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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-08 00:03:05 -0800 |
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diff --git a/42552-h/42552-h.htm b/42552-h/42552-h.htm index 22be8c9..7ef03f1 100644 --- a/42552-h/42552-h.htm +++ b/42552-h/42552-h.htm @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= - "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + "text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume XVII Slice VII - Mars to Matteawan. @@ -144,46 +144,7 @@ </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 17, Slice 7, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 17, Slice 7 - "Mars" to "Matteawan" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: April 16, 2013 [EBook #42552] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42552 ***</div> <table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> <tr> @@ -260,12 +221,12 @@ Mars to Matteawan</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">MARTABAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">MASSAGETAE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">MARTELLO TOWER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">MASSA MARITTIMA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">MARTEN, HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">MASSAWA</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">MARTEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">MASSÉNA, ANDRÉ</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">MARTENS, FRÉDÉRIC FROMMHOLD DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">MASSENBACH, CHRISTIAN KARL AUGUST LUDWIG VON</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">MARTENS, GEORG FRIEDRICH VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">MASSENET, JULES ÉMILE FRÉDÉRIC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">MARTEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">MASSÉNA, ANDRÉ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">MARTENS, FRÉDÉRIC FROMMHOLD DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">MASSENBACH, CHRISTIAN KARL AUGUST LUDWIG VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">MARTENS, GEORG FRIEDRICH VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">MASSENET, JULES ÉMILE FRÉDÉRIC</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">MARTENSEN, HANS LASSEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">MASSEREENE, JOHN CLOTWORTHY</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">MARTHA’S VINEYARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">MASSEY, SIR EDWARD</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">MARTÍ, JUAN JOSÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">MASSEY, GERALD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">MARTÃ, JUAN JOSÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">MASSEY, GERALD</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">MARTIAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">MASSICUS, MONS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">MARTIALIS, QUINTUS GARGILIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">MASSIF</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">MARTIAL LAW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">MASSILLON, JEAN BAPTISTE</a></td></tr> @@ -274,8 +235,8 @@ Mars to Matteawan</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">MARTIN, ST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">MASSINGER, PHILIP</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">MARTIN</a> (several popes)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">MASSINISSA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">MASSON, DAVID</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">MARTIN, CLAUD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">MASSON, LOUIS CLAUDE FRÉDÉRIC</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">MARTIN, FRANÇOIS XAVIER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">MAST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">MARTIN, CLAUD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">MASSON, LOUIS CLAUDE FRÉDÉRIC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">MARTIN, FRANÇOIS XAVIER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">MAST</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">MARTIN, HOMER DODGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">MASTABA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">MARTIN, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">MASTER</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">MARTIN, LUTHER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">MASTER AND SERVANT</a></td></tr> @@ -287,15 +248,15 @@ Mars to Matteawan</h3> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">MARTINEAU, HARRIET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">MAS‘ŪDĪ</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">MARTINEAU, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">MASULIPATAM</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">MARTINET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">MAT</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">MARTÍNEZ DE LA ROSA, FRANCISCO DE PAULA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">MATABELE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">MARTÃNEZ DE LA ROSA, FRANCISCO DE PAULA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">MATABELE</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">MARTINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">MATACHINES</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">MARTINI, SIMONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">MATADOR</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">MARTINIQUE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">MATAMOROS</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">MARTINSBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">MATANZAS</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">MARTINS FERRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">MATARÓ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">MARTINS FERRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">MATARÓ</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">MARTINUZZI, GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">MATCH</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">MARTIUS, CARL FRIEDRICH PHILIPP VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">MATE</a> (companion)</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">MARTOS, CHRISTINO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">MATÉ</a> (shrub)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">MARTOS, CHRISTINO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">MATÉ</a> (shrub)</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">MARTOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">MATERA</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">MARTYN, HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">MATERIALISM</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">MARTYN, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">MATER MATUTA</a></td></tr> @@ -342,9 +303,9 @@ near aphelion, the one distance being about 35 million miles; the other 63 million. These numbers express only the minimum distances at or near opposition, and not the distance at other times. The time of revolution of Mars is 686.98 days. The -mean interval between oppositions is 2 years 49½ days, but, +mean interval between oppositions is 2 years 49½ days, but, owing to the eccentricity of the orbit, the actual excess over -two years ranges from 36 days to more than 2½ months. Its +two years ranges from 36 days to more than 2½ months. Its period of rotation is 24 h. 37 m. 22.66 s. (H. G. Bakhuyzen).</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -358,9 +319,9 @@ change through which they go, and of the order in which the oppositions follow each other. The outer circle represents the orbit of Mars, the inner one that of the earth. AE is the line of the equinoxes from which longitudes are counted. The -perihelion of Mars is in longitude 335° at the point π. The ascending -node Ω is in longitude 47°. The line of nodes makes -an angle of 74° with the major axis, so that Mars is south of +perihelion of Mars is in longitude 335° at the point π. The ascending +node Ω is in longitude 47°. The line of nodes makes +an angle of 74° with the major axis, so that Mars is south of the ecliptic near perihelion, but north of it near aphelion. Around the inner circle, representing the earth’s orbit, are marked the months during which the earth passes through the different @@ -379,10 +340,10 @@ of opposition travel around the orbit in about 16 years, so that oppositions near perihelion, when Mars is therefore nearest the earth, occur at intervals of 15 or 17 years.</p> -<p>The axis of rotation of the planet is inclined between 23° -and 24° to the orbit, and the equator of the planet has the same +<p>The axis of rotation of the planet is inclined between 23° +and 24° to the orbit, and the equator of the planet has the same inclination to the plane of the orbit. The north pole is directed -toward a point in longitude 355°, in consequence of which the +toward a point in longitude 355°, in consequence of which the projection of the planet’s axis upon the plane of the ecliptic is nearly parallel to the line of our equinoxes. This projection is shown by the dotted line SP-NP, which corresponds closely @@ -430,9 +391,9 @@ in the two spectra. It being certain that the spectrum of the moon is not affected by absorption, it followed that any absorption produced by the atmosphere of Mars is below the limit of perception. It was considered by Campbell that if -the atmosphere of Mars were ¼ that of the earth in density, +the atmosphere of Mars were ¼ that of the earth in density, the absorption would have been visible. Consequently the -atmosphere of Mars would be of a density less than ¼ that of +atmosphere of Mars would be of a density less than ¼ that of the earth.<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> <p>Closely related to the question of an atmosphere is that @@ -492,7 +453,7 @@ hand an investigation made by Lowell in 1907,<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5 account the effect of the rare atmosphere on the heat lost by reflection, and of several other factors in the problem hitherto overlooked, led him to the conclusion that the mean temperature -is about 48° Fahr.<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a> But the temperature may rise much +is about 48° Fahr.<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a> But the temperature may rise much above the mean on those regions of the surface exposed to a nearly vertical noon-day sun. The diurnal changes of temperature, being diminished by an atmosphere, must be greater @@ -533,7 +494,7 @@ to that which would be presented by the deserts of our earth when seen from the moon. With each improvement in the telescope the numerous drawings of the planet show more definiteness and certainty in details. About 1830 a fairly -good map was made by W. Beer and J. H. Mädler, a work +good map was made by W. Beer and J. H. Mädler, a work which has been repeated by a number of observers since that time. The volume of literature on the subject, illustrated by drawings and maps, has become so great that it is impossible @@ -567,12 +528,12 @@ been seriously questioned. It has indeed been suggested that the deposit may be frozen carbonic acid. While we cannot pronounce this out of the question, the probabilities seem in favour of the deposit being due to the precipitation of aqueous -vapour in a frozen form. At a temperature of −50° C., which +vapour in a frozen form. At a temperature of −50° C., which is far above what we can suppose to prevail in the polar regions during the winter, the tension of aqueous vapour is 0.034 mm. On the other hand Faraday found the tension of carbonic acid to be still an entire atmosphere at as low a temperature as -−80° C. Numerically exact statements are impossible owing +−80° C. Numerically exact statements are impossible owing to our want of knowledge of the actual temperature, which must depend partly upon air currents between the equator and the poles of Mars. It can, however, be said, in a general @@ -810,17 +771,17 @@ of Mars the nearer the satellite is to Mars. Lowell from a combination of his own observations with those of Schiaparelli, Lohse and Cerulli, found for the pole of the axis of rotation of Mars<a name="fa12a" id="fa12a" href="#ft12a"><span class="sp">12</span></a>:—</p> -<p class="center f90">R.A. = 317.5°;    Dec. = +54.5°; Epoch, 1905.</p> +<p class="center f90">R.A. = 317.5°;    Dec. = +54.5°; Epoch, 1905.</p> -<p>Tilt<a name="fa13a" id="fa13a" href="#ft13a"><span class="sp">13</span></a> of Martian Equator to Martian ecliptic, 23°. 59′. Hermann +<p>Tilt<a name="fa13a" id="fa13a" href="#ft13a"><span class="sp">13</span></a> of Martian Equator to Martian ecliptic, 23°. 59′. Hermann Struve, from the observations of the satellites, found theoretically the following positions of this pole, and of those of the fixed planes of the satellite orbits for 1900:—</p> <table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> -<tr><td class="tcl">Pole of Mars: R.A.</td> <td class="tcr">= 317.25°</td> <td class="tcr">Dec. = 52.63°</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Pole of fixed plane for Phobos</td> <td class="tcr">= 317.24°</td> <td class="tcr">= 52.64°</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Pole of fixed plane for Deimos</td> <td class="tcr">= 316.20°</td> <td class="tcr">= 53.37°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Pole of Mars: R.A.</td> <td class="tcr">= 317.25°</td> <td class="tcr">Dec. = 52.63°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Pole of fixed plane for Phobos</td> <td class="tcr">= 317.24°</td> <td class="tcr">= 52.64°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Pole of fixed plane for Deimos</td> <td class="tcr">= 316.20°</td> <td class="tcr">= 53.37°</td></tr> </table> <p>Lowell’s position of the pole is that now adopted by the @@ -837,32 +798,32 @@ are:—</p> <div class="f90"> <p class="center">Deimos.</p> -<p class="center">N<span class="su">1</span> = 46°.12′ + 0.463′ t; J =36°.42′ − 0.24′ t<br /> -(N − N<span class="su">1</span>) sin J = 97.6′ sin (356.8° − 6.375° t)<br /> -J − J<span class="su">1</span> = 97.6 cos (356.8° − 6.375° t)</p> +<p class="center">N<span class="su">1</span> = 46°.12′ + 0.463′ t; J =36°.42′ − 0.24′ t<br /> +(N − N<span class="su">1</span>) sin J = 97.6′ sin (356.8° − 6.375° t)<br /> +J − J<span class="su">1</span> = 97.6 cos (356.8° − 6.375° t)</p> <p class="center">Phobos.</p> -<p class="center">N<span class="su">1</span> = 47° 14.3′ + 0.46′ t; J<span class="su">1</span> = 37° 21.9′ − 0.24′ t<br /> -(N − N<span class="su">1</span>) sin J = 53.1′ sin (257°.1′ − 158.0° t)<br /> -J − J<span class="su">1</span> = 53.1′ cos (257°1′ − 158.0 t)</p> +<p class="center">N<span class="su">1</span> = 47° 14.3′ + 0.46′ t; J<span class="su">1</span> = 37° 21.9′ − 0.24′ t<br /> +(N − N<span class="su">1</span>) sin J = 53.1′ sin (257°.1′ − 158.0° t)<br /> +J − J<span class="su">1</span> = 53.1′ cos (257°1′ − 158.0 t)</p> <p>The other elements are:—</p> <table class="ws" summary="Contents"> <tr><td class="tcl bb"> </td> <td class="tcc bb">Deimos.</td> <td class="tcc bb">Phobos.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Mean long. 1894, Oct. o.o G.M.T</td> <td class="tcc">186.25°</td> <td class="tcc">296.13°</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Mean daily motion (tropical)</td> <td class="tcc"> 285.16198°</td> <td class="tcc"> 1128.84396°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Mean long. 1894, Oct. o.o G.M.T</td> <td class="tcc">186.25°</td> <td class="tcc">296.13°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Mean daily motion (tropical)</td> <td class="tcc"> 285.16198°</td> <td class="tcc"> 1128.84396°</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Mean distance (Δ = 1)</td> <td class="tcc"> 32.373″</td> <td class="tcc"> 12.938″</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl">Long. of pericentre, (π + N)</td> <td class="tcc">264° + 6.375°t</td> <td class="tcc">14° + 158.0°t</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Long. of pericentre, (π + N)</td> <td class="tcc">264° + 6.375°t</td> <td class="tcc">14° + 158.0°t</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Eccentricity of orbit</td> <td class="tcc">   0.0031</td> <td class="tcc">   0.0217</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl">Epoch for t</td> <td class="tcc">1900.0</td> <td class="tcc">1900.0</td></tr> </table></div> <div class="condensed"> -<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Flammarion, <i>La Planète Mars et ses conditions -d’habitilité</i> (Paris, 1892), embodies so copious a <i>résumé</i> of all the +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Flammarion, <i>La Planète Mars et ses conditions +d’habitilité</i> (Paris, 1892), embodies so copious a <i>résumé</i> of all the publications and drawings relating to Mars up to 1891 that there is little occasion for reference in detail to early publications. Among the principal sources may be mentioned the <i>Monthly Notices</i> and @@ -966,7 +927,7 @@ of the whole number, 56 out of 585, ever show double and these do so regularly. Each double has its special width; this width between the pair being 400 m. in some cases, only 75 in others. Careful plotting has disclosed the fact that the doubles cluster round the -planet’s equator, rarely pass 40° Lat., and never occur at the poles, +planet’s equator, rarely pass 40° Lat., and never occur at the poles, though the planet’s axial tilt reveals all its latitudes to us in turn. They are thus features of those latitudes where the surface is greatest compared with the area of the polar cap, which is suggestive. Space @@ -1057,7 +1018,7 @@ Alphabets</i> (1796); and several papers on Eastern topics in the <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">MARSEILLES<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span>, a city of southern France, chief seaport of France and of the Mediterranean, 219 m. S. by E. of Lyons and -534 m. S.S.E. of Paris, by the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway. +534 m. S.S.E. of Paris, by the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway. Pop. (1906), commune 517,498; town 421,116. Marseilles is situated on the Golfe du Lion on the eastern shore of a bay protected to the south by Cape Croisette but open towards the @@ -1075,60 +1036,60 @@ other quarters from the mistral that blows down the Rhone valley, and where in summer the temperature is always a little lower than in the centre of the town. The old harbour of Marseilles opens on the west to the Golfe du Lion, the famous -Rue Cannebière<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> prolonged by the Rue Noailles leading E.N.E. +Rue Cannebière<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> prolonged by the Rue Noailles leading E.N.E. from its inner end. These two streets are the centre of the life -of the city. Continued in the Allées de Meilhan and the Boulevard +of the city. Continued in the Allées de Meilhan and the Boulevard de la Madeleine, they form one of its main arteries. The other, at right angles with the first, connects the Place d’Aix with the spacious and fashionable Promenade du Prado, by way of the Cours Belsunce and the Rue de Rome. Other fine -streets—the Rue St Ferréol, the Rue Paradis and the Rue -Breteuil are to the south of the Cannebière running parallel with +streets—the Rue St Ferréol, the Rue Paradis and the Rue +Breteuil are to the south of the Cannebière running parallel with the Rue de Rome. To these must be added the neighbouring avenue of Pierre Puget named after the sculptor whose statue -stands in the Borély Park. The Prado, with its avenues of +stands in the Borély Park. The Prado, with its avenues of trees and fine houses, runs to within a quarter of a mile of the Huveaune, a stream that borders the city on the south-east, then turns off at right angles and extends to the sea, coming -to an end close to the Borély Park and the race-course. From +to an end close to the Borély Park and the race-course. From its extremity the Chemin de la Corniche runs northwards along the coast, fringed by villas and bathing establishments, to the -Anse des Catalans, a distance of 4½ miles.</p> +Anse des Catalans, a distance of 4½ miles.</p> <p>The old town of Marseilles is bounded W. by the Joliette basin and the sea, E. by the Cours Belsunce, S. by the northern quay of the old port, and N. by the Boulevard des Dames. It consists of a labyrinth of steep, dark and narrow streets inhabited by a seafaring population. Through its centre runs the broad Rue -de la République, extending from the Cannebière to the Place +de la République, extending from the Cannebière to the Place de la Joliette. The entrance to the old harbour is defended by Fort St Jean on the north and Fort St Nicolas on the south. -Behind the latter is the Anse (Creek) de la Réserve. Beyond +Behind the latter is the Anse (Creek) de la Réserve. Beyond this again, situated in succession along the shore, come the -Château du Pharo, given by the empress Eugénie to the town, +Château du Pharo, given by the empress Eugénie to the town, the Anse du Pharo, the military exercising ground, and the Anse des Catalans. To the old harbour, which covers only 70 acres -with a mean depth of 19½ ft. and is now used by sailing vessels, +with a mean depth of 19½ ft. and is now used by sailing vessels, the basin of La Joliette (55 acres) with an entrance harbour was added in 1853. Communicating with the old harbour by a channel which passes behind Fort St Jean, this dock opens on the south into the outer harbour, opposite the palace and the Anse du Pharo. A series of similar basins separated from the -roadstead by a jetty 2½ m. long was subsequently added along +roadstead by a jetty 2½ m. long was subsequently added along the shore to the north, viz. the basins of Lazaret and Arenc, bordered by the harbour railway station and the extensive warehouses -of the Compagnie des Docks et Entrepôts, the Bassin +of the Compagnie des Docks et Entrepôts, the Bassin de la Gare Maritime with the warehouses of the chamber of commerce; the Bassin National with the refitting basin, comprising -six dry docks behind it; and the Bassin de la Pinède +six dry docks behind it; and the Bassin de la Pinède entered from the northern outer harbour. These new docks have a water area of 414 acres and over 11 m. of quays, and are commodious and deep enough for the largest vessels to manœuvre easily.</p> <p>In the roads to the south-west of the port lie the islands of -Ratonneau and Pomègue, united by a jetty forming a quarantine -port. Between them and the mainland is the islet of Château +Ratonneau and Pomègue, united by a jetty forming a quarantine +port. Between them and the mainland is the islet of Château d’If, in which the scene of part of Dumas’ <i>Monte Cristo</i> is laid.</p> @@ -1181,19 +1142,19 @@ statue of the advocate Antoine Berryer (1790-1868) and the Exchange, all date from the latter half of the 19th century. The Exchange, built at the expense of the Chamber of Commerce, includes the spacious hall of that institution with its fine mural -paintings and gilding. The hôtel-de-ville (17th century) stands +paintings and gilding. The hôtel-de-ville (17th century) stands on the northern quay of the old harbour. All these buildings are surpassed by the Palais Longchamp (1862-1870), situated in the north-east of the town at the end of the Boulevard Longchamp. The centre of the building is occupied by a monumental -<i>château d’eau</i> (reservoir). Colonnades branch off from this, +<i>château d’eau</i> (reservoir). Colonnades branch off from this, uniting it on the left to the picture gallery, with a fine collection of ancient and modern works, and on the right to the natural history museum, remarkable for its conchological department and collection of ammonites. In front are ornamental grounds; behind are extensive zoological gardens, with the astronomical observatory. The museum of antiquities is established in the -Château Borély (1766-1778) in a fine park at the end of +Château Borély (1766-1778) in a fine park at the end of the Prado. It includes a Phoenician collection (containing the remains that support the hypothesis of the Phoenician origin of Marseilles), an Egyptian collection, numerous Greek, Latin, @@ -1202,7 +1163,7 @@ within the city contains the school of art with a valuable library and a collection of medals and coins annexed to it. The city also has a colonial museum and a laboratory of marine zoology. The triumphal arch of Aix, originally dedicated to the victors -of the Trocadéro, was in 1830 appropriated to the conquests of +of the Trocadéro, was in 1830 appropriated to the conquests of the empire.</p> <p>The canal de Marseille, constructed from 1837 to 1848, which @@ -1212,7 +1173,7 @@ Pertuis. It has a length of 97 miles (including its four main branches) of which 13 are underground, and irrigates some 7500 acres. After crossing the valley of the Arc, between Aix and Rognac, by the magnificent aqueduct of Roquefavour, it purifies -its waters, charged with ooze, in the basins of Réaltort. It +its waters, charged with ooze, in the basins of Réaltort. It draws about 2200 gallons of water per second from the Durance, supplies 2450 horse-power to works in the vicinity of Marseilles, and ensures a good water-supply and efficient sanitation to the @@ -1223,9 +1184,9 @@ seat of a bishop and a prefect. It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a board of trade arbitration, and a branch of the Bank of France. The educational institutions include a faculty of science, a school of -medicine and pharmacy, and a faculty (<i>faculté libre</i>) of law, +medicine and pharmacy, and a faculty (<i>faculté libre</i>) of law, these three forming part of the university of Aix-Marseille; -lycées for boys and girls, a conservatoire of music, a school of +lycées for boys and girls, a conservatoire of music, a school of fine art, a higher school of commerce, a school for ships’ boys, a school of navigation and industrial schools for both sexes.</p> @@ -1235,7 +1196,7 @@ Levant trade and the French gate of the Far East. It suffers, however, from the competition of Genoa, which is linked with the Rhine basin by the Simplon and St Gotthard railway routes, and from lack of communication with the inland waterways of France. In -January 1902 the chamber of deputies voted £3,656,000 for the construction +January 1902 the chamber of deputies voted £3,656,000 for the construction of a canal from Marseilles to the Rhone at Arles. This scheme was designed to overcome the difficulties of egress from the Rhone and to make the city the natural outlet of the rich Rhone @@ -1246,9 +1207,9 @@ fruits and seeds largely used in the soap manufacture, cereals and flour, wool, hides and skins, olive and other oils, raw cotton, sheep and other livestock, woven goods, table fruit, wine, potatoes and dry vegetables, lead, cocoon silk, coffee, coal, timber. The total -value of imports was £64,189,000 in 1907, an increase of £18,000,000 +value of imports was £64,189,000 in 1907, an increase of £18,000,000 in the preceding decade. The exports, of which the total value was -£52,901,000 (an increase of £21,000,000 in the decade) included +£52,901,000 (an increase of £21,000,000 in the decade) included cotton fabrics, silk fabrics, cereals and flour, hides and skins, wool fabrics, worked skins, olive and other oils, chemical products, wine, refined sugar, raw cotton, wool, coal, building-material, machinery @@ -1257,7 +1218,7 @@ and pottery.