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diff --git a/42547.txt b/42547.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 91cc608..0000000 --- a/42547.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5355 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Art and Practice of Silver Printing, by -H. P. Robinson and Capt. Abney - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Art and Practice of Silver Printing - -Author: H. P. Robinson - Capt. Abney - -Release Date: April 10, 2013 [EBook #42547] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ART, PRACTICE OF SILVER PRINTING *** - - - - -Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive/American -Libraries.) - - - - - - - - - -Transcriber's Note: - -Inconsistent numbering of figures and references to figures have been -retained as in the original publication. - - - - -[Illustration: A Specimen of Woodburytype Printing.] - - - - -THE ART AND PRACTICE OF SILVER PRINTING. - - BY - H. P. ROBINSON & CAPT. ABNEY, R.E., F.R.S. - - THE AMERICAN EDITION, - - NEW YORK: - E. & H. T. ANTHONY & CO., NO. 591 BROADWAY. - 1881. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -Silver printing has been often doomed, but it still survives. Other -processes of photographic printing have been introduced, nearly all of -them having their individual merits, especially that of permanency, but -all lacking in two essential qualities--ease of production and beauty -of result. In these particulars no process has ever approached the one -to the working of which this little book is devoted. The one defect of -silver printing is the possibility of its results fading; but surely -it is better to be beautiful, if fading, than permanent and ugly. It -is better to be charmed with a beautiful thing for a few years, than -be bored by an ugly one for ever. But is silver printing necessarily -a fading process? We have in our possession a large number of silver -photographs produced from twenty to twenty-five years ago, which are -as perfect in tone and colour as when they were produced. Carefully -prepared, and properly kept, a silver print should be as permanent as -any other. That silver prints should be permanent as well as beautiful, -has been the object of - - THE AUTHORS. - - - - -TABLE OF CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I.--Preliminary Experiments 1 - - II.--Preparation of Albumenized Paper 6 - - III.--The Sensitizing Bath 13 - - IV.--How to Keep the Sensitizing Bath in Order 20 - - V.--Silvering the Paper 26 - - VI.--Washed Sensitive Paper 31 - - VII.--Cutting Paper 36 - - VIII.--Printing-Frames 42 - - IX.--Preparing the Landscape Negative 45 - - X.--Printing the Landscape 49 - - XI.--Preparing the Portrait Negative 57 - - XII.--Vignetting 60 - - XIII.--Printing the Portrait 69 - - XIV.--Combination Printing 74 - - XV.--Toning 85 - - XVI.--Fixing the Print 92 - - XVII.--Washing the Print 95 - - XVIII.--Printing on Plain Paper 99 - - XIX.--Printing on Resinized Paper 100 - - XX.--Printing on Gelatino-Chloride Emulsion Paper 103 - - XXI.--Drying the Prints 105 - - XXII.--Mounting Photographs 110 - - XXIII.--Defects in Prints 115 - - XXIV.--Encaustic Paste 117 - - XXV.--Enamelling Prints 119 - - XXVI.--Cameo Prints 121 - - Appendix 123 - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THEORY OF SILVER PRINTING. - - -Perhaps it may be wise, first of all, to give the reader some account -of the manner in which the subject of silver printing is to be treated, -before entering into very minute details, so that it may be followed -as a whole, instead of being studied in fragments, a course which is -sure to lead to failure, from a want of comprehending what may have -been skipped. To understand "the why" and "the wherefore" of every -detail is an essential in most occupations, and it is wonderful that -photographers are satisfied with the results of rule-of-thumb formulae, -instead of reasoning out their utility. In the following pages most of -the theoretical considerations will be brought out in such a manner that -everyone will be able to understand them, provided only that there is a -slight acquaintance with the name and properties of the chemicals which -are dealt with. - - -PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTS. - -Into a glass beaker put a couple of pinches of common salt, which must -be dissolved in a little water. - -In a test-tube[1] dissolve about an equal amount of silver nitrate -(AgNO_{3}), and add it to the salt solution. We shall find that we -have an immediate precipitate, for chloride of silver will be formed -by what is called double[2] decomposition, and there will remain in -solution a soluble salt known as sodium nitrate. When the silver -chloride has settled down, decant off the liquid, and add water to it -once or twice, draining off each time. Divide the chloride into four -parts, placing each part on a strip of glass. On two of them pour a -little common salt solution, and on the other two pour a little solution -of silver nitrate; take one of each pair, and place it in a dark -cupboard (if warmed, the quicker will be the operation) to dry. Take -the other two moist portions of chloride into the open air, and expose -them to daylight, and note the results. It will be seen that one of -these will darken very rapidly to a violet colour, whilst the other will -remain much lighter, though perceptibly blackening. After a time the -latter will appear to grow deeper, whilst the former will become a deep -black. The one that blackens most rapidly will be found to be that one -on which the silver nitrate was poured. Divide the slightly blackened -chloride on the strip of glass into two portions, and over one pour a -little beer, and over the other a weak solution of potassium nitrite, -and again note the difference. It will be found that here the blackening -commences anew, but proceeds much more rapidly on that portion over -which the nitrite was poured. Here are the experiments. What do they -teach? - -Potassium nitrite, and silver nitrate, are both inorganic salts, and -they both have an affinity for--that is, tend to combine with--any -of the halogens (by which are meant such bodies as chlorine, iodine, -bromine, and fluorine). In the former case we have silver chloride -formed with a little hypo-chlorous acid; in the latter we have a more -difficult decomposition: the potassium nitrite is decomposed into -hydrochloric acid and potassium nitrate.[3] - -We can tell that chlorine is liberated by the action of light on silver -chloride, since if we prepare some as above, well wash it, and expose it -to light in pure water, we shall find that the latter contains chlorine, -since a few drops of silver nitrate poured into it after exposure give a -white precipitate. - -If we make the same experiments with the dried portions of silver -chloride as we did with the moist, we shall obtain the same results, -with the exception that with the dried, in which there is excess of -salt, there will be hardly any discolouration. The experimentalist -should also note that if the darkened chloride be broken up, the -interior retains its white colour in all its purity. This tells us that -the discolouration is _almost_ confined to the surface, hence it is -useless, for printing purposes, to have such a mass of chloride as would -be opaque, since all but a very thin film would be unacted upon. - -If the darkened chloride be examined closely, it will be seen that -the colour varies, being bluer in the case of that which has silver -nitrate in contact with it (either moist or dry) as compared with that -which is darkened in contact with the potassium nitrite. We have the -best of reasons for believing that the blue colour is really due to a -combination between the sub-chloride and the oxygen contained in the -water or in the air. The true colour of the sub-chloride is that which -is exposed beneath an oxygen absorbent such as the nitrite. - -Practical printers are aware that albumenized paper containing a -chloride is employed for producing silver prints, and the probability is -that the albumen must exercise some kind of influence on the resulting -picture. Let us examine this, and see what effect it can have. Carefully -break an egg, and separate the yolk from the white, pouring the latter -into a beaker. Beat up the white with a bundle of quill pens, allow the -froth to subside, and then filter it. Pour a little of the filtered -albumen (the white of egg) into a test-tube, and add a little silver -nitrate solution to it, and expose the precipitate which falls to light. -It will be seen that it darkens rapidly, assuming a foxy red colour. -Take a couple of glass plates and coat them with plain collodion, wash -under the tap, and whilst still moist flow albumen over them two or -three times, and set them up to dry. When thoroughly dry, plunge them -for a few seconds into a weak solution of silver nitrate (30 grains -to the ounce of water will suffice), wash one under the tap, and then -allow both to dry again. Take both plates out into the light, and note -the results. The one from which the silver nitrate has not been washed -will darken very rapidly, the other will take some time to start; but if -the exposure be sufficiently prolonged, it will gradually assume a hue -equally as dark as the other. - -If we repeat these experiments with gelatine, which is used as a sizing -in some papers, we shall find very much the same nature of things taking -place, the differences being so slight, however, as not to require -detailed notice. - -So far, then, we have considered the darkening properties of the silver -compounds which are to be used by the printer, but it remains to be -seen what _permanency of darkening_ they possess. If we treat the -darkened silver chloride solution exposed with the silver nitrate or -the potassium nitrite to a solution of hyposulphite of soda or ammonia, -both of which are solvents of the white chloride, we shall find that -a residue of metallic silver is left behind. If we treat the darkened -albuminate of silver with the same agents, we shall find that very -little change is effected by them. - -From this we may gather that the action of light on them is of a totally -different nature.[4] This is also most marked if we treat the two with -hydrosulphuric acid solution (sulphuretted hydrogen[5]). It will be -found that the colour of the darkened silver chloride becomes more -intense, while the other is bleached, or, rather, becomes of a yellow -tint. This last effect has an important bearing on the permanency of -silver prints, as will be more fully explained when considering the -subject of fixing the print. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -PREPARATION OF ALBUMENIZED PAPER. - - -In printing on albumenized paper we must divide the operations, and give -a detailed account of each. In case the reader may desire to prepare his -own paper, we give the following formula and directions. - -To prepare the albumen, procure a sufficient number of eggs, remembering -that the white of a large egg will be about a fluid ounce; have a cup -to collect the yolks, and a four-ounce measure at hand. Give the centre -of the egg a smart blow against the top of the cup. The shell can now -be readily pulled in two, the yolk remaining unbroken with part of the -albumen in one half, and the rest of the albumen in the other half of -the shell. Take the halves, one in each hand, and pour the albumen from -one to the other, holding them over the small measure. As the operation -continues, the yolk will gradually separate, the white falling into the -vessel below. If conducted with care, the whole of the latter will be -collected without breaking the yolk. If the yolk break, some will be -sure to find its way into the measure along with the white, and this, -together with the white speck known as the tread, must be rigorously -taken out by means of a spoon. The _uncontaminated_ white is then poured -into a large jar. If the operator carefully collects the white of each -egg into the four-ounce ounce measure first, he will find his labour -much diminished, as it is awkward to get out the small pieces of yolk -from a large quantity of albumen. The eggs are thus broken, and the -white collected till there is a sufficient quantity for the purpose -in hand. Suppose we are going to make up 20 ounces of solution, then -about 18 ounces of white of egg must be found in the jar. One point -to settle is the amount of salt to be used to each ounce of albumen. -It must be recollected that a medium quantity is the best for medium -negatives; anything between 20 and 40 grains per ounce may be used. -We prefer ourselves about 25. Supposing this quantity to be used, we -proceed to dissolve 500 grains of chloride of ammonium in 2 ounces of -water, and add it to the albumen. It has been proved that as regards -colour of the picture, it does not matter what chloride is used. To -prevent crystallization, it is better to use ammonium, which contains -a greater amount of chlorine than do sodium or potassium chlorides. It -must now be beaten up till it is in a froth. This breaks up the fibrous -matter, and on subsidence the liquid will be found to be limpid. The -most convenient implement with which to beat up the albumen is the -American egg-beater. Three or four minutes' work is quite sufficient -to make the whole into a froth. An ordinary culinary whisk, such as is -used in the kitchen, may also be put into requisition, or, in default -of that, a bundle of quill pens. A lesson in producing a froth can be -learnt from the cook of the establishment. When the salted albumen has -settled it must be filtered, which, perhaps, is best effected through -a sponge, though glass-wool is a capital substitute. In either case a -small, loosely-fitting plug is placed in the neck of an ordinary funnel, -and, after rinsing with cold water, the albumen is poured in, and -allowed to filter through slowly. It is advisable to avoid bubbles as -far as possible, and the accompanying arrangement will be found to avoid -their formation. The funnel is placed in the position shown (fig. 1); -the capillary attraction between it and the glass will cause the drops -to trickle down the side, and collect, without bubbles, at the bottom. -This little contrivance will be found of use in other operations besides -that of silver printing, and should be made a note of. The albumen may -also be filtered through one, two, or three thicknesses of muslin, -according to its fineness, tied over the mouth of a bottle or beaker of -which the bottom has been removed. The albumen is placed in a vessel -slightly larger than the filter, which is allowed to sink gradually. -When full it is withdrawn, and the fluid poured into the dish. By this -plan upward filtration is established. The fluid may be poured into the -filter itself, and used in the ordinary manner.[6] - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 1.] - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 2.] - -On a larger scale, white of eggs in a fresh condition can be obtained -from egg merchants who utilize the yolks by selling them to the grocers -and confectioners. Albumen can be obtained by the gallon in this -condition, according to the price of eggs. It will be evident that -there is considerable economy in taking the whites wholesale. As a -rule, about three gallons of albumen will coat two reams of albumenized -paper. Mr. England (to whom we are indebted for so many of our remarks -on albumenizing paper) procures about the latter quantity at a time, and -beats it up mechanically in a large vat holding some fifty gallons, in -order to allow space for the froth. He allows the albumen to rest four -days before employing it, and filters it through three thicknesses of -flannel. - -The quality of paper to be used varies considerably with the custom of -the printer. Thus, in some countries, we find a much thinner paper used -than in England. The great desideratum is that it should be perfectly -opaque to transmitted light. A good test of this is to make a couple of -black ink marks on a piece of white paper, and then press down firmly -the paper it is proposed to employ over this. If the black ink marks are -indistinguishable, the paper will do as regards this quality, as the -light reflected from the surface which gives the impression of whiteness -to the eye is much stronger than the light which penetrates through it, -and is absorbed by the black lines. As to quality, it is best to trust -to the manufacturer, those known as Saxe and Rives papers answering -better than any other that we know of. The Rives is, when moist, a paper -which is more easily torn than the Saxe, and, consequently, we recommend -that the former be employed for small work, such as portraits, and the -latter for large landscape prints. - -In regard to the sizes to be albumenized, it must be left to the -operator to say what will be the most useful to him. It is rarely -advisable to albumenize less than a half sheet of paper, the whole size -of which is about 22 by 18 inches; 11 by 18 is not an inconvenient -size to manipulate. At any rate, a dish larger each way by a couple of -inches than the paper must be procured, and put on a level table. The -temperature of the room should be at least 90 deg., in fact, the hotter -it is the more glossy will be the resulting paper. The solution, free -from bubbles, is poured in, and should be of a depth of at least 1/2 -an inch. Suppose the smaller size to be coated, before commencing, the -paper is taken by the two opposite corners, the hands brought together, -and the convex side brought on to the surface of the fluid; the hands -are then separated, and the paper will gradually float on the surface. -One corner should be gradually raised to see that all air-bubbles are -absent. If there be any, they should be broken with the point of a glass -rod, and the paper again lowered. Bubbles can usually be seen through -the paper, and, instead of raising it, a few gentle taps with the finger -over the spot will generally move the bubble to the edge of the paper. -In practice, some have found it well to moisten the surface of the paper -with a damp sponge, and when quite surface dry to albumenize it. This -should, however, be unnecessary. The sheet should remain on the albumen -a little over a minute, when it could be gently raised by one corner and -allowed to drain over a basin; it is then caught by a couple of American -clips and hung up to dry.[7] - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 3.] - -Supposing a whole sheet is to be coated, it will be found more -convenient to take the sheet by the corners of _one end_, one in each -hand, and to lower the surface near the end of the dish, and gradually -draw the paper over the side of the dish till the whole surface is flat. -Bubbles can be got rid of as shown above. - -Two large dishes are usually employed, and by the time the second sheet -is floated in the second dish, the first sheet of paper is ready for -removal from the first dish. The sheets, when slowly removed from the -bath, are allowed to drain a few seconds, and then thrown over wooden -rods of some two inches in diameter, which are removed to a rack, -and placed near a trough to collect the drainings.[8] When drained -sufficiently the rods are removed to other racks, and the paper allowed -to dry spontaneously. - -It is the practice of some albumenized paper manufacturers to hang the -sheets over a line, uncoated side next the line; but this is a mistake, -as it will nearly always be found, on sensitising the paper and exposing -it, that a mark is left across the paper corresponding to the part where -the string touched the back of the paper. - -In practice we have found that each sheet of paper takes up about 1/3 -oz. of solution, and, of course, its equivalent quantity of salt. The -principal difficulty in albumenizing paper is the occurrence of lines -on the paper in the direction in which it was placed on the surface of -the albumen. Any arrest of motion in floating the paper will cause them, -but more usually it is due to imperfect beating up of the solution. Some -papers are not readily coated with albumen, in which case the remedy -given above may prove effectual; or a little solution of oxgall may be -equally well applied. A want of gloss in the dried albumen may be due to -too long a floating on the fluid, or to floating and drying the paper -in too low a temperature. The explanation of the first cause is that -albumen, when fresh, has an alkaline reaction, due to the presence of a -small quantity of soda, which may be said to be its base, and any alkali -will dissolve the gelatinous sizing of a paper. When the sizing is -dissolved, instead of remaining on the surface, the albumen sinks into -the paper, and thereby the gloss is lost. - -When albumen is stale it no longer possesses this alkaline reaction, but -has an acid reaction quite visible on the application of blue litmus -paper to it; the blue colour disappears and is replaced by a red tint. -When in the alkaline state, the paper is much more difficult to coat, -but an acid condition means the production of inferior tones. - -_Rolling the Paper._--The paper, when dried, is often rolled with a -heavy pressure to improve the gloss; a copper-plate press is found -to answer admirably, placing the albumenized side next the bed. This -rolling should not be necessary if attention be paid to the temperature -of the preparation room. The higher the temperature the finer will be -the gloss, as we have already said. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE SENSITIZING BATH FOR ALBUMENIZED PAPER. - - -To render albumenized paper sensitive to light it has to be treated with -a solution of silver nitrate, and the most convenient method of applying -it is to float it on a dish containing the silver salt in solution. The -first point to consider is the strength of the solution. If we float -albumenized paper (face downwards) on a solution of 10 grains of silver -nitrate to the ounce of water, we shall find, what at first sight may -seem to be remarkable, that the albumen will be dissolved away from the -paper, and that there will be a precipitate left in the silver solution. -Why is this? - -It must be remembered that albumen is soluble in water: it is coagulated -or insoluble in water when combined with silver nitrate. The fact -is that the quantity of silver nitrate in the solution we have been -experimenting with is too small. The water dissolves the albumen first, -and then the silver has time to act upon it to form the insoluble -albuminate. If we soak paper in common salt, and treat it in the same -way with the same strength of solution, we shall find that this is not -the case: the silver chloride will remain on the paper. From this we -learn two facts. - -1st. That the silver solution has a greater affinity for the chloride -than for the albuminate, and that in an equal mixture of the two more -chloride would be formed than albuminate; in other words, that the -ammonium chloride would be totally converted into silver chloride long -before the silver albuminate was formed. - -2nd. That a certain strength of silver nitrate is necessary to prevent -the albumen dissolving from off the paper. - -This last fact has fixed the lowest strength of any sensitizing solution -to be thirty grains to the ounce, and even if this be taken as a limit, -it is necessary that the water should be rendered less active by holding -some other soluble matter in its embraces. This is usually effected by -adding some other neutral and inactive nitrates. There does not seem to -be any theoretical limit to the amount of silver nitrate in solution, -but practically it rarely contains more than 80 grains to the ounce, -though occasionally we have heard of it being used of a strength of 100 -grains to the ounce. - -The important point now presents itself. How are we to fix the strength -of the bath? What principles must we follow? - -To answer these questions we extract a passage from another work of this -series.[9] - -"If a paper be coated with albumen (say) in which has been dissolved -a certain quantity of a soluble chloride, and floated on a silver -solution, both chloride and albuminate of silver are formed. It depends, -however, on the strength of the solution as to what proportions of each -are present, owing to the fact that the organic compound is much slower -in formation than the chloride, and has less affinity for the silver. -If the silver solution be not sufficiently strong, the chloride may rob -that portion of it with which it is in contact of all the silver before -any (or, at all events, sufficient) albuminate has been formed, the -molecule being composed almost entirely of silver chloride. The stronger -the silver solution the more 'organate' will it contain; whilst if it -be very weak, very little will be present. Hence it is with albumenized -paper which is weakly salted with a silver chloride a weak sensitizing -bath may be used, whilst if it be rich in the chloride it must be of -proportionate strength." - -It will now be seen that the proportion of chloride to albumen has -to settle the point. We next have to consider the time during which -the silver should be in contact with the paper when the floating is -commenced. Let us take the case of a strong silver solution, and -consider the action that will follow. Immediately the paper is placed in -contact with the solution, silver chloride is formed, and the amount of -the silver nitrate in the layer of fluid in immediate contact with the -surface being scarcely diminished by the formation of silver chloride, -the albuminate is formed almost simultaneously, forming a film which is -to a great extent impermeable to the liquid. But even before this layer -is coagulated, the next layer of chloride will have been formed, so that -we may say we have one layer of albuminate and chloride of silver, and -one layer of chloride of silver alone. - -The further penetration of the silver solution will be very slow; hence, -for fully saturating both the albumen and the salt with silver, the time -of flotation must be prolonged. For some purposes, however, this is not -necessary, as will be seen presently. - -Next let us trace the action of a weak solution, not weak enough to -dissolve the albumen off the paper, but of the minimum strength. The -solution, as before, would immediately form the silver chloride, but -before the albumen had coagulated at the surface, the solution would -penetrate to the interior of the film, and then the formation of the -albuminate would proceed nearly equally throughout the whole of the -interior. Evidently, then, in this case, the contact of the silver -solution would be less prolonged than in the former case. If the -floating be prolonged the silver solution in the interior will become -weakened, and partially dissolve the albumen and be carried by the -water into the interior of the paper; it will also partially dissolve -off the surface, and a negative printed on such a paper would have all -the appearance of being dead in lustre, and existing in the paper itself -instead of on the surface. - -We may thus summarize:-- - -1. A paper floated on a strong solution may require long floating. - -2. A paper floated on a weak solution requires short floating. - -3. And the strength of the solution may be between the 30 grains and -80 grains to the ounce of silver according to the amount of soluble -chloride dissolved in the albumen on the paper when the negative is -really good as regards opacity and delicacy. - -The knowledge of the amount of chloride in the paper supplied by dealers -has to be arrived at somehow, and the following method will answer. Cut -up a quarter sheet of the paper into small pieces, and place them in a -couple of ounces of methylated spirit. This will dissolve out most of -the chloride, and should be decanted off. Another two ounces of spirit -should be added to the paper, and, after thoroughly soaking, should be -decanted off, and added to the other spirit. The spirit containing the -chloride may then be placed in a glass vessel standing in hot water, -when it will evaporate and leave the chloride behind. It may be weighed; -but since it is better to know how much silver chloride (AgCl) would be -formed, the residue should be dissolved in a few drops of water, and a -little silver nitrate added. The silver chloride will be precipitated, -and should be carefully washed with water, and then be filtered, the -paper being opened out and dried before the fire on filter paper. The -chloride is then detached and weighed; 3-1/2 grains of silver chloride -would show that a weak bath should be used, whilst 10 grains would show -that a strong bath was required. - -With most brands of albumenized paper directions are issued as to the -best strength of silver nitrate solution for sensitizing, and a fair -estimate of the chloride present can be gained from such directions. - -A weak solution loses much of its strength by each sheet of paper -floated, much more proportionally, in fact, than a strong solution, -since the same amount of fluid is absorbed by the paper in each case, -whilst the amount of silver abstracted from the _whole_ is also equal, -which reduces the strength per ounce more with the former than with -the latter. A weak sensitizing solution, therefore, requires much -more attention than a strong one: crystals of silver nitrate must be -constantly added to the former. In practice and for general work, then, -we recommend a moderately strong bath, the method of making up of which -we shall describe. - -To make up 2 pints of solution with a strength of 50 grains to the -ounce, we shall require 2,000 grains of silver nitrate. This is -carefully weighed out in the scales, a piece of _filter paper being -placed in each pan_. By adopting this plan freedom from all impurities -that may cling to the pans will be avoided, and the silver nitrate -will be perfectly pure. Place the silver salt in a large clean bottle, -and add half-a-pint of water to it, and shake it to dissolve it. The -best water for the purpose is distilled water; but filtered rain, pure -spring, or river water answers well. If the water contain any chlorides, -it will be shown by a milkiness due to a formation of silver chloride. -This must be filtered out when the remaining pint and a-half of water -is added. The solution is now ready for use, and, being of the simplest -character, is not to be excelled, though the addition of some soluble -salts may be advantageous, particularly in dry climates or in very dry -weather. Such salts are found in sodium nitrate, or ammonium nitrate, as -much as equal weights of either of these substances being added. Thus -our formula would stand as follows were these additions made:-- - -_Original Solution._ - - 1.