the resistance, led by James Otis, to the issuing of writs +(after 1752, Otis's famous argument against them being made in +1760-1761) to compel citizens to assist the revenue officers; followed +later by the outburst of feeling at the imposition of the Stamp Act +(1765), when Massachusetts took the lead in confronting the royal power. +The governors put in office at this time by the crown were not of +conciliatory temperaments, and the measures instituted in parliament +(see UNITED STATES) served to increase bitterness of feeling. Royal +troops sent to Boston (several regiments, 1768) irritated the populace, +who were highly excited at the time, until in an outbreak on the 5th of +March 1770 a file of garrison troops shot down in self-defence a few +citizens in a crowd which assailed them. This is known as the "Boston +Massacre." The merchants combined to prevent the importation of goods +which by law would yield the crown a revenue; and the patriots--as the +anti-prerogative party called themselves--under the lead of Samuel +Adams, instituted regular communication between the different towns, and +afterwards, following the initiative of Virginia, with the other +colonies, through "committees of correspondence"; a method of the utmost +advantage thereafter in forcing on the revolution by intensifying and +unifying the resistance of the colony, and by inducing the co-operation +of other colonies. In 1773 (Dec. 16) a party of citizens, disguised as +Indians and instigated by popular meetings, boarded some tea-ships in +the harbour of Boston, and to prevent the landing of their taxable +cargoes threw them into the sea; this incident is known in history as +the "Boston tea-party." Parliament in retaliation closed the port of +Boston (1774), a proceeding which only aroused more bitter feeling in +the country towns and enlisted the sympathy of the other colonies. The +governorship was now given to General Thomas Gage, who commanded the +troops which had been sent to Boston. Everything foreboded an outbreak. +Most of the families of the highest social position were averse to +extreme measures; a large number were not won over and became +expatriated loyalists. The popular agitators, headed by Samuel +Adams--with whom John Hancock, an opulent merchant and one of the few of +the richer people who deserted the crown, leagued himself--forced on the +movement, which became war in April 1775, when Gage sent an expedition +to Concord and Lexington to destroy military stores accumulated by the +patriots and to capture Adams and Hancock, temporarily staying at +Lexington. This detachment, commanded by Lord Percy, was assaulted, and +returned with heavy loss. The country towns now poured their militia +into Cambridge, opposite Boston; troops came from neighbouring colonies, +and Artemas Ward, a Massachusetts general, was placed in command of the +irregular force, which with superior numbers at once shut the royal army +up in Boston. An attempt of the provincials to seize and hold a +commanding hill in Charlestown brought on the battle of Bunker Hill +(June 17, 1775), in which the provincials were driven from the ground, +although they lost much less heavily than the royal troops. Washington, +chosen by the Continental Congress to command the army, arrived in +Cambridge in July 1775, and stretching his lines around Boston, forced +its evacuation in March 1776. The state was not again the scene of any +conflict during the war. Generals Henry Knox and Benjamin Lincoln were +the most distinguished officers contributed by the state to the +revolutionary army. Out of an assessment at one time upon the states of +$5,000,000 for the expenses of the war, Massachusetts was charged with +$820,000, the next highest being $800,000 for Virginia. Of the 231,791 +troops sent by all the colonies into the field, reckoning by annual +terms, Massachusetts sent 67,907, the next highest being 31,939 from +Connecticut, Virginia furnishing only 26,678; and her proportion of +sailors was very much greater still. In every campaign in every colony +save in 1770-80 her soldiery were in absolute, and still more in +relative, number greater than those of any other colony. + +After the outbreak of the war a somewhat indefinite, heterogeneous +provisional government was in power till a constitution was adopted in +1780, when John Hancock became the first governor. Governor James +Bowdoin in 1786-1787 put down with clemency an almost bloodless +insurrection in the western counties (there was strong disaffection, +however, as far east as Middlesex), known as the Shays Rebellion, +significant of the rife ideas of popular power, the economic distress, +and the unsettled political conditions of the years of the +Confederation. Daniel Shays (1747-1825), the leader, was a brave +Revolutionary captain of no special personal importance. The state debt +was large, taxation was heavy, and industry was unsettled; worthless +paper money was in circulation, yet some men demanded more; debtors were +made desperate by prosecution; the state government seemed weak, the +Federal government contemptibly so; the local courts would not, or from +intimidation feared to, punish the turbulent, and demagogues encouraged +ideas of popular power. A convention of delegates representing the +malcontents of numerous towns in Worcester county met at Worcester on +the 15th of August 1786 to consider grievances, and a week later a +similar convention assembled at Hatfield, Hampshire county. Encouraged +by these and other conventions in order to obstruct the collection of +debts and taxes, a mob prevented a session of the Court of Common Pleas +and General Sessions of the Peace at Northampton on the 29th of August, +and in September other mobs prevented the same court from sitting in +Worcester, Middlesex and Berkshire counties. About 1000 insurgents under +Shays assembled at Springfield on the 26th of September to prevent the +sitting there of the Supreme Court, from which they feared indictments. +To protect the court and the national arsenal at Springfield, for which +the Federal government was powerless to provide a guard, Major-General +William Shepard (1737-1817) ordered out the militia, called for +volunteers, and supplied them with arms from the arsenal, and the court +sat for three days. The Federal government now attempted to enlist +recruits, ostensibly to protect the western frontier from the Indians, +but actually for the suppression of the insurrection; but the plan +failed from lack of funds, and the insurgents continued to interrupt the +procedure of the courts. In January 1787, however, Governor Bowdoin +raised an army of 4400 men and placed it under the command of +Major-General Benjamin Lincoln (1733-1810). While Lincoln was at +Worcester Shays planned to capture the arsenal at Springfield, but on +the 25th of January Shepard's men fired upon Shays's followers, killing +four and putting the rest to flight. Lincoln pursued them to Petersham, +Worcester county, where on the 4th of February he routed them and took +150 prisoners. Subsequently the insurgents gathered in small bands in +Berkshire county; but here, a league having been formed to assist the +government, 84 insurgents were captured at West Stockbridge, and the +insurrection practically terminated in an action at Sheffield on the +27th of February, in which the insurgents lost 2 killed and 30 wounded +and the militia 2 killed and 1 wounded. Two of the insurgent leaders, +Daniel Shays and Eli Parsons, escaped to Vermont soon after the rout at +Petersham. Fourteen other insurgents who were tried by the Supreme Court +in the spring of 1787 were found guilty of treason and sentenced to +death. They were, however, held rather as hostages for the good +behaviour of worse offenders who had escaped, and were pardoned in +September. In February 1788 Shays and Parsons petitioned for pardon, and +this was granted by the legislature in the following June. The outcome +of the uprising was an encouraging test of loyalty to the commonwealth; +and the insurrection is regarded as having been very potent in preparing +public opinion throughout the country for the adoption of a stronger +national government. The Federal Constitution was ratified by +Massachusetts by only a small majority on the 6th of February 1788, +after its rejection had been at one time imminent; but Massachusetts +became a strong Federalist state. Indeed, the general interest of her +history in the quarter-century after the adoption of the Constitution +lies mainly in her connexion with the fortunes of that great political +party. Her leading politicians were out of sympathy with the conduct of +national affairs (in the conduct of foreign relations, the distribution +of political patronage, naval policy, the question of public debt) from +1804--when Jefferson's party showed its complete supremacy--onward; and +particularly after the passage of the Embargo Act of 1807, which caused +great losses to Massachusetts commerce, and, so far from being accepted +by her leaders as a proper diplomatic weapon, seemed to them designed in +the interests of the Democratic party. The Federalist preference for +England over France was strong in Massachusetts, and her sentiment was +against the war with England of 1812-15. New England's discontent +culminated in the Hartford Convention (Dec. 1814), in which +Massachusetts men predominated. The state, however, bore her full part +in the war, and much of its naval success was due to her sailors. + +During the interval till the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861, +Massachusetts held a distinguished place in national life and politics. +As a state she may justly be said to have been foremost in the struggle +against slavery.[22] She opposed the policy that led to the Mexican War +in 1846, although a regiment was raised in Massachusetts by the personal +exertions of Caleb Cushing. The leaders of the ultra non-political +abolitionists (who opposed the formation of the Liberty party) were +mainly Massachusetts men, notably W. L. Garrison and Wendell Phillips. +The Federalist domination had been succeeded by Whig rule in the state; +but after the death of the great Whig, Daniel Webster, in 1852, all +parties disintegrated, re-aligning themselves gradually in an aggressive +anti-slavery party and the temporizing Democratic party. First, for many +years the Free-Soilers gained strength; then in 1855 in an extraordinary +party upheaval the Know-Nothings quite broke up Democratic, Free-Soil +and Whig organizations; the Free-Soilers however captured the +Know-Nothing organization and directed it to their own ends; and by +their junction with the anti-slavery Whigs there was formed the +Republican party. To this the original Free-Soilers contributed as +leaders Charles Sumner and C. F. Adams; the Know-Nothings, Henry Wilson +and N. P. Banks; and later, the War Democrats, B. F. Butler--all men of +mark in the history of the state. Charles Sumner, the most eminent +exponent of the new party, was the state's senator in Congress +(1851-1874). The feelings which grew up, and the movements that were +fostered till they rendered the Civil War inevitable, received something +of the same impulse from Massachusetts which she had given a century +before to the feelings and movements forerunning the War of American +Independence. When the war broke out it was her troops who first +received hostile fire in Baltimore, and turning their mechanical +training to account opened the obstructed railroad to Washington. In the +war thus begun she built, equipped and manned many vessels for the +Federal navy, and furnished from 1861 to 1865 26,163 (or, including +final credits, probably more than 30,000) men for the navy. During the +war all but twelve small townships raised troops in excess of every +call, the excess throughout the state amounting in all to more than +15,000 men; while the total recruits to the Federal army (including +re-enlistments) numbered, according to the adjutant-general of the +state, 159,165 men, of which less than 7000 were raised by draft.[23] +The state, as such, and the townships spent $42,605,517.19 in the war; +and private contributions of citizens are reckoned in addition at about +$9,000,000, exclusive of the aid to families of soldiers, paid then and +later by the state. + +Since the close of the war Massachusetts has remained generally +steadfast in adherence to the principles of the Republican party, and +has continued to develop its resources. Navigation, which was formerly +the distinctive feature of its business prosperity, has under the +pressure of laws and circumstances given place to manufactures, and the +development of carrying facilities on the land rather than on the sea. + +In the Spanish-American War of 1898 Massachusetts furnished 11,780 +soldiers and sailors, though her quota was but 7388; supplementing from +her own treasury the pay accorded them by the national government. + +No statement of the influence which Massachusetts has exerted upon the +American people, through intellectual activity, and even through vagary, +is complete without an enumeration of the names which, to Americans at +least, are the signs of this influence and activity. In science the +state can boast of John Winthrop, the most eminent of colonial +scientists; Benjamin Thompson (Count Rumford); Nathaniel Bowditch, the +translator of Laplace; Benjamin Peirce and Morse the electrician; not to +include an adopted citizen in Louis Agassiz. In history, Winthrop and +Bradford laid the foundations of her story in the very beginning; but +the best example of the colonial period is Thomas Hutchinson, and in +later days Bancroft, Sparks, Palfrey, Prescott, Motley and Parkman. In +poetry, a pioneer of the modern spirit in American verse was Richard +Henry Dana; and later came Bryant, Longfellow, Whittier, Lowell and +Holmes. In philosophy and the science of living, Jonathan Edwards, +Franklin, Channing, Emerson and Theodore Parker. In education, Horace +Mann; in philanthropy, S. G. Howe. In oratory, James Otis, Fisher Ames, +Josiah Quincy, junr., Webster, Choate, Everett, Sumner, Winthrop and +Wendell Phillips; and, in addition, in statesmanship, Samuel Adams, John +Adams and John Quincy Adams. In fiction, Hawthorne and Mrs Stowe. In +law, Story, Parsons and Shaw. In scholarship, Ticknor, William M. Hunt, +Horatio Greenough, W. W. Story and Thomas Ball. The "transcendental +movement," which sprang out of German affiliations and produced as one +of its results the well-known community of Brook Farm (1841-1847), under +the leadership of Dr George Ripley, was a Massachusetts growth, and in +passing away it left, instead of traces of an organization, a sentiment +and an aspiration for higher thinking which gave Emerson his following. +When Massachusetts was called upon to select for Statuary Hall in the +capitol at Washington two figures from the long line of her worthies, +she chose as her fittest representatives John Winthrop, the type of +Puritanism and state-builder, and Samuel Adams (though here the choice +was difficult between Samuel Adams and John Adams) as her greatest +leader in the heroic period of the War of Independence. + + + Governors of Plymouth Colony + + (Chosen annually by the people). + + John Carver 1620-1621 + William Bradford 1621-1633 + Edward Winslow 1633-1634 + Thomas Prence (or Prince) 1634-1635 + William Bradford 1635-1636 + Edward Winslow 1636-1637 + William Bradford 1637-1638 + Thomas Prence (or Prince) 1638-1639 + William Bradford 1639-1644 + Edward Winslow 1644-1645 + William Bradford 1645-1657 + Thomas Prence (or Prince) 1657-1673 + Josiah Winslow 1673-1680 + Thomas Hinckley 1680-1686 + Sir Edmund Andros 1686-1689 + Thomas Hinckley 1689-1692 + + Governors of Massachusetts + + (Under the First Charter--chosen annually) + + John Endecott[24] 1629-1630 + John Winthrop 1630-1634 + Thomas Dudley 1634-1635 + John Haynes 1635-1636 + Henry Vane 1636-1637 + John Winthrop 1637-1640 + Thomas Dudley 1640-1641 + Richard Bellingham 1641-1642 + John Winthrop 1642-1644 + John Endecott 1644-1645 + Thomas Dudley 1645-1646 + John Winthrop 1646-1649 + John Endecott 1649-1650 + Thomas Dudley 1650-1651 + John Endecott 1651-1654 + Richard Bellingham 1654-1655 + John Endecott 1655-1665 + Richard Bellingham 1665-1672 + John Leverett (acting, 1672-1673) 1672-1679 + Simon Bradstreet 1679-1686 + ------ + Sir Edmund Andros 1686-1689 + Simon Bradstreet 1689-1692 + + Under Second Charter--appointed by the Crown[25] + + Sir William Phips 1692-1694 + William Stoughton (acting) 1694-1699 + Richard Coote, earl of Bellomont 1699-1700 + William Stoughton (acting) 1700-1701 + Joseph Dudley 1702-1715 + William Tailer (acting) 1715-1716 + Samuel Shute 1716-1722 + William Dummer (acting) 1722-1728 + William Burnet 1728-1729 + William Dummer (acting) 1729-1730 + William Tailer (acting) 1730 + Jonathan Belcher 1730-1741 + William Shirley 1741-1749 + Spencer Phips (acting) 1749-1753 + William Shirley 1753-1756 + Spencer Phips (acting) 1756-1757 + Thomas Pownal 1757-1760 + Thomas Hutchinson (acting) 1760 + Sir Francis Bernard, Bart 1760-1769 + Thomas Hutchinson (acting) 1769-1771 + Thomas Hutchinson 1771-1774 + Thomas Gage[26] 1774-1775 + + Under the Constitution + + John Hancock 1780-1785 + James Bowdoin 1785-1787 + John Hancock 1787-1793 + Samuel Adams (acting) 1793-1794 + Samuel Adams 1794-1797 + Increase Sumner Federalist 1797-1799 + Moses Gill (lieut- + governor; acting) " 1799-1800 + Caleb Strong " 1800-1807 + Jas Sullivan Democratic-Republican 1807-1808 + Levi Lincoln (acting) " 1808-1809 + Christopher Gore Federalist 1809-1810 + Elbridge Gerry Democratic-Republican 1810-1812 + Caleb Strong Federalist 1812-1816 + John Brooks " 1816-1823 + William Eustis Democratic-Republican 1823-1825 + Levi Lincoln " 1825-1834 + John Davis Whig 1834-1835 + Edward Everett " 1836-1840 + Marcus Morton Democrat 1840-1841 + John Davis Whig 1841-1843 + Marcus Morton Democrat 1843-1844 + George N Briggs Whig 1844-1851 + George S Boutwell Free-Soil Democrat 1851-1853 + John H Clifford Whig 1853-1854 + Emory Washburn " 1854-1855 + Henry J Gardner Know-Nothing 1855-1858 + Nathaniel P Banks Republican 1858-1861 + Marcus Morton Democrat 1840-1841 + John A. Andrew Republican 1861-1866 + Alexander H. Bullock " 1866-1869 + William Claflin " 1869-1872 + William B. Washburn " 1872-1874 + Thomas Talbot (acting) " 1874-1875 + William Gaston Democrat 1875-1876 + Alexander H. Rice Republican 1876-1879 + Thomas Talbot " 1879-1880 + John Davis Long " 1880-1883 + Benjamin F. Butler Democrat 1883-1884 + George D. Robinson Republican 1884-1887 + Oliver Ames " 1887-1890 + John Q. A. Brackett " 1890-1891 + William E. Russell Democrat 1891-1894 + Frederic T. Greenhalge Republican 1894-1896 + Roger Wolcott " 1896-1897 + Roger Wolcott " 1897-1900 + W. Murray Crane " 1900-1903 + John L. Bates " 1903-1905 + William L. Douglas Democrat 1905-1906 + Curtis L. Guild Republican 1906-1909 + Eben S. Draper " 1909-1911 + Eugene N. Foss Democrat 1911- + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For Topography: W. M. Davis, _Physical Geography of + Southern New England_ (New York, 1895), and for the western counties, + R. D. Mallary, _Lenox and the Berkshire Highlands_ (New York-London, + 1902); also _Inland Massachusetts, Illustrated ..._ (Springfield, + 1890); C. F. Warner, _Picturesque Berkshire_ (also Franklin, Hampden, + Hampshire, Northampton, 1890-1893); U.S. Geological Survey, _Bulletin + 116_, H. Gannett, "Geographic Dictionary of Massachusetts." On + Minerals: _U.S. Census_, 1900, and _U.S. Geological Survey_, annual + volume on _Mineral Resources_. On Agriculture: _U.S. Census_ and + reports of Mass. Census (alternating with Federal census), and reports + and bulletins of the Board of Agriculture (1852) and the Agricultural + College (1867), and Experiment Station (1883) at Amherst. On + Manufactures, &c.: See _Reports_ of state and Federal censuses; also + _Annual Reports_ (1869) of the state Bureau of Statistics of Labor, + which contain a wealth of valuable material (e.g. 1903, "Race in + Industry"; 1902, "Sex in Industry"; 1885, "Wages and Prices, + 1752-1863," &c.); W. R. Bagnall, _The Textile Industries of the United + States_ (vol. i., 1639-1810, Cambridge, 1893); J. L. Hayes, "American + Textile Machinery: its Early History, &c." (Cambridge, 1870; + _Bulletin_ of National Association of Wool Manufacturers), and + literature therein referred to. On Commerce and Communications: _U.S. + Census_, 1902 (vol. on "Electric Railways"); U.S. Interstate Commerce + Commission, annual _Statistics of Railways_; publications of the State + Board of Trade; W. Hill on "First Stages of the Tariff Policy of the + United States" in _American Economic Association Publications_, vol. + viii., no. 6 (1893). On Population: Census reports, state and Federal, + publications of Bureau of Statistics of Labor, Board of Health (1869-; + the Annual Report of 1896 contains an exhaustive analysis of vital + statistics, 1856-1895); Board of Charity (1878- ), &c. On + Administration: G. H. Haynes, _Representation and Suffrage in + Massachusetts_, 1620-1691, in Johns Hopkins University, Studies in + History, xii.; _Manual for the General Court_ (Annual); R. H. Whitten, + _Public Administration in Massachusetts_, in Columbia University, + Studies in History, vol. viii. (1898); H. R. Spencer, _Constitutional + Conflict in Provincial Massachusetts_ (Columbus, O., 1905); and the + annual _Public Documents of Massachusetts_, embracing the reports of + all state officers and institutions. On Taxation: See especially the + official "Report of the Commission Appointed to Inquire into the + Expediency of Revising and Amending the Laws ... Relating to Taxation" + (1897), and vol. xi. of the _Report of the United States Industrial + Commission_ (Wash., 1901); H. G. Friedman, _The Taxation of + Corporations in Massachusetts_ (New York, 1907); and C. J. Bullock, + _Historical Sketch of the Finances and Financial Policy of + Massachusetts_ (1907). On Education: See _Annual Reports_ of the + United States Commissioner of Education; G. G. Bush, _History of + Higher Education in Massachusetts_ (Washington, U.S. Bureau of + Education, 1891); article on HARVARD UNIVERSITY. On History: Elaborate + bibliography is given in J. Winsor's _Narrative and Critical History + of America_ and in his _Memorial History of Boston_. The colonial + historical classics are William Bradford, _History of Plimoth + Plantation_ (pub. by the commonwealth, 1898; also edited by Charles + Deane, in _Collections_ of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 1856, + series 4, vol. iii.); J. Winthrop, _History of New England 1630-1649_, + edited by J. Savage (Boston, 2 vols. 1825-1826, new ed., 1853); S. E. + Sewall, _Diary, 1674-1729_ (3 vols., _Collections_ of the + Massachusetts Historical Society, series 5, vols. v.-vii., 1878-1882), + a fascinating and microscopic picture of colonial life; T. Hutchinson, + _History of ... Massachusetts_ (3 vols., respectively Boston, 1764, + 1767, London, 1828); also the very valuable _Hutchinson Papers_ (2 + vols., Prince Society, Boston, 1865). For the period 1662-1666, when + Massachusetts was investigated by royal commissioners, see + _Collections_ of the Massachusetts Historical Society, series 2, vol. + viii., 1819; on the Andros period, 1689-1691, see the _Andros Tracts_ + (3 vols., Prince Society Publications, v.-vii., Boston, 1868-1874), + ed. by J. H. Whitmore. The one-time-standard general history was that + of J. G. Palfrey, _History of New England_ (5 vols., Boston, + 1858-1890), to the War of Independence. It is generally accurate in + facts but written in an unsatisfactorily eulogistic vein. Of + importance in more modern views is a volume of _Lectures Delivered ... + before the Lowell Institute ... by Members of the Massachusetts + Historical Society on Subjects Relating to the Early History of + Massachusetts_ (Boston, 1869), perhaps especially the lectures of G. + E. Ellis, later expanded, and in the process somewhat weakened, into + his _Puritan Age and Rule in the Colony of the Massachusetts Bay, + 1629-1685_ (Boston, 1888; 3rd ed., 1891). See C. F. Adams, + _Massachusetts: its Historians and its History_ (Boston, 1893), for a + critique of the "filiopietistic" traditions of Massachusetts writers; + also his _Three Episodes of Massachusetts History_,--namely, + Settlement of the Colony, Antinomianism, and church and town + government in Quincy from 1634-1888 (2 vols., Boston, 1892). On town + government see further E. Channing in Johns Hopkins University, + _Studies in History_ vol. ii. (1884); P. E. Aldrich in American + Antiquarian Society, _Proceedings_, new series, vol. 3, pp. 111-124; + and C. F. Adams and others in Massachusetts Historical Society, + _Proceedings_, 2nd series, vol. vii (1892). On the Pilgrims and + Puritans: See article PLYMOUTH; also E. H. Byington, _The Puritan in + England and America_ (Boston, 1896) and _The Puritan as Colonist and + Reformer_ (Boston, 1899). On the Quaker Persecution: R. P. Hallowell, + _The Quaker Invasion of Massachusetts_ (Boston, 1883; rev. ed., 1887). + On Witchcraft: See C. W. Upham, _Witchcraft in Salem_ (2 vols., + Boston, 1867); S. G. Drake, _Annals of Witchcraft_ (Boston, 1869) and + _The Witchcraft Delusion in New England_ (3 vols., Roxbury, 1866), + this last a reprint of accounts of the time by Cotton Mather and R. + Calef; W. F. Poole, "Cotton Mather and Salem Witchcraft" (_North + American Review_, April 1869); and controversy of A. C. Goodell and G. + H. Moore in Massachusetts Historical Society, _Proceedings_. On + Slavery: G. H. Moore, _Notes on the History of Slavery_ (New York, + 1866); E. Washburn in _Collections_, Massachusetts Historical Society, + series 4, iv., 333-346; C. Deane in same, pp. 375-442, and in + _Proceedings_, American Antiquarian Society, new series, iv., 191-222. + In the essays of J. R. Lowell are two on "New England two Centuries + Ago" and "Witchcraft." For economic history, W. B. Weeden, _Economic + and Social History of New England, 1620-1789_ (2 vols., Boston, 1890); + C. H. J. Douglas, _The Financial History of Massachusetts ... to the + American Revolution_ (in Columbia University Studies, vol i., 1892). + On the revolutionary epoch, Mellen Chamberlain, _John Adams... with + other Essays and Addresses_ (Boston, 1898); T. Hutchinson, _Diary and + Letters_ (2 vols., Boston, 1884-1886); H. A. Cushing, _Transition from + Provincial to Commonwealth Government in Massachusetts_ (Columbia + University Studies in History, vol. iii., 1896); S. B. Harding, + _Contest over the Ratification of the Federal Constitution in + Massachusetts_ (Harvard University Studies, New York, 1896); and on + the Shays Rebellion compare J. P. Warren in _American Historical + Review_ (Oct., 1905). On New England discontent preceding 1812, Henry + Adams, _Documents Relating to New England Federalism, 1780-1815_ + (Boston, 1877); T. W. Higginson, _Massachusetts in the Army and Navy + during the War of 1861-65_ (Official, Boston, 2 vols., 1896). For a + list of the historical societies of the state consult A. M. Davis in + _Publications_ of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts, vol. i.; the + most important are the Massachusetts Historical Society, established + 1791, publishing _Collections and Proceedings_ (Boston) and the + American Antiquarian Society, established 1812, publishing + _Proceedings_ (Worcester). In many cases the most valuable material on + various periods is indicated under the biographies (or autobiographies + in some cases) of the public men named in the above article, to which + add Timothy Pickering, George Cabot, Joseph Warren, Elbridge Gerry, + Benjamin F. Butler, G. S. Boutwell and George F. Hoar. Many townships + have published their local records, and many township and county + histories contain valuable matter of general interest (e.g. as showing + in detail township action before the War of Independence), though + generally weighted heavily with genealogy and matters of merely local + interest. In American works of fiction, particularly of New England + authors, the reader will find a wealth of description of Massachusetts + and New England life, past and present, as in the writings of William + D. Howells, Sarah O. Jewett, Mary E. Wilkins-Freeman, Harriet B. Stowe + and others. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] At least seventy hills in the state, mainly in this quarter, have + an elevation of 1500 ft. (twenty-four above 2000 ft.). + + [2] In some localities it is not easy to establish irrefutably and in + detail the inter-arrangement of drainage and rock structure that + proves it to be a subaerial peneplain instead of an uplifted + submarine platform; but the general proof is very clear. + + [3] The yield of cereals and of such other crops in 1907 as are + recorded in the _Yearbook_ of the United States Department of + Agriculture was as follows: Indian corn, 1,584,000 bushels; oats, + 245,000 bushels; barley, 64,000 bushels; buckwheat, 42,000 bushels; + potatoes, 3,600,000 bushels; hay, 760,000 tons; tobacco, 7,167,500 + lb. In the same year, according to the same authority, there were in + the state 196,000 milch cows, 92,000 other neat cattle, 45,000 sheep + and 70,000 swine. + + [4] _The Green Schists and Associated Granites and Porphyries of + Rhode Island_, Bulletin, U.S. Geological Survey, No. 311, 1907. + + [5] In 1905 Massachusetts produced 60.7% of the writing paper + manufactured in the country. Besides writing paper, book paper and + building paper are made in the state, but very little newspaper. + + [6] It must be noted, however, that the first successful construction + of cards, drawing and roving, and of spindles, on the Arkwright + principle was by S. Slater at Pawtucket, Rhode Island in 1790. + + [7] The tax valuation on ships engaged in foreign trade was lowered + between 1884 and 1900 from $2,801,405 to $147,768. + + [8] The population of the state was 378,787 in 1790; 422,845 in 1800; + 472,040 in 1810; 523,287 in 1820; 610,408 in 1830; 737,699 in 1840; + 994,514 in 1850; 1,231,066 in 1860; 1,457,351 in 1870; 1,783,085 in + 1880; 2,238,943 in 1890; and 2,805,346 in 1900. In 1905, according to + the state census, the population was 3,003,680, or about 7.7% more + than in 1900. + + [9] In 1910 the following townships each had populations of more than + 15,000: Revere, Leominster, Westfield, Attleborough, Peabody, Hyde + Park. + + [10] The birth-rates every fifth (census) year up to 1895 varied for + natives from 14.48 to 19.49; for foreigners from 45.87 to 66.68. The + marriage rates in quinquennial periods up to 1905 were 19.6, 18.6, + 21.0, 19.8, 15.6, 18.6, 18.6, 18.6, 17.4 and 17.4; the ratio of + marriages to the marriageable population was for males (above 16 + years) 61.5, for females (above 14) 46.0; the fecundity of marriages + seemed to have increased, being about twice as high for foreigners as + for natives. See _Annual Report_ of the Board of Health (1896), by S. + W. Abbott; and _Sixty-fourth Report of Births, Marriages and Deaths + in Massachusetts_ (1906). + + [11] The number of representatives from 1832 to 1908 varied from 240 + to 635, and the length of session from 58 to 206 days (since 1867 + none of under 100 days), with an almost continual increase in both + respects. + + [12] However, every office-holder was, and every subject might be, + required to take (though this was not a condition of the franchise) + the oaths enjoined by parliament in the first year of the reign of + William and Mary as a substitute for the oaths of Allegiance and + Supremacy; and the same still applies to the signing of the + Declaration. + + [13] From 1887-1900, out of 290 cases settled, only 107 were formal + arbitrations, 124 agreements were effected by the mediation of the + Board, 100 were effected otherwise while proceedings were pending, + and in 59 cases the Board interposed when the parties preferred + hostilities. + + [14] For a summary statement of state labour laws in the United + States in 1903 see _Bulletin 54_ of the United States Bureau of + Labor, September 1904; and for a summary of labour laws in force at + the end of 1907 see 22nd _Annual Report_ (for 1907) of the U.S. + Commissioner of Labor (Washington, 1908). + + [15] The usual allotment of the cost of this work is as follows: 65% + is paid by the railway company, 25% by the commonwealth and 10% by + the municipality in which the crossing is located. + + [16] The cost was apportioned between the commonwealth and the local + government in the proportion of 3 to 1. + + [17] Boston remained a township, governed by town-meetings, until + 1822, when it had a population of some 47,000. The government of + Brookline (pop. in 1905, 23,436) is an interesting example of the + adaptation of the township system to urban conditions. The town is + frequently referred to as a model residential suburb; its budgets are + very large, its schools are excellent, and, among other things, it + has established a township gymnasium. The town hall is not large + enough for an assemblage of all the voters, but actually the + attendance is usually limited to about 200, and since 1901 there has + been in force a kind of referendum, under which any measure passed by + a town-meeting attended by 700 or more voters may be referred, upon + petition of 100 legal voters, to a regular vote at the polls. Much of + the work of the town-meetings is done through special committees. + + [18] E. G. Brown, in _Monographs on Education in the United States_ + prepared for the Paris Exposition of 1900 and edited by N. M. Butler. + + [19] This is an especially honourable distinction, for William T. + Harris has said that "The history of education since the time of + Horace Mann is very largely an account of the successive + modifications introduced into elementary schools through the direct + or indirect influence of the normal school." + + [20] In 1869 the personalty valuation was 60% that of realty; but it + steadily fell thereafter, amounting in 1893 to 32%. From 1874-1882 + the assessment of realty increased nearly twelve times as much as + personalty. In the intervening period the assessed valuation of + realty in Boston increased more than 100%, while that of personalty + slightly diminished (the corresponding figures for the entire United + States from 1860 to 1890 being 172% and 12%), yet the most competent + business and expert opinions regarded the true value of personalty as + at least equal to and most likely twice as great as that of realty. + + [21] In this document, whose democracy is characteristic of + differences between the Plymouth Colony and that of Massachusetts + Bay, the signatories "solemnly and mutually ... covenant and combine + ourselves together into a civil body politic, for our better ordering + and preservation and furtherance of the ends aforesaid; and by virtue + hereof to enact, constitute and frame--[laws]--unto which we promise + all due submission and obedience." This was signed 11/21 of November + 1620 by 41 persons. + + [22] Slavery had existed as a social fact from the earliest years, + and legally after 1641; but it was never profitable, and was + virtually abolished long before the War of American Independence; + still it was never abolished explicitly by Massachusetts, though the + slave trade was prohibited in 1788, and though a number of negroes + were declared free after the adoption of the constitution of 1780 on + the strength of the sweeping declaration of human rights in that + instrument. + + [23] According to the final report of the U.S. Adjutant-General in + 1885, the enlistments were 146,730 men, of whom 13,942 died in war. + These figures are probably less accurate than those of the state. + + [24] Endecott, by commission dated the 30th of April 1629, was made + "governor of London's plantation in the Massachusetts Bay." Matthew + Cradock, first governor of the Company, from the 4th of March 1629 to + the 20th of October 1629, was succeeded on the latter date by John + Winthrop, who, on reaching Salem on the 12th of June 1630 with the + charter, superseded Endecott. + + [25] During three periods, 1701-1702, in February 1715, and from + April to August 1757 the affairs of the colony were administered by + the Executive Council. + + [26] General Gage was military governor, Hutchinson remaining + nominally civil governor. + + + + +MASSACRE, a wholesale indiscriminate killing of persons, and also, in a +transferred sense, of animals. The word is adopted from the French; but +its origin is obscure. The meaning and the old form _macecle_ seem to +point to it being a corruption of the Lat. _macellum_, butcher's shop or +shambles, hence meat market; this is probably from the root _mac_-, seen +in [Greek: machesthai], to fight, [Greek: machaira], sword, and Lat. +_mactare_, to sacrifice. Another derivation connects with the Old Low +Ger. _matsken_, to cut in