</p> <p>The port is the centre for numerous lines of steamers, of which the chief are the Messageries Maritimes, which ply to the eastern Mediterranean, the east coast of Africa, Australia, India, Indo-China, -Havre and London, and the Compagnie Générale Transatlantique, +Havre and London, and the Compagnie Générale Transatlantique, whose vessels run to Algiers, Tunis, Malta, Corsica, Morocco and the Antilles. In addition many important foreign lines call at the port, among them being the P. and O., the Orient, the North German @@ -1265,7 +1226,7 @@ Lloyd, and the German East Africa lines.</p> <p>Marseilles has five chief railway stations, two of which serve the new harbours, while one is alongside the old port; the city is on the -main line of the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway from the Riviera +main line of the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway from the Riviera and Toulon to Paris via Arles, Avignon and Lyons, another less important line connecting it with Aix.</p> @@ -1349,7 +1310,7 @@ ages it suffered from the competition of Pisa, Genoa and Venice. In 1245 and 1256 Charles of Anjou, count of Provence, whose predecessors had left the citizens a large measure of independence, established his authority above that of the republic. In 1423 -Alphonso V. of Aragon sacked the town. King René, who had +Alphonso V. of Aragon sacked the town. King René, who had made it his winter residence, however, caused trade, arts and manufactures again to flourish. On the embodiment of Provence in the kingdom of France in 1481, Marseilles preserved a separate @@ -1377,14 +1338,14 @@ impulse from the conquest of Algeria and from the opening of the Suez Canal.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See P. Castanier, <i>Histoire de la Provence dans l’antiquité</i>, vol. ii. -(Paris, 1896); E. Caman, <i>Marseille au XX<span class="sp">me</span> siècle</i> (Paris, 1905); +<p>See P. Castanier, <i>Histoire de la Provence dans l’antiquité</i>, vol. ii. +(Paris, 1896); E. Caman, <i>Marseille au XX<span class="sp">me</span> siècle</i> (Paris, 1905); P. Joanne, <i>Marseille et ses environs</i>.</p> </div> <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> -<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> From the Latin <i>cannabis</i>, Provençal <i>cannèbe</i>, “hemp,” in allusion +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> From the Latin <i>cannabis</i>, Provençal <i>cannèbe</i>, “hemp,” in allusion to the rope-walks formerly occupying its site.</p> </div> @@ -1629,7 +1590,7 @@ derived its surname from the office, and the hereditary title of earl-marshal originated in the marriage of William Marshal with the heiress of the earldom of Pembroke (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Earl Marshal</a></span>). Similarly, in Scotland, the office of marischal (from the French -<i>maréchal</i>), probably introduced under David I., became in the 14th +<i>maréchal</i>), probably introduced under David I., became in the 14th century hereditary in the house of Keith. In 1485 the Scottish marischal became an earl under the designation of earl-marischal, the dignity coming to an end by the attainder of George, 10th @@ -1648,7 +1609,7 @@ that in 1214 King John constituted William, earl of Salisbury, <i>marescalcus</i> of his forces. The modern military title of field marshal, imported from Germany by King George II. in 1736, is derived from the high dignity of the <i>marescalcus</i> in a roundabout -way. The <i>marescalcus campi</i>, or <i>maréchal des champs</i>, was +way. The <i>marescalcus campi</i>, or <i>maréchal des champs</i>, was originally one of a number of officials to whom the name, with certain of the functions, of the marshal was given. The marshal, being responsible for order in court and camp, had to employ @@ -1658,7 +1619,7 @@ for two such marshals to precede the army, select the site of the camp and assign to the lords and knights their places in it. In <span class="pagenum"><a name="page770" id="page770"></a>770</span> time of peace they preceded the king on a journey and arranged -for his lodging and maintenance. In France <i>maréchal des logis</i> +for his lodging and maintenance. In France <i>maréchal des logis</i> is the title of superior non-commissioned officers in the cavalry.</p> <p>Similarly at the king’s court the <i>marescalcus aulae</i> or <i>intrinsecus</i> @@ -1673,7 +1634,7 @@ acted as the vicar of the marshal for duties “within” the court, so the <i>marescalcus forinsecus</i> was deputed to perform those acts of serjeanty due from the marshal to the Crown “without.” Similarly there appears in the statute 5 Edw. III. cap. 8, a -<i>marescalcus banci regii</i> (<i>maréchal du Banc du Roy</i>), or marshal +<i>marescalcus banci regii</i> (<i>maréchal du Banc du Roy</i>), or marshal of the king’s bench, who presided over the Marshalsea Court, and was responsible for the safe custody of prisoners, who were bestowed in the <i>mareschalcia</i>, or Marshalsea prison. The office @@ -1688,7 +1649,7 @@ travelling and other expenses are paid by the judge, and he receives an allowance of two guineas a day, which is paid through the Treasury. He introduces the high sheriff of the county to the judge of assize on his arrival, and swears in the grand -jury. For the French <i>maréchaussée</i> see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>: § <i>Law and +jury. For the French <i>maréchaussée</i> see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>: § <i>Law and Institutions</i>.</p> <p>In the sense of executive legal officer the title marshal survives @@ -1713,8 +1674,8 @@ of the justices’ courts called constables.</p> <p>In England the title of marshal, as applied to an executive officer, survives only in the army, where the provost marshal is chief of the military police in large garrisons and in field forces. -Office and title were borrowed from the French <i>prévot des -maréchaux</i>, the modern equivalent of the medieval <i>praepositus +Office and title were borrowed from the French <i>prévot des +maréchaux</i>, the modern equivalent of the medieval <i>praepositus marescalcorum</i> or <i>guerrarum</i>.</p> @@ -2167,8 +2128,8 @@ the commission form of government.</p> <p><span class="bold">MARSHALL ISLANDS,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> an island group in the western Pacific Ocean (Micronesia) belonging to Germany. The group consists of a number of atolls ranged in two almost parallel lines, which -run from N.W. to S.E. between 4° and 15° N. and 161° and -174° E. The north-east line, with fifteen islands, is called +run from N.W. to S.E. between 4° and 15° N. and 161° and +174° E. The north-east line, with fifteen islands, is called Ratak, the other, numbering eighteen, Ralik. These atolls are of coralline formation and of irregular shape. They rise but little above high-water mark. The highest elevation occurs @@ -2181,7 +2142,7 @@ through the admixture of decayed vegetation. The reef in scarcely any instance exceeds 600 ft. in width.</p> <p>The climate is moist and hot, the mean temperature being -80.50° F. Easterly winds prevail all the year round. There +80.50° F. Easterly winds prevail all the year round. There is no difference between the seasons, which, though the islands belong to the northern hemisphere, have the highest temperature in January and the lowest in July. Vegetation, on the whole, @@ -2235,7 +2196,7 @@ and annexed the group in 1885-1886.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See C. Hager, <i>Die Marshall-Inseln</i> (Leipzig, 1886); Steinbach and -Grösser, <i>Wörterbuch der Marshall-Sprache</i> (Hamburg, 1902).</p> +Grösser, <i>Wörterbuch der Marshall-Sprache</i> (Hamburg, 1902).</p> </div> @@ -2320,13 +2281,13 @@ gas. It may be synthetically obtained by passing a mixture of the vapour of carbon bisulphide with sulphuretted hydrogen over red-hot copper (M. Berthelot, <i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1856, 43, p. 236), CS<span class="su">2</span> + 2H<span class="su">2</span>S + 8Cu = 4Cu<span class="su">2</span>S + CH<span class="su">4</span>; by passing a mixture of -hydrogen and carbon monoxide over reduced nickel at 200-250° -C., or hydrogen and carbon dioxide at 230-300° C. (P. Sabatier +hydrogen and carbon monoxide over reduced nickel at 200-250° +C., or hydrogen and carbon dioxide at 230-300° C. (P. Sabatier and J. B. Senderens, <i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1902, 134, pp. 514, 689); by the decomposition of aluminium carbide with water [H. Moissan, <i>Bull. Soc. Chim.</i>, 1894, (3) 11, p. 1012]; and by heating phosphonium iodide with carbon bisulphide in a sealed tube -to 120-140° C. (H. Jahn, <i>Ber.</i>, 1880, 13, p. 127). It is also +to 120-140° C. (H. Jahn, <i>Ber.</i>, 1880, 13, p. 127). It is also obtained by the reduction of many methyl compounds with nascent hydrogen; thus methyl iodide dissolved in methyl alcohol readily yields methane when acted on by the zinc-copper @@ -2349,10 +2310,10 @@ Na<span class="su">2</span>CO<span class="su">3</span> + CH<span class="su">4</s pure, containing generally more or less ethylene and hydrogen.</p> <p>Methane is a colourless gas of specific gravity 0.559 (air = 1). -It may be condensed to a colourless liquid at −155° to −160° C. +It may be condensed to a colourless liquid at −155° to −160° C. under atmospheric pressure (S. Wroblewsky, <i>Comptes rendus</i>, -1884, 99, p. 136). It boils at -162° C. and freezes at −186° C. Its -critical temperature is −99.5° C. (J. Dewar). The gas is almost +1884, 99, p. 136). It boils at -162° C. and freezes at −186° C. Its +critical temperature is −99.5° C. (J. Dewar). The gas is almost insoluble in water, but is slightly soluble in alcohol. It decomposes into its constituents when passed through a red-hot tube, small quantities of other hydrocarbons (ethane, ethylene, @@ -2360,7 +2321,7 @@ acetylene, benzene, &c.) being formed at the same time. It burns with a pale flame, and when mixed with air or oxygen forms a highly explosive mixture. W. A. Bone (<i>Jour. Chem. Soc.</i>, 1902, 81, p. 535; 1903, 83, p. 1074) has shown that in the -oxidation of methane by oxygen at 450-500° C. formaldehyde +oxidation of methane by oxygen at 450-500° C. formaldehyde (or possibly methyl alcohol) is formed as an intermediate product, and is ultimately oxidized to carbon dioxide. Methane is an exceedingly stable gas, being unaffected by the action of chromic @@ -2514,8 +2475,8 @@ French (1732), the <i>Osservazioni intorno al Bosforo Tracio</i> in Rome (1681) and the <i>Danubius pannonico-mysicus</i>, a large work in six volumes containing much valuable historic and scientific information on the Danubian countries, at the Hague (1725). See Fontenelle, -“Éloge” in the <i>Mém. de l’acad. des sciences</i> (Paris, 1730); Quincy, -<i>Mémoires sur la vie de M. le comte Marsigli</i> (Zürich, 1741), and +“Éloge” in the <i>Mém. de l’acad. des sciences</i> (Paris, 1730); Quincy, +<i>Mémoires sur la vie de M. le comte Marsigli</i> (Zürich, 1741), and Fantuzzi’s biography of Marsigli (Bologna, 1770).</p> </div> @@ -2650,18 +2611,18 @@ Reform movement.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See J. Sullivan, <i>American Historical Review</i>, vol. ii. (1896-1897), -and <i>English Historical Review</i> for April 1905; <i>Histoire littéraire +and <i>English Historical Review</i> for April 1905; <i>Histoire littéraire de la France</i> (1906), xxxiii. 528-623; Sigmund Riezler, <i>Die literarischen -Widersacher der Päpste zur Zeit Ludwig des Baiers</i> (Leipzig, +Widersacher der Päpste zur Zeit Ludwig des Baiers</i> (Leipzig, 1874).</p> <p>There are numerous manuscripts of the <i>Defensor pacis</i> extant. We will here mention only one edition, that given by Goldast, in 1614, in vol. i. of his <i>Monarchia sacri imperii</i>; an unpublished -last chapter was published by Karl Müller, in 1883, in the <i>Göttingische +last chapter was published by Karl Müller, in 1883, in the <i>Göttingische gelehrte Anzeigen</i>, pp. 923-925.</p> -<p>Count Lützow in <i>The Life and Times of Master John Hus</i> (London +<p>Count Lützow in <i>The Life and Times of Master John Hus</i> (London and New York, 1909), pp. 5-9, gives a good abstract of the Defensor pacis and the relations of Marsilius to other precursors of the Reformation.</p> @@ -2811,7 +2772,7 @@ E. Koelbing, <i>Forschungen zur englischen Sprache und Litteratur</i>, pt. i. (1899). See also three articles <i>John Marston als Dramatiker</i>, by Ph. Aronstein in <i>Englische Studien</i> (vols. xx. and xxi., 1895), and “Quellenstudien zu den Dramen Ben Jonsons, John Marstons ...” -by Emil Koeppel (<i>Münchener Beiträge zur roman. und engl. +by Emil Koeppel (<i>Münchener Beiträge zur roman. und engl. Philologie</i>, pt. xi. 1895).</p> </div> @@ -2849,7 +2810,7 @@ O’Shaughnessy and Irving. From his earliest years his literary precocity was overshadowed by misfortunes. In his fourth year, in part owing to an accident, his sight began to decay, and he gradually became almost totally blind. His mother died in 1870. -His <i>fiancée</i>, Mary Nesbit, died in 1871; his closest friend, Oliver +His <i>fiancée</i>, Mary Nesbit, died in 1871; his closest friend, Oliver Madox Brown, in 1874; his sister Cicely, his amanuensis, in 1878; in 1879 his remaining sister, Eleanor, who was followed to the grave after a brief interval by her husband, the @@ -3371,7 +3332,7 @@ of Hind Foot of <tr><td class="caption1"><i>c</i>, calcanium; <i>a</i>, astralagus; <i>cb</i>, cuboid; <i>n</i>. navicular; -<i>c</i>³, ectocuneiform; +<i>c</i>³, ectocuneiform; II. and III. the conjoined second and third @@ -3511,7 +3472,7 @@ the intestine has a caecum, and the pouch is large and opens forwards. It should be added that Professor Elliot Smith has pointed out a certain peculiarity in its commissures whereby the brain of the diprotodonts differs markedly from that of the polyprotodonts -and approximates to the placental type. Dr Einar Lönnberg has +and approximates to the placental type. Dr Einar Lönnberg has also recorded certain adaptive peculiarities in the stomach. Most of the species, particularly the specialized types, are more or less completely herbivorous.</p> @@ -4026,7 +3987,7 @@ it had done nothing to justify its subsequent reputation. In 1794, however, a fresh attempt was made to support the insurgents. On the 7th of February 1400 troops were landed, and the tower was attacked by land and sea on the 8th. The -“Fortitude” and “Juno” kept up a cannonade for 2½ hours +“Fortitude” and “Juno” kept up a cannonade for 2½ hours and then hauled off, the former being on fire and having sixty-two men killed and wounded. The fire from the batteries on shore produced no impression until a hot shot set fire to the @@ -4047,7 +4008,7 @@ with a door about 20 ft. above the ground. In some cases a deep ditch is provided around the base. The chief defect of the tower was its weakness against vertical fire; its masonry was further liable to be cut through by breaching batteries. -The French <i>tours modèles</i> were somewhat similar to the Martello +The French <i>tours modèles</i> were somewhat similar to the Martello towers; their chief use was to serve as keeps to unrevetted works. While the Martello tower owes its reputation and its widespread adoption in Great Britain to a single incident of @@ -4091,7 +4052,7 @@ and signed the death warrant. He was then energetic in establishing the republic and in destroying the remaining vestiges of the monarchical system. He was chosen a member of the council of state in 1649, and as compensation for his losses and -reward for his services during the war, lands valued at £1000 +reward for his services during the war, lands valued at £1000 a year were settled upon him. In parliament he spoke often and with effect, but he took no part in public life during the Protectorate, passing part of this time in prison, where he was @@ -4136,7 +4097,7 @@ Civil War</i> and <i>History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate</i>.</p> genus of carnivorous mammals (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carnivora</a></span>). Martens are limited to the northern hemisphere, ranging throughout the greater part of the northern temperate regions of both Old and -New Worlds, and southwards in America to 35° N. lat., while in +New Worlds, and southwards in America to 35° N. lat., while in Asia one species is met with in Java.</p> <p>The species appear to be similar in their habits. They live @@ -4269,8 +4230,8 @@ of brown or grey on the head and upper fore part of the body, with no light patch on the throat, and unlike other martens generally darker below than above. It was generally distributed in wooded districts throughout the greater part of North America, as far north -as Great Slave Lake, lat. 63° N., and Alaska, and extending south -to the parallel of 35°; but at the present time is almost exterminated +as Great Slave Lake, lat. 63° N., and Alaska, and extending south +to the parallel of 35°; but at the present time is almost exterminated in the settled parts of the United States east of the Mississippi.</p> </div> <div class="author">(W. H. F.)</div> @@ -4295,7 +4256,7 @@ The term “Marten Cat” is also used.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">MARTENS, FRÉDÉRIC FROMMHOLD DE<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (1845-1909), +<p><span class="bold">MARTENS, FRÉDÉRIC FROMMHOLD DE<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (1845-1909), Russian jurist, was born at Pernau in Livonia. In 1868 he entered the Russian ministry of foreign affairs, was admitted in 1871 as a <i>Dozent</i> in international law in the university of St @@ -4311,8 +4272,8 @@ into German and republished at Berlin. These were the first of a long series of studies which won for their author a world-wide reputation, and raised the character of the Russian school of international jurisprudence in all civilized countries. First -amongst them must be placed the great <i>Recueil des traités et -conventions conclus par la Russie avec les puissances étrangères</i> +amongst them must be placed the great <i>Recueil des traités et +conventions conclus par la Russie avec les puissances étrangères</i> (13 vols., 1874-1902). This collection, published in Russian and French in parallel columns, contains not only the texts of the treaties but valuable introductions dealing with the diplomatic @@ -4365,9 +4326,9 @@ for October 1909, where a list of the writings of Martens appears.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">MARTENS, GEORG FRIEDRICH VON<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (1756-1821), German jurist and diplomatist, was born at Hamburg on the 22nd of -February 1756. Educated at the universities of Göttingen, +February 1756. Educated at the universities of Göttingen, Regensburg and Vienna, he became professor of jurisprudence at -Göttingen in 1783 and was ennobled in 1789. He was made +Göttingen in 1783 and was ennobled in 1789. He was made a counsellor of state by the elector of Hanover in 1808, and in 1810 was president of the financial section of the council of state of the kingdom of Westphalia. In 1814 he was appointed @@ -4378,34 +4339,34 @@ died on the 21st of February 1821.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Of his works the most important is the great collection of treaties -<i>Recueil des traités, &c.</i> from 1761 onwards. Of this the first seven -volumes were published at Göttingen (1791-1801), followed by four +<i>Recueil des traités, &c.</i> from 1761 onwards. Of this the first seven +volumes were published at Göttingen (1791-1801), followed by four supplementary volumes partly edited by his nephew Karl von Martens (see below). These were followed by <i>Nouveau recueil</i>, of -treaties subsequent to 1808, in 16 vols. (Göttingen, 1817-1842), of +treaties subsequent to 1808, in 16 vols. (Göttingen, 1817-1842), of which G. F. von Martens edited the first four, the fifth being the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page787" id="page787"></a>787</span> work of K. von Martens, the others (6-9) by F. Saalfeld and (10-16) -F. Murhard. A <i>Nouveau supplément</i>, in 3 vols., filling gaps in -the previous collection, was also published by Murhard (Göttingen, +F. Murhard. A <i>Nouveau supplément</i>, in 3 vols., filling gaps in +the previous collection, was also published by Murhard (Göttingen, 1839-1842). This was followed by <i>Nouveau recueil ... continuation -du grand recueil de Martens</i>, in 20 vols. (Göttingen, 1843-1875), +du grand recueil de Martens</i>, in 20 vols. (Göttingen, 1843-1875), edited in turn by F. Murhard, C. Murhard, J. Pinhas, C. Samwer and J. Hopf, with a general index of treaties from 1494 to 1874 (1876). -This was followed by <i>Nouveau recueil, 2me série</i> (Göttingen, 1876-1896; +This was followed by <i>Nouveau recueil, 2me série</i> (Göttingen, 1876-1896; vols. xxii.-xxxv., Leipzig, 1897-1908). From vol. xi. on this series was edited by Felix Stork, professor of public law at Greifswald. In 1909 appeared vol. i. of a further <i>Continuation</i> -(<i>troisième série</i>) under the editorship of Professor Heinrich Triepel +(<i>troisième série</i>) under the editorship of Professor Heinrich Triepel of Kiel University.</p> -<p>Of Martens’ other works the most important are the <i>Précis du -droit des gens modernes de l’Europe</i> (1789; 3rd ed., Göttingen, 1821; -new ed., G. S. Pinheiro-Ferreira, 2 vols., 1858, 1864); <i>Erzählungen -merkwürdiger Fälle des neueren europäischen Völkerrechts</i>, 2 vols. -(Göttingen, 1800-1802); <i>Cours diplomatique ou tableau des relations +<p>Of Martens’ other works the most important are the <i>Précis du +droit des gens modernes de l’Europe</i> (1789; 3rd ed., Göttingen, 1821; +new ed., G. S. Pinheiro-Ferreira, 2 vols., 1858, 1864); <i>Erzählungen +merkwürdiger Fälle des neueren europäischen Völkerrechts</i>, 2 vols. +(Göttingen, 1800-1802); <i>Cours diplomatique ou tableau des relations des puissances de l’Europe</i>, 3 vols. (Berlin, 1801); <i>Grundriss einer -diplomatischen Gesch. der europ. Staatshändel u. Friedensschlüsse +diplomatischen Gesch. der europ. Staatshändel u. Friedensschlüsse seit dem Ende des 15. Jahrhunderts</i> (ibid. 1807).</p> <p>His nephew <span class="sc">Karl von Martens</span> (1790-1863), who at his death @@ -4413,9 +4374,9 @@ was minister resident of the grand-duke of Weimar at Dresden, published a <i>Manuel diplomatique</i> (Leipzig, 1823), re-issued as <i>Guide diplomatique</i> in two vols. in 1832 (5th ed. by Geffcken, 1866), a valuable textbook of the rules and customs of the diplomatic -service; <i>Causes célèbres du droit des gens</i> (2 vols., ibid., 1827) and -<i>Nouvelles causes célèbres</i> (2 vols., ibid., 1843), both republished, in -5 vols. (1858-1861); <i>Recueil manuel et pratique de traités</i> (7 vols., ibid., +service; <i>Causes célèbres du droit des gens</i> (2 vols., ibid., 1827) and +<i>Nouvelles causes célèbres</i> (2 vols., ibid., 1843), both republished, in +5 vols. (1858-1861); <i>Recueil manuel et pratique de traités</i> (7 vols., ibid., 1846-1857); continued by Geffcken in 3 vols., (1885-1888).</p> </div> @@ -4439,7 +4400,7 @@ of the 18th century, William Law. Martensen was a distinguished preacher, and his works were translated into various languages. The “official” eulogy he pronounced upon Bishop Jakob P. Mynster (1775-1854) in 1854, brought down upon -his head the invectives of the philosopher Sören Kierkegaard. +his head the invectives of the philosopher Sören Kierkegaard. He died at Copenhagen on the 3rd of February 1884.</p> <div class="condensed"> @@ -4449,7 +4410,7 @@ die baptistische Frage</i> (2nd ed., 1847; German, 2nd ed., 1860), <i>Den Christelige Dogmatik</i> (4th ed., 1883; Eng. trans., 1866; German by himself, 4th ed., 1897); <i>Christliche Ethik</i> (1871; Eng. trans., Part I. 1873, Part II. 1881 seq.); <i>Hirtenspiegel</i> (1870-1872); <i>Katholizismus -und Protestantismus</i> (1874); <i>Jacob Böhme</i> (1882; Eng. trans., 1885). +und Protestantismus</i> (1874); <i>Jacob Böhme</i> (1882; Eng. trans., 1885). An autobiography, <i>Aus meinem Leben</i>, appeared in 1883, and after his death the <i>Briefwechsel zwischen Martensen und Dorner</i> (1888).</p> </div> @@ -4460,7 +4421,7 @@ his death the <i>Briefwechsel zwischen Martensen und Dorner</i> (1888).</p> part of Dukes county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., lying about 3 m. off the southern coast of that state. Its extreme length (east to west) is about 20 m., and its extreme width (north -to south) about 9½ m. Along its north-west and a portion of its +to south) about 9½ m. Along its north-west and a portion of its north-east shore lies Vineyard Sound. Its principal bays are Vineyard Haven Harbor, a deep indentation at the northernmost angle of the island; and, on the eastern coast, Edgartown @@ -4495,8 +4456,8 @@ Bluffs on the north-east coast, facing Vineyard Sound; Vineyard Haven, in Tisbury township, beautifully situated on the west shore of Vineyard Haven Harbor, and Edgartown on Edgartown Harbor—all summer resorts. No Man’s Land, included -politically in Chilmark township, lies about 6½ m. south of -Gay Head. It is about 1½ m. long (east and west) and about +politically in Chilmark township, lies about 6½ m. south of +Gay Head. It is about 1½ m. long (east and west) and about 1 m. wide, is composed of treeless swamps, and is used mainly for sheep-grazing; the neighbouring waters are excellent fishing ground. Martha’s Vineyard is served by steamship lines from @@ -4661,28 +4622,28 @@ negroes, and now only faint traces of them remain.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">MARTÍ, JUAN JOSÉ<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1570?-1604), Spanish novelist, was +<p><span class="bold">MARTÃ, JUAN JOSÉ<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1570?-1604), Spanish novelist, was born at Orihuela (Valencia) about 1570. He graduated as bachelor of canon law at Valencia in 1591, and in 1598 took his degree as doctor of canon law; in the latter year he was appointed co-examiner in canon law at Valencia University, and held the post for six years. He died at Valencia, and was buried in the cathedral of that city on the 22nd of December -1604. Martí joined the Valencian <i>Academia de los nocturnos</i>, +1604. Martà joined the Valencian <i>Academia de los nocturnos</i>, under the name of “Atrevimiento,” but is best known by -another pseudonym, Mateo Luján de Sayavedra, under which -he issued an apocryphal continuation (1602) of Alemán’s <i>Guzmán -de Alfarache</i> (1599). Marti obtained access to Alemán’s unfinished +another pseudonym, Mateo Luján de Sayavedra, under which +he issued an apocryphal continuation (1602) of Alemán’s <i>Guzmán +de Alfarache</i> (1599). Marti obtained access to Alemán’s unfinished manuscript, and stole some of his ideas; this dishonesty -lends point to the sarcastic congratulations which Alemán, +lends point to the sarcastic congratulations which Alemán, in the genuine sequel (1604) pays to his rival’s sallies: “I greatly envy them, and should be proud that they were mine.” -Martí’s book is clever, but the circumstances in which it was +MartÃ’s book is clever, but the circumstances in which it was produced account for its cold reception and afford presumption that the best scenes are not original.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>It has been suggested that Martí is identical with Avellaneda, the +<p>It has been suggested that Martà is identical with Avellaneda, the writer of a spurious continuation (1614) to <i>Don Quixote</i>; but he died before the first part of <i>Don Quixote</i> was published (1605).</p> </div> @@ -4787,7 +4748,7 @@ bores and noises of the city (ii. 38, xii. 57). In his later years he had also a small house on the Quirinal, near the temple of Quirinus. At the time when his third book was brought out he had retired for a short time to Cisalpine Gaul, in weariness, -as he tells us, of his unremunerative attendance on the levées +as he tells us, of his unremunerative attendance on the levées of the great. For a time he seems to have felt the charm of the new scenes which he visited, and in a later book (iv. 25) he contemplates the prospect of retiring to the neighbourhood @@ -4866,7 +4827,7 @@ position (Juv. i. 117), accepted the dole (<i>sportula</i>). Martial was merely following a general fashion in paying his court to “a lord,” and he made the best of the custom. In his earlier career he used to accompany his patrons to their villas at Baiae -or Tibur, and to attend their morning levées. Later on he +or Tibur, and to attend their morning levées. Later on he went to his own small country house, near Nomentum, and sent a poem, or a small volume of his poems, as his representative at the early visit. The fault of grossness Martial shares with @@ -4956,7 +4917,7 @@ MS. preserved in the Advocates’ Library at Edinburgh.