--Silver nitrate 50 grains - Water 1 ounce - - -_Modified Solution._ - - 2.--Silver nitrate 50 grains - Ammonium nitrate or - sodium nitrate 50 " - Water 1 ounce - -The reason of the addition of the ammonium or sodium nitrate is that -prints are better obtained on paper which is not absolutely free from -water. When very dry, the liberated chlorine (see page 32) is apt to -attack the albuminate, whereas it is deprived of much of its activity -when it is able to be absorbed by water, which, in the presence of -light, is decomposed into hydrochloric acid and oxygen.[10] - -Hydrochloric acid can attack the silver nitrate present in the pores -of the paper, and produce fresh silver chloride. If the paper were -quite dry, the liberated chlorine would scarcely be able to attack -even the silver. Moisture, though very little, is desirable. In the -excessively dry climate of India, &c., in the summer, one or other of -these deliquescent salts should be invariably present for the purpose -indicated, unless fuming be resorted to. - -The sensitizing bath should also never be allowed to be acid with nitric -acid, since the resulting prints would invariably be poor. - -The best way of securing this neutral state is by keeping a little -carbonate of silver at the bottom of the bottle in which the solution is -kept. A few drops of a solution of sodium carbonate added to the bottle -over-night will secure this. The reason why nitric acid is to be avoided -is shown by placing a print in dilute nitric acid. It is well known that -darkened silver chloride is unaffected by it; but the print will be -found to change colour, and to become duller and redder than if washed -in water alone. The nitric acid evidently attacks the albumen. Nitric -acid decomposes the carbonate of silver (which, be it remembered, is an -insoluble body), forming silver nitrate, and liberating carbonic acid.[11] - -Alum in the printing bath has also been recommended for preventing the -bath from discolouring, and it is effective in that it hardens the -surface of the albumen; but the ordinary explanation of its effect is -defective. If a solution of common alum be added to the silver nitrate -we get silver sulphate (which is best out of the bath, and it is -slightly soluble in the solution), and aluminium nitrate is formed.[12] - -The same effect would be produced if aluminium nitrate were added to the -bath solution. We, however, give a means of adding it as recommended by -some writers. When filtering the solution, put a small lump of alum in -the filter paper, and pour the solution over it, or add one grain of -alum to every ounce of solution, and then filter. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -HOW TO KEEP THE SENSITIZING BATH IN ORDER. - - -Experience tells us, however strong we may make the bath solution to -coagulate the albumen on the paper, that a certain amount of organic -matter will always be carried into it. At first this is not apparent, -since it remains colourless in the solution; but after a time, after -floating a few sheets of paper, the organic silver compound gradually -decomposes, and the solution becomes of a brown or red tint, and if -paper were floated on it in this condition there would be a dark surface -and uneven sensitizing. It is, therefore, necessary to indicate the -various means that may be employed to get rid of this impurity. The -earliest, if not one of the best, is by the addition of white China -clay, which is known in commerce as kaolin. A teaspoonful is placed in -the bottle containing the solution, and well shaken up; the organic -matter adheres to it, and precipitates to the bottom, and the liquid can -be filtered through filter-paper or washed cotton-wool, when it will -be found decolourized. Another mode of getting the liquid out of the -bottle is to syphon it off by any syphon arrangement, and this prevents -a waste in the solution from the absorption of the filtering medium. The -accompanying arrangement (fig. 4) will be found useful for the purpose, -and can be applied to other solutions where decantation is necessary. A -is a wide-mouthed bottle holding the solution. B is a cork fitting the -mouth, in which two holes have been bored to fit the two tubes, D and C, -which are bent to the form shown. When the kaolin has subsided to the -bottom, air is forced by the mouth into the bottle through C, the liquid -rises over the bend of the tube D, and syphons off to the level of the -bottom of the tube inserted into the liquid, provided the end of D, -outside the bottle, comes below it. - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 4.] - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 5.] - -To bend a tube, a common gas flame is superior to a Bunsen burner. The -tube is placed in the bright part of the flame in the position shown; by -this means a good length of it gets heated, and a gentle bend is made -without choking the bore, which would be the case were a point of a -flame used. - -Another method of purifying the solution is by adding a few drops of -hydrochloric (muriatic) acid to it. Chloride of silver is formed, and -when well shaken up, carries down with it most of the organic matter, -but leaves the bath acid from the formation of nitric acid.[13] This -must be neutralized unless a little silver carbonate is left at the -bottom of the bottle as described at page 20. A camphor solution may -also be added for the same purpose. Make a saturated solution of camphor -in spirits of wine, and add a couple of drachms to the solution, and -shake well up. The camphor will collect the albumen, and it can be -filtered out. In case the first dose does not decolourize it, another -one must be added. - -Another plan is to add potassium permanganate (permanganate of potash) -to it, till such time as the solution takes a faint permanent rose -tint. The theory is that the organic matter is oxidized by the oxygen -liberated from the permanganate, and falls to the bottom. It is not -strictly true, however, and the solution will never be as free from -organic matter as when the other methods are employed. - -The final and best method is to add a small quantity of sodium carbonate -(say 5 grains), and expose it to daylight. When the organic matter -becomes oxidized at the expense of the silver nitrate, the metallic -silver with the oxidized organic matter will fall to the bottom. This -plan answers admirably when time is no object, but in dull weather the -action is slow. When once the precipitation fairly commences it goes on -quickly, and if a little freshly precipitated metallic silver be left at -bottom of the bottle the action is much more rapid. This is a wrinkle -worth remembering in all photographic operations where precipitation is -resorted to. - -We have hitherto supposed that the only contamination of the bath is -organic matter, but it must be borne in mind that each sheet of paper -floated on the solution transfers a certain amount of nitrate of the -alkali[14] with which the albumen is salted. - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 6.] - -It will thus be seen that in an old bath there will be no need to add -the soluble nitrates given in page 17, since they will be already -formed. When they are in excess the best plan is to precipitate the -silver by some means,[15] but we select one which is easy of application, -since it requires no watching. Evaporate the solution to half its -bulk, and slightly acidify it with nitric acid (10 drops to the pint -of solution will suffice); throw some ordinary granulated zinc into -the jar or bottle containing it; the silver will now be rapidly thrown -down in the metallic state, and in the course of two or three hours -the action will be complete. Next carefully pour off all the fluid as -close as possible to the residue. Pick out all the lumps of zinc, and -add a little dilute hydrochloric acid to dissolve up all the small -particles of zinc which may be amongst the precipitated silver. Filter -the solution away, and wash the residue once or twice with water. Take -out the filter paper, and dry it before a fire, or in an oven, and then -detach the silver, and transfer it to a small crucible, which place, -with its contents, over a Bunsen burner or spirit lamp flame till it is -red hot. The heat will destroy all organic matter, leaving a residue of -carbonous matter behind, which, after subsequent operations, will be -eliminated by filtration. Next cover the silver with nitric acid,[16] -and in an evaporating dish slightly warm it over a spirit lamp or -Bunsen burner. Red fumes will appear, and when all action has ceased, -more acid must be added till such a time that very nearly (but not -quite) all the silver is dissolved up. Then evaporate off all the fluid -and allow it to cool, when water can be added to such an extent that -it is _over strength_ for the bath. Now measure the whole bulk of the -solution in a glass measure, and test by the argentometer for strength. -An argentometer is, in reality, an instrument for taking the specific -gravity of a liquid. It is as shown in the figure. A B is a glass tube, -inside of which is a graduated scale showing grains; C is a hollow -glass cylinder, which has a little glass ball filled with mercury. When -immersed in water, the instrument sinks till the scale reads 0--that -is, A B is deeply immersed. When any soluble salt is dissolved in the -water, the stem rises further. If the soluble salt be silver nitrate, -the scale is made to read grains per ounce. It is then evident, if the -bath contains any other soluble salt besides the nitrate of silver, the -readings will be untrustworthy. Supposing you have a total quantity of -10-1/4 ounces of solution, and the argentometer tells you it is of a -strength of 105 grains to the ounce, you must make a small calculation -to see how much water you must add. In 10-1/4 ounces of solution there -will be 10-1/4 x 105 or 1076-1/4 grains of silver nitrate. If you want -to make the bath 40 grains to the ounce, you must divide this quantity -by 40, which is very nearly 27. The original amount of fluid (10-1/4 -ounces), when deducted from this number of (27) ounces, will give you -the amount (16-3/4 ounces) of water that is to be added to give you a -bath of the required strength. When the water is added, the solution -should be filtered from the carbonaceous matter, and the bath, after -neutralizing with sodium carbonate, will be ready for use. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -APPLYING THE SILVERING SOLUTION TO THE ALBUMENIZED PAPER. - - -As each piece of paper takes somewhere about five minutes to sensitize -and hang up to dry, it is evident that the larger the piece of paper -sensitised the greater will be the saving in time in this operation. -Practically a whole sheet of paper, which is about 22 inches by 18, is -the maximum ordinary size, whilst it may be convenient to float a piece -as small as 3-1/4 by 4-1/4. There is not much difficulty in floating -either one or the other if ordinary care be taken, but it is no use -disguising the fact that large sheets are sometimes faultily sensitized -even by experienced hands, if the solution be not in a proper state. The -great enemy to success is the formation of bubbles on the surface of the -solution, and if it be at all contaminated with organic matter they are -more liable to be met with than if the bath be new. It may be taken as a -maxim that no paper should be floated if, to commence with, the bath be -not purified. A flat dish of about 2-1/2 inches in height, and an inch -larger in breadth and length than the paper to be floated, is used, and -the solution poured in to a depth of 1/2 inch. The paper is grasped by -the two hands as shown at page 10, so that a convex albumen surface is -formed downwards, which is placed diagonally across the dish and lowered -on to the surface of the solution; the hands are at the same time -separated outwards, so that the whole surface of the paper is caused -to float on it without any arrest. By this means all air is forced out -before the paper, and no bubbles should be beneath. To make assurance -double sure, the paper is raised from the corners which were not grasped -by the hands, and if by any chance a small bubble should be found, it -is immediately broken by the point of a clean quill pen or glass rod. -Before floating the paper the surface of the solution should be examined -for scum or bubbles, both of which may be removed by passing a strip of -clean blotting-paper across it. The dish employed should be scrupulously -clean, and in cold weather it is a good plan to warm both it and the -solution before the fire previous to use. In warm weather, the albumen -of the paper may be in a very horny condition, which increases the -liability to form bubbles. The writers have found that if the sheet of -paper be exposed to the steam passing from a kettle of boiling water for -a few seconds (moving it so that every portion shall come in contact -with it) just before sensitising, the surface becomes more tractable, -and in a better condition for sensitizing; keeping the paper in a moist -atmosphere effects the same end. - -The length of time for floating the paper depends on the subjects to be -printed, _but, as a rule_, three minutes with the 50-grain bath will -be found to answer for the majority of negatives. When the proper time -has elapsed, a corner of the paper is raised from the solution by means -of a glass rod, and grasped by the thumb and forefinger of the right -hand. It is then raised _very slowly_ from off the solution till another -corner is clear, when that is grasped by the forefinger and thumb of the -left hand; and it is finally withdrawn entirely, and drained a minute -from the lowest corner into the dish. It is next hung up to dry by a -corner which should be fastened to an American clip (fig. 7) suspended -from a line stretched across the dark room, taking care to keep the -corner which last left the solution the lowest. A piece of _clean_ -blotting-paper about one inch long by 1/2 an inch wide is brought in -contact with this latter corner, and adheres to it from the moisture. -This collects the draining from the paper whilst drying, and prevents a -loss of silver, since it can subsequently be detached and placed amongst -the residues for burning. - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 7.] - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 8.] - -There is another mode of floating large sheets of paper, which is -sometimes recommended. One corner is turned up about a quarter of an -inch. This is held by the forefinger and thumb of the left hand, and the -opposite corner of the diagonal held by the right hand. The first corner -is brought on the solution near the opposite corner of the dish to that -towards which it will eventually be near. The sheet, having assumed a -convex form, is drawn by the left hand across the dish, the right hand -being gradually turned to allow the whole surface to come slowly in -contact with the solution. Air-bubbles are said to be avoided by this -means, though for our own part we see no practical advantage in it over -the last method. - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 9.] - -Some operators also, when lifting the paper from the dish, pass it -over a glass rod placed as in the figure, in order to get rid of all -superfluous fluid from the surface. This is a poor substitute for -withdrawing the paper slowly from the dish, since capillary attraction -is much more effective and even in its action than this rude mechanical -means. By those who do not possess patience, however, it may be tried. -Some practical photographers also "blot off" the excess of silver, -but this is a dangerous practice unless there is a certainty that no -"anti-chlor" has been used in preparing the blotting-paper. For our own -part we recommend the usual mode of draining the paper. When surface -dry, it can be dried in a drying box. The following is a kind which has -been adopted by one eminent photographer, and is excellent in principle. - -Over a flat and closed galvanized iron bath erect a cupboard. Fig. 10 -gives the elevation, and fig. 11 the section. A is the bath, D the -cupboard, which may conveniently be closed with a roller shutter,[17] B, -passing over _c c_, and is weighted by a bar of lead, so as to nearly -balance the weight of the shutter when closed. A couple of Bunsen -gas-burners, E E, heat the water in A; the steam generated is carried -up the flue F, which also carries off the products of the combustion of -the gas. The paper may be suspended from laths tacked at the top of the -cupboard by means of American clips. - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 10.] - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 11.] - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -WASHED SENSITIVE PAPER. - - -For some classes of work sensitized paper may be washed with advantage -previous to drying, and there is much economy in this plan, particularly -in hot weather, since it keeps of a purer white for a much longer -period than where the silver nitrate is allowed to dry on the surface. -It may not be out of place to call attention to the action of silver -nitrate on the paper. If a stick of lunar caustic be applied to the -skin when dried, there is a peculiar burning effect produced, and even -in the dark the cuticle becomes discoloured, though not black. In the -albumenized paper we have albumen and the gelatine sizing, and these -substances behave somewhat like the skin. The gelatine particularly will -become oxidized at the expense of the silver, a reddish organic oxide -being formed; and again, if the silver nitrate be alkaline or strictly -neutral, we have the same action occurring as when we precipitate -metallic silver by means of an alkali, and an organic body such as sugar -of milk. The gelatine takes the place of the latter. When the free -silver nitrate is removed, the tendency for the spontaneous darkening -of the paper is much diminished, since the chloride and albuminate of -silver are much less readily reduced than the nitrate. The following -plan is adopted for washing the paper:--The paper, after floating, -is drawn twice rapidly through a dish of rain or distilled water, -and, unless some other substance which can absorb chlorine be added -to the last wash water, care should be taken not to soak out all the -free nitrate, as then the paper would produce flat prints. It is then -hung up to dry as before. Immediately before use it must be fumed with -ammonia, in order that the prints may be "plucky," and free from that -peculiar speckiness of surface which is known to the silver printer as -"measles." We can readily trace the "measles" to their source. Suppose -all free silver nitrate is washed away, and the paper be then exposed to -light, the chloride is rapidly converted into subchloride, and chlorine -is given off (see page 5); if there be nothing to absorb it at once it -will attack the albuminate, which is blackened at the same time, and -fresh chloride will be formed in little minute spots. These discolour, -and are of different tint to the rest of the print, and give rise to -the appearance of measles. This, of course, is not so marked when a -little free silver nitrate is left in the paper; but as what is removed -is principally removed from the surface, it may still be unpleasantly -discernible. Fuming obviates it entirely if properly performed, for -chlorine and ammonia combine to form finally ammonium chloride, a -neutral and inactive salt. - -Any other chlorine absorber may be substituted; thus citric acid, -potassium nitrite, and many others are effective, and cause vigorous -prints to be produced. Perhaps the easiest way of giving the paper the -necessary amount of ammonia is that recommended by Colonel Wortley. This -is to place overnight the pads of the printing-frame, if they be of -felt, into a closed box in which is placed a saucer containing a couple -of drachms of liquor ammoniae, and to withdraw them as required for the -printing-frames. The pads will be thoroughly impregnated with the vapour -of ammonia, and a couple or more prints, in succession, may be made -before it is necessary to change them. - -The ordinary method of fuming is that used in America. Hearn describes -a box, which is very convenient and simple in construction. He says: -"Take any common wooden box, large enough for the purpose, and make a -door of suitable size for it, which, when shut, will totally exclude -all light. Make a false bottom in this about six inches, or so, from -the real one, and perforate it with holes of about the same size that -a gimlet would make. These holes should be very numerous, and at the -centre there should be, if anything, a smaller number of them, because -the saucer containing the liquor ammonia is generally placed at the -centre of the real bottom of the box." - -For our own part we dislike the false bottom as constructed, and -recommend one of fine gauze, and, instead of placing half-an-ounce of -ammonia in the saucer as Hearn directs, we prefer to soak half-a-dozen -sheets of blotting-paper in ammonium chloride solution, about 20 grains -to the ounce, and the same number of sheets soaked in lime water; one -sheet of each are placed together, and ammonia is liberated by double -decomposition; calcium chloride being also formed. - -This method is excellent in hot, dry weather, since it imparts a certain -amount of moisture to the paper. In damp weather it is a good plan to -dry the vapour by sprinkling on the gauze calcium chloride, which will -rapidly absorb the aqueous vapour, and will allow the ammonia to pass -on unimpeded. The sheets of paper are held at the top of the box by -American clips, suspended from laths about three inches apart, and it -is not a bad plan to fasten a lath on to their bottom edge by the same -means, to do away with their curling. To fume a single piece of paper -it may be pinned up to the inside of the top of the lid of a box, and a -drachm of ammonia sprinkled on cotton wool distributed at the bottom. -The point to be attended to is that the fuming shall be even, and it is -evident that the ammonia should rise equally from any part of the bottom -of the box. In the plan of the box given above, the bottom of the sheet -is apt to get a little more ammonia than the top. The time of fuming -depends on so many things that a rule can scarcely be given for it; -twenty minutes may be considered about the extreme limit. - -If this sensitizing bath be acid, the time must evidently be longer than -when it is strictly neutral or slightly alkaline; and if the negative be -hard, it will require to be less fumed than if it be of a weak nature, -since the action of ammonia is to cause rapid darkening in the deep -shadows. In hot weather the fuming should be shorter than in cold, since -the ammonia volatilizes much more rapidly when the temperature is high. -On the whole, we recommend Colonel Wortley's plan of fuming the pads in -preference to fuming the paper. - -Another mode of preserving the paper from discolouration is to add -citric acid to the printing bath, which is effective owing to the fact -given at page 32. The following formula is a good one, and has answered -with the writer. It is-- - - Silver nitrate 50 grains - Citric acid 20 " - Water 1 ounce - -The paper is floated for the ordinary length of time, when it is dried -thoroughly and placed between sheets of pure blotting-paper. It will -keep in its pristine state for months, if excluded from the air. It is -better to fume this paper strongly before use, or the toning becomes a -difficult matter. - -Ordinary sensitized paper may be preserved for a considerable time if, -when dry, it is placed between sheets of blotting-paper saturated with a -solution of carbonate of soda, and dried. - -Washed sensitized paper is also improved in sensitiveness by floating it -for a few seconds on-- - - Citric acid 20 grains - Potassium nitrite 10 " - Water 1 ounce - -It can be fumed, when dried, in the usual manner. - -In the YEAR-BOOK OF PHOTOGRAPHY for 1880 Mr. A. Borland -recommends the following modification:-- - -He floats the paper on nitrate of silver, as usual, and after it has -drained surface dry, blots off any drops that may remain at the edges, -and then floats the _back_ of the paper for about three minutes on the -following bath:-- - - Nitrate of soda 1 ounce - Distilled water 16 ounces - -This is rendered slightly acid by a little solution of _freshly_ -prepared citric acid in water. The degree of acidity is regulated by -litmus paper (the blue specimen), which should be slightly reddened -by it. After this solution has been mixed about ten minutes, it is -filtered, and the paper floated. Mr. Borland says the paper keeps well, -and prints the same as ordinary paper, and any tone may be produced. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -CUTTING PAPER. - - -We have often come across operators who have no really definite plan on -which they cut up their paper for a day's work, and they have little -idea of the most economical place of dividing the sheets. The following -remarks by Mr. Hearn, which appeared in the PHOTOGRAPHIC NEWS, -1874, will be useful to the printer, and, being so extremely well -described, we take the liberty of reproducing them. - -"In cutting up the paper for printing, due regard should be given to -the materials employed. In the first place, the fingers should be free -from anything that will stain or soil the paper, and they should never -touch the _silvered_ side, but always the _back_. The hands should be -perfectly dry, free even from any perspiration, for if this is not -strictly regarded in the handling of the paper, 'finger stains' will -appear on those parts of the paper with which the fingers come in -contact. To guard against this, a rough towel should be suspended in a -convenient place, and the hands wiped upon it as often as may be found -necessary--say once in every five or ten minutes. An ivory newspaper -cutter, about eight inches long and an inch wide, together with a -suitable sized pair of shears, will be all of the instruments necessary. - -"In cutting the paper for very large prints, such as 13 by 16, 14 by 18, -16 by 20, &c., the beginner had best (to obtain the right size) lay over -the sensitive paper the proper sized mat that is to be placed over the -print when finished, and then cut accordingly. Considerable paper can be -saved in this way, and printed in card size. - -"There should always be an assortment of different sized mats in the -printing room; one of each size will do, which should be kept expressly -for this purpose. - -"In cutting the paper for an 11 by 14 print, the length of the sheet -is generally placed before the printer, and the paper bent over to the -further edge of the sheet, and then creased, and thus cut into two equal -pieces, one of which can be used for the contemplated print. I would -recommend that instead of taking exactly one half of the sheet of paper, -as described above, to take about _an inch more_ than the half, so as to -allow for any slight tear that may happen along the edges of the paper -during the washing, toning, &c., and also so as to be sure of having the -paper wide enough for the different sized mats. - -"I have seen some nice prints printed upon the exact half of a sheet of -paper, which, when taken from the final washing (and the edges trimmed, -being slightly torn), were then too narrow to be covered with the proper -sized mats, and had to be rejected; whereas, if in cutting this paper -allowance had been made for this final trimming, the prints would have -been saved. The rest of the sheet can be cut very well into sixteen or -eighteen carte pieces. - -"In cutting cabinets out of a sheet, fifteen is all that can very well -be obtained, and to get that number lay the sheet on a wide table, or -printing bench (with the length of it running from right to left), and -divide it into three equal parts. By laying the cabinet glass on these -strips of paper, and cutting the paper a little wider than the glass, -five cabinets can be obtained from each strip, and fifteen out of the -whole. These pieces will be plenty large enough, both in length and -width; besides, this is a very convenient and economical way to cut the -paper without waste. - -[Illustration: - - 22 inches - +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ - 18 inches. | | | | | | - | | | | | | - +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ - | |4-2/5| 6 | | | - | |inch.