pieces; cf. mod. Ger. _metzeln_, to massacre. + + + + +MASSAGE. The word _massage_ has of late years come into general use to +signify the method of treating disease or other physical conditions by +manipulating the muscles and joints. According to Littré the word is +derived from the Arabic _mass_, and has the specific meaning of +"pressing the muscular parts of the body with the hands, and exercising +traction on the joints in order to give suppleness and stimulate +vitality." It was probably adopted from the Arabian physicians by the +French, who have played a leading part in reviving this method of +treatment, which has been practised from time immemorial, and by the +most primitive people, but has from time to time fallen into disuse +among Western nations. In the _Odyssey_ the women are described as +rubbing and kneading the heroes on their return from battle. In India, +under the name "shampoo" (_tshampua_), the same process has formed part +of the native system of medicine from the most remote times; +professional massers were employed there by Alexander the Great in 327 +B.C. In China the method is also of great antiquity, and practised by a +professional class; the Swedish gymnastic system instituted by Pehr +Henrik Ling is derived from the book of Cong-Fou, the bonze of Tao-Sse. +Hippocrates describes and enjoins the use of manipulation, especially in +cases of stiff joints, and he was followed by other Greek physicians. +Oribasius gives an account of the application of friction with the bare +hands, which exactly corresponds with the modern practice of massage. It +is worthy of note that the treatment, after being held in high esteem by +the leading Greek physicians, fell into disrepute with the profession, +apparently on account of its association with vicious abuses. The same +drawback has made itself felt in the present day, and can only be met by +the most scrupulous care in the choice of agents and the manner of their +employment. Among the Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, and later the Turks, +massage came to be part of the ordinary procedure of the bath without +any special therapeutic intention, and the usage has survived until +to-day; but that mode of application was no doubt a refinement of +civilized life. Medical rubbing is older and more elementary than +bathing, as we see from its employment by savages. Probably it was +evolved independently among different races from the natural +instinct--shared by the lower animals--which teaches to rub, press or +lick any part of the body in which uneasiness is felt, and is therefore +the oldest of all therapeutic means. + +According to Weiss, the therapeutic use of massage was revived in Europe +by Hieronymus Fabricius ab Aquapendente (1537-1619), who applied it to +stiff joints and similar conditions. Paracelsus in his _De medicina +Aegyptiorum_ (1591), gives a description of methodical massage as +practised by the Egyptians quite on modern lines. Thereafter it appears +to have been adopted here and there by individual practitioners, and +various references are made to it, especially by French writers. The +word "massage" occurs in an essay written by Pierre Adolphe Piorry +(1794-1879) for a large encyclopaedia which appeared in 1818, but it was +probably used before. The practice was gradually advocated by an +increasing number of medical men. In Great Britain it was called +"medical rubbing," and at Edinburgh Beveridge had a staff of eight +trained male rubbers. A book published by Estradère in 1863 attracted +much attention, but the man who contributed most to the modern +popularity of massage was Metzger of Amsterdam, who began to use it +tentatively in 1853, and then proceeded to study and apply it +methodically. He published an essay on the subject in 1868. The modern +refinements of the treatment are chiefly due to him. At the same time, +its application by Dr Silas Weir Mitchell to hysterical and other +nervous conditions, in conjunction with the "rest cure," has done much +to make it known. + +Massage, as now practised, includes several processes, some of which are +passive and others active. The former are carried out by an operator, +and consist of rubbing and kneading the skin and deeper tissues with the +hands, and exercising the joints by bending the patient's limbs. The +active movements consist of a special form of gymnastics, designed to +exercise particular muscles or groups of muscles. In what is called +"Swedish massage" the operator moves the limbs while the patient +resists, thus bringing the opposing muscles into play. Some writers +insist on confining the word "massage" to the rubbing processes, and use +the general term "manipulation" to cover all the movements mentioned; +but this is a verbal subtlety of no importance. It is evident that alike +among the Greeks, the Orientals, and savage races, the two processes +have always been applied as part of the same treatment, and the +definition quoted above from Littré goes to show that the word "massage" +is properly applied to both. + + Rubbing has been subdivided into several processes, namely (1) + stroking, (2) kneading, (3) rubbing, and (4) tapping, and some + practitioners attach great importance to the application of a + particular process in a particular way. As a rule, oils and other + lubricants are not used. But, however it may be applied, the treatment + acts essentially by increasing circulation and improving nutrition. It + has been shown by Lauder Brunton that more blood actually flows + through the tissues during and after rubbing. The number of red + corpuscles, and, to some extent, their haemoglobin value, are also + said to be increased (Mitchell). At the same time the movement of the + lymph stream is accelerated. In order to assist the flow of blood and + lymph, stroking is applied centripetally, that is to say, upwards + along the limbs and the lower part of the body, downwards from the + head. The effects of the increased physiological activity set up are + numerous. Functional ability is restored to exhausted muscles by the + removal of fatigue products and the induction of a fresh blood supply; + congestion is relieved; collections of serous fluid are dispersed; + secretion and excretion are stimulated; local and general nutrition + are improved. These effects indicate the conditions in which massage + may be usefully applied. Such are various forms of paralysis and + muscular wasting, chronic and subacute affections of the joints, + muscular rheumatism, sciatica and other neuralgias, local congestions, + sprains, contractions, insomnia and some forms of headache, in which + downward stroking from the head relieves cerebral congestion. It has + also been used in anaemia, hysteria and "neurasthenia," disorders of + the female organs, melancholia and other forms of insanity, + morphinism, obesity, constipation, inflammatory and other affections + of the eye, including even cataract. General massage is sometimes + applied, as a form of passive exercise, to indolent persons whose + tissues are overloaded with the products of incomplete metabolism. + + As with other methods of treatment, there has been a tendency on the + part of some practitioners to exalt it into a cure-all, and of others + to ignore it altogether. Of its therapeutic value, when judiciously + used, there is no doubt, but it is for the physician or surgeon to say + when and how it should be applied. Affections to which it is not + applicable are fevers, pregnancy, collections of pus, acute + inflammation of the joints, inflamed veins, fragile arteries, wounds + of the skin and, generally speaking, those conditions in which it is + not desirable to increase the circulation, or in which the patient + cannot bear handling. In such conditions it may have a very injurious + and even dangerous effect, and therefore should not be used in a + haphazard manner without competent advice. + + The revival of massage in Europe and America has called into existence + a considerable number of professional operators, both male and female, + who may be regarded as forming a branch of the nursing profession. + Some of these are trained in hospitals or other institutions, some by + private practitioners and some not at all. Similarly some are attached + to organized societies or institutions while others pursue their + calling independently. Several things are required for a good + operator. One is physical strength. Deep massage is very laborious + work, and cannot be carried on for an hour, or even half an hour, + without unusual muscular power. Feeble persons cannot practise it + effectively at all. The duration of a sitting may vary from five or + ten minutes to an hour. For general massage at least half an hour is + required. A masser should have strength enough to do the work without + too obvious exhaustion, which gives the patient an unpleasant + impression. A second requirement is tactile and muscular sensibility. + A person not endowed with a fine sense of touch and resistance is + liable to exert too great or too little pressure; the one hurts the + patient, the other is ineffective. Then skill and knowledge, which can + only be acquired by a course of instruction, are necessary. Finally, + some guarantee of cleanliness and character is almost indispensable. + Independent massers may possess all these qualifications in a higher + degree than those connected with an institution, but they may also be + totally devoid of them, whereas connexion with a recognized hospital + or society is a guarantee for a certain standard of efficiency. In + London there are several such institutions, which train and send out + both male and female massers. The fee is 5s. an hour, or from two to + four guineas a week. On the European continent, where trained massers + are much employed by some practitioners, the fee is considerably + lower; in the United States it is higher. For reasons mentioned above, + it is most desirable that patients should be attended by operators of + their own sex. If this is not insisted upon, a valuable therapeutic + means will be in danger of falling into disrepute both with the + medical profession and the general public. (A. Sl.) + + + + +MASSAGETAE, an ancient warlike people described by Herodotus (i. +203-216; iv. 22, 172) as dwelling beyond the Araxes (i.e. the Oxus) in +what is now Balkh and Bokhara. It was against their queen Tomyris that +Cyrus undertook the expedition in which according to one story he met +his end. In their usages some tribes were nomads like the people of +Scythia (q.v.), others with their community of wives and habit of +killing and eating their parents recalled the Issedones (q.v.); while +the dwellers in the islands of the river were fish-eating savages. +Probably the name denoted no ethnic unity, but included all the +barbarous north-eastern neighbours of the Persians. Herodotus says they +only used gold and copper (or bronze), not silver or iron. Their lavish +use of gold has caused certain massive ornaments from southern Siberia, +now in the Hermitage at St Petersburg, to be referred to the Massagetae. + (E. H. M.) + + + + +MASSA MARITTIMA, a town and episcopal see of the province of Grosseto, +Tuscany, Italy, 24 m. N.N.W. of Grosseto direct and 16 m. by rail N.E. +of Follonica (which is 28 m. N.W. of Grosseto on the main coast +railway), 1444 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), (town) 9219; (commune) +17,519. It has a cathedral of the 13th century containing a Romanesque +font (1267 with a cover of 1447) and a Gothic reliquary (1324) of the +saint Cerbone, to whom the cathedral is dedicated. The battlemented +municipal palace of the 13th century is picturesque. There are mineral +springs, mines of iron, mercury, lignite and copper, with foundries, +ironworks and olive-oil mills. At Follonica on the coast, but in this +commune, are the furnaces in which are smelted the iron ore of Elba. + + + + +MASSAWA, or MASSOWAH, a fortified town on the African coast of the Red +Sea, chief port of the Italian colony of Eritrea, in 15° 36´ N. and 39° +28´ E. Pop. about 10,000. The town stands at the north end of the bay of +Massawa and is built partly on a coral island of the same name--where +was the original settlement--and partly on the islets of Tautlub and +Sheik Said, and the neighbouring mainland. Massawa Island is from 20 to +25 ft. above the sea, its length does not exceed ½ m. and its breadth is +about ¼ m. The harbour is formed by the channel between the island and +the mainland. It affords good anchorage in from 5 to 9 fathoms. The town +possesses several good public buildings, chiefly built of coral, as are +the houses of the principal European and Arab merchants. Landward the +town is guarded by forts erected by the Italians since 1885. Water was +formerly scarce; but in 1872 an ancient aqueduct from Mokullu (5 m. +distant westward) was restored and continued by an embankment to the +town. A railway connects Massawa with Asmara, the capital of the colony. +Besides the Abyssinians, who speak a Tigré dialect corrupted with +Arabic, the inhabitants comprise Italian officials and traders, Greeks, +Indians, Arabs from Yemen and Hadramut, Gallas and Somalis. Massawa is +the natural port for northern Abyssinia but commerce is undeveloped +owing to the lack of rapid means of communication. The trade done +consists mainly in exporting hides, butter, Abyssinian coffee and civet, +and importing European and Indian cotton goods and silks. It increased +in value from about £65,000 per annum in 1865 (the last year of Turkish +control) to from £240,000 to £280,000 between 1879 and 1881, when under +the administration of Egypt. Under the Italians trade greatly developed. +The returns for the five years 1901-1905 showed an average annual value +of £1,800,000, about two-thirds being imports. + +The island of Massawa has probably been inhabited from a very early +date. It appears to have formed part of the Abyssinian dominions for +many centuries. It was at Massawa (Matzua, as it is called by the +Portuguese chroniclers) that Christopher da Gama and his comrades landed +in July 1541 on their way to aid the Abyssinians against the Moslem +invaders. Captured by the Turks in 1557, the island remained a Turkish +possession over two hundred years. A military colony of Bosnians settled +at Arkiko (a port on the bay 4 m. south of Massawa Island) was appointed +not only to defend it in case of attack from the mainland, but to keep +it supplied with water in return for $1400 per month from the town's +customs. For some time at the close of the 18th century Massawa was held +by the sherif of Mecca, and it afterwards passed to Mehemet Ali of +Egypt. The Turks were reinstated about 1850, but in 1865 they handed the +island back to Egypt for an annual tribute of 2½ million piastres. In +February 1885 Massawa was occupied by an Italian force, the Egyptian +garrison stationed there being withdrawn in the November following (see +EGYPT; ITALY; ABYSSINIA). The port was the capital of the Italian colony +until 1900 when the seat of administration was removed to Asmara (see +ERITREA). + + For a description of the town in 1769 see the _Travels_ of James + Bruce. At that time the governor, though appointed by the Turks, paid + one half of the customs receipts to the negus of Abyssinia in return + for the protection of that monarch. + + + + +MASSÉNA, ANDRÉ, or _Andrea_, duke of Rivoli, prince of Essling +(1756-1817), the greatest of Napoleon's marshals, son of a small wine +merchant, it is said of Jewish origin, was born at Nice on the 6th of +May 1756. His parents were very poor, and he began life as a cabin boy, +but he did not care much for the sea, and in 1775 he enlisted in the +Royal-Italien regiment. He quickly rose to be under-officer-adjutant; +but, finding his birth would prevent his ever getting a commission, he +left the army in 1789, retired to his native city, and married. At the +sound of war, however, and the word republic, his desire to see service +increased, and he once more left Italy, and joined the 3rd battalion of +the volunteers of the Var in 1791. In those days when men elected their +officers, and many of the old commissioned officers had emigrated, +promotion to a man with a knowledge of his drill was rapid, and by +February 1792 Masséna was a lieutenant-colonel. His regiment was one of +those in the army which occupied Nice, and in the advance to the +Apennines which followed, his knowledge of the country, of the language, +and of the people was so useful that in December 1793 he was already a +general of division. In command of the advanced guard he won the battle +of Saorgio in August 1794, capturing ninety guns, and after many +successes he at last, on the 23rd of November 1795, with the right wing +of the army of Italy, had the greatest share in the victory of Loano, +won by Schérer over the Austrians and Sardinians. In Bonaparte's great +campaign of 1796-97 Masséna was his most trusted general of division; in +each battle he won fresh laurels, up to the crowning victory of Rivoli, +from which he afterwards took his title. It was during this campaign +that Bonaparte gave him the title of _enfant gâté de la victoire_, which +he was to justify till he met the English in 1810. In 1798 he commanded +the army of Rome for a short time, but was displaced by the intrigues of +his subordinate Berthier. Masséna's next important service was in +command of the army in Switzerland, which united the army in Germany +under Moreau, and that in Italy under Joubert. There he proved himself a +great captain, as he had already proved himself a great lieutenant; the +archduke Charles and Suvarov had each been successful in Germany and in +Italy, and now turned upon Masséna in Switzerland. That general held his +ground well against the archduke, and then suddenly, leaving Soult to +face the Austrians, he transported his army to Zürich, where, on the +26th of September 1799, he entirely defeated Korsakov, taking 200 guns +and 5000 prisoners. This campaign and battle placed his reputation on a +level with that of his compatriot Bonaparte, and he might have made the +revolution of Brumaire, but he was sincerely attached to the republic, +and had no ambition beyond a desire to live well and to have plenty of +money to spend. Bonaparte, now First Consul, sent him to Genoa to +command the débris of the army of Italy, and he nobly defended Genoa +from February to June to the very last extremity, giving time for +Bonaparte to strike his great blow at Marengo. He now went to Paris, +where he sat in the Corps Législatif in 1803, and actually defended +Moreau without drawing upon himself the ill-will of Napoleon, who well +knew his honesty and lack of ambition. + +In 1804 he was made one of the first marshals of France of the new +régime, and in 1805 was decorated with the Grand Eagle of the Legion of +Honour. In that year Napoleon needed an able general to keep in check +the archduke Charles in Italy, while he advanced through Germany with +the grand army. Masséna was chosen; he kept the archduke occupied till +he received news of the surrender of Ulm, and then on the 30th of +October defeated him in the battle of Caldiero. After the peace of +Pressburg had been signed, Masséna was ordered to take possession of the +kingdom of Naples, and to place Joseph Bonaparte on the throne. This +task done, Napoleon summoned Masséna to Poland, where he as usual +distinguished himself, and where he for the time gave up his republican +principles. In 1808 he was made duke of Rivoli. In 1808 he was +accidentally wounded by his old enemy Berthier when both were in +attendance on the emperor at a shooting party, and he lost the sight of +one eye. In the campaign in 1809 he covered himself with glory at +Landshut and at Eckmühl, and finally at the battle of Aspern-Essling his +magnificent leadership made what would without him have been an +appalling disaster into a mere reverse of which the enemy could make no +use. On the field of Wagram Masséna, though too ill to ride, directed +from his carriage the movements of the right wing. For his great +services he was created prince of Essling, and given the princely castle +of Thouars. He was then ordered to Spain to "drive the English into the +sea." (For the campaigns of 1810 and 1811, the advance to and the +retreat from Torres Vedras see PENINSULAR WAR.) Masséna himself, with +some justice, ascribed his failure to the frequent disobedience of his +subordinates Ney, Reynier and Junot, and public opinion attributed this +disobedience to the presence with the army of Masséna's mistress, and to +the resentment thereat felt by the wives of the three generals. Still, +unsuccessful as he was, Masséna displayed the determination of the +defence of Genoa and the fertility in expedients of the campaign of +Zürich, and kept his army for five weary months close up to Wellington's +impregnable position before retiring. His retreat through a devastated +country was terrible, but his force of character kept his men together, +and Ney having shown the worst side of his character now showed the best +in the frequent and brilliant rearguard actions, until a new act of +insubordination at last made the old marshal dismiss Ney from his +command. Soon Masséna was once again ready to try his fortune, and he +nearly defeated Wellington at Fuentes d'Oñoro, though much hampered by +Bessières. But his recall soon followed this and he returned home to +find his prestige gone. The old marshal felt he had a right to complain +of Ney and of Napoleon himself, and, it is said, opened communications +with Fouché and the remnant of the republican party. Whether this be +true or not, Napoleon gave his greatest marshal no more employment in +the field, but made him merely a territorial commandant at Marseilles. +This command he still held at the restoration, when Louis XVIII. +confirmed him in it, and with true Bourbon stupidity gave him letters of +naturalization, as if the great leader of the French armies had not +ceased to be an Italian. When Napoleon returned from Elba, Masséna, +probably by the advice of Fouché, kept Marseilles quiet to await events, +the greatest service he could do the royalists, but afterwards imputed +to him as a fault. After the second restoration Masséna was summoned to +sit on the court-martial which tried Marshal Ney, but, though he had +been on bad terms with that general, and attributed his own disgrace to +him, the old soldier would not be his comrade's judge. This refusal was +used by the royalists to attack the marshal, against whom they raked up +every offence they could think of. This annoyance shortened his life, +and on the 4th of April 1817 the old hero died. He was buried in +Père-la-Chaise, with only the word "Masséna" upon his tombstone. + +In private life indolent, greedy, rapacious, ill-educated and morose, in +war Masséna was, like Napoleon, the incarnation of battle. Only his +indolence and his consequent lack of far-ranging imagination prevented +him being as great in strategy as in tactics. His genius needed the +presence of the enemy to stimulate it, but once it sprang to life +Masséna became an ideal leader, absolutely brave, resourceful, +unrelenting and indefatigable. He was as great a master of the strategy +of forces in immediate contact--of gathering up as it were the threads +of the fugue into a "stretto." For the planning of a whole perfect +campaign he had neither knowledge nor inclination, and he falls short +therefore of the highest rank amongst great generals; but his place +amongst the greatest of soldiers is beyond challenge. + + See Thiébault's _Éloge funèbre_, and Koch's _Mémoires de Masséna_ (4 + vols., 1849), a valuable work, carefully compiled. In more modern + times E. Gachot has produced several important works dealing with + Masséna's campaigns. + + + + +MASSENBACH, CHRISTIAN KARL AUGUST LUDWIG VON (1758-1827), Prussian +soldier, was born at Schmalkalden on the 16th of April 1758, and +educated at Heilbronn and Stuttgart, devoting himself chiefly to +mathematics. He became an officer of the Württemberg army in 1778, and +left this for the service of Frederick the Great in 1782. The pay of his +rank was small, and his appointment on the quartermaster-general's staff +made it necessary to keep two horses, so that he had to write +mathematical school-books in his spare time to eke out his resources. He +was far however from neglecting the science and art of war, for thus +early he had begun to make his name as a theorist as well as a +mathematician. After serving as instructor in mathematics to the young +prince Louis, he took part with credit in the expedition into Holland, +and was given the order _Pour le mérite_. On returning to Prussia he +became mathematical instructor at the school of military engineering, +leaving this post in 1792 to take part as a general staff officer in the +war against France. He was awarded a prebend at Minden for his services +as a topographical engineer on the day of Valmy, and after serving +through the campaigns of 1793 and 1794 he published a number of memoirs +on the military history of these years. He was chiefly occupied however +with framing schemes for the reorganization of the then neglected +general staff of the Prussian army, and many of his proposals were +accepted. Bronsart von Schellendorf in his _Duties of the General Staff_ +says of Massenbach's work in this connexion, "the organization which he +proposed and in the main carried out survived even the catastrophes of +1806-1807, and exists even at the present moment in its original +outline." This must be accounted as high praise when it is remembered +how much of the responsibility for these very disasters must be laid to +Massenbach's account. The permanent gain to the service due to his +exertions was far more than formal, for it is to him that the general +staff owes its tradition of thorough and patient individual effort. But +the actual doctrine taught by Massenbach, who was now a colonel, may be +summarized as the doctrine of positions carried to a ludicrous excess; +the claims put forward for the general staff, that it was to prepare +cut-and-dried plans of operations in peace which were to be imposed on +the troop leaders in war, were derided by the responsible generals; and +the memoirs on proposed plans of campaign to suit certain political +combinations were worked out in quite unnecessary detail. It was +noteworthy that none of the proposed plans of campaign considered France +as an enemy. + +In 1805 came threats of the war with Napoleon which Massenbach had +strongly opposed. He was made quartermaster-general (chief of staff) to +Prince Hohenlohe, over whom he soon obtained a fatal ascendancy. War was +averted for a moment by the result of the battle of Austerlitz, but it +broke out in earnest in October 1806. Massenbach's influence clouded all +the Prussian operations. The battles of Jena and Auerstädt were lost, +and the capitulation of Prince Hohenlohe's army was negotiated. Even +suggestions of disloyalty were not wanting; an attempt to try him by +court-martial was only frustrated by Prince Hohenlohe's action in taking +upon himself, as commander-in-chief, the whole responsibility for +Massenbach's actions. He then retired to his estate in the Posen +province, and occupied himself in writing pamphlets, memoirs, &c. When +his estates passed into the grand duchy of Warsaw, he chose to remain a +Prussian subject, and on the outbreak of the war of liberation he asked +in vain for a post on the Prussian staff. After the fall of Napoleon he +took part in Württemberg politics, was expelled from Stuttgart and +Heidelberg, and soon afterwards arrested at Frankfurt, delivered over to +the Prussian authorities and condemned to fourteen years' fortress +imprisonment for his alleged publication of state secrets in his +memoirs. He was kept in prison till 1826, when Frederick William III., +having recovered from an accident, pardoned those whom he considered to +have wronged him most deeply. He died on the 21st of November 1827, at +his estate of Bialokoscz, Posen. + + The obituary in _Neuer Nekrolog der Deutschen_, pt. ii. (Ilmenau, + 1827) is founded on a memoir (_Der Oberst C. v. Massenbach_) which was + published at the beginning of his imprisonment. + + + + +MASSENET, JULES ÉMILE FRÉDÉRIC (1842- ), French composer, was born at +Montaud, on the 12th of May 1842. He studied at the Paris Conservatoire, +where he obtained the Grand Prix de Rome in 1863 with the cantata _David +Rizzio_. Massenet became one of the most prolific composers of his time. +His operas include the following: _La Grande tante_, one act, opéra +comique (1867); _Don César de Bazan_, three acts, opéra comique (1872); +_Le Roi de Lahore_, five acts, opera (1877); _Hérodiade_, five acts +(Brussels, 1881); _Manon_, five acts, opéra comique (1884); _Le Cid_, +four acts, opera (1885); _Esclarmonde_, four acts, opéra comique (1889); +_Le Mage_, five acts, opera (1891); _Werther_, four acts (Vienna, 1892); +_Thaïs_, three acts, opera (1894); _Le Portrait de Manon_, one act, +opéra comique (1894); _La Navarraise_, two acts (Covent Garden, 1894); +_Sapho_, opéra comique (1897); _Cendrillon_, opéra comique (1900); +_Grisélidis_, opéra comique (1901); _Le Jongleur de Notre Dame_ +(Mentone, 1902). Of these the most popular is Manon. Massenet's other +works include _Marie Madeleine_, sacred drama (1873); _Eve_, a mystery +(1875); _La Vierge_, sacred legend (1880); six orchestral suites +entitled _Scènes hongroises_, _Scènes pittoresques_, _Scènes +dramatiques_, _Scènes napolitaines_, _Scènes de féerie_, _Scènes +alsaciennes_; music to the tragedy _Les Erynnies_, to _Théodora_, _Le +Crocodile_, _L'Hetman_; a requiem, _Narcisse_; an idyll, _Biblis_; a +_Scène antique_; several sets of songs, entitled _Poème d'avril_, _Poème +d'amour_, _Poème d'hiver_, _Poème d'octobre_, _Poème pastoral_, _Poème +du souvenir_; also a large number of detached songs. He was professor of +composition at the Conservatoire from 1878 to 1896, among his pupils +being Hillemacher, Marty, Bruneau, Vidal, Pierné, Leroux and +Charpentier. Massenet undoubtedly possesses a style of his own. He is at +his best in music descriptive of the tender passion, and many of the +love scenes in his operas are very beautiful. + + + + +MASSEREENE, JOHN CLOTWORTHY, 1ST VISCOUNT (d. 1665), Anglo-Irish +politician, was a son of Sir Hugh Clotworthy, sheriff of county Antrim. +He was elected to the Irish parliament as member for county Antrim in +1634, and was a member both of the Short and of the Long Parliament in +England. Clotworthy was a vehement opponent of the earl of Stafford, in +whose impeachment he took an active share. He also took part in the +prosecution of Archbishop Laud. Having unsuccessfully negotiated with +Ormond for the surrender of Dublin to the Parliamentary forces in 1646, +he was accused in the following year of having betrayed his cause, and +also of embezzlement; in consequence of these charges he fled to the +Continent, but returned to parliament in June 1648. On the 12th of +December in that year he was arrested, and remained in prison for nearly +three years. Having taken an active part in forwarding the Restoration, +he was employed in Ireland in arranging the affairs of the soldiers and +other adventurers who had settled in Ireland Clotworthy in no way abated +his old animosity against "papists" and high Anglicans, and he +championed the cause of the Irish Presbyterians; but being personally +agreeable to Charles II., his ecclesiastical views were overlooked, and +on the 21st of November 1660 he was created Baron Loughneagh and +Viscount Massereene in the Irish peerage, with remainder in default of +male heirs to his son-in-law, Sir John Skeffington. Massereene died +without male issue in September 1665, and the title devolved on +Skeffington, whose great-grandson, the fifth viscount, was created earl +of Massereene in 1756. The earldom became extinct on the death of the +fourth earl without male issue in 1816, the viscounty and barony of +Loughneagh descending to his daughter Harriet, whose husband, Thomas +Foster, took the name of Skeffington, and inherited from his mother in +1824 the titles of Viscount Ferrard and Baron Oriel of Collon in the +Irish peerage, and from his father in 1828 that of Baron Oriel of +Ferrard in the peerage of the United Kingdom. + + + + +MASSEY, SIR EDWARD (c. 1619-c. 1674), English soldier in the Great +Rebellion, was the son of John Massey of Coddington, Cheshire. Little is +known of his early life, but it is said that he served in the Dutch army +against the Spaniards. In 1639 he appears as a captain of pioneers in +the army raised by Charles I. to fight against the Scots. At the +outbreak of the Great Rebellion he was with the king at York, but he +soon joined the Parliamentary army. As lieutenant-colonel under the earl +of Stamford he became deputy governor of Gloucester, where he remained +till towards the end of the first Civil War, becoming governor early in +1643. He conducted minor operations against numerous small bodies of +Royalists, and conducted the defence of Gloucester against the king's +main army in August 1643, with great steadiness and ability, receiving +the thanks of parliament and a grant of £1000 for his services. In 1644 +Massey continued to keep the field and to disperse the local Royalists, +and on several occasions he measured swords with Prince Rupert. In May +1644 he was made general of the forces of the Western Association. In +1645 he took the offensive against Lord Goring and the western +Royalists, advanced to the relief of Taunton, and in the autumn +co-operated effectively with Sir Thomas Fairfax and the New Model army +in the Langport campaign. After taking part in the desultory operations +which closed the first war, he took his seat in the House of Commons as +member for Gloucester. He then began to take an active part in politics +on the Presbyterian side, and was one of the generals who was impeached +by the army on the ground that they were attempting to revive the Civil +War in the Presbyterian interests. Massey fled from England in June +1647, and though he resumed his seat in the house in 1648 he was again +excluded by Pride's Purge, and after a short imprisonment escaped to +Holland. Thence, taking the side of the king openly and definitely like +many other Presbyterians, he accompanied Charles II. to Scotland. He +fought against Cromwell at the bridge of Stirling and Inverkeithing, and +commanded the advanced guard of the Royalist army in the invasion of +England in 1651. It was hoped that Massey's influence would win over the +towns of the Severn valley to the cause of the king, and the march of +the army on Worcester was partly inspired by this expectation. However, +he effected little, and after riding with the king for some distance +from the field of Worcester, fell into the hands of his former comrades +and was lodged in the Tower. He again managed to escape to Holland. +While negotiating with the English Presbyterians for the restoration of +Charles, he visited England twice, in 1654 and 1656. In 1660 he was +active in preparing for Charles's return, and was rewarded by a +knighthood and a grant of £3000. The rest of his life was spent in +political, and occasionally in military and administrative business, and +he is said to have died in Ireland in 1674 or 1675. + + + + +MASSEY, GERALD (1828-1907), English poet, was born near Tring, +Hertfordshire, on the 29th of May 1828. His parents were in humble +circumstances, and Massey was little more than a child when he was set +to hard work in a silk factory, which he afterwards deserted for the +equally laborious occupation of straw-plaiting. These early years were +rendered gloomy by much distress and deprivation, against which the +young man strove with increasing spirit and virility, educating himself +in his spare time, and gradually cultivating his innate taste for +literary work. He was attracted by the movement known as Christian +Socialism, into which he threw himself with whole-hearted vigour, and so +became associated with Maurice and Kingsley. His first public appearance +as a writer was in connexion with a journal called the _Spirit of +Freedom_, of which he became editor, and he was only twenty-two when he +published his first volume of poems, _Voices of Freedom and Lyrics of +Love_. These he followed in rapid succession by _The Ballad of Babe +Christabel_ (1854), _War Waits_ (1855), _Havelock's March_ (1860), and +_A Tale of Eternity_ (1869). Many years afterwards in 1889, he collected +the best of the contents of these volumes, with additions, into a +two-volume edition of his poems called _My Lyrical Life_. He also +published works dealing with spiritualism, the study of Shakespeare's +sonnets (1872 and 1890), and theological speculation. It is generally +understood that he was the original of George Eliot's _Felix Holt_. +Massey's