</p> <p>The best separate edition of the text is that of Lindsay (Oxford, 1902); earlier editions of importance are those of Schneidewin (1842 and 1853), and of Gilbert (Leipzig, 1886). The best commentary -is that of L. Friedländer (Leipzig, 1886) in two volumes with +is that of L. Friedländer (Leipzig, 1886) in two volumes with German notes) and in the same scholar’s <i>Sittengeschichte Roms</i> much will be found that explains and illustrates Martial’s epigrams. There is a large selection from the epigrams with English notes by @@ -4995,7 +4956,7 @@ who may be the same person.</p> <i>Mulomedicina</i>; “Gargilius Martialis und die Maurenkriege,” C. Cichorius in G. Curtius, <i>Leipziger Studien</i>, x. (1887), where the inscription referred to above is fully discussed: see also -Teuffel-Schwabe, <i>Hist. of Roman Literature</i> (Eng. trans.), § 380.</p> +Teuffel-Schwabe, <i>Hist. of Roman Literature</i> (Eng. trans.), § 380.</p> </div> @@ -5260,19 +5221,19 @@ obtained after the suppression of the rebellion. (Jno. S.)</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">MARTIGNAC, JEAN BAPTISTE SYLVERE GAY,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> <span class="sc">Vicomte de</span> (1778-1832), French statesman, was born at Bordeaux on -the 20th of June 1778. In 1798 he acted as secretary to Sieyès; +the 20th of June 1778. In 1798 he acted as secretary to Sieyès; then after serving for a while in the army, he turned to literature, producing several light plays. Under the Empire he practised with success as an advocate at Bordeaux, where in 1818 he became advocate-general of the <i>cour royale</i>. In 1819 he was -appointed <i>procureur-général</i> at Limoges, and in 1821 was returned +appointed <i>procureur-général</i> at Limoges, and in 1821 was returned for Marmande to the Chamber of Deputies, where he supported -the policy of Villèle. In 1822 he was appointed councillor -of state, in 1823 he accompanied the due d’Angoulême to Spain +the policy of Villèle. In 1822 he was appointed councillor +of state, in 1823 he accompanied the due d’Angoulême to Spain as civil commissary; in 1824 he was created a viscount and appointed director-general of registration. In contact with practical politics his ultra-royalist views were gradually modified -in the direction of the Doctrinaires, and on the fall of Villèle +in the direction of the Doctrinaires, and on the fall of Villèle he was selected by Charles X. to carry out the new policy of compromise. On the 4th of January 1828 he was appointed minister of the interior, and, though not bearing the title of @@ -5293,15 +5254,15 @@ in the Chamber of Peers in December 1830. He died on the <div class="condensed"> <p>Martignac published <i>Bordeaux au mois de Mars 1815</i> (Paris, 1830), -and an <i>Essai historique sur les révolutions d’Espagne et l’intervention -française de 1823</i> (Paris, 1832). See also E. Daudet, <i>Le Ministère de +and an <i>Essai historique sur les révolutions d’Espagne et l’intervention +française de 1823</i> (Paris, 1832). See also E. Daudet, <i>Le Ministère de M. de Martignac</i> (Paris, 1875).</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">MARTIGUES,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> a port of south-eastern France in the department -of Bouches-du-Rhône, on the southern shore of the lagoon +of Bouches-du-Rhône, on the southern shore of the lagoon of Berre, and at the eastern extremity of that of Caronte, by which the former is connected with the Mediterranean. Pop. (1906), 4,178. Martigues is 23 m. W.N.W. of Marseilles by @@ -5314,7 +5275,7 @@ grey mullet caught in the salt lagoons, which rivals Russian caviare.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>Built in 1232 by Raymond Bérenger, count of Provence, Martigues +<p>Built in 1232 by Raymond Bérenger, count of Provence, Martigues was made a viscountship by Joanna I., queen of Naples. Henry IV. made it a principality, in favour of a princess of the house of Luxembourg. It afterwards passed into the hands of the duke of Villars.</p> @@ -5338,26 +5299,26 @@ roused persecution against him and for some time he lived an ascetic life on the desert island of Gallinaria near Genoa. Between 360 and 370 he was again with Hilary at Poitiers, and founded in the neighbourhood the monasterium locociagense -(Licugé). In 371-372 the people of Tours chose him for their +(Licugé). In 371-372 the people of Tours chose him for their bishop. He did much to extirpate idolatry from his diocese and from France, and to extend the monastic system. To obtain privacy for the maintenance of his personal religion, he established the monastery of Marmoutier-les-Tours (Martini -monasterium) on the banks of the Loire. At Trèves, in 385, +monasterium) on the banks of the Loire. At Trèves, in 385, he entreated that the lives of the Priscillianist heretics should be spared, and he ever afterwards refused to hold ecclesiastical fellowship with those bishops who had sanctioned their execution. He died at Candes in the year 400, and is commemorated by the Roman Church on the 11th of November (duplex). He left no writings, the so-called <i>Confessio</i> being spurious. He is the -patron saint of France and of the cities of Mainz and Würzburg. +patron saint of France and of the cities of Mainz and Würzburg. The <i>Life</i> by his disciple Sulpicius Severus is practically the only source for his biography, but it is full of legendary matter and chronological errors. Gregory of Tours gives a list of 206 miracles wrought by him after his death; Sidonius Apollinaris composed a metrical biography of him. The Feast of St Martin (Martinmas) took the place of an old pagan festival, and inherited -some of its usages (such as the <i>Martinsmännchen</i>, <i>Martinsfeuer</i>, +some of its usages (such as the <i>Martinsmännchen</i>, <i>Martinsfeuer</i>, <i>Martinshorn</i> and the like, in various parts of Germany); by this circumstance is probably to be explained the fact that Martin is regarded as the patron of drinking and jovial meetings, @@ -5408,7 +5369,7 @@ Hefele’s <i>Conciliengeschichte</i>, vol. iii. (1877).</p> <p><span class="sc">Martin III.</span>, see Marinus II.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Martin IV.</span> (Simon Mompitié de Brion), pope from the 22nd +<p><span class="sc">Martin IV.</span> (Simon Mompitié de Brion), pope from the 22nd of February 1281 to the 28th of March 1285, should have been named Martin II. He was born about 1210 in Touraine. He became a priest at Rouen and canon of St Martin’s at Tours, @@ -5435,8 +5396,8 @@ His successor was Honorius IV.</p> <div class="author">(C. H. Ha.)</div> <div class="condensed"> -<p>His registers have been published in the <i>Bibliothèque des écoles -françaises d’Athènes et de Rome</i> (Paris, 1901).</p> +<p>His registers have been published in the <i>Bibliothèque des écoles +françaises d’Athènes et de Rome</i> (Paris, 1901).</p> <p>See A. Potthast, <i>Regesta pontif. roman.</i>, vol. 2 (Berlin, 1875); K. J. von Hefele, <i>Conciliengeschichte</i>, Bd. 6, 2nd ed.; F. Gregorovius, @@ -5458,7 +5419,7 @@ due his entry, as <i>referendarius</i>, upon an ecclesiastical career. Having become a cardinal under Innocent VII., he had seceded from Gregory XII. in 1408, and together with the other cardinals at Pisa, had taken part in the election of Alexander V. -and afterwards of John XXIII. At Constance, his rôle had +and afterwards of John XXIII. At Constance, his rôle had been chiefly that of an arbiter; he was a good and gentle man, leading a simple life, free from intrigue. While refraining from making any pronouncement as to the validity of the decrees @@ -5508,10 +5469,10 @@ Cardinal Giuliano Cesarini to preside in his place over the council of Basel.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See L. Pastor, <i>Geschichte der Päpste</i> (1901), i. 205-279; J. Guiraud, -<i>L’État pontifical après le Grand Schisme</i> (1896); Müntz, <i>Les Arts à -la cour des papes pendant le xv<span class="sp">e</span> et le xvi<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1878); N. Valois, -<i>La Crise religieuse du xv<span class="sp">e</span> siècle; le pape et le concile</i> (1909), vol. i. +<p>See L. Pastor, <i>Geschichte der Päpste</i> (1901), i. 205-279; J. Guiraud, +<i>L’État pontifical après le Grand Schisme</i> (1896); Müntz, <i>Les Arts à +la cour des papes pendant le xv<span class="sp">e</span> et le xvi<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1878); N. Valois, +<i>La Crise religieuse du xv<span class="sp">e</span> siècle; le pape et le concile</i> (1909), vol. i. p. i.-xxix., 1-93.</p> </div> <div class="author">(N. V.)</div> @@ -5535,9 +5496,9 @@ index, 1861-1865) gained for the author in 1856 the first prize of the Academy, and in 1869 the grand biennial prize of 20,000 francs. A popular abridgment in seven volumes was published in 1867. This, together with the continuation, <i>Histoire de -France depuis 1789 jusqu’à nos jours</i> (6 vols. 1878-1883), gives +France depuis 1789 jusqu’à nos jours</i> (6 vols. 1878-1883), gives a complete history of France, and superseded Sismondi’s <i>Histoire -des Français</i>.</p> +des Français</i>.</p> <p>This work is in parts defective; Martin’s descriptions of the Gauls are based rather on romance than on history, and in @@ -5547,18 +5508,18 @@ impetus to Celtic and anthropological studies. His knowledge of the <span class="correction" title="amended from mddile">middle</span> ages is inadequate, and his criticisms are not discriminating. As a free-thinking republican, his prejudices often biassed his judgment on the political and religious history -of the <i>ancien régime</i>. The last six volumes, devoted to the +of the <i>ancien régime</i>. The last six volumes, devoted to the 17th and 18th centuries, are superior to the earlier ones. Martin -sat in the <i>assemblée nationale</i> as deputy for Aisne in 1871, +sat in the <i>assemblée nationale</i> as deputy for Aisne in 1871, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page794" id="page794"></a>794</span> and was elected life senator in 1878, but he left no mark as a politician. He died in Paris on the 14th of December 1883.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>Among his minor works may be mentioned:—<i>De la France, de -son génie et de ses destinées</i> (1847); <i>Daniel Manin</i> (1860), <i>La Russie -et l’Europe</i> (1866); <i>Études d’archéologie celtique</i> (1872); <i>Les Napoléon -et les frontières de la France</i> (1874). See his biography by Gabriel +son génie et de ses destinées</i> (1847); <i>Daniel Manin</i> (1860), <i>La Russie +et l’Europe</i> (1866); <i>Études d’archéologie celtique</i> (1872); <i>Les Napoléon +et les frontières de la France</i> (1874). See his biography by Gabriel Hanotaux, <i>Henri Martin; sa vie, ses œuvres, son temps</i> (1885).</p> </div> @@ -5580,7 +5541,7 @@ rank but being ultimately placed on half pay. He acquired a large fortune, and on his death (Sept. 13, 1800) he bequeathed his residuary estate to found institutions for the education of European children at Lucknow, Calcutta and Lyons, all -known by the name of “La Martinière.” That at Lucknow +known by the name of “La Martinière.” That at Lucknow is the best known. It was housed in the palace that he had built called Constantia, which, though damaged during the Mutiny, retains many personal memorials of its founder.</p> @@ -5591,9 +5552,9 @@ Mutiny, retains many personal memorials of its founder.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">MARTIN, FRANÇOIS XAVIER<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (1762-1846), American jurist +<p><span class="bold">MARTIN, FRANÇOIS XAVIER<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (1762-1846), American jurist and author, was born in Marseilles, France, on the 17th of March -1762, of Provençal descent. In 1780 he went to Martinique, +1762, of Provençal descent. In 1780 he went to Martinique, and before the close of the American war of Independence went to North Carolina, where (in New Bern) he taught French and learnt English, and set up as a printer. He studied law, @@ -5685,12 +5646,12 @@ of Oblivion,” was exhibited in the Royal Academy of 1812, and sold for fifty guineas. It was followed by the “Expulsion” (1813), “Paradise” (1813), “Clytie” (1814), and “Joshua” (1815). In 1821 appeared his “Belshazzar’s Feast,” which excited much favourable -and hostile comment, and was awarded a prize of £200 at the +and hostile comment, and was awarded a prize of £200 at the British Institution, where the Joshua had previously carried off a -premium of £100. Then came the “Destruction of Herculaneum” +premium of £100. Then came the “Destruction of Herculaneum” (1822), the “Creation” (1824), the “Eve of the Deluge” (1841), and a series of other Biblical and imaginative subjects. In 1832-1833 -Martin received £2000 for drawing and engraving a fine +Martin received £2000 for drawing and engraving a fine series of designs to Milton, and with Westall he produced a set of Bible illustrations. He was also occupied with schemes for the improvement of London, and published various pamphlets @@ -5766,10 +5727,10 @@ the <i>Book of Ballads</i> under the same pseudonym. This work at once obtained popular favour. In 1858 he published a volume of translations of the <i>Poems and Ballads of Goethe</i>, and this was followed by a rendering of the Danish poet Henrik Hertz’s -lyric drama, <i>King René’s Daughter</i>. The principal character in +lyric drama, <i>King René’s Daughter</i>. The principal character in this drama, Iolanthe, was sustained by Helena Faucit (<i>q.v.</i>), who in 1851 became the author’s wife. Martin’s translations of -Öhlenschläger’s dramas, <i>Correggio</i> (1854) and <i>Aladdin, or the +Öhlenschläger’s dramas, <i>Correggio</i> (1854) and <i>Aladdin, or the Wonderful Lamp</i> (1857), widened the fame of the Danish poet in England. In 1860 appeared Martin’s metrical translation of the <i>Odes of Horace</i>; and in 1870 he wrote a volume on <i>Horace</i> for the @@ -5847,7 +5808,7 @@ Mediterranean. The discipline of the navy was then bad. It was a tradition sprung from the wholesale shipment of gaol-birds during the old war, that the men were to be treated without consideration; moreover the ships had been largely filled up with -“bounty men” bought into the service with a £10 note without +“bounty men” bought into the service with a £10 note without training. Out of this unpromising material Martin formed the fleet which was at that time the ideal of excellence. He had no war service, and, beyond the Italian disturbance of 1860-61, no @@ -5891,7 +5852,7 @@ It has also been translated into German, Italian and Bohemian.</p> <p>The Latin text is printed, with introduction by L. Weiland, in Band XXII. of the <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica</i> (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 seq.). See G. Waitz, H. Brosien and others in the -<i>Neues Archiv der Geseltschaft für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde</i> +<i>Neues Archiv der Geseltschaft für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde</i> (Hanover, 1876 seq.); W. Wattenbach, <i>Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen</i>, Band II. (Berlin, 1894); and A. Molinier, <i>Les Sources de l’histoire de France</i>, Tome III. (Paris, 1903).</p> @@ -5950,7 +5911,7 @@ geographical range that can compare with this. In Europe it is found nearly to the North Cape, and thence to the Sea of Okhotsk. In winter it visits many parts of India and South Africa to the Transvaal. In America its range extends (having due regard -to the season) from Melville Island to Caiçara in Brazil, and +to the season) from Melville Island to Caiçara in Brazil, and from Newfoundland to Alaska.</p> <p>The purple martin of America, <i>Progne purpurea</i>, is a favourite @@ -6406,7 +6367,7 @@ had much in common—influenced him; while Herbert Spencer in England and Comte in France afforded the antithesis needful to the dialectical development of his own views. He came to know German philosophy and criticism, especially the criticism of Baur -and the Tübingen school, which affected profoundly his construction +and the Tübingen school, which affected profoundly his construction of Christian history. And these were strengthened by French influences, notably those of Renan and the Strassburg theologians. The rise of evolution, and the new scientific way of looking at nature @@ -6610,7 +6571,7 @@ King’s regiment of foot and inspector-general of infantry drilled and trained that arm in the model regular army created by Louis and Louvois between 1660 and 1670. Martinet seems also to have introduced the copper pontoons with which Louis bridged the -Rhine in 1672. He was killed, as a <i>maréchal de camp</i>, at the +Rhine in 1672. He was killed, as a <i>maréchal de camp</i>, at the siege of Duisburg in the same year, being accidentally shot by bis own artillery while leading the infantry assault. His death, and that of the Swiss captain Soury by the same discharge gave @@ -6619,7 +6580,7 @@ that Duisburg had only cost the king a martin and a mouse. The “martin” as a matter of fact shares with Vauban and other professional soldiers of Louis XIV. the glory of having made the French army the first and best regular army in Europe. Great -nobles, such as Turenne, Condé and Luxemburg, led this army +nobles, such as Turenne, Condé and Luxemburg, led this army and inspired it, but their fame has obscured that of the men who made it manageable and efficient. It was about this time that the soldier of fortune, who joined a regiment with his own arms @@ -6632,7 +6593,7 @@ endured to the present day. Thus Martinet was the forerunner of Leopold of Dessau and Frederick William, just as Jean Jacques de Fourilles, the organizer of the cavalry, who was forced into an untimely charge at Seneffe (1674) by a brutal -taunt of Condé, and there met his death, was the forerunner +taunt of Condé, and there met his death, was the forerunner of Zieten and Seydlitz. These men, while differing from the creators of the Prussian army in that they contributed nothing to the tactics of their arms, at least made tactics possible by the @@ -6641,7 +6602,7 @@ heterogeneous and hardly coherent elements of an army.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">MARTÍNEZ DE LA ROSA, FRANCISCO DE PAULA<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1789-1862), +<p><span class="bold">MARTÃNEZ DE LA ROSA, FRANCISCO DE PAULA<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1789-1862), Spanish statesman and dramatist, was born on the 10th of March 1789 at Granada, and educated at the university there. He won popularity with a series of epigrams on local celebrities @@ -6660,8 +6621,8 @@ reactionary by the Liberals, he alienated the sympathies of all parties, and his rhetoric earned for him the contemptuous nickname of <i>Rosita la Pastelera</i>. Exiled in 1823, he took refuge in Paris, where he issued his <i>Obras literarias</i> (1827), including his -<i>Arte poética</i>, in which he exaggerated the literary theories -already promulgated by Luzán. Returning to Spain in 1831, +<i>Arte poética</i>, in which he exaggerated the literary theories +already promulgated by Luzán. Returning to Spain in 1831, he became prime minister on the death of Ferdinand VII., but proved incapable of coping with the insurrectionary movement and resigned in 1834. He was ambassador at Paris in 1839-1840 @@ -6669,16 +6630,16 @@ and at Rome in 1842-1843, joined the Conservative party, held many important offices, and was president of congress and director of the Spanish academy at the time of his death, which took place at Madrid on the 7th of February 1862. As a statesman, -Martínez de la Rosa never rose above mediocrity. It was +MartÃnez de la Rosa never rose above mediocrity. It was his misfortune to be in place without real power, to struggle against a turbulent pseudo-democratic movement promoted by unscrupulous soldiers, and to contend with the intrigues of the king, the court camarilla and the clergy. But circumstances which hampered him in politics favoured his career in literature. He was not a great natural force; his early plays and poems are -influenced by Moratin or by Meléndez Valdés; his <i>Espirítu del +influenced by Moratin or by Meléndez Valdés; his <i>EspirÃtu del siglo</i> (1835) is an elegant summary of all the commonplaces concerning -the philosophy of history; his <i>Doña Isabel de Solís</i> (1837-1846) +the philosophy of history; his <i>Doña Isabel de SolÃs</i> (1837-1846) is a weak imitation of Walter Scott’s historical novels. Still his place in the history of Spanish literature is secure, if not eminent. Through the happy accident of his exile at Paris he @@ -6687,12 +6648,12 @@ movement, and was so far impressed with the innovations of the new school as to write in French a romantic piece entitled <i>Aben-Humeya</i> (1830), which was played at the Porte Saint-Martin. The experiment was not unsuccessful, and on his return to Madrid -Martínez de la Rosa produced <i>La Conjuratión de Venecia</i> +MartÃnez de la Rosa produced <i>La Conjuratión de Venecia</i> (April 23, 1834), which entitles him to be called the pioneer of the romantic drama in Spain. The play is more reminiscent of Casimir Delavigne than of Victor Hugo; but it was unquestionably effective, and smoothed the way for the bolder essays of -Rivas, Garcia Gutiérrez and Hartzenbusch.</p> +Rivas, Garcia Gutiérrez and Hartzenbusch.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> @@ -6848,16 +6809,16 @@ follow the authority of Crowe and Cavalcaselle.</p> <p><span class="bold">MARTINIQUE,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> an island of the West Indies, belonging to the chain of the Lesser Antilles, and constituting a French colony, between the British islands of Dominica and St Lucia, -25 m. S. of the one and 20 m. N. of the other, about 14° 40′ N., -61° W. Its length is 40 m., its greatest width 21 m.; and the area +25 m. S. of the one and 20 m. N. of the other, about 14° 40′ N., +61° W. Its length is 40 m., its greatest width 21 m.; and the area comprises 380 sq. m. A cluster of volcanic mountains in the north, a similar group in the south, and a line of lower heights between them, form the backbone of the island. Its deep ravines and precipitous escarpments are reduced in appearance to gentle undulations by the drapery of the forests. The massif -of Mont Pelé in the north is the culminating point of the island +of Mont Pelé in the north is the culminating point of the island (4430 ft.); that of Carbet is little inferior (3963 ft.), but the -mountains in the south are much lower. Mont Pelé is notorious +mountains in the south are much lower. Mont Pelé is notorious for an appalling eruption in May 1902.</p> <div class="condensed"> @@ -6875,15 +6836,15 @@ off it. Coral reefs occur especially in this locality. Plains, most numerous and extensive in the south, occupy about one-third of the total area of the island.</p> -<p>The mean annual temperature is 80° F. in the coast region, -the monthly mean for June being 83°, and that for January 77°. +<p>The mean annual temperature is 80° F. in the coast region, +the monthly mean for June being 83°, and that for January 77°. Of the annual rainfall of 87 in., August has the heaviest share (11.3 in.), though the rainy season extends from June to October; March, the driest month, has 3.7. Martinique enjoys a marked immunity from hurricanes. The low coastal districts are not very healthy for Europeans in the hotter months, but there are numerous sanatoria in the forest region at an elevation of about 1500 ft., -where the average temperature is some 10° F. lower than that +where the average temperature is some 10° F. lower than that already quoted. The north winds which prevail from November to February are comparatively fresh and dry; those from the south (July to October) are damp and warm. From March to June easterly @@ -6892,16 +6853,16 @@ winds are prevalent.</p> <p>The population increased from 162,861 in 1878 to 175,863 in 1888 and 203,781 in 1901. In 1902 the great eruption of Mont -Pelé occurred, and in 1905 the population was only 182,024. +Pelé occurred, and in 1905 the population was only 182,024. The bulk of the population consists of Creole negroes and half-castes of various grades, ranging from the “Saccatra,” who has retained hardly any trace of Caucasian blood, to the so-called -“Sangmêlé,” with only a suspicion of negro commixture. The +“Sangmêlé,” with only a suspicion of negro commixture. The capital of the island is Fort de France, on the west-coast bay of the same name, with a fine harbour defended by three forts, and a population of 18,000. The other principal centres of population are, on the west coast Lamentin, on the same bay as the -capital, and on the east coast Le François and Le Robert. The +capital, and on the east coast Le François and Le Robert. The colony is administered by a governor and a general council, and returns a senator and two deputies. There are elective municipal councils. The chief product is sugar, and some coffee, cocoa, @@ -6910,13 +6871,13 @@ French and American steamship lines, and local communications are carried on by small coasting steamers and by subsidized mail coaches, as there are excellent roads. In 1905 the total value of the exports, consisting mainly of sugar, rum and cocoa, -was £725,460, France taking by far the greater part, while -imports were valued at £596,294, of which rather more than +was £725,460, France taking by far the greater part, while +imports were valued at £596,294, of which rather more than one-half by value came from France, the United States of America being the next principal importing country. In 1903, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page802" id="page802"></a>802</span> -the year following the eruption of Mont Pelé, exports were -valued at £604,163.</p> +the year following the eruption of Mont Pelé, exports were +valued at £604,163.</p> <div class="center ptb2"><img style="width:519px; height:580px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img802.jpg" alt="" /></div> @@ -6926,8 +6887,8 @@ on the 15th of June 1502; although by some authorities its discovery is placed in 1493. It was at that time inhabited by Caribs who had expelled or incorporated an older stock. It was not until the 25th of June 1635 that possession was taken -of the island in the name of the French <i>Compagnie des Îles -d’Amérique</i>. Actual settlement was carried out in the same +of the island in the name of the French <i>Compagnie des ÃŽles +d’Amérique</i>. Actual settlement was carried out in the same year by Pierre Belain, Sieur d’Esnambuc, captain-general of the island of St Christopher. In 1637 his nephew Dyel Duparquet (d. 1658) became captain-general of the colony, now @@ -6962,16 +6923,16 @@ The island was the birth-place of the Empress Josephine.