| inch| | | - +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ - _Fig._ 12.] - -"By a glance at the cut (fig. 12) it will be seen that the size of the -pieces will be 4-2/5 by 6 inches, and consequently there will be more -room for the width than there will be for the length. The edges of the -width side of the paper can be trimmed a little, as there is usually -some little tear, or some other defect, that can thus advantageously be -got rid of. Often, when there are only a few cabinets to be printed, -I take a quarter-sheet, and bend over the length of it to about -three-quarters of an inch of the opposite side, crease it, and then -cut with the paper-knife. You thus obtain a large and small piece; the -smaller one of these can be cut into four cards, and the larger one -can be cut in two, and thus obtain two generous size cabinets; or the -printer can use the larger of the two pieces for printing the 4 by 4 -size. This is the way I obtain my 4 by 4 pieces when I wish them. - -"The beginner must remember that in bending over the _length_ of a sheet -of paper 18 by 22 inches in size, the divided paper will be 11 by 18 -inches in size, which is termed, in the language of the printing room, -half-sheet. - -"To obtain the quarter-sheet, the _length of the half-sheet_ is cut -equally in two pieces, and then the size will be 9 by 11 inches. - -"A glance at fig. 13 will show that either a generous size 4 by 4, or a -couple of nice cabinet pieces, together with four cartes, can be easily -obtained from a quarter-sheet. - -"To obtain thirty-two cartes, quarter the sheet, and divide each quarter -into eight equal pieces. - -[Illustration: - - 9 inches. - +-----+------+ - | | 4x4 | - |Cab. | | - | | Cab. | - +-----+------+ - 11 inches. | | | - | 1 | 2 | - +-----+------+ - | | | - | 3 | 4 | - +-----+------+ - - _Fig._ 13.] - -[Illustration: - - 9 inches. - +-----+-----+-----+ - | | | | - | | 3x3 | | - +-----+-----+-----+ - 11 inches. | | | | - | | | | - +-----+-----+-----+ - | 3x9 inches, | - | Stereoscope. | - +-----+-----+-----+ - - _Fig._ 14.] - -"To obtain thirty-six pieces out of a sheet, it is necessary, for -convenience, to first quarter it, and then divide it into three equal -strips (fig. 14) taken from the _length_ of the paper. The pieces, as -thus cut, will measure 3-2/3 by 9 inches, which will answer admirably -for the stereoscopic size. Each one of these strips of paper can be -cut into three good sized cartes, making nine out of a quarter, and -thirty-six out of a whole sheet. - -"Forty-two cartes can be obtained very neatly by laying the sheet before -you (fig. 4), and dividing the length into seven equal parts; when done, -each strip should measure 3-1/7 by 18 inches in size. The whole number -of pieces will be forty-two. It will be seen that the size of the carte -pieces (3 by 3-1/7 inches) only allows very little room for waste paper -in trimming after printing, and thus it will be found necessary to -exercise some care in placing these pieces on the negative for printing. - -[Illustration: - - 18 inches. - +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ - | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ - | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ - | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ - 22 inches. | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ - | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ - | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ - | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | - +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ - - _Fig._ 15.] - -"To obtain the forty-two carte pieces from the sheet without waste, -great care is required in sensitizing the paper to prevent tearing, and -also to prevent silver from getting on the back of it; in cutting it -either the shears or the paper-knife should be used with care. _Do not -tear the paper with the hands_, as is very often done, especially when -the printer is in a hurry. - -"In making out the above, I have considered the sheet of paper to be 18 -by 22 inches in size, but it is seldom that the sheet measures _exactly_ -this, for the _length_ often measures from one quarter to one inch more, -but never less, while the width is invariably the same. When this is the -case, a little better margin is allowed in cutting the sheet up, which -is a good thing, especially when a large number of small pieces are -to be obtained from the sheet. Forty-two pieces is all that should be -obtained from a sheet of paper which measures 18 by 22 (or 18 by 22-1/2, -&c.) inches, because the pieces of paper are now as small as they -should be with safe results to the prints, on account of bad edges, &c., -which it is often necessary to trim after printing. There is a way to -obtain forty-eight, and even fifty-two pieces of paper from the sheet, -but I would not advise any of my readers to try to obtain that quantity, -as there are many disadvantages connected with it that more than -neutralize the benefits. The paper is sometimes cut up to the _exact -carte size_, and then printed up as it is, thus saving the trimming of -the prints after printing. This is, perhaps (?), a good way, but for -the beginner it is very risky, because the paper will have to be placed -_exactly on the negative_, or else the print will be worthless. Even to -the experienced printer this is very difficult, because the greatest -care and skill are required to do it _as it should be done_; then the -_inexperienced_ printer could not hope to do it successfully." - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -PRINTING-FRAMES. - - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 16.] - -There are a variety of printing-frames in the market, each of which may -have something to recommend it; and yet, as a rule, the simpler and -more uniform the frames are, the more handy are they for the printer, -since he rapidly becomes accustomed to handling them, and knows their -peculiarities. The simplest pattern is one introduced by Meagher, as -shown in fig. 16. The negative rests on india-rubber strips which line -a framework of its exact size, and a folding back, as shown, covers -it. The paper is pressed on to the negative by a pad, and the back on -that by means of two brass springs. This is a very excellent pattern -for cabinet pictures and cartes, but we can scarcely recommend it for -anything larger, since even if it were possible to supply sufficient -pressure to secure proper contact of the paper, the negative would be in -danger of being cracked. - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 17.] - -For all sizes above cabinet, the printing frame as given in the figure -is the best. The construction will be seen at once. In the front part of -the frame is a piece of thick plate glass (depending for its thickness -on the size of the frame). On this the negative rests, and over this -again are the necessary pads and backboard, which is clamped down by -means of two cross-bars, on which springs are fixed. An increase of -pressure may be given by increasing the thickness of the pad (which -may consist of smooth felt) next the negative, or by sheets of thick -blotting-paper quite free from all folding marks. - -Sometimes the back of the frame is hinged in three pieces,[18] and this -is almost essential for large prints (say 2 feet by 1 foot 6 inches), -since every part of the picture should be capable of examination during -the progress in printing. With a simple single hinged backboard this is -impossible. - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 14.] - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 15.] - -When large negatives are to be printed, the plate glass front should -always have at least an inch clear all round. For smaller negatives -(say 12 by 10 and under) half-an-inch clear is sufficient. This allows -a certain latitude in the position of the negative, and enables the -fingers to get at the paper without inconvenience. In the frames in -which the front of the negative is unsupported this cannot be the -case, and for this reason (as well as those given above) they are not -recommended for large prints. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -PREPARING A LANDSCAPE NEGATIVE FOR PRINTING. - - -Landscape negatives are rarely ever in perfect harmony for printing, -and much may be done by judicious doctoring of the best of negatives -to secure the best of prints. With moderate negatives it is absolutely -essential that they should be improved. Let us take the example of a -hard landscape negative, which if printed so that the deep shades should -show detail, would show none in the high lights. - -A piece of thin tissue paper (the kind known as _papier minerale_ is -the best), of the size of the negative, is damped evenly with a sponge, -and carefully pasted on the back of the negative. The negative is then -held up to the light, and the high lights carefully traced with a -faint line by means of a pencil. These are then cut out by means of a -sharp penknife, and a trial print taken in the shade. If it be found -that the shadows still print too deeply when the detail in the high -light is visible, another thickness of tissue paper may be applied, -cutting out this time, perhaps, the high lights and the half tones. -Another trial print will show whether the object is attained. If still -not satisfactory, crayon in powder from the scrapings of a stick of -crayon, or blacklead, may be applied by a stump to the parts requiring -it. It may happen that the effects of the tissue paper may be seen in -the print by the light penetrating beneath it, and causing the edges -of the shadows to print too dark. In this case, which may arise from -the negative being taken on a thin glass plate, the parts covering the -high lights, and which were cut out, should be indented with a jagged -edge such as this, the dotted line showing where the cut would come if -it had been cut out in a clean sharp line. Another mode which we have -sometimes found successful, though care is required in employing it, is -to coat the back of the plate with a very dilute emulsion of a quarter -the ordinary consistency, then to expose it, through the negative, and -develop with one of the ordinary alkaline developers (we prefer the -ferrous oxalate),[19] and then fix. This last film may be protected with -a layer of albumen 1 part of albumen to 25 parts of water. By this means -the shadows become subdued and the contrasts diminished, and there is no -danger of any sharp demarcations in the shades being apparent. - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 16.] - -There is one way of improving a hard negative, if taken on a gelatine -plate, which would probably be dangerous in the hands of a novice, but -which is most effective when used with skill and judgment, but must be -applied before the plate is varnished. One of the most popular methods -of reducing the density of an over-intensified gelatine negative is with -a very weak solution of perchloride of iron. The writers have found that -the reducing agent may be applied locally. Let us suppose the case of a -figure in a landscape in a light dress, which produces a white patch in -the print. The negative should be placed in a dish of water, then lifted -up until the part to be reduced is just above the level of the water; -a solution of perchloride of iron should then be applied to the part -with a camel's-hair pencil, care being taken that it does not spread -over the edges or run down the negative. When this is found to be taking -place, the plate should be allowed to fall into the water; it can then -be lifted again, and the operation proceeded with. It is not easy to -give any strength for the solution of perchloride of iron, but it is -best to begin weak, and strengthen as required. A saturated solution has -been used in an obstinate case without any mischief being done, but this -required very careful watching. - -For landscapes, Mr. England has successfully used a strong solution -of cyanide of potassium with the same object. He moistens the parts -of the gelatine plates which require reduction with water applied by -a paint-brush, and afterwards, with another, applies the cyanide. The -reduction can be watched as it progresses, and by a judicious use of the -brush no sharp line of demarcation between the reduced and unaltered -parts is visible. - -With a thin negative the tissue paper may be applied as before, only -in this case the shadows are left bare, the half tones have one -thickness of tissue paper over them, the highest lights two or three. An -emulsion may be used in this case as well, only instead of fixing the -transparency which is at the back, the precipitated silver is dissolved -away by nitric acid, and the developer applied again. By this means, -the density in the high lights may be doubled if required. It must -again be repeated, that in all cases the use of emulsion requires great -care, seeing that if any get on the varnished surface, markings are -sure to occur. It sometimes happens, especially with gelatine plates, -that the corners of one side of a negative print too dark. This is very -visible in sky and sea pictures. The careful application of blacklead -on the tissue paper on the back of the plate may often save a beautiful -negative that would be otherwise useless. - -In most landscape negatives there is a want of atmosphere (by which -we mean the haze always present in the air) in the distance and middle -distances, and we have found that by applying one piece of tissue-paper -to the back of the negative to cover the middle distance and distances, -and another to cover the distance alone, atmospheric effect is produced. -The effect of atmosphere is usually shown by grey tones as compared -with those of the foreground, and the greyer they are the more distant -should the objects be away in nature. This effect is accomplished by the -tissue-paper. It must, however, be remembered that the lights of distant -objects are greyer than those of the foreground, hence the tissue paper -must be used with judgment to prevent the distant lights from appearing -too white. This sometimes is effected by giving _the lights in the -foreground_ a covering of tissue paper. We very much doubt if there -exists any landscape negative which would not be improved by the use of -tissue paper, since photography often tends to do away with atmosphere. -We have, in some cases, strengthened the high lights on the film side -with the paint-brush and Prussian blue. This requires skill, and should -be done very sparingly. It may be objected that when these artifices -are resorted to, that the photograph must of necessity fail in regard -to truthfulness. The answer to this objection is quite easy to give. -If a photograph were true in itself, they should never be resorted to, -but since it always falls short of the truth, it is quite legitimate to -give it the effect that a perfect process would do, by which we mean one -in which the intensity of the negative is exactly proportional to the -intensity of the light producing it. - -It has been shown in the PHOTOGRAPHIC NEWS of 1877, that the -gradations of a negative are never perfect, and the use of the tissue -paper, &c., makes it more nearly in accord with nature. - -These remarks, of course, have reference only to what we might call "a -good printing negative;" the advisability of doctoring poor negatives -is scarcely open to argument. Improve as much as you like, but be very -careful not to overdo it. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -PRINTING THE LANDSCAPE PICTURE. - - -A trial print from a negative should first of all be taken, to enable -the operator to gauge as to how much is required to be done to it. -A piece of sensitized paper of the exact size of the plate is taken -and examined by transmitted light in the dark room. If there be any -appearance of markings due to bubbles, or of star-like metallic spots, -probably due to small particles of iron being in the albumen, it need -not be rejected altogether. Should there be any of these defects, the -sheet should be placed on one side to cut up into smaller sizes. We will -suppose that we are going to print a 15 by 12 negative. A strong frame -(of the description given at page 44) must be employed, and the thick -plate glass carefully freed from all dust, grit, or stains. The back -of the negative is then placed in contact with it, so as to occupy the -centre of the frame. The piece of sensitive paper is placed over it, and -the back placed loosely over it, and is then carried face downward into -the place where the printing is to be done, and the frame is placed face -downwards on the floor, and left for a few minutes. By this artifice the -paper takes the same degree of humidity as the atmosphere, and there -will be no danger of any cockling, and consequent (as it is termed) want -of contact, between the paper and the negative. This is only necessary -when there is any very great difference in the temperature of the drying -room and the place where the prints are to be exposed, and in some -establishments the difficulty is met by carrying the whole supply of -paper in a closed box into the latter place, and allowing it to absorb -any moisture that it can take up. In any case, the paper is next to be -placed in absolute contact with the negative, and we strongly recommend -the use of sheets of blotting-paper cut to the proper size (about four -thicknesses will be sufficient), and backed by a thick pad of closely -woven and very smooth felt. These latter are rather expensive, but are -very durable if ordinary care be taken of them. The blotting-paper is -useful in causing contact, and also because any accidental presence -of silver nitrate solution on the back of the sensitive paper is -immediately detected, and there is, consequently, no danger of carrying -it to another print and spoiling it, which it might do were it absorbed -by the felt pad. - -The back of the frame is then placed _in situ_, and the hinged -cross-piece brought down and secured by the fasteners. If the springs be -sufficiently strong, the film of the negative should now be in absolute -contact with the sensitive paper. If there be any grit on the plate -glass, or adhering to the back of the negative, it is highly probable -that the glass plate will crack, and if the plate on which the negative -is taken be very curved,[20] the same disaster may be expected. Suppose -the day to be bright, and the negative fairly dense, the frame may -be placed for the trial print facing away from the sun (if there be -any) so that it receives merely skylight, and no direct rays. When the -transparent parts of the negative seem to have taken a fairly black or -brown colour, the print should be examined. In practice we have found -(supposing the printing room be away from the dark room) that a cloth -of thin yellow calico is a useful adjunct during the examination. -The cloth is large enough to cover the frame and also the head of the -operator. One half of the back is loosened and raised, the half pieces -are pulled back, and the paper will probably be found adhering to the -negative, and may require a little manoeuvring to separate it. A very -thin slip (of the size of a toothpick) of soft wood, sharpened at one -end, is a good implement to employ, as by inserting it the paper can be -separated at one corner, and then be raised by the fingers. We have seen -some printers blow against the paper, as if they were separating the -leaves of a book from one another, but this method is to be deprecated, -since particles of saliva are apt to be carried on to the paper with -the breath, and to cause spots, which often appear unaccountable. -Should the print appear slightly deeper than it is required to remain, -it is probably ready to be withdrawn from the action of light, but the -remaining half of the paper must next be examined to see whether such is -the case. To do this the first half of the pressure-board of the frame -which is loose must be pressed down once more into position, the frame -reversed end for end, and the other half of the board opened. - -If the print is large (say 15 by 12) it is not advisable to look at much -of it at once, or for a longer time than can be avoided. It constantly -happens that on a warm day the paper contracts during the short time -necessary for a proper examination of the print; the consequence is, -that the paper does not fall on the same place on the negative when -reflected, and the result is a double print on the paper. - -The printing being judged to be complete, the paper is withdrawn by -taking off pressure-board and pads, and put away for the further -operations of toning and fixing. In one establishment we are acquainted -with, the prints when taken from the frame are placed in a box the lid -of which is pierced by a hole covered with a dark cloth; whilst others -keep them in a press of blotting-paper. The great point to attend to, -however, is to keep them away from all actinic light; and we should -say, further, from all light, since darkened silver chloride becomes -oxidized in light which is usually considered to be non-actinic. -No doubt every printer is aware that the prints produced from the -same negative and on the same sample of albumenised paper similarly -sensitized vary considerably in richness and depth on different days. -For instance, when the light is bad, and when, consequently, the -printing takes a long time, the colour of the darkened surface will -be found to be much duller than on a day when the light is powerful. -Silver albuminate is much less sensitive to feeble light, whilst in -bright light the difference in sensitiveness is not nearly so marked, -and this may account in a certain degree for the difference; but if any -one takes the trouble to expose sensitised albumenized paper to bright -light so as to darken, and then to cover up half, leaving the other half -to be exposed to the light coming through ruby-glass, it will be found -that there is a difference in colour between the two portions, and on -toning the differences will be still more marked. In dull weather the -red and yellow rays bear a greater proportion to the blue and violet -rays (all of which enter into the composition of white light) than -they do on a bright day. It is the blue and violet rays that reduce -the silver chloride to the state of sub-chloride, and then oxidize the -latter; yet it must be remembered that the red and yellow also oxidize -the sub-chloride without being able primarily to produce it. Hence on -a bright day, when the printing is quick, the red and yellow rays have -but little time to do any work, whilst on a dull day they have plenty -of opportunity of oxidizing the sub-chloride as fast as it is formed. -The oxidized image is always more difficult to tone than one which is -unoxidized, hence the advantage of printing in a good light if possible. -The writers believe that one of the principal causes of the variation in -tone of silver prints, which is only too often to be seen, is caused by -this difference in length of exposure to the light. - -The operator must now be supposed to be cognizant of the operations of -toning and fixing which are to be described in subsequent chapters, -and that he has the finished trial print of the particular landscape -negative before him. He sees whether the middle distance or far distance -is obtrusive, and notes which portions require to be softened down by -tissue paper, or to be brought nearer by strengthening the high-lights, -and eventually forms a picture of it as it should be, centring his -imagination in it as built up round the point of principal interest. He -endeavours to see whether the sweeps of light and shade lead up to this -principal object in the view, and whether, if light, it is in contrast -with an immediate dark part of the picture, or _vice versa_. - -Knowing that this is one of the laws of art, he next should endeavour -practically to give effect to his imaginative picture by the judicious -manipulation of tissue paper, the crayon, and the paint, such as -described in Chapter IX. The next point to attend to is as to whether -the picture requires clouds or not, and if he have a stock of cloud -negatives of the right size, he must endeavour to pick out one, a -portion of which will compose well with the lines of the picture,[21] -and at the same time be correct as regards light and shade. When such -a negative is selected, it remains to print it in. A white sky is an -abomination, and a plain tinted one without gradation is nearly as bad. -If, therefore, the operator has the heart and means to do this double -printing, he should never neglect to do it. - -But we would here remind him that when a sky-negative has been used -with a particular view, it should always be devoted to that landscape. -Nothing could be in worse taste, or further from nature, than to use -the same sky with different landscapes. We once saw a frame of sixteen -views, thirteen of which were backed with the same sky; this was bad -enough, but the absurdity went further, and in the same exhibition were -landscapes by another photographer with the same sky! The inference is -that both these photographers bought their sky negatives, printed them, -and exhibited them as their own--a proceeding to which a harsh name -might be given. To use a cloud negative properly, the reader should -consult the chapter on "Combination Printing." - -There is another artifice, however, that does away with the blank sky. -It is practised by some of the leading photographers in England, and may -be put in requisition instead of the more elaborate double printing. In -order to do this, a not quite opaque sky--that is, one which "prints -in" a little--is necessary. Very effective clouds may be produced by a -paint-brush and lamp-black, Indian ink, or gamboge, by painting them -artistically _at the back of the negative_. It matters not if the clouds -so formed show sharp lines and dots, since, if the printing be done in -diffused light, the thickness of the glass plate on which the negative -is taken shades these off, and gives them the soft edges which are -natural to clouds. The clouds may take any of the usual shapes as seen -in nature, and the paint should not be applied too strongly, but should -have a certain amount of transparency. In some negatives we have seen -taken on dry plates, the sky was very transparent, and, when printed -in the ordinary manner, showed a good deal more than perceptible tint. -Yet, by a judicious masking, fleecy clouds floating in a light sky were -produced, which deceived the greatest connoisseurs in such matters. - -We will now describe how such a negative should be prepared for printing. - -Black varnish should be carefully run round the sky-line on the face -of the negative, for about a quarter of an inch. On the back of the -negative the medium should cover the sky to within one-eighth of an inch -of the sky-line, and by this means a sharp but _slightly softened edge_ -of the distant landscape was projected. The breadth of the black varnish -border on the back was slightly greater than that on the film side of -the negative, being about an inch. A piece of cardboard was also roughly -cut out to the sky-line, and left sufficiently broad so as to more than -cover the sky when laid flat on it. The negative with the clouds painted -on it was now placed in the pressure-frame, with the sensitive paper in -contact with it. Outside the frame, and corresponding with the sky-line, -the edge of the cardboard was placed, a small bar to act as a weight -was placed across it as shown in the figure, and the top end supported -by a couple of wooden pegs. The printing took place in diffused light. -When the picture was withdrawn from the frame, the sky, being shaded -gradually by the card, was printed in lightly, whilst the remaining -portion of the negative received the full light; the sky, as is right it -should be, was darker near the zenith than toward the horizon, where it -was, in fact, white; but since the clouds were printed in at the top, -the baldness of the white sky was avoided. - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 20.] - -Excellent clouds may also be produced by the stump and crayon on tissue -paper, many of the effects of delicate clouds being capable of being -produced in this manner. A certain amount of skill is required in -producing them, but nothing beyond that which a little practice can give. - -We may add that, instead of using this cardboard shade, some printers -prefer first to entirely mask the sky and print in the landscape, than -to mask the landscape, and to use a movable screen over the negative, -drawing it backwards and forwards during exposure, taking the precaution -that the top of the sky receives the most exposure. The method of -using the cloud negative, we have already said, will be found in the -chapter on "Combination Printing." Above all things, the printer must -bear in mind that if there be any _distance_ in the picture, the sky, -when it meets the margin, must be only very delicately tinted. Let it -be remembered that a picture is often spoilt by printing in clouds too -heavily. The clouds for an effect should be most delicate, with no heavy -massive shadows which overwhelm those of the landscape itself. We are -only talking of the ordinary landscape when the effect of storms is not -desired. It is not within the scope of this work to show how a landscape -and a sky negative may be printed into one plate to form a transparency -from which a new negative may be made; suffice it to say that, by using -collodio-chloride, or by the use of a slow dry plate and exposing to -candle light, the former may be produced in almost the same way that the -print is produced, and a negative may then be produced in the camera or -by a dry plate. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -PREPARING THE PORTRAIT NEGATIVE. - - -So much has been written on the subject of what is called "retouching" -the negative, that it would be a waste of space to enter very fully -into details here. It is now generally admitted that working on the -negative is not only legitimate, but that it is absolutely necessary, -if a presentable portrait is to be printed. The only question is, where -to stop. Professional retouchers, in too many cases, do too much, and -by doing so they "overstep the modesty of nature," and turn the lovely -delicacy, softness, and texture of living nature into the appearance -of hard and cold marble statuary. Everything that is necessary to do -to a portrait negative is very simple; it should be corrected, not -remodelled. Freckles and accidental spots should be stopped out, high -lights may be strengthened, and shadows softened. We may here briefly -indicate the technical methods of performing these operations. - -Some operators pour a solution of gum over the negative after fixing, -and when it is dry work upon the surface of the gum; but it is better -and safer to retouch the negative after it has been varnished. The -varnish must be allowed to become thoroughly hard before any working -upon it is attempted. A negative varnished at night should be ready to -be retouched the next morning. If very little has to be done to the -negative, it may be done at once without preparation; but it is often -advisable to prepare the surface of the varnish to take the lead pencil, -with which the greater part of the work is done. This is done with -"retouching medium." - -Several preparations under this or similar names are sold by stock -dealers, all of them giving, as far as we have tried them, equally good -results. If the photographer prefers to make his own medium, he may -do so by diluting mastic, or any similar varnish, such as copal, with -turpentine. Apply the medium to the parts that it is intended to work on -with the finger, and allow to dry, which it does in a few minutes. Place -the negative on a retouching desk, and commence to fill up with the -point of the pencil all spots that are not required, such as freckles or -uneven marks. Some operators begin at the top of a face and work evenly -downwards. This is a bad plan, and usually results in a mechanical -flattening of the face; it is better to fill in here and there as -necessity appears to arise. The high lights may now be strengthened, -taking care not to make them violent or spotty. The shadows of the face -will be found to require softening, but the general shape of the shadows -must not be altered, and in modifying lines--such as the lines in the -forehead and under the eye--take care not to remove them altogether. An -old man without wrinkles is an unnatural and ghastly object--the "marble -brow" of the poet should be left to literature. The best pencils to -use are Faber's Siberian lead, the hard ones in preference. HH and HHH -are the sorts usually employed. The pencils must be kept very finely -pointed. To ensure this, a piece of wood covered with glass cloth should -be kept always at hand on which to grind the leads to a point. - -Sometimes there are portions of a negative that require more filling -up than can be done with a pencil; in this case water-colour must be -employed. Indigo or Prussian blue is, perhaps, best for the purpose, -because these pigments allow a more appreciable or visible quantity -to be laid on without becoming opaque than any of the warm colours. -Sometimes parts--such as the arm of a child--will print too dark when in -contrast with a white dress; in this case it will be necessary to paint -over the part on the back of the negative, or to cut out a piece of -_papier minerale_ to the shape, and paste it over the dark part, also on -the glass side of the negative. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -VIGNETTING - - -Of the many varieties of small portraiture, the vignette is, perhaps, -the most popular, and, when well done, is certainly the most refined -and delicate. Two things are to be especially avoided in vignetting. -The form of the vignette should not follow the form of the figure -closely, as it is too often made to do, and dark backgrounds should -not be employed. The qualities to endeavour to attain are softness of -gradation, and an arrangement of the forms of the vignette that shall -throw out the head and figure, and the resulting print should somewhat -resemble a sketch, finished if you like, but sketchy in effect. Although -the background should be light, it ought not to be white, but of a -tint that would just throw up the white of a lady's head-dress. If the -background screen could be painted so that a little shade should appear -over the shoulders of a sitter for a head, or rather darker behind the -lower part of a three-quarter figure, so much the better would be the -effect. It would be difficult to find a case where gradation could not -be of advantage in a background; however slight, it conduces especially -to relief. - -Having stated what should be aimed at in vignettes, we now come to the -technical methods of producing them. - -In many cases vignetting is considered to be a merely mechanical -operation, and very often looks like it. Perhaps the trade have more to -answer for than the printer, since the qualities of the wares advertised -for the use of the vignetter are often exaggerated to such a degree that -they are supposed to be suitable to any pictures. Vignette glasses are -not so common as they used to be, but they certainly are useful in some -instances; we almost think that the methods of producing vignetting -apparatus which will be described shortly, superior to them. In case the -printer should wish, however, to use these glasses, here is a method by -which he may produce them. Have a piece of orange glass, flashed on one -side only, rather larger than the size of the picture to be vignetted. -Take a rough print, and trace round, in the proper position on the -glass with an ink line, the point to which the picture should extend. -This should be marked on the unflashed surface of the glass--that is, -the surface on which the glass is uncoloured. Place the plate so marked -on a white surface, flashed side uppermost, and make a solution of -hydrofluoric acid and water, 1 part of the former to 3 of the latter, -in a gutta-percha dish or bottle.[22] Make a pad of flannel and cotton -wool at the end of a stick, about the size of a large nut, and drop -this into the solution. Dab this on the coloured surface of the glass -in the central portions where the print is to be completely printed in, -gradually working out to the inked line. Always work from the centre to -the edges, and dilute the acid with a little water as it approaches the -margins. By degrees the flashing will be dissolved away in the centre, -and, if properly performed, the colour will gradually be eaten away, -till the glass is colourless in the centre, and keeping its full shade -of orange at the ink lines. The glass is then washed, and is ready for -use. - -The most popular plan of vignetting is with cotton-wool. We believe that -the greater part of the vignetting done in England is by this clumsy, -costly, and difficult method. It requires more time and attention than -any other way of producing the same results. Its advantages are, that it -is more "elastic," and allows the operator more scope for attention than -other methods. In the hands of a person who has very great skill, taste, -and patience, it is undoubtedly most useful; but when used by anything -lower than the highest skill, the results are almost always hard and -inartistic. The operation is thus performed. A hole is cut in a piece -of cardboard, which is placed over the negative. Under the edges of the -cardboard is placed cotton-wool, which is lightly pulled out, so as to -slightly shade the vignette, and produce the vignetting gradation. - -The next methods of vignetting are dependent on simple laws of optics. -Suppose you cut a round hole in a card, say, half-inch in diameter, and -so arrange it that all the light getting to a sensitive paper comes -through this hole, and that the card is for our experiment placed -half-an-inch from the paper. Now place the hole so as to face the sky, -but so as the sun has no direct rays falling through the hole. It will -be found that the greatest darkening will not occupy a space exactly -opposite the hole, but be _away from the side on which the light is -brightest_. The dark round patch will be shaded gradually off till -a line is reached where, practically, the light has no effect--that -is, if the surface of the card next the paper be blackened. It will -be noted, however, that the shading is not equal on both sides, but -that the gradation is most extended away from the side on which the -light is brightest. A good example of what is meant will be to try the -experiment of placing the paper and card flat on the ground in the -angle between two walls, both of which are in shadow. It will be seen -that the brightest gradation takes place in the direction exactly away -from the angle of the walls. Next repeat the experiment, making the -hole point to the sky, which is equally illuminated and pointing well -away from the sun. It will be found that the gradations are equal, and -the greatest darkening exactly opposite the hole. Raise the card next -to the height of one inch, and the gradations will be found to be more -extended and softer. The reason of this can be well understood by a -glance at the figures. In both, suppose A B to represent the section of -the card, and C D the hole in it, and the dotted circle the sky, and E -F the paper. Take the points _a_, _b_, and _c_ on the paper, and let us -in the three instances see what relative illumination they will receive. -_a_ is opposite the hole, and receives the light from a circle of sky of -which _d e_ is diameter, and _b_ from an ellipse of which _h k_ is one -diameter, and _e_ from an ellipse of which _f g_ is one diameter. In the -first case, where the card is 1/2 inch from the paper, _h k_ is about -one-fifth of _d e_, and _g f_ about one-third of _d f_, and since the -ellipses vary as their two diameters multiplied together, the point _b_ -would receive only one-twenty-fifth the light that _a_ received, and _c_ -about one-ninth. - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 21.] - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 22.] - -In fig. 21 the card is raised one inch from the paper, and here _f g_ is -about three-quarters of _d e_, and _h k_ about two-fifths; therefore, -in this case, the light on B would be only four-twenty-fifths, or about -one-sixth of that acting on _a_, and about nine-sixteenths or one-half -nearly on _c_. It is thus evident that the further away the card is, -the more extended will be the gradations. Again, suppose, in the last -figure, the bit of sky at _g f_ was twice as bright as at _d e_, then -the amount of light acting on _c_ would be the same as that acting on -_a_. It will thus be seen how important it is for proper gradation that -the hole in the card should be exposed to an equally illuminated sky, -or that some artifice should be employed to render the illumination -equal. If we paste a bit of tissue paper over C D, this is accomplished, -for then it becomes the source of illumination, and it is illuminated -equally all over, since on every part it receives the light of the whole -sky; but this is not the case if it is transparent to diffused light, -and is never the case if it is exposed to direct sunlight, since a -shadow of the hole is always cast on the paper beneath. If you choose to -put another piece of tissue paper, (say) one inch above the hole, and -extending over the whole length of the card, this difficulty is got rid -of, and this last piece of tissue paper illuminates that pasted over the -hole C D, and the gradations will then be nearly perfect. - -Now to apply the above to forming a vignetting block. - -Suppose we have a one-inch head to vignette and to show the shoulders -and chest, to be of the size of a carte-de-visite, that the background -is about a half-tone between black and white, and that but a trace of -it shall appear above the head. To make a good vignette, the graduation -from black to perfect white should lie within a limit of half an inch -for a carte size portrait. The question then arises at what distance -from the plate should a vignetting card be cut to help this object, -and what shape should be made the hole in the card. We take it that -one-fifth of the light necessary to produce a full black tone would -hardly produce any effect on the sensitised paper; knowing this and the -size of the aperture, we can calculate exactly what height the card -could be raised. Take the breadth between the shoulders that is to be -fully printed as 1-1/2 inches, then by constructing a figure similar -to figures 18 or 19 we shall find that the necessary height is about -one-third of an inch.[23] - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 23.] - -By judiciously cutting out an aperture in the card and vignetting, -defects in a background may often be entirely eliminated from the -print. Proceed in this way: Take a print of the portrait, and cut out -the figure in such a way as to get rid of the defective background, -and then place this on a piece of thick card (we prefer a thick card, -since it will not sag easily, and thus alter the gradation), and cut out -an aperture corresponding to it. The outsides of most carte-de-visite -frames are raised from the glass about one-third of an inch; place the -card on the front so that the aperture corresponds to the figure on the -negative, and tack it on to the frame. The dotted lines (fig. 23) show -the card fastened on to the frame, and the opening left. This latter -may be covered with tissue paper, and the frame placed in diffused light -from the sky. In some cases it may be necessary to use a larger printing -frame than the ordinary carte frame, in which case the operator should -be able to make a vignetting apparatus raised at a proper height from -the glass. Suppose it is required to raise the opening half an inch -above the glass, and that the card is 4-1/4 by 3-1/2. - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 24.] - -Take the card and rule rectangles as shown (fig. 24), the inner one -being 4-1/4 by 3-1/2 inches, the next one 1/2 an inch outside that, -and the third 1/2 an inch outside that again. Cut out the outer -rectangle entirely, so that we have a piece of card of the size ABCD. -Take a needle point, and prick through the card at the points EFGH and -join these points at the back of the card by lines. Now take a sharp -penknife, and, having laid a flat edge along, cut the card half through -its thickness along KL, LM, MN, and NK. Turn the card over, and cut -along the lines corresponding to EH, HG, GE, and FE, also half way -through the thickness of the card. Turn the card over once more, and -cut out the shaded pieces at the corners. Now bend the card along the -cuts, and a raised block will result of this shape. The corners are -held together by pieces of gummed or albumenized paper, and the block -is ready for an aperture to be cut in it according to the portrait to -be printed. Wooden grooves may be glued along the top of the vignetting -frame, into which cards containing other apertures can be slipped.[24] - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 25.] - -The most practical method of vignetting, a modification of the above, -and the one we always prefer in our own practice, is as follows:-- - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 26.] - -Take a piece of soft wood, half an inch thick for a cabinet size--a -thinner piece should be selected for a smaller picture--of a larger -dimension than the negative; in the centre of this cut a hole of the -shape of, but much smaller than, the desired vignette. One side of the -hole should be very much bevelled away, as represented in this section -(fig. 26). Place this block on the glass of the printing-frame, bevelled -side under, the hole being exactly over the part of the negative from -which the vignette is to be printed. The hole must now be covered with -tissue paper or ground glass, and the frame placed flat on a table to -print. The size of the hole in relation to the size of the vignette -will be easily ascertained by a little experience without the labour of -elaborate calculations. On dull days the tissue paper or ground glass -may be omitted. - -This method is very simple and effective. A quantity of vignetting -blocks of various sizes and shapes could be made by a carpenter, or by -the printer, and should be always at hand. - -A vignetting block should never be less than a quarter of an inch away -from the glass, otherwise the gradations will be too abrupt. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -ARTISTIC METHODS OF PRINTING THE PORTRAIT. - - -Having described in the last chapter the various mechanical arrangements -by which a simple vignette is produced, we will now proceed to give some -account of how that and other forms of printing can be turned to the -most artistic account in portraiture. - -The idea that printing is a mere mechanical operation was exploded long -ago. It is now recognized that the final result owes a good deal of its -artistic effect to the way in which the negative is dealt with after it -is varnished, and especially to its treatment by the printer. There are -many varieties of vignettes, and the method is useful in various ways. - - -_Plain Vignettes._--The usual vignetted portrait is that which -represents a good-sized head and shoulders in the space allotted to the -picture. For a carte-de-visite, a head measuring about 1-1/4 inches -from the top of the head to the chin is a good proportion. Larger sizes -are often made, but they look coarse and vulgar, as if the photographer -had tried how much quantity he could give for the money, regardless of -quality; and even if the quality is good, the vulgar effect is still -there. For a cabinet size a head of 1-3/4 or 1-7/8 inches is quite large -enough. A very pretty style is that in which the gradation is carried -out so gradually as only to end with the edge of the paper. - - -_Three-quarter Length Vignettes._--A three-quarter length figure of a -lady, either standing or sitting, makes a pretty picture; for gentlemen, -a three-quarter vignette is not so good, although it is admissible. It -is difficult to make the legs look anything but awkward when they are -vignetted into empty space at the knee. For three-quarter vignettes a -light, sketchy landscape background may be used with effect. - -There are many varieties of what may be called "fancy printing," in -which the vignette takes a conspicuous part. The first style that we -will consider is that of - - -_Vignettes on a Tinted Ground._--Print a vignette in the usual way. -Take it out of the frame, and place it on a board covered with velvet -or flannel, to prevent the paper shifting. Cover the print with glass, -and place over the printed part a piece of black paper roughly torn to -the shape, and rather smaller than the vignette. Place the whole in -the light until the white margin is slightly tinted, or "blushed," as -it is sometimes called. The edges of the black mask should be slightly -turned up or kept moving to prevent the junction of the tinting and the -vignette being visible. - -The above method represents a vignetted head on smooth grey paper, -and is useful to show up the high lights on the face; but there is a -modification of this effect, in which the appearance of a sketch on -rough drawing-paper is produced. - - -_Vignettes on Rough Drawing-paper._--If, instead of placing a piece of -plain glass over the masked print, a thin negative of some diaper or -pattern had been used, the design could have been printed on the paper -instead of the even tint. A very good negative for this purpose is -made as follows:--Obtain a sheet of the roughest drawing-paper, take -a camel-hair brush dipped in thin sepia, and brush it evenly over the -paper; the colour will fall into the depressions of the paper, and make -the roughness still more visible. This should now be placed where a side -light falls upon it, and photographed. A very thin negative is all that -is required. This negative should be used in place of the plain glass, -and, if not printed too dark, the effect of the delicate vignette inside -the rough tint is very pleasing. It is better when using negatives for -this purpose to place them in pressure-frames, instead of merely placing -them or the print on the velvet board, to print, or perfect contact may -not be obtained. - - -_Medallions._--Medallions of oval and other forms are now a good deal -used for small portraits. These are simply produced by gumming a mask, -made of black or yellow paper, with an oval or other-shaped aperture, -on to the negative, the mask preserving the part it covers white. These -masks can be bought from the dealers cheaper and better than they can be -made. Eccentric shapes are, usually, in bad taste; the oval and dome are -quite sufficient for all purposes. If, instead of leaving the outside -of the print--that protected by the mask--white, it could be tinted, -the lights in the picture would have greater value, and the effect -be improved. To do this, the printed part should be covered with a -black-paper disc corresponding with the mask used in printing, the print -covered with glass, and exposed to the light until printed the required -depth. In performing this operation it will be found convenient to gum -the disc to the covering-glass. If texture could be added to this tinted -margin, then another element of beauty would be added. This may be done -in a similar manner to that described for vignettes, by using a negative -made from rough drawing-paper; but, in this case, there is opportunity -for a greater choice of objects from which to make the tinting negative, -such as grained leather, marble of various kinds, paper-hangings--when -suitable patterns can be obtained--and from the borders of old prints. -In this, as in many other things connected with photography, there is -a good deal of room for bad taste, which the photographer must try to -avoid. He must remember that all these surrounding designs should assist -the portrait, and not distract the attention from it. - - -_Vignettes in Ornamental Borders._--The writer has lately produced some -effects that have given much pleasure by using designs specially drawn -for the purpose. The designs principally consist of an oval in the -centre for the portrait, and a tablet underneath, on which the original -of the portrait may sign his name. These forms are surrounded by flowers -and other objects conventionally treated. The spaces for the portrait -and name should be stopped out with black varnish, so as to print -white. The easiest way to use these ornamental border negatives is as -follows:--First print the border negative; you will then have a print -with a white oval space in the centre. Place this print on the portrait -negative, taking care that it occupies the proper position in the oval. -This is easily ascertained by holding the print and negative up to the -light. It should then be placed in the frame and printed, care being -taken that the vignetted gradation does not spread beyond its limits -over the border. - -There is a good deal of variety to be got out of the combination of the -mask and vignette. Here is one of them. - - -_Combination of Medallion and Vignette._--Vignette a head into the -centre of the paper; when this is done, place over it a black paper oval -disc, taking care that the head comes in the centre under the mask. -Place a piece of glass over the whole, and print. When the disc is -removed, the print will represent a vignette surrounded by a dark oval. -Many variations may be made of this form of picture, and there is much -scope for skill and taste. - -Any of the tinting negatives above described may be used, or they can -be made from designs drawn on paper as we have already stated, or from -natural objects. But if our reader has followed us clearly thus far, he -is now in a position to form combinations for himself. This we recommend -him to do, for there is an additional beauty in anything in art that -indicates a distinctive style or shows thought and originality. There is -too much tendency in portraitists to run in grooves, which the universal -prevalence of the two styles, card and cabinet, help to promote. But -we must caution the young photographer against the mistake of making -changes for the sake of change. The "loud," and the bizarre, may attract -foolish people, but it is only the beautiful that will secure the -attention of the cultivated and refined. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -COMBINATION PRINTING. - - -The scope of photography is wider than those who have only taken a -simple portrait or landscape suppose. It is almost impossible to design -a group that could not have been reproduced from life by the means our -art places at our disposal. We do not mean to assert that such subjects -as Michael Angelo's Last Judgment, or Raphael's Transfiguration, for -instance, have ever been done in photography; but it is not so much -the fault of the art, as of the artists, that very elaborate pictures -have not been successfully attempted. It has not been the failing of -the materials, unplastic as they are when compared with paint and -pencils; it has been the absence of the requisite amount of skill in -the photographer in the use of them, that will account for the dearth -of great works in photography. The means by which these pictures could -have been accomplished is Combination Printing, a method which enables -the photographer to represent objects in different planes in proper -focus, to keep the true atmospheric and linear relation of varying -distances, and by which a picture can be divided into separate portions -for execution, the parts to be afterwards printed together on one paper, -thus enabling the operator to devote all his attention to a single -figure or sub-group at a time, so that if any part be imperfect, from -any cause, it can be substituted by another without the loss of the -whole picture, as would be the case if taken at one operation. By -thus devoting the attention to individual parts, independently of the -others, much greater perfection can be obtained in details, such as the -arrangement of draperies, the refinement of pose, and expression. - -The most simple form of combination printing, and the one most easy -of accomplishment and most in use by photographers, is that by which -a natural sky is added to a landscape. It is well-known to all -photographers that it is almost impossible to obtain a good and suitable -sky to a landscape under ordinary circumstances. Natural skies are -occasionally seen in stereoscopic slides and very small views; but I am -now writing of pictures, and not of toys. It rarely happens that a sky -quite suitable to the landscape occurs in the right place at the time -it is taken, and, if it did, the exposure necessary for the view would -be sufficient to quite obliterate the sky; and if this difficulty were -obviated by any of the sun-shades, cloud-stops, or other inefficient -dodges occasionally proposed, the movement of the clouds during the -few seconds necessary for the landscape would quite alter the forms -and light and shade, making what should be the sky--often sharp and -crisp in effect--a mere smudge, without character or form. All these -difficulties are got over by combination printing, the only objections -being that a little more care and trouble are required, and some thought -and knowledge demanded. The latter should be considered an advantage, -for photographs, of a kind, are already too easy to produce. Of course, -when a landscape is taken with a blank sky, and that blank is filled up -with clouds from another negative, the result will depend, to a very -great degree, upon the art knowledge of the photographer in selecting -a suitable sky, as well as upon his skill in overcoming the mechanical -difficulties of the printing. It is not necessary here to enter into -a description of the art aspect of the matter, as that has often been -discussed; so we will confine ourselves to the mechanical details. - -The landscape negative must have a dense sky, or, if it be weak, or have -any defects, it must be stopped out with black varnish. In this case, it -is better to apply the varnish to the back of the glass; by this means -a softer edge is produced in printing than if painted on the varnished -surface. With some subjects, such as those that have a tolerably level -horizon, it is sufficient to cover over part of the sky while printing, -leaving that part near the horizon gradated from the horizon into white. - -It may here be remarked that in applying black varnish to the back of a -negative, occasions will often be found where a softened or vignetted -edge is required for joining, where a vignette glass or cotton wool -cannot be applied; in such cases the edge of the varnish may be softened -off by dabbing slightly, before it is set, with the finger, or, if a -broader and more delicately gradated edge be required, a dabber made -with wash-leather may be employed with great effect. - -[Illustration] - -When an impression is taken, the place where the sky ought to be will, -of course, be plain white paper; a negative of clouds is then placed in -the printing-frame, and the landscape is laid down on it, so arranged -that the sky will print on to the white paper in its proper place; -the frame is then exposed to the light, and the landscape part of the -picture is covered up with a mask edged with cotton wool. The sky is -vignetted into the landscape, and it will be found that the slight -lapping over of the vignetted edge of the sky negative will not be -noticed in the finished print. There is another way of vignetting the -sky into the landscape, which is, perhaps, better and more convenient. -Instead of the mask edged with cotton wool, which requires moving -occasionally, a curved piece of zinc or cardboard is used. Here is -a section of the arrangement. The straight line represents the sky -negative, and the part where it joins the landscape is partly covered -with the curved shade. Skies so treated must not, of course, be printed -in sunlight. - -It is sometimes necessary to take a panoramic view. This is usually -done, when the pantascopic camera is not employed, by mounting two -prints together, so that the objects in the landscape shall coincide; -but this is an awkward method of doing what could be much better -accomplished by combination printing. The joining of the two prints is -always disagreeably visible, and quite spoils the effect. To print the -two halves of a landscape, taken on two plates, together, the following -precautions must be observed: both negatives must be taken before the -camera-stand is moved, the camera, which must be quite horizontal, -pointing to one half of the scene for the first negative, and then -turned to the remaining half of the view for the second negative. The -two negatives should be obtained under exactly the same conditions of -light, or they will not match; they should also be so taken that a -margin of an inch and a-half or two inches is allowed to overlap each -other; that is to say, about two inches of each negative must contain -the same or centre portion of the scene. It is advisable, also, that -they should be of the same density; but this is not of very great -consequence, because any slight discrepancy in this respect can be -allowed for in printing. In printing vignettes with cotton wool, or a -straight-edged vignette glass, the edge of the left-hand negative on -the side that is to join the other, taking care to cover up the part -of the paper that will be required for the companion negative; when -sufficiently printed, take the print out of the frame, and substitute -the right-hand negative; lay down the print so that it exactly falls on -the corresponding parts of the first part printed (this will be found -less difficult, after a little practice, than it appears), and expose -to the light, vignetting the edge of this negative, also, so that the -vignetted part exactly falls on the softened edge of the impression -already done. If great care be taken to print both plates exactly alike -in depth, it will be impossible to discover the join in the finished -print. If thought necessary, a sky may be added, as before described, -or it may be gradated in the light, allowing the horizon to be lighter -than the upper part of the sky. - -Perhaps the greatest use to which combination printing is now put is -in the production of portraits with natural landscape backgrounds. -Many beautiful pictures, chiefly cabinets and card, have been done -in this way by several photographers. The easiest kind of figure for -a first attempt would be a three-quarter length of a lady, because -you would then get rid of the foreground, and have to confine your -attention to the upper part of the figure and the distance. Pictures -of this kind have a very pleasing effect. In the figure negative, -everything should be stopped out, with the exception of the figure, -with black varnish; this should be done on the back of the glass when -practicable, which produces a softer join; but for delicate parts--such -as down the face--where the joins must be very close, and do not admit -of anything approaching to vignetting, the varnish must be applied on -the front. A much better effect than painting out the background of -the figure negative is obtained by taking the figure with a white or -very light screen behind it; this plan allows sufficient light to pass -through the background to give an agreeable atmospheric tint to the -distant landscape; and stopping out should only be resorted to when the -background is too dark, or when stains or blemishes occur, that would -injure the effect. An impression must now be taken which is not to be -toned or fixed. Cut out the figure, and lay it, face downwards, on the -landscape negative in the position you wish it to occupy in the finished -print. It may be fixed in its position by gumming the corners near the -lower edge of the plate. It is now ready for printing. It is usually -found most convenient to print the figure negative first. When this has -been done, the print must be laid down on the landscape negative so -that the figure exactly covers the place prepared for it by the cut-out -mask. When printed, the picture should be carefully examined, to see if -the joins may be improved or made less visible. It will be found that, -in many places, the effect can be improved and the junctions made more -perfect, especially when a light comes against a dark--such as a distant -landscape against the dark part of a dress--by tearing away the edge of -the mask covering the dark, and supplying its place by touches of black -varnish at the back of the negative; this, in printing, will cause the -line to be less defined, and the edges to soften into each other. If the -background of the figure negative has been painted out, the sky will be -represented by white paper; and as white paper skies are neither natural -nor pleasing, it will be advisable to sun it down. - -If a full-length figure be desired, it will be necessary to photograph -the ground with the figure, as it is almost impossible to make the -shadow of a figure match the ground on which it stands in any other way. -This may be done either out of doors or in the studio. The figure taken -out of doors would, perhaps, to the critical eye, have the most natural -effect, but this cannot always be done, neither can it be, in many -respects, done so well. The light is more unmanageable out of doors, -and the difficulty arising from the effect of wind on the dress is very -serious. A slip of natural foreground is easily made up in the studio; -the error to be avoided is the making too much of it. The simpler a -foreground is in this case, the better will be the effect. - -The composition of a group should next engage the student's attention. -In making a photograph of a large group, as many figures as possible -should be obtained in each negative, and the position of the joins so -contrived that they shall come in places where they shall be least -noticed, if seen at all. It will be found convenient to make a sketch -in pencil or charcoal of the composition before the photograph is -commenced. The technical working out of a large group is the same as for -a single figure; it is, therefore, not necessary to repeat the details; -but we give a reduced copy, as a frontispiece to this volume, of a large -combination picture, entitled "When the Day's Work is Done," by Mr. H. -P. Robinson, a description of the progress and planning of which may be -of use to the student. - -A small rough sketch was first made of the idea, irrespective of any -considerations of the possibility of its being carried out. Other small -sketches were then made, modifying the subject to suit the figures -available as models, and the accessories accessible without very much -going out of the way to find them. From these rough sketches a more -elaborate sketch of the composition, pretty much as it stands, and of -the same size, 32 by 22 inches, was made, the arrangement being divided -so that the different portions may come on 23 by 18 plates, and that the -junctions may come in unimportant plates, easy to join, but not easy -to be detected afterwards. The separate negatives were then taken. The -picture is divided as follows:-- - -The first negatives taken were the two of which the background is -composed. The division runs down the centre, where the light wall is -relieved by the dark beyond it. These two negatives were not printed -separately--it is advisable to have as few printings as possible--but -were carefully cut down with a diamond, and mounted on a piece of glass -rather larger than the whole picture, the edges being placed in contact, -making, in fact, _one_ large negative of the interior of the cottage, -into which it would be comparatively easy to put almost anything. The -next negative was the old man. This included the table, chair, and -matting on which his feet rest. This matting is roughly vignetted into -the adjoining ground of the cottage negative. The great difficulty at -first with this figure was the impossibility of joining the light head -to the dark background; no amount of careful registration seemed equal -to effect this difficult operation; but if it could not be done, it -could be evaded. Several clever people have been able to point out the -join round the head, down the forehead, and along the nose, but we have -never been able to see it ourselves, because we know it is not there. -This is how the difficulty was got over. The figure was taken with a -background that would print as nearly as possible as dark as the dark of -the cottage. The join is nowhere near the head, but runs up the square -back of the old woman's chair, then up the wall, and across the picture, -over the head in an irregular line, and descends on the old man's back, -whence it was easy to carry it down the dark edge of his dress and the -chairs till it comes to the group of baskets, pails, &c., that fill -up the corner. On the other side, the join runs along the edge of the -table, and finds its way out where the floor coverings come together. -The old lady was then photographed, and is simply joined round the edge; -so also was the group in the corner, and the glimpse of the village seen -through the window. - -At first sight, it will appear difficult to place the partly-printed -pictures in the proper place on the corresponding negative. There are -many ways of doing this, either of which may be chosen to suit the -subject. Sometimes a needle may be run through some part of the print, -the point being allowed to rest on the corresponding part of the second -negative. The print will then fall in its place at that point. Some -other point has then to be found at a distance from the first; this may -be done by turning up the paper to any known mark on the negative, and -allowing the print to fall upon it; if the two separate points fall -on the right places, all the others must be correct. Another way of -joining the prints from the separate negatives is by placing a candle -or lamp under the glass of the printing-frame--practically, to use a -glass table--and throwing a light through the negative and paper; the -join can then be seen through. But the best method is to make register -marks on the negatives. This is done in the following manner. We will -suppose that we wish to print a figure with a landscape background from -two negatives, the foreground having been taken with the figure. At the -two bottom corners of the figure negative make two marks with black -varnish, thus |_ _|; these, of course, will print white in the picture. -A proof is now taken, and the outline of the figure cut out accurately. -Where the foreground and background join, the paper may be torn across, -and the edges afterwards vignetted with black varnish on the back of -the negatives. This mark is now fitted in its place on the landscape -negative. Another print is now taken of the figure negative, and the -white corner marks cut away very accurately with a pair of scissors. -The print is now carefully applied to the landscape negative, so that -the mark entirely covers those parts of the print already finished. -The landscape is then printed in. Before, however, it is removed from -the printing-frame, if, on partial examination, the joins appear to be -perfect, two lead pencil or black varnish marks are made on the mark -round the cut-out corners at the bottom of the print. After the first -successful proof there is no need for any measurement or fitting to get -the two parts of the picture to join perfectly; all that is necessary -is merely to cut out the little white marks, and fit the corners to the -corresponding marks on the mask; and there is no need to look if the -joins coincide at other places, because, if two points are right, it -follows that all must be so. This method can be applied in a variety of -ways to suit different circumstances. - -It is always well to have as few paintings as possible, and it -frequently happens that two or more negatives can be printed together. -For instance, the picture we have been discussing--"When the Day's -Work is Done"--is produced from six negatives, but it only took three -printings. The two negatives of which the cottage is composed was, as -already explained, set up on a large sheet of glass, and printed at -once; the old man was also set upon another glass of the same size, with -the negative of the glimpse through the window; and the old woman was -printed in like manner, with the corner group of baskets, &c. So that -here were practically three negatives only. These were registered with -corner marks so accurately that not a single copy has been lost through -bad joins. - -There are one or two things to consider briefly before concluding this -subject. - -It is true that combination printing--allowing, as it does, much -greater liberty to the photographer, and much greater facilities for -representing the truth of nature--also admits, from these very facts, -of a wide latitude for abuse; but the photographer must accept the -conditions at his own peril. If he finds that he is not sufficiently -advanced in knowledge of art, and has not sufficient reverence for -nature, to allow him to make use of these liberties, let him put on his -fetters again, and confine himself to one plate. It is certain (and this -we put in italics, to impress it more strongly on the memory) that _a -photograph produced by combination printing must be deeply studied in -every particular, so that no departure from the truth of nature shall -be discovered by the closest scrutiny_. No two things must occur in -one picture that cannot happen in nature at the same time. If a sky -is added to a landscape, the light must fall on the clouds and on the -earth from the same source and in the same direction. This is a matter -that should not be done by judgment alone, but by judgment guided by -observation of nature. Effects are often seen, especially in cloud-land, -very puzzling to the calm reasoner when he sees them in a picture; -but these are the effects that are often best worth preserving, and -which should never be neglected, because it may possibly happen that -somebody will not understand it, and, therefore, say it is false, and, -arguing still further on the wrong track, will say that combination -printing always produces falsehoods, and must be condemned. A short -anecdote may, perhaps, be allowed here. Some time ago a photograph of -a landscape and sky was sent to a gentleman whose general judgment in -art was admitted to be excellent; but he knew that combination printing -was sometimes employed. In acknowledging the receipt he said, "Thank -you for the photograph; it is a most extraordinary effect; sensational, -certainly, but very beautiful; but it shows, by what it is, what -photography cannot do; your sky does not match your landscape; it must -have been taken at a different time of day, at another period of the -year. A photograph is nothing if not true." Now it so happened that -the landscape and sky were taken at the same time, the only difference -being that the sky had a shorter exposure than the landscape, which was -absolutely necessary to get the clouds at all, and does not affect the -result. Another instance arose in connection with a picture representing -a group of figures with a landscape background. Four of the figures -were taken on one plate, at one operation; yet a would-be critic wrote -at some length to prove that these figures did not agree one with -another; that the light fell on them from different quarters; that the -perspective of each had different points of sight; and that each figure -was taken from a different point of view! These two cases are mentioned -to show that it is sometimes a knowledge of the means employed, rather -than a knowledge of nature--a foregone conclusion that the thing must -be wrong, rather than a conviction, from observation, that it is not -right--that influences the judgment of those who are not strong enough -to say, "This thing is right," or "This thing is wrong, no matter by -what means it may have been produced." - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -TONING THE PRINT. - - -If a print on albumenized paper be fixed without any intermediate -process, the result is that the image is of a red, disagreeable tone, -and unsightly. Moreover, it will be found that, if such a print be -exposed to the atmosphere, it rapidly loses its freshness, and fades. In -order to avoid this unsightliness, resort is had to toning, the toning, -in reality, being the substitution of some less attackable metal for -the metallic silver which forms a portion of the print. The usual metal -used for substitution is gold applied in the state of the ter-chloride. -It is not very easy to tell precisely how the substitution is effected; -the question is, at present, sub judice, and, therefore, we propose -to omit any theory that may have been broached. It is sufficient to -say that it is believed the first step towards the reduction of the -gold is the production of a hydrated oxide, and never metallic gold. -Be that as it may, if a finely-divided silver be placed in a solution -of chloride of gold, the silver becomes converted into the chloride, -and the gold is quickly reduced to the metallic state; and since gold -combines with more chloride than does silver, it is manifest that when -the substitution takes place,[25] the metallic gold deposited must -be very much less than the silver. The colouring power of gold is, -however, very great, when in the fine state of division in which we have -it, being an intense purple to blue colour, and a very little of this -mixed visually with the ruddy or brown colour of the albuminate which -has been discoloured by light gives, after fixing, a pleasing tone. A -picture, when toned thus, is composed of silver subchloride, metallic -gold, and an organic compound of silver. If a print be kept in the -toning bath too long, we are all aware that the image becomes blue and -feeble, and the same disaster happens when a toning bath is too strong, -_i.e._, is too rich in gold solution. The reason of this is, that too -much gold is substituted for the silver in the sub-chloride, and there -is in consequence too great a colour of the finely-precipitated gold -seen. To make a toning bath, the first thing is to look after the gold. -There is a good deal of chloride of gold sold, which is, in reality, not -chloride of gold, but a double chloride of gold and of some such other -base as potassium, and if it be paid for as pure chloride of gold, it -is manifest that the price will be excessive. It is best to purchase -pure chloride of gold, though it may be slightly acid, since subsequent -operations correct the acidity. In our own practice we get fifteen-grain -tubes, and break them open, and add to each grain one drachm of water, -and in this state it is convenient to measure out. Thus, for every grain -of gold to be used, it is only necessary to measure out one drachm -into a measure. In delicate chemical operations, this would rightly -be considered a rough method; but for a practical photographer it is -sufficiently precise. - -Now if chloride of gold alone were used, it would be found that the -prints, after immersion in a dilute solution, were poor and "measley," -and practice has told us that we must add something to the solution to -enable it to act gradually and evenly. First of all, the gold solution -must be perfectly neutral, and we know no better plan than adding to it -a little powdered chalk, which at once neutralizes any free acid. It -is not a matter of indifference what further retarder is added, for -the reason that the more you retard the action, the more ruby-coloured -becomes the gold, and less blue. A well-known experiment is to dissolve -a little phosphorus in ether, and add it to a gallon of water, and then -to drop in and stir about half a grain of chloride of gold. Phosphorus -reduces the gold into the metallic state, but when so dilute the -reduction takes place very slowly. The gold will, however, precipitate -gradually, but it will be in such a fine state of division that it is -a bright ruby colour. A very common addition to make to a toning bath -is acetate of soda, and if the gold be in defect, the same appearance -will take place in the solution. If chloride of lime, however, be added -instead, and a commencement of precipitation of gold be brought about, -the gold will be of a blue colour, having a slight tendency to purple. -In this case, the grains of gold deposited are larger than when it is in -the ruby state. The tone of the print then depends in a large measure -on the degree of rapidity with which the gold is deposited. The quicker -the deposit, the larger and bluer the gold, whilst an extremely slow -deposition will give the red form. It often happens that no matter how -long a print is immersed in a toning bath, it never takes a blue tone. -The reason will be obvious from the above remarks. - -We now give some toning baths which are much used. - - No. 1.--Gold tri-chloride 1 grain - Sodium carbonate 10 grains - Water 10 ounces - -This bath must be used immediately after mixing, since the gold is -precipitated by the carbonate. The tones given by this bath are purple -and black. The prints should be toned to dark brown for the purple tone, -and a slightly blue tone for the black tone. - - No. 2.--Gold tri-chloride 2 grains - Saturated solution - of chloride of - lime 2 drops - Chalk a pinch - Water 16 ounces - -The saturated solution of chloride of lime is made by taking the common -disinfecting powder, and shaking a teaspoonful up in a pint bottle. -When the solids have settled, the clear liquid can be decanted off, and -corked up till required. This is the solution used above. It is as well -to keep this solution in the dark room. - -The water with this bath should be hot (boiling better still), and the -bath may be used when it is thoroughly cool. It is better, however, to -keep it a day before using, since, when fresh, the action is apt to -be too violent, and the prints are readily over-toned. The tone with -this bath is a deep sepia to black. To get the first tone a very short -immersion is necessary; the prints should be almost red. For a black -tone the prints should be left in the solution till they are induced to -be of a purple hue. - - No. 3 is made as follows:-- - - Sodium acetate 1 drachm - Gold trichloride 5 minim - Distilled water 12 ounces - -This bath is a most excellent one in many respects, and should not be -used under a week to get the best result. As this is a long time to keep -a bath, it is as well to have two always on stock. It keeps indefinitely -if proper care be taken of it. This produces a purple or brown tone, -according to the length of time the print is immersed in it. - -Now, as to toning the print. After the day's printing is done, the -prints should be placed in a pan of good fresh water, in order to -dissolve out all or a certain amount of silver nitrate that is -invariably left in them. A puncheon, such as is used in dairies, is -very convenient. It should be filled with water, and the prints placed -in one by one, taking care that no one sticks to its neighbour, as this -would be a fruitful source of unequal toning. Most water contains a -little carbonate of lime and chloride of sodium, &c.; the water will -therefore become milky. When the prints have been in the first water -for ten minutes, they should be removed to another vessel of water, one -by one. The first wash water should be placed in a wooden tub, with -a tap let into it about six inches above the base, together with a -little common salt. The salt forms chloride of silver, which gradually -precipitates, and the clear water is then drawn off on the next day, and -the sediment is left undisturbed. - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 27.] - -It now remains to see which toning bath is to be used. If No. 1 or 3, -the whole of the free silver should as far as possible be washed away, -which may entail three or four changes of water; the last two washings -it will hardly repay to place in the tub; the second washing should -certainly be added to it. If No. 2 toning bath be used, a little free -silver should remain in the print; in fact, the washing should be -confined to two changes of water. - -When toning operations are commenced, the toning solution is poured -off from any sediment that may be in the bottle containing it into a -dish a couple of inches wider each way than the largest print which -has to be toned. If big prints have to be toned, it is inadvisable to -place more than a couple in the dish at the same time, since there is a -certain awkwardness in judging of the amount of tone given to a print -which is (say) between two or three. The prints should be placed face up -in the solution, and great care should be taken that liquid separates -each print from the next one to it, otherwise there will be patches of -unequal toning. The dish containing the prints in the solution should be -gently rocked to secure a proper mixture of the solution which may have -been robbed of its gold in those strata next surface of the prints. The -rocking is also advisable to cause any adhesion between two deep-toning -prints impossible. If the prints be of small size, a dozen or more may -be toned at one operation. Each print should be frequently brought to -the surface of the liquid, and examined in order to see how the toning -action is progressing. When one print is judged sufficiently toned, it -is removed to a dish containing pure water, and another untoned print -placed in the dish in its stead. This operation is continued till all -the prints are toned. We have heard that it has been suggested to place -the prints in water containing a little acetic acid or common salt, in -order to stop the toning action continuing from the solution which may -be held in the paper. The former is most undesirable, acetic acid, as we -shall see presently, decomposing the fixing bath. - -As to the addition of common salt, we can scarcely give a favourable -opinion regarding it. The addition of a chloride does, in truth, alter -the colour of the deposited gold (see _ante_), and it may be this that -gives rise to the opinion that it corrects toning action. Of one thing -we have little doubt, however, and that is, that the addition of any -large amount of common salt will tend to turn the albumenate of silver -into chloride, which in fixing will materially weaken the print. When -giving the formula of the toning baths, we have indicated the depth to -which toning should take place. One great point to attend to is, that -a print should not be a slatey colour when fixed, and that can only -be avoided by stopping the toning action when the print arrives at a -blue-purple stage. - -The toning bath, when used, should be replaced in the bottle, and we -recommend that it be kept in a dark place, otherwise any chloride of -silver which finds its way into the solution will darken and be a -nucleus for the precipitation of gold from the solution. The energy of -the toning bath would, in consequence, be wholly gone. It will be found -that in very cold solutions formed in winter the toning action is much -slower than in summer, and we need scarcely point out that this due to -the fact that cold invariably retards chemical action. This retardation -is not advantageous, and it will be found positively hurtful as to the -colour of the precipitated gold. We therefore recommend that the toning -solution and the dish in which it is to be poured should be warmed -before the fire, the former to a temperature of about 70 deg.F., and the -latter a little higher. By this means the toning action will take place -as rapidly as in warm weather, and the same tones be produced. It must -be remembered we are writing for all; not for those alone who have -an elaborate arrangement for keeping their operating rooms at a good -temperature in all weathers, but also for those who cannot afford the -luxury. It is for this reason that we have given the above directions. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -FIXING THE PRINT. - - -Sir J. Herschel was the first to point out that hyposulphite of soda -would dissolve chloride of silver, and subsequently it has been found -that it dissolves almost every organic salt of silver. In our early -chapters we gave some examples of this. When we add hyposulphite to a -salt of silver, such as the chloride, we get one of two reactions, the -formation of a nearly insoluble double hyposulphite of soda and silver, -or a readily soluble one. - - Silver Sodium - Chloride and Hyposulphite - AgCl + Na_{2}S_{2}O_{3} - - form - - Insoluble Double Sodium - Hyposulphite of and Chloride. - Silver and Sodium - AgNaS_{2}O_{3} + NaCl - -And - - Silver Sodium - Chloride and Hyposulphite - - 2AgCl + 3Na_{2}S_{2}O_{3} - - form - - Soluble Double Sodium - Hyposulphite of and Chloride. - Silver and Sodium - Ag_{2}Na_{4}3(S_{2}O_{3}) + 2NaCl - -The first insoluble double hyposulphite is formed when there is only -a small quantity of sodium hyposulphite present; the soluble kind -when the sodium hyposulphite is in excess. Since it is the soluble -kind which we wish to form, it is manifest that the presence of a -sufficiency of hyposulphite in the fixing bath is necessary. If not, -we have left the insoluble form on the paper. If either of these two -kinds of hyposulphite be made in a test-tube, we can readily simulate -the effect of atmospheric exposure. If slightly acid water be added -to the hyposulphite, it will be seen, when chloride of silver has -been dissolved by the hyposulphite, that the precipitate or solution -commences to blacken, sulphide of silver being formed. On the other -hand, if we take albumenate of silver, and dissolve it in hyposulphite -of soda, we shall find that the addition of acid gradually causes a -yellow-looking compound to separate out, and it is probably this body -formed in the paper which causes the gradual yellowing of the whites of -silver prints. - -What is taught us, then, by this observation is, that by thorough -washing we must try and eliminate all traces of hyposulphite of silver, -and, indeed, of the hyposulphite of soda, since the latter decomposes as -rapidly in the presence of acid as does the silver compound. - -The formula for the fixing bath which we recommend is:-- - - Sodium hyposulphite 4 ounces - Water 1 pint - Ammonia 1/2 drachm - -The addition of the ammonia prevents any possibility of an acid reaction -arising, and otherwise softens the film of albumen and the size of -the paper, causing more rapid fixation and more thorough washing. -Another thing the ammonia does is, that it prevents, in a great -measure, blistering of the film of albumen, which is common in some -highly-albumenized paper. - -Experience has shown that one ounce of solid hyposulphite will fix with -safety three sheets of paper, so that an idea can be formed of how much -must be used for a day's printing. The hyposulphite bath which has been -used one day should never be used the next, since it invariably contains -the germs of decomposition in it from some cause or another. Indeed, the -appearance of the solution indicates this is so, since it is usually of -a yellow or brownish appearance. - -The time required for fixing a print varies with the thickness of -the paper used. As a rule, prints on the medium-sized paper require -ten minutes' soaking in the bath, whilst thick-size requires fifteen -minutes. Whilst toning, the dish containing the hyposulphite should -be kept in a gentle rocking motion, as in toning, and for the same -reasons. Prints may be examined from time to time, to see how the -fixing progresses. When a print is not quite fixed, small spots of dark -appearance will be seen when it is examined by transmitted light. The -operation of fixing should be continued after these disappear for at -least three or four minutes, in order that the hyposulphite of soda in -the dish may get impregnated with the double silver and sodium salt -which is in the print, and thus render washing more effectual. It should -be noted that the dish for fixing should be at least as long and wide -as the dish used for toning; that it should be deeper when, as a rule, -all the prints are fixed at one time. Care should be taken that dishes -which are used for sensitizing, toning, or fixing, _should not be used -for anything else_. The glaze of porcelain dishes is often soft, and -frequently absorbs a certain amount of the solutions used. Thus, if -a porcelain dish be used for a solution of any aniline dye, it will -often be found that it is permanently stained. Colour in this last is -merely indication of what happens with any other solution. It will thus -be seen that it is a mistake to use a dish for fixing when the glaze -is cracked, since old hyposulphite must find its way into the body of -the fresh solution that may be used, and thus institute a spontaneous -decomposition, and a consequent want of permanence in the print. For -our own part, we believe that a gutta-percha dish is a safer dish to -use than any other, since it is impervious to any solution, and can be -well scoured after fixing, and before being again brought into use. We -believe that much of the fading of prints may be traced to the use of -unsuitable dishes for fixing. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -WASHING THE PRINT. - - -There are very many apparatus designed for washing prints; but -we believe that, where few prints have to be treated, careful -hand-washing is as superior to machine-washing, as hand-made paper -is to machine-made. In our own practice we take the prints from the -fixing-dish, and immerse them in a large puncheon of water, and allow -them to soak for five minutes, after which we carefully pour off all -the water, and replenish with fresh, in which we leave them for a -quarter-of-an-hour. After that we take the prints and place them on a -glass slab, and, with a squeegee, squeeze as much water as possible out -of each separately; this we repeat twice. After two more washings of a -quarter-of-an-hour, we then wash for half-an-hour, and, with a sponge, -dab them as dry as possible, and again immerse for half-an-hour. After -repeating this operation twice, we allow a stream of running water -to pour into the puncheon for a couple of hours, carrying the stream -through an india-rubber pipe, at the end of which is a glass tube, to -the bottom of the puncheon, and so that the pour of water goes against -the side. By this means there is a constant stir in the water, and the -water flows over the edge of the puncheon. It is convenient to cut a -notch in the top rim of the puncheon, so that the water may find an exit -before reaching the level of the rim. The prints are then taken out, -sponged once more, and dried. By this arrangement we have got prints -which are perfectly unfaded, though they have been in existence eighteen -years, and have been to the tropics, and in the dampest climates. This -method of washing, though tedious, should be applied to all prints; but, -in the present day, it can hardly be hoped that it can be immediately -adopted, on account of the attention it requires; we therefore describe -an apparatus which can be used. It was designed by Mr. England, -and consists of a working trough, as shown in the figure, which is -automatically worked by an overshot wheel. We need not enter into the -details of the invention, as they are self-evident. - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 28.] - -This washing arrangement causes the prints to be alternately soaking -in water, and draining. Whilst in the water they are perpetually being -shaken apart by the movement of the tray, and thus every part of the -print gets washed, and it is almost impossible for two prints to stick -together. In all washing apparatus there is a danger of air-bells -forming on the surface of the prints while in the water, but in this -form there is the advantage that whilst draining the air-bells must -break, and so water on rising to the level of the prints can obliterate -any of the evil effects which would be caused by their being perpetually -remaining on one spot. It is useless to attempt to describe other forms -of the apparatus, since there are so many; we have chosen one which -appears to us to be a satisfactory form. - -The following tests for the elimination of hyposulphite are taken from -another work of this series.[26] - -"The following is a most delicate test. - -"Make the following test solution:-- - - Potassium permanganate 2 grains - Potassium carbonate 20 " - Water 1 quart - -"The addition of a few drops of this rose-coloured solution to a pint of -water will yield a slightly pink tinge. If there be any trace of sodium -hyposulphite present, this colour will give place to one of a greenish -hue. - -"If the permanganate be not at hand, the following well-known starch -iodide test may be adopted:-- - -"Take about two drachms of water and a small piece of starch about the -size of a small pea; powder and boil the starch in the water till the -solution is quite clear; add one drop of a saturated solution of iodine -in alcohol to this clear liquid. It will now become dark blue. Of this -solution drop two drops into two clean test tubes, and fill up one with -distilled water and the other with the water to be tested; a faint blue -colour should be perceptible in the first test tube. In the second -test tube, should hyposulphite be present, this blue colour will have -disappeared, the iodide of starch becoming colourless in its presence. -The best mode of comparing the two waters is by placing a piece of white -paper behind the test tubes. - -"It frequently occurs that though sodium hyposulphite cannot be detected -in the washing water, it may be present in the paper itself. The paper -on which most prints are taken being sized with starch, if a _very_ -weak solution of iodine be applied with a brush across the _back_ of a -print, a blue mark will indicate the _absence_ of the hyposulphite. Care -must be taken that the iodine solution is _very_ weak, otherwise a part -of the iodine will first destroy the trace of the salt, and then the -remainder will bring out the blue re-action." - -We finish this chapter by quoting our maxims to be observed in printing. - - "_Maxims for Printing._ - - "1. The prints should have the highest lights _nearly_ white, - and the shadows verging on a bronzed colour before toning. - - "2. Place the prints, before toning, in the water, face - downwards, and do not wash away too much of the free nitrate of - silver. - - "3. The toning solution must be neutral or slightly alkaline, - and not colder than 60 deg. - - "4. Tone the prints to purple or sepia, according as warm or - brown prints are required. - - "5. Move the prints, in both the toning and fixing solutions, - repeatedly, taking care that no air-bubbles form on the surface. - - "6. Take care that the fixing bath is not acid. - - "7. Use fresh sodium hyposulphite solution for each batch of - prints to be fixed. - - "8. Wash thoroughly after and before fixing. - - "9. Make a sensitizing bath of a strength likely to give the - best results with the negatives to be printed. - - "10. Print in the shade, or direct sunshine, according to the - density of the negative." - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -PRINTING ON PLAIN PAPER. - - -Prints on plain paper are sometimes of use; for instance, they form an -excellent basis on which to colour. They are of course duller than an -albumenized print, since the image is formed more in the body of the -paper than on the surface. The following formula may be used:-- - - Ammonium chloride 60 to 80 grains - Sodium citrate 100 " - Sodium chloride 20 to 30 " - Gelatine 10 " - Distilled water 10 ounces - -Or, - - Ammonium chloride 100 grains - Gelatine 10 " - Water 10 ounces - -The gelatine is first swelled in cold water, and then dissolved in hot -water, and the remaining components of the formulae are added. It is -then filtered, and the paper is floated for three minutes, following -the directions given on page 10. If it be required to obtain a print on -plain paper in a hurry, a wash of citric acid and water (one grain to -the ounce) may be brushed over the back of ordinary albumenized paper, -and, when dried, that side of the paper may be sensitized and printed in -the ordinary manner. For cold tones the wash of the citric acid may be -omitted. - -The toning and fixing are the same as described in Chapters XII. and -XIII. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -PRINTING ON RESINIZED PAPER. - - -The following is taken from another volume of this series.[27] - -To Mr. Henry Cooper we are indebted for a valuable printing process, -founded on substituting resins for albumen or other sizing matter. The -prints obtained by this process are very beautiful, and lack that gloss -of albumen which is often called vulgar and inartistic. - -The following are the two formulae which Mr. Cooper has communicated to -the writer:-- - - Frankincense 10 grains - Mastic 8 " - Calcium chloride 5 to 10 " - Alcohol 1 ounce - -When the resins are dissolved in the alcohol, the paper is immersed in -the solution, then dried and rolled. The sensitizing bath recommended is -as follows (though the strong bath given at page 126 will answer):-- - - Silver nitrate 60 grains - Water 1 ounce - -To the water is added as much gelatine as it will bear without -gelatinizing at 60 deg. Fah. - -The second formula gives very beautiful prints, soft and delicate in -gradation. - -The paper is first coated with an emulsion of white lac in gelatine, -which is prepared as follows:-- - -3 ounces of _fresh_ white lac are dissolved in 1 pint of strong alcohol, -and after filtering or decanting, as much water is added as it will bear -without precipitating the lac; 1 ounce of good gelatine is soaked and -dissolved in the pint of boiling water, and the lac solution is added -with frequent stirring. If, at any stage of this operation, the gelatine -is precipitated, a little more hot water must be added. The pint of lac -solution ought, however, to be emulsified in the gelatine solution. - -To use the emulsion, it is warmed, and the paper immersed in or floated -on it for three minutes. When dry, the coated surface is floated in the -following for a couple of minutes:-- - - Ammonium chloride 10 grains - [28]Magnesium lactate 10 " - -When dry, it is sensitized on a moderately strong bath (that given on -the last page will answer). - -If more vigour in the resulting prints be required, it is floated on:-- - - Citric acid 5 grains - White sugar 5 " - -This last bath improves by use, probably by the accumulation of silver -nitrate from the sensitized paper. - -Any of the toning baths given in Chapter XII. will answer, though Mr. -Cooper recommends:-- - - Solution of gold tri-chloride - (1 gr. to 1 dr. of water) 2 dr. - Pure precipitated chalk a pinch - Hot water 10 ounces - -2 dr. of sodium acetate are to be placed in the stock-bottle, and the -above solution filtered on to it. This is made up to 20 ounces, and is -fit for use in a few hours; but it improves by keeping. - -In commencing to tone, place a few ounces of water in the dish, and add -an equal quantity of the stock solution, and if the toning begins to -flag a little, add more of it from time to time. - -With the resin processes over-toning is to be carefully avoided. - -Resinized paper may be obtained from most photographic dealers, -we believe, and for some purposes is an admirable substitute for -albumenized paper. - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -PRINTING ON GELATINO-CHLORIDE EMULSION PAPER. - - -Mr. W. T. Wilkinson has recently brought forward the notion of using -gelatine instead of albumen as a medium for holding the silver chloride -in printing. He uses the following formula:-- - - Barium chloride 2,440 grains - Gelatine 2,000 " - Water 20 ounces - -The gelatine is allowed to swell in the water, and, by the aid of heat, -is dissolved; the barium chloride is then added. Next he prepares-- - - Silver nitrate 1,700 grains - Water 5 ounces - -and adds this to the former, little by little, in a large bottle with -much shaking, or pours it slowly into the former in a large jar, -stirring briskly the whole time. This makes an emulsion of silver -chloride, and is used without washing. When required for use, the -gelatine, which will have set when cold, is swelled by placing the jar -containing it in hot water, and is then transferred to a dish. The dish -should be kept warm by being placed, supported on small blocks, in a tin -tray (about two inches larger in dimensions every way than the dish) -filled with hot water, the temperature of which should be about 150 deg. F. -to commence with. Saxe or Rive paper may be coated by rolling the sheet -face outwards, and placing the edge of the roll upon the gelatine. The -two corners of the paper in contact with the solution are then taken -hold of by the fingers, and raised. The paper will unroll of itself, and -take up a thin layer of the gelatine emulsion. The sheet of paper is -then suspended to dry. All these operations are, of course, conducted -in the dark room. The behaviour of the paper in the printing-frame is -precisely the same as albumenized paper, and the washing and toning are -conducted in the same way. For a fixing bath is used-- - - Sodium hyposulphite 2 ounces - Water 20 " - -The washing after fixing is more rapid than with albumenized paper. It -is washed in ten or twelve changes of water for ten minutes, and then -placed for five minutes in an alum bath made as follows:-- - - Potash alum 5 ounces - Water 20 " - -The print is washed in a few changes of water, and the prints are ready -for drying and mounting. The advantage of the alum bath is that the -hyposulphite is destroyed into harmless products, and the gelatine is -rendered insoluble by it. In the formula given there is large excess -of chloride, and we recommend that instead of using 2,440 grains of -barium chloride, 2,050 grains be used. (Mr. Wilkinson has used that -amount of the barium salt that would be required exactly to convert -1,700 grains of silver nitrate into silver chloride, if the formula for -barium chloride were BaCl_{3} instead of BaCl_{2}.) It will be seen -that whichever formula is used, there is no silver left to combine with -the gelatine, and hence the image will be entirely formed by metallic -silver, and not an organic salt of silver. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI. - -DRYING THE PRINTS. - - -In many establishments the prints are taken direct from the washing -water, and hung up by American clips, and thus allowed to dry. When this -is done, the prints curl up as the water leaves the paper, and they -become somewhat unmanageable. If prints have to be dried at all before -mounting--and they must, unless they are trimmed before toning--a better -plan is to make a neat heap of some fifty or sixty of the same size (say -cartes), place them on blotting-paper, and drain for a time, and then in -a screw-press (such as is used to press table-cloths, for instance) to -squeeze out all superfluous water. After a good hard squeeze the prints -should be separated, and the plan adopted by Mr. England carried out. He -has frames of light laths made, of about 6 feet by 3 feet, and over this -frame is stretched ordinary paperhanger's canvas. The prints are laid -on this to dry spontaneously, and they cockle up but very little. The -frames, being light, are easily handled. After the squeezing is done, -supposing the room in which they are placed be not very damp or very -cold, the prints will be ready for trimming and mounting in a couple of -hours. To our minds there is nothing superior to this mode of drying, -since the squeezing in the press tends to eliminate every slight trace -of hyposulphite which might be left in them. - -_Trimming the Prints._--Perhaps more prints are ruined in trimming than -in any other way, when the operator is inexperienced, since it requires -judgment to know which part of the print to trim off, so that a right -balance shall be kept. In trimming landscape prints, it is impossible -to give any set rules; the judgment as to what is artistic must be the -guide. Of one thing we may be certain, that, unless the operator who -took the original negative knows exactly how to balance his picture on -the focussing-screen, the print will always bear cutting down in one -direction or the other. Such a clipping, of course, alters the size of -the print, which, if it be one of a series, will be a misfortune; but, -on the other hand, the artistic value of the individual print will be -increased. - -For portraits there are some few rules which should be followed in -trimming. Always allow the centre of the face to be a little "out" from -the central line of the print, making more space on the side towards -which the sitter is looking. Allow a carte or cabinet to be cut in -such a way that, if the sitter has been leaning on something, it does -not seem as if he had been leaning on nothing. Should there be an -unintentional lean on the part of the sitter, trim the print so that he -appears in an upright position. - -To trim the print, there should be the various sized shapes in glass -used. Thus there should be glasses with bevelled edges for the carte, -the cabinet, and other sizes, which can be laid on the print as a guide -to the trimming. The absolute trimming may be done either by shears -or by a knife, a leather cutters' knife being excellent, since it is -rounded, and can be brought to a keen edge very readily. When the knife -is used, the print is placed on a large glass sheet of good thickness, -the pattern placed over it, and, whilst this is held down by the left -hand, the knife is used by the right, keeping it close to the edge of -the pattern glass. When shears are used, the print is held against the -pattern glass by the left hand, and each side trimmed by one clip, -taking care to make the cut parallel to the edges of the pattern glass. -It requires a little practice to prevent clipping the glass as well as -the paper, but for small sized prints, such as the carte, the shears -have a decided advantage over the knife. - -For cutting out ovals, Robinson's trimmer is an excellent adjunct to the -mounting-room, and in this case ovals stamped out of sheet brass are -used as guides. - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 29.] - -The figure will show the action of the trimmer. The small wheel is the -cutter, and, being pivotted, it follows the curve against which it is -held. It is better to cut out prints with this trimmer on sheet zinc -in preference to glass, the edge of the wheel being kept sharp for a -longer time than where the harder glass is used. To use the trimmer, -the print is placed on the sheet of zinc, the oval mask (or square -mask, with slightly rounded corners) is placed in position on it. The -wheel of the trimmer is brought parallel to, and against, the edge of -the mask, the handle being grasped by the right hand, the thumb to the -left, and the fingers on the right. A fairly heavy downward pressure -is brought to bear on the trimmer, and at the same time the wheel is -caused to run along the edge of the mask. The cut should be clean, and -the join perfect, if proper care be taken. It is desirable to practise -on ordinary writing paper before it is taken into use for prints. Square -masks with very slightly rounded corners can be used; the smaller the -wheel, the less curved the corners need be. It will be seen that there -is a limit to smallness of the wheel used, since, if too small, the -stirrup on which it is pivoted would rest upon the mask. The larger the -wheel the easier is the cutting. - -With larger sizes than the carte or the cabinet, mounting may often -have to be delayed, since it is easier to keep a stock of unmounted -prints (say landscapes) unmounted than it is when they are mounted. In -this case the prints should be put away as flat as possible. The plan -of drying we have indicated takes out the "curl," but even then they -will not be flat enough to be handily put away. We therefore recommend -the practice of stroking the prints. A flat piece of hard wood, about -1 foot long and 1-1/2 inch broad, and the thickness of a marquoise -scale, has its edges carefully rounded off. The print is seized by one -corner in one hand and unrolled; the face of the print is brought in -contact with a piece of plate glass. The "stroker," held by the other -hand, is brought with its rounded edge on to the back of the print near -the corner held by the first hand. Considerable pressure is brought upon -the stroker, and the print is drawn through between it and the plate. -The print is then seized by another corner and similarly treated. By -this means a gloss is put upon the print, and the creases and cockles -are obliterated. The print is now ready for trimming. - -It is well to have a square of glass with true edges cut to the size of -the pictures. The prints should be trimmed upon a sheet of plate glass, -a sharp penknife being used to cut them. A rough test for ascertaining -if the opposite sides are equal is to bring them together, and see if -both corners coincide. - -It may sometimes be found useful to cut out a print into an oval. The -following method for tracing any ellipse may be employed:--On a thickish -piece of clean paper draw a line A B, making it the _extreme_ width of -the oval required. Bisect it at O, and draw D O C at right angles to A -B. Make O C equal to _half_ the smallest diameter of the ellipse. With -the centre C and the distance O B, draw an arc of a circle, cutting A -B in E and F. Place the paper on a flat board, and at E and F fix two -drawing-pins. Take a piece of thread and knot it together in such a -manner that half its length is equal to A F. Place the thread round the -two pins at E and F, and stretch it out to tightness by the point of a -lead pencil. Move the pencil guided by the cotton, taking care to keep -it upright. The resulting figure will be an ellipse. Modifications of -this figure may be made by making a second knot beyond the first knot, -and placing the point of the pencil in the loop formed. When the figure -has been traced in pencil on paper, it should be carefully cut out with -a sharp penknife, and placed on the print which is to be trimmed into an -oval. When so placed, a faint pencil line is run round on the print, and -the cutting out proceeds either by scissors or penknife. - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 30.] - - - - -CHAPTER XXII. - -MOUNTING PHOTOGRAPHS. - - -There are many photographers who, unfortunately, are quite indifferent -as to the medium they use in mounting the trimmed photographs. So long -as the medium will cause the adherence of the back of the print to the -cardboard employed, they are perfectly satisfied, whether it be paste -fresh or sour, or starch or gelatine in a similar condition. If any of -our readers have had the misfortune to have their rooms papered with -rancid paste, they will have noticed that the unpleasant smell attending -it has not been removed