poetry has a certain rough and vigorous element of sincerity +and strength which easily accounts for its popularity at the time of its +production. He treated the theme of Sir Richard Grenville before +Tennyson thought of using it, with much force and vitality. Indeed, +Tennyson's own praise of Massey's work is still its best eulogy, for the +Laureate found in him "a poet of fine lyrical impulse, and of a rich +half-Oriental imagination." The inspiration of his poetry is essentially +British; he was a patriot to the core. It is, however, as an +Egyptologist that Gerald Massey is best known in the world of letters. +He first published _The Book of the Beginnings_, followed by _The +Natural Genesis_; but by far his most important work is _Ancient Egypt: +The Light of the World_, published shortly before his death. He died on +the 29th of October 1907. + + See an article by J. Churton Collins in the _Contemporary Review_ (May + 1904). + + + + +MASSICUS, MONS, a mountain ridge of ancient Italy, in the territory of the +Aurunci, and on the border of Campania and Latium adjectum--attributed by +most authors to the latter. It projects south-west from the volcanic +system of Rocca Monfina (see SUESSA AURUNCA) as far as the sea, and +separates the lower course of the Liris from the plain of Campania. It +consists of limestone, with a superstratum of pliocenic and volcanic +masses, and was once an island; its highest point is 2661 ft. above +sea-level. + + It was very famous for its wine in ancient times. There was just room + along the coast for the road to pass through; the pass was guarded by + the Auruncan town of Vescia (probably on the mountain side), which + ceased to exist in 314 B.C. after the defeat of the Ausones, but left + its name to the spot. Its successor, Sinuessa, on the coast, a station + on the Via Appia, was constructed in 312 B.C., and a colony was + founded there in 295 B.C. It is not infrequently mentioned by + classical writers as a place in which travellers halted. Here Virgil + joined Horace on the famous journey to Brundusium. Domitian + considerably increased its importance by the construction of the Via + Domitiana, which left the Via Appia here and ran to Cumae and Puteoli, + and it was he, no doubt, who raised it to the position of _colonia + Flavia_. The town was destroyed by the Saracens, but some ruins of it + are still visible two miles north-west of the modern village of + Mondragone. The mineral springs which still rise here were frequented + in antiquity. + + + + +MASSIF, a French term, adopted in geology and physical geography for a +mountainous mass or group of connected heights, whether isolated or +forming part of a larger mountain system. A "massif" is more or less +clearly marked off by valleys. + + + + +MASSILLON, JEAN BAPTISTE (1663-1742), French bishop and preacher, was +born at Hyères on the 24th of June 1663, his father being a royal notary +of that town. At the age of eighteen he joined the Congregation of the +Oratory and taught for a time in the colleges of his order at Pézenas, +and Montbrison and at the Seminary of Vienne. On the death of Henri de +Villars, archbishop of Vienne, in 1693, he was commissioned to deliver a +funeral oration, and this was the beginning of his fame. In obedience to +Cardinal de Noailles, archbishop of Paris, he left the Cistercian abbey +of Sept-Fonds, to which he had retired, and settled in Paris, where he +was placed at the head of the famous seminary of Saint Magloire. He soon +gained a wide reputation as a preacher and was selected to be the Advent +preacher at the court of Versailles in 1699. He was made bishop of +Clermont in 1717, and two years later was elected a member of the French +Academy. The last years of his life were spent in the faithful discharge +of his episcopal duties; his death took place at Clermont on the 18th of +September 1742. Massillon enjoyed in the 18th century a reputation equal +to that of Bossuet and of Bourdaloue, and has been much praised by +Voltaire, D'Alembert and kindred spirits among the _Encyclopaedists_. +His popularity was probably due to the fact that in his sermons he lays +little stress on dogmatic questions, but treats generally of moral +subjects, in which the secrets of the human heart and the processes of +man's reason are described with poetical feeling. He has usually been +contrasted with his predecessor Bourdaloue, the latter having the credit +of vigorous denunciation, Massillon that of gentle persuasiveness. +Besides the _Petit Carême_, a sermon which he delivered before the young +king Louis XV. in 1718, his sermons on the Prodigal Son, on the small +number of the elect, on death, for Christmas Day, and for the Fourth +Sunday in Advent, may be perhaps cited as his masterpieces. His funeral +oration on Louis XIV. is only noted now for the opening sentence: "Dieu +seul est grand." But in truth Massillon is singularly free from +inequality. His great literary power, his reputation for benevolence, +and his known toleration and dislike of doctrinal disputes caused him to +be much more favourably regarded than most churchmen by the +_philosophes_ of the 18th century. + + The first edition of Massillon's complete works was published by his + nephew, also an Oratorian (Paris, 1745-1748), and upon this, in the + absence of MSS., succeeding reprints were based. The best modern + edition is that of the Abbé Blampignon (Paris, 1865-1868, 4 vols.; new + ed. 1886). + + See Abbé Blampignon, _Massillon, d'après des documents inédits_ + (Paris, 1879); and _L'Épiscopat de Massitlon d'après des documents + inédits, suivi de sa correspondance_ (Paris, 1884); F. Brunetière + "L'Éloquence de Massillon" in _Études critiques_ (Paris, 1882); Père + Ingold, _L'Oratoire et le jansénisme au temps de Massitlon_ (Paris, + 1880); and Louis Petit de Julleville's _Histoire de la langue et de la + littérature française_, v. 372-385 (Paris, 1898). + + + + +MASSILLON, a city of Stark county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Tuscarawas river +and the Ohio canal, 8 m. W. of Canton, and about 50 m. S. by E. of +Cleveland. Pop. (1900), 11,944 (1693 foreign-born); (1910), 13,879. It +is served by the Pennsylvania (Pittsburg, Ft Wayne & Chicago Division), +the Baltimore & Ohio and the Wheeling & Lake Erie railways. Massillon is +built among hills in a part of the state noted for its large production +of coal and wheat and abounding in white sandstone, iron ore and +potter's clay. The city has various manufactures, including iron, +engines, furnaces, reapers, threshers and bottles. The total value of +the factory products in 1905 was $3,707,013, an increase of 34.8% over +that of 1900. The first settlement was made in 1825; in 1826 the town +was laid out and named in honour of Jean Baptiste Massillon; it was +incorporated a village in 1853, and became a city in 1868. + + + + +MASSIMO, or MASSIMI, a Roman princely family of great antiquity, said to +be descended from the ancient Maximi of republican Rome. The name is +first mentioned in 1012 in the person of Leo de Maximis, and the family +played a considerable part in the history of the city in the middle +ages. The brothers Pietro and Francesco Massimi acquired fame by +protecting and encouraging the German printer Ulrich Hahn, who came to +Rome in 1467. In the 16th century the Massimi were the richest of the +Roman nobles. A marquisate was conferred on them in 1544, and the +lordship of Arsoli in 1574. To-day there are two branches of the +Massimi, viz. the Principi Massimo, descended from Camillo Massimiliano +(1770-1840), and the dukes of Rignano, descended from Francesco Massimo +(1773-1844). One of the sons of the present Prince Camillo Carlo +Alberto, Don Fabrizio, married Princess Beatrice, daughter of Don Carlos +of Bourbon (duke of Madrid), the pretender to the Spanish throne. The +Palazzo Massimo in Rome was built by Baldassare Peruzzi by order of +Pietro Massimo, on the ruins of an earlier palace destroyed in the sack +of Rome in 1527. + + See F. Gregorovius, _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_ (Stuttgart, 1880); A. + von Reumont, _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_ (Berlin, 1868); _Almanach de + Gotha_; J. H. Douglas, _The Principal Noble Families of Rome_ (Rome, + 1905). + + + + +MASSINGER, PHILIP (1583-1640), English dramatist, son of Arthur +Massinger or Messanger, was baptized at St Thomas's, Salisbury, on the +24th of November 1583. He apparently belonged to an old Salisbury +family, for the name occurs in the city records as early as 1415. He is +described in his matriculation entry at St Alban Hall, Oxford (1602), as +the son of a gentleman. His father, who had also been educated at St +Alban Hall, was a member of parliament, and was attached to the +household of Henry Herbert, 2nd earl of Pembroke, who recommended him in +1587 for the office of examiner in the court of the marches. The 3rd +earl of Pembroke, the William Herbert whose name has been connected with +Shakespeare's sonnets, succeeded to the title in 1601. It has been +suggested that he supported the poet at Oxford, but the significant +omission of any reference to him in any of Massinger's prefaces points +to the contrary. Massinger left Oxford without a degree in 1606. His +father had died in 1603, and he was perhaps dependent on his own +exertions. The lack of a degree and the want of patronage from Lord +Pembroke may both be explained on the supposition that he had become a +Roman Catholic. On leaving the university he went to London to make his +living as a dramatist, but his name cannot be definitely affixed to any +play until fifteen years later, when _The Virgin Martyr_ (ent. at +Stationers' Hall, Dec. 7, 1621) appeared as the work of Massinger and +Dekker. During these years he worked in collaboration with other +dramatists. A joint letter, from Nathaniel Field, Robert Daborne and +Philip Massinger, to Philip Henslowe, begs for an immediate loan of five +pounds to release them from their "unfortunate extremitie," the money to +be taken from the balance due for the "play of Mr Fletcher's and ours." +A second document shows that Massinger and Daborne owed Henslowe £3 on +the 4th of July 1615. The earlier note probably dates from 1613, and +from this time Massinger apparently worked regularly with John Fletcher, +although in editions of Beaumont and Fletcher's works his co-operation +is usually unrecognized. Sir Aston Cokayne, Massinger's constant friend +and patron, refers in explicit terms to this collaboration in a sonnet +addressed to Humphrey Moseley on the publication of his folio edition of +Beaumont and Fletcher (_Small Poems of Divers Sorts_, 1658), and in an +epitaph on the two poets he says:-- + + "Plays they did write together, were great friends, + And now one grave includes them in their ends." + +After Philip Henslowe's death in 1616 Massinger and Fletcher began to +write for the King's Men. Between 1623 and 1626 Massinger produced +unaided for the Lady Elizabeth's Men then playing at the Cockpit three +pieces, _The Parliament of Love_, _The Bondman_ and _The Renegado_. With +the exception of these plays and _The Great Duke of Florence_, produced +in 1627 by the Queen's servants, Massinger continued to write regularly +for the King's Men until his death. The tone of the dedications of his +later plays affords evidence of his continued poverty. Thus in the +preface to _The Maid of Honour_ (1632) he wrote, addressing Sir Francis +Foljambe and Sir Thomas Bland: "I had not to this time subsisted, but +that I was supported by your frequent courtesies and favours." The +prologue to _The Guardian_ (licensed 1633) refers to two unsuccessful +plays and two years of silence, when the author feared he had lost the +popular favour. S. R. Gardiner, in an essay on "The Political Element in +Massinger" (_Contemp. Review_, Aug. 1876), maintained that Massinger's +dramas are before all else political, that the events of his day were as +openly criticized in his plays as current politics are in the cartoons +of _Punch_. It is probable that this break in his production was owing +to his free handling of public matters. In 1631 Sir Henry Herbert, the +master of the revels, refused to license an unnamed play by Massinger +because of "dangerous matter as the deposing of Sebastian, King of +Portugal," calculated presumably to endanger good relations between +England and Spain. There is little doubt that this was the same piece as +_Believe as You List_, in which time and place are changed, Antiochus +being substituted for Sebastian, and Rome for Spain. In the prologue +Massinger ironically apologizes for his ignorance of history, and +professes that his accuracy is at fault if his picture comes near "a +late and sad example." The obvious "late and sad example" of a wandering +prince could be no other than Charles I.'s brother-in-law, the elector +palatine. An allusion to the same subject may be traced in _The Maid of +Honour_. In another play by Massinger, not extant, Charles I. is +reported to have himself struck out a passage put into the mouth of Don +Pedro, king of Spain, as "too insolent." The poet seems to have adhered +closely to the politics of his patron, Philip Herbert, earl of +Montgomery, and afterwards 4th earl of Pembroke, who had leanings to +democracy and was a personal enemy of the duke of Buckingham. In _The +Bondman_, dealing with the history of Timoleon, Buckingham is satirized +as Gisco. The servility towards the Crown displayed in Beaumont and +Fletcher's plays reflected the temper of the court of James I. The +attitude of Massinger's heroes and heroines towards kings is very +different. Camiola's remarks on the limitations of the royal prerogative +(_Maid of Honour_, act iv. sc. v.) could hardly be acceptable at court. + +Massinger died suddenly at his house near the Globe theatre, and was +buried in the churchyard of St Saviour's, Southwark, on the 18th of +March 1640. In the entry in the parish register he is described as a +"stranger," which, however, implies nothing more than that he belonged +to another parish. + +The supposition that Massinger was a Roman Catholic rests upon three of +his plays, _The Virgin Martyr_ (licensed 1620), _The Renegado_ (licensed +1624) and _The Maid of Honour_ (c. 1621). The religious sentiment is +certainly such as would obviously best appeal to an audience sympathetic +to Roman Catholic doctrine. _The Virgin Martyr_, in which Dekker +probably had a large share, is really a miracle play, dealing with the +martyrdom of Dorothea in the time of Diocletian, and the supernatural +element is freely used. Little stress can be laid on this performance as +elucidating Massinger's views. It is not entirely his work, and the +story is early Christian, not Roman Catholic. In _The Renegado_, +however, the action is dominated by the beneficent influence of a Jesuit +priest, Francisco, and the doctrine of baptismal regeneration is +enforced. In _The Maid of Honour_ a complicated situation is solved by +the decision of the heroine, Camiola, to take the veil. For this she is +held up "to all posterity a fair example for noble maids to imitate." +Among all Massinger's heroines Camiola is distinguished by genuine +purity and heroism. + +His plays have generally an obvious moral intention. He sets himself to +work out a series of ethical problems through a succession of ingenious +and effective plots. In the art of construction he has, indeed, few +rivals. But the virtue of his heroes and heroines is rather morbid than +natural, and often singularly divorced from common-sense. His _dramatis +personae_ are in general types rather than living persons, and their +actions do not appear to spring inevitably from their characters, but +rather from the exigencies of the plot. The heroes are too good, and the +villains too wicked to be quite convincing. Moreover their respective +goodness and villainy are too often represented as extraneous to +themselves. This defect of characterization shows that English drama had +already begun to decline. + +It seems doubtful whether Massinger was ever a popular playwright, for +the best qualities of his plays would appeal rather to politicians and +moralists than to the ordinary playgoer. He contributed, however, at +least one great and popular character to the English stage. Sir Giles +Overreach, in _A New Way to Pay Old Debts_, is a sort of commercial +Richard III., a compound of the lion and the fox, and the part provides +many opportunities for a great actor. He made another considerable +contribution to the comedy of manners in _The City Madam_. In +Massinger's own judgment _The Roman Actor_ was "the most perfect birth +of his Minerva." It is a study of the tyrant Domitian, and of the +results of despotic rule on the despot himself and his court. Other +favourable examples of his grave and restrained art are _The Duke of +Milan_, _The Bondman_ and _The Great Duke of Florence_. + +Massinger was a student and follower of Shakespeare. The form of his +verse, especially in the number of run-on lines, approximates in some +respects to Shakespeare's later manner. He is rhetorical and +picturesque, but rarely rises to extraordinary felicity. His verse is +never mean, but it sometimes comes perilously near to prose, and in +dealing with passionate situations it lacks fire and directness. + + The plays attributed to Massinger alone are: _The Duke of Milan, a + Tragedy_ (c. 1618, pr. 1623 and 1638); _The Unnatural Combat, a + Tragedy_ (c. 1619, pr. 1639); _The Bondman, an Antient Storie_ + (licensed 1623, pr. 1624); _The Renegado, a Tragaecomedie_ (lic. 1624, + pr. 1630); _The Parliament of Love_ (lic. 1624; ascribed, no doubt + erroneously, in the Stationers' Register, 1660, to W. Rowley; first + printed by Gifford from an imperfect MS. in 1805); _A New Way to Pay + Old Debts, a Comoedie_ (c. 1625, pr. 1632); _The Roman Actor. A + Tragaedie_ (lic. 1626, pr. 1629); _The Maid of Honour_ (dating perhaps + from 1621, pr. 1632); _The Picture, a Tragecomedie_ (lic. 1629, pr. + 1630); _The Great Duke of Florence, a Comicall Historie_ (lic. 1627, + pr. 1635); _The Emperor of the East, a Tragaecomoedie_ (lic. and pr. + 1631), founded on the story of Theodosius the Younger; _Believe as You + List_ (rejected by the censor in January, but licensed in May, 1631; + pr. 1848-1849 for the Percy Society); _The City Madam, a Comedie_ + (lic. 1632, pr. 1658), which Mr Fleay (_Biog. Chron. of the Eng. + Drama_, i. 226), however, considers to be a _rifaciamento_ of an older + play, probably by Jonson; _The Guardian_ (lic. 1633, pr. 1655); and + _The Bashful Lover_ (lic. 1636, pr. 1655). _A Very Woman, or The + Prince of Tarent_, licensed in 1634 as the work of Massinger alone, is + generally referred to his collaboration with Fletcher. The "exquisite + temperance and justice" of this piece are, according to Swinburne, + foreign to Fletcher's genius, and afford a striking example of + Massinger's artistic skill and moderation. + + Twelve plays of Massinger are said to be lost, but the titles of some + of these may be duplicates of those of existing plays. Five of these + lost plays were MSS. used by John Warburton's cook for pie-covers. The + numerous plays in which Massinger's co-operation with John Fletcher is + generally assumed are dealt with under BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER. But it + may be here noted that Mr R. Boyle has constructed an ingenious case + for the joint authorship by Fletcher and Massinger of the two + "Shakespearian" plays, _Henry VIII._ and _Two Noble Kinsmen_ (see the + New Shakspere Society's _Transactions_, 1884 and 1882). Mr Boyle sees + the touch of Massinger in the first two acts of the _Second Maiden's + Tragedy_ (Lansdowne MS., lic. 1611), a play with which the names of + Fletcher and Tourneur are also associated by different critics. _The + Fatall Dowry, a Tragedy_ (c. 1619, pr. 1632), which was adapted + without acknowledgment by Nicholas Rowe in his _Fair Penitent_, was + written in conjunction with Nathaniel Field; and _The Virgin Martir, a + Tragedie_ (lic. 1620, pr. 1621), with Thomas Dekker. + + Massinger's independent works were collected by Coxeter (4 vols., + 1759, revised edition with introduction by Thomas Davies, 1779), by J. + Monck Mason (4 vols., 1779), by William Gifford (4 vols., 1805, 1813), + by Hartley Coleridge (1840), by Lieut.-Colonel Cunningham (1867), and + selections by Mr Arthur Symons in the _Mermaid Series_ (1887-1889). + Gifford's remains the standard edition, and formed the basis of + Cunningham's text. It contains "An Essay on the Dramatic Writings of + Massinger" by Dr John Ferriar. + + Massinger has been the object of a good deal of criticism. A metrical + examination of the plays in which Massinger was concerned is given in + _Englische Studien_ (Halle, v. 74, vii. 66, viii. 39, ix. 209 and x. + 383), by Mr R. Boyle, who also contributed the life of the poet in the + _Dictionary of National Biography_. The sources of his plays are dealt + with by E. Koeppel in _Quellen Studien zu den Dramen Chapman's, + Massinger's und Ford's_ (Strassburg, 1897). For detailed criticism, + beside the introductions to the editions quoted, see A. W. Ward, + _Hist. of Eng. Dram. Lit._ (1899), iii. 1-47, and F. G. Fleay, _Biog. + Chron. of the Eng. Drama_ (1891), under _Fletcher_; a general estimate + of Massinger, dealing especially with his moral standpoint, is given + in Sir Leslie Stephen's _Hours in a Library_ (3rd series, 1879); + Swinburne, in the _Fortnightly Review_ (July 1889), while + acknowledging the justice of Sir L. Stephen's main strictures, found + much to say in praise of the poet. + + + + +MASSINISSA (c. 238-149 B.C.), king of Massylian or eastern Numidia. He +was educated, like many of the Numidian chiefs, at Carthage, learnt +Latin and Greek, and was an accomplished as well as a naturally clever +man. Although his kingdom was nominally independent of Carthage, it +really stood to it in a relation of vassalage; it was directly under +Carthaginian influences, and was imbued to a very considerable extent +with Carthaginian civilization. It was to this that Massinissa owed his +fame and success; he was a barbarian at heart, but he had a varnish of +culture, and to this he added the craft and cunning in which +Carthaginian statesmen were supposed to excel. While yet a young man +(212) he forced his neighbour Syphax, prince of western Numidia, who had +recently entered into an alliance with Rome, to fly to the Moors in the +extreme west of Africa. Soon afterwards he appeared in Spain, fighting +for Carthage with a large force of Numidian cavalry against the Romans +under the two Scipios. The defeat of the Carthaginian army in 206 led +him to cast in his lot with Rome. Scipio Africanus is said to have +cultivated his friendship. Massinissa now quitted Spain for a while for +Africa, and was again engaged in a war with Syphax in which he was +decidedly worsted. Scipio's arrival in Africa in 204 gave him another +chance, and no sooner had he joined the Roman general than he crushed +his old enemy Syphax, and captured his capital Cirta (Constantine). Here +occurs the romantic story of Sophonisba, daughter of the Carthaginian +Hasdrubal, who had been promised in marriage to Massinissa, but had +subsequently become the wife of Syphax. Massinissa, according to the +story, married Sophonisba immediately after his victory, but was +required by Scipio to dismiss her as a Carthaginian, and consequently an +enemy to Rome. To save her from such humiliation he sent her poison, +with which she destroyed herself. Massinissa was now accepted as a loyal +ally of Rome, and was confirmed by Scipio in the possession of his +kingdom. In the battle of Zama (202) (see PUNIC WARS), he commanded the +cavalry on Scipio's right wing, and materially assisted the Roman +victory. For his services he received the kingdom of Syphax, and thus +under Roman protection he became master of the whole of Numidia, and his +dominions completely enclosed the Carthaginian territories, now +straitened and reduced at the close of the Second Punic War. It would +seem that he had thoughts of annexing Carthage itself with the +connivance of Rome. In a war which soon followed he was successful; the +remonstrances of Carthage with Rome on the behaviour of her ally were +answered by the appointment of Scipio as arbitrator; but, as though +intentionally on the part of Rome, no definite settlement was arrived +at, and thus the relations between Massinissa and the Carthaginians +continued strained. Rome, it is certain, deliberately favoured her +ally's unjust claims with the view of keeping Carthage weak, and +Massinissa on his part was cunning enough to retain the friendship of +the Roman people by helping them with liberal supplies in their wars +against Perseus of Macedon and Antiochus. As soon as Carthage seemed to +be recovering herself, and some of Massinissa's partisans were driven +from the city into exile, his policy was to excite the fears of Rome, +till at last in 149 war was declared--the Third Punic War, which ended +in the final overthrow of Carthage. The king took some part in the +negotiations which preceded the war, but died soon after its +commencement in the ninetieth year of his age and the sixtieth of his +reign. + +Massinissa was an able ruler and a decided benefactor to Numidia. He +converted a plundering tribe into a settled and civilized population, +and out of robbers and marauders made efficient and disciplined +soldiers. To his sons he bequeathed a well-stored treasury, a formidable +army, and even a fleet. Cirta (q.v.), his capital, became a famous +centre of Phoenician civilization. In fact Massinissa changed for the +better the whole aspect of a great part of northern Africa. He had much +of the Arab nature, was singularly temperate, and equal to any amount of +fatigue. His fidelity to Rome was merely that of temporary expediency. +He espoused now one side, and now the other, but on the whole supported +Rome, so that orators and historians could speak of him as "a most +faithful ally of the Roman people." + + See Livy xxiv. 49, xxviii. 11, 35, 42, xxix. 27, xxx. 3, 12, 28, 37, + xlii. 23, 29, xliii. 3; Polybius iii. 5, ix. 42, xiv. 1, xxxii. 2, + xxxvii. 3; Appian, _Hisp._ 37, _Punica_, 11, 27, 105; Justin xxxiii. + 1; A. H. J. Greenidge, _Hist. of Rome_ (London, 1904). + + + + +MASSON, DAVID (1822-1907), Scottish man of letters, was born at Aberdeen +on the 2nd of December 1822, and educated at the grammar school there +and at Marischal College. Intending to enter the Church, he proceeded to +Edinburgh University, where he studied theology under Dr Chalmers, whose +friendship he enjoyed until the divine's death in 1847. However, +abandoning his project of the ministry, he returned to his native city +to undertake the editorship of the _Banner_, a weekly paper devoted to +the advocacy of Free Kirk principles. After two years he resigned this +post and went back to the capital, bent upon pursuing a purely literary +career. There he wrote a great deal, contributing to _Fraser's +Magazine_, _Dublin University Magazine_ (in which appeared his essays on +Chatterton) and other periodicals. In 1847 he went to London, where he +found wider scope for his energy and knowledge. He was secretary +(1851-1852) of the "Society of the Friends of Italy." In a famous +interview with Mrs Browning at Florence he contested her admiration for +Napoleon III. He had known De Quincey, whose biography he contributed in +1878 to the "English Men of Letters" series, and he was an enthusiastic +friend and admirer of Carlyle. In 1852 he was appointed professor of +English literature at University College, London, in succession to A. H. +Clough, and from 1858 to 1865 he edited the newly established +_Macmillan's Magazine_. In 1865 he was selected for the chair of +rhetoric and English literature at Edinburgh, and during the early years +of his professorship actively promoted the movement for the university +education of women. In 1879 he became editor of the Register of the +Scottish Privy Council, and in 1893 was appointed Historiographer Royal +for Scotland. Two years later he resigned his professorship. His _magnum +opus_ in his _Life of Milton in Connexion with the History of His Own +Time_ in six volumes, the first of which appeared in 1858 and the last +in 1880. He also edited the library edition of Milton's _Poetical Works_ +(3 vols., 1874), and De Quincey's _Collected Works_ (14 vols., +1889-1890). Among his other publications are _Essays, Biographical and +Critical_ (1856, reprinted with additions, 3 vols., 1874), _British +Novelists and their Styles_ (1859), _Drummond of Hawthornden_ (1873), +_Chatterton_ (1873) and _Edinburgh Sketches_ (1892). He died on the 6th +of October 1907. A bust of Masson was presented to the senate of the +university of Edinburgh in 1897. Professor Masson had married Rosaline +Orme. His son Orme Masson became professor of chemistry in the +university of Melbourne, and his daughter Rosaline is known as a writer +and novelist. + + + + +MASSON, LOUIS CLAUDE FRÉDÉRIC (1847- ), French historian, was born at +Paris on the 8th of March 1847. His father, Francis Masson, a solicitor, +was killed on the 23rd of June 1848, when major in the _garde +nationale_. Young Masson was educated at the college of Sainte Barbe, +and at the lycée Louis-le-Grand, and then travelled in Germany and in +England; from 1869 to 1880 he was librarian at the Foreign Office. At +first he devoted himself to the history of diplomacy, and published +between 1877 and 1884 several volumes connected with that subject. Later +he published a number of more or less curious memoirs illustrating the +history of the Revolution and of the empire. But he is best known for +his books connected with Napoleon. In _Napoléon inconnu_ (1895), Masson, +together with M. Guido Biagi, brought out the unpublished writings +(1786-1793) of the future emperor. These were notes, extracts from +historical, philosophical and literary books, and personal reflections +in which one can watch the growth of the ideas later carried out by the +emperor with modifications necessitated by the force of circumstances +and his own genius. But this was only one in a remarkable series: +_Joséphine de Beauharnais, 1763-1796_ (1898); _Joséphine, impératrice et +reine_ (1899); _Joséphine répudiée 1809-1814_ (1901); _L'Impératrice +Marie Louise_ (1902); _Napoléon et les femmes_ (1894); _Napoléon et sa +famille_ (9 vols., 1897-1907); _Napoléon et son fils_ (1904); and +_Autour de l'Île d'Elbe_ (1908). These works abound in details and +amusing anecdotes, which throw much light on the events and men of the +time, laying stress on the personal, romantic and dramatic aspects of +history. The author was made a member of the Académie française in 1903. +From 1886 to 1889 he edited the review _Arts and Letters_, published in +London and New York. + + A bibliography of his works, including anonymous ones and those under + an assumed name, has been published by G. Vicaire (_Manuel de + l'amateur des livres du XIX^e siècle_, tome v., 1904). _Napoléon et + les femmes_ has been translated into English as _Napoleon and the Fair + Sex_ (1894). + + + + +MAST (1) (O. Eng. _maest_; a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. +_malus_; from the medieval latinized form _mastus_ comes Fr. _mât_), in +nautical language, the name of the spar, or straight piece of timber, or +combination of spars, on which are hung the yards and sails of a vessel +of any size. It has been ingeniously supposed that man himself was the +first mast. He discovered by standing up in his prehistoric "dugout," or +canoe, that the wind blowing on him would carry his craft along. But the +origin of the mast, like that of the ship, is lost in times anterior to +all record. The earliest form of mast which prevailed till the close of +the middle ages, and is still in use for small vessels, was and is a +single spar made of some tough and elastic wood; the conifers supply the +best timber for the purpose. In sketching the history of the development +of the mast, we must distinguish between the increase in the number +erected, and the improvements made in the mast itself. The earliest +ships had only one, carrying a single sail. So little is known of the +rigging of classical ships that nothing can be affirmed of them with +absolute confidence. The Norse vessels carried one mast placed in the +middle. The number gradually increased till it reached four or five. All +were at first upright, but the mast which stood nearest the bow was by +degrees lowered forward till it became the bow-sprit of modern times, +and lost the name of mast. The next from the bows became the +foremast--called in Mediterranean sea language _mizzana_, in French +_misaine_. Then came the main-mast--in French _grand mât_; and then the +mizen--in French, which follows the Mediterranean usage, the _artimon_, +i.e. "next the rudder," _timon_. A small mast was sometimes erected in +the very end of the ship, and called in English a "bonaventure mizen." +It had a close resemblance to the jigger of yawl-rigged yachts. By the +close of the 16th century it had become the established rule that a ship +proper had three masts--fore, main and mizen. The third takes its name +not as the other two do, from its place, but from the lateen sail +originally hoisted on it (see RIGGING), which was placed fore and aft in +the middle (Italian, _mizzo_) of the ship, and did not lie across like +the courses and topsails. With the development of very large sailing +clippers in the middle of the 19th century a return was made to the +practice of carrying more than three masts. Ships and barques are built +with four or five. Some of the large schooners employed in the American +coast trade have six or seven, and some steamers have had as many. + + The mast was for long made out of a single spar. Thence the + Mediterranean name of "palo" (spar) and the Spanish "arbol" (tree). + The typical Mediterranean mast of "lateen" (Latin) vessels is short + and bends forward. In other classes it is upright, or bends slightly + backwards with what is called a "rake." The mast is grounded, or in + technical language "stepped," on the kelson (or keelson), the solid + timber or metal beam lying parallel with, and above the keel. As the + 15th century advanced the growth of the ship made it difficult, or + even impossible, to find spars large enough to make a mast. The + practice of dividing it into lower, and upper or topmast, was + introduced. At first the two were fastened firmly, and the topmast + could not be lowered. In the 16th century the topmast became movable. + No date can be given for the change, which was gradual, and was not + simultaneously adopted. When the masting of sailing ships was fully + developed, the division was into lower or standing mast, topmast, + topgallant mast, and topgallant royal. The topgallant royal is a small + spar which is often a continuation of the topgallant mast, and is + fixed. Increase of size also made it impossible to construct each of + these subdivisions out of single timbers. A distinction was made + between "whole" or single-spar masts and "armed" and "made masts." The + first were used for the lighter spars, for small vessels and the + Mediterranean craft called "polacras." Armed masts were composed of + two single timbers. Made masts were built of many pieces, bolted and + "coaked," i.e. dovetailed and fitted together, fastened round by iron + hoops, and between them by twelve or thirteen close turns of rope, + firmly secured. "Made masts" are stronger than those made of a single + tree and less liable to be sprung. The general principle of + construction is that it is built round a central shaft, called in + English the "spindle" or "upper tree," and in French the _mèche_ or + wick. The other pieces--"side trees," "keel pieces," "side fishes," + "cant pieces" and "fillings" are "coaked," i.e. dovetailed and bolted + on to and around the "spindle," which itself is made of two pieces, + coaked and bolted. The whole is bound by iron bands, and between the + bands, by rope firmly "woulded" or turned round, and nailed tight. The + art of constructing made masts, like that of building wooden ships, is + in process of dying out. In sailing men-of-war the mizen-mast often + did not reach to the kelson, but was stepped on the orlop deck. Hollow + metal cylinders are now used as masts. In the case of a masted screw + steamer the masts abaft the engines could not be stepped on the kelson + because they would interfere with the shaft of the screw. It is + therefore necessary to step them on the lower deck, where they are + supported by stanchions, or on a horseshoe covering the screw shaft. + The size of masts naturally varies very much. In a 110-gun ship of + 2164 tons the proportions of the mainmast were: for the lower mast, + length 117 ft., diameter 3 ft. 3 in.; topmast, 70 ft., and 20¾ in.; + topgallant mast, 35 ft., and 11(5/8) in., 222 ft. in all. At the other + end of the scale, a cutter of 200 tons had a lower mast of 88 ft., of + 22 in. diameter, and a topgallant mast (there was no topmast between + them) of 44 ft., of 9¾ in. in diameter, 132 ft. in all; topgallant + mast of 44 ft., and 9¾ in. in diameter. The masts of a warship were + more lofty than those of a merchant ship of the same tonnage. At + present masts are only used by warships for signalling and military + purposes. In sailing merchant ships, the masts are more lofty than + they were about a century ago. A merchant ship of 1300 tons, in 1830, + had a mainmast 179 ft. in height; a vessel of the same size would have + a mast of 198 ft. to-day. + + A "jury mast" is a temporary mast put up by the crew when the spars + nave been carried away in a storm or in action, or have been cut away + to relieve pressure in a storm. The word has been supposed without any + foundation to be short for "injury" mast; it may be a mere fanciful + sailor adaptation of "jury" in some connexion now lost. Skeat suggests + that it is short for O. Fr. _ajourie_, Lat. _adjutare_, to aid. There + is no reason to connect with _jour_, day. + + See L. Jal, _Glossaire Nautique_ (Paris, 1848); Sir Henry Manwayring, + _The Seaman's Dictionary_ (London, 1644); N. Hutchinson, _Treatise on + Naval Architecture and Practical Seamanship_ (Liverpool, 1777); David + Steel, _Elements and Practice of Rigging, Seamanship and Naval + Tactics_ (London, 1800); William Burney's _Falconer's Dictionary_ + (London, 1830); Sir Gervais Nares's _Seamanship_ (Portsmouth, 1882); + and John Fincham, _On Masting Ships and Mast Making_ (London, 1829). + (D. H.) + +MAST (2) (Anglo-Saxon _maest_, food, common to some Teutonic languages, +and ultimately connected with "meat"), the fruit of the beech, oak, and +other forest trees, used as food for swine. + + + + +MASTABA (Arab. for "bench"), in Egyptian architecture, the term given to +the rectangular tombs in stone with raking sides and a flat roof. There +were three chambers inside. In one the walls were sometimes richly +decorated with paintings and had a low bench of stone in them on which +incense was burnt. The second chamber was either closed, with holes +pierced in the wall separating it from the first chamber, or entered +through a narrow passage through which the fumes of the incense passed; +this chamber contained the _serdab_ or figure of the deceased. A +vertical well-hole cut in the rock descended to a third chamber in which +the mummy was laid. + + + + +MASTER (Lat. _magister_, related to _magis_, more, as the corresponding +_minister_ is to _minus_, less; the English form is due partly to the O. +Eng. _maegister_, and partly to O. Fr. _maistre_, mod. _maître_; cf. Du. +_meester_, Ger. _Meister_, Ital. _maestro_), one holding a position of +authority, disposition or control over persons or things. The various +applications of the word fall roughly into the following main divisions; +as the title of the holder of a position of command or authority; as +that of the holder of certain public or private offices, and hence a +title of address; and as implying the relationship of a teacher to his +pupils or of an employer to the persons he employs. As a title of the +holder of an office, the use of the Lat. _magister_ is very ancient. +_Magister equitum_, master of the horse, goes back to the early history +of the Roman Republic (see DICTATOR; and for the British office, MASTER +OF THE HORSE). In medieval times the title was of great frequency. In Du +Cange (_Glossarium_) the article _magister_ contains over 120 +sub-headings. In the British royal household most of the offices bearing +this title are now obsolete. Of the greater offices, that of master of +the buckhounds was abolished by the Civil List Act 1901. The master of +the household, master of the ceremonies, master of the king's music +still survive. Since 1870 the office of master of the mint has been held +by the chancellor of the exchequer, all the administrative and other +duties being exercised by the deputy master. + +At sea, a "master" is more properly styled "master mariner." In the +merchant service he is the commander of a ship, and is by courtesy known +as the captain. In the British navy he was the officer entrusted with +the navigation under the captain. He had no royal commission, but a +warrant from the Navy Board. Very often he had been a merchant captain. +His duties are now performed by the staff commander or navigating +lieutenant. The master-at-arms is the head of the internal police of a +ship; the same title is borne by a senior gymnastic instructor in the +army. In the United States navy, the master is a commissioned officer +below the rank of lieutenant. + +"Master" appears as the title of many legal functionaries (for the +masters of the supreme court see CHANCERY; and KING'S BENCH, COURT OF; +for masters in lunacy see INSANITY: § _Law_, see also MASTER OF THE +ROLLS, below). The "master of the faculties" is the chief officer of the +archbishop of Canterbury in his court of faculties. His duties are +concerned with the appointment of notaries and the granting of special +licences of marriage. The duties are performed _ex officio_ by the judge +of the provincial courts of Canterbury and York, who is also dean of +Arches, in accordance with § 7 of the Public Worship Regulation Act +1874. The "master of the Temple" is the title of the priest-in-charge of +the Temple Church in London. It was formerly the title of the grand +master of the Knights Templars. The priest-in-charge of the Templars' +Church was properly styled the _custos_, and this was preserved by the +Knights Hospitallers when they were granted the property of the Templars +at the dissolution of that order. The act of 1540 (32 Henry VIII.), +which dissolved the order of the Hospitallers, wrongly styled the +_custos_ master of the Temple, and the mistake has been continued. The +proper title of a bencher of the Inns of Court is "master of the Bench" +(see INNS OF COURT). The title of "Master-General of the Ordnance" was +revived in 1904 for the head of the Ordnance Department in the British +military administration. + +"Master" is the ordinary word for a teacher, very generally used in the +compound "schoolmaster." The word also is used in a sense transferred +from this to express the relation between the founder of a school of +religion, philosophy, science, art, &c., and his disciples. It is partly +in this sense and partly in that of one whose work serves as a model or +type of superlative excellence that such terms as "old masters" are +used. In medieval universities _magister_ was particularly applied to +one who had been granted a degree carrying with it the _licentia +docendi_, the licence to teach. In English usage this survives in the +faculty of arts. The degree is that of _artium magister_, master of +arts, abbreviated M.A. In the other faculties the corresponding degree +is doctor. Some British universities give a master's degree in surgery, +_magister chirurgiae_, C.M. or M.Ch., and also in science, _magister +scientiae_, M.Sc. The academic use of "master" as the title of the head +of certain colleges at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge is to be +referred to the frequent application of the term to the holder of a +presiding office in an institution. + +Master was the usual prefix of address to a man's name, though +originally confined to people of some social standing. Probably under +the influence of "mistress," it was corrupted in sound to "mister," and +was abbreviated to "Mr." In the case of the puisne judges of the High +Court "Mr Justice" is still used as the proper official form of written +address. The Speaker of the House of Commons is also formally addressed +as "Mr Speaker." In some Scottish peerages below the rank of earl, +"master" is used in the courtesy title of the heir, e.g. the "Master of +Ruthven." + + + + +MASTER AND SERVANT. These are scarcely to be considered as technical +terms in English law. The relationship which they imply is created when +one man hires the labour of another for a term. Thus it is not +constituted by merely contracting with another for the performance of a +definite work, or by sending an article to an artificer to be repaired, +or engaging a builder to construct a house. Nor would the employment of +a man for one definite act of personal service--e.g. the engagement of a +messenger for a single occasion--generally make the one master and the +other servant. It was held, however, in relation to the offence of +embezzlement, that a drover employed on one occasion to drive cattle +home from market was a servant within the statute. On the other hand, +there are many decisions limiting the meaning of "servants" under wills +giving legacies to the class of servants generally. Thus "a person who +was not obliged to give his whole time to the master, but was yet in +some sense a servant," was held not entitled to share in a legacy to the +servants. These cases are, however, interpretations of wills where the +intention obviously is to benefit domestic servants only. And so in +other connexions questions may arise as to the exact nature of the +relations between the parties--whether they are master and servant, or +principal and agent, or landlord and tenant, or partners, &c. + +The terms of the contract of service are for the most part such as the +parties choose to make them, but in the absence of express stipulations +terms will be implied by the law. Thus, "where no time is limited either +expressly or by implication for the duration of a contract of hiring and +service, the hiring is considered as a general hiring, and in point of +law a hiring for a year." But "in the case of domestic and menial +servants there is a well-known rule, founded solely on custom, that +their contract of service may be determined at any time by giving a +month's warning or paying a month's wages, but a domestic or other +yearly servant, _wrongfully_ quitting his master's service, forfeits all +claim to wages for that part of the current year during which he has +served, and cannot claim the sum to which his wages would have amounted +had he kept his contract, merely deducting therefrom one month's wages. +Domestic servants have a right by custom to leave their situations at +any time on payment of a calendar month's wages in advance, just as a +master may discharge them in a similar manner" (Manley Smith's _Law of +Master and Servant_, chs. ii. and iii.). The following are sufficient +grounds for discharging a servant: (1) wilful disobedience of any lawful +order; (2) gross moral misconduct; (3) habitual negligence; (4) +incompetence or permanent disability caused by illness. A master has a +right of action against any person who deprives him of the services of +his servant, by enticing him away, harbouring or detaining him after +notice, confining or disabling him, or by seducing his female servant. +Indeed, the ordinary and only available action for seduction in English +law is in form of a claim by a parent for the loss of his daughter's +services. The death of either master or servant in general puts an end +to the contract. A servant wrongfully discharged may either treat the +contract as rescinded and sue for services actually rendered, or he may +bring a special action for damages for the breach. The common law +liabilities of a master towards his servants have been further regulated +by the Workmen's Compensation Acts (see EMPLOYER'S LIABILITY). A master +is bound to provide food for a servant living under his roof, and wilful +breach of duty in that respect is a misdemeanour under the Offences +against the Person Act 1861. + +A servant has no right to demand "a character" from an employer, and if +a character be given it will be deemed a privileged communication, so +that the master will not be liable thereon to the servant unless it be +false and malicious. A master by knowingly giving a false character of a +servant to an intending employer may render himself liable--should the +servant for example rob or injure his new master. + + Reference may be made to the articles on LABOUR LEGISLATION for the + cases in which special terms have been introduced into contracts of + service by statute (e.g. Truck Acts). + + + + +MASTER OF THE HORSE, in England, an important official of the +sovereign's household. The master of the horse is the third dignitary of +the court, and is always a member of the ministry (before 1782 the +office was of cabinet rank), a peer and a privy councillor. All matters +connected with the horses and hounds of the sovereign, as well as the +stables and coach-houses, the stud, mews and kennels, are within his +jurisdiction. The practical management of the royal stables and stud +devolves on the chief or crown equerry, formerly called the gentleman of +the horse, who is never in personal attendance on the sovereign and +whose appointment is permanent. The clerk marshal has the supervision of +the accounts of the department before they are submitted to the Board of +Green Cloth, and is in waiting on the sovereign on state occasions only. +Exclusive of the crown equerry there are seven regular equerries, +besides extra and honorary equerries, one of whom is always in +attendance on the sovereign and rides at the side of the royal carriage. +They are always officers of the army, and each of them is "on duty" for +about the same time as the lords and grooms in waiting. There are also +several pages of honour in the master of the horse's department, who +must not be confounded with the pages of various kinds who are in the +department of the lord chamberlain. They are youths aged from twelve to +sixteen, selected by the sovereign in person, to attend on him at state +ceremonies, when two of them, arrayed in an antique costume, assist the +groom of the stole in carrying the royal train. + + In France the master of the horse ("Grand Écuyer," or more usually + "Monsieur le grand") was one of the seven great officers of the crown + from 1617. As well as the superintendence of the royal stables, he had + that of the retinue of the sovereign, also the charge of the funds set + aside for the religious functions of the court, coronations, &c. On + the death of a sovereign he had the right to all the horses and their + equipment in the royal stables. Distinct from this officer and + independent of him, was the first equerry ("Premier Écuyer"), who had + charge of the horses which the sovereign used personally ("la petite + écurie"), and who attended on him when he rode out. The office of + master of the horse existed down to the reign of Louis XVI. Under + Louis XVIII. and Charles X. the duties were discharged by the first + equerry, but under Napoléon I. and Napoléon III. the office was + revived with much of its old importance. + + In Germany the master of the horse (Oberststallmeister) is a high + court dignitary; but his office is merely titular, the superintendence + of the king's stables being carried out by the Oberstallmeister, an + official corresponding to the crown equerry in England. + + + + +MASTER OF THE ROLLS, the third member of the Supreme Court of Judicature +in England, the lord chancellor, president of the chancery division, +being the first, and the lord chief justice, president of the king's +bench division, being the second. At first he was the principal clerk of +the chancery, and as such had charge of the records of the court, +especially of the register of original writs and of all patents and +grants under the Great Seal. Until the end of the 15th century he was +called either the clerk or the keeper of the rolls, and he is still +formally designated as the master or keeper of the rolls. The earliest +mention of him as master of the rolls is in an act of 1495; and in +another act of the same year he is again described as clerk of the +rolls, showing that his official designation still remained unsettled. +About the same period, however, the chief clerks of the chancery came to +be called masters in chancery, and the clerk, master or keeper of the +rolls was always the first among them, whichever name they bore. In +course of time, from causes which are not very easy to trace, his +original functions as keeper of the records passed away from him and he +gradually assumed a jurisdiction in the court of chancery second only to +that of the lord chancellor himself. In the beginning he only heard +causes in conjunction with the other masters in chancery, and his +decrees were invalid until they had been approved and signed by the lord +chancellor. Sitting in the Rolls chapel or in the court in Rolls yard, +he heard causes without assistance, and his decrees held good until they +were reversed on petition either to the lord chancellor or afterwards to +the lords justices of appeal. Before any judge with the formal title of +vice-chancellor was appointed the master of the rolls was often spoken +of as vice-chancellor, and in theory acted as such, sitting only when +the lord chancellor was not sitting and holding his court in the evening +from six o'clock to ten. Only since 1827 has the master of the rolls sat +in the morning hours. By the Public Record Office Act 1838 the custody +of the records was restored to him, and he is chairman of the State +Papers and Historical Manuscripts Commissions. Under the Judicature Act +1875, and the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876, he now always sits with +the lords justices in the court of appeal (which usually sits in two +divisions of three judges, the master of the rolls presiding over one +division), whose decisions can be questioned only in the House of Lords. +The master of the rolls was formerly eligible to a seat in the House of +Commons--a privilege enjoyed by no other member of the judicial +bench;[1] but he was deprived of it by the Supreme Court of Judicature +Act 1873, which provides that all judges of the High Court of Justice +and the court of appeal shall be incapable of being elected to or +sitting in the House of Commons. The master of the rolls is always sworn +of the privy council. His salary is £6000 a year. + + See Lord Hardwicke, _Office of the Master of the Rolls_. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Sir John Romilly, M.P. for Devonport, 1847 to 1852, was the last + master of the rolls to sit in Parliament. He was appointed master of + the rolls in 1851. + + + + +MASTIC, or MASTICH (Gr. [Greek: mastichê], probably connected with +[Greek: masasthai], to chew, since mastic is used in the East as a +chewing gum), a resinous exudation obtained from the lentisk, _Pistacia +lentiscus_, an evergreen shrub of the natural order Anacardiaceae. The +lentisk or mastic plant is indigenous to the Mediterranean coast region +from Syria to Spain, but grows also in Portugal, Morocco and the +Canaries. Although experiments have proved that excellent mastic might +be obtained in other islands in the archipelago, the production of the +substance has been, since the time of Dioscorides, almost exclusively +confined to the island of Chios. The mastic districts of that island are +for the most part flat and stony, with little hills and few streams. The +shrubs are about 6 ft. high. The resin is contained in the bark and not +in the wood, and in order to obtain it numerous vertical incisions are +made, during June, July and August, in the stem and chief branches. The +resin speedily exudes and hardens into roundish or oval tears, which are +collected, after about fifteen days, by women and children, in little +baskets lined with white paper or cotton wool. The ground around the +trees is kept hard and clean, and flat pieces of stone are often laid +beneath them to prevent any droppings of resin from becoming +contaminated with dirt. The collection is repeated three or four times +between June and September, a fine tree being found to yield about 8 or +10 lb. of mastic during the season. Besides that obtained from the +incisions, mastic of very fine quality spontaneously exudes from the +small branches. The harvest is affected by showers of rain during the +period of collection, and the trees are much injured by frost, which is, +however, of rare occurrence in the districts where they grow. Mastic +occurs in commerce in the form of roundish tears about the size of peas. +They are transparent, with a glassy fracture, of a pale yellow or faint +greenish tinge, which darkens slowly by age. During the 15th, 16th and +17th centuries mastic enjoyed a high reputation as a medicine, and +formed an ingredient in a large number of medical compounds; but its use +in medicine is now obsolete, and it is chiefly employed for making +varnish. + + _Pistacia Khinjuk_ and _P. cabulica_, trees growing throughout Sindh, + Baluchistan and Cabul, yield a kind of mastic which is met with in the + Indian bazaars under the name of _Mustagirumi_, i.e. Roman mastic. + This when occurring in the European market is known as East Indian or + Bombay mastic. In Algeria _P. Atlantica_ yields a solid resin, which + is collected and used by the Arabs as a masticatory. Cape mastic is + the produce of _Euryops multifidus_, the resin bush, or _harpuis + bosch_ of the Boers--a plant of the composite order growing abundantly + in the Clanwilliam district. Dammar resin is sometimes sold under the + name of mastic. The West Indian mastic tree is the _Bursera gummifera_ + and the Peruvian mastic is _Schinus molle_; but neither of these + furnishes commercial resins. The name mastic tree is also applied to a + timber tree, _Sider oxylon mastichodendron_, nat. ord. Sapotaceae, + which grows in the West Indies and on the coast of Florida. + + + + +MASTIGOPHORA, a group of Protozoa, moving and ingesting food by long +flagella (Gr. [Greek: mastix], whip), usually few in number, and +multiplying by fission, usually longitudinal, in the active condition. +They were separated off from the rest of the old "Infusoria" by K. +Düsing, and subdivided by O. Bütschli and E. R. Lankester into (1) +Flagellata (q.v.), including Haemoflagellata (q.v.), (2) Dinoflagellata +(q.v.) and Rhyncho = Cystoflagellata E. Haeckel (q.v.) = +Rhynchoflagellata E. R. Lankester. The Mastigophora are frequently +termed Flagellata or Flagellates. + + + + +MASTODON (Gr. [Greek: mastos], breast, [Greek: odous], tooth), a name +given by Cuvier to the Pliocene and Miocene forerunners of the +elephants, on account of the nipple-like prominences on the molar teeth +of some of the species (fig. 2), which are of a much simpler type than +those of true elephants. Mastodons, like elephants, always have a pair +of upper tusks, while the earlier ones likewise have a short pair in the +lower jaw, which is prolonged into a snout-like symphysis for their +support. These long-chinned mastodons are now regarded as forming a +genus by themselves (_Tetrabelodon_), well-known examples of this group +being _Tetrabelodon angustidens_ from the Miocene and _T. longirostris_ +(fig. 1 C.) from the Lower Pliocene of the Continent. In the former the +upper tusks are bent down so as to cross the tips of the short and +chisel-like lower pair. These long-chinned mastodons must have had an +extremely elongated muzzle, formed by the upper lip and nose above and +the lower lip below, with which they were able to reach the ground, the +neck being probably rather longer than in elephants. On the other hand, +in the short-chinned mastodons, as represented by the Pleistocene North +American _Mastodon americanus_ and the Pliocene European _M. turicensis_ +(fig. 1), the chin had shrunk to the dimensions characteristic of +elephants, with the loss of the lower incisors (or with temporary +retention of rudimentary ones), while at the same time a true +elephant-like trunk must have been developed by the shortening of the +lower lip and the prolongation of the combined upper lip and nose. + +Mastodons are found in almost all parts of the world. In Asia they gave +rise to the elephants, while they themselves originated in Africa from +ungulates of more normal type. (See PROBOSCIDEA.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--_Mastodon turicensis_ (Pliocene). A, B, Skull +and Lower Jaw of _Mastodon americanus_. C, Lower Jaw of _Tetrabelodon +longirostris_.] + + The upper tusks of the early mastodons differ from those of elephants + in retaining longitudinal bands of enamel. The molar teeth are six in + number on each side, increasing in size from before backwards, and, as + in the elephants, with a horizontal succession, the anterior teeth + being lost before the full development of the posterior ones, which + gradually move forward, taking the place of those that are destroyed + by wear. This process is, however, less fully developed than in + elephants, and as many as three teeth may be in place in each jaw at + one time. There is, moreover, in many species a vertical succession, + affecting either the third, or the third and second, or (in one + American species, _Tetrabelodon productus_) the first, second and + third of the six molar teeth. These three are therefore reckoned as + milk-molars, and their successors as premolars, while the last three + correspond to the true molars of other mammals. The mode of succession + of the teeth in the mastodons exhibits so many stages of the process + by which the dentition of elephants has been derived from that of more + ordinary mammals. It also shows that the anterior molars of elephants + do not correspond to the premolars of other ungulates, but to the + milk-molars, the early loss of which in consequence of the peculiar + process of horizontal forward-moving succession does not require their + replacement by premolars. Specialized species like _Mastodon + americanus_ have completely lost the rudimentary premolars. + + [Illustration: (From Owen.) + + FIG. 2.--Upper Molar of _Mastodon arvernensis_, viewed from below.] + + Mastodons have fewer ridges on their molar teeth than elephants; the + ridges are also less elevated, wider apart, with a thicker enamel + covering, and scarcely any cement filling the space between them. + Sometimes (as in _M. americanus_) the ridges are simple transverse + wedge-shaped elevations, with straight or concave edges. In other + species the summits of the ridges are divided into conical cusps, and + may have accessory cusps clustering around them (as in _M. + arvernensis_, fig. 2). When the summits of these are worn by + mastication their surfaces present circles of dentine surrounded by a + border of enamel, and as attrition proceeds different patterns are + produced by the union of the bases of the cusps, a trefoil form being + characteristic of some species. + + Certain of the molar teeth of the middle of the series in both + elephants and mastodons have the same number of principal ridges; + those in front having fewer, and those behind a greater number. These + teeth are distinguished as "intermediate" molars. In elephants there + are only two, the last milk-molar and the first true molar (or the + third and fourth of the whole series), which are alike in the number + of ridges; whereas in mastodons there are three such teeth, the last + milk-molar and the first and second molars (or the third, fourth and + fifth of the whole series). In elephants the number of ridges on the + intermediate molars always exceeds five, but in mastodons it is nearly + always three or four, and the tooth in front has usually one fewer and + that behind one more, so that the ridge-formula (i.e. a formula + expressing the number of ridges on each of the six molar teeth) of + most mastodons can be reduced either to 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, or 2, 3, 4, + 4, 4, 5. Three-ridged and four-ridged types occur both in _Mastodon_ + and _Tetrabelodon_. (R. L.*) + + + + +MAS'UDI (ABU-L HASAN 'ALI IBN HUSAIN IBN 'ALI UL-MAS'UDI) (d. c. 956), +Arabian historian, was born at Bagdad towards the close of the 9th +century. Much of his life was spent in travel. After he had been in +Persia and Kerman, he visited Istakhr in 915, and went in the following +year to Multan and Mansura, thence to Cambay, Saimur and Ceylon, to +Madagascar and back to Oman. He seems about this time to have been as +far as China. After a visit to the shores of the Caspian Sea he visited +Tiberias in Palestine, examined the Christian church there, and +described its relics. In 943 he was in Antioch, studying the ruins, and +two years later in Damascus. The last ten years of his life he spent in +Syria and Egypt. His great object in life had been to study with his own +eyes the peculiarities of every land and to collect whatever was of +interest for archaeology, history and manners. Himself a Mo'tazilite +(see MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION: _Sects_), he was singularly free from bigotry, +and took his information, when necessary, from Persians, Jews, Indians, +and even the chronicle of a Christian bishop. + + His most extensive work was the _Kitab akhbar uz-Zaman_ or _Annals_, + in 30 volumes with a supplement, _the Kitab ul-Ausat_, a chronological + sketch of general history. Of these the first part only of the former + is extant in MS. in Vienna, while the latter seems to be in the + Bodleian Library, also in MS. The substance of the two was united by + him in the work by which he is now best known, the _Muruj udh-Dhahab + wa Ma'adin ul-Jawahir_ ("Meadows of Gold and Mines of Precious + Stones"), an historical work which he completed in 947. In 956 he + finished a second edition of this and made it double its former size, + but no copy of this seems to be extant. The original edition has been + published at Bulaq and Cairo, and with French translation by C. + Barbier de Meynard and Pavet de Courteille (9 vols., Paris, + 1861-1877). Another work of Mas'udi, written in the last year of his + life, is the _Kitab ut-Tanbih wal Ishraf_ (the "Book of Indication and + Revision"), in which he summarizes the work of his life and corrects + and completes his former writings. It has been edited by M. J. de + Goeje (Leiden, 1894), and a French translation has been made by Carra + de Vaux (Paris, 1896); cf. also the memoir of S. de Sacy published in + Meynard's edition of the _Muruj_. + + An account of Mas'udi's works is to be found in de Sacy's memoir and + in Goeje's preface to his edition of the _Tanbih_, and of the works + extant in C. Brockelmann's _Gesch. der Arabischen Litteratur_, i. + 144-145 (Weimar, 1898). C. Field's _Tales of the Caliphs_ (1909) is + based on Mas'udi. (G. W. T.) + + + + +MASULIPATAM, or BANDAR, a seaport of British India, administrative +headquarters of the Kistna district of Madras, on one of the mouths of +the river Kistna, 215 m. N. of Madras city. Pop. (1901), 39,507. +Masulipatam was the earliest English settlement on the Coromandel coast, +its importance being due to the fact that it was the _bandar_ or port of +Golconda. An agency was established there in 1611. During the wars of +the Carnatic, the English were temporarily expelled from the town, which +was held by the French for some years. In 1759 the town and fort were +carried by storm by Colonel Forde, an achievement followed by the +acquisition of the Northern Circars (q.v.). In 1864 a great storm-wave +swept over the entire town and is said to have destroyed 30,000 lives. +Weavers form a large portion of the inhabitants, though their trade has +greatly declined since the beginning of the 19th century. Their +operations, besides weaving, include printing, bleaching, washing and +dressing. In former days the chintzes of Masulipatam had a great +reputation abroad for the freshness and permanency of their dyes. +Masulipatam is a station of the Church Missionary Society. The port is +only a roadstead, where vessels anchor 5 m. out. A branch line from +Bezwada on the Southern Mahratta railway was opened in 1908. The chief +educational institution is the Noble College of the C.M.S. + + + + +MAT (O. Eng. _meatt_, from late Lat. _matta_, whence Ital. _matta_, Ger. +and Dan. _matte_, Du. _mat_, &c.), an article of various sizes and +shapes, according to the purpose for which it is intended, and made of +plaited or woven materials, such as coir, hemp, coco-nut fibre, straw, +rushes, &c., or of rope or coarse twine. The finer fabrics are known as +"matting" (q.v.). Mats are mainly used for covering floors, or in +horticulture as a protection against cold or exposure for plants and +trees. When used near the entrance to a house for people to wipe their +boots on "door mats" are usually made of coarse coco-nut fibre, or +india-rubber, cork, or of thickly coiled wire. Bags, rolls or sacks made +of matting are used to hold coffee, flax, rice and other produce, and +the term is often used with reference to the specific quantities of such +produce, e.g. so many "mats" of coffee, rice, &c. + + To be distinguished from the above is the term "mat" in glass-painting + or gilding, meaning dull, unpolished or unburnished. This is the same + as Ger. _matt_, dead, dull, cf. _matt-blau_, Med. Lat. _mattus_, + adapted from Persian _mat_, dazed, astonished, at a loss, helpless, + and seen in "mate" in chess, from Pers. _shah mat_ the king is dead. + + + + +MATABELE ("vanishing" or "hidden" people, so called from their +appearance in battle, hidden behind enormous oxhide shields), a people +of Zulu origin who began national life under the chief Mosilikatze. +Driven out of the Transvaal by the Boers in 1837, Mosilikatze crossed +the Limpopo with a military host which had been recruited from every +tribe conquered by him during his ten years' predominance in the +Transvaal. In their new territories the Matabele absorbed into their +ranks many members of the conquered Mashona tribes and established a +military despotism. Their sole occupation was war, for which their laws +and organization were designed to fit them. This system of constant +warfare is, since the conquest of Matabeleland by the British in 1893, a +thing of the past. The Matabele are now herdsmen and agriculturists. +(See RHODESIA.) + + + + +MATACHINES (Span. _matachin_, clown, or masked dancer), bands of mummers +or itinerant players in Mexico, especially popular around the Rio +Grande, who wander from village to village during Lent, playing in +rough-and-ready style a set drama based on the history of Montezuma. +Dressed in fantastic Indian costumes and carrying rattles as their +orchestra, the chief characters are _El Monarca_ "the monarch" +(Montezuma); _Malinche_, or _Malintzin_, the Indian mistress of Hernando +Cortes; _El Toro_, "the bull," the malevolent "comic man" of the play, +dressed in buffalo skin with the animal's horns on his head; _Aguelo_, +the "grandfather," and _Aguela_, "grandmother." With the help of a +chorus of dancers they portray the desertion of his people by Montezuma, +the luring of him back by the wiles and smiles of Malinche, the final +reunion of king and people, and the killing of El Toro, who is supposed +to have made all the mischief. + + + + +MATADOR, a Spanish word meaning literally "killer," from _matar_, Lat. +_mactare_, especially applied to the principal performer in a +bull-fight, whose function it is to slay the bull (see BULL-FIGHTING). +The word is also used of certain important cards in such games as +quadrille, ombre, &c., and more particularly of a special form of the +game of dominoes. + + + + +MATAMOROS, a town and port of the state of Tamaulipas, Mexico, on the S. +bank of the Rio Grande, 28 m. from its mouth, opposite Brownsville, +Texas. Pop. (1900), 8347. Matamoros stands in an open plain, the +commercial centre for a large district, but its import trade is +prejudiced by the bar at the mouth of the Rio Grande, which permits the +entrance of small vessels only. The exports include hides, wool and live +stock. The importance of the town in the foreign trade of northern +Mexico, however, has been largely diminished by the great railways. +Formerly it was the centre of a large contraband trade with Brownsville, +Texas. Matamoros was founded early in the 19th century, and was named in +honour of the Mexican patriot Mariano Matamoros (c. 1770-1814). In the +war between the United States and Mexico, Matamoros was easily taken by +the Americans on the 18th of May 1846, following General Zachary +Taylor's victories at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. Matamoros was +occupied by the Mexican imperialists under Mejia in 1864, and by the +French in 1866. + + + + +MATANZAS, an important city of Cuba, capital of Matanzas Province, +situated on a large deep bay on the N. coast, about 54 m. (by rail) E. +of Havana. Pop. (1907), 36,009. There are railway outlets W., S. and E., +and Matanzas is served by steamships to New York and by the coast +steamers of the Herrera Line. The bay, unlike all the other better +harbours of the island, has a broad mouth, 2 m. across, but there is +good shelter against all winds