</p> of the Empress Josephine, was practically ruined, and in 1839, 1891 and 1903, when much damage was done to the sugar crop. Earthquakes have also been frequent, but the most terrible -natural disaster was the eruption of Mont Pelé in 1902, by which +natural disaster was the eruption of Mont Pelé in 1902, by which the town of St Pierre, formerly the chief commercial centre of the island, was destroyed. During the earlier months of the year various manifestations of volcanic activity had occurred; on the 25th of April there was a heavy fall of ashes, and on the 2nd and 3rd of May a heavy eruption destroyed extensive sugar plantations north of St Pierre, and caused a loss of some 150 -lives. A few days later the news that the Souffrière in St Vincent +lives. A few days later the news that the Souffrière in St Vincent was in eruption reassured the inhabitants of St Pierre, as it was -supposed that this outbreak might relieve the volcano of Pelé. +supposed that this outbreak might relieve the volcano of Pelé. But on the 8th of May the final catastrophe came without warning; a mass of fire, compared to a flaming whirlwind, swept over St Pierre, destroying the ships in the harbour, among which, @@ -6984,7 +6945,7 @@ throughout the world, and at first it was seriously suggested that the island should be evacuated, but no countenance was lent to this proposal by the French government. Relief measures were undertaken and voluntary subscriptions raised. -The material losses were estimated at £4,000,000; but, besides +The material losses were estimated at £4,000,000; but, besides St Pierre, only one-tenth of the island had been devastated, and although during July there was further volcanic activity, causing more destruction, the economic situation recovered more @@ -6992,12 +6953,12 @@ rapidly than was expected.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See <i>Annuaire de la Martinique</i> (Fort de France); H. Mouet, <i>La -Martinique</i> (Paris, 1892); M. J. Guët, <i>Origines de la Martinique</i> +Martinique</i> (Paris, 1892); M. J. Guët, <i>Origines de la Martinique</i> (Vannes, 1893); G. Landes, <i>Notice sur la Martinique</i> (with full bibliography), (Paris, 1900); M. Dumoret, <i>Au pays du sucre</i> (Paris, 1902); and on the eruption of 1902, A. Heilprin, <i>Mont -Pelée and the Tragedy of Martinique</i> (Philadelphia and London, 1903); -A. Lacroix, <i>La Montagne Pelée et ses éruptions</i> (Paris, 1904); and the +Pelée and the Tragedy of Martinique</i> (Philadelphia and London, 1903); +A. Lacroix, <i>La Montagne Pelée et ses éruptions</i> (Paris, 1904); and the report of Drs J. S. Flett and T. Anderson (November 20, 1902), who investigated the eruptions on behalf of the Royal Society; cf. T. Anderson, “Recent Volcanic Eruptions in the West Indies,” @@ -7054,10 +7015,10 @@ as a city in 1885.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">MARTINUZZI, GEORGE<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> [<span class="sc">György Utiešenović</span>] (1482-1551), +<p><span class="bold">MARTINUZZI, GEORGE<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> [<span class="sc">György Utiešenović</span>] (1482-1551), Hungarian statesman, who, since he usually signed himself “Frater Georgius,” is known in Hungarian history as <span class="sc">Frater -György</span> or simply <span class="sc">The Frater</span>, was born at Kamičic in Croatia, +György</span> or simply <span class="sc">The Frater</span>, was born at Kamičic in Croatia, the son of Gregory Utiešenović, a Croatian gentleman. His mother was a Martinuzzi, a Venetian patrician family. From his eighth to his twentieth year he was attached to the court @@ -7069,7 +7030,7 @@ old patron Zapolya, now king of Hungary, forced to fly before his successful rival Ferdinand, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand I., sent him on a diplomatic mission to Hungary. It was due to his tact and ability that John recovered Buda (1529), -and henceforth Frater György became his treasurer and chief +and henceforth Frater György became his treasurer and chief counsellor. In 1534 he became bishop of Grosswardein; in 1538 he concluded with Austria the peace of Grosswardein, whereby the royal title and the greater part of Hungary were conceded @@ -7104,13 +7065,13 @@ opposed him, complained of him to the sultan, who commanded that either the traitor himself or his head should be sent to Constantinople (1550). A combination was then formed against him of the queen, the hospodars of Moldavia and Wallachia and -the Turks; but the Frater shut the queen up in Gyula-Fehérvár, +the Turks; but the Frater shut the queen up in Gyula-Fehérvár, drove the hospodars out of Transylvania, defeated the Turks at -Déva, and finally compelled Isabella to accept a composition +Déva, and finally compelled Isabella to accept a composition with Austria very profitable to her family and to Transylvania, at the same time soothing the rage of the sultan by flatteries and gifts. This compact, a masterpiece of statesmanship, was confirmed -by the diet of Kolozsvár in August 1551. The Frater +by the diet of Kolozsvár in August 1551. The Frater retained the governorship of Transylvania, and was subsequently consecrated archbishop of Esztergom and received the red hat. Thus Hungary was once more reunited, but the inability of @@ -7119,7 +7080,7 @@ the Frater, for the common safety, to resume the payment of tribute to the Porte in December 1551. Unfortunately, the Turks no longer trusted a diplomatist they could not understand, while Ferdinand suspected him of an intention to secure Hungary -for himself. When the Turks (in 1551) took Csanád and other +for himself. When the Turks (in 1551) took Csanád and other places, the Frater and the imperial generals Castaldo and Pallavicini combined their forces against the common foe; but when the Frater privately endeavoured to mediate between the @@ -7137,11 +7098,11 @@ hearing one hundred and sixteen witnesses, the pope exonerated Ferdinand of blame.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See A. Bechet, <i>Histoire du ministère du cardinal Martinusius</i> +<p>See A. Bechet, <i>Histoire du ministère du cardinal Martinusius</i> (Paris, 1715); O. M. Utiešenović, <i>Lebensgeschichte des Cardinals Georg Utiešenović</i> (Vienna, 1881); <i>Codex epistolaris Fratris Georgii -1535-1551</i>, ed. A. Károlyi (Budapest, 1881). But the most vivid -presentation of Frater is to be found in M. Jókai’s fine historical +1535-1551</i>, ed. A. Károlyi (Budapest, 1881). But the most vivid +presentation of Frater is to be found in M. Jókai’s fine historical romance, <i>Brother George</i> (Hung.) (Budapest, 1893).</p> </div> <div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> @@ -7213,7 +7174,7 @@ committee of the Cortes, backed by the generals and militia, who nearly put an end to the executive and republic in April 1873. When the republicans triumphed Martos retired into exile, and soon afterwards into private life. He reappeared for -a few months after General Pavia’s <i>coup d’état</i> in January 1874, to +a few months after General Pavia’s <i>coup d’état</i> in January 1874, to join a coalition cabinet formed by Marshal Serrano, with Sagasta and Ulloa. Martos returned to the Bar in May 1874, and quietly looked on when the restoration took place at the end of that @@ -7414,7 +7375,7 @@ martyrologies. The former give a list of the festivals of some particular Church; the latter are the result of a combination of several local martyrologies. We may add certain compilations of a factitious character, to which the name of martyrology is -given by analogy, <i>e.g.</i> the <i>Martyrologe universel</i> of Châtelain +given by analogy, <i>e.g.</i> the <i>Martyrologe universel</i> of Châtelain (1709). As types of local martyrologies we may quote that of Rome, formed from the <i>Depositio martyrum</i> and the <i>Depositio episcoporum</i> of the chronograph of 354; the Gothic calendar of @@ -7440,7 +7401,7 @@ Passions of the martyrs, the compilation is in the form of a simple martyrology. Of the best-known historical martyrologies the oldest are those which go under the name of Bede and of Florus (<i>Acta sanctorum Martii</i>, vol. ii.); of Wandelbert, a -monk of Prüm (842); of Rhabanus Maurus (<i>c.</i> 845); of Ado +monk of Prüm (842); of Rhabanus Maurus (<i>c.</i> 845); of Ado (d. 875); of Notker (896); and of Wolfhard (<i>c.</i> 896 v. <i>Analecta bollandiana</i>, xvii. 11). The most famous is that of Usuard (<i>c.</i> 875), on which the Roman martyrology was based. The first @@ -7468,12 +7429,12 @@ of the famous calendar of Naples, commented on by Mazocchi <p>See C. de Smedt, <i>Introductio generalis ad historiam ecclesiasticam</i> (Gandavi, 1876), pp. 127-156; H. Matagne and V. de Buck in De -Backer, <i>Bibliothèque des écrivains de la Compagnie de Jésus</i>, 2nd ed., +Backer, <i>Bibliothèque des écrivains de la Compagnie de Jésus</i>, 2nd ed., vol. iii. pp. 369-387; De Rossi-Duchesne, <i>Les Sources du martyrologe -hiéronymien</i> (Rome, 1885); H. Achelis, <i>Die Martyrologien, ihre -Geschichte und ihr Wert</i> (Berlin, 1900); H. Delehaye, “Le Témoignage +hiéronymien</i> (Rome, 1885); H. Achelis, <i>Die Martyrologien, ihre +Geschichte und ihr Wert</i> (Berlin, 1900); H. Delehaye, “Le Témoignage des martyrologes,” in <i>Analecta bollandiana</i>, xxvi. 78-99 (1907); -H. Quentin, <i>Les Martyrologes historiques du moyen âge</i> (Paris, +H. Quentin, <i>Les Martyrologes historiques du moyen âge</i> (Paris, 1908).</p> </div> <div class="author">(H. De.)</div> @@ -7501,7 +7462,7 @@ edition (Munro’s <i>Lucretius</i>, Introduction).</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The hymns, some of the epigrams, and a fragment, <i>De Principum institutione</i>, were reprinted in Paris by C. M. Sathas in <i>Documents -inédits relatifs à l’histoire de la Grèce au moyen âge</i>, vol. vii. +inédits relatifs à l’histoire de la Grèce au moyen âge</i>, vol. vii. (1888).</p> </div> @@ -7748,7 +7709,7 @@ needy man, obliged to accept wages from his constituents, kept his political virtue unspotted, and he stood throughout his career as the champion of moderate and tolerant measures. There is a story that his old schoolfellow, Danby, was sent by the king to -offer the incorruptible poet a place at court and a gift of £1000, +offer the incorruptible poet a place at court and a gift of £1000, which Marvell refused with the words: “I live here to serve my constituents: the ministry may seek men for their purpose; I am not one.” When self-indulgence was the ordinary habit @@ -7811,10 +7772,10 @@ of Marvell may, however, be accepted as conclusive.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">MARX, HEINRICH KARL<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (1818-1883), German socialist, and head of the International Working Men’s Association, was born -on the 5th of May 1818 in Trèves (Rhenish Prussia). His father, +on the 5th of May 1818 in Trèves (Rhenish Prussia). His father, a Jewish lawyer, in 1824 went over to Christianity, and he and his whole family were baptized as Christian Protestants. The -son went to the high grammar school at Trèves, and from 1835 +son went to the high grammar school at Trèves, and from 1835 to the universities of Bonn and Berlin. He studied first law, then history and philosophy, and in 1841 took the degree of doctor of philosophy. In Berlin he had close intimacy with the @@ -7842,8 +7803,8 @@ until he had studied the question thoroughly. For this purpose he went in the autumn of 1843 to Paris, where the socialist movement was then at its intellectual zenith, and where he, together with Arnold Ruge, the well-known literary leader of -Radical Hegelianism, was to edit a review, the <i>Deutsch-französische -Jahrbücher</i>, of which, however, only one number appeared. +Radical Hegelianism, was to edit a review, the <i>Deutsch-französische +Jahrbücher</i>, of which, however, only one number appeared. It contained two articles by Marx—a criticism of Bruno Bauer’s treatment of the Jewish question, and an introduction to a criticism of Hegel’s philosophy of the law. The first concluded @@ -7884,7 +7845,7 @@ object for which it struggles, and consciousness is a thing it must acquire even if it objects to it.”</p> <p>In Paris Marx met <span class="sc">Friedrich Engels</span> (1820-1895), from whom -the <i>Deutsch-französische Jahrbücher</i> had two articles—a powerfully +the <i>Deutsch-französische Jahrbücher</i> had two articles—a powerfully written outline of a criticism of political economy, and a letter on Carlyle’s <i>Past and Present</i>. Engels, the son of a wealthy cotton-spinner, was born in 1820 at Barmen. Although destined @@ -7925,13 +7886,13 @@ Bauer family.</p> <p>In Paris, where he had very intimate intercourse with Heinrich Heine, who always speaks of him with the greatest respect, and some of whose poems were suggested by Marx, the latter -contributed to a Radical magazine, the <i>Vorwärts</i>; but in consequence +contributed to a Radical magazine, the <i>Vorwärts</i>; but in consequence of a request by the Prussian government, nearly the whole staff of the magazine soon got orders to leave France. Marx now went to Brussels, where he shortly afterwards was joined by Engels. In Brussels he published his second great work, -<i>La Misère de la philosophie</i>, a sharp rejoinder to the <i>Philosophie -de la misère ou contradictions économiques</i> of J. P. Proudhon. In +<i>La Misère de la philosophie</i>, a sharp rejoinder to the <i>Philosophie +de la misère ou contradictions économiques</i> of J. P. Proudhon. In this he deals with Proudhon, whom in the former work he had defended against the Bauers, not less severely than with the latter. It is shown that in many points Proudhon is inferior to @@ -7967,7 +7928,7 @@ time all interest in theoretical discussions.</p> <p>In Brussels Marx and Engels came into still closer contact with the socialist working-class movement. They founded a German workers’ society, acquired a local German weekly, the -<i>Brüsseller deutsche Zeitung</i>, and finally joined a communistic +<i>Brüsseller deutsche Zeitung</i>, and finally joined a communistic society of German workers, the “League of the Just,” a secret society which had its main branches in London, Paris, Brussels and several Swiss towns. For this league, which till then had @@ -8015,7 +7976,7 @@ more successful; only six numbers of it were issued. It contained, however, some very remarkable contributions; and a series of articles on the career of the French Revolution of 1848, which first appeared there, was in 1895 published by Engels in book -form under the title of <i>Die Klassenkämpfe in Frankreich von +form under the title of <i>Die Klassenkämpfe in Frankreich von 1848”</i> by Karl Marx.” Carlyle’s <i>Latter Day Pamphlets</i>, published at that time, met with a very vehement criticism in the <i>Neue rheinische Zeitung</i>. The endeavours of Ernest Jones and @@ -8057,7 +8018,7 @@ Lassalle. Lassalle had taken a similar view of the war to that advocated by Vogt, and fought tooth and nail for it in letters to Marx. In the same year, 1859, Marx published as a first result of his renewed economic studies the book <i>Zur Kritik -der politischen Ökonomie</i>. It was the first part of a much larger +der politischen Ökonomie</i>. It was the first part of a much larger work planned to cover the whole ground of political economy. But Marx found that the arrangement of his materials did not fully answer his purpose, and that many details had still to be @@ -8395,7 +8356,7 @@ conclusions, but in the <i>details</i> and yet more in the <i>method</i> and <i> of his investigations in his <i>philosophy of history</i>. Here he has, as is now generally admitted, broken new ground and opened new ways and new outlooks. Nobody before him had so clearly shown -the rôle of the productive agencies in historical evolution; nobody +the rôle of the productive agencies in historical evolution; nobody so masterfully exhibited their great determining influence on the forms and ideologies of social organisms. The passages and chapters dealing with this subject form, notwithstanding occasional exaggerations, @@ -8406,7 +8367,7 @@ the great theorist of biological transformation he had also in common the indefatigable way in which he made painstaking studies of the minutest details connected with his researches. In the same year as Darwin’s epoch-making work on the origin of species there -appeared also Marx’s work <i>Zur Kritik der politischen Ökonomie</i>, +appeared also Marx’s work <i>Zur Kritik der politischen Ökonomie</i>, where he explains in concise sentences in the preface that philosophy of history which has for the theory of the transformation or evolution of social organisms the same significance that the argument of @@ -8415,30 +8376,30 @@ organisms.</p> <p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The main writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels are as follow (we give only the titles of the original works and -of their English translations): (1) Of Karl Marx alone: <i>La Misère -de la philosophie, réponse à la philosophie de la misère de M. Proudhon</i> +of their English translations): (1) Of Karl Marx alone: <i>La Misère +de la philosophie, réponse à la philosophie de la misère de M. Proudhon</i> (Paris, 1847; new ed., 1892; English ed., <i>The Poverty of Philosophy</i>, London, 1900); <i>Lohnarbeit und Kapital</i>, pamphlet, written 1848 (new ed., Berlin, 1891); English ed., <i>Wage, Labour and Capital</i> (London, -1900); <i>Die Klassenkämpfe in Frankreich, 1848 to 1850</i> (Berlin, 1895); +1900); <i>Die Klassenkämpfe in Frankreich, 1848 to 1850</i> (Berlin, 1895); <i>Der Achtzehnte Brumaire des Louis Bonaparte</i> (New York, 1852; -3rd ed., Hamburg, 1889; Eng. ed., New York, 1889); <i>Enthüllungen -über den Kölner Kommunistenprozess</i> (Basel, 1852; new ed., Zürich-Berlin, +3rd ed., Hamburg, 1889; Eng. ed., New York, 1889); <i>Enthüllungen +über den Kölner Kommunistenprozess</i> (Basel, 1852; new ed., Zürich-Berlin, 1885); “European Revolutions and Counter-Revolutions” (reprints from the <i>New York Tribune</i>, 1851-1852; London, 1897); “The Eastern Question” (reprints from the <i>New York Tribune</i>, 1853-1856; -London, 1898); <i>Zur Kritik der politischen Ökonomie</i> (Berlin, +London, 1898); <i>Zur Kritik der politischen Ökonomie</i> (Berlin, 1859; new ed., Stuttgart, 1897); <i>Herr Vogt</i> (London, 1860); <i>Inaugural Address of the International Working Men’s Association</i> (London, 1864); <i>Value, Price and Profit</i> (written 1865, published London, -1898); <i>Das Kapital, Kritik der politischen Ökonomie</i> (3 vols., Hamburg, +1898); <i>Das Kapital, Kritik der politischen Ökonomie</i> (3 vols., Hamburg, 1867, 1885 and 1895; Eng. ed. of 1st vol., 1886); <i>The Civil War in -France, 1871</i> (London, 1871; new ed., 1894); <i>L’Alliance de la démocratie +France, 1871</i> (London, 1871; new ed., 1894); <i>L’Alliance de la démocratie socialiste</i> (London, 1873); articles printed or reprinted in <i>Rheinische -Zeitung</i> (1842-1843), <i>Deutsch-französische Jahrbücher</i> (Paris, -1844), <i>Das westphälische Dampfboot</i> (Bielefeld und Paderborn, +Zeitung</i> (1842-1843), <i>Deutsch-französische Jahrbücher</i> (Paris, +1844), <i>Das westphälische Dampfboot</i> (Bielefeld und Paderborn, 1845-1848), <i>Der Gesellschaftsspiegel</i> (Elberfeld, 1846), <i>Deutsche -brüsseler Zeitung</i> (Brussels, 1847), <i>Neue rheinische Zeitung</i> +brüsseler Zeitung</i> (Brussels, 1847), <i>Neue rheinische Zeitung</i> (daily, Cologne, 1848-1849; monthly, Hamburg, 1850), <i>The People</i> (London, 1852-1858), <i>The New York Tribune</i> (New York, 1853-1860), <i>The Free Press</i> (Sheffield and London, 1856-1857), <i>Das Volk</i> (London, @@ -8447,12 +8408,12 @@ brüsseler Zeitung</i> (Brussels, 1847), <i>Neue rheinische Zeitung</i> Monatshefte</i> (Berlin, 1895, sqq.). (2) Of Friedrich Engels alone: <i>Die Lage der arbeitenden Klassen in England</i> (Leipzig, 1845; new ed., Stuttgart, 1892; Eng. ed., London, 1892); <i>Zur Wohnungsfrage</i> -(Leipzig, 1873-1874; new ed., Zürich-Berlin, 1887); <i>Herrn Eugen -Dührings Umwälzung der Wissenschaft</i> (Leipzig, 1877; 3rd ed., +(Leipzig, 1873-1874; new ed., Zürich-Berlin, 1887); <i>Herrn Eugen +Dührings Umwälzung der Wissenschaft</i> (Leipzig, 1877; 3rd ed., Stuttgart, 1894). Three chapters of the first-named are published in English under the title Socialism, <i>Utopian and Scientific</i> (London, 1892). <i>Der Ursprung des Eigenthums, der Familie und des Staates</i> -(Zürich and Stuttgart, 1885 and 1892); <i>Ludwig Feuerbach und der +(Zürich and Stuttgart, 1885 and 1892); <i>Ludwig Feuerbach und der Ausgang der klassischen deutschen Philosophie</i> (Stuttgart, 1886). Introductions to most of the posthumous works of K. Marx and articles in the same periodicals as Marx. (3) Of Karl Marx and Friedrich @@ -8553,7 +8514,7 @@ before the high priest, and, though asserting their innocence in all sincerity, were acquitted only after they had been tried with “the water of the ordeal of the Lord” (Num. v. 11). Numerous details regarding the birth at Bethlehem are then -given. The perpetual physical virginity of Mary, naïvely +given. The perpetual physical virginity of Mary, naïvely insisted upon in this apocryphon, is alluded to only with a half belief and a “some say” by Clement of Alexandria (<i>Strom.</i> vii. 16), but became of much importance to the leaders of the @@ -8638,7 +8599,7 @@ an attack upon the established orthodox doctrine of the Nicene creed, but as threatening a more vulnerable and more tender part of the popular faith. It is sufficient in illustration of the drift of theological opinion to refer to the first sermon of Proclus, -preached on a certain festival of the Virgin (<span class="grk" title="panêgyris parthenikê">πανήγυρις παρθενική</span>) +preached on a certain festival of the Virgin (<span class="grk" title="panêgyris parthenikê">πανήγυρις παρθενική</span>) at Constantinople about the year 430 or to that of Cyril of Alexandria delivered in the church of the Virgin Mary at the opening of the council of Ephesus in 431. In the former @@ -8647,7 +8608,7 @@ the orator speaks of “the holy Virgin and Mother of God” as of the second Adam; the workshop in which two natures were welded together ... the one bridge between God and men”;<a name="fa4m" id="fa4m" href="#ft4m"><span class="sp">4</span></a> in the latter she is saluted as the “mother and -virgin,” “through whom (<span class="grk" title="di' hês">δι᾽ ἧς</span>) the Trinity is glorified and +virgin,” “through whom (<span class="grk" title="di' hês">δι᾽ ἧς</span>) the Trinity is glorified and worshipped, the cross of the Saviour exalted and honoured, through whom heaven triumphs, the angels are made glad, devils driven forth, the tempter overcome, and the fallen creature @@ -8731,13 +8692,13 @@ Church responsible for the natural interpretations and just inferences which may be drawn even from apparently exaggerated expressions in such works as the well-known <i>Glories of Mary</i> and others frequently quoted in controversial literature. -There is a good <i>résumé</i> of Catholic developments of the cultus +There is a good <i>résumé</i> of Catholic developments of the cultus of Mary in Pusey’s <i>Eirenicon</i>.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The following are the principal feasts of the Virgin in the order in which they occur in the ecclesiastical year. (1) That of the -Presentation (<i>Praesentatio B. V. M.</i>, <span class="grk" title="ta eisodia tês theotokou">τὰ εἰσόδια τῆς θεοτόκου</span>), to commemorate +Presentation (<i>Praesentatio B. V. M.</i>, <span class="grk" title="ta eisodia tês theotokou">τὰ εἰσόδια τῆς θεοτόκου</span>), to commemorate the beginning of her stay in the Temple, as recorded in the <i>Protevangelium Jacobi</i>. It is believed to have originated in the East in the 8th century, the earliest allusion to it being made by @@ -8749,13 +8710,13 @@ after having been withdrawn from the calendar by Pius V., was restored by Sixtus V., the day observed in both East and West being the 21st of November. It is not mentioned in the English calendar. (2) The Feast of the Conception (<i>Conceptio B. V. M.</i>, -<i>Conceptio immaculata B. V. M.</i>, <span class="grk" title="sullêpsis tês hagias Hannês">σύλληψις τῆς ἁγίας Ἄννης</span>), observed +<i>Conceptio immaculata B. V. M.</i>, <span class="grk" title="sullêpsis tês hagias Hannês">σύλληψις τῆς ἁγίας Ἄννης</span>), observed by the Roman Catholic Church on the 8th of December, and by all the Eastern Churches on the 9th of December, has already been explained; in the Greek Church it only ranks as one of the middle festivals of Mary. (3) The Feast of the Purification (<i>Occursus</i>, <i>Obviatio</i>, <i>Praesentatio</i>, <i>Festum SS Simeonis et Annae</i>, <i>Purificatio</i>, -<i>Candelaria</i>, <span class="grk" title="hupapantê">ὑπαπαντή</span>, <span class="grk" title="hupantê">ὑπαντή</span>) is otherwise known as <span class="sc">Candlemas</span>. +<i>Candelaria</i>, <span class="grk" title="hupapantê">ὑπαπαντή</span>, <span class="grk" title="hupantê">ὑπαντή</span>) is otherwise known as <span class="sc">Candlemas</span>. (4) The Feast of the Annunciation of the Virgin Mary (<i>Annunciatio</i>, <span class="grk" title="Euaggelismos">Εὐαγγελισμός</span>). It may be mentioned that at the council of Toledo in 656 it was decreed that this festival should be observed on the @@ -8766,7 +8727,7 @@ council of Basel in 1441 in commemoration of the visit paid by Mary to Elizabeth. It is observed on the 2nd of July, and has been retained in the English calendar. (6) The Feast of the Assumption (<i>Dormitio</i>, <i>Pausatio</i>, <i>Transitus</i>, <i>Depositio</i>, <i>Migratio</i>, <i>Assumptio</i>, -<span class="grk" title="kaimêsis">καίμησις</span>, <span class="grk" title="metastasis">μετάστασις</span>, <span class="grk" title="analêpsis">ἀνάληψις</span>) has reference to the apocryphal story +<span class="grk" title="kaimêsis">καίμησις</span>, <span class="grk" title="metastasis">μετάστασις</span>, <span class="grk" title="analêpsis">ἀνάληψις</span>) has reference to the apocryphal story related in several forms in various documents of the 4th century condemned by Pope Gelasius. Their general purport is that as the time drew nigh for “the most blessed Virgin” (who is also spoken of @@ -8796,7 +8757,7 @@ Virgin into heaven, although extensively believed, and indeed flowing as a natural theological consequence from that of her sinlessness, has never been declared to be “de fide” by the Church of Rome, and is still merely a “pia sententia.” (7) The Nativity of Mary (<i>Nativitas</i>, -<span class="grk" title="genethlion tês theotokou">γενέθλιον τῆς θεοτόκου</span>) observed on the 8th of September, is first mentioned +<span class="grk" title="genethlion tês theotokou">γενέθλιον τῆς θεοτόκου</span>) observed on the 8th of September, is first mentioned in one of the homilies of Andrew of Crete (<i>c.</i> 750), and with the Feasts of the Purification, the Annunciation and the Assumption, it was appointed to be observed by the synod of Salzburg in 800, but @@ -8814,7 +8775,7 @@ Josephi fabri lignarii</i> (all edited by Tischendorf, <i>Evangelia apocrypha</i cf. Harnack, <i>Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur</i>, p. 20 seq. and <i>Chronologie</i>, i. 598 sqq.). (2) <i>Evangelium Mariae</i> (see <i>Sitzungsberichte der Berlinischen Akademie der Wissenschaften</i> 1896, pp. 839-847). -(3) <span class="grk" title="Iôannou tou theologou logos eis tên koimêsin tês theotokou">Ιωάννου τοῦ θεολόγου λόγος εἰς τὴν κοίμησιν τῆς θεοτόκου</span>, which +(3) <span class="grk" title="Iôannou tou theologou logos eis tên koimêsin tês theotokou">Ιωάννου τοῦ θεολόγου λόγος εἰς τὴν κοίμησιν τῆς θεοτόκου</span>, which appears in Latin under the title of the <i>Transitus Mariae</i> (ed. Tischendorf, <i>Apocalypses apocryphae</i> and <i>Evangelia apocrypha</i>, and see Bonnet, <i>Zeitschr. f. wissensch. Theol.</i>, 1880, pp. 222-247).</p> @@ -8836,15 +8797,15 @@ little” (<span class="grk" title="ho mikros">ὁ μικ	 mother of Mark; and (5) Mary, an otherwise unknown benefactress of the apostle Paul (Rom. xvi. 6).</p> -<p><a name="ft2m" id="ft2m" href="#fa2m"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>De Inst. Virg.</i>, “quæ est hæc porta nisi Maria? ... per quam +<p><a name="ft2m" id="ft2m" href="#fa2m"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>De Inst. Virg.</i>, “quæ est hæc porta nisi Maria? ... per quam Christus intravit in hunc mundum, quando virginali fusus est partu et genitalia virginitatis claustra non solvit.”</p> <p><a name="ft3m" id="ft3m" href="#fa3m"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See Gieseler (<i>KG.