from the room for weeks, and that there is a -liability of the return of the disgusting odour when the air is at all -damp. In this case the fact that decomposition is going on is detected -by the olfactory nerves, because the quantity is considerable. It is -none the less true, however, that every square inch of the surface of -the wall paper is undergoing the same ordeal, and that if it contains -any colour, &c., which would be affected by decomposing organic matter, -there would be but small chance of the paper retaining its fresh -appearance. Were a silver print mounted with the same paste, we need -scarcely point out that danger to its permanency is to be apprehended. -Paste, we know, is as a rule tabooed, but there is no occasion for it -to be so if care be taken that it is absolutely fresh when employed in -mounting. In looking for a mounting material, we should endeavour to -find something which does not readily take up moisture. Glue, gelatine, -dextrine, and gum are all inadmissible on this account; on the other -hand, starch, arrowroot, cornflour, and gum tragacanth, when once dry, -do not seem to attract moisture. - -Referring to glue, Mr. W. Brooks says[29] that he has recently seen -many photographs which have been mounted with that medium, and in -some cases, where the glue has been put on too thickly, it swells up -into ridges, showing marks of the brush with which it is applied, and -each ridge after a time turns brown. The same writer is not wholly in -favour of starch, but in our own opinion pure white starch is as good -a material as can be met with. To prepare it for use as a mountant, -a large teaspoonful of starch is placed in the bottom of a cup, with -just sufficient cold water to cover it. This is allowed to remain for -a couple of minutes, after which the cup is filled with boiling water, -and well stirred; the starch should then be fairly thick, but not -so thick as to prevent a brush taking up a proper supply for a good -sized print. We will suppose that we are going to mount a day's work -of carte-de-visite prints. In a former chapter we have said that it -is desirable that the prints should be left damp. If they are dried, -they should be _slightly_ moistened, and placed in a heap one above the -other, as by so doing the moisture is confined, and one damping of all -the prints is sufficient. In our own practice we have, as is natural, -all the prints with the faces downwards. A stiff bristle brush is then -dipped into the pot containing the starch, and the starch brushed over -the back of the top print. This one is then carefully raised from the -print beneath it, and, supposing it to have been properly trimmed, it -is laid upon the card, and pressed down by means of a soft cloth, and -placed on one side to dry. The next print is then treated in the same -manner, and so on. By this plan no starch gets on the face of the -prints, which is a desideratum. With a little practice, just sufficient -starch will be brushed on each carte, and no more. Young hands, however, -are sometimes apt to give more than a fair share to them; in this case, -after pressing the print down with the soft cloth, it may be useful to -place on the print a piece of writing paper, and press all superfluous -starch out by a rounded straight-edge, or an ivory or wooden paper -knife. The card in this case should be placed on a slab of thick glass, -so as give an even pressure. The starch, which will exude beyond the -edges of the card, should be carefully wiped off with a _clean_ cloth. - -This is of course a method to be adopted only in the case of bungling -mounting, but it is useful then, and may save a carte. It should be -remembered that the less mounting medium used, the greater is the chance -of a silver print not fading. - -To mount larger prints, the back should be slightly damped, and the -brush with the starch applied with cross strokes, so that every part is -covered. Particular care should be taken that the corners and edges are -not missed, since it often necessitates re-mounting the print, which is -to be avoided as far as possible, since it is a troublesome matter. The -rounded-edged ruler, and the sheet of white paper, is also useful here, -since over a large surface there is more difficulty in getting even -layers of starch, than over smaller ones. When a print has to be mounted -with a margin, the places where the top corners have to come should be -marked with a fine pencil point. By a little dexterity, the top edge of -the print, the back of which has been covered with starch in the manner -described, can be brought into the position indicated by these dots, -and be then lowered without puckers or folds. It should be remembered -that the print should just cover the pencil marks, since it is almost -impossible to erase blacklead with india-rubber, if any starch should by -accident get on it. - -It is well to dry these prints under pressure, since the cardboard is -apt to cockle. A couple of boards rather longer than the prints suffice -for the purpose. The mounted prints are laid between them, a sheet -of clean blotting-paper separating each, and a few weights placed on -the top board. For prints of moderate size, a table-cloth press is an -excellent substitute. - -As to the kind of mounts to be used, opinions vary. To our mind, the -simpler they are, the better they look. It is not rare to find a regular -advertisement of the photographic establishment below a carte or cabinet -print. To say the least of it, this is bad taste, and we are sure it is -bad art. If the work be good, it needs no recommendation; and if it be -bad, the less of an advertisement that appears, the better it is for -the photographer. At the back of a carte or cabinet is the place where -any advertisement should appear; but even here it may be overdone. When -we find the back of the carte got up with any amount of gold-lettering -flourishes, and no blank space on which the eye can rest without -encountering some one especial merit of the artist, we may expect to -find on the front of the card the same kind of tawdry work. It is -seldom advisable to have the mount of a white colour, though for cartes -or cabinets, in which the margin will be hidden in the album, this is -not of much consequence; but for prints in which the margin shows, it -is generally advisable to have some slight tint visible, preferably -of a cream or buff colour. There are some classes of work which will, -however, bear a white margin, but it is rarely the case; and we advise, -as a general rule, that there should be some tone on it, to prevent -its attracting the eye away from the picture by its whiteness. Black -mounts are much in vogue at the present time, and they are effective and -artistic; but chemical analysis has shown them not to be safe, since -they are enamelled with substances which are apt to induce fading. A -good and stable black mount is a desideratum, which it is to be hoped -will be found before long. - -Notwithstanding our preference for starch as a mountant, we give a -method of preparing glue for the same purpose. The glue used should -be light, and as clean as possible. It should be shredded and soaked -in sufficient clean water to cover it for five or six hours; any dust -which may have adhered to it will find its way into the water. The water -should be poured off and replaced by an equal quantity of fresh. The -vessel containing it is heated over a small gas jet or spirit lamp until -solution takes place. The liquid is then thinned down with warm water -till it is of proper consistency, a point which is soon learned by a -little practice. An ordinary small glue pot will be found convenient. - -It is sometimes useful to have at hand a mounting solution which will -not cockle the mount, and the late Mr. G. Wharton Simpson gave a formula -which is very good in this respect. Fine cut gelatine or shredded glue -is swollen in the least possible quantity of water, and this is boiled -with alcohol, with much stirring. If 80 grains of Nelson's No. 1 fine -cut gelatine are taken, 3 dr. of water should be used for making it, and -to it 2 oz. of alcohol be added. When cool this sets into a jelly, and -can be used by letting the bottle into which it has been transferred -stand in hot water. Prints can be mounted on foolscap paper with this -medium without any serious cockling being apparent. - -It should be recollected that no two batches of paper will mount exactly -alike, some expanding more than others. It is well to mount a trial -print before doing many, to see exactly how the paper under manipulation -behaves. - -_Rolling the Prints._--After the prints have been under the hands of the -retoucher, they should be rolled in a rolling-press in order to give a -brightness to the printed image. It would be invidious to point out any -particular press that should be used. Suffice it to say, there are many -excellent ones in the market. The directions for cleaning and using the -press are supplied with each machine; we therefore refrain from saying -anything about them. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII. - -DEFECTS IN PRINTS. - - -The bath solution is sometimes repelled by the paper, and this is found -chiefly in highly albumenized paper, and is generally caused by the -paper being too dry. Passing the sheet of paper over the steam from a -saucepan will generally effect a cure. - -Small white spots, with a black central pin-point, are often met with in -prints. Dust on the paper during sensitizing will cause them, the grit -forming a nucleus for a minute bubble. All paper should be thoroughly -dusted before being floated on the sensitizing bath. - -Grey, star-like spots arise from small particles of inorganic matter, -such as ferric oxide, lime, &c., which are present in the paper. They -become more apparent by decomposition during the printing operations. -They may generally be discernible by examining the paper by transmitted -light. - -Bronze lines (straight) occur through a stoppage during floating the -paper in the sensitizing solution. Should the lines be irregular, -forming angles and curves, it is probable that a scum of silver oxide, -&c., may be detected on the surface of the sensitizing solution. A strip -of blotting-paper drawn across the bath will remove the cause of the -defect. - -Should the print appear marbled, it may be surmised that the sensitizing -solution is weak, or that the paper has not been floated sufficiently. -In some cases it may arise from imperfect albumenizing; but in ordinary -commercial samples the cause can be easily traced. - -Red marks on the shadows may appear during toning, and are very -conspicuous after fixing. They generally arise from handling the paper -with hot, moist fingers after sensitizing; greasy matter being deposited -on the surface, prevents the toning bath acting properly on such parts. - -Weak prints are generally caused by weak negatives. Such can be -partially remedied by paying attention to the strength of the -sensitizing bath (see Appendix), and by using washed paper. - -Harsh prints are due to harsh negatives. They can generally be remedied -by paying attention to the mode of printing, as given in Chapter IX. If -the negative be under-exposed and wanting in detail, there is, however, -no cure for this defect. - -A red tone is due to insufficient toning; whilst a poor and blue tone is -due to an excess of toning. - -The whites may appear yellow from imperfect washing, imperfect toning, -imperfect fixing, or from the use of old sensitized paper. - -Should prints refuse to tone, either the gold has been exhausted, or -else a trace of sodium hyposulphite has been carried into the toning -bath by the fingers or other means. A trace of hyposulphite is much more -injurious to the print than a fair quantity of it. Should the toning -bath refuse to tone after the addition of gold, it may be presumed that -it is contaminated by a trace of sodium hyposulphite. - -A dark mottled appearance in the body of the paper indicates imperfect -fixing, combined with the action of light on the unaltered chloride -during fixing. If the fixing bath be acid, the excess of acid combines -with the sulphur, and forms hydrosulphuric acid, which will also cause -the defect. - -The cause of mealiness or "measles" in the print has been explained in -page 32. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV. - -ENCAUSTIC PASTE. - - -The value of an encaustic paste in improving the effect of photographic -prints has become very generally recognised amongst photographers. -A good encaustic confers three special benefits on the print: it -gives depth, richness, and transparency to the shadows; it renders -apparent delicate detail in the lights which would otherwise remain -imperceptible; and it aids in protecting the surface, and so tends to -permanency. One of the writers has in his possession prints that were -treated with an encaustic paste thirteen years ago, which retain all -their original freshness and purity, while prints done at the same time -from the same negatives have gone, to say the least of it, "off colour." - -Various formulae for the preparation of encaustic pastes have been -published, and many of them very excellent. The qualities required are, -easiness of application, and the capacity of giving richness and depth -without too much gloss, and of yielding a hard, firm, permanent surface. -For a proper combination of all these qualities, nothing has ever -approached the paste of the late Adam-Salomon, of which the following is -the formula:-- - - Pure white wax 500 grains - Gum elemi 10 " - Benzole 200 " - Essence of lavender 300 " - Oil of spike 15 " - -The wax is cut into shreds, and melted in a capsule over a water -bath. Placing it in a jar, and the latter in a pan of hot water, will -serve. Powder the elemi, and dissolve it in the solvent, using gentle -heat. Some samples of elemi are soft and tough, and will not admit of -powdering, in which case it may be roughly divided into small portions, -and placed in a bottle with the solvents. Strain through muslin, and add -the clear solution to the melted wax, and stir well. It is then poured -into a wide-mouthed bottle, and allowed to cool. - -The encaustic paste is put on the prints in patches, and then rubbed -with a light, quick motion, with a piece of flannel, until a firm, fine -surface is obtained. - -We give another simple formula which is efficient, though we ourselves -prefer the above. - - White wax cut into shreds 1 ounce - Turpentine 1 " - -and thinned down, if necessary, till it has the consistency of "cold -cream." - -Yet another is-- - - White wax 1 ounce - Benzole 2 ounces. - - - - -CHAPTER XXV. - -ENAMELLING PRINTS. - - -There are several modes of enamelling prints, but there is none better -than that described by Mr. W. England, which we quote in his words. -"I have a glass having a good polished surface (patent plate is not -necessary), and rub over it some powdered French chalk tied up in a -muslin bag. Dust off the superfluous chalk with a camel's hair brush, -and coat with enamel collodion. I find it an improvement to add to the -collodion usually sold for the purpose 2 dr. of castor oil to the pint. -When the collodion is well set, immerse the plate in a dish of water. -When several prints are required to be enamelled, a sufficient number -of plates may be prepared and put in dishes; this will save time. Now -take the first plate, and well wash under a tap till all greasiness -has disappeared; place it on a levelling stand, and pour on as much -water as the plate will hold. Then lay the print on the top, squeeze -out all the water, and place the plate and print between several -thicknesses of blotting-paper to remove all superfluous moisture. The -plate, with the print in contact, should now be placed in a warm room -to dry spontaneously, when the print will come easily from the glass. -Care should be taken not to attempt to remove the print till quite -dry. If the pictures required to be enamelled have been dried, it -will be necessary to rub over them some ox-gall with a plug of soft -rag; otherwise the water will run in globules on the surface, and make -blisters when laid on the collodion. - -"I may mention that prints done in this way lose their very glossy -surface on being mounted, but retain their brilliancy, which I think is -an improvement, as I dislike the polished surface usually given to the -print when gelatine is employed." - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI. - -CAMEO PRINTS. - - -At one time there was a rage amongst photographers to produce cameos, -and, for this purpose, a special piece of apparatus was required to -produce the embossing. The figure will explain it. - -[Illustration: _Fig._ 31.] - -The print, after mounting, was enamelled by coating a plate with -collodion--as described above--and a thin film of liquid gelatine -applied. In some cases the carte itself was gelatinized, dried, and -damped, and placed in contact with the collodion film. The carte was -placed face downwards on the gelatine, and placed under pressure till -quite dry. It was then removed, and bore on its surface a high gloss -caused by the collodion. It was then ready for embossing, which was -effected by placing it in the above apparatus. - -Some people like the style; and it will be seen that great variety in -it may be made by printing sufficient depth of border round the cameo; -but, for our own part, we think that, in an art point of view, they are -decidedly vulgar; and besides which, the surface of the cameo is readily -scratched, since it is raised. We only give a brief account of what has -been done in this direction, not to encourage its adoption, but rather -to caution the photographer. - - - - -APPENDIX. - -REDUCTION OF OVER-EXPOSED PRINTS. - - -Mr. England writes as follows to the Photographic Journal, and we can -unhesitatingly say that the method of reducing an over-printed proof is -excellent. - -"A simple and certain method of reducing over-printed proofs has been -one of the wants long felt by all photographers. It is well known that -in every photographic establishment even the most careful printers -cannot always be sure of getting the exact depth of tone required, and -proofs occasionally get over-printed. Of course prevention is better -than cure; but, when a remedy is necessary, the method I am about to -describe answers admirably. I tried a great many experiments before I -succeeded to my satisfaction. I found that cyanide of potassium totally -destroyed the print, even when used moderately strong. By using a weaker -solution it was well under control, and the exact depth could be readily -obtained; but during the washing to remove the cyanide the action of -the latter continued, and spoiled every proof. I then tried several -methods to arrest the action of the cyanide, but without success. It -then occurred to me to use the cyanide in such a weak state that but -little should be held in the paper, only sufficient to reduce the print -to the required depth; for this purpose I made a bath of only four drops -of saturated solution of cyanide to a pint of water. The prints immersed -at first showed no signs of getting lighter, but after about an hour -the most perfect results had been obtained with prints considerably -over-printed. With lighter pictures a less time is required. Proofs -treated in this way lose nothing of their tone during the after-washing, -which should be thoroughly done, and, when dry, retain all the -brilliancy of an ordinary print." - -The plan of using cyanide has, we know, often been proposed, but with -no success until, we believe, Mr. W. Brooks gave a formula which worked -successfully with him. - -Another plan, proposed by Mr. L. Warnerke, for effecting the same thing -is the use of ferric sulphate. A weak solution is prepared, and the -print immersed in it. The reduction takes place rapidly, but evenly. - -We need scarcely say that it is better not to have to use either of -these remedies, by avoiding over-printing; but as mistakes will occur, -it is evident that the above will be of use at times. - - -UTILIZATION OF SILVER RESIDUES. - -All paper or solutions in which there is silver should be saved, as it -has been proved by experience that from 50 to 75 per cent. of the whole -of the silver used can be recovered by rigid adherence to the careful -storage of "wastes." - -1. All prints should be trimmed, if practicable, before toning and -fixing; in all cases these clippings should be collected. When a good -basketful of them is collected, these, together with the bits of -blotting-paper attached to the bottom end of sensitized paper during -drying, and that used for the draining of plates, should be burnt in a -stove, and the ashes collected. These ashes will naturally occupy but a -small space in comparison with the paper itself. Care should be taken -that the draught from the fire is not strong enough to carry up the -ashes. - -2. All washings from prints, waters used in the preparation of dry -plates, all baths, developing solutions (after use), and old toning -baths, should be placed in a tub, and common salt added. This will form -silver chloride. - -3. The old hyposulphite baths used in printing should be placed in -another tub. To this the potassium sulphide of commerce may be added. -Silver sulphide is thus formed. - -4. To No. 1 nitric acid may be added, and the ashes boiled in it till -no more silver is extracted by it. The solution of silver nitrate thus -produced is filtered off through white muslin, and put aside for further -treatment, when common salt is added to it to form chloride, and added -to No. 2. - -5. The ashes may still contain silver chloride. This may be dissolved -out by adding a solution of sodium hyposulphite, and adding the filtrate -No. 3. - -6. No. 2, after thoroughly drying, may be reduced to metallic silver -in a reducing crucible[30] by addition of two parts of sodium carbonate -and a little borax to one of the silver chloride. These should be well -mixed together, and placed in the covered crucible in a coke fire, and -gradually heated. If the operator be in possession of one of Fletcher's -gas furnaces he can employ it economically, and with far less trouble -than using the fire. (It is supplied with an arrangement for holding -crucibles, which is useful for the purpose.) After a time, on lifting -off the cover, it will be found that the silver is reduced to a metallic -state. After all seething has finished, the crucible should be heated -to a white heat for a quarter of an hour. The molten silver should be -turned out into an iron pan (previously rubbed over with plumbago to -prevent the molten metal spirting), and immersed in a pail of water. The -washing should be repeated till nothing but the pure silver remains. - -The silver hyposulphite, having been reduced to the sulphide by the -addition of the potassium sulphide, is placed in a crucible, and -subjected to a white heat; the sulphur is driven off, and the silver -remains behind. - -Another method of reducing silver chloride to the metallic state is by -placing it in water slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid together -with granulated zinc. The zinc is attacked, evolving hydrogen, which, in -its turn, reduces the silver chloride to the metallic state, and forming -hydrochloric acid. After well washing, the silver may be dissolved up in -nitric acid. - -Yet another method is to take sugar of milk and a solution of crude -potash, when the silver is rapidly reduced. This requires careful -washing, and it is well to heat the metal to a dull red heat to get rid -of any adherent and insoluble organic matter which may have been formed, -before dissolving it in nitric acid. - - -TO PRINT FROM WEAK AND HARD NEGATIVES. - -Should a negative be found very hard, a slight modification of the -sensitizing solution will be found beneficial, supposing the ordinary -paper is to be used. - - Silver nitrate 30 grains - Water 1 ounce - -The negative should in this case be printed in the sun. The more intense -the light, the less contrast there will be in the print, as the stronger -light more rapidly effects a change in the albuminate than if subjected -to weaker diffused light. The reason for the reduction in quantity of -the silver nitrate in the solution is given on page 15. - -To print from a weak negative, the sensitizing solution should be:-- - - Silver nitrate 80 grains - Water 1 ounce - -The printing should take place in the shade; the weaker the negative, -the more diffused the light should be. - -If a negative be dense, but all the gradations of light and shade be -perfect, the strong bath, and, if, possible, a strongly-salted paper, -should be used. The printing should take place in sunlight. - - -TO MAKE GOLD TRI-CHLORIDE [AU CL_{3}]. - -Place a half-sovereign (which may contain silver as well as copper) in a -convenient vessel; pour on it half a drachm of nitric acid, and mix with -it two-and-a-half drachms of hydrochloric acid; digest at a gentle heat, -but do not boil, or probably the chlorine will be driven off. At the -expiration of a few hours add a similar quantity of the acids. Probably -this will be sufficient to dissolve all the gold. If not, add acid the -third time; all will have been dissolved by this addition, excepting, -perhaps, a trace of silver, which will have been deposited by the -excess of hydrochloric acid as silver chloride. If a precipitate should -have been formed, filter it out, and wash the filter paper well with -distilled water. Take a filtered solution of ferrous sulphate (eight -parts water to one of iron) acidulated with a few drops of hydrochloric -acid, and add the gold solution to it; the iron will cause the gold -alone to deposit as metallic gold, leaving the copper in solution. By -adding the gold solution to the iron the precipitate is not so fine as -if added _vice versa_. Let the gold settle, and pour off the liquid; -add water, and drain again, and so on till no acid is left, testing -the washings by litmus paper. Take the metallic gold which has been -precipitated, re-dissolve in the acids as before, evaporate to dryness -on a water bath (that is, at a heat not exceeding 212 deg. F.) The resulting -substance is the gold tri-chloride. To be kept in crystals this should -be placed in glass tubes hermetically sealed. For non-commercial -purposes it is convenient to dissolve it in water (one drachm to a grain -of gold). Ten grains of gold dissolved yield 15.4 grains of the salt. -Hence if ten grains have been dissolved, 15.4 drachms of water must be -added to give the above strength. - - -TO MAKE SILVER NITRATE. - -Silver coins are mostly alloyed with tin or copper. In both cases the -coin should be dissolved in nitric acid diluted with twice its bulk -of water. If tin be present there will be an insoluble residue left -of stannic oxide. The solution should be evaporated down to dryness, -re-dissolved in water, filtered, and again evaporated to dryness. -It will then be fit for making up a bath. If copper be present, the -solution must be treated with silver oxide. - -The silver oxide thus formed is added, little by little, till the blue -or greenish colour has entirely disappeared. This will precipitate the -copper oxide from the copper nitrate, setting free the nitric acid, -which, in its turn, will combine with the silver oxide. The copper will -fall as a black powder mixed with any excess of silver oxide there may -be. Take one or two drops of the solution in a measure, and add a drachm -of water, and then add ammonia to it till the precipitate first formed -is re-dissolved. If no blue colour is apparent, the substitution of the -silver for the copper is complete; if not, more silver oxide must be -added till the desired end is attained. Distilled water must next be -added till the strength of the bath is that required. This can be tested -by the argentometer. - -If to a solution of silver nitrate a solution of potash be added, a -precipitate will be formed. This is the silver oxide. The potash should -be added till no further precipitation takes place. The oxide should -be allowed to settle, the supernatant fluid be decanted off (a syphon -arrangement is very convenient), and fresh distilled water added to it. -This, in its turn, after the oxide has been well stirred, should be -decanted off. The operation should be repeated five or six times, to -ensure all nitrate of potash being absent, though its presence does not -matter for a printing bath, since this or some other nitrate is formed -when the paper is floated. - - -THE END. - - - - - FOR - Photographic Stock - and Apparatus, - Artists' Materials, etc., - - _Send your orders to the_ - - MAMMOTH STOCK HOUSE - _OF_ - W. R. REID, - - 352 & 354 Euclid Avenue, CLEVELAND, OHIO. - - Entrekin's Enamellers, Weston's Burnishers, - Magee's Nitrate Silver, and other Chemicals, - Photo-Chrome Outfits, Convex Glass, oval and square, - Card size to 10 x 12, Webster's Transparent Water - Colors, Parlor Paste, Velvet Frames, Square and - Oval Walnut Frames, Mouldings and Linings. - SOLAR PRINTING. - - MANUFACTURER OF - - _Reid's New Negative and Ferrotype Collodion, - Reid's New Negative and Ferrotype Varnish, - Reid's Brilliant and Extra Brilliant Non-blistering - Albumen Paper._ - - No charge for packing boxes. Write for price-list. - - Special prices to large buyers and cash customers. - - - - - JAS. H. SMITH - - _Wholesale Dealer in_ - - PHOTOGRAPHIC GOODS, - Picture Frames, - Mouldings. - - Albums, Brackets, Mats, Picture Cord, Glass, Patent Window - Cornices, etc. - - OUTFITS A SPECIALTY. - - Second-hand Apparatus, Lenses etc., Bought, Sold or Exchanged. - - _BEST GOODS AT LOWEST PRICES._ - - 26 SOUTH FIFTH STREET, - QUINCY, - ILL. - - Send for Price-Lists. - - - - - A. M. COLLINS, SON & CO. - - Manufacturers of all kinds of - CARDS AND CARDBOARDS - FOR - PHOTOGRAPHERS - - WAREHOUSE: - No. 527 Arch Street - PHILADELPHIA - - - - - 28,000 square feet of Floor room. - The largest force of Employees. - Largest Stock in the United States. - - HIRAM J. THOMPSON, - JOBBER IN - PICTURE FRAMES, MOULDINGS, - MIRRORS, ALBUMS, PICTURES, - AND - PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS. - - No. 259 Wabash Ave., CHICAGO. - - Send for my late Catalogue. - - - - - Photographic Enlargements - BY THE - PLATINOTYPE PROCESS. - DONE WITH THE - Electric Light. - - The Platinotype Prints are characterized by a - _Beautiful Tone, - Perfection of Detail, - Pure Whites, and - ABSOLUTE PERMANENCE._ - - By the use of the Electric Light we are enabled to proceed without - regard to the weather, and can fill orders _promptly_ without the - delays usually attending Solar Printing. - - Send for Price-Lists. - - THOS. H. McCOLLIN, - _631 ARCH STREET_, - (Dealer in all Photographic Supplies.) - PA. PHILADELPHIA, PA. - - - - - _THE OLD RELIABLE!