except from the N.E. A coral reef lies +across the entrance. Three rivers emptying into the bay--the San Juan, +Canimar and Yumuri--have deposited much silt, necessitating the use of +lighters in loading and unloading large ships. The city is finely placed +at the head of the bay, on a low, sloping plain backed by wooded hills, +over some of which the city itself has spread. The conical Pan de +Matanzas (1277 ft.) is a striking land-mark for sailors. The San Juan +and Yumuri rivers divide Matanzas into three districts. The Teatro +Esteban, Casino Español and Government House are noteworthy among the +buildings. The broad Paseo de Marti (Alameda de Versalles, Paseo de +Santa Cristina) extends along the edge of the harbour, and is perhaps +the handsomest parkway and boulevard in Cuba. At one end is a statue of +Ferdinand VII., at the other a monument to 63 Cubans executed by the +Spanish Government as traitors for bearing arms in the cause of +independence. A splendid military road continues the Paseo to the +Castillo de San Serverino (built in 1694-1695, reconstructed in 1773 and +following years). There are two smaller forts, established in the 18th +century. Near Matanzas are two of the most noted natural resorts of +Cuba: the valley of the Yumuri, and the caves of Bellamar. Commanding +the Yumuri Valley is the hill called Cumbre, on which is the Hermitage +of Monteserrate (1870), with a famous shrine. Matanzas is the second +port of the island in commerce. Sugar and molasses are the chief +exports. The city is the chief outlet for the sugar product of the +province, which, with the province of Santa Clara, produces two-thirds +of the crop of the island. There are many large warehouses, rum +distilleries, sugar-mills and railway machine-shops. Matanzas is +frequently mentioned in the annals of the 16th and 17th centuries, when +its bay was frequented by buccaneers; but the city was not laid out +until 1693. In the next year it received an _ayuntamiento_ (council). +Its prosperity rapidly increased after the establishment of free +commerce early in the 19th century. In 1815 it was made a department +capital. The mulatto poet, Gabriel de la Concepción Valdés, known as +Plácido (1809-1844), was born in Matanzas, and was executed there for +participation in the supposed conspiracy of negroes in 1844, which is +one of the most famous episodes in Cuban history. The hurricanes of 1844 +and 1846 are the only other prominent local events. American commercial +influence has always been particularly strong. + + + + +MATARÓ (anc. _Iluro_), a seaport of north-eastern Spain, in the province +of Barcelona, on the Mediterranean Sea and the Barcelona-Perpignan +railway. Pop. (1900), 19,704. The streets of the new town, lying next +the sea, are wide and regularly built; those of the old town, farther up +the hill, still preserve much of their ancient character. The parish +church of Santa Maria has some good pictures and wood carvings. The wine +of the neighbourhood, which resembles port, is shipped in large +quantities from Barcelona; and the district furnishes fine roses and +strawberries for the Barcelona market. The leading industries are +manufactures of linen and cotton goods, especially canvas and tarpaulin, +and of soap, paper, chemicals, starch, glass, leather, spirits and +flour. The railway to Barcelona, opened in October 1848, was the first +to be constructed in Spain. Outside the town is the much-frequented +carbonated mineral spring of Argentona. + + + + +MATCH: 1. O. Eng. _gemaecca_, a cognate form of "make," meaning +originally "fit" or "suitable"; a pair, or one of a pair of objects, +persons or animals. As particularly applied to a husband and wife, and +hence to a marriage, the word is especially used of two persons or +things which correspond exactly to each other. The verb "to match" has +also the meaning to "pit one against each other," and so is applied in +sport to an arranged contest between individuals or sides. + +2. O. Fr. _mesche_; apparently from a latinized form of Gr. [Greek: +myxa], mucus from the nose, applied to the nozzle of a lamp; primarily +the wick which conveys oil or molten wax to the flame of a lamp or +candle (this use is now obsolete), the word being then applied to +various objects having the property of carrying fire. With early +firearms a match, consisting of a cord of hemp or similar material +treated with nitre and other substances so that it continued to smoulder +after it had been ignited, was used for firing the charge, being either +held in the gunner's hand or attached to the cock of the musket or +arquebus and brought down by the action of the trigger on the powder +priming ("matchlock"); and more or less similar preparations, made to +burn more or less rapidly as required ("quick-match" and "slow-match"), +are employed as fuses in blasting and demolition work in military +operations. The word "match" was further used of a splint of wood, +tipped with sulphur so that it would readily ignite, but it now most +commonly means a slip of wood or other combustible material, having its +end covered with a composition which takes fire when rubbed either on +any rough surface or on another specially prepared composition. + +The first attempt to make matches in the modern sense may probably be +ascribed to Godfrey Haukwitz, who, in 1680, acting under the direction +of Robert Boyle, who at that time had just discovered how to prepare +phosphorus, employed small pieces of that element, ignited by friction, +to light splints of wood dipped in sulphur. This device, however, did +not come into extensive use owing to its danger and inconvenience and to +the cost of the phosphorus, and till the beginning of the 19th century +flint and steel with tinder-box and sulphur-tipped splints of +wood--"spunks" or matches--were the common means of obtaining fire for +domestic and other purposes. The sparks struck off by the percussion of +flint and steel were made to fall among the tinder, which consisted of +carbonized fragments of cotton and linen; the entire mass of the tinder +was set into a glow, developing sufficient heat to ignite the sulphur +with which the matches were tipped, and thereby the splints themselves +were set on fire. In 1805 one Chancel, assistant to Professor L. J. +Thénard of Paris, introduced an apparatus consisting of a small bottle +containing asbestos, saturated with strong sulphuric acid, with splints +or matches coated with sulphur, and tipped with a mixture of chlorate of +potash and sugar. The matches so prepared, when brought into contact +with the sulphuric acid in the bottle, ignited, and thus, by chemical +action, fire was produced. In 1823 a decided impetus was given to the +artificial production of fire by the introduction of the Döbereiner +lamp, so called after its inventor, J. W. Döbereiner of Jena. The first +really practical friction matches were made in England in 1827, by John +Walker, a druggist of Stockton-on-Tees. These were known as "Congreves" +after Sir William Congreve, the inventor of the Congreve rocket, and +consisted of wooden splints or sticks of cardboard coated with sulphur +and tipped with a mixture of sulphide of antimony, chlorate of potash +and gum. With each box which was retailed at a shilling, there was +supplied a folded piece of glass paper, the folds of which were to be +tightly pressed together, while the match was drawn through between +them. The same idea occurred to Sir Isaac Holden independently two and a +half years later. The so-called "Prometheans," patented by S. Jones of +London in 1830, consisted of a short roll of paper with a small quantity +of a mixture of chlorate of potash and sugar at one end, a thin glass +globule of strong sulphuric acid being attached at the same point. When +the sulphuric acid was liberated by pinching the glass globule, it acted +on the mixed chlorate and sugar, producing fire. The phosphorus +friction-match of the present day was first introduced on a commercial +scale in 1833. It appears to have been made almost simultaneously in +several distinct centres. The name most prominently connected with the +early stages of the invention is that of J. Preschel of Vienna, who in +1833 had a factory in operation for making phosphorus matches, fusees, +and amadou slips tipped with igniting composition. At the same time also +matches were being made by F. Moldenhauer in Darmstadt; and for a long +series of years Austria and the South-German states were the principal +centres of the new industry. + +But the use of ordinary white or yellow phosphorus as a principal +ingredient in the igniting mixture of matches was found to be +accompanied with very serious disadvantages. It is a deadly poison, and +its free dissemination has led to many accidental deaths, and to +numerous cases of wilful murder and suicide. Workers also who are +exposed to phosphoric vapours are subject to a peculiarly distressing +disease which attacks the jaw, and ultimately produces necrosis of the +jaw-bone ("phossy jaw"), though with scrupulous attention to ventilation +and cleanliness much of the risk of the disease may be avoided. The most +serious objections to the use of phosphorus, however, were overcome by +the discovery of the modified form of that body known as red or +amorphous phosphorus. That substance was utilized for the manufacture of +the well-known "safety matches" by J. E. Lundström, of Jönköping, +Sweden, in 1852; its employment for this purpose had been patented eight +years previously by another Swede, G. E. Pasch, who, however, regarded +it as an oxide of phosphorus. Red phosphorus is in itself a perfectly +innocuous substance, and no evil effects arise from freely working the +compositions of which it forms an ingredient. The fact again that safety +matches ignite only in exceptional circumstances on any other than the +prepared surfaces which accompany the box--which surfaces and not the +matches themselves contain the phosphorus required for ignition--makes +them much less liable to cause accidental fires than other kinds. + +The processes carried out in a match factory include preparing the +splints, dipping them first in molten paraffin wax and then in the +igniting composition, and filling the matches into boxes. All these +operations are performed by complicated automatic machinery, in the +development of which the Diamond Match Company of America has taken a +leading part, with the minimum of manual intervention. + + The chief element in the igniting mixture of ordinary or "strike + anywhere" matches used to be common yellow phosphorus, combined with + one or more other bodies which readily part with oxygen under the + influence of heat. Chief among these latter substances is chlorate of + potash, others being red lead, nitrate of lead, bichromate of potash + and peroxide of manganese. But at the beginning of the 20th century + many countries took steps to stop the use of yellow phosphorus owing + to the danger to health attending its manipulation. In Sweden, matches + made with it have been prohibited for home consumption, but not for + export, since 1901. In 1905 and 1906 two conferences, attended by + representatives of most of the governments of Europe, were held at + Berne to consider the question of prohibiting yellow phosphorus, but + no general agreement was reached owing to the objections entertained + by Sweden, Norway, Spain and Portugal, and also Japan. Germany, + France, Italy, Denmark, Holland, Switzerland and Luxemburg, however, + agreed to a convention whereby yellow phosphorus was prohibited as + from 1912, and to this Great Britain expressed her adherence after the + passing of the White Matches Prohibition Act 1908, which forbade the + manufacture and importation of such matches from the 1st of January + 1910; though to avoid hardship to retailers and others holding large + stocks it permitted their sale for a year longer. Phosphorous sulphide + (sesquisulphide of phosphorus) is one of the substances widely + employed as a substitute for yellow phosphorus in matches which will + strike anywhere without the need of a specially prepared surface. + + Safety matches contain no phosphorus in the heads; according to one + formula that has been published the mixture with which they are tipped + consists of chlorate of potash, 32 parts; bichromate of potash, 12; + red lead, 32; sulphide of antimony, 24; while the ingredients of a + suitable rubbing surface are eight parts of amorphous phosphorus to + nine of sulphide of antimony. There is no doubt, however, that there + is considerable diversity in the composition of the mixtures actually + employed. + + "Vestas" are matches in which short pieces of thin "wax taper" are + used in place of wooden splints. Fusees or vesuvians consist of large + oval heads fixed on a round splint. These heads consist of a porous + mixture of charcoal, saltpetre, cascarilla or other scented bark, + glass and gum, tipped with common igniting composition. When lighted + they form a glowing mass, without flame. + + It is calculated that in the principal European countries from six to + ten matches are used for each inhabitant daily, and the world's annual + output must reach a total which requires twelve or thirteen figures + for its expression. In the United States the manufacture is under the + control of the Diamond Match Company, formed in 1881; which company + also has an important share in the industry in Great Britain, where it + has established large works. Similarly the manufacture of safety + matches in Sweden is largely controlled by one big combination. In + France matches are a government monopoly, and are both dear in price + and inferior in quality, as compared with other countries where the + industry is left to private enterprise. The French government formerly + leased the manufacture to a company (_Société générale des allumettes + chimiques_), but since 1890 it has been undertaken directly by the + state. + + + + +MATE (a corruption of _make_, from O. Eng. _gemaca_, a "comrade"), a +companion. In the language of the sea, the mate is the companion or +assistant of the master, or of any officer at the head of a division of +the crew. In the merchant service the mates are the officers who serve +under the master, commonly called the captain, navigate the vessel under +his direction, and replace him if he dies, or is disabled. In a war-ship +mates serve under the gunner, boatswain, carpenter, &c. They are +officers told off to attend to a particular part of the ship, as for +example mate of the upper deck, whose duty is to see that it is kept +clean, or mate of the hold, who is employed to serve out the water and +other stores, and to keep the weights adjusted so as to preserve the +trim--or balance--of the ship. (For "mate" in chess, see CHESS.) + + + + +MATÉ, or PARAGUAY TEA, the dried leaves of _Ilex paraguariensis_,[1] an +evergreen shrub or small tree belonging to the same genus as the common +holly, a plant to which it bears some resemblance in size and habit. The +leaves are from 6 to 8 in. long, shortly stalked, with a somewhat acute +tip and finely toothed at the margin. The small white flowers grow in +forked clusters in the axils of the leaves; the sepals, petals and +stamens are four in number, or occasionally five; and the berry is +4-seeded. The plant grows abundantly in Paraguay, and the south of +Brazil, forming woods called _yerbales_. One of the principal centres of +the maté industry is the Villa Real, a small town above Asuncion on the +Paraguay river; another is the Villa de San Xavier, in the district +between the rivers Uruguay and Parana. + + Although maté appears to have been used from time immemorial by the + Indians, the Jesuits were the first to attempt its cultivation. This + was begun at their branch missions in Paraguay and the province of Rio + Grande de San Pedro, where some plantations still exist, and yield the + best tea that is made. From this circumstance the names Jesuits' tea, + tea of the Missions, St Bartholomew's tea, &c., are sometimes applied + to maté. Under cultivation the quality of the tea improves, but the + plant remains a small shrub with numerous stems, instead of forming, + as in the wild state, a tree with a rounded head. From cultivated + plants the leaves are gathered every two or three years, that interval + being necessary for restoration to vigorous growth. The collection of + maté is, however, chiefly effected by Indians employed for that + purpose by merchants, who pay a money consideration to government for + the privilege. + + When a yerbal or maté wood is found, the Indians, who usually travel + in companies of about twenty-five in number, build wigwams and settle + down to the work for about six months. Their first operation is to + prepare an open space, called a _tatacua_, about 6 ft. square, in + which the surface of the soil is beaten hard and smooth with mallets. + The leafy branches of the maté are then cut down and placed on the + tatacua, where they undergo a preliminary roasting from a fire kindled + around it. An arch of poles, or of hurdles, is then erected above it, + on which the maté is placed, a fire being lighted underneath. This + part of the process demands some care, since by it the leaves have to + be rendered brittle enough to be easily pulverized, and the aroma has + to be developed, the necessary amount of heat being only learned by + experience. After drying, the leaves are reduced to coarse powder in + mortars formed of pits in the earth well rammed. Maté so prepared is + called _caa gazu_ or _yerva do polos_, and is chiefly used in Brazil. + In Paraguay and the vicinity of Parana in the Argentine Republic, the + leaves are deprived of the midrib before roasting; this is called + _caa-míri_. A very superior quality, or _caa-cuys_, is also prepared + in Paraguay from the scarcely expanded buds. Another method of drying + maté has been adopted, the leaves being heated in large cast-iron pans + set in brickwork, in the same way that tea is dried in China; it is + afterwards powdered by machinery. + + [Illustration: Maté (_Ilex paraguariensis_). + + Portion of plant, half natural size. Flower, drupe and nuts, twice + natural size. Part of under-side of leaf showing minute glands, + natural size.] + + The different methods of preparation influence to a certain extent the + value of the product, the maté prepared in Paraguay being considered + the best, that of Oran and Paranagua very inferior. The leaves when + dried are packed tightly in serons or oblong packages made of raw + hides, which are then carefully sewed up. These shrink by exposure to + the sun, and in a couple of days form compact parcels each containing + about 200 lb. of tea; in this form it keeps well. The tea is generally + prepared for use in a small silver-mounted calabash, made of the fruit + of _Crescentia cujete_ (Cuca) or of _Lagenaria_ (Cabaço), usually + about the size of a large orange, the tapering end of the latter + serving for a handle. In the top of the calabash, or _maté_,[2] a + circular hole about the size of a florin is made, and through this + opening the tea is sucked by means of a bombilla. This instrument + consists of a small tube 6 or 7 in. long, formed either of metal or a + reed, which has at one end a bulb made either of extremely fine + basket-work or of metal perforated with minute holes, so as to prevent + the particles of the tea-leaves from being drawn up into the mouth. + Some sugar and a little hot water are first placed in the gourd, the + yerva is then added, and finally the vessel is filled to the brim with + boiling water, or milk previously heated by a spirit lamp. A little + burnt sugar or lemon juice is sometimes added instead of milk. The + beverage is then handed round to the company, each person being + furnished with a bombilla. The leaves will bear steeping about three + times. The infusion, if not drunk soon after it is made, rapidly turns + black. Persons who are fond of maté drink it before every meal, and + consume about 1 oz. of the leaves per day. In the neighbourhood of + Parana it is prepared and drunk like Chinese tea. Maté is generally + considered disagreeable by those unaccustomed to it, having a somewhat + bitter taste; moreover, it is the custom to drink it so hot as to be + unpleasant. But in the south-eastern republics it is a much-prized + article of luxury, and is the first thing offered to visitors. The + _gaucho_ of the plains will travel on horseback for weeks asking no + better fare than dried beef washed down with copious draughts of maté, + and for it he will forego any other luxury, such as sugar, rice or + biscuit. Maté acts as a restorative after great fatigue in the same + manner as tea. Since it does not lose its flavour so quickly as tea by + exposure to the air and damp it is more valuable to travellers. + + Since the beginning of the 17th century maté has been drunk by all + classes in Paraguay, and it is now used throughout Brazil and the + neighbouring countries. + + The virtues of this substance are due to the occurrence in it of + caffeine, of which a given quantity of maté, as prepared for drinking, + contains definitely less than a similar quantity of tea or coffee. It + is less astringent than either of these, and thus is, on all scores, + less open to objection. + + See Scully, _Brazil_ (London, 1866); Mansfield, _Brazil_ (London, + 1856); Christy, _New Commercial Plants_, No. 3 (London, 1880); _Kew + Bulletin_ (1892), p. 132. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _I. gigantea_, _I. ovalifolia_, _I. Humboldtiana_, and _I. + nigropunctata_, besides several varieties of these species, are also + used for preparing maté. + + [2] The word _caa_ signified the plant in the native Indian language. + The Spaniards gave it a similar name, _yerba_. _Maté_ comes from the + language of the Incas, and originally means a calabash. The Paraguay + tea was called at first _yerva do maté_, and then, the _yerva_ being + dropped, the name _maté_ came to signify the same thing. + + + + +MATERA, a city of Basilicata, Italy, in the province of Potenza, from +which it is 68 m. E. by road (13 m. S. of the station of Altamura), 1312 +ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 17,801. Part of it is built on a level +plateau and part in deep valleys adjoining, the tops of the campaniles +of the lower portions being on a level with the streets of the upper. +The principal building is the cathedral of the archbishopric of Acerenza +and Matera, formed in 1203 by the union of the two bishoprics, dating +respectively from 300 and 398. The western façade of the cathedral is +plain, while the utmost richness of decoration is lavished on the south +front which faces the piazza. Almost in the centre of this south façade +is an exquisitely sculptured window, from which letters from the Greek +patriarch at Constantinople used to be read. The campanile is 175 ft. +high. In the vicinity are the troglodyte caverns of Monte Scaglioso, +still inhabited by some of the lower classes, and other caves with +13th-century frescoes. + + Neolithic pottery has been found here, but the origin of the town is + uncertain. Under the Normans Matera was a countship for William Bras + de Fer and his successors. It was the chief town of the Basilicata + from 1664 till 1811, when the French transferred the administration to + Potenza. + + + + +MATERIALISM (from Lat. _materia_, matter), in philosophy, the theory +which regards all the facts of the universe as explainable in terms of +matter and motion, and in particular explains all psychical processes by +physical and chemical changes in the nervous system. It is thus opposed +both to natural realism and to idealism. For the natural realist stands +upon the common-sense position that minds and material objects have +equally effective existence; while the idealist explains matter by mind +and denies that mind can be explained by matter. The various forms into +which materialism may be classified correspond to the various causes +which induce men to take up materialistic views. _Naïve materialism_ is +due to a cause which still, perhaps, has no small power, the natural +difficulty which persons who have had no philosophic training experience +in observing and appreciating the importance of the immaterial facts of +consciousness. The pre-Socratics may be classed as naïve materialists in +this sense; though, as at that early period the contrast between matter +and spirit had not been fully realized and matter was credited with +properties that belong to life, it is usual to apply the term hylozoism +(q.v.) to the earliest stage of Greek metaphysical theory. It is not +difficult to discern the influence of naïve materialism in contemporary +thinking. We see it in Huxley, and still more in Haeckel, whose +materialism (which he chooses to term "monism") is evidently conditioned +by ignorance of the history and present position of speculation. +_Cosmological materialism_ is that form of the doctrine in which the +dominant motive is the formation of a comprehensive world-scheme: the +Stoics and Epicureans were cosmological materialists. In _anti-religious +materialism_ the motive is hostility to established dogmas which are +connected, in the Christian system especially, with certain forms of +spiritual doctrine. Such a motive weighed much with Hobbes and with the +French materialists of the 18th century, such as La Mettrie and +d'Holbach. The cause of _medical materialism_ is the natural bias of +physicians towards explaining the health and disease of mind by the +health and disease of body. It has received its greatest support from +the study of insanity, which is now fully recognized as conditioned by +disease of the brain. To this school belong Drs Maudsley and Mercier. +The highest form of the doctrine is _scientific materialism_, by which +term is meant the doctrine so commonly adopted by the physicist, +zoologist and biologist. + +It may perhaps be fairly said that materialism is at present a necessary +methodological postulate of natural-scientific inquiry. The business of +the scientist is to explain everything by the physical causes which are +comparatively well understood and to exclude the interference of +spiritual causes. It was the great work of Descartes to exclude +rigorously from science all explanations which were not scientifically +verifiable; and the prevalence of materialism at certain epochs, as in +the enlightenment of the 18th century and in the German philosophy of +the middle 19th, were occasioned by special need to vindicate the +scientific position, in the former case against the Church, in the +latter case against the pseudo-science of the Hegelian dialectic. The +chief definite periods of materialism are the pre-Socratic and the +post-Aristotelian in Greece, the 18th century in France, and in Germany +the 19th century from about 1850 to 1880. In England materialism has +been endemic, so to speak, from Hobbes to the present time, and English +materialism is more important perhaps than that of any other country. +But, from the national distrust of system, it has not been elaborated +into a consistent metaphysic, but is rather traceable as a tendency +harmonizing with the spirit of natural science. Hobbes, Locke, Hume, +Mill and Herbert Spencer are not systematic materialists, but show +tendencies towards materialism. + + See METAPHYSICS; and Lange's _History of Materialism_. + + + + +MATER MATUTA (connected with Lat. _mane_, _matutinus_, "morning"), an +old Italian goddess of dawn. The idea of light being closely connected +with childbirth, whereby the infant is brought into the light of the +world, she came to be regarded as a double of Juno, and was identified +by the Greeks with Eilithyia. Matuta had a temple in Rome in the Forum +Boarium, where the festival of Matralia was celebrated on the 11th of +June. Only married women were admitted, and none who had been married +more than once were allowed to crown her image with garlands. Under +hellenizing influences, she became a goddess of sea and harbours, the +Ino-Leucothea of the Greeks. In this connexion it is noticeable that, as +Ino tended her nephew Dionysus, so at the Matralia the participants +prayed for the welfare of their nephews and nieces before that of their +own children. The transformation was complete in 174 B.C., when Tiberius +Sempronius Gracchus, after the conquest of Sardinia, placed in the +temple of Matuta a map commemorative of the campaign, containing a plan +of the island and the various engagements. The progress of navigation +and the association of divinities of the sky with maritime affairs +probably also assisted to bring about the change, although the memory of +her earlier function as a goddess of childbirth survived till imperial +times. + + Ovid, _Fasti_, vi. 475; Livy xli. 28; Plutarch, _Quaestiones romanae_, + 16, 17. + + + + +MATHEMATICS (Gr. [Greek: mathêmatkê], sc. [Greek: technê] or [Greek: +epistêmê]; from [Greek: mathêma], "learning" or "science"), the general +term for the various applications of mathematical thought, the +traditional field of which is number and quantity. It has been usual to +define mathematics as "the science of discrete and continuous +magnitude." Even Leibnitz,[1] who initiated a more modern point of view, +follows the tradition in thus confining the scope of mathematics +properly so called, while apparently conceiving it as a department of a +yet wider science of reasoning. A short consideration of some leading +topics of the science will exemplify both the plausibility and +inadequacy of the above definition. Arithmetic, algebra, and the +infinitesimal calculus, are sciences directly concerned with integral +numbers, rational (or fractional) numbers, and real numbers generally, +which include incommensurable numbers. It would seem that "the general +theory of discrete and continuous quantity" is the exact description of +the topics of these sciences. Furthermore, can we not complete the +circle of the mathematical sciences by adding geometry? Now geometry +deals with points, lines, planes and cubic contents. Of these all except +points are quantities: lines involve lengths, planes involve areas, and +cubic contents involve volumes. Also, as the Cartesian geometry shows, +all the relations between points are expressible in terms of geometric +quantities. Accordingly, at first sight it seems reasonable to define +geometry in some such way as "the science of dimensional quantity." Thus +every subdivision of mathematical science would appear to deal with +quantity, and the definition of mathematics as "the science of quantity" +would appear to be justified. We have now to consider the reasons for +rejecting this definition as inadequate. + +_Types of Critical Questions._--What are numbers? We can talk of five +apples and ten pears. But what are "five" and "ten" apart from the +apples and pears? Also in addition to the cardinal numbers there are the +ordinal numbers: the fifth apple and the tenth pear claim thought. What +is the relation of "the fifth" and "the tenth" to "five" and "ten"? "The +first rose of summer" and "the last rose of summer" are parallel +phrases, yet one explicitly introduces an ordinal number and the other +does not. Again, "half a foot" and "half a pound" are easily defined. +But in what sense is there "a half," which is the same for "half a foot" +as "half a pound"? Furthermore, incommensurable numbers are defined as +the limits arrived at as the result of certain procedures with rational +numbers. But how do we know that there is anything to reach? We must +know that [root]2 exists before we can prove that any procedure will +reach it. An expedition to the North Pole has nothing to reach unless +the earth rotates. + +Also in geometry, what is a point? The straightness of a straight line +and the planeness of a plane require consideration. Furthermore, +"congruence" is a difficulty. For when a triangle "moves," the points do +not move with it. So what is it that keeps unaltered in the moving +triangle? Thus the whole method of measurement in geometry as described +in the elementary textbooks and the older treatises is obscure to the +last degree. Lastly, what are "dimensions"? All these topics require +thorough discussion before we can rest content with the definition of +mathematics as the general science of magnitude; and by the time they +are discussed the definition has evaporated. An outline of the modern +answers to questions such as the above will now be given. A critical +defence of them would require a volume.