</i>, Bd. i. Abth. 1), who points out instances in -which anti-Arianizing zeal went so far as to call David <span class="grk" title="theopatôr">θεοπάτωρ</span> +which anti-Arianizing zeal went so far as to call David <span class="grk" title="theopatôr">θεοπάτωρ</span> and James <span class="grk" title="adelphotheos">άδελφόθεος</span>.</p> -<p><a name="ft4m" id="ft4m" href="#fa4m"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Labbé, <i>Conc.</i> iii. 51. Considerable extracts are given by Augusti +<p><a name="ft4m" id="ft4m" href="#fa4m"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Labbé, <i>Conc.</i> iii. 51. Considerable extracts are given by Augusti (<i>Denkw.</i> iii.); see also Milman (<i>Lat. Christ.</i> i. 185), who characterizes much of it as a “wild labyrinth of untranslatable metaphor.”</p> @@ -8857,7 +8818,7 @@ second Eve (cf. Justin, <i>Dial. c. Tryph.</i> 100), to the effect that “as the human race fell into bondage to death by a virgin, so is it rescued by a virgin,” takes occasion to speak of Mary as the “advocata” of Eve; but it seems certain that this word is a translation -of the Greek <span class="grk" title="sunêgoros">συνήγορος</span>, and implies hostility and rebuke rather +of the Greek <span class="grk" title="sunêgoros">συνήγορος</span>, and implies hostility and rebuke rather than advocacy.</p> <p><a name="ft7m" id="ft7m" href="#fa7m"><span class="fn">7</span></a> It is probable that the commemorations and invocations of the @@ -9319,10 +9280,10 @@ founded in her honour.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>For the political events of Mary’s life see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">William III.</a></span> For her private life see Sir John Dalrymple, <i>Memoirs of Great Britain and -Ireland</i> (London, 1790); Countess Bentinck, <i>Lettres et mémoires de +Ireland</i> (London, 1790); Countess Bentinck, <i>Lettres et mémoires de Marie, reine d’Angleterre</i> (The Hague, 1880); <i>Memoires and Letters of Mary Queen of England</i> (ed. by R. Doebner, Leipzig, 1886); F. J. L. -Krämer, <i>Maria II. Stuart</i> (Utrecht, 1890); Agnes Strickland, <i>Lives +Krämer, <i>Maria II. Stuart</i> (Utrecht, 1890); Agnes Strickland, <i>Lives of the Queens of England</i>, vols. x. and xi. (London, 1847); G. Burnet, <i>History of my own Time</i> (Oxford, 1833); and O. Klopp, <i>Der Fall des Hauses Stuart</i> (Vienna, 1875-1888).</p> @@ -9348,7 +9309,7 @@ aroused instantly the general suspicion and indignation of Scottish patriotism. In 1548 the queen of six years old was betrothed to the dauphin Francis, and set sail for France, where she arrived on the 15th of August. The society in which the child was -thenceforward reared is known to readers of Brantôme as well +thenceforward reared is known to readers of Brantôme as well as that of imperial Rome at its worst is known to readers of Suetonius or Petronius as well as that of papal Rome at its worst is known to readers of the diary kept by the domestic chaplain of @@ -9385,7 +9346,7 @@ the ground of her own previous refusal to ratify the treaty made with England by her commissioners in the same month of the preceding year. She arrived nevertheless in safety at Leith, escorted by three of her uncles of the house of Lorraine, and bringing -in her train her future biographer, Brantôme, and Chastelard, +in her train her future biographer, Brantôme, and Chastelard, the first of all her voluntary victims. On the 21st of August she first met the only man able to withstand her; and their first passage of arms left, as he has recorded, upon the mind of @@ -9452,7 +9413,7 @@ Holyrood. The hapless and worthless bridegroom had already incurred the hatred of two powerful enemies, the earls of Morton and Glencairn; but the former of these took part with the queen against the forces raised by Murray, Glencairn and others, under -the nominal leadership of Hamilton, duke of Châtelherault, on +the nominal leadership of Hamilton, duke of Châtelherault, on the double plea of danger to the new religion of the country, and of the illegal proceeding by which Darnley had been proclaimed king of Scots without the needful constitutional assent of the @@ -10372,18 +10333,18 @@ her secretary Claude Nau, ed. by J. Stevenson (Edinburgh, 1883); Sir James Melville’s <i>Memoirs of his own Life</i> (Bannatyne Club, 1827); Richard Bannatyne, <i>Memoriales of Transactions in Scotland</i> (Edinburgh, 1836); William Camden’s <i>Annales</i> (Eng. trans., -London, 1635); Michel de Castelnau’s <i>Mémoires</i> (Brussels, 1731); -the <i>Mémoires</i> of Brantôme (ed. by L. Lalanne, 12 vols., Paris, +London, 1635); Michel de Castelnau’s <i>Mémoires</i> (Brussels, 1731); +the <i>Mémoires</i> of Brantôme (ed. by L. Lalanne, 12 vols., Paris, 1864-1896); <i>Relations politiques de la France et de l’Espagne avec -l’Écosse au 16th siècle</i> (ed. by J. B. A. Teulet, 5 vols., Paris, 1862), +l’Écosse au 16th siècle</i> (ed. by J. B. A. Teulet, 5 vols., Paris, 1862), containing important original letters and documents; Thomas Wright’s <i>Queen Elizabeth and her Times</i> (2 vols., London, 1838), consists of private letters of Elizabethan statesmen many of which refer to Mary Stuart, and others are to be found in Sir Henry Ellis’s <i>Original Letters illustrative of English History</i> (London, 1825-1846); much of Mary’s own correspondence will be found in Prince A. -Labanoff’s <i>Lettres inédites, 1558-1587</i> (Paris, 1839), and <i>Lettres, -instructions, et mémoires de Marie Stuart</i> (7 vols., London, 1844), +Labanoff’s <i>Lettres inédites, 1558-1587</i> (Paris, 1839), and <i>Lettres, +instructions, et mémoires de Marie Stuart</i> (7 vols., London, 1844), selections from which have been translated into English by W. Turnbull in <i>Letters of Mary Queen of Scots</i> (London, 1845), and by Agnes Strickland in <i>Letters of Mary Queen of Scots and Documents @@ -10413,7 +10374,7 @@ Strickland’s <i>Lives of the Queens of Scotland</i> (8 vols., Edinburgh, Bothwell</i> (London, 1883); Mrs Maxwell-Scott, <i>The Tragedy of Fotheringay</i> (London, 1895); F. A. M. Mignet, <i>Histoire de Marie Stuart</i> (2 vols., Brussels, 1851); Martin Philippson, <i>Histoire du -règne de Marie Stuart</i> ( 3 vols., Paris, 1891); Sir John Skelton, <i>Mary +règne de Marie Stuart</i> ( 3 vols., Paris, 1891); Sir John Skelton, <i>Mary Stuart</i> (London, 1893), <i>Maitland of Lethington and the Scotland of Mary Stuart</i> (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1887), <i>The Impeachment of Mary Stuart</i> (Edinburgh, 1878), and <i>Essays in History and Biography, @@ -10476,7 +10437,7 @@ Nancy, on the 5th of January 1477, Mary was not yet twenty years of age. Louis XI. of France seized the opportunity afforded by his rival’s defeat and death to take possession of the duchy of Burgundy as a fief lapsed to the French crown, -and also of Franche Comté, Picardy and Artois. He was +and also of Franche Comté, Picardy and Artois. He was anxious that Mary should marry the Dauphin Charles and thus secure the inheritance of the Netherlands for his descendants. Mary, however, distrusted Louis; declined the French alliance, @@ -10507,7 +10468,7 @@ and her elder son, Philip, succeeded to her dominions under the guardianship of his father.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See E. Münch, <i>Maria von Burgund, nebst d. Leben v. Margaretha +<p>See E. Münch, <i>Maria von Burgund, nebst d. Leben v. Margaretha v. York</i> (2 vols., Leipzig, 1832), and the <i>Cambridge Mod. Hist.</i> (vol. i., c. xii., bibliography, 1903).</p> </div> @@ -10528,7 +10489,7 @@ contract, originally made by Henry VII., was renewed on the 17th of October 1513 by Henry VIII. at a meeting with Margaret of Savoy at Lille, the wedding being fixed for the following year. But the emperor Maximilian I., to whom Louis XII. had proposed -his daughter Renée as wife for Charles, with Brittany for +his daughter Renée as wife for Charles, with Brittany for dowry, postponed the match with the English princess in a way that left no doubt of his intention to withdraw from the contract altogether. He was forestalled by the diplomacy of Wolsey, at @@ -10580,7 +10541,7 @@ Grey, marquess of Northampton, and mother of Lady Jane Grey (<i>q.v.</i>); and Eleanor.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See <i>Lettres de Louis XII. et du cardinal Géorges d’Amboise</i> +<p>See <i>Lettres de Louis XII. et du cardinal Géorges d’Amboise</i> (Brussels, 1712); <i>Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.</i> (Cal. State Pap.); M. A. E. Green, <i>Lives of the Princesses of England</i> (vol. v., 1849-1855); Life by James Gairdner in <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i></p> @@ -10643,7 +10604,7 @@ The English invasions of 1547, undertaken with a view to enforcing the English marriage, gave Mary the desired pretext for a French alliance. In June 1548 a French fleet, with provisions and 5000 soldiers on board, under the command of -André de Montalembert, seigneur d’Essé, landed at Leith to +André de Montalembert, seigneur d’Essé, landed at Leith to reinforce the Scots army, and laid siege to Haddington, then in the hands of the English. The Scottish parliament agreed to the marriage of the young queen with the dauphin of France, @@ -10655,7 +10616,7 @@ education at the French court.</p> the English and to the difficult task of keeping the peace between the Scots and their French auxiliaries. In September 1550 she visited France and obtained from Henry II. the confirmation -of the dukedom and revenues of Châtelherault for the earl of +of the dukedom and revenues of Châtelherault for the earl of Arran, in the hope of inducing him to resign the regency. On her way back to Scotland she was driven by storms to Portsmouth harbour and paid a friendly visit to Edward VI. Arran @@ -10703,10 +10664,10 @@ to the reformers, who issued a proclamation (Oct. 21, 1559) claiming that the regent was deposed. The lords of the Congregation sought help from Elizabeth, while the regent had recourse to France, where an expedition under her brother, -René of Lorraine, marquis of Elbeuf, was already in preparation. +René of Lorraine, marquis of Elbeuf, was already in preparation. Mary, with the assistance of a French contingent, began to fortify Leith. The strength of her opponents was increased by -the defection of Châtelherault and his son Arran; and an even +the defection of Châtelherault and his son Arran; and an even more serious danger was the treachery of her secretary Maitland, who betrayed her plans to the lords of the Congregation. In October 1559 they made an unsuccessful attack on Leith and @@ -10732,8 +10693,8 @@ of St Peter, of which her sister was abbess.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>The chief sources for her history are the Calendar of State Papers for the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI. in the Rolls Series; -A. Teulet, <i>Papiers d état ... relatifs à l’histoire de l’Écosse au -XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (Paris, 3 vols., 1851), for the Bannatyne Club; <i>Hamilton +A. Teulet, <i>Papiers d état ... relatifs à l’histoire de l’Écosse au +XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (Paris, 3 vols., 1851), for the Bannatyne Club; <i>Hamilton Papers</i>, ed. J. Bain (Edinburgh, 2 vols., 1890-1899); <i>Calendar of State Papers relating to Scotland and Mary Queen of Scots, 1547-1603</i> (Edinburgh, 2 vols., 1898-1900), &c. There is a Life in Miss @@ -10797,7 +10758,7 @@ house of the Visitation. Her death occurred on the 7th of May <div class="condensed"> <p>See Miss Strickland, <i>Queens of England</i> (vols. 9 and 10, London, -1846); Campana di Cavelli, <i>Les Derniers Stuarts à Saint-Germain +1846); Campana di Cavelli, <i>Les Derniers Stuarts à Saint-Germain en-Laye</i> (London, 1871); and Martin Haile, <i>Mary of Modena</i> (London, 1905).</p> </div> @@ -10895,7 +10856,7 @@ chief agricultural products of the neighbourhood.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">MARYLAND,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> a South Atlantic state of the United States, and one of the original thirteen, situated between latitudes -37° 53′ and 39° 44′ N. and longitudes 75° 4′ and 79° 33′ W. (the +37° 53′ and 39° 44′ N. and longitudes 75° 4′ and 79° 33′ W. (the precise western boundary has not been determined). It is bounded N. by Pennsylvania and Delaware; E. by Delaware and the Atlantic Ocean; S. and W. by the Potomac river and its @@ -11023,15 +10984,15 @@ westerly; but generally north-west in winter in the west section and south-west in summer in the south section. In the south the normal winter is mild, the normal summer rather hot; in the west the normal winter is cold, the normal summer cool. The normal -average annual temperature for the entire state is between 53° and -54° F., ranging from 48° at Grantsville in the north-west to 53° at -Darlington in the north-east, and to 57° at Princess Anne in the +average annual temperature for the entire state is between 53° and +54° F., ranging from 48° at Grantsville in the north-west to 53° at +Darlington in the north-east, and to 57° at Princess Anne in the south-east. The normal temperature for the state during July -(the warmest month) is 75.2° F., and during January (the coldest -month) 32.14° F. Although the west section is generally much +(the warmest month) is 75.2° F., and during January (the coldest +month) 32.14° F. Although the west section is generally much the cooler in summer, yet both of the greatest extremes recorded since 1891 were at points not far apart in Western Maryland: -109° F. at Boettcherville and -26° F. at Sunnyside. The normal +109° F. at Boettcherville and -26° F. at Sunnyside. The normal <span class="pagenum"><a name="page828" id="page828"></a>828</span> annual precipitation for the state is about 43 in. It is greatest, about 53 in., on the east slope of Catoctin Mountain, owing to the @@ -11681,14 +11642,14 @@ Lord Baltimore’s claim to it was denied by an order in council, on the ground that it had been inhabited by Christians before the Maryland charter was granted. In the next place, although it was clear from the words of the charter that the parallel of -40° N. was intended for its north boundary, and although Penn’s +40° N. was intended for its north boundary, and although Penn’s charter prescribed that Pennsylvania should extend on the south to the “beginning of the fortieth degree of Northern Latitude,” a controversy arose with regard to the boundary between the two provinces, and there was a long period of litigation; in 1763-1767 Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, two English mathematicians, established the line named from them (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mason and -Dixon Line</a></span>), which runs along the parallel 39° 43′ 26″.3 N. and +Dixon Line</a></span>), which runs along the parallel 39° 43′ 26″.3 N. and later became famous as the dividing line between the free states and the slave states. While the proprietor was absent defending his claims against Penn the English Revolution of 1688 was @@ -11744,9 +11705,9 @@ that their instructions not to vote for independence were rescinded. The new constitution drawn and adopted in 1776 to take the place of the charter was of an aristocratic rather than a democratic nature. Under it the property qualification for -suffrage was a freehold of 50 acres or £30 current money, the -property qualifications for delegates £500, for senators £1000, -and for governor £5000. Four delegates were chosen from each +suffrage was a freehold of 50 acres or £30 current money, the +property qualifications for delegates £500, for senators £1000, +and for governor £5000. Four delegates were chosen from each county and two each from Baltimore and Annapolis, the same as under the proprietary government, population not being taken into account. Senators were chosen by a college of fifteen @@ -11987,7 +11948,7 @@ C. Steiner, <i>Maryland during the English Civil War</i> (2 vols., Baltimore, <hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> <p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Maryland and Delaware together began the construction of the -Chesapeake and Delaware canal (13½ m. long) across the north part +Chesapeake and Delaware canal (13½ m. long) across the north part of the state of Delaware, between the Delaware river and Chesapeake Bay; this canal received Federal aid in 1828, was completed in 1829, and in 1907 was chosen as the most practicable route for @@ -12306,7 +12267,7 @@ love for work, and practises no industries. The women attend to his personal needs; and trades such as smelting and forging are left to enslaved tribes such as the Dorobo (Wandorobo). These manufacture spears with long blades and butts and the peculiar swords -or <i>simés</i> like long slender leaves, very narrow towards the hilt and +or <i>simés</i> like long slender leaves, very narrow towards the hilt and broad at the point. Most of the Masai live in the British East Africa Protectorate.</p> @@ -12387,7 +12348,7 @@ Capasso, <i>La Casa e famiglia di Masaniello</i> (Naples, 1893); V. Spinazzola, <i>Masaniello e la sua famiglia, secondo un codice bolognese del sec. xvi</i>. (in the review Flegrea, 1900); A. G. Meissner, <i>Masaniello</i> (in German); E. Bourg, <i>Masaniello</i> (in French); F. Palermo, -<i>Documenti diversi sulle novità accadute in Napoli l’anno 1647</i> (in the +<i>Documenti diversi sulle novità accadute in Napoli l’anno 1647</i> (in the <i>Archivio storico italiano</i>, 1st series, vol. ix.). See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Naples</a></span>.</p> </div> @@ -12467,16 +12428,16 @@ born in the neighbourhood, chose it as the seat of his power. It was laid in ruins by the French under Marshal Clausel and the duke of Orleans in 1835, the amir retreating south. Being reoccupied by Abd-el-Kader in 1838, Mascara was again captured in 1841 by -Marshal Bugeaud and General Lamoricière.</p> +Marshal Bugeaud and General Lamoricière.</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">MASCARENE ISLANDS<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (occasionally <span class="sc">Mascarenhas</span>), the collective title of a group in the Indian Ocean cast of Madagascar, -viz. Mauritius, Réunion and Rodriguez (<i>q.v.</i>). The collective +viz. Mauritius, Réunion and Rodriguez (<i>q.v.</i>). The collective title is derived from the Portuguese navigator Mascarenhas, by -whom Réunion, at first called Mascarenhas, was discovered.</p> +whom Réunion, at first called Mascarenhas, was discovered.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> @@ -12492,7 +12453,7 @@ to the larger diocese of Agen. He still continued, however, to preach regularly at court, being especially in request for funeral orations. A panegyric on Turenne, delivered in 1675, is considered his masterpiece. His style is strongly tinged with -<i>préciosité</i>; and his chief surviving interest is as a glaring example +<i>préciosité</i>; and his chief surviving interest is as a glaring example of the evils from which Bossuet delivered the French pulpit. During his later years he devoted himself entirely to his pastoral duties at Agen, where he died in 1703.</p> @@ -12515,7 +12476,7 @@ of the constructions of considerable practical importance.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>There is a French translation by A. M. Carette (Paris, 1798), who also wrote a biography of Mascheroni. See Poggendorff, <i>Biog. -Lit. Handwörterbuch</i>.</p> +Lit. Handwörterbuch</i>.</p> </div> @@ -12527,7 +12488,7 @@ Audran through his comic opera <i>La Mascotte</i> (1880), but it had been common in France long before among gamblers. It has been traced back to a dialectic use in Provence and Gascony, where it meant something which brought luck to a household. -The suggestion that it is from <i>masqué</i> (masked or concealed), +The suggestion that it is from <i>masqué</i> (masked or concealed), the provincial French for a child born with a caul, in allusion to the lucky destiny of such children, is improbable.</p> @@ -12540,8 +12501,8 @@ professor in the Jesuit seminaries at Ferrara and Ascoli. He visited Spain in 1799, was exiled, and returned in 1815, dying at Valencia on the 11th of April 1817. His <i>Storia critica di Spagna e della cultura spagnuola in ogni genere</i> (2 vols., 1781-1784) was -finally expanded into the <i>Historia critica de España y de la -cultura española</i> (1783-1805), which, though it consists of twenty +finally expanded into the <i>Historia critica de España y de la +cultura española</i> (1783-1805), which, though it consists of twenty volumes, was left unfinished; had it been continued on the same scale, the work would have consisted of fifty volumes. Masdeu wrote in a critical spirit and with a regard for accuracy rare in his @@ -12581,7 +12542,7 @@ to subtle scheming on her part as to the pleasing contrast between her gentle and genial character and the dictatorial temper of the duchess, which after many years of undisputed sway had at last become intolerable to Anne. The first intimation -of her protégé’s growing favour with the queen came to the +of her protégé’s growing favour with the queen came to the duchess in the summer of 1707, when she learned that Abigail Hill had been privately married to a gentleman of the queen’s household named Samuel Masham, and that the queen herself @@ -12671,8 +12632,8 @@ devices enabled him to produce a machine which worked well, and subsequently he consolidated his position by buying up rival patents, as well as by taking out additional ones of his own. His combing machines came into such -demand that though they were made for only £200 apiece he -was able to sell them for £1200, and the saving they effected +demand that though they were made for only £200 apiece he +was able to sell them for £1200, and the saving they effected in the cost of production not only brought about a reduction in the price of clothing, but in consequence of the increase in the sales created the necessity for new supplies of wool, and @@ -12687,7 +12648,7 @@ sold for 23s. a pound, though produced from raw material costing only 6d. or 1s. a pound. Another important and lucrative invention in connexion with silk manufacture was his velvet loom for piled fabrics; and this, with the silk comb worked at -his Manningham mill, yielded him an annual income of £200,000 +his Manningham mill, yielded him an annual income of £200,000 for many years. But the business was seriously affected by the prohibitory duties imposed by America, and this was one reason why he was an early and determined critic of the British policy @@ -12840,7 +12801,7 @@ latitude in Maryland and Pennsylvania (ibid. lviii. 323), executed by Mason and Dixon in 1766-1768, and later the determination of the relative longitude of Greenwich and Paris (ib. lxxvii. 151). On the French side the work was conducted by Count Cassini, Legendre, -and Méchain; on the English side by General Roy. This triangulation +and Méchain; on the English side by General Roy. This triangulation was the beginning of the great trigonometrical survey which has since been extended all over the country. His observations appeared in four large folio volumes (1776-1811). Some of them @@ -13219,7 +13180,7 @@ he attracted attention by wearing at the court of Napoleon III. a simple diplomatic uniform (for this he was rebuked by Secretary of State W. L. Marcy, who had ordered American ministers to wear a plain civilian costume), and by joining with -James Buchanan and Pierre Soulé, ministers to Great Britain +James Buchanan and Pierre Soulé, ministers to Great Britain and Spain respectively, in drawing up (Oct. 1854) the famous Ostend Manifesto. Hawthorne called him a “fat-brained, good-hearted, sensible old man”; and in politics he was a @@ -13250,11 +13211,11 @@ having taught himself to write when a shoemaker’s apprentice, and in later life he felt his deficiencies keenly. It was this which led him in 1860 to establish his great orphanage at Erdington, near Birmingham. Upon it he expended about -£300,000, and for this munificent endowment he was knighted +£300,000, and for this munificent endowment he was knighted in 1872. He had previously given a dispensary to his native town and an almshouse to Erdington. In 1880 Mason College, since incorporated in the university of Birmingham, was opened, -the total value of the endowment being about £250,000. Mason +the total value of the endowment being about £250,000. Mason died on the 16th of June 1881.</p> <div class="condensed"> @@ -13357,7 +13318,7 @@ picture of Mason’s character in Southey’s <i>Doctor</i> (ch. cxxvi.) <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">MASON AND DIXON LINE,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> in America, the boundary line -(lat. 39° 43′ 26.3″ N.) between Maryland and Pennsylvania, +(lat. 39° 43′ 26.3″ N.) between Maryland and Pennsylvania, U.S.A.; popularly the line separating “free” states and “slave” states before the Civil War. The line derives its name from Charles Mason (1730-1787) and Jeremiah Dixon, two English @@ -13395,7 +13356,7 @@ may be defined as not only the Mason and Dixon Line proper, but also the line formed by the Ohio River from its intersection with the Pennsylvania boundary to its mouth, thence the eastern, northern and western boundaries of Missouri, and thence westward the -parallel 36° 30′—the line established by the Missouri Compromise +parallel 36° 30′—the line established by the Missouri Compromise to separate free and slave territory in the “Louisiana Purchase,” except as regards Missouri. It is to be noted, however, that the Missouri Compromise did not affect the territory later acquired @@ -13520,7 +13481,7 @@ required in sinking moulds to the proper section.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:204px; height:263px" src="images/img842a.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="figcenter"><img style="width:169px; height:184px" src="images/img842b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—(½ in. = 1 ft.)</td> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—(½ in. = 1 ft.)</td> <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—(1 in. = 1 ft.)</td></tr></table> <p>The <i>nippers</i> (fig. 1), or <i>scissors</i>, as they are sometimes termed, @@ -13648,7 +13609,7 @@ with fine joints.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:462px; height:273px" src="images/img843a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—(¼ in. = 1 ft.)</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—(¼ in. = 1 ft.)</td></tr></table> <p><i>Random Rubble</i> (fig. 3) is the roughest form of stonework. It is built with irregular pieces of stone usually less than 9 in. thick, @@ -13664,7 +13625,7 @@ perpendicular.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:454px; height:279px" src="images/img843b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—(¼ in. = 1 ft.)</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—(¼ in. = 1 ft.)</td></tr></table> <p><i>Coursed Rubble</i> (fig. 4) is levelled up in courses 12 or 18 in. deep, the depth varying in different courses according to the sizes @@ -13757,7 +13718,7 @@ external walls of churches and similar works (fig. 5).</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:445px; height:443px" src="images/img843c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—(¼ in. = 1 ft.)</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—(¼ in. = 1 ft.)</td></tr></table> <p><i>Pointing</i>.—As with brickwork this is generally done when the work is completed and before the scaffolding is removed. Suitable weather @@ -13770,7 +13731,7 @@ forms of which are shown in fig. 6.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:478px; height:162px" src="images/img843d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—(¾ full size).</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—(¾ full size).</td></tr></table> <p><i>Stonewash</i>.