_ - - P. SMITH & CO., - NO. 121 WEST FIFTH STREET, - CINCINNATI, OHIO. - AND - BRANCH AT - NO. 6 EAST BROAD STREET, - COLUMBUS, OHIO. - - WHERE - _The Amateur and the - Professional Photographer_ - WILL FIND EVERYTHING - - =Requisite for either the WET or the DRY PLATE PROCESS.= - - _Dry Plates and Outfits in Great Variety._ - - _Velvet Frames, etc., etc., etc._ - - - - - MULLETT BROS., - DEALERS IN - Photographic Supplies. - 518 WALNUT ST., - KANSAS CITY, MO. - - Western Photographers! look to your interests, and purchase your stock - and apparatus at the Kansas City Stock House, thereby avoiding heavy - freight bills and a great loss of time. - - _In addition to a full line of Photo. Supplies, we have also a large - variety of_ - - ALBUMS, - SILK VELVET FRAMES, - PICTURE CORD AND NAILS, - CONVEX GLASS, - MATTS, ETC., ETC. - - Photographers in the East contemplating moving West will find it to - their interests to purchase their goods here, thereby saving a great - expense in shipping. - - Having more than doubled our capital and room, we are now able to - compete in _price_ and _variety_ of goods with _any_ house West - of N. Y. Send a trial order and be convinced. - - Prompt and careful attention to all orders. - - - - - MILWAUKEE. - - GUSTAVUS BODE, - Northwestern Photographic Warehouse - and Chemical Laboratory, - 11 Spring St., Milwaukee, Wis. - - A FULL LINE OF - PHOTOGRAPHIC GOODS - AND ARTISTS' MATERIALS, - - --EMBRACING-- - - _Apparatus, Chemicals, Glass, - Albumenized Papers, - Frames, Albums, - Views, etc._ - - English, German and American Oil Colors, and all Materials - used in the Fine Arts. - - SPECIALTY. - - Nitrate of Silver and Chloride of Gold made for photographic - purposes. Gold and Silver Wastes refined. Satisfaction - guaranteed. - - SEND FOR PRICE-LIST. - - - - - BUFFALO - PHOTOGRAPHIC WAREHOUSE. - David Tucker & Co. - Photographers' Supplies. - - 410 MAIN ST. BUFFALO, N. Y. - DAVID TUCKER. S. B. BUTTS - - - - - _1860 National Photographic Emporium. 1881_ - - 205 W. Baltimore Street, - BALTIMORE, MD. - - RICHARD WALZL, Proprietor. - - Dry Plate Outfits a Specialty, - - All the latest novelties in connection with the improved Dry-plate - Processes furnished at the shortest notice. - - _Any Photographer_ who wants _Lenses_, _Cameras_, _Camera Stands_, - _Backgrounds_, _Chemicals_, _Glass_, _Albumen Paper_ or in fact _any - Photographic Goods_, should send for our price-list and be convinced - that it is to their interest to send their orders to us direct. A - trial order will convince the most skeptical. - - Photography in all its Branches for the Trade. - - Expert Artists employed on the premises enable us to make this branch - a great feature, and we can always guarantee satisfaction. - - Our Practical Photographic Publications - are unequalled. See testimonials in _Photographer's Friend._ - Price-list sent free to any photographer. - - OUR NEW LENSES ARE THE SENSATION OF THE DAY--and the prices are so - moderate they will astonish you. You can try our lenses before you - buy them. If you want anything in the photographic line, address - - RICHARD WALZL, BALTIMORE, MD. - - - - - PA. PITTSBURGH, PA. - - JOHN I. SHAW, - _Successor to J. W. Morrison_, - - MANUFACTURER AND DEALER IN - _Photographic Materials, Cameras, etc., etc._, - - Nos. 10 & 12 Sixth Street, - PITTSBURGH, PA. - - _Mouldings, Albums, - Oval, Square and Arch Top Frames, - Velvet and Combination Frames._ - - Photographic Dry Plates and Outfits for Amateurs and Professionals. - - Everything required in the practice of Photography in all its forms. - - JOHN I. SHAW, PITTSBURGH, PA. - - - - - W. J. HAZENSTAB'S - NEW PHOTOGRAPHIC STOCK HOUSE, - 406 Market Street, St. Louis, Mo. - - Is now opened and prepared to fill all orders for - - PHOTOGRAPHIC GOODS, - _At Bed Rock Prices for Cash._ - _General Outfits for Galleries a Specialty._ - - _Remember I Carry in Stock_: - - Am. Opt. Co's Camera Boxes and Stand, - Success Camera Boxes, - Sam. Peck & Co.'s Camera Boxes, - Voigtlander & Son's Portrait Lenses, - Darlot's Portrait Lenses, - Darlot's Quick-Working Portrait Lenses, - Darlot's View Lenses, - Also the Celebrated Peerless Portrait Lenses, known for their - Rapidity and Depth. - - _And a Large Assortment of_ - CARD STOCK. - - ALSO AGENT FOR - _CRAMER & NORDEN'S DRY PLATES, - EASTMAN'S DRY PLATES, - CARBUTT'S DRY PLATES_. - - Large Assortment of Frames and Mats at very low prices. - - Small Expense in carrying on my business enables me to sell for - less money. - - --> _I Attend to All Orders Personally._ <-- - - Send for Trial Order. Price-lists sent on Application. - - WM. J. HAZENSTAB, - _Photographers' Supply House_, - - 406 Market Street, St. Louis, Mo. - - _N. B.--Remember I give 5 per cent. discount for cash on all - orders of $10 00 or over._ - - - - - E. Weiskopf, - Manufacturer of - Optical Lenses, - - Specialties: - Condensers, Cosmorama Lenses, and Magnifying Mirrors, - - No. 182 Centre Street, New York. - - - - - NEW YORK, Oct. 10, 1881. - - _In view of the fact that the undersigned has aided in the production - of many of the most artistic photographic pictures produced in this - country during the last ten years, pictures which have received gold - and silver medals at Philadelphia, London, Paris, Amsterdam and other - cities of the world, he feels warranted in soliciting the patronage - of photographers unacquainted with his works._ - - --> _My recently introduced Backgrounds comprise those suitable for - the stocking of a New Gallery, as well as several suitable for - making special Exhibition pictures._ - - No. ---- =Vienna Tapestry=. No. 439. =New Eastlake=. - No. 440. =The Villa=, (_Summer_). No. 435. =The Winter Road=, - No. 433. =The Rustic Wall=. No. 426. =The Palisades=. - - My Three-Quarter Length Backgrounds are, viz: - - _Nos. 435, 437, 438._ - - _For Special Pictures_ I recommend my new _Portrait Plaques_--an - entirely new article in Portraiture. Several Designs. - - _For suspending on Backgrounds_, ornamenting Fireplaces and Sideboards, - my _Imitation Dutch Plaques_ are desirable and very popular. - - MY LATE ACCESSORIES ARE: - - No. 396. =The Gambier Rock=. - No. 399. =Eastlake Fireplace and Cabinet Combined=, - (_very rich_), =several movable parts=. - No. 397. =The Couch and set piece=. - No. 414. =Seavey's Eastlake Cottage and Balcony=. - No. 441. =The Garden Wall=, (_3 parts_). - No. ---- =The New Garden Seat=, (_3 changes_). - - * . Ye Monthlie Bulletin . A.D. - of L. W. Seavey his Workeshop. 1881 - - Under the foregoing heading, in the "Specialty" columns of the several - Photographic Journals of America, will appear from month to month brief - announcements of my new productions. - - LAFAYETTE W. SEAVEY, - _No. 8 Lafayette Place, NEW YORK, U. S. A._ - - - - - PHOTOGRAPHERS' - SUPPLIES. - - FRAMES, - ALBUMS, - _VELVET GOODS._ - - LOWEST PRICES. - - Send For Our Bargain List. - - EUREKA. - CRAMER & NORDEN - AND - EASTMAN'S DRY PLATES. - - AMERICAN OPT. CO. - - DRY PLATE CAMERAS, - AND - _GENERAL APPARATUS._ - - J. C. SOMERVILLE, 1009 OLIVE STREET, _Near Scholten's Gallery_, - ST. LOUIS, MO. - - - - - WILSON'S - PHOTOGRAPHICS. - - A Partial Photographic Encyclopedia. - - _By_ E. L. WILSON, _Editor "Phila. Photographer," - "Photo. Mosaics," etc._ - - _A STANDARD BOOK for ALL Workers in Photography._ - - CONTENTS. - - LESSON A. Treatment of the Subject--B. The Needful - Apparatus--C. The Objective or Lens--D. The Dark-Room--E. Preparation - of the Glass--F. Chemicals and Solutions--G. The Manipulations--H. - Manipulatory Miseries--I. Retouching the Negative--J. The Glass - Studio--K. Accessories and Light--L. Managing the Model--M. Printing - on Albumen Paper--N. Printing on Plain Paper--O. General Remarks on - Printing--P. Printing on Various Surfaces--Q. Printing Perplexities--R. - Art in Printing--S. Mounting and Finishing--T. Photography Outside--U. - Bromo-Gelatine Emulsion Work--V. Vogel's Collodion Emulsion--W. - Enlargements and Lantern Slides--X. Phototypes, Platinotypes, - and Collodion Transfers--Y. Wastes and Their Worth--Z. Metrical - Measuring--&. Concluding Confab--Index (Six Pages.) - - It is believed that this is the most valuable work ever offered to the - working photographer. - - It contains 352 pages; 7 x 8-3/4 inch cover, and is 1-1/2 inches thick. - More than 100 illustrations. It gives full details of all practical - - Processes, Old and New, Public and Secret. - - Among the latter are the "Phototype," sometimes called the "Artotype" - process, with examples; many of the "Lightning" processes; the - "Platinotype" process; the "Collodion Transfer" or "Megatype" process, - and many others. - - 58 pages are devoted to Posing and Lighting; 37 pages give instructions - in Emulsion "Dry" Work; 29 pages show how to Build and Use Skylights; - 108 pages furnish instructions for Manipulating Negatives; 37 pages - are applied to Printing Formula and Dodges; 175 pages gives Notes from - Authors all over the world. - - It is printed on fine white paper, made especially for it, and sold at - the low price of - - $4 00 POST-PAID $4 00. - - For the beginner, for the amateur, for the photographic worker, it is - believed to be most complete. No live photographer should fail to get - it soon, before his neighbor is ahead. - - _EDWARD L. WILSON, Publisher and Proprietor_, - Nos. 912 & 914 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. - - - - - DOUGLASS, THOMPSON & CO., - Merchants in all Requisites pertaining to the - Art-Science of Photography, - - Photographers' Booksellers, Stationers & Newsdealers, - - 229 & 231 STATE STREET, - CHICAGO, ILL. - - A practical knowledge of the Art-Science of Photography gives us a - special advantage in meeting the demands of the Profession. - - _Everything used in_ Silver Printing _selected with greatest care and - guaranteed of the highest order of excellence._ =PRICES LOW=. - - All the STANDARD BRANDS of ALBUMEN PAPER we furnish - under _genuine_ marks and at lowest prices. - - It will pay you to send for our Catalogues, Bureau of Information, - Hints on Burnishing, etc, - - GAYTON A. DOUGLASS. } ALL FREE. - HENRY G. THOMPSON. } - - - - - - ATTENTION PHOTOGRAPHERS! - - _Brooklyn's Head-Quarters_ - - --FOR-- - - Photographic Stock - Of Every Description, - _At the LOWEST possible C. O. D. Prices._ - - Sent all over the United States at the shortest notice. - - All the best Brands of Albumen Papers and Card Stock, etc., - etc., kept constantly on hand. - - --_Send a Trial Order and be Convinced._-- - - L. H. WILCOX, _236 Fulton Street_, BROOKLYN, N. Y. - - - - - The BEST is the CHEAPEST. - - Listen not to the cries of venders of worthless imitations, but - buy the _genuine_, and receive FULL VALUE for your money. - - _Dallmeyer Lenses, - Success Cameras, - Climax Cameras, - E. A., G. C. and Platyscope Lenses, - Handy Head-Rests._ - - _Genuine N. P. A. & S. & M. Albumen Papers_, - - =With The WATER-MARK= - - _Brilliant Swiss Albumen Papers, - A. D. Swiss Albumen Papers, - Hovey's, Morgan's, Peerless, Clemons' & Hail - Columbia Albumen Papers._ - - RAPID PRINTING PAPER, - EASTMAN'S DRY PLATES, - ANTHONY'S DRY PLATE OUTFITS. - Chemicals of Guaranteed Purity and Strength. - - _Every Requisite for the Studio and Field._ - - SEND FOR ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE AND PRICE-LIST. - - The Most Extensive Line of Velvet, Plush and Ebony Frames, Easels, - Albums, Stereoscopes, Graphoscopes, Portraits of Celebrities, Stereo. - Views, etc., on this Continent. - - E. & H. T. ANTHONY & CO., 591 BROADWAY, NEW YORK CITY. 591 - - - - - H. EXTRA BRILLIANT. - - H. EXTRA AND MORGAN'S Albuminized PAPERS - - Fully 2,500 reams of Morgan's Paper has been made and sold within the - last year--equal to twenty million cabinet size pictures. We expect to - increase its sale the coming year to almost double the above, judging - from the demand of the last few months. The pearl tint is used in - greater quantities than the other tints. Send your orders for this brand - of paper to - - J. HAWORTH, - - _DEALER IN PHOTO. SUPPLIES._ - - 626 Arch Street, PHILADELPHIA, PA. - - - - - EASTMAN'S - Gelatino-Bromide - DRY PLATES. - - RELIABLE, RAPID, INSTANTANEOUS. - - THE BEST! - - Used by all Professionals and Amateurs in preference to any others. - Complete Instructions accompany Each Package. - - _Eastman's Gelatino-Bromide Pellicle_, - For those who wish to prepare their own Plates. - - Manufactured only by the - _EASTMAN DRY PLATE CO., Rochester, N. Y._ - - E. & H. T. Anthony & Co., 591 Broadway, New York, - - _SEND FOR CIRCULAR._ _TRADE AGENTS._ - - - - - Andrew J. Smith, - PHOTOGRAPHIC STOCK DEPOT. - - _WE KEEP A FULL LINE OF_ - - Photographic Materials, - Which we are Selling as Low as any house in New York or Boston. - -DEALER IN - - N. P. A. and S. & M. Dresden, Hovey, Berlin, - Morgan's and Clemons' Double Albumenized Paper, - Nixon & Stokes' Ferrotype Holders, - Collins, Son & Co's Card Stock of every description, - Taber & Co's Pebble Mats, etc., - Powers & Weigtman's Silver and Chemicals, - Anthony's Ether, Iodides, Collodion and Varnishes, - Atwood's Alcohol, Hyposulphite of Soda, Sulphate of - Iron, Acetic Acid, and Glass in any quantity. - - _Dry Plate Outfits for Amateurs & Photographers. Everything pertaining - to the Trade. John Dean & Co's Plates._ - - Large Assortment of Frames, Convex Glass, Artists' Materials, - etc., etc. - _N. B._--No charge for boxing. Your orders are solicited. - - _No. 94 Westminster Street_, - PROVIDENCE, R. I. - - - - - [Illustration: AMERICAN INSTITUTE NEW-YORK] - - HIGHEST MEDAL. - - [Illustration: _The Medal of Superiority_ AWARDED TO Wm F. Ashe FOR A - PHOTOGRAPHIC BACKGROUND COMB. STAIRCASE, BALUSTRADE & PEDESTAL 1878.] - - BACKGROUNDS - For Everybody! - - Fancy, Plain, Rembrandt, etc., etc. - - FLOOR CLOTHS, _painted in Oil_, - _Suitable for Interiors and Exteriors_, - - ASHE'S COMBINATION STAIRCASE - BALUSTRADE AND PEDESTAL. - ASHE'S PATENT _Telescopic_ OR _Extension Pedestals_. - - _AND THE FOLLOWING ACCESSORIES_: - - ROCKS, VINES, BRIDGES, VASES, CABINETS, and MANTEL-PIECES in Papier - Mache and in Profile, the latter interchangeable and with practical - parts, DOORWAYS, COTTAGE WINDOWS, STAIRWAYS, BALUSTRADES, SLEIGHS, - BOATS, VASES, ETC., ETC., in profile. - - _No extra charge to parties who furnish their own designs. - Samples free._ - - W. F. ASHE, - 106 BLEECKER STREET, NEW YORK CITY. - - - - - THE MOUND CITY CENTRAL - Photographic Stock House, - - (H. A. HYATT, Proprietor), - NO. 411 NORTH 4th STREET, - ST. LOUIS, MO. - - Head-quarters in St. Louis for ALL Photographers. - - We keep on hand everything new and of interest to the Fraternity, to - be seen and examined at pleasure. Our stock is always complete and - in keeping with the times. It embraces, with the LARGE and VARIED - assortment of GENERAL PHOTOGRAPHIC REQUISITES, the following STANDARD - BRANDS OF ALBUMEN PAPER, which you can always depend upon getting FRESH - - _Hovey's, Peerless, - Eagle Brand (Dresden), - S. & M. Dresden, - Morgan's, Clemons, - Trapp & Munch_, - --ALSO-- - _Plain and Salted Papers._ - - We carry the Standard Brands _only_. There is _no_ Extra we cannot - duplicate with some REGULAR BRAND. Please remember this, and if - you desire fair treatment, and low prices, just send us a trial order, - note how _promptly_ we serve you, and the _quality_ of _goods_ you - receive, and we will be assured of your future favors. Our Motto is to - _please_, and we guarantee satisfaction. - - _--OUTFITS A SPECIALTY.--_ - - Send for Illustrated Catalogue. - - H. A. HYATT, 411 North 4th Street, St. Louis, Mo. - - - - - _Jno. G. Hood. ESTABLISHED 1865. Wm. D. H. Wilson._ - - WILSON, HOOD & CO., - _No. 825 ARCH ST._, - PHILADELPHIA, - - Deal in all varieties of - PHOTO. GOODS, - - And solicit your orders, for any article you may need, including the - following: - - _S. & M., N. P. A., & C. S. Double Alb. Paper, per ream, 35 cts. - " " " Single " " 25 " - Morgan's Double Alb. Paper, " 34 " - " Single " " 30 "_ - - _All other brands supplied. - Magee's Nitrate Silver, Magee's Chloride of Gold, - Best Hypo. of Soda, keg 112 lbs. $4 48, - American Optical Co. Printing Frames, - American Optical Co. Negative Boxes, - American Optical Co. Retouching Frames, - Negative Racks, Pans, Trays, etc., - Waymouth's Vignette Papers, $1 00 per pack, - Onion Skin Paper, per dozen, 25 cts. - Singhi's Vig. Attachment, $1 50. Todd's Vig. Attachment, $1 50._ - - "Hearn's Artistic Printing" $3 00. "Hearn's Practical Printer" $2 50. - - _COMPLETE PRICE-LISTS FREE._ - - SOLE AGENTS IN UNITED STATES - FOR THE ROSS AND STEINHEIL LENSES. - - - - - 1878 EAGLE STOCK HOUSE. 1881 - - GEORGE MURPHY, No. - 9 West Fourth Street, N. Y. - - Photo. & Ferro. Materials. - - _OUTFITS A SPECIALTY._ - - All Goods sold for Cash. - - MANUFACTURER OF - _Eagle Negative and Positive Collodions, - Eagle Negative and Ferro. Varnishes, - Eagle Retouching Fluid, - Eagle Ground Glass Varnish._ - - SOLE AGENT FOR - _Hammenstede's Collodions and Varnishes, - Photo. Chemicals of best quality._ - - THE RETOUCHER'S OUTFIT: - _Eagle New Metallic Pencil, hard, - Eagle New Metallic Pencil, soft, - Medium Siberian Lead, - Artists' Holder, to fit all_, - - The most complete set offered. - - FOR THE PRINTER'S DEPARTMENT _is offered - Eagle Photo-Printing Masks, - English White Tissue Paper, - Thick Yellow Paper, - Onion-Skin Paper, - Heavy Blotting Paper, - Plain Papers, - Albumen Papers of all brands_. - - Am also Agent for BRENGEL'S SALTED PAPER. - - _Emulsion and Gelatine Dry Plate Materials, Emulsion and Gelatine Dry - Plates, best brands, Backgrounds, Chairs, Accessories, etc._ - - _Bargains in Card Stock. Bargains in Apparatus, Lenses, etc._ - - Domestic and Foreign CASH ORDERS Shipped Promptly. - - Four Doors West of B'way. NEW YORK. - - - - - _ESTABLISHED IN 1802._ - FACTORIES: Waterbury, Conn., New Haven, Conn., New York City. - - Scovill Manufacturing Co., - - MANUFACTURERS AND DEALERS IN - ALL ARTICLES USED IN PHOTOGRAPHY, - - Warehouse, No's 419 & 421 Broome St., - NEW YORK. - - W. Irving Adams, Agent. - - Irving and all brands of Albumen Papers, - Phenix Collodion, - Phenix Varnish. - French and other Chemicals. - Scovill's New Solid Glass Baths, [warranted.] - Osborne's Picturesque Foregrounds, - American Optical Co's Celebrated Cameras, - Dry Plates and Dry Plate Apparatus, - Lenses, - Parlor Paste, - Etc., Etc., Etc., Etc. - - PUBLISHERS - Photographic Times and American Photographer. - - Subscription price, $2 00 per annum. - - Among its contributors are the leading men in the profession. - - - - - [FOUNDED IN 1842.] - - THE NEW ENGLAND - Photographic Stock House. - - Largest variety in the UNITED STATES. - - Every Article required by the Amateur, Photographer, Picture - and Frame Dealer, Frame Maker and Crayon Artist. - - SPECIALTIES. - - _Original Importers of Imitation Dallmeyer Tubes. - Sole Agents for William's Mitering Machines. - N. E. Agents for Bryant's Accessories. - Sole Agents for the celebrated "Berlin Paper." - Sole Agents for the celebrated "Gem Paper." - Sole Agents for Burrill's Portrait Bust Pedestal. - Sole Agent for Burrill's Neg. High Light Reducer. - Bryant's Quick Collodion, Celebrated for Years._ - - _Dry Plate Outfits for Amateurs._ - - _Every Variety Dry Plate Apparatus and Materials. - Anthony's and American Optical Co's Manufactures. - Dallmeyer, Morrison and Voigtlander Tubes on Sale._ - - C. H. CODMAN & CO., - [Formerly GEO. S. BRYANT & CO.,] - 34 Bromfield St., BOSTON. - - - - - ANTHONY'S - DRY PLATE OUTFITS - - _Most Complete Assortment in Market._ - - [Illustration] - - LIGHT, PORTABLE AND INEXPENSIVE. FIRM, SUBSTANTIAL AND PRACTICAL. - - _The Lenses supplied with these are superior to those furnished by - Any other House. Send for Descriptive Circular._ - - Anthony's Patent Perfect Dry Plate-holder BEST IN THE WORLD! - - _E. & H. T. ANTHONY & CO. 591 B'way, NEW YORK._ - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[Footnote 1: Such things as test-tubes should be found in every -photographer's work room; they cost little, and are always useful for -working solutions. The sizes recommended are 3/8-inch, 1/2-inch, and -1-inch diameter. A dozen of each will not be out of the way.] - -[Footnote 2: - - Sodium Silver Silver Sodium - Chloride and Nitrate form Chloride and Nitrate. - NaCl + AgNO_{3} = AgCl + NaNO_{3}] - -[Footnote 3: - - Potassium - Chlorine and Nitrite and Water - 2Cl + KNO_{2} + H_{2}O - -give - - Hydrochloric Potassium - Acid and Nitrate - 2HCl + KNO_{3} - -and - - Silver - Chlorine, Nitrate, and Water - 2Cl + AgNO_{3} + H_{2}O - -give - - Silver Hydrochlorous Nitric - Chloride, Acid and Acid. - AgCl + HClO + HNO_{3}] - - -[Footnote 4: With the former we have this action-- - - Silver Silver Liberated - Chloride gives Sub-chloride and Chloride. - Ag_{2}Cl_{2} = Ag_{2}Cl + Cl - -With the latter the silver in combination with the organic matter, which -is in a state of oxide, is probably reduced to the state of sub-oxide.] - -[Footnote 5: Sulphuretted hydrogen may be prepared by pouring dilute -sulphuric acid on ferric sulphide. The chloride or the silver compound, -when damped, may be held over it, taking care that no liquid is spirted -up on to it.] - -[Footnote 6: Those who prepare collodio-albumen plates will find the -upward filtration arrangement of immense value, as bubbles are unknown -by it.] - -[Footnote 7: If bubbles are seen, they must be broken, and the sheet -floated again for another minute.] - -[Footnote 8: The drainings are added to the next batch of albumen which -is prepared.] - -[Footnote 9: "Instruction in Photography," 4th edition, page 121.] - -[Footnote 10: - - Hydrochloric - Chlorine and Water give acid and Oxygen. - Cl + H_{2}O = HCl + O] - -[Footnote 11: - - Nitric Silver Silver Carbonic - Acid and Carbonate give Nitrate and Acid and Water. - 2HNO_{3} + Ag_{2}CO_{3} = 2AgNO_{3} + CO_{2} + H_{2}O] - -[Footnote 12: - - Silver Aluminium - Nitrate and Sulphate (Alum) - 6AgNO_{3} + Al_{2}(SO_{4})_{3} - -give - - Silver Aluminium - Sulphate and Nitrate. - 3(Ag_{2}SO_{4}) + 2Al(NO_{2})_{3}] - - -[Footnote 13: - - Silver Hydrochloric Silver - Nitrate and Acid give Chloride and Nitric Acid. - AgNO_{3} + HCl = AgCl + HNO_{3}] - -[Footnote 14: Suppose it is salted with ammonium chloride, we have-- - - Ammonium Silver Ammonium Silver - Chloride and Nitrate give Nitrate and Chloride. - NH_{4}Cl + AgNO_{3} = NH_{4}NO_{3} + AgCl] - -[Footnote 15: Several other methods are given in "Instruction in -Photography," in the Appendix.] - -[Footnote 16: One part of nitric acid to 4 parts of water.] - -[Footnote 17: The shutter may be made of American leather, covered over -with one quarter-inch strips of oak or well-seasoned pine. The shutter -should fit into a groove formed along the sides and bottom of the front -of the cupboard.] - -[Footnote 18: In fig. 18 the fastening for only one of the pressure-bars -is given, to avoid complication.] - -[Footnote 19: See "Instruction in Photography" (page 67), fourth -edition.] - -[Footnote 20: For this reason, amongst others, it is desirable that -photographers should use glass for their negatives which is at least -tolerably flat.] - -[Footnote 21: See "Pictorial Effect in Photography" (Piper and Carter).] - -[Footnote 22: Hydrofluoric acid is always supplied by chemists in -gutta-percha bottles, as it attacks glass. A spare gutta-percha bottle -can easily be procured.] - -[Footnote 23: This calculation is near enough for our purpose. There -are certain niceties which might be introduced, such as the "critical -angle of the glass."] - -[Footnote 24: The boxes in which children's puzzles are often packed -will give an idea of what is meant.] - -[Footnote 25: - - Silver subchloride and gold trichloride - 3Ag_{2}Cl + AuCl_{3} - -give - - silver chloride and gold. - 6AgCl + Au] - -[Footnote 26: "Instruction in Photography," 4th edition.] - -[Footnote 27: "Instruction in Photography," 4th edition.] - -[Footnote 28: Or ten minims of ammonium lactate.] - -[Footnote 29: See Mr. W. Brooks' article in Photographic Almanac, 1881.] - -[Footnote 30: The crucible should be of Stourbridge clay.] - - - - -Transcriber's Note: - -Hyphenation, variations in spelling and inconsistent numbering of, -and references to, figures have been retained as in the original -publication. - -Apart from spaces within compounds (which have been removed), -formulae have been retained as originally published, excepted -where noted below. - -On page 81, symbols resembling the left- and right-hand corners of a -frame have been represented as |_ and _| as in varnish, thus |_ _|; - -Changes have been made as follows: - - Page 3 - Nitric Acid _changed to_ - Potassium Nitrate - - Page 6 - If the operator carefully collect the white _changed to_ - If the operator carefully collects the white - - Page 14 - theoretical limit to amount _changed to_ - theoretical limit to the amount - - Page 19 - 2AGNO_{3} _changed to_ - 2AgNO_{3} - - Nitratem _changed to_ - Nitrate. - - Page 22 - AgNo_{3} _changed to_ - AgNO_{3} - - Page 23 - Ammonium Nitrate Silver Chloride _changed to_ - Ammonium Nitrate and Silver Chloride - - NH_{4},NO_{3} _changed to_ - NH_{4}NO_{3} - - AgNo_{3} _changed to_ - AgNO_{3} - - Page 40 - 8 inches. _changed to_ - 18 inches. - - Page 41 - printer could not hope to do it successfully. _changed to_ - printer could not hope to do it successfully." - - Page 46 - the ordinary consistency, than _changed to_ - the ordinary consistency, then - - Page 49 - enable the operator to guage _changed to_ - enable the operator to gauge - - Page 53 - centreing his imagination in _changed to_ - centring his imagination in - - Page 64 - light on B would be only four twenty-fifths _changed to_ - light on B would be only four-twenty-fifths - - Page 65 - and cut out an aperature corresponding _changed to_ - and cut out an aperture corresponding - - Page 66 - at a proper heigth from _changed to_ - at a proper height from - - Page 69 - Having discribed in the last _changed to_ - Having described in the last - - Page 70 - as it sometimes called _changed to_ - as it is sometimes called - - Page 71 - and the effect be improved.. _changed to_ - and the effect be improved. - - Page 83 - If he find that he is not _changed to_ - If he finds that he is not - - Page 87 - so dilute the reduction takes places very slowly _changed to_ - so dilute the reduction takes place very slowly - - Page 88 - common desinfecting powder _changed to_ - common disinfecting powder - - it as as well to have two _changed to_ - it is as well to have two - - Page 90 - a littler acetic acid or common salt _changed to_ - a little acetic acid or common salt - - Page 91 - must be rememberd we are _changed to_ - must be remembered we are - - Page 92 - when the sodium hypsulphite is _changed to_ - when the sodium hyposulphite is - - Page 95 - and, with a squegee _changed to_ - and, with a squeegee - - Page 101 - floated on-- _changed to_ - floated on:-- - - Last page of advertisements - BEST IN THE WORD! _changed to_ - BEST IN THE WORLD! - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Art and Practice of Silver Printing, by -H. P. Robinson and Capt. Abney - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ART, PRACTICE OF SILVER PRINTING *** - -***** This file should be named 42547.txt or 42547.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/5/4/42547/ - -Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive/American -Libraries.) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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