[2] + + _Cardinal Numbers._--A one-one relation between the members of two + classes [alpha] and [beta] is any method of correlating all the + members of [alpha] to all the members of [beta], so that any member of + [alpha] has one and only one correlate in [beta], and any member of + [beta] has one and only one correlate in [alpha]. Two classes between + which a one-one relation exists have the same cardinal number and are + called cardinally similar; and the cardinal number of the class + [alpha] is a certain class whose members are themselves + classes--namely, it is the class composed of all those classes for + which a one-one correlation with [alpha] exists. Thus the cardinal + number of [alpha] is itself a class, and furthermore [alpha] is a + member of it. For a one-one relation can be established between the + members of [alpha] and [alpha] by the simple process of correlating + each member of [alpha] with itself. Thus the cardinal number one is + the class of unit classes, the cardinal number two is the class of + doublets, and so on. Also a unit class is any class with the property + that it possesses a member _x_ such that, if _y_ is any member of the + class, then _x_ and _y_ are identical. A doublet is any class which + possesses a member _x_ such that the modified class formed by all the + other members except _x_ is a unit class. And so on for all the finite + cardinals, which are thus defined successively. The cardinal number + zero is the class of classes with no members; but there is only one + such class, namely--the null class. Thus this cardinal number has only + one member. The operations of addition and multiplication of two given + cardinal numbers can be defined by taking two classes [alpha] and + [beta], satisfying the conditions (1) that their cardinal numbers are + respectively the given numbers, and (2) that they contain no member in + common, and then by defining by reference to [alpha] and [beta] two + other suitable classes whose cardinal numbers are defined to be + respectively the required sum and product of the cardinal numbers in + question. We need not here consider the details of this process. + + With these definitions it is now possible to _prove_ the following six + premisses applying to finite cardinal numbers, from which Peano[3] has + shown that all arithmetic can be deduced:-- + + i. Cardinal numbers form a class. + + ii. Zero is a cardinal number. + + iii. If a is a cardinal number, a + 1 is a cardinal number. + + iv. If s is any class and zero is a member of it, also if when x is a + cardinal number and a member of s, also x+1 is a member of s, then the + whole class of cardinal numbers is contained in s. + + v. If a and b are cardinal numbers, and a + 1 = b + 1, then a = b. + + vi. If a is a cardinal number, then a + 1 [/=] 0. + + It may be noticed that (iv) is the familar principle of mathematical + induction. Peano in an historical note refers its first explicit + employment, although without a general enunciation, to Maurolycus in + his work, _Arithmeticorum libri duo_ (Venice, 1575). + + But now the difficulty of confining mathematics to being the science + of number and quantity is immediately apparent. For there is no + self-contained science of cardinal numbers. The proof of the six + premisses requires an elaborate investigation into the general + properties of classes and relations which can be deduced by the + strictest reasoning from our ultimate logical principles. Also it is + purely arbitrary to erect the consequences of these six principles + into a separate science. They are excellent principles of the highest + value, but they are in no sense the necessary premisses which must be + proved before any other propositions of cardinal numbers can be + established. On the contrary, the premisses of arithmetic can be put + in other forms, and, furthermore, an indefinite number of propositions + of arithmetic can be proved directly from logical principles without + mentioning them. Thus, while arithmetic may be defined as that branch + of deductive reasoning concerning classes and relations which is + concerned with the establishment of propositions concerning cardinal + numbers, it must be added that the introduction of cardinal numbers + makes no great break in this general science. It is no more than an + interesting subdivision in a general theory. + + _Ordinal Numbers._--We must first understand what is meant by "order," + that is, by "serial arrangement." An order of a set of things is to be + sought in that relation holding between members of the set which + constitutes that order. The set viewed as a class has many orders. + Thus the telegraph posts along a certain road have a space-order very + obvious to our senses; but they have also a time-order according to + dates of erection, perhaps more important to the postal authorities + who replace them after fixed intervals. A set of cardinal numbers have + an order of magnitude, often called _the_ order of the set because of + its insistent obviousness to us; but, if they are the numbers drawn in + a lottery, their time-order of occurrence in that drawing also ranges + them in an order of some importance. Thus the order is defined by the + "serial" relation. A relation (R) is serial[4] when (1) it implies + diversity, so that, if x has the relation R to y, x is diverse from y; + (2) it is transitive, so that if x has the relation R to y, and y to + z, then x has the relation R to z; (3) it has the property of + connexity, so that if x and y are things to which any things bear the + relation R, or which bear the relation R to any things, then _either_ + x is identical with y, _or_ x has the relation R to y, _or_ y has the + relation R to x. These conditions are necessary and sufficient to + secure that our ordinary ideas of "preceding" and "succeeding" hold in + respect to the relation R. The "field" of the relation R is the class + of things ranged in order by it. Two relations R and R´ are said to be + ordinally similar, if a one-one relation holds between the members of + the two fields of R and R´, such that if x and y are any two members + of the field of R, such that x has the relation R to y, and if x´ and + y´ are the correlates in the field of R´ of x and y, then in all such + cases x´ has the relation R´ to y´, and conversely, interchanging the + dashes on the letters, i.e. R and R´, x and x´, &c. It is evident that + the ordinal similarity of two relations implies the cardinal + similarity of their fields, but not conversely. Also, two relations + need not be serial in order to be ordinally similar; but if one is + serial, so is the other. The relation-number of a relation is the + class whose members are all those relations which are ordinally + similar to it. This class will include the original relation itself. + The relation-number of a relation should be compared with the cardinal + number of a class. When a relation is serial its relation-number is + often called its serial type. The addition and multiplication of two + relation-numbers is defined by taking two relations R and S, such that + (1) their fields have no terms in common; (2) their relation-numbers + are the two relation-numbers in question, and then by defining by + reference to R and S two other suitable relations whose + relation-numbers are defined to be respectively the sum and product of + the relation-numbers in question. We need not consider the details of + this process. Now if n be any finite cardinal number, it can be proved + that the class of those serial relations, which have a field whose + cardinal number is n, is a relation-number. This relation-number is + the ordinal number corresponding to n; let it be symbolized by n. + Thus, corresponding to the cardinal numbers 2, 3, 4 ... there are the + ordinal numbers 2, 3, 4.... The definition of the ordinal number 1 + requires some little ingenuity owing to the fact that no serial + relation can have a field whose cardinal number is 1; but we must omit + here the explanation of the process. The ordinal number 0 is the class + whose sole member is the null relation--that is, the relation which + never holds between any pair of entities. The definitions of the + finite ordinals can be expressed without use of the corresponding + cardinals, so there is no essential priority of cardinals to ordinals. + Here also it can be seen that the science of the finite ordinals is a + particular subdivision of the general theory of classes and relations. + Thus the illusory nature of the traditional definition of mathematics + is again illustrated. + + _Cantor's Infinite Numbers._--Owing to the correspondence between the + finite cardinals and the finite ordinals, the propositions of cardinal + arithmetic and ordinal arithmetic correspond point by point. But the + definition of the cardinal number of a class applies when the class is + not finite, and it can be proved that there are different infinite + cardinal numbers, and that there is a least infinite cardinal, now + usually denoted by [aleph]0, where [aleph] is the Hebrew letter aleph. + Similarly, a class of serial relations, called _well-ordered_ serial + relations, can be defined, such that their corresponding + relation-numbers include the ordinary finite ordinals, but also + include relation-numbers which have many properties like those of the + finite ordinals, though the fields of the relations belonging to them + are not finite. These relation-numbers are the infinite ordinal + numbers. The arithmetic of the infinite cardinals does not correspond + to that of the infinite ordinals. The theory of these extensions of + the ideas of number is dealt with in the article NUMBER. It will + suffice to mention here that Peano's fourth premiss of arithmetic does + not hold for infinite cardinals or for infinite ordinals. Contrasting + the above definitions of number, cardinal and ordinals, with the + alternative theory that number is an ultimate idea incapable of + definition, we notice that our procedure exacts a greater attention, + combined with a smaller credulity; for every idea, assumed as + ultimate, demands a separate act of faith. + + _The Data of Analysts._--Rational numbers and real numbers in general + can now be defined according to the same general method, If m and n + are finite cardinal numbers, the rational number m/n is the relation + which any finite cardinal number x bears to any finite cardinal number + y when n × x = m × y. Thus the rational number one, which we will + denote by 1_r, is not the cardinal number 1; for 1_r is the relation + 1/1 as defined above, and is thus a relation holding between certain + pairs of cardinals. Similarly, the other rational integers must be + distinguished from the corresponding cardinals. The arithmetic of + rational numbers is now established by means of appropriate + definitions, which indicate the entities meant by the operations of + addition and multiplication. But the desire to obtain general + enunciations of theorems without exceptional cases has led + mathematicians to employ entities of ever-ascending types of + elaboration. These entities are not created by mathematicians, they + are employed by them, and their definitions should point out the + construction of the new entities in terms of those already on hand. + The real numbers, which include irrational numbers, have now to be + defined. Consider the serial arrangement of the rationals in their + order of magnitude. A real number is a class ([alpha], say) of + rational numbers which satisfies the condition that it is the same as + the class of those rationals each of which precedes at least one + member of [alpha]. Thus, consider the class of rationals less than + 2_r; any member of this class precedes some other members of the + class--thus 1/2 precedes 4/3, 3/2 and so on; also the class of + predecessors of predecessors of 2_r is itself the class of + predecessors of 2_r. Accordingly this class is a real number; it will + be called the real number 2_R. Note that the class of rationals less + than or equal to 2_r is not a real number. For 2_r is not a + predecessor of some member of the class. In the above example 2_R is + an integral real number, which is distinct from a rational integer, + and from a cardinal number. Similarly, any rational real number is + distinct from the corresponding rational number. But now the + irrational real numbers have all made their appearance. For example, + the class of rationals whose squares are less than 2_r satisfies the + definition of a real number; it is the real number [root]2. The + arithmetic of real numbers follows from appropriate definitions of the + operations of addition and multiplication. Except for the immediate + purposes of an explanation, such as the above, it is unnecessary for + mathematicians to have separate symbols, such as 2, 2_r and 2_R, or + 2/3 and (2/3)_R. Real numbers with signs (+ or -) are now defined. If + a is a real number, +a is defined to be the relation which any real + number of the form x + a bears to the real number x, and -a is the + relation which any real number x bears to the real number x + a. The + addition and multiplication of these "signed" real numbers is suitably + defined, and it is proved that the usual arithmetic of such numbers + follows. Finally, we reach a complex number of the nth order. Such a + number is a "one-many" relation which relates n signed real numbers + (or n algebraic complex numbers when they are already defined by this + procedure) to the n cardinal numbers 1, 2 ... n respectively. If such + a complex number is written (as usual) in the form x1e1 + x2e2 + ... + + x_n e_n, then this particular complex number relates x1 to 1, x2 to 2, + ... x_n to n. Also the "unit" e1 (or e2) considered as a number of the + system is merely a shortened form for the complex number (+1) e1 + 0e2 + + ... + 0e_n. This last number exemplifies the fact that one signed + real number, such as 0, may be correlated to many of the n cardinals, + such as 2 ... n in the example, but that each cardinal is only + correlated with one signed number. Hence the relation has been called + above "one-many." The sum of two complex numbers x1e1 + x2e2 + ... + + x_n e_n and y1e1 + y2e2 + ... + y_n e_n is always defined to be the + complex number (x1 + y1)e1 + (x2 + y2)e2 + ... + (x_n + y_n)e_n. But + an indefinite number of definitions of the product of two complex + numbers yield interesting results. Each definition gives rise to a + corresponding algebra of higher complex numbers. We will confine + ourselves here to algebraic complex numbers--that is, to complex + numbers of the second order taken in connexion with that definition of + multiplication which leads to ordinary algebra. The product of two + complex numbers of the second order--namely, x1e1 + x2e2 and y1e1 + + y2e2, is in this case defined to mean the complex (x1y1 - x2y2)e1 + + (x1y2 + x2y1)e2. Thus e1 × e1 = e, e2 × e2 = -e1, e1 × e2 = e2 × e1 = + e2. With this definition it is usual to omit the first symbol e1, and + to write i or [root]-1 instead of e2. Accordingly, the typical form + for such a complex number is x + yi, and then with this notation the + above-mentioned definition of multiplication is invariably adopted. + The importance of this algebra arises from the fact that in terms of + such complex numbers with this definition of multiplication the utmost + generality of expression, to the exclusion of exceptional cases, can + be obtained for theorems which occur in analogous forms, but + complicated with exceptional cases, in the algebras of real numbers + and of signed real numbers. This is exactly the same reason as that + which has led mathematicians to work with signed real numbers in + preference to real numbers, and with real numbers in preference to + rational numbers. The evolution of mathematical thought in the + invention of the data of analysis has thus been completely traced in + outline. + +_Definition of Mathematics._--It has now become apparent that the +traditional field of mathematics in the province of discrete and +continuous number can only be separated from the general abstract theory +of classes and relations by a wavering and indeterminate line. Of course +a discussion as to the mere application of a word easily degenerates +into the most fruitless logomachy. It is open to any one to use any word +in any sense. But on the assumption that "mathematics" is to denote a +science well marked out by its subject matter and its methods from other +topics of thought, and that at least it is to include all topics +habitually assigned to it, there is now no option but to employ +"mathematics" in the general sense[5] of the "science concerned with the +logical deduction of consequences from the general premisses of all +reasoning." + +_Geometry._--The typical mathematical proposition is: "If x, y, z ... +satisfy such and such conditions, then such and such other conditions +hold with respect to them." By taking fixed conditions for the +hypothesis of such a proposition a definite department of mathematics is +marked out. For example, geometry is such a department. The "axioms" of +geometry are the fixed conditions which occur in the hypotheses of the +geometrical propositions. The special nature of the "axioms" which +constitute geometry is considered in the article GEOMETRY (_Axioms_). It +is sufficient to observe here that they are concerned with special types +of classes of classes and of classes of relations, and that the +connexion of geometry with number and magnitude is in no way an +essential part of the foundation of the science. In fact, the whole +theory of measurement in geometry arises at a comparatively late stage +as the result of a variety of complicated considerations. + + _Classes and Relations._--The foregoing account of the nature of + mathematics necessitates a strict deduction of the general properties + of classes and relations from the ultimate logical premisses. In the + course of this process, undertaken for the first time with the rigour + of mathematicians, some contradictions have become apparent. That + first discovered is known as Burali-Forti's contradiction,[6] and + consists in the proof that there both is and is not a greatest + infinite ordinal number. But these contradictions do not depend upon + any theory of number, for Russell's contradiction[7] does not involve + number in any form. This contradiction arises from considering the + class possessing as members all classes which are not members of + themselves. Call this class w; then to say that x is a w is equivalent + to saying that x is not an x. Accordingly, to say that w is a w is + equivalent to saying that w is not a w. An analogous contradiction can + be found for relations. It follows that a careful scrutiny of the very + idea of classes and relations is required. Note that classes are here + required in extension, so that the class of human beings and the class + of rational featherless bipeds are identical; similarly for relations, + which are to be determined by the entities related. Now a class in + respect to its components is many. In what sense then can it be one? + This problem of "the one and the many" has been discussed continuously + by the philosophers.[8] All the contradictions can be avoided, and yet + the use of classes and relations can be preserved as required by + mathematics, and indeed by common sense, by a theory which denies to a + class--or relation--existence or being in any sense in which the + entities composing it--or related by it--exist. Thus, to say that a + pen is an entity and the class of pens is an entity is merely a play + upon the word "entity"; the second sense of "entity" (if any) is + indeed derived from the first, but has a more complex signification. + Consider an incomplete proposition, incomplete in the sense that some + entity which ought to be involved in it is represented by an + undetermined x, which may stand for any entity. Call it a + propositional function; and, if [phi]x be a propositional function, + the undetermined variable x is the argument. Two propositional + functions [phi]x and [psi]x are "extensionally identical" if any + determination of x in [phi]x which converts [phi]x into a true + proposition also converts [psi]x into a true proposition, and + conversely for [psi] and [phi]. Now consider a propositional function + F_[chi] in which the variable argument [chi] is itself a propositional + function. If F_[chi] is true when, and only when, [chi] is determined + to be either [phi] or some other propositional function extensionally + equivalent to [phi], then the proposition F_[phi] is of the form which + is ordinarily recognized as being about the class determined by [phi]x + taken in extension--that is, the class of entities for which [phi]x is + a true proposition when x is determined to be any one of them. A + similar theory holds for relations which arise from the consideration + of propositional functions with two or more variable arguments. It is + then possible to define by a parallel elaboration what is meant by + classes of classes, classes of relations, relations between classes, + and so on. Accordingly, the number of a class of relations can be + defined, or of a class of classes, and so on. This theory[9] is in + effect a theory of the _use_ of classes and relations, and does not + decide the philosophic question as to the sense (if any) in which a + class in extension is one entity. It does indeed deny that it is an + entity in the sense in which one of its members is an entity. + Accordingly, it is a fallacy for any determination of x to consider "x + is an x" or "x is not an x" as having the meaning of propositions. + Note that for any determination of x, "x is an x" and "x is not an x," + are neither of them fallacies but are both meaningless, according to + this theory. Thus Russell's contradiction vanishes, and an examination + of the other contradictions shows that they vanish also. + +_Applied Mathematics._--The selection of the topics of mathematical +inquiry among the infinite variety open to it has been guided by the +useful applications, and indeed the abstract theory has only recently +been disentangled from the empirical elements connected with these +applications. For example, the application of the theory of cardinal +numbers to classes of physical entities involves in practice some +process of counting. It is only recently that the _succession_ of +processes which is involved in any act of counting has been seen to be +irrelevant to the idea of number. Indeed, it is only by experience that +we can know that any definite process of counting will give the true +cardinal number of some class of entities. It is perfectly possible to +imagine a universe in which any act of counting by a being in it +annihilated some members of the class counted during the time and only +during the time of its continuance. A legend of the Council of Nicea[10] +illustrates this point: "When the Bishops took their places on their +thrones, they were 318; when they rose up to be called over, it appeared +that they were 319; so that they never could make the number come right, +and whenever they approached the last of the series, he immediately +turned into the likeness of his next neighbour." Whatever be the +historical worth of this story, it may safely be said that it cannot be +disproved by deductive reasoning from the premisses of abstract logic. +The most we can do is to assert that a universe in which such things are +liable to happen on a large scale is unfitted for the practical +application of the theory of cardinal numbers. The application of the +theory of real numbers to physical quantities involves analogous +considerations. In the first place, some physical process of addition is +presupposed, involving some inductively inferred law of permanence +during that process. Thus in the theory of masses we must know that two +pounds of lead when put together will counterbalance in the scales two +pounds of sugar, or a pound of lead and a pound of sugar. Furthermore, +the sort of continuity of the series (in order of magnitude) of rational +numbers is known to be different from that of the series of real +numbers. Indeed, mathematicians now reserve "continuity" as the term for +the latter kind of continuity; the mere property of having an infinite +number of terms between any two terms is called "compactness." The +compactness of the series of rational numbers is consistent with +quasi-gaps in it--that is, with the possible absence of limits to +classes in it. Thus the class of rational numbers whose squares are less +than 2 has no upper limit among the rational numbers. But among the real +numbers all classes have limits. Now, owing to the necessary inexactness +of measurement, it is impossible to discriminate directly whether any +kind of continuous physical quantity possesses the compactness of the +series of rationals or the continuity of the series of real numbers. In +calculations the latter hypothesis is made because of its mathematical +simplicity. But, the assumption has certainly no a priori grounds in its +favour, and it is not very easy to see how to base it upon experience. +For example, if it should turn out that the mass of a body is to be +estimated by counting the number of corpuscles (whatever they may be) +which go to form it, then a body with an irrational measure of mass is +intrinsically impossible. Similarly, the continuity of space apparently +rests upon sheer assumption unsupported by any a priori or experimental +grounds. Thus the current applications of mathematics to the analysis of +phenomena can be justified by no a priori necessity. + +In one sense there is no science of applied mathematics. When once the +fixed conditions which any hypothetical group of entities are to satisfy +have been precisely formulated, the deduction of the further +propositions, which also will hold respecting them, can proceed in +complete independence of the question as to whether or no any such group +of entities can be found in the world of phenomena. Thus rational +mechanics, based on the Newtonian Laws, viewed as mathematics is +independent of its supposed application, and hydrodynamics remains a +coherent and respected science though it is extremely improbable that +any perfect fluid exists in the physical world. But this unbendingly +logical point of view cannot be the last word upon the matter. For no +one can doubt the essential difference between characteristic treatises +upon "pure" and "applied" mathematics. The difference is a difference in +method. In pure mathematics the hypotheses which a set of entities are +to satisfy are given, and a group of interesting deductions are sought. +In "applied mathematics" the "deductions" are given in the shape of the +experimental evidence of natural science, and the hypotheses from which +the "deductions" can be deduced are sought. Accordingly, every treatise +on applied mathematics, properly so-called, is directed to the criticism +of the "laws" from which the reasoning starts, or to a suggestion of +results which experiment may hope to find. Thus if it calculates the +result of some experiment, it is not the experimentalist's well-attested +results which are on their trial, but the basis of the calculation. +Newton's _Hypotheses non fingo_ was a proud boast, but it rests upon an +entire misconception of the capacities of the mind of man in dealing +with external nature. + + _Synopsis of Existing Developments of Pure Mathematics._--A complete + classification of mathematical sciences, as they at present exist, is + to be found in the _International Catalogue of Scientific Literature_ + promoted by the Royal Society. The classification in question was + drawn up by an international committee of eminent mathematicians, and + thus has the highest authority. It would be unfair to criticize it + from an exacting philosophical point of view. The practical object of + the enterprise required that the proportionate quantity of yearly + output in the various branches, and that the liability of various + topics as a matter of fact to occur in connexion with each other, + should modify the classification. + + Section A deals with pure mathematics. Under the general heading + "_Fundamental Notions_" occur the subheadings "_Foundations of + Arithmetic_," with the topics rational, irrational and transcendental + numbers, and aggregates; "_Universal Algebra_," with the topics + complex numbers, quaternions, ausdehnungslehre, vector analysis, + matrices, and algebra of logic; and "_Theory of Groups_," with the + topics finite and continuous groups. For the subjects of this general + heading see the articles ALGEBRA, UNIVERSAL; GROUPS, THEORY OF; + INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS; NUMBER; QUATERNIONS; VECTOR ANALYSIS. Under + the general heading "_Algebra and Theory of Numbers_" occur the + subheadings "_Elements of Algebra_," with the topics rational + polynomials, permutations, &c., partitions, probabilities; "_Linear + Substitutions_," with the topics determinants, &c., linear + substitutions, general theory of quantics; "_Theory of Algebraic + Equations_," with the topics existence of roots, separation of and + approximation to, theory of Galois, &c.; "_Theory of Numbers_," with + the topics congruences, quadratic residues, prime numbers, particular + irrational and transcendental numbers. For the subjects of this + general heading see the articles ALGEBRA; ALGEBRAIC FORMS; ARITHMETIC; + COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS; DETERMINANTS; EQUATION; FRACTION, CONTINUED; + INTERPOLATION; LOGARITHMS; MAGIC SQUARE; PROBABILITY. Under the + general heading "_Analysis_" occur the subheadings "_Foundations of + Analysis_," with the topics theory of functions of real variables, + series and other infinite processes, principles and elements of the + differential and of the integral calculus, definite integrals, and + calculus of variations; "_Theory of Functions of Complex Variables_," + with the topics functions of one variable and of several variables; + "_Algebraic Functions and their Integrals_," with the topics algebraic + functions of one and of several variables, elliptic functions and + single theta functions, Abelian integrals; "_Other Special + Functions_," with the topics Euler's, Legendre's, Bessel's and + automorphic functions; "_Differential Equations_," with the topics + existence theorems, methods of solution, general theory; + "_Differential Forms and Differential Invariants_," with the topics + differential forms, including Pfaffians, transformation of + differential forms, including tangential (or contact) transformations, + differential invariants; "_Analytical Methods connected with Physical + Subjects_," with the topics harmonic analysis, Fourier's series, the + differential equations of applied mathematics, Dirichlet's problem; + "_Difference Equations and Functional Equations_," with the topics + recurring series, solution of equations of finite differences and + functional equations. For the subjects of this heading see the + articles DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS; FOURIER'S SERIES; CONTINUED + FRACTIONS; FUNCTION; FUNCTION OF REAL VARIABLES; FUNCTION COMPLEX; + GROUPS, THEORY OF; INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS; MAXIMA AND MINIMA; SERIES; + SPHERICAL HARMONICS; TRIGONOMETRY; VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF. Under the + general heading "_Geometry_" occur the subheadings "_Foundations_," + with the topics principles of geometry, non-Euclidean geometries, + hyperspace, methods of analytical geometry; "_Elementary Geometry_," + with the topics planimetry, stereometry, trigonometry, descriptive + geometry; "_Geometry of Conics and Quadrics_," with the implied + topics; "_Algebraic Curves and Surfaces of Degree higher than the + Second_," with the implied topics; "_Transformations and General + Methods for Algebraic Configurations_," with the topics collineation, + duality, transformations, correspondence, groups of points on + algebraic curves and surfaces, genus of curves and surfaces, + enumerative geometry, connexes, complexes, congruences, higher + elements in space, algebraic configurations in hyperspace; + "_Infinitesimal Geometry: applications of Differential and Integral + Calculus to Geometry_," with the topics kinematic geometry, curvature, + rectification and quadrature, special transcendental curves and + surfaces; "_Differential Geometry: applications of Differential + Equations to Geometry_," with the topics curves on surfaces, minimal + surfaces, surfaces determined by differential properties, conformal + and other representation of surfaces on others, deformation of + surfaces, orthogonal and isothermic surfaces. For the subjects under + this heading see the articles CONIC SECTIONS; CIRCLE; CURVE; + GEOMETRICAL CONTINUITY; GEOMETRY, _AXIOMS OF_; GEOMETRY, _EUCLIDEAN_; + GEOMETRY, _PROJECTIVE_; GEOMETRY, _ANALYTICAL_; GEOMETRY, _LINE_; + KNOTS, MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF; MENSURATION; MODELS; PROJECTION; + SURFACE; TRIGONOMETRY. + + This survey of the existing developments of pure mathematics confirms + the conclusions arrived at from the previous survey of the theoretical + principles of the subject. Functions, operations, transformations, + substitutions, correspondences, are but names for various types of + relations. A group is a class of relations possessing a special + property. Thus the modern ideas, which have so powerfully extended and + unified the subject, have loosened its connexion with "number" and + "quantity," while bringing ideas of form and structure into increasing + prominence. Number must indeed ever remain the great topic of + mathematical interest, because it is in reality the great topic of + applied mathematics. All the world, including savages who cannot count + beyond five, daily "apply" theorems of number. But the complexity of + the idea of number is practically illustrated by the fact that it is + best studied as a department of a science wider than itself. + + _Synopsis of Existing Developments of Applied Mathematics._--Section B + of the _International Catalogue_ deals with mechanics. The heading + "_Measurement of Dynamical Quantities_" includes the topics units, + measurements, and the constant of gravitation. The topics of the other + headings do not require express mention. These headings are: + "_Geometry and Kinematics of Particles and Solid Bodies_"; + "_Principles of Rational Mechanics_"; "_Statics of Particles, Rigid + Bodies, &c._"; "_Kinetics of Particles, Rigid Bodies, &c._"; "_General + Analytical Mechanics_"; "_Statics and Dynamics of Fluids_"; + "_Hydraulics and Fluid Resistances_"; "_Elasticity_." For the subjects + of this general heading see the articles MECHANICS; DYNAMICS, + ANALYTICAL; GYROSCOPE; HARMONIC ANALYSIS; WAVE; HYDROMECHANICS; + ELASTICITY; MOTION, LAWS OF; ENERGY; ENERGETICS; ASTRONOMY (_Celestial + Mechanics_); TIDE. Mechanics (including dynamical astronomy) is that + subject among those traditionally classed as "applied" which has been + most completely transfused by mathematics--that is to say, which is + studied with the deductive spirit of the pure mathematician, and not + with the covert inductive intention overlaid with the superficial + forms of deduction, characteristic of the applied mathematician. + + Every branch of physics gives rise to an application of mathematics. A + prophecy may be hazarded that in the future these applications will + unify themselves into a mathematical theory of a hypothetical + substructure of the universe, uniform under all the diverse phenomena. + This reflection is suggested by the following articles: AETHER; + MOLECULE; CAPILLARY ACTION; DIFFUSION; RADIATION, THEORY OF; and + others. + + The applications of mathematics to statistics (see STATISTICS and + PROBABILITY) should not be lost sight of; the leading fields for these + applications are insurance, sociology, variation in zoology and + economics. + +_The History of Mathematics._--The history of mathematics is in the main +the history of its various branches. A short account of the history of +each branch will be found in connexion with the article which deals with +it. Viewing the subject as a whole, and apart from remote developments +which have not in fact seriously influenced the great structure of the +mathematics of the European races, it may be said to have had its origin +with the Greeks, working on pre-existing fragmentary lines of thought +derived from the Egyptians and Phoenicians. The Greeks created the +sciences of geometry and of number as applied to the measurement of +continuous quantities. The great abstract ideas (considered directly and +not merely in tacit use) which have dominated the science were due to +them--namely, ratio, irrationality, continuity, the point, the straight +line, the plane. This period lasted[11] from the time of Thales, c. 600 +B.C., to the capture of Alexandria by the Mahommedans, A.D. 641. The +medieval Arabians invented our system of numeration and developed +algebra. The next period of advance stretches from the Renaissance to +Newton and Leibnitz at the end of the 17th century. During this period +logarithms were invented, trigonometry and algebra developed, analytical +geometry invented, dynamics put upon a sound basis, and the period +closed with the magnificent invention of (or at least the perfecting of) +the differential calculus by Newton and Leibnitz and the discovery of +gravitation. The 18th century witnessed a rapid development of analysis, +and the period culminated with the genius of Lagrange and Laplace. This +period may be conceived as continuing throughout the first quarter of +the 19th century. It was remarkable both for the brilliance of its +achievements and for the large number of French mathematicians of the +first rank who flourished during it. The next period was inaugurated in +analysis by K. F. Gauss, N. H. Abel and A. L. Cauchy. Between them the +general theory of the complex variable, and of the various "infinite" +processes of mathematical analysis, was established, while other +mathematicians, such as Poncelet, Steiner, Lobatschewsky and von Staudt, +were founding modern geometry, and Gauss inaugurated the differential +geometry of surfaces. The applied mathematical sciences of light, +electricity and electromagnetism, and of heat, were now largely +developed. This school of mathematical thought lasted beyond the middle +of the century, after which a change and further development can be +traced. In the next and last period the progress of pure mathematics has +been dominated by the critical spirit introduced by the German +mathematicians under the guidance of Weierstrass, though foreshadowed by +earlier analysts, such as Abel. Also such ideas as those of invariants, +groups and of form, have modified the entire science. But the progress +in all directions has been too rapid to admit of any one adequate +characterization. During the same period a brilliant group of +mathematical physicists, notably Lord Kelvin (W. Thomson), H. V. +Helmholtz, J. C. Maxwell, H. Hertz, have transformed applied mathematics +by systematically basing their deductions upon the Law of the +conservation of energy, and the hypothesis of an ether pervading space. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--References to the works containing expositions of the + various branches of mathematics are given in the appropriate articles. + It must suffice here to refer to sources in which the subject is + considered as one whole. Most philosophers refer in their works to + mathematics more or less cursorily, either in the treatment of the + ideas of number and magnitude, or in their consideration of the + alleged a priori and necessary truths. A bibliography of such + references would be in effect a bibliography of metaphysics, or rather + of epistemology. The founder of the modern point of view, explained in + this article, was Leibnitz, who, however, was so far in advance of + contemporary thought that his ideas remained neglected and undeveloped + until recently; cf. _Opuscules et fragments inédits de Leibnitz. + Extraits des manuscrits de la bibliothèque royale de Hanovre_, by + Louis Couturat (Paris, 1903), especially pp. 356-399, "Generales + inquisitiones de analysi notionum et veritatum" (written in 1686); + also cf. _La Logique de Leibnitz_, already referred to. For the modern + authors who nave rediscovered and improved upon the position of + Leibnitz, cf. _Grundgesetze der Arithmetik, begriffsschriftlich + abgeleitet von Dr G. Frege, a.o. Professor an der Univ. Jena_ (Bd. i., + 1893; Bd. ii., 1903, Jena); also cf. Frege's earlier works, + _Begriffsschrift, eine der arithmetischen nachgebildete Formelsprache + des reinen Denkens_ (Halle, 1879), and _Die Grundlagen der Arithmetik_ + (Breslau, 1884); also cf. Bertrand Russell, _The Principles of + Mathematics_ (Cambridge, 1903), and his article on "Mathematical + Logic" in _Amer. Quart. Journ. of Math._ (vol. xxx., 1908). Also the + following works are of importance, though not all expressly expounding + the Leibnitzian point of view: cf. G. Cantor, "Grundlagen einer + allgemeinen Mannigfaltigkeitslehre," _Math. Annal._, vol. xxi. (1883) + and subsequent articles in vols. xlvi. and xlix.; also R. Dedekind, + _Stetigkeit und irrationales Zahlen_ (1st ed., 1872), and _Was sind + und was sollen die Zahlen?