—To give a uniform appearance to the stonework and preserve the finished face until a hardened skin has formed, it is @@ -13791,7 +13752,7 @@ two sloping sides; it is sometimes termed a “saddle” (fig. 7).</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:950px; height:1175px" src="images/img844.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.—(Scale—approximately ½ in. = 1 ft.)</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.—(Scale—approximately ½ in. = 1 ft.)</td></tr></table> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page845" id="page845"></a>845</span></p> @@ -13800,7 +13761,7 @@ parapet and weigh down the back of the cornice (fig. 8).</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:500px; height:329px" src="images/img845a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.—(½ in. = 1 ft.)</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.—(½ in. = 1 ft.)</td></tr></table> <p><i>Bed.</i>—The <i>bed</i> surface upon which a stone is set or bedded should be worked truly level in every part. Many workmen to form a neat @@ -14017,7 +13978,7 @@ the work is said to be “six,” “eight” or “ten-cut& to the number of blades inserted or bolted in the hammer head. The <i>crandall</i> has an iron handle slotted at one end with a hole <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in. wide and 3 in. long. In this slot are fixed by a key ten or eleven -double-headed points of ¼ in. square steel about 9 in. long. It is +double-headed points of ¼ in. square steel about 9 in. long. It is used for finishing sandstone and soft stones after the surface has been levelled down with the axe or chisel. It gives a fine pebbly sparkling appearance.</p> @@ -14057,8 +14018,8 @@ stones to separate under the force of the wind (figs. 10 and 11). Cramps are made of iron (plain or galvanized), <span class="sidenote">Cramps.</span> copper or gun-metal, of varying sections and lengths to suit the work. -A typical cramp would be about 9 in. long, 1 or 1½ in. wide, and from -¼ to ½ in. thick, and turned down about 1½ in. at each end. A dovetailed +A typical cramp would be about 9 in. long, 1 or 1½ in. wide, and from +¼ to ½ in. thick, and turned down about 1½ in. at each end. A dovetailed mortise is formed at a suitable point in each of the stones to be joined and connected by a chase. The cramp is placed in this channel with its turned-down ends in the mortises, and it is then @@ -14069,7 +14030,7 @@ are occasionally used (fig. 11).</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:315px; height:263px" src="images/img846b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.—(¾ in. = 1 ft.)</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.—(¾ in. = 1 ft.)</td></tr></table> <p>Dowels are used for connecting stones where the use of cramps <span class="sidenote">Dowels.</span> @@ -14080,7 +14041,7 @@ of slate, metal, or sometimes of hard wood.</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:252px; height:276px" src="images/img846c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.—(½ in. = 1 ft.)</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.—(½ in. = 1 ft.)</td></tr></table> <p>There are many ways of making a joggle joint. The joggle may be worked on one of the stones so @@ -14109,7 +14070,7 @@ shown in fig. 13.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:307px; height:209px" src="images/img846d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.—(½ in. = 1 ft.)</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.—(½ in. = 1 ft.)</td></tr></table> <p>Plugs or dowels of lead are formed by pouring molten lead through a channel into dovetailed mortises in each stone (figs. 14 and 15). @@ -14118,7 +14079,7 @@ holes.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:315px; height:257px" src="images/img846e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14.—(¾ in. = 1 ft.)</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14.—(¾ in. = 1 ft.)</td></tr></table> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:211px; height:187px" src="images/img846f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> @@ -14155,7 +14116,7 @@ account of the extra labour involved in working and fitting.</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:208px; height:287px" src="images/img847a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.—(½ in. = 1 ft.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.—(½ in. = 1 ft.)</td></tr> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:321px; height:353px" src="images/img847b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 17.—(1 in. = 1 ft.)</td></tr></table> @@ -14223,7 +14184,7 @@ of Purbeck marble.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:950px; height:766px" src="images/img847c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 18.—(½ in. = 1 ft.)</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 18.—(½ in. = 1 ft.)</td></tr></table> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page848" id="page848"></a>848</span></p> @@ -14298,8 +14259,8 @@ chemical preservative. Carving is frequently done after the stone is built into position, the face being left rough—“boasted”—and projecting sufficiently for the intended design.</p> -<p>See E. Viollet-le-Duc, <i>Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture -française</i>; W. R. Purchase, <i>Practical Masonry</i>; J. O. Baker, <i>A +<p>See E. Viollet-le-Duc, <i>Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture +française</i>; W. R. Purchase, <i>Practical Masonry</i>; J. O. Baker, <i>A Treatise on Masonry Construction</i>; C. F. Mitchell, <i>Brickwork and Masonry</i>; W. Diack, <i>The Art of Masonry in Britain</i>.</p> </div> @@ -14309,7 +14270,7 @@ Masonry</i>; W. Diack, <i>The Art of Masonry in Britain</i>.</p> <p><a name="ft1q" id="ft1q" href="#fa1q"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The English word “mason” is from the French, which appears in the two forms, <i>machun</i> and <i>masson</i> (from the last comes the modern -Fr. form <i>maçon</i>, which means indifferently a bricklayer or mason). +Fr. form <i>maçon</i>, which means indifferently a bricklayer or mason). In O. H. Ger. the word is <i>mezzo</i>, which survives in the German for a stone-mason, <i>Steinmetz</i>. The med. Lat. form, <i>machio</i>, was connected with <i>machina</i>—obviously a guess. The Low Lat., <i>macheria</i> or @@ -14327,7 +14288,7 @@ French Egyptologist, was born in Paris on the 23rd of June 1846, his parents being of Lombard origin. While at school he showed a special taste for history, and when fourteen years old was already interested in hieroglyphic writing. It was -not until his second year at the École Normale in 1867 that +not until his second year at the École Normale in 1867 that Maspero met with an Egyptologist in the person of Mariette, who was then in Paris as commissioner for the Egyptian section of the exhibition. Mariette gave him two newly discovered @@ -14340,15 +14301,15 @@ time was spent in assisting a gentleman in Peru, who was seeking to prove an Aryan affinity for the dialects spoken by the Indians of that country, to publish his researches; but in 1868 Maspero was back in France at more profitable work. -In 1869 he became a teacher (<i>répétiteur</i>) of Egyptian language -and archaeology at the École des Hautes Études; in 1874 he -was appointed to the chair of Champollion at the Collège de +In 1869 he became a teacher (<i>répétiteur</i>) of Egyptian language +and archaeology at the École des Hautes Études; in 1874 he +was appointed to the chair of Champollion at the Collège de France.</p> <p>In November 1880 Professor Maspero went to Egypt as head of an archaeological mission despatched thither by the French government, which ultimately developed into the well-equipped -Institut Français de l’Archéologie Oriental. This was but a +Institut Français de l’Archéologie Oriental. This was but a few months before the death of Mariette, whom Maspero then succeeded as director-general of excavations and of the antiquities of Egypt. He held this post till June 1886; in these five years @@ -14376,22 +14337,22 @@ into English by Mrs McClure for the S.P.C.K.), displaying the history of the whole of the nearer East from the beginnings to the conquest by Alexander; a smaller <i>Histoire des peuples de l’Orient</i>, 1 vol., of the same scope, which has passed through six -editions from 1875 to 1904; <i>Études de mythologie et d’archéologie -égyptiennes</i> (Paris, 1893, &c.), a collection of reviews and essays +editions from 1875 to 1904; <i>Études de mythologie et d’archéologie +égyptiennes</i> (Paris, 1893, &c.), a collection of reviews and essays originally published in various journals, and especially important -as contributions to the study of Egyptian religion; <i>L’Archéologie -égyptienne</i> (latest ed., 1907), of which several editions have been +as contributions to the study of Egyptian religion; <i>L’Archéologie +égyptienne</i> (latest ed., 1907), of which several editions have been published in English. He also established the journal <i>Recueil de -travaux relatifs à la philologie et à l’archéologie égyptiennes et -assyriennes</i>; the <i>Bibliothèque égyptologique</i>, in which the scattered +travaux relatifs à la philologie et à l’archéologie égyptiennes et +assyriennes</i>; the <i>Bibliothèque égyptologique</i>, in which the scattered essays of the French Egyptologists are collected, with biographies, -&c.; and the <i>Annales du service des antiquités de l’Égypte</i>, a repository +&c.; and the <i>Annales du service des antiquités de l’Égypte</i>, a repository for reports on official excavations, &c.</p> <p>Maspero also wrote: <i>Les Inscriptions des pyramides de Saqqaroh</i> -(Paris, 1894); <i>Les Momies royales de Deir el-Baharî</i> (Paris, 1889); -<i>Les Contes populaires de l’Égypte ancienne</i> (3rd ed., Paris, 1906); -<i>Causeries d’Égypte</i> (1907), translated by Elizabeth Lee as <i>New Light +(Paris, 1894); <i>Les Momies royales de Deir el-Baharî</i> (Paris, 1889); +<i>Les Contes populaires de l’Égypte ancienne</i> (3rd ed., Paris, 1906); +<i>Causeries d’Égypte</i> (1907), translated by Elizabeth Lee as <i>New Light on Ancient Egypt</i> (1908).</p> </div> @@ -14506,7 +14467,7 @@ have been made by some of the clergy to reintroduce the term <div class="condensed"> <p>See Du Cange, <i>Glossarium</i>, <i>s.v.</i> “Missa”; F. Kattenbusch in -Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (ed. 1903), <i>s.v.</i> “Messe, dogmengeschichtlich”; +Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (ed. 1903), <i>s.v.</i> “Messe, dogmengeschichtlich”; for the facts as to the use of the word “Mass” at the time of the Reformation see the article by J. H. Round in the <i>Nineteenth Century</i> for May 1897.</p> @@ -14598,7 +14559,7 @@ dramatic ever penned but is, perhaps, the last classical Mass that is thoughtfully based upon the liturgy, and is not a mere musical setting of what happens to be a liturgic text. It was intended for the installation of Beethoven’s friend, the archduke Rudolph, -as archbishop of Olmütz; and, though not ready until two years +as archbishop of Olmütz; and, though not ready until two years after that occasion, it shows the most careful consideration of the meaning of a church service, no doubt of altogether exceptional length and pomp, but by no means impossible for its @@ -14708,7 +14669,7 @@ Mozart (the antecedents of which would be a very interesting subject) and the two beautiful works by Cherubini. These latter, however, tend to be funereal rather than uplifting. The only other artistic solution of the problem is to follow Berlioz, Verdi and -Dvořák in the complete renunciation of all ecclesiastical style.</p> +Dvořák in the complete renunciation of all ecclesiastical style.</p> <p>Brahms’s <i>Deutsches requiem</i> has nothing to do with the Mass for the dead, being simply a large choral work on a text compiled @@ -14736,7 +14697,7 @@ American Union, bounded on the N. by Vermont and New Hampshire, on the E. by the Atlantic, on the S. by Rhode Island <span class="pagenum"><a name="page851" id="page851"></a>851</span> and Connecticut, and on the W. by New York. It lies approximately -between 41° 15′ and 42° 50′ N. lat. and 69° 55′ and 73° +between 41° 15′ and 42° 50′ N. lat. and 69° 55′ and 73° 30′ W. long. The bulk of its area—which is about 8266 sq. m. (of which 227 are water)—forms a parallelogram of 130 m. E. and W., 46 m. N. and S., the additional area lying in a projection at @@ -14859,7 +14820,7 @@ and a marine biological laboratory is there.</p> <p>The principal islands lie off the south coast. The largest is Martha’s Vineyard, about 20 m. long, with an extreme breadth -of about 9½ m. It has in Vineyard Haven (Holmes’s Hole) a +of about 9½ m. It has in Vineyard Haven (Holmes’s Hole) a spacious harbour, much frequented by wind-bound vessels seeking a passage round Cape Cod. The island is covered with stunted trees. Its population was formerly dependent wholly upon the @@ -14912,18 +14873,18 @@ dispar</i>), accidentally allowed to escape in 1869 by a French naturalist.</p> <p><i>Climate.</i>—The climate is trying, showing great extremes of temperature -(20° F. below zero to 100° above) and marked local variations. +(20° F. below zero to 100° above) and marked local variations. The south-eastern coast and islands are mildest. The mean average <span class="pagenum"><a name="page852" id="page852"></a>852</span> -temperature of Boston is 48° F. In the interior it is slightly lower. +temperature of Boston is 48° F. In the interior it is slightly lower. The mean summer temperature generally over the state is about -70° F. Changes are often sudden, and the passage from winter to +70° F. Changes are often sudden, and the passage from winter to summer is through a rapid spring. The ocean tempers the climate considerably on the seaboard. Boston Harbor has been frozen over in the past, but steamtugs plying constantly now prevent the occurrence of such obstruction. In the elevated region in the west the winters are decidedly severe, and the springs and summers often -late and cold. Williamstown has a winter mean of about 23° F. +late and cold. Williamstown has a winter mean of about 23° F. The yearly precipitation is about 39 to 45 in., decreasing inland, and is evenly distributed throughout the year. Fogs are common on the coast, and east wind drizzles; the north-east winds being @@ -15266,7 +15227,7 @@ reciprocity with Canada and for tariff reductions on the raw materials (notably hides) of Massachusetts manufactures.</p> <p>At the end of 1908 the length of railway lines within the state -was 2,109.33 miles. The Hoosac Tunnel, 5¾ m. long, pierces the +was 2,109.33 miles. The Hoosac Tunnel, 5¾ m. long, pierces the Hoosac Mountain in the north-west corner of the state, affording a communication with western lines. It cost about $20,000,000, the state lending its credit, and was built between 1855 and 1874. @@ -16918,7 +16879,7 @@ pieces; cf. mod. Ger. <i>metzeln</i>, to massacre.</p> <p><span class="bold">MASSAGE.<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> The word <i>massage</i> has of late years come into general use to signify the method of treating disease or other physical conditions by manipulating the muscles and joints. -According to Littré the word is derived from the Arabic <i>mass</i>, +According to Littré the word is derived from the Arabic <i>mass</i>, and has the specific meaning of “pressing the muscular parts of the body with the hands, and exercising traction on the joints in order to give suppleness and stimulate vitality.” @@ -16973,7 +16934,7 @@ in 1818, but it was probably used before. The practice was gradually advocated by an increasing number of medical men. In Great Britain it was called “medical rubbing,” and at Edinburgh Beveridge had a staff of eight trained male rubbers. -A book published by Estradère in 1863 attracted much attention, +A book published by Estradère in 1863 attracted much attention, but the man who contributed most to the modern popularity of massage was Metzger of Amsterdam, who began to use it tentatively in 1853, and then proceeded to study and apply it @@ -16999,7 +16960,7 @@ to cover all the movements mentioned; but this is a verbal subtlety of no importance. It is evident that alike among the Greeks, the Orientals, and savage races, the two processes have always been applied as part of the same treatment, and the -definition quoted above from Littré goes to show that the word +definition quoted above from Littré goes to show that the word “massage” is properly applied to both.</p> <div class="condensed"> @@ -17125,13 +17086,13 @@ in which are smelted the iron ore of Elba.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">MASSAWA,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Massowah</span>, a fortified town on the African coast of the Red Sea, chief port of the Italian colony of Eritrea, -in 15° 36′ N. and 39° 28′ E. Pop. about 10,000. The town +in 15° 36′ N. and 39° 28′ E. Pop. about 10,000. The town stands at the north end of the bay of Massawa and is built partly on a coral island of the same name—where was the original settlement—and partly on the islets of Tautlub and Sheik Said, and the neighbouring mainland. Massawa Island is -from 20 to 25 ft. above the sea, its length does not exceed ½ m. -and its breadth is about ¼ m. The harbour is formed by +from 20 to 25 ft. above the sea, its length does not exceed ½ m. +and its breadth is about ¼ m. The harbour is formed by the channel between the island and the mainland. It affords good anchorage in from 5 to 9 fathoms. The town possesses several good public buildings, chiefly built of coral, @@ -17141,7 +17102,7 @@ since 1885. Water was formerly scarce; but in 1872 an ancient aqueduct from Mokullu (5 m. distant westward) was restored and continued by an embankment to the town. A railway connects Massawa with Asmara, the capital of the colony. -Besides the Abyssinians, who speak a Tigré dialect corrupted +Besides the Abyssinians, who speak a Tigré dialect corrupted with Arabic, the inhabitants comprise Italian officials and traders, Greeks, Indians, Arabs from Yemen and Hadramut, Gallas and Somalis. Massawa is the natural port for northern @@ -17149,12 +17110,12 @@ Abyssinia but commerce is undeveloped owing to the lack of rapid means of communication. The trade done consists mainly in exporting hides, butter, Abyssinian coffee and civet, and importing European and Indian cotton goods and silks. -It increased in value from about £65,000 per annum in 1865 -(the last year of Turkish control) to from £240,000 to £280,000 +It increased in value from about £65,000 per annum in 1865 +(the last year of Turkish control) to from £240,000 to £280,000 between 1879 and 1881, when under the administration of Egypt. Under the Italians trade greatly developed. The returns for the five years 1901-1905 showed an average annual -value of £1,800,000, about two-thirds being imports.</p> +value of £1,800,000, about two-thirds being imports.</p> <p>The island of Massawa has probably been inhabited from a very early date. It appears to have formed part of the @@ -17173,7 +17134,7 @@ by the sherif of Mecca, and it afterwards passed to Mehemet Ali <span class="pagenum"><a name="page865" id="page865"></a>865</span> of Egypt. The Turks were reinstated about 1850, but in 1865 they handed the island back to Egypt for an annual tribute of -2½ million piastres. In February 1885 Massawa was occupied +2½ million piastres. In February 1885 Massawa was occupied by an Italian force, the Egyptian garrison stationed there being withdrawn in the November following (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Italy</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abyssinia</a></span>). The port was the capital of the Italian colony @@ -17189,7 +17150,7 @@ return for the protection of that monarch.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">MASSÉNA, ANDRÉ,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> or <i>Andrea</i>, duke of Rivoli, prince of +<p><span class="bold">MASSÉNA, ANDRÉ,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> or <i>Andrea</i>, duke of Rivoli, prince of Essling (1756-1817), the greatest of Napoleon’s marshals, son of a small wine merchant, it is said of Jewish origin, was born at Nice on the 6th of May 1756. His parents were very @@ -17204,7 +17165,7 @@ left Italy, and joined the 3rd battalion of the volunteers of the Var in 1791. In those days when men elected their officers, and many of the old commissioned officers had emigrated, promotion to a man with a knowledge of his drill was rapid, -and by February 1792 Masséna was a lieutenant-colonel. His +and by February 1792 Masséna was a lieutenant-colonel. His regiment was one of those in the army which occupied Nice, and in the advance to the Apennines which followed, his knowledge of the country, of the language, and of the people was @@ -17213,24 +17174,24 @@ division. In command of the advanced guard he won the battle of Saorgio in August 1794, capturing ninety guns, and after many successes he at last, on the 23rd of November 1795, with the right wing of the army of Italy, had the greatest share -in the victory of Loano, won by Schérer over the Austrians +in the victory of Loano, won by Schérer over the Austrians and Sardinians. In Bonaparte’s great campaign of 1796-97 -Masséna was his most trusted general of division; in each battle +Masséna was his most trusted general of division; in each battle he won fresh laurels, up to the crowning victory of Rivoli, from which he afterwards took his title. It was during this -campaign that Bonaparte gave him the title of <i>enfant gâté de +campaign that Bonaparte gave him the title of <i>enfant gâté de la victoire</i>, which he was to justify till he met the English in 1810. In 1798 he commanded the army of Rome for a short time, but was displaced by the intrigues of his subordinate -Berthier. Masséna’s next important service was in command +Berthier. Masséna’s next important service was in command of the army in Switzerland, which united the army in Germany under Moreau, and that in Italy under Joubert. There he proved himself a great captain, as he had already proved himself a great lieutenant; the archduke Charles and Suvarov had each been successful in Germany and in Italy, and now turned -upon Masséna in Switzerland. That general held his ground +upon Masséna in Switzerland. That general held his ground well against the archduke, and then suddenly, leaving Soult to -face the Austrians, he transported his army to Zürich, where, +face the Austrians, he transported his army to Zürich, where, on the 26th of September 1799, he entirely defeated Korsakov, taking 200 guns and 5000 prisoners. This campaign and battle placed his reputation on a level with that of his compatriot @@ -17238,61 +17199,61 @@ Bonaparte, and he might have made the revolution of Brumaire, but he was sincerely attached to the republic, and had no ambition beyond a desire to live well and to have plenty of money to spend. Bonaparte, now First Consul, sent -him to Genoa to command the débris of the army of Italy, +him to Genoa to command the débris of the army of Italy, and he nobly defended Genoa from February to June to the very last extremity, giving time for Bonaparte to strike his great blow at Marengo. He now went to Paris, where he sat -in the Corps Législatif in 1803, and actually defended Moreau +in the Corps Législatif in 1803, and actually defended Moreau without drawing upon himself the ill-will of Napoleon, who well knew his honesty and lack of ambition.</p> <p>In 1804 he was made one of the first marshals of France of -the new régime, and in 1805 was decorated with the Grand Eagle +the new régime, and in 1805 was decorated with the Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honour. In that year Napoleon needed an able general to keep in check the archduke Charles in Italy, while he -advanced through Germany with the grand army. Masséna was +advanced through Germany with the grand army. Masséna was chosen; he kept the archduke occupied till he received news of the surrender of Ulm, and then on the 30th of October defeated him in the battle of Caldiero. After the peace of Pressburg had -been signed, Masséna was ordered to take possession of the +been signed, Masséna was ordered to take possession of the kingdom of Naples, and to place Joseph Bonaparte on the throne. -This task done, Napoleon summoned Masséna to Poland, where +This task done, Napoleon summoned Masséna to Poland, where he as usual distinguished himself, and where he for the time gave up his republican principles. In 1808 he was made duke of Rivoli. In 1808 he was accidentally wounded by his old enemy Berthier when both were in attendance on the emperor at a shooting party, and he lost the sight of one eye. In the campaign in 1809 he covered himself with glory at Landshut and at -Eckmühl, and finally at the battle of Aspern-Essling his magnificent +Eckmühl, and finally at the battle of Aspern-Essling his magnificent leadership made what would without him have been an appalling disaster into a mere reverse of which the enemy could -make no use. On the field of Wagram Masséna, though too ill +make no use. On the field of Wagram Masséna, though too ill to ride, directed from his carriage the movements of the right wing. For his great services he was created prince of Essling, and given the princely castle of Thouars. He was then ordered to Spain to “drive the English into the sea.” (For the campaigns of 1810 and 1811, the advance to and the retreat from Torres -Vedras see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peninsular War</a></span>.) Masséna himself, with some +Vedras see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peninsular War</a></span>.) Masséna himself, with some justice, ascribed his failure to the frequent disobedience of his subordinates Ney, Reynier and Junot, and public opinion attributed this disobedience to the presence with the army of -Masséna’s mistress, and to the resentment thereat felt by the +Masséna’s mistress, and to the resentment thereat felt by the wives of the three generals. Still, unsuccessful as he was, -Masséna displayed the determination of the defence of Genoa -and the fertility in expedients of the campaign of Zürich, and +Masséna displayed the determination of the defence of Genoa +and the fertility in expedients of the campaign of Zürich, and kept his army for five weary months close up to Wellington’s impregnable position before retiring. His retreat through a devastated country was terrible, but his force of character kept his men together, and Ney having shown the worst side of his character now showed the best in the frequent and brilliant rearguard actions, until a new act of insubordination at last made the -old marshal dismiss Ney from his command. Soon Masséna +old marshal dismiss Ney from his command. Soon Masséna was once again ready to try his fortune, and he nearly defeated -Wellington at Fuentes d’Oñoro, though much hampered by -Bessières. But his recall soon followed this and he returned +Wellington at Fuentes d’Oñoro, though much hampered by +Bessières. But his recall soon followed this and he returned home to find his prestige gone. The old marshal felt he had a right to complain of Ney and of Napoleon himself, and, it is said, -opened communications with Fouché and the remnant of the +opened communications with Fouché and the remnant of the republican party. Whether this be true or not, Napoleon gave his greatest marshal no more employment in the field, but made him merely a territorial commandant at Marseilles. This command @@ -17300,25 +17261,25 @@ he still held at the restoration, when Louis XVIII. confirmed him in it, and with true Bourbon stupidity gave him letters of naturalization, as if the great leader of the French armies had not ceased to be an Italian. When Napoleon returned from -Elba, Masséna, probably by the advice of Fouché, kept Marseilles +Elba, Masséna, probably by the advice of Fouché, kept Marseilles quiet to await events, the greatest service he could do the royalists, but afterwards imputed to him as a fault. After the second -restoration Masséna was summoned to sit on the court-martial +restoration Masséna was summoned to sit on the court-martial which tried Marshal Ney, but, though he had been on bad terms with that general, and attributed his own disgrace to him, the old soldier would not be his comrade’s judge. This refusal was used by the royalists to attack the marshal, against whom they raked up every offence they could think of. This annoyance shortened his life, and on the 4th of April 1817 the old hero died. -He was buried in Père-la-Chaise, with only the word “Masséna” +He was buried in Père-la-Chaise, with only the word “Masséna” upon his tombstone.</p> <p>In private life indolent, greedy, rapacious, ill-educated and -morose, in war Masséna was, like Napoleon, the incarnation of +morose, in war Masséna was, like Napoleon, the incarnation of battle. Only his indolence and his consequent lack of far-ranging imagination prevented him being as great in strategy as in tactics. His genius needed the presence of the enemy to stimulate -it, but once it sprang to life Masséna became an ideal leader, +it, but once it sprang to life Masséna became an ideal leader, absolutely brave, resourceful, unrelenting and indefatigable. He was as great a master of the strategy of forces in immediate contact—of gathering up as it were the threads of the fugue into @@ -17329,10 +17290,10 @@ of the highest rank amongst great generals; but his place amongst the greatest of soldiers is beyond challenge.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See Thiébault’s <i>Éloge funèbre</i>, and Koch’s <i>Mémoires de Masséna</i> +<p>See Thiébault’s <i>Éloge funèbre</i>, and Koch’s <i>Mémoires de Masséna</i> (4 vols., 1849), a valuable work, carefully compiled. In more modern times E. Gachot has produced several important works dealing with -Masséna’s campaigns.</p> +Masséna’s campaigns.</p> </div> @@ -17341,7 +17302,7 @@ Masséna’s campaigns.</p> (1758-1827), Prussian soldier, was born at Schmalkalden on the 16th of April 1758, and educated at Heilbronn and Stuttgart, devoting himself chiefly to mathematics. He became an officer -of the Württemberg army in 1778, and left this for the service of +of the Württemberg army in 1778, and left this for the service of Frederick the Great in 1782. The pay of his rank was small, and his appointment on the quartermaster-general’s staff made it necessary to keep two horses, so that he had to write mathematical @@ -17350,7 +17311,7 @@ He was far however from neglecting the science and art of war, for thus early he had begun to make his name as a theorist as well as a mathematician. After serving as instructor in mathematics to the young prince Louis, he took part with credit in the -expedition into Holland, and was given the order <i>Pour le mérite</i>. +expedition into Holland, and was given the order <i>Pour le mérite</i>. On returning to Prussia he became mathematical instructor at the school of military engineering, leaving this post in 1792 to take part as a general staff officer in the war against France. @@ -17387,7 +17348,7 @@ had strongly opposed. He was made quartermaster-general obtained a fatal ascendancy. War was averted for a moment by the result of the battle of Austerlitz, but it broke out in earnest in October 1806. Massenbach’s influence clouded all the -Prussian operations. The battles of Jena and Auerstädt were +Prussian operations. The battles of Jena and Auerstädt were lost, and the capitulation of Prince Hohenlohe’s army was negotiated. Even suggestions of disloyalty were not wanting; an attempt to try him by court-martial was only frustrated by @@ -17398,7 +17359,7 @@ himself in writing pamphlets, memoirs, &c. When his estates passed into the grand duchy of Warsaw, he chose to remain a Prussian subject, and on the outbreak of the war of liberation he asked in vain for a post on the Prussian staff. After the fall of -Napoleon he took part in Württemberg politics, was expelled +Napoleon he took part in Württemberg politics, was expelled from Stuttgart and Heidelberg, and soon afterwards arrested at Frankfurt, delivered over to the Prussian authorities and condemned to fourteen years’ fortress imprisonment for his alleged @@ -17416,34 +17377,34 @@ was published at the beginning of his imprisonment.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">MASSENET, JULES ÉMILE FRÉDÉRIC<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (1842-  ), French +<p><span class="bold">MASSENET, JULES ÉMILE FRÉDÉRIC<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (1842-  ), French composer, was born at Montaud, on the 12th of May 1842. He studied at the Paris Conservatoire, where he obtained the Grand Prix de Rome in 1863 with the cantata <i>David Rizzio</i>. Massenet became one of the most prolific composers of his time. His -operas include the following: <i>La Grande tante</i>, one act, opéra -comique (1867); <i>Don César de Bazan</i>, three acts, opéra comique -(1872); <i>Le Roi de Lahore</i>, five acts, opera (1877); <i>Hérodiade</i>, five -acts (Brussels, 1881); <i>Manon</i>, five acts, opéra comique (1884); -<i>Le Cid</i>, four acts, opera (1885); <i>Esclarmonde</i>, four acts, opéra +operas include the following: <i>La Grande tante</i>, one act, opéra +comique (1867); <i>Don César de Bazan</i>, three acts, opéra comique +(1872); <i>Le Roi de Lahore</i>, five acts, opera (1877); <i>Hérodiade</i>, five +acts (Brussels, 1881); <i>Manon</i>, five acts, opéra comique (1884); +<i>Le Cid</i>, four acts, opera (1885); <i>Esclarmonde</i>, four acts, opéra comique (1889); <i>Le Mage</i>, five acts, opera (1891); <i>Werther</i>, four -acts (Vienna, 1892); <i>Thaïs</i>, three acts, opera (1894); <i>Le Portrait -de Manon</i>, one act, opéra comique (1894); <i>La Navarraise</i>, -two acts (Covent Garden, 1894); <i>Sapho</i>, opéra comique (1897); -<i>Cendrillon</i>, opéra comique (1900); <i>Grisélidis</i>, opéra comique +acts (Vienna, 1892); <i>Thaïs</i>, three acts, opera (1894); <i>Le Portrait +de Manon</i>, one act, opéra comique (1894); <i>La Navarraise</i>, +two acts (Covent Garden, 1894); <i>Sapho</i>, opéra comique (1897); +<i>Cendrillon</i>, opéra comique (1900); <i>Grisélidis</i>, opéra comique (1901); <i>Le Jongleur de Notre Dame</i> (Mentone, 1902). Of these the most popular is Manon. Massenet’s other works include <i>Marie Madeleine</i>, sacred drama (1873); <i>Eve</i>, a mystery (1875); <i>La Vierge</i>, -sacred legend (1880); six orchestral suites entitled <i>Scènes hongroises</i>, -<i>Scènes pittoresques</i>, <i>Scènes dramatiques</i>, <i>Scènes napolitaines</i>, -<i>Scènes de féerie</i>, <i>Scènes alsaciennes</i>; music to the tragedy -<i>Les Erynnies</i>, to <i>Théodora</i>, <i>Le Crocodile</i>, <i>L’Hetman</i>; a requiem, -<i>Narcisse</i>; an idyll, <i>Biblis</i>; a <i>Scène antique</i>; several sets of -songs, entitled <i>Poème d’avril</i>, <i>Poème d’amour</i>, <i>Poème d’hiver</i>, -<i>Poème d’octobre</i>, <i>Poème pastoral</i>, <i>Poème du souvenir</i>; also a +sacred legend (1880); six orchestral suites entitled <i>Scènes hongroises</i>, +<i>Scènes pittoresques</i>, <i>Scènes dramatiques</i>, <i>Scènes napolitaines</i>, +<i>Scènes de féerie</i>, <i>Scènes alsaciennes</i>; music to the tragedy +<i>Les Erynnies</i>, to <i>Théodora</i>, <i>Le Crocodile</i>, <i>L’Hetman</i>; a requiem, +<i>Narcisse</i>; an idyll, <i>Biblis</i>; a <i>Scène antique</i>; several sets of +songs, entitled <i>Poème d’avril</i>, <i>Poème d’amour</i>, <i>Poème d’hiver</i>, +<i>Poème d’octobre</i>, <i>Poème pastoral</i>, <i>Poème du souvenir</i>; also a large number of detached songs. He was professor of composition at the Conservatoire from 1878 to 1896, among his pupils being -Hillemacher, Marty, Bruneau, Vidal, Pierné, Leroux and Charpentier. +Hillemacher, Marty, Bruneau, Vidal, Pierné, Leroux and Charpentier. Massenet undoubtedly possesses a style of his own. He is at his best in music descriptive of the tender passion, and many of the love scenes in his operas are very beautiful.</p> @@ -17502,7 +17463,7 @@ early in 1643. He conducted minor operations against numerous small bodies of Royalists, and conducted the defence of Gloucester against the king’s main army in August 1643, with great steadiness and ability, receiving the thanks of parliament and a -grant of £1000 for his services. In 1644 Massey continued to +grant of £1000 for his services. In 1644 Massey continued to keep the field and to disperse the local Royalists, and on several occasions he measured swords with Prince Rupert. In May 1644 he was made general of the forces of the Western Association. @@ -17533,7 +17494,7 @@ lodged in the Tower. He again managed to escape to Holland. While negotiating with the English Presbyterians for the restoration of Charles, he visited England twice, in 1654 and 1656. In 1660 he was active in preparing for Charles’s return, and was -rewarded by a knighthood and a grant of £3000. The rest of +rewarded by a knighthood and a grant of £3000. The rest of his life was spent in political, and occasionally in military and administrative business, and he is said to have died in Ireland in 1674 or 1675.</p> @@ -17626,10 +17587,10 @@ whether isolated or forming part of a larger mountain system. A <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">MASSILLON, JEAN BAPTISTE<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (1663-1742), French bishop -and preacher, was born at Hyères on the 24th of June 1663, his +and preacher, was born at Hyères on the 24th of June 1663, his father being a royal notary of that town. At the age of eighteen he joined the Congregation of the Oratory and taught for a time -in the colleges of his order at Pézenas, and Montbrison and at +in the colleges of his order at Pézenas, and Montbrison and at the Seminary of Vienne. On the death of Henri de Villars, archbishop of Vienne, in 1693, he was commissioned to deliver a funeral oration, and this was the beginning of his fame. In @@ -17652,7 +17613,7 @@ the secrets of the human heart and the processes of man’s reason are described with poetical feeling. He has usually been contrasted with his predecessor Bourdaloue, the latter having the credit of vigorous denunciation, Massillon that of gentle persuasiveness. -Besides the <i>Petit Carême</i>, a sermon which he +Besides the <i>Petit Carême</i>, a sermon which he <span class="pagenum"><a name="page868" id="page868"></a>868</span> delivered before the young king Louis XV. in 1718, his sermons on the Prodigal Son, on the small number of the elect, on death, @@ -17669,16 +17630,16 @@ than most churchmen by the <i>philosophes</i> of the 18th century.</p> <p>The first edition of Massillon’s complete works was published by his nephew, also an Oratorian (Paris, 1745-1748), and upon this, in the absence of MSS., succeeding reprints were based. The best -modern edition is that of the Abbé Blampignon (Paris, 1865-1868, +modern edition is that of the Abbé Blampignon (Paris, 1865-1868, 4 vols.; new ed. 1886).</p> -<p>See Abbé Blampignon, <i>Massillon, d’après des documents inédits</i> -(Paris, 1879); and <i>L’Épiscopat de Massitlon d’après des documents -inédits, suivi de sa correspondance</i> (Paris, 1884); F. Brunetière -“L’Éloquence de Massillon” in <i>Études critiques</i> (Paris, 1882); Père -Ingold, <i>L’Oratoire et le jansénisme au temps de Massitlon</i> (Paris, +<p>See Abbé Blampignon, <i>Massillon, d’après des documents inédits</i> +(Paris, 1879); and <i>L’Épiscopat de Massitlon d’après des documents +inédits, suivi de sa correspondance</i> (Paris, 1884); F. Brunetière +“L’Éloquence de Massillon” in <i>Études critiques</i> (Paris, 1882); Père +Ingold, <i>L’Oratoire et le jansénisme au temps de Massitlon</i> (Paris, 1880); and Louis Petit de Julleville’s <i>Histoire de la langue et -de la littérature française</i>, v. 372-385 (Paris, 1898).</p> +de la littérature française</i>, v. 372-385 (Paris, 1898).</p> </div> @@ -17760,7 +17721,7 @@ Philip Henslowe, begs for an immediate loan of five pounds to release them from their “unfortunate extremitie,” the money to be taken from the balance due for the “play of Mr Fletcher’s and ours.” A second document shows that Massinger and Daborne -owed Henslowe £3 on the 4th of July 1615. The earlier note probably +owed Henslowe £3 on the 4th of July 1615. The earlier note probably dates from 1613, and from this time Massinger apparently worked regularly with John Fletcher, although in editions of Beaumont and Fletcher’s works his co-operation is usually @@ -18094,11 +18055,11 @@ known as a writer and novelist.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">MASSON, LOUIS CLAUDE FRÉDÉRIC<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (1847-  ), French +<p><span class="bold">MASSON, LOUIS CLAUDE FRÉDÉRIC<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (1847-  ), French historian, was born at Paris on the 8th of March 1847. His father, Francis Masson, a solicitor, was killed on the 23rd of June 1848, when major in the <i>garde nationale</i>. Young Masson -was educated at the college of Sainte Barbe, and at the lycée +was educated at the college of Sainte Barbe, and at the lycée Louis-le-Grand, and then travelled in Germany and in England; from 1869 to 1880 he was librarian at the Foreign Office. At first he devoted himself to the history of diplomacy, and published @@ -18106,29 +18067,29 @@ between 1877 and 1884 several volumes connected with that subject. Later he published a number of more or less curious memoirs illustrating the history of the Revolution and of the empire. But he is best known for his books connected -with Napoleon. In <i>Napoléon inconnu</i> (1895), Masson, together +with Napoleon. In <i>Napoléon inconnu</i> (1895), Masson, together with M. Guido Biagi, brought out the unpublished writings (1786-1793) of the future emperor. These were notes, extracts from historical, philosophical and literary books, and personal reflections in which one can watch the growth of the ideas later carried out by the emperor with modifications necessitated by the force of circumstances and his own genius. But this was -only one in a remarkable series: <i>Joséphine de Beauharnais, -1763-1796</i> (1898); <i>Joséphine, impératrice et reine</i> (1899); -<i>Joséphine répudiée 1809-1814</i> (1901); <i>L’Impératrice Marie Louise</i> -(1902); <i>Napoléon et les femmes</i> (1894); <i>Napoléon et sa famille</i> -(9 vols., 1897-1907); <i>Napoléon et son fils</i> (1904); and <i>Autour de -l’Île d’Elbe</i> (1908). These works abound in details and amusing +only one in a remarkable series: <i>Joséphine de Beauharnais, +1763-1796</i> (1898); <i>Joséphine, impératrice et reine</i> (1899); +<i>Joséphine répudiée 1809-1814</i> (1901); <i>L’Impératrice Marie Louise</i> +(1902); <i>Napoléon et les femmes</i> (1894); <i>Napoléon et sa famille</i> +(9 vols., 1897-1907); <i>Napoléon et son fils</i> (1904); and <i>Autour de +l’ÃŽle d’Elbe</i> (1908). These works abound in details and amusing anecdotes, which throw much light on the events and men of the time, laying stress on the personal, romantic and dramatic aspects of history. The author was made a member of the -Académie française in 1903. From 1886 to 1889 he edited the +Académie française in 1903. From 1886 to 1889 he edited the review <i>Arts and Letters</i>, published in London and New York.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>A bibliography of his works, including anonymous ones and those under an assumed name, has been published by G. Vicaire (<i>Manuel -de l’amateur des livres du XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, tome v., 1904). <i>Napoléon et +de l’amateur des livres du XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, tome v., 1904). <i>Napoléon et les femmes</i> has been translated into English as <i>Napoleon and the Fair Sex</i> (1894).</p> </div> @@ -18137,7 +18098,7 @@ Fair Sex</i> (1894).</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="bold">MAST<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1) (O. Eng. <i>maest</i>; a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. <i>malus</i>; from the medieval latinized form <i>mastus</i> comes -Fr. <i>mât</i>), in nautical language, the name of the spar, or straight +Fr. <i>mât</i>), in nautical language, the name of the spar, or straight piece of timber, or combination of spars, on which are hung the yards and sails of a vessel of any size. It has been ingeniously supposed that man himself was the first mast. He discovered @@ -18161,7 +18122,7 @@ the bow was by degrees lowered forward till it became the bow-sprit of modern times, and lost the name of mast. The next from the bows became the foremast—called in Mediterranean sea language <i>mizzana</i>, in French <i>misaine</i>. Then came -the main-mast—in French <i>grand mât</i>; and then the mizen—in +the main-mast—in French <i>grand mât</i>; and then the mizen—in French, which follows the Mediterranean usage, the <i>artimon</i>, <i>i.e.</i> “next the rudder,” <i>timon</i>. A small mast was sometimes erected in the very end of the ship, and called in English a @@ -18209,7 +18170,7 @@ between them by twelve or thirteen close turns of rope, firmly secured. “Made masts” are stronger than those made of a single tree and less liable to be sprung. The general principle of construction is that it is built round a central shaft, called in English the -“spindle” or “upper tree,” and in French the <i>mèche</i> or wick. +“spindle” or “upper tree,” and in French the <i>mèche</i> or wick. The other pieces—“side trees,” “keel pieces,” “side fishes,” “cant pieces” and “fillings” are “coaked,” <i>i.e.</i> dovetailed and bolted on to and around the “spindle,” which itself is made of two pieces, @@ -18226,11 +18187,11 @@ on the lower deck, where they are supported by stanchions, or on a horseshoe covering the screw shaft. The size of masts naturally varies very much. In a 110-gun ship of 2164 tons the proportions of the mainmast were: for the lower mast, length 117 ft., diameter -3 ft. 3 in.; topmast, 70 ft., and 20¾ in.; topgallant mast, 35 ft., and +3 ft. 3 in.; topmast, 70 ft., and 20¾ in.; topgallant mast, 35 ft., and 11<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in., 222 ft. in all. At the other end of the scale, a cutter of 200 tons had a lower mast of 88 ft., of 22 in. diameter, and a topgallant -mast (there was no topmast between them) of 44 ft., of 9¾ in. in -diameter, 132 ft. in all; topgallant mast of 44 ft., and 9¾ in. in diameter. +mast (there was no topmast between them) of 44 ft., of 9¾ in. in +diameter, 132 ft. in all; topgallant mast of 44 ft., and 9¾ in. in diameter. The masts of a warship were more lofty than those of a merchant ship of the same tonnage. At present masts are only used by warships for signalling and military purposes. In sailing @@ -18281,7 +18242,7 @@ in which the mummy was laid.</p> <p><span class="bold">MASTER<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (Lat. <i>magister</i>, related to <i>magis</i>, more, as the corresponding <i>minister</i> is to <i>minus</i>, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. <i>maegister</i>, and partly to O. Fr. <i>maistre</i>, -mod. <i>maître</i>; cf. Du. <i>meester</i>, Ger. <i>Meister</i>, Ital. <i>maestro</i>), one +mod. <i>maître</i>; cf. Du. <i>meester</i>, Ger. <i>Meister</i>, Ital. <i>maestro</i>), one holding a position of authority, disposition or control over persons or things. The various applications of the word fall roughly into the following main divisions; as the title of the @@ -18319,13 +18280,13 @@ is a commissioned officer below the rank of lieutenant.</p> <p>“Master” appears as the title of many legal functionaries (for the masters of the supreme court see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chancery</a></span>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">King’s Bench, Court of</a></span>; for masters in lunacy see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Insanity</a></span>: -§ <i>Law</i>, see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Master of the Rolls</a></span>, below). The “master +§ <i>Law</i>, see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Master of the Rolls</a></span>, below). The “master of the faculties” is the chief officer of the archbishop of Canterbury in his court of faculties. His duties are concerned with the appointment of notaries and the granting of special licences of marriage. The duties are performed <i>ex officio</i> by the judge of the provincial courts of Canterbury and York, who is also -dean of Arches, in accordance with § 7 of the Public Worship +dean of Arches, in accordance with § 7 of the Public Worship <span class="pagenum"><a name="page872" id="page872"></a>872</span> Regulation Act 1874. The “master of the Temple” is the title of the priest-in-charge of the Temple Church in London. @@ -18483,7 +18444,7 @@ when two of them, arrayed in an antique costume, assist the groom of the stole in carrying the royal train.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>In France the master of the horse (“Grand Écuyer,” or more +<p>In France the master of the horse (“Grand Écuyer,” or more usually “Monsieur le grand”) was one of the seven great officers of the crown from 1617. As well as the superintendence of the royal <span class="pagenum"><a name="page873" id="page873"></a>873</span> @@ -18492,12 +18453,12 @@ of the funds set aside for the religious functions of the court, coronations, &c. On the death of a sovereign he had the right to all the horses and their equipment in the royal stables. Distinct from this officer and independent of him, was the first equerry (“Premier -Écuyer”), who had charge of the horses which the sovereign used -personally (“la petite écurie”), and who attended on him when he +Écuyer”), who had charge of the horses which the sovereign used +personally (“la petite écurie”), and who attended on him when he rode out. The office of master of the horse existed down to the reign of Louis XVI. Under Louis XVIII. and Charles X. the duties -were discharged by the first equerry, but under Napoléon I. and -Napoléon III. the office was revived with much of its old importance.</p> +were discharged by the first equerry, but under Napoléon I. and +Napoléon III. the office was revived with much of its old importance.</p> <p>In Germany the master of the horse (Oberststallmeister) is a high court dignitary; but his office is merely titular, the superintendence @@ -18554,7 +18515,7 @@ it by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873, which provides that all judges of the High Court of Justice and the court of appeal shall be incapable of being elected to or sitting in the House of Commons. The master of the rolls is always sworn -of the privy council. His salary is £6000 a year.</p> +of the privy council. His salary is £6000 a year.</p> <div class="condensed"> <p>See Lord Hardwicke, <i>Office of the Master of the Rolls</i>.</p> @@ -18569,7 +18530,7 @@ of the rolls in 1851.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">MASTIC,<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Mastich</span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="mastichê">μαστίχη</span>, probably connected with +<p><span class="bold">MASTIC,<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Mastich</span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="mastichê">μαστίχη</span>, probably connected with <span class="grk" title="masasthai">μασᾶσθαι</span>, to chew, since mastic is used in the East as a chewing gum), a resinous exudation obtained from the lentisk, <i>Pistacia lentiscus</i>, an evergreen shrub of the natural order Anacardiaceae. @@ -18630,7 +18591,7 @@ West Indies and on the coast of Florida.</p> food by long flagella (Gr. <span class="grk" title="mastix">μάστιξ</span>, whip), usually few in number, and multiplying by fission, usually longitudinal, in the active condition. They were separated off from the rest of the old -“Infusoria” by K. Düsing, and subdivided by O. Bütschli and +“Infusoria” by K. Düsing, and subdivided by O. Bütschli and E. R. Lankester into (1) Flagellata (<i>q.v.</i>), including Haemoflagellata (<i>q.v.</i>), (2) Dinoflagellata (<i>q.v.</i>) and Rhyncho = Cystoflagellata E. Haeckel (<i>q.v.</i>) = Rhynchoflagellata E. R. Lankester. @@ -18943,7 +18904,7 @@ sloping plain backed by wooded hills, over some of which the city itself has spread. The conical Pan de Matanzas (1277 ft.) is a striking land-mark for sailors. The San Juan and Yumuri rivers divide Matanzas into three districts. The Teatro Esteban, -Casino Español and Government House are noteworthy among +Casino Español and Government House are noteworthy among the buildings. The broad Paseo de Marti (Alameda de Versalles, Paseo de Santa Cristina) extends along the edge of the harbour, and is perhaps the handsomest parkway and boulevard in Cuba. @@ -18968,8 +18929,8 @@ frequented by buccaneers; but the city was not laid out until 1693. In the next year it received an <i>ayuntamiento</i> (council). Its prosperity rapidly increased after the establishment of free commerce early in the 19th century. In 1815 it was made a -department capital. The mulatto poet, Gabriel de la Concepción -Valdés, known as Plácido (1809-1844), was born in Matanzas, and +department capital. The mulatto poet, Gabriel de la Concepción +Valdés, known as Plácido (1809-1844), was born in Matanzas, and was executed there for participation in the supposed conspiracy of negroes in 1844, which is one of the most famous episodes in Cuban history. The hurricanes of 1844 and 1846 are the only @@ -18979,7 +18940,7 @@ has always been particularly strong.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page876" id="page876"></a>876</span></p> -<p><span class="bold">MATARÓ<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (anc. <i>Iluro</i>), a seaport of north-eastern Spain, in +<p><span class="bold">MATARÓ<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (anc. <i>Iluro</i>), a seaport of north-eastern Spain, in the province of Barcelona, on the Mediterranean Sea and the Barcelona-Perpignan railway. Pop. (1900), 19,704. The streets of the new town, lying next the sea, are wide and regularly @@ -19045,15 +19006,15 @@ cotton and linen; the entire mass of the tinder was set into a glow, developing sufficient heat to ignite the sulphur with which the matches were tipped, and thereby the splints themselves were set on fire. In 1805 one Chancel, assistant to Professor L. J. -Thénard of Paris, introduced an apparatus consisting of a small +Thénard of Paris, introduced an apparatus consisting of a small bottle containing asbestos, saturated with strong sulphuric acid, with splints or matches coated with sulphur, and tipped with a mixture of chlorate of potash and sugar. The matches so prepared, when brought into contact with the sulphuric acid in the bottle, ignited, and thus, by chemical action, fire was produced. In 1823 a decided impetus was given to the artificial production -of fire by the introduction of the Döbereiner lamp, so called after -its inventor, J. W. Döbereiner of Jena. The first really practical +of fire by the introduction of the Döbereiner lamp, so called after +its inventor, J. W. Döbereiner of Jena. The first really practical friction matches were made in England in 1827, by John Walker, a druggist of Stockton-on-Tees. These were known as “Congreves” after Sir William Congreve, the inventor of the @@ -19096,7 +19057,7 @@ serious objections to the use of phosphorus, however, were overcome by the discovery of the modified form of that body known as red or amorphous phosphorus. That substance was utilized for the manufacture of the well-known “safety matches” -by J. E. Lundström, of Jönköping, Sweden, in 1852; its employment +by J. E. Lundström, of Jönköping, Sweden, in 1852; its employment for this purpose had been patented eight years previously by another Swede, G. E. Pasch, who, however, regarded it as an oxide of phosphorus. Red phosphorus is in itself a perfectly @@ -19173,7 +19134,7 @@ by one big combination. In France matches are a government monopoly, and are both dear in price and inferior in quality, as compared with other countries where the industry is left to private enterprise. The French government formerly leased the manufacture -to a company (<i>Société générale des allumettes chimiques</i>), but since +to a company (<i>Société générale des allumettes chimiques</i>), but since 1890 it has been undertaken directly by the state.