_ (1st ed., 1887), both tracts translated + into English under the title _Essays on the Theory of Numbers_ + (Chicago, 1901). These works of G. Cantor and Dedekind were of the + greatest importance in the progress of the subject. Also cf. G. Peano + (with various collaborators of the Italian school), _Formulaire de + mathématiques_ (Turin, various editions, 1894-1908; the earlier + editions are the more interesting philosophically); Felix Klein, + _Lectures on Mathematics_ (New York, 1894); W. K. Clifford, _The + Common Sense of the exact Sciences_ (London, 1885); H. Poincaré, _La + Science el l'hypothèse_ (Paris, 1st ed., 1902), English translation + under the title, _Science and Hypothesis_ (London, 1905); L. Couturat, + _Les Principes des mathématiques_ (Paris, 1905); E. Mach, _Die + Mechanik in ihrer Entwickelung_ (Prague, 1883), English translation + under the title, _The Science of Mechanics_ (London, 1893); K. + Pearson, _The Grammar of Science_ (London, 1st ed., 1892; 2nd ed., + 1900, enlarged); A. Cayley, _Presidential Address_ (Brit. Assoc., + 1883); B. Russell and A. N. Whitehead, _Principia Mathematica_ + (Cambridge, 1911). For the history of mathematics the one modern and + complete source of information is M. Cantor's _Vorlesungen über + Geschichte der Mathematik_ (Leipzig, 1st Bd., 1880; 2nd Bd., 1892; 3rd + Bd., 1898; 4th Bd., 1908; 1st Bd., _von den ältesten Zeiten bis zum + Jahre 1200, n. Chr._; 2nd Bd., _von 1200-1668_; 3rd Bd., _von + 1668-1758_; 4th Bd., _von 1795 bis 1790_); W. W. R. Ball, _A Short + History of Mathematics_ (London 1st ed., 1888, three subsequent + editions, enlarged and revised, and translations into French and + Italian). (A. N. W.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Cf. _La Logique de Leibnitz_, ch. vii., by L. Couturat (Paris, + 1901). + + [2] Cf. _The Principles of Mathematics_, by Bertrand Russell + (Cambridge, 1903). + + [3] Cf. _Formulaire mathématique_ (Turin, ed. of 1903); earlier + formulations of the bases of arithmetic are given by him in the + editions of 1898 and of 1901. The variations are only trivial. + + [4] Cf. Russell, _loc. cit._, pp. 199-256. + + [5] The first unqualified explicit statement of _part_ of this + definition seems to be by B. Peirce, "Mathematics is the science + which draws necessary conclusions" (_Linear Associative Algebra_, § + i. (1870), republished in the _Amer. Journ. of Math._, vol. iv. + (1881)). But it will be noticed that the second half of the + definition in the text--"from the general premisses of all + reasoning"--is left unexpressed. The full expression of the idea and + its development into a philosophy of mathematics is due to Russell, + _loc. cit._ + + [6] "Una questione sui numeri transfiniti," _Rend. del circolo mat. + di Palermo_, vol. xi. (1897); and Russell, _loc. cit._, ch. xxxviii. + + [7] Cf. Russell, _loc. cit._, ch. x. + + [8] Cf. _Pragmatism: a New Name for some Old Ways of Thinking_ + (1907). + + [9] Due to Bertrand Russell, cf. "Mathematical Logic as based on the + Theory of Types," _Amer. Journ. of Math._ vol. xxx. (1908). It is + more fully explained by him, with later simplifications, in + _Principia mathematica_ (Cambridge). + + [10] Cf. Stanley's _Eastern Church_, Lecture v. + + [11] Cf. _A Short History of Mathematics_, by W. W. R. Ball. + + + + +MATHER, COTTON (1663-1728), American Congregational clergyman and +author, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 12th of February 1663. +He was the grandson of Richard Mather, and the eldest child of Increase +Mather (q.v.), and Maria, daughter of John Cotton. After studying under +the famous Ezekiel Cheever (1614-1708), he entered Harvard College at +twelve, and graduated in 1678. While teaching (1678-1685), he began the +study of theology, but soon, on account of an impediment in his speech, +discontinued it and took up medicine. Later, however, he conquered the +difficulty and finished his preparation for the ministry. He was elected +assistant pastor in his father's church, the North, or Second, Church of +Boston, in 1681 and was ordained as his father's colleague in 1685. In +1688, when his father went to England as agent for the colony, he was +left at twenty-five in charge of the largest congregation in New +England, and he ministered to it for the rest of his life. He soon +became one of the most influential men in the colonies. He had much to +do with the witchcraft persecution of his day; in 1692 when the +magistrates appealed to the Boston clergy for advice in regard to the +witchcraft cases in Salem he drafted their reply, upon which the +prosecutions were based; in 1689 he had written _Memorable Providences +Relating to Witchcraft and Possessions_, and even his earlier diaries +have many entries showing his belief in diabolical possession and his +fear and hatred of it. Thinking as he did that the New World had been +the undisturbed realm of Satan before the settlements were made in +Massachusetts, he considered it natural that the Devil should make a +peculiar effort to bring moral destruction on these godly invaders. He +used prayer and fasting to deliver himself from evil enchantment; and +when he saw ecstatic and mystical visions promising him the Lord's help +and great usefulness in the Lord's work, he feared that these +revelations might be of diabolic origin. He used his great influence to +bring the suspected persons to trial and punishment. He attended the +trials, investigated many of the cases himself, and wrote sermons on +witchcraft, the _Memorable Providences_ and _The Wonders of the +Invisible World_ (1693), which increased the excitement of the people. +Accordingly, when the persecutions ceased and the reaction set in, much +of the blame was laid upon him; the influence of Judge Samuel Sewall, +after he had come to think his part in the Salem delusion a great +mistake, was turned against the Mathers; and the liberal leaders of +Congregationalism in Boston, notably the Brattles, found this a +vulnerable point in Cotton Mather's armour and used their knowledge to +much effect, notably by assisting Robert Calef (d. c. 1723) in the +preparation of _More Wonders of the Invisible World_ (1700) a powerful +criticism of Cotton Mather's part in the delusion at Salem. + +Mather took some part as adviser in the Revolution of 1689 in +Massachusetts. In 1690 he became a member o£ the Corporation (probably +the youngest ever chosen as Fellow) of Harvard College, and in 1707 he +was greatly disappointed at his failure to be chosen president of that +institution. He received the degree of D.D. from the University of +Glasgow in 1710, and in 1713 was made a Fellow of the Royal Society. +Like his father he was deeply grieved by the liberal theology and Church +polity of the new Brattle Street Congregation, and conscientiously +opposed its pastor Benjamin Colman, who had been irregularly ordained in +England and by a Presbyterian body; but with his father he took part in +1700 in services in Colman's church. Harvard College was now controlled +by the Liberals of the Brattle Street Church, and as it grew farther and +farther away from Calvinism, Mather looked with increasing favour upon +the college in Connecticut; before September 1701 he had drawn up a +"scheme for a college," the oldest document now in the Yale archives; +and finally (Jan. 1718) he wrote to a London merchant, Elihu Yale, and +persuaded him to make a liberal gift to the college, which was named in +his honour. During the small-pox epidemic of 1721 he attempted in vain +to have treatment by inoculation employed, for the first time in +America; and for this he was bitterly attacked on all sides, and his +life was at one time in danger; but, nevertheless, he used the treatment +on his son, who recovered, and he wrote _An Account of the Method and +further Success of Inoculating for the Small Pox in London_ (1721). In +addition he advocated temperance, missions, Bible societies, and the +education of the negro; favoured the establishing of libraries for +working men and of religious organizations for young people, and +organized societies for other branches of philanthropic work. His later +years were clouded with many sorrows and disappointments; his relations +with Governor Joseph Dudley were unfriendly; he lost much of his former +prestige in the Church--his own congregation dwindled--and in the +college; his uncle John Cotton was expelled from his charge in the +Plymouth Church; his son Increase turned out a ne'er-do-well; four of +his children and his second wife died in November 1713; his wife's +brothers and the husbands of his sisters were ungodly and violent men; +his favourite daughter Katherine, who "understood Latin and read Hebrew +fluently," died in 1716; his third wife went mad in 1719; his personal +enemies circulated incredible scandals about him; and in 1724-1725 he +saw a Liberal once more preferred to him as a new president of Harvard. +He died in Boston on the 13th of February 1728 and is buried in the +Copps Hill burial-ground, Boston. He was thrice married--to Abigail +Phillips (d. 1702) in 1686, to Mrs Elizabeth Hubbard (d. 1713) in 1703, +and in 1715 to Mrs Lydia George (d. 1734). Of his fifteen children only +two survived him. + +Though self-conscious and vain, Cotton Mather had on the whole a noble +character. He believed strongly in the power of prayer and repeatedly +had assurances that his prayers were heard; and when he was disappointed +by non-fulfilment his grief and depression were terrible. His spiritual +nature was high-strung and delicate; and this condition was aggravated +by his constant study, his long fasts and his frequent vigils--in one +year, according to his diary, he kept sixty fasts and twenty vigils. In +his later years his diaries have less and less of personal detail, and +repeated entries prefaced by the letters "G.D." meaning Good Device, +embodying precepts of kindliness and practical Christianity. He was +remarkable for his godliness, his enthusiasm for knowledge, and his +prodigious memory. He became a skilled linguist, a widely read +scholar--though much of his learning was more curious than useful--a +powerful preacher, a valued citizen, and a voluminous writer, and did a +vast deal for the intellectual and spiritual quickening of New England. +He worked with might and main for the continuation of the old theocracy, +but before he died it had given way before an increasing +Liberalism--even Yale was infected with the Episcopalianism that he +hated. + + Among his four hundred or more published works, many of which are + sermons, tracts and letters, the most notable is his _Magnalia Christi + Americana: or the Ecclesiastical History of New England, from Its + First Planting in the Year 1620 unto the Year of Our Lord, 1698_. + Begun in 1693 and finished in 1697, this work was published in London, + in 1702, in one volume, and was republished in Hartford in 1820 and in + 1853-1855, in two volumes. It is in seven books and concerns itself + mainly with the settlement and religious history of New England. It is + often inaccurate, and it abounds in far-fetched conceits and odd and + pedantic features. Its style, though in the main rather unnatural and + declamatory, is at its best spontaneous, dignified and rhythmical; the + book is valuable for occasional facts and for its picture of the + times, and it did much to make Mather the most eminent American writer + of his day. His other writings include _A Poem Dedicated to the Memory + of the Reverend and Excellent Mr Urian Oakes_ (1682); _The Present + State of New England_ (1690); _The Life of the Renowned John Eliot_ + (1691), later included in Book III. of the _Magnalia; The Short + History of New England_ (1694); _Bonifacius_, usually known as _Essays + To Do Good_ (Boston, 1710; Glasgow, 1825; Boston, 1845), one of his + principal books and one which had a shaping influence on the life of + Benjamin Franklin; _Psalterium Americanum_ (1718), a blank verse + translation of the Psalms from the original Hebrew; _The Christian + Philosopher: A Collection of the Best Discoveries in Nature, with + Religious Improvements_ (1721); _Parentator_ (1724), a memoir of his + father; _Ratio Disciplinae_ (1726), an account of the discipline in + New England churches; _Manuductio ad Ministerium: Directions for a + Candidate of the Ministry_ (1726), one of the most readable of his + books. He also left a number of works in manuscript, including + diaries, a medical treatise and a huge commentary on the Bible, + entitled "Biblia Americana." + + See _The Life of Cotton Mather_ (Boston, 1729), by his son, Samuel + Mather; William B. O. Peabody, _The Life of Cotton Mather_ (1836) (in + Jared Sparks's "Library of American Biography," vol. vi.); Enoch Pond, + _The Mather Family_ (Boston, 1844); John L. Sibley, _Biographical + Sketches of Graduates of Harvard University_, vol. iii. (Cambridge, + 1885); Barrett Wendell, _Cotton Mather, the Puritan Priest_ (New York, + 1891), a remarkably sympathetic study and particularly valuable for + its insight into (and its defence of) Mather's attitude toward + witchcraft; Abijah P. Marvin, _The Life and Times of Cotton Mather_ + (Boston, 1892); M. C. Tyler, _A History of American Literature during + the Colonial Period_, vol. ii. (New York, 1878); and Barrett Wendell, + _A Literary History of America_ (New York, 1900). + +Cotton Mather's son, SAMUEL MATHER (1706-1785), also a clergyman, +graduated at Harvard in 1723, was pastor of the North Church, Boston, +from 1732 to 1742, when, owing to a dispute among his congregation over +revivals, he resigned to take charge of a church established for him in +North Bennett Street. + + Among his works are _The Life of Cotton Mather_ (1729); _An Apology + for the Liberties of the Churches in New England_ (1738), and _America + Known to the Ancients_ (1773). (W. L. C.*) + + + + +MATHER, INCREASE (1639-1723), American Congregational minister, was born +in Dorchester, Massachusetts, on the 21st of June 1639, the youngest son +of Richard Mather.[1] He entered Harvard in 1651, and graduated in 1656. +In 1657, on his eighteenth birthday, he preached his first sermon; in +the same year he went to visit his eldest brother in Dublin, and studied +there at Trinity College, where he graduated M.A. in 1658. He was +chaplain to the English garrison at Guernsey in April-December 1659 and +again in 1661; and in the latter year, refusing valuable livings in +England offered on condition of conformity, he returned to America. In +the winter of 1661-1662 he began to preach to the Second (or North) +Church of Boston, and was ordained there on the 27th of May 1664. As a +delegate from Dorchester, his father's church, to the Synod of 1662, he +opposed the Half-Way Covenant adopted by the Synod and defended by +Richard Mather and by Jonathan Mitchell (1624-1668) of Cambridge; but +soon afterwards he "surrendered a glad captive" to "the truth so +victoriously cleared by Mr Mitchell," and like his father and his son +became one of the chief exponents of the Half-Way Covenant. He was +bitterly opposed, however, to the liberal practices that followed the +Half-Way Covenant and (after 1677) in particular to "Stoddardeanism," +the doctrine of Solomon Stoddard (1643-1729) that all "such Persons as +have a good Conversation and a Competent Knowledge may come to the +Lord's Supper," only those of openly immoral life being excluded. In May +1679 Mather was a petitioner to the General Court for the call of a +Synod to consider the reformation in New England of "the Evils that have +Provoked the Lord to bring his Judgments,"[2] and when the "Reforming +Synod" met in September it appointed him one of a committee to draft a +creed; this committee reported in May 1680, at the Synod's second +session, of which Mather was moderator, the Savoy Declaration (slightly +modified, notably in ch. xxiv., "Of the Civil Magistrate"), which was +approved but was not made mandatory on the churches by the General +Court, and in 1708 was reaffirmed at Saybrook, Connecticut. With the +Cambridge Platform of 1646, drafted by his father, the Confession of +1680, for which Increase Mather was largely responsible, was printed as +a book of doctrine and government for the churches of Massachusetts. + +After the threat of a _Quo Warranto_ writ in 1683 for the surrender of +the Massachusetts charter, Mather used all his tremendous influence to +persuade the colonists not to give up the charter; and the Boston +freemen unanimously voted against submission. The royal agents +immediately afterwards sent to London a treasonable letter, falsely +attributed to Mather; but its spuriousness seems to have been suspected +in England and Mather was not "fetch'd over and made a Sacrifice." He +became a leader in the opposition to Sir Edmund Andros, to his secretary +Edward Randolph, and to Governor Joseph Dudley. He was chosen by the +General Court to represent the colony's interests in England, eluded +officers sent to arrest him,[3] and in disguise boarded a ship on which +he reached Weymouth on the 6th of May 1688. In London he acted with Sir +Henry Ashurst, the resident agent, and had two or three fruitless +audiences with James II. His first audience with William III. was on the +9th of January 1689; he was active in influencing the Commons to vote +(1689) that the New England charters should be restored; and he +published _A Narrative of the Miseries of New-England, By Reason of an +Arbitrary Government Erected there Under Sir Edmund Andros_ (1688), _A +Brief Relation for the Confirmation of Charter Privileges_ (1691), and +other pamphlets. In 1690 he was joined by Elisha Cooke (1638-1715) and +Thomas Oakes (1644-1719), additional agents, who were uncompromisingly +for the renewal of the old charter. Mather, however, was instrumental in +securing a new charter (signed on Oct. 7, 1691), and prevented the +annexation of the Plymouth Colony to New York. The nomination of +officers left to the Crown was reserved to the agents. Mather had +expressed strong dissatisfaction with the clause giving the governor the +right of veto, and regretted the less theocratic tone of the charter +which made all freemen (and not merely church members) electors. With +Sir William Phips, the new governor, a member of Mather's church, he +arrived in Boston on the 14th of May 1692. The value of his services to +the colony at this time is not easily over-estimated. In England he won +the friendship of divines like Baxter, Tillotson and Burnet, and +effectively promoted the union in 1691 of English Presbyterians and +Congregationalists. He was at heavy expense throughout his stay, and +even greater than his financial loss was his loss of authority and +control in the church and in Harvard College because of his absence. + +Mather had been acting president of Harvard College in 1681-1682, and in +June 1685 he again became acting president (or rector), but still +preached every Sunday in Boston and would not comply with an order of +the General Court that he should reside in Cambridge. In 1701 after a +short residence there he returned to Boston and wrote to the General +Court to "think of another President for the Colledge." The opposition +to him had been increasing in strength, his resignation was accepted, +and Samuel Willard took charge of the college as vice-president, +although he also refused to reside in Cambridge. That Mather's +administration of the college was excellent is admitted even by his +harsh critic, Josiah Quincy, in his _History of Harvard University_.[4] +The Liberal party, which now came into control in the college repeatedly +disappointed the hopes of Cotton Mather (q.v.) that he might be chosen +president, and by its ecclesiastical laxness and its broader views of +Church polity forced the Mathers to turn from Harvard to Yale as a truer +school of the prophets. + +The Liberal leaders, John Leverett (1662-1724), William Brattle +(1662-1713)--who graduated with Leverett in 1680, and with him as tutor +controlled the college during Increase Mather's absence in +England--William Brattle's eldest brother, Thomas Brattle (1658-1713), +and Ebenezer Pemberton (1671-1717), pastor of the Old South Church, +desired an "enrichment of the service," and greater liberality in the +matter of baptism. In 1697 the Second Boston Church, in which Cotton +Mather had been his father's colleague since 1685, upbraided the +Charlestown Church "for betraying the liberties of the churches in their +late putting into the hands of the whole inhabitants the choice of a +minister." In 1699 Increase Mather published _The Order of the Gospel_, +which severely (although indirectly), criticized the methods of the +"Liberals" in establishing the Brattle Street Church and especially the +ordination of their minister Benjamin Colman by a Presbyterian body in +London; the Liberals replied with _The Gospel Order Revived_, which was +printed in New York to lend colour to the (partly true) charge of its +authors that the printers of Massachusetts would print nothing hostile +to Increase Mather.[5] The autocracy of the Mathers in church, college, +colony and press, had slipped from them. The later years of Mather's +life were spent almost entirely in the work of the ministry, now +beginning to be a less varied career than when he entered on it. He died +on the 23rd of August 1723. He married in 1662 Maria, daughter of Sarah +and John Cotton. His first wife died in 1714; and in 1715 he married Ann +Lake, widow of John Cotton, of Hampton, N.H., a grandson of John Cotton +of Boston. + +Increase Mather was a great preacher with a simple style and a splendid +voice, which had a "Tonitruous Cogency," to quote his son's phrase. His +style was much simpler and more vernacular than his son's. He was an +assiduous student, commonly spending sixteen hours a day among his +books; but his learning (to quote Justin Winsor's contrast between +Increase and Cotton Mather) "usually left his natural ability and his +education free from entanglements." He was not so much self-seeking and +personally ambitious as eager to advance the cause of the church in +which he so implicitly believed. That it is a mistake to consider him a +narrow churchman is shown by his assisting in 1718 at the ordination of +Elisha Callender in the First Baptist Church of Boston. Like the most +learned men of his time he was superstitious and a firm believer in +"praesagious impressions"; his _Essay for the Recording of Illustrious +Providences: Wherein an Account is Given of many Remarkable and very +Memorable Events which have Hapned in this Last Age, Especially in New +England_ (1684) shows that he believed only less thoroughly than his son +in witchcraft, though in his _Cases of Conscience Concerning Evil +Spirits_ (1693) he considered some current proofs of witchcraft +inadequate. The revulsion of feeling after the witchcraft delusion +undermined his authority greatly, and Robert's Calef's _More Wonders of +the Spiritual World_ (1700) was a personal blow to him as well as to his +son. With Jonathan Edwards, than whom he was much more of a man of +affairs, and with Benjamin Franklin, whose mission in England somewhat +resembled Mather's, he may be ranked among the greatest Americans of the +period before the War of Independence. + + The first authority for the life of Increase Mather is the work of his + son Cotton Mather, _Parentator: Memoirs of Remarkables in the Life and + Death of the Ever Memorable Dr Increase Mather_ (Boston, 1724); there + are also a memoir and constant references in Cotton Mather's + _Magnalia_ (London, 1702) especially vol. iv.; there is an excellent + sketch in the first volume of J. L. Sibley's _Biographical Sketches of + Graduates of Harvard University_ (Cambridge, 1873), with an exhaustive + list of Mather's works (about 150 titles); there is much valuable + matter in Williston Walker's _Ten New England Leaders_ (New York, + 1901) and in his _Creeds and Platforms of Congregationalism_ (New + York, 1893); for literary criticism of the Mathers see ch. xii. of M. + C. Tyler's _History of American Literature, 1607-1676_ (New York, + 1878), and Barrett Wendell's _Cotton Mather_ (New York, 1891). + Mather's worth has been under-estimated by Josiah Quincy, Justin + Winsor and other historians out of sympathy with his ecclesiastical + spirit, who represent him as only an ambitious narrow-minded schemer. + (R. We.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] He was so christened "because of the never-to-be-forgotten + increase, of every sort, wherewith God favoured the country about the + time of his nativity." He often latinized his name, spelling it + _Crescentius Matherus_. + + [2] That is, King Philip's War, the Boston fires of 1676, when + Mather's church and home were burned, and 1679, the threatened + introduction of Episcopacy, and the general spiritual decay of the + country. + + [3] He had previously been arrested and acquitted on a charge of + having attributed the forged letter to Randolph. + + [4] Mather led the resistance to the royal demand instigated by + Edward Randolph in 1683, for the annulment of the college charter, + and after its vacation in 1684 strove for the grant of a new charter; + King James promised him a confirmation of the former charter; the new + provincial charter granted by William and Mary confirmed all gifts + and grants to colleges; in 1692 Mather drafted an act incorporating + the college, which was signed by Phips but was disallowed in England; + and in 1696, 1697, 1699, and 1700, Mather repeated his efforts for a + college charter. + + [5] Mather was made a licenser of the Press in 1674 when the General + Court abolished the monopoly of the Cambridge Press. + + + + +MATHER, RICHARD (1596-1669), American Congregational clergyman, was born +in Lowton, in the parish of Winwick, near Liverpool, England, of a +family which was in reduced circumstances but entitled to bear a +coat-of-arms. He studied at Winwick grammar school, of which he was +appointed a master in his fifteenth year, and left it in 1612 to become +master of a newly established school at Toxteth Park, Liverpool. After a +few months at Brasenose College, Oxford, he began in November 1618 to +preach at Toxteth, and was ordained there, possibly only as deacon, +early in 1619. In August-November 1633 he was suspended for +nonconformity in matters of ceremony; and in 1634 was again suspended by +the visitors of Richard Neile, archbishop of York, who, hearing that he +had never worn a surplice during the fifteen years of his ministry, +refused to reinstate him and said that "it had been better for him that +he had gotten Seven Bastards." He had a great reputation as a preacher +in and about Liverpool; but, advised by letters of John Cotton and +Thomas Hooker, and persuaded by his own elaborate formal "Arguments +tending to prove the Removing from Old-England to New ... to be not only +lawful, but also necessary for them that are not otherwise tyed, but +free," he left England and on the 17th of August 1635, and landed in +Boston after an "extraordinary and miraculous deliverance" from a +terrible storm. As a famous preacher "he was desired at Plimouth, +Dorchester, and Roxbury." He went to Dorchester, where the Church had +been greatly depleted by migrations to Windsor, Connecticut; and where, +after a delay of several months, in August 1636 there was constituted by +the consent of magistrates and clergy a church of which he was "teacher" +until his death in Dorchester on the 22nd of April 1669. + + He was an able preacher, "aiming," said his biographer, "to shoot his + arrows not over his people's heads, but into their Hearts and + Consciences"; and he was a leader of New England Congregationalism, + whose policy he defended and described in the tract _Church Government + and Church Covenant Discussed, in an Answer of the Elders of the + Severall Churches of New England to Two and Thirty Questions_ (written + 1639; printed 1643), and in his _Reply to Mr Rutherford_ (1647), a + polemic against the Presbyterianism to which the English + Congregationalists were then tending. He drafted the Cambridge + Platform, an ecclesiastical constitution in seventeen chapters, + adopted (with the omission of Mather's paragraph favouring the + "Half-way Covenant," of which he strongly approved) by the general + synod in August 1646. In 1657 he drafted the declaration of the + Ministerial Convention on the meaning and force of the Half-way + Covenant; this was published in 1659 under the title: _A Disputation + concerning Church Members and their Children in Answer to XXI. + Questions_. With Thomas Welde and John Eliot he wrote the "Bay Psalm + Book," or, more accurately, _The Whole Booke of Psalmes Faithfully + Translated into English Metre_ (1640), probably the first book printed + in the English colonies. + +He married in 1624 Katherine Hoult or Holt (d. 1655), and secondly in +1656 Sarah Hankredge (d. 1676), the widow of John Cotton. Of six sons, +all by his first wife, four were ministers: SAMUEL (1626-1671), the +first fellow of Harvard College who was a graduate, chaplain of Magdalen +College, Oxford, in 1650-1653, and pastor (1656-1671, excepting +suspension in 1660-1662) of St Nicholas's in Dublin; NATHANIEL +(1630-1697), who graduated at Harvard in 1647, was vicar of Barnstaple, +Devon, in 1656-1662, pastor of the English Church in Rotterdam, his +brother's successor in Dublin in 1671-1688, and then until his death +pastor of a church in London; ELEAZAR (1637-1669), who graduated at +Harvard in 1656 and after preaching in Northampton, Massachusetts, for +three years, became in 1661 pastor of the church there; and INCREASE +MATHER (q.v.). Horace E. Mather, in his _Lineage of Richard Mather_ +(Hartford, Connecticut, 1890), gives a list of 80 clergymen descended +from Richard Mather, of whom 29 bore the name Mather and 51 other names, +the more famous being Storrs and Schauffler. + + See _The Life and Death of That Reverend Man of God, Mr Richard + Mather_ (Cambridge, 1670; reprinted 1850, with his _Journal_ for 1635, + by the Dorchester Antiquarian and Historical Society), with an + introduction by Increase Mather, who may have been the author; W. B. + Sprague's _Annals of the American Pulpit_, vol. i. (New York, 1857); + Cotton Mather's _Magnalia_ (London, 1702); an essay on Richard Mather + in Williston Walker's _Ten New England Leaders_ (New York, 1901); and + the works referred to in the article on Increase Mather. (R. We.) + + + + +MATHERAN, a hill sanatorium in India, in the Kolaba district of Bombay, +2460 ft. above the sea, and about 30 m. E. of Bombay city. Pop. (1901), +3060. It consists of several thickly wooded ridges, on a spur of the +Western Ghats, with a magnificent outlook over the plain below and the +distant sea. First explored in 1850, it has since become the favourite +resort of the middle classes of Bombay (especially the Parsis) during +the spring and autumn months. It has recently been connected by a 2 ft. +gauge mountain line with Neral station on the Great Indian Peninsula +railway, 54 m. from Bombay. + + + + +MATHESON, GEORGE (1842-1906), Scottish theologian and preacher, was born +in Glasgow in 1842, the son of George Matheson, a merchant. He was +educated at the university of Glasgow, where he graduated first in +classics, logic and philosophy. In his twentieth year he became totally +blind, but he held to his resolve to enter the ministry, and gave +himself to theological and historical study. His first ministry began in +1868 at Innellan, on the Argyllshire coast between Dunoon and Toward. +His books on _Aids to the Study of German Theology, Can the Old Faith +live with the New? The Growth of the Spirit of Christianity from the +First Century to the Dawn of the Lutheran Era_, established his +reputation as a liberal and spiritually minded theologian; and Queen +Victoria invited him to preach at Balmoral. In 1886 he removed to +Edinburgh, where he became minister of St Bernard's Parish Church. Here +his chief work as a preacher was done. In 1879 the university of +Edinburgh conferred upon him the honorary degree of D.D., and the same +year he declined an invitation to the pastorate of Crown Court, London, +in succession to Dr John Cumming (1807-1881). In 1881 he was chosen as +Baird lecturer, and took for his subject "Natural Elements of Revealed +Theology," and in 1882 he was the St Giles lecturer, his subject being +"Confucianism." In 1890 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of +Edinburgh, Aberdeen gave him its honorary LL.D., and in 1899 he was +appointed Gifford lecturer by that university, but declined on grounds +of health. In the same year he severed his active connexion with St +Bernard's. One of his hymns, "O love that will not let me go," has +passed into the popular hymnology of the Christian Church. He died +suddenly of apoplexy on the 28th of August 1906. His exegesis owes its +interest to his subjective resources rather than to breadth of learning; +his power lay in spiritual vision rather than balanced judgment, and in +the vivid apprehension of the factors which make the Christian +personality, rather than in constructive doctrinal statement. + + + + +MATHEW, THEOBALD (1790-1856), Irish temperance reformer, popularly known +as Father Mathew, was descended from a branch of the Llandaff family, +and was born at Thomastown, Tipperary, on the 10th of October 1790. He +received his school education at Kilkenny, whence he passed for a short +time to Maynooth; from 1808 to 1814 he studied at Dublin, where in the +latter year he was ordained to the priesthood. Having entered the +Capuchin order, he, after a brief time of service at Kilkenny, joined +the mission in Cork, which was the scene of his religious and benevolent +labours for many years. The movement with which his name is most +intimately associated began in 1838 with the establishment of a total +abstinence association, which in less than nine months, thanks to his +moral influence and eloquence, enrolled no fewer than 150,000 names. It +rapidly spread to Limerick and elsewhere, and some idea of its +popularity may be formed from the fact that at Nenagh 20,000 persons are +said to have taken the pledge in one day, 100,000 at Galway in two days, +and 70,000 in Dublin in five days. In 1844 he visited Liverpool, +Manchester and London with almost equal success. Meanwhile the expenses +of his enterprise had involved him in heavy liabilities, and led on one +occasion to his arrest for debt; from this embarrassment he was only +partially relieved by a pension of £300 granted by Queen Victoria in +1847. In 1849 he paid a visit to the United States, returning in 1851. +He died at Queenstown on the 8th of December, 1856. + + See _Father Mathew, a Biography_, by J. F. Maguire, M.P. (1863). + + + + +MATHEWS, CHARLES (1776-1835), English actor, was born in London on the +28th of June 1776. His father was "a serious bookseller," who also +officiated as minister in one of Lady Huntingdon's chapels. Mathews was +educated at Merchant Taylors' School. His love for the stage was formed +in his boyhood, when he was apprentice to his father, and the latter in +1794 unwillingly permitted him to enter on a theatrical engagement in +Dublin. For several years Mathews had not only to content himself with +thankless parts at a low salary, but in May 1803 he made his first +London appearance at the Haymarket as Jabel in Cumberland's _The Jew_ +and as Lingo in _The Agreeable Surprise_. From this time his +professional career was an uninterrupted triumph. He had a wonderful +gift of mimicry, and could completely disguise his personality without +the smallest change of dress. The versatility and originality of his +powers were admirably displayed in his "At Homes," begun in the Lyceum +theatre in 1818, which, according to Leigh Hunt, "for the richness and +variety of his humour, were as good as half a dozen plays distilled." +Off the stage his simple and kind-hearted disposition won him affection +and esteem. In 1822 Mathews visited America, his observation on his +experiences there forming for the reader a most entertaining portion of +his biography. From infancy his health had been uncertain, and the toils +of his profession gradually undermined it. In 1834 he paid a second +visit to America. His last appearance in New York was on the 11th of +February 1835, when he played Samuel Coddle in _Married Life_ and Andrew +Steward in _The Lone House_. He died at Plymouth on the 28th of June +1835. In 1797 he had married Eliza Kirkham Strong (d. 1802), and in 1803 +Anne Jackson, an actress, the author of the popular and diverting +_Memoirs, by Mrs Mathews_ (4 vols., 1838-1839). + +His son CHARLES JAMES MATHEWS (1803-1878), who was born at Liverpool on +the 26th of December 1803, became even better known as an actor. After +attending Merchant Taylors' School he was articled as pupil to an +architect, and continued for some years nominally to follow this +profession. His first public appearance on the stage was made on the 7th +of December 1835, at the Olympic, London, as George Rattleton in his own +play _The Humpbacked Lover_, and as Tim Topple the Tiger in Leman Rode's +_Old and Young Stager_. In 1838 he married Madame Vestris, then lessee +of the Olympic, but neither his management of this theatre, nor +subsequently of Covent Garden, nor of the Lyceum, resulted in pecuniary +success, although the introduction of scenery more realistic and careful +in detail than had hitherto been employed was due to his enterprise. In +the year of his marriage he visited America, but without receiving a +very cordial welcome. As an actor he held in England an unrivalled place +in his peculiar vein of light eccentric comedy. The easy grace of his +manner, and the imperturbable solemnity with which he perpetrated his +absurdities, never failed to charm and amuse; his humour was never +broad, but always measured and restrained. It was as the leading +character in such plays as the _Game of Speculation_, _My Awful Dad_, +_Cool as a Cucumber_, _Patter versus Clatter_, and _Little Toddlekins_, +that he specially excelled. In 1856 Mme Vestris died, and in the +following year Mathews again visited the United States, where in 1858 he +married Mrs A. H. Davenport. In 1861 they gave a series of "At Homes" at +the Haymarket theatre, which were almost as popular as had been those of +the elder Mathews. Charles James Mathews was one of the few English +actors who played in French successfully,--his appearance in Paris in +1863 in a French version of _Cool as a Cucumber_, written by himself, +being received with great approbation. He also played there again in +1865 as Sir Charles Coldcream in the original play _L'Homme blasé_ +(English version by Boucicault, _Used up_). After reaching his +sixty-sixth year, Mathews set out on a tour round the world, in which +was included a third visit to America, and on his return in 1872 he +continued to act without interruption till within a few weeks of his +death on the 24th of June 1878. He made his last appearance in New York +at Wallack's theatre on the 7th of June 1872, in H. J. Byron's _Not such +a Fool as he Looks_. His last appearance in London was at the Opéra +Comique on the 2nd of June 1877, in _The Liar_ and _The Cosy Couple_. At +Stalybridge he gave his last performance on the 8th of June 1878, when +he played Adonis Evergreen in his own comedy _My Awful Dad_. + + See the _Life of Charles James Mathews_, edited by Charles Dickens (2 + vols., 1879); H. G. Paine in _Actors and Actresses of Great Britain + and the United States_ (New York, 1886). + + + + +MATHEWS, THOMAS (1676-1751), British admiral, son of Colonel Edward +Mathews (d. 1700), and grandson on his mother's side of Sir Thomas +Armstrong (1624-1684), who was executed for the Rye House Plot, was born +at Llandaff Court, Llandaff. He entered the navy and became lieutenant +in 1699, being promoted captain in 1703. During the short war with Spain +(1718-20) he commanded the "Kent" in the fleet of Sir George Byng (Lord +Torrington), and from 1722 to 1724 he had the command of a small +squadron sent to the East Indies to repress the pirates of the coast of +Malabar. He saw no further service till March 1741, when he was +appointed to the command in the Mediterranean, and plenipotentiary to +the king of Sardinia and the other courts of Italy. It is impossible to +understand upon what grounds he was selected. As an admiral he was not +distinguished; he was quite destitute of the experience and the tact +required for his diplomatic duties; and he was on the worst possible +terms with his second in command, Richard Lestock (1679?-1746). Yet the +purpose for which he was sent out in his double capacity was not +altogether ill performed. In 1742 Mathews sent a small squadron to +Naples to compel King Charles III., afterwards king of Spain, to remain +neutral. It was commanded by commodore, afterwards admiral, William +Martin (1696?-1756), who refused to enter into negotiations, and gave +the king half an hour in which to return an answer. In June of the same +year a squadron of Spanish galleys, which had taken refuge in the Bay of +Saint Tropez, was burnt by the fireships of Mathews' fleet. In the +meantime a Spanish squadron of line-of-battleships had taken refuge in +Toulon, and was watched by the British fleet from its anchorage at +Hyères. In February 1744 the Spaniards put to sea in company with a +French force. Mathews, who had now returned to his flagship, followed, +and an engagement took place on the 11th of February. The battle was +highly discreditable to the British fleet, and not very honourable to +their opponents, but it is of the highest historical importance in the +history of the navy. It marked the lowest pitch reached in discipline +and fighting and efficiency by the fleet in the 18th century, and it had +a very bad effect in confirming the pedantic system of tactics set up by +the old Fighting Instructions. The British fleet followed the enemy in +light winds on the 10th of February, and became scattered. Mathews +hoisted the signal to form the line, and then when night fell, to lie +to. At that moment Lestock, who commanded in the rear, was at a +considerable distance from the body of the fleet, and he ought +undoubtedly to have joined his admiral before lying to, but he obeyed +the second order, with the result, which it is impossible not to feel +that he foresaw and desired, that when morning came he was a long way +off the flag of Mathews. The enemy were within striking distance of the +van and centre of the British fleet, and Mathews attacked their rear. +The battle was ill fought, as it had been ill prepared. Lestock never +came into action at all. One Spanish line-of-battleship, the "Poder" +(74), was taken, but afterwards burnt. Several of the British captains +behaved very badly, and Mathews in a heat of confused anger bore down on +the enemy out of his line, while the signal to keep the line was still +flying at his mast head. The French and Spaniards got away, and were not +pursued by Mathews, though they were of inferior strength. + +Deep indignation was aroused at home by this naval miscarriage, and the +battle led to more than twenty courts-martial and a parliamentary +inquiry. The evils which had overrun the navy were clearly displayed, +and in so far some good was done. It was shown for instance that one of +the captains whose ship behaved worst was a man of extreme age who was +nearly blind and deaf. One of the captains was so frightened at the +prospect of a trial that he deserted on his way home and disappeared +into Spain. Mathews resigned and returned home after the battle. In +consequence of the parliamentary motion for inquiry, Lestock was brought +to trial, and acquitted on the ground that he had obeyed orders. Then +Mathews was tried in 1746, and was condemned to be dismissed the service +on the ground that he had not only failed to pursue the enemy but had +taken his fleet into action in a confused manner. He had in fact not +waited till he had his fleet in a line with the enemy before bearing +down on them, and he had disordered his own line. To the country at +large it appeared strange that the admiral who had actually fought +should be condemned, while the admiral who had kept at a distance was +acquitted. Mathews looked upon his condemnation as the result of mere +party spirit. Sheer pedantry on the part of the officers forming the +court-martial affords a more satisfactory explanation. They judged that +a naval officer was bound not to go beyond the Fighting Instructions as +Mathews had undoubtedly done, and therefore condemned him. Their +decision had a serious effect in fixing the rule that all battles, at +any rate against enemies of equal or nearly equal numbers, were to be +fought on one pattern. Mathews died on the 2nd of October 1751 in +London. There is a portrait of him in the Painted Hall at Greenwich. + + In Beatson's _Naval and Military Memoirs_, vol. i., will be found a + fair account of the battle of February 1744. It is fully dealt with by + Montagu Burrows in his _Life of Hawke_. The French account may be + found in Tronde's _Batailles Navales de la France_. The Spanish view + is in the _Vida de Don Josef Navarro_ by Don Josef de Vargas. The + battle led to a violent pamphlet controversy. The charges and findings + at the courts-martial on both Lestock and Mathews were published at + the time. The minor trials arising out of the action are collected in + a folio under the title "Copies of all the Minutes and Proceedings + taken at and upon the several Tryals of Captain George Burrish" + (1746). A "Narrative" was published by, or for, Lestock in 1744, and + answered by, or on behalf of, Mathews under the title "Ad----l + M----w's Conduct in the late Engagement Vindicated" in 1745. + (D. H.) + + + + +MATHY, KARL (1807-1868), Badenese statesman, was born at Mannheim on the +17th of March 1807. He studied law and politics at Heidelberg, and +entered the Baden government department of finance in 1829. His sympathy +with the revolutionary ideas of 1830, expressed in his paper the +_Zeitgeist_, cost him his appointment in 1834, and he made his way to +Switzerland, where he contributed to the _Jeune Suisse_ directed by +Mazzini. On his return to Baden in 1840 he edited the _Landtagszeitung_ +at Carlsruhe, and in 1842 he entered the estates for the town of +Constance. He became one of the opposition leaders and in 1847 helped to +found the _Deutsche Zeitung_, a paper which eventually did much to +further the cause of German unity. He took part in the preliminary +parliament and in the assembly of Frankfort in 1848-1849, where he +supported the policy of H. W. A. von Gagern, and after the refusal of +Frederick William IV. to accept the imperial crown he still worked for +the cause of unity. He was made finance minister in Baden in May 1849, +but was dismissed after a few days of office. He then applied his +financial knowledge to banking business in Cologne, Berlin, Gotha and +Leipzig. He was recalled to Baden in 1862, and in 1864 became president +of the new ministry of commerce. He sought to bring Baden institutions +into line with those of northern Germany with a view to ultimate union, +and when in 1866 Baden took sides with Austria against Prussia he sent +in his resignation. After the war he became president of a new cabinet, +but he did not live to see the realization of the policy for which he +had striven. He died at Carlsruhe on the 3rd of February 1868. + + His letters during the years 1846-1848 were edited by Ludwig Mathy + (Leipzig, 1899), and his life was written by G. Freytag (Leipzig, 2nd + ed., 1872). + + + + +MATILDA (1102-1164), queen of England and empress, daughter of Henry I. +of England, by Matilda, his first wife, was born in 1102. In 1109 she +was betrothed to the emperor-elect, Henry V., and was sent to Germany, +but the marriage was delayed till 1114. Her husband died after eleven +years of wedlock, leaving her childless; and, since both her brothers +were now dead, she was recalled to her father's court in order that she +might be recognized as his successor in England and Normandy. The Great +Council of England did homage to her under considerable pressure. Their +reluctance to acknowledge a female sovereign was increased when Henry +gave her in marriage to Geoffrey Plantagenet, the heir of Anjou and +Maine (1129); nor was it removed by the birth of the future Henry II. in +1133. On the old king's death both England and Normandy accepted his +nephew, Stephen, of Mortain and Boulogne. Matilda and her husband were +in Anjou at the time. They wasted the next few years in the attempt to +win Normandy; but Earl Robert of Gloucester, the half-brother of the +empress, at length induced her to visit England and raise her standard +in the western shires, where his influence was supreme. Though on her +first landing Matilda only escaped capture through the misplaced +chivalry of her opponent, she soon turned the tables upon him with the +help of the Church and the barons of the west. Stephen was defeated and +captured at Lincoln (1141); the empress was acclaimed lady or queen of +England (she used both titles indifferently) and crowned at London. But +the arrogance which she displayed in her prosperity alienated the +Londoners and the papal legate, Bishop Henry of Winchester. Routed at +the siege of Winchester, she was compelled to release Stephen in +exchange for Earl Robert, and thenceforward her cause steadily declined +in England. In 1148, having lost by the earl's death her principal +supporter, she retired to Normandy, of which her husband had in the +meantime gained possession. Henceforward she remained in the background, +leaving her eldest son Henry to pursue the struggle with Stephen. She +outlived Henry's coronation by ten years; her husband had died in 1151. +As queen-mother she played the part of a mediator between her sons and +political parties. Age mellowed her temper, and she turned more and more +from secular ambitions to charity and religious works. She died on the +30th of January 1164. + + See O. Rössler, _Kaiserin Mathilde_ (Berlin, 1897); J. H. Round, + _Geoffrey de Mandeville_ (London, 1892). (H. W. C. D.) + + + + +MATILDA (1046-1115), countess or margravine of Tuscany, popularly known +as the Great Countess, was descended from a noble Lombard family. Her +great-grandfather, Athone of Canossa, had been made count of Modena and +Reggio by the emperor Otto I., and her grandfather had, in addition, +acquired Mantua, Ferrara and Brescia. Her own father, Boniface II., the +Pious, secured Tuscany, the duchy of Spoleto, the county of Parma, and +probably that of Cremona; and was loyal to the emperor until Henry +plotted against him. Through the murder of Count Boniface in 1052 and +the death of her older brother and sister three years later, Matilda was +left, at the age of nine, sole heiress to the richest estate in Italy. +She received an excellent education under the care of her mother, +Beatrice of Bar, the daughter of Frederick of Lorraine and aunt of Henry +III., who, after a brief detention in Germany by the emperor, married +Godfrey IV. of Lorraine, brother of Pope Stephen IX. (1057-1058). +Thenceforth Matilda's lot was cast against the emperor in the great +struggle over investiture, and for over thirty years she maintained the +cause of the successive pontiffs, Gregory VII., Victor III., Urban II., +Paschal II., with varying fortune, but with undaunted resolution. She +aided the pope against the Normans in 1074, and in 1075 attended the +synod at which Guibert was condemned and deprived of the archbishopric +of Ravenna. Her hereditary fief of Canossa was the scene (Jan. 28, 1077) +of the celebrated penance of Henry IV. before Gregory VII. She provided +an asylum for Henry's second wife, Praxides, and urged his son Conrad to +revolt against his father. In the course of the protracted struggle her +villages were plundered, her fortresses demolished, and Pisa and Lucca +temporarily lost, but she remained steadfast in her allegiance, and, +before her death, had, by means of a league of Lombard cities which she +formed, recovered all her possessions. The donation of her estates to +the Holy See, originally made in 1077 and renewed on the 17th of +November 1102, though never fully consummated on account of imperial +opposition, constituted the greater part of the temporal dominion of the +papacy. Matilda was twice married, first to Godfrey V. of Lorraine, +surnamed the Humpbacked, who was the son of her step-father and was +murdered on the 26th of February 1076; and secondly to the 17-year-old +Welf V. of Bavaria, from whom she finally separated in 1095--both +marriages of policy, which counted for little in her life. Matilda was +an eager student: she spoke Italian, French and German fluently, and +wrote many Latin letters; she collected a considerable library; she +supervised an edition of the Pandects of Justinian; and Anselm of +Canterbury sent her his _Meditations_. She combined her devotion to the +papacy and her learning with very deep personal piety. She died after a +long illness at Bodeno, near Modena, on the 24th of July 1115, and was +buried in the Benedictine church at Polirone, whence her remains were +taken to Rome by order of Urban VIII. in 1635 and interred in St +Peter's. + + The contemporary record of Matilda's life in rude Latin verse, by her + chaplain Domnizone (Donizo or Domenico), is preserved in the Vatican + Library. The best edition is that of Bethmann in the _Monumenta germ. + hist. scriptores_, xii. 348-409. The text, with an Italian + translation, was published by F. Davoli under the title _Vita della + granda contessa Matilda di Canossa_ (Reggio nell' Emilia 1888 seq.). + + See A. Overmann, _Gräfin Mathilde von Tuscien; ihre Besitzungen ... u. + ihre Regesten_ (Innsbruck, 1895); A. Colombo, _Una Nuova vita delta + contessa Matilda in R. accad. d. sci. Atti_, vol. 39 (Turin, 1904); L. + Tosti, _La Contessa Matilda ed i romani pontefici_ (Florence, 1859); + A. Pannenborg, _Studien zur Geschichte der Herzogin Matilde von + Canossa_ (Göttingen, 1872); F. M. Fiorentini, _Memorie della Matilda_ + (Lucca, 1756); and Nora Duff, _Matilda of Tuscany_ (1910). + (C. H. Ha.) + + + + +MATINS (Fr. _matines_, med. Lat. _matutinae_, sc. possibly vigiliae, +morning watches; from _matutinus_, "belonging to the morning"), a word +now only used in an ecclesiastical sense for one of the canonical hours +in the Roman Breviary, originally intended to be said at midnight, but +sometimes said at dawn, after which "lauds" were recited or sung. In the +modern Roman Catholic Church, outside monastic services, the office is +usually said on the preceding afternoon or evening. The word is also +used in the Roman Catholic Church for the public service held on Sunday +mornings before the mass (see BREVIARY; and HOURS, CANONICAL). In the +Church of England since the Reformation matins is used for the order of +public morning prayer. + + + + +MATLOCK, a market town in the western parliamentary division of +Derbyshire, England, on the river Derwent, 17 m. N. by W. of Derby on +the Midland railway. Pop. (1901), of urban district of Matlock, 5979; of +Matlock Bath and Scarthin Nick, 1819. The entire township includes the +old village of Matlock, the commercial and manufacturing district of +Matlock Bridge, and the fashionable health resorts of Matlock Bath and +Matlock Bank. The town possesses cotton, corn and paper mills, while in +the vicinity there are stone-quarries and lead mines. A peculiar local +industry is the manufacture of so-called "petrified" birds' nests, +plants, and other objects. These are steeped in water from the mineral +springs until they become encrusted with a calcareous deposit which +gives them the appearance of fossils. Ornaments fashioned out of spar +and stalactites have also a considerable sale. + +MATLOCK BATH, one and a half miles south of Matlock, having a separate +railway station, overlooks the narrow and precipitous gorge of the +Derwent, and stands in the midst of woods and cliffs, deriving its name +from three medicinal springs, which first became celebrated towards the +close of the 17th century. They were not known to the Romans, although +lead-mining was carried on extensively in the district in the 1st and +2nd centuries A.D. The mean temperature of the springs is 68° F. +Extensive grounds have been laid out for public use; and in the +neighbourhood there are several fine stalactite caverns. + +Sheltered under the high moorlands of Darley, MATLOCK BANK has grown up +about a mile north-east of the old village, and has become celebrated +for the number and excellence of its hydropathic establishments. A +tramway, worked by a single cable, over a gradient said to be the +steepest in the world, affords easy communication with Matlock Bridge. + + + + +MATOS FRAGOSO, JUAN DE (1614?-1689), Spanish dramatist, of Portuguese +descent, was born about 1614 at Alsito (Alemtejo). After taking his +degree in law at the university of Evora, he proceeded to Madrid, where +he made acquaintance with Perez de Montalbán, and thus obtained an +introduction to the stage. He quickly displayed great cleverness in +hitting the public taste, and many contemporaries of superior talent +eagerly sought his aid as a collaborator. The earliest of his printed +plays is _La Defensa de la fé y principe prodigioso_ (1651), and twelve +more pieces were published in 1658. But though his popularity continued +long after his death (January 4, 1689), Matos Fragoso's dramas do not +stand the test of reading. His emphatic preciosity and sophistical +insistence on the "point of honour" are tedious and unconvincing; in _La +Venganza en el despeño_, in _Á lo que obliga un agravio_, and in other +plays, he merely recasts, very adroitly, works by Lope de Vega. + + + + +MATRASS (mod. Lat. _matracium_), a glass vessel with a round or oval +body and a long narrow neck, used in chemistry, &c., as a digester or +distiller. The Florence flask of commerce is frequently used for this +purpose. The word is possibly identical with an old name "matrass" (Fr. +_materas_, _matelas_) for the bolt or quarrel of a cross-bow. If so, +some identity of shape is the reason for the application of the word; +"bolt-head" is also used as a name for the vessel. Another connexion is +suggested with the Arabic _matra_, a leather bottle. + + + + +MATRIARCHATE ("rule of the mother"), a term used to express a supposed +earliest and lowest form of family life, typical of primitive societies, +in which the promiscuous relations of the sexes result in the child's +father being unknown (see FAMILY). In such communities the mother took +precedence of the father in certain important respects, especially in +line of descent and inheritance. Matriarchate is assumed on this theory +to have been universal in prehistoric times. The prominent position then +naturally assigned women did not, however, imply any personal power, +since they were in the position of mere chattels: it simply constituted +them the sole relatives of their children and the only centre of any +such family life as existed. The custom of tracing descent through the +female is still observed among certain savage tribes. In Fiji father and +son are not regarded as relatives. Among the Bechuanas the chieftainship +passes to a brother, not to a son. In Senegal, Loango, Congo and Guinea, +relationship is traced through the female. Among the Tuareg Berbers a +child takes rank, freeman's or slave's, from its mother. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J. F. McLennan, _Patriarchal Theory_ (London, 1885); T. + T. Bachofen, _Das Mutterrecht_ (Stuttgart, 1861); E. Westermarck, + _History of Human Marriage_ (1894); A. Giraud-Teulon, _La Mère chez + certains peuples de l'antiquité_ (Paris, 1867); _Les Origines du + mariage et de la famille_ (Geneva and Paris, 1884); C. S. Wake, _The + Development of Marriage and Kinship_ (London, 1889); Ch. Letourneau, + _L'Évolution du mariage et de la famille_ (Paris, 1888); L. H. Morgan, + _Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of Human Family_, "Smithsonian + Contributions to Knowledge," vol. xvii. (Washington, 1871); C. N. + Starcke, _The Primitive Family_ (London, 1889). + + + + +MATRIMONY (Lat. _matrimonium_, marriage, which is the ordinary English +sense), a game at cards played with a full whist pack upon a table +divided into three compartments labelled "Matrimony," "Intrigue" and +"Confederacy," and two smaller spaces, "Pair" and "Best." These names +indicate combinations of two cards, any king and queen being +"Matrimony," any queen and knave "Intrigue," any king and knave +"Confederacy"; while any two cards of the same denomination form a +"Pair" and the diamond ace is "Best." The dealer distributes a number of +counters, to which an agreed value has been given, upon the +compartments, and the other players do likewise. The dealer then gives +one card to each player, face down, and a second, face up. If any +turned-up card is the diamond ace, the player holding it takes +everything on the space and the deal passes. If not turned, the diamond +ace has only the value of the other three aces. If it is not turned, the +players, beginning with the eldest hand, expose their second cards, and +the resulting combinations, if among the five successful ones, win the +counters of the corresponding spaces. If the counters on a space are not +won, they remain until the next deal. + + + + +MATRIX, a word of somewhat wide application, chiefly used in the sense +of a bed or enclosing mass in which something is shaped or formed (Late +Lat. _matrix_, womb; in classical Latin _matrix_ was only applied to an +animal kept for breeding). Matrix is thus used of a mould of metal or +other substance in which a design or pattern is made in intaglio, and +from which an impression in relief is taken. In die-sinking and coining, +the matrix is the hardened steel mould from which the die-punches are +taken. The term "seal" should strictly he applied to the impression only +on wax of the design of the matrix, but is often used both of the matrix +and of the impression (see SEALS). In mineralogy, the matrix is the mass +in which a crystal mineral or fossil is embedded. In mathematics, the +name "matrix" is used of an arrangement of numbers or symbols in a +rectangular or square figure. (See ALGEBRAIC FORMS.) + + In med. Latin _matrix_ and the diminutive _matricula_ had the meaning + of a roll or register, particularly one containing the names of the + members of an institution, as of the clergy belonging to a cathedral, + collegiate or other church, or of the members of a university. From + this use is derived "matriculation," the admission to membership of a + university, also the name of the examination for such admission. + _Matricula_ was also the name of the contributions in men and money + made by the various states of the Holy Roman Empire, and in the modern + German Empire the contributions made by the federal states to the + imperial finances are called _Matrikularbeiträge_, matricular + contributions. (See GERMANY: _Finance_.) + + + + +MATROSS, the name (now obsolete) for a soldier of artillery, who ranked +next below a gunner. The duty of a matross was to assist the gunners in +loading, firing and sponging the guns. They were provided with +firelocks, and marched with the store-wagons, acting as guards. In the +American army a matross ranked as a private of artillery. The word is +probably derived from Fr. _matelot_, a sailor. + + + + +MATSUKATA, MARQUIS (1835- ), Japanese statesman, was born at Kagoshima +in 1835, being a son of a _samurai_ of the Satsuma clan. On the +completion of the feudal revolution of 1868 he was appointed governor of +the province of Tosa, and having served six years in this office, was +transferred to Tokyo as assistant minister of finance. As representative +of Japan at the Paris Exhibition of 1878, he took the opportunity +afforded by his mission to study the financial systems of the great +European powers. On his return home, he held for a short time in 1880 +the portfolio of home affairs, and was in 1881 appointed minister of +finance. The condition of the currency of Japan was at that time +deplorable, and national bankruptcy threatened. The coinage had not only +been seriously debased during the closing years of the Tokugawa régime, +but large quantities of paper currency had been issued and circulated, +both by many of the feudal lords, and by the central government itself, +as a temporary expedient for filling an impoverished exchequer. In 1878 +depreciation had set in, and the inconvertible paper had by the close of +1881 grown to such an extent that it was then at a discount of 80% as +compared with silver. Matsukata showed the government the danger of the +situation, and urged that the issue of further paper currency should be +stopped at once, the expenses of administration curtailed, and the +resulting surplus of revenue used in the redemption of the paper +currency and in the creation of a specie reserve. These proposals were +acted upon: the Bank of Japan was established, and the right of issuing +convertible notes given to it; and within three years of the initiation +of these financial reforms, the paper currency, largely reduced in +quantity, was restored to its full par value with silver, and the +currency as a whole placed on a solvent basis. From this time forward +Japan's commercial and military advancement continued to make +uninterrupted progress. But _pari passu_ with the extraordinary impetus +given to its trade by the successful conclusion of the war with China, +the national expenditure enormously increased, rising within a few years +from 80 to 250 million yen. The task of providing for this expenditure +fell entirely on Matsukata, who had to face strong opposition on the +part of the diet. But he distributed the increased taxation so equally, +and chose its subjects so wisely, that the ordinary administrative +expenditure and the interest on the national debt were fully provided +for, while the extraordinary expenditure for military purposes was met +from the Chinese indemnity. As far back as 1878 Matsukata perceived the +advantages of a gold standard, but it was not until 1897 that his scheme +could be realized. In this year the bill authorizing it was under his +auspices submitted to the diet and passed; and with this financial +achievement Matsukata saw the fulfilment of his ideas of financial +reform, which were conceived during his first visit to Europe. +Matsukata, who in 1884 was created Count, twice held the office of prime +minister (1891-1892, 1896-1898), and during both his administrations he +combined the portfolio of finance with the premiership; from October +1898 to October 1900 he was minister of finance only. His name in +Japanese history is indissolubly connected with the financial progress +of his country at the end of the 19th century. In 1902 he visited +England and America, and he was created G.C.M.G., and given the Oxford +degree of D.C.L. In September 1907 he was advanced to the rank of +Marquis. + + + + +MATSYS (MASSYS or METZYS), QUINTIN (1466-1530), Flemish artist, was born +at Louvain, where he first learned a mechanical art. During the greater +part of the 15th century the centres in which the painters of the Low +Countries most congregated were Bruges, Ghent and Brussels. Towards the +close of the same period Louvain took a prominent part in giving +employment to workmen of every craft. It was not till the opening of the +16th century that Antwerp usurped the lead which it afterwards +maintained against Bruges and Ghent, Brussels, Mechlin and Louvain. +Quintin Matsys was one of the first men of any note who gave repute to +the gild of Antwerp. A legend relates how the smith of Louvain was +induced by affection for the daughter of an artist to change his trade +and acquire proficiency in painting. A less poetic but perhaps more real +version of the story tells that Quintin had a brother with whom he was +brought up by his father Josse Matsys, a smith, who held the lucrative +offices of clockmaker and architect to the municipality of Louvain. It +came to be a question which of the sons should follow the paternal +business, and which carve out a new profession for himself. Josse the +son elected to succeed his father, and Quintin then gave himself to the +study of painting. We are not told expressly by whom Quintin was taught, +but his style seems necessarily derived from the lessons of Dierick +Bouts, who took to Louvain the mixed art of Memlinc and Van der Weyden. +When he settled at Antwerp, at the age of twenty-five, he probably had a +style with an impress of its own, which certainly contributed most +importantly to the revival of Flemish art on the lines of Van Eyck and +Van der Weyden. What particularly characterizes Quintin Matsys is the +strong religious feeling which he inherited from earlier schools. But +that again was permeated by realism which frequently degenerated into +the grotesque. Nor would it be too much to say that the facial +peculiarities of the boors of Van Steen or Ostade have their +counterparts in the pictures of Matsys, who was not, however, trained to +use them in the same homely way. From Van der Weyden's example we may +trace the dryness of outline and shadeless modelling and the pitiless +finish even of trivial detail, from the Van Eycks and Memlinc through +Dierick Bouts the superior glow and richness of transparent pigments, +which mark the pictures of Matsys. The date of his retirement from +Louvain is 1491, when he became a master in the gild of painters at +Antwerp. His most celebrated picture is that which he executed in 1508 +for the joiners' company in the cathedral of his adopted city. Next in +importance to that is the Marys of Scripture round the Virgin and Child, +which was ordered for a chapel in the cathedral of Louvain. Both +altar-pieces are now in public museums, one at Antwerp, the other at +Brussels. They display great earnestness in expression, great minuteness +of finish, and a general absence of effect by light or shade. As in +early Flemish pictures, so in those of Matsys, superfluous care is +lavished on jewelry, edgings and ornament. To the great defect of want +of atmosphere such faults may be added as affectation, the result of +excessive straining after tenderness in women, or common gesture and +grimace suggested by a wish to render pictorially the brutality of +gaolers and executioners. Yet in every instance an effort is manifest to +develop and express individual character. This tendency in Matsys is +chiefly illustrated in his pictures of male and female market bankers +(Louvre and Windsor), in which an attempt is made to display +concentrated cupidity and avarice. The other tendency to excessive +emphasis of tenderness may be seen in two replicas of the "Virgin and +Child" at Berlin and Amsterdam, where the ecstatic kiss of the mother is +quite unreal. But in these examples there is a remarkable glow of colour +which makes up for many defects. Expression of despair is strongly +exaggerated in a Lucretia at the museum of Vienna. On the whole the best +pictures of Matsys are the quietest; his "Virgin and Christ" or "Ecce +Homo" and "Mater Dolorosa" (London and Antwerp) display as much serenity +and dignity as seems consistent with the master's art. He had +considerable skill as a portrait painter. Egidius at Longford, which +drew from Sir Thomas More a eulogy in Latin verse, is but one of a +numerous class, to which we may add the portrait of Maximilian of +Austria in the gallery of Amsterdam. Matsys in this branch of practice +was much under the influence of his contemporaries Lucas of Leiden and +Mabuse. His tendency to polish and smoothness excluded to some extent +the subtlety of modulation remarkable in Holbein and Dürer. There is +reason to think that he was well acquainted with both these German +masters. He probably met Holbein more than once on his way to England. +He saw Dürer at Antwerp in 1520. Quintin died at Antwerp in 1530. The +puritan feeling which slumbered in him was fatal to some of his +relatives. His sister Catherine and her husband suffered at Louvain in +1543 for the then capital offence of reading the Bible, he being +decapitated, she buried alive in the square fronting the cathedral. + + Quintin's son, Jan Matsys, inherited the art but not the skill of his + parent. The earliest of his works, a "St Jerome," dated 1537, in the + gallery of Vienna, the latest, a "Healing of Tobias," of 1564, in the + museum of Antwerp, are sufficient evidence of his tendency to + substitute imitation for original thought. + + + + +MATTEAWAN, a village of Fishkill township, Dutchess county, New York, +U.S.A., on the eastern bank of the Hudson river, opposite Newburgh and +15 m. S. of Poughkeepsie. Pop. (1890), 4278; (1900), 5807 (1044 +foreign-born); (1905, state census), 5584; (1910), 6727. The village is +served by the Central New England railway, and is the seat of the +Matteawan state hospital for the criminal insane, the Highland hospital, +and the Sargeant industrial school. The Teller House dates back to the +beginning of the 18th century. Near Matteawan is Beacon Hill, the +highest of the highlands, which has an electric railway to its summit. +There are manufactures of hats, rubber goods, machinery (notably +"fuel-economizers"), &c., water-power being furnished by Fishkill Creek. +The village owns its waterworks, the supply for which is derived from +Beacon Hill. Matteawan was incorporated as a village in 1886. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 17, Slice 7, by Various + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42552 *** |