</p> </div> @@ -19196,7 +19157,7 @@ so as to preserve the trim—or balance—of the ship. (For <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">MATÉ,<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Paraguay Tea</span>, the dried leaves of <i>Ilex paraguariensis</i>,<a name="fa1t" id="fa1t" href="#ft1t"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +<p><span class="bold">MATÉ,<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Paraguay Tea</span>, the dried leaves of <i>Ilex paraguariensis</i>,<a name="fa1t" id="fa1t" href="#ft1t"><span class="sp">1</span></a> an evergreen shrub or small tree belonging to the same genus as the common holly, a plant to which it bears some resemblance in size and habit. The leaves are from 6 to 8 in. @@ -19206,59 +19167,59 @@ clusters in the axils of the leaves; the sepals, petals and stamens are four in number, or occasionally five; and the berry is 4-seeded. The plant grows abundantly in Paraguay, and the south of Brazil, forming woods called <i>yerbales</i>. One of the principal -centres of the maté industry is the Villa Real, a small town above +centres of the maté industry is the Villa Real, a small town above Asuncion on the Paraguay river; another is the Villa de San Xavier, in the district between the rivers Uruguay and Parana.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>Although maté appears to have been used from time immemorial +<p>Although maté appears to have been used from time immemorial by the Indians, the Jesuits were the first to attempt its cultivation. This was begun at their branch missions in Paraguay and the province of Rio Grande de San Pedro, where some plantations still exist, and yield the best tea that is made. From this circumstance the names Jesuits’ tea, tea of the Missions, St Bartholomew’s tea, &c., are -sometimes applied to maté. Under cultivation the quality of the +sometimes applied to maté. Under cultivation the quality of the tea improves, but the plant remains a small shrub with numerous stems, instead of forming, as in the wild state, a tree with a rounded head. From cultivated plants the leaves are gathered every two or three years, that interval being necessary for restoration to -vigorous growth. The collection of maté is, however, chiefly +vigorous growth. The collection of maté is, however, chiefly effected by Indians employed for that purpose by merchants, who pay a money consideration to government for the privilege.</p> -<p>When a yerbal or maté wood is found, the Indians, who usually +<p>When a yerbal or maté wood is found, the Indians, who usually travel in companies of about twenty-five in number, build wigwams and settle down to the work for about six months. Their first operation is to prepare an open space, called a <i>tatacua</i>, about 6 ft. square, in which the surface of the soil is beaten hard and smooth -with mallets. The leafy branches of the maté are then cut down and +with mallets. The leafy branches of the maté are then cut down and placed on the tatacua, where they undergo a preliminary roasting from a fire kindled around it. An arch of poles, or of hurdles, is -then erected above it, on which the maté is placed, a fire being lighted +then erected above it, on which the maté is placed, a fire being lighted underneath. This part of the process demands some care, since by it the leaves have to be rendered brittle enough to be easily pulverized, and the aroma has to be developed, the necessary amount of heat being only learned by experience. After drying, the leaves are reduced to coarse powder in mortars formed of pits in -the earth well rammed. Maté so prepared is called <i>caa gazu</i> or <i>yerva +the earth well rammed. Maté so prepared is called <i>caa gazu</i> or <i>yerva do polos</i>, and is chiefly used in Brazil. In Paraguay and the vicinity of Parana in the Argentine Republic, the leaves are deprived -of the midrib before roasting; this is called <i>caa-míri</i>. A very superior +of the midrib before roasting; this is called <i>caa-mÃri</i>. A very superior quality, or <i>caa-cuys</i>, is also prepared in Paraguay from the scarcely -expanded buds. Another method of drying maté has been adopted, +expanded buds. Another method of drying maté has been adopted, the leaves being heated in large cast-iron pans set in brickwork, in the same way that tea is dried in China; it is afterwards powdered by machinery.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:426px; height:598px" src="images/img877.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption">Maté (<i>Ilex paraguariensis</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Maté (<i>Ilex paraguariensis</i>).</td></tr> <tr><td class="caption">Portion of plant, half natural size. Flower, drupe and nuts, twice natural size. Part of under-side of leaf showing minute glands, natural size.</td></tr></table> <p>The different methods of preparation influence to a certain extent -the value of the product, the maté prepared in Paraguay being +the value of the product, the maté prepared in Paraguay being considered the best, that of Oran and Paranagua very inferior. The leaves when dried are packed tightly in serons or oblong packages made of raw hides, which are then carefully sewed up. These shrink @@ -19266,9 +19227,9 @@ by exposure to the sun, and in a couple of days form compact parcels each containing about 200 ℔ of tea; in this form it keeps well. The tea is generally prepared for use in a small silver-mounted calabash, made of the fruit of <i>Crescentia cujete</i> (Cuca) or of <i>Lagenaria</i> -(Cabaço), usually about the size of a large orange, the tapering +(Cabaço), usually about the size of a large orange, the tapering end of the latter serving for a handle. In the top of the calabash, -or <i>maté</i>,<a name="fa2t" id="fa2t" href="#ft2t"><span class="sp">2</span></a> a circular hole about the size of a florin is made, and through +or <i>maté</i>,<a name="fa2t" id="fa2t" href="#ft2t"><span class="sp">2</span></a> a circular hole about the size of a florin is made, and through this opening the tea is sucked by means of a bombilla. This instrument consists of a small tube 6 or 7 in. long, formed either of metal or a reed, which has at one end a bulb made either of extremely fine @@ -19282,27 +19243,27 @@ A little burnt sugar or lemon juice is sometimes added instead of milk. The beverage is then handed round to the company, each person being furnished with a bombilla. The leaves will bear steeping about three times. The infusion, if not drunk soon after it is -made, rapidly turns black. Persons who are fond of maté drink +made, rapidly turns black. Persons who are fond of maté drink it before every meal, and consume about 1 oz. of the leaves per day. In the neighbourhood of Parana it is prepared and drunk like -Chinese tea. Maté is generally considered disagreeable by those +Chinese tea. Maté is generally considered disagreeable by those unaccustomed to it, having a somewhat bitter taste; moreover, it is the custom to drink it so hot as to be unpleasant. But in the south-eastern republics it is a much-prized article of luxury, and is the first thing offered to visitors. The <i>gaucho</i> of the plains will travel on horseback for weeks asking no better fare than dried beef -washed down with copious draughts of maté, and for it he will forego -any other luxury, such as sugar, rice or biscuit. Maté acts as a +washed down with copious draughts of maté, and for it he will forego +any other luxury, such as sugar, rice or biscuit. Maté acts as a restorative after great fatigue in the same manner as tea. Since it does not lose its flavour so quickly as tea by exposure to the air and damp it is more valuable to travellers.</p> -<p>Since the beginning of the 17th century maté has been drunk by +<p>Since the beginning of the 17th century maté has been drunk by all classes in Paraguay, and it is now used throughout Brazil and the neighbouring countries.</p> <p>The virtues of this substance are due to the occurrence in it of -caffeine, of which a given quantity of maté, as prepared for drinking, +caffeine, of which a given quantity of maté, as prepared for drinking, contains definitely less than a similar quantity of tea or coffee. It is less astringent than either of these, and thus is, on all scores, less open to objection.</p> @@ -19316,13 +19277,13 @@ less open to objection.</p> <p><a name="ft1t" id="ft1t" href="#fa1t"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>I. gigantea</i>, <i>I. ovalifolia</i>, <i>I. Humboldtiana</i>, and <i>I. nigropunctata</i>, besides several varieties of these species, are also used for preparing -maté.</p> +maté.</p> <p><a name="ft2t" id="ft2t" href="#fa2t"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The word <i>caa</i> signified the plant in the native Indian language. -The Spaniards gave it a similar name, <i>yerba</i>. <i>Maté</i> comes from the +The Spaniards gave it a similar name, <i>yerba</i>. <i>Maté</i> comes from the language of the Incas, and originally means a calabash. The -Paraguay tea was called at first <i>yerva do maté</i>, and then, the <i>yerva</i> -being dropped, the name <i>maté</i> came to signify the same thing.</p> +Paraguay tea was called at first <i>yerva do maté</i>, and then, the <i>yerva</i> +being dropped, the name <i>maté</i> came to signify the same thing.</p> </div> @@ -19335,10 +19296,10 @@ adjoining, the tops of the campaniles of the lower portions being on a level with the streets of the upper. The principal building is the cathedral of the archbishopric of Acerenza and Matera, formed in 1203 by the union of the two bishoprics, dating respectively -from 300 and 398. The western façade of the cathedral +from 300 and 398. The western façade of the cathedral is plain, while the utmost richness of decoration is lavished on the south front which faces the piazza. Almost in the centre -of this south façade is an exquisitely sculptured window, from +of this south façade is an exquisitely sculptured window, from which letters from the Greek patriarch at Constantinople used to be read. The campanile is 175 ft. high. In the vicinity are the troglodyte caverns of Monte Scaglioso, still inhabited by @@ -19366,17 +19327,17 @@ equally effective existence; while the idealist explains matter by mind and denies that mind can be explained by matter. The various forms into which materialism may be classified correspond to the various causes which induce men to take up materialistic -views. <i>Naïve materialism</i> is due to a cause which still, perhaps, +views. <i>Naïve materialism</i> is due to a cause which still, perhaps, has no small power, the natural difficulty which persons who have had no philosophic training experience in observing and appreciating the importance of the immaterial facts of consciousness. -The pre-Socratics may be classed as naïve materialists in this +The pre-Socratics may be classed as naïve materialists in this sense; though, as at that early period the contrast between matter and spirit had not been fully realized and matter was credited with properties that belong to life, it is usual to apply the term hylozoism (<i>q.v.</i>) to the earliest stage of Greek metaphysical theory. It is not difficult to discern the influence of -naïve materialism in contemporary thinking. We see it in Huxley, +naïve materialism in contemporary thinking. We see it in Huxley, and still more in Haeckel, whose materialism (which he chooses to term “monism”) is evidently conditioned by ignorance of the history and present position of speculation. <i>Cosmological @@ -19457,8 +19418,8 @@ childbirth survived till imperial times.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> -<p><span class="bold">MATHEMATICS<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="mathêmatkê">μαθηματική</span>, sc. <span class="grk" title="technê">τέχνη</span> or <span class="grk" title="epistêmê">ἐπιστήμη</span>; -from <span class="grk" title="mathêma">μάθημα</span>, “learning” or “science”), the general term for the +<p><span class="bold">MATHEMATICS<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="mathêmatkê">μαθηματική</span>, sc. <span class="grk" title="technê">τέχνη</span> or <span class="grk" title="epistêmê">ἐπιστήμη</span>; +from <span class="grk" title="mathêma">μάθημα</span>, “learning” or “science”), the general term for the various applications of mathematical thought, the traditional field of which is number and quantity. It has been usual to define mathematics as “the science of discrete and continuous @@ -19691,7 +19652,7 @@ ultimate, demands a separate act of faith.</p> general can now be defined according to the same general method, If m and n are finite cardinal numbers, the rational number m/n is the relation which any finite cardinal number x bears to any finite -cardinal number y when n × x = m × y. Thus the rational number +cardinal number y when n × x = m × y. Thus the rational number one, which we will denote by 1<span class="su">r</span>, is not the cardinal number 1; for 1<span class="su">r</span> is the relation 1/1 as defined above, and is thus a relation holding between certain pairs of cardinals. Similarly, the other @@ -19758,7 +19719,7 @@ connexion with that definition of multiplication which leads to ordinary algebra. The product of two complex numbers of the second order—namely, x<span class="su">1</span>e<span class="su">1</span> + x<span class="su">2</span>e<span class="su">2</span> and y<span class="su">1</span>e<span class="su">1</span> + y<span class="su">2</span>e<span class="su">2</span>, is in this case defined to mean the complex (x<span class="su">1</span>y<span class="su">1</span> - x<span class="su">2</span>y<span class="su">2</span>)e<span class="su">1</span> + (x<span class="su">1</span>y<span class="su">2</span> + x<span class="su">2</span>y<span class="su">1</span>)e<span class="su">2</span>. Thus -e<span class="su">1</span> × e<span class="su">1</span> = e, e<span class="su">2</span> × e<span class="su">2</span> = -e<span class="su">1</span>, e<span class="su">1</span> × e<span class="su">2</span> = e<span class="su">2</span> × e<span class="su">1</span> = e<span class="su">2</span>. With this definition +e<span class="su">1</span> × e<span class="su">1</span> = e, e<span class="su">2</span> × e<span class="su">2</span> = -e<span class="su">1</span>, e<span class="su">1</span> × e<span class="su">2</span> = e<span class="su">2</span> × e<span class="su">1</span> = e<span class="su">2</span>. With this definition it is usual to omit the first symbol e<span class="su">1</span>, and to write i or √−1 instead of e<span class="su">2</span>. Accordingly, the typical form for such a complex number is x + yi, and then with this notation the above-mentioned @@ -20171,7 +20132,7 @@ rather of epistemology. The founder of the modern point of view, explained in this article, was Leibnitz, who, however, was so far in advance of contemporary thought that his ideas remained neglected and undeveloped until recently; cf. <i>Opuscules et fragments -inédits de Leibnitz. Extraits des manuscrits de la bibliothèque +inédits de Leibnitz. Extraits des manuscrits de la bibliothèque royale de Hanovre</i>, by Louis Couturat (Paris, 1903), especially pp. 356-399, “Generales inquisitiones de analysi notionum et veritatum” (written in 1686); also cf. <i>La Logique de Leibnitz</i>, already @@ -20194,22 +20155,22 @@ translated into English under the title <i>Essays on the Theory of Numbers</i> (Chicago, 1901). These works of G. Cantor and Dedekind were of the greatest importance in the progress of the subject. Also cf. G. Peano (with various collaborators of the Italian school), -<i>Formulaire de mathématiques</i> (Turin, various editions, 1894-1908; +<i>Formulaire de mathématiques</i> (Turin, various editions, 1894-1908; the earlier editions are the more interesting philosophically); Felix Klein, <i>Lectures on Mathematics</i> (New York, 1894); W. K. Clifford, <i>The Common Sense of the exact Sciences</i> (London, 1885); -H. Poincaré, <i>La Science el l’hypothèse</i> (Paris, 1st ed., 1902), English +H. Poincaré, <i>La Science el l’hypothèse</i> (Paris, 1st ed., 1902), English translation under the title, <i>Science and Hypothesis</i> (London, 1905); -L. Couturat, <i>Les Principes des mathématiques</i> (Paris, 1905); E. Mach, +L. Couturat, <i>Les Principes des mathématiques</i> (Paris, 1905); E. Mach, <i>Die Mechanik in ihrer Entwickelung</i> (Prague, 1883), English translation under the title, <i>The Science of Mechanics</i> (London, 1893); K. Pearson, <i>The Grammar of Science</i> (London, 1st ed., 1892; 2nd ed., 1900, enlarged); A. Cayley, <i>Presidential Address</i> (Brit. Assoc., 1883); B. Russell and A. N. Whitehead, <i>Principia Mathematica</i> (Cambridge, 1911). For the history of mathematics the one modern and complete -source of information is M. Cantor’s <i>Vorlesungen über Geschichte der +source of information is M. Cantor’s <i>Vorlesungen über Geschichte der Mathematik</i> (Leipzig, 1st Bd., 1880; 2nd Bd., 1892; 3rd Bd., 1898; -4th Bd., 1908; 1st Bd., <i>von den ältesten Zeiten bis zum Jahre 1200, +4th Bd., 1908; 1st Bd., <i>von den ältesten Zeiten bis zum Jahre 1200, n. Chr.</i>; 2nd Bd., <i>von 1200-1668</i>; 3rd Bd., <i>von 1668-1758</i>; 4th Bd., <i>von 1795 bis 1790</i>); W. W. R. Ball, <i>A Short History of Mathematics</i> (London 1st ed., 1888, three subsequent editions, enlarged and revised, and @@ -20224,7 +20185,7 @@ translations into French and Italian).</p> <p><a name="ft2u" id="ft2u" href="#fa2u"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Cf. <i>The Principles of Mathematics</i>, by Bertrand Russell (Cambridge, 1903).</p> -<p><a name="ft3u" id="ft3u" href="#fa3u"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Cf. <i>Formulaire mathématique</i> (Turin, ed. of 1903); earlier formulations +<p><a name="ft3u" id="ft3u" href="#fa3u"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Cf. <i>Formulaire mathématique</i> (Turin, ed. of 1903); earlier formulations of the bases of arithmetic are given by him in the editions of 1898 and of 1901. The variations are only trivial.</p> @@ -20232,7 +20193,7 @@ of 1898 and of 1901. The variations are only trivial.</p> <p><a name="ft5u" id="ft5u" href="#fa5u"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The first unqualified explicit statement of <i>part</i> of this definition seems to be by B. Peirce, “Mathematics is the science which draws -necessary conclusions” (<i>Linear Associative Algebra</i>, § i. (1870), republished +necessary conclusions” (<i>Linear Associative Algebra</i>, § i. (1870), republished in the <i>Amer. Journ. of Math.</i>, vol. iv. (1881)). But it will be noticed that the second half of the definition in the text—“from the general premisses of all reasoning”—is left unexpressed. The @@ -20309,7 +20270,7 @@ powerful criticism of Cotton Mather’s part in the delusion at Salem.</p> <p>Mather took some part as adviser in the Revolution of 1689 -in Massachusetts. In 1690 he became a member o£ the Corporation +in Massachusetts. In 1690 he became a member o£ the Corporation (probably the youngest ever chosen as Fellow) of Harvard College, and in 1707 he was greatly disappointed at his failure to be chosen president of that institution. He received the @@ -20823,7 +20784,7 @@ In 1844 he visited Liverpool, Manchester and London with almost equal success. Meanwhile the expenses of his enterprise had involved him in heavy liabilities, and led on one occasion to his arrest for debt; from this embarrassment he was only -partially relieved by a pension of £300 granted by Queen Victoria +partially relieved by a pension of £300 granted by Queen Victoria in 1847. In 1849 he paid a visit to the United States, returning in 1851. He died at Queenstown on the 8th of December, 1856.</p> @@ -20901,14 +20862,14 @@ in French successfully,—his appearance in Paris in 1863 in a French version of <i>Cool as a Cucumber</i>, written by himself, being received with great approbation. He also played there again in 1865 as Sir Charles Coldcream in the original play <i>L’Homme -blasé</i> (English version by Boucicault, <i>Used up</i>). After reaching +blasé</i> (English version by Boucicault, <i>Used up</i>). After reaching his sixty-sixth year, Mathews set out on a tour round the world, in which was included a third visit to America, and on his return in 1872 he continued to act without interruption till within a few weeks of his death on the 24th of June 1878. He made his last appearance in New York at Wallack’s theatre on the 7th of June 1872, in H. J. Byron’s <i>Not such a Fool as he Looks</i>. -His last appearance in London was at the Opéra Comique on +His last appearance in London was at the Opéra Comique on the 2nd of June 1877, in <i>The Liar</i> and <i>The Cosy Couple</i>. At Stalybridge he gave his last performance on the 8th of June 1878, when he played Adonis Evergreen in his own comedy @@ -20951,7 +20912,7 @@ galleys, which had taken refuge in the Bay of Saint Tropez, was burnt by the fireships of Mathews’ fleet. In the meantime a Spanish squadron of line-of-battleships had taken refuge in Toulon, and was watched by the British fleet from its anchorage -at Hyères. In February 1744 the Spaniards put to sea in +at Hyères. In February 1744 the Spaniards put to sea in company with a French force. Mathews, who had now returned to his flagship, followed, and an engagement took place on the 11th of February. The battle was highly discreditable to the @@ -21114,7 +21075,7 @@ turned more and more from secular ambitions to charity and religious works. She died on the 30th of January 1164.</p> <div class="condensed"> -<p>See O. Rössler, <i>Kaiserin Mathilde</i> (Berlin, 1897); J. H. Round, +<p>See O. Rössler, <i>Kaiserin Mathilde</i> (Berlin, 1897); J. H. Round, <i>Geoffrey de Mandeville</i> (London, 1892).</p> </div> <div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div> @@ -21184,12 +21145,12 @@ an Italian translation, was published by F. Davoli under the title <i>Vita della granda contessa Matilda di Canossa</i> (Reggio nell’ Emilia 1888 seq.).</p> -<p>See A. Overmann, <i>Gräfin Mathilde von Tuscien; ihre Besitzungen +<p>See A. Overmann, <i>Gräfin Mathilde von Tuscien; ihre Besitzungen ... u. ihre Regesten</i> (Innsbruck, 1895); A. Colombo, <i>Una Nuova vita delta contessa Matilda in R. accad. d. sci. Atti</i>, vol. 39 (Turin, 1904); L. Tosti, <i>La Contessa Matilda ed i romani pontefici</i> (Florence, 1859); A. Pannenborg, <i>Studien zur Geschichte der Herzogin Matilde -von Canossa</i> (Göttingen, 1872); F. M. Fiorentini, <i>Memorie della +von Canossa</i> (Göttingen, 1872); F. M. Fiorentini, <i>Memorie della Matilda</i> (Lucca, 1756); and Nora Duff, <i>Matilda of Tuscany</i> (1910).</p> </div> <div class="author">(C. H. Ha.)</div> @@ -21236,7 +21197,7 @@ which first became celebrated towards the close of the 17th century. They were not known to the Romans, although lead-mining was carried on extensively in the district in the 1st and 2nd centuries <span class="scs">A.D.</span> The mean temperature of the -springs is 68° F. Extensive grounds have been laid out for +springs is 68° F. Extensive grounds have been laid out for public use; and in the neighbourhood there are several fine stalactite caverns.</p> @@ -21253,17 +21214,17 @@ affords easy communication with Matlock Bridge.</p> of Portuguese descent, was born about 1614 at Alsito (Alemtejo). After taking his degree in law at the university of Evora, he proceeded to Madrid, where he made acquaintance -with Perez de Montalbán, and thus obtained an introduction +with Perez de Montalbán, and thus obtained an introduction to the stage. He quickly displayed great cleverness in hitting the public taste, and many contemporaries of superior talent eagerly sought his aid as a collaborator. The earliest of his -printed plays is <i>La Defensa de la fé y principe prodigioso</i> (1651), +printed plays is <i>La Defensa de la fé y principe prodigioso</i> (1651), and twelve more pieces were published in 1658. But though his popularity continued long after his death (January 4, 1689), Matos Fragoso’s dramas do not stand the test of reading. His emphatic preciosity and sophistical insistence on the “point of honour” are tedious and unconvincing; in <i>La Venganza -en el despeño</i>, in <i>Á lo que obliga un agravio</i>, and in other plays, +en el despeño</i>, in <i>à lo que obliga un agravio</i>, and in other plays, he merely recasts, very adroitly, works by Lope de Vega.</p> @@ -21304,10 +21265,10 @@ or slave’s, from its mother.</p> <p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—J. F. McLennan, <i>Patriarchal Theory</i> (London, 1885); T. T. Bachofen, <i>Das Mutterrecht</i> (Stuttgart, 1861); E. Westermarck, <i>History of Human Marriage</i> (1894); A. Giraud-Teulon, -<i>La Mère chez certains peuples de l’antiquité</i> (Paris, 1867); +<i>La Mère chez certains peuples de l’antiquité</i> (Paris, 1867); <i>Les Origines du mariage et de la famille</i> (Geneva and Paris, 1884); C. S. Wake, <i>The Development of Marriage and Kinship</i> (London, -1889); Ch. Letourneau, <i>L’Évolution du mariage et de la famille</i> +1889); Ch. Letourneau, <i>L’Évolution du mariage et de la famille</i> (Paris, 1888); L. H. Morgan, <i>Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of Human Family</i>, “Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge,” vol. xvii. (Washington, 1871); C. N. Starcke, <i>The Primitive Family</i> @@ -21369,7 +21330,7 @@ such admission. <i>Matricula</i> was also the name of the contributions in men and money made by the various states of the Holy Roman Empire, and in the modern German Empire the contributions made by the federal states to the imperial finances are -called <i>Matrikularbeiträge</i>, matricular contributions. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Germany</a></span>: +called <i>Matrikularbeiträge</i>, matricular contributions. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Germany</a></span>: <i>Finance</i>.)</p> </div> @@ -21399,7 +21360,7 @@ short time in 1880 the portfolio of home affairs, and was in currency of Japan was at that time deplorable, and national bankruptcy threatened. The coinage had not only been seriously debased during the closing years of the Tokugawa -régime, but large quantities of paper currency had been issued +régime, but large quantities of paper currency had been issued and circulated, both by many of the feudal lords, and by the central government itself, as a temporary expedient for filling an impoverished exchequer. In 1878 depreciation had set in, @@ -21527,10 +21488,10 @@ in the gallery of Amsterdam. Matsys in this branch of practice was much under the influence of his contemporaries Lucas of Leiden and Mabuse. His tendency to polish and smoothness excluded to some extent the subtlety of modulation remarkable -in Holbein and Dürer. There is reason to think that he was +in Holbein and Dürer. There is reason to think that he was well acquainted with both these German masters. He probably met Holbein more than once on his way to England. He -saw Dürer at Antwerp in 1520. Quintin died at Antwerp +saw Dürer at Antwerp in 1520. Quintin died at Antwerp in 1530. The puritan feeling which slumbered in him was fatal to some of his relatives. His sister Catherine and her husband suffered at Louvain in 1543 for the then capital offence @@ -21565,383 +21526,7 @@ Hill. Matteawan was incorporated as a village in 1886.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:200px; height:36px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img000.jpg" alt="" /></div> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 17, Slice 7, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - -***** This file should be named 42552-h.htm or 42